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+The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Case Against Evolution, by George
+Barry O'Toole
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
+most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
+whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
+of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
+www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you
+will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before
+using this eBook.
+
+Title: The Case Against Evolution
+
+Author: George Barry O'Toole
+
+Release Date: July 21, 2022 [eBook #68574]
+
+Language: English
+
+Produced by: Tim Lindell, Les Galloway and the Online Distributed
+             Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+             produced from images generously made available by The
+             Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
+
+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE CASE AGAINST
+EVOLUTION ***
+
+
+                          Transcriber’s Notes
+
+Obvious typographical errors have been silently corrected. Variations
+in hyphenation have been standardised but all other spelling,
+punctuation and accents remains unchanged.
+
+Italics are represented thus _italic_, bold thus =bold=.
+
+A reference to Monism as “destructive of culture, etc.” in the index
+to page 450, which does not exist, has been changed to 350.
+
+The repetition of section titles on consecutive pages has been removed.
+
+
+
+
+                      THE CASE AGAINST EVOLUTION
+
+
+                        [publisher’s monogram]
+
+                         THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
+                 NEW YORK · BOSTON · CHICAGO · DALLAS
+                        ATLANTA · SAN FRANCISCO
+
+                       MACMILLAN & CO., LIMITED
+                      LONDON · BOMBAY · CALCUTTA
+                               MELBOURNE
+
+                   THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, LTD.
+                                TORONTO
+
+
+                           THE CASE AGAINST
+                               EVOLUTION
+
+                                  BY
+
+                 GEORGE BARRY O’TOOLE, PH. D., S.T.D.
+
+      PROFESSOR OF THEOLOGY AND PROFESSOR EMERITUS OF PHILOSOPHY,
+              ST. VINCENT ARCHABBEY; PROFESSOR OF ANIMAL
+                      BIOLOGY, SETON HILL COLLEGE
+
+                               New York
+
+                         THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
+
+                                 1926
+
+                         _All rights reserved_
+
+
+                           COPYRIGHT, 1925,
+                       BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY.
+
+                       Set up and electrotyped.
+                        Published April, 1925.
+
+                       Reprinted February, 1926.
+
+
+             _Printed in the United States of America by_
+                J. J. LITTLE AND IVES COMPANY, NEW YORK
+
+
+
+
+                             TO MY MOTHER
+
+
+
+
+                                ADDENDA
+
+
+NOTE TO PAGE 23.—
+
+As a result of recent investigations on the sex chromosomes and
+chromosome numbers in mammals, Theophilus S. Painter reaches the
+conclusions that polyploidy cannot be invoked to explain evolution
+within this class. After giving a table of chromosome numbers for 7 out
+of the 9 eutherian orders, Painter concludes: “The facts recorded above
+are of especial interest in that they indicate a unity of chromosome
+composition above the marsupial level and effectively dispose of the
+suggestion that extensive polyploidy may have occurred within this
+subclass.
+
+“In the marsupials the chromosome number is a low one and in the
+opossum is 22. At first sight it might appear that the eutherian
+condition might have arisen from this by tetraploidy. There are two
+objections, however. In the first place the bulk of the chromatin
+in marsupials is about the same as in the eutheria, using the sex
+chromosome as our measure. In the second place, polyploidy could
+scarcely occur successfully in animals with X-Y sex chromosomes, as
+most mammals possess, because of the complication occurring in the
+sex chromosome balance” (_Science_, April 17, 1925, p. 424). As the
+X-Y type of sex chromosomes occurs widely not only among vertebrates,
+but also among insects, nematodes, and echinoderms, Painter’s latter
+objection excludes evolution by polyploidy from a large portion of the
+animal kingdom.
+
+
+NOTE TO PAGE 90.—
+
+Especially reprehensible, in this respect, are the reconstructions of
+the Pithecanthropus, the Eoanthropus, and other alleged pitheco-human
+links modeled by McGregor and others. These imaginative productions,
+in which cranial fragments are arbitrarily completed and fancifully
+overlayed with a veneering of human features, have no scientific
+value or justification. It is consoling, therefore, to note that
+the great French palæontologist, Marcelin Boule, in his recent book
+“Les Hommes Fossiles” (Paris, 1921), has entered a timely protest
+against the appearance of such reconstructions in serious scientific
+works. “Dubois and Manouvrier,” he says, “have given reconstructions
+of the skull and even of the head (of the Pithecanthropus). These
+attempts made by medical men, are much too hypothetical, because we
+do not possess a single element for the reconstruction of the basis
+of the brain case, or of the jawbones. We are surprised to see that a
+great palæontologist, Osborn, publishes efforts of this kind. Dubois
+proceeded still farther in the realm of imagination when he exhibited
+at the universal exposition of Paris a plastic and painted reproduction
+of the Pithecanthropus” (_op. cit._, p. 105). And elsewhere he remarks:
+“Some true savants have published portraits, covered with flesh and
+hair, not only of the Neandertal Man, whose skeleton is known well
+enough today, but also of the Man of Piltdown, whose remnants are so
+fragmentary; of the Man of Heidelberg, of whom we have only the lower
+jawbone; of the Pithecanthropus, of whom there exists only a piece of
+the cranium and ... two teeth. Such reproductions may have their place
+in works of the lowest popularization. But they very much deface the
+books, though otherwise valuable, into which they are introduced.”
+... “Men of science—and of conscience—know the difficulties of such
+attempts too well to regard them as anything more than a pastime” (_op.
+cit._, p. 227).
+
+
+NOTE TO PAGE 342.—
+
+A fourth possibility is suggested by the case of the so-called skull
+of the Galley Hill Man, of whose importance as a prehistoric link Sir
+Arthur Keith held a very high opinion, but which has since turned out
+to be no skull at all, but merely an odd-shaped piece of stone.
+
+
+
+
+                               CONTENTS
+
+
+                                                                    PAGE
+
+    FOREWORD                                                          xi
+
+
+                      PART I—EVOLUTION IN GENERAL
+
+    CHAPTER
+
+    I THE PRESENT CRISIS IN EVOLUTIONARY THOUGHT                       1
+
+    II HOMOLOGY AND ITS EVOLUTIONARY INTERPRETATION                   31
+
+    III FOSSIL PEDIGREES                                              66
+
+
+                    PART II—THE PROBLEM OF ORIGINS
+
+    I THE ORIGIN OF LIFE                                             131
+
+    II THE ORIGIN OF THE HUMAN SOUL                                  189
+
+    III THE ORIGIN OF THE HUMAN BODY                                 268
+
+    AFTERWORD                                                        349
+
+    GLOSSARY
+
+    INDEX TO AUTHORS
+
+    INDEX OF SUBJECTS
+
+
+
+
+                               FOREWORD
+
+
+The literature on the subject of evolution has already attained such
+vast dimensions that any attempt to add to it has the appearance of
+being both superfluous and presumptuous. It is, however, in the fact
+that the generality of modern works are frankly partisan in their
+treatment of this theme that the publication of the present work finds
+justification.
+
+For the philosophers and scientists of the day evolution is evidently
+something which admits of no debate and which must be maintained at
+all costs. These thinkers are too intent upon making out a plausible
+case for the theory to take anything more than the mildest interest in
+the facts opposed to it. If they advert to them at all, it is always
+to minimize, and never to accentuate, their antagonistic force. For
+the moment, at any rate, the minds of scientific writers are closed to
+unfavorable, and open only to favorable, evidence, so that one must
+look elsewhere than in their pages for adequate presentation of the
+case against evolution.
+
+The present work aims at setting forth the side of the question
+which it is now the fashion to suppress. It refuses to be bound by
+the convention which prescribes that evolution shall be leniently
+criticized. It proceeds, in fact, upon the opposite assumption, namely,
+that a genuinely scientific theory ought not to stand in need of
+indulgence, but should be able, on the contrary, to endure the acid
+test of merciless criticism.
+
+Evolution has been termed a “necessary hypothesis.” We have no quarrel
+with the phrase, provided it really means evolution as an hypothesis,
+and not evolution as a dogma. For, obviously, the problem of a gradual
+differentiation of organic species cannot even be investigated upon
+the fixistic assumption, inasmuch as this assumption destroys the
+problem at the very outset. Unless we assume the possibility, at least,
+that modern species of plants and animals may have been the product of
+a gradual process, there is no problem to investigate. It is, however,
+a far cry from the possibility to the actuality; and the mere fact that
+an hypothesis is necessary as an incentive to investigation does not
+by any means imply that the result of the investigation will be the
+vindication of its inspirational hypothesis. On the contrary, research
+often results in the overthrow of the very hypothesis which led to its
+inception. We can, therefore, quite readily admit the necessity of
+evolution as an hypothesis, while rejecting its necessity as a dogma.
+
+Assent to evolution as a dogma is advocated not only by materialists,
+who see in evolutionary cosmogony proof positive of their monism and
+the complete overthrow of the idea of Creation, but also by certain
+Catholic scientists, who seem to fear that religion may become involved
+in the anticipated ruin of fixism. Thus all resistance to the theory
+of evolution is deprecated by Father Wasmann and Canon Dorlodot on the
+assumption that the ultimate triumph of this theory is inevitable,
+and that failure to make provision for this eventuality will lead to
+just such another blunder as theologians of the sixteenth century
+made in connection with the Copernican theory. Recollection of the
+Galileo incident is, doubtless, salutary, in so far as it suggests
+the wisdom of caution and the imperative necessity of close contact
+with ascertained facts, but a consideration of this sort is no warrant
+whatever for an uncritical acceptance of what still remains unverified.
+History testifies that verification followed close upon the heels of
+the initial proposal of the heliocentric theory, but the whole trend
+of scientific discovery has been to destroy, rather than to confirm,
+all definite formulations of the evolutional theory, in spite of the
+immense erudition expended in revising them.
+
+There is, in brief, no parity at all between Transformism and the
+Copernican theory. Among other points of difference, Tuccimei notes
+especially the following: “The Copernican system,” he remarks,
+“explains _that which is_, whereas evolution attempts to explain _that
+which was_; it enters, in other words, into the problem of origins, an
+insoluble problem in the estimation of many illustrious evolutionists,
+according to whom no experimental verification is possible, given
+the processes and factors in conjunction with which the theory was
+proposed. But what is of still greater significance for those who
+desire to see a parallelism between the two theories is the fact
+that the Copernican system became, with the discoveries of Newton, a
+demonstrated thesis, scarcely fifty years after the death of Galileo;
+the theory of evolution, on the other hand, is at the present day no
+longer able to hold its own even as an hypothesis, so numerous are its
+incoherencies and the objections to it raised by its own partisans.”
+(“La Decadenza di una Teoria,” 1908, p. 11.)
+
+The prospect, then, of a renewal of the Galileo episode is exceedingly
+remote. Far more imminent to the writer seems the danger that the
+well-intentioned rescuers of religion may be obliged to perform a
+most humiliating _volte face_, after having accepted all too hastily
+a doctrine favored only for the time being in scientific circles. It
+is, in fact, by no means inconceivable that the scientific world will
+eventually discard the now prevalent dogma of evolution. In that case
+those who have seen fit to reconcile religion with evolution will have
+the questionable pleasure of unreconciling it in response to this
+reversal of scientific opinion.
+
+On the whole, the safest attitude toward evolution is the agnostic
+one. It commits us to no uncertain position. It does not compromise
+our intellectual sincerity by requiring us to accept the dogmatism
+of scientific orthodoxy as a substitute for objective evidence. It
+precludes the possible embarrassment of having to unsay what we
+formerly said. And last, but not least, it is the attitude of simple
+truth; for the truest thing that Science is, or ever will be, able to
+say concerning the problem of organic origins is that she knows nothing
+about it.
+
+In the present work, we shall endeavor to show that Evolution has long
+since degenerated into a dogma, which is believed in spite of the
+facts, and not on account of them. The first three chapters deal with
+the theory in general, discussing in turn its genetical, morphological,
+and geological aspects. The last three chapters are devoted to the
+problem of origins, and treat of the genesis of life, of the human
+soul, and of the human body, respectively.
+
+While this book is in no sense a work of “popular science,” I have
+sought to broaden its scope and interest by combining the scientific
+with the philosophic viewpoint. Certain portions of the text are
+unavoidably technical, but there is much, besides, that the general
+reader will be able to follow without difficulty. Students, especially
+of biology, geology, and experimental psychology, may use it to
+advantage as supplementary reading in connection with their textbooks.
+
+I wish to acknowledge herewith my indebtedness to the Editor of the
+_Catholic Educational Review_, Rev. George Johnson, Ph. D., to whose
+suggestion and encouragement the inception of this work was largely
+due. I desire also to express my sincere appreciation of the services
+rendered in the revision of the manuscript by the Rev. Edward Wenstrup,
+O.S.B., Professor of Zoölogy, St. Vincent College, Pennsylvania.
+
+                                                        BARRY O’TOOLE.
+
+    ST. VINCENT ARCHABBEY,
+    January 30, 1925.
+
+
+
+
+                                PART I
+
+                         EVOLUTION IN GENERAL
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER I
+
+              THE PRESENT CRISIS IN EVOLUTIONARY THOUGHT
+
+
+Three prominent men, a scientist, a publicist, and an orator, have
+recently made pronouncements on the theory of Evolution. The trio, of
+course, to whom allusion is made, are Bateson, Wells, and Bryan. As
+a result of their utterances, there has been a general reawakening
+of interest in the problem to which they drew attention. Again and
+again, in popular as well as scientific publications, men are raising
+and answering the question: “Is Darwinism dead?” Manifold and various
+are the answers given, but none of them appears to take the form
+of an unqualified affirmation or negation. Some reply by drawing a
+distinction between Darwinism, as a synonym for the theory of evolution
+in general, and Darwinism, in the sense of the particular form of that
+theory which had Darwin for its author. Modern research, they assure
+us, has not affected the former, but has necessitated a revision of
+ideas with respect to the latter. There are other forms of evolution
+besides Darwinism, and, as a matter of fact, not Darwin, but Lamarck
+was the originator of the scientific theory of evolution. Others,
+though imitating the prudence of the first group in their avoidance of
+a categorical answer, prefer to reply by means of a distinction based
+upon their interpretation of the realities of the problem rather than
+upon any mere terminological consideration.
+
+Of the second group, some, like Osborn, distinguish between the _law_
+of evolution and the theoretical _explanations_ of this law proposed by
+individual scientists. The existence of the law itself, they insist, is
+not open to question; it is only with respect to hypotheses explanatory
+of the aforesaid law that doubt and disagreement exist. The obvious
+objection to such a solution is that, if evolution is really a law of
+nature, it ought to be reducible to some clear-cut mathematical formula
+comparable to the formulations of the laws of constant, multiple, and
+reciprocal proportion in chemistry, or of the laws of segregation,
+assortment, and linkage in genetics. Assuming, then, that it is a
+genuine law, how is it that today no one ventures to formulate this
+evolutional law in definite and quantitative terms?
+
+Others, comprising, perhaps, a majority, prefer to distinguish between
+the _fact_ and the _causes_ of evolution. Practically all scientists,
+they aver, agree in accepting evolution as an established fact; it is
+only with reference to the agencies of evolution that controversy and
+uncertainty are permissible. To this contention one may justly reply
+that, by all the canons of linguistic usage, a fact is an observed or
+experienced event, and that hitherto no one in the past or present
+has ever been privileged to witness with his senses even so elemental
+a phenomenon in the evolutionary process as the actual origin of a
+new and genuine organic species. If, however, the admission be made
+that the term “fact” is here used in an untechnical sense to denote
+an inferred event postulated for the purpose of interpreting certain
+natural phenomena, then the statement that the majority of modern
+scientists agree as to the “fact” of evolution may be allowed to stand,
+with no further comment than to note that the formidable number and
+prestige of the advocates fail to intimidate us. Considerations of this
+sort are wholly irrelevant, for in science no less than in philosophy
+authority is worth as much as its arguments and no more.
+
+The limited knowledge of the facts possessed by the biologists of
+the nineteenth century left their imaginations perilously unfettered
+and permitted them to indulge in a veritable orgy of theorizing. Now,
+however, that the trail blazed by the great Augustinian Abbot, Mendel,
+has been rediscovered, work of real value is being done with the seed
+pan, the incubator, the microtome, etc., and the wings of irresponsible
+speculation are clipped. Recent advances in this new field of Mendelian
+genetics have made it possible to subject to critical examination
+all that formerly went under the name of “experimental evidence” of
+evolution. Even with respect to the inferential or circumstantial
+evidence from palæontology, the enormous deluge of fossils unearthed
+by the tireless zeal of modern investigators has annihilated, by its
+sheer complexity, the hasty generalizations and facile simplifications
+of a generation ago, forcing the adoption of a more critical
+attitude. Formerly, a graded series of fossil genera sufficed for
+the construction of a “palæontological pedigree”; now, the worker in
+this field demands that the chain of descent shall be constructed
+with species, instead of genera, for links—“Not till we have linked
+species into lineages, can we group them into genera.” (F. A. Bather,
+_Science_, Sept. 17, 1920, p. 264.) This remarkable progress in
+scientific studies has tended to precipitate the crisis in evolutionary
+thought, which we propose to consider in the present chapter. Before
+doing so, however, it will be of advantage to formulate a clear
+statement of the problem at issue.
+
+Evolution, or transformism, as it is more properly called, may be
+defined as the theory which regards the present species of plants and
+animals as modified descendants of earlier forms of life. Nowadays,
+therefore, the principal use of the term evolution is to denote the
+developmental theory of organic species. It is, however, a word of many
+senses. In the eighteenth century, for example, it was employed in a
+sense at variance with the present usage, that is, to designate the
+non-developmental theory of embryological encasement or preformation
+as opposed to the developmental theory of epigenesis. According
+to the theory of encasement, the adult organism did not arise by
+the generation of new parts (epigenesis), but by a mere “unfolding”
+(_evolutio_) of preëxistent parts. At present, however, evolution is
+used as a synonym for transformism, though it has other meanings,
+besides, being sometimes used to signify the formation of inorganic
+nature as well as the transformation of organic species.
+
+Evolution, in the sense of transformism, is opposed to fixism, the
+older theory of Linné, according to whom no _specific_ change is
+possible in plants and animals, all organisms being assumed to have
+persisted in essential sameness of type from the dawn of organic life
+down to the present day. The latter theory admits the possibility of
+environmentally-induced modifications, which are non-germinal and
+therefore non-inheritable. It also admits the possibility of germinal
+changes of the varietal, as opposed to the specific, order, but it
+maintains that all such changes are confined within the limits of the
+species, and that the boundaries of an organic species are impassable.
+Transformism, on the contrary, affirms the possibility of specific
+change, and assumes that the boundaries of organic species have
+actually been traversed.
+
+What, then, is an organic species? It may be defined as a group of
+organisms endowed with the _hardihood_ necessary to survive and
+propagate themselves under natural conditions (_i.e._ in the wild
+state), exhibiting a common inheritable type, differing from one
+another by no major germinal difference, perfectly interfertile with
+one another, but _sexually incompatible_ with members of an alien
+specific group, in such wise that they produce hybrids wholly, or
+partially, sterile, when crossed with organisms outside their own
+specific group.
+
+David Starr Jordan has wisely called attention to the requisite of
+viability and survival under natural conditions. “A species,” he says,
+“is not merely a form or group of individuals distinguished from other
+groups by definable features. A complete definition involves longevity.
+A species is a kind of animal or plant which has run the gauntlet
+of the ages and persisted.... A form is not a species until it has
+‘stood.’” (_Science_, Oct. 20, 1922, p. 448.)
+
+Sexual (gametic) incompatibility as a criterion of specific
+distinction, presupposes the bisexual or biparental mode of
+reproduction, namely, syngamy, and is therefore chiefly applicable
+to the metista, although, if the view tentatively proposed by the
+protozoölogist, E. A. Minchin, be correct, it would also be applicable
+to the protista. According to this view, no protist type is a
+true species, unless it is maintained by syngamy (_i.e._ bisexual
+reproduction)—“Not until syngamy was acquired,” says Minchin, “could
+true species exist among the Protista.” (“An Introduction to the Study
+of the Protozoa,” p. 141.)
+
+To return, however, to the metista, the horse (_Equus caballus_) and
+the ass (_Equus asinus_) represent two distinct species under a common
+genus. This is indicated by the fact that the mule, which is the hybrid
+offspring of their cross, is entirely sterile, producing no offspring
+whatever, when mated with ass, horse, or mule. Such total sterility,
+however, is not essential to the proof of specific differentiation; it
+suffices that the hybrid be less fertile than its parents. As early as
+1686, sterility (total or partial) of the hybrid was laid down by John
+Ray as the fundamental criterion of specific distinction. Hence Bateson
+complains that Darwinian philosophy flagrantly “ignored the chief
+attribute of species first pointed out by John Ray that the product of
+their crosses is frequently sterile in a greater or lesser degree.”
+(_Science_, Jan. 20, 1922, p. 58.)
+
+Accordingly, the sameness of type required in members of the same
+species refers rather to the genotype, that is, the sum-total of
+internal hereditary factors latent in the germ, than to the phenotype,
+that is, the expressed somatic characters, viz. the color, structure,
+size, weight, and all other perceptible properties, in terms of which a
+given plant or animal is described. Thus it sometimes happens that two
+distinct species, like the pear-tree and the apple-tree, resemble each
+other more closely, as regards their external or somatic characters,
+than two varieties belonging to one and the same species. Nevertheless,
+the pear-tree and the apple-tree are so unlike in their germinal
+(genetic) composition that they cannot even be crossed.
+
+According to all theories of transformism, new species arise through
+the transformation of old species, and hence evolutionists are at
+one in affirming the occurrence of specific change. When it comes,
+however, to assigning the agencies or factors, which are supposed to
+have brought about this transmutation of organic species, there is a
+wide divergence of opinion. The older systems of transformism, namely,
+Lamarckism and Darwinism, ascribed the modification of organic species
+to the operation of the external factors of the environment, while the
+later school of orthogenesis attributed it to the exclusive operation
+of factors residing within the organism itself.
+
+Lamarckism, for example, made the formation of organs a response to
+external conditions imposed by the environment. The elephant, according
+to this view, being maladjusted to its environment by reason of its
+clumsy bulk, developed a trunk by using its nose to compensate for
+its lack of pliancy and agility. Here the use or function precedes
+the organ and molds the latter to its need. Darwinism agrees with
+Lamarckism in making the environment the chief arbiter of modification.
+Its explanation of the elephant’s trunk, however, is negative rather
+than positive. This animal, it tells us, developed a trunk, because
+failure to vary in that useful direction would have been penalized by
+extermination.
+
+Wilson presents, in a very graphic manner, the appalling problem
+which confronts evolutionists who seek to explain the adaptations of
+organisms by means of environmental factors. Referring, apparently, to
+Henderson’s “Fitness of the Environment,” he says: “It has been urged
+in a recent valuable work ... that fitness is a reciprocal relation,
+involving the environment no less than the organism. This is both
+a true and suggestive thought; but does it not leave the naturalist
+floundering amid the same old quicksands? The historical problem
+with which he has to deal must be grappled at closer quarters. He is
+everywhere confronted with specific devices in the organism that must
+have arisen long after the conditions of environment to which they
+are adjusted. Animals that live in water are provided with gills.
+Were this all, we could probably muddle along with the notion that
+gills are no more than lucky accidents. But we encounter a sticking
+point in the fact that gills are so often accompanied by a variety of
+ingenious devices, such as reservoirs, tubes, valves, pumps, strainers,
+scrubbing brushes, and the like, that are obviously tributary to the
+main function of breathing. Given water, asks the naturalist, how has
+all this come into existence and been perfected? The question is an
+inevitable product of our common sense.” (Smithson. Inst. Rpt. for
+1915, p. 405.)
+
+Impressed with the difficulty of accounting for the phenomena of
+organic adaptation by means of the far too general and unspecific
+influence of the environment, the orthogenetic school of transformism
+inaugurated by Nägeli, Eimer, and Kölliker repudiated this explanation,
+and sought to explain organic evolution on the sole basis of internal
+factors, such as “directive principles,” or germinal determinants.
+According to this conception, the elephant first developed his trunk
+under the drive of some internal agency, and afterwards sought out an
+environment in which the newly-developed trunk would be useful. In
+other words, orthogenesis makes the organ precede the function, and is
+therefore the exact reverse of Lamarckism.
+
+Evolutionists in general, as we have said, regard our present plants
+and animals as the modified progeny of earlier forms, understanding
+by “modified” that which is the product of a trans-specific,
+as distinguished from a varietal or intra-specific, change. To
+substantiate the claim that changes of specific magnitude have actually
+taken place, they appeal to two principal kinds of evidence, namely:
+(a) empirical evidence based on such variations as are now observed
+to occur among living organisms; (b) inferential evidence, which
+aposterioristically deduces the common ancestry of allied organic
+types from their resemblances and their sequence in geological time.
+Hence, if we omit as negligible certain subsidiary arguments, the
+whole evidence for organic evolution may be summed up under three
+heads: (1) the genetic evidence grounded on the facts of variation;
+(2) the zoölogical evidence based on homology, that is, on structural
+resemblance together with all further resemblances (physiological and
+embryological), which such similarity entails; (3) the palæontological
+evidence which rests on the gradual approximation of fossil types to
+modern types, when the former are ranged in a series corresponding to
+the alleged chronological order of their occurrence in the geological
+strata. It is the bearing of recent genetical research upon the first
+of these three lines of evidence that we propose to examine in the
+present chapter, an objective to which a brief and rather eclectic
+historical survey of evolutionary thought appears to offer the easiest
+avenue of approach.
+
+While many bizarre speculations on the subject of transformism had
+been hazarded in centuries prior to the nineteenth, the history
+of this conception, as a scientific hypothesis, dates from the
+publication of Lamarck’s “Philosophie Zoologique” in 1809. According
+to Lamarck, organic species are changed as a result of the _indirect_
+influence of the external conditions of life. A change in environment
+forces a change of habit on the part of the animal. A change in the
+animal’s habits results in adaptation, that is, in the development or
+suppression of organs through use or disuse. The adaptation, therefore,
+thus acquired was not directly imposed by the environment, but only
+indirectly—that is, through the mediation of habit. Once acquired
+by the individual animal, however, the adaptation was, so Lamarck
+thought, taken up by the process of inheritance and perpetuated by
+being transmitted to the animal’s offspring. The net result would be a
+progressive differentiation of species due to this indirect influence
+of a varying environment.
+
+Such was the theory of Lamarck, and it is sound and plausible in all
+respects save one, namely, the unwarranted assumption that acquired
+adaptations are inheritable, since these, to quote the words of the
+Harvard zoölogist, G. H. Parker, “are as a matter of fact just the
+class of changes in favor of the inheritance of which there is the
+least evidence.” (“Biology and Social Problems,” 1914, p. 103.)
+
+The next contribution to the philosophy of transformism was made by
+Charles Darwin, when, in the year 1859, he published his celebrated
+“Origin of Species.” In this work, the English naturalist bases the
+evolution of organic species upon the assumed spontaneous tendency
+of organisms to vary minutely from their normal type in every
+possible direction. This spontaneous variability gives rise to slight
+variations, some of which are advantageous, others disadvantageous to
+the organism. The enormous fecundity of organisms multiplies them in
+excess of the available food supply, and more, accordingly, are born
+than can possibly survive. In the ensuing competition or struggle for
+existence, individuals favorably modified survive and propagate their
+kind, those unfavorably modified perish without progeny. This process
+of elimination Darwin termed natural selection. Only individuals
+favored by it were privileged to propagate their kind, and thus it
+happened that these minute variations of a useful character were seized
+upon and perpetuated “by the strong principle of _inheritance_.” In
+this way, these slight but useful modifications would tend gradually
+to accumulate from generation to generation in the direction favored
+by “natural selection,” until, by the ensuing summation of innumerable
+minor differences verging in the same direction, a major difference
+would be produced. The end-result would be a progressive _divergence_
+of posterity from the common ancestral type, whence they originally
+sprang, ending in a multiplicity of new forms or species, all differing
+to a greater or lesser extent from the primitive type. The contrary
+hypothesis of a possible _convergence_ of two originally diverse types
+towards eventual similarity Darwin rejected as an extremely improbable
+explanation of the observed resemblance of organic forms, which, not
+without reason, he thought it more credible to ascribe to their assumed
+divergence from a common ancestral type.
+
+Such was the scheme of evolution elaborated by Charles Darwin. His
+hypothesis leaves the origin of variations an unsolved mystery. It
+assumes what has never been proved, namely, the efficacy of “natural
+selection.” It rests on what has been definitely disproved by factual
+evidence, namely, the inheritability of the slight variations, now
+called fluctuations, which, not being transmitted even, by the
+hereditary process, cannot possibly accumulate from generation to
+generation, as Darwin imagined. Moreover, fluctuations owe their
+origin to variability in the external conditions of life (_e.g._ in
+temperature, moisture, altitude, exposure, soil, food, etc.), being
+due to the _direct_ influence or pressure of the environment, and not
+to any spontaneous tendency within the organism itself. Hence Darwin
+erred no less with respect to the spontaneity, than with respect to the
+inheritability and summation, of his “slight variations.”
+
+The subsequent history of Lamarckian and Darwinian Transformism is
+briefly told. That both should pass into the discard was inevitable,
+but, thanks to repeated revisions undertaken by loyal adherents, their
+demise was somewhat retarded. In vain, however, did the Neo-Darwinians
+attempt to do for Darwinism what the Neo-Lamarckians had as futilely
+striven to do for Lamarckism. The revisers succeeded only in
+precipitating a lethal duel between these two rival systems, which
+has proved disastrous to both. The controversy begun in 1891 between
+Herbert Spencer and August Weismann marked the climax of this fatal
+conflict.
+
+Spencer refused to see any value whatever in Darwin’s principle of
+natural selection, while other Neo-Lamarckians, less extreme, were
+content to relegate it to the status of a subordinate factor in
+evolution. Darwin had considered it “the most important means of
+modification,” but it is safe to say that no modern biologist attaches
+very much importance to natural selection as a means of accounting for
+the differences which mark off one species from another. In fact, if
+natural selection has enjoyed, or still continues to enjoy, any vogue
+at all, it is not due to its value in natural science (which, for all
+practical intents and purposes, is nil), but solely to its appeal as
+“mechanistic solution”; for nothing further is needed to commend it to
+modern thinkers infected with what Wasmann calls _Theophobia_. Natural
+selection, in making the organism a product of the concurrence of blind
+forces unguided by Divine intelligence, a mere fortuitous result, and
+not the realization of purpose, has furnished the agnostic with a
+miserable pretext for omitting God from his attempted explanation of
+the universe. “Here is the knot,” exclaims Du Bois-Reymond, “here the
+great difficulty that tortures the intellect which would understand the
+world. Whoever does not place all activity wholesale under the sway of
+Epicurean chance, whoever gives only his little finger to teleology,
+will inevitably arrive at Paley’s discarded ‘Natural Theology,’ and
+so much the more necessarily, the more clearly he thinks and the
+more independent his judgment.... The possibility, ever so distant,
+of banishing from nature its seeming purpose, and putting a blind
+necessity everywhere in the place of final causes, appears, therefore,
+as one of the greatest advances in the world of thought, from which
+a new era will be dated in the treatment of these problems. To have
+somewhat eased the torture of the intellect which ponders over the
+world-problem will, as long as philosophical naturalists exist, be
+Charles Darwin’s greatest title to glory.” (_Darwin versus Galiani_,
+“Reden,” Vol. I, p. 211.)
+
+But however indispensable the selection principle may be to a
+philosophy which proposes to banish the Creator from creation, its
+scientific insolvency has become so painfully apparent that biologists
+have lost all confidence in its power to solve the problem of organic
+origins. It is recognized, for example, that natural selection would
+suppress, rather than promote, development, seeing that organs
+have utility only in the state of perfection and are destitute of
+selection-value while in the imperfect state of transition. Again, the
+specific differences that diversify the various types of plants and
+animals are notoriously deficient in selection-value, and therefore the
+present differentiation of species cannot be accounted for by means of
+the principle of natural selection. Finally, unless one is prepared
+to make the preposterous assumption that the environment is a telic
+mechanism expressly designed for shaping organisms, he is under logical
+necessity of admitting that the influence of natural selection cannot
+be anything else than purely destructive. There is, as Wilson points
+out, no aprioristic ground for supposing that natural selection could
+do anything more than maintain the _status quo_, and as for factual
+proofs of its effectiveness in a positive sense, they are wholly
+wanting. Professor Caullery of the Sorbonne, in his Harvard lecture
+of Feb. 24, 1916, assures us that, “since the time of Darwin, natural
+selection has remained a purely speculative idea and that no one has
+been able to show its efficacy in concrete indisputable examples.”
+
+Considerations of this sort induced not only Neo-Lamarckians, but
+many non-partisans as well, to take the field against the Darwinian
+Selection Principle. Thus Spencer’s caustic attack became a forerunner
+of others, and eminent biologists, like Fleischmann, Driesch, T. H.
+Morgan, and Bateson, have in turn poured the vials of their satire
+upon the attempts of Neo-Darwinians to rehabilitate the philosophy
+of natural selection. Wm. Bateson warns those, who persist in their
+credulity with reference to the Darwinian account of organic teleology,
+that they “will be wise henceforth to base this faith frankly on the
+impregnable rock of superstition and to abstain from direct appeals
+to natural fact.” This admonition forms the conclusion of a scathing
+criticism of what he styles the “fustian of Victorian philosophy.”
+“In the face of what we know,” it runs, “of the distribution of
+variability in nature, the scope claimed for natural selection must
+be greatly reduced. The doctrine of the survival of the fittest is
+undeniable so long as it is applied to the organism as a whole, but to
+attempt by this principle to find value in all definiteness of parts
+and functions, and in the name of science to see fitness everywhere,
+is mere eighteenth century optimism. Yet it was in its application to
+the parts, to the details of specific difference, to the spots on the
+peacock’s tail, to the coloring of an orchid flower, and hosts of such
+examples, that the potency of natural selection was urged with greatest
+emphasis. Shorn of these pretensions the doctrine of the survival of
+favored races is a truism, helping scarcely at all to account for the
+diversity of species. Tolerance plays almost as considerable a part.
+By these admissions the last shred of that teleological fustian with
+which Victorian philosophy loved to clothe the theory of evolution is
+destroyed.” (_Heredity_, “Presidential Address to Brit. Ass’n. for
+Advanc. of Science,” Aug. 14, 1914.) Nor is this all. The Darwinian
+Selection Principle is reproached with having retarded the progress
+of science. It is justly accused of having discouraged profound and
+painstaking analysis by putting into currency its shallow and spurious
+solution of biological problems. “Too often in the past,” says Edmund
+Wilson, “the facile formulas of natural selection have been made use of
+to carry us lightly over the surface of unsuspected depths that would
+have richly repaid serious exploration.” (Smithson. Inst. Rpt. for
+1915, p. 406.)
+
+In retaliation for the destructive criticism of natural selection,
+the Neo-Darwinians have proceeded to pulverize the Lamarckian tenet
+concerning the inheritability of acquired adaptations. Weismann, having
+laid down his classic distinction between the _soma_ (comprising the
+vegetative or tissue cells in contact with the environment) and the
+_germ_ (_i.e._ the sequestered reproductive cells or gametes, which are
+sheltered from environmental vicissitudes), showed that the Lamarckian
+assumption that a change in the somatic cells (which constitute the
+organism of the individual) is registered in the germ cells (which
+constitute the vehicle of racial inheritance), is supported neither
+by _a priori_ probability nor by any facts of observation. Germ cells
+give rise by division to somatic or tissue cells, but the converse is
+not true; for, once a cell has become differentiated and specialized
+into a tissue cell, it can never again give rise by division to germ
+cells, but only to other tissue cells of its own kind. Hence the
+possibility of a change in the tissue being transmitted to the germ
+has no antecedent probability in its favor. Neither is it grounded on
+the facts of observation. Bodily mutilations of the parent are not
+transmitted to the offspring. The child of a blacksmith is not born
+with a more developed right arm than that of a tailor’s child. When
+the ovaries from a white rabbit are grafted into a black rabbit, whose
+own ovaries have been previously removed, the latter, if mated to a
+white male, will produce spotlessly white young. Hence the offspring
+inherit the characters of the germ track of the white female, whence
+the ovaries were derived, without being influenced in the least by the
+pigmented somatic cells of the nurse-body (_i.e._ the black female),
+into which the ovaries were grafted. Kammerer’s experiments, in which
+young salamanders were found to exhibit at birth the coloration, which
+their parents had acquired through the action of sunlight, fail to
+convince, because, in this case, the bodies of the parents are not
+sufficiently impervious to light to preclude its direct action upon
+the gametes while in the reproductive organs of the parents. Hence we
+cannot be sure but that the coloration of the offspring derived from
+these gametes is due to the direct agency of sunlight rather than to
+the intermediate influence of the modified somatic cells upon the germ
+plasm.
+
+The same objection holds true of the recent experiments, in which
+the germ cells have been modified by modifying the interior medium
+or internal environment by means of antibodies and hormones. No
+one doubts the possibility of influencing heredity by a direct
+modification of the germ cells, especially when, as is always the
+case in these experiments, the modification produced is destructive
+rather than constructive. The experiments, therefore, of Prof. M.
+F. Guyer of Wisconsin University, in which a germinally-transmitted
+eye defect was produced by injecting pregnant female rabbits with
+an antilens serum derived from fowls immunized to the crystalline
+lens of rabbits as antigen, are beside the mark. To demonstrate
+the Lamarckian thesis one must furnish evidence of a constructive
+addition to inheritance by means of prior somatic acquisition. The
+transmission of defects artificially produced is not so much a process
+of inheritance (transmission of type) as rather one of degeneracy
+(failure to equate the parental type).[1] Commenting on Guyer’s
+suggestion that an organism capable of producing antibodies that are
+germinally-destructive, may also be able to produce constructive
+bodies, Prof. Edwin S. Goodrich says: “The real weakness of the theory
+is that it does not escape from the fundamental objections we have
+already put forward as fatal to Lamarckism. If an effect has been
+produced, either the supposed constructive substance was present from
+the first, as an ordinary internal environmental condition necessary
+for the normal development of the character, or it must have been
+introduced from without by the application of a new stimulus. The same
+objection does not apply to the destructive effect. No one doubts that
+if a factor could be destroyed by a hot needle or picked out with a
+fine forceps the effect of the operation would persist throughout
+subsequent generations.” (_Science_, Dec. 2, 1921, p. 535.)
+
+    [1] A good definition of degeneracy is that of A. F. Tredgold,
+    who says: “I venture to define degeneracy as ‘a retrograde
+    condition of the individual resulting from a pathological
+    variation of the germ cell.’” (Smithson. Inst. Rpt. for 1918,
+    p. 548.)
+
+But in demonstrating against the Neo-Lamarckians that somatic
+modifications unrepresented in the germ plasm could have no
+significance in the process of racial evolution, Weismann had _proved
+too much_. His argument was no less telling against Darwinism than
+it was against Lamarckism. Darwin’s “individual differences” or
+“slight variations,” now spoken of as fluctuations, were quite as
+unrepresented and unrecorded in the germ cells as Lamarck’s “acquired
+adaptations.” There can be no “summation of individual differences”
+for the simple reason that fluctuations have no germinal basis and
+are therefore uninheritable—“We must bear in mind the fact,” says
+Prof. Edmund Wilson, “that Darwin often failed to distinguish between
+non-inheritable fluctuations and hereditary mutations of small degree.”
+(Smithson. Inst. Rpt. for 1915, p. 406.) Fluctuations, as we have
+seen, are due to variability in the environmental conditions, _e.g._
+in access to soil nutrients, etc. As an instance of fluctuational
+variation the seeds of the ragweed may be cited. Normally these
+seeds have six spines, but around this average there is considerable
+fluctuation in individual seeds, some having as many as nine spines
+and others no more than one. Yet the plants reared from nine-spine
+seeds, even when similarly mated, show no greater tendency to produce
+nine-spine seeds than do plants reared from one-spine seeds.
+
+To meet the difficulty presented by the non-inheritability of the
+Lamarckian adaptation and the Darwinian fluctuation, De Vries
+substituted for them those rare and abruptly-appearing inheritable
+variations, which he called mutations[2] and regarded as elementary
+steps in the evolutionary process. This new version of transformism
+was announced by De Vries in 1901, and more fully explained in his
+“Die Mutations-Theorie” (Leipzig, 1902-1903). Renner has shown that De
+Vries’ new forms of Œnothera were cases of complex hybridization rather
+than real mutants, as the forms produced by mutation are now called.
+Nevertheless, the work of Morgan, Bateson, and others leaves little
+doubt as to the actual occurrence of _factorial_ mutants, while Dr.
+Albert F. Blakeslee has demonstrated the existence of _chromosomal_
+mutants. When unqualified, the term mutant usually denotes the
+factorial mutant, which arises from a change in one or more of the
+concatenated genes (hereditary factors) of a single chromosome (nuclear
+thread) in the germinal (_i.e._ gametic) complex. All such changes
+are called factorial mutations. They are hereditarily transmissible,
+and affect the somatic characters of the race permanently, although,
+in rare cases, such as that of the bar-eyed Drosophila mutant, the
+phenomenon of _reversion_ has been observed. The chromosomal mutant,
+on the contrary, is not due to changes in the single factors or genes,
+but to duplication of one or more entire chromosomes (linkage-groups)
+in the gametic complex. Like the factorial mutant, it produces a
+permanent and heritable modification. The increase in nuclear material
+involved in chromosomal mutation (_i.e._ duplication) seems to cause a
+proportionate increase in the cytoplasmic mass of the single somatic
+cells, which manifests itself in the phenotype as giantism. De
+Vries’ _Œnothera gigas_ is a chromosomal mutant illustrative of this
+phenomenon. Besides the foregoing, there is the _pseudomutant_ produced
+by the factorial recombination, which results from a _crossover_,
+_i.e._ an exchange of genes or factors between two germinal chromosomes
+of the same synaptic pair. This reciprocal transfer of genes from one
+homologous chromosome to another happens, in a certain percentage of
+cases, during synapsis. The percentage can be artificially increased by
+exposing young female hybrids to special conditions of temperature.
+
+    [2] The term mutation had been used long before and in a
+    similar sense by the German palæontologist Waagen, who employed
+    it to designate the variations of a specific type that succeed
+    one another in successive strata, a thing which rarely occurs.
+    (Cf. Waagen’s _Die Formenreihe des Ammonites subradiatus_,
+    Geognost. paläont. Beitr., Berlin, 1869.)
+
+If these new mutant forms could be regarded as genuine new species,
+then the fact that such variations are heritable and come within the
+range of actual observation, would constitute the long-sought empirical
+proof of the reality of evolution. Consciously or subconsciously,
+however, De Vries recognized that this was not the case; for he refers
+to mutants as “elementary species,” and does not venture to present
+them as authentic organic species.
+
+The factorial mutant answers neither the endurance test nor the
+intersterility test of a genuine species. It would, doubtless, be
+going too far to regard all such mutant forms as examples of germinal
+degeneracy, but it cannot be denied that all of them, when compared
+to the wild type, are in the direction of unfitness, none of them
+being viable and prosperous under the severe conditions obtaining in
+the wild state. Bateson, who seems to regard all mutant characters as
+recessive and due to germinal loss, declares: “Even in Drosophila,
+where hundreds of genetically distinct factors have been identified,
+very few new dominants, that is to say positive additions, have been
+seen, and I am assured that none of them are of a class which could be
+expected to be viable under natural conditions. I understand even that
+none are certainly viable in the homozygous state.” (Toronto Address,
+_Science_, Jan. 20, 1922, p. 59.) “Garden or greenhouse products,”
+says D. S. Jordan, “are immensely interesting and instructive, but
+they throw little light on the origin of species. To call them species
+is like calling dress-parade cadets ‘soldiers.’ I have heard this
+definition of a soldier, ‘one that has stood.’ It is easy to trick out
+a group of boys to look like soldiers, but you can not define them as
+such until they have ‘stood.’” (_Science_, Oct. 20, 1922.) In a word,
+factorial mutants, owing, as they do, their survival exclusively to
+the protection of artificial conditions, could never become the hardy
+pioneers of new species.
+
+Bateson insists that the mutational variation represents a change of
+loss. “Almost all that we have seen,” he says, “are variations in
+which we recognize that elements have been lost.” (_Science_, Jan.
+20, 1922, p. 59.) In his Address to the British Association (1914),
+he cites numerous examples tending to show that mutant characters are
+but diminutions or intensifications of characters pre-existent in the
+wild or normal stock, all of which are explicable as effects of the
+loss (total or partial) of either positive, or inhibitive (epistatic)
+hereditary factors (genes). One of these instances illustrating the
+subtractive nature of the factorial mutation is that of the Primula
+“Coral King,” a salmon-colored mutant, which was suddenly given off
+by a red variety of Primula called “Crimson King.” Such a mutation
+is obviously based on the loss of a germinal factor for color. The
+loss, however, is sometimes partial rather than total, as instanced in
+the case of the purple-edged Picotee sweet pea, which arose from the
+wholly purple wild variety by fractionation of the genetic factor for
+purple pigment. Even where the mutational variation appears to be one
+of gain, as happens when a positive character appears _de novo_ in the
+phenotype, or when a dilute parental character is intensified in the
+offspring, it is, nevertheless, interpretable as a result of germinal
+loss, the loss, namely, total or partial, of a genetic inhibitor. Such
+inhibitive genes or factors are known to exist. Bateson has shown,
+for example, that the whiteness of White Leghorn chickens is due, not
+to the absence of color-factors, but to the presence of a genetic
+inhibitor—“The white of White Leghorns,” he says, “is not, as white
+in nature often is, due to the loss of the color elements, but to the
+action of something which inhibits their expression.” (Address to the
+Brit. Ass’n., Smithson. Inst. Rpt. for 1915, p. 368.) Thus the sudden
+appearance in the offspring of a character not visibly represented in
+the parents may be due, not to germinal acquisition, but the loss of
+an inhibitory gene, whose elimination allows the somatic character
+previously suppressed by it to appear. Hence Bateson concludes: “In
+spite of seeming perversity, therefore, we have to admit that there is
+no evolutionary change which in the present state of our knowledge we
+can positively declare to be not due to loss.” (_Loc. cit._, p. 375.)
+
+Another consideration, which disqualifies the factorial mutant for the
+rôle of a new species, is its failure to pass the test of interspecific
+sterility. When individuals from two distinct species are crossed,
+the offspring of the cross is either completely sterile, as instanced
+in the mule, or at least partially so. But when, for example, the
+sepia-eyed mutant of the vinegar fly is back-crossed with the red-eyed
+wild type, whence it originally sprang, the product of the cross is
+a red-eyed hybrid, which is perfectly fertile with other sepia-wild
+hybrids, with wild flies, and with sepia mutants. This proves that
+the sepia-eyed mutant has departed, so to speak, only a varietal,
+and not a specific, distance away from the parent stock. Ordinary
+or factorial mutation does not, therefore, as De Vries imagined,
+produce new species. These mutants do, indeed, meet the requirement of
+permanent transmissibility, for their distinctive characters cannot
+be obliterated by any amount of crossing. Nevertheless, the factorial
+mutation falls short of being an empirical proof of evolution, because
+it is a varietal, and not a specific, change. In other words, factorial
+mutants are new varieties and not new species. Only a heritable change
+based on germinal acquisition of sufficient magnitude to produce
+gametic incompatibility between the variant and the parent type would
+constitute direct evidence of the transmutation of species, provided,
+of course, that the variant were also capable of survival under the
+natural conditions of the wild state.
+
+In his Toronto address of December 28, 1921, Wm. Bateson announced
+the failure of De Vries’ Mutation Theory, when he said: “But that
+particular and essential bit of the theory of evolution, which is
+concerned with the origin and nature of species remains utterly
+mysterious. We no longer feel as we used to do, that the process of
+variation, now contemporaneously occurring, is the beginning of a work
+which needs merely the element of time for its completion; for even
+time cannot complete that which has not yet begun. The conclusion in
+which we were brought up that species are a product of a summation of
+variations ignored the chief attribute of species first pointed out by
+John Ray that the product of their crosses is frequently sterile in
+greater or less degree. Huxley, very early in the debate, pointed out
+this grave defect in the evidence, but before breeding researches had
+been made on a large scale no one felt the objection to be serious.
+Extended work might be trusted to supply the deficiency. It has not
+done so, and the significance of the negative evidence can no longer be
+denied....
+
+“If species have a common origin where did they pick up the ingredients
+which produce this sexual incompatibility? Almost certainly it is a
+variation in which something has been added. We have come to see that
+variations can very commonly—I do not say always—be distinguished as
+positive and negative.... Now we have no difficulty in finding evidence
+of variation by loss, but variations by addition are rarities, even
+if there are any such which must be so accounted. The variations to
+which interspecific sterility is due are obviously variations in which
+something is apparently added to the stock of ingredients. It is one of
+the common experiences of the breeder that when a hybrid is partially
+sterile, and from it any fertile offspring can be obtained, the
+sterility, once lost, disappears. This has been the history of many,
+perhaps most, of our cultivated plants of hybrid origin.
+
+“The production of an indubitably sterile hybrid from completely
+fertile parents which has arisen under critical observation is the
+event for which we wait. Until this event is witnessed, our knowledge
+of evolution is incomplete in a vital respect. From time to time such
+an observation is published, but none has yet survived criticism.”
+(_Science_, Jan. 20, 1922, pp. 58, 59.)
+
+But what of the chromosomal mutant? For our knowledge of this type
+of mutation we are largely indebted to Blakeslee’s researches and
+experiments on the Jimson weed (_Datura stramonium_). According to
+Blakeslee, chromosomal mutants result from duplication, or from
+reduction, of the chromosomes, and they are classified as _balanced_ or
+_unbalanced_ types according as all, or only some, of the chromosomal
+linkage-groups are similarly doubled or reduced. If only one of the
+homologous chromosomes of a synaptic pair is doubled, the mutant
+is termed a _triploid_ form. It is balanced when one homologous
+chromosome is doubled in every synaptic pair, but if one or more
+chromosomes be added to, or subtracted from, this balanced triploid
+complex, the mutant is termed an unbalanced triploid. When all the
+chromosomes of the normal diploid complex are uniformly doubled, we
+have a balanced _tetraploid_ race. The subtraction or addition of
+one or more chromosomes in the case of a balanced tetraploid complex
+renders it an unbalanced tetraploid mutant. The retention in somatic
+cells of the haploid number of chromosomes characteristic of gametes
+and gametophytes gives a balanced _haploid_ mutant, from which hitherto
+no unbalanced haploids have been obtained. The normal diploid type and
+the balanced tetraploid type are said to constitute an _even_ balance,
+while balanced triploids and haploids constitute an _odd_ balance. The
+odd balances and all the unbalanced mutants are largely sterile. Thus,
+for example, more than 80% of the pollen of the haploid mutant is bad.
+“The normal Jimson Weed,” says Blakeslee, “is diploid (2n) with a total
+of 24 chromosomes in somatic cells. In previous papers the finding of
+tetraploids (4n) with 48 chromosomes and triploids (3n) with 36 was
+reported, as well as unbalanced mutants with 25 chromosomes represented
+by the formula (2n + 1). The finding of two haploid or 1n plants, which
+we are now able to report, adds a new chromosomal type to the balanced
+series of mutants in _Datura_. This series now stands: 1n, 2n, 3n, 4n.
+Since a series of unbalanced mutants has been obtained from each of
+the other balanced types by the addition or subtraction of one or more
+chromosomes, it is possible that a similar series of unbalanced mutants
+may be obtainable from our new haploid plants, despite the great
+unbalance which would thereby result.” (_Science_, June 16, 1923, p.
+646.) The haploid mutant, of which Blakeslee speaks, has, of course, 12
+unpaired chromosomes in its somatic cells.
+
+The balanced triploid is, like the haploid mutant, largely sterile,
+and is only obtainable by crossing the tetraploid race with the normal
+diploid plant. Since, then, the product of the cross of the diploid
+and tetraploid races is sterile, the tetraploid race fulfills the
+sterility test of a distinct species. Whether or not it fulfills
+the endurance test of survival under natural condition is doubtful,
+inasmuch as diploid Daturas are about three times as prolific as the
+tetraploid race. Moreover, as Blakeslee himself confessed in a lecture
+at Woods Hole attended by the present writer in the summer of 1923, the
+origin of a balanced tetraploid form from the normal diploid type by
+simultaneous duplication of all the chromosomes in the diploid complex,
+is an event that has yet to be witnessed. Nor is any gradual transition
+from the diploid to the tetraploid race, by way of unbalanced types
+and triploids, conceivable, seeing that such forms are too sterile
+to maintain themselves, and are, in fact, incapable of transmitting
+their own type in the absence of artificial intervention. There are,
+it is true, some instances, in which diploid and tetraploid races
+and species occur together in cultivation and in nature. In certain
+cases, this tetraploidy is merely apparent, being due to fragmentation
+of the chromosomes; in other cases, it is really due to chromosomal
+duplication, giving rise to genuine tetraploid forms. The question
+is often hard to decide, the mere number of the chromosomes being
+not, in itself, a safe criterion. Of the actual origin, however, of
+tetraploid from diploid races we have as yet no observational evidence.
+Hence Blakeslee’s researches on the chromosomal mutant have so far
+failed to furnish experimental proof of the origin of a genuine new
+species. Besides, waiving all other considerations, the limits within
+which chromosomal duplication is possible are of necessity so narrow,
+that, at best, this phenomenon can only be invoked to explain a very
+small range of variation. In fact, it is doubtful whether haploidy,
+triploidy, and tetraploidy have any important bearing whatever upon the
+problem of the origin of species. (See Addenda.)
+
+The mutation, then, in so far as we have experimental knowledge of it,
+does not fulfill requirements of a specific change. It cannot even be
+regarded as an _elementary step_ in the direction of such a change.
+With this admission, De-Vriesianism becomes obsolete, descending like
+its predecessors, Lamarckism and Darwinism, into the charnel-house of
+discarded systems whose value is historic, but no longer scientific.
+When we enquire into the reason of this common demise of all the
+classic systems of transformism, we find it to reside in the progress
+of the new science of Mendelian genetics, whose foundations were laid
+by an Augustinian monk of the nineteenth century. Six years after
+the appearance of Darwin’s “Origin of Species,” Gregor Johann Mendel
+published a short paper entitled “Versuche über Pflanzen-hybriden,”
+which, unnoticed at the time by a scientific world preoccupied with
+Darwinian fantasies, was destined, on its coming to light at the
+beginning of the present century, to administer the final _coup de
+grace_ to all the elaborate schemes of evolution that had preceded or
+followed its initial publication. It took half a century, however,
+before the dust of Darwinian sensationalism subsided sufficiently, to
+permit the “rediscovery” of Mendel’s solid and genuine contribution
+to biological science. But the Prälat of the abbey at Brünn never
+lived to see the day of his triumph. The true genius of his century,
+he died unhonored and unsung, a pretender being crowned in his stead.
+For Coulter says of Darwin: “He died April 19, 1882, probably the most
+honored scientific man in the world.” (_Evolution_, 1916, p. 35.)
+
+Within the small dimensions of the paper, of which we have spoken,
+Mendel had compressed the results of years of carefully conceived and
+accurately executed experimentation reduced to precise statistical
+form and interpreted with a penetrating sagacity of the highest order.
+It is no exaggeration to say that his discovery has revolutionized
+the science of biology, giving it, for the first time, mathematical
+formulas comparable to those of chemistry. His two laws of inheritance,
+namely, the law of segregation and the law of independent assortment
+of characters, have, as previously intimated, become the basis of the
+new science of Genetics. His analysis of biparental reproduction has
+interpreted for us the cytological phenomena of synapsis, meiosis, and
+syngamy, has explained for us the instability of hybrids, has placed
+Weismann’s speculations concerning the autonomy and continuity of the
+germ plasm on a firm basis of experimental fact, has clarified all our
+notions respecting the mode and range of hereditary transmission, and
+has, in a word, opened our eyes to that new and hitherto unexplored
+realm of nature which Bateson calls “the world of gametes.”
+
+Efforts have been made to construct systems of transformism along
+Mendelian lines, but none of them has met with notable success.
+Lotsy, for example, sought to explain all variation on the basis of
+the rearrangement of preëxistent genetic factors brought about by
+crossing. But such a solution of the problem is very unsatisfactory.
+In the first place, the generality of hybrid (heterozygous) forms are
+ruled out on the score of instability. The phenotype of hybrids is
+directly dependent, not on the genes themselves, but on the diploid
+combination of genes contained in the zygote. This combination,
+however, is always dissolved in the process of gamete-formation, by the
+segregative reduction division which occurs in the reproductive organs
+of the hybrid. Hybrids, therefore, do not _breed true_, if propagated
+by sexual reproduction. To maintain constancy of type in hybrids, one
+must resort to somatogenic reproduction (_i.e._ vegetative growth from
+stems, etc.). Certain violets, in fact, as well as blackberries, are
+maintained in a state of constant hybridism by means of this sort of
+reproduction, even in nature. In the case of _balanced lethals_ (_i.e._
+factors causing death in the pure or homozygous state), the hybrid
+phenotype may be maintained even by sexual reproduction, inasmuch as
+all the pure (homozygous) offspring are non-viable. Two lethals are
+said to be balanced, when they occur, the first in one and the second
+in the other homologous chromosome of the same synaptic pair. “Such a
+factorial situation would maintain a state of constant heterozygosis,
+the fixed hybridism of an impure species ... the hybrid will breed true
+until the relative position of the lethals are changed by a crossover,
+or the genetical constitution in these respects is altered by a
+mutation.” (Davis, _Science_, Feb. 3, 1922, p. 111.) As is evident,
+however, the condition of balanced lethals involves a considerable
+reduction in fertility.
+
+Hybridization, moreover, is successful between varieties of the same
+species rather than between distinct species. Interspecific crosses
+are in some cases entirely unproductive, in other cases productive
+of wholly-sterile, hybrids, and in still other cases productive of
+semisterile hybrids. When semisterile hybrids are obtainable from an
+interspecific cross, the phenotype can be kept constant by somatogenic
+reproduction, but, as we shall see in a later chapter, this kind of
+reproduction does not counteract senescence, and stock thus propagated
+usually plays out within a determinate period. Finally, the mixture
+of incompatible germinal elements involved in an interspecific cross
+tends to produce forms, which are subnormal in their viability and
+vitality. The conclusions of Goodspeed and Clausen are the following:
+“(1) As a consequence of modern Mendelian developments, the Mendelian
+factors may be considered as making up a reaction system, the elements
+of which exhibit more or less specific relations to one another; (2)
+strictly Mendelian results are to be expected only when the contrast is
+between factor differences within a common Mendelian reaction system
+as is ordinarily the case in varietal hybrids; (3) when distinct
+reaction systems are involved, as in species crosses, the phenomena
+must be viewed in the light of a contrast between systems rather than
+between specific factor differences, and the results will depend upon
+the degree of mutual compatibility displayed between the specific
+elements of the two systems.” (_Amer. Nat._, 51 (1917), p. 99.) To
+these conclusions may be added the pertinent observation of Bradley
+Moore Davis: “Of particular import,” he says, “is the expectation
+that lethals most frequently owe their presence to the heterozygous
+condition since the mixing of diverse germ plasms seems likely to lead
+to the breaking down of delicate and vital adjustments in proportion
+relative to the degree of protoplasmic confusion, and this means
+chemical and physical disturbance.” (_Science_, Feb. 3, 1923, p. 111.)
+
+But crossing produces, in the second filial generation (F₂), pure
+(homozygous) as well as hybrid (heterozygous) forms.⅖ In some cases
+these pure forms are new, the phenotype being different from that
+of either pure grandparent. Such a result is produced by _random
+assortment_ of the chromosomes in gamete and zygote formation, and
+occurs when the genes for two or more pairs of contrasted characters
+are located in different chromosome pairs. The phenomenon is formulated
+in Mendel’s Second Law, the law of independent assortment. The novelty,
+however, of the true-breeding forms thus produced is not absolute,
+but relative. There is no origination of new hereditary factors. It
+is simply a recombination of the old genes of different stocks, the
+genes themselves undergoing no intrinsic alteration. The combination
+is new, but not the elements combined. In addition to chromosomal
+recombination, we have factorial recombination by means of crossovers.
+This, too, can produce new and true-breeding forms of a fixed nature,
+but here, likewise, it is the combination, and not the elements
+combined, which is new. The “new” forms thus produced are called, as we
+have seen, pseudomutants. When pseudomutations, that is, crossovers,
+occur in conjunction with the condition of balanced lethals, they
+closely simulate genuine factorial mutations. This is exemplified in
+the case of De Vries’ _Œnothera Lamarckiana_, which is the product of
+a crossover supervening upon a situation of balanced lethals. In cases
+of this kind, the crossover releases hitherto suppressed recessive
+characters, giving the appearance of real mutation. “The workers with
+Drosophila,” says Davis, “seem inclined to believe that much of the
+phenomena simulating mutation in their material is in reality the
+appearance of characters set free by the breaking of lethal adjustments
+which held the characters latent. Well-known workers have arrived at
+similar conclusions for _Œnothera_ material and are not content to
+accept as evidence of mutations the behavior of _Lamarckiana_ and some
+other forms when they throw their marked variants.” (_Science_, Feb. 3,
+1922, p. 111.)
+
+The new forms, however, resulting from random assortment and crossovers
+cannot be regarded as new species. “Analysis,” says Bateson, “has
+revealed hosts of transferable characters. Their combinations suffice
+to supply in abundance series of types which might pass for new
+species, and certainly would be so classed if they were met with in
+nature. Yet critically tested, we find that they are not distinct
+species and we have no reason to suppose any accumulation of characters
+of the same order would culminate in the production of distinct
+species. Specific difference therefore must be regarded as probably
+attaching to the base upon which these transferables are implanted, of
+which we know absolutely nothing at all. Nothing that we have witnessed
+in the contemporary world can colorably be interpreted as providing the
+sort of evidence required.” (_Science_, Jan. 20, 1922, pp. 59, 60.)
+
+Anyone thoroughly acquainted with the results of genetical analysis and
+research will find it impossible to escape the conviction that there
+is no such thing as experimental evidence for evolution. In spite of
+the enormous advances made in the fields of genetics and cytology,
+the problem of the origin of species is, scientifically speaking,
+as mysterious as ever. No variation of which we have experience is
+interpretable as the transmutation of a specific type, and David Starr
+Jordan voices an inevitable conclusion when he says: “None of the
+created ‘new species’ of plant or animal I know of would last five
+years in the open, nor is there the slightest evidence that any new
+species of field or forest or ocean ever originated from mutation,
+discontinuous variation, or hybridization.” (_Science_, Oct. 20, 1922,
+p. 448.)
+
+“In any case,” as Professor Caullery tells us in his Harvard lecture
+on the “Problem of Evolution,” “we do not see in the facts emerging
+from Mendelism, how evolution, in the sense that morphology suggests,
+can have come about. And it comes to pass that some of the biologists
+of greatest authority in the study of Mendelian heredity are led, with
+regard to evolution, either to a more or less complete agnosticism,
+or to the expression of ideas quite opposed to those of the preceding
+generation; ideas which would almost take us back to creationism.”
+(Smithson. Inst. Rpt. for 1916, p. 334.) It is, of course, impossible
+within the limits of a single chapter to convey any adequate impression
+of all that Mendel’s epoch-making achievement portends, but what
+has been said is sufficient to give some idea of the acuteness of
+the crisis through which the theory of organic evolution is passing
+as a result of his discovery. In its classic forms of Lamarckism,
+Darwinism and De-Vriesianism, the survival of the theory is out of the
+question. Whether or not it can be rehabilitated in any form whatever
+is a matter open to doubt. Transfixed by the innumerable spears of
+modern objections, its extremity calls to mind the plight of the Lion
+of Lucerne. Possibly, it is destined to find a rescuer in some great
+genius of the future, but of one thing, at least, we may be perfectly
+certain, namely, that, even if rejuvenated, it will never again resume
+the lineaments traced by Charles Darwin. In the face of this certainty,
+it is almost pitiful to hear the die-hards of Darwinism bolstering up a
+lost cause with the wretched quibble that, though natural selection has
+been discredited as an explanation of the differentiation of species,
+Darwinism “in its essentials” survives intact. For, if there is any
+feature which, beyond all else, deserves to be called an essential of
+Darwin’s system, surely it is natural selection. For Darwin it was “the
+most important” agency of transformation (cf. “Origin of Species,”
+6th ed., p. 5). Apart from his hypothesis of the summation through
+inheritance of slight variations (“fluctuations”), now completely
+demolished by the new science of genetics, it represented his sole
+contribution to the philosophy of transformism. It alone distinguishes
+Darwinism from Lamarckism, its prototype. Without it the “Origin of
+Species” would be Hamlet without the Prince of Denmark. With it
+Darwin’s fame should stand or fall. Therefore, since Darwin erred in
+making it “the most important means of modification,” Darwinism is
+dead, and no grief of mourners can resuscitate the corpse. “Through
+the last fifty years,” says Bateson, “this theme of the natural
+selection of favored races has been developed and expounded in writings
+innumerable. Favored races certainly can replace others. The argument
+is sound, but we are doubtful of its value. For us that debate stands
+adjourned. We go to Darwin for his incomparable collection of facts.
+We would fain emulate his scholarship, his width, and his power of
+exposition, but to us he speaks no more with philosophical authority.
+We read his scheme of evolution as we would those of Lucretius or
+of Lamarck, delighting in their simplicity and their courage.”
+(_Heredity_, Presid. Add. to British Assoc. for Advanc. of Science,
+Smith. Inst. Rpt. for 1915, p. 365.)
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER II
+
+             HOMOLOGY AND ITS EVOLUTIONARY INTERPRETATION
+
+
+The recent revival of interest in the problem of evolution seems to
+have called forth two very opposite expressions of opinion from those
+who profess to represent Catholic thought on this subject. M. Henri
+de Dorlodot, in his “Le Darwinisme,” appears in the rôle of an ardent
+admirer of Darwin and an enthusiastic advocate of the doctrine of
+Transformism. The contrary attitude is adopted by Mr. Alfred McCann,
+whose “God—or Gorilla” is bitterly antagonistic not only to Darwinism
+but to any form whatever of the theory of Transformism. Both of these
+works possess merits which it would be unjust to overlook. Dorlodot
+deserves credit for having shown conclusively that there is absolutely
+nothing in the Scriptures, or in Patristic tradition, or in Catholic
+theology, or in the philosophy of the Schools, which conflicts with
+our acceptance of organic evolution as an hypothesis explanatory of
+certain biological facts. In like manner, it must be acknowledged that,
+even after a liberal discount has been made in penalty of its bias and
+scientific inaccuracy, Mr. McCann’s book still contains a formidable
+residue of serious objections, which the friends of evolution will
+probably find it more convenient to sidestep than to answer.
+
+Unfortunately, however, neither of these writers maintains that
+balanced mental poise which one likes to see in the defenders of
+Catholic truth. Dorlodot seems too profoundly impressed with the
+desirability of occupying a popular position to do impartial justice
+to the problem at issue, and his anxiety to keep in step with the
+majority blinds him apparently to the flaws of that “Darwinism”
+which he praises. Had he been content with a simple demarcation of
+negative limits, there would be no ground for complaint. But, when
+he goes so far as to bestow unmerited praise upon the author of the
+mechanistic “Origin of Species” and the materialistic “Descent of
+Man”; when, by confounding Darwinism with evolution, he consents
+to that historical injustice which allows Darwin to play Jacob to
+Lamarck’s Esau, and which leaves the original genius of Mendel in
+obscurity while it accords the limelight of fame to the unoriginal
+expounder of a borrowed conception; when, by means of the sophistry of
+anachronism, he speciously endeavors to bring the speculations of an
+Augustine or an Aquinas into alignment with those of the ex-divinity
+student of Cambridge; when he assumes that Fixism is so evidently wrong
+that its claims are unworthy of consideration, whereas Transformism
+is so evidently right that we can dispense with the formality of
+examining its credentials; when, in a word, he expresses himself not
+merely in the sense, but in the very stereotyped cant phrases of a
+dead philosophy, we realize, with regret, that his conclusions are
+based, not on any reasoned analysis of the evidence, but solely upon
+the dogmatism of scientific orthodoxy, that his thought is cast in
+antiquated molds, and that for him, apparently, the sixty-five years
+of discovery and disillusionment, which have intervened since the
+publication of the “Origin of Species,” have passed in vain.
+
+But, if Dorlodot represents the extreme of uncritical approval, Mr.
+McCann represents the opposite, and no less reprehensible, extreme of
+biased antagonism, that is neither fair in method nor conciliatory in
+tone. Instead of adhering to the time-honored practice of Catholic
+controversialists, which is rather to overstate than to understate the
+argument of an adversary, Mr. McCann tends, at times, to minimize, in
+his restatement, the force of an opponent’s reasoning. He frequently
+belittles with mere flippant sneer, and is only too ready to question
+the good faith of those who do not share his convictions. Thus, when
+McCann ridicules Wells and accuses him of pure romancing, because the
+latter speaks of certain hairy “wild women” of the Caves, he himself
+seems to be ignorant of the fact that a palæolithic etching has been
+found representing a woman so covered with hair that she had no need of
+other apparel (the bas-relief from Laugerie-Basse carved on reindeer
+palm—cf. Smithson. Inst. Rpt. for 1909, p. 540 and Plate 2).
+
+Mr. McCann may object, with truth, that this is far from being a
+proof that the primitive representatives of the human race were hairy
+individuals, but the fact suffices, at least, to acquit Mr. Wells of
+the charge of unscrupulous invention. Hence, while we have no wish
+to excuse the lamentable lack of scientific conscientiousness so
+manifestly apparent in the writings of popularizers of evolution, like
+Wells, Osborn, and Haeckel, nevertheless common justice, not to speak
+of charity, constrains us to presume that, occasionally at least, their
+departures from the norm of objective fact were due to ordinary human
+fallibility or to the mental blindness induced by preconceptions,
+rather than to any deliberate intent to deceive. And we feel ourselves
+impelled to make this allowance for unconscious inaccuracy all the
+more readily that we are confronted with the necessity of extending
+the selfsame indulgence to Mr. McCann himself. Thus we find that the
+seventh illustration in “God—or Gorilla” (opposite p. 56) bears the
+legend: “Skeletons of man and _chimpanzee_ compared,” when, in point
+of fact, the ape skeleton in question is not that of a chimpanzee
+(_Troglodytes niger_) at all, but of an Orang-utan (_Simia satyrus_),
+as the reader may verify for himself by consulting Plate VI of the
+English version of Wasmann’s “Modern Biology,” where the identical
+illustration appears above its proper title: “Skeleton of an adult
+Orang-utan.” Since the error is repeated in the index of illustrations
+and in the legend of the third illustration of the appendix, it is
+impossible, in this instance, to shift the responsibility from Mr.
+McCann to the printer. In any case, it is sincerely to be hoped that
+this, and several other infelicitous errors will be rectified in the
+next edition of “God—or Gorilla.”
+
+In the next chapter we shall have occasion to refer again to Dorlodot’s
+book. For the present, however, his work need not concern us, while
+in that of Mr. McCann we single out but one point as germane to our
+subject, namely, the latter’s inadequate rebuttal of the evolutionary
+argument from homology. The futility of his method, which consists in
+matching insignificant differences against preponderant resemblances,
+and in exclaiming with ironic incredulity: “Note extraordinary
+resemblances!” becomes painfully evident, so soon as proper
+presentation enables us to appreciate the true force of the argument he
+is striving to refute. _Functionally_ the foot of a Troglodyte ape may
+be a “hand,” but _structurally_ it is the homologue of the human foot,
+and not of the human hand; nor is this homology effectually disposed
+of by stressing the dissimilarity of the hallux, whilst one remains
+discreetly reticent concerning the similarity of the calcaneum. For
+two reasons, therefore, the irrelevance of Mr. McCann’s reply is of
+special interest here: (1) because it illustrates concretely the danger
+of rendering a refutation inconsequential and inept by failing to plumb
+the full depth of the difficulty one is seeking to solve; (2) because
+it shows that it is vain to attempt to remove man’s body from the scope
+of this argument by citing the inconsiderable structural differences
+which distinguish him from the ape, so that, unless the argument from
+homology proves upon closer scrutiny to be inherently _inconclusive_,
+its applicability to the human body is a foregone conclusion, and
+implies with irresistible logic the common ancestry of men and apes.
+
+Such are the reflections suggested by the meager measure of justice
+which Mr. McCann accords to the strongest zoölogical evidence in favor
+of evolution, and they contain in germ a feasible program for the
+present chapter, which, accordingly, will address itself: first, to the
+task of ascertaining the true significance of homology in the abstract
+as well as the full extent of its application in the concrete; second,
+to that of determining with critical precision its intrinsic value as
+an argument for the theory of transmutation.
+
+_Homology_ is a technical term used by the systematists of botany,
+zoölogy and comparative anatomy to signify basic structural similarity
+as distinguished from superficial functional similarity, the latter
+being termed _analogy_. Organisms are said to exemplify the phenomenon
+of homology when, beneath a certain amount of external diversity, they
+possess in common a group of correlated internal resemblances of such a
+nature that the organisms possessing them appear to be constructed upon
+the same fundamental plan. In cases of this kind, the basic similarity
+is frequently masked by a veneer of unlikeness, and it is only below
+this shallow surface of divergence that we find evidences of the
+identical structure or common type.
+
+Thus organs of different animals are said to be homologous when they
+are composed of like parts arranged in similar relation to one another.
+Homologous organs correspond bone for bone and tissue for tissue, so
+that each component of the one finds its respective counterpart in
+the other. The organs in question may be functionally specialized
+and externally differentiated for quite different purposes, but the
+superficial diversity serves only to emphasize, by contrast, the
+underlying identity of structure which persists intact beneath it.
+Thus, for example, the wing of a pigeon, the flipper of a whale, the
+foreleg of a cat, and the arm of a man are organs differing widely in
+function as well as outward appearance, but they are called homologous,
+none the less, because they all exhibit the same basic plan, being
+composed of similar bones similarly disposed with respect to one
+another.
+
+Organs, on the other hand, are called analogous which, though
+fundamentally unlike in structure, are, nevertheless, superficially
+modified and specialized for one and the same function. The wing of
+a bird and the wing of an insect furnish a trite instance of such
+analogy. Functionally they subserve the same purpose, but structurally
+they bear no relation to each other. In like manner, though both are
+devoted to the same function, there exists between the leg of a man and
+the leg of a spider a fundamental disparity in structure.
+
+At times, specialization for the selfsame function involves the
+emergence of a similar modification or uniform structural adaptation
+from a substrate of basic dissimilarity. In these instances of parallel
+modifications appearing on the surface of divergent types, we have
+something more than mere functional resemblance. Structure is likewise
+involved, albeit superficially, in the modification which brings
+about this external uniformity. In such cases, analogy is spoken of
+as _convergence_, a phenomenon of which the mole and the mole-cricket
+constitute a typical example. The burrowing legs of the insect are,
+so far as outward appearance goes, the exact replica on a smaller
+scale of those of the mole, though, fundamentally, their structure is
+quite unlike, the mole being built on the endoskeletal plan of the
+vertebrates, whereas the mole-cricket is constructed on the exoskeletal
+plan characteristic of the arthropods. Speaking of the first pair of
+legs of the mole-cricket, Thomas Hunt Morgan says: “By their use the
+mole-cricket makes a burrow near the surface of the ground, similar
+to, but of course much smaller than, that made by the mole. In both
+of these cases the adaptation is the more obvious, because, while the
+leg of the mole is formed on the same general plan as that of other
+vertebrates, and the leg of the mole-cricket has the same fundamental
+structure as that of other insects, yet in both cases the details of
+structure and the general proportions have been so altered that the
+leg is fitted for entirely different purposes from those to which the
+legs of other vertebrates and other insects are put.” (Quoted by Dwight
+in “Thoughts of a Catholic Anatomist,” p. 235.) In the analogies of
+convergence, therefore, we have the exact converse of the phenomenon so
+often encountered in connection with homology. The latter exhibits a
+contrast between basic identity and superficial diversity, the former a
+contrast between superficial convergence and fundamental divergence.
+
+Now the extreme importance of homology is manifest from the fact that
+the taxonomists of zoölogy and botany have found it to be the most
+satisfactory basis for a scientific classification of animals and
+plants. In both of these sciences, organisms are arranged in groups
+according as they possess in common certain points of resemblance
+whereby they may be referred to this, or that, general type. The
+resemblance is most complete between members of the same species, which
+do not differ from one another by any major difference, though they may
+exhibit certain minor differences justifying their subdivision into
+varieties or races. These morphological considerations, however, must,
+in the case of an organic species, be supplemented by the additional
+physiological criteria of perfect sexual compatibility and normal
+viability, as we have already had occasion to note in the previous
+chapter. When organisms, though distinguished from one another by
+some major difference, agree, notwithstanding, in the main elements
+of structure, the several species to which they belong are grouped
+under a common genus, and similarly genera are grouped into families.
+A _relative_ major difference, such as a difference in the size of
+the teeth, suffices for the segregation of a new species, while an
+_absolute_ difference, such as a difference in the number of teeth or
+the possession of an additional organ, suffices for the segregation of
+a new genus. In practice, however, the classifications of systematists
+are often very arbitrary, and we find the latter divided into two
+factions, the “lumpers” who wish to reduce the number of systematic
+groups and the “splitters” who have a passion for breaking up larger
+groups into smaller ones on the basis of tenuous differences. Above
+the families are the orders, and they, in turn, are assembled in still
+larger groups called classes, until finally we reach the phyla or
+branches, which are the supreme categories into which the plant and
+animal kingdoms are divided. As we ascend the scale of classification,
+the points of resemblance between the organisms classified are
+constantly decreasing in number, while the points of difference
+increase apace. Hence, whereas members of the same species have very
+much in common, members of the same phylum have very little in common,
+and members of different phyla show such structural disparity that
+further correlation on the basis of similarities becomes impossible
+(in the sense, at least, of a reliable and consistent scheme of
+classification), all efforts to relate the primary phyla to one another
+in a satisfactory manner having proved abortive.
+
+Within the confines of each phylum, however, homology is the basic
+principle of classification. But the scientist is not content to note
+the bare fact of its existence. He seeks an explanation, he wishes to
+know the _raison d’être_ of homology. Innumerable threads of similarity
+run through the woof of divergence, and the question arises: How can
+we account for the coëxistence of this woof of diversity with a warp
+of similarity? Certainly, if called upon to explain the similarity
+existent between members of one and the same species, even the man in
+the street would resort instinctively to the principle of inheritance
+and the assumption of common ancestry, exclaiming: “Like sire, like
+son!” It is a notorious fact that children resemble their parents,
+and since members of the same species are sexually compatible and
+perfectly interfertile, there is no difficulty whatever in the way of
+accepting the presumption of descent from common ancestral stock as a
+satisfactory solution of the problem of specific resemblance. Now, it
+is precisely this selfsame principle of heredity which the Transformist
+invokes to account for generic, no less than for specific, similarity.
+In fact, he presses it further still, and professes to see therein
+the explanation of the resemblances observed between members of the
+different families, orders, and classes, which systematists group
+under a common phylum. This, of course, amounts to a bold extension of
+the principle of inheritance far beyond the barriers of interspecific
+sterility to remote applications that exceed all possibility of
+experimental verification. Transformists answer this difficulty,
+however, by contending that the period, during which the human race
+has existed, has been, geologically speaking, all too brief, and
+characterized by environmental conditions much too uniform, to afford
+us a favorable opportunity for ascertaining the extreme limits to which
+the genetic process may possibly extend; and, even apart from this
+consideration, they say, racial development (phylogeny) may be, like
+embryological development (ontogeny) an irreversible process, in which
+case no recurrence whatever of its past phenomena are to be expected in
+our times.
+
+Be that as it may, the evolutionist interprets the resemblances of
+homology as surviving vestiges of an ancient ancestral type, which
+have managed to persist in the descendants notwithstanding the
+transformations wrought in the latter by the process of progressive
+divergence. Moreover, just as the existence of a common ancestor is
+inferred from the _fact_ of resemblance, so the relative position
+in time of the common ancestor is inferred from the _degree_ of
+resemblance. The common ancestor of forms closely allied is assumed to
+have been proximate, that of forms but distantly resembling each other
+is thought to have been remote. Thus the common ancestor of species
+grouped under the same genus is supposed to have been less remote
+than the common ancestor of all the genera grouped under one family.
+The same reasoning is applied, _mutatis mutandis_, to the ancestry of
+families, orders and classes.
+
+The logic of such inferences may be questioned, but there is no
+blinking the fact that, in practice, the genetic explanation of
+homology is assumed by scientists to be the only reasonable one
+possible. In fact, so strong is their confidence in the necessity of
+admitting a solution of this kind, that they do not hesitate to make it
+part and parcel of the definition of homology itself. For instance, on
+page 130 of Woodruff’s “Foundations of Biology” (1922), we are informed
+that homology signifies “a fundamental similarity of structure based on
+descent from a common antecedent form.” The Yale professor, however,
+has been outdone in this respect by Professor Calkins of Columbia, who
+discards the anatomical definition altogether and substitutes, in lieu
+thereof, its evolutionary interpretation. “When organs have the same
+ancestry,” he says, “that is, when they come from some common part of
+an ancestral type, they are said to be homologous.” (“Biology,” p.
+165.) In short, F. A. Bather is using a consecrated formula culled from
+the modern biological creed when he says: “The old form of diagnosis
+was _per genus et differentiam_. The new form is _per proavum et
+modificationem_.” (_Science_, Sept. 17, 1920, p. 259.)
+
+A moment’s reflection, however, will make it clear that, in thus
+confounding the definition proper with its theoretical interpretation,
+the modern biologist is guilty of a logical atrocity. Homology, after
+all, is a simple anatomical fact, which can be quite adequately
+defined in terms of observation; nor is the definition improved in
+the least by having its factual elements diluted with explanatory
+theory. On the contrary, the definition is decidedly weakened by such
+redundancy. And as for those who insist on defining homology in terms
+of atavistic assumption instead of structural affinity, their procedure
+is tantamount to defining the clear by means of the obscure, an actual
+effect by means of a possible cause. Moreover, this attempt to load
+the dice in favor of Transformism by tampering with the definition of
+homology ends by defeating its own purpose. For, if homology is to
+serve as a legitimate argument for evolution, then obviously evolution
+must not be included in its definition; otherwise, the conclusion is
+anticipated in the premise, the question is begged, and the argument
+itself rendered a vicious circle.
+
+Having formed a sufficiently clear conception of homology as a
+static fact, we are now in a position to consider the problem of its
+causality with reference to the solution proposed by evolutionists.
+Transmutation, they tell us, results from the interaction of a
+twofold process, namely, the conservative and similifying process
+called _inheritance_, and progressive and diversifying process known
+as _variation_. Inheritance by transmitting the ancestral likeness
+tends to bring about uniformity. Variation by diverting old currents
+into new channels adjust organisms to new situations and brings about
+modification. Homology, therefore, is the effect of inheritance, while
+adaptedness or modification is the product of variation.
+
+As here used, the term inheritance denotes something more than a mere
+recurrence of parental characters in the offspring. It signifies a
+process of genuine transmission from generation to generation. Strictly
+speaking, it is not the _characters_, such as coloration, shape, size,
+chemical composition, structural type, and functional specificity, that
+are “inherited,” but rather the hereditary _factors_ or chromosomal
+_genes_, which are actually transmitted, and of which the characters
+are but an external expression or manifestation. Hence, it is scarcely
+accurate to speak of “inherited,” as distinguished from “acquired,”
+characters. As a matter of fact, all somatic characters are joint
+products of the interaction of germinal and environmental factors.
+Consequently, the external character would be affected no less by a
+change in the environmental factors than by a change in the germinal
+factors. In a word, somatic characters are not the exclusive expression
+of the genetic factors, but are equally dependent upon environmental
+influence, and hence it is only to the extent that these characters
+are indicative of the specific constitution of the germ plasm that
+we may speak of them as “inherited,” remembering that what is really
+transmitted to the offspring is a complex of genes or germinal
+factors, and not the characters themselves. The sense is, therefore,
+that “inherited” characters are manifestative of what is contained
+in the germ plasm, whereas “acquired” characters have no specific
+germinal basis, but are a resultant of the interaction between the
+somatic cells and the environment. In modern terminology, as we have
+seen, the aggregate of germinal factors transmitted in the process of
+reproduction is called the genotype, while the aggregate of somatic
+characters which manifest these germinal factors externally is spoken
+of as the phenotype. Only the genotype is transmitted, the phenotype
+being the subsequent product of the interplay of genetic factors and
+environmental stimuli, dependent upon, and expressive of, both.
+
+Variation, therefore, may be based upon a change in the germ plasm,
+or in the environment, or in both. If it rests exclusively upon an
+extraordinary change in the environmental conditions, the resulting
+modification is non-inheritable, and will disappear so soon as the
+exceptional environmental stimulus that evoked it is withdrawn. If,
+on the contrary, it is based upon a germinal change, it will manifest
+itself, even under ordinary, i.e. unchanged or uniform environmental
+influence. In this case, the modification is inheritable in the sense
+that it is the specific effect of a transmissible germinal factor,
+which has undergone alteration.
+
+As we have seen in the foregoing chapter, there are three kinds of
+germinal change which result in “inheritable” modifications. The
+first is called factorial mutation, and is initiated by an alteration
+occurring in one or more of the chromosomal genes. The second is called
+chromosomal mutation, and is caused by duplication (or reduction) of
+the chromosomes. The third may be termed recombination, one type of
+which results from the crossover or exchange of genes between pairing
+chromosomes (“pseudomutation”), the other from random assortment in
+accordance with the Mendelian law of the independence of allelomorphic
+pairs. This so-called “random assortment of the chromosomes” is the
+result of the shuffling and free deals of the chromosomal cards of
+heredity which take place twice in the life-cycle of organisms:
+viz. first, in the process of gametic reduction (meiosis); second,
+in the chance meeting of variously-constituted sperms and eggs in
+fertilization. A mischance of the first of these “free deals” is
+bewailed in the following snatch from a parody belonging to the Woods
+Hole anthology.
+
+    “Oh chromosomes, my chromosomes,
+        How sad is my condition!
+    My grandsire’s gift for writing well
+    Has gone to some lost polar cell
+    And so I write this doggerel,
+        I cannot do much better.”
+
+These kinds of variation, however, in so far as they fall within the
+range of actual observation, are confined within the limits of the
+organic species. Intra-specific variation, however, will not suffice.
+To account for the adaptive modifications superimposed upon underlying
+structural identity, Transformism is obliged to assume the possibility
+of trans-specific variation. Yet in none of the foregoing processes of
+variation do we find a valid factual basis for this assumption.
+
+Factorial mutation, for instance, waiving its failure to produce
+naturally-viable forms, or to meet the physiological sterility test
+of a new species, admits of interpretation as a change of loss due
+to the “dropping out” of a gene from the germinal complex. Bateson’s
+conception of evolution as a process consisting in the gradual loss of
+inhibitive genes, whose elimination releases suppressed potentialities,
+seems rather incredible. Many will be inclined to see in Castle’s
+facetious epigram a _reductio ad absurdum_ of Bateson’s suggestion;
+for, according to the latter’s view, as the Harvard professor remarks,
+we should have to regard _man_ as _a simplified amœba_. Certainly,
+it seems nothing short of a contradiction to ascribe the progressive
+complication of the phenotype to a simplification of the genotype by
+loss.
+
+On the other hand, not only is there no experimental evidence of a
+germinal change by positive acquisition, that is, by the addition of
+genes, but it is hard to conceive how such a change could come about.
+“At first,” admits Bateson, “it may seem rank absurdity to suppose
+that the primordial form or forms of protoplasm could have contained
+complexity enough to produce the divers types of life.” “But,” he
+asks, “is it easier to imagine that these powers could have been
+conveyed by extrinsic addition? Of what nature could these additions
+be? Additions of material can not surely be in question. We are told
+that salts of iron in the soil may turn a pink hydrangea blue. The
+iron cannot be passed on to the next generation. How can iron multiply
+itself? The power to assimilate iron is all that can be transmitted. A
+disease-producing organism like the pebrine of silkworms can in a very
+few cases be passed on through the germ cells. But it does not become
+part of the invaded host, and we can not conceive it taking part in the
+geometrically ordered processes of segregation. These illustrations
+may seem too gross; but what refinement will meet the requirements of
+the problem, that the thing introduced must be, as the living organism
+itself is, capable of multiplication and of subordinating itself in a
+definite system of segregation?” (_Heredity_, Smithson. Inst. Rpt. for
+1915, p. 373.)
+
+Nor can we agree with Prof. T. H. Morgan’s contention that the
+foregoing difficulty of Bateson has been solved by the discovery of
+the chromosomal mutation. All unbalanced chromosomal mutants are
+subnormal in their viability and vitality, not to speak of their marked
+sterility. Haploidy represents a regressive, rather than a progressive,
+step. The triploid mutant is sterile. The tetraploid race of Daturas
+is inferior in fertility to the normal diploid plant. The origin of
+balanced tetraploidy from diploidy must be presumed, since it has never
+been observed. Moreover, tetraploidy represents only quantitative, and
+not qualitative, progress. The increased mass of the nucleus produces
+an enlargement of the cytoplasm, the result of which is giantism. This
+effect, however, is not specific; for giant and normal races possessing
+each the same number of chromosomes are known to exist in nature. Hence
+giantism may be due to other causes besides chromosomal duplication.
+The only effect of this doubling is a reinforcement and intensification
+of the former effect of the genetic factors, their specificity
+remaining unchanged. Double doses are substituted for single doses of
+the factors, but nothing really new is added. Morgan himself recognizes
+that this mere repetition of identical genes is insufficient, and that
+their multiplication must be qualitative as well as numerical, to
+answer the specifications of a progressive step in evolution. Hence he
+suggests that the chromosomal mutation is subsequently supplemented by
+appropriate factorial mutation. Once this supposition is made, however,
+all the objections we have mentioned in connection with factorial
+mutation (_e.g._ the subnormality of its products, its intra-specific
+nature, etc.) return to plague the speculator, and, in addition to
+these, he is confronted with the new difficulty of explaining how the
+redundance of duplicate genes can be removed and replaced by coördinate
+differentiation in their respective specificities. Now we have no
+factual evidence whatever of such a solidaric redifferentiation of the
+germinal factors, that would modify harmoniously the composition and
+rôle of each and every gene in the factorial complex. Nor is there
+any possibility whatever of accounting for this telic superregulation
+of the germinal regulators upon a purely mechanistic basis. How can
+the ultimate chemical determinants of heredity be thus redetermined?
+Consequently, although there is gametic incompatibility between diploid
+races and the tetraploid races, which are said to have arisen from
+the former, we are not, nevertheless, warranted, by what has been
+experimentally verified, in regarding tetraploid races as new species,
+or as progressive steps in the process of organic evolution.
+
+To conclude, therefore, we have experimental verification of the
+efficacy of the similifying process said to have been at work in
+evolution, namely, inheritance. The same, however, cannot be said of
+the correlative diversifying process of trans-specific variation, which
+is said to have superficially modified old structures into new species.
+The latter process, accordingly, is but a pure postulate of science
+known to us only through the effect hypothetically assigned to it,
+namely, the adaptive modification.
+
+The adaptation, however, of which there is question here is not to be
+confounded with the “acquired adaptation” of Lamarckian fame; for,
+unlike the latter, it is an inheritable modification rooted in the germ
+plasm. Adaptations of this sort do, indeed, adjust the organism to
+its external environment, but they are innate and not acquired. Hence
+they are often spoken of as _preadaptations_; for they precede, in a
+sense, the organism’s contact with the environing element to which
+they adjust it. They may possibly, it is true, have been acquired in
+the distant past, but they have now a specific germinal foundation,
+and no one was ever privileged to witness their initial production _de
+novo_. The whale, for example, though fundamentally a warm-blooded
+mammal, is superficially a fish, by reason of such a preadaptation
+to its marine environment. Preadaptation is of common occurrence,
+especially among parasites, symbiotes, commensals, and inquilines.
+Wasmann cites innumerable instances of beetles and flies so profoundly
+modified, in accommodation to their mode of life as guests in termite
+nests, that the systematist hesitates to classify them under any of the
+accepted orders of insects. Here the adaptive modification so disturbs
+the underlying homology as to make of these creatures taxonomical
+ambiguities. In the case of _Termitomyia_, he tells us, “the whole
+development of the individual has been so modified that it resembles
+that of a viviparous mammal rather than that of a fly.” (“The Problem
+of Evolution,” pp. 14, 15.)
+
+Such modifications, however, amount to major, and not merely minor,
+differences. We are not dealing, therefore, with varietal distinctions
+here, but with specific, generic, and even ordinal differences. With
+reference to the phenomenon of adaptive modification,[3] three things,
+consequently, are worthy of note: (1) it has the semblance of being
+adventitious to the underlying structural uniformity; (2) it is of
+such magnitude that it cannot be ascribed to variation within the
+species; (3) it has been appropriated by the hereditary process, in the
+sense that it is now an “inherited” character based on the transmission
+of specific germinal factors.
+
+    [3] It may be remarked, in passing, that experimental genetics
+    and mutation furnish no clue to the origin of adaptive
+    characters. The Lamarckian idea alone gives promise in this
+    direction. Orthogenesis leaves unsolved the mystery of
+    preadaptation; yet only orthogenetic systems of evolution can
+    be constructed on the basis of genetical facts. “Mutations
+    and Mendelism,” says Kellogg, “may explain the origin of new
+    species in some measure, but they do not explain adaptation in
+    the slightest degree.” (_Atlantic Monthly_, April, 1924, pp.
+    488, 489.) We have seen in the previous chapter that they are
+    impotent to explain in _any_ measure the origin of new species.
+
+Now it is claimed that for the occurrence of this kind of modification
+in conjunction with homology only one rational explanation is
+possible, and that explanation is evolution. If this contention be a
+sound one, and Dorlodot, who claims certitude for the evolutionary
+solution, insists that it is such, then, in the name of sheer
+logical consistency, but one course lies open to us. We cannot stop
+at Wasmann’s comma,[4] we must press on to the very end of the
+evolutionary sentence and sing with the choristers of Woods Hole:
+
+    [4] Rev. Erich Wasmann, S. J., accepts the evolutionary
+    inference from homology as regards _plants_ and _animals_. When
+    it comes to _man_, however, he attempts to draw the line, and
+    argues painstakingly against the assumption of a bestial origin
+    of the human body.
+
+    “It’s a long way from Amphioxus,
+      It’s a long way to us;
+    It’s a long way from Amphioxus,
+      To the meanest human cuss.
+    Good-bye fins and gill slits;
+      Welcome skin and hair.
+    It’s a long, long way from Amphioxus,
+      But we came from there.”
+
+In this predicament it will not do, as we shall see presently, to adopt
+Mr. McCann’s expedient of balancing anatomical differences against
+anatomical resemblances. To do so is to court certain and ignominious
+defeat. We must, therefore, examine the argument dispassionately. If it
+be solid, we must accept it and give it general application. If it be
+unsound, we must detect its flaws and expose them. Intellectual honesty
+allows us no alternative!
+
+Moreover, in weighing the argument from organic homology we must not
+lose sight of the two important considerations previously stressed:
+(1) that the inference of common ancestry in the case of homologous
+forms is based, not upon this or that particular likeness, but upon an
+entire group of coördinated resemblances; (2) that the resemblances
+involved are not exterior similarities, but deep-seated structural
+uniformities perfectly compatible with diversities of a superficial and
+functional character. “Nothing,” says Dr. W. W. Keen, “could be more
+unlike externally than the flipper of a whale and the arm of a man.
+Yet you find in the flipper the shoulderblade, humerus, radius, ulna,
+and a hand with the bones of four fingers masked in a mitten of skin.”
+(_Science_, June 9, 1922, p. 605.)
+
+In fact, the resemblances may, in certain instances, be so deeply
+submerged that they no longer appear in the adult organism at all and
+are only in evidence during a transitory phase of the embryological
+process. In such cases, the embryo or larva exhibits, at a particular
+stage, traces of a uniformity completely obliterated from the adult
+form. In short, though frequently presented as a distinct argument,
+embryological similarity, together with all else of value that can
+still be salvaged from the wreck of the Müller-Haeckel Law of Embryonic
+Recapitulation, is, at bottom, identical with the general evolutionary
+argument from homology. In the latter argument we are directed to
+look beneath the modified surface of the adult organism for surviving
+vestiges of the ancestral type. In the former, we are bidden to go
+deeper still, to the extent, that is, of descending into the very
+embryological process itself, in order to discover lingering traces
+of the ancestral likeness, which, though now utterly deleted from the
+transformed adult, are yet partially persistent in certain embryonic
+phases.
+
+In sectioning a larval specimen of the fly-like termite-guest known
+as _Termitoxenia Heimi_, Father Wasmann came across a typical
+exemplification of this embryological atavism. In the adult insect, a
+pair of oar-like appendages replace the wings characteristic of the
+_Diptera_ (flies). These appendages are organs of exudation, which
+elaborate a secretion whereof the termites are very fond, and thereby
+render their possessors welcome guests in the nests of their hosts. The
+appendages, therefore, though now undoubtedly inherited characters,
+are the specific means by which these inquilines are adapted to their
+peculiar environment and mode of life among the termites. Moreover, the
+organs in question not only differ from wings functionally, but, in the
+adult, they bear no structural resemblance whatever to the wings of
+flies. Nevertheless, on examining his sections of the above-mentioned
+specimen, Wasmann found a developmental stage of brief duration during
+which wing veins appeared in the posterior branches of the embryonic
+appendages. Now, assuming that Wasmann’s technique was faultless,
+his specimen normal, and his interpretation correct, it is rather
+difficult to avoid his conclusion that we have here, in this transitory
+larval phase, the last surviving vestige of ancestral wings now wholly
+obliterated from the adult type, that, consequently, this wingless
+termite guest is genetically related to the winged _Diptera_, and that
+we must see in the appendages aboriginal wings diverted from their
+primitive function and respecialized for the quite different purpose of
+serving as organs of exudation, (cf. “Modern Biology,” p. 385.) Indeed,
+phenomena of this kind seem to admit of no other explanation than the
+atavistic one. It should be remembered, however, that Wasmann does not
+appear to have verified the observation in more than one specimen,
+and that a larger number of representative specimens would have to be
+accurately sectioned, strained, examined and interpreted, before any
+reliable conclusion could be drawn.[5]
+
+    [5] This transitory lymphatic, or tracheal venation appearing
+    in the appendages at the stenogastric stage may not have the
+    particular significance that Father Wasmann assigns. Such
+    venation, even if vestigial and aborted, need not necessarily
+    be a vestige of former _wing_ venation. To demonstrate the
+    validity of the atavistic interpretation, all other possible
+    interpretations would have to be definitively excluded.
+
+Such, in its most general aspect, is the atavistic solution of the
+problem presented by the homology of types. In it, similarity and
+diversity are harmoniously reconciled, in the sense that they affect,
+respectively, different structural, or different developmental, levels.
+It is futile, therefore, to look for contradictions where they do not
+exist. In a word, the attempt to create opposition between a group of
+basic and correlated uniformities, on the one hand, and some particular
+external difference, on the other, is not only abortive, but absolutely
+irrelevant as well. The reason is obvious. Only when likeness is
+associated with unlikeness is it an argument for Transmutation.
+Likeness alone would demonstrate Immutability by indicating a process
+of pure inheritance as distinguished from the process of variation.
+Hence evolutionists do not merely concede the coëxistence of diversity
+with similarity, they gladly welcome this fact as vitally necessary to
+their contention.
+
+Now it is precisely this point which Mr. McCann, like many other
+critics of evolution, fails utterly to apprehend. Consequently, his
+efforts to extricate the human foot from the toils of simian homology
+are entirely unavailing. To offset the force of the argument in
+question, it is by no means sufficient, as he apparently imagines, to
+point to the fact that, unlike the hallux of the ape, the great toe in
+man is non-opposable (cf. “God—or Gorilla,” pp. 183, 184, and legends
+under cuts opposite pp. 184 and 318). The evolutionist will reply
+at once that the non-opposability of man’s great toe is correlated
+with the specialization of the human foot for progression only, as
+distinguished from prehension; while, in the ape, whose foot has
+retained both the progressive and the prehensile function, the hallux
+is naturally opposable in adaptation to the animal’s arboreal habits.
+He will then call attention to the undeniable fact that, despite these
+adaptational differences, the bones in the foot of a Troglodyte ape
+are, bone for bone, the counterparts of the bones in the human foot
+and not of those in the human hand. He will readily concede, that,
+so far as function and adaptedness go, this simian foot is a “hand,”
+but he will not fail to point out that it is, at the same time, a
+_heeled_ hand equipped with a calcaneum, a talus, a navicular, a
+cuboid, and all other structural elements requisite to ally it to
+the human foot and distinguish it from the human hand. In fact, Mr.
+McCann’s own photographs of the gorilla skeleton show these features
+quite distinctly, though he himself, for some reason or other, fails
+to speak of them. It is to be feared, however, that his adversaries
+may not take a charitable view of his reticence concerning the simian
+heel, but may be inclined to characterize his silence as “discreet,”
+all the more so, that he himself has uncomplimentarily credited them
+with similar discretions in their treatment of unmanageable facts.
+In short, Mr. McCann’s case against homology resembles the Homeric
+hero, Achilles, in being vulnerable at the “heel.” At all events, the
+homology itself is an undeniable fact, and it is vain to tilt against
+this fact in the name of adaptational adjustments like “opposability”
+and “non-opposability.” Since, therefore, our author has failed to
+prove that this feature is too radical to be classed as an adaptive
+modification, our only hope of exempting the human skeleton from the
+application of the argument in question is to show that argument itself
+is inconsequential.
+
+Mr. McCann’s predicament resembles that of the unlucky disputant, who
+having allowed a questionable major to pass unchallenged, strives to
+retrieve his mistake by picking flaws in a flawless minor. As Dwight
+has well said of the human body, “it differs in degree only from that
+of apes and monkeys,” and “if we compare the individual bones with
+those of apes we cannot fail to see the correspondence.” (“Thoughts
+of a Catholic Anatomist,” p. 149.) In short, there exists no valid
+anatomical consideration whatever to justify us in subtracting the
+human frame from the extension of the general conclusion deduced from
+homology. Whosoever, therefore, sees in the homology of organic forms
+conclusive evidence of descent from a common ancestor, cannot, without
+grave inconsistency, reject the doctrine of the bestial origin of man.
+He may still, it is true, exclude the human mind or soul from the
+evolutionary account of origins, but, if homology is, in any sense, a
+sound argument for common descent, the evolutionary origin of the human
+body is a foregone conclusion, and none of the anatomical “differences
+in degree” will avail to spare us the humiliation of sharing with the
+ape a common family-tree. It remains for us, then, to reëxamine the
+argument critically for the purpose of determining as precisely as
+possible its adequacy as a genuine demonstration.
+
+To begin with, it must be frankly acknowledged that here the theory
+of transformism is, to all appearances, upon very strong ground. Its
+first strategic advantage over the theory of immutability consists in
+the fact that, unlike the latter, its attitude towards the problem is
+positive and not negative. When challenged to explain the structural
+uniformities observed in organic Nature, the theory of immutability is
+mute, because it knows of no second causes or natural agencies adequate
+to account for the facts. It can only account for homology by ascribing
+the phenomenon exclusively to the unity of the First Cause, and, while
+this may, of course, be the true and sole explanation, to assume it
+is tantamount to removing the problem altogether from the province of
+natural science. Hence it is not to be wondered at that scientists
+prefer the theory of transformism, which by assigning intermediate
+causes between the First Cause and the ultimate effects, vindicates
+the problem of organic origins for natural science, in assuming the
+phenomena to be proximately explicable by means of natural agencies.
+Asked whether he believes that God created the now exclusively arboreal
+Sloth (_Bradypus_) in a tree, the most uncompromising defender of
+fixism will hesitate to reply in the affirmative. Yet, in this case,
+what is nowadays, at least, an inherited preadaptation, dedicates the
+animal irrevocably to tree-life, and makes its survival upon the ground
+impossible.
+
+Analogous preadaptations occur in conjunction with the phenomena of
+parasitism, symbiosis and commensalism, all of which offer instances
+of otherwise disparate and unrelated organisms that are inseparably
+bound together, in some apparently capricious and fortuitous respect,
+by a preadaptation of the one to the other. Parasites, guests, or
+symbiotes, as the case may be, they are now indissolubly wedded to
+some determinate species of host by reason of an appropriate and
+congenital adjustment. For all that, however, the association seems
+to be a contingent one, and it appears incredible that the associates
+were always united, as at present, by bonds of reciprocal advantage,
+mutual dependence, or one-sided exploitation. Yet the basis of the
+relationship is in each case a now inherited adaptation, which, if it
+does not represent the primitive condition of the race, must at some
+time have been acquired. For phenomena such as these, orthogenesis,
+which makes an organ the exclusive product of internal factors,
+conceiving it as a preformed mechanism that subsequently selects a
+suitable function, has no satisfactory explanation. Lamarckism, which
+asserts the priority of function and makes the environment mold the
+organ, is equally inacceptable, in that it flouts experience and
+ignores the now demonstrated existence of internal hereditary factors.
+But, if between these two extremes some evolutionary _via media_ could
+be found, one must confess that it would offer the only conceivable
+“natural explanation” of preadaptation.[6] All this, of course, is pure
+speculation, but it serves to show that here, at any rate, the theory
+of Transformism occupies a position from which it cannot easily be
+dislodged.
+
+    [6] Vernon Kellogg has expressed this same view in a recent
+    article, though he frankly admits that it is an as yet
+    unrealized desideratum. “Altogether,” he says, “it must be
+    fairly confessed that evolutionists would welcome the discovery
+    of the actual possibility and the mechanism of transferring
+    into the heredity of organisms such adaptive changes as can
+    be acquired by individuals in their lifetime. It would give
+    them an explanation of evolution, especially of adaptation,
+    much more satisfactory than any other explanation at present
+    claiming the acceptance of biologists.” (_Atlantic Monthly_,
+    April, 1924, p. 488.)
+
+But, besides the advantage of being able to offer a “natural
+explanation” of the association of homology with adaptation,
+Transformism enjoys the additional advantage of being able to make
+the imagination its partisan by means of a visual appeal. Such an
+appeal is always more potent than that of pure logic stripped of
+sensuous imagery. When it comes to vividness and persuasiveness, the
+syllogism is no match for the object-lesson. Retinal impressions have
+a hypnotic influence that is not readily exorcised by considerations
+of an abstract order—“_Segnius irritant demissa per aurem, Quam quae
+sunt oculis subjecta fidelibus_,” says Horace, in the “Ars Poetica.”
+Philosophers may distinguish between the magnetic appeal of a graphic
+presentation and the logical cogency of the doctrine so presented,
+but there is no denying that, in practice, imagination is often
+mistaken for reason and persuasion for conviction. Be that as it may,
+the ordinary method of bringing home to the student the evolutionary
+significance of homology is certainly one that utilizes to the full all
+the advantages of visual presentation. Given a class of impressionable
+premedics and coeds; given an instructor’s table with skeletons of a
+man, a flamingo, an ape and a dog hierarchically arranged thereon;
+given an instructor sufficiently versed in comparative osteology to
+direct attention to the points in which the skeletons concur: and there
+can be no doubt whatever as to the psychological result. The student
+forms spontaneously the notion of a common vertebrate type, and the
+instructor assures him that this “general type” is not, as it would
+be with respect to other subject matter, a mere universal idea with
+no formal existence outside the mind, but rather a venerable family
+likeness, posed for originally by a single pair of ancestors (or
+could it possibly have been, by one self-fertilizing hermaphrodite?)
+and recopied from generation to generation, with certain variations
+on the original theme, by the hand of an artist called Heredity.
+This explanation may be true, but logically consequential it is not.
+However, if the dialectic is poor, the pedagogy is beyond reproach,
+and the solution proposed has in its favor the fact that it accords
+well with the student’s limited experience. He is aware of the
+truism that children resemble their parents. Why look for more
+recondite explanations when one so obvious is at hand? The atavistic
+theory gratifies his instinct for simplification, and, if he be of a
+mechanistic turn of mind, the alternative conception of creationism
+is quite intolerable. Nevertheless, it goes without saying that
+the “inference” of common descent from the data of homology is not
+a ratiocination at all, it is only a simple apprehension, a mere
+abstraction of similarity from similars—“_Unde quaecumque inveniuntur
+convenire in aliqua intentione intellecta_,” says Aquinas, “_voluerunt
+quod convenirent in una re_.” (_In lib. II sent._, _dist._ 17, _q.
+I_, _a._ 1) Philosophy tells us that the oneness of the universal is
+conceptual and not at all extramental or real, but the transformist
+insists that the universal types of Zoölogy and Botany are endowed with
+real as well as logical unity, that real unity being the unity of the
+common ancestor.
+
+Certainly, from the standpoint of practical effectiveness, the
+evolutionary argument leaves little to be desired. The presentation is
+graphic and the solution simple. But for the critic, to whom logical
+sequence is of more moment than psychological appeal, this is not
+enough. To withstand the gnawing tooth of Time and the remorseless
+probing of corrosive human reason, theories must rest on something
+sounder than a mirage of visual imagery!
+
+    Tell me where is fancy bred,
+    Or in the heart or in the head?
+    How begot, how nourished?
+        Reply, reply.
+    It is engendered in the eyes,
+    With gazing fed; and fancy dies
+    In the cradle where it lies.
+
+But is it fair thus to characterize the “common ancestors” of
+Transformism as figments which, like all other abstractions, have no
+extramental existence apart from the concrete objects whence they
+were conceived? To be sure, their claim to be real entities cannot be
+substantiated by direct observation or experiment, and so a factual
+proof is out of the question. Man, the late-comer, not having been
+present at the birth of organic forms, can give no reliable testimony
+regarding their parentage. In like manner, no _a priori_ proof from the
+process of inheritance is available, because heredity, as revealed to
+us by the experimental science of Genetics, can account for specific
+resemblances only, and cannot be invoked, at present, as an empirically
+tested explanation for generic, ordinal, or phyletic resemblances. It
+has still to be demonstrated experimentally that the hereditary process
+is transcendental to limits imposed by specific differentiation.
+There remains, however, the _a posteriori_ argument, which interprets
+homology and adaptation as univocal effects ascribable to no other
+agency than the dual process of inheritance and variation. What are we
+to think of this argument? Does it generate certainty in the mind, or
+merely probability?
+
+A moment’s reflection will bring to light the preliminary flaw of
+incomplete enumeration of possibilities. To suppose that inheritance
+alone can account for structural resemblance is an unwarranted
+assumption. Without a doubt, there are other similifying influences at
+work in Nature besides inheritance. True, inheritance is one possible
+explanation of the similarity of organisms, but it is not the _only_
+one. Even among the chemical elements of inorganic nature we find
+analogous uniformities or “family traits,” which, in the absence of
+any reproductive process whatever, we cannot possibly attribute to
+inheritance. Mendeléeff’s discovery of the periodicity of the elements,
+arranged in the order of their atomic weights, is well-known. At
+each interval of an octave, a succession of chemical types, similar
+to those of the preceding octave, recur. Hence elements appearing in
+the same vertical column of the Periodic Table have many properties
+in common and exhibit what may be called a family resemblance. Now,
+we have in the process of atomic disintegration, as observed in
+radioactive elements and interpreted by the electronic theory of atomic
+structure, a reasonably satisfactory basis upon which to account for
+the existence of these inorganic uniformities. Here analogous chemical
+constitution, produced in accordance with a general law, results in
+uniformity that implies a similar, rather than an identical, cause. The
+hypothesis of parallelistic derivation from similar independent origins
+accounts quite as well for the observed uniformities as does the
+hypothesis of divergent derivation from a single common origin. Why,
+then, should we lean so heavily on the already overtaxed principle of
+inheritance, when parallelism is as much a possibility in the organic
+world as it is an actuality in the inorganic world?
+
+As to the contrast here drawn between inheritance and other similifying
+factors, it is hardly necessary to remark that we are speaking of
+inheritance as defined in terms of Mendelian experiment and cytological
+observation. In the so-called chemical theory of inheritance, the
+distinction would be meaningless and the contrast would not exist.
+Ehrlich’s disciple, Adami, sets aside all self-propagating germinal
+determinants, like the chromomeres, in favor of a hypothetical
+“biophoric molecule,” which is to be conceived as a benzine-like
+ring bristling with sidechains. Around this determining core the
+future organism is built up in definite specificity, as an arch is
+constructed about a template. Adami has merely applied Paul Ehrlich’s
+ideas concerning metabolism and immunity to the question of heredity,
+commandeering for this purpose the latter’s entire toolkit of
+receptors, haptophores, amboceptors, etc., as though this grotesque
+paraphernalia of crude and clumsy mechanical symbols (which look
+for all the world like the wrenches of a machinist, or the lifters
+used by the cook to remove hot lids from the kitchen range) could
+throw any valuable light whatsoever on the exceedingly complex, and
+manifestly vital, phenomenon of inheritance. It does not even deserve
+to be called a chemical theory, for, as Starling correctly remarks
+concerning Ehrlich’s conception, “though chemical in form,” it is not
+so in reality, because “it does not explain the phenomenon by reference
+to the known laws of chemistry.” (Cf. _Physiology_, ed. of 1920,
+p. 1084.) In a word, the theory of heredity, which seeks to strip
+inheritance of its uniqueness as a vital process by identifying it with
+the more general physicochemical processes occurring in the organism,
+is a groundless speculation, that, far from explaining, flouts the very
+observational data which it pretends to elucidate. _Kurz und gut!_
+to requite the mechanist, Schäfer, with his own Danielesque phrase,
+here, as elsewhere, the mechanists have succeeded in extracting from
+the facts, not what the facts themselves proclaim, but what preëxisted
+in their own highly-cultured imaginations so well-stocked with cogs,
+cranks, ball bearings, and other æsthetic imagery emanating from
+polytechnic schools and factories.
+
+But in arguing from the existence of parallelism in the inorganic
+world to its possibility in the organic world, we are less liable
+to displease the mechanists than those other extremists, the
+neo-vitalists, who will be prone to deny all parity between living, and
+inanimate, matter. Fortunately, we are in a position to appease the
+scruples of the latter by referring to the facts of _convergence_ as
+universally accepted evidence that the phenomenon of parallelism occurs
+in animate, no less than inanimate, nature. Admitting, therefore, that
+the laws of organic morphology are of a higher order than those which
+regulate atomic, molecular, and multimolecular structure, these facts
+attest, nevertheless, that parallelisms arise in organisms of separate
+ancestry which are due, not to heredity, but to the uniform action
+of universal morphogenetic forces. Hence general laws can be invoked
+to account for organic uniformities with the same right that they
+are invoked to account for resemblances existing between the various
+members of a chemical “family” like the Halogens. And why should this
+not be so? Organisms have much in common that transcends any possible
+scheme of evolution and that cannot be brought into alignment with the
+position arbitrarily assigned them in the evolutionary family-tree.
+They all originate as single cells. Their common means of growth and
+reproduction is mitotic cell division. This leads to the production
+of a _somatella_, among the protista, and of a _soma_ differentiated
+by histogenesis into two or three primary tissues, among the metista.
+All these fundamental processes are strikingly uniform throughout
+the entire plant and animal world. In these universal properties of
+living matter, therefore, we have a common basis for general structural
+and organizational laws, which, though irreducible to the “common
+ancestors” of Transformism, is quite adequate to account for both the
+homologies and analogies of living matter. Accept this basis of general
+laws regulating the development of living matter, and there is no
+difficulty in seeing why the problems posed by exposure to analogous
+environmental conditions are solved in parallel fashion by organisms,
+irrespective of whether they are nearly, or distantly, related in the
+sense of morphology. Transformism, on the other hand, can only account
+for homology at the expense of convergence, and for convergence at the
+expense of homology. So far as a common ancestral basis is concerned,
+the two kinds of resemblance are, from the very nature of the case,
+irreducible phenomena.
+
+It is only, in fact, by surrendering the principle that similarity
+entails community of origin, and by falling back on the suggested
+common basis of general laws, that Transformism makes room in its
+system for the troublesome facts of convergence. “It might be
+reiterated in passing,” says Dwight, “that this ‘convergence’ business
+is a very ticklish one. We have been taught almost word for word
+that resemblance implies relationship, or almost predicates it; but
+according to this doctrine it has nothing to do with it whatever.”
+(“Thoughts of a Cath. Anat.,” p. 190.) And in a subsequent chapter
+he says: “No very deep knowledge of comparative anatomy is needed
+for us to know that very similar adaptations for particular purposes
+are found in very diverse animals. The curious low grade mammal,
+the _Ornithorhynchus_, with a hairy coat and the bill of a duck, is
+a familiar instance. We all know that the whales have the general
+form of the fish, although they are mammals, and going more into
+details we know that the whale’s flipper is on the same general plan
+as that of the ancient saurians.... The origin of the eye, according
+to evolutionary doctrines, has been a very difficult problem, which
+gets worse rather than better the more you do for it. Even if we could
+persuade ourselves that certain cells blundered along by the lucky
+mating of individuals in whom they were a bit better developed than in
+the others till they came to form a most complicated organ of sight, it
+would be a sufficient tax on our credulity to believe that this could
+come off successfully in some extraordinary lucky species; but that it
+should have turned out so well with all kinds of vertebrates is really
+too much to ask us to swallow. But this is not all: eyes are very
+widely spread among different classes of invertebrates. More wonderful
+still, the eyes of certain molluscs and crustacea are on stalks, and
+this is found also in various and very different families of fishes.
+How did this happen? Was it by way of descent from the molluscs or the
+crustacea? If not, how could chance have brought about such a similar
+result in diverse forms?” (_Op. cit._, pp. 233-236.)
+
+It may be objected that the resemblances of convergence are superficial
+analogies, not to be confounded with fundamental homologies. This
+contention may be disputed; for, as we shall see in the next chapter,
+there are cases where the convergence is admittedly radical, and
+not merely superficial. The distinction, moreover, between shallow
+and basic characters is somewhat arbitrary, and its validity is
+often questionable. When the skeletal homology that relates the
+amphibia to the mammals, for instance, is traced to the root of the
+vertebrate family tree, we find it all but disappearing in a primitive
+Amphioxus-like chordate, whose so-called skeleton contains no trace of
+bone or cartilage. Hence, if we go back far enough, the homologies of
+today become the convergences of a geological yesterday, and we find
+the vertebrate type of skeleton arising independently in reptiles,
+mammals, amphibia, and fishes.
+
+Again, there are times when convergent analogies appear to be more
+representative of the common racial heritage than the underlying
+structure itself, tempting the evolutionist to fly in the face of
+the orthodox interpretation, which rigidly rules out analogy in
+favor of homology, and refuses to accept the eloquent testimony
+of a remarkable resemblance merely because of a slight technical
+discrepancy in the structural substrate. A large pinching claw, or
+chela, for example, occurs in two organisms belonging to the phylum
+of the arthropods, namely, the lobster and the African scorpion. Both
+chelæ are practically identical in structure, but, unfortunately, the
+chela of the lobster arises from a different appendage than that from
+which the scorpion’s chela emerges. If they arose from corresponding
+appendages, they would be pronounced “homologous organs” and acclaimed,
+without hesitation, as strong evidence in favor of the common origin
+of all the arthropods. In proof of this, we call attention to the
+importance attached to the adaptations affecting homologous bones in
+fossil “horses.” As it is, however, the two chelæ are analogous, and
+not homologous, organs. Hence, technically speaking, the two chelæ are
+utterly unrelated structures. To the eye of common sense, however, the
+likeness appears to be far more important than the difference, and the
+average person will be inclined to view the resemblance as evidence of
+a community of type. In fact, the tendency to discard superficial, and
+to retain only fundamental, uniformities, is dangerous to the theory of
+Transformism. When we confine our attention to what is really basic, we
+find that the resemblances become so generalized and widespread that
+specific conclusions as to descent become impossible, and we lose all
+sense of direction in a clueless labyrinth of innumerable, yet mutually
+contradictory, possibilities.
+
+Finally, it may be noted in passing that, though it is customary
+with evolutionists to regard homologous characters as the tenaciously
+persistent heritage of primeval days, and to look upon adaptational
+characters as adventitious and accessory to the aforesaid primitive
+heritage, the supposedly older and more fundamental characters fail to
+give, by the manifestation of greater fixity, any empirical evidence
+whatever of their being more deeply or firmly rooted in the hereditary
+process than the presumably newer adaptational characters. We have,
+therefore, no experimental warrant for appropriating homologous,
+rather than adaptational, characters to the process of inheritance.
+“It is sometimes asserted,” says Goodrich, “that old-established
+characters are inherited, and that newly begotten ones are not, or are
+less constant, in their reappearance. This statement will not bear
+critical examination. For, on the one hand, it has been conclusively
+shown by experimental breeding that the newest characters may be
+inherited as constantly as the most ancient.... While, on the other
+hand, few characters in plants can be older than the green color
+due to chlorophyll, yet it is sufficient to cut off the light from
+a germinating seed for the greenness to fail to appear. Again, ever
+since Devonian times vertebrates have inherited paired eyes; yet,
+as Professor Stockard has shown, if a little magnesium chloride is
+added to the sea water in which the eggs of the fish _Fundulus_ are
+developing, they will give rise to embryos with one median cyclopean
+eye! Nor is the suggestion any happier that the, so to speak, more
+deep-seated and fundamental characters are more constantly inherited
+than the trivial or superficial. A glance at the organisms around
+us, or the slightest experimental trial, soon convinces us that the
+apparently least important character may reappear as constantly as
+the most fundamental. But while an organism may live without some
+trivial character, it can rarely do so when a fundamental character is
+absent, hence such incomplete individuals are seldom met in Nature.”
+(_Science_, Dec. 2, 1921, p. 530.)
+
+But, whether it be upon, or beneath, the surface, similitude of _any
+kind_ suffices to establish our contention that inheritance is not the
+only similifying influence present in organisms, and that resemblance
+is perfectly compatible with independence of ancestry. We have,
+therefore, an alternative for inheritance in the explanation of organic
+uniformities, and by the admission of this alternative, which, for the
+rest, is factually attested by the universally acknowledged phenomena
+of convergence, the inference of common descent from structural
+resemblance is shorn of the last remnant of its demonstrative force, as
+an _a posteriori_ argument.
+
+But a still more serious objection to the evolutionary interpretation
+of homology and preadaptation arises from its intrinsic _incoherency_.
+Evolution, as previously stated, is assumed to be the resultant of
+a twofold process, namely, _inheritance_ and _variation_. The first
+is a conservative and similifying process, which transmits. The
+second is a progressive and diversifying process, which diverts.
+To the former process are due the uniformities of homology, to
+the latter the deviations of adaptation. Upon the admission of
+evolutionists themselves, however, neither of these processes behaves
+in a manner consistent with its general nature, and both of them
+are flagrantly unfaithful to the principal rôles assigned to them.
+Nowadays the hereditary process transmits _adaptational_, as well
+as _homologous_, characters. If, then, adaptational characters are
+more recent than homologous characters, there must have been a time
+when inheritance ceased to _similify_ and become a _diversifying_
+process by transmitting what it did not receive from the previous
+generation. There were times when, not content with simply reiterating
+the past, it began to divert former tendencies into novel channels.
+In other words, inheritance becomes dualized into a paradoxical
+process, which both perpetuates the old and appropriates the new.
+The same inconsistency is manifest in the process of variation,
+which capriciously produces _convergent_, no less than _divergent_,
+adaptations. In two fundamentally identical structures, like the wing
+of a bird and the foreleg of a cat, variation is said to have produced
+diverse adaptations. In two fundamentally diverse structures, like
+the head of an octopus and the head of a frog, variation is said to
+have produced an identical adaptation, namely, the vertebrate type of
+eye. It appears, therefore, that the essentially diversifying process
+of variation can become, on occasion, a simplifying process, which,
+instead of solving environmental problems in an original manner,
+prefers to employ uniform and standardized solutions, and to cling to
+its old stereotyped methods. Inheritance similifies and diversifies,
+variation converges and diverges. It is futile to attempt to reduce
+either of these protean processes to a condition that even approximates
+consistency. The evolutionist blows hot and cold with the same breath.
+Verily, his god is Proteus, or the double-headed Janus!
+
+_Summa summarum_: The evolutionary argument from homology is defective
+in three important respects: (1) in its lack of experimental
+confirmation; (2) in its incomplete enumeration of the disjunctive
+possibilities; (3) in its inability to construct a scheme of
+transmutation that synthesizes inheritance and variation in a logically
+coherent, and factually substantiated formula. The first two defects
+are not necessarily fatal to the argument as such. Though they destroy
+its pretensions to conclusiveness, they do not preclude the fulfilment
+of the moderate claim made in its behalf by Prof. T. H. Morgan, who
+says: “In this sense (_i.e._, as previously stated) the argument from
+comparative anatomy, while not a demonstration, carries with it, I
+think, a high degree of probability.” (“A Critique of the Theory of
+Evolution,” p. 14.) The third defect is more serious. The apparently
+irreducible antagonism which the evolutionary assumption introduces
+between inheritance and variation has been sensed even by the adherents
+of transformism themselves, and they have searched in vain for a
+formula, which, without sacrificing the facts, would bring into concord
+the respective rôles of these discordant factors. “It follows,” says
+Osborn, “as an unprejudiced conclusion from our present evidence that
+upon Weismann’s principle we can explain inheritance but not evolution,
+while with Lamarck’s principle and Darwin’s selection principle we
+can explain evolution, but not, at present, inheritance. Disprove
+Lamarck’s principle and we must assume that there is some third factor
+in evolution of which we are ignorant.” (_Popular Science Monthly_,
+Jan., 1905.) The point is well taken, and unless, as Osborn suggests,
+there is a _tertium quid_ by means of which the discord can be resolved
+into ultimate harmony, we see no way of liberating the theory of
+Transmutation from this embarrassing dilemma.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER III
+
+                           FOSSIL PEDIGREES
+
+       “_By dint of such great efforts we succeeded only in piecing
+       together genial romances more or less historical._”—B. Grassi,
+       Prof. of Comparative Anatomy, Univ. of Rome, “La vita” (1906),
+       p. 227.
+
+
+                  § 1. =The Argument in the Abstract=
+
+The palæontological argument for evolution is based upon the observed
+gradual approximation in type of the earlier forms of life, as
+represented by the fossils still preserved in successive geological
+strata, to the later forms of life, as represented by the contemporary
+species constituting our present flora and fauna. Here the observed
+distribution in time supplements and confirms the argument drawn from
+mere structural affinity. Here we are no longer dealing with the
+spatial gradation of contemporary forms, arranged on a basis of greater
+or lesser similarity (the gradation whence the zoölogist derives his
+argument for evolution), but with a temporal gradation, which is
+simultaneously a morphological series and an historical record. The
+lower sedimentary rocks contain specimens of organic life very unlike
+modern species, but, the higher we ascend in the geological strata,
+the more closely do the fossil forms resemble our present organisms.
+In fact, the closeness of resemblance is directly proportional to the
+proximity in time, and this seems to create a presumption that the
+later forms of life are the modified descendants of the earlier forms.
+Considered in the abstract, at least, such an argument is obviously
+more formidable than the purely anatomical argument based on the
+degrees of structural affinity observable in contemporary forms. It
+ought, therefore, to be extremely persuasive, provided, of course,
+it proceeds in rigorous accord with indubitably established facts and
+rules out relentlessly the alloy of uncritical assumptions.
+
+Here, likewise, we find the theory of transformism asserting its
+superiority over the theory of immutability, on the ground that
+evolutionism can furnish a natural explanation for the gradational
+distribution of fossil types in the geological strata, whereas the
+theory of permanence resorts, it is said, to a supernaturalism
+of reiterated “new creations” alternating with “catastrophic
+exterminations.” Now, if this claim is valid, and it can be shown
+conclusively that fixism is inevitably committed to a postulate of
+superfluously numerous “creations,” then the latter theory is shorn
+of all right to consideration by Occam’s Razor: _Entia non sunt
+multiplicanda sine ratione._ It is rather difficult to conceive of the
+Creator as continually blotting out, and rewriting, the history of
+creation, as ruthlessly exterminating the organisms of one age, only
+to repopulate the earth subsequently with species differing but little
+from their extinct predecessors—_ad quid perditio haec_? Such procedure
+hardly comports with the continuity, regularity and irrevisable
+perfection to be expected in the works of that Divine Wisdom, which
+“reacheth ... from end to end mightily and disposeth all things
+sweetly” (_Wisdom_, viii; 1), which “ordereth all things in measure,
+and number and weight.” (_Wis._ xi; 21.)
+
+Following the lead of other evolutionists, Wasmann has striven to
+saddle fixism with the fatuity of periodic catastrophism and “creation
+on the installment plan.” But even Cuvier, who is credited with
+having originated the theory of catastrophism, did not go to the
+absurd extreme of hypothecating reiterated creations, but sought
+to explain the repopulation of the earth after each catastrophe
+by means of migrations from distant regions unaffected by the
+catastrophe. Historically, too, fixism has had its uniformitarian, as
+well as its catastrophic, versions. In fact, Huxley classifies both
+uniformitarianism and catastrophism as fixistic systems, when he
+says: “I find three more or less contradictory systems of geologic
+thought ... standing side by side in Britain. I shall call one of them
+Catastrophism, another Uniformitarianism, the third Evolutionism.”
+(“Lay Sermons,” p. 229.) Obviously, then, fixism is separable from
+the hypothesis of repeated catastrophes alternating with repeated
+“creations.” Stated in proper terms, it is at one with evolutionism
+in rejecting as undemonstrated and improbable the postulate of
+reiterated cataclysms. It freely acknowledges that, in the absence
+of positive evidence of their occurrence, the presumption is against
+extraordinary events, like wholesale catastrophes. It sanctions
+the uniformitarian tenet that ordinary cosmic processes are to be
+preferred to exceptional ones as a basis of geological explanation,
+and it repudiates as unscientific any recourse to the unusual or
+the miraculous in accounting for natural phenomena. Its sole point
+of disagreement with evolutionism is its refusal to admit organic
+changes of _specific_ magnitude. It does, however, admit germinal
+changes of _varietal_ magnitude. It also recognizes that the external
+characters of the phenotype are the joint product of germinal factors
+and environmental stimuli, and admits, in consequence, the possibility
+of purely _somatic changes_ of considerable profundity being induced
+by widespread and persistent alterations in environmental conditions.
+Like Darwin, the uniformitarian fixist ascribes the origination of
+organic life to a single vivifying act on the part of the Creator, an
+act, however, that was _formative_ rather than _creative_, because the
+primal forms of life, whether few or many, were all evolved through
+Divine influence from preëxistent inorganic matter. Unlike Darwin, he
+ascribes the continuation of organic life to generative processes that
+were univocal (_generationes univocae_), and not gradually-equivocal
+(_generationes paulatim aequivocae_). In the next chapter, we shall see
+that, in attributing the initial formation of species to a Divine act,
+neither Darwin nor the creationists exposed themselves to the charge of
+explaining the “natural” by means of the “miraculous.” And, as for the
+process by which living forms were continued upon earth, the univocal
+reproductive process upheld by fixism is more manifestly a natural
+process than the gradually-equivocal generation of variable inheritance
+hypothecated by the theory of transmutation. The sole matter of dispute
+between the two views is whether the life-cycles of organisms are
+circles or spirals.
+
+But all this, it will be said, is purely negative. Merely to refrain
+from any recourse to the extraordinary or the supernatural is by no
+means sufficient. “Natural explanations” must be explanatory as well
+as natural. Unless there be a simplification, a reduction of plurality
+to unity, a resolution of many particular problems into a common
+general problem, we have no explanation worthy of the name. Granting,
+therefore, that uniformitarian fixism does not recur to the anomalous
+or the miraculous, it still lies open to the charge of failing in its
+function as an explanation, because it multiplies origins in both space
+and time. Transformism, on the contrary, is said to elucidate matters,
+inasmuch as it unifies origins spatially and temporally.
+
+That transformism successfully plausibleizes a unification of origins
+in space, is true only in a limited and relative sense. The most
+that can be said for the assumption, that resemblances rest on the
+principle of common inheritance, is that it permits of a numerical
+reduction of origins, but this numerical reduction will, by an
+intrinsic necessity, always fall short of absolute unification. The
+monophyletic derivation of all organic forms from one primordial cell
+or protoblast is a fantastic dream, for which, from the very nature
+of things, natural science does not, and can not, furnish even the
+semblance of an objective basis. The ground is cut from under our feet,
+the moment we attempt to extend the principle of descent outside the
+limits of an organic phylum. The sole basis of inference is a group
+of uniformities, and, unless these uniformities predominate over the
+diversities, there can be no rational application of the principle of
+transformism. Hence, the hypothesis, that organisms are consanguineous
+notwithstanding their differences, loses all value as a solution
+at the point where resemblances are outweighed by diversities. The
+transmutation assumed to have taken place must be never so complete as
+to have obliterated all recognizable vestiges of the common ancestral
+type. “Whenever,” says Driesch, “the theory that, in spite of their
+diversities, the organisms are related by blood, is to be really useful
+for explanation, it must necessarily be assumed in every case that
+the steps of change, which have led the specific form A to become the
+specific form B, have been such as only to change in part that original
+form A. That is to say: the similarities between A and B must never be
+overshadowed by their diversities.” (“Science and Philosophy of the
+Organism,” v. I, p. 254.) When, therefore, the reverse is true and
+diversities are prevalent over uniformities, we are left without clue
+or compass in the midst of a labyrinth of innumerable possibilities.
+Such are the limits imposed by the very nature of the evidence itself,
+and the scientists, who transgress these limits, by attempting to
+correlate the primary phyla, are on a par with those unconvincible
+geniuses, who continually besiege the Patent Office with schemes ever
+new and weird for realizing the chimera of “perpetual motion.”
+
+Thus scientific transformism is unable to simplify the problem beyond a
+certain irreducible plurality of forms, lesser only in degree than the
+plurality postulated by fixism. This being the case, the attempts of
+Wasmann and Dorlodot to prune the works of Creation with Occam’s Razor
+are not only presumptuous, but precarious as well. _Qui nimis probat,
+nihil probat!_ If it be unworthy of God to multiply organic origins
+in space, then monophyletic descent is the only possible alternative,
+and polyphyletic transformism falls under the same condemnation as
+fixism. Yet the polyphyletic theory of descent is that to which both
+Wasmann and Dorlodot subscribe, as it is, likewise, the only kind of
+transformism which science can ever hope to plausibleize. Besides, too
+close a shave with Occam’s Razor would eliminate creation altogether,
+since all theologians cheerfully admit that it was the result of a free
+and unnecessary act on the part of God. When we apply our _rationes
+convenientiae_ to the Divine operations, we must not make the mistake
+of applying them to the Divine action itself instead of the created
+effects of that action. We may be competent to discern disorder and
+irregularity in finite things, but we are wholly incompetent to
+prescribe rules for Divine conduct. To say that God is constrained
+by His infinite Wisdom to indirect, rather than direct, production,
+or that He must evolve a variety of forms out of living, rather than
+non-living, matter, is to be guilty of ridiculous anthropomorphism.
+There is no _a priori_ reason, founded upon the Divine attributes,
+which restricts God’s creative action to the production of this, or
+that, number of primordial organisms, or which obliges him to endow
+primitive organisms with the power of transmutation.
+
+But the fact that these _rationes convenientiae_ fail to establish
+the _a priori_ necessity of a unification of organic origins in
+space, does not imply that they are without value in suggesting the
+unification of organic origins in time. Order and regularity are not
+excluded by spatial multiplicity, but they may easily be excluded by
+the incongruities of an irregular succession of events. Indeterminism
+and chance are, indeed, inseparable from the course of Nature. There is
+in matter an unlimited potentiality, incommensurate with the limited
+efficacy of natural agencies. Hence it evades the absolute control of
+all finite factors and forces. But the anomalies and irregularities,
+which are contingent upon the limitation or frustration of second
+causes unable to impose an iron necessity upon evasive matter, are
+not referable to the First Cause, but rather to the finite efficacy
+of second causes. Such anomalies in natural processes, consequently,
+are not inconsistent with infinite wisdom and power on the part of
+the Creator. If, on the contrary, the anomaly occurs, not in the form
+of an accidental frustration of a natural agency, but in the form
+of an intrusive “new creation,” the irregularity in question would
+then be referable to the Creator Himself, and such derogations of
+order are inadmissible, except as manifestations of the supernatural.
+In fact, the abrupt and capricious insertion of a “new creation”
+into an order already constituted, say, for instance, the sudden
+introduction of Angiosperms in the Comanchian period, or of mammals in
+the Tertiary, would be out of harmony with both reason and revelation.
+Unless there is a positive reason for supposing the contrary, we must
+presume that, subsequent to the primordial constitution of things,
+the Divine influence upon the world has been concurrent rather than
+revolutionizing. Hence a theory of origins, compatible with the
+simultaneous “creation” of primal organisms, is decidedly preferable
+to a theory, which involves successive “creations” at random. That
+transformism dispenses with the need of assuming a succession of
+“creative” acts, is perfectly obvious, and, unless fixism can emulate
+its rival system in this respect, it cannot expect to receive serious
+attention.
+
+But once fixism assumes the simultaneousness of organic origins,
+it encounters, in the absence of modern organic types from ancient
+geological strata, a new and formidable difficulty. Cuvier’s theory
+of numerous catastrophes followed by wholesale migrations of the
+forms, which had escaped extinction, is tantamount to an appeal to the
+extraordinary and the improbable for purposes of explanation, and this,
+as we have seen, is an expedient, which natural science is justified
+in refusing to sanction. Nor does the appeal to the incompleteness of
+the geological record offer a more satisfactory solution. It is tax
+enough, as we shall see, upon our credulity, when the transformist
+seeks to account thereby for the absence of intermediate types, but
+to account in this fashion for the absence of palæozoic Angiosperms
+and mammals is asking us to believe the all-but-incredible. It would
+not, therefore, be advisable for the fixist to appropriate the line of
+defense suggested for him by Bateson—“It has been asked how do you
+_know_ for instance that there were no mammals in Palæozoic times? May
+there not have been mammals somewhere on the earth though no vestige of
+them has come down to us? We may feel confident there were no mammals
+then, but are we sure? In very ancient rocks most of the great orders
+of animals are represented. The absence of the others might by no great
+stress of imagination be ascribed to accidental circumstances.” But the
+sudden rise of the Angiosperms in the early part of the Mesozoic era is
+an instance of _de novo_ origin that is not so easily explained away.
+Hence Bateson continues: “Happily, however, there is one example of
+which we can be sure. There were no Angiosperms—that is to say ‘higher
+plants’ with protected seeds—in the carboniferous epoch. Of that age we
+have abundant remains of a worldwide and rich flora. The Angiosperms
+are cosmopolitan. By their means of dispersal they must immediately
+have become so. Their remains are very readily preserved. If they
+had been in existence on the earth in carboniferous times they must
+have been present with the carboniferous plants, and must have been
+preserved with them. Hence we may be sure that they did appear on earth
+since those times. We are not certain, using certain in the strict
+sense, that Angiosperms are the lineal descendants of the carboniferous
+plants, but it is much easier to believe that they are than that they
+are not.” (_Science_, Jan. 20, 1922, p. 58.)
+
+It would thus appear, that not all the organic types of either the
+plant, or the animal, kingdom are of equal antiquity, and that the
+belated rise of unprecedented forms has the status of an approximate
+certainty, wherewith every theory of origins must inevitably reckon.
+How, then, is the fixist to reconcile this successive appearance of
+organisms with the simultaneous “creation” advocated by St. Augustine
+and St. Thomas of Aquin? Unless there be some other gradual process
+besides transmutation, to bridge the interval between the creative
+fiat and the eventual appearance of modern types, there seems to be no
+escape from the dilemma.
+
+This brings us to St. Augustine’s theory of the evolution of organic
+life from inorganic matter, which Dorlodot sophistically construes
+as supporting the theory of descent. According to St. Augustine, for
+whose view the Angelic Doctor expressed a deliberate preference, the
+creation of the corporeal world was the result of a single creative
+act, having an immediate effect in the case of minerals, and a remote
+or postponed effect in the case of plants and animals (cf. “De Genesi
+ad litteram,” lib. V, c. 5). Living beings, therefore, were created,
+not in actuality, but in germ. God imparted to the elements the
+power of producing the various plants and animals in their proper
+time and place. Hence living beings were created causally rather
+than formally, by the establishment of causal mechanisms or natural
+agencies especially ordained to bring about the initial formation of
+the ancestral forms of life. The Divine act initiating these “natural
+processes” (_rationes seminales, rationes causales_) in inorganic, and
+not in living, matter, was instantaneous, but the processes, which
+terminated in the formation of plants and animals, in their appointed
+time and place, were in themselves gradual and successive. Thus by an
+influx of Divine power the earth was made pregnant with the promise
+of every form of life—“_Sicut matres gravidae sunt foetibus, sic ipse
+mundus est gravidus causis nascentium._” (Augustine, lib. III, “de
+Trinitate,” c. 9.)
+
+By reason of this doctrine, the Louvain professor claims that
+St. Augustine was an evolutionist, and so, indeed, he was, if by
+evolution is meant a gradual production of organisms from inorganic
+matter. But if, on the contrary, by evolution is meant a progressive
+differentiation and multiplication of organic species by transmutation
+of preëxistent forms of life, or, in other words, if evolution is taken
+in its usual sense as synonym for transformism, then nothing could
+be more absurdly anachronistic than to ascribe the doctrine to St.
+Augustine. The subject of the gradual process postulated by the latter
+was, not living, but _inorganic_, matter, and the process was conceived
+as leading to the _formation_, and not the transformation, of species.
+The idea of variable inheritance did not occur to St. Augustine, and he
+conceived organisms, once they were in existence, as being propagated
+exclusively by univocal reproduction (_generatio univoca_). It is the
+fixist, therefore, rather than the transformist, who is entitled to
+exploit the Augustinian hypothesis. In fact, it is only the vicious
+ambiguity and unlimited elasticity of the term evolution, which avail
+to extenuate the astounding confusion of ideas and total lack of
+historic sense, that can bracket together under a common term the
+ideology of Darwin and the view of St. Augustine.
+
+
+                   § 2. The Argument in the Concrete
+
+But it is our task to criticize the theory of transformism, and not to
+throw a life-line to fixism, by advocating gradual formation of species
+as the only feasible alternative to gradual transformation of species.
+Perhaps, this particular life-line will not be appreciated any way;
+for the fixist may, not without reason, prefer to rest his case on the
+contention that the intrinsic _time-value_ of geological formations is
+far too problematic for certain conclusions of any sort. In maintaining
+this position, he will have the support of some present-day geologists,
+and can point, as we shall see, to facts that seem to bear out his
+contention. In fact, the cogency of the palæontological argument
+appears to be at its maximum in the abstract, and to evaporate the
+moment we carry it into the concrete. The lute seems perfect, until we
+begin to play thereon, and then we discover certain rifts that mar the
+effect. It is to these rifts that our attention must now be turned.
+
+The first and most obvious flaw, in the evolutionary interpretation
+of fossil series, is the confounding of succession with filiation.
+Thinkers, from time immemorial, have commented on the deep chasm
+of distinction, which divides historical from causal sequence, and
+philosophers have never ceased to inveigh against the sophistical
+snare of: _Post hoc, ergo propter hoc._ That one form of life has
+been subsequent in time to another form of life is, in itself, no
+proof of descent. “Let us suppose,” says Bather, “all written records
+to be swept away, and an attempt made to reconstruct English history
+from coins. We could set out our monarchs in true order, and we might
+suspect that the throne was hereditary; but if on that assumption
+we were to make James I, the son of Elizabeth—well, but that’s
+just what palæontologists are constantly doing. The famous diagram
+of the Evolution of the Horse which Huxley used in his American
+lectures has had to be corrected in the light of the fuller evidence
+recently tabulated in a handsome volume by Prof. H. F. Osborn and
+his coadjutors. _Palæotherium_, which Huxley regarded as a direct
+ancestor of the horse, is now held to be only a collateral, as the
+last of the Tudors were collateral ancestors of the Stuarts. The later
+_Ancitherium_ must be eliminated from the true line as a side branch—a
+Young Pretender. Sometimes an apparent succession is due to immigration
+of a distant relative from some other region—‘The glorious House of
+Hanover and Protestant Succession.’ It was, you will remember, by such
+migrations that Cuvier explained the renewal of life when a previous
+fauna had become extinct. He admitted succession but not descent.”
+(_Science_, Sept. 17, 1920, p. 261.)
+
+But, if succession does not imply descent, descent, at least, implies
+succession, and the fact that succession is the necessary corollary of
+descent, may be used as a corrective for the erroneous allocations made
+by neontologists on the basis of purely morphological considerations.
+The _priority_ of a type is the _sine qua non_ condition of its
+being accepted as _ancestral_. It is always embarrassing when, as
+sometimes happens, a “descendant” turns out to be older than, or even
+coëval with, his “ancestor.” If, however, the historical position of
+a form can be made to coincide with its anatomical pretensions to
+ancestry, then the inference of descent attains to a degree of logical
+respectability that is impossible in the case of purely zoölogical
+evidence. Recent years have witnessed a more drastic application of the
+historical test to morphological speculations, and the result has been
+a wholesale revision of former notions concerning phylogeny. “I could
+easily,” says Bather, “occupy the rest of this hour by discussing the
+profound changes wrought by this conception on our classification. It
+is not that orders and classes hitherto unknown have been discovered,
+not that some erroneous allocations have been corrected, but the whole
+basis of our system is being shifted. So long as we were dealing with
+a horizontal section across the tree of life—that is to say, with
+an assemblage of approximately contemporaneous forms—or even with a
+number of such horizontal sections, so long were we confined to simple
+description. Any attempt to frame a causal connection was bound to be
+speculative.” (_Ibidem_, p. 258.) Whether zoölogists will take kindly
+to this “shifting of the whole basis” of classification, remains to be
+seen. Personally, we think they would be very ill-advised to exchange
+the solid observational basis of homology for the scanty facts and
+fanciful interpretations of palæontologists.
+
+The second stumbling block in the path of Transformism is the
+occurrence of convergence. We have seen that, in the palæontological
+argument, descent is inferred conjointly from similarity and
+succession, and that, in the abstract, this argument is very
+persuasive. One of the concrete phenomena, however, that tend to make
+it inconsequential, is the undoubted occurrence of convergence. Prof.
+H. Woods of Cambridge, in the Introduction to the 5th edition of his
+“Palæontology” (1919), speaks of three kinds of convergence (cf.,
+pp. 14, 15, 16), which, as a matter of convenience, we may term the
+parallelistic, the radical, and the adaptational, types of convergence.
+A brief description of each type will serve to elucidate its nature and
+its significance:
+
+(1) Parallelistic convergence implies the appearance of parallel
+modifications in the homologous parts of organisms regarded as
+diverging from common stock in two distinct collateral lines, that
+were independent at the time of the appearance in both of the said
+parallel modifications. Speaking of the fossil cœlenterates known as
+_Graptolites_, Professor Woods says: “In some genera the hydrothecæ
+of different species show great variety of form, those of one species
+being often much more like those of a species belonging to another
+genus than to other species of the same genus.” (“Palæontology,” 5th
+ed., 1919, p. 69.) As another instance of this phenomenon, the case
+of the fossil ungulates of South America, spoken of as _Litopterna_,
+may be cited, and the case is peculiarly interesting because of its
+bearing on that _pièce de résistance_ of palæontological evidence,
+the Pedigree of the Horse. “The second family of Litopterna,” says
+Wm. B. Scott, “the Proterotheriidæ, were remarkable for their many
+deceptive resemblances to horses. Even though those who contend that
+the Litopterna should be included in the Perissodactyla should prove to
+be in the right, there can be no doubt that the proterotheres were not
+closely related to the horses, but formed a most striking illustration
+of the independent acquisition of similar characters through parallel
+or convergent development. The family was not represented in the
+Pleistocene, having died out before that epoch, and the latest known
+members of it lived in the upper Pliocene.... Not that this remarkable
+character was due to grotesque proportions; on the contrary, they
+looked far more like the ordinary ungulates of the northern hemisphere
+than did any of their South American contemporaries; it is precisely
+this resemblance that is so notable.... The feet were three-toed,
+except in one genus (_Thoatherium_) in which they were single-toed, and
+nearly or quite the whole weight was carried upon the median digit, the
+laterals being mere dew-claws. The shape of the hoofs and the whole
+appearance of the foot was surprisingly like those of the three-toed
+horses, but there were certain structural differences of such great
+importance, in my judgment, as to forbid the reference of these
+animals, not merely to the horses, but even to the perissodactyls.” (“A
+History of Land Mammals in the Western Hemisphere,” p. 499.)
+
+For this sort of parallelism, the Lamarckian and Darwinian types of
+evolution by addition can offer no rational explanation. It could,
+perhaps, be accounted for upon the Batesonian hypothesis of evolution
+by loss of inhibition, that is to say, the coincident appearance of
+convergent characters in collateral lines might be interpreted as
+being due to a parallel loss in both lines of the inhibitive genes,
+which had suppressed the convergent feature in the primitive or common
+stock. We say that the convergence _might_ be so interpreted, because
+the interpretation in question would, at best, be merely optional
+and not at all necessary; for in the third, or adaptational, type of
+convergence, we shall see instances of parallel modifications occurring
+in completely independent races, whose morphology and history alike
+exclude all possibility of hereditary connection between them. Hence,
+even in the present case, nothing constrains us to accept the genetic
+interpretation.
+
+(2) Radical convergence, which Woods styles heterogenetic homœomorphy,
+is described by him as follows: “Sometimes two groups of individuals
+resemble each other so closely that they might be regarded as belonging
+to the same genus or even to _the same species_ (italics mine), but
+they have descended from different ancestors since they are found to
+differ in development (ontogeny) or in their palæontological history;
+this phenomenon, of forms belonging to different stocks approaching
+one another in character, is known as convergence or heterogenetic
+homœomorphy, and may occur at the same geological period or at widely
+separated intervals. Thus the form of oyster known as _Gryphaea_ has
+originated independently from oysters of the ordinary type in the Lias,
+in the Oölites, and again in the Chalk; these forms found at different
+horizons closely resemble one another and have usually been regarded as
+belonging to one genus (_Gryphaea_), but they have no direct genetic
+connection with one another.” (“Palæontology,” 5th ed., 1919, p. 15.)
+Comment is almost superfluous. If even _specific_ resemblance is no
+proof of common origin, then what right have we to interpret any
+resemblance whatever in this sense? With such an admission, the whole
+bottom drops out of the evolutionary argument. When the theory of
+descent is forced to account for heterogenetic resemblance at expense
+of all likelihood and consistency, when it cannot save itself except by
+blowing hot and cold with one breath, one is tempted to exclaim: “Oh,
+why bother with it!”
+
+(3) Adaptational convergence is the occurrence of parallel
+modifications due to analogous specialization in unrelated forms,
+whose phylogeny has been obviously diverse. “Also, animals belonging
+to quite distinct groups,” says Woods, “may, when living under similar
+conditions, come to resemble one another owing to the development of
+adaptive modifications, though they do not really approach one another
+in essential characters; thus analogous or parallel modifications may
+occur in independent groups—such are the resemblances between flying
+reptiles (_Ornithosaurs_) and birds, and between sharks, icthyosaurs
+and dolphins.” (_Op. cit._, p. 16.) As this type of convergence has
+been discussed in a previous article, with reference to the mole and
+mole-cricket, it need not detain us further.
+
+All these types of convergence, but especially the second type, are
+factual evidence of the compatibility of resemblance with independent
+origin, and the fact of their occurrence tends to undermine the
+certainty of the phylogenetic inferences based on fossil evidence;
+all the more so, that, thanks to its bad state of preservation, and
+the impossibility of dissection, even superficial resemblances may
+give rise to false interpretations. And, as for the cases of radical
+convergence, there is no denying that they strike at the very heart of
+the theory of descent.
+
+The third difficulty for Transformism arises from the discontinuity
+of the geological record. It was one of the very first discrepancies
+to be discovered between evolutionary expectation and the actual
+results of research. The earliest explorations revealed a state of
+affairs, that subsequent investigations have failed to remedy: on
+the one hand, namely, a notable absence of intermediate species to
+bridge the gaps between the fossil genera, and on the other hand,
+the sudden and simultaneous appearance of numerous new and allied
+types unheralded by transitional forms. Since Darwin had stressed the
+gradualness of transmutation, the investigators expected to find the
+transitional means more numerous than the terminal extremes, and were
+surprised to find, in the real record of the past, the exact reverse
+of their anticipation. They found that the classes and families of
+animals and plants had always been as widely separated and as sharply
+differentiated as they are today, and that they had always formed
+distinct systems, unconnected by transitional links. The hypothetical
+“generalized types,” supposed to combine the features of two or three
+families, have never been found, and most probably never will be;
+for it is all but certain that they never existed. Occasionally, it
+is true, palæontologists have discovered isolated types, which they
+interpreted as annectant forms, but a single pier does not make a
+bridge, and only too often it chanced that the so-called annectant
+type, though satisfactory from the morphological standpoint, was more
+recent than the two groups, to which it was supposed to be ancestral.
+But it will make matters plainer, if we illustrate what is meant by the
+discontinuity or incompleteness of the fossil record, by reference to
+some concrete series, such as the so-called Pedigree of the Horse.
+
+Whenever a series of fossils, arranged in the order of their historical
+sequence, exhibits a gradation of increasing resemblance to the latest
+form, with which the series terminates, such a series is called a
+palæontological pedigree, and is said to represent so many stages in
+the racial development or phylogeny of the respective modern type. The
+classical example of this sort of “pedigree” is that of the Horse.
+It is, perhaps, one of the most complete among fossil “genealogies,”
+and yet, as has been frequently pointed out, it is, as it stands,
+extremely incomplete. Modern representatives of the _Equidae_, namely,
+the horse, the ass and the zebra, belong to a common genus, and are
+separated from one another by differences which are merely specific,
+but the differences which separate the various forms, that compose
+the “pedigree of the Horse,” are generic. We have, to borrow Gerard’s
+simile, nothing more than the piers of the evolutionary bridge, without
+the arches, and we do not know whether there ever were any arches.
+There is, indeed, a sort of progression, _e.g._, from the four-toed
+to a one-toed type, so that the morphological gradation does, in some
+degree, coincide with temporal succession. But, on the other hand, the
+fossil forms, interpreted as stages in the phylogeny of the Horse, are
+separated from one another by gaps so enormous, that, in the absence
+of intermediate species to bridge the intervals, it is practically
+impossible, particularly in the light of our experimental knowledge
+of Genetics, to conceive of any transition between them. Nor is this
+all. The difficulty is increased tenfold, when we attempt to relate the
+_Equidae_ to other mammalian groups. Fossil ungulates appear suddenly
+and contemporaneously in the Tertiary of North America, South America
+and Europe, without any transitional precursors, to connect them with
+the hypothetical proto-mammalian stock, and to substantiate their
+collaterality with other mammalian stocks.
+
+To all such difficulties the evolutionist replies by alleging the
+incompleteness of the geological record, and modern handbooks
+on palæontology devote many pages to the task of explaining why
+incompleteness of the fossil record is just what we should expect,
+especially in the case of terrestrial animals. The reasons which
+they assign are convincing, but this particular mode of solving the
+difficulty is a rather precarious one. Evolutionists should not
+forget that, in sacrificing the substantial completeness of the
+record to account for the absence of intermediate species, they are
+simultaneously destroying its value as a proof of the relative position
+of organic types in time. Yet this, as we have seen, is precisely the
+feature of greatest strategic value in the palæontological “evidence”
+for evolution. We must have absolute _certainty_ that the reputed
+“ancestor” was in existence prior to the appearance of the alleged
+“descendant,” or the peculiar force of the palæontological argument
+is lost. It would be preposterous for the progeny to be prior to,
+or even coëval with, the progenitor, and so we must be quite sure
+that what we call “posterity” is really posterior in time. Now the
+sole argument that palæontology can adduce for the posteriority of
+one organic type as compared with another is the negative evidence
+of its non-occurrence, or rather of its non-discovery, in an earlier
+geological formation. The lower strata do not, so far as is known,
+contain the type in question, and so it is concluded that this
+particular form had no earlier history. Such an inference, as is
+clear, is not only liable to be upset by later discoveries, but has
+the additional disadvantage of implicitly assuming the substantial
+completeness of the fossil record, whereas the absence of intermediate
+species is only explicable by means of the assumed incompleteness of
+the selfsame record. The evolutionist is thus placed in the dilemma
+of choosing between a substantially complete, and a substantially
+incomplete, record. Which of the alternatives, he elects, matters very
+little; but he must abide by the consequences of his decision, he
+cannot eat his cake and have it.
+
+When the evolutionist appeals to the facts of palæontology, it goes
+without saying that he does so in the hope of showing that the
+differences, which divide modern species of plants and animals,
+diminish as we go backward in time, until the stage of identity is
+reached in the unity of a common ancestral type. Hence from the very
+nature of the argument, which he is engaged in constructing, he is
+compelled to resort to intermediate types as evidence of the continuity
+of allied species with the hypothetical ancestor, or common type,
+whence they are said to have diverged. Now, even supposing that his
+efforts in this direction were attended with a complete measure of
+success, evidence of this kind would not of itself, as we shall see,
+suffice to demonstrate the common origin of the extremes, between
+which a perfect series of intergradent types can be shown to mediate.
+Unquestionably, however, unless such a series of intergradent fossil
+species can be adduced as evidence of the assumed transition, the
+presumption is totally against the hypothesis of transformism.
+
+Now, as a matter of fact, the geological record rarely offers any
+evidence of the existence in the past of intermediate species. For
+those, who have implicit confidence in the _time-value_ of geological
+“formations,” there are indications of a general advance from lower to
+higher forms, but, even so, there is little to show that this seeming
+progress is to be interpreted as an increasing divergence from common
+ancestral types. With but few exceptions, the fossil record fails to
+show any trace of transitional links. Yet pedigrees made up of diverse
+genera are poor evidence for filiation or genetic continuity, so long
+as no intermediate species can be found to bridge the chasm of generic
+difference. By intermediate species, we do not mean the fabulous
+“generalized type.” Annectants of this kind are mere abstractions,
+which have never existed, and never could have existed. We refer rather
+to actual fossil types separated from one another by differences not
+greater than specific; for “not until we have linked species into
+lineages,” can fossil pedigrees lay claim to serious attention.
+
+But let us suppose the case for evolution to be ideally favorable, and
+assume that in every instance we possessed a perfect gradation of forms
+between two extremes, such, for example, as occurs in the Ammonite
+series, even then we would be far from having a true demonstration of
+the point at issue. Bateson has called our attention to the danger of
+confounding sterile and instable _hybrids_ with intergradent species.
+“Examine,” he says, “any two thoroughly distinct species which meet
+each other in their distribution, as for instance, _Lychnis diurna_
+and _vespertina_ do. In areas of overlap are many intermediate forms.
+These used to be taken to be transitional steps, and the specific
+distinctness of _vespertina_ and _diurna_ was on that account
+questioned. Once it is known that these supposed intergrades are merely
+mongrels between the two species the transition from one to the other
+is practically beyond our powers of imagination to conceive. If both
+these can survive, why has their common parent perished? Why, when
+they cross, do they not reconstruct it instead of producing partially
+sterile hybrids? I take this example to show how entirely the facts
+were formerly misrepresented.” (_Heredity_, Smithson. Inst. Rpt. for
+1915, p. 369.)
+
+Similarly, T. H. Morgan has shown, with reference to _mutants_,
+the fallacy of inferring common descent from the phenomenon of
+intergradence, and what holds true for a series of intergradent mutants
+would presumably also hold true of a series of intergradent species,
+could such a series be found and critically distinguished from hybrid
+and mutational intermediates. In short, the Darwinian deduction of
+common origin from the existence of intergradence must now be regarded
+as a thoroughly discredited argument. “Because we can often arrange
+the series of structures in a line extending from the very simple
+to the more complex, we are apt to become unduly impressed by this
+fact and conclude that if we found the complete series we should find
+all the intermediate steps and that they have arisen in the order
+of their complexity. This conclusion is not necessarily correct.”
+(“A Critique of the Theory of Evolution,” p. 9.) Having cited such
+a series of gradational mutations ranging between the long-winged,
+and completely wingless condition, in the case of the Vinegar Fly
+(_Drosophila melanogaster_), as well as two similar graded series based
+on pigmentation and eye color, he concludes: “These types, with the
+fluctuations that occur within each type, furnish a complete series of
+gradations; yet historically they have arisen independently of each
+other. Many changes in eye color have appeared. As many as thirty or
+more races differing in eye color are now maintained in our cultures.
+Some of them are so similar that they can scarcely be separated from
+each other. It is easily possible beginning with the darkest eye color,
+sepia, which is a deep brown, to pick out a perfectly graded series
+ending with pure white eyes. But such a serial arrangement would give
+a totally false idea of the way the different types have arisen; and
+any conclusion based on the existence of such a series might very well
+be entirely erroneous, for the fact that such a series exists bears
+no relation to the order in which its members have appeared.” (_Op.
+cit._, pp. 12, 13.) Such facts must give us pause in attaching undue
+importance to phenomena like the occurrence of a gradual complication
+of sutures in the Chalk Ammonites, particularly as parallel series
+of perfectly similar sutures occurs “by convergence” in the fossil
+Ceratites, which have no genetic connection with the Ammonites. (Cf.
+Woods’ “Palæontology,” 5th ed., p. 16.)
+
+But, if even mutational and specific intergradents are not sufficient
+evidence of common ancestry, what shall we say of a discontinuous
+series, whose links are separate genera, orders, or even classes,
+instead of species. Even the most enthusiastic transformist is forced
+to admit the justice of our insistence that the gaps which separate the
+members of a series must be reduced from differences of the generic,
+to differences of the specific, order, before that series can command
+any respect as hypothetical “genealogy.” “You will have observed,” says
+F. A. Bather, “that the precise methods of the modern palæontologist,
+on which this proof is based, are very different from the slap-dash
+conclusions of forty years ago. The discovery of _Archæopteryx_, for
+instance, was thought to prove the evolution of birds from reptiles.
+No doubt it rendered that conclusion extremely probable, especially
+if the major promise—that evolution was the method—were assumed. But
+the fact of evolution is precisely what men were then trying to prove.
+These jumpings from class to class or from era to era, by aid of a few
+isolated stepping-stones, were what Bacon calls anticipations “hasty
+and premature but very effective, because as they are collected from a
+few instances, and mostly from those which are of familiar occurrence,
+they immediately dazzle the intellect and fill the imagination.” (_Nov.
+Org._, I, 28.) No secure step was taken until the modern palæontologist
+began to affiliate mutation with mutation and species with species,
+working his way back, literally inch by inch, through a single small
+group of strata. Only thus could he base on the laboriously collected
+facts a single true interpretation; and to those who preferred the
+broad path of generality his interpretations seemed, as Bacon says
+they always “must seem, harsh and discordant—almost like mysteries of
+faith.” ... Thus by degrees we reject the old slippery stepping-stones
+that so often toppled us into the stream, and, foot by foot, we build
+a secure bridge over the waters of ignorance.” (_Science_, Sept. 17,
+1920, pp. 263, 264.)
+
+We cannot share Bather’s confidence in the security of a bridge
+composed of even linked species. Let such a series be never so perfect,
+let the gradation be never so minute, as it might conceivably be
+made, when not merely distinct species, but also hybrids, mutants
+and fluctuants are available as stopgaps, the bare fact of such
+intergradation tells nothing whatever concerning the problem of
+genetical origin and specific relationship. The species-by-species
+method does, however, represent the very minimum of requirement imposed
+upon the palæontologist, who professes to construct a fossil pedigree.
+But, when all is said and done, such a method, even at its best,
+falls considerably short of the mark. However perfectly intergradent
+a series of fossils may be, the fact remains that these petrified
+remnants of former life cannot be subjected to breeding tests, and
+that, in the consequent absence of genetical experimentation, we have
+no means of determining the real bearing of these facts upon the
+problem of interspecific relationship. Only the _somatic_ characters
+of extinct floras and faunas have been conserved in the rock record of
+the past, and even these are often rendered dubious, as we shall see
+presently, by their imperfect state of preservation. Now, it is solely
+in conjunction with breeding experiments, that somatic characters can
+give us any insight into the nature of the _germinal constitution_
+of an organism, which, after all, is the cardinal consideration upon
+which the whole question of interspecific relationship hinges. All
+inferences, therefore, regarding the descent of fossil forms are
+irremediably speculative and conjectural. When we are dealing with
+living forms, we can always check up the inferences based on somatic
+characteristics by means of genetical experiments, and in so doing
+we have found that it is as unsafe to judge of an organism from the
+exclusive standpoint of its external characters as it is to judge of
+a book by the cover; for, apart from the check of breeding tests, it
+is impossible to say just which somatic characters are genetically
+significant, and which are not. Forms externally alike may be so
+unlike in germinal constitution as to be sexually incompatible; forms
+externally unlike may be readily crossed without any discernible
+diminution of fertility. “Who could have foreseen,” exclaims Bateson,
+“that the apple and the pear—so like each other that their botanical
+differences are evasive—could not be crossed together, though
+species of _Antirrhinum_ (Snapdragon) so totally unlike each other
+as _majus_ and _molle_ can be hybridized, as Baur has shown, without
+a sign of impaired fertility?” (_Heredity_, Smithson. Inst. Rpt. for
+1915, p. 370.) We cannot distinguish between alleged specific, and
+merely mutational (varietal), change, nor between hybridizations and
+factorial, chromosomal, or pseudo-, mutations, solely on the basis
+of such external characters as are preserved for us in fossils. It
+is impossible, therefore, to demonstrate trans-specific variation by
+any evidence that Palæontology can supply. The palæontologist (_pace_
+Osborn) is utterly incompetent to pass judgment on the problem of
+interspecific relationship. As Bateson remarks: “In discussing the
+physiological problem of interspecific relationship evidence of a more
+stringent character is now required; and a naturalist acquainted with
+genetical discoveries would be as reluctant to draw conclusions as to
+the specific relationship of a series of fossils as a chemist would be
+to pronounce on the nature of a series of unknown compounds from an
+inspection of them in a row of bottles.” (_Science_, April 17, 1922,
+p. 373.) “When the modern student of variation and heredity,” says T.
+H. Morgan, “looks over the different ‘continuous’ series, from which
+certain ‘laws’ and ‘principles’ have been deduced, he is struck by two
+facts: that the gaps, in some cases, are enormous as compared with the
+single changes with which he is familiar, and (what is more important)
+that they involve numerous parts in many ways. The geneticist says to
+the palæontologist, since you do not know, and from the nature of your
+case can never know, whether your differences are due to one change or
+to a thousand, you cannot with certainty tell us anything about the
+hereditary units which have made the process of evolution possible.”
+(_Op. cit._, pp. 26, 27.) And without accurate knowledge on this
+subject, we may add, there is no possibility of demonstrating specific
+change or genetic relationship in the case of any given fossil.
+
+In our discussion of the third defect in the fossil “evidence,”
+allusion was made to a fourth, namely, its imperfect state of
+preservation. The stone record of bygone days has been so defaced by
+the metamorphism of rocks, by the solvent action of percolating waters,
+by erosion, weathering and other factors of destruction, that, like a
+faded manuscript, it becomes, even apart from its actual _lacunae_,
+exceedingly difficult to decipher. So unsatisfactory, indeed, is the
+condition of the partially obliterated facts that human curiosity,
+piqued at their baffling ambiguity, calls upon human imagination
+to supply what observation itself fails to reveal. Nor does the
+invitation remain unheeded. Romance hastens to the rescue of uncertain
+Science, with an impressive display of “reconstructed fossils,” and
+the hesitation of critical caution is superseded by the dogmatism of
+arbitrary assumption. Scattered fragments of fossilized bones are
+integrated into skeletons and clothed by the magic of creative fancy
+with an appropriate musculature and flesh, reënacting for us the
+marvelous vision of Ezekiel: “And the bones came together, each one to
+its joint. And I beheld and, lo, there were sinews upon them, and the
+flesh came upon them: and the skin was stretched over them.” (Chap.
+XXXVII, 7, 8.) “It is also true,” says Osborn (who, like Haeckel,
+evinces a veritable mania for “retouching” incomplete facts), “that
+we know the mode of origin of the human species; our knowledge of
+human evolution has reached a point not only where a number of links
+are thoroughly known but the characters of the missing links can be
+very clearly predicated.” (_Science_, Feb. 24, 1922.) We will not
+dispute his contention; for it is perfectly true, that, in each and
+every case, all the missing details can be so exactly predicated that
+the resulting description might well put to shame the account of a
+contemporary eyewitness. The only difficulty is that such predication
+is the fruit of pure imagination. Scientific reconstructions, whether
+in the literary, plastic, or pictorial, form, are no more scientific
+than historical novels are historical. Both are the outcome of a
+psychological weakness in the human makeup, namely, its craving for a
+“finished picture”—a craving, however, that is never gratified save at
+the expense of the fragmentary basis of objective fact.[7]
+
+    [7] See Addenda.
+
+In calling into question, however, the scientific value of the
+so-called “scientific reconstruction,” so far as its pretensions to
+precision and finality are concerned, it is not our intention to
+discredit those tentative restorations based upon Cuvier’s Law of
+Correlation, provided they profess to be no more than provisional
+approximations. Many of the structural features of organisms are
+physiologically interdependent, and there is frequently a close
+correlation among organs and organ-systems, between which no causal
+connection or direct physiological dependence is demonstrable. In
+virtue of this principle, one structural feature may connote another,
+in which case it would be legitimate to supply by inference any
+missing structure implied in the actual existence of its respective
+correlative. But if any one imagines that the law of correlation
+enables a scientist to restore the lost integrity of fossil types
+with any considerable degree of accuracy and finality, he greatly
+overestimates the scope of the principle in question. At best it is
+nothing more than an empirical generalization, which must not be
+pressed to an extent unwarranted by the inductive process, that first
+established it. “Certain relations of structure,” says Bather, “as
+of cloven hoofs and horns with a ruminant stomach, were observed, but
+as Cuvier himself insisted, the laws based on such facts were purely
+empirical.” (_Science_, Sept. 17, 1920, p. 258.) The palæontologist,
+then, is justified in making use of correlation for the purpose of
+reconstructing a whole animal out of a few fragmentary remains, but to
+look for anything like photographic precision in such “restorations” of
+extinct forms is to manifest a more or less complete ignorance of the
+nature and scope of the empirical laws, upon which they are based.
+
+The imprudence of taking these “reconstructions” of extinct forms
+too seriously, however, is inculcated not merely by theoretical
+considerations, but by experience as well. Even in the case of the
+mammoth, a comparatively recent form, whose skeletal remains had
+been preserved more completely and perfectly than those of other
+fossil types, the discovery of a complete carcass buried in the ice
+of the Siberian “taiga” on the Beresovka river showed the existing
+restorations to be false in important respects. All, without exception,
+stood in need of revision, proving, once and for all, the inadequacy
+of fossil remains as a basis for exact reconstruction. E. Pfizenmayer,
+a member of the investigating expedition, comments on the fact as
+follows: “In the light of our present knowledge of the mammoth,
+and especially of its exterior, the various existing attempts at a
+restoration need important corrections. Apart from the many fanciful
+sketches intended to portray the exterior of the animal, all the more
+carefully made restorations show the faults of the skeleton, hitherto
+regarded as typical, on which they are based, especially the powerful
+semicircular and upward-curved tusks, the long tail, etc.
+
+“As these false conceptions of the exterior of the mammoth, both
+written and in the form of pictures, are contained in all zoölogical
+and palæontological textbooks, and even in scientific monographs, it
+seems necessary to construct a more nearly correct picture, based on
+our present knowledge. I have ventured on this task, because as a
+member of the latest expedition for mammoth remains, I was permitted
+not only to become acquainted with this newest find while still in its
+place of deposit and to take part in exhuming it, but also to visit
+the zoölogical museum of St. Petersburg, which is so rich in mammoth
+remains, for the purpose of studying the animal more in detail.”
+(Smithson. Inst. Rpt. for 1906, pp. 321, 322.) The example is but
+one of many, which serve to emphasize not merely the inadequacy of
+the generality of palæontological restorations, but also the extreme
+difficulty which the palæontologist experiences in interpreting aright
+the partially effaced record of a vanished past.
+
+The fifth and most critical flaw in the fossil “evidence” for evolution
+is to be found in the anomalies of the actual distribution of fossils
+in time. It is the boast of evolutionary Palæontology that it is able
+to enhance the cogency of the argument from mere structural resemblance
+by showing, that, of two structurally allied forms, one is more ancient
+than the other, and may, therefore, be presumed to be ancestral to the
+later form. Antecedence in time is the _sine qua non_ qualification
+of a credible ancestor, and, unless the relative priority of certain
+organic types, as compared with others, can be established with
+absolute certainty, the whole palæontological argument collapses, and
+the boast of evolutionary geology becomes an empty vaunt.
+
+Whenever the appearance of a so-called annectant type is antedated by
+that of the two forms, which it is supposed to connect, this fact is,
+naturally, a deathblow to its claim of being the “common ancestor,”
+even though, from a purely morphological standpoint, it should
+possess all the requisites of an ancestral type. Commenting upon the
+statement that a certain genus “is a truly annectant form uniting the
+Melocrinidae and the Platycrinidae,” Bather takes exception as follows:
+“The genus in question appeared, so far as we know, rather late in the
+Lower Carboniferous, whereas both Platycrinidae and Melocrinidae were
+already established in Middle Silurian time. How is it possible that
+the far later form should unite these two ancient families? Even a
+_mésalliance_ is inconceivable.” (_Science_, Sept. 17, 1920, p. 260.)
+
+Certainty, therefore, with respect to the comparative antiquity of
+the fossiliferous strata is the indispensable presupposition of any
+palæontological argument attempting to show that there is a gradual
+approximation of ancient, to modern, types. Yet, of all scientific
+methods of reckoning, none is less calculated to inspire confidence,
+none less safeguarded from the abuses of subjectivism and arbitrary
+interpretation, than that by which the relative age of the sedimentary
+rocks is determined!
+
+In order to date the strata of any given series with reference to
+one another, the palæontologist starts with the principle that, in
+an undisturbed area, the deeper sediments have been deposited at an
+earlier period than the overlying strata. Such a criterion, however,
+is obviously restricted in its application to local areas, and is
+available only at regions of outcrop, where a vertical section of the
+strata is visibly exposed. To trace the physical continuity, however,
+of the strata (if such continuity there be) from one continent to
+another, or even across a single continent, is evidently out of
+the question. Hence, to correlate the sedimentary rocks of a given
+region with those of another region far distant from the former,
+some criterion other than stratigraphy is required. To supply this
+want, recourse has been had to _index fossils_, which have now
+come into general use as age-markers and means of stratigraphical
+correlation, where the criterion of _superposition_ is either absent
+or inapplicable. Certain fossil types are assumed to be infallibly
+indicative of certain stratigraphical horizons. In fact, when it
+comes to a decision as to the priority or posteriority of a given
+geological formation, index fossils constitute the court of last
+appeal, and even the evidences of actual stratigraphical sequence and
+of physical texture itself are always discounted and explained away,
+whenever they chance to conflict with the presumption that certain
+fossil forms are typical of certain geological periods. If, for
+example, the superposed rock contains fossils alleged to be typical
+of an “earlier” stratigraphic horizon than that to which the fossils
+of the subjacent rock belong, the former is pronounced to be “older,”
+despite the fact that the actual stratigraphic order conveys the
+opposite impression. “We still regard fossils,” says J. W. Judd, “as
+the ‘medals of creation,’ and certain types of life we take to be as
+truly characteristic of definite periods as the coins which bear the
+image and superscription of a Roman emperor or of a Saxon king.” (Cf.
+Smithson. Inst. Rpt. for 1912, p. 356.) Thus it comes to pass, in the
+last analysis, that fossils, on the one hand, are dated according to
+the consecutive strata, in which they occur, and strata, on the other
+hand, are dated according to the fossils which they contain.
+
+Such procedure, if not actually tantamount to a _vicious circle_,
+is, to say the least, in imminent danger of becoming so. For, even
+assuming the so-called empirical generalization, that makes certain
+fossils typical of certain definitely-aged geological “formations,” to
+be based upon induction sufficiently complete and analytic to insure
+certainty, at least, in the majority of instances, and taking it for
+granted that we are dealing with a case, where the actual evidence of
+stratigraphy is not in open conflict with that of the index fossils,
+who does not see that such a system of chronology lends itself only
+too readily to manipulation of the most arbitrary kind, whenever the
+pet preconceptions of the evolutionary chronologist are at stake? How,
+then, can we be sure, in a given case, that a verdict based exclusively
+on the “evidence” of index fossils will be reliably _objective_? It is
+to be expected that the evolutionist will refrain from the temptation
+to give himself the benefit of every doubt? Will there not be an
+almost irresistible tendency on the part of the convinced transformist
+to revise the age of any deposit, which happens to contain fossils
+that, according to his theory, ought not to occur at the time hitherto
+assigned?
+
+The citation of a concrete example will serve to make our meaning
+clear. A series of fresh-water strata occur in India known as the
+Siwalik beds. The formation in question was originally classed
+as Miocene. Later on, however, as a result, presumably, of the
+embarrassing discovery of the genus _Equus_ among the fossils of
+the Upper Siwalik beds, Wm. Blanford saw fit to mend matters by
+distinguishing the Upper, from the Lower, beds and assigning the
+former (which contain fossil horses) to the Pliocene period. The title
+Miocene being restricted by this ingenious step to beds destitute
+of equine remains, namely the Nahun, or Lower Siwalik, deposits,
+all danger of the horse proving to be older than his ancestors
+was happily averted. A mere shifting of the conventional labels,
+apparently, was amply sufficient to render groundless the fear, to
+which Professor A. Sedgwick had given expression in the following
+terms: “The genus _Equus_ appears in the upper Siwalik beds, which
+have been ascribed to the Miocene age.... If _Equus_ really existed
+in the Upper Miocene, it was antecedent to some of its supposed
+ancestors.” (“Students’ Textbook of Zoölogy,” p. 599.) Evidently, the
+Horse must reconcile himself perforce to the pedigree assigned to him
+by the American Museum of Natural History; for he is to be given but
+scant opportunity of escaping it. This classic genealogy has already
+entailed far too great an expenditure of time, money and erudition to
+permit of any reconsideration; and should it chance, in the ironic
+perversity of things, that the Horse has been so inconsiderate as to
+leave indubitable traces of himself in any formation earlier than
+the Pliocene, it goes without saying that the formation in question
+will at once be dated ahead, in order to secure for the “ancestors”
+that priority which is their due. An elastic criterion like the index
+fossil is admirably adapted for readjustments of this sort, and the
+evolutionist who uses it need never fear defeat. The game he plays can
+never be a losing one, because he gives no other terms than: Heads I
+win, tails you lose.
+
+In setting forth the foregoing difficulties, we have purposely
+refrained from challenging the cardinal dogma of orthodox palæontology
+concerning the unimpeachable time-value of index fossils as
+age-markers. The force of these considerations, therefore, must be
+acknowledged even by the most fanatical adherents of the aforesaid
+dogma. Our forbearance in this instance, however, must not be construed
+as a confession that the dogma in question is really unassailable. On
+the contrary, not only is it not invulnerable, but there are many and
+weighty reasons for rejecting it lock, stock, and barrel.
+
+The palæontological dogma, to which we refer, is reducible to the
+following tenets: (1) The earth is swathed with fossiliferous strata,
+in much the same fashion that an onion is covered with a succession of
+coats, and these strata are universal over the whole globe, occurring
+always in the same invariable order and characterized not by any
+peculiar uniformity of external appearance, physical texture, or
+mineral composition, but solely by peculiar groups of fossil types,
+which enable us to distinguish between strata of different ages and
+to correlate the strata of one continent with their counterparts in
+another continent—“Even the minuter divisions,” says Scott, “the
+substages and zones of the European Jura, are applicable to the
+classification of the South American beds.” (“Introduction to Geology,”
+p. 681.) (2) In determining the relative age of a given geological
+formation, its characteristic fossils form the exclusive basis of
+decision, and all other considerations, whether lithological or
+stratigraphic, are subordinated to this—“The character of the rocks,”
+says H. S. Williams, “their composition or their mineral contents have
+nothing to do with settling the question as to the particular system
+to which the new rocks belong. The fossils alone are the means of
+correlation.” (“Geological Biology,” pp. 37, 38.)
+
+To those habituated to the common notion that stratigraphical sequence
+is the foremost consideration in deciding the comparative age of rocks,
+the following statement of Sir Archibald Geikie will come as a distinct
+shock: “We may even demonstrate,” he avers, “that in some mountainous
+ground the strata have been turned completely upside down, if we can
+show that the fossils in what are now the uppermost layers ought
+properly to lie underneath those in the beds below them.” (“Textbook,”
+ed. of 1903, p. 837.) In fact, the palæontologist, H. A. Nicholson,
+lays it down as a general principle that, wherever the physical
+evidence (founded on stratigraphy and lithology) is at variance with
+the biological evidence (founded on the presence of typical fossil
+organisms), the latter must prevail and the former must be ignored: “It
+may even be said,” he tells us, “that in any case where there should
+appear to be a clear and decisive discordance between the physical and
+the palæontological evidence as to the age of a given series of beds,
+it is the former that is to be distrusted rather than the latter.”
+(“Ancient Life History of the Earth,” p. 40.)
+
+George McCready Price, Professor of Geology at a denominational college
+in Kansas, devotes more than fifty pages of his recent work, “The New
+Geology” (1923), to an intensely destructive criticism of this dogma of
+the supremacy of fossil evidence as a means of determining the relative
+age of strata. To cite Price as an “authority” would, of course, be
+futile. All orthodox geologists have long since anathematized him, and
+outlawed him from respectable geological society. Charles Schuchert
+of Yale refers to him as “a fundamentalist harboring a geological
+nightmare.” (_Science_, May 30, 1924, p. 487.) Arthur M. Miller of
+Kentucky University speaks of him as “the man who, while a member of no
+scientific body and absolutely unknown in scientific circles, has ...
+had the effrontery to style himself a ‘geologist.’” (_Science_, June
+30, 1922, pp. 702, 703.) Miller, however, is just enough to admit that
+he is well-informed on his subject, and that he possesses the gift of
+persuasive presentation. “He shows,” says Miller, “a wide familiarity
+with geological literature, quoting largely from the most eminent
+authorities in this country and in Europe. Any one reading these
+writings of Price, which possess a certain charm of literary style,
+and indicate on the part of the author a gift of popular presentation
+which makes one regret that it had not been devoted to a more laudable
+purpose, must constantly marvel at the character of mind of the man who
+can so go into the literature of the subject and still continue to hold
+such preposterous opinions.” (_Loc. cit._, p. 702.)
+
+In the present instance, however, our interest centers, not on the
+unimportant question of his official status in geological circles,
+but exclusively on the objective validity of his argument against the
+chronometric value of the index fossil. All citations, therefore, from
+his work will be supported, in the sequel, by collateral testimony
+from other authors of recognized standing. It is possible, of course,
+to inject irrelevant issues. Price, for example, follows Sir Henry
+Howorth in his endeavor to substitute an aqueous catastrophe for the
+glaciation of the Quaternary Ice Age, and he adduces many interesting
+facts to justify his preference for a deluge. But this is neither
+here nor there; for we are not concerned with the merits of his “new
+catastrophism.” It is his opportune revival in modern form of the
+forgotten, but extremely effective, objection raised by Huxley and
+Spencer against the alleged universality of synchronously deposited
+fossiliferous sediments, that constitutes our sole preoccupation here.
+It is Price’s merit to have shown that, in the light of recently
+discovered facts, such as “deceptive conformities” and “overthrusts,”
+this objection is far graver than it was when first formulated by the
+authors in question.
+
+Mere snobbery and abuse is not a sufficient answer to a difficulty
+of this nature, and we regret that men, like Schuchert, have replied
+with more anger than logic. The orthodox geologist seems unnecessarily
+petulant, whenever he is called upon to verify or substantiate the
+foundational principles of lithic chronology. One frequently hears him
+make the excuse that “geology has its own peculiar method of proof.” To
+claim exemption, however, from the universal criterions of criticism
+and logic is a subterfuge wholly unworthy of a genuine science, and, if
+Price insists on discussing a subject, which the orthodox geologist
+prefers to suppress, it is the latter, and not the former, who is
+really reactionary.
+
+Price begins by stating the issue in the form of a twofold question:
+(1) How can we be sure, with respect to a given fauna (or flora), say
+the Cambrian, that at one time it monopolized our globe to the complete
+exclusion of all other typical faunas (or floras), say the Devonian,
+or the Tertiary, of which it is assumed that they could not, by any
+stretch of imagination, have been contemporaneous, on either land or
+sea, with the aforesaid “older” fauna (or flora)? (2) Do the formations
+(rocks containing fossils) universally occur in such a rigidly
+invariable order of sequence with respect to one another, as to warrant
+our being sure of the starting-point in the time-scale, or to justify
+us in projecting any given local order of succession into distant
+localities, for purposes of chronological correlation?
+
+His response to the first of these questions constitutes what may be
+called an aprioristic refutation of the orthodox view, by placing
+the evolutionary palæontologist in the trilemma: (a) of making the
+awkward confession that, except within limited local areas, he has no
+means whatever of distinguishing between a geographical distribution
+of coëval fossil forms among various habitats and a chronological
+distribution of fossils among sediments deposited at different times;
+(b) or of denying the possibility of geographical distribution in the
+past, by claiming dogmatically that the world during Cambrian times,
+for example, was totally unlike the modern world, of which alone we
+have experimental knowledge, inasmuch as it was then destitute of
+zoölogical provinces, districts, zones, and other habitats peculiar to
+various types of fauna, so that the whole world formed but one grand
+habitat, extending over land and sea, for a limited group of organisms
+made up exclusively of the lower types of life; (c) or of reviving
+the discredited onion-coat theory of Abraham Werner under a revised
+biological form, which asserts that the whole globe is enveloped with
+fossiliferous rather than mineral strata, whose order of succession
+being everywhere the same enables us to discriminate with precision
+and certainty between cases of distribution in time and cases of
+distribution in space.
+
+In his response to the second question, Professor Price adduces
+numerous factual arguments, which show that the invariable order of
+sequence postulated by the theory of the time-value of index fossils,
+not only finds no confirmation in the actual or concrete sequences
+of fossiliferous rocks, but is often directly contradicted thereby.
+“Older” rocks may occur above “younger” rocks, the “youngest” may
+occur in immediate succession to the “oldest,” Tertiary rocks may be
+crystalline, consolidated, and “old in appearance,” while Cambrian
+and even pre-Cambrian rocks sometimes occur in a soft, incoherent
+condition, that gives them the physical appearance of being as young
+as Pleistocene formations. These exceptions and objections to the
+“invariable order” of the fossiliferous strata accumulate from day to
+day, and it is only by means of Procrustean tactics of the most drastic
+sort that the facts can be brought into any semblance of harmony with
+the current dogmas, which base geology upon evolution rather than
+evolution upon geology.
+
+Price, then, proposes for serious consideration the possibility that
+Cretaceous dinosaurs and even Tertiary mammals may have been living on
+the land at the same time that the Cambrian graptolites and trilobites
+were living in the seas. “Who,” he exclaims, “will have the hardihood,
+the real dogmatism to affirm in a serious way that Cambrian animals
+and seaweeds were for a long time the only forms of life existing
+anywhere on earth?” Should we, nevertheless, make bold enough to aver
+that for countless centuries a mere few of the lower forms of life
+monopolized our globe, as one universal habitat unpartitioned into
+particular biological provinces or zones, we are thereupon confronted
+with two equally unwelcome alternatives. We must either fly in the
+face of experience and legitimate induction by denying the existence
+in the past of anything analogous to our present-day geographical
+distribution of plants and animals into various biological provinces,
+or be prepared to show by what infallible criterion we are enabled
+to distinguish between synchronously deposited formations indicative
+of a geographical distribution according to regional diversity, and
+consecutively deposited formations indicative of comparative antiquity.
+
+The former alternative does not merit any consideration whatever.
+The latter, as we shall presently see, involves us in an assumption,
+for which no defense either aprioristic or factual is available. We
+can, indeed, distinguish between spatial, and temporal, distribution
+within the narrow limits of a single locality by using the criterion
+of superposition; for in regions of outcrop, where one sedimentary
+rock overlies another, the obvious presumption is that the upper rock
+was deposited at a later date than the lower rock. But the criterion
+of superposition is not available for the correlation of strata in
+localities so distant from each other that no physical evidence of
+stratigraphic continuity is discernible. Moreover the induction, which
+projects any local order of stratigraphical sequence into far distant
+localities on the sole basis of fossil taxonomy, is logically unsound
+and leads to conclusions at variance with the actual facts. Hence the
+alleged time-value of index fossils becomes essentially problematic,
+and affords no basis whatever for scientific certainty.
+
+As previously stated, the sequence of strata is visible only in regions
+of outcrop, and nowhere are we able to see more than mere parts of two
+or, at most, three systems associated together in a single locality.
+Moreover, each set of beds is of limited areal extent, and the limits
+are frequently visible to the eye of the observer. In any case, their
+visible extent is necessarily limited. It is impossible, therefore, to
+correlate the strata of one continent with those of another continent
+by tracing stratigraphic continuity. Hence, in comparing particular
+horizons of various ages and in distinguishing them from other horizons
+over large areas, we are obliged to substitute induction for direct
+observation. Scientific induction, however, is only valid when it
+rests upon some universal uniformity or invariable sequence of nature.
+Hence, to be specific, the assumption that the time-scale based on the
+European classification of fossiliferous strata is applicable to the
+entire globe as a whole, is based on the further assumption that we are
+sure of the universality of fossiliferous stratification over the face
+of the earth, and that, as a matter of fact, fossils are always and
+everywhere found in the same order of invariable sequence.
+
+But this is tantamount to reviving, under what Spencer calls “a
+transcendental form,” the exploded “onion-coat” hypothesis of Werner
+(1749-1817). Werner conceived the terrestrial globe as encircled
+with successive mineral envelopes, basing his scheme of universal
+stratification upon that order of sequence among rocks, which he had
+observed within the narrow confines of his native district in Germany.
+His hypothesis, after leading many scientists astray, was ultimately
+discredited and laughed out of existence. For it finally became evident
+to all observers that Werner’s scheme did not fit the facts, and men
+were able to witness with their own eyes the simultaneous deposition,
+in separate localities, of sediments which differed radically in
+their mineral contents and texture. Thus it came to pass that this
+classification of strata according to their mineral nature and physical
+appearance lost all value as an absolute time-scale, while the theory
+itself was relegated to the status of a curious and amusing episode in
+the history of scientific fiascos.
+
+Thanks, however, to Wm. Smith and to Cuvier, the discarded onion-coat
+hypothesis did not perish utterly, but was rehabilitated and bequeathed
+to us in a new and more subtle form. Werner’s fundamental idea of
+the universality of a given kind of deposit was retained, but his
+mineral strata were replaced by fossiliferous strata, the lithological
+onion-coats of Werner being superseded by the biological onion-coats
+of our modern theory. The geologist of today discounts physical
+appearance, and classifies strata according to their fossil, rather
+than their mineral, contents, but he stands committed to the same old
+postulate of universal deposits. He has no hesitation in synchronizing
+such widely-scattered formations as the Devonian deposits of New
+York State, England, Germany, and South America. He pieces them all
+together as parts of a single system of rocks. He has no misgiving as
+to the universal applicability of the European scheme of stratigraphic
+classification, but assures us, in the words of the geologist, Wm. B.
+Scott, that: “Even the minuter divisions, the subdivisions and zones of
+the European Jura, are applicable to the classification of the South
+American beds.” (“Introduction to Geology,” p. 681f.) The limestone and
+sandstone strata of Werner are now things of the past, but, in their
+stead, we have, to quote the criticism of Herbert Spencer, “groups of
+formations which everywhere succeed each other in a given order, and
+are severally everywhere of the same age. Though it may not be asserted
+that these successive systems are universal, yet it seems to be tacitly
+assumed that they are so.... Though probably no competent geologist
+would contend that the European classification of strata is applicable
+to the globe as a whole, yet most, if not all geologists, write as
+though it were so.... Must we not say that though the onion-coat
+hypothesis is dead, its spirit is traceable, under a transcendental
+form, even in the conclusions of its antagonists.” (“Illustrations of
+Universal Progress,” pp. 329-380, ed. of 1890.)
+
+But overlooking, for the moment, the mechanical absurdity involved in
+the notion of a regular succession of universal layers of sediment,
+and conceding, for the sake of argument, that the substitution of
+fossiliferous, for lithological, strata may conceivably have remedied
+the defects of Werner’s geological time-scale, let us confine ourselves
+to the one question, which, after all, is of prime importance, whether,
+namely, without the aid of Procrustean tactics, the actual facts
+of geology can be brought into alignment with the doctrine of an
+invariable order of succession among fossil types, and its sequel,
+the intrinsic time-value of index fossils. The question, in other
+words, is whether or not a reliable time-scale can be based on the
+facts of fossiliferous stratification as they are observed to exist in
+the concrete. Price’s answer is negative, and he formulates several
+empirical laws to express the concrete facts, on which he bases his
+contention. The laws and facts to which he appeals may be summarized as
+follows:
+
+1. The concrete facts of geology do not warrant our singling out any
+fossiliferous deposit as unquestionably the oldest, and hence we have
+no reliable _starting-point_ for our time-scale, because:
+
+(_a_) We may lay it down as an empirical law that “any kind of
+fossiliferous rock (even the ‘youngest’), that is, strata belonging to
+any of the systems or other subdivisions, may rest directly upon the
+Archæan or primitive crystalline rocks, without any other so-called
+‘younger’ strata intervening; also these rocks, Permian, Cretaceous,
+Tertiary, or whatever thus reposing directly on the Archæan may be
+themselves crystalline or wholly metamorphic in texture. And this
+applies not alone to small points of contact, but to large areas.”
+
+(_b_) Conversely: any kind of fossiliferous strata (even the “oldest”)
+may not only constitute the surface rocks over wide areas,[8] but may
+consist of loose, unconsolidated materials, thus in both position and
+texture resembling the “late” Tertiaries or the Pleistocene—“In some
+regions, notably in the Baltic province and in parts of the United
+States,” says John Allen Howe, alluding to the Cambrian rocks around
+the Baltic Sea and in Wisconsin, “the rocks still retain their
+original horizontality of deposition, the muds are scarcely indurated,
+and the sands are incoherent.” (Encycl. Brit., vol. V, p. 86.)
+
+    [8] “It is a common occurrence,” says Charles Schuchert, “on
+    the Canadian Shield to find the Archæozoic formations overlain
+    by the most recent Pleistocene glacial deposits, and even
+    these may be absent. It appears as if in such places no rocks
+    had been deposited, either by the sea or by the forces of the
+    land, since Archæozoic time, and yet geologists know that the
+    shield has been variously covered by sheets of sediments formed
+    at sundry times in the Proterozoic, Palæozoic, and, to a more
+    limited extent, in the Mesozoic.” (“Textbook of Geology,” ed.
+    of 1920, II, p. 569.) It may be remarked that, when geologists
+    “know” such things, they know them in spite of the facts!
+
+A large number of striking instances are cited by Price to substantiate
+the foregoing rule and its converse. The impression left is that not
+only is the starting-point of the time-scale in doubt, but that, if
+we were to judge the age of the rocks by their physical appearance
+and position, we could not accept the conventional verdicts of
+modern geology, which makes fossil evidence prevail over every other
+consideration.
+
+2. When two contiguous strata are parallel to each other, and
+there is no indication of disturbance in the lower bed, nor any
+evidence of erosion along the plane of contact, the two beds are
+said to exhibit conformity, and this is ordinarily interpreted
+by geologists as a sign that the upper bed has been laid down in
+immediate sequence to the lower, and that there has been a substantial
+continuity of deposition, with no long interval during which the
+lower bed was exposed as surface to the agents of erosion. When
+such a conformity exists, as it frequently does, between a “recent”
+stratum, above, and what is said (according to the testimony of the
+fossils) to be a very “ancient” stratum, below, and though the two
+are so alike lithologically as to be mistaken for one and the same
+formation, nevertheless, such a conformity is termed a “non-evident
+disconformity,” or “deceptive conformity,” implying that, inasmuch
+as the “lost interval,” representing, perhaps, a lapse of “several
+million years,” is entirely unrecorded by any intervening deposition,
+or any erosion, or any disturbance of the lower bed, we should not
+have suspected that so great a hiatus had intervened, were it not for
+the testimony of the fossils. Price cites innumerable examples, and
+sums them up in the general terms of the following empirical law:
+“Any sort of fossiliferous formation may occur on top of any other
+‘older’ fossiliferous formation, with all the physical evidences of
+perfect conformity, just as if these alleged incongruous or mismated
+formations had in reality followed one another in quick succession.”
+
+A quotation from Schuchert’s “Textbook of Geology,” (1920), may be
+given by way of illustration: “The imperfection,” we read, “of the
+geologic column is greatest in the interior of North America and more
+so in the north than in the south. This imperfection is in many places
+very marked, since an entire period or several periods may be absent.
+With such great breaks in the local sections the natural assumption
+is that these gaps are easily seen in the sequence of the strata,
+but in many places the beds lie in such perfect conformity upon one
+another that the breaks are not noticeable by the eye and can be
+proved to exist only by the entombed fossils on each side of a given
+bedding plane.... Stratigraphers are, as a rule, now fully aware of the
+imperfections in the geologic record, but the rocks of two unrelated
+formations may rest upon each other with such absolute conformability
+as to be completely deceptive. For instance, in the Bear Grass quarries
+at Louisville, Ky., a face of limestone is exposed in which the
+absolute conformability of the beds can be traced for nearly a mile,
+and yet within 5 feet of vertical thickness is found a Middle Silurian
+coral bed overlain by another coral zone of Middle Devonian. The
+parting between these two zones is like that between any two limestone
+beds, but this insignificant line represents a stratigraphic hiatus
+the equivalent of the last third of Silurian and the first of Devonian
+time. But such disconformities are by no means rare, in fact are very
+common throughout the wide central basin area of North America.” (_Op.
+cit._, II, pp. 586-588.)
+
+In such cases, the stratigraphical relations give no hint of any
+enormous gap at the line of contact. On the contrary, there is
+every evidence of unbroken sequence, and the physical appearances
+are as if these supposed “geological epochs” had never occurred
+in the localities, of which there is question. Everything points
+to the conclusion that the alleged long intervals of time between
+such perfectly conformable, and, often, lithologically identical,
+formations are a pure fiction elaborated for the purpose of bolstering
+up the dogma of the universal applicability of the European
+classification of fossiliferous rocks. Why not take the facts as we
+find them? Why resort to tortuous explanations for the mere purpose of
+saving an arbitrary time-scale? Why insist on a definite time-value
+for fossils, when it drives us to the extremity of discrediting the
+objective evidence of physical facts in deference to the preconceptions
+of orthodox geology? Were it not for theoretical considerations, these
+stratigraphic facts would be taken at their face value, and the need
+of saving the reputation of the fossil as an infallible time index is
+not sufficiently imperative to warrant so drastic a revision of the
+physical evidence.
+
+3. The third class of facts militating against the time-value of
+index fossils, are what Price describes as “deceptive conformities
+turned upside down,” and what orthodox geology tries to explain away
+as “thrusts,” “thrust faults,” “overthrusts,” “low-angle faulting,”
+etc.[9] In instances of this kind we find the accepted order of the
+fossiliferous strata reversed in such a way that the “younger” strata
+are conformably overlain by “older” strata, and the “older” strata are
+sometimes interbedded between “younger” strata. “In many places all
+over the world,” says Price, “fossils have been found in a relative
+order which was formerly thought to be utterly impossible. That is,
+the fossils have been found in the ‘wrong’ order, and on such a scale
+that there can be no mistake about it. For when an area 500 miles long
+and from 20 to 50 miles wide is found with Palæozoic rocks on top,
+or composing the mountains, and with Cretaceous beds underneath, or
+composing the valleys, and running under these mountains all around,
+as in the case of the Glacier National Park and the southern part of
+Alberta, the old notion about the exact and invariable order of the
+fossils has to be given up entirely.”
+
+    [9] Thus, to explain away “wrong sequences” of fossils, Heim
+    and Rothpletz postulate the great Glaurus overthrust in the
+    Alps, Geikie the great overthrust in Scotland, McConnell,
+    Campbell, and Willis a great overthrust along the eastern
+    front of the Rockies in Montana and Alberta, while Hayes
+    recognizes numerous overthrusts in the southern Appalachians.
+    “The deciphering of such great displacements,” says Pirrson,
+    speaking of thrust faults, “is one of the greatest triumphs of
+    modern geological research.” (“Textbook of Geology,” 1920, I,
+    p. 367.) Desperate measures are evidently justifiable, when it
+    is a question of saving the time-value of fossils!
+
+Price formulates his third law as follows: “Any fossiliferous
+formation, ‘old’ or ‘young,’ may occur conformably on any other
+fossiliferous formation, ‘younger’ or ‘older.’” The corollary of this
+empirical law is that we are no longer justified in regarding any
+fossils as intrinsically older than other fossils, and that our present
+classification of fossiliferous strata has a _taxonomic_, rather than a
+_historical_, value.
+
+Low-angle faulting is the phenomenon devised by geologists to meet
+the difficulty of “inverted sequence,” when all other explanations
+fail. Immense mountain masses are said to have been detached from
+their roots and pushed horizontally over the surface (without
+disturbing it in the least), until they came finally to rest in
+perfect conformity upon “younger” strata, so that the plane of
+slippage ended by being indistinguishable from an ordinary horizontal
+bedding plane. These gigantic “overthrusts” or “thrust faults” are a
+rather unique phenomenon. Normal faulting is always at a high angle
+closely approaching the vertical, but “thrust faults” are at a low
+angle closely approximating the horizontal, and there is enormous
+displacement along the plane of slippage. The huge mountain masses are
+said to have been first lifted up and then thrust horizontally for
+vast distances, sometimes for hundreds of miles, over the face of the
+land, being thus pushed over on top of “younger” rocks, so as to repose
+upon the latter in a relation of perfectly conformable superposition.
+R. G. McConnell, of the Canadian Survey, comments on the remarkable
+similarity between these alleged “thrust planes” and ordinary
+stratification planes, and he is at a loss to know why the surface
+soil was not disturbed by the huge rock masses which slid over it for
+such great distances. Speaking of the Bow River Gap, he says: “The
+fault plane here is nearly horizontal, and the two formations, viewed
+from the valley appear to succeed one another conformably,” and then
+having noted that the underlying Cretaceous shales are “very soft,” he
+adds that they “have suffered little by the sliding of the limestones
+over them.” (_An. Rpt. 1886_, part D., pp. 33, 34, 84.) _Credat Iudaeus
+Apella, non ego!_
+
+Schuchert describes the Alpine overthrust as follows: “The movement
+was both vertical and thrusting from the south and southeast, from
+the southern portion of Tethys, elevating and folding the Tertiary
+and older strata of the northern areas of this mediterranean into
+overturned, recumbent, and nearly horizontal folds, and pushing the
+southern or Lepontine Alps about 60 miles to the northward into the
+Helvetic region. Erosion has since carved up these overthrust sheets,
+leaving remnants lying on foundations which belong to a more northern
+portion of the ancient sea. Most noted of these residuals of overthrust
+masses is the Matterhorn, a mighty mountain without roots, a stranger
+in a foreign geologic environment,” (Pirsson & Schuchert’s “Textbook of
+Geology,” 1920, II, p. 924.)
+
+With such a convenient device as the “overthrust” at his disposal, it
+is hard to see how any possible concrete sequence of fossiliferous
+strata could contradict the preconceptions of an evolutionary
+geologist. The hypotheses and assumptions involved, however, are so
+tortuous and incredible, that nothing short of fanatical devotion to
+the theory of transformism can render them acceptable. “Examples,”
+says Price, “of strata in the ‘wrong’ order were first reported from
+the Alps nearly half a century ago. Since that time, whole armfuls
+of learned treatises in German, in French, and in English have been
+written to explain the wonderful conditions there found. The diagrams
+that have been drawn to account for the strange order of the strata
+are worthy to rank with the similar ones by the Ptolemaic astronomers
+picturing the cycles and epicycles required to explain the peculiar
+behavior of the heavenly bodies in accordance with the geocentric
+theory of the universe then prevailing.... In Scandinavia, a district
+some 1,120 miles long by 80 miles wide is alleged to have been pushed
+horizontally eastward ‘at least 86 miles.’ (Schuchert.) In Northern
+China, one of these upside down areas is reported by the Carnegie
+Research Expedition to be 500 miles long.” (“The New Geology,” 1923,
+pp. 633, 634.)
+
+Nor are the epicyclic subterfuges of the evolutionary geologist
+confined to “deceptive conformities” and “overthrusts.” His inventive
+genius has hit upon other methods of explaining away inconvenient
+facts. When, for example, “younger” fossils are found interbedded with
+“older” fossils, and the discrepancy in time is not too great, he rids
+himself of the difficulty of their premature appearance by calling
+them a “pioneer colony.” Similarly, when a group of “characteristic”
+fossils occur in one age, skip another “age,” and recur in a third,
+he recognizes the possibility of “recurrent faunas,” some of these
+faunas having as many as five successive “recurrences.” Clearly, the
+assumption of gradual approximation and the dogma that the lower
+preceded the higher forms of life are things to be saved at all costs,
+and it is a foregone conclusion that no facts will be suffered to
+conflict with these irrevisable articles of evolutionary faith. “What
+is the use,” exclaims Price, “of pretending that we are investigating
+a problem of natural science, if we already know beforehand that the
+lower and more generalized forms of animals and plants came into
+existence first, and the higher and the more specialized came only long
+afterwards, and that specimens of all these successive types have been
+pigeonholed in the rocks in order to help us illustrate this wonderful
+truth?” (_Op. cit._, pp. 667, 668.)
+
+The predominance of extinct species in certain formations is said to
+be an independent argument of their great age. Most of the species of
+organisms found as fossils in Cambrian, Ordovician, and Silurian rocks
+are extinct, whereas modern types abound in Cretaceous and Tertiary
+rocks. Hence it is claimed that the former must be vastly older than
+the latter. But this argument gratuitously assumes the substantial
+perfection of the stone record of ancient life and unwarrantedly
+excludes the possibility of a sudden impoverishment of the world’s
+flora and fauna as the result of a sweeping catastrophe, of which our
+present species are the fortunate survivors. Now the fact that certain
+floras and faunas skip entire systems of rocks to reappear only in
+later formations is proof positive that the record of ancient life is
+far from being complete, and we have in the abundant fossil remains of
+tropical plants and animals, found in what are now the frozen arctic
+regions, unmistakable evidence of a sudden catastrophic change by
+which a once genial climate “was abruptly terminated. For carcasses of
+the Siberian elephants were frozen so suddenly and so completely that
+the flesh has remained untainted.” (Dana.) Again, the mere _fact_ of
+extinction tells us nothing about the _time_ of the extinction. For
+this we are obliged to fall back on the index fossil whose inherent
+time-value is based on the theory of evolution and not on stratigraphy.
+Hence the argument from extinct species is not an independent argument.
+
+To sum up, therefore, the aprioristic evolutional series of fossils
+is not a genuine time-scale. The only safe criterion of comparative
+age is that of stratigraphic superposition, and this is inapplicable
+outside of limited local areas.[10] The index fossil is a reliable
+basis for the chronological correlation of beds only in case one is
+already convinced on other grounds of the actuality of evolution, but
+for the unbiased inquirer it is destitute of any inherent time-value.
+In other words, we can no longer be sure that a given formation is
+old merely because it happens to contain Cambrian fossils, nor that a
+rock is young merely because it chances to contain Tertiary fossils.
+Our present classification of rocks according to their fossil contents
+is purely arbitrary and artificial, being tantamount to nothing more
+than a mere taxonomical classification of the forms of ancient life on
+our globe, irrespective of their comparative antiquity. This scheme
+of classification is, indeed, universally applicable, and places can
+usually be found in it for new fossiliferous strata, whenever and
+wherever discovered. Its universal applicability, however, is due not
+to any prevalent order of invariable sequence among fossiliferous
+strata, but solely to the fact that the laws of biological taxonomy
+and ecology are universal laws which transcend spatial and temporal
+limitation. If a scheme of taxonomy is truly scientific, all forms of
+life, whether extant or extinct, will fit into it quite readily.
+
+    [10] “All that geology can prove,” says Huxley, “is local order
+    of succession.” (“Discourses Biological and Geological,” pp.
+    279-288.)
+
+The anomalies of spatial distribution constitute a sixth difficulty
+for transformistic palæontology. In constructing a phylogeny the
+most diverse and widely-separated regions are put under tribute to
+furnish the requisite fossils, no heed being paid to what are now
+at any rate impassable geographical barriers, not to speak of the
+climatic and environmental limitations which restrict the migrations
+of non-cosmopolitan species within the boundaries of narrow habitats.
+Hypothetical lineages of a modern form of life are frequently
+constructed from fossil remains found in two or more continents
+separated from one another by immense distances and vast oceanic
+expanses. When taxed with failure to plausibleize this procedure,
+the evolutionist meets the difficulty by hypothecating wholesale and
+devious migrations to and fro, and by raising up alleged land bridges
+to accommodate plants and animals in their suppositional migrations
+from one continent to another, etc.
+
+The European horse, with his so-called ancestry interred, partly in
+the Tertiary deposits of Europe, but mostly in those of North America,
+is a typical instance of these anomalies in geographical distribution.
+It would, of course, be preposterous to suppose that two independent
+lines of descent could have fortuitously terminated in the production
+of one and the same type, namely, the genus _Equus_. Moreover, to admit
+for a moment that the extinct American _Equus_ and the extant European
+_Equus_ had converged by similar stages from distinct origins would be
+equivalent, as we have seen, to a surrender of the basic postulate that
+structural similarity rests on the principle of inheritance. Nothing
+remains, therefore, but to hypothecate a Tertiary land bridge between
+Europe and North America.
+
+Modern geologists, however, are beginning to resent these arbitrary
+interferences with their science in the interest of biological
+theories. Land bridges, they rightly insist, should be demonstrated by
+means of positive geological evidence and not by the mere exigencies of
+a hypothetical genealogy. Whosoever postulates a land bridge between
+continents should be able to adduce solid reasons, and to assign a
+mechanism capable of accomplishing the five-mile uplift necessary to
+bring a deep-sea bottom to the surface of the hydrosphere. Such an
+idea is extravagant and not to be easily entertained in our day, when
+geologists are beginning to understand the principle of _isostasy_.
+To-day, the crust of the earth, that is, the entire surface of the
+lithosphere, is conceived as being constituted of earth columns,
+all of which rest with equal weight upon the level of complete
+compensation, which exists at a depth of some 76 miles below land
+surfaces. At this depth viscous flows and undertows of the earth take
+place, compensating all differences of gravitational stress. Hence the
+materials constituting a mountain column are thought to be less dense
+than those constituting the surrounding lowland columns, and for this
+reason the mountains are buoyed up above the surrounding landscape. The
+columns under ocean bottoms, on the contrary, are thought to consist
+of heavy materials like basalt, which tend to depress the column. To
+raise a sea floor, therefore, some means of producing a dilatation of
+these materials would have to be available. Arthur B. Coleman called
+attention to this difficulty in his Presidential Address to the
+Geological Society of America (December 29, 1915), and we cannot do
+better than quote his own statement of the matter here:
+
+“Admitting,” he says, “that in the beginning the lithosphere bulged
+up in places, so as to form continents, and sagged in other places,
+so as to form ocean beds, there are interesting problems presented as
+to the permanence of land and seas. All will admit marginal changes
+affecting large areas, but these encroachments of the sea on the
+continents and the later retreats may be of quite a subordinate kind,
+not implying an interchange of deep-sea bottoms and land surfaces.
+The essential permanence of continents and oceans has been firmly
+held by many geologists, notably Dana among the older ones, and seems
+reasonable; but there are geologists, especially palæontologists, who
+display great recklessness in rearranging land and sea. The trend of a
+mountain range, or the convenience of a running bird, or a marsupial
+afraid to wet his feet seems sufficient warrant for hoisting up any sea
+bottom to connect continent with continent. A Gondwana Land arises in
+place of an Indian Ocean and sweeps across to South America, so that a
+spore-bearing plant can follow up an ice age; or an Atlantis ties New
+England to Old England to help out the migrations of a shallow-water
+fauna; or a ‘Lost Land of Agulhas’ joins South Africa and India.
+
+“It is curious to find these revolutionary suggestions made at a
+time when geodesists are demonstrating that the earth’s crust over
+large areas, and perhaps everywhere, approaches a state of isostatic
+equilibrium, and that isostatic compensation is probably complete at a
+depth of only 76 miles” ... and (having noted the difference of density
+that must exist between the continental, and submarine, earth columns)
+Coleman would have us bear in mind “that to transform great areas of
+sea bottom into land it would be necessary either to expand the rock
+beneath by several per cent or to replace heavy rock, such as basalt,
+by lighter materials, such as granite. There is no obvious way in which
+the rock beneath a sea bottom can be expanded enough to lift it 20,000
+feet, as would be necessary in parts of the Indian Ocean, to form a
+Gondwana land; so one must assume that light rocks replace heavy ones
+beneath a million square miles of ocean floor. Even with unlimited
+time, it is hard to imagine a mechanism that could do the work, and
+no convincing geological evidence can be brought forward to show that
+such a thing ever took place.... The distribution of plants and animals
+should be arranged for by other means than by the wholesale elevation
+of ocean beds to make dry land bridges for them.” (Smithson. Inst. Rpt.
+for 1916, pp. 269-271.)
+
+A seventh anomaly of palæontological phylogeny is what may be described
+as contrariety of direction. We are asked to believe, for example, that
+in mammals racial development resulted in dimensional increase. The
+primitive ancestor of mammoths, mastodons, and elephants is alleged to
+have been the _Moeritherium_, “a small tapirlike form, from the Middle
+Eocene Qasr-el-Sagha beds of the Fayûm in Egypt.... _Moeritherium_
+measured about 3½ feet in height.” (Lull: Smithson. Inst. Rpt. for
+1908, pp. 655, 656.) The ancestor of the modern horse, we are told,
+was “a little animal less than a foot in height, known as _Eohippus_,
+from the rocks of the Eocene age.” (Woodruff: “Foundations of Biology,”
+p. 361.) In the case of insects, on the other hand, we are asked to
+believe the exact reverse, namely, that racial development brought
+about dimensional reduction. “In the middle of the Upper Carboniferous
+periods,” says Anton Handlirsch, “the forest swamps were populated
+with cockroaches about as long as a finger, dragonfly-like creatures
+with a wing spread of about 2½ feet, while insects that resemble our
+May flies were as big as a hand.” (“Die fossilen Insekten, und die
+Phylogenie der recenten Formen,” 1908, L. c., p. 1150.) Contrasting one
+of these giant palæozoic dragonflies, _Meganeura monyi_ Brongn., with
+the largest of modern dragonflies, _Aeschna grandis_ L., Chetverikov
+exclaims with reference to the latter: “What a pitiful pigmy it is and
+its specific name (_grandis_) sounds like such a mockery.” (Smithson.
+Inst. Rpt. for 1918, p. 446.) Chetverikov, it is true, proposes a
+teleological reason for this progressive diminution, but the fact
+remains that for dysteleological evolutionism, which dispenses with
+the postulate of a Providential coördination and regulation of natural
+agencies, this _diminuendo_ of the “evolving” insects stands in
+irreconcilable opposition to the _crescendo_ of the “evolving” mammals,
+and constitutes a difficulty which a purely mechanistic philosophy can
+never surmount.
+
+Not to prolong excessively this already protracted enumeration of
+discrepancies between fossil fact and evolutionary assumption, we
+shall mention, as an eighth and final difficulty, the indubitable
+persistence of _unchanged_ organic types from the earliest geological
+epochs down to the present time. This phenomenon is all the more
+wonderful in view of the fact that the decision as to which are to be
+the “older” and which the “younger” strata rests with the evolutionary
+geologist, who is naturally disinclined to admit the antiquity of
+strata containing modern types, and whose position as arbiter enables
+him to date formations aprioristically, according to the exigencies of
+the transformistic theory. Using, as he does, the absence of modern
+types as an express criterion of age, and having, as it were, his pick
+among the various fossiliferous deposits, one would expect him to be
+eminently successful in eliminating from the stratigraphic groups
+selected for senior honors all strata containing fossil types identical
+with modern forms. Since, however, even the most ingenious sort of
+geological gerrymandering fails to make this elimination complete, we
+must conclude that the evidence for persistence of type is inescapable
+and valid under any assumption.
+
+When we speak of persistent types, we mean generic and specific,
+rather than phyletic, types, although it is assuredly true that the
+persistence of the great phyla, from their abrupt and contemporaneous
+appearance in Cambrian and pre-Cambrian rocks down to the present day,
+constitutes a grave difficulty for progressive evolution in general
+and monophyletic evolution in particular. All the great invertebrate
+types, such as the protozoa, the annelida, the brachiopoda, and large
+crustaceans called eurypterids, are found in rocks of the Proterozoic
+group, despite the damaged condition of the Archæan record, while
+in the Cambrian they are represented by a great profusion of forms.
+“The Lower Cambrian species,” says Dana, “have not the simplicity of
+structure that would naturally be looked for in the earliest Palæozoic
+life. They are perfect of their kind and highly specialized structures.
+No steps from simple kinds leading up to them have been discovered; no
+line from the protozoans up to corals, echinoderms, or worms, or from
+either of these groups up to brachiopods, mollusks, trilobites, or
+other crustaceans. This appearance of abruptness in the introduction
+of Cambrian life is one of the striking facts made known by geology.”
+(“Manual,” p. 487.) Thus, as we go backward in time, we find the great
+organic phyla retaining their identity and showing no tendency to
+converge towards a common origin in one or a few ancestral types. For
+this reason, as we shall see presently, geologists are beginning to
+relegate the evolutionary process to unknown depths below the explored
+portion of the “geological column.” What may lurk in these unfathomed
+profundities, it is, of course, impossible to say, but, if we are to
+judge by that part of the column which is actually exposed to view,
+there is no indication whatever of a steady progression from lower, to
+higher, degrees of organization, and it takes all the imperturbable
+idealism of a scientific doctrinaire to discern in such random, abrupt,
+and unrelated “origins” any evidence of what Blackwelder styles “a
+slow but steady increase in complexity of structure and in function.”
+(_Science_, Jan. 27, 1922, p. 90.)
+
+But, while the permanence of phyletic types excludes progress, that
+of generic and specific types excludes change, and hence it is in
+the latter phenomenon, especially, that the theory of transformism
+encounters a formidable difficulty. Palæobotany furnishes numerous
+examples of the persistence of unchanged plant forms. Ferns identical
+with the modern genus _Marattia_ occur in rocks of the Palæozoic group.
+Cycads indistinguishable from the extant genera _Zamia_ and _Cycas_ are
+found in strata belonging to the Triassic system, etc., etc.
+
+The same is true of animal types. In all the phyla some genera and
+even species have persisted unchanged from the oldest strata down to
+the present day. Among the Protozoa, for example, we have the genus
+_Globigerina_ (one of the Foraminifera), some modern species of which
+are identical with those found in the Cretaceous. To quote the words
+of the Protozoologist, Charles A. Kofoid: “The Protozoa are found
+in the oldest fossiliferous rocks and the genera of _Radiolaria_
+therein conform rather closely to genera living today, while the
+fossil _Dinoflagellata_ of the flints of Delitzsch are scarcely
+distinguishable from species living in the modern seas. The striking
+similarities of the most ancient fossil Protozoa to recent ones afford
+some ground for the inference that the Protozoa living today differ but
+little from those when life was young.” (_Science_, April 6, 1923, p.
+397.)
+
+The Metazoa offer similar examples of persistence. Among the
+Cœlenterata, we have the genus _Springopora_, whose representatives
+from the Carboniferous limestones closely resemble some of the
+present-day reef builders of the East Indies. Species of the brachiopod
+genera _Lingula_ and _Crania_ occurring in the Cambrian rocks are
+indistinguishable from species living today, while two other modern
+genera of the Brachiopoda, namely, _Rhynchonella_ and _Discina_,
+are represented among the fossils found in Mesozoic formations.
+_Terebratulina striata_, a fossil species of brachiopod occurring in
+the rocks belonging to the Cretaceous system, is identical with our
+modern species _Terebratulina caput serpentis_. Among the Mollusca such
+genera as _Arca_, _Nucula_, _Lucina_, _Astarte_, and _Nautilus_ have
+had a continuous existence since the Silurian, while the genera _Lima_
+and _Pecten_ can be traced to the Permian. One genus _Pleurotomaria_
+goes back to pre-Cambrian times. As to Tertiary fossils, Woods informs
+us that “in some of the later Cainozoic formations as many as 90 per
+cent of the species of mollusks are still living.” (“Palæontology,”
+1st ed., p. 2.) Among the Echinodermata, two genera, _Cidaris_ (a
+sea urchin) and _Pentacrinus_ (a crinoid) may be mentioned as being
+persistent since the Triassic (“oldest” system of the Mesozoic group).
+Among the Arthropoda, the horseshoe crab _Limulus polyphemus_ has
+had a continuous existence since the Lias (_i.e._ the lowest series
+of the Jurassic system). Even among the Vertebrata we have instances
+of persistence. The extant Australian genus _Ceratodus_, a Dipnoan,
+has been in existence since the Triassic. Among the fossils of the
+Jurassic (middle system of the Mesozoic group), _Sharks_, _Rays_, and
+_Chimaeroids_ occur in practically modern forms, while some of the
+so-called “ganoids” are extremely similar to our present sturgeons and
+gar pikes—“Some of the Jurassic fishes approximate the teleosts so
+closely that it seems arbitrary to call them ganoids.” (Scott.)
+
+The instances of persistence enumerated above are those acknowledged by
+evolutionary palæontologists themselves. This list could be extended
+somewhat by the addition of several other examples, but even so, it
+would still be small and insufficient to tip the scales decisively
+in favor of fixism. On the other hand, we must not forget that the
+paucity of this list is due in large measure to the fact that our
+present method of classifying fossiliferous strata was deliberately
+framed with a view to excluding formations containing modern types
+from the category of “ancient” beds. Moreover, orthodox palæontology
+has minimized the facts of persistence to an extent unwarranted even
+by its own premises. As the following considerations indicate, the
+actual number of persistent types is far greater, even according to the
+evolutionary time-scale, than the figure commonly assigned.
+
+First of all, we must take into account the deplorable, if not
+absolutely dishonest, practice, which is in vogue, of inventing new
+names for the fossil duplicates of modern species, in order to mask or
+obscure an identity which conflicts with evolutionary preconceptions.
+When a given formation fails to fit into the accepted scheme by
+reason of its fossil anachronisms, or when, to quote the words of
+Price, “species are found in kinds of rock where they are not at all
+expected, and where, according to the prevailing theories, it is
+quite incredible that they should be found ... the not very honorable
+expedient is resorted to of inventing a new name, specific or even
+generic, to disguise and gloss over the strange similarity between them
+and the others which have already been assigned to wholly different
+formations.” (“The New Geology,” p. 291.) The same observation is
+made by Heilprin. “It is practically certain,” says the latter, “that
+numerous forms of life, exhibiting no distinctive characters of their
+own, are constituted into distinct species for no other reason than
+that they occur in formations widely separated from those holding
+their nearest kin.” (“Geographical and Geological Distribution of
+Animals,” pp. 183, 184.) An instance of this practice occurs in the
+foregoing list, where a fossil brachiopod identical with a modern
+species receives the new specific name “_striata_.” Its influence is
+also manifest in the previously quoted apology of Scott for calling
+teleost-like fish “ganoids.”
+
+We must also take into account the imperfection of the fossil record,
+which is proved by the fact that most of the acknowledged “persistent
+types” listed above “skip” whole systems and even groups of “later”
+rocks (which are said to represent enormous intervals of time), only
+to reappear, at last, in modern times. It is evident that their
+existence has been continuous, and yet they are not represented in the
+intervening strata. Clearly, then, the fossil record is imperfect, and
+we must conclude that many of our modern types actually did exist in
+the remote past, without, however, leaving behind any vestige of their
+former presence.
+
+Again, we must frankly confess our profound ignorance with respect to
+the total number and kinds of species living in our modern seas. Hence
+our conventional distinction between “extinct” and “extant” species has
+only a provisory value. Future discoveries will unquestionably force
+us to admit that many of the species now classed as “extinct” are in
+reality living forms, which must be added to our list of “persistent
+types.” “It is by no means improbable,” says Heilprin, “that many of
+the older genera, now recognized as distinct by reason of our imperfect
+knowledge concerning their true relationships, have in reality
+representatives in the modern sea.” (_Op. cit._ pp. 203, 204.)
+
+Finally, the whole of our present taxonomy of plants and animals, both
+living and fossil, stands badly in need of revision. Systematists,
+as we have seen in the second chapter, base their classifications
+mainly on what they regard as basic or homologous structures, in
+contradistinction to superficial or adaptive characters. Both kinds
+of structure, however, are purely somatic, and somatic characters,
+as previously observed, are not, by themselves, a safe criterion for
+discriminating between varieties and species. In the light of recent
+genetical research, we cannot avoid recognizing that there has been
+far too much “splitting” of organic groups on the basis of differences
+that are purely fluctuational, or, at most, mutational. Moreover,
+the distinction between homologous and adaptive structures is often
+arbitrary and largely a matter of personal opinion, especially when
+numerous specimens are not available. What the “Cambridge Natural
+History” says in allusion to the Asteroidea is of general application.
+“While there is considerable agreement,” we read, “amongst authorities
+as to the number of families, or minor divisions of unequivocal
+relationship, to be found in the class Asteroidea, there has been
+great uncertainty both as to the number and limits of the orders
+into which the class should be divided, and also as to the limits of
+the various species. The difficulty about the species is by no means
+confined to the group Echinodermata; in all cases where the attempt
+is made to determine species by an examination of a few specimens
+of unknown age there is bound to be uncertainty; the more so, as it
+becomes increasingly evident that there is no sharp line to be drawn
+between local varieties and species. In Echinodermata, however, there
+is the additional difficulty that the acquisition of ripe genital cells
+does not necessarily mark the termination of growth; the animals can
+continue to grow and at the same time slightly alter their characters.
+For this reason many of the species described may be merely immature
+forms....
+
+“The disputes, however, as to the number of orders included in the
+Asteroidea proceed from a different cause. The attempt to construct
+detailed phylogenies involves the assumption that one set of
+structures, which we take as the mark of the class, has remained
+constant, whilst the others which are regarded as adaptive, may have
+developed twice or thrice. As the two sets of structures are about
+of equal importance it will be seen to what an enormous extent the
+personal equation enters in the determination of these questions.”
+(_Op. cit._, vol. I, pp. 459, 460.)
+
+In dealing with fossil forms, these difficulties of the taxonomist
+are intensified: (1) by the sparse, badly-preserved, and fragmentary
+character of fossil remains; (2) by the fact that here breeding
+experiments are impossible, and hence the diagnosis based on external
+characters cannot be supplemented by a diagnosis of the germinal
+factors. Fossil taxonomy is, in consequence, extremely arbitrary and
+unreliable. Many fossil forms classed as distinct species, or even
+as distinct genera, may be nothing more than fluctuants, mutants,
+hybrids, or immature stages of well-known species living today.
+Again, many fossils mistaken for distinct species are but different
+stages in the life-history of a single species, a mistake, which is
+unavoidable, when specimens are few and the age of the specimens
+unknown. The great confusion engendered in the classification of
+the hydrozoa by nineteenth-century ignorance of the alternation of
+hydroid and medusoid generations is a standing example of the danger
+of classifying forms without a complete knowledge of the entire
+life-cycle. When due allowance is made for mutation, hybridization,
+metagenesis, polymorphism, age and metamorphosis, the number of
+distinct fossil species will undergo considerable shrinkage. Nor must
+we overlook the possibility of environmentally-induced modifications.
+Many organisms, such as mollusks, undergo profound alteration as a
+result of some important, and, perhaps, relatively permanent, change in
+their environmental conditions, though such alterations affect only the
+phenotype, and do not involve a corresponding change in the specific
+genotype, _i.e._ the germinal constitution of the race.
+
+In the degree that these considerations are taken into account the
+number of “extinct” fossil species will diminish and the number of
+“persistent” species will increase. This is a consummation devoutly to
+be wished for, but it means that hundreds of thousands of described
+species must needs be reviewed for the purpose of weeding out the
+duplicates, and who will have the knowledge, the courage, or even the
+span of life, necessary to accomplish so gigantic a task?
+
+But so far as the practical purposes of our argument are concerned, the
+accepted list of persistent types needs no amplification. It suffices,
+as it stands, to establish the central fact (which, for the rest,
+is admitted by everyone) that some generic and even specific types
+have remained unchanged throughout the enormous lapse of time which
+has intervened between the deposition of the oldest strata and the
+advent of the present age. Our current theories, far from diminishing
+the significance of this fact, tend to intensify it by computing the
+duration of such persistence in millions, rather than in thousands, of
+years. Now, whatever one’s views may be on the subject of transformism,
+this prolonged permanence of certain genera and species is an
+indubitable _fact_, which is utterly irreconcilable with a _universal
+law_ of organic evolution. The theory of transformism is impotent
+to explain an exception so palpable as this; for persistence and
+transmutation cannot be subsumed under one and the same principle. That
+which accounts for change cannot account for _unchange_. Yet unchange
+is an observed fact, while the change, in this case, is an inferred
+hypothesis. Hence, even if we accept the principle of transformism,
+there will always be scope for the principle of permanence. The
+extraordinary tenacity of type manifested by persistent genera and
+species is a phenomenon deserving of far more careful study and
+investigation than the evolutionally-minded scientist of today deigns
+to bestow upon it. To the latter it may seem of little consequence,
+but, to the genuine scientist, the actual persistence of types should
+be of no less interest than their possible variability.
+
+With these reflections, our criticism of the palæontological argument
+terminates. The enumeration of its various deficiencies was not
+intended as a refutation. To disprove the theory of organic evolution
+is a feat beyond our power to accomplish. We can only adduce negative
+evidence, whose scope is to show that the various evolutionary
+arguments are inconsequential or inconclusive. We cannot rob the
+theory of its intrinsic possibility, and sheer justice compels us to
+confess that certain facts, like those of symbiotic preadaptation,
+lend themselves more readily to a transformistic, than to a fixistic,
+interpretation. On the other hand, nothing is gained by ignoring
+flaws so obvious and glaring as those which mar the cogency of
+palæontological “evidence.” The man who would gloss them over is
+no true friend either of Science or of the scientific theory of
+Evolution! They represent so many real problems to be frankly faced
+and fully solved, before the palæontological argument can become a
+genuine demonstration. But until such time as a demonstration of this
+sort is forthcoming, the evolutionist must not presume to cram his
+unsubstantiated theory down our reasonably reluctant throats. To accept
+as certain what remains unproved, is to compromise our intellectual
+sincerity. True certainty, which rests on the recognition of objective
+necessity, will never be attainable so long as difficulties that sap
+the very base of evolutionary argumentation are left unanswered; and,
+as for those who, in the teeth of discordant factual evidence, profess,
+nevertheless, to have certainty regarding the “fact” of evolution, we
+can only say that such persons cannot have a very high or exacting
+conception of what scientific certainty really means.
+
+For the rest, it cannot even be said that the palæontological record
+furnishes good circumstantial evidence that our globe has been the
+scene of a process of organic evolution. In fact, so utterly at
+variance with this view is the total impression conveyed by the
+visible portion of the geological column, that the modern geologist
+proposes, as we have seen, to probe depths beneath its lowest strata
+for traces of that alleged transmutation, which higher horizons do
+not reveal. There are six to eight thick terranes below the Cambrian,
+we are told, and igneous masses that were formerly supposed to be
+basal have turned out to be intrusions into sedimentary accumulations,
+all of which, of course, is fortunate for the theory of organic
+evolution, as furnishing it with a sadly needed new court of appeal.
+The bottom, so to speak, has dropped out of the geological column,
+and Prof. T. C. Chamberlin announces the fact as follows: “The sharp
+division into two parts, a lifeless igneous base and a sedimentary
+fossiliferous superstructure, has given place to the general concept
+of continuity with merely minor oscillations in times and regions of
+major activity. Life has been traced much below the Cambrian, but
+its record is very imperfect. The recent discoveries of more ample
+and varied life in the lower Palæozoic, particularly the Cambrian,
+implies, under current evolutional philosophy, a very great downward
+extension of life. In the judgment of some biologists and geologists,
+this extension probably reaches below all the pre-Cambrian terranes
+as yet recognized, though this pre-Cambrian extension is great. The
+‘Azoic’ bottom has retired to depths unknown. This profoundly changes
+the life aspect of the ‘column.’” (_Science_, Feb. 8, 1924, p. 128.)
+All this is doubtless true, but such an appeal, from the known to the
+unknown, from the actual to the possible, is not far-removed from a
+confession of scientific insolvency. Life must, of course, have had
+an earlier history than that recorded in the pre-Cambrian rocks. But
+even supposing that some portion of an earlier record should become
+accessible to us, it could not be expected to throw much light on the
+problem of organic origins. Most of the primordial sediments have long
+since been sapped and engulfed by fiery magmas, while terranes less
+deep have, in all probability, been so metamorphosed that every trace
+of their fossil contents has perished. The sub-Archæan beginnings of
+life will thus remain shrouded forever in a mystery, which we have
+no prospect of penetrating. Hence it is the exposed portion of the
+geological column which continues and will continue to be our sole
+source of information, and it is preëminently on this basis that the
+evolutionary issue will have to be decided.
+
+Yet what could be more enigmatic than the rock record as it stands?
+For in nature it possesses none of that idealized integrity and
+coherence, with which geology has invested it for the purpose of
+making it understandable. Rather it is a mighty chaos of scattered
+and fragmentary fossiliferous formations, whose baffling complexity,
+discontinuity, and ambiguity tax the ingenuity of the most sagacious
+interpreters. Transformism is the key to one possible synthesis, which
+might serve to unify that intricate mass of facts, but it is idle to
+pretend that this theory is the unique and necessary corollary of
+the facts as we find them. The palæontological argument is simply a
+theoretical construction which presupposes evolution instead of proving
+it. Its classic pedigrees of the horse, the camel, and the elephant
+are only credible when we have assumed the “fact” of evolution, and
+even then, solely upon condition that they claim to approximate,
+rather than assign, the actual ancestry of the animals in question.
+In palæontology, as in the field of zoölogy, evolution is not a
+conclusion, but an interpretation. In palæontology, otherwise than
+in the field of genetics, evolution is not amenable to the check of
+experimental tests, because here it deals not with that which is, but
+with that which _was_. Here the sole objective basis is the mutilated
+and partially obliterated record of a march of events, which no one
+has observed and which will never be repeated. These obscure and
+fragmentary vestiges of a vanished past, by reason of their very
+incompleteness, lend themselves quite readily to all sorts of theories
+and all sorts of speculations. Of the “Stone Book of the Universe”
+we may say with truth that which Oliver Wendell Holmes says of the
+privately-interpreted Bible, namely, that its readers take from it the
+same views which they had previously brought to it. “I am, however,
+thoroughly persuaded,” say the late Yves Delage, “that one is or is not
+a transformist, not so much for reasons deduced from natural history,
+as for motives based on personal philosophic opinions. If there existed
+some other scientific hypothesis besides that of descent to explain
+the origin of species, many transformists would abandon their present
+opinion as not being sufficiently demonstrated.... If one takes his
+stand upon the exclusive ground of the facts, it must be acknowledged
+that the formation of one species from another species has not been
+demonstrated at all.” (“L’herédité et les grands problèmes de la
+biologie générale,” Paris, 1903, pp. 204, 322.)
+
+
+
+
+                                  II
+
+                        THE PROBLEM OF ORIGINS
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER I
+
+                          THE ORIGIN OF LIFE
+
+
+               § 1. The Theory of Spontaneous Generation
+
+Strictly speaking, the theory of Transformism is not concerned with the
+initial production of organic species, but rather with the subsequent
+differentiation and multiplication of such species by transmutation
+of the original forms. This technical sense, however, is embalmed
+only in the term transformism and not in its synonym evolution. The
+signification of the latter term is less definite. It may be used
+to denote any sort of development or origination of one thing from
+another. Hence the problem of the formation of organic species is
+frequently merged with the problem of the transformation of species
+under the common title of evolution.
+
+This extension of the evolutionary concept, in its widest sense, to the
+problem of the origin of life on our globe is known as the hypothesis
+of abiogenesis or spontaneous generation. It regards inorganic matter
+as the source of organic life not merely in the sense of a _passive
+cause_, out of which the primordial forms of life were produced, but
+in the sense of an _active cause_ inasmuch as it ascribes the origin
+of life to the exclusive agency of dynamic principles inherent in
+inorganic matter, namely, the physicochemical energies that are native
+to mineral matter. Life, in other words, is assumed to have arisen
+spontaneously, that is, by means of a synthesis and convergence of
+forces resident in inorganic matter, and not through the intervention
+of any exterior agency.
+
+The protagonists of spontaneous generation, therefore, assert not
+merely a passive, but an active, evolution of living, from lifeless
+matter. As to the fact of the origin of the primal organisms from
+inorganic matter, there is no controversy whatever. All agree that, at
+some time or other, the primordial plants and animals emanated from
+inorganic matter. The sole point of dispute is whether they arose from
+inorganic matter by active evolution or simply by passive evolution.
+The passive evolution of mineral matter into plants and animals is an
+everyday occurrence. The grass assimilates the nitrates of the soil,
+and is, in turn, assimilated by the sheep, whose flesh becomes the food
+of man, and mineral substance is thus finally transformed into human
+substance. In the course of metabolic processes, the inorganic molecule
+may doff its mineral type and don, in succession, the specificities of
+plant, animal, and human protoplasm; and this transition from lower
+to higher degrees of perfection may be termed an evolution. It is
+an ascent of matter from the lowermost grade of an inert substance,
+through the intermediate grades of vegetative and animal life, up
+to the culminating and ultimate term of material perfection, in
+the partial constitution of a human nature and personality, in the
+concurrence as a coagent in vegetative and sensile functions, and
+in the indirect participation, as instrument, in the higher psychic
+functions of rational thought and volition.
+
+At the present time, the inorganic world is clearly the exclusive
+source of all the matter found in living beings. All living beings
+construct their bodies out of inorganic substances in the process of
+nutrition, and render back to the inorganic world, by dissimilation and
+death, whatever they have taken from it. We must conclude, therefore,
+the matter of the primordial organisms was likewise derived from the
+inorganic world. But we are not warranted in concluding that this
+process of derivation was an active evolution. On the contrary, all
+evidence is against the supposition that brute matter is able to evolve
+of itself into living matter. It can, indeed, be transformed into
+plants, animals, and men through the action of an appropriate external
+agent (_i.e._ solely through the agency of the living organism), but
+it cannot acquire the perfections of living matter by means of its
+own inherent powers. It cannot vitalize, or sensitize, itself through
+the unaided activity of its own physicochemical energies. Only when
+it comes under the superior influence of preëxistent life can it
+ascend to higher degrees of entitive perfection. It does not become
+of itself life, sensibility, and intelligence. It must first be drawn
+into communion with what is already alive, before it can acquire life
+and sensibility, or share indirectly in the honors of intelligence (as
+the substrate of the cerebral imagery whence the human mind abstracts
+its conceptual thought). Apart from this unique influence, inorganic
+matter is impotent to raise itself in the scale of existence, but, if
+captured, molded, and transmuted by a living being, it may progress to
+the point of forming with the human soul one single nature, one single
+substance, one single person. The evolution of matter exemplified in
+organic metabolism is obviously passive, and such an evolution of
+the primal organisms out of non-living matter even the opponents of
+the hypothesis of spontaneous generation concede. But spontaneous
+generation implies an active evolution of the living from the lifeless,
+and this is the point around which the controversy wages. It would, of
+course, be utterly irrational to deny to the Supreme Lord and Author of
+Life the power of vivifying matter previously inanimate and inert, and
+hence the origin of organic life from inorganic matter by a formative
+(not creative) act of the Creator is the conclusion to which the denial
+of abiogenesis logically leads.
+
+The hypothesis of spontaneous generation is far older than the theory
+of transformism. It goes back to the Greek predecessors of Aristotle,
+at least, and may be of far greater antiquity. It was based, as is well
+known, upon an erroneous interpretation of natural facts, which was
+universally accepted up to the close of the 17th century. As we can
+do no more than recount a few outstanding incidents of its long and
+interesting history here, the reader is referred to the VII chapter of
+Wasmann’s “Modern Biology” and the VIII chapter of Windle’s “Vitalism
+and Scholasticism” for the details which we are obliged to omit.
+
+
+                  § 2. The Law of Genetic Continuity—
+
+From time immemorial the sudden appearance of maggots in putrescent
+meat had been a matter of common knowledge, and the ancients were
+misled into regarding the phenomenon as an instance of a _de novo_
+origin of life from dead matter. The error in question persisted until
+the year 1698, when it was decisively disproved by a simple experiment
+of the Italian physician Francesco Redi. He protected the meat from
+flies by means of gauze. Under these conditions, no maggots appeared
+in the meat, while the flies, unable to reach the meat, deposited
+their eggs on the gauze. Thus it became apparent that the maggots were
+larval flies, which emerged from fertilized eggs previously deposited
+in decaying meat by female flies. Antonio Vallisnieri, another
+Italian, showed that the fruit-fly had a similar life-history. As a
+result of these discoveries, Redi rejected the theory of spontaneous
+generation and formulated the first article of the Law of Genetic Vital
+Continuity: _Omne vivum ex vivo_.
+
+Meanwhile, the first researches conducted by means of the newly
+invented compound microscope disclosed what appeared to be fresh
+evidence in favor of the discarded hypothesis. The unicellular
+organisms known as infusoria were found to appear suddenly in hay
+infusions, and their abrupt appearance was ascribed to spontaneous
+generation. Towards the end of the 18th century, however, a Catholic
+priest named Lazzaro Spallanzani refuted this new argument by
+sterilizing the infusions with heat and by sealing the containers as
+protection against contamination by floating spores or cysts. After
+the infusions had been boiled for a sufficient time and then sealed,
+no organisms could be found in them, no matter how long they were kept.
+We now know that protozoa and protophytes do not originate _de novo_ in
+infusions. Their sudden appearance in cultures is due to the deposition
+of spores or cysts from the air, etc.
+
+The possibility that the non-germination of life in sterilized
+infusions kept in sealed containers might be due to the absence of
+oxygen, removed by boiling and excluded by sealing, left open a
+single loophole, of which the 19th century defenders of abiogenesis
+proceeded to avail themselves. Pasteur, however, by employing
+sterilized cultures, which he aerated with filtered air exclusively,
+succeeded in depriving his opponents of this final refuge, and
+thereby completely demolished the last piece of evidence in favor
+of spontaneous generation. Prof. Wm. Sydney Thayer, in an address
+delivered at the Sorbonne, May 22, 1923, gives the following account
+of Pasteur’s experiments in this field: “Then, naturally (1860-1876)
+came the famous studies on spontaneous generation undertaken against
+the advice of his doubting masters, Biot and Dumas. On the basis of
+careful and well-conceived experiments he demonstrated the universal
+presence of bacteria in air, water, dust; he showed the variation in
+different regions of the bacterial content of the air; he demonstrated
+the permanent sterility of media protected from contamination, and he
+insisted on the inevitable derivation of every living organism from
+one of its kind. ‘No,’ he said, ‘there is no circumstance known today
+which justifies us in affirming that microscopic organisms have come
+into the world, without parents like themselves. Those who made this
+assertion have been the playthings of illusions or ill-made experiments
+invalidated by errors which they have not been able to appreciate or
+to avoid.’ In the course of these experiments he demonstrated the
+necessity of reliable methods of sterilization for instruments or
+culture media, of exposure for half an hour to moist heat at 120° or to
+dry air at 180°. And behold! our modern procedures of sterilization
+and the basis of antiseptic surgery.” (_Science_, Dec. 14, 1923, p.
+477.) Pasteur brought to a successful completion the work of Redi and
+Spallanzani. Henceforth spontaneous generation was deprived of all
+countenance in the realm of biological fact.
+
+Meanwhile, the cytologists and embryologists of the last century
+were adding article after article to the law of genetic cellular
+continuity, thus forging link by link the fatal chain of severance
+that inexorably debars abiogenesis from the domain of natural science.
+With the formulation of the great Cell Theory by Schleiden and Schwann
+(1838-1839), it became clear that the cell is the fundamental unit
+of organization in the world of living matter. It has proved to be,
+at once, the simplest organism capable of independent existence and
+the basic unit of structure and function in all the more complex
+forms of life. The protists (unicellular protozoans and protophytes)
+consist each of a single cell, and no simpler type of organism is
+known to science. The cell is the building brick out of which the
+higher organisms or metists (_i.e._ the multicellular and tissued
+metazoans and metaphytes) are constructed, and all multicellular
+organisms are, at one time or other in their career, reduced to the
+simplicity of a single cell (_v.g._ in the zygote and spore stages).
+The somatic or tissue cells, which are associated in the metists to
+form one organic whole, are of the same essential type as germ cells
+and unicellular organisms, although the parallelism is more close
+between the unicellular organism and the germ cell. The germ cell, like
+the protist, is equipped with all the potentialities of life, whereas
+tissue cells are specialized for one function rather than another. The
+protist is a generalized and physiologically-balanced cell, one which
+performs all the vital functions, and in which the suppression of one
+function leads to the destruction of all the rest; while the tissue
+cell is a specialized and physiologically-unbalanced cell limited to
+a single function, with the other vital functions in abeyance (though
+capable of manifesting themselves under certain circumstances).
+Normally, therefore, the tissue cell is functionally incomplete, a part
+and not a whole, whereas the protist is an independent individual,
+being, at once, the highest type of cell and the lowest type of
+organism.
+
+According to the classic definition of Franz Leydig and Max Schultze,
+the cell is a mass of protoplasm containing a nucleus, both protoplasm
+and nucleus arising through division of the corresponding elements of
+a preëxistent cell. In this form the definition is quite general and
+applies to all cells, whether tissue cells, germ cells, or unicellular
+organisms. Moreover, it embodies two principles which still further
+determine the law of genetic cellular continuity, namely: _Omnis
+cellula ex cellula_, enunciated by Virchow in 1855, and Flemming’s
+principle: _Omnis nucleus ex nucleo_, proclaimed in 1882. In this way,
+Cytology supplemented Redi’s formula that every living being is from
+a preëxistent living being, by adding two more articles, namely, that
+every living cell is from a preëxistent cell, and every new cellular
+nucleus is derived by division from a preëxistent cellular nucleus. Now
+neither the nucleus nor the cell-body (the cytoplasm or extranuclear
+area of the cell) is capable of an independent existence. The
+cytoplasm of the severed nerve fibre, when it fails to reëstablish its
+connection with the neuron nucleus, degenerates. The enucleated amœba,
+though capable of such vital functions as depend upon destructive
+metabolism, can do nothing which involves constructive metabolism, and
+is, therefore, doomed to perish. The sperm cell, which is a nucleus
+that has sloughed off most of its cytoplasm, disintegrates, unless
+it regains a haven in the cytoplasm of the egg. Life, accordingly,
+cannot subsist in a unit more simply organized than the cell. No
+organism lives which is simpler than the cell, and the origin of all
+higher forms of life is reducible, as we shall see, to the origin of
+the cell. Consequently, new life can originate in no other way than
+by a process of cell-division. All generation or reproduction of new
+life is dependent upon the division of the cell-body and nucleus of a
+preëxistent living cell.
+
+Haeckel, it is true, has attempted to question the status of the cell
+as the simplest of organisms, by alleging the existence of cytodes
+(non-nucleated cells) among the bacteria and the blue-green algæ.
+Further study, however, has shown that bacteria and blue-green algæ
+have a distributed nucleus, like that of certain ciliates, such as
+_Dileptus gigas_ and _Trachelocerca_. In such forms the entire cell
+body is filled with scattered granules of chromatin called chromioles,
+and this diffuse type of nucleus seems to be the counterpart of the
+concentrated nuclei found in the generality of cells. At any rate,
+there is a temporary aggregation of the chromioles at critical stages
+in the life-cycle (such as cell-division), and these scattered
+chromatin granules undergo division, although their distribution to
+the daughter-cells is not as regular as that obtaining in mitosis. All
+this is strongly suggestive of their nuclear nature, and cells with
+distributed nuclei cannot, therefore, be classified as cytodes. In
+fact, the polynuclear condition is by no means uncommon. _Paramœcium
+aurelia_, for example, has a macronucleus and a micronucleus, and
+the _Uroleptus mobilis_ has eight macronuclei and from two to four
+micronuclei. The difference between the polynuclear and diffuse
+condition seems to be relatively unimportant. In fact, the distributed
+nucleus differs from the morphological nucleus mainly in the absence
+of a confining membrane. From the functional standpoint, the two
+structures are identical. Hence the possession of a nucleus or its
+equivalent is, to all appearances, a universal characteristic of cells.
+Haeckel’s “cytodes” have proved to be purely imaginary entities. The
+verdict of modern cytologists is that Shultze’s definition of the cell
+must stand, and that the status of the cell as the simplest of organic
+units capable of independent existence is established beyond the
+possibility of prudent doubt.
+
+With the progressive refinement of microscopic technique, it has become
+apparent that the law of genetic continuity applies not merely to the
+cell as a whole and to its major parts, the nucleus and the cell-body,
+but also to the minor components or organelles, which are seen to
+be individually self-perpetuating by means of growth and division.
+The typical cell nucleus, as is well known, is a spherical vesicle
+containing a semisolid, diphasic network of basichromatin (formerly
+“chromatin”) and oxychromatin (linin) suspended in more fluid medium
+or ground called nuclear sap. When the cell is about to divide, the
+basichromatin resolves itself into a definite number of short threads
+called chromosomes. Now, Boveri found that, in the normal process of
+cell-division known as mitosis, these nuclear threads or chromosomes
+are each split lengthwise and divided into two exactly equivalent
+halves, the resulting halves being distributed in equal number to the
+two daughter-cells produced by the division of the original cell.
+Hence, in the year 1903, Boveri added a fourth article to the law of
+genetic vital continuity, namely: _Omne chromosoma ex chromosomate_.
+
+But the law in question applies to cytoplasmic as well as nuclear
+components. In physical appearance, the cell-body or cytoplasm
+resembles an emulsion with a clear semiliquid external phase called
+hyaloplasm and an internal phase consisting mainly of large spheres
+called macrosomes and minute particles called microsomes, all of which,
+together with numerous other formed bodies, are suspended in the clear
+hyaloplasm (hyaline ground-substance). Now certain of these cytoplasmic
+components have long been known to be _self-perpetuating_ by means
+of growth and division, maintaining their continuity from cell to
+cell. The plastids of plant cells, for example, divide at the time of
+cell-division, although their distribution to the daughter-cells does
+not appear to be as definite and regular as that which obtains in the
+case of the chromosomes. Similarly, the centrioles or division-foci
+of animal cells are self-propagating by division, but here the
+distribution to the daughter-cells is exactly equivalent and not at
+random as in the case of plastids. In the light of recent research
+it looks as though two other types of cytoplasmic organelles must be
+added to the list of cellular components, which are individually
+self-perpetuating by growth and division, namely, the chondriosomes
+and the Golgi bodies—“both mitochondria and Golgi bodies are able to
+assimilate, grow, and divide in the cytoplasm.” (Gatenby.) Wilson is
+of opinion that the law of genetic continuity may have to be extended
+even to those minute granules and particles of the cytosome, which were
+formerly thought to arise _de novo_ in the apparently structureless
+hyaloplasm. Speaking of the emulsified appearance of the starfish and
+sea urchin eggs, he tells us that their protoplasm shows “a structure
+somewhat like that of an emulsion, consisting of innumerable spheroidal
+bodies suspended in a clear continuous basis or hyaloplasm. These
+bodies are of two general orders of magnitude, namely: larger spheres
+or macrosomes rather closely crowded and fairly uniform in size, and
+much smaller microsomes irregularly scattered between the macrosomes,
+and among these are still smaller granules that graduate in size
+down to the limit of vision with any power (_i.e._ of microscope)
+we may employ.” (_Science_, March 9, 1923, p. 282.) Now, the limit
+of microscopic vision by the use of the highest-power oil-immersion
+objectives is one-half the length of the shortest waves of visible
+light, that is, about 200 submicrons (the submicron being one millionth
+of a millimeter). Particles whose diameter is less than this cannot
+reflect a wave of light, and are, therefore, invisible so far as the
+microscope is concerned. By the aid of the ultramicroscope, however,
+we are enabled to see the halos formed by particles not more than four
+submicrons in diameter, which, however, represents the limit of the
+ultramicroscope, and is the diameter hypothetically assigned to the
+protein multimolecule. Since, therefore, we find the particles in the
+protoplasm of the cell body graduating all the way down to the limit
+of this latter instrument, and since on the very limit of microscopic
+vision we find such minute particles as the centrioles “capable of
+self-perpetuation by growth and division, and of enlargement to form
+much larger bodies,” we cannot ignore the possibility that the
+ultramicroscopic particles may have the same powers and may be the
+sources or “formative foci” of the larger formed bodies, which were
+hitherto thought to arise _de novo_.
+
+Certainly, pathology, as we shall see, tells us of ultramicroscopic
+disease-germs, which are capable of reproduction and maintenance of a
+specific type, and experimental genetics makes us aware of a linear
+alignment of submicroscopic genes in the nuclear chromosomes, each
+gene undergoing periodic division and perpetual transmission from
+generation to generation. The cytologist, therefore, to quote the words
+of Wilson, “cannot resist the evidence that the appearance of a simple
+homogeneous colloidal substance is deceptive; that it is in reality a
+complex, heterogeneous, or polyphasic system. He finds it difficult to
+escape the conclusion, therefore, that the visible and the invisible
+components of the protoplasmic system differ only in their size and
+degree of dispersion; that they belong to a single continuous series,
+and that the visible structure of protoplasm may give us a rough
+magnified picture of the invisible.” (_Ibidem_, p. 283.)
+
+It would seem, therefore, that we must restore to honor, as the fifth
+article of the law of cellular continuity, the formula, which Richard
+Altmann enunciated on purely speculative grounds in 1892, but which
+the latest research is beginning to place on a solid factual basis,
+namely: _Omne granulum ex granulo_. “For my part,” says the great
+cytologist, Wilson, “I am disposed to accept the probability that
+many of these particles, as if they were submicroscopical plastids,
+may have a persistent identity, perpetuating themselves by growth and
+multiplication without loss of their specific individual type.” And
+he adds that the facts revealed by experimental embryology (_e.g._,
+the existence of differentiated zones of specific composition in
+the cytoplasm of certain eggs) “drive us to the conclusion that the
+submicroscopical components of the hyaloplasm are segregated and
+distributed according to an ordered system.” (_Ibidem_, p. 283.)
+The structure of the cell has often been likened to a heterogeneous
+solution, that is, to a complex polyphasic colloidal system, but this
+power of perpetual division and orderly assortment possessed by the
+cell as a whole and by its single components is the unique property
+of the living protoplasmic system, and is never found in any of the
+colloidal systems known to physical chemistry, be they organic or
+inorganic.
+
+Cells, then, originate solely by division of preëxistent cells and even
+the minor components of the cellular system originate in like fashion,
+namely: by division of their respective counterparts in the preëxistent
+living cell. Here we have the sum and substance of the fivefold law of
+genetic continuity, whose promulgation has relegated the hypothesis
+of spontaneous generation to the realms of empty speculation. Waiving
+the possibility of an _a priori_ argument, by which abiogenesis might
+be positively excluded, there remains this one consideration, which
+alone is scientifically significant, that, so far as observation goes
+and induction can carry us, the living cell has absolute need of a
+vital origin and can never originate by the exclusive agency of the
+physicochemical forces native to inorganic matter. If organic life
+exists in simpler terms than the cell, science knows nothing of it, and
+no observed process, simple or complicated, of inorganic nature, nor
+any artificial synthesis of the laboratory, however ingenious, has ever
+succeeded in duplicating the wonders of the simplest living cell.
+
+
+             § 3. Chemical Theories of the Origin of Life
+
+In fact, the very notion of a chemical synthesis of living matter
+is founded on a misconception. It would, indeed, be rash to set
+limits to the chemist’s power of synthesizing organic compounds, but
+living protoplasm is not a single chemical compound. Rather it is
+a complex system of compounds, enzymes and organelles, coördinated
+and integrated into an organized whole by a persistent principle of
+unity and finality. Organic life, to say nothing at all of its unique
+dynamics, is a morphological as well as a chemical problem; and,
+while it is conceivable that the chemist might synthesize all the
+compounds found in dead protoplasm, to reproduce a single detail of
+the ultramicroscopic structure of a living cell lies wholly beyond his
+power and province. “Long ago,” says Wilson (in the already quoted
+address on the “Physical Basis of Life”), “it became perfectly plain
+that what we call protoplasm is not chemically a single substance. It
+is a mixture of many substances, a mixture in high degree complex, the
+seat of varied and incessant transformations, yet one which somehow
+holds fast for countless generations to its own specific type. The
+evidence from every source demonstrates that the cell is a complex
+organism, a microcosm, a living system.” (_Science_, March 9, 1923, p.
+278.)
+
+With the chemist, analysis must precede synthesis, and it is only after
+a structural formula has been determined by means of quantitative
+analysis supplemented by analogy and comparison, that a given compound
+can be successfully synthesized. But living protoplasm and its
+structures elude such analysis. Intravitous staining is inadequate even
+as a means of qualitative analysis, and tests of a more drastic nature
+destroy the life and organization, which they seek to analyze. “With
+one span,” says Amé Pictet, Professor of Chemistry at the University
+of Geneva, “we will now bridge the entire distance separating the
+first products of plant assimilation from its final product, namely,
+living matter. And it should be understood at the outset that I employ
+this term ‘living matter’ only as an abbreviation, and to avoid long
+circumlocution. You should not, in reality, attribute life to matter
+itself; it has not, it cannot have both living molecules and dead
+molecules. Life requires an organization, which is that of cellular
+structure, but it remains, in contradistinction to it, outside the
+domain of strict chemistry. It is none the less true that the content
+of a living cell must differ in its chemical nature from the content of
+a dead cell. It is entirely from this point of view that the phenomenon
+of life pertains to my subject.... A living cell, both in its chemical
+composition and in its morphological structure, is an organism of
+extraordinary complexity. The protoplasm that it incloses is a mixture
+of very diverse substances. But if there be set aside on the one hand
+those substances which are in the process of assimilation and on the
+other those which are the by-products of nutrition, and which are in
+the process of elimination, there remain the protein or albuminous
+substances, and these must be considered, if not the essential factor
+of life, at least the theater of its manifestations.... Chemistry,
+however, is totally ignorant, or nearly so, of the constitution of
+living albumen, for chemical methods of investigation at the very
+outset kill the living cell. The slightest rise in temperature,
+contact with the solvent, the very powerful effect of even the mildest
+reactions cause the transformation that needs to be prevented, and the
+chemist has nothing left but dead albumen.” (Smithson. Inst. Rpt. for
+1916, pp. 208, 209.)
+
+Chemical analysis associated with physical analysis by means of the
+polariscope, spectroscope, x-rays, ultramicroscope, etc. is extremely
+useful in determining the structure of inorganic units like the atom
+and the molecule. Both, too, throw valuable light on the problem of the
+structure of non-living multimolecules such as the crystal units of
+crystalloids and the ultramicrons of colloids, but they furnish no clue
+to the submicroscopical morphology of the living cell. Such methods do
+not enable us to examine anything more than the “physical substrate”
+of life, and that, only after it has been radically altered; for it
+is not the same after life has flown. At all events, the integrating
+principle, the formative determinant, which binds the components of
+living protoplasm into a unitary system, which makes of them a single
+totality instead of a mere sum or fortuitous aggregate of disparate
+and uncoördinated factors, and which gives to them a determinate and
+persistent specificity that can hold its own amid a perpetual fluxion
+of matter and continual flow of energy, this is forever inaccessible to
+the chemist, and constitutes a phenomenon of which the inorganic world
+affords no parallel.
+
+With these facts in mind, we can hardly fail to be amused whenever
+certain simple chemical reactions obtained _in vitro_ are hailed as
+“clue to the origin of life.” When it was found, for instance, that,
+under certain conditions, an aldehyde (probably formaldehyde) is
+formed in a colloidal solution of chlorophyll in water, if exposed to
+sunlight, the discovery gave rise to Bach’s formaldehyde-hypothesis;
+for Alexis Bach saw in this reaction “a first step in the origin of
+life.” As formaldehyde readily undergoes aldol condensation into
+a syrupy fluid called formose, when a dilute aqueous solution of
+formaldehyde is saturated with calcium hydroxide and allowed to
+stand for several days, there was no difficulty in conceiving the
+transition from formaldehyde to the carbohydrates; for formose is a
+mixture containing several hexose sugars, and Fischer has succeeded in
+isolating therefrom acrose, a simple sugar having the same formula as
+glucose, namely: C₆H₁₂O₆. Glyceraldehyde undergoes a similar
+condensation. In view of these facts, carbohydrate-production in green
+plants was interpreted as a photosynthesis of these substances from
+water and carbon dioxide, with chlorophyll acting a sensitizer to
+absorb the radiant energy necessary for the reaction. The first step in
+the process was thought to be a reduction of carbonic acid to formic
+acid and then to formaldehyde, the latter being at once condensed into
+glucose, which in turn was supposed to be dehydrated and polymerized
+into starch. From the carbohydrates thus formed and the nitrates of the
+soil the plant could then synthesize proteins, while oxidation of the
+carbohydrates into fatty acids would lead to the formation of fats.
+Hence Bach regarded the formation of formaldehyde in the presence of
+water, carbon dioxide, chlorophyll, and sunlight as the “first step in
+the production of life.” Bateson, however, does not find the suggestion
+a very helpful one, and evaluates it at its true worth in the following
+contemptuous aside: “We should be greatly helped,” he says, “by
+some indication as to whether the origin of life has been single or
+multiple.” Modern opinion is, perhaps, inclined to the multiple theory,
+but we have no real evidence. Indeed, the problem still stands outside
+the range of scientific investigation, and when we hear the spontaneous
+formation of formaldehyde mentioned as a possible first step in
+the origin of life, we think of Harry Lauder in the character of a
+Glasgow schoolboy pulling out his treasures from his pocket—“That’s a
+wassher—for makkin’ motor cars.” (“Presidential Address,” cf. Smithson.
+Inst. Rpt. for 1915, p. 375.)
+
+Bach, moreover, takes it for granted that the formation of formaldehyde
+is really the first step in the synthesis performed by the green plant,
+and he claims that formaldehyde is formed when carbon dioxide is passed
+through a solution of a salt of uranium in the presence of sunlight.
+Fenton makes a similar claim in the case of magnesium, asserting that
+traces of formaldehyde are discernible when metallic magnesium is
+immersed in water saturated with carbon dioxide. But at present it
+begins to look as though the spontaneous formation and condensation of
+formaldehyde had nothing to do with the process that actually occurs
+in green plants. Certain chemists, while admitting that an aldehyde
+is formed when chlorophyll, water, and air are brought together in
+the presence of sunlight, deny that the aldehyde in question is
+formaldehyde, and they also draw attention to the fact that this
+aldehyde may be formed in an atmosphere entirely destitute of carbon
+dioxide. In fact, the researches conducted by Willstätter and Stoll,
+and later (in 1916) by Jörgensen and Kidd tend to discredit the common
+notion that carbohydrate-production in plants is the result of a direct
+union of water and carbon dioxide. Botany textbooks still continue to
+parrot the traditional view. We cannot any longer, however, be sure but
+that the term photosynthesis may be a misnomer.
+
+Carbohydrate-formation in plants seems to be more analogous to
+carbohydrate-formation in animals than was formerly thought to be the
+case. In animals, as is well known, glycogen or animal starch is formed
+not by direct synthesis, but by deämination and reduction of proteins.
+In a similar way, it is thought that the production of carbohydrates
+in plants may be due to a breaking down of the phytyl ester in
+chlorophyll, the chromogen group functioning (under the action of
+light) alternately as a dissociating enzyme in the formation of sugars
+and a synthesizing enzyme in the reconstruction of chlorophyll. Phytol
+is an unsaturated alcohol obtained when chlorophyll is saponified by
+means of caustic alkalis. Its formula is C₂₀H₃₉OH, and chlorophyll
+consists of a chromogen group containing magnesium (MgN₄C₃₂H₃₀O) united
+to a diester of phytyl and methyl alcohols.
+
+Experimental results are at variance with the theory that chlorophyll
+acts as a sensitizer in bringing about a reduction of carbonic
+acid, after the analogy of eosin, which in the presence of light
+accelerates the decomposition of silver salts on photographic plates.
+Willstätter found that, when a colloidal solution of the pure extract
+of chlorophyll in water is exposed to sunlight and an atmosphere
+consisting of carbon dioxide exclusively, no formaldehyde is formed,
+but the chlorophyll is changed into yellow phæophytin owing to the
+removal of the magnesium from the chromogen group by the action of the
+carbonic acid. Jörgensen, on the other hand, discovered that in an
+atmosphere of pure oxygen, formaldehyde is formed, apparently by the
+splitting off and reduction of the phytyl ester of chlorophyll. Soon,
+however, the formaldehyde is oxidized to formic acid, which replaces
+the chlorophyllic magnesium with hydrogen, thus causing the green
+chlorophyll to degenerate into yellow phæophytin and finally to lose
+its color altogether. The dissociation of the chromogen group may be
+due to the fact that the reaction takes place _in vitro_, and may not
+occur in the living plant. At all events, it would seem that plants,
+like animals, manufacture carbohydrates by a destructive rather than a
+constructive process, and that water and carbon dioxide serve rather
+as materials for the regeneration of chlorophyll than as materials out
+of which sugars are directly synthesized.
+
+A new theory has been proposed by Dr. Oskar Baudisch, who seems to
+have sensed the irrelevance of the formaldehyde hypothesis, and to
+have sought another solution in connection with the chromogen group of
+chlorophyll. He finds a more promising starting-point in formaldoxime,
+which, he claims, readily unites with such metals as magnesium and iron
+and with formaldehyde, in the presence of light containing ultra-violet
+rays, to form organic compounds analogous to the chromogen complexes
+in chlorophyll and hæmoglobin. Oximes are compounds formed by the
+condensation of one molecule of an aldehyde with one molecule of
+hydroxylamine (NH₂OH) and the elimination of a molecule of water. Hence
+Dr. Baudisch imagines that, given formaldoxime (H₂C:N·OH), magnesium,
+and ultra-violet rays, we might expect a spontaneous formation of
+chlorophyll leading eventually to the production of organic life. “It
+is his theory that life may have been caused through the direct action
+of sunlight upon water, air, and carbon dioxide in the ancient geologic
+past when, he believes, sunlight was more intense and contained
+more ultra-violet light and the air contained more water vapor and
+carbon dioxide than at the present time.” (_Science_, April 6, 1923,
+Supplement XII.)
+
+This is the old Spencerian evasion, the fatuous appeal to “conditions
+unlike those we know,” the unverified and unverifiable assumption
+that an unknown past must have been more favorable to spontaneous
+generation than the known present. In archæozoic times, the temperature
+was higher, the partial pressure of atmospheric carbon dioxide
+greater, the percentage of ultra-violet rays in sunlight larger.
+Such contentions are interesting, if true, but, for all that, they
+may, “like the flowers that bloom in the spring,” have nothing to do
+with the case. Nature does not, and the laboratory cannot, reproduce
+the conditions which are said to have brought about the spontaneous
+generation of formaldoxime and its progressive transmutation into
+phycocyanin, chlorophyll and the blue-green algæ. What value, then,
+have these conjectures? If it be the function of natural science to
+discount actualities in favor of possibilities, to draw arguments from
+ignorance, and to accept the absence of disproof as a substitute for
+demonstration, then the expedient of invoking the unknown in support
+of a speculation is scientifically legitimate. But, if the methods of
+science are observation and induction, if it proceeds according to the
+principle of the uniformity of nature, and does not utterly belie its
+claim of resting upon factual realities rather than the figments of
+fancy, then all this hypothecation, which is so flagrantly at variance
+with the actual data of experience and the unmistakable trend of
+inductive reasoning, is not science at all, but sheer credulity and
+superstition.
+
+When we ask by what right men of science presume to lift the veil of
+mystery from a remote past, which no one has observed, we are told that
+the justification of this procedure is the principle of the uniformity
+of nature or the invariability of natural laws. Nature’s laws are the
+same yesterday, today, and forever. Hence the scientist, who wishes
+to penetrate into the unknown past, has only to “prolong the methods
+of nature from the present into the past.” (Tyndall.) If we reject
+the soundness of this principle, we automatically cut ourselves off
+from all certainty regarding that part of the world’s history which
+antecedes human observation. Either nature’s laws change, or they do
+not. If they never change, then Spontaneous Generation is quite as
+much excluded from the past as it is from the present. If, however, as
+Hamann and Fechner explicitly maintain, nature’s laws do change, then,
+obviously, no knowledge whatever is possible respecting the past, since
+it is solely upon the assumption of the immutable constancy of such
+laws that we can venture to reconstruct prehistory.
+
+The puerile notion that the synthesis of organic substances in the
+laboratory furnishes a clue to the origin of organic life on earth is
+due to a confusion of organic, with living and organized, substances.
+It is only in the production of organic substances that the chemist
+can vie with the plant or animal. These are lifeless and unorganized
+carbon compounds, which are termed organic because they are elaborated
+by living organisms as a metaplastic by-product of their metabolism.
+Such substances, however, are not to be confounded with animate matter,
+_e.g._ a living cell and its organelles, or even with organized matter,
+_e.g._ dead protoplasm. These the chemist cannot duplicate; for
+vitality and organization, as we have seen, are things that elude both
+his analysis and his synthesis. Even with respect to the production of
+organic substances, the parallelism between the living cell and the
+chemical laboratory is far from being a perfect one. Speaking of the
+metaplastic or organic products of cells, Benjamin Moore says: “Most
+of these are so complex that they have not yet been synthesized by the
+organic chemist; nay, even of those that have been synthesized, it may
+be remarked that all proof is wanting that the syntheses have been
+carried out in identically the same fashion and by the employment of
+the same forms of energy in the case of the cell as in the chemist’s
+laboratory. The conditions in the cell are widely different, and at the
+temperature of the cell and with such chemical materials as are at hand
+in the cell no such organic syntheses have been artificially carried
+out by the forms of energy extraneous to living tissue.” (“Recent
+Advances in Physiology and Bio-Chemistry,” p. 10.) Be that as it may,
+however, the prospect of a laboratory synthesis of an organic substance
+like chlorophyll affords no ground whatever for expecting a chemical
+synthesis of living matter. The chlorophyllic tail is inadequate to
+the task of wagging the dog of organic life. In this connection, Yves
+Delage’s sarcastic comment on Schaaffhausen’s theory is worthy of
+recall. The latter had suggested (in 1892) that life was initiated by a
+chemical reaction, in which water, air, and mineral salts united under
+the influence of light and heat to produce a colorless _Protococcus_,
+which subsequently acquired chlorophyll and became a _Protococcus
+viridis_. “If the affair is so simple,” writes Delage, “why does
+not the author produce a few specimens of this _protococcus_ in his
+laboratory? We will gladly supply him with the necessary chlorophyll.”
+(“La structure du protoplasma et les théories sur l’hérédité,” p. 402.)
+
+Another consideration, which never appears to trouble the visionaries
+who propound theories of this sort, is the fact that the inert elements
+and blind forces of inorganic nature are, if left to themselves,
+utterly impotent to duplicate even so much as the feats of the
+chemical laboratory, to say nothing at all of the more wonderful
+achievements possible only to living organisms. In the laboratory,
+the physicochemical forces of the mineral world are coördinated,
+regulated, and directed by the guiding intelligence of the chemist.
+In that heterogeneous conglomerate, which we call brute matter, no
+such guiding principle exists, and the only possible automatic results
+are those which the fortuitous concurrence of blind factors avails to
+produce. Chance of this kind may vie with art in the production of
+relatively simple combinations or systems, but where the conditions are
+as complex as those, which the synthesis of chlorophyll presupposes,
+chance is impotent and regulation absolutely imperative. How much more
+is this true, when there is question of the production of an effect
+so complicatedly telic as the living organism! “I venture to think,”
+says Sir William Tilden, in a letter to the London _Times_ (Sept. 10,
+1912), “that no chemist will be prepared to suggest a process by which,
+from the interaction of such materials (viz., inorganic substances),
+anything approaching a substance of the nature of a proteid could be
+formed or, if by a complex series of changes a compound of this kind
+were conceivably produced, that it would present the characters of
+living protoplasm.” In the concluding sentence of his letter, the
+great chemist seems to deprecate even the discussion of a chemical
+synthesis of living matter, whether spontaneous or artificial. “Far
+be it from any man of science,” he says, “to affirm that any given set
+of phenomena is not a fit subject of inquiry and that there is any
+limit to what may be revealed in answer to systematic and well-directed
+investigation. In the present instance, however, it appears to me that
+this is not a field for the chemist nor one in which chemistry is
+likely to afford any assistance whatever.” In any case, the idea that a
+chaos of unassorted elements and undirected forces could succeed where
+the skill of the chemist fails is preposterous. No known or conceivable
+process, or group of processes, at work in inorganic nature, is equal
+to the task. Chance is an explanation only for minds insensible to the
+beauty and order of organic life.
+
+Darwin inoculated biological science with this Epicurean metaphysics,
+when, in his “Origin of Species,” he ascribed discriminating and
+selective powers of great delicacy and precision to the blind factors
+of a heterogeneous and variable environment. He compared natural
+selection to artificial selection, and in so doing, he was led
+astray by a false implication of his own analogy—“I have called this
+principle,” he says, “by which each slight variation, if useful, is
+preserved, by the term natural selection, in order to mark its relation
+to man’s power of selection.” (“Origin of Species,” 6th ed., c. III,
+p. 58.) Having likened the unintelligent and fortuitous selection
+and elimination exercised by the environment to the intelligent and
+purposive selection and elimination practiced by animal breeders and
+horticulturists, he pressed the analogy to the unwarranted extent of
+attributing to a blind, lifeless, and impersonal aggregate of minerals,
+liquids, and gases superhuman powers of discretion. To preserve
+even the semblance of parity, he ought first to have expurgated the
+process of artificial selection by getting rid of the element of
+human intelligence, which lurks therein, and vitiates its parallelism
+with the unconscious and purposeless havoc wrought at random by the
+blind and uncoördinated agencies of the environment. If inorganic
+nature were a vast and multifarious mold, a preformed sieve with
+holes of different sizes, a separator for sorting coins of various
+denominations, Darwin’s idea would be, in some degree, defensible, but
+this would only transfer the problem of cosmic order and intelligence
+from the organism to the environment. As a matter of fact, the
+mechanism of the environment is far too _simple_ in its structure
+and too _general_ in its influence to account for the complexities
+and specificities of organisms, that is, for the morphology and
+specific differences of plants and animals. Hence the selective work
+of the environment is negligible in the positive sense, and consists,
+for the most part, in a tendency to eliminate the abnormal and the
+subnormal. On the other hand, the environment as well as the organism
+is fundamentally teleological, and the environmental mechanism, though
+simple and general, is nevertheless expressly preadapted for the
+maintenance of organic life. Henderson, the bio-chemist of Harvard, has
+shown conclusively, in his “Fitness of the Environment” (1913), that
+the environment itself has been expressly selected with this finality
+in view, and that the inorganic world, while not the active cause, is,
+nevertheless, the preördained complement of organic life.
+
+Simple constructions may, indeed, be due to pure accident as well
+as deliberate art, inasmuch as they presuppose but few and easy
+conditions. Complex constructions, on the contrary, provided they be
+systematic and not chaotic, are not producible by accident, but only
+by art, because they require numerous and complicated conditions.
+Operating individually, the unconscious factors of inorganic nature
+can produce simple and homogeneous constructions such as crystals.
+Operating in uncoördinated concurrence with one another, these blind
+and unrelated agencies produce complex chaotic formations such as
+mountains and islands, mere heterogeneous conglomerates, destitute
+of any determinate size, shape, or symmetry, constructions in which
+every single item and detail is the result of factors each of
+which is independent of the other. In short, the efficacy of the
+unconscious and uncoordinated physicochemical factors of inorganic
+nature is limited to fortuitous results, which serve no purpose,
+embody no intelligible law, convey no meaning nor idea, and afford
+no æsthetic satisfaction, being mere aggregates or sums rather than
+natural units and real totalities. But it does not extend to the
+production of complex systematic formations such as living organisms
+or human artefacts. Left to itself, therefore, inorganic nature might
+conceivably duplicate the simplest artefacts such as the chipped flints
+of the savage, and it might also construct a complex heterogeneous
+chaos of driftwood, mud, and sand like the Great Raft of the Red River,
+but it would be utterly impotent to construct a complicated telic
+system comparable to an animal, a clock, or even an organic compound,
+like chlorophyll.
+
+In this connection, it is curious to note how extremely myopic the
+scientific materialist can be, when there is question of recognizing
+a manifestation of Divine intelligence in the stupendous teleology of
+the living organism, and how incredibly lynx-eyed he becomes, when
+there is question of detecting evidences of human intelligence in the
+eoliths alleged to have been the implements of a “Tertiary Man.” In
+the latter case, he is never at a loss to determine the precise degree
+of chipping, at which an eolith ceases to be interpretable as the
+fortuitous product of unconscious processes, and points infallibly to
+the intelligent authorship of man, but he grows strangely obtuse to
+the psychic implications of teleology, when it comes to explaining the
+symmetry of a starfish or the beauty of a Bird of Paradise.
+
+In conclusion, it is clear that the hypothesis of a spontaneous
+origin of organic life from inorganic matter has in its favor neither
+factual evidence nor aprioristic probability, but is, on the contrary,
+ruled out of court by the whole force of the scientific principle of
+induction. To recapitulate, there are no subcellular organisms, and
+all cellular organisms (which is the same as saying, all organisms),
+be they unicellular or multicellular, originate exclusively by
+reproduction, that is, by generation from living parents of the same
+organic type or species. This is the law of genetic vital continuity,
+which, by the way, Aristotle had formulated long before Harvey, when
+he said: “It appears that all living beings come from a germ, and the
+germ from parents.” (“De Generatione Animalium,” lib. I, cap. 17.) All
+reproduction, however, is reducible to a process of cell-division. That
+such is the case with unicellular organisms is evident from the very
+definition of a cell. That it is also true of multicellular organisms
+can be shown by a review of the various forms of reproduction occurring
+among plants and animals.
+
+
+                 § 4. =Reproduction and Rejuvenation=
+
+Reproduction, the sole means by which the torch of life is relayed
+from generation to generation, the exclusive process by which
+living individuals arise and races are perpetuated, consists in the
+separation of a germ from the parent organism as a physical basis for
+the development of a new organism. The germ thus separated may be
+many-celled or one-celled, as we shall see presently, but the separated
+cells, be they one or many, have their common and exclusive source in
+the process of mitotic cell-division. In a few cases, this divisional
+power or energy of the cell seems to be perennial by virtue of an
+inherent inexhaustibility. In most cases, however, it is perennial by
+virtue of a restorative process involving nuclear reorganization. In
+the former cases, which are exceptional, the cellular stream of life
+appears to flow onward forever with steady current, but as a general
+rule it ebbs and flows in cycles, which involve a periodic rise
+and fall of divisional energy. The phenomena of the life-cycle are
+characteristic of most, perhaps all, organisms. The complete life-cycle
+consists of three phases or periods, namely: an adolescent period of
+high vitality, a mature period of balanced metabolism, and a senescent
+period of decline. Each life-cycle begins with the germination of the
+new organism and terminates with its death, and it is reproduction
+which constitutes the connecting link between one life-cycle and
+another.
+
+Reproduction, as previously intimated, is mainly of two kinds, namely:
+somatogenic reproduction, which is less general and confined to the
+metists, and cytogenic reproduction, which is common to metists and
+protists, and which is the ordinary method by which new organisms
+originate. Reproduction is termed somatogenic, when the germ separated
+from the body of the parent consists of a whole mass of somatic or
+tissue cells not expressly set aside and specialized for reproductive
+purposes. Reproduction is termed cytogenic, when the germ separated
+from the parent or parents consists of a single cell (_e.g._ a spore,
+gamete, or zygote) dedicated especially to reproductive purposes.
+
+Cytogenic reproduction may be either nonsexual (agamic) or sexual,
+according as the cell which constitutes the germ is an agamete or
+a gamete. An agamete is a germ cell not specialized for union with
+another complementary cell, or, in other words, it is a reproductive
+cell incapable of syngamy, _e.g._ a spore. A gamete, on the other hand,
+is a reproductive cell (germ cell) specialized for the production of a
+zygote (a synthetic or diploid germ cell) by union with a complementary
+cell, _e.g._ an egg, or a sperm.
+
+Nonsexual cytogenic reproduction is of three kinds, according to the
+nature of the agamete. When a unicellular organism gives rise to two
+new individuals by simple cell-division, we have fissiparation or
+binary fission. When a small cell or bud is formed and separated by
+division from a larger parent cell, we have budding (gemmation) or
+unequal fission. When the nucleus of the parent cell divides many
+times to form a number of daughter-nuclei, which then partition the
+cytoplasm of the parent cell among themselves so as to form a large
+number of reproductive cells called spores, we have what is known
+as sporulation or multiple fission. The first and second kind of
+nonsexual reproduction are confined to the protists, but the third
+kind (sporulation) also occurs among the metists.
+
+Sexual cytogenic reproduction is based upon gametes or mating germ
+cells. Since complementary gametes are specialized for union with each
+other to form a single synthetic cell, the zygote, the number of their
+nuclear threads or chromosomes is reduced to one half (the _haploid
+number_) at the time of maturation, so that the somatic or tissue cells
+of the parent organism have double the number (the _diploid number_)
+of chromosomes present in the reduced or mature gametes. Hence, when
+the gametes unite to form a zygote, summation is prevented and the
+diploid number of chromosomes characteristic of the given species of
+plant or animal is simply restored by the process of syngamy or union.
+The process by which the number of chromosomes is reduced in gametes is
+called _meiosis_, and, among the metists, it is distinct from syngamy,
+which, in their case, is a separate process called fertilization. Among
+the protists, we have, besides fertilization, another type of syngamy
+called conjugation, which combines meiosis with fertilization.
+
+In sexual reproduction, we have three kinds of gametes, namely:
+isogametes, anisogametes, and heterogametes. In the type of sexual
+reproduction known as isogamy, the complementary gametes are exactly
+alike both in size and shape. There is no division of labor between
+them. Each of the fusing gametes is equally fitted for the double
+function which they must perform, namely, the kinetic function, which
+enables them to reach each other and unite by means of movement,
+and the trophic function which consists in laying up a store of
+food for the sustenance of the developing embryo. In anisogamy, the
+complementary gametes are alike in shape, but unlike in size, and
+here we have the beginning of that division of labor, upon which the
+difference of gender or sex is based. The larger or female gamete is
+called a macrogamete. It is specialized for the trophic rather than
+the kinetic function, being rendered more inert by having a large
+amount of yolk or nutrient material stored up within it. The smaller
+or male gamete is called a microgamete. It is specialized for the
+kinetic function, since it contains less yolk and is the more agile of
+the two. In anisogamy, however, the division of labor is not complete,
+because both functions are still retained by either gamete, albeit
+in differing measure. In the heterogamy, the differentiation between
+the male and female gametes is complete, and they differ from each
+other in structure as well as size. The larger or female gamete has
+no motor apparatus and retains only the trophic function. The kinetic
+function is sacrificed to the task of storing up a food supply for the
+embryo. Such a gamete is called a hypergamete or egg. The smaller or
+male gamete is known, in this case, as a hypogamete or sperm. It has a
+motor apparatus, but no stored-up nutrients, and has even sloughed off
+most of its cytoplasm, in its exclusive specialization for the motor
+function. In heterogamy, accordingly, the division of labor is complete.
+
+We may distinguish two principal kinds of sexual reproduction, namely:
+unisexual reproduction and bisexual reproduction. When a single gamete
+such as an unfertilized egg gives rise (with, or without, chromosomal
+reduction) to a new organism, we have unisexual reproduction or
+parthenogenesis. Parthenogenesis from a reduced egg gives rise to an
+organism having only the haploid number of chromosomes, as is the case
+with the drone or male bee, but unreduced eggs give rise to organisms
+having the diploid number of chromosomes. Parthenogenesis, as we shall
+see presently, can, in some cases, be induced by artificial means.
+When reproduction takes place from a zygote or diploid germ cell
+formed by the union of two gametes, we have what is known as bisexual
+reproduction or syngamy. It is, perhaps, permissible to distinguish a
+third or intermediate kind of sexual reproduction, for which we might
+coin the term autosexual. What we refer to as autosexual reproduction
+is usually known as autogamy, and occurs when a diploid nucleus is
+formed in a germ cell by the union (or, we might say, reunion) of
+two daughter-nuclei derived from the same mother-nucleus. Autogamy
+occurs not only among the protists (_e. g._ _Amœba albida_), but also
+among the metists, as is the case with the brine shrimp, _Artemia
+salina_, in which the diploid number of chromosomes is restored
+after reduction by a reunion of the nucleus of the second polar body
+with the reduced nucleus of the egg. Autogamy is somewhat akin to
+kleistogamy, which occurs among hermaphroditic metists of both the
+plant and animal kingdoms. The violet is a well-known example. In
+kleistogamy or self-fertilization, the zygote is formed by the union of
+two gametes derived from the same parent organism. Strictly speaking,
+however, kleistogamy is not autogamy, but syngamy, and must, therefore,
+be classed as bisexual reproduction. It is, of course, necessarily
+confined to hermaphrodites.
+
+Loeb’s experiments in artificial parthenogenesis have been
+sensationally misinterpreted by some as an artificial production of
+life. What Jacques Loeb really did was to initiate development in an
+unfertilized egg by the use of chemical and physical excitants. The
+writer has repeated these experiments with the unfertilized eggs of the
+common sea urchin, _Arbacia punctulata_, using very dilute butyric acid
+and hypertonic sea water as stimulants. Cleavage had started within an
+hour and a half after the completion of the aforesaid treatment, and
+the eggs were in the gastrula stage by the following morning (9 hours
+later). In three days, good specimens of the larval stage known as the
+pluteus could be found swimming in the normal sea water to which the
+eggs had been transferred from the hypertonic solution. Since mature
+sea urchin eggs undergo reduction before insemination takes place,
+the larval sea urchins arising from these artificially activated
+eggs had the reduced or haploid number of chromosomes instead of the
+diploid number possessed by normal larvæ arising from eggs activated
+by the sperm. For, in fertilization, the sperm not only activates the
+egg, but is also the means of securing biparental inheritance, by
+contributing its quota of chromosomes to the zygotic complex. Hence,
+it is only in the former function, _i. e._ of initiating cleavage in
+the egg, that a chemical excitant can replace the sperm. In any case,
+it is evident that these experiments do not constitute an exception
+to the law of genetic cellular continuity. The artificially activated
+egg comes from the ovaries of a living female sea urchin, and in this
+there is small consolation for the exponent of abiogenesis. The terse
+comment of an old Irish Jesuit sizes up the situation very aptly: “The
+Blue Flame Factory,” he said, “has announced another discovery of the
+secret of life. A scientist made an egg and hatched an egg. The only
+unfortunate thing was that the egg he hatched was not the egg he made.”
+How an experiment of this sort could be interpreted as an artificial
+production of life is a mystery. The only plausible explanation is that
+given by Professor Wilson, who traces it to the popular superstition
+that the egg is a lifeless substrate, which is animated by the sperm.
+The idea owes its origin to the spermists of the 17th century, who
+defended this doctrine against the older school of preformationists
+known as ovists. It is now, however, an embryological commonplace that
+egg and sperm are both equally cellular, equally protoplasmic, and
+equally vital.
+
+The phenomena of the life-cycle in organisms find their explanation in
+what, perhaps, is inherent in all living matter, namely, a tendency to
+involution and senescence. This tendency, in the absence of a remedial
+process of rejuvenation, leads inevitably to death. Living matter seems
+to “run down” like a clock, and to stand in similar need of a periodic
+“rewinding.” This reinvigoration of protoplasm is accomplished by means
+of several different types of nuclear reorganization. Since no nuclear
+reorganization occurs in somatogenic reproduction, there seem to be
+limits to this type of propagation. Plants, like the potato and the
+apple, cannot be propagated indefinitely by means of tubers, shoots,
+stems, etc. The stock plays out in time, and, ever and anon, recourse
+must be had to seedlings. Hence a process of nuclear reorganization
+seems, in most cases, at least, to be essential for the restoration of
+vitality and the continuance of life. Whether this need of periodic
+renewal is absolutely universal, we cannot say. The banana has been
+propagated for over a century by the somatogenic method, and there
+are a few other instances in which there appears to be no limit to
+this type of reproduction. Nevertheless, the tendency to decline is
+so common among living beings that the rare exceptions serve only to
+confirm (if they do not follow) the general rule.
+
+In cytogenic reproduction three kinds of rejuvenation by means of
+nuclear reorganization are known: (1) amphimixis or syngamy; (2)
+automixis or autogamy; (3) endomixis. In amphimixis or syngamy, two
+gametic (haploid) nuclei of different parental lineage are commingled
+to form the diploid nucleus of the zygote, which is consequently of
+biparental origin. In automixis or autogamy, two reduced or haploid
+nuclei of the same parental lineage unite to form a diploid nucleus,
+the uniting nuclei being daughter-nuclei derived from a common parent
+nucleus. In endomixis, the nucleus of the exhausted cell disintegrates
+and fuses with the cytoplasm, out of which it is reformed or
+reconstructed as the germinal nucleus of a rejuvenated cellular series.
+Endomixis occurs as a periodic phenomenon among the protists, and it
+appears to be homologous with parthenogenesis among metists. In certain
+ciliates, like the Paramœcium, endomixis and syngamy are facultative
+methods of rejuvenation. This has been proved most conclusively
+by Professor Calkins’ work on _Uroleptus mobilis_, an organism in
+which both endomixis and conjugation are amenable to experimental
+control. Nonsexual reproduction in this protozoan (by binary fission)
+is attended with a gradual weakening of metabolic activity, which
+increases with each successive generation. The initial rate of division
+and metabolic energy can, however, be restored either by conjugation
+(of two individuals), or by endomixis, which takes place (in a single
+individual) during encystment. The race, however, inevitably dies
+out, if both encystment and conjugation are prevented. Even in such
+protists as do not exhibit the phenomenon of nuclear reorganization
+through sexual reproduction, Kofoid points to the phenomenon of
+alternating periods of rest and rapid cell-division as evidence that
+some process of periodically-recurrent nuclear organization must exist
+in the organisms, which do not conjugate. This process of nuclear
+reorganization manifested by periodic spurts of renewed divisional
+energy is, according to Kofoid, a more primitive mode of rejuvenation
+than endomixis. “The phenomenon of endomixis,” he says, “appears to be
+somewhat more like that of parthenogenesis than a more primitive form
+of nuclear reorganization.” (_Science_, April 6, 1923, p. 403.) At all
+events, it seems safe to conclude that the tendency to senescence is
+pretty general among living organisms, and that this tendency, unless
+counteracted by a periodic reorganization of the nuclear genes, results
+inevitably in the deterioration and final extinction of the race.
+
+In this inexhaustible power of self-renewal inherent in all forms
+of organic life, the mechanist and the upholder of abiogenesis
+encounter an insuperable difficulty. In inorganic nature, where the
+perpetual-motion device is a chimera, and the law of entropy reigns
+in unchallenged supremacy, nothing analogous to it can be found. The
+activity of all non-living units of nature, from the hydrogen atom
+to the protein multimolecule, is rigidly determined by the principle
+of the degradation of energy. The inorganic unit cannot operate
+otherwise than by externalizing and dissipating irreparably its own
+energy-content. Nor is its reconstruction and replenishment with energy
+ever again possible except through the wasteful expenditure of energy
+borrowed from some more richly endowed inorganic unit. In order to pay
+Paul a little, Peter must be robbed of much. Wheresoever atoms are
+built up into complex endothermic molecules, the constructive process
+is rigidly dependent upon the administration thereto of external
+energy, which in the process of absorption must of necessity fall from
+a higher level of intensity. And when the energy thus absorbed by the
+complex molecule is again set free by combustion, it is degraded to a
+still lower potential, from which, without external intervention, it
+can never rise again to its former plane of intensity. The phenomena
+of radioactivity tell the same tale. All the heavier atoms, at least,
+are constantly disintegrating with a concomitant discharge of energy.
+There is no compensating process, however, enabling such an atom to
+re-integrate and recharge itself at stated intervals; and, once it
+has broken down into its component protons and electrons, “not all
+the king’s horses nor all the king’s men can ever put Humpty-Dumpty
+together again.” In a word, none of the inorganic units of the mineral
+world exhibits that wonderful power of autonomous recuperation which
+a unicellular ciliate manifests when it rejuvenates itself by means
+of endomixis. The inorganic world knows of no constructive process
+comparable to this. It is only in living beings that we find what
+James Ward describes as the “tendency to disturb existing equilibria,
+to reverse the dissipative processes which prevail throughout the
+inanimate world, to store and build up where they are ever scattering
+and pulling down, the tendency to conserve individual existence against
+antagonistic forces, to grow and to progress, not inertly taking the
+easier way but seemingly striving for the best, retaining every vantage
+secured, and working for new ones.” (“On the Conservation of Energy,”
+I, p. 285.)
+
+Summing up, then, we have seen that the reproductive process, whereby
+the metists or multicellular organism originate, resolves itself
+ultimately into a process of cell-division. The same is true of the
+protists or unicellular organisms. For all cells, whether they be
+protists, germ cells, or somatic cells, originate in but one way, and
+that is, from a preëxistent living cell by means of cell-division.
+Neither experimentation nor observation has succeeded in revealing so
+much as a single exception to the universal law of genetic cellular
+continuity, and the hypothesis of spontogenesis is outlawed, in
+consequence, by the logic of scientific induction. Even the hope that
+future research may bring about an amelioration of its present status
+is entirely unwarranted in view of the manifest dynamic superiority
+of the living organism as compared with any of the inert units of the
+inorganic world. “Whatever position we take on this question,” says
+Edmund B. Wilson, in the conclusion of his work on the Cell, “the same
+difficulty is encountered; namely, the origin of that coördinated
+fitness, that power of active adjustment between internal and external
+relations, which, as so many eminent biological thinkers have insisted,
+overshadows every manifestation of life. The nature and origin of this
+power is the fundamental problem of biology. When, after removing
+the lens of the eye in the larval salamander, we see it restored in
+perfect and typical form by regeneration from the posterior layer of
+the iris, we behold an adaptive response to changed conditions of which
+the organism can have no antecedent experience either ontogenetic or
+phylogenetic, and one of so marvelous a character that we are made
+to realize, as by a flash how far we still are from a solution of
+this problem.” Then, after discussing the attempt of evolutionists to
+bridge the enormous gap that separates living, from lifeless nature,
+he continues: “But when all these admissions are made, and when the
+conserving action (_sic_) of natural selection is in the fullest degree
+recognized, we cannot close our eyes to two facts: first, that we are
+utterly ignorant of the manner in which the idioplasm of the germ cell
+can so respond to the influence of the environment as to call forth
+an adaptive variation; and second, that the study of the cell has on
+the whole seemed to widen rather than to narrow the enormous gap that
+separates even the lowest forms of life from the inorganic world.”
+(“The Cell,” 2nd edit., pp. 433, 434.)
+
+
+                  § 5. A “New” Theory of Abiogenesis
+
+Since true science is out of sympathy with baseless conjectures and
+gratuitous assumptions, one would scarcely expect to find scientists
+opposing the inductive trend of the known facts by preferring mere
+possibilities (if they are even such) to solid actualities. As a matter
+of fact, however, there are not a few who obstinately refuse to abandon
+preconceptions for which they can find no factual justification. The
+bio-chemist, Benjamin Moore, while conceding the bankruptcy of the
+old theory of spontaneous generation, which looked for a _de novo_
+origin of living cells in sterilized cultures, has, nevertheless,
+the hardihood to propose what he is pleased to term a _new_ one.
+Impressed by the credulity of Charlton Bastian and the autocratic tone
+of Schäfer, he sets out to defend as plausible the hypothesis that
+the origination of life from inert matter may be a contemporaneous,
+perhaps, daily, phenomenon, going on continually, but invisible to us,
+because its initial stages take place in the submicroscopic world.
+By the time life has emerged into the visible world, it has already
+reached the stage at which the law of genetic continuity prevails,
+but at stages of organization, which lie below the limit of the
+microscope, it is not impossible, he thinks, that abiogenesis may
+occur. To plausibleize this conjecture, he notes that the cell is a
+natural unit composed of molecules as a molecule is a natural unit
+composed of atoms. He further notes, that, in addition to the cell,
+there is in nature another unit higher than the monomolecule, namely,
+the _multimolecule_ occurring in both crystalloids and colloids.
+The monomolecule consists of atoms held together by atomic valence,
+whereas the multimolecule consists of molecules whose atomic valence
+is completely saturated, and which are, consequently, held together by
+what is now known as _molecular_ or _residual valence_. Moore cites
+the crystal units of sodium bromide and sodium iodide as instances of
+multimolecules. The crystal unit of ordinary salt, sodium chloride, is
+an ordinary monomolecule, with the formula NaCl. In the case of the
+former salts the crystal units consist of multimolecules of the formula
+NaB·(H₂O)₂ and NaI·(H₂O)₂, the water of crystallization not being
+mechanically confined in the crystals, but combined with the respective
+salt in the exact ratio of two molecules of water to one of the salt.
+Judged by all chemical tests, such as heat of formation, the law of
+combination in fixed ratios, the manifestation of selective affinity,
+etc., the multimolecule is quite as much entitled to be considered a
+natural unit as is the monomolecule.
+
+But it is not in the crystalloidal multimolecule, but in the larger
+and more complex multimolecule of colloids (viscid substances like
+gum arabic, gelatine, agar-agar, white of egg, etc.), that Moore
+professes to see a sort of intermediate between the cell and inorganic
+units. Such colloids form with a dispersing medium (like water) an
+emulsion, in which the dispersed particles, known as ultramicrons or
+“solution aggregates,” are larger than monomolecules. It is among
+these multimolecules of colloids that Moore would have us search for
+a transitional link connecting the cell with the inorganic world.
+Borrowing Herbert Spencer’s dogma of the complication of homogeneity
+into heterogeneity, he asserts that such colloidal multimolecules
+would tend to become more and more complex, and consequently more and
+more instable, so that their instability would gradually approach the
+chronic instability or constant state of metabolic fluxion manifest in
+living organisms. The end-result would be a living unit more simply
+organized than the cell, and evolution seizing upon this submicroscopic
+unit would, in due time, transform it into cellular life of every
+variety and kind. _Ce n’est que le premier pas qui coûte!_
+
+It should be noted that this so-called law is a mere vague formula
+like the “law” of natural selection and the “law” of evolution. The
+facts which it is alleged to express are not cited, and its terms
+are far from being quantitative. It is certainly not a law in the
+sense of Arrhénius, who says: “Quantitative formulation, that is,
+the establishing of a connection, expressed by a formula, between
+different quantitatively measurable magnitudes, is the peculiar feature
+of a law.” (“Theories of Chemistry,” Price’s translation, p. 3.) Now,
+chemistry, as an exact science, has no lack of laws of this kind, but
+no branch of chemistry, whether physical, organic, or inorganic, knows
+of any _law of complexity_, that can be stated in either quantitative,
+or descriptive, terms. We will, however, let Moore speak for himself:
+
+“It may then be summed up as a general law universal in its application
+to all matter, ... a law which might be called the Law of Complexity,
+that matter so far as its energy environment will permit tends to
+assume more and more complex forms in labile equilibrium. Atoms,
+molecules, colloids, and living organisms, arise as a result of the
+operations of this law, and in the higher regions of complexity it
+induces organic evolution and all the many thousands of living forms....
+
+“In this manner we can conceive that the hiatus between non-living and
+living things can be bridged over, and there awakens in our minds the
+conception of a kind of spontaneous production of life of a different
+order from the old. The territory of this spontaneous generation of
+life lies not at the level of bacteria, or animalculæ, springing forth
+into life from dead organic matter, but at a level of life lying deeper
+than anything the microscope can reveal, and possessing a lower unit
+than the living cell, as we form our concept of it from the tissues of
+higher animals and plants.
+
+“In the future, the stage at which colloids begin to be able to
+deal with external energy forms, such as light, and build up in
+chemical complexity, will yield a new unit of life opening a vista of
+possibilities as magnificent as that which the establishment of the
+cell as a unit gave, with the development of the microscope, about a
+century ago.” (“Origin and Nature of Life,” pp. 188-190.)
+
+Having heard out a rhapsody of this sort, one may be pardoned a little
+impatience at such a travesty on science. Again we have the appeal from
+realities to fancies, from the seen to unseen. Moore sees no reason
+to doubt and is therefore quite sure that an unverified occurrence
+is taking place “at a level of life lying deeper than anything the
+microscope can reveal.” The unknown is a veritable paradise for
+irresponsible speculation and phantasy. It is well, however, to keep
+one’s feet on the _terra firma_ of ascertained facts and to make one’s
+ignorance a motive for caution rather than an incentive to reckless
+dogmatizing.
+
+To begin with, it is not to a single dispersed particle or ultramicron
+that protoplasm has been likened, but to an emulsion, comprising both
+the dispersed particles and the dispersing medium, or, in other words,
+to the colloidal system as a whole. Moreover, even there the analogy
+is far from being perfect, and is confined exclusively, as Wilson has
+pointed out, to a rough similarity of structure and appearance. The
+colloidal system is obviously a mere _aggregate_ and not a _natural
+unit_ like the cell, and its dispersed particles (ultramicrons) do
+not multiply and perpetuate themselves by growth and division as do
+the living components or formed bodies of the cell. As for the single
+ultramicron or multimolecule of a colloidal solution, it may, indeed,
+be a natural unit, but it only resembles the cell in the sense that,
+like the latter, it is a complex of constituent molecules. Here,
+however, all resemblance ceases; for the ultramicron does not display
+the typically vital power of self-perpetuation by growth and division,
+which, as we have seen, is characteristic not only of the cell as a
+whole, but of its single components or organelles. Certainly, the
+distinctive phenomena of colloidal systems cannot be interpreted as
+processes of multiplication. There is nothing suggestive of this vital
+phenomenon in the reversal of phase, which is caused by the addition
+of electrolytes to oil emulsions, or in gelation, which is caused by
+a change of temperature in certain hydrophilic colloids. Thus the
+addition of the salt of a bivalent cation (_e.g._ CaCl₂ or BaCl₂)
+to an oil-in-water emulsion (if soap is used as the emulsifier) will
+cause the external or continuous phase (water) to become the internal
+or discontinuous phase. Vice versa, a water-in-oil emulsion can be
+reversed into an oil-in-water emulsion, under the same conditions,
+by the addition of the salt of a monovalent cation (_e. g._ NaOH).
+Solutions of hydrophilic colloids, like gelatine or agar-agar, can
+be made to “set” from the semifluid state of a hydrosol into the
+semisolid state of a hydrogel, by lowering the temperature, after
+which the opposite effect can be brought about by again raising the
+temperature. In white of egg, however, once gelation has taken place,
+through the agency of heat, it is impossible to reconvert the “gel”
+into a “sol” (solution). In such phenomena, it is, perhaps, possible
+to see a certain parallelism with some processes taking place in the
+cell, _e. g._ the osmotic processes of absorption and excretion, but to
+construe them as evidence of propagation by growth and division would
+be preposterous.
+
+Nor is the subterfuge of relegating the question to the obscurity
+of the submicroscopic world of any avail; for, as a matter of
+fact, submicroscopic organisms actually do exist, and manage,
+precisely by virtue of this uniquely vital power of multiplication
+or reproductivity, to give indirect testimony of their invisible
+existence. The microörganisms, for example, which cause the disease
+known as Measles are so minute that they pass through the pores
+of a porcelain filter, and are invisible to the highest powers of
+the microscope. Nevertheless, they can be bred in the test tube
+cultures of the bacteriologist, where they propagate themselves for
+generations without losing the definite specificity, which make
+them capable of producing distinctive pathological effects in the
+organisms of higher animals, including man. Each of these invisible
+disease germs communicates but one disease, with symptoms that are
+perfectly characteristic and definite. Moreover, they are specific in
+their choice of a host, and will not infect any and every organism
+promiscuously. Finally, they never arise _de novo_ in a healthy
+host, but must always be transmitted from a diseased to a healthy
+individual. The microscopist is tantalized, to quote the words of
+Wilson, “with visions of disease germs which no eye has yet seen,
+so minute as to pass through a fine filter, yet beyond a doubt
+self-perpetuating and of specific type.” (_Science_, March 9, 1923,
+p. 283.) Submicroscopic dimensions, therefore, are no obstacle to
+the manifestation of such vital properties as reproduction, genetic
+continuity, and typical specificity; and we must conclude that, if
+any of the ultramicrons of colloids possessed them, their minute size
+would not debar them from manifesting the fact. As it is, they fail to
+show any vital quality, whereas the submicroscopic disease germs give
+evidence of possessing all the characteristics of visible cells.
+
+In fine, the radical difference between inorganic units, like atoms,
+molecules, and multimolecules, and living units, like protozoans and
+metazoans, is so obvious that it is universally admitted. Not all,
+however, are in accord when it comes to assigning the fundamental
+reason for the difference in question. Benjamin Moore postulates a
+unique physical energy, peculiar to living organisms and responsible
+for all distinctively vital manifestations. This unique form of energy,
+unlike all other forms, he calls “biotic energy,” denying at the same
+time that it is a vital force. (Cf. _op. cit._, pp. 224-226.) Moore
+seems to be desirous of dressing up vitalism in the verbal vesture of
+mechanism. He wants the game, without the name. But, if his “biotic
+energy” is unlike all other forms of energy, it ought not to parade
+under the same name, but should frankly call itself a “vital force.”
+Somewhat similar in nature is Osborn’s suggestion that the peculiar
+properties of living protoplasm may be due to the presence of a
+unique chemical element called Bion. (Cf. “The Origin and Evolution
+of Life,” 1917, p. 6.) Now, a chemical element unlike other chemical
+elements is not a chemical element at all. Osborn’s Bion, like Moore’s
+biotic energy, ought, by all means, to make up its mind definitely on
+Hamlet’s question of “to be, or not to be.” The policy of “It is, and
+it is not,” is not likely to win the approval of either mechanists or
+vitalists.
+
+
+          § 6. Hylomorphism versus Mechanism and Neo-vitalism
+
+Mechanism and Neo-vitalism represent two extreme solutions of this
+problem of accounting for the difference between living and lifeless
+matter. Strictly speaking, it is an abuse of language to refer to
+mechanism as a solution at all. Its first pretense at solving the
+problem is to deny that there is any problem. But facts are facts and
+cannot be disposed of in this summary fashion. Forced, therefore, to
+face the actual fact of the uniqueness of living matter, mechanists
+concede the inadequacy of their physicochemical analogies, but
+obstinately refuse to admit the legitimacy of any other kind of
+explanation. Confronted with realities, which simply must have _some_
+explanation, they prefer to leave them unexplained by their own theory
+than have them explained by any other. They recognize the difference
+between a living animal and a dead animal (small credit to them for
+their perspicacity!), but deny that there is anything present in the
+former which is not present in the latter.
+
+Neo-vitalism, on the other hand, is, at least, an attempt at solving
+the problem in the positive sense. It ascribes the unique activities of
+living organisms to the operation of a superphysical and superchemical
+energy or force resident in living matter. This unique dynamic
+principle is termed _vital force_. It is not an entitive nor a static
+principle, but belongs to the category of efficient or active causes,
+being variously described as an agent, energy, or force. To speak
+precisely, the term agent denotes an active being or substance; the
+term energy denotes the proximate ground in the agent of a specific
+activity; while the term force denotes the activity or free, kinetic,
+or activated phase of a given energy. In practice, however, these
+terms are often used interchangeably. Thus Driesch, who, like all
+other Neo-vitalists, makes the vital principle a dynamic factor
+rather than an entitive principle, refers to the vital principle as a
+“non-material,” “non-spatial” _agent_, though the term _energy_ would
+be more precise. To this active or dynamic vital principle Driesch
+gives a name, which he borrowed from Aristotle, that is, _entelechy_.
+In so doing, however, he perverted, as he himself confesses, the true
+Aristotelian sense of the term in question: “The term,” he says,
+“... is not here used in the proper Aristotelian sense.” (“History and
+Theory of Vitalism,” p. 203.) His admission is quite correct. At the
+critical point, Driesch, for all his praise of Aristotle, deserts
+the Stagirite and goes over to the camp of Plato, Descartes, and the
+Neo-vitalists!
+
+Driesch’s definition is as follows: “Entelechy is an agent _sui
+generis_, non-material and non-spatial, but acting ‘into’ space.”
+(_Op. cit._, p. 204.) Aristotle’s use of the term in this connection
+is quite different. He uses it, for example, in a static, rather than
+a dynamic, sense: “The term ‘entelechy,’” he says, “is used in two
+senses; in one it answers to knowledge, in the other to the exercise of
+knowledge. Clearly in this case it is analogous to knowledge.” (“Peri
+Psyches,” Bk. II, c. 1.) Knowledge, however, is only a _second_ or
+static _entelechy_. Hence, in order to narrow the sense still further
+Aristotle refers to the _soul_ as a _first_ entelechy, by which he
+designates a purely _entitive_ principle, that is, a constituent of
+being or substance (cf. _op. cit._ _ibidem_). The _first_, or entitive,
+entelechy, therefore, is to be distinguished from all secondary
+entelechies, whether of the _dynamic_ order corresponding to kinetic
+energy or force, or of the _static_ order corresponding to potential
+energy. Neither is it an _agent_, because it is only a partial
+constituent of the total agent, that is, of the total active being or
+substance. Hence, generally speaking, _that which acts_ (the agent)
+is not entelechy, but the total composite of entelechy and matter,
+_first entelechy_ being consubstantial with matter and not a separate
+existent or being. In fine, according to Aristotelian philosophy,
+entelechy (that is, “first” or “prime” entelechy) is not an agent nor
+an energy nor a force. In other words, it is totally removed from the
+category of efficient or active causes. The second difference between
+Driesch and Aristotle with respect to the use of the term entelechy
+lies in the fact that Driesch uses it as a synonym for the soul or
+vital principle, whereas, according to Aristotle, _entelechy is common
+to the non-living units of inorganic nature as well as the living
+units_ (organisms) _of the organic world_. All vital principles or
+souls are entelechies, but not all entelechies are vital principles.
+All material beings or substances, whether living or lifeless, are
+reducible, in the last analysis, to two consubstantial principles or
+complementary constituents, namely, entelechy and matter. Entelechy
+is the binding, type-determining principle, the source of unification
+and specification, which makes of a given natural unit (such as a
+molecule or a protozoan) a single and determinate whole. Matter is
+the determinable and potentially-multiple element, the principle of
+divisibility and quantification, which can enter indifferently into the
+composition of this or that natural unit, and which owes its actual
+unity and specificity to the entelechy which here and now informs
+it. It is entelechy which makes a chemical element distinct from its
+isobare, a chemical compound distinct from its isomer, a paramœcium
+distinct from an amœba, a maple distinct from an oak, and a bear
+distinct from a tiger.
+
+The molecular entelechy finds expression in what the organic chemist
+and the stereochemist understand by valence, that is, the static aspect
+of valence considered as the structural principle of a molecule.
+Hence it is entelechy which makes a molecule of urea [O:C:(NH₂)₂]
+an entirely different substance from its isomer ammonium cyanate
+[NH₄·O·C:N], although the material substrate of each of these molecular
+units consists of precisely the same number and kinds of atoms.
+Similarly, it is the atomic entelechy which gives to the isotopes of
+Strontium chemical properties different from those of the isotopes of
+Rubidium, although the mass and corpuscular (electronic and protonic)
+composition of their respective atoms are identical. It is the vital
+entelechy or soul, which causes a fragment cut from a Stentor to
+regenerate its specific protoplasmic architecture instead of the type
+which would be regenerated from a similar fragment cut from another
+ciliate such as Dileptus.
+
+In all the tridimensional units of nature, both living and non-living,
+the hylomorphic analysis of Aristotle recognizes an essential dualism
+of matter and entelechy. Hence it is not in the presence and absence
+of an entelechy (as Driesch contends) that living organisms differ
+from inorganic units. The sole difference between these two classes of
+units is one of autonomy and inertia. The inorganic unit is inert, not
+in the sense that it is destitute of energy, but in the sense that it
+is incapable of self-regulation and rigidly dependent upon external
+factors for the utilization of its own energy-content. The living
+unit, on the other hand, is endowed with dynamic autonomy. Though
+dependent, in a general way, upon environmental factors for the energy
+which it utilizes, nevertheless the determinate form and direction of
+its activity is not imposed in all its specificity by the aforesaid
+environmental factors. The living being possesses a certain degree of
+independence with respect to these external forces. It is autonomous
+with a special law of immanent finality or reflexive orientation, by
+which all the elements and energies of the living unit are made to
+converge upon one and the same central result, namely, the maintenance
+and development of the organism both in its capacity as an individual
+and in its capacity as the generative source of its racial type.
+
+The entelechies of the inert units of inorganic nature turn the
+forces of these units in an _outward direction_, so that they are
+incapable of operating upon themselves, of modifying themselves, or
+of regulating themselves. They are only capable of operating upon
+other units outside themselves, and in so doing they irreparably
+externalize their energy-contents. All physicochemical action is
+_transitive_ or _communicable_ in character, whereas vital action
+is of the _reflexive_ or _immanent_ type. Mechanical action, for
+example, is intermolar (_i.e._ an exchange between large masses of
+inorganic matter); physical action is intermolecular; chemical action
+is interatomic; while in radioactive and electrical phenomena we have
+intercorpuscular action. Hence all the forms of activity native to the
+inorganic world are reducible to _interaction_ between discontinuous
+and unequally energized masses or particles. Always it is a case of
+one mass or particle operating upon another mass or particle distinct
+from, and spatially external to, itself. The effect or positive change
+produced by the action is received into another unit distinct from the
+agent or active unit, which can never become the receptive subject of
+the effect generated by its own activity. The living being, on the
+contrary, is capable of operating upon itself, so that what is modified
+by the action is not outside the agent but within it. The reader does
+not modify the book, but modifies himself by his reading. The blade
+of grass can nourish not only a horse, but its very self, whereas a
+molecule of sodium nitrate is impotent to nourish itself, and can
+only nourish a subject other than itself, such as the blade of grass.
+Here the active source and receptive subject of the action is one and
+the same unit, namely, the living organism, which can operate upon
+itself in the interest of its own perfection. In chemical synthesis
+two substances interact to produce a third, but in vital assimilation
+one substance is incorporated into another without the production of
+a third. Thus hydrogen unites with oxygen to produce water. But in
+the case of assimilation the reaction may be expressed thus: Living
+protoplasm plus external nutriment equals living protoplasm increased
+in quantity but unchanged in specificity. Addition or subtraction
+alters the nature of the inorganic unit, but does not change the nature
+of the living unit. In chemical change, entelechy is the variant and
+matter is the constant, but in metabolic change, matter is the variant
+and entelechy the constant. “Living beings,” says Henderson, “preserve,
+or tend to preserve, an ideal form, while through them flows a steady
+stream of energy and matter which is ever changing, yet momentarily
+molded by life; organized, in short.” (“Fitness of the Environment,”
+1913, pp. 23, 24.) The living unit maintains its own specific type
+amid a constant flux of matter and flow of energy. It subjugates the
+alien substances of the inorganic world, eliminates their mineral
+entelechies and utilizes their components and energies for its own
+purposes. The soul or vital entelechy, therefore, is more powerful than
+the entelechies of inorganic units which it supplants. It turns the
+forces of living matter _inward_, so that the living organism becomes
+capable of _self-regulation_ and of striving for the attainment of
+self-perfection. It is this _reflexive orientation_ of all energies
+towards self-perfection that is the unique characteristic of the living
+being, and not the nature of the energies themselves. The energies by
+which vital functions are executed are the ordinary physicochemical
+energies, but it is the vital entelechy or soul which elevates them
+to a higher plane of efficiency and renders them capable of reflexive
+or vital action. There is, in short, no such thing as a special vital
+force. The radical difference between living and non-living units does
+not consist in the possession or non-possession of an entelechy, nor
+yet in the peculiar nature of the forces displayed in the execution of
+vital functions, but solely in the orientation of these forces towards
+an inner finality.
+
+
+                      § 7. The Definition of Life
+
+Life, then, may be defined as the capacity of reflexive or
+self-perfective action. In any action, we may distinguish four things:
+(1) the agent, or source of the action; (2) the activity or internal
+determination differentiating the agent in the active state from the
+selfsame agent in the inactive state; (3) the patient or receptive
+subject; (4) the effect or change produced in the patient by the
+agent. Let us suppose that a boy named Tom kicks a door. Here Tom is
+the agent, the muscular contraction in his leg is the activity, the
+door is the patient or recipient, while the dent produced in the door
+is the effect or change of which the action is a production. In this
+action, the effect is produced not in the cause or agent, but in a
+patient outside of, and distinct from, the agent, and the otherness of
+cause and effect is consequently complete. Such an action is termed
+transitive, which is the characteristic type of physicochemical action.
+In another class of actions, however, (those, namely, that are peculiar
+to living beings) the otherness of cause and effect is only partial
+and relative. When the agent becomes ultimately the recipient of the
+effect or modification wrought by its own activity, that is, when
+the positive change produced by the action remains within the agent
+itself, the action is called immanent or reflexive action. Since,
+however, action and passion are opposites, they can coëxist in the same
+subject only upon condition that said subject is differentiated into
+partial otherness, that is, organized into a plurality of distinct and
+dissimilar parts or components, one of which may act upon another.
+Hence only the organized unit or organism, which combines unity or
+continuity of substance with multiplicity and dissimilarity of parts
+is capable of immanent action. The inorganic unit is capable only of
+transitive action, whose effect is produced in an exterior subject
+really distinct from the agent. The living unit or organism, however,
+is capable of both transitive action and immanent (reflexive) action.
+In such functions as thought and sensation, the living agent modifies
+itself and not an exterior patient. In the nutritive or metabolic
+function the living being perfects itself by assimilating external
+substances to itself. It develops, organizes, repairs, and multiplies
+itself, holding its own and perpetuating its type from generation to
+generation.
+
+Life, accordingly, is the capacity of tending through any form of
+reflexive action to an ulterior perfection of the agent itself.
+This capacity of an agent to operate of, and upon, itself for the
+acquisition of some perfection exceeding its natural equilibrial state
+is the distinctive attribute of the living being. Left to itself, the
+inorganic unit tends exclusively to conservation or to loss, never
+to positive acquisition in excess of equilibrial exigencies; what
+it acquires it owes exclusively to the action of external factors.
+The living unit, on the contrary, strives in its vital operations to
+acquire something for itself, so that what it gets it owes to itself
+and not (except in a very general sense) to the action of external
+factors. All the actions of the living unit, both upon itself and upon
+external matter, result sooner or later in the acquisition on the part
+of the agent of a positive perfection exceeding and transcending the
+mere exigencies of equilibration. The inorganic agent, on the contrary,
+when in the state of tension, tends only to return to the equilibrial
+state by alienation or expenditure of its energy; otherwise, it
+tends merely to conserve, by virtue of inertia, the state of rest or
+motion impressed upon it from without. In the chemical changes of
+inorganic units, the tendency to loss is even more in evidence. Such
+changes disrupt the integrity of the inorganic unit and dissipate its
+energy-content, and the unit cannot be reconstructed and recharged,
+except at the expense of a more richly endowed inorganic unit. The
+living organism, however, as we see in the case of the paramæcium
+undergoing endomixis, is capable of counteracting exhaustion by
+recharging itself.
+
+The difference between transitive and reflexive action is not an
+accidental difference of _degree_, but an essential difference of
+_kind_. In reflexive actions, the source of the action and the
+recipient of the effect or modification produced by it are one and the
+same substantial unit or being. In transitive actions, the receptive
+subject of the positive change is an alien unit distinct from the
+unit, which puts forth the action. Hence a reflexive action is not
+an action which is _less_ transitive; it is an action which is _not
+at all_ transitive, but intransitive. The difference, therefore,
+between the living organism, which is capable of both reflexive and
+transitive action, and the inorganic unit, which is only capable
+of transitive action, is _radical_ and _essential_. This being the
+case, an evolutionary transition from an inert multimolecule to a
+reflexively-operating cell or cytode, becomes inconceivable. Evolution
+might, at the very most, bring about intensifications and combinations
+of the transitive agencies of the physicochemical world, but never
+the _volte face_, which would be necessary to reverse the centrifugal
+orientation of forces characteristic of the inorganic unit into the
+centripetal orientation of forces which makes the living unit capable
+of self-perfective action, self-regulation, and self-renewal. The idea,
+therefore, of a spontaneous derivation of living units from lifeless
+colloidal multimolecules must be rejected, not merely because it finds
+no support in the facts of experience, but also because it is excluded
+by aprioristic considerations.
+
+
+                     § 8. An Inevitable Corollary
+
+But, if inorganic matter is impotent to vitalize itself by means of its
+native physicochemical forces, the inevitable alternative is that the
+initial production of organisms from inorganic matter was due to the
+action of some supermaterial agency. Certain scientists, like Henderson
+of Harvard, while admitting the incredibility of abiogenesis, prefer
+to avoid open conflict with mechanism and materialism by declaring
+their neutrality. “But while biophysicists like Professor Schäfer,”
+says Henderson, “follow Spencer in assuming a gradual evolution of the
+organic from the inorganic, biochemists are more than ever unable to
+perceive how such a process is possible, and without taking any final
+stand prefer to let the riddle rest.” (“Fitness of the Environment,”
+p. 310, footnote.) Not to take a decisive stand on this question,
+however, is tantamount to making a compromise with what is illogical
+and unscientific; for both logic and the inductive trend of biological
+facts are arrayed against the hypothesis of spontaneous generation.
+
+In the first place, it is manifest that organic life is neither
+self-explanatory nor eternal. Hence it must have had its origin in the
+action of some external agency. Life as it exists today depends upon
+the precedence of numerous unbroken chains of consecutive cells that
+extend backward into a remote past. It is, however, a logical necessity
+to put an end to this retrogradation of the antecedents upon which the
+actual existence of our present organisms depends. The infinite cannot
+be spanned by finite steps; the periodic life-process could not be
+relayed through an unlimited temporal distance; and a cellular series
+which never started would never arrive. Moreover, we do not account for
+the existence of life by extending the cellular series interminably
+backward. Each cell in such a series is derived from a predecessor,
+and, consequently, no cell in the series is self-explanatory. When it
+comes to accounting for its own existence, each cell is a zero in the
+way of explanation, and adding zeros together indefinitely will never
+give us a positive total. Each cell refers us to its predecessor for
+the explanation of why it exists, and none contains within itself the
+sufficient explanation of its own existence. Hence increasing even to
+infinity the number of these cells (which fail to explain themselves)
+will give us nothing else but a zero in the way of explanation. If,
+therefore, the primordial cause from which these cellular chains are
+suspended is not the agency of the physicochemical forces of inorganic
+nature, it follows that the first active cause of life must have been a
+_supermaterial_ and _extramundane agency_, namely, the Living God and
+Author of Life.
+
+As a matter of fact, no one denies that life has had a beginning on
+our globe. The physicist teaches that a beginning of our entire solar
+system is implied in the law of the degradation of energy, and various
+attempts have been made to determine the time of this beginning.
+The older calculations were based on the rate of solar radiation;
+the more recent ones, however, are based on quantitative estimates
+of the disintegration products of radioactive elements. Similarly,
+the geologist and the astronomer propound theories of a gradual
+constitution of the cosmic environment, which organic life requires
+for its support, and all such theories imply a _de novo_ origin or
+beginning of life in the universe. Thus the old _nebular hypothesis_ of
+Laplace postulated a hot origin of our solar system incompatible with
+the coëxistence of organic life, which, as the experiments of Pasteur
+and others have shown, is destroyed, in all cases, at a temperature
+just above 45° Centigrade (113° Fahrenheit). Even the enzymes or
+organic catalysts, which are essential for bio-chemical processes,
+are destroyed at a temperature between 60° and 70° Centigrade. This
+excludes the possibility of the contemporaneousness of protoplasm
+and inorganic matter, and points to a beginning of life in our solar
+system. Moreover, independently of this theory, the geologist sees
+in the primitive crystalline rocks (granites, diorites, basalts,
+etc.) and in the extant magmas of volcanoes evidences of an azoic
+age, during which temperatures incompatible with the survival of even
+the blue-green algæ or the most resistent bacterial spores must have
+prevailed over the surface of the globe. In fact, it is generally
+recognized by geologists that the igneous or pyrogenic rocks, which
+contain no fossils, preceded the sedimentary or fossiliferous rocks.
+The new _planetesimal hypothesis_, it is true, is said to be compatible
+with a cold origin of the universe. Nevertheless, this theory assumes
+a very gradual condensation of our cosmos out of dispersed gases and
+star dust, whereas life demands as the _sine qua non_ condition of its
+existence a differentiated environment consisting of a lithosphere, a
+hydrosphere, and an atmosphere. Hence, it is clear that life did not
+originate until such an appropriate environment was an accomplished
+fact. All theories of cosmogony, therefore, point to a beginning of
+life subsequent to the constitution of the inorganic world.
+
+Now, it is impossible for organic life to antecede itself. If,
+therefore, it has had a beginning in the world, it must have had a
+first active cause distinct from itself; and the active cause, in
+question, must, consequently, have been either something intrinsic, or
+something extrinsic, to inorganic matter. The hypothesis, however, of
+a spontaneous origin of life through the agency of forces intrinsic
+to inorganic matter is scientifically untenable. Hence it follows that
+life originated through the action of an immaterial or spiritual agent,
+namely, God, seeing that there is no other assignable agency capable of
+bringing about the initial production of life from lifeless matter.
+
+
+                         § 9. Futile Evasions
+
+Many and various are the efforts made to escape this issue. One group
+of scientists, for example, attempt to rid themselves of the difficulty
+by diverting our attention from the problem of a beginning of organic
+life in the universe to the problem of its translation to a new
+habitat. This legerdemain has resulted in the theories of _cosmozoa_
+or _panspermia_, according to which life originates in a favorable
+environment, not by reason of spontaneous generation, but by reason
+of importation from other worlds. This view has been presented in two
+forms: (1) the “meteorite” theory, which represents the older view
+held by Thomson and Helmholtz; (2) the more recent theory of “cosmic
+panspermia” advocated by Svante Arrhénius, with H. E. Richter and F.
+J. Cohn as precursors. Sir Wm. Thompson suggested that life might have
+been salvaged from the ruins of other worlds and carried to our own by
+means of meteorites or fragments thrown off from life-bearing planets
+that had been destroyed by a catastrophic collision. These meteorites
+discharged from bursting planets might carry germs to distant planets
+like the earth, causing them to become covered with vegetation. Against
+this theory stands the fatal objection that the transit of a meteorite
+from the nearest stellar system to our own would require an interval
+of 60,000,000 years. It is incredible that life could be maintained
+through such an enormous lapse of time. Even from the nearest planet
+to our earth the duration of the journey would be 150 years. Besides,
+meteorites are heated to incandescence while passing through the
+atmosphere, and any seeds they might contain would perish by reason of
+the heat thus generated, not to speak of the terrific impact, which
+terminates the voyage of a meteorite.
+
+Arrhénius suggests a method by which microörganisms might be conveyed
+through intersidereal space with far greater dispatch and without any
+mineral vehicle such as a meteorite. He notes that particles of cosmic
+dust leave the sun as a coronal atmosphere and are propelled through
+intervening space by the pressure of radiation until they reach the
+higher atmosphere of the earth (viz. at a height of 100 kilometers from
+the surface of the latter), where they become the electrically charged
+dust particles of polar auroras (_v.g._ the aurora borealis). The motor
+force, in this case, is the same as that which moves the vanes of a
+Crookes’ radiometer. Lebedeff has verified Clerk-Maxwell’s conceptions
+of this force and has demonstrated its reality by experiments. It is
+calculated that in the immediate vicinity of a luminous surface like
+that of the sun the pressure exerted by radiation upon an exposed
+surface would be nearly two milligrams per square centimeter. On
+a nontransparent particle having a diameter of 1.5 microns, the
+pressure of radiation would just counterbalance the force of universal
+gravitation, while on particles whose diameter was 0.16 of a micron,
+the pressure of radiation would be ten times as great as the pull of
+gravitation. Now bacterial spores having a diameter of O.3 to O.2 of a
+micron are known to bacteriologists, and the ultramicroscope reveals
+the presence of germs not more than O.1 of a micron in size.[11] Hence
+it is conceivable that germs of such dimensions might be wafted
+to limits of our atmosphere, and might then be transported by the
+pressure of radiation to distant planets or stellar systems, provided,
+of course, they could escape the germicidal action of oxidation,
+desiccation, ultra-violet rays, etc. Arrhénius calculates that their
+journey from the earth to Mars would, under such circumstances, occupy
+a period of only 20 days. Within 80 days they could reach Jupiter,
+and they might arrive at Neptune on the confines of our solar system
+after an interval of 3 weeks. The transit to the constellation of the
+Centaur, which contains the solar system nearest to our own (the one,
+namely, whose central sun is the star Alpha), would require 9,000 years.
+
+    [11] Recently, by means of photography with short-length light
+    waves, the bacteria of “Foot-and-mouth disease,” invisible to
+    the highest power microscope, have been revealed as rods about
+    100 submicrons (_i.e._ O.1 micron, or O.0001 millimeter) in
+    length. (_cf._ _Science_, May 30, 1924, Supplement X.) Germs
+    of this dimension could be as easily transported by radiation
+    as the alleged electrically charged stardust in the aurora
+    borealis. It may be of interest, however, to note, in this
+    connection, that the most recent theory of the aurora borealis
+    discards stardust in favor of nitrogen snow. Lars Vegard, a
+    Norwegian professor, ascribes the peculiar greenish tint in the
+    Northern Lights to the action of solar radiations on nitrogen
+    snow, which he assumes to exist at an altitude of more than
+    60 miles above the earth. When he condensed crystals of solid
+    nitrogen on a copper plate by freezing with liquid hydrogen,
+    he found that these crystals, after bombardment with cathode
+    rays, emit a light of green color, which gives the same strong
+    green spectrum line as the spectrum of the aurora. As the
+    solid nitrogen evaporates, it begins to emit the reddish light
+    characteristic of nitrogen gas. This phenomenon would explain
+    the changes of color that occur in the aurora borealis. (_cf._
+    _Science_, April 18, 1924, Suppl. X.)
+
+Arrhénius’ theory, however, that “life is an eternal rebeginning”
+explains nothing and leaves us precisely where we were. In the
+metaphysical as well as the scientific sense, it is an evasion and
+not a solution. To the logical necessity of putting an end to the
+retrogradation of the subalternate conditions, upon which the realities
+of the present depend for their actual existence, we have already
+adverted. Moreover, the reasons which induce the scientist to postulate
+a beginning of life in our world are not based on any distinctive
+peculiarity of that world, but are universally applicable, it being
+established by the testimony of the spectroscope that other worlds are
+not differently constituted than our own. Hence Schäfer voices the
+general attitude of scientific men when he says: “But the acceptance
+of such theories of the arrival of life on earth does not bring us any
+nearer to a conception of its actual mode of origin; on the contrary,
+it merely serves to banish the investigation of the question to
+some conveniently inaccessible corner of the universe and leaves us
+in the unsatisfactory condition of affirming not only that we have
+no knowledge as to the mode of origin of life—which is unfortunately
+true—but that we never can acquire such knowledge—which it is to be
+hoped is not true. Knowing what we know, and believing what we believe,
+... we are, I think (without denying the possibility of the existence
+of life in other parts of the universe), justified in regarding these
+cosmic theories as inherently improbable.” (Dundee Address of 1912, cf.
+Smithson. Inst. Rpt. for 1912, p. 503.)
+
+Dismissing, therefore, all evasions of this sort, we may regard as
+scientifically established the conclusion that, so far as our knowledge
+goes, inorganic nature lacks the means of self-vivification, and that
+no inanimate matter can become living matter without first coming
+under the influence of matter previously alive. Given, therefore,
+that the conditions favorable to life did not always prevail in our
+cosmos, it follows that life had a beginning, for which we are obliged
+to account by some postulate other than abiogenesis. This conclusion
+seems inescapable for those who concede the scientific absurdity of
+spontaneous generation, but, by some weird freak of logic, not only
+is it escaped, but the very opposite conclusion is reached through
+reasoning, which the exponents are pleased to term philosophical, as
+distinguished from scientific, argumentation. The plight of these
+“hard-headed worshippers of fact,” who plume themselves on their
+contempt for “metaphysics,” is sad indeed. Worsted in the experimental
+field, they appeal the case from the court of facts to that aprioristic
+philosophy. “Physic of metaphysic begs defence, and metaphysic calls
+for aid on sense!”
+
+Life, they contend, either had no beginning or it must have begun
+in our world as the product of spontaneous generation. But all the
+scientific theories of cosmogony exclude the former alternative.
+Consequently, not only is it not absurd to admit spontaneous
+generation, but, on the contrary, it is absurd not to admit it. It
+is in this frame of mind that August Weismann is induced to confide
+to us “that spontaneous generation, in spite of all the vain attempts
+to demonstrate it, remains for me a logical necessity.” (“Essays,” p.
+34, Poulton’s Transl.) The presupposition latent in all such logic is,
+of course, the assumption that nothing but matter exists; for, if the
+possibility of the existence of a supermaterial agency is conceded,
+then obviously we are not compelled by _logical necessity_ to ascribe
+the initial production of organic life to the exclusive agency of the
+physicochemical energies inherent in inorganic matter. Weismann should
+demonstrate his suppressed premise that matter coincides with reality
+and that spiritual is a synonym for nonexistent. Until such time as
+this unverified and unverifiable affirmation is substantiated, the
+philosophical proof for abiogenesis is not an argument at all, it is
+dogmatism pure and simple.
+
+But, they protest, “To deny spontaneous generation is to proclaim
+a miracle” (Nägeli), and natural science cannot have recourse to
+“miracles” in explaining natural phenomena. For the “scientist,”
+miracles are always absurd as contradicting the uniformity of nature,
+and to recur to them for the solution of a scientific problem is,
+to put it mildly, distinctly out of the question. Hence Haeckel
+regards spontaneous generation as more than demonstrated by the bare
+consideration that no alternative remains except the unspeakable
+scientific blasphemy implied in superstitious terms like “miracle,”
+“creation,” and “supernatural.” For a “thinking man,” the mere mention
+of these abhorrent words is, or ought to be, argument enough. “If
+we do not accept the hypothesis of spontaneous generation,” Haeckel
+expostulates, “we must have recourse to the miracle of a _supernatural
+creation_.” (Italics his—“History of Creation,” I, p. 348, Lankester’s
+Transl.) It would be a difficult matter, indeed, to cram more blunders
+into one short sentence! We will not, and need not, undertake to defend
+the supernatural here. Suffice it to say, that the initiation of life
+in inorganic matter by the Author of Life would not be a creation, nor
+a miracle, nor a phenomenon pertaining to the supernatural order.
+
+The principle of the minimum forbids us to postulate the superfluous,
+and a creative act would be superfluous in the production of the first
+organisms. Inorganic nature contains all the material elements found in
+living organisms, and all organisms, in fact, derive their matter from
+the inorganic world. If, therefore, they are thus dependent _in their
+continuance_ upon a supply of matter administered by the inorganic
+world, it is to be presumed that they were likewise dependent on that
+source of matter _in their first origin_. In other words, the material
+substrata of the first organisms were not produced anew, but derived
+from the elements of the inorganic world. Hence they were not created,
+but formed out of preëxistent matter. A _creative_ act would involve
+_total_ production, and exclude the preëxistence of the constituent
+material under a different form. A _formative_ act, on the contrary, is
+a _partial_ production, which presupposes the material _out of which_ a
+given thing is to be made. Hence the Divine act, whereby organic life
+was first educed from the passive potentiality of inorganic matter, was
+formative and not creative. Elements preëxistent in the inorganic world
+were combined and intrinsically modified by impressing upon them a new
+specification, which raised them in the entitive and dynamic scale, and
+integrated them into units capable of self-regulation and reflexive
+action. This modification, however, was intrinsic to the matter
+involved and nothing was injected into matter from without. Obviously,
+therefore, the production of the first organisms was not a creation,
+but a formation.
+
+Still less was it a miracle; for a miracle is a visible interposition
+in the course of nature by a power superior to the powers of nature. A
+given effect, therefore, is termed miraculous with express reference
+to some existing natural agency, whose efficacy it, in some way,
+exceeds. If there existed in inorganic nature some natural process
+of self-vivification, then any Divine interposition to produce
+life independently of this natural agency, would be a miraculous
+intervention. As a matter of fact, however, inorganic nature is
+destitute of this power of self-vitalization, and consequently no
+natural agency was superseded or overridden by the initial imparting
+of life to lifeless matter. Life was not ordained to originate in any
+other way. Given, therefore, this impotence of inorganic nature, it
+follows that an initial vivification of matter by Divine power was
+demanded by the very nature of things. The Divine action did not come
+into competition, as it were, with existing natural agencies, but was
+put forth in response to the exigencies of nature itself. It cannot,
+therefore, be regarded as miraculous.
+
+Nor, finally, is there any warrant for regarding such an initial
+vivification of matter as supernatural. Only that is supernatural which
+transcends the nature, powers, and exigencies of all things created
+or creatable. But, as we have seen, if life was to exist at all, a
+primal animation of inanimate matter by Divine power was demanded
+by the very nature of things. Here the Divine action put forth in
+response to an exigency of nature and terminated in the constitution
+of living nature itself. Now, the effect of a Divine action, by which
+the natures of things are initially constituted, plainly pertains to
+the order of nature, and has nothing to do with the supernatural. Hence
+the primordial constitution by Divine power of living nature was not a
+supernatural, but a purely natural, event.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER II
+
+                     THE ORIGIN OF THE HUMAN SOUL
+
+
+                        § 1. Matter and Spirit
+
+We live in an age in which scientific specialization is stressed as the
+most important means of advancing the interests of human knowledge; and
+specialism, by reason of its many triumphs, seems to have deserved, in
+large measure, the prestige which it now enjoys. It has, however, the
+distinct disadvantage of fostering provincialism and separatism. This
+lopsided learning of the single track mind is a condition that verges
+on paranoia, leads to naïve contempt for all knowledge not reducible to
+its own set of formulæ, and portends, in the near future, a Babel-like
+confusion of tongues. In fact, the need of a corrective is beginning
+to be felt in many quarters. This corrective can be none other than
+the general and synthetic science of philosophy; it is philosophy
+alone that can furnish a common ground and break down the barriers of
+exclusiveness which immure the special sciences within the minds of
+experts.
+
+Scientists readily admit the advantage of philosophy in theory, but in
+practice their approval is far from being unqualified. A subservient
+philosophy, which accepts without hesitation all the current dogmas
+of contemporary science, is one thing, and a critical philosophy
+venturing to apply the canons of logic to so-called scientific proof
+is quite another. Philosophy of the latter type is promptly informed
+that it has no right to any opinion whatever, and that only the
+scientific specialist is qualified to speak on such subjects. But the
+disqualification, which is supposed to arise from lack of special
+knowledge, is just as promptly forgotten, when there is question of
+philosophy in the rôle of a pliant sycophant, and the works of a Wells
+or a van Loon are lauded to the skies, despite the glaring examples of
+scientific inaccuracy and ignorance, in which they abound.
+
+This partiality is sometimes carried to a degree that makes it
+perfectly preposterous. Thus it is by no means an infrequent thing to
+find scientists dismissing, as unworthy of a hearing, a philosopher
+like Hans Driesch, who spent the major portion of his life in
+biological research, and combined the technical discipline of a
+scientist with the mental discipline of a logician. The chemist, H.
+E. Armstrong, for instance, sees in the mere label “philosopher” a
+sufficient reason for barring his testimony. “Philosophers,” jeers
+the chemist, with flippant irrelevance, “must go to school and study
+in the purlieus of experimental science, if they desire to speak with
+authority on these matters.” (Smithson. Inst. Rpt. for 1912, p. 528.)
+Such is his comment on Driesch, yet Driesch did nothing at all, if he
+did not do far more than Armstrong prescribes as a prerequisite for
+authoritative speaking. In James Harvey Robinson, on the contrary, we
+have an example of the tendency of scientists to coddle philosophers
+who assume a docile, deferential, and submissive attitude towards
+every generalization propounded in the name of natural science. In
+sheer gratitude for his uncritical acquiescence, his incapacitation
+as a nonspecialist is considerately overlooked, and he can confess,
+without the slightest danger of discrediting his own utterances: “I am
+not ... a biologist or palæontologist. But I have had the privilege
+of consorting familiarly with some of the very best representatives
+of those who have devoted their lives to the patient study of the
+matters involved in this controversy. I think I quite understand
+their attitude.” (_Harper’s Magazine,_ June, 1922, p. 68.) By his own
+testimony he is a scientific amateur, but this does not, in the least,
+prevent him from “speaking with authority” or from being lionized in
+scientific circles as an evolutionary “defender of the faith.” Clearly,
+it is the nature of their respective views, and not the possession or
+absence of technical knowledge, which makes Robinson a favorite, and
+Driesch a _persona non grata_, with “the very best representatives”
+of contemporary science. “Science,” says a writer in the _Atlantic
+Monthly_ (Oct., 1915), “has turned all philosophy out of doors except
+that which clings to its skirts; it has thrown contempt on all learning
+that does not depend upon it; and it has bribed the sketches by giving
+us immense material comforts.”
+
+Here, however, we are concerned with the fact, rather than the justice,
+of this discrimination which the scientific world makes between
+philosopher and philosopher. Certain it is that Robinson has received
+no end of encomiums from scientists, who apparently lack the literary
+gifts to expound their own philosophy, and that his claim to represent
+the views of a large and influential section of the scientific world
+is, in all probability, entirely correct. It is this manifest approval
+of scientific men which lends especial interest to the remarks of
+this scientific dilettante, and we shall quote them as expressing the
+prevalent scientific view on the origin of man, a view which, with but
+slight variations, has persisted from the time of Darwin down to the
+present day.
+
+“The recognition,” says Robinson, “that mankind is a species of animal,
+is, like other important discoveries, illuminating.” (_Science_, July
+28, 1922, p. 74.) To refer to the recognition of man’s animality as
+a _discovery_ is a conceit too stupid for mere words to castigate.
+Surely, there was no need of the profound research or delicate
+precision of modern science to detect the all too obvious similarity
+existing between man and beast. Mankind did not have to await the
+advent of an “enlightened” nineteenth, or twentieth century to be
+assured of the truth of a commonplace so trite and palpable. Even the
+“benighted” scholastics of medieval infamy had wit enough to define man
+as a rational animal. Indeed, it would be a libel on human intelligence
+to suppose that anyone, in the whole history of human thought, was ever
+sufficiently fatuous to dispute the patent fact that man is a sentient
+organism compounded of flesh, blood, bone, and sinew like the brute.
+The “discovery” that man is a species of animal dates from the year one
+of human existence, and it is now high time for the novelty of this
+discovery to be worn off.
+
+Even as a difficulty against human superiority and immortality, the
+“recognition” is by no means recent. We find it squarely faced in
+a book of the Old Testament, the entire book being devoted to the
+solution of the difficulty in question. “I said in my heart concerning
+the estate of the sons of men ... that they might see they are
+themselves beasts. For that which befalleth the sons of men befalleth
+beasts; even one thing befalleth them; as the one dieth so dieth the
+other; yea, they have all one breath; so that man hath no preeminence
+above a beast; for all is vanity. All go unto one place; all are of the
+dust, and all return to dust. Who knoweth the spirit of man whether it
+goeth upward, and the spirit of the beast whether it goeth downward to
+the earth?” (_Ecclesiastes_, III: 18-21.) The sacred writer insists
+that, so far as the body is concerned, man and the brute stand on the
+same level; but what of the human soul? Is it, he asks, resolvable into
+matter like the soul of a beast, or is it a supermaterial principle
+destined, not for time, but for eternity? At the close of the book, the
+conclusion is reached that the latter alternative is the true solution
+of the riddle of human nature—“the dust returneth to the earth whence
+it was, and the spirit returneth to God who gave it.” (Ch. XII, v. 7.)
+
+Centuries, therefore, before the Christian era, this problem was
+formulated by Ecclesiastes, the Jew, and also, as we shall presently
+see, by Aristotle, the coryphæus of Greek philosophy. Nay, from time
+immemorial man, contrasting his aspirations after immortality with
+the spectacle of corporal death, has appreciated to the full the
+significance of his own animality. Never was there question of whether
+man is, or is not, just as thoroughly an animal as any beast, but
+rather of whether, his animal nature being unhesitatingly conceded,
+we are not, none the less, forced to recognize in him, over and above
+this, the existence of a spiritual mind or soul, differentiating
+him from the brute and constituting him a being unique, despite the
+unmistakable homologies discernible between bestial organisms and the
+human body. Everywhere and always mankind as a whole have manifested,
+by the universal and uniquely human practice of burying the dead, their
+unswerving and indomitable conviction that man is spirit as well as
+flesh, an animal, indeed, yet animated by something not present in the
+animal, namely, a spiritual soul, deathless and indestructible, capable
+of surviving the decay of the organism and of persisting throughout
+eternity.
+
+But, if the human mind or soul is spiritual, it is clear that it cannot
+be a product of organic evolution, any more than it can be a product of
+parental generation. On the contrary, each and every human soul must
+be an immediate creation of the Author of Nature, not evolved from the
+internal potentiality of matter, but infused into matter from without.
+The human soul is created in organized matter, but not from it. Nor
+can the Divine action, in this case, be regarded as a supernatural
+interposition; for it supplements, rather than supersedes, the natural
+process of reproduction; and, since it is not in matter to produce
+spirit, a creative act is demanded by the very nature of things.
+
+Evolution is nothing more nor less than a transmutation of matter,
+and a transmutation of matter cannot terminate in the annihilation of
+matter and the constitution of non-matter or spirit. If nothing of the
+_terminus a quo_ persists in the final product, we have substitution,
+and not transmutation. The evolution of matter, therefore, cannot
+progress to a point where all materiality is eliminated. Hence,
+whatever proceeds from matter, either as an emanation or an action,
+will, of necessity, be material. It should be noted, however, that by
+material we do not mean corporeal; for material denotes not merely
+matter itself, but everything that intrinsically depends on matter.
+The term, therefore, is wider in its sense than corporeal, because
+it comprises, besides matter, all the properties, energies, and
+activities of matter. Hence whatever is incapable of existence and
+activity apart from matter (whether ponderable or imponderable) belongs
+to the material, as distinguished from the spiritual, order of things.
+The soul of a brute, for example, is not matter, but it is material,
+nevertheless, because it is totally dependent on the matter of the
+organism, apart from which it has neither existence nor activity of its
+own.
+
+In the constitution of the sentient or animal soul, matter reaches
+the _culmination of its passive evolution_. True, its inherent
+physicochemical forces do not suffice to bring about this consummation,
+wherewith its internal potentiality is exhausted. Nevertheless, the
+emergence of an animal soul from matter is conceivable, given an agency
+competent to educe it from the intrinsic potentiality of matter;
+for, in the last analysis, the animal soul is simply an internal
+modification of matter itself. But, if spirit is that which exists, or
+is, at least, capable of existence, apart from matter, it goes without
+saying that spirit is neither _derivable_ from, nor _resolvable_ into,
+matter of any kind. Consequently, it cannot be evolved from matter,
+but must be produced in matter by creation (_i.e._ total production).
+_To make the human mind or soul a product of evolution is equivalent
+to a denial of its spirituality_, because it implies that the human
+soul like that of the brute, is inherent in the potentiality of matter,
+and is therefore a purely material principle, totally dependent on
+the matter, of which it is a perfection. Between such a soul and the
+sentient principle present in the beast, there would be no essential
+difference of kind, but only an accidental difference of degree; and
+this is precisely what Darwin and his successors have spared no effort
+to demonstrate. James Harvey Robinson is refreshingly frank on this
+subject, and we will therefore let him be spokesman for those who are
+more reticent:
+
+“It is the extraordinarily illuminating discovery (_sic_) of man’s
+animalhood rather than evolution in general that troubles the routine
+mind. Many are willing to admit that it looks as if life had developed
+on the earth slowly, in successive stages; this they can regard as a
+merely curious fact and of no great moment if only man can be defended
+as an honorable exception. The fact that we have an animal body may
+also be conceded, but surely man must have a soul and a mind altogether
+distinct and unique from the very beginning bestowed on him by the
+Creator and setting him off an immeasurable distance from any mere
+animal. But whatever may be the religious and poetic significance of
+this compromise it is becoming less and less tenable as a scientific
+and historic truth. The _facts_ indicate that man’s _mind_ is quite as
+clearly of animal extraction as his body.” (_Science_, July 28, 1922,
+p. 95—italics his.)
+
+This language has, at least, the merit of being unambiguous, and leaves
+us in no uncertainty as to where the writer stands. It discloses,
+likewise, the animus which motivates his peculiar interest in
+transformistic theories. If evolution were incapable of being exploited
+in behalf of materialistic philosophy, Mr. Robinson, we may be sure,
+would soon lose interest in the theory, and would once more align
+himself with the company, which he has so inappropriately deserted,
+namely, “the routine minds” that regard evolution “as a merely curious
+fact of no great moment.” Be that as it may, his final appeal is to
+the “facts,” and it is to the facts, accordingly, that we shall go;
+but they will not be the irrelevant “facts” of anatomy, physiology,
+and palæontology. Sciences such as these confine their attention to
+the external manifestations of human life, and can tell us nothing of
+man’s inner consciousness. It does not, therefore, devolve upon them
+to pronounce final judgment upon the origin of _man_. For that which
+is the distinguishing characteristic of man is not his animal nature,
+that he shares in common with the brute, but his rational nature, which
+alone differentiates him from “a beast that wants discourse of reason.”
+We cannot settle the question as to whether or not man’s _mind_ is
+“of animal extraction” by comparing his _body_ with the bodies of
+irrational vertebrates. To institute the requisite comparison between
+the rational mentality of man and the purely sentient consciousness of
+irrational animals falls within the exclusive competence of psychology,
+which studies the internal manifestations of life as they are presented
+to the intuition of consciousness, rather than biology, which studies
+life according to such of its manifestations as are perceptible to the
+external senses. Hence it is within the domain of psychology alone,
+that man can be studied on his distinctively human, or rational, side,
+and it is to this science, accordingly, that we must turn in our search
+for facts that are germane to the problem of the origin of man and
+the genesis of the human mind. How little, indeed, does he know of
+human nature, whose knowledge of it is confined to man’s insignificant
+anatomy and biology, and who knows nothing of the triumphs of human
+genius in literature, art, science, architecture, music, and a thousand
+other fields! Psychology alone can evaluate these marvels, and no other
+science can be of like assistance in solving the problem of whether man
+is, or is not, unique among all his fellows of the animal kingdom.
+
+
+                     § 2. The Science of the Soul
+
+As a distinct science, psychology owes its origin to Aristotle, whose
+“_Peri Psyches_” is, in all probability, the first formal treatise on
+the subject. Through his father, Nichomachus, who was court physician
+to Philip of Macedon, he became acquainted, at an early age, with
+biological lore in the form of such medical botany, anatomy, and
+physiology as were commonly known in prescientific days. Subsequently,
+his celebrated pupil, Alexander the Great, placed at his disposal a
+vast library, together with extensive opportunities for biological
+research. This enabled the philosopher to criticize and summarize the
+observations and speculations of his predecessors in the field, and
+to improve upon them by means of personal reflection and research. In
+writing his psychology, he was naturally forced to proceed on the basis
+of the facts discoverable by internal experience (introspection) and
+unaided external observation. Of such facts as are only accessible by
+means of instrumentation and systematic experimentation, he could, of
+course, know nothing, since their exploration awaited the advent of
+modern mechanical and optical inventions. But the factual foundation
+of his treatise, though not extensive, was solid, so far as it went,
+and his selection, analysis, and evaluation of the materials at hand
+was so accurate and judicious, that the broad outlines of his system
+have been vindicated by the test of time, and all the results of
+modern experimental research fit, with surprising facility, into the
+framework of his generalizations, revision being nowhere necessary
+save in nonessentials and minor details. Wilhelm Wundt, the Father of
+Experimental Psychology, pays him the following tribute: “The results
+of my labors do not square with the materialistic hypothesis, nor do
+they with the dualism of Plato or Descartes. It is only the animism
+of Aristotle which, by combining psychology with biology, results as
+a plausible metaphysical conclusion from Experimental Psychology.”
+(“Grundzüge der physiologischen Psychologie,” 4te Auflage, II, C. 23,
+S. 633.)
+
+Literally translated, the title of Aristotle’s work signifies a
+_treatise concerning the soul_. It set a precedent for the scholastic
+doctors of the thirteenth century, and _de anima_ became with them a
+technical designation for all works dealing with this theme. In the
+sixteenth century the selfsame usage was embalmed in the Greek term
+psychology, which was coined with a view to rendering the elliptic
+Latin title by means of a single word. Melanchthon is credited with
+having originated the term, which, in its original use as well as its
+etymology, denoted a science of the _psyche_ or soul.
+
+Towards the close of the seventeenth century, however, the meaning of
+the term in question began to undergo a marvelous evolution, of which
+the end is not yet. The process was initiated by Descartes, under whose
+auspices psychology was changed from a science of the _soul_ into a
+science of the _mind_. Then, under the influence of Hume and Kant, the
+_noumenal mind_ disappeared, leaving only _phenomenal consciousness_.
+Recently, with the advent of Watson, even consciousness itself has
+been discarded and psychology has become a science of _behavior_.
+And here, for the time being, at any rate, the process has come to a
+stop, just one step short of complete nihilism. Woodworth quotes the
+following waggish comment: “First psychology lost its soul, then it
+lost its mind, then it lost consciousness; it still has behavior of
+a kind.” (“Psychology, the Science of Mental Life,” p. 2, footnote.)
+This gradual degeneration of psychology from animism into behaviorism
+is one of the greatest ironies in the history of human thought. All
+of this, however, was latent in the corrosive Cartesian principle of
+“scientific doubt.” _Facilis descensus Averni!_ It is easy to question
+the validity of this or that kind of human knowledge, but difficult to
+arrest, or even foresee, the consequences which the remorseless logic
+of scepticism portends.
+
+Disintegration set in, as has been said, when Descartes substituted
+his _psychophysical dualism_ of _mind_ and _matter_ for Aristotle’s
+_hylomorphic dualism_ of _soul_ and _body_. The French philosopher,
+in an appendix to his “Meditations,” which dates from 1670, expressly
+rejects the Aristotelian term of soul or _psyche_, and announces his
+preference for mind or spirit, in the following words: “The substance
+in which thought immediately resides is here called mind (mens,
+esprit). I here speak, however, of mens (mind) rather than anima
+(soul), for the latter is equivocal, being frequently applied to denote
+what is material” (“Reply to the Second Objections,” p. 86). Henceforth
+psychology ceased to be a science of the soul, and became, instead, a
+science of the mind.
+
+Descartes, one must bear in mind, divided the universe into two great
+realms of being, namely: the conscious and the unconscious, the
+_psychic_ world of mind and the _physical_ world of matter, unextended
+substance which thinks and extended substance which moves. In man
+these two substantial principles were conceived as being united by the
+tenuous link of mere contact, the spirit or mind remaining separate
+from, and unmingled with, its material partner, the body. The main
+trouble with this dualism is that it draws the line of demarcation
+at the wrong place. Reason and sense-consciousness are bracketed
+together above the line as being equally spiritual; physiological
+processes and processes purely physicochemical are coupled below the
+line as being equally mechanical. Now, when a brain-function such
+as sense-perception is introduced, like another Trojan Horse, into
+the citadel of spiritualism, it is a comparatively easy task for
+materialism to storm and sack that citadel by demonstrating with a
+thousand neuro-physiological facts that all sensory functions are
+rigidly correlated with neurological processes, that they are, in
+short, functions of the nervous system, and therefore purely material
+in nature. On the other hand, once we retreat from the trench of
+distinction between the processes of unconscious or vegetative life
+and the physicochemical processes of the inorganic world, that moment
+we have lost the strategic position in the conflict with mechanism,
+and nothing avails to stay its triumphant onrush. Hence, from first to
+last, it is perfectly clear that the treacherous psychophysical dualism
+of Descartes has done far more harm to the cause of spiritualism than
+all the assaults of materialism. There is a Latin maxim which says:
+_Extrema sese tangunt_—“Extremes come in contact with each other.” The
+ultraspiritualism of Descartes by confounding spiritual, with organic
+consciousness, leads by the most direct route to the opposite extreme
+of crass materialism.
+
+Aristotle’s dualism of matter and form, which is but a physical
+application of his transcendental dualism of potency (_dynamis_) and
+act (_entelechy_), is very different from the Cartesian dualism of the
+physical and the psychic. According to the Aristotelian view, as we
+have seen in the last chapter, all the physical entities or substantial
+units of nature (both living and inorganic) are fundamentally _dual_
+in their essence, each consisting of a definitive principle called
+entelechy and a plastic principle called matter. Entelechy is the
+integrating determinant, the source of the unit’s coherence and
+of its differentiation from units of another type. Matter is the
+determinable and quantifying factor, in virtue of which the unit is
+potentially-multiple and endowed with mass. In the electro-chemical
+reactions of non-living substances (synthesis, analysis, and
+transmutation), entelechy is the variant and matter is the constant;
+in the metabolic activities of living substances (assimilation and
+dissimilation), matter is the variant and entelechy is the constant.
+This persistent entelechy of the living unit or organism is what
+Aristotle terms the _psyche_ or soul. The latter, therefore, may
+be defined as the vital principle or primary source of life in the
+organism.
+
+But in using such terms as “soul” and “vital principle” we are
+employing expressions against which not merely rabid mechanists,
+but many conservative biologists as well, see fit to protest. The
+opposition of the latter, however, is found on closer scrutiny to be
+_nominal_ rather than _real_. It is the _name_ which offends; they have
+no objection to the _thing signified_. Wilson, to cite a pertinent
+example, rejects as meaningless all such terms as “vital principle,”
+“soul,” etc. “They are words,” he avers, “that have been written into
+certain spaces that are otherwise blank in our record of knowledge,
+and as far as I can see no more than this.” (“Biology,” p. 23, 1908.)
+Yet he himself affirms again and again the existence of the reality
+which these terms (understood in their Aristotelian sense) denote.
+In discussing the relation of the tissue cell to the multicellular
+body, for instance, he speaks of “a formative power pervading the
+growing mass as a whole.” (“The Cell,” 2nd ed., p. 59), and, in his
+recent lecture on the “Physical Basis of Life,” he makes allusion
+to “the integrating and unifying principle in the vital processes.”
+(_Science_, March 9, 1923, p. 284.) It would seem, therefore, that
+Wilson’s aversion to such terms as soul and vital principle is based
+on the _dynamic_ sense assigned to them by the neo-vitalists, who, as
+we have seen, regard the vital principle as a force _sui generis_ or
+a _unique agent_, which operates intrusively among physicochemical
+factors in the rôle of an active or efficient cause of vital functions.
+That such is really the case, appears from his rhetorical question:
+“Shall we then join hands with the neo-vitalists in referring the
+unifying and regulatory principle to the _operation_ of an unknown
+power, a directive _force_, an archæus, an entelechy or a soul?” (_Loc.
+cit._, p. 285—italics mine.) The objection, however, does not apply
+to these terms used in their Aristotelian sense. In the philosophy of
+the Stagirite, the soul, like all other entelechies, is a cause in the
+_entitive_, but not in the _dynamic_, order of things. Its efficacy is
+_formal_, not _efficient_. It is not an agent, but a specifying type.
+The organism must be integrated, specified, and existent _before_ it
+can operate, and hence its integration and specification by the soul
+is prior to all vital activity. The soul is a constituent of being
+and not an immediate principle of action. The soul is not even an
+entity (in the sense of a complete and separate being), but rather an
+incomplete entity or constituent of an entity. It takes a complete
+entity to be an agent, and the soul or vital entelechy is not an
+independent existent, which is somehow inserted into the organism,
+but an incomplete being which has no existence of its own, but only
+coexistence, in the composite that it forms with the organism. Nor is
+there any such thing as a special vital force resident in the organism.
+The executive factors in all vital operations of the organic order are
+the physicochemical energies, which are native to matter in general.
+These forces, as we have seen, receive a reflexive orientation and are
+elevated to a higher plane of efficiency by reason of their association
+with an entelechy superior to the binding and type-determining
+principles present in inorganic units, but they are not supplanted or
+superseded by a new executive force. Wilson’s fear, therefore, that
+the experimental analysis of life is discouraged by vitalism, inasmuch
+as this conception _subtracts something from the efficiency of the
+physicochemical forces_, is groundless in the case of hylomorphic
+vitalism, but is well-founded in the case of such systems as the
+neo-vitalism of Driesch and the spiritualism of Descartes.
+
+Summing up, therefore, we may say that the soul, like other
+entelechies, is consubstantial with its material substrate, the body.
+True it is more autonomous than are the inflexible entelechies of
+inorganic nature, inasmuch as it is independent of any given atom,
+molecule, or cell in the organic aggregate. Such a degree of freedom,
+for example, is not possessed by the most complex molecules, which show
+no other flexibility than tautomerism, even this small readjustment
+involving a change in their specificity. But this autonomy does not
+preclude the essential dependence of the soul upon the body. Generally
+speaking, the soul is incapable of existence apart from its total
+substrate, the organism. We say, _generally speaking_, because, as
+previously intimated, an exception must be made in the case of the
+_human soul_, which, being, as we shall see, a self-subsistent and
+spiritual entelechy, is by itself, apart from its material substrate,
+a sufficient subject of existence, and is therefore capable of
+surviving the dissolution of its complementary principle, the organism.
+Nevertheless, even in man, the soul forms one substance with the
+organism, and the organism participates as a coëfficient factor in
+all his vital functions, both physiological and psychic, excluding
+only the _superorganic_ or _spiritual_ functions of rational thought
+and volition, whose agent and recipient is the _soul alone_. In man,
+then, soul and body unite to form a single substance, a single nature,
+and a single person. Apart from the body, the human soul is, indeed,
+a complete entity, in the sense that it is capable of subsistence
+(independent existence), but, in another sense, it is not a complete
+entity, because apart from the body it cannot constitute a complete
+nature or complete personality. It is this essential incompleteness of
+the discarnate human soul that forms the natural basis of the Christian
+doctrine of the Resurrection of the Dead.
+
+Here, however, it is important to note the difference between the
+hylomorphic spiritualism of Aristotle and the psychophysical
+spiritualism of Descartes. By the latter _all_ conscious or physic
+functions are regarded as spiritual. The former, however, recognizes
+the fundamental difference which exists between the lower or
+animal, and the higher or rational functions of our conscious life.
+Sense-perception and sensual emotion belong to the former class, and
+must be regarded as _organic_ functions, whose agent and subject is
+neither the soul alone nor the organism alone, but the soul-informed
+organism or substantial composite of body and soul. Rational thinking
+and willing, on the contrary, are classified as _superorganic_ or
+_spiritual_ functions, inasmuch as they exclude the coägency of the
+organism and have the soul alone for their active cause and receptive
+subject.
+
+The soul, in fine, is the formal principle or primary source of the
+threefold life in man, namely, the metabolic life, which man shares
+with plants, the sentient life, which he shares with animals, and the
+rational life, which is uniquely human. The human soul is often spoken
+of as the mind. In their dictionary sense, both terms denote one and
+the same reality, namely, the human entelechy or vital principle in
+man, but the connotation of these terms is different. The term soul
+signifies the vital principle in so far as it is the primary source
+of every kind of life in man, that is, vegetative, sentient, and
+rational. The term mind, however, connoting conscious rather than
+unconscious life, signifies the vital principle in so far as it is the
+root and ground of our conscious life (both sentient and rational).
+Here, however, the distinction is of no great moment, and the terms
+may be regarded as synonymous. The definitions which we have given
+are, of course, blasphemous in the ears of our modern neo-Kantian
+phenomenalists, whose preference is for a _functional_, rather than a
+_substantial_, mind or soul; but we will pay our respects to them later.
+
+It is clear, however, from what has been said, that, for evidences of
+the superiority and spirituality of the human soul, we must recur,
+not to the external manifestations of our nutritive life, but to
+the internal manifestations of our conscious life. The latter are
+wholly inaccessible to the external senses and perceptible only to the
+intuition of consciousness, introspection, or internal experience,
+as it is variously called. All our self-knowledge rests on the basis
+of introspection, and without it the science of psychology would be
+impossible. In fact, not only psychology, but the physical sciences
+as well, depend for their validity on the testimony of consciousness;
+for the external world is only knowable to the extent that it enters
+the domain of our consciousness. Recently, as we have seen, a tendency
+to discredit internal experience has arisen among materialistic
+extremists. This “tendency,” to quote the words of Keyser, “most
+notably represented by the behaviorist school of psychologists (like
+Professor Watson, for example), is manifest in the distrust of
+introspections as a means of knowledge of mental phenomena and in the
+growing dependence of psychology upon external observation of animal
+and human behavior and upon physiological experiment, as if matter
+were regarded ‘as something much more solid and indubitable than
+mind’ (Bertrand Russell).”—C. J. Keyser, _Science_, Nov. 25, 1921,
+p. 520. Since, however, all our knowledge depends on the validity of
+consciousness, such a tendency is suicidal and destructive of all
+science, whether physical or psychological. The attempts, therefore, of
+mechanists, like Loeb, and behaviorists, like Watson, to dispense with
+consciousness overreach themselves. For how can the mechanists _know_
+that there are such things as tropisms, tactisms, or reaction-systems,
+how can the behaviorist _study_ such things as “situations,”
+“adjustments,” and S-R-bonds, how can the materialist _become aware_
+of the existence of molecules and atoms, except through the medium of
+their own conscious or psychic states? States of matter can be known
+only by means of states of mind, and the former, therefore, cannot
+be any more real than the latter. “What, after all,” asks Cardinal
+Mercier, “is a fact of nature if the mind has not seized, examined,
+and assimilated it? True, the information of consciousness is often
+precarious. For this reason we do well to aid and control it by
+scientific apparatus. These apparatus, however, can only aid, never
+supplant, introspection. The telescope does not replace the eye, but
+extends its vision.” (“Relation of Exp. Psych. to Philosophy,” pp. 40,
+41—Trans. of Wirth.)
+
+
+                   § 3. The Nature of the Human Soul
+
+Now our inner consciousness bears unmistakable witness to the existence
+within us of an abiding subject of our thoughts, feelings, and desires.
+In biology, the soul is revealed to us as a binding-principle, that
+obstructs dissolution of the organism, and a persistent type that
+maintains its identity amid an incessant flux of matter and flow
+of energy. Clearer still is testimony of introspective psychology,
+which reveals all our psychic activities and states as successive
+modifications of this permanent “I,” “self,” “personality,” or “mind,”
+according as we choose to express it. Human language proves this
+most forcibly; for the intramental facts and data of our conscious
+life simply cannot be so much as intelligibly expressed, much less,
+defined, or differentiated from the extramental facts of the physical
+world, without using terms that include a reference to this selfsame
+persistent subject of thought, feeling, and volition. Even inveterate
+phenomenalists, like Wundt, James, and Titchener, are obliged to
+submit to this inexorable linguistic law, in common with their
+unscientific brethren, the generality of mankind, although they do
+so only after futile attempts at a “scientific revision” of grammar,
+and with much grumbling over the “barbarous conceptions” of the
+gross-headed aborigines who invented human language. Be that as it
+may, no formulation of mental facts is possible except in terms that
+either denote or connote this permanent source and ground of human
+thought and feeling, as is apparent, for example, from such phrases
+as: “_I_ think,” “_I_ wish,” “_I_ hear”; “_mental_ states” (_i. e._ of
+the mind); _psychic_ functions (_i. e._ of the psyche); _subjective_
+idealism (_i. e._ of the subject); a _conscious_ act (from _con-scire_:
+“to know along with,” because in conscious acts the subject is known
+along with the object). The phenomenalists occasionally succeed, in
+their “most precise” passages, in omitting to mention the person,
+knower, or thinker behind thought, but they do so only at the cost of
+substituting _personal pronouns_, and of thus bringing back through
+the window what they have just ejected by way of the door. Our
+consciousness, therefore, makes us invincibly aware of the _existence_
+of a superficially variable, but radically unchangeable, subject of
+our mental life. It does not, however, tell us anything concerning the
+_nature_ of this primary ground of thought, whether, for example, it is
+identical with the cerebral cortex, or something distinct therefrom,
+whether it is phenomenal or substantial, dynamic or entitive, spiritual
+or material. To decide these questions the unanalyzed factual data of
+internal experience do not suffice, but they do suffice to establish
+the reality of the ego or subject of thought. Later we shall see that
+the analysis of these data, when taken in conjunction with other facts,
+forces us to predicate of the soul such attributes as substantiality,
+simplicity, and spirituality, but here they are cited solely for their
+factual force and not for their logical implications.
+
+The phenomenalistic schools of Interactionism and Psychophysical
+Parallelism deny the _substantiality_ of the soul, and seek to resolve
+it into sourceless and subjectless processes. A phenomenal mind or
+soul, however, could not be the primary ground of mental life, for the
+simple reason that phenomena presuppose a supporting medium (otherwise
+they would be self-maintaining, and therefore, substantial). Now that
+which presupposes cannot be a primary principle, but only a secondary,
+or tertiary principle. Consequently, a functional mind could not be
+the primary and irreducible ground of mental life, but only that _of
+which_ it is a function, whether that something is a material, or a
+spiritual substance. For the present, we are not interested in the
+nature of this ultimate substrate, we are content with the fact that
+it really exists. Phenomenalists (like Wundt, Paulsen, and James)
+are very inconsistent when they admit material molecules as the
+extended substrate of extramental or physical phenomena, while denying
+the existence of the mind or ego as the inextended substrate of
+intramental or psychic phenomena. All substance, whether material or
+spiritual, is inaccessible to the senses. Even material substrates are
+manifested only by their phenomena, being in themselves supersensible
+and “metaphysical.” If, then, the human understanding is inerrant in
+ascribing a material substrate to extramental phenomena, then it is
+equally inerrant in attributing to intramental phenomena the intimate
+substrate called mind, whether this substrate be a spiritual substance,
+or a material substance like the substrate of physical phenomena
+and that of organic life. As a matter of fact, the Psychophysical
+Parallelists actually do reduce mental phenomena to a material
+substrate (viz. the cerebral cortex). Their phenomenalism, which we
+will refute presently, is but a disingenuous attempt to gloss over
+their fundamental materialism. At all events, they are willing to admit
+an ultimate substantial ground of thought and volition, provided it is
+not claimed that this substrate is of a spiritual nature. The _bare
+existence_ of some substrate, however, is all that we assert, for the
+present.
+
+Before leaving this topic, we wish to call attention to the fact that
+the subject of thought and desire is _active_ as well as _passive_.
+Mind, in other words, is not merely a persistent medium wherein passive
+mental states are maintained, but an active and synthetic principle
+as well. Mental processes, like those of judgment, reasoning, and
+recognition, require a unitary and unifying principle, which actively
+examines and compares our impressions and thoughts, in order to discern
+their relations to one another and to itself. Materialistic psychology,
+in spite of the plain testimony of consciousness, is all for ignoring
+the mind in its _active rôle_ as the percipient of the identities and
+discrepancies of thought, and for regarding mind as a mere complex of
+mental states or transient flux of fleeting imagery. It is well, then,
+to bear in mind the indubitable facts of internal experience, to which
+Cardinal Mercier calls attention. “English psychology,” he observes,
+“had attempted a kind of anatomy of consciousness. It made all consist
+in passive sensations or impressions. These impressions came together,
+fused, dissociated under the guidance of certain laws, principally
+those of similarity and dissimilarity. The whole process was entirely
+passive without the intervention of any active subject. It was
+psychology without a soul. Now that things are being examined a little
+more closely, psychologists find that there are a lot of conscious
+states that are without the slightest doubt active on the part of the
+subject. There are a number of mental states upon which the subject
+brings his _attention_ to bear, and attention (from _ad-tendere_)
+means activity. Ordinarily we do not know the intensity of a sensation
+without _comparing_ it with another preceding one. This work of
+comparison, or, as the English call it, discrimination, is necessarily
+_activity_. The Associationists had confounded the fact of coëxistence
+with the perception of similarity or dissimilarity. Supposing even
+that the coëxistence of two mental states were entirely passive, it
+still remains true that the notion of their similarity or dissimilarity
+requires an _act of perception_. It is absolutely impossible to
+conceive psychical life without an _active subject_ which _perceives_
+itself as living, _notes_ the impressions it receives, _compares_ its
+acts, _associates_ and _dissociates_ them; in a word, there can be
+no psychology without a perceiving subject which psychologists call
+_esprit_, or with the English, ‘mind.’” (_Op. cit._, pp. 52-54—italics
+his.)
+
+The conflict between phenomenalism and the clear testimony of
+consciousness is summed up in the following words of T. Fontaine: “If
+all things are phenomena, then we ourselves can be nothing more than
+events unknown to one another; in order, then, that such events may
+appear to us united, so that we may be able to declare their succession
+within us, it is necessary that something else besides them should
+exist; and this something else, this link that binds them together,
+this principle that is conscious of their succession, can be nothing
+else than a non-event or non-phenomenon, namely, a substance, an ego
+substantially distinct from sensations.” (“La sensation et la pensée,”
+p. 23.)
+
+For the phenomenalists, mind is but a collective term for the
+phenomenal series of our transitory thoughts and feelings. With
+Wundt, they discard the substantial or entitive soul for a dynamic or
+functional one, “_die aktuelle Seele_.” (Cf. Grundz. der Phys. Psych.,
+ed. 5th, III, p. 758 _et seq._) Thought antecedes itself by becoming
+its own thinker; for Titchener tells us: “The passing thought would
+seem to be the thinker.” (“Pr. of Psych.,” I, p. 342.) We do not think,
+but thought thinks; John does not walk, but walking walks; aeroplanes
+do not fly, but flight flies; air does not vibrate, but vibration
+vibrates. The phenomenalist _objectivates his subjective abstractions_,
+divorces processes from their agents, and substantializes phenomena.
+The source of his error is a confusion of the ideal, with the real,
+order of things. Because it is possible for us _to consider_ a thought
+apart from any determinate thinker, by means of a mental abstraction,
+he very falsely concludes that it is possible for a thought _to exist_
+without a concrete thinker. It would be obviously absurd to suppose
+that the so-called Grignard reaction could occur without definite
+reactants, merely because we can think of it without specifying any
+particular kind of _alkyl halide_; it would be preposterous to infer,
+from the fact that vibration can be considered independently of any
+concrete medium such as air, water, or ether, that therefore a pure
+vibration can exist without any vibrating medium; and it is equally
+absurd to project an abstraction like subjectless thought into the
+realm of existent reality. Abstractions are ideal entities of the mind;
+they can have no real existence outside the domain of thought. Hence
+to assign a real or extralogical existence to actions, modalities, and
+properties, in isolation from the concrete subjects, to which they
+belong, is a procedure that is not legitimate in any other world than
+Alice’s Wonderland, where, we are told, the Cheshire Cat left behind
+his notorious grin long after his benign countenance had faded from
+view. His faceless grin is a fitting comment on the neo-Kantian folly
+of those who, as L. Chiesa says, “speak of phenomena without substance,
+of sensations without subject, of thoughts without the Ego, to which
+they belong, imitating in this way the poets, who personify honor,
+virtue, beauty, etc. Now all this proceeds exclusively from a confusion
+of the subjective abstraction with the reality, and from the assumption
+that the phenomenon, for example, exists without substance, because we
+are able (by means of abstraction) to consider the former independently
+of the latter.” (“La Base del Realismo,” p. 39.) In other words, the
+mind is capable of separating (representatively, of course, and not
+physically) its own phenomena from itself, but this is no warrant for
+transferring the abstractions thus formed from the ideal, to the real,
+order of things.
+
+So much for the soul’s substantiality, but it is a _simple_, as
+well as a substantial, principle, that is to say, it is inextended,
+uncompounded, incorporeal, and not dispersed into quantitative parts
+or particles. In other words, it is not a composite of constituent
+elements or complex of integral parts, but something really distinct
+from the body and pertaining to a different order of reality than
+matter. This, as we have seen, does not necessarily mean that it
+is immaterial, in the sense of being intrinsically independent of
+matter. In a word, simplicity does not involve spirituality (absolute
+immateriality). Not only plant and animal souls, but even mineral
+entelechies, are simple, in the negative sense of excluding extension,
+corporeality and dispersal into quantitative parts, but they are, none
+the less, intrinsically dependent on matter and are therefore material
+principles.
+
+That the soul or vital entelechy is really distinct from its material
+substrate is apparent from the perennial process of metabolism enacted
+in the living organism. In this process, matter is the variant and
+entelechy or specific type is the constant. Hence the two principles
+are not only distinct, but separable. Moreover, the soul’s rôle as a
+binding-principle that obstructs dissolution is incompatible with its
+dispersal into quantitative parts; for such a principle, far from being
+able to bind, would require binding itself, and could not, therefore,
+be the primary source of unification in the organism. Finally, the soul
+must be incorporeal; since, if it were a corporeal mass, it could not
+be “a formative power pervading the growing mass as a whole” (Wilson);
+for this would involve the penetration of one body by another.
+Consequently, the soul is a simple, inextended, incorporeal reality
+undispersed into quantitative parts.
+
+Introspective psychology bears witness to the same truth; for
+consciousness reinforced by memory attests _the substantial permanence
+of our personal identity_. We both think and regulate our practical
+conduct in accordance with this sense of unchanging personal identity.
+All recognition of the past means simply this, that we perceive the
+substantial identity of our present, with our past, selves throughout
+all the experiences and vicissitudes of life. There is an inmost core
+of our being which is unchanging and which remains always identical
+with itself, in spite of the flow of thought and the metabolic changes
+of the life-cycle. It is this that gives us the sense of being
+always identically the same person, from infancy to maturity, and
+from maturity to old age. It is this that constitutes the thread of
+continuity which links our yesterdays with today, and makes us morally
+responsible for all the deliberate deeds of a lifetime. Courts of law
+do not acquit a criminal because he is in a different frame of mind
+from that which induced him to commit murder, nor do they excuse him on
+the score that metabolism has made him a different mass of flesh from
+that which perpetrated the crime. Such philosophies as phenomenalism
+and materialism are purely academic. Even their advocates dare not
+reduce them to consistent practice in everyday life.
+
+Nor can the cases of _alternating personalities_ be adduced as
+counterevidence. In the first place, these cases are psychopathic
+and not normal. In the second, they are due, not to a modification
+of _personality itself_, but to a modification in the _perception of
+personality_. Since this perception is, as we shall see, extrinsically
+dependent on cerebral imagery, any neuropathic affection is liable
+to modify the perception of personality by seriously disturbing
+the imagery, on which it depends. But (_pace_ Wundt and James) the
+perception of personality is one thing, and personality itself quite
+another. Perception does not produce its objects, but presupposes
+them, and self-perception is no exception to this rule. Introspection,
+therefore, does not create our personality, but reveals and represents
+it. If then to the intuition of consciousness our personality appears
+as an unchanging principle that remains always substantially identical
+with itself, it follows that this perception must be terminated by
+something more durable than a flux of transient molecules or a stream
+of fleeting thought. Unless this perceptive act has for its object some
+unitary and uniformly persistent reality distinct from our composite,
+corruptible bodies, and not identified with our transitory thoughts,
+this sense of permanent personal identity would be utterly impossible.
+Materialism, which recognizes nothing more in man than a decaying
+organism, a mere vortex of fluent molecules, is at a loss to account
+for our consciousness of being always the same person. Phenomenalism,
+which identifies mind or self with the “thought-stream,” is equally
+impotent to account for this sense of our abiding sameness.
+
+James’ attempt at a phenomenalistic explanation of the persistent
+continuity of self, on the assumption that each passing thought knows
+its receding predecessor and becomes known, in turn, by its successor,
+is puerile. To pass over other flaws, this absurd theory encounters an
+insuperable difficulty in _sleep_, which interrupts, for a considerable
+interval, the flow of conscious thought. Thought is a transient
+reality, which passes, so far as its actuality is concerned, and can
+only remain in the form of a permanent effect. Unless, therefore, there
+were some _persistent medium_ in which the last waking thought could
+leave a permanent vestige of itself, the process of relaying the past
+could never be resumed, and we would lose our personal identity every
+twenty-four hours. The mind, or subject of thought, then, must be an
+abiding and unitary principle distinct from our composite bodies, and
+from our manifold and fleeting thoughts.
+
+Finally, to the two foregoing attributes of the human soul
+(substantiality and simplicity), we must add a third and crowning
+attribute, namely, _spirituality_. It is this, and this alone, that
+differentiates the human from the bestial soul, which latter is but
+an incomplete complement of matter, incapable of existence apart from
+matter, and doomed to perish with the dissolution of the organism, as
+the cylindrical form of a candle perishes with the consumption of the
+wax by the flame.
+
+All the psychic activities of the brute, such as sensation,
+object-perception, imagination, associative memory, sensual emotion,
+etc., are organic functions of the sensitivo-nervous type. In
+all of them the agent and recipient is not the soul alone, but
+the psycho-organic composite of soul and organism, that is, the
+soul-informed sensory and central neurons of the cerebrospinal system.
+The sensory neurons are nerve cells that transmit centerward the
+excitations of physical stimuli received by the external sense organs
+or receptors, in which their axon-fibers terminate. These receptors
+and sensory neurons are extended material organs proportioned and
+specialized for receiving physical impressions from external bodies,
+either directly through surface-contact with the bodies themselves
+or their derivative particles (_e.g._ in touch, taste and smell), or
+indirectly through surface-contact with an extended vibrant medium such
+as air, water, or ether (_e.g._ in hearing and sight). The central
+neurons of the cerebral cortex are, as it were, the tablets, upon which
+the excitations transmitted thither by the sensory neurons, record the
+extended neurograms that constitute the physical basis of the concrete
+imagery of memory and imagination. Interior senses, then, like memory
+and imagination, merely continue and combine what was preëxistent in
+the exterior senses. Their composite imagery is rigidly proportioned
+to the extended neurograms imprinted on the cerebral neurons, and
+these neurograms, in turn, are determined both qualitatively and
+quantitatively by the physical impressions received by the receptors,
+and these impressions, finally, are exactly proportioned to the action
+of the material stimuli in contact with the receptors. Thus the
+composite images of imagination as well as those of direct perception
+are proportioned to the underlying neurograms of the cortex and
+correspond exactly, as regards quality, intensity, and extensity, to
+the original stimulus affecting the external receptors. Hence men born
+blind can never imagine color, nor can men born deaf ever imagine
+sound. An inextended principle, such as the discarnate soul, cannot
+receive or record impressions from extended vibrant media, or from
+extended corporeal masses. For this the soul requires the intrinsic
+coöperation of material receptors. Now, the highest cognitive and
+appetitive functions of the brute (_e.g._ sense-perception and emotion)
+are, as has been stated, of the sensitivo-nervous or psycho-organic
+type, that is, they are functions in which the material organism
+intimately coöperates; brute animals give no indication of having so
+much as a single function, which proceeds from the soul alone and
+which is not communicated to the organism. Hence the bestial soul is
+“totally immersed” in matter; as regards both operation and existence,
+it is “intrinsically dependent” upon its material complement, the
+organism. It never operates save in conjunction with the latter, and
+its _sole reason for existence_ is adequately summed up in saying that
+it exists, not for its own sake, but merely _to vivify and sensitize
+the organism_. Consequently, the brute soul, though inextended and
+incorporeal, belongs, not to the spiritual, but to the material, order
+of things.
+
+Is the human soul equally material in nature, or does it belong to the
+spiritual category of being? The state of the question has long since
+been formulated for us by Aristotle: “A further difficulty,” he says,
+“arises as to whether all attributes of the soul are also shared by
+that which has the soul or whether any of them are peculiar to the soul
+itself: a problem which it is imperative, and yet by no means easy, to
+solve. It would appear that in most cases it neither acts nor is acted
+upon apart from the body: as, _e.g._, in anger, courage, desire, and
+sensation in general. Thought, if anything, would seem to be peculiar
+to the soul. Yet if thought is a sort of imagination, or something not
+independent of imagination, it will follow that not even thought is
+independent of the body. If, then, there be any functions or affections
+of the soul that are peculiar to it, it will be possible for the soul
+to be separated from the body: if, on the other hand, there is nothing
+peculiar to it, the soul will not be capable of separate existence.”
+(“Peri Psyches,” Bk. I, chap. I, 9.) We shall see that the human
+soul has certain operations which it discharges independently of the
+intrinsic coägency of the organism, _e.g._, abstract thought (not to be
+confounded with the concrete imagery of the imagination) and deliberate
+volition (to be distinguished from the urge of the sensual appetite).
+Hence, over and above the organic functions, which it discharges in
+conjunction with the material organism, the human soul has superorganic
+functions, of which it is itself, in its own right, the exclusive agent
+and recipient. In other words, it exists _for its own sake_ and not
+merely to perfect the body.
+
+The Aristotelian argument for the spirituality of the human soul
+consists in the application of a self-evident principle or axiom to
+certain facts of internal experience. The axiom in question is the
+following: “The nature of an agent is revealed by its action”; or,
+to phrase it somewhat differently: “Every being operates after the
+same manner that it exists.” The factual data, to which reference is
+made, are man’s higher psychic functions, in which the soul alone
+is the active cause and receptive subject, namely: the rational or
+superorganic functions of thinking and willing. The argument may be
+formulated thus: Every agent exists after the same manner that it
+operates. But in rational cognition and volition the soul acts without
+the co-agency of the material organism. Therefore the human soul can
+exist without the coexistence of the material organism. But this is
+tantamount to saying that it is a spiritual reality irreducible to
+matter and incapable of derivation from matter. For we define that
+as spiritual, which exists, or is, at least, capable of existing,
+without matter. Consequently, the human soul is a supermaterial and
+immortal principle, which does not need the body to maintain itself in
+existence, and can, on that account, survive the death and dissolution
+of its material complement, the organism. Such a reality, as we
+have seen, cannot be a product of evolution, but can only come into
+existence by way of creation.
+
+The axiom, that activity is the expression or manifestation of the
+entity which underlies it, needs but little elucidation. In the
+genesis of human knowledge, the dynamic is prior to both the static
+and the entitive. We deduce the nature of the cause from the changes
+or effects that it produces. Action, in short, is the primary datum
+upon which our knowledge of being rests. It is the spectrum of solar
+light emitted by them, which enables us to determine the nature of
+the chemical elements present in the distant Sun. It is the reaction
+of an unknown compound with a test reagent that furnishes the chemist
+with a clue to its composition and structure. It is the special type
+of tissue degeneration caused by the specific toxin engendered by an
+invisible disease germ that enables the pathologists to identify the
+latter, etc., etc. So much for the axiom. Regarding the psychological
+facts, a more lengthy exposition is required. To begin with, there
+is _prima facie_ evidence against the contention that the higher
+psychic functions in man are independent of the organism. Injury and
+degeneration of the cerebral cortex result (very often, at least) in
+insanity and idiocy. Reason, therefore, is in some way dependent upon
+the organism. Babies, too, are incapable of rational thought until
+such a time as the nervous system is fully developed. Obviously,
+then, rational functions cannot be spiritual, inasmuch as they are not
+independent of the organism.
+
+This time-honored objection of materialists is based on a
+misapprehension. It falsely assumes that spirituality excludes _every_
+kind of dependence upon a material organism, and that our assertion
+of the soul’s independence of matter is an unqualified assertion.
+This, however, is far from being the case. It is only _intrinsic_
+(subjective), and not _extrinsic_ (objective), independence of the
+organism which is here affirmed. An analogy from the sense of sight
+will serve to make clear the meaning of this distinction. In the act
+of seeing a tree, for example, our sight is dependent upon a twofold
+corporeal element, namely, the _eye_ and the _tree_. It is dependent
+upon the eye as upon a corporeal element intrinsic to the visual sense,
+the eye being a constituent part of the agent and subject of vision;
+for it is not the soul alone which sees, but rather the soul-informed
+retina and neurons of the psycho-organic composite. The eye enters as
+an essential ingredient into the intimate constitution of the visual
+sense. It is a _constituent part_ of the _specific cause_ of vision,
+and it can therefore be said with perfect propriety that the _eye
+sees_. Such dependence upon a material element is called intrinsic or
+subjective dependence, and is utterly incompatible with spirituality on
+the part of that which is thus dependent. But the dependence of sight
+upon an external corporeal factor, like a tree or any other visible
+object, is of quite a different nature. Here the corporeal element is
+outside of the seeing subject and does not enter as an ingredient into
+the composition of the principal and specific agent of vision. True the
+tree, which is seen, is coïnstrumental as a provoking stimulus and an
+objective exemplar, but its concurrence is of an extrinsic nature, not
+to be confounded with the intrinsic co-agency of the eye in the act of
+vision. Hence, in no sense whatever can the tree be said to see; for
+the tree is merely an object, not the principal and specific cause,
+of vision. When the dependence of an agent upon a corporeal element
+is of this sort, it is termed extrinsic or objective dependence. Such
+dependence upon a material element is _perfectly compatible with
+spirituality_, which does, indeed, exclude all materiality from the
+specific agent and subject of a psychic act, but does not necessarily
+exclude materiality from the object contemplated in such an act. Hence
+the fact that the thinking soul must abstract its rational concepts
+from the concrete imagery of a cerebral sense, like the imagination,
+in no wise detracts from its spirituality, because the dependence of
+abstract thought upon such imagery is objective or extrinsic, and not
+subjective or intrinsic.
+
+Psychologists of the sensationalist school have striven to obscure
+the fundamental distinction which exists between rational thought and
+the concomitant cerebral imagery. It is, however, far too manifest
+to escape attention, as the healthy reaction of the modern school of
+Würzburg indicates. “It cost me great resolution,” says Dr. F. E.
+Schultze, a member of this school, “to say, that, on the basis of
+immediate experiment, appearances and sensible apprehensions are not
+the only things that can be experienced. But finally I had to resign
+myself to my fate.” (“Beitrag zur Psychologie des Zeitbewusstseins,” p.
+277.)
+
+But thought is not only distinct from imagery, often there is marked
+contrast between the two, both as regards subjective, and objective,
+characters. Thus our thought may be perfectly clear, precise, and
+pertinent, while the accompanying imagery is obscure, fragmentary,
+and irrelevant. “What enters into consciousness so fragmentarily, so
+sporadically, so very accidentally as our mental images,” exclaims Karl
+Bühler (also of Würzburg), “can not be looked upon as the well-knitted,
+continuous content of our thinking.” (_Archiv. für die ges. Psychol._,
+9, 1907, p. 317.) The same contrast exists with respect to their
+objective characters. Imagination represents by means of one and the
+same image what reason represents by means of two distinct concepts,
+_e.g._ an oasis and a mirage; and, _vice versa_, reason represents
+under the single general concept of a rose objects that imagination
+is forced to represent by means of two distinct images, _e.g._, a
+yellow, and a white rose. Imagery depicts only the superficial or
+exterior properties of an object, whereas thought penetrates beneath
+the phenomenal surface to interior properties and supersensible
+relationships. The sensory percept apprehends the existence of a fact,
+while the rational concept analyzes its nature. Hence sense-perception
+is concerned with the _reality of existence_, while thought is
+concerned with the _reality of essence_.
+
+Certain American psychologists employ the term _imageless thought_
+to designate abstract concepts. The expression is liable to be
+misunderstood. It should not be construed as excluding all concomitance
+and concurrence of sensible imagery, in relation to the process of
+thought. What is really meant is that sensible appearances do not make
+up the sum-total of our internal experiences, but that we are also
+aware of mental acts and states which are not reducible to imagery.
+In other words, we experience thought; and thought and imagery,
+though concomitant, are not commensurable. The clarity and coherence
+of thought does not depend on the clarity or germaneness of the
+accompanying imagery, nor is it ever adequately translatable into terms
+of that imagery. Thus the universal triangle of geometry, which is not
+right, nor oblique, nor isosceles, neither scalene nor equilateral,
+neither large nor small, neither here nor there, neither now nor then,
+is not visualizable in terms of concrete imagery, although we are
+clearly conscious of its significance in geometrical demonstrations.
+Imagery differs according to the person, one man being a visualist,
+another an audist, another a tactualist, another a motor-verbalist,
+etc. But thought is the same in all, and consequently it is thought,
+and not imagery, which we convey by means of speech. Helen Keller,
+whose imagery is mainly motor and tactile, can exchange views with an
+audist or visualist on the subject of geometry, even though the amount
+of imagery which she has in common with such persons is negligible.
+“_Eine Bedeutung_,” says Bühler, “_kann man überhaupt nicht vorstellen,
+sondern nur wissen_,” and Binet, in the last sentence of his “L’Étude
+expérimentale de l’intelligence,” formulates the following conclusion:
+“Finally—and this is the main fact, fruitful in consequences for the
+philosophers—the entire logic of thought escapes our imagery.”
+
+Nevertheless, thought does not originate in the total absence of
+imagery, but requires a minimal substrate of sensible images, upon
+which it is objectively, if not subjectively, dependent. The nature
+of this objective dependence is explained by the Scholastic theory
+concerning the origin of concepts. According to this theory, the
+genesis of our general and abstract knowledge is as follows: (1) We
+begin with sense-perception, say of boats differing in shape, size,
+color, material, location, etc. (2) Imagination and sense-memory retain
+the composite and concrete imagery synthesized or integrated from the
+impressions of the separate external senses and representing the boats
+in all their factual particularity, individuality, and materiality,
+as existent here and now, or there and then, as constructed of such
+and such material (_e.g._, of wood, or steel, or iron, or concrete),
+as having determinate sizes, shapes, and tonnages, as painted white,
+or gray, or green, as propelled by oar, or sail, or turbine, etc. (3)
+Then the _active intellect_ exerts its abstractive influence upon this
+concrete imagery, accentuating the essential features which are common
+to all, and suppressing the individuating features which are peculiar
+to this or that boat, so that the essence of a boat may appear to the
+_cognitive intellect_ without its concomitant individuation—the essence
+of a boat being, in this way, isolated from the peculiarities thereof
+and its various qualities from their subject (representatively, of
+course, and not physically). (4) The imagery thus predisposed, being
+no longer immersed in matter, but dematerialized by the dispositive
+action of the active intellect, becomes coïnstrumental with the
+latter in producing a determination in the cognitive intellect. (5)
+Upon receiving this determination, the cognitive intellect, which
+has hitherto been, as it were, a blank tablet with nothing written
+upon it, reacts to express the essence or nature of a boat by means
+of a spiritual representation or concept—the abstractive act of the
+active intellect is _dispositive_, inasmuch as it _presents_ what
+is common to all the boats perceived without their differentiating
+peculiarities; the abstractive act of the cognitive intellect,
+however, is _cognitive_, inasmuch as it _considers_ the essence of a
+boat without considering its individuation. Such is the abstractive
+process by which our general and abstract concepts are formed. From a
+comparison of two concepts of this sort the process of judgment arises,
+and from the comparison of two concepts with a third arises the process
+of mediate inference or reasoning. Volition, too, is consequent upon
+conception, and hence an act of the will (our rational appetite), such
+as the desire of sailing in a boat, entails the preëxistence of some
+conceptual knowledge of the nature of a boat. Volition, therefore,
+presupposes thought, and thought presupposes imagination, which
+supplies the sensible imagery that undergoes the aforesaid process
+of analysis or abstraction. Such imagery, however, is a function of
+the cerebral cortex, and, for this reason, the normal exercise of the
+imagination presupposes the cerebral cortex in a normal physiological
+condition; and anything that disturbs this normal condition of the
+cortex will directly disturb the imagery of the imagination, and
+therefore indirectly impede the normal exercise of conceptual thought,
+which is abstracted from such imagery. Hence it is clear that the
+activity of both the intellect and the will is objectively dependent
+upon the organic activity of the imagination, and, in consequence,
+_indirectly_ dependent upon the physiological condition of the cerebral
+cortex, which is the organ of the imagination. Since, however, this
+dependence is objective rather than subjective, it does not, as we have
+seen, conflict with the spirituality of rational thought.
+
+The nature of conceptual thought is such as to exclude the
+participation of matter as a constituent of its specific agent
+and receptive subject. The objects of a cerebral sense like the
+imagination are endowed with extension, color, shape, volume, mass,
+temperature, and other physical properties, in virtue of which they
+can set up vibrations in an extended medium or modify an extended
+organ by immediate physical contact. But, while imagination makes
+us conscious of objects capable of stimulating extended material
+organs, the objects, of which we are conscious in abstract thinking,
+are divested of all the sensible properties, extension, and specific
+energies, which would enable them to modify a material neuron, or
+produce a physical impression upon a material receptor of any kind
+whatever. Between an extended material receptor, like a sense-organ or
+a cerebral neuron, and the nondimensional, dematerialized object or
+content of an abstract thought, like science, heroism, or morality,
+there is no conceivable proportion. How can a material organ be
+affected by what is supersensible, unextended, imponderable, invisible,
+intangible, and uncircumscribed by the limitations of space and time?
+Extended receptors are necessary for picking up the vibrations of a
+tridimensional medium (like air or ether), and they are, likewise,
+essential for the reception of impressions produced by surface-contact
+with an exterior corporeal mass. In short, sensory neurons are needed
+to receive and transmit inward the quantitative and measurable
+excitations of the material stimuli of the external world, and central
+neurons are required as tablets upon which these incoming excitations
+may imprint _extended neurograms_, that are proportionate in intensity
+and extensity to the external stimulus apprehended, and that underlie
+and determine the concrete imagery (of which they are the physical
+basis). But when it comes to perceiving and representing the _meaning_
+of duty, truth, error, cause, effect, psychology, means, end, entity,
+logarithms, etc., our mind can derive no benefit from the coöperation
+of a material organ. In such thinking we are conscious of that which
+could not make an impression nor leave a record upon material receptors
+like neurons. To employ a material organ for the purpose of perceiving
+abstract essences and qualities would be as futile and pointless as an
+attempt to stop a nondimensional, unextended, intangible baseball with
+a catcher’s glove. Hence the services of material centers and receptors
+may be dispensed with, so far as rational thought is concerned.
+Rational thought cannot utilize the intrinsic coägency of the organism,
+and it is therefore a superorganic or spiritual function.
+
+That conceptual thought is in no wise communicated to the organism,
+but subjected in the spiritual soul alone, is likewise apparent from
+the data furnished by introspection. The conceiving mind apprehends
+even material objects according to an abstract or spiritualized mode
+of representation. In other words, in conceiving material objects
+we expurgate them of their materiality and material conditions,
+endowing them with a dematerialized mode of mental existence which
+they could never have, if subjected in their own physical matter, or
+in the organized matter of the cerebral cortex. Thus, in forming our
+concept of a material object like a boat, we spiritualize the boat
+by separating (representatively, of course, and not physically) its
+nature or essence from the determinate matter (_e.g._, wood, or steel)
+of which it is made, and by divesting it of the material and concrete
+conditions which define not only its physical existence outside of
+us, but also its imaginal existence within us as a concrete image
+in our imagination. In other words, we isolate the type or form of
+a given object from its material substrate and liberate it from the
+limiting material and concrete individuation, which confine it to a
+single material subject and localize it definitely in space and time.
+Now, it is axiomatic that whatever is received is received according
+to the nature of the receiver. Water, for example, assumes the form
+of the receptacle into which it is poured, and a picture painted
+upon canvas is necessarily extended according to the extension of
+the canvas. If, therefore, our intellect endows even the material
+objects, which it perceives, with a dematerialized or spiritualized
+mode of representation, it follows that the intellect itself is a
+spiritual power and not an organic sense immersed in concretifying
+and individualizing matter. Certainly, this ideal or spiritualized
+mode of existence does not emanate from the material object without
+nor yet from its vicarious material image in our organic imagination
+(which, in point of fact, is absolutely impotent to imagine anything
+except concrete, singular things in all their determinate individuation
+and quantification). Thought, then, with its _abstract mode of
+presentation_, cannot, like imagery, be subjected in the animated or
+soul-informed cortex, but must have the spiritual mind alone as its
+receptive subject. Our abstract or dematerialized mode of conceiving
+material objects is a subjective character of thought, proceeding from,
+and manifesting, the spirituality of the human mind, which represents
+even material objects in a manner that accords with its own spiritual
+nature.
+
+But it is not only in the process of abstraction, but also in that
+of _reflection_, that rational thought manifests its superorganic or
+spiritual character. The human mind knows that it knows and understands
+that it understands, thinks of its own thoughts and of itself as
+the agent and subject of its thinking. It is conscious of its own
+conscious acts, that is to say, it reflects upon itself and its own
+acts, becoming an object to itself. The thinking ego becomes an
+object of observation on the part of the thinking ego, which acquires
+self-knowledge by this process of reflective thought. In introspection,
+that which observes is identical with that which is observed. Now such
+a capacity of self-observation cannot reside in matter, cannot be
+spatially commensurate with a material organ nor inseparably attached
+thereto. It is possible only to an immaterial or spiritual principle,
+devoid of mass and extension, and not subject to the law of the
+impenetrability of matter. In virtue of the law of impenetrability,
+no two material particles, no two bodies, no two integral parts of the
+same body, can occupy one and the same place. One part of a body can,
+indeed, act on another part extrinsic to itself; but one and the same
+part or particle cannot act upon itself. To become at once observed
+and observer, a material organ would have to split itself in two, so
+that the part watched could be distinct from, and spatially external
+to, the part watching. The power of perfect reflection, therefore, must
+reside in the spiritual soul, and cannot be bound to, and coëxtensive
+with, a material organ. Only in this supposition can there be a return
+of the subject upon and into itself, only in this supposition can
+there be that identification of observed and observer implied by the
+process of reflection. H. Gründer, in his “Psychology without a Soul,”
+gives a graphic _reductio ad absurdum_ of the contrary assumption:
+“A fairy tale,” he says, “tells of a knight who was beheaded by his
+victorious foe. But, strange to relate, the vanquished knight rose to
+his feet, seized his severed head and bore it off, as in triumph. The
+most remarkable part, however, of the story is that with a last effort
+of gallantry he took his own head, and—kissed its brow. The climax of
+this fairy tale is no more absurd than the assumption that a material
+organ can know itself and philosophize on itself. Only if we admit with
+the scholastics a simple soul intrinsically independent of any bodily
+organism, can we explain the possibility of perfect psychological
+reflexion.” (_Cf._ pp. 193, 194.)
+
+For the rest the impossibility of introspection on the part of a
+material organ is so evident that the materialists themselves freely
+concede it, and being unwilling to admit the spirituality of the human
+intellect, they are forced to resort to the disingenuous expedient
+of denying the _fact_ of reflection on the part of the human mind.
+“It is obvious,” says Auguste Comte, “that by an invincible necessity
+the human mind can observe directly all phenomena except its own. We
+understand that a man can observe himself as a moral agent, because
+in that case he can watch himself under the action of the passions
+which animate him, precisely because the organs that are the seat
+of those passions are distinct from those that are destined for the
+functions of observation.... But it is manifestly impossible to observe
+intellectual phenomena whilst they are being produced. The individual
+thinking cannot divide himself in two, so that one half may think
+and the other watch the process. Since the organ observing and the
+one to be observed are identical, there can be no self-observation.”
+(“Cours de philosophie positive,” lière leçon.) But an argument is
+of no avail against a fact, and, as a matter of fact, we do reflect.
+It is by introspection or reflective thought that we discriminate
+between our present and our past thoughts, and become conscious of our
+own consciousness. Our intellect even reflects upon its own act of
+reflection, and so on indefinitely, so that, unless we are prepared
+to accept the absurd alternative of an infinite series of thinkers,
+we have no choice but to identify the subject knowing with the
+subject known. That our intellect is conscious of its own operations
+and attentive to its own thoughts, is an evident fact of internal
+experience, and it is preposterous to tilt against facts by means
+of syllogisms. When Zeno concocted his aprioristic “proof” of the
+impossibility of translatory movement, his sophism was refuted by the
+simple process of walking—_solvitur ambulando_. In like manner, the
+Comtean sophism concerning the impossibility of reflection is refuted
+by the simple act of mental reflection—_solvitur reflectendo_. For the
+rest, we readily concede Comte’s contention that an organ is incapable
+of reflection or self-observation, but we deny his tacit assumption
+that our cognitive powers are _all_ of the organic type. Our intellect,
+which attends to its own phenomena, thinks of its own thought and
+reasons upon its own reasoning, cannot be bound to, or coextensive
+with, a material organ, but must be free from any corporeal organ and
+rooted in a spiritual principle. In a word, reflective thought is a
+superorganic function expressing the spiritual nature of the human mind.
+
+Another proof of the superorganic nature of the human intellect as
+compared with sentiency, both exterior and interior, is one adduced by
+Aristotle himself: “But that the impassivity of the sense,” he says,
+“is different from that of intellect is clear if we look at the sense
+organs and at sense. The sense loses its power to perceive, if the
+sensible object has been too intense; thus it cannot hear sound after
+very loud noises, and after too powerful colors or odors it can neither
+see nor smell. But the intellect, when it has been thinking on an
+object of intense thought, is not less, but even more, able to think of
+inferior objects. For sense-perception is not independent of the body,
+whereas the intellect is.” (“Peri Psyches,” Bk. III, Ch. iv, 5.)
+
+This temporary incapacitation of the senses consequent upon powerful
+stimulation is a common experience embalmed in such popular expressions
+as “a deafening noise,” “a blinding flash,” “a dazzling light,” “a
+numbing pain,” etc. Weber’s law of the differential threshold tells
+us that the intensity of sensation does not increase in the same
+proportion as that of the stimulus. On the contrary, the more intense
+the previous stimulus has been, the greater must be the increment
+added to the subsequent stimulus before it can produce a perceptible
+increase in the intensity of sensation. In short, stimulation of the
+senses temporarily decreases their sensitivity with reference to
+supervening stimuli. The reason for this momentary loss of the power to
+react normally is evidently due to the organic nature of the senses.
+Their activity entails a definite and rigidly proportionate process
+of destructive metabolism in their bodily substrate, the organism. In
+other words, the exercise of sense-perception involves a commensurate
+process of decomposition in the neural tissue, which must afterwards
+be compensated by a corresponding assimilation of nutrient material,
+before the sense can again react with its pristine vigor. This process
+of recuperation requires time and temporarily inhibits the reactive
+power of the sense in question, the duration of this repair work being
+determined by the amount of neural decomposition caused by the reaction
+of the sense to the previous stimulus. When, therefore, a weaker
+stimulus supervenes in immediate succession to a stronger one, the
+sense is incapable of perceiving it. All organic activity, in short,
+such as sense-perception and imagination, is rigidly regulated by the
+metabolic law of waste and repair.
+
+With the intellect, however, the case is quite different. The intellect
+is neither debilitated nor stupefied by the discovery of truths that
+are exceptionally profound, or unusually abstruse, or strikingly
+evident; nor is it temporarily incapacitated thereby from understanding
+simpler, easier, or less evident truths. On the contrary, the more
+comprehensive, the more penetrating, the more perspicuous, the more
+sublime our intellectual vision is, so much the more is our intellect
+invigorated and enthused in its pursuit of truth, and its knowledge
+of the highest truths renders it not less, but more, apt for the
+understanding of simple and ordinary truths. Obviously, then, the
+intellect is not bound to a corruptible organ like the senses, but has
+for its subject a spiritual principle that is intrinsically independent
+of the organism.
+
+In opposition to this contention, it may be urged that a prolonged
+exercise of intellectual activity results in the condition commonly
+known as brain-fag. But this fatigue of the brain is not, as a matter
+of fact, the _direct_ effect of intellectual activity; rather it is the
+direct effect of the activity of the imagination, and only _indirectly_
+the effect of intellectual thought. The intellect, as we have seen,
+requires a constant flow of associated and aptly coördinated imagery
+as the substrate of its contemplation. Now, the imagination, which
+supplies this imagery, is a cerebral sense, whose activity is directly
+proportionate to, and commensurate with, the metabolic processes at
+work in the cortical cells. Its exercise is directly dependent upon
+the energy released by the decomposition of the cerebral substance.
+Prolonged activity of the imagination, therefore, involves the
+destruction of a considerable amount of the cortical substance, and
+results in temporary incapacitation or paralysis of the imagination,
+which must then be compensated by a process of repair in the cortical
+neurons, before the imagination can resume its normal mode of
+functioning. Brain-fag, then, is due to the activity of the imagination
+rather than that of the intellect. That such is the case appears from
+the fact that after the initial exertion, which results from the
+imagination being forced to assemble an appropriate and systematized
+display of illustrative imagery as subject-matter for the contemplation
+of the intellect, the latter is henceforth enabled to proceed with ease
+along the path of a given science, its further progress being smooth
+and unhampered. Once the preliminary work imposed upon the imagination
+is finished, the sense of effort ceases and intellectual investigation
+and study may subsequently reach the highest degrees of concentration
+and intensity, without involving corresponding degrees of fatigue or
+depression on the part of the cerebral imagination, just as, conversely
+speaking, the activity of the cerebral imagination may reach degrees
+of intensity extreme enough to induce brain-fag in psychic operations
+wherein the concomitant intellectual activity is reduced to a minimum,
+_e. g._, in the task of memorizing a poem, or recitation. Here, in the
+all but complete absence of intellectual activity, the same fatigue
+results as that induced by a prolonged period of analytic study or
+investigation, in which imaginative activity and rational thinking are
+concomitant. The point to be noted, in this latter case, is that the
+intellect does not show the same dependence upon the physiological
+vicissitudes as the imagination. The imagery of our imagination, being
+rigidly correlated with the metabolic processes of waste and repair
+at work in the cerebral cortex, manifests correspondingly variable
+degrees of intensity and integrity, but the intensity of thought is
+not dependent upon this alternation of excitation and inhibition in
+the cortex. Hence, while the concomitant imagery is fitful, sporadic,
+and fragmentary, intellectual thought itself is steady, lucid,
+and continuous. The intensity of thought does not vary with the
+fluctuations of neural metabolism, and may reach a maximum without
+involving corresponding fatigue in the brain. The brain-fag, therefore,
+which results from study does not correspond to the height of our
+intellectual vision, but is due to the intensity of the concomitant
+imaginative process.
+
+The intellect, therefore, is not subject to the metabolic laws
+which rigidly regulate organic functions like sense-perception
+and imagination. Man’s capacity for logical thought is frequently
+unaffected by the decline of the organism which sets in after maturity.
+All organic functions, however, such as sight, hearing, sense-memory,
+are impaired in exact proportion to the deterioration of the organism,
+which is the inevitable sequel of old age. The intellectual powers, on
+the contrary, remain unimpaired, so long as the cortex is sound enough
+to furnish the required minimum of imagery, upon which intellectual
+activity is objectively dependent. There are, in fact, many cases on
+record where men have remained perfectly sane and rational, despite the
+fact that notable portions of the cerebral cortex had been destroyed by
+accident or disease (_e. g._, tumors). Intellectual thought, therefore,
+is a superorganic function, having its source in a spiritual principle
+and not in a corruptible organ.
+
+Such is the spiritualism of Aristotle. That this conception differs
+profoundly from the ultraspiritualism of Descartes, it is scarcely
+necessary to remark. The position assumed by the latter was always
+untenable, but it is now, more than ever, indefensible in the face
+of that overwhelming avalanche of facts whereby modern physiological
+psychology demonstrates the close interdependence and correlation
+existent between psychic and organic states. Such facts are exploited
+by materialists as arguments against spiritualism, though it is evident
+that they have force only against Cartesian spiritualism, and are
+bereft of all relevance with respect to Aristotelian spiritualism,
+which they leave utterly intact and unscathed. In the latter system,
+sense-perception, imagination, and emotion are acknowledged to be
+directly dependent on the organism. Again, spiritual functions like
+thinking and willing are regarded as objectively or extrinsically
+dependent upon the imagination, which, in turn, is directly dependent
+on a material organ, namely: the brain. Hence even the rational
+operations of the mind are indirectly dependent upon the cerebral
+cortex. The spiritualism of Aristotle, therefore, by reason of its
+doctrine concerning the direct dependence of the lower, and the
+indirect dependence of the higher, psychic functions upon the material
+organism, is able to absorb into its own system all the supposedly
+hostile facts amassed by Materialism, thereby rendering them futile
+and inconsequential as arguments against the spirituality of the human
+soul. In confronting this philosophy, the materialistic scientist finds
+himself disarmed and impotent, and it is not to be wondered at, that,
+after indulging in certain abusive epithets and a few cant phrases,
+such as “metaphysics” or “medieval” (invaluable words!), he prudently
+retires from the lists without venturing to so much as break a lance in
+defense of his favorite dogma, that nothing is spiritual, because all
+is matter. In this predicament, the Cartesian caricature proves a boon
+to the materialist, as furnishing him with the adversary he prefers,
+a man of straw, and enabling him to demonstrate his paltry tin-sword
+prowess. Of a truth, Descartes performed an inestimable service for
+these modern “assassins of the soul,” when he relieved them of the
+necessity of crossing swords with the hylomorphic dualism of Aristotle
+by the substitution of a far less formidable antagonist, namely, the
+psychophysical dualism of mind and matter.
+
+The proofs advanced, in the previous pages, for the spirituality of
+the human soul are based upon the superorganic function of rational
+thought. A parallel series of arguments can be drawn from the
+superorganic function of rational volition. The cognitive intellect
+has for its necessary sequel the appetitive will, which may be defined
+as spiritual tendency inclining us toward that which the intellect
+apprehends as good. The objects of such volition are frequently
+abstract and immaterial ideals transcendent to the sphere of concrete
+and material goods, _e. g._, virtue, glory, religion, etc. The will of
+man, moreover, is free, in the sense that it can choose among various
+motives, and is not compelled to follow the line of least resistance,
+as is the electric current when passing through a shunt of steel and
+copper wire. Like the self-knowing intellect, the self-determining
+will is capable of reflective action, that is, it can will to will.
+Having its own actions within its own control, it is itself the
+principal cause of its own decisions, and thus becomes responsible for
+its conduct, wherever its choice has been conscious and deliberate.
+External actions, which escape the control of the will, and even
+internal actions of the will itself, which are indeliberate, are not
+free and do not entail responsibility. Our courts of law and our whole
+legal system rests on the recognition of man’s full responsibility for
+his deliberate voluntary acts. The distinction between premeditated
+murder, which is punished, and unpremeditated homicide, which is not,
+is purely moral, and not physical, depending for its validity upon the
+fact of human freedom. It is this exemption from physical determinism,
+that makes man a moral agent, subject to duties, amenable to moral
+suasion, and capable of merit or demerit. Finally, the will of man
+is insatiable, invincible, and inexhaustible. The aspirations of the
+will are boundless, whereas our animal appetites are easily cloyed by
+gratification. There is no freezing point for human courage. The animal
+or sensual appetites wear out and decline with old age, but virtue and
+will-power do not necessarily diminish with the gradual deterioration
+of the material organism. Willing, therefore, is a superorganic or
+spiritual function. Activity which is bound to a material organ cannot
+tend towards supersensible ideals, cannot escape physical determinism,
+cannot achieve the reflective feat of spurring itself to action, cannot
+avoid exhaustion, cannot elude rigid regulation by the laws of organic
+metabolism. For this reason, the brute, whose psychic functions are
+of the organic type exclusively, is destitute of freedom, morality,
+and responsibility. Deliberate volition, therefore, like conceptual
+thought, has its source and subject in man’s spiritual soul, and is not
+a function of the material organism.[12]
+
+    [12] To develop the argument drawn from rational volition
+    for the spirituality of the human soul would carry us too
+    far afield. Those who wish to pursue the subject further
+    may consult Chapter VIII of Gründer’s monograph entitled
+    “Psychology without a Soul,” also his monograph on “Free Will.”
+
+    G. H. Parker of Harvard, though admitting the fact of human
+    freedom, tries to explain it away in terms of materialism. The
+    following is the description which he gives of his theory: “It
+    is a materialist view which, however, recognizes in certain
+    types of organized matter a degree of free action consistent
+    with human behavior and the resultant responsibility.”
+    (_Science_, June 13, 1924, p. 520.) Freedom, in other words,
+    “emerges” from matter having a peculiar “type of organization.”
+
+    This view must be interpreted in the light of the philosophy
+    of “Emergent Evolution,” which Parker holds in common with C.
+    Lloyd Morgan and R. W. Sellars. The philosophy in question
+    recognizes in nature an ascending scale of more and more
+    complexly organized units, starting with protons and electrons,
+    at the bottom, and culminating in the human organism, at the
+    top. At each higher level of this cosmic scale we find higher
+    units formed by coalescence of the simpler units of a lower
+    level. These higher units, however, are _something more_ than
+    a mere summation of the lower units; for, in addition to
+    _additive_ properties that can be predicted from a knowledge
+    of the components, they exhibit genuinely _new_ properties
+    which, not being mere sums of the properties of the component
+    units, are unpredictable on that basis. Given, for example, the
+    weight of two volumes of hydrogen and one volume of oxygen, we
+    could predict an _additive_ property such as the _weight_ of
+    the compound, _i.e._ the water, formed by their combination.
+    Other properties, of the compound, however, such as liquidity,
+    are not foreshadowed by the properties of the component
+    gases. Similarly, the weight of carbon disulphid (CS₂) is
+    an additive function of the combining weights of sulphur and
+    carbon, but the other properties of this mobile liquid are
+    not predictable on the basis of the properties of sulphur and
+    carbon. Hence _two_ kinds of properties are distinguished: (1)
+    _additive_ (quantitative) properties called _resultants_, which
+    are predictable; (2) _specificative_ (qualitative) properties
+    called _emergents_, which are unprecedented and unpredictable.
+    Freedom and intelligence, accordingly, are pronounced to be
+    _emergents_ of matter organized to that degree of complexity
+    which we find in man.
+
+    This dualism of resultance and emergence is merely a new
+    verbal vesture for the hylomorphic dualism of Aristotle. The
+    _additive_ properties (_resultants_) are based on _matter_,
+    which is the principle of _continuity_. The _specificative_
+    (constituitive or qualitative) properties called emergents
+    are rooted in _entelechy_ (form), which is the principle of
+    _novelty_. In fact, entelechy (form) itself is _an emergent of
+    matter_ just as the specificative properties are _emergents_
+    of matter, with the sole difference that _entelechy_ is
+    _the primary emergent_ of matter, whereas the specificative
+    or qualitative properties are _secondary emergents_. For
+    in Aristotelian philosophy, entelechy is not, as it is in
+    Neo-vitalism, “an alien principle inserted into matter”
+    abruptly and capriciously “at the level of life,” but a
+    _primary emergent_ and _constituent_ of matter both living
+    and non-living. In fine, entelechy is an _emergent_ of matter
+    in all the units of nature from the simplest atom to the
+    most complex plant or animal organism. The only entelechy,
+    which is not an _emergent_, but an _insert_ into matter, is
+    the _spiritual human soul_. Neither the human soul nor the
+    _superorganic_ functions rooted in it, namely, abstraction,
+    reflection, and election, are _emergents_. Here we have
+    _novelty without continuity_, and therefore not _emergence_
+    (eduction), but _insertion_ (infusion).
+
+    In his “Emergent Evolution,” 1923, Lloyd Morgan lays it down
+    as axiomatic that _emergence involves continuity_—“There
+    may often be resultants,” he says, “without emergence; but
+    there are no emergents that do not involve resultant effects
+    also. Resultants give quantitative continuity which underlies
+    new constitutive steps in emergence.” (_Op. cit._, p. 5.)
+    Now our proofs for human spirituality consist precisely in
+    the _complete exclusion of quantitative continuity_ between
+    _organic_ functions (_e. g._ sensation) and _superorganic_
+    functions (_e. g._ conceptual thought and free volition).
+    Hence, by the very axiom which Morgan himself formulates,
+    the human soul and its _superorganic functions_ are excluded
+    from the category of material _emergents_. If there can be no
+    emergence without quantitative continuity, then the human soul
+    is not an _emergent from_, but an _insert into_, matter. _Free
+    choice_, too, it is needless to say, is not an _emergent of
+    matter_, but an _expression of the supermaterial nature of the
+    human soul_. So much for the new-old dualism of emergence and
+    resultance.
+
+Two additional facts may be cited as bringing into strong relief
+the basic contrast existing between the higher or rational, and the
+lower or animal psychosis in man. The first is the occurrence of
+irreconcilable opposition or conflict. The imagination, for example,
+antagonizes the intellect by visualizing as an extended speck of chalk
+or charcoal the mathematical point, which the intellect conceives
+as destitute of extension and every other property except position.
+Similarly, the effort of our rational will to be faithful to duty
+and to uphold ideals is antagonized by the sensual impulses of the
+animal appetite, which seek immediate gratification at the expense of
+remote considerations that are higher. Such antagonism is incompatible
+with any identification of the warring factors, that is, of our
+rational, with our sentient, functions; for, wherever opposition is in
+evidence, there _a fortiori_ a real distinction must be recognized.
+The understanding and the will, therefore, differ radically from sense
+and sensual appetite. The second significant fact is the domination
+exerted by reason and will over the cognitive and appetitive functions
+of the organic or sentient order. Our intellect criticizes, evaluates
+and corrects the data of sense-perception, it discriminates between
+objective percepts and illusions and hallucinations, it distinguishes
+dreams from realities, it associates and dissociates imagery for
+purposes of comparison, contrast, illustration, or analysis. Moreover,
+it not only shows its superiority to sense by supervising, revising,
+and appraising the data of sentient experience, but it manifests its
+discontent at the inaccuracy and limitation of sense by the invention
+and use of instrumentation (_e. g._ ear trumpets, spectacles,
+microscopes, telescopes, spectroscopes, polariscopes, periscopes,
+etc.) to remedy the defects or increase the range of sense-perception,
+etc. This phenomenon is without parallel among brute animals, and is
+a patent manifestation of the superiority of human psychology. In
+like manner, the will demonstrates its preeminence over the organic
+or animal appetite, by exerting supreme control over the passions and
+impulses of our lower nature. In fact, it is able to bridle and repress
+the impulses of sensuality even in the immediate presence of sensible
+stimuli that would irresistibly determine the brute to a gratification
+of its animal lusts; and it can force the struggling and reluctant
+flesh to undergo a crucifixion for supersensible motives that make
+no appeal to the beast. The understanding and the will, therefore,
+are essentially superior to the organic psychosis that they control,
+namely, the sentient consciousness and sensual appetite, which we share
+in common with the brute, but which, in the latter, give no evidence
+whatever of rational or moral control.
+
+
+                    § 4. Darwinian Anthropomorphism
+
+The spiritual mind of man represents an eminence to which evolving
+matter can never attain. This, then, is the hill that must needs be
+laid low, if the path of Darwinian materialism is to be a smooth one.
+There is, therefore, nothing very surprising in the fact that Darwin
+and his followers, from Huxley down to Robinson, have done all in
+their power to obscure and belittle the psychological differences
+between man and the brute. The objective of their strategy is twofold,
+namely, the _brutalization of man_ and its converse, the _humanization
+of the brute_. The ascent will be easier to imagine, if man can be
+depressed, and the brute raised, to levels that are not far apart.
+To this end, the Darwinian zealots have, on the one hand, spared no
+pains to minimize the superiority and dignity of human reason by the
+dissemination of sensistic associationism, psychophysical parallelism,
+and various other forms of “psychology without a soul”; and they have
+striven, on the other hand, to exalt to the utmost the psychic powers
+of the brute by means of a crude and credulous anthropomorphism, which,
+for all its scientific pretensions, is quite indistinguishable from the
+naïveté of the author of “Black Beauty”[13] and the sentimentality of
+S. P. C. A. fanatics, vegetarians, anti-vivisectionists, etc. The first
+of these tendencies we have already discussed, the second remains to be
+considered.
+
+    [13] Title of a horse’s autobiography by Anna Sewall, the
+    horse’s _alter ego_.
+
+When it comes to anthropomorphizing the brute, Darwin has not been
+outdistanced by the most reckless of his disciples. Three entire
+chapters of the “Descent of Man” are filled with this “vulgar
+psychology” (as Wundt so aptly styles it). It is the sum and substance
+of the entire fabric of argumentation, which he erects in support of
+his thesis that “the difference in mind between man and the higher
+animals is certainly one of degree and not of kind.” (_Cf._ _op.
+cit._, chs. III-V.) Haeckel, Huxley, and Clifford attained to equal
+proficiency in the sport. Subsequent philosophers parroted their bold
+metaphors and smart aphorisms, and the game went on merrily till
+the close of the century. Then a badly needed reaction set in under
+the auspices of Wundt, Lloyd Morgan, and Thorndike, who insisted on
+abandoning this naïve impressionism in favor of more critical methods.
+
+In his “Vorlesungen über die Menschen und Tierseele” (cf. 2nd ed., p.
+370), Wundt proclaims his rupture with the impressionistic school in
+the following terms: “The one great defect of this popular psychology
+is that it does not take mental processes for what they show themselves
+to be to a direct and unprejudiced view, but imports into them the
+reflections of the observer about them. The necessary consequence for
+animal psychology is that the mental actions of animals, from the
+lowest to the highest, are interpreted as acts of the understanding.
+If any vital manifestation of the organism is capable of possible
+derivation from a series of reflections and inferences, that is taken
+as sufficient proof that these reflections and inferences actually led
+up to it. And, indeed, in the absence of a careful analysis of our
+subjective perceptions we can hardly avoid this conclusion. Logical
+reflection is the logical process most familiar to us, because we
+discover its presence when we think about any object whatsoever. So
+that for popular psychology mental life in general is dissolved in
+the medium of logical reflection. The question whether there are not
+perhaps other mental processes of a simpler nature is not asked at
+all, for the one reason that whenever self-observation is required, it
+discovers this reflective process in the human consciousness. The same
+idea is applied to feelings, impulses, and voluntary actions which are
+regarded, if not as acts of intelligence, still as effective states
+which belong to the intellectual sphere.
+
+“This mistake, then, springs from ignorance of exact psychological
+methods. It is unfortunately rendered worse by the inclination of
+animal psychologists to see the intellectual achievements of animals
+in the most brilliant light.... Unbridled by scientific criticism the
+imagination of the observer ascribes phænomena in perfectly good faith
+to motives which are entirely of its own invention. The facts reported
+may be wholly true; the interpretation of the psychologist, innocently
+woven in with his account of them, puts them from first to last in a
+totally wrong light. You will find a proof of this on nearly every page
+of the works on animal psychology.” (English Translation by Creighton &
+Titchener, p. 341.)
+
+Wundt’s warning against taking at their face value popular, or even
+so-called scientific, accounts of wonderful feats performed by animals
+is very salutary. The danger of subjective humanization of bestial
+conduct is always imminent. We are unavoidably obliged to employ
+the analogy of our own animal nature and sentient consciousness as
+our principal clue to an understanding of brute psychology, but we
+must beware of pressing this analogy based on our own consciousness
+to the uncritical extreme of interpreting in terms of our highest
+psychic operations animal behavior that, in itself, admits of a far
+simpler explanation. According to the principle of the minimum, it is
+unscientific to assume in a given agent the presence of anything that
+is not rigidly required for the explanation of its observed phenomena.
+We must refrain, therefore, from reading into the consciousness of an
+animal what is not really there. We must abstain from transporting
+our own viewpoint and personality into a brute, by imagining, with
+Darwin, that we discern a “sense of humor,” or a “high degree of
+self-complacency” in some pet animal, like a dog. In general, we can
+rest assured that animals are quite innocent of the motivation we
+ascribe to them. All their manifestations of the psychic order are
+adequately explicable in terms of sensory experience, associative
+memory, instinct, and the various automatisms of their innate and
+conditioned reflexes. There is no ground whatever for supposing the
+brute to possess the superorganic power of understanding commonly known
+as _intelligence_.
+
+Etymologically speaking, the abstract term “intelligence,” together
+with the corresponding concrete term “intellect,” is derived from the
+Latin: _intus-legere_, signifying to “read within,” the fitness of the
+term being based upon the fact that the intellect can penetrate beneath
+the outer appearances of things to _inner_ aspects and relations,
+which are hidden from the senses. In its proper and most general
+usage, intelligence denotes a cognoscitive power of abstraction and
+generalization, which, by means of conceptual comparison, discovers the
+supersensible relationships existent between the realities conceived,
+in such wise as to apprehend substances beneath phenomena, causes
+behind effects, and remote ends beyond proximate means.
+
+Certain animal psychologists, however, refuse to reserve the
+prerogative of intelligence for man. Bouvier’s “La Vie Psychique des
+Insectes” (1918), for example, contains the following statement:
+“Choice of a remarkably intellectual nature, is even more noticeable
+in the instinctive manifestations of individual memory. The animal,
+endowed with well-developed senses and nervous system, not only
+reacts to new necessities by new acts, but associates the stored
+up impressions of new sensations and thereby appropriately directs
+its further activities. Thus, by an intelligent process, new habits
+are established, which by heredity become part of the patrimony of
+instinct, modifying the latter and constituting elements essential
+to its evolution. Of these instincts acquired through an intelligent
+apprenticeship Forel was led to say that they are reasoning made
+automatic, and it is to them particularly that we may apply the idea
+of certain biologists that instincts are habits which have become
+hereditary and automatic.” (Smithson. Inst. Rpt. for 1918, p. 454.)
+
+It is extremely doubtful, however, whether Bouvier is here using the
+term intelligence in its proper sense. Indeed, his words convey the
+impression that what he means by intelligence is an _ability to profit
+by experience_. Now, ability to profit by experience may, under one
+set of circumstances, involve the power of logical reflection and
+inference, while, under another set of circumstances, it may imply
+nothing more than the power of associative memory. In the latter case,
+the facts are explicable without any recourse to psychic powers of
+a superorganic nature, and, in point of fact, it often happens that
+the very zoöpsychologists, who insist on attributing this sort of
+“intelligence” to brutes, are most emphatic in denying that brutes are
+endowed with _reason_. In any case, it is unfortunate that the word
+intelligence is now used in two entirely different senses. This new and
+improper sense, being unrelated to the etymology, and out of harmony
+with the accepted use of the term, serves only to engender a confusion
+of ideas. It should be suppressed, in order to avoid misunderstandings.
+
+That men should be deluded, however, into crediting animals with
+“intelligence” (properly so-called) is not at all surprising, when
+we reflect on the source of this misapprehension; for we find
+combined in the animal two important factors, whose association
+closely simulates intelligence, namely, _sentient consciousness_
+and _unconscious teleology_. Now teleology is not _inherent_ or
+_subjective_ intelligence, but rather an _objective expression_ and
+_product_ of intelligence. It exists in unconscious mechanisms like
+phonographs and adding machines, and it is, likewise, manifest in
+unconscious organisms like plants. Here, however, there is no danger of
+confounding it with conscious intelligence, because machines and plants
+do not possess consciousness in any form whatever. But in animals,
+on the contrary, teleology is intimately associated with sentient
+consciousness. Here the teleological automatisms of instinct are not
+wholly blind and mechanical, but are guided by sense-perception and
+associative memory. It is this combination of teleology with sentient
+“discernment” (as Fabre styles it) that conveys the illusory impression
+of a conscious intelligence. Careful analysis, however, of the facts,
+in conjunction with judicious experiments, will, in every instance,
+enable the observer to distinguish between this deceptive semblance
+of intelligence and that inherent rational power of abstraction,
+classification, and inference which is the unique prerogative of the
+human being. A genuine intelligence of this sort need not be invoked to
+explain any of the phenomena of brute psychology. All of them, from the
+highest to the lowest, are explicable in terms of the sensitivo-nervous
+functions. To illustrate the truth of this statement let us cite a few
+typical examples of animal behavior, that are sometimes regarded as
+manifestations of intelligent or rational consciousness on the part of
+the brute.
+
+Animals, it is pointed out, learn by experience. The tiny chick that
+has been stung by a wasp, for instance, learns to avoid such noxious
+creatures for the future. This is, indeed, “learning by experience.”
+Obviously, however, it does not consist in an inference of a new truth
+from an old truth. On the contrary, it amounts to nothing more than
+a mere association of imagery, formed in accordance with the _law of
+contiguity in time_, sanctioned by the animal’s sensual appetite, and
+persistently conserved in its sentient memory. A bond of association is
+formed between the visual image of the wasp and the immediately ensuing
+sensation of pain. Thereafter the wasp and the pain are associated in
+a single complex, which the sensile memory of the animal permanently
+retains. We are dealing with a mere _association of contiguity_,
+and nothing further is required to explain the future avoidance of
+wasps by the chick. The abilities acquired by animals through the
+trial and error method are to be explained in the same way. A horse
+confined within an enclosure, for example, seeks egress to the fresh
+grass of the pasture. The fact that repeated exits through the gate
+of the enclosure have associated the image of its own access to the
+pasture with the particular spot where the gate is located induces
+it to approach the gate. Its quest, however, is balked by the fact
+that the gate is closed and latched. Thereupon, it begins to chafe
+under the urge of frustrated appetite. Certain actions ensue, some
+spontaneous and others merely reflex movements. It paws the ground,
+prances about, and rubs its nose against the gate. Its futile efforts
+to pass through the closed gate continue indefinitely and aimlessly,
+until, by some lucky accident, its nose happens to strike against the
+latch and lift it sufficiently to release the gate. This causes the
+gate to swing ajar, and the horse rushes out to food and freedom. By
+the law of contiguity, the vision of free egress through the gate is
+thereafter firmly associated in the horse’s sense-memory with the
+final sensation experienced in its nose just prior to the advent
+of the agreeable eventuation of its prolonged efforts. Henceforth
+the animal will be able to release itself from the enclosure by
+repeating the concatenated series of acts that memory associates with
+the pleasurable result. On the second occasion, however, the more
+remote of its futile acts will have been forgotten, and the process
+of opening the gate will occupy less time, though probably a certain
+amount of useless pawing and rubbing will still persist. Gradually,
+however, the number of inefficacious actions will diminish, until,
+after many repetitions of the experience, only those actions which
+directly issue in the desirable result will remain in the chain of
+impressions retained by memory, all others being eliminated. For, by
+a teleological law, making for economy of effort, all impressions
+not immediately and constantly connected with the gratification of
+animal appetites tend to be inhibited. Pawlow’s experiments on dogs
+show that impressions which coincide in time with such gratification
+tend to be recalled by a return of the appetitive impulse, but are
+soon disconnected from such association and inhibited, if they recur
+independently of the recurrence of gratification. For this reason,
+the horse tends to remember more vividly those actions which are more
+closely connected with the pleasurable result, and, as its superfluous
+actions are gradually suppressed by a protective process of inhibition,
+it gradually comes to run through the series of actions necessary to
+open the gate with considerable accuracy and dispatch.
+
+The point to be noted, however, is that the horse does not
+_discursively analyze_ this concatenated series of associated
+stimulators and actions; for, let the concrete circumstances be changed
+never so little, the horse will at once lose its laboriously acquired
+ability to open the gate. Such, for example, will be the result, if the
+position of the gate be transferred to another part of the enclosure.
+The horse, therefore, is incapable of adapting its acquired ability to
+new conditions. It can only rehearse the original series in all its
+initial concreteness and stereotyped specificity; and it must, whenever
+the circumstances are changed, begin once more at the beginning, and
+rearrive by trial and error at its former solution of the problem. The
+reason is that the horse merely _senses_, but does not _understand_,
+its own solution of the problem. The sense, however, cannot abstract
+from the here and now. Consequently, the human infant of two summers is
+enabled by its dawning intelligence to _adapt old means to new ends_,
+but the ten-year-old horse cannot adjust its abilities to the slightest
+change in the concrete conditions surrounding the original acquisition
+of a useful habit. The cognitive powers of an animal are confined to
+the sphere of concrete singularity, it has no power to abstract or
+generalize.
+
+The selfsame observation applies to the tricks which animals “learn”
+through human training. Their sensitive memory is very receptive and
+retentive. Hence, by means of a judicious alternation of “rewards” and
+“penalties” (_e.g._ of sugar and the whip), a man can, as it were,
+inscribe his own thoughts on the tablets of the brute’s memory, in such
+a way as to force the latter to form habits that appear to rest upon a
+basis of intelligence. And so, indeed, they do, but the intelligence is
+that of the trainer and not that of the animal, which is as destitute
+of intrinsic intelligence as is a talking phonograph, upon whose
+records a man can inscribe his thoughts far more efficiently than he
+can write them in terms of the neurographic imagery of the canine,
+equine, or simian memory.
+
+The trained monkey always renders back without change the original
+lesson imparted by its human trainer. The lesson as first received
+becomes an immutable reaction-basis for the future. With a school
+child, however, the case is quite different. It does, indeed, receive
+“an historical basis of reaction,” when the teacher illustrates the
+process of multiplication by means of an example on the blackboard.
+But it does not receive this information passively and render it back
+in the original stereotyped form. On the contrary, it analyzes the
+information received, and is able thereafter to reapply the analyzed
+information to new problems differing in specificity from the problem
+that the teacher originally worked out on the blackboard. The human
+pupil does not, like the monkey or the phonograph, render back what
+it has received in unaltered specificity. His reaction differs from
+its original passive basis. To borrow the words of Driesch, he “uses
+this basis, but he is not bound to it as it is. He dissolves the
+combined specificities that have created the basis.” (“The Problem of
+Individuality,” pp. 27, 28.) The brute, therefore, cannot “learn,”
+or “be taught” in the sense of intellectual comprehension and
+enlightenment. “We see,” says John Burroughs somewhere, “that the caged
+bird or beast does not reason because no strength of bar or wall can
+convince it that it cannot escape. It cannot be convinced because it
+has no faculties that are convinced by evidence. It continues to dash
+itself against the bars not until it is convinced, but until it is
+exhausted. Then slowly a new habit is formed, the cage habit. When we
+train an animal to do stunts, we do not teach it or enlighten it in any
+proper sense, but we compel it to form new habits.”
+
+Human beings, however, can be _taught_ and _enlightened_ under the most
+adverse circumstances. Even those unfortunates are susceptible to it,
+who, like Laura Bridgman, Helen Keller, Martha Obrecht, Marie Heurtin,
+and others, have been blind and deaf and dumb from infancy or birth.
+With nearly all the light of sensibility extinguished, there was,
+nevertheless, latent within them something of which a perfectly normal
+ape, for all the integrity of its senses, is essentially destitute,
+namely, the superorganic power of reason. Reason, however, is
+extrinsically dependent on organic sensibility, and, consequently, “the
+gates of their souls” were closed to human converse, until such a time
+as the patient kindness and ingenuity of their educators devised means
+of reciprocal communication on a basis of tactile signals. Thereupon
+they revealed an intelligence perfectly akin to that of their rescuers.
+Years of similar education, however, would be futile in the case of an
+ape. The “gates of the soul” would never open, because the ape has no
+rational soul, to which the most ingenious trainer might gain access,
+in which respect it differs fundamentally from even the lowest savage.
+A being that lacks reason may be _trained_ by means of instruction, but
+it can never be _enlightened_ by it.
+
+Another consideration, that is occasionally urged in proof of bestial
+intelligence, is the fact that birds, mammals, and even insects
+communicate with one another by means of sounds or equivalent signals,
+which are sometimes remarkably diversified in quality and consequent
+efficacy. “Since fowls,” writes Darwin, “give distinct warnings for
+danger on the ground, or in the sky, from hawks ..., may not some
+unusually wise ape-like animal have imitated the growl of a beast of
+prey, and thus told his fellow monkeys the nature of the expected
+danger? This would have been a first step in the formation of a
+language.” (“Descent of Man,” 2nd ed., ch. III, pp. 122, 123.) This is
+saltatory logic with a vengeance! Darwin leaps at one bound across the
+entire chasm between irrationality and rationality, without pausing
+to build even the semblance of a bridge. Given an animal with the
+foresight and inventiveness requisite to employ onomatopœia for the
+_purpose_ of specifying the _nature_ of an expected _danger_, in the
+_interest_ of its fellows, and we need not trouble ourselves further
+about plausibleizing any transition; for so “unusually wise” an ape
+is already well across the gap that separates reason from unreason,
+and far on its way towards the performance of all the feats of which
+reason is capable. After swallowing the camel of so much progress, it
+would be straining at a gnat to deny such a paragon of simian genius
+the mere power of articulate speech. Of course, if imagination rather
+than logic, is to be the dominant consideration in science, there is
+no difficulty in imagining animals to be capable of thinking or doing
+anything we choose to ascribe to them, as witness _Æsop’s Fables_.
+But, if sober and critical judgment be in order, then, evidently, from
+the simple fact that an animal has diversified cries manifestative
+of different emotions or degrees of emotion (_e.g._ of fear or rage)
+and capable of arousing similar emotions in other animals of the
+same species, it by no means follows that such an irrational animal
+can _adapt a means to an end_ by using mimicry _in order to give
+notification_ of approaching danger, and _to specify the nature of the
+danger_ in question.
+
+This stupid anthropomorphism arises from Darwin’s failure to appreciate
+the fundamental distinction that exists between the “language” of
+animals, which is indicative, emotional, and inarticulate, and human
+language, which is descriptive, conceptual, and articulate. Brute
+animals, under the stress of a determinate passion or emotion, give
+vent impulsively and unpremeditatedly to instinctive cries indicative
+of their peculiar emotional state. Moreover, these emotionalized sounds
+are capable of arousing kindred emotions in the breasts of other
+animals of the same species, since organisms of the same species are
+syntonic with (_i.e._ attuned to) one another. Hence these reflex or
+instinctive cries have, no doubt, a teleological value, inasmuch as
+they serve to protect the race by inciting a peculiar flight-reaction
+in those that are not in immediate contact with the fear-inspiring
+object. This so-called warning, however, is given without reflection or
+intention on the part of the frightened animal, and is simply sensed,
+but not interpreted, by the other animals that receive it.
+
+This premised, it is easy to discriminate between bestial and human
+language. The former is not articulate, that is to say, the sounds of
+which it is composed have not been elaborated by analysis and synthesis
+into phonetic elements and grammatical forms. In the second place, it
+is emotional and not conceptual, because it is manifestative of the
+emotions or passions (which are functions of the organic or sensual
+appetite), and not of rational concepts. In the third place, it is
+indicative, that is, it merely signalizes a determinate emotional
+state, as a thermometer indicates the temperature, or a barometer
+the atmospheric pressure. It is not, therefore, descriptive, in the
+sense of being selected and arranged in syntactic sequence for the
+express purpose of making others realize one’s own experiences. The
+rational language of man, on the contrary, is not emotional. Only a
+negligible portion of the human vocabulary is made up of emotional
+interjections. It consists, for the most part, of sounds descriptive of
+thought, to express which an elaborate system of vowels and consonants
+are discriminated and articulated on the basis of social agreement,
+the result being a conventional vocal code invented and used for the
+express purpose of conveying, not emotions or imagery, but general and
+abstract concepts.
+
+
+                § 5. The True Significance of Instinct
+
+A third class of facts commonly cited as evidence of bestial
+intelligence are the remarkable phenomena of _instinct_.[14] The beaver
+acts as though it were acquainted with the principles of hydraulics
+and engineering, when it maintains the water at the height requisite
+to submerge the entrance to its dwelling by building a dam of mud,
+logs, and sticks across the stream at a point below the site of its
+habitation. The predatory wasp _Pompilius_ is endowed with surgical
+art, that suggests a knowledge of anatomy, inasmuch as it first disarms
+and afterwards paralyzes its formidable prey, the _Lycosa_ or black
+Tarantula. Another predatory wasp, the _Stizus ruficornis_, disables
+Mantids in a similar fashion. One of the American Pompilids, the black
+wasp _Priocnemis flavicornis_, is an adept in the art of navigation,
+since it adopts the principle of the French hydroglissia (an air-driven
+boat which skims the water under the propulsion of an aeroplane
+propeller). This insect tows a huge black spider several times its own
+size and too heavy to be carried, propelling its prey with buzzing
+wings along the open waterway, and leaving behind a miniature wake
+like that of a steamer. It thus avoids the obstacles of the dense
+vegetation, and saves time and energy in transporting the huge carcass
+of its paralyzed quarry to the haven of its distant burrow. Spiders
+like the _Epeira_, for example, are endowed with the mathematical
+ability of constructing their webs on the patterns of the logarithmic
+spiral of Jacques Bernouilli (1654-1705), a curve which it took _man_
+centuries to discover. The dog infested with parasitic tapeworms
+(_Taenia_) evinces a seeming knowledge of pharmaceutics, seeing that it
+will avidly devour Common Wormwood (_Artemisia absynthium_), an herb
+which it never touches otherwise.
+
+    [14] J. Henri Fabre and Erich Wasmann, S.J., have formulated
+    very sound and critical views on the subject of instinct. The
+    works of these authors are now available in English. (_Cf._
+    de Mattos’ translation of the _Souvenirs etymologiques_: “The
+    Mason Bees,” Ch. VII; “The Bramble Bees,” Ch. VI; “The Hunting
+    Wasps,” Chs. IX, X, XX; _cf._ also Wasmann’s _Instinct and
+    Intelligence_, and _Psychology of Ants and of Higher Animals_,
+    Engl. translation by Gummersbach.)
+
+In all these cases, however, as we have previously remarked, the
+illusion of intelligence is due to the combination of teleology or
+objective purposiveness with sentient consciousness. But teleology
+is nothing more than a material expression of intelligence, not to
+be confounded with subjective intelligence, which is its causal
+principle. When the cells of the iris of the eye of a larval salamander
+regenerate the lens in its typical perfection, after the latter has
+been experimentally destroyed, we behold a process that is objectively,
+but not subjectively, intelligent. In like manner the instinctive
+acts of an animal are teleological or objectively purposive, but do
+not proceed from an intelligence _inherent in the animal_, any more
+than the intelligent soliloquy delivered by a phonograph proceeds
+from a conscious intelligence inherent in the disc. In the animal,
+sentient consciousness is associated with this teleology or objective
+purposiveness, but such consciousness is only aware of what can be
+sensed, and is, therefore, _unconscious of purpose_, that is, of the
+supersensible link, which connects a means with an end. “Instinct,”
+to cite the words of Wm. James, “is usually defined as the faculty of
+acting in such a way as to produce certain ends, without foresight
+of the ends, and without previous education in the performance.”
+(“Principles of Psychology,” vol. II, c. xxiv, p. 383.) Hence the
+unconscious and objective purposiveness, which the human mind discerns
+in the instinctive behavior of brutes, is manifestative, not of an
+intelligence within the animal itself, but only of the infinite
+intelligence of the First Cause or Creator, Who imposed these laws
+replete with wisdom upon the animal kingdom, and of the finite
+intelligence of man, who is capable of recognizing the Divine purpose
+expressed, not only in the instincts of animals, but in all the telic
+phenomena of nature. Such marvels are not the fortuitous result of
+uncoördinated contingencies. Behind these correlated teleologies
+of the visible universe there is a Supreme Intelligence, which has
+“ordered all things in measure, and number, and weight.” (_Wisdom_:
+XI, 21.) “And this universal geometry,” says Fabre, in allusion to the
+mathematics of the Epeira’s web, “tells of an Universal Geometrician,
+whose divine compass has measured all things. I prefer that, as an
+explanation of the logarithmic curve of the Ammonite and the Epeira,
+to the Worm screwing up the tip of its tail. It may not perhaps be in
+accordance with latter-day teaching, but it takes a loftier flight.”
+(“Life of the Spider,” p. 400.)
+
+But, though the teleology of instinct is wonderful in the extreme, the
+element of psychic regulation is so subordinate and restricted, that,
+far from postulating _intelligent_ control, certain scientists go so
+far as to deny even _sentient_ control, in the case of instinctive
+behavior. Animals, in their opinion, are nothing more than “reflex
+machines,” a view which coincides with that of Descartes, who regarded
+animals as unconscious automatons. “The instincts,” says Pawlow, “are
+also reflexes but more complex.” (_Science_, Nov. 9, 1923, p. 359.) The
+late Jacques Loeb was a protagonist of the view that instincts are
+simply _metachronic chain-reflexes_, in which one elementary process
+releases another, each preceding phase terminating in the production
+of the succeeding phase, until the entire gamut of concatenated arcs
+has been traversed. Hence, John B. Watson, the Behaviorist disciple
+of Loeb, defines instinct as “a combination of congenital responses
+unfolding serially under appropriate stimulation.”
+
+But, if Darwinian anthropomorphism sins by excess, Loeb’s mechanism
+sins by defect, and fails to account for the indubitable variability of
+instinctive behavior. For, however fixed and stereotyped such behavior
+may be, it manifests unmistakable adaptation to external circumstances
+and emergencies, as well as subordination to the general physiological
+condition of the organism, phenomena that exclude the idea of fatal
+predetermination according to the fixed pattern of a determinate series
+of reflex arcs. As Jennings has shown, synaptic coördination in the
+neural mechanism cannot be more than a partial factor in determining
+serial responses. The state of the organism as a whole must also be
+taken into account. (Cf. “Behavior of the Lower Organisms,” p. 251.)
+Thus an earthworm may turn to the right simply because it has just
+turned to the left, but this so-called “chain-reflex” does not involve
+an invariable and inevitable sequence of events, since the earthworm
+may turn twice or thrice to the left, before the second reaction of
+turning to the right comes into play. Any animal, when sated, will
+react differently to a food stimulus than it will when it is starved,
+by reason of its altered organic condition. We have something more,
+therefore, to reckon with than a mere system of reflexes released by a
+simple physical stimulus.
+
+The second type of variability manifested by instinct is its capacity
+for complex and continuous adjustment to variable environmental
+circumstances. Thus predatory animals, such as wasps, crabs, spiders,
+and carnivorous mammals, accommodate themselves appropriately and
+uninterruptedly to the changing and unforeseeable movements of the
+prey they are engaged in stalking, giving evidence in this way of the
+regulation of their hunting instincts by sensory impressions. Whether
+this element of psychic control is based upon object-perception,
+or simple sensation, and whether it involves a sensual impulse, or
+is merely sensori-motor, we have, naturally, no direct means of
+ascertaining. But the presence of some sort of sensory regulation is
+evident enough, _e.g._ in the prompt and unerring flight of vultures
+to distant carrion. Moreover, there is a close analogy between our
+sense organs and those of an animal. Particularly, in the case of the
+higher animals, the resemblance of the sense organs and nervous system
+to our own is extremely close, so much so that even the localization
+of sensory and motor centers in the brain is practically identical in
+dogs, apes, and men. Moreover, the animals make analogous use of their
+sense organs, orientating them and accommodating them for perception,
+and using them to inspect strange objects, etc., _e.g._ they turn
+their eyes, prick up their ears, snuff the wind, etc. Again, analogous
+motor and emotional effects result from the stimulation of their sense
+organs, and brutes make emotional displays of anger, exultation, fear,
+etc., similar to our own. Hence it is to be presumed that they have
+similar sensuous experiences. The analogy, however, must not be pressed
+further than the external manifestations warrant. With brute animals,
+the manifestations in question are confined exclusively to phenomena of
+the sensuous order.
+
+Another indication of sensory control is found in the repair-work
+performed by animals endowed with the constructive instinct. C. F.
+Schroeder, for instance, experimenting on certain caterpillars, found
+that they repaired their weaving, whenever it was disturbed by the
+experimenter. Fabre, too, discovered that a Mason-bee would plaster
+up holes or clefts marring the integrity of its cell, provided that
+the bee was actually engaged in the process of plastering at the time,
+and provided that the experimenter inflicted the damage at the level,
+and within the area, of the construction work on which the bee was
+then engaged. In a word, if the damage inflicted could be repaired by
+a simple continuation or extension of its actual work of the moment,
+the bee was able to cope with the emergency. There are other ways,
+too, in which the animal adapts its constructive instincts to external
+circumstance. Fabre tells us that the Bramble-bee _Osmia_, which builds
+a train of partitioned cells in snail shells or in hollow reeds, will
+victual first and then plaster in a partition, if the reed be narrow,
+but will first plaster a partition, and then introduce honey and
+pollen through a hole left unclosed in the partition, whenever the
+reed is of greater diameter. This reversal of the procedure according
+to the exigencies of the external situation does not suggest the
+chain-reflex of Loeb. (Cf. “The Bramble-Bee,” pp. 214-217.) Another
+kind of adaptation of instinct to external circumstances consists in
+the economical omission of the initial step of a serial construction,
+in cases where the environmental conditions provide a ready-made
+equivalent. “The silkworm,” says Driesch, “is said not to form its
+web of silk if it is cultivated in a box containing tulle, and some
+species of bees which normally construct tunnels do not do so if they
+find one ready made in the ground, they then only perform their second
+instinctive act: separating the tunnel into single cells.” (“Science &
+Phil. of the Organism,” vol. II, p. 47.)
+
+Driesch’s analysis of the constructive instinct shows that these
+facts of adaptation or regulation fit in with the idea of sensory
+control rather than with that of a chain-reflex. In the supposition
+that the successive stages of instinctive construction are due to a
+chain-reflex, consisting of a series of elementary motor reactions
+_a_, _b_, _c_, etc., in which _a_ produces the external work A and,
+on terminating, releases _b_, which, in turn, produces external work
+B and releases _c_, etc., clearly _b_ could never appear before _a_,
+and the sight of A ready-made would not inhibit _a_, nor would the
+removal of A defer the advent of _b_. In other words, regulation
+would be impossible. But, if we suppose that not the elemental act
+_a_, but rather the sensory perception of A, the first state of the
+external construction, is the stimulus to _b_ and, consequently, to the
+production of the second state of construction B, then we understand
+why _b_ is released independently of _a_, when, for example, an
+insect discovers a ready-made substitute for A, the initial step in
+its construction, and we also understand why, in cases of accidental
+damage resulting in the total or partial removal of A, the reaction
+_b_ is deferred and the reaction _a_ prolonged, until the repair or
+reconstruction of A is complete; for, in this supposition, the addition
+of A will inhibit _a_ and release _b_, whereas the subtraction of A
+will inhibit the appearance of _b_ and consequently defer B, until the
+state of construction A, the sight of which is the stimulus to _b_, is
+complete. The fact of regulation, therefore, entails _sensory_ control
+of the serial responses involved in the constructive instinct. Hence,
+as H. P. Weld of Cornell expresses it: “We may safely assume that even
+in the lowest forms of animal life some sort of sensory experience
+releases the (instinctive) disposition and to an extent determines the
+subsequent course of action.” (Encycl. Am., v. 15, p. 168.)
+
+But it would be going to the opposite extreme to interpret these
+adjustments of instinct to external contingencies as evidence of
+_intelligent_ regulation. The animal’s ability, for example, to
+repair accidental damage to a construction, which instinct impels
+it to build, is rigidly limited to repairs that can be accomplished
+by a simple continuation of the actual and normal occupation of
+the moment. If, however, the damage affects an already completed
+portion of the instinctive structure, and its present occupation is
+capable of continuance, the animal is impotent to relinquish this
+actual occupation of the moment, in order to cope with the emergency.
+Suppose, for illustration, that the instinctive operations _a_ and _b_
+are finished and the animal is in the _c_-stage of its instinctive
+performance, then, if the damage is inflicted in the A-portion of the
+structure, and _c_ can be continued independently of A, the animal
+cannot relinquish _c_ and return to _a_, in order to restore the
+marred integrity of A. This shows that the animal is guided, in its
+repair-work, by _sense_, which is bound to the here and now, and not
+by intelligence, which is an abstractive faculty that emancipates from
+the actual and concrete present, and enables the possessor to hark back
+to the past of its performance, should necessity require. Thus Fabre
+found that the Mason-bee, after it had turned from building to the
+foraging of honey and pollen, would no longer repair holes pricked in
+its cell, but suffered the latter to become a veritable vessel of the
+Danaïdes, which it vainly strove to fill with its liquid provender.
+Though the holes affected portions extremely close to the topmost
+layer of masonry, and although it frequently sounded and explored
+these unaccustomed holes with its antennæ, it took no steps to check
+the escape of the honey and pollen by recurring to its mason craft of
+earlier stages. And, finally, when it did resume the plasterer’s trade
+in constructing a lid for the cell, it would spare no mortar to plug
+the gaping breaches in the walls of its cell, but deposited its egg in
+a chamber drained of honey, and then proceeded to perform the useless
+work of closing with futile diligence _only the topmost aperture_ in
+this much perforated dwelling. Obviously, therefore, the bee failed
+to perceive the connection which existed between these breaches and
+the escape of the honey, and it was unable to apply its instinctive
+building skill to _new uses_ by abstraction from the definite
+connection, in which the latter is normally operative.
+
+Sense, therefore, and not intelligence, is the regulatory principle
+of instinct. To recognize causal and telic relationships is the
+prerogative of a superorganic intelligence. The transcendental link
+by which a useful means is referred to an ulterior end is something
+that cannot be _sensed_, but only _understood_. An animal, therefore,
+acts _toward_ an end, not _on account of_ an end. Nature, however,
+has compensated for this ignorance by implanting in each species of
+animal a special teleological disposition, by reason of which objects
+and actions, which are, under normal conditions, objectively useful
+to the individual, or the species, become invested for the animal
+with a subjective aspect of agreeableness, while objects and actions,
+which are normally harmful, are invested with a subjective aspect
+of repulsiveness. The qualities of serviceableness and pleasantness
+_happen_, so far as the animal is concerned, to be united in one
+and the same concrete object or action, but the animal is only
+aware of the pleasantness, which appeals to its senses, and not of
+the serviceableness, which does not. Thus, in the example already
+cited, the dog suffering from tapeworms eats the herb known as Common
+Wormwood, not because it is aware of the remedial efficacy of the herb,
+but simply because the odor and flavor of the plant appeal to the
+animal in its actual morbid condition, ceasing to do so, however, when
+the latter regains the state of health. How different is the action
+of the man whose blood is infected with malarial parasites and who
+takes quinine, not because the bitter taste of the alkaloid appeals
+to his palate, but solely because he has his future cure explicitly
+in view! “Finally,” says Weld, “the more we learn about instincts the
+more apparent it becomes that the situations from which they proceed
+are meaningful, but we need not suppose that the organism is aware of
+the meaning. The chick in the egg feels (we may only guess as to its
+nature) a vague discomfort, and the complicated reaction by which it
+makes its egress from the shell is released.” (Encycl. Am., v. 15, p.
+169.)
+
+Recapitulating, then, we may define instinct as a psycho-organic
+propensity, not acquired by education or experience, but congenital
+by inheritance and identical in all members of the same zoölogical
+species, having as its physical basis the specific nervous organization
+of the animal and as its psychic basis a teleological coördination
+of the cognitive, emotional, and motor functions, in virtue of
+which, given the proper physiological state of the organism and the
+presence of an appropriate environmental stimulus, an animal, without
+consciousness of purpose, is impelled to the inception, and regulated
+in the performance, of complicated behavior which is sensually
+gratifying and, under normal circumstances, simultaneously beneficial
+to the individual, or the race.
+
+Instinctive acts are performed without previous experience or training
+on the part of the animal, and are, nevertheless, at least in the
+majority of cases, _perfect in their first performance_. A few, like
+the pecking-instinct of young chickens, are slightly improvable through
+sentient experience, _e.g._ the young chick, at first undiscriminating
+in the choice of the particles which it picks up, learns later by
+associative memory to distinguish what is tasty and edible from what
+is disagreeable and inedible, but, for the most part, the perfection
+of instinctive acts is independent of prior experience. Hence instinct
+is entirely different from human reason, which, in the solution of
+problems, is compelled to begin with reflection upon the data furnished
+by previous experience, or education. The animal, however, in its
+instinctive operations, without pausing to investigate, deliberate,
+or calculate, proceeds unhesitatingly on the very first occasion
+to a prompt and perfect solution of its problems. Hence, without
+study, consultation, planning, or previous apprenticeship of any
+sort, and in the complete absence of experimental knowledge, that
+might serve as matter for reflection or as a basis for inference, the
+animal is able to solve intricate problems in engineering, geometry,
+anatomy, pharmaceutics, etc., which the combined intelligence of
+mankind required centuries upon centuries of schooling, research, and
+reflection in order to solve. Of two things, therefore, one: either
+these actions do not proceed from an intelligent principle inherent in
+the animal; or they do, and in that case we are compelled to recognize
+in brute animals _an intelligence superior to our own_, because they
+accomplish deftly and without effort ingenious feats that human
+reason cannot duplicate, save clumsily and at the price of prolonged
+discipline and incessant drudgery. “Perhaps the strongest reason,” says
+an anonymous writer, “for not regarding the activities of instinct
+as intelligent is that in such enormously complex sequences of action
+as, for instance, the emperor moth carries out in the preparing of an
+escape-opening for itself on its completing the larval and passing
+into the imago state, the intelligence needed would be so great that
+it could not be limited to this single activity, and yet it is so
+limited.”[15]
+
+    [15] Cf. Nelson’s Encyclopedia, v. 6, p. 452.
+
+Intelligence is essentially a _generalizing_ and _abstracting_ power;
+hence, from its very nature, it could not be _limited to a single
+activity_. Bestial instincts, however, though frequently so amazingly
+complex and ingeniously purposive as to seem the fruit of profound
+meditation, are, nevertheless, confined exclusively to this or that
+determinate ability. They operate within narrow and preëstablished
+grooves, from which they never swerve to any appreciable degree,
+being but little modifiable or perfectible by experience. Bees always
+construct hexagonal cells, spiders stick to the logarithmic spiral,
+and beavers never attempt to put their engineering skill to new uses.
+Instincts have but little pliancy, their regularity and uniformity
+being such as to make the instinctive abilities definitely predictable
+in the case of any given species of animal. Now, the distinctive mark
+of intelligence is _versatility_, that is, aptitude for many things
+without determinate restriction to this or that. A man who is expert
+in one art may, by reason of his intelligence, be equally proficient
+in a dozen others. The biologist may be a competent chemist, and the
+astronomer an excellent physicist. Michel Angelo was a sculptor, a
+frescoer, a painter, an anatomist, an engineer, and an architect,
+while Leonardo da Vinci had even more arts to his credit. To predict
+before birth the precise form that a man’s ability will take is an
+impossibility. Certain aptitudes, such as a musical gift, are no doubt
+inherited, but it is an inheritance which imposes no rigid necessity
+upon inheriter; since he is free to neglect this native talent, and to
+develop others for which he has no special innate aptitude. With man,
+the fashion in clothing and the styles of architecture vary from day
+to day. The brute, however, never emerges from the rut of instinct,
+and each generation of a given animal species monotonously reproduces
+the history of the previous generation. Man, on the contrary, is
+capable of indefinite _progress_, as the march of human cultures
+and civilizations shows. Gregarious animals are restricted by their
+instincts to determinate types of aggregation, as we see in the case of
+ants and bees. Hence these insect communities are unacquainted with our
+sanguinary revolutions which overturn monarchies in favor of republics,
+or set up dictatorships in place of democracies; for, fortunately or
+unfortunately, as one may choose to regard it, man is not limited to
+one form of government rather than another.
+
+Animals, then, notwithstanding their wonderful instincts, are
+deficient in precisely that quality which is the unique criterion of
+intelligence, namely, versatility. Each species has but one stereotyped
+ability, outside of which it is woefully stupid and inefficient. “So
+long,” says Fabre, “as its circumstances are normal the insect’s
+actions are calculated most rationally in view of the object to be
+attained” (“The Mason-Bees,” p. 167), but let the circumstances
+cease to be normal, let them vary never so little from those which
+ordinarily obtain, and the animal is helpless, while its instinctive
+predisposition becomes, not merely futile, but often positively
+detrimental. Thus the instinct, which should, in the normal course of
+events, guide night-flying moths to the white flowers that contain
+the life-sustaining nectar of their nocturnal banquets, proves
+their undoing, when they come into contact with the white lights of
+artificial illumination. In fact, the fatal fondness of the moth for
+the candle flame has become in all languages a proverb for the folly of
+courting one’s own destruction.
+
+The animal may employ an exquisitely efficient method in accomplishing
+its instinctive work, but is absolutely impotent to apply this
+ingenious method to more than one determinate purpose. Man, however,
+is not so restricted. He varies at will both his aims and his
+methods. He can adapt the _same means_ (a pocketknife, for instance)
+to _different ends_, and, conversely, he can obtain the _same end_
+by the use of _different means_ (_e.g._ communicate by mail, or
+telegraph, or radio). Man, in a word, is _emancipated from limitation
+to the singular and the concrete_ by virtue of his unique prerogative,
+reason, or intelligence, the power that enables him _to generalize
+from the particular and to abstract from the concrete_. This is
+the secret of his unlimited versatility. This is the basis of his
+capacity for progress. This is the root of his freedom; for his
+will seeks happiness in general, happiness in the abstract, and is
+not, therefore, compelled to choose any particular form or concrete
+embodiment of happiness, such as this or that style of architecture,
+this or that form of government, this or that kind of clothing, etc.,
+etc. Teleology is but a material expression of intelligence, and may,
+therefore, occur in things destitute of intelligence, but versatility
+is the inseparable concomitant and infallible sign of an inherent and
+autonomous intelligence. Lacking this quality, instinct, however telic,
+is obviously not intelligence.
+
+Another indication of the fact that no intelligence lies behind
+the instinctive behavior of brutes is manifest from their evident
+_unconsciousness of purpose_. That the animal is ignorant of the
+purpose implied in its own instinctive actions appears from the fact
+that it will carry out these operations with futile diligence and
+exactitude, even when, through accident, the purpose is conspicuously
+absent. Thus the hen deprived of her eggs will, nevertheless, continue
+the now futile process of incubation for twenty-one days, or longer,
+despite the fact that her obstinacy in maintaining the straw of the
+empty nest at a temperature of 104° F. serves no useful purpose
+whatever. She cannot but sense the absence of the eggs; she has not,
+however, the intelligence to realize that incubation without eggs is
+vain. The connection between the latter and the former is something
+that mere sense cannot apprehend. Hence the hen is not troubled by
+the purposelessness of her performance. Fabre gives many examples
+of this futile persistence in instinctive operations, despite their
+complete frustration. Alluding to the outcome of his experiments on
+the Mason-wasp _Pelapaeus_, he says: “The Mason bees, the Caterpillar
+of the Great Peacock Moth, and many others, when subjected to similar
+tests, are guilty of the same illogical behaviour: they continue, in
+the normal order, their series of industrious actions, though accident
+has now rendered them all useless. Just like millstones unable to cease
+revolving though there be no corn left to grind, let them once be given
+the compelling power and they will continue to perform their task
+despite its futility.” (“Bramble Bees,” pp. 192, 193.)
+
+The instance cited by Dr. H. D. Schmidt is an excellent illustration
+of this inability of an animal to appreciate either the utility or
+futility of its instinctive behavior. Having described the instinct
+of squirrels to bury nuts by ramming them into the ground with their
+teeth, and then using their paws to cover them with earth, he continues
+as follows: “Now, as regards the young squirrel, which, of course,
+never had been present at the burial of a nut, I observed that, after
+having eaten a number of hickory nuts to appease its appetite, it
+would take one between its teeth, then sit upright and listen in all
+directions. Finding all right, it would scratch upon the smooth blanket
+on which I was playing with it as if to make a hole, then hammer with
+the nut between its teeth upon the blanket, and finally perform all the
+motions required to fill up a hole—_in the air_; after which it would
+jump away, leaving the nut, of course, uncovered.” (_Transactions of
+the Am. Neurological Ass’n_, 1875, vol. I, p. 129—italics his.) This
+whole pantomime of purposeless gesticulations, from the useless “Stop,
+look and listen!” down to the final desertion of the uncovered nut, is
+overwhelming evidence of the fact that the brute is destitute of any
+rational faculty capable of recognizing the telic aspect of its own
+instinctive conduct.
+
+The claim is sometimes made that certain forms of animal behavior
+are not unconsciously, but _consciously_, telic. Bouvier, for
+example, claims that in the rare cases of the _use of tools_ among
+the Arthropoda, we have evidence of the existence of intelligent
+inventiveness of a rudimentary kind. Thus the crab _Melia_ carries a
+sea-anemone in its chela as a weapon wherewith to sting its prey into a
+condition of paralysis. The leaf-cutting ants of India and Brazil use
+their own thread-spinning larvæ as tools for cementing together the
+materials out of which their nests are constructed. The predatory wasp
+_Ammophila urnaria_ uses a pebble to tamp the filling of its burrow.
+According to the Wheelers (cf. _Science_, May 30, 1924, p. 486), the
+hunting wasp _Sphex_ (_Ammophila_) _gryphus_ (Sm.) makes similar use
+of a pebble. As Bouvier notes, however, this use of tools appears “to
+be rather exceptional ..., showing itself only in the primitive state
+consisting of the use of foreign bodies as implements.” (Smithson.
+Inst. Rpt. for 1918, p. 456.) Moreover, the animals in question
+are limited to a concretely determinate kind of tool, which their
+environment supplies ready-made. Such a use of implements _does not
+presuppose any power of abstraction and generalization_. In fact, the
+presence of such a power is expressly excluded by the consideration
+that the animal’s so-called “inventiveness” is confined exclusively to
+_one particularized manifestation_.
+
+At times the behavior of animals so closely simulates the consciously
+telic or intelligent conduct of men, that only severely critical
+methods enable us to discriminate between them. An experiment, which
+Erich Wasmann, S.J., performed upon ants will serve to illustrate this
+point. In one of his glass nests, Father Wasmann constructed an island
+of sand surrounded by a moat filled with water. He then removed from
+their “nursery” a certain number of the ant larvæ and placed them on
+the island. Thereupon the ants were observed to build a bridge of sand
+across the moat “for the purpose,” apparently, of rescuing the marooned
+larvæ. Such behavior seemed to imply an intelligent ordination of a
+means to an end. Wasmann’s second experiment, however, proved this
+inference to be wholly unwarranted; for, when he excavated a hole in
+the sand of the nest and filled it with water, the ants, stimulated
+by what to them was the disagreeable dampness of the marginal sand,
+were impelled to perform the reflex act of kicking about in the sand.
+This impulse persisted until all traces of the hole, the dampness and
+the water had been buried under a carpet of drier sand. Then, and then
+only, was the aforesaid impulse inhibited. Applying these results to
+the interpretation of the first experiment, we see that the “building
+of a bridge” in the first experiment was not intentional, but merely
+an accidental result of a kicking-reflex, with damp sand acting as
+a stimulator. Once the moat was bridged, however, the ants happened
+to find the larvæ, and were then impelled by instinct to carry the
+larvæ to their proper place in the nest. To see in such an incident a
+planned and premeditated rescue of the marooned larvæ would be grossly
+anthropomorphic. Nevertheless, had only the first experiment been
+performed, such an anthropomorphic interpretation would have seemed
+fully justified, and it was only by an appropriate variation of the
+conditions of the original experiment that this false interpretation
+could be definitively excluded.
+
+Consciously telic behavior is distinguishable from unconsciously
+telic conduct only to the extent that it implies an agent endowed
+with the power of abstraction. Unless an agent can vary radically the
+specificity of the procedure, whereby it attains a given end, the
+purposiveness of its behavior is no evidence of its intelligence.
+“Among animals,” says Bergson, “invention is never more than a
+variation on the theme of routine. Locked up as it is within the habits
+of its species, the animal succeeds no doubt in broadening these by
+individual initiative; but its escape from automatism is momentary
+only, just long enough to create a new automatism; the gates of its
+prison close as soon as they are opened; dragging the chain merely
+lengthens it. Only with man does consciousness break the chain.” (Cf.
+Smithson. Inst. Rpt. for 1918, p. 457.)
+
+In vain, then, do our Darwinian humanizers of the brute exalt instinct
+at the expense of intelligence. Their attempt to reduce to a difference
+of degree the difference of kind that separates the irrational from
+the rational, fails all along the line. Indeed, far from being able to
+account for the appearance of intelligence in the world, transformistic
+theories are impotent to account for so much as the development of
+instinct, all forms of the evolutionary theory, the Lamarckian, the
+Darwinian, the De-Vriesian, etc., being equally inadequate to the task
+of explaining the origin of animal instincts.
+
+The complex instinctive behavior of predatory wasps, for example, is
+absolutely essential for the preservation of their respective races,
+and yet these indispensable instincts are completely useless in any
+other than the _perfect state_. From their very nature, therefore,
+they do not admit of _gradual development_. The law of all, or none,
+holds here. “Instinct developed by degrees,” says Fabre, “is flagrantly
+impossible. The art of preparing the larva’s provisions allows none
+but masters, and suffers no apprentices; the Wasp must excel in it
+from the outset or leave the thing alone.” (“The Hunting Wasps,” p.
+403.) To be useful at all, the instinctive operation must possess an
+indivisible perfection, which cannot be partitioned into degrees.
+The _Pompilius_ (_Calicurgus_), for instance, must, under penalty of
+instant death, take the preliminary precaution to sting into inaction
+the ganglion that controls the poison forceps of her formidable prey,
+the Black Tarantula (_Lycosa_), before she proceeds to paralyze it
+by stabbing its thoracic ganglion. The slightest imperfection or
+shortcoming in her surgery would be irretrievably disastrous. Such an
+instinct never existed in an imperfect form. The first wasp to possess
+it must have been an expert, or she would never have lived to serve the
+limp body of the huge spider as living provender for her tiny grub.
+“The first to come to grips with the Tarantula,” says Fabre, “had an
+unerring knowledge of her dangerous surgery. The least hesitation, the
+slightest speculation, and she was lost. The first teacher would also
+have been the last, with no disciples to take up her art and perfect
+it.” (“Bramble Bees,” p. 354.)
+
+Another hunting wasp, the Hairy Ammophila, subdues a large caterpillar
+into a state of coma by pricking with its sting nine of the ventral
+ganglia, while it spares the cervical ganglion, merely compressing
+the latter with its mandibles, so as not to destroy life altogether.
+This nice discrimination rules out Loeb’s hypothesis of a so-called
+“chemotaxis.” As a result of this elaborate surgical operation, the
+power of movement is suppressed in every segment, and the tiny larva
+of the wasp emerging from the egg laid on the ventral surface of the
+caterpillar can devour this huge living, but motionless, victim in
+peace and safety. Dead meat would not agree with the larva, and any
+movement of the caterpillar would be fatal to the delicate grub. To
+eliminate these contingencies, the Wasp’s surgery must be perfect
+from the very outset. “There is,” says Fabre, “no _via media_, no
+half success. Either the caterpillar is treated according to rule and
+the Wasp and its family is perpetuated; or else the victim is only
+partially paralyzed and the Wasp’s offspring dies in the egg. Yielding
+to the inexorable logic of things, we will have to admit that the
+first Hairy Ammophila, after capturing a Grey Worm to feed her larva,
+operated on the patient by the exact method in use today.” (“The
+Hunting Wasps,” pp. 403, 404.)
+
+Certain meticulous critics of our day cite the fact of the diffusion
+of the poison as indicating that the surgery of the hunting wasps need
+not be so perfectly accommodated to the nervous system of their prey,
+and they attempt in this way to discredit Fabre as having failed to
+take the occurrence of diffusion into account. A careful reading of
+his works, however, will serve to vindicate him in this respect. In a
+chapter on the poison of the bee, for instance, we read: “The local
+effect is diffused. This diffusion, which might well take place in the
+victims of the predatory insects, plays no part in the latter’s method
+of operation. The egg, which will be laid immediately afterwards,
+demands the complete inertia of the prey from the outset. Hence all the
+nerve-centers that govern locomotion must be numbed instantaneously
+by the virus.” (“Bramble Bees,” p. 347.) Bouvier, therefore, very
+justly remarks: “After all, when Fabre’s work is examined there is no
+trouble in seeing that none of these details escaped him. He never
+disputed the paralytic action of the poison inoculated by the insect,
+and the wonderful researches by the Peckhams on the Pompilids, which
+hunt Lycosids, have clearly established the fact that the thrusts of
+the sting given by the predatory insect produce two different kinds
+of paralysis, one functional, and often temporary, resulting from the
+action of the venom, the other structural and persistent, produced by
+the dart which more or less injures the nervous centers.” (Smithson.
+Inst. Rpt. for 1916, p. 594.)
+
+In the case of predatory insects, therefore, the instinct must be
+_perfect at the outset_, or survival is impossible. For the origin
+of such instincts, Darwinism, which stresses the _gradualness_ of
+evolutionary progress, has no explanation that will hold water.
+Lamarckism, which sees in _acquired habits_ transmitted by inheritance,
+the origin of instinct, the “memory of the race,” is equally at a
+loss to account for these instincts. The formation of habits requires
+_practice_ and _repetition_. The predatory insect must be perfect at
+the start, and yet it only exercises its remarkable instinct _once a
+year_. Where is the practice and reiteration requisite for canalizing
+its nervous system into the conduction-paths of habit? How did one
+particular set of rarely performed acts happen to gain precedence over
+all others, and to be alone successful in stamping themselves indelibly
+upon the nerve plasm as habits, and upon the germ plasm as instincts?
+De-Vriesianism, which would make the acquisition and perfecting of
+instinct dependent upon the rare and accidental contingency of a
+_fortuitous mutation_, is even more objectionable. These instincts are
+vital to the insect. If their acquisition and improvement depend upon
+the lucky chance of a series of favorable mutations, its prospects of
+survival are nil; for it cannot afford to wait at all. “In order to
+live,” says Fabre, “we all require the conditions that enable us to
+live: this is a truth worthy of the famous axioms of La Palice. The
+predatory insects live by their talent. If they do not possess it to
+perfection, their race is lost.” (“Bramble Bees,” p. 364.)
+
+Recently, there has been a revival of Lamarckism hitherto regarded
+as defunct. Guyer, Kammerer, and Pawlow profess to find factual
+justification for it, and Bouvier adopts it in his “La vie psychique
+des insectes” (1918), to account for the origin of instinct. Of the
+alleged facts of Kammerer and Guyer, we have spoken in a previous
+chapter. Here we shall content ourselves with few remarks on the
+experiments of Ivan Pawlow, as being especially relevant to the subject
+under consideration. The Russian physiologist has experimented on
+white mice, and claims that the mice of the fifth generation learned
+to answer a dinner bell in the space of five lessons, whereas their
+ancestors of the first generation had required a hundred lessons to
+answer the same signal. Hence he concludes: “The latest experiments ...
+show that conditioned reflexes, _i.e._, the highest nervous activity,
+are inherited.” (_Science_, Nov. 9, 1923, p. 360.) His results,
+however, do not tally with those recently obtained by E. C. MacDowell
+of the Carnegie Institution, by H. G. Bragg, and by E. M. Vicari of
+Columbia. MacDowell found that white rats trained in a circular maze
+did not improve in their susceptibility to training from generation to
+generation. “Children from trained parents,” he says, “or from trained
+parents and grandparents, take as long to learn the maze habit as the
+first generation used.” (_Science_, March 28, 1924, p. 303.) Having
+cited the similar results of Bragg, who experimented with white mice,
+he concludes: “The results are in full accord with those given above;
+they indicate that the training of the ancestors did not facilitate the
+learning of the descendants.” (_Ibidem._) E. M. Vicari, using a simple
+maze and white rats, obtained the same results. “It seems clear,” she
+says, “that the latter generations have not been aided by the training
+of their ancestors.” (_Ibidem._)
+
+Bouvier’s conception, then, that the automatisms of instinct originate
+as automatisms of acquired habit, the latter being appropriated
+by inheritance, still stands in need of reliable experimental
+confirmation. Moreover, a theory of this sort could never account,
+as Weismann points out, for such phenomena as the specific instincts
+of worker bees, which are _excluded from propagation_. Nor can the
+theory explain, as originating in acquired _habit_, those instinctive
+operations of enormous complexity, like the complicated method of
+emergence employed by the larva of the emperor moth, which only occur
+_once in a lifetime_, and could not, therefore, fasten themselves on
+the organism as a _habit_.
+
+An evolutionary origin of instinct, however, though extremely
+improbable, is, at any rate, not absolutely inconceivable. Its
+teleology, as we have seen, does not imply inherent intelligence, but
+is explicable as an innate law involving appropriate coördination
+of the sensory, emotional, and motor functions, all of which are
+intrinsically dependent on the organism. But intelligence, as we
+have seen, is a superorganic power, having its source in a spiritual
+principle, that, from the very nature of things, cannot be evolved from
+matter. Human reason, therefore, owes its origin, not to any evolution
+of the human body, but to the creation of the human soul, which is the
+source and subject of that unique prerogative of man, namely: the power
+of abstract thought.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER III
+
+                     THE ORIGIN OF THE HUMAN BODY
+
+
+In an article published August 31, 1895, in the _New York Freeman’s
+Journal_, the late Rev. J. A. Zahm gave expression to the following
+opinion: “The evolution of the body of man from some inferior animal
+and its subsequent endowment in this body by God of a rational soul is
+antagonistic to no dogma of faith and may be shown to be in harmony
+with the teachings of St. Thomas.” The scriptural and theological
+aspect of this view need not concern us here, our sole purpose being
+to evaluate it from a purely scientific standpoint. Once evolutionary
+thought takes cognizance of the fact that the human soul is a spiritual
+principle underivable from mere matter, once it acknowledges the
+immediate creation of the human soul, and professes to do no more
+than account for the origin of man’s animal _body_, that moment is it
+shorn of its materialistic implications; but what, we may ask, are the
+foundations of such an hypothesis in the realm of scientific fact?
+
+The writer must confess that he cannot fathom the mentality of those
+who accept the evolutionary explanation, so far as plant and animal
+organisms are concerned, but proceed to draw the line when it comes to
+applying it to the human body. For if one (to borrow Du Bois-Reymond’s
+expression) “gives so much as his little finger to” the evolutional
+argument from organic homology, he must end, in so far as he is
+consistent, in acknowledging as incontestable its obvious application
+to man. The only choice which sound logic can sanction is between
+fixism and a thoroughgoing system of transformism, which does not
+exempt the human body from the scope of the evolutionary explanation.
+Indeed, the theory of evolution itself stands or falls upon this issue;
+for, if structures so strikingly similar as the skeletons of a man
+and an ape, respectively, have originated from two distinct ancestral
+stocks, then in no case at all is the inference of common descent
+from structural resemblance a legitimate procedure. In other words,
+if the homologies existent between the human and simian organisms are
+explicable on some other basis than that of common ancestry, then
+all organic homologies are so explicable, and the whole evolutionary
+argument collapses.
+
+
+                     § 1. Two Theories of Descent
+
+Two theories have been formulated regarding the alleged bestial
+origin of the human body: (1) the theory of lineal descent from some
+known species (living or fossil) of ape or monkey; (2) the theory of
+collateral descent from a hypothetical bestial ancestor common to apes
+and men. The theory of lineal descent is that to which Darwin himself
+stands committed. This theory, however, soon fell into disrepute among
+scientists, who came to prefer the theory of collateral descent,
+although signs of a return to the older theory are not wanting in our
+day. At all events, Darwin came out flatly in favor of the monkey
+origin of man. This, it is true, has been indignantly denied by loyal
+partisans anxious to exonerate their idol from the reproach of having
+advanced a crude and now obsolete theory of human descent. But Darwin’s
+own words speak for themselves: “The Simiadae,” he says, “then branched
+off into two great stems, the New World and Old World monkeys; and from
+the latter, at a remote period of time, Man, the wonder and glory of
+the Universe, proceeded.” (“Descent of Man,” 2nd ed., ch. VI, pp. 220,
+221.) Note that he does not say “probably”; his language is not the
+language of hypothesis, but of categorical affirmation.
+
+The theory, however, which is most generally favored at the present
+time holds that, assuming the universality of the evolutionary
+process, all existing types must be of equal antiquity, and none prior
+or ancestral to any other. Hence it regards man, not as the direct
+descendant of any known type of ape, but as the offspring of an as yet
+undiscovered Tertiary ancestor, from which men and apes have diverged
+in two distinct lines of descent. “_Monkeys, apes, and men_,” says
+Conklin, “_have descended from some common but at present extinct
+ancestor_. Existing apes and monkeys are collateral relatives of man
+but not his ancestors; his cousins but not his parents.... The human
+branch diverged from the anthropoid stock not less than two million
+years ago, and since that time man has been evolving in the direction
+represented by existing human races, while the apes have been evolving
+in the direction represented by existing anthropoids. During all this
+time men and apes have been growing more and more unlike and conversely
+the farther back we go, the more we should find them converging until
+they meet in a common stock which should be intermediate between these
+two stocks.” (“Evolution and the Bible,” pp. 12, 13—italics his.)
+
+Barnum Brown’s recent discovery of three jaws of the fossil ape
+_Dryopithecus_ in the Siwalik Hills of India has, as previously
+intimated, resulted in a return on the part of certain scientists,
+_e.g._ Wm. K. Gregory and Dudley J. Morton, to views that more nearly
+approximate those of Charles Darwin. According to these men, the fossil
+anthropoid _Dryopithecus_ is to be regarded as the common ancestor of
+men, chimpanzees, and gorillas. (Cf. _Science_, April 25, 1924, Suppl.
+XII.)
+
+Many considerations, however, militate against the direct derivation
+of man’s bodily frame from any known species of ape, whether living
+or fossil. Dana has pointed out that, as regards the mechanism of
+locomotion, man belongs to a more primitive type than the ape.
+The earliest and lowest type of vertebrates are the fish, and
+these, according to the above-mentioned author, are _urosthenic_
+(tail-strong), inasmuch as they propel themselves by means of their
+tails. Next in point of organization and time came the _merosthenic_
+vertebrates, which have their strength concentrated in the hind-limbs,
+_e.g._ reptiles like the dinosaurs. In the last place come the
+_prosthenic_ vertebrates, whose strength is concentrated in the
+fore-limbs, _e.g._ the carnivora and apes. Now man belongs to the
+_merosthenic_ type, and his mode of progression, therefore, is more
+primitive than that of apes, which are _prosthenic_, all anthropoid
+apes, such as the gorilla, the chimpanzee, the orang-utan and the
+gibbon having longer fore-limbs than hind-limbs.
+
+The striking anatomical differences between apes and men, though not
+of sufficient importance to exclude the possibility of collateral
+relationship, are so many solid arguments against the theory of
+direct descent. We will content ourselves with a mere enumeration of
+these differences. In the ape, the cranium has a protruding muzzle
+and powerful jaws equipped with projecting canine teeth, but the
+brain-case is comparatively small; in man, on the contrary, the facial
+development is insignificant and the teeth are small and vertical,
+while the brain-case is enormous in size, having at least twice the
+capacity of that of an ape. “The face of man,” to quote Ranke, “slides,
+as it were, down from the forehead and appears as an appendix to the
+front half of the skull. But the gorilla’s face, on the contrary,
+protrudes from the skull, which in turn slides almost entirely backward
+from the face. By a cross-cut one may sever the whole face from the
+skull, except a very small part near the sockets, without being forced
+to open up the interior of the skull. It is only on account of its
+protruding, strongly developed lower parts that the skull-cap of the
+animal can simulate a kind of human face.” (“Der Mensch,” vol. II,
+p. 401.) These differences may be summarized by saying that the head
+of the ape is specialized for mastication and defense, whereas the
+head of man is specialized for psychic functions. Again, as we have
+seen, the fore-limbs of the ape are long, and its hind-limbs short,
+the extremities of both the latter and the former being specialized
+primarily for prehension and only secondarily for progression. This
+is due to the ape’s adaptation to arboreal life. In man, however,
+the arms are short and specialized for prehension alone, while the
+legs are long and terminate in broad plantigrade feet specialized for
+progression alone. Man, consequently, is not adapted to arboreal life.
+In the ape, the spine has a single curve, and the occipital foramen
+(the aperture through which the spinal cord enters the brain-case)
+is eccentrically located in the floor of the cranial box; in man,
+the spine has a double curve, and the occipital foramen is centrally
+located, both features being in adaptation to the upright posture
+peculiar to man—“_die zentralle Lage dieser Oeffnung_,” says Ranke
+alluding to the occipital foramen of man, “_in der Schädelbasis ist
+für den Menschenschädel im Unterschied gegen den Tierschädel eine in
+hohem Masse typische_.” (“Der Mensch,” vol. I, p. 378.) In the ape,
+therefore, the vertebræ have an adaptation producing convexity of the
+back, precluding a normal upright posture, and enforcing progression
+on all fours. It has, moreover, powerful muscles at the back of the
+neck to carry the head in the horizontal position necessitated by this
+mode of progression. In man “the skull has the occipital condyles
+placed within the middle fifth, in adaptation to the vertical position
+of the spine” (Nicholson), the spinal cord enters the cranial box at
+a perpendicular, and the head balances on the spinal column as on a
+pivot, all of which ensures the erect posture and bipedal progression
+in man. There are, moreover, no neck muscles to support the head in any
+other than the vertical position. There are many other differences,
+besides: the ape, for example, has no chin, while in man there is a
+marked mental protuberance; man has a slender waist, but the ape has a
+barrel-like torso without any waist; the ape has huge bony ridges for
+the attachment of muscles, _e.g._ the sagittal crest, the superciliary
+ridges, etc., while in man such features are practically absent.
+
+Ranke has given a very good summary of the chief anatomical differences
+between man and the anthropoid apes: “The gorilla’s head leaning
+forward, hangs down from the spinal column, and his chinless snout,
+equipped with powerful teeth, touches the breastbone. Man’s head
+is round, and resting on a free neck, balances unrestrained upon
+the spinal column. The gorilla’s body, without a waist, swells out
+barrel-shaped, and when straightened up finds no sufficient support on
+the pelvis; the back-bone, tailless as in man, but almost straight,
+loses itself without nape or neck formation properly so-called in the
+rear part of the head and without protuberance of the gluteal region
+in the flat thighs. Man’s body is slightly molded, like an hour-glass,
+the chest and abdomen meeting to form a waist where they are narrowest;
+the abdominal viscera are perfectly supported in the pelvis as in a
+plate; and elegance is decidedly gained by the double S-line, which,
+curving alternately convex and concave, passes from the crown through
+the neck and nape, down the back to the base of the spine and the
+gluteal region. The normal position of the gorilla shows us a plump,
+bear-like trunk, carried by short, crooked legs and by arms which serve
+as crutches and touch the ground with the knuckles of the turned-in
+fingers. The posture of the body is perfectly straight in man, it rests
+on the legs as on columns when he stands upright, and his hands hang
+down on both sides always ready for use. The gorilla is thickly covered
+with hair, while man’s body on the whole is naked.” (_Op. cit._, vol.
+II, p. 213.)
+
+In conclusion, we may say that, while there is a general resemblance
+between the human body and that of an anthropoid ape, there is,
+likewise, a particular divergence—“there is no bone, be it ever so
+small, nay, not even the smallest particle of a bone, in which the
+general agreement in structure and function would pass over into real
+identity.” (Ranke, _op. cit._, vol. I, p. 437.) Hence Virchow declares
+that “the differences between man and monkey are so wide that almost
+any fragment is sufficient to diagnose them.” (Smithson. Inst. Rpt. for
+1889, p. 566.) These differences are so considerable as to preclude the
+possibility of a _direct_ genealogical connection between man and any
+known type of ape or monkey—“The testimony of comparative anatomy,” to
+quote Bumüller, “is decidedly against the theory of man’s descent from
+the ape.” (“Mensch oder Affe?” p. 59.) Ranke has somewhere called man
+a brain-animal, and this sums up the chief difference, which marks off
+the human body from all bestial organisms. In the ape the brain weighs
+only 100th part of the weight of its body, whereas in man the brain has
+a weight equivalent to the 37th part of the weight of the human body.
+The cranial capacity of the largest apes ranges from 500 to 600 c.cm.,
+while the average cranial capacity in man is 1500 c.cm. Moreover, the
+human brain is far more extensively convoluted within the brain-case
+than that of an ape, so much so that the surface or cortical area of
+the human brain is four times as great as that of the ape’s brain.
+Thus Wundt, in his “Grundzüge der physiologischen Psychologie,” cites
+H. Wagner as assigning to man a brain surface of from 2,196 to 1,877
+sq. cm., but a cortical area of only 535 sq. cm. in the case of an
+orang-outang. (Cf. English Translation by Titchener, vol. I, p. 286.)
+
+Another difficulty in the way of the Darwinian theory of direct
+descent is the fact that the best counterparts of human anatomy
+are not found united in any one species of ape or monkey, but are
+scattered throughout a large number of species. “Returning to the
+old discussion,” says Thomas Dwight, “as to which ape can boast of
+the closest resemblance to man, Kohlbrugge brings before us Aeby’s
+forgotten book on the skull of man and apes. His measurements show that
+the form nearest to man among apes is the gibbon, or long-armed ape,
+but that the South American monkey _Crysothrix_ is nearer still. Aeby
+recognized what modern anatomists have forgotten or wilfully ignored:
+that any system of descent is inadequate which does not recognize that
+the type of man is not in any one organ, but in all the physical and
+psychological features. He declared that while we are far from having
+this universal knowledge, we have learned enough about the various
+parts of the body to make it impossible for us to sketch any plan
+of descent. ‘It almost seems as if every part had its own line of
+descent, different from that of others.’ ... Kohlbrugge now introduces
+Haacke, who denies any relationship between man and apes, the latter
+being instances of one-sided development. He even dares to declare
+anyone who speaks of an intermediate form between man and apes to be
+ignorant of the laws of development governing the race history of
+mammals. He believes man came from some lemuroid form, which may have
+descended from the insectivora.” (“Thoughts of a Catholic Anatomist,”
+pp. 188-190.)
+
+All known types, then, of apes and monkeys are too specialized to have
+been in the direct line of human descent. Man, as Kohlbrugge ironically
+remarks, appears to have come from an ancestor much more like himself
+than any species of ape we know of. Moreover, no species of apes or
+monkeys monopolizes the honors of closest resemblance to man. In many
+points, the South American monkeys, though more primitive than the
+anthropoid apes, are more similar to man than the latter.
+
+
+                    § 2. Embryological Resemblances
+
+Much has been made of the so-called biogenetic law as an argument
+for the bestial origin of mankind. This theory of the embryological
+recapitulation of racial history was first formulated by Fritz Müller.
+Haeckel, however, was the one who exploited it most extensively,
+and who exalted it to the status of “the fundamental law of
+biogenesis.”[16] The latter’s statement of the principle is as follows:
+“_Die Ontogenesis ist die Palingenesis der Phylogenesis_.”—Ontogeny
+(the development of the individual) is a recapitulation of phylogeny
+(the development of the race). For a long time this law was received
+with uncritical credulity by the scientific world, but enthusiasm
+diminished when more careful studies made it clear that the line of
+descent suggested by embryology did not agree with what was inferred
+from comparative anatomy and the sequence of fossil forms. Besides,
+it was manifest that certain organs in embryos were distinctively
+_embryonic_ and could never have functioned in adult forms, _e.g._ the
+yolk sac and the amnion. “It was recognized,” says T. H. Morgan, “that
+many embryonic stages could not possibly represent ancestral animals. A
+young fish with a huge yolk sac attached could scarcely ever have led a
+happy, free life as an adult individual. Such stages were interpreted,
+however, as _embryonic_ additions to the original ancestral type. The
+embryo had done something on its own account. In some animals the
+young have structures that attach them to the mother, as does the
+placenta of mammals. In other cases the young develop membranes about
+themselves—like the amnion of the chick and the mammal—that would have
+shut off an adult animal from all intercourse with the outside world.
+Hundreds of such embryonic structures are known to embryologists. These
+were explained as adaptations and as falsifications of the ancestral
+records.” (“Critique of the Theory of Evolution,” pp. 16, 17.)
+
+    [16] Haeckel’s “Biogenetisches Grundgesetz,” which he
+    formulates thus: “_Die Ontogenie (Keimesgeschichte) ist eine
+    kurze Wiederholung der Phylogenie (Stammesgeschichte)_,” 1874.
+
+The result has been that this so-called law has fallen into general
+disrepute among scientists, especially as a means of reconstructing
+the phylogeny of modern organisms. It is recognized, of course, that
+comparative embryology can furnish embryological homologies analogous
+to the homologies of comparative anatomy, but it is now generally
+acknowledged that the view, which regards the embryological process
+as an abridged repetition of the various states through which the
+species has passed in its evolutionary career must be definitively
+abandoned, and that, as a general law of organic development, the
+biogenetic principle has been thoroughly discredited. “This law,” says
+Karl Vogt of Geneva, “which I long held as well-founded, is absolutely
+and radically false. Attentive study of embryology shows us, in fact,
+that embryos have their own conditions suitable to themselves, and very
+different from those of adults.” (Quoted by Quatrefages De Breau, in
+his “Les Emules de Darwin,” vol. II, p. 13.) “There can no longer be
+question,” says Prof. M. Caullery of the Sorbonne, “of systematically
+regarding individual development as a repetition of the history of the
+stock. This conclusion results from the very progress made under the
+inspiration received from this imaginary law, the law of biogenesis.”
+(Smithson. Inst. Rpt. for 1916, p. 325.)
+
+This collapse of the biogenetic law has tumbled into ruins the
+elaborate superstructure of genealogy which Haeckel had reared upon it.
+His series of thirty stages extending from the fictitious “cytodes”
+up to man, inclusively, is even more worthless today than it was when
+Du Bois-Reymond made his ironic comment: “Man’s pedigree, as drawn up
+by Haeckel, is worth about as much as is that of Homer’s heroes for
+critical historians.” (_Revue Scientifique_, 1877, I, p. 1101.) Haeckel
+tried in vain to save his discredited law by means of the expedient
+of _cænogenesis_, that is, “the falsification of the ancestral record
+(palingenesis).” That Nature should be guilty of “falsification” is an
+hypothesis not to be lightly entertained, and it is more credible, as
+Wasmann remarks, to assume that Haeckel, and not Nature, is the real
+falsifier, inasmuch as he has misrepresented Nature in his “fundamental
+biogenetic law.” Cænogenesis is a very convenient device. One can
+alternate at will between _cænogenesis_ and _palingenesis_, just
+as, in comparative anatomy, one can alternate capriciously between
+_convergence_ and _homology_, on the general understanding of its
+being a case of: “Heads, I win; tails, you lose”—certainly, there is
+no _objective_ consideration to restrain us in such procedure. “Such
+weapons as Cænogenesis and Convergence,” says Kohlbrugge (in his “Die
+Morphologische Abstammung des Menschen,” 1908) “are unfortunately so
+shaped that anyone can use them when they suit him, or throw them
+aside when they do not. They show, therefore, in the prettiest way the
+uncertainty even now of the construction of the theory of descent.
+As soon as we go into details it leaves us in the lurch; it was only
+while our knowledge was small that everything seemed to fit together
+in most beautiful order.” (Quoted by Dwight in “Thoughts of a Catholic
+Anatomist,” p. 187.)
+
+It is undeniable, indeed, that in many cases the young of higher
+animals pass through stages in which they bear at least a superficial
+resemblance to adult stages in inferior and less complex organisms.
+Obviously, however, there cannot be any direct derivation of the
+_embryonic_ features of one organism from the _adult_ characters of
+another organism. This preposterous implication of the Müller-Haeckel
+Law must, as Morgan points out, be entirely eliminated, before it
+can merit serious consideration. Referring to the spiral cleavage
+exhibited by annelid, planarian and molluscan eggs, Morgan says:
+“It has been found that the cleavage pattern has the same general
+arrangement in the early stages of flat worms, annelids and molluscs.
+Obviously these stages have never been adult ancestors, and obviously
+if their resemblance has any meaning at all, it is that each group has
+retained the same general plan of cleavage possessed by their common
+ancestor.... Perhaps someone will say, ‘Well! is not this all that
+we have contended for! Have you not reached the old conclusion in a
+roundabout way?’ I think not. To my mind there is a wide difference
+between the old statement that the higher animals living today have the
+original adult stages telescoped into their embryos, and the statement
+that the resemblance between certain characters in the embryos of
+higher animals and corresponding stages in the embryos of lower animals
+is most plausibly explained by the assumption that they have descended
+from the same ancestors, and that their common structures are embryonic
+survivals.” (_Op. cit._, pp. 22, 23.)
+
+After this admission, however, nothing remains of the law of
+“recapitulation” except simple embryological homology comparable, in
+every sense, to adult homology, and adding nothing essentially new
+to the latter argument for evolution. It is, therefore, ridiculous
+for evolutionists to speak of _branchial_ (gill) arches and clefts in
+man. The visceral or pharyngeal arches and grooves appearing in the
+human embryo are unquestionably homologous with the genuine branchial
+arches and clefts in a fish embryo. In the latter, however, the grooves
+become real clefts through perforation, while the arches become the
+lamellæ of the permanent gills, thus adapting the animal to aquatic
+respiration. It is, accordingly, perfectly legitimate to refer to these
+embryonic structures in the young fish as gill arches and gill clefts.
+In man, however, the corresponding embryonic structures develop into
+the oral cavity, auditory meatus, ossicles of the ear, the mandible,
+the lower lip, the tongue, the cheek, the hyoid bone, the styloid
+process, the thymus, the thyroid and tracheal cartilages, etc. There is
+no perforation of the grooves, and the arches develop into something
+quite different than branchial lamellæ. Hence the correct name for
+these structures in the human embryo is _pharyngeal_ (visceral) arches
+and grooves, their superficial resemblance to the embryonic structures
+in the fish embryo being no justification for calling them branchial.
+In short, the mere fact that certain embryonic structures in the
+young fish (homologous to the pharyngeal arches and grooves in the
+human embryo) develop into the permanent gills of the adult fish, is
+no more significant than the association of homology with divergent
+preadaptations, which is of quite general occurrence among adult
+vertebrate types. In all such cases, we have instances of fundamentally
+identical structures, diverted, as it were, to entirely different
+purposes or functions (_e.g._ the arm of a man and the flipper of a
+whale). Hence the argument drawn from embryological homology is no
+more cogent than the argument drawn from the homologies of comparative
+anatomy, which we have already discussed in a previous chapter. The
+misuse of the term _branchial_, to prejudge matters in their own
+favor, is in keeping with the customary policy of evolutionists. It is
+intended, naturally, to convey the impression that man, in the course
+of his evolution, has passed through a fish-like stage. At bottom,
+however, it is nothing more than a verbal subterfuge, that need not
+detain us further.
+
+The theory of embryological recapitulation is often applied to man,
+with a view to establishing the doctrine of his bestial ancestry. We
+have seen one instance of this application, and we shall consider
+one other, for the purpose of illustrating more fully the principles
+involved. The claim is made by evolutionists, that man must have
+passed through a fish or amphibian stage, because, in common with all
+other mammals, he exhibits, during his embryological development, a
+typical fish (or, if you prefer, amphibian) kidney, which subsequently
+atrophies, only to be replaced by the characteristic mammalian kidney.
+The human embryo, therefore, repeats the history of our race, which
+must have passed through a fish-like stage in the remote past. In
+consequence of this phenomenon, therefore, it is inferred that man must
+have had fish-like ancestors. Let us pause, however, to analyze the
+facts upon which this inference is based.
+
+In annelids, like the earthworm, the nephridia or excretory tubules
+are arranged segmentally, one pair to each somite. In vertebrates,
+however, the nephridial tubules, instead of developing in regular
+sequence from before backwards, develop in three batches, one behind
+the other, the anterior batch being called the _pronephros_, the middle
+one, the _mesonephros_ and the posterior one, the _metanephros_. This,
+according to J. Graham Kerr, holds true not only of the amniotic
+vertebrates (reptiles, birds, and mammals) but also, with a certain
+reservation, of the anamniotic vertebrates (fishes and amphibians).
+“In many of the lower Vertebrates,” says this author, “there is no
+separation between the mesonephros and metanephros, the two forming one
+continuous structure which acts as the functional kidney. Such a type
+of renal organ consisting of the series of tubules corresponding to
+mesonephros together with metanephros may conveniently be termed the
+opisthonephros.” (“Textbook of Embryology,” II—Vertebrata, p. 221.) If
+we accept this view, it is not quite accurate to regard the mesonephros
+in man as a homologue of the _opisthonephros_ of a fish, seeing that
+the latter is composed not only of mesonephridia (mesonephric tubules),
+but also of metanephridia (metanephric tubules). A brief description
+of the three nephridial systems of vertebrate embryos will serve to
+further clarify their interrelationship.
+
+(1) _The pronephric system_: This consists of a collection of tubules
+called the pronephros, and a pronephric duct leading to the cloaca,
+or terminal portion of the alimentary canal. The pronephros is a
+functional organ in the frog tadpole and other larval amphibia. It
+is also found in a few teleosts, where it is said to persist as a
+functional organ in the adult. In other fishes, however, and in all
+higher forms the pronephros atrophies and becomes reduced to a few
+rudiments.[17]
+
+    [17] The objection may be raised that a purely embryonic organ
+    like the pronephros, which is functional in but few vertebrate
+    adults and which originates in vertebrate embryos only to
+    undergo atrophy, can have no other explanation than that of
+    “recapitulation.” The objection, however, fails to take into
+    account the possibility of the organ being serviceable to
+    the _embryo_, in which it may be a provisory solution of the
+    excretory problem and not a vestige of past ancestry.
+
+(2) _The mesonephric system_: This consists of a collection of
+nephridial tubules called the mesonephros (Wolffian body). The tubules
+of the mesonephros do not develop any duct of their own, but utilize
+the posterior portion of the pronephric duct, the said tubules becoming
+secondarily connected with this duct in a region posterior to the
+pronephridia (tubules of the pronephros). The pronephric tubules
+together with the anterior portion of the pronephric duct then atrophy,
+while the persisting posterior portion of this duct receives the name
+of mesonephric or Wolffian duct. The duct in question still terminates
+in the cloaca, and serves, in the male, the combined function of a
+urinary and spermatic duct; but, in the female, a special oviduct (the
+Müllerian duct) is superadded because of the large size of the eggs to
+be transmitted, the Wolffian or mesonephric duct subserving only the
+urinary function. The mesonephros is functional in mammalian embryos,
+but atrophies and disappears coincidently with the development of the
+permanent kidney. The same is true of amniotic vertebrates generally,
+except that in the case of reptiles the mesonephros persists for a
+few months after hatching in the adult, the definitive kidney of the
+adult being reinforced during that interval by the still functional
+mesonephros. In anamniotic vertebrates, however, no separation exists
+between the mesonephros and the metanephros, the two forming one
+continuous structure, the opisthonephros, which acts as the functional
+kidney of the adult.
+
+(3) _The metanephric system_: In the amniotic vertebrates the
+mesonephros and metanephros are distinct, the former being functional
+in embryos and in adult reptiles (for a few months after hatching),
+while the metanephros becomes the definitive kidney of the adult. The
+metanephros is a collection of nephridial tubules provided with a
+special urinary duct called the ureter, which empties into the bladder
+(not the cloaca). The Wolffian or mesonephric duct is retained as a
+sperm duct in the male (of amniotic vertebrates), but becomes vestigial
+in the female. Only a certain number of the nephridial tubules of the
+embryonic metanephros are taken over to form part of the permanent or
+adult kidney (in mammals, birds, and reptiles).
+
+If, then, as we have previously observed, we follow Kerr in regarding
+the fish kidney, not as a simple mesonephros, but as an opisthonephros
+(_i.e._ a combination of mesonephros and metanephros), there is no
+warrant for interpreting the embryonic mesonephros of man and mammals
+generally as the fish-kidney stage. But waiving this consideration, and
+assuming, for the sake of argument, that the fish kidney is a perfect
+homologue of the human mesonephros, the mere fact of the adoption by
+the human embryo of a temporary solution of its excretory problem
+similar to the permanent solution of that problem adopted by the fish,
+would not, of itself, imply the common ancestry of men and fishes.
+Such a coincidence would be fully explicable as a case of convergent
+adaptation occurring in the interest of embryonic economy.
+
+It is, indeed, a well-known fact that larval and embryonic organisms
+are often obliged to defer temporarily the construction of the more
+complex structures of adult life, and to improvise simpler substitutes
+for use until such a time as they have accumulated a sufficient reserve
+of energy and materials to complete the work of their more elaborate
+adult organization. The young starfish, for example, arising as it does
+from an egg but scantily supplied with yolk, is forced, from the very
+outset, to shift for itself, in coping with the food-getting problem.
+Under stress of this necessity, it economizes its slender resources
+by constructing the extremely simple digestive and motor apparatus
+characteristic of the larva in its bilaterally-symmetrical _Bipinnaria_
+stage, and postponing the development of the radially-symmetrical
+structure characteristic of the adult stage, until it has stored up the
+wherewithal to complete its metamorphosis.
+
+From this viewpoint, there is no difficulty in understanding why
+_temporary_ solutions of the excretory problem should precede the
+_definitive_ solution of this problem in mammalian embryos. The problem
+of excretion is urgent from the outset, and its demands increase with
+the growth of the embryo. It is only natural, then, that a series of
+improvised structures should be resorted to, in a case of this kind;
+and, since these temporary solutions of the excretory problem must,
+of necessity, be as simple as possible, it should not be in the least
+surprising to find them coinciding with the permanent solutions adopted
+by inferior organisms less complexly organized than the mammals.
+Hence the bare fact of resemblance between the transitory embryonic
+kidney of a mammal and the permanent adult kidney of a fish would
+have no atavistic significance. We know of innumerable cases in which
+an identical adaptation occurs in genetically unrelated organisms.
+The cephalopod mollusc _Nautilus_, for example, solves the problem
+of light-perception in the identical manner in which it is solved by
+the vertebrates. This mollusc has the perfect vertebrate type of eye,
+including the lens and all other parts down to the minutest detail.
+The fact, however, that the mollusc solves its problem by using the
+stereotyped solution found in vertebrates rather than by developing a
+compound eye analogous to the type found among arthropods, is wholly
+destitute of genetic significance. In fact, the genetic interpretation
+is positively rejected by the evolutionists, who interpret the
+occurrence of similar eyes in molluscs and vertebrates as an instance
+of “accidental convergence.” Even assuming, then, what Kerr denies,
+namely, a perfect parallelism between the mesonephros of the human
+embryo and the permanent kidney of an adult fish, the alleged fact that
+the human embryo temporarily adopts the same type of solution for its
+excretory problem as the one permanently employed by the fish would not
+in itself be a proof of our descent from a fish-like ancestor.
+
+In fact, not only is embryological homology of no greater value
+than adult homology as an argument for evolution, but it is, on
+the contrary, considerably inferior to the latter, as regards
+cogency. _Differentiation_ pertains to the final or _adult_ stage of
+organisms. Embryonic structures, inasmuch as they are undeveloped and
+undifferentiated, present for that very reason an appearance of crude
+and superficial similarity. “Most of what is generally ascribed to
+the action of the so-called biogenetic law,” says T. Garbowski, “is
+erroneously ascribed to it, since all things that are undeveloped and
+incomplete must be more or less alike.” (“Morphogenetische Studien,”
+Jena, 1903.) When we consider the fact that the metazoa have all a
+similar unicellular origin, are subject to uniform morphogenetic laws,
+and are frequently exposed to analogous environmental conditions
+demanding similar adaptations, it is not at all surprising that
+they should present many points of resemblance (both in their
+embryonic and their adult morphology) which are not referable to any
+particular line of descent. At all events, these resemblances are
+far too general in their extension to enable us to specify the type
+of ancestor responsible therefor. More especially is this true of
+embryological homologies, which are practically valueless as basis for
+reconstructing the phylogeny of any type. “That certain phenomena,”
+says Oskar Hertwig, “recur with great regularity and uniformity in
+the development of different species of animals, is due chiefly to the
+fact that under all circumstances they supply the necessary condition
+under which alone the next higher stage in ontogeny (embryological
+development) can be produced.” (“Allgemeine Biologie,” 1906, p.
+595.) The same author, therefore, proposes to revamp Haeckel’s
+“biogenetisches Grundgesetz” as follows: “We must leave out the words
+‘recapitulation of forms of extinct ancestors’ and substitute for them
+‘repetition of forms regularly occurring in organic development, and
+advancing from the simple to the more complex.’” (_Op. cit._, p. 593.)
+
+Finally, when applied to the problem of man’s alleged genetic
+connection with the ape, the biogenetic principle proves the exact
+reverse of what the Darwinians desire; for as a matter of fact the
+young apes resemble man much more closely in the shape of the skull
+and facial features than do the adult animals. Inasmuch, therefore, as
+the ape, in its earlier development, reveals a more marked resemblance
+to man than is present in its later stages, it follows, according
+to the “biogenetic law,” that man is the ancestor of the ape. This,
+however, is inadmissible, seeing that the ape is by no means a more
+recent type than man. Consequently, as applied to man, the Haeckelian
+principle leads to a preposterous conclusion, and thereby manifests
+its worthlessness as a clue to phylogeny. Julius Kollmann, it is true,
+gives serious attention to this likeness between young apes and men,
+and makes it the basis of his scheme of human evolution. “Kollmann,”
+says Dwight, “starts from the fact that the head of a young ape is very
+much more like that of a child than the head of an old ape is like that
+of a man. He holds that the likeness of the skull of a very young ape
+is so great that there must be a family relationship. He believes that
+some differentiation, some favorable variation, must occur in the body
+of the mother and so a somewhat higher skull is transmitted to the
+offspring and is perpetuated. Concerning which Kohlbrugge remarks that
+‘thus the first men were developed, not from the adult, but from the
+embryonic forms of the anthropoids whose more favorable form of skull
+they managed to preserve in further growth.’ ... Schwalbe makes the
+telling criticism of these views of Kollmann that much the same thing
+might be said of the heads of embryonic animals in general that is said
+of those of apes, and that thus mammals might be said to have come from
+a more man-like ancestor.” (_Op. cit._, pp. 186, 187.) All of which
+goes to show that the “biogenetic law” is more misleading than helpful
+in settling the question of human phylogeny.
+
+
+                        § 3. Rudimentary Organs
+
+Darwin attached great importance to the existence in man of so-called
+rudimentary organs, which he regarded as convincing evidence of man’s
+descent from the lower forms of animal life. Nineteenth century
+science, being ignorant of the functional purpose served by many
+organs, arbitrarily pronounced them to be useless organs, and chose,
+in consequence, to regard them all as the atrophied and (wholly or
+partially) functionless remnants of organs that were formerly developed
+and fully functional in remote ancestors of the race. Darwin borrowed
+this argument from Lamarck. It may be stated thus: Undeveloped and
+functionless organs are atrophied organs. But atrophy is the result of
+disuse. Now disuse presupposes former use. Consequently, rudimentary
+organs were at one time developed and functioning, viz. in the remote
+ancestors of the race. Since, therefore, these selfsame organs are
+developed and functional in the lower forms of life, it follows that
+the higher forms, in which these organs are reduced and functionless,
+are descended from forms similar to those in which said organs are
+developed and fully functional.
+
+This argument, however, fairly bristles with assumptions that are not
+only wholly unwarranted, but utterly at variance with actual facts.
+In the first place, it wrongly assumes that all reduced organs are
+functionless, and, conversely, that all functionless organs are
+atrophied or reduced. Facts, however, prove the contrary; for we find
+frequent instances of reduced organs which function, and, _vice versa_,
+of well-developed organs which are functionless. The tail, for example,
+in cats, dogs, and certain Catarrhine monkeys, though it discharges
+neither the prehensile function that makes it useful in the Platyrrhine
+monkey, nor the protective function that makes it useful to horses and
+cattle in warding off flies, is, nevertheless, despite its inutility
+or absence of function, a quite fully developed organ. Conversely, the
+reduced or undeveloped fin-like wings of the penguin are by no means
+functionless, since they enable this bird to swim through the water
+with great facility.
+
+To save his argument from this antagonism of the facts, Darwin resorts
+to the ingenious expedient of distinguishing between _rudimentary_
+organs and _nascent_ organs. Rudimentary organs are undeveloped organs,
+which are wholly, or partially, useless. They have had a past, but have
+no future. Nascent organs, on the contrary, are undeveloped organs,
+which “are of high service to their possessors” (“Descent of Man,”
+ch. I, p. 28, 2nd ed.). They “are capable of further development”
+(_ibidem_), and have, therefore, a future before them. He gives the
+following examples of rudimentary organs: “Rudimentary organs ...
+are either quite useless, such as teeth which never cut through the
+gums, or almost useless, such as the wings of an ostrich, which serve
+merely as sails.” (“Origin of Species,” 6th ed., ch. XIV, p. 469.)
+As an example of a nascent organ, he gives the mammary glands of the
+oviparous Duckbill: “The mammary glands of the Ornithorhynchus may be
+considered, in comparison with the udders of a cow, as in a nascent
+condition.” (_Op. cit._, ch. XIV, p. 470.)
+
+Darwin admits that it is hard to apply this distinction in the
+concrete: “It is, however, often difficult to distinguish between
+rudimentary and nascent organs; for we can judge only by analogy
+whether a part is capable of further development, in which case alone
+it deserves to be called nascent.” (_Op. cit._, ch. XIV, p. 469.)
+For Darwin “judging by analogy” meant judging on the assumption that
+evolution has really taken place; for he describes rudimentary organs
+as being “of such slight service that we can hardly suppose that they
+were developed under the conditions which now exist.” (“Descent of
+Man,” ch. I, p. 29.)
+
+He is somewhat perplexed about applying this distinction to the
+penguin: “The wing of the penguin,” he admits, “is of high service,
+acting as a fin; it may, therefore, represent the nascent state: not
+that I believe this to be the case; it is more probably a reduced
+organ, modified for a new function.” (“Origin of Species,” 6th ed., ch.
+XIV, pp. 469, 470.) In other words, there is scarcely any objective
+consideration by which the validity of this distinction can be checked
+up in practice. Like homology and convergence, like palingenesis and
+cænogensis, the distinction between rudimentary and nascent organs is
+a convenient device, which can be arbitrarily manipulated according to
+the necessities of a preconceived theory. It is “scientific” sanction
+for the privilege of blowing hot and cold with the same breath.
+
+The assumption that atrophy and reduction are the inevitable
+consequence of disuse, or diminution of use, in so far as this
+decreases the flow of nourishing blood to unexercised parts, is
+certainly erroneous. Yet Darwin made it the premise of his argument
+from so-called rudimentary organs. “The term ‘disuse’ does not relate,”
+he informs us, “merely to lessened action of muscles, but includes a
+diminished flow of blood to the part or organ, from being subjected
+to fewer alternations of pressure, or from being in any way less
+habitually active.” (“Origin of Species,” 6th ed., p. 469.) As a matter
+of fact, however, we have many instances in which use has failed to
+develop and disuse to reduce organs in certain types of animals. As
+an example in point, we may cite the case of right-handedness among
+human beings. From time immemorial, the generality of mankind have
+consistently used the right hand in preference to the left, without
+any atrophy or reduction of the left hand, or over-development of the
+right hand, resulting from this racial practice. “The superiority of
+one hand,” says G. Elliot Smith, “is as old as mankind.” (Smithson.
+Inst. Rpt. for 1912, p. 570.) It is true that only about 6,000 years
+of human existence are known to history, but, if one accepts the most
+conservative estimates of glaciologists, man has had a much longer
+prehistory, the lowest estimates for the age of man being approximately
+30,000 years. Thus W. J. Sollas tells us that the Glacial period, in
+which man first appeared, came to an end about 7,000 years ago, and
+that the men buried at Chapelle-aux-Saints in France lived about 25,000
+years ago. His figures agree with those of C. F. Wright, who bases
+his calculations on the Niagara Gorge. The Niagara River is one of
+the postglacial streams, and the time required to cut its gorge has
+been calculated as 7,000 years. Gerard De Geer, the Swedish scientist,
+gives 20,000 years ago as the end of glacial and the commencement of
+recent or postglacial time. He bases his estimates on the sediments of
+the Yoldia Sea in Sweden. His method consists in the actual counting
+of certain seasonally-laminated clay layers, presumably left behind
+by the receding ice sheet of the continental glacier. The melting is
+registered by annual deposition, in which the thinner layers of finer
+sand from the winter flows alternate with thicker layers of coarser
+material from the summer flows. In warm years, the layers are thicker,
+in colder years they are thinner, so that these laminated Pleistocene
+clays constitute a thermographic as well as a chronological record. De
+Geer began his study of Pleistocene clays in 1878, and in 1920 he led
+an expedition to the United States, for the purpose of extending his
+researches. (Cf. _Science_, Sept. 24, 1920, pp. 284-286.) At that time,
+he claimed to have worked out the chronology of the past 12,000 years.
+His figure of 20,000 years for postglacial time, while very displeasing
+to that reckless foe of scientific caution and conservatism, Henry
+Fairfield Osborn, tallies very well with the estimates of Sollas and
+Wright. H. Obermaier, basing his computation on Croll’s theory that
+glaciation is caused by variations in the eccentricity of the earth’s
+orbit about the sun, which would bring about protracted winters in the
+hemisphere having winter, when the earth was farthest from the sun
+(with consequent accumulation of ice), gives 30,000 years ago as the
+date of the first appearance of man on earth. Father Hugues Obermaier,
+it may be noted, like Abbé Henri Breuil, is one of the foremost
+authorities on the subject of prehistoric Man. Both are Catholic
+priests.
+
+All such computations of the age of man are, of course, uncertain and
+theoretical. Evolutionists calculate it in hundreds of thousands,
+and even millions, of years. After giving such a table of recklessly
+tremendous figures, Osborn has the hypocritical meticulosity to add
+that, for the sake of _precision_ (save the mark!) the nineteen hundred
+and some odd years of the Christian era should be added to his figures.
+But, even according to the most conservative scientific estimates,
+as we have seen, man is said to have been in existence for 30,000
+years, and the prevalence of right-handedness among men is as old as
+the human race. One would expect, then, to find modern man equipped
+with a gigantic right arm and a dwarfed left arm. In other words, man
+should exhibit a condition comparable to that of a lobster, which has
+one large and one small chela. Yet, in spite of the fact that the
+comparative inaction of the human left hand is supposed to have endured
+throughout a period of, at least, 30,000 years, this state of affairs
+has not resulted in the faintest trace of atrophy or retrogression.
+Bones, muscles, tendons, ligaments, nerves, blood vessels, and all
+parts are of equal size in both arms and both hands. Excessive exercise
+may overdevelop the musculature of the right arm, but this is an
+individual and acquired adaptation, which is never transmitted to
+the offspring, _e.g._ the child of a blacksmith does not inherit the
+muscular hypertrophy of his father. Disuse, therefore, has not the
+efficacy which Lamarck and Darwin ascribed to it.
+
+In fine, it must be recognized, once for all, that organisms are
+not-molded on a Lamarckian basis of use, nor yet on a Darwinian
+basis of selected utility. Expediency, in other words, is not the
+sole governing principle of the organic world. Neither instinctive
+habitude nor the struggle for existence succeeds in forcing structural
+adaptation of a predictable nature. Animals with different organic
+structure have the same instincts, _e.g._ monkeys with, and without,
+prehensile tails alike dwell in trees; while animals having the same
+organic structure may have different instincts, _e.g._ the rabbit,
+which burrows, and the hare, which does not, are practically identical
+in anatomical structure. Again, some animals are highly specialized for
+a function, which other animals perform without specialized organs, as
+is instanced in the case of moles, which possess a special burrowing
+apparatus, and prairie-dogs, which burrow without a specialized
+apparatus. Any system of evolution, which ignores the internal or
+hereditary factors of organic life and strives to explain all in terms
+of the environmental factors, encounters an insuperable obstacle in
+this remorseless resistance of conflicting facts.
+
+Another flaw in the Darwinian argument from rudimentary organs is
+that it confounds, in many cases, _apparent_, with _real_ inutility
+(or absence of function). Darwin and his followers frequently argued
+out of their ignorance, and falsely concluded that an organ was
+destitute of a function, merely because _they_ had failed to discover
+its utility. Large numbers, accordingly, of highly serviceable organs
+were catalogued as vestigial or rudimentary, simply because nineteenth
+century science did not comprehend their indubitable utility. With the
+advance of present-day physiology, this list of “useless organs” is
+being rapidly depleted, so that the scientific days of the rudimentary
+organ appear to be numbered. At any rate, in arbitrarily pronouncing
+many important and functioning organs to be useless vestiges of a
+former stage in the history of the race, the Darwinians were not the
+friends of Science, but rather its reactionary enemies, inasmuch as
+they sought to discourage further investigation by their dogmatic
+decision that there was no function to be found. In so doing, however,
+they were merely exploiting the ignorance of their times in the
+interest of a preconceived theory, which whetted their appetite for
+discovering, at all costs, the presence in man of functionless organs.
+
+Their anxiety in this direction led them to consider the whole group
+of organs constituting a most important regulatory and coördinative
+system in man and other vertebrates as so many useless vestigial
+organs. This system is called the _cryptorhetic system_ and is made of
+internally-secreting, ductless glands, now called _endocrine glands_.
+These glands generate and instill into the blood stream certain
+chemical substances called _hormones_, which, diffusing in the blood,
+produce immediate stimulatory, and remote metabolic effects on special
+organs distant from the endocrine gland, in which the particular
+hormone is elaborated. As examples of such endocrine glands, we may
+mention the pineal gland (epiphysis), the pituitary body (hypophysis),
+the thyroid glands, the parathyroids, the islelets of Langerhans, the
+adrenal bodies (suprarenal capsules), and the interstitial cells of the
+gonads. The importance of these alleged useless organs is now known to
+be paramount. Death, for instance, will immediately ensue in man and
+other animals, upon extirpation of the adrenal bodies.
+
+The late Robert Wiedersheim, it will be remembered, declared the
+pineal gland or epiphysis to be the surviving vestige of a “third
+eye” inherited from a former ancestor, in whom it opened between the
+parietal bones of the skull, like the median or _pineal eye_ of certain
+lizards, the socket of which is the parietal foramen formed in the
+interparietal suture. If the argument is based on homology alone,
+then the coincidence in position between the human epiphysis and the
+median optic nerve of the lizards in question has the ordinary force
+of the evolutionary argument from homology. But when one attempts to
+reduce the epiphysis to the status of a useless vestigial rudiment,
+he is in open conflict with facts; for the pineal body is, in reality,
+an endocrine gland generating and dispersing a hormone, which is
+very important for the regulation of growth in general and of sexual
+development in particular. Hence this tiny organ in the diencephalic
+roof, no larger than a grain of wheat, is not a functionless rudiment,
+but an important functioning organ of the cryptorhetic system. We have
+no ground, therefore, on this score for inferring that our pineal gland
+functioned in former ancestors as a median eye comparable to that of
+the cyclops Polyphemus of Homeric fame.
+
+In like manner, the pituitary body or hypophysis, which in man is a
+small organ about the size of a cherry, situated at the base of the
+brain, buried in the floor of the skull, and lying just behind the
+optic chiasma, was formerly rated as a rudimentary organ. It was, in
+fact, regarded as the vestigial remnant of a former connection between
+the neural and alimentary canals, reminiscent of the invertebrate
+stage. “The phylogenetic explanation of this organ generally accepted,”
+says Albert P. Mathews, “is that formerly the neural canal connected
+at this point with the alimentary canal. A probable and almost the
+only explanation of this, though an explanation almost universally
+rejected by zoölogists, is that of Gaskell, who has maintained that
+the vertebrate alimentary canal is a new structure, and that the old
+invertebrate canal is the present neural canal. The infundibulum,
+on this view, would correspond to the old invertebrate œsophagus,
+the ventricle of the thalamus to the invertebrate stomach, and the
+canal originally connected posteriorly with the anus. The anterior
+lobe of the pituitary body could then correspond to some glandular
+adjunct of the invertebrate canal, and the nervous part to a portion
+of the original circumœsophageal nervous ring of the invertebrates.”
+(“Physiological Chemistry,” 2nd ed., 1916, pp. 641, 642.)
+
+This elaborate piece of evolutionary contortion calls for no comment
+here. We are only interested in the fact that this wild and weird
+speculation was originally inspired by the false assumption that
+the hypophysis was a functionless organ. As a matter of fact, it
+is the source of two important hormones. The one generated in its
+anterior lobe is _tethelin_, a metabolic hormone, which promotes the
+growth of the body in general and of the bony tissue in particular.
+Hypertrophy and overfunction of this gland produces giantism, or
+acromegaly (enlargement of hands, feet, and skull), while atrophy and
+underfunction of the anterior lobe results in infantilism, acromikria
+(diminution of extremities, _i. e._ hands, feet, head), obesity, and
+genital dystrophy (_i. e._ suppression of secondary sexual characters).
+The posterior lobe of the pituitary body constitutes, with the _pars
+intermedia_, a second endocrine gland, which generates a stimulatory
+hormone called _pituitrin_. This hormone stimulates unstriated muscle
+to contract, and thereby regulates the discharge of secretions from
+various glands of the body, _e. g._ the mammary glands, bladder,
+etc. Hence the hypophysis, far from being a useless organ, is an
+indispensable one. Moreover, it is an integral and important part of
+the cryptorhetic system.
+
+The same story may be repeated of the thyroid glands. These consist
+of two lobes located on either side of the windpipe, just below the
+larynx (Adam’s apple), and joined together across the windpipe by a
+narrow band or isthmus of their own substance. Gaskell homologized
+them with a gland in scorpions, and Mathew says that, if his surmise
+is correct, “the thyroid represents an accessory sexual organ of the
+invertebrate.” (_Op. cit._, p. 654.) They are, however, endocrine
+glands, that generate a hormone known as _thyroxin_, which regulates
+the body-temperature, growth of the body in general, and of the nervous
+system in particular, etc., etc. Atrophy or extirpation of these glands
+causes cretinism in the young and myxoedema in adults. Without a
+sufficient supply of this hormone, the normal exercise of mental powers
+in human beings is impossible. The organ, therefore, is far from being
+a useless vestige of what was formerly useful.
+
+George Howard Parker, the Zoölogist of Harvard, sums up the case
+against the Darwinian interpretation of the endocrine glands as
+follows: “The extent to which hormones control the body is only just
+beginning to be appreciated. For a long time anatomists have recognized
+in the higher animals, including man, a number of so-called ductless
+glands, such as the thyroid gland, the pineal gland, the hypophysis,
+the adrenal bodies, and so forth. These have often been passed over as
+unimportant functionless organs whose presence was to be explained as
+an inheritance from some remote ancestor. But such a conception is far
+from correct. If the thyroids are removed from a dog, death follows in
+from one to four weeks. If the adrenal bodies are excised, the animal
+dies in from two to three days. Such results show beyond doubt that at
+least some of these organs are of vital importance, and more recent
+studies have demonstrated that most of them produce substances which
+have all the properties of hormones.” (“Biology and Social Problems,”
+1914, pp. 43, 44.)
+
+Even the _vermiform appendix_ of the cæcum, which since Darwin’s time
+has served as a classic example of a rudimentary organ in man, is, in
+reality, not a functionless organ. Darwin, however, was of opinion
+that it was not only useless, but positively harmful. “With respect to
+the alimentary canal,” he says, “I have met with an account of only a
+single rudiment, namely, the vermiform appendage of the cæcum. ... Not
+only is it useless, but it is sometimes the cause of death, of which
+fact I have lately heard two instances. This is due to small hard
+bodies, such as seeds, entering the passage and causing inflammation.”
+(“Descent of Man,” 2nd ed., ch. I, pp. 39, 40.) The idea that seeds
+cause appendicitis is, of course, an exploded superstition, the hard
+bodies sometimes found in the appendix being fecal concretions and not
+seeds—“The old idea,” says Dr. John B. Deaver, “that foreign bodies,
+such as grape seeds, are the cause of the disease, has been disproved.”
+(Encycl. Americana, vol. 2, p. 76.) What is more germane to the point
+at issue, however, is that Darwin erred in denying the utility of the
+vermiform appendix. For, although this organ does not discharge in man
+the important function which its homologue discharges in grain-eating
+birds and also in herbivorous mammals, it subserves the secondary
+function of lubricating the intestines by means of a secretion from its
+muciparous glands.
+
+Darwin gives the _semilunar fold_ as another instance of a vestigial
+organ, claiming that it is a persistent rudiment of a former third
+eyelid or _membrana nictitans_, such as we find in birds. “The
+nictitating membrane, or third eyelid,” he says, “with its accessory
+muscles and other structures, is especially well developed in birds,
+and is of much functional importance to them, as it can be rapidly
+drawn across the whole eyeball. It is found in some reptiles and
+amphibians, and in certain fishes as in sharks. It is fairly well
+developed in the two lower divisions of the mammalian series, namely,
+in the monotremata and marsupials, and in some higher mammals, as in
+the walrus. But in man, the quadrumana, and most other mammals, it
+exists, as is admitted by all anatomists, as a mere rudiment, called
+the semilunar fold.” (_Op. cit._, ch. I, pp. 35, 36.) Here Darwin is
+certainly wrong about his facts; for the so-called third eyelid is
+not well developed in the two lower divisions of the mammalian series
+(_i.e._ the monotremes and the marsupials) nor in any other mammalian
+type. “With but few exceptions,” says Remy Perrier, “the third eyelid
+is not so complete as among the birds; (in the mammals) it never
+covers the entire eye. For the rest, it is not really perceptible
+except in certain types, like the dog, the ruminants, and, still more
+so, the horse. In the rest (of the mammals) it is less developed.”
+(“Elements d’anatomie comparée,” Paris, 1893, p. 1137.) Moreover,
+Darwin’s suggestion leaves us at sea as to the ancestor, from whom
+our “rudimentary third eyelid” has been inherited. His mention of
+birds as having a well developed third eyelid is not very helpful,
+because all evolutionists agree in excluding the birds from our line of
+descent. The reptiles are more promising candidates for the position
+of ancestors, but, as no trace of a third eyelid could possibly be
+left behind in the imperfect record of the fossiliferous rocks (soft
+parts like this having but slight chance of preservation), we do not
+really _know_ whether the palæozoic reptiles possessed this particular
+feature, or not. Nor can we argue from analogy and induction, because
+not _all_ modern reptiles are equipped with third eyelids. Hence the
+particular group of palæozoic reptiles, which are supposed to have been
+our progenitors, may not have possessed any third eyelid to bequeath to
+us in the reduced and rudimentary form of the plica semilunaris. If it
+be replied, that they _must_ have had this feature, because otherwise
+we would have no ancestor from whom we could inherit our semilunar
+fold, it is obvious that such argumentation assumes the very point
+which it ought to prove, namely: the actuality of evolution. Rudiments
+are supposed to be a proof for evolution, and not, _vice versa_,
+evolution a proof for rudiments.
+
+Finally, the basic assumption of Darwin that the semilunar fold is
+destitute of function is incorrect; for this crescent-shaped fold
+situated in the inner or nasal corner of the eye of man and other
+mammals serves to regulate the flow of the lubricating lacrimal fluid
+(which we call tears). True this function is secondary compared with
+the more important function discharged by the nictitating membrane in
+birds. In the latter, the third eyelid is a pearly-white (sometimes
+transparent) membrane placed internal to the real eyelids, on the
+inner side of the eye, over whose surface it can be drawn like a
+curtain to shield the organ from excessive light, or irritating dust;
+nevertheless, the regulation of the flow of lacrimal humor is a real
+function, and it is therefore entirely false to speak of the semilunar
+fold as a functionless rudiment.
+
+The _coccyx_ is likewise cited by Darwin as an example of an inherited
+rudiment in man. “In man,” he says, “the os coccyx, together with
+certain other vertebræ hereafter to be described, though functionless
+as a tail, plainly represents this part in other vertebrate animals.”
+(_Op. cit._, ch. I, p. 42.) That it serves no purpose _as a tail_,
+may be readily admitted, but that it serves no purpose _whatever_, is
+quite another matter. As a matter of fact, it serves for the attachment
+of several small muscles, whose functioning would be impossible in the
+absence of this bone. Darwin himself concedes this; for he confesses
+that the four vertebræ of the coccyx “are furnished with some small
+muscles.” (_Ibidem._) We may, therefore, admit the homology between the
+human coccyx and the tails of other vertebrates, without being forced
+to regard the latter as a useless vestigial organ. It may be objected
+that the attachment of these muscles might have been provided for in
+a manner more in harmony with our ideas of symmetry. To this we reply
+that Helmholtz criticized the human eye for similar reasons, when he
+said that he would remand to his workshop for correction an optical
+instrument so flawed with defects as the human eye. But, after all,
+it was by the use of these selfsame imperfect eyes that Helmholtz was
+enabled to detect the flaws of which he complained. When man shall
+have fully fathomed the difficulties and obstructions with which
+organic morphogeny has to contend in performing its wonderful work,
+and shall have arrived at an elementary knowledge of the general laws
+of morphogenetic mechanics, he will be more inclined to admire than
+to criticize. It is a mistake to imagine that the finite works of the
+Creator must be perfect from _every_ viewpoint. It suffices that they
+are perfect with respect to the particular _purpose_ which they serve,
+and this purpose must not be narrowly estimated from the standpoint of
+the created work itself, but from that of its position in the universal
+scheme of creation. All such partial views as the Helmholtzian one are
+false views.
+
+Another consideration which Darwin and his partisans have failed
+to take into account is the possibility of an _ontogenetic_, as
+well as a phylogenetic, explanation of rudimentary organs. That is
+to say, rudimentary organs might, so far as _a priori_ reasons are
+concerned, be the now useless vestiges of organs formerly developed
+and functional _in the fœtus_, and need not necessarily be interpreted
+as traces of organs that functioned formerly in remote racial
+ancestors. That there should be such things as special fœtal organs,
+which atrophy in later adult life, is a possibility that ought not to
+excite surprise. During its uterine existence, the fœtus is subject
+to peculiar conditions of life, very different from those which
+prevail in the case of adult organisms—_e.g._ respiration and the
+digestive process are suspended, and there is a totally different kind
+of circulation. What, then, more natural than that the fœtus should
+require special organs to adapt it to these special conditions of
+uterine life? Such organs, while useful and functional in the earlier
+stages of embryonic development, will, so soon as birth and maturity
+introduce new conditions of life, become superfluous, and therefore
+doomed, in the interest of organic economy, to ultimate atrophy and
+degeneration, until nothing is left of them but vestigial remnants.
+
+The thymus may be cited as a probable instance of such an organ.
+This organ, which is located in front of the heart and behind the
+breastbone, in the region between the two lungs, consists, at the
+period of its greatest development in man, of a two-lobed structure,
+5 cm. long and 4 cm. wide, with a thickness of 6 mm. and a maximum
+weight of 35 grams. It is supplied with numerous lymphoid cells, which
+are aggregated to form lymphoid follicles (_cf._ Gray’s “Anatomy,”
+20th ed., 1918, pp. 1273, 1274; Burton-Opitz’ “Physiology,” 1920,
+p. 964). This organ is a transitory one, well developed at birth,
+but degenerating, according to some authors, after the second year
+of life (_cf._ Starling’s “Physiology,” 3rd ed., 1920, p. 1245);
+according to others, however, not until the period of full maturity,
+namely, puberty. (_Cf._ Gray’s “Anatomy,” _loc. cit._) W. H. Howell
+cites both opinions, without venturing to decide the matter (_cf._
+his “Physiology,” 8th ed., 1921, pp. 869, 870). It was at one time
+classified as a rudimentary or functionless organ. Later on, however,
+it was thought by certain observers to be an endocrine gland, yielding
+a secretion important for the growth of young mammals. This took it
+out of the class of useless vestigial organs, but the recent discovery
+that it is indispensable to birds as furnishing a secretion necessary
+for the formation of the tertiary envelopes (egg membrane and shell)
+of their eggs, has tended to revive the idea of its being a vestigial
+organ inherited from the lower vertebrates.
+
+Thus Dr. Oscar Riddle, while admitting that the thymus gland in
+man has some influence on the growth of the bones, contends that
+the newly-discovered function of this gland in birds is much more
+important, since without it none of the vertebrates, excepting mammals,
+could reproduce their young. “It thus becomes clear,” he says, “that
+though the thymus is almost without use in the human being, it is in
+fact a sort of ‘mother of the race.’ The higher animals could not have
+come into existence without it. For even while our ancestors lived in
+the water, it was the thymus of these ancestors which made possible the
+production of the egg-envelopes within which the young were cradled and
+protected until they were ready for an independent life.” (_Science_,
+Dec. 28, 1923, Suppl. XIII, XIV.)
+
+This conclusion, however, is far too hasty. For, even if we disregard
+as negligible the minor function, that Riddle assigns to the thymus
+in man, there remains another possibility, which H. H. Wilder takes
+into account, namely, that the thymus may, in certain cases, be
+a temporary substitute for the lymphatic vessels. Having called
+attention to certain determinate channels found in some of the lower
+vertebrates, he tells us that these “can well be utilized as adjuncts
+of the lymphatic system until their function can be supplied by
+definite lymphatic vessels.” He then resumes his discussion of the
+lymph nodules in mammals as follows: “Aside from the solitary and
+aggregated nodules, both of which appear to be centers of origin of
+lymphocytes, there are numerous other places in which the cellular
+constituents of the blood are developed. Many of these, as in the case
+of the aggregated nodules of the intestines, are developed within
+the wall of the alimentary canal and are therefore endodermic in
+origin. These include the tonsils, the _thymus_, and thyroid glands,
+the associated epithelial bodies, and, perhaps, the spleen.... In
+their function as formative nidi for the cellular elements of the
+blood these organs form physiologically important auxiliaries to the
+vascular system as a whole, but belong elsewhere in their anatomical
+developmental affinities.” (“History of the Human Body,” 2nd ed., 1923,
+p. 395—italics mine.)
+
+This being the case, it is much more reasonable to interpret the thymus
+as an ontogenetic (embryonic), rather than a phylogenetic (racial)
+rudiment. It has been observed that, in the case of reptiles which
+lack definite lymphatic glands (which function in man as formative
+centers of lymphocytes or white blood corpuscles), the thymus is
+extraordinarily developed and abounds in lymphoid cells. It has also
+been observed that the formation of lymphocytes in the lymphatic
+glands is regulated by the digestive process; for, after digestion,
+the activity of these glands increases and the formation of leucocytes
+is accelerated. Since, then, the lymphatic glands appear to require
+the stimulus of the digestive process to incite them to action, it
+is clear that in the fœtus, which lacks the digestive process, the
+lymphatic glands will not be stimulated to action, and that the task
+of furnishing lymphocytes will devolve upon the thymus. After birth,
+the digestive process commences and the lymphatic glands become active
+in response to this stimulus. As the function of forming lymphocytes
+is transferred from the thymus to the lymphatic glands, the former is
+gradually deprived of its importance, and, in the interest of organic
+economy, it begins to atrophy, until, at the end of the child’s second
+year, or, at latest, when the child has reached sexual maturity,
+nothing but a reduced vestige remains of this once functional organ.
+“The thymus,” says Starling, “forms two large masses in the anterior
+mediastinum which in man grow up to the second year of life and then
+rapidly diminish, so that only traces are to be found at puberty. It
+contains a large amount of lymphatic tissue and is therefore often
+associated with the lymphatic glands as the seat of the formation of
+lymph corpuscles.... In certain cases of arrested development or of
+general weakness in young people, the thymus has been found to be
+persistent.” (“Physiology,” 3rd ed., 1920, p. 1245.)
+
+In the light of these facts, it is utterly unreasonable to regard the
+thymus as a practically useless rudiment inherited from the lower
+vertebrates. “That they have an important function in the young
+animal,” says Albert Mathews, “can hardly be doubted.” (“Physiological
+Chemistry,” 1916, p. 675.) In fact, the peculiar nature of their
+development in the young and their atrophy in the adult forces such a
+conclusion upon us. The thymus, therefore, is, in all probability, an
+ontogenetic, and not a phylogenetic, rudiment. It might conceivably be
+exploited as a biogenetic recapitulation of a reptilian stage in man,
+just as the so-called fish-kidney of the human embryo is exploited for
+evolutionary interpretation. The principles by which such a view may be
+refuted have been given previously. But, in any case, it is folly to
+interpret the thymus as a rudiment in the racial, rather than embryonic
+sense. Moreover, the possibility of an ontogenetic interpretation
+of rudiments must not be restricted to the thymus, but must be
+accepted as a general and legitimate alternative for the phylogenetic
+interpretation.
+
+In the last place, it remains for us to consider the Darwinian
+argument, based upon so-called rudimentary organs, from the standpoint
+of the science of genetics. Darwin, as we have remarked elsewhere,
+was ignorant of the non-inheritability of those inconstant individual
+variations now known as fluctuations. He was somewhat perplexed, when
+Professor L. Meyer pointed out the extreme variability in position
+of the “projecting point” on the margin of the human ear, but he
+still clung to his original contention that this “blunt point” was a
+surviving vestige of the apex of the pointed ears found in donkeys and
+horses, etc. “Nevertheless,” he says, “in some cases my original view,
+that the points are vestiges of the tips of formerly erect and pointed
+ears, still seems to be probable.” (“Descent of Man,” 2nd ed., ch. I,
+p. 34.) Darwin, as Ranke points out, was mistaken in homologizing his
+famous “tubercule” with the apex of bestial ears. “The acute extremity
+of the pointed animal ear,” says this author, “does not correspond to
+this prominence designated by Darwin, but to the vertex of the helix.”
+(“Der Mensch,” II, p. 39.) The feature in question is, moreover, a mere
+fluctuation due to the degree of development attained by the cartilage:
+hence its variability in different human beings. In very extreme cases,
+fluctuations of this sort, may be important enough to constitute an
+_anomaly_, and, as anomalies are often interpreted as atavisms and
+reversions to a primitive type, it may be well to advert to this
+subject here.
+
+Dwight has an excellent chapter on anatomical variations and anomalies.
+(_Cf._ “Thoughts of a Catholic Anatomist,” 1911, ch. IX.) He tells us
+that “a thigh bone a little more bent, an ear a little more pointed,
+a nose a little more projecting ... a little more or a little less
+of anything you please—this is variation.” “An anatomical anomaly,”
+he says, “is some peculiarity of any part of the body which cannot
+be expressed in terms of more or less, but is distinctly new.” He
+divides the latter into two classes, namely: those which consist in the
+repetition of one or more elements in a series, _e.g._ the occurrence
+of supernumerary legs in an insect, and those which consist in the
+suppression of one or more elements in a series, _e.g._ the occurrence
+of eleven pairs of ribs in a man. Variations and anomalies are
+fluctuational or mutational, according as they are based on changes in
+the soma alone, or on changes in the germ plasm. Variations, however,
+are more likely to be non-inheritable fluctuations, and anomalies to
+be inheritable mutations. We shall speak of the latter presently. In
+the meantime we may note that the main trouble with interpreting these
+anatomical irregularities as “reversive” or “atavistic” is that they
+would connect man with all sorts of quite impossible lines of descent.
+“In my early days of anatomy,” says Dwight, “I thought that I must
+be very ignorant, because I could not understand how the occasional
+appearance in man of a peculiarity of some animal outside of any
+conceivable line of descent could be called a reversion, as it soon
+became the custom to call it.... It was only later that I grasped the
+fact that the reason I could not understand these things was that there
+was nothing to understand. It was sham science from beginning to end.”
+(_Op. cit._, p. 209.) By way of anomaly, almost any human peculiarity
+can occur in animals, and, conversely, any bestial peculiarity in
+man, but the resemblance to man of an animal outside of the alleged
+line of human descent represents a grave difficulty for the theory of
+evolution, and not an argument in its favor.
+
+The human body is certainly not a _mosaic of heterogenetic organs_,
+_i.e._ a complex of structures inherited from any and every sort of
+animal, whether extant or extinct; for such a vast number and variety
+of ancestors could not possibly have coöperated to produce man. Prof.
+D. Carazzi, in his Address of Inauguration in the Chair of Zoölogy
+and Comparative Anatomy at the University of Padua, Jan. 20, 1906,
+excoriated with scathing irony the sham Darwinian science, of which
+Dwight complains. “But even in the serious works of pure science,” says
+the Italian zoölogist, “we read, for example, that the over-development
+of the postauricular muscles sometimes observed in man is an atavistic
+reminiscence of the muscles of the helix of the ear of the horse and
+the ass. And so far so good, because it gives evidence of great modesty
+in recognizing as our ancestors those well-deserving and long-eared
+quadrupeds. But this is not all; there appear at times in a woman one
+or more anomalous mammary glands below the pectoral ones; and here,
+too, they insist on explaining the anomaly as a reversion to type,
+that is, as an atavistic reminiscence of the numerous mammary glands
+possessed by different lower mammals; the bitch, for example....
+
+“But the supernumerary mammary glands are not a reversion to type;
+anomalous mammary glands may appear upon the median line, upon
+the deltoid, and even upon the knee, regions far-distant from the
+‘milk-line.’ So with regard to the postauricular muscles we must
+say that according to the laws of Darwinism the cases of anomalous
+development are not interpretable as reversions to type. All these
+features are not phylogenetic reminiscences, but anomalies of
+development, of such a nature that, if we should wish to make use of
+them for establishing the line of human descent, we would have to say
+that man descends from the swine, from the solipeds and even from the
+cetaceans, returning, namely, to the old conception of lineal descent,
+that is, to Buffon’s idea of the concatenation of creatures.” (“Teorie
+e critiche nella moderna biologia,” 1906.)
+
+Darwin’s doctrine, however, on the origin and significance of
+rudimentary organs has been damaged by genetic analysis in a yet
+more serious fashion. In fact, with the discovery that anomalous
+_suppression_ and anomalous _duplication_ of organs may result from
+_factorial mutation_, this Darwinian conception received what is
+tantamount to its deathblow. Darwin, it will be remembered, was
+convinced that the regression of organs was brought about by “increased
+disuse controlled by natural selection.” (Cf. “Origin of Species,” 6th
+ed., ch. V.) Such phenomena, he thought, as the suppression of wings
+in the Apteryx and the reduction of wings in running birds, arose from
+their “inhabiting ocean islands,” where they “have not been exposed to
+the attacks of beasts, and consequently lost the power of using their
+wings for flight.” (“Descent of Man,” 6th ed., ch. I, p. 32.) In some
+cases, he believed that disuse and natural selection had coöperated
+_ex aequo_ to produce results of this nature, _e.g._ the reduction of
+the eyes in the mole and in Ctenomys; for this reduction, he claims,
+has some selection-value, inasmuch as reduction of the eyes, adhesion
+of the lids, and covering with hair tends to protect the unused and
+useless eye against inflammation. In other cases, however, he is
+inclined to discount the idea that suppression of organs is an “effect
+of long-continued disuse,” and to regard the phenomenon as “wholly, or
+mainly, due to natural selection,” _e.g._ in the case of the wingless
+beetles of the island of Madeira. “For during successive generations,”
+he reasons, “each individual beetle which flew least, either from its
+wings having been ever so little less developed or from indolent habit,
+will have had the best chance of surviving from not being blown out
+to sea; and, on the other hand, those beetles which most readily took
+to flight would oftenest have been blown to sea, and thus destroyed.”
+In a third class of instances, however, he assigns the principal rôle
+to disuse, _e.g._ in the case of the blind animals “which inhabit
+the caves of Carniola and Kentucky, because,” as he tells us, “it is
+difficult to imagine that eyes, though useless, could be injurious
+to animals living in darkness.” Hence he concludes that, as the
+obliteration of eyes has no selection-value, under the circumstances
+prevailing in dark caves, “their loss may be attributed to disuse.”
+(Cf. “Origin of Species,” 6th ed., ch. V, pp. 128-133.)
+
+Morgan’s comment on these elaborate speculations of Darwin is very
+caustic and concise. Referring to factorial mutations, which give rise
+to races of flies having _supernumerary_ and _vestigial_ organs, he
+says: “In contrast to the last case, where a character is doubled, is
+the next one in which the eyes are lost. This change took place at a
+single step. All the flies of this stock, however, cannot be said to be
+eyeless, since many of them show pieces of eye—indeed the variation is
+so wide that the eye may even appear like a normal eye unless carefully
+examined. Formerly we were taught that eyeless animals arose in caves.
+This case shows that they may also arise suddenly in glass milk
+bottles, by a change in a single factor.
+
+“I may recall in this connection that wingless flies also arose in
+our cultures by a single mutation. We used to be told that wingless
+insects occurred on desert islands because those insects that had the
+best developed wings were blown out to sea. Whether this is true or
+not, I will not pretend to say, but at any rate wingless insects may
+also arise, not through a slow process of elimination, but at a single
+step.” (“A Critique of the Theory of Evolution,” 1916, pp. 66, 67.)
+
+In directing attention to the fact that a permanent and inheritable
+reduction of organs to the vestigial state can result from mutation,
+we do not, of course, intend to exclude the possible occurrence of
+somatic atrophy due to lack of exercise rather than to germinal change.
+Thus the blind species of animals in caves may, in some instances,
+be persistently blind, because of the persistent darkness of the
+environment in which they live, and not by reason of any inherited
+factor for blindness. Darwin gives one such instance, namely, that
+of the cave rat _Neotoma_. To test such cases, the blind animals
+would have to be bred in an illuminated environment. If, under this
+condition, they failed to develop normal eyes, the blindness would be
+due to a germinal factor, and would be inherited in an illumined, no
+less than a dark, environment.
+
+In any case, a mutation which suppresses a character is not, as we
+have seen, a specific change, but merely one of the varietal order,
+which does not result in the production of a genuine new species. The
+factorial mutant with a vestigial wing or eye belongs to the same
+species as its wild or normal parent stock. Moreover, neither disuse
+nor natural selection has the slightest power to induce mutations
+of this kind. If mutation be the cause of the blindness of cave
+animals, then their presence in such caves must be accounted for by
+supposing that they migrated thither because they found in the cave a
+most suitable environment for safety, foraging, etc. Darkness alone,
+however, could never induce germinal, but, at most, merely somatic
+blindness. The Lamarckian factor of disuse and the Darwinian factor of
+selection have been definitely discredited as agents which could bring
+about hereditarily-transmissible modifications.
+
+
+                           § 4. Fossil Links
+
+All efforts, then, to establish, by means of anatomical and
+embryological homologies, the lineal descent of man from any known
+type of monkey or ape have ended in ignominious failure. Comparative
+anatomy and embryology can, at most, only furnish grounds for extremely
+vague and indefinite speculations regarding the descent of man, but
+they can never become a basis for specific conclusions with respect
+to the phylogeny of _Homo sapiens_. Every known form of ape, whether
+extant or extinct, is, as we have seen, far too specialized in its
+adaptation to arboreal life to pass muster as a feasible ancestor. The
+only conceivable manner in which the human body could be related to
+simian stock is by way of collateral descent, and the only means of
+proving such descent is to adduce a series of intermediate fossil types
+connecting modern men and modern apes with this alleged common ancestor
+of both. “The ascent (_sic_) of man as one of the Primates,” says Henry
+Fairfield Osborn, “was parallel with that of the families of apes. Man
+has a long line of ancestry of his own, perhaps two million or more
+years in length. He is not descended from any known form of ape either
+living or fossil.” (_The Ill. London News_, Jan. 8, 1921, p. 40.)
+
+This theory of a hypothetical primate ancestor of man, which is
+supposed to have inhabited the earth during the earlier part of the
+Tertiary period, and to have presented a more man-like appearance than
+any known type of ape, was first propounded by Karl Snell in 1863. It
+was popularized at the beginning of the present century by Klaatsch,
+who saw in it a means of escape from the absurdities and perplexities
+of the theory of lineal descent—“the less,” says the latter, “an ape
+has changed from its original form, just so much the more human it
+appears.” This saying is revamped by Kohlbrugge to read: “Man comes
+from an original form much more like himself than any existing ape.”
+Kohlbrugge’s comment is as follows: “The line of descent of man thus
+receives on the side of the primates a quite different form from its
+previous-one. Such new hypotheses as those of Hubrecht and Klaatsch
+seem, therefore, fortunate for nature-philosophers, because evolution
+always failed us when we compared known forms in their details, and led
+us only to confusion. But if one works with such distant hypothetical
+ancestors, one escapes much disillusioning.” (Quoted by Dwight, _op.
+cit._, p. 195.)
+
+One thing, at any rate, is certain, namely: that we do not possess any
+fossils of this primitive “large brained, erectly walking primate,”
+who is alleged to have roamed the earth during the eocene or oligocene
+epoch. The Foxhall Man, whose culture Osborn ascribes to the Upper
+Pliocene, is far too recent, and, what is worse, far too intelligent,
+to be this Tertiary Ancestor. The _Pithecanthropus erectus_, likewise,
+is excluded for reasons which we shall presently consider. Meanwhile,
+let it be noted, that we have Osborn’s assurance for the fact that we
+are descended from a brainy and upright oligocene ancestor, as yet,
+however, undiscovered.
+
+But the situation is more hopeful, if we hark back to a still more
+remote period, whose remains are so scarce and fragmentary, as to
+eliminate the possibility of embarrassment arising from intractable
+details. “Back of this,” says Osborn, “ ... was a prehuman arboreal
+stage.” (_Loc. cit._) Here, then, we are back again in the same old rut
+of tree-climbing simian ancestry, whence we thought to have escaped
+by abandoning the theory of lineal descent; and, before we have time
+to speculate upon how we got there, Prof. Wm. Gregory of the American
+Museum is summoned by Osborn to present us with specimens of this
+prehuman arboreal stage. This expert, it would seem, favored up till
+the year 1923 the fossil jaw of the _Propliopithecus_ as representing
+the common root, whence the human race diverged, on one side, and the
+races of anthropoid apes, on the other. (Cf. Osborn’s _Museum-leaflet_
+of 1923 on “The Hall of the Age of Man,” p. 29.) On April 14, 1923,
+however, Gregory announced the deposition of _Propliopithecus_ and
+the enthronement of the jaw of _Dryopithecus_. This sudden accession
+of _Dryopithecus_ to the post of common ancestor of apes and men was
+due to the discovery by Dr. Barnum Brown of three fossil jaws of
+_Dryopithecus_ in the Miocene deposits of the Siwalik beds in northern
+India. By some rapturous coincidence, the three jaws in question happen
+to come from three successive “horizons,” and to be representative
+of just three different stages in the evolution of _Dryopithecus_.
+Doctor Gregory finds, moreover, that the patterns of the minute cracks
+and furrows on the surviving molar teeth correspond to those on the
+surface of the enamels of modern ape and human teeth. Hence, with
+that ephemeral infallibility, which is characteristic of authorities
+like Doctor Gregory, and which is proof against all discouragement
+by reason of past blunders, the one who told us but a year ago that
+the cusps of all the teeth of _Propliopithecus_ “are exactly such
+as would be expected in the common starting point for the divergent
+lines leading to the gibbons, to the higher apes, and to man” (_loc.
+cit._), now tells us that both we and the apes have inherited our teeth
+from _Dryopithecus_, who had heretofore remained neglected on the
+side-lines. In 1923, apparently, Dr. Gregory was unimpressed with the
+crown patterns of _Dryopithecus_, whose jaw he then excluded from the
+direct human line. (Cf. _Museum-leaflet_, p. 5.) Now, however, that
+the new discoveries have brought _Dryopithecus_ into the limelight,
+and, particularly because these jaws were found in _Miocene_ deposits,
+Gregory has shifted his favor from _Propliopithecus_ to _Dryopithecus_.
+(Cf. _Science_, April 25, 1924, suppl. XIII.)
+
+When palæontologists are obliged to do a _volte face_ of this sort,
+one ought not to scoff. One ought to be an optimist, and eschew above
+all the spirit of the English statesman, who, on hearing a learned
+lecture by Pearson on the question of whether Man was descended from
+hylobatic, or troglodytic stock, was guilty of the following piece
+of impatience: “I am not particularly interested in the descent of
+man ... this scientific pursuit of the dead bones of the past does
+not seem to me a very useful way of spending life. I am accustomed
+to this mode of study; learned volumes have been written in Sanscrit
+to explain the conjunction of the two vowels ‘a’ and ‘u’. It is very
+learned, very ingenious, but not very helpful.... I am not concerned
+with my genealogy so much as with my future. Our intellects can be more
+advantageously employed than in finding our diversity from the ape....
+There may be no spirit, no soul; there is no proof of their existence.
+If that is so, let us do away with shams and live like animals. If, on
+the other hand, there is a soul to be looked after, let us all strain
+our nerves to the task; there is no use in digging into the sands of
+time for the skeletons of the past; build your man for the future.”
+(Smithson. Inst. Rpt. for 1921, pp. 432, 433.) It is to be hoped,
+however, that this reactionary spirit is confined to the few, and
+that the accession of this new primitive ancestor will be hailed with
+general satisfaction. At any rate, we can wish him well, and trust that
+the fossilized jaw of _Dryopithecus_ will not lose caste so speedily as
+that of _Propliopithecus_.
+
+_Propliopithecus_, or _Dryopithecus_? Hylobatic, or troglodytic
+affinities? Such questions are scarcely the pivots on which the
+world is turned! Nevertheless, we rejoice that Doctor Gregory has
+again settled the former problem (provisorily, at least) to his own
+satisfaction. More important, however, than that of the dentition of
+_Dryopithecus_, is the crucial question of whether or not Palæontology
+is able to furnish evidence of man’s genetic continuity with this
+primitive pithecoid root. Certainly, no effort has been spared to
+procure the much desired proofs of our reputed bestial ancestry. The
+Tertiary deposits of Europe, Asia, Africa, America, and the oceanic
+islands have been diligently ransacked for fossil facts that would
+be susceptible to an evolutionary interpretation. The aprioristic
+criterion that all large-brained men are recent, and all small-brained
+men with recessive chins are necessarily ancient, has always been
+employed in evaluating the fossil evidence. Notwithstanding all
+endeavors, however, to bring about the consummation so devoutly
+desired, the facts discovered not only fail to support the theory of
+collateral descent, but actually militate against it. For assuming that
+man and the anthropoid apes constitute two distinct lines of evolution
+branching out from common Tertiary or pre-Tertiary stock, palæontology
+should be able to show numerous intermediate fossil forms, not alone
+for the lateral branch of the apes, but also, and especially, for the
+lateral line connecting modern men with the common root of the primate
+tree. But it is precisely in this latter respect that the fossil
+evidence for collateral descent fails most egregiously. Palæontology
+knows of many fossil genera and species of apes and lemurs, that might
+conceivably represent links in a genetic chain connecting modern
+monkeys with Tertiary stock, but it has yet to discover so much as a
+single fossil species, much less a fossil genus, intermediate between
+man, as we know him, and this alleged Tertiary ancestor common to apes
+and men.
+
+Not even catastrophism can be invoked to save this irremediable
+situation; for any catastrophe that would have swept away the human
+links would likewise have swept away the ape links. The presence of
+many genera and species of fossil apes, in contrast to the absence
+of any fossil genus or species of man distinct from _Homo sapiens_,
+is irreconcilable with the theory of collateral descent. Such is the
+dilemma proposed to the upholders of this theory by Wasmann, in the
+10th chapter of his “Die Moderne Biologie” (3rd edition, 1906), a
+dilemma, from which, as we shall see, their every attempt to extricate
+themselves has failed most signally.
+
+“But what,” asked Wasmann, “has palæontology to say concerning this
+question? It tells us that, up to the present, no connecting link
+between man and the ape has been found; and, indeed, according to
+the theory of Klaatsch, it is absurd to speak of a link of direct
+connection between these two forms, but it tells us much more than
+this. It shows us, on the basis of the results of the most recent
+research, that we know the genealogical tree of the various apes, a
+tree very rich in species, which extends from the present as far back
+as the hypothetical primitive form assigned to the earliest part of
+the Tertiary period; and, in fact, in Zittel’s work, “Grundzüge der
+Paläontologie” (1895), not less than thirty genera of fossil Pro-simiæ
+and eighteen genera of genuine fossil apes are enumerated, the which
+have been entombed in those strata of the earth that intervene between
+the Lower Eocene and the Alluvial epoch, but between this hypothetical
+primitive form and man of the present time we do not find a single
+connecting link. _The entire genealogical tree of man does not show so
+much as one fossil genus, or even one fossil species._” (_Op. cit._,
+italics his.) A brief consideration of the principal fossil remains, in
+which certain palæontologists profess to see evidence of a transition
+between man and the primitive pithecoid stock, will serve to verify
+Wasmann’s statement, and will reveal the fact that all the alleged
+connecting links are distinctly human, or purely simian, or merely
+mismated combinations of human and simian remains.
+
+(1) _Pithecanthropus erectus_: In 1891 Eugène Dubois, a Dutch army
+surgeon, discovered in Java, at Trinil, in the Ngawa district of
+the Madiun Residency, a calvarium (skull-cap), 2 upper molars and a
+femur, in the central part of an old river bed. The four fragments,
+however, were not all found in the same year, because the advent of
+the rainy season compelled him to suspend the work of excavation.
+“The teeth,” to quote Dubois himself, “were distant from the skull
+from one to, at most, three meters; the femur was fifteen meters (50
+feet) away.” (Smithson. Inst. Rpt. for 1898, p. 447.) Dubois judged
+the lapilli stratum, in which the bones were found, to be older than
+the Pleistocene, and older, perhaps, than the most recent zones of the
+_Pliocene_ series. “The Trinil ape-man,” says Osborn, “ ... is the
+first of the conundrums of human ancestry. Is the Trinil race prehuman
+or not?” (_Loc. cit._, p. 40.) Certainly, Lower Pleistocene, or Upper
+Pliocene represents too late a time for the appearance of the upright
+primate, whence we are said to have sprung. Even Miocene would be too
+late a date for our alleged divergence from the primitive arboreal
+stock.
+
+Of the capacity of the calvarium, Dubois says: “I found the
+above-mentioned cavity measured 550 c.cm. The cast of the cavity of
+the Neanderthal skull taken to the same plane measures 750 c.cm.”
+(_Loc. cit._, p. 450, footnote.) His first estimate of the total
+cranial capacity of _Pithecanthropus_ was 1000 c.cm., but, later on,
+when he decided to reconstruct the skull on the basis of the cranium
+of a gibbon (_Hylobates agilis_) rather than that of a chimpanzee
+(_Troglodytes niger_), he reduced his estimate of the cranial capacity
+to 900 c.cm. Recently, it is rumored, he has increased the latter
+estimate, as a sequel to his having removed by means of a dentist’s
+tool all the siliceous matter adhering to the skull-cap. As regards
+shape, the calvarium seems to resemble most closely the cranial vault
+of gibbon. This similarity, as we have seen, led Dubois to reconstruct
+the skull on hylobatic lines—“the skull of Hylobates agilis,” says
+Dubois, “ ... strikingly resembles that of Pithecanthropus.” (_Loc.
+cit._, p. 450, footnote.) The craniologist Macnamara, it is true,
+claims that the skull-cap most closely approximates the Troglodyte
+type. Speaking of the calvarium of Pithecanthropus, the latter says:
+“The cranium of an average adult male chimpanzee and the Java cranium
+are so closely related that I believe them to belong to the same family
+of animals—_i.e._ to the true apes.” (_Archiv. für Anthropologie_,
+XXVIII, 1903, pp. 349-360.) The large cranial capacity, however,
+would seem to favor Dubois’ interpretation, seeing that gibbons have,
+in proportion to their bodies, twice as large a brain as the huge
+Troglodyte apes, namely, the chimpanzee and the gorilla. The maximum
+cranial capacity for any ape is from 500 to 600 c.cm. Hence, with 900
+c.cm. of cranial capacity estimated by Dubois, the Pithecanthropus
+stands midway between the ape and the Neanderthal Man, a human
+dwarf, whose cranial capacity Huxley estimated at 1,236 c.cm. This
+consideration, however, does not of itself entitle the Pithecanthropus
+to be regarded as a connecting link between man and the anthropoid
+apes. In all such comparisons, it is the _relative_, and not the
+_absolute_, size of the brain, which is important. The elephant for
+example, has as large a brain as a man, but the elephant’s brain
+is small, in comparison to its huge body. The brain of a mouse is
+insignificant, as regards absolute size, but, considered in relation to
+the size of the mouse’s body, it is as large as, if not larger than,
+that of an elephant, and hence the elephant, for all the absolute
+magnitude of its brain, is no more “intelligent” than a mouse. As
+we have already seen, man’s brain is unique, not for its absolute
+size, but for its weight and enormous cortical surface, considered
+with reference to the comparatively small organism controlled by the
+brain in question. It is this excess in size which manifests the
+specialization of the human brain for psychic functions. The Weddas,
+a dwarf race of Ceylon, have a far smaller cranial capacity than the
+Neanderthal Man, their average cranial capacity being 960 c.cm., but
+they are _human pigmies_, whereas the Pithecanthropus, according to
+Richard Hertwig, was a _giant ape_. “The fragments,” says Hertwig,
+“were regarded by some as belonging to a connecting link between apes
+and man, _Pithecanthropus erectus Dubois_; by others they were thought
+to be the remains of genuine apes, and by others those of genuine
+men. The opinion that is most probably correct is that the fragments
+belonged to an anthropoid ape of extraordinary size and enormous
+cranial capacity.” (“Lehrbuch der Zoologie,” 7th ed.)
+
+Prof. J. H. McGregor essays to make a gradational series out of
+conjectural brain casts of a large ape, the Pithecanthropus and the
+Neanderthal Man, in the ratio of 6: 9: 12, this ratio being based
+upon the estimated cranial capacities of the skulls in question.
+In a previous chapter, we have seen that such symmetrically graded
+series have little force as an argument for common descent. In the
+present instance, however, the gradation gives a wrong impression of
+the real state of affairs. If Doctor McGregor had taken into account
+the all-important consideration of relative size, he would not have
+been able to construct this misleading series. This consideration,
+however, did not escape Dubois himself, and in his paper of Dec. 14,
+1896, before the Berlin Anthropological Society, he confessed that a
+gigantic ape of hylobatic type would have a cranial capacity close to
+that of Pithecanthropus, even if we suppose it to have been no taller
+than a man. (Cf. Smithson. Inst. Rpt. for 1898, p. 350.) The admission
+is all the more significant in view of the fact that Dubois was then
+endeavoring to exclude the possibility of regarding Pithecanthropus as
+an anthropoid ape.
+
+The teeth, according to Dubois, are unlike the teeth of either
+men or apes, but according to Virchow and Hrdlička, they are more
+ape-like than human. The femur, though unquestionably man-like, might
+conceivably belong to an ape of the gibbon type, inasmuch as the
+upright posture is more normal to the long-armed gibbon than to any
+other anthropoid ape, and its thighbone, for this reason, bears the
+closest resemblance to that of man. According to the “Text-Book of
+Zoölogy” by Parker and Haswell, the gibbon is the only ape that can
+walk erectly, which it does, not like other apes, with the fore-limbs
+used as crutches, but balanced exclusively upon its hind-limbs, with
+its long arms dangling to the ground—“The Gibbons can walk in an
+upright position without the assistance of the fore-limbs; in the
+others, though, in progression on the surface of the ground, the
+body may be held in a semi-erect position with the weight resting on
+the hind-limbs, yet the assistance of the long fore-limbs acting as
+crutches is necessary to enable the animal to swing itself along.”
+(_Op. cit._, 3rd ed., 1921, vol. II, p. 494.) The Javanese femur is
+rounder than in man, and is, in this, as well as other respects, more
+akin to the thighbone of the gibbon. “After examining hundreds of
+human femora,” says Dubois, “Manouvrier could find only two that had
+a somewhat similar shape. It is therefore a very rare form in man.
+With the gibbon a similar form normally occurs.” (_Loc. cit._, pp.
+456, 457.) Whether the thighbone really belonged to an erectly walking
+animal has not yet been definitely settled. To decide this matter, it
+would be necessary to apply the Walkhoff x-ray method, which determines
+the mode of progression from the arrangement of the bone fibers in
+frontal, or other, sections from the femur. This test, however, has
+not hitherto been made. Nor should the significance of the fact that
+the thighbone was found at a distance of some _fifty feet away_ from
+the skull-cap be overlooked, seeing that this fact destroys, once and
+for all, any possibility of _certainty_ that both belonged to the same
+animal.
+
+In conclusion, therefore, we may say that the remains of
+Pithecanthropus are so scanty, fragmentary, and doubtful, as to
+preclude a reliable verdict on their true significance. As Virchow
+pointed out, the determination of their correct taxonomic position is
+impossible, in the absence of a complete skeleton. Meanwhile, the most
+probable opinion is that they represent the remains of a giant ape of
+the hylobatic type. In other words, the Pithecanthropus belongs to the
+genealogical tree of the apes, and not to that of man. In fact, he
+has been excluded from the direct line of human descent by Schwalbe,
+Alsberg, Kollmann, Haacke, Hubrecht, Klaatsch, and all the foremost
+protagonists of the theory of collateral descent. (Cf. Dwight, _op.
+cit._, ch. VIII.) Professor McGregor’s series consisting of an ape, the
+Pithecanthropus, Homo neanderthalensis, and the Crô-Magnon Man fails
+as an argument, not only for the general reason we have discussed in
+our third chapter, but also for two special reasons, namely: (1) that
+he completely ignores the chronological question of the comparative
+age of the fossils in his series, and (2) that he has neglected to
+take into account the consideration of the body-brain ratio. For as
+Prof. G. Grant MacCurdy puts it, “We must distinguish between relative
+(cranial) capacity and absolute capacity.” (Smithson. Inst. Rpt. for
+1909, p. 575.) In justice to Professor McGregor, however, it should be
+noted that he proposes his interpretation in a purely provisory and
+tentative sense, and does not dogmatize after the fashion of Osborn and
+Gregory.
+
+After the year 1896, Dubois appears to have withdrawn the relics of
+Pithecanthropus from further inspection on the part of scientific
+men, and to have kept them securely locked up in his safe at
+Haarlem, Holland. (Cf. _Science_, June 15, 1923, suppl. VIII.)
+Since all existing casts of the skull-cap of Pithecanthropus are
+inaccurate, according to the measurements originally given by Dubois,
+anthropologists were anxious to have access to bones, in order to
+verify his figures and to obtain better casts. (Cf. Hrdlička, Smithson.
+Inst. Rpt. for 1913, p. 498.) His obstinate refusal, therefore, to
+place the Javanese remains at the disposal of scientists was bitterly
+resented by the latter. Some of them accused him of having become
+“reactionary” and “orthodox” in his later years, and others went so
+far as to impugn his good faith in the matter of the discovery. (Cf.
+W. H. Ballou’s article, _North American Review_, April, 1922.) A
+writer in _Science_ says: “It has been rumored that he was influenced
+by religious bigotry” and refers to the bones as a “skeleton in the
+closet.” (Cf. _loc. cit._) Dubois’ own explanation, however, was
+that he wished to publish his own finds first. Recently, he seems to
+have yielded to pressure in the matter, since he permitted Hrdlička,
+McGregor, and others to examine the fragments of Pithecanthropus. (Cf.
+_Science_, Aug. 17, 1923, Suppl. VIII.) Meanwhile, too, his opinion
+has changed with reference to these bones, which he now regards as
+the remains of a large ape of the hylobatic type, and not of a form
+intermediate between men and apes. This opinion is, in all likelihood,
+the correct one.
+
+(2) _The Heidelberg Man_: In a quarry near Mauer in the Elsenz Valley,
+Germany, on Oct. 21, 1907, a workman engaged in excavating drove his
+shovel into a fossilized human jaw, severing it into two pieces. Herr
+Joseph Rösch, the owner of the quarry, immediately telegraphed the news
+of the find to Prof. Otto Schoetensack of the neighboring University
+of Heidelberg. The Professor arrived on the scene the following day,
+and “once he got hold of the specimen, he would no more let it out of
+his possession.” (Cf. Smithson. Inst. Rpt. for 1913, p. 510.) He took
+it back with him to Heidelberg, where he cleaned and repaired it. The
+crowns of four of the teeth broken by the workman’s shovel were never
+recovered. The Heidelberg jaw was found at a depth of about 79 feet
+below the surface (24.1 meters). Fossil bones of Elephas antiquus,
+Rhinoceros etruscus, Felis leo fossilis, etc., are said to have been
+discovered at the same level. The layer in which it was found has been
+classed by some as Middle Pleistocene, by others as Early Quaternary;
+for “there seems to be some uncertainty as to the exact subdivision of
+the period to which it should be attributed.” (Hrdlička, _loc. cit._,
+p. 516.) No other part of the skeleton except the jaw was discovered.
+
+The teeth are of the normal human pattern, being small and vertical.
+Prof. Arthur Keith says they have the same shape as those of the
+specimen found at Spy. The jaw has an ape-like appearance, due to
+the extreme recessiveness of the chin. It is also remarkable for its
+massiveness and the broadness of the ascending rami. Its anomalous
+character is indicated by the manifest disproportion between the
+powerful jaw and the insignificant teeth. “One is impressed,” says
+Prof. George Grant MacCurdy of Yale, “by the relative smallness of
+the teeth as compared with the massive jaw in the case of _Homo
+heidelbergensis_.” (Smithson. Inst. Rpt. for 1909, p. 570.) “Why so
+massive a jaw,” says the late Professor Dwight, former anatomist at
+Harvard, “should have such inefficient teeth is hard to explain, for
+the very strength of the jaw implies the fitness of corresponding
+teeth. Either it is an anomaly or the jaw of some aberrant species of
+ape.” (_Op. cit._, p. 164.) This fact alone destroys its evidential
+force; for, by way of anomaly, almost any sort of feature can appear in
+apes and men, that is, human characters in apes and simian characters
+in man. “Thus it is certain,” says Dwight, “that animal features of
+the most diverse kinds appear in man apparently without rhyme or
+reason, and also that they appear in precisely the same way in animals
+far removed from those in which they are normal. It is hopeless to
+try to account for them by inheritance; and to call them instances of
+convergence does not help matters.” (_Op. cit._, pp. 230, 231.)
+
+Kramberger, however, claims that, with the exception of the
+extremely recessive chin, the features of the Heidelberg jaw are
+approximated by those which are normal in the modern Eskimo skull.
+(Cf. _Sitzungbericht der Preuss. Akad. der Wissenschaften_, 1909.)
+Prof. J. H. McGregor holds similar views. He claims that the greater
+use of the jaw in uncivilized peoples, who must masticate tough foods,
+tends to accentuate and increase the recessiveness of the chin. It
+is also possible that the backward sloping of the chin may have been
+intensified in certain primitive races or varieties of the human
+species as a result of factorial mutation. We would not, however, be
+justified in segregating a distinct human species on the basis of minor
+differences, such as the protuberance or recessiveness of chins. On
+the whole, we are hopelessly at sea with reference to the significance
+of the Heidelberg mandible. Taxonomic allocation must be grounded on
+something more than a jaw, otherwise it amounts to nothing more than a
+piece of capricious speculation.
+
+(3) _Eoanthropus Dawsoni_: Dec. 18, 1912, is memorable with
+evolutionary anthropologists as the day on which Charles Dawson
+announced his discovery of the famous Dawn Man. The period of discovery
+extended from the years prior to 1911 up to Aug. 30, 1913, when the
+canine tooth was found by Father Teilhard de Chardin. The locality
+was Piltdown Common, Sussex, in England. The fragments recovered were
+an imperfect cranium, part of the mandible, and the above-mentioned
+canine tooth. The stratified Piltdown gravel, which Dawson assigns to
+the Lower Pleistocene or Glacial epoch, had been much disturbed by
+workmen, “who were digging the gravel for small repairs.” (Dawson.)
+The discoverer first found a fragment of a parietal bone. Then several
+years later, after the gravels had been considerably rainwashed, he
+recovered other fragments of the skull. All parts of the skeletal
+remains are said to have been found within a radius of several yards
+from the site of the initial discovery. The skull was reconstructed by
+Dr. A. Smith Woodward and deposited in the British Museum of Natural
+History at South Kensington. Eoliths were found in the same gravel as
+the skull.
+
+Of the skull, according to Woodward, four parts remain, which, however,
+were integrated from nine fragments of bone. “The human remains,” he
+says, “comprise the greater part of a brain-case and one ramus of
+the mandible, with two lower molars.” Of Woodward’s reconstruction,
+Keith tells us that “an approach to symmetry and a correct adjustment
+of parts came only after many experimental reconstructions” (cf.
+“Antiquity of Man,” p. 364), and he also remarks that, when Woodward
+undertook to “replace the missing points of the jaws, the incisor
+and canine teeth, he followed simian rather than human lines.” (_Op.
+cit._, p. 324.) Here we may be permitted to observe that, even apart
+from the distorting influence of preconceived theories, this business
+of reconstruction is a rather dubious procedure. The absence of parts
+and the inevitable modification introduced by the use of cement
+employed to make the fragments cohere make accurate reconstruction
+an impossibility. The fact that Woodward assigned to the _lower_ jaw
+a tooth which Gerrit Miller of the United States Museum assigns to
+the _upper_ jaw, may well give pause to those credulous persons, who
+believe that palæontologists can reliably reconstruct a whole cranium
+or skeleton from the minutest fragments. Sometimes, apparently, the
+“experts” are at sea even over so simple a question as the proper
+allocation of a tooth.
+
+Woodward, however, was fully satisfied with his own artistic work on
+Eoanthropus; for he says: “While the skull, indeed, is evidently human,
+only approaching a lower grade in certain characters of the brain, in
+the attachment for the neck, the extent of the temporal muscles and
+in the probable size of the face, the mandible appears to be almost
+precisely that of an ape, with nothing human except the molar teeth.”
+(Cf. Smithson. Inst. Rpt. for 1913, pp. 505, 506.) Of the cranial
+capacity Woodward gives the following estimate: “The capacity of the
+brain-case cannot, of course, be exactly determined; but measurements
+both by millet seed and water show that it must have been at least
+1,070 cc., while a consideration of the missing parts suggests that
+it may have been a little more (note the parsimoniousness of this
+concession!). It therefore agrees closely with the capacity of the
+Gibraltar skull, as determined by Professor Keith, and equals that of
+the lowest skulls of the existing Australians. It is much below the
+Mousterian skulls from Spy and La Chapelle-aux-Saints.” (_Loc. cit._,
+p. 505.)
+
+Where Doctor Woodward came to grief, however, was in his failure to
+discern the obvious disproportion between the mismated cranium and
+mandible. As a matter of fact, the mandible is older than the skull
+and belongs to a fossil ape, whereas the cranium is more recent and
+is conspicuously human. Woodward, however, was blissfully unconscious
+of this mésalliance. What there is of the lower jaw, he assures us,
+“shows the same mineralized condition as the skull” and “corresponds
+sufficiently well in size to be referred to the same individual without
+any hesitation.” (_Loc. cit._, p. 506.)
+
+For this he was roundly taken to task by Prof. David Waterston in an
+address delivered by the latter before the London Geological Society,
+Dec., 1912. _Nature_, the English scientific weekly, reports this
+criticism as follows: “To refer the mandible and the cranium to the
+same individual would be equivalent to articulating a chimpanzee
+foot with the bones of a human thigh and leg.” Prof. J. H. McGregor
+of Columbia, though he followed Woodward in modeling the head of
+Eoanthropus now exhibited in “The Hall of the Age of Man,” told the
+writer that he believed the jaw and the skull to be misfits. Recently,
+Hrdlička has come out strongly for the separation of the mandible
+from the cranium, insisting that the former is _older_ and on the
+order of the jaw of the fossil ape _Dryopithecus_, while the skull
+is less antique and indubitably human. The following abstract of
+Hrdlička’s view is given in _Science_, May 4, 1923: “Dr. Hrdlička,”
+we read, “holds that the Piltdown jaw is much older than the skull
+found near it and to which it had been supposed to belong.” (Cf.
+suppl. X.) Hrdlička asserts that, from the standpoint of dentition,
+there is a striking resemblance between the Piltdown jaw and that of
+the extinct ape _Dryopithecus rhenanus_. He comments, in fact, on
+“the close relation of the Piltdown molars to some of the Miocene or
+early Pliocene human-like teeth of this fossil ape.” (_Ibidem._) Still
+other authorities, however, have claimed that the jaw was that of a
+chimpanzee.
+
+To conclude, therefore, the Eoanthropus Dawsoni is an invention, and
+not a discovery, an artistic creation, not a specimen. Anyone can
+combine a simian mandible with a human cranium, and, if the discovery
+of a connecting link entails no more than this, then there is no reason
+why evidence of human evolution should not be turned out wholesale.
+
+(4) _The Neanderthal Man_ (No. 1): The remains of the famous
+Neanderthal Man were found in August, 1856, by two laborers at work
+in the Feldhofer Grotte, a small cave about 100 feet from the Düssel
+river, near Hochdal in Germany. This cave is located at the entrance
+of the Neanderthal gorge in Westphalia, at a height of 60 feet above
+the bottom of the valley. No competent scientist, however, saw the
+bones _in situ_. Both the bones and the loam, in which they were
+entombed, had been thrown out of the cave and partly precipitated into
+the ravine, long before the scientists arrived. Indeed, the scientific
+discoverer, Dr. C. Fuhlrott, did not come upon the scene until several
+weeks later. It was then too late to determine the age of the bones
+geologically and stratigraphically, and no petrigraphic examination of
+the loam was made. The cave, which is about 25 meters above the level
+of the river, communicates by crevices with the surface, so that it
+is possible that the bones and the loam, which covered the floor of
+the cave, may have been washed in from without. Fuhlrott recovered a
+skull-cap, two femurs, both humeri, both ulnæ (almost complete), the
+right radius, the left pelvic bone, a fragment of the right scapula,
+five pieces of rib, and the right clavicle. (Cf. Hugues Obermaier’s
+article, Smithson. Inst. Rpt. for 1906, pp. 394, 395.) “Whether they
+(the bones) were really in the Alluvial loam,” says Virchow, “no one
+saw.... The whole importance of the Neanderthal skull consists in
+the honor ascribed to it from the very beginning, of having rested
+in the Alluvial loam, which was formed at the time of the early
+mammals.” (Quoted by Ranke, “Der Mensch,” II, p. 485.) We know nothing,
+therefore, regarding the age of the fragmentary skeleton; for, as
+Obermaier says: “It is certain that its exact age is in no way defined,
+either geologically or stratigraphically.” (_Loc. cit._, p. 395.)
+
+The remains are no less enigmatic from the anthropological standpoint.
+For while no doubt has been raised as to their human character,
+they have given rise to at least a dozen conflicting opinions. Thus
+Professor Clemont of Bonn pronounced the remains in question to be
+those of a Mongolian Cossack shot by snipers in 1814, and cast by his
+slayers into the Feldhofer Grotte. The same verdict had been given by
+L. Meyer in 1864. C. Carter Blake (1864) and Karl Vogt (1863) declared
+the skull to be that of an idiot. J. Barnard Davis (1864) claimed that
+it had been artificially deformed by early obliteration of the cranial
+sutures. Pruner-Bey (1863) said that it was the skull of an ancient
+Celt or German; R. Wagner (1864), that it belonged to an ancient
+Hollander; Rudolf Virchow, that the remains were those of a primitive
+Frieslander. Prof. G. Schwalbe of Strassburg erected it into a new
+_genus_ of the _Anthropidæ_ in 1901. In 1904, however, he repented of
+his rashness and contented himself with calling it a distinct human
+_species_, namely, _Homo primigenius_, in contradistinction to _Homo
+sapiens_ (modern man). As we shall see presently, however, it is not a
+distinct species, but, at most, an ancient _variety_ or _subspecies_
+(race) of the species _Homo sapiens_, differing from modern Europeans
+only in the degree that Polynesians, Mongolians, and Hottentots differ
+from them, that is, within the limits of the one and only human
+species. Other opinions might be cited (cf. Hrdlička, Smithson. Inst.
+Rpt. for 1913, p. 518, and H. Muckermann’s “Darwinism and Evolution,”
+1906, pp. 63, 64), but the number and variety of the foregoing bear
+ample testimony to the uncertain and ambiguous character of the remains.
+
+The skull is that of a low, perhaps, degenerate, type of humanity. The
+facial and basal parts of the skull are missing. Hence we are not sure
+of the prognathism shown in McGregor’s reconstruction. The skull has,
+however, a retreating forehead, prominent brow ridges and a sloping
+occiput. Yet, in spite of the fact that it is of a very low type, it
+is indubitably human. “In no sense,” says Huxley, “can the Neanderthal
+bones be regarded as the remains of a human being intermediate between
+men and apes.” (“Evidence of Man’s Place in Nature,” Humb. ed., p.
+253.) D. Schaaffhausen makes the same confession—“In making this
+discovery,” he owns, “we have not found the missing link.” (“Der
+Neanderthaler Fund,” p. 49.) The cranial capacity of the Neanderthal
+skull, as we have seen, is 1,236 c.cm., which is practically the same
+as that of the average European woman of today. In size it exceeds,
+but in shape it resembles, the dolichocephalic skull of the modern
+Australian, being itself a dolichocephalic cranium. Huxley called
+attention to this resemblance, and Macnamara, after comparing it with
+a large number of such skulls, reaches this conclusion: “The average
+cranial capacity of these selected 36 skulls (namely, of Australian
+and Tasmanian blacks) is even less than that of the Neanderthal group,
+but in shape some of these two groups are closely related.” (_Archiv.
+für Anthropologie_, XXVIII, 1903, p. 358.) Schwalbe’s opinion that the
+Neanderthal Man constitutes a distinct species, though its author has
+since abandoned it (cf. Wasmann’s “Modern Biology,” Eng. ed., 1910, p.
+506), will be considered later, viz. after we have discussed the Men of
+Spy, Krapina and Le Moustier, all of whom have been assigned to the
+Neanderthal group.
+
+(5) _Neanderthal Man_ (No. 2): This specimen is said to be more recent
+than No. 1. Its discoverers were Rautert, Klaatsch, and Koenen. It
+consists of a human skeleton without a skull. It was found buried in
+the loess at a depth of 50 centimeters. This loess had been washed
+into the ruined cave, where the relics were found, subsequently to its
+deposition on the plateau above. The bones were most probably washed
+into the cave along with the loess, which fills the remnant of the
+destroyed cave. The upper plateau of the region is covered with the
+same loess. The site of the second discovery was 200 meters to the west
+of the Neanderthal Cave (_i.e._ the Feldhofer Grotte). The bones were
+either washed into the broken cave, or buried there later. We have no
+indication whatever of their age.
+
+(6) _The Man of La Naulette_: In 1866, André Dupont found in the
+cavern of La Naulette, valley of the Lesse, Belgium, a fossil lower
+jaw, or rather, the fragment of a lower jaw, associated with remains
+of the mammoth and rhinoceros. The fragment was sufficient to show the
+dentition, and to indicate the absence of a chin. “Its kinship with the
+man of Neanderthal,” remarks Professor MacCurdy very naïvely, “whose
+lower jaw could not be found, was evident. It tended to legitimatize
+the latter, which hitherto had failed of general recognition.”
+(Smithson. Inst. Rpt. for 1909, p. 572.)
+
+(7) _The Men of Spy_: In June of 1886 two nearly complete skeletons,
+probably of a woman and a man, were discovered by Messrs. Marcel
+de Puydt and Maximin Lohest in a terrace fronting a cave at Spy in
+the Province of Namur, Belgium, 47½ feet above the shallow bed of
+the stream Orneau. The bones were found at a depth of 13 feet below
+the surface of the terrace. The remains were associated with bones
+of the rhinoceros (_Rhinoceros tichorhinus_), the mammoth (_Elephas
+primigenius_), and the great bear (_Ursus spelaeus_). There were also
+stone implements indicating Mousterian industry, and the position of
+one of the skeletons shows that the bodies were buried by friends.
+The present valley of the Orneau was almost completely formed at the
+time of the burial. The exact age of the bones cannot be determined
+nor can these cave deposits be correlated with the river drift and the
+loess. The cultural evidences are said to be Mousterian, and Mousterian
+culture is assigned by Obermaier to the Fourth, or last, Glacial period.
+
+Prof. Julien Fraipont of the University of Liége announced the
+discovery of these palæolithic skeletons Aug. 16, 1886. Skeleton No.
+1 has weaker bones and is thought to be that of a woman; No. 2 shows
+signs of strong musculature and is evidently that of a man. Of No. 1
+we have the cranial vault, two portions of the upper jaw (with five
+molars and four other teeth), a nearly complete mandible with all the
+teeth, a left clavicle, a right humerus, the shaft of the left humerus,
+a left radius, the heads of two ulnæ, a nearly complete right femur,
+a complete left tibia, and the right os calcis. Of No. 2 we have the
+vault of the skull, two portions of the maxilla with teeth, loose teeth
+belonging to lower jaw, fragments of the scapulæ, the left clavicle,
+imperfect humeri, the shaft of the right radius, a left femur, the
+left os calcis, and the left astragalus. The separation of the bones,
+however, is not yet satisfactory. The jaw of No. 1 is well-preserved,
+except in the region of the coronoids and condyles, which makes any
+position we may give it more or less arbitrary. The skull of this
+specimen is almost the replica of the Neanderthal skull, except that
+the forehead is lower and more sloping. But No. 1 has a trace of chin
+prominence and in this it resembles modern skulls. No. 2 has a higher
+forehead and the cranial vault is higher and more spacious.
+
+In both skeletons the radius and femur show a peculiar curvature,
+and in both, too, the arms and legs must have been very short. Hence
+the men of Spy are described as having been only partially erect,
+and as having had bowed thighs and bent knees. The source of this
+modification, however, is not a surviving pithecoid atavism, but a
+non-inheritable adaptation acquired through the habitual attitude or
+posture maintained in stalking game—“Now we know,” says Dwight, “that
+this feature, which is certainly an ape-like one, implies simply
+that the race was one of those with the habit of ‘squatting,’ which
+implies that the body hangs from the knees, not touching the ground
+for hours together. As a matter of course we look for this in savage
+tribes.” (“Thoughts of a Catholic Anatomist,” p. 168.) The same may
+be said of the receding chin, which, as we have seen, is also an
+acquired adaptation. The same, finally, is true of the prominent brow
+ridges, which are not pithecoid, but are, as Klaatsch has pointed out,
+related to the size of the eye sockets, and consequently the result
+of an adaptation of early palæolithic man to the life of a hunter, a
+natural sequel of the very marked development of his sense of sight.
+Similar brow ridges, though not quite so prominent, occur among modern
+Australian blacks.
+
+Nor are the remains as typically Neanderthaloid as Keith and others
+(who wish to see in palæolithic men a distinct human species) could
+desire. No. 1, as we have seen, though almost a replica of the
+Neanderthal skull-cap, has a trace of chin prominence in the mandible.
+No. 2, though the chin is recessive, has a higher forehead and higher
+and more spacious cranial vault than the Neanderthal Man. “On the
+whole,” says Hrdlička, “it may be said that No. 2, while in some
+respects still very primitive, represents morphologically a decided
+step from the Neanderthaloid to the present-day type of the human
+cranium.” (Smithson. Inst. Rpt. for 1913, p. 525.)
+
+(8) _The Men of Krapina_: In the cave, or rather rock shelter, of
+Krapina, in northern Croatia, beside the small stream Kaprinica which
+now flows 82 feet below the cave, K. Gorjanovič-Kramberger, Professor
+of geology and palæontology at the University of Zagreb, found, in
+the year 1899, ten or twelve skulls in fragments, a large number of
+teeth, and many other defective parts of skeletons. All told, they
+represent at least fourteen different individuals. The bones are in
+a bad state of preservation, and show traces of burning, some of them
+being calcined. The bones were associated with objects of Mousterian
+industry, and bones of extinct animals such as _Rhinoceros merckii_,
+_Ursus spelaeus_, _Bos primigenius_, etc. The aforesaid Rhinoceros is
+an older type than the _Rhinoceros tichorhinus_ associated with the men
+of Spy, and implies a hot climate, wherein the _Rhinoceros merckii_
+managed to persist for a longer time than in the north. Hence the
+remains are thought to belong to the last Interglacial period.
+
+In general, the bones show the same racial characteristics as those of
+Neanderthal and Spy, though they are said to be of a perceptibly more
+modern type than the latter. They were men of short stature and strong
+muscular development. “The crania,” says Hrdlička, “were of good size
+externally, but the brain cavities were probably below the present
+average. The vault of the skull was of good length and at the same
+time fairly broad, so that the cephalic index, at least in some of the
+individuals, was more elevated than usual in the crania of early man.”
+(_Loc. cit._, pp. 530, 531.) The reader must take Hrdlička’s use of
+the word “usual” with “the grain of salt” necessitated in view of the
+scanty number of specimens whence such inductive generalizations are
+derived. The pronounced and complete supraorbital arcs characteristic
+of the Neanderthaloid type occur in this group also, though in a less
+marked manner. The stone implements are evidence of the intelligence of
+these men.
+
+(9) _The Le Moustier Man_: This specimen, _Homo mousteriensis
+Hauseri_, was found by Prof. O. Hauser in the “lower Moustier Cave”
+at Le Moustier in the valley of the Vézère, Department of Dordogne in
+France, during the March of 1908. It consists of the complete skull
+and other skeletal parts of a youth of about 15 years. At this age,
+the sex cannot be determined from the bones alone. Obermaier assigns
+these bones to the Fourth Glacial period. Prof. George Grant MacCurdy’s
+anthropological evaluation is the following: “The race characters ...
+are not so distinct (_i.e._ at the age of 15 years) as they would be at
+full maturity; but they point unmistakably to the type of Neanderthal,
+Spy, and Krapina—the so-called _Homo primigenius_ which now also
+becomes _Homo mousteriensis_. It was a rather stocky type, robust and
+of a low stature. The arms and legs were relatively short, especially
+the forearm and from the knee down, as is the case among the Eskimo.
+Ape-like characters are noticeable in the curvature of the radius and
+of the femur, the latter being also rounder in section than is the case
+with _Homo sapiens_. In the retreating forehead, prominent brow ridges,
+and prognathism (_i.e._ projection of the jaws) it is approached to
+some extent by the modern Australian. The industry associated with
+this skeleton is that typical of the Mousterian epoch.” (_Loc. cit._,
+p. 573.) As we have already seen, the so-called ape-like features are
+simply acquired adaptations to the hunter’s life, and, if inheritable
+characters, they do not exceed the limits of a varietal mutation.
+That the Mousterian men were endowed with the same intelligence as
+ourselves, appears from the evidences of solemn burial which surround
+the remains of this youth of 15 years, and prove, as Klaatsch points
+out, that these men of the Glacial period were persuaded of their
+own immortality. The head reclined on a pillow of earth, which still
+retains the impression of the youth’s cheek, the body having been laid
+on its side. Around the corpse are the best examples of the stone
+implements of the period, the parents having buried their choicest
+possession with the corpse of their son.
+
+(10) _The La Chapelle Man_: On August 3, 1908, the Abbés J. and A.
+Bouyssonie and L. Bardon, assisted by Paul Bouyssonie (a younger
+brother of the first two), discovered palæolithic human remains,
+which are also assigned to the Neanderthal group. The locality
+of the discovery was the village of La Chapelle-aux-Saints, 22
+kilometers south of the town of Brive, in the department of Corrèze,
+in southern France. In the side of a moderate elevation, 200 yards
+south of the aforesaid village, and beyond the left bank of a small
+stream, the Sourdoire, there is a cave now known as the Cave of
+La Chapelle-aux-Saints. It was here, on the above-mentioned date,
+that the priests discovered the bones of a human skeleton surrounded
+by unmistakable evidences of solemn burial. “The body lay on its
+back, with the head to the westward, the latter being surrounded by
+stones.... About the body were many flakes of quartz and flint, some
+fragments of ochre, broken animal bones, etc.” (Hrdlička.) Another
+token of burial is the rectangular pit, in which the remains were
+found. It is sunk to a depth of 30 to 40 centimeters in the floor of
+the cavern.
+
+“They (the remains) were covered,” says Prof. G. G. MacCurdy, “by a
+deposit intact 30 to 40 centimeters thick, consisting of a magma of
+bone, of stone implements, and of clay. The stone implements belong to
+a pure Mousterian industry. While some pieces suggest a vague survival
+of Acheulian implements (_i.e._ from the cool latter half of the Third
+Interglacial period), others presage the coming of the Aurignacian
+(close of last Glacial period). Directly over the human skull were the
+foot bones, still in connection, of a bison—proof that the piece had
+been placed there with the flesh still on, and proof, too, that the
+deposit had not been disturbed. Two hearths were noted also, and the
+fact that there were no implements of bone, the industry differing in
+this respect from that of La Quina and Petit-Puymoyen (Charente), as
+well as at Wildkirchli, Switzerland.
+
+“The human bones include the cranium and lower jaw (broken, but the
+pieces nearly all present and easily replaced in exact position), a
+few vertebræ and long bones, several ribs, phalanges, and metacarpals,
+clavicle, astragalus, calcaneum, parts of scaphoid, ilium, and sacrum.
+The ensemble denotes an individual of the male sex whose height was
+about 1.60 meters. The condition of the sutures and of the jaws proves
+the skull to be that of an old man. The cranium is dolichocephalic,
+with an index of 75. It is said to be flatter in the frontal region
+than those of Neanderthal and Spy.” (_Loc. cit._, p. 574.)
+
+The associated remains of fossil animals comprise the horse, reindeer,
+bison, _Rhinoceros tichorinus_, etc., and, according to Hrdlička,
+“indicate that the deposits date from somewhere near the middle of the
+glacial epoch.” (_Loc. cit._, p. 539.) The discoverers turned over the
+skeleton to Marcellin Boule of the Paris Museum of Natural History
+for cleaning and reconstruction. It is the _first instance_ of a
+palæolithic man, in which _the basal parts_ of the skull, including the
+foramen magnum, were recovered. Professor Boule estimates the cranial
+capacity as being something between 1,600 and 1,620 c.cm. He found the
+lower part of the face to be prognathic, but not excessively so, the
+vault like the Neanderthal cranium, but larger, the occiput broad and
+protruding, the supraorbital arch prominent and complete, the nasal
+process broad, the forehead low, and the mandible stout and chinless,
+though not sloping backward at the symphysis.
+
+Alluding to the rectangular burial pit in the cave, Hrdlička remarks:
+“The depression was clearly made by the primitive inhabitants or
+visitors of the cave for the body and the whole represents very
+plainly a regular burial, the most ancient intentional burial thus far
+discovered.” (Smithson. Inst. Rpt. for 1913, p. 539.)
+
+The specimens of Neanderthal, Spy, La Naulette, Krapina, Le Moustier
+and La Chapelle, as we have seen, are the principal remains said to
+represent the Neanderthal type, which, according to Keith and others,
+is a distinct human species. As Aurignacian Man (assigned to the close
+of the “Old Stone Age,” or Glacial epoch), including the Grimaldi or
+Negroid as well as the Crô-Magnon type, are universally acknowledged
+to belong to the species _Homo sapiens_, we need not discuss them
+here. The same holds true, _a fortiori_, of Neolithic races such as
+the Solutreans and the Magdalenians. The main issue for the present is
+whether or not the Neanderthal type represents a _distinct species_ of
+human being.
+
+Anent this question, Professor MacCurdy has the following: “Boule
+estimated the capacity of the Chapelle-aux-Saints skull according to
+the formulæ of Manouvrier, of Lee, and of Beddoe, obtaining results
+that varied between 1,570 and 1,750 cubic centimeters. By the use of
+millet and of shot an average capacity of 1,626 was obtained. Judging
+from these figures the capacity of the crania of Neanderthal and Spy
+has been underestimated by Schaaffhausen, Huxley, and Schwalbe. By its
+cranial capacity, therefore, the Neanderthal race belongs easily in
+the class of _Homo sapiens_. But we must distinguish between relative
+capacity and absolute capacity. In modern man, where the transverse
+and antero-posterior diameters are the same as in the skull of La
+Chapelle-aux-Saints, the vertical diameter would be much greater, which
+would increase the capacity to 1,800 cubic centimeters and even to
+1,900 cubic centimeters. Such voluminous modern crania are very rare.
+Thus Bismarck, with horizontal cranial diameters scarcely greater than
+in the man of La Chapelle-aux-Saints, is said to have had a cranial
+capacity of 1,965 cubic centimeters.” (Smithson. Inst. Rpt. for 1909,
+p. 575.)
+
+As for the structural features which are alleged to constitute a
+_specific difference_ between the Neanderthal type and modern man,
+_v.g._ the prominent brow ridges, prognathism, retreating forehead,
+receding chin, etc., all of these occur, albeit in a lesser degree, in
+modern Australian blacks, who are universally acknowledged to belong
+to the species _Homo sapiens_. Moreover, there is much _fluctuation_,
+as Kramberger has shown from the examination of an enormous number
+of modern and fossil skulls, in both the Neanderthal and the modern
+type; that is to say, Neanderthaloid features occur in modern skulls
+and, conversely, modern features occur in the skulls of _Homo
+neanderthalensis_ (cf. “Biolog. Zentralblatt,” 1905, p. 810; and
+Wasmann’s “Modern Biology,” Eng. ed., pp. 472, 473).
+
+All the differences between modern and palæolithic man are explicable,
+partly upon the basis of _acquired adaptation_, inasmuch as the
+primitive mode of life pursued by the latter entailed the formation
+of body-modifying habits very different from our present customs
+and habits (viz. those of our modern civilized life). But these
+modifications, not being inheritable, passed away with the passing of
+the habits that gave rise to them. In part, however, the differences
+may be due to heritable _mutations_, which gave rise to new _races_ or
+_varieties_ or _subspecies_, such as Indo-Europeans, Mongolians, and
+Negroes. And, if the evolutionary palæontologist insists on magnifying
+characters that are well within the scope of mere factorial mutation
+into a specific difference, we shall reply, with Bateson and Morgan,
+by denying his competence to pronounce on taxonomic questions, without
+consulting the verdict of the geneticist. Without breeding tests,
+the criterions of intersterility and longevity cannot be applied,
+and breeding tests are impossible in the case of fossils. As for an
+_a priori_ verdict, no modern geneticist, if called upon to give his
+opinion, would concede that the differences which divide the modern and
+the Neanderthal types of men exceed the limits of factorial mutations,
+or of natural varieties within the same species. Here, then, it is
+a case of the wish being father to the thought. So anxious are the
+materialistic evolutionists to secure evidence of a connection between
+man and the brute, that no pretext is too insignificant to serve as
+warrant for recognizing an “intermediate species.”
+
+Even waiving this point, however, there is no evidence at all that the
+Neanderthal type is ancestral to the Crô-Magnon type. Both of these
+races must have migrated into Europe from the east or the south, and
+we have no proof whatever of genetic relationship between them. True,
+attempts have been made to capitalize the fact that the Neanderthal
+race was represented by specimens discovered in what were alleged to
+be the older deposits of the Glacial epoch, but we have seen that
+the evidences of antiquity are very precarious in the case of these
+Neanderthaloid skeletons. Time-scales based on extinct species and
+characteristic stone implements, etc., are always satisfactory to
+evolutionists, because they can _date_ their fossils and archæological
+cultures _according to the theory of evolution_, but, for one whose
+confidence in the “reality” of evolution is not so great, these
+palæontological chronometers are open to grave suspicion.
+
+If the horizon levels are not too finely graded, the difficulty
+of accepting such a time-scale is not excessive. Hence we might
+be prepared to accept the chronometric value of the division of
+fossiliferous rocks into Groups, such as the Palæozoic, the Mesozoic,
+and the Cænozoic, even though we are assured by Grabau that this
+time-scale is “based on the changes of life, with the result that
+fossils alone determine whether a formation belongs to one or the
+other of these great divisions” (“Principles of Stratigraphy,” p.
+1103), but when it comes to projecting an elaborate scheme of levels
+or horizons into Pleistocene deposits on the dubious basis of index
+fossils and “industries,” our credulity is not equal to the demands
+that are made upon it. And this is particularly true with reference
+to fossil men. Man has the geologically unfortunate habit of _burying
+his dead_. Other fossils have been entombed on the spot where they
+died, and therefore belong where we find them. But it is otherwise with
+man. In Hilo, Hawaii, the writer heard of a Kanaka, who was buried
+to a depth of 80 feet, having stipulated this sort of burial through
+a special disposition in his will. His purpose, in so doing, was to
+preclude the possibility of his bones ever being disturbed by a plough
+or other instrument. Nor have we any right to assume that indications
+of burial will always be present in a case of this nature. We may, on
+the contrary, assume it as a general rule that human remains are always
+more recent than the formations in which they are found.
+
+Be that as it may, the evidences for the antiquity of the
+Neanderthaloid man prove, at most, that he was prior to the Crô-Magnon
+man in Europe, but they do not prove that the former was prior to the
+latter absolutely. Things may, for all we know, have been just the
+reverse in Asia. Hence we have no ground for regarding the Man of
+Neanderthal as ancestral to the race of artists, who frescoed the caves
+of France and Spain. In fact, to the unprejudiced mind the Neanderthal
+type conveys the impression of a race on the downward path of
+degeneration rather than an embodiment of the promise of better things.
+“There is another view,” says Dwight, “ ... though it is so at variance
+with the Zeitgeist that little is heard of it. May it not be that many
+low forms of man, archaic as well as contemporary, are degenerate
+races? We are told everything about progress; but decline is put aside.
+It is impossible to construct a tolerable scheme of ascent among the
+races of man; but cannot dark points be made light by this theory of
+degeneration? One of the most obscure, and to me most attractive of
+questions, is the wiping out of old civilizations. That it has occurred
+repeatedly, and on very extensive scales, is as certain as any fact in
+history. Why is it not reasonable to believe that bodily degeneration
+took place in those fallen from a higher estate, who, half-starved and
+degraded, returned to savagery? Moreover, the workings of the soul
+would be hampered by a degenerating brain. For my part I believe the
+Neanderthal man to be a specimen of a race, not arrested in its upward
+climb, but thrown down from a higher position.” (_Op. cit._, pp. 169,
+170.)
+
+The view, however, that the Neanderthaloid type had degenerated from
+a previous higher human type was not at all in accord with the then
+prevalent opinion that this type was far more ancient than any other.
+And Dwight himself admitted the force of the “objection ... that the
+Neanderthal race was an excessively old one and that skeletons of the
+higher race which, according to the view which I have offered, must
+have existed at the same time as the degenerate ones, are still to be
+discovered.” (_Op. cit._, p. 170.) In fact, the Neanderthal ancestry
+of the present human race was so generally accepted that, in the very
+year in which Dwight’s book appeared, Sir Arthur Keith declared: “The
+Neanderthal type represents the stock from which all modern races have
+arisen.” Time, however, as Dr. James Walsh remarked (_America_, Dec.
+15, 1917, pp. 230, 231), has triumphantly vindicated the expectations
+of Professor Dwight. For in his latest book, “The Antiquity of Man”
+(1916), Sir Arthur Keith has a chapter of Conclusions, in which the
+following recantation appears: “We were compelled to admit,” he owns,
+“that men of the modern type had been in existence long before the
+Neanderthal type.”
+
+But, even if it were true that savagery preceded civilization in
+Europe, such could not have been the case everywhere; for it is
+certain that civilization and culture of a comparatively high order
+were imported into Europe before the close of the Old Stone Age. The
+Hungarian Lake-dwellings show that culture of a high type existed
+in the New Stone Age. These two ages are regarded as prehistoric in
+Europe, though in America the Stone Age belongs to history. It is
+also possible that in Europe much of the Stone Age was coëval with
+the history of civilized nations, and that it may be coincident with,
+instead of prior to, the Bronze Age, which seems to have begun in
+Egypt, and which belongs unquestionably to history. And here we may
+be permitted to remark that history gives the lie to the evolutionary
+conceit that civilized man has arisen from a primitive state of
+barbarism. History begins almost contemporaneously in many different
+centers, such as Egypt, Babylonia, Chaldea, China, and Crete, about
+5,000 or 6,000 years ago, and, as far back as history goes, we find
+the record of high civilizations existing side by side with a coëval
+barbarism. Barbarism is historically a state of degeneration and
+stagnation, and history knows of no instance of a people sunk in
+barbarism elevating itself by its own efforts to higher stages of
+civilization. Always civilization has been imposed upon barbarians
+from without. Savages, so far as history knows them, have never become
+civilized, save through the intervention of some contemporary civilized
+nation. History is one long refutation of the Darwinian theory of
+constant and inevitable progress. The progress of civilization is not
+subsequent, but prior, or parallel, to the retrogression of barbarism.
+
+That savagery and barbarism represent a _degenerate_, rather than
+a _primitive_, state, is proved by the fact that savage tribes, in
+general, despite their brutish degradation, possess languages too
+perfectly elaborated and systematized to be accounted for by the mental
+attainments of the men who now use them, languages which testify
+unmistakably to the superior intellectual and cultural level of their
+civilized ancestors, to whom the initial construction of such marvelous
+means of communication was due. “It is indeed one of the paradoxes
+of linguistic science,” says Dr. Edwin Sapir, in a lecture delivered
+April 1, 1911, at the University of Pennsylvania, “that some of the
+most complexly organized languages are spoken by so-called primitive
+peoples, while, on the other hand, not a few languages of relatively
+simple structure are found among peoples of considerable advance in
+culture. Relatively to the modern inhabitants of England, to cite but
+one instance out of an indefinitely large number, the Eskimos must be
+considered as rather limited in cultural development. Yet there is just
+as little doubt that in complexity of form the Eskimo language goes far
+beyond English. I wish merely to indicate that, however we may indulge
+in speaking of primitive man, of a primitive language in the true sense
+of the word we find nowhere a trace.” (Smithson. Inst. Rpt. for 1912,
+p. 573.) Pierre Duponceau makes a similar observation with reference
+to the logical and orderly organization of the Indian languages: “The
+dialects of the Indian tribes,” he says, “appear to be the work of
+philosophers rather than of savages.” (Cited by F. A. Tholuck, “Verm.
+Schr.,” ii, p. 260.)
+
+It was considerations of this sort which led the great philologist Max
+Müller to ridicule Darwin’s conception of primitive man as a savage.
+“As far as we can trace the footsteps of man,” he writes, “even on the
+lowest strata of history, we see that the Divine gift of a sound and
+sober intellect belonged to him from the very first; and the idea of
+humanity emerging slowly from the depths of an animal brutality can
+never be maintained again in our century. The earliest work of art
+wrought by the human mind—more ancient than any literary document, and
+prior even to the first whisperings of tradition—the human language,
+forms one uninterrupted chain, from the first dawn of history down
+to our own times. We still speak the language of the first ancestors
+of our race; and this language with its wonderful structures, bears
+witness against such gratuitous theories. The formation of language,
+the composition of roots, the gradual discrimination of meanings, the
+systematic elaboration of grammatic forms—all this working which we can
+see under the surface of our own speech attests from the very first
+the presence of a rational mind, of an artist as great at least as his
+work.” (“Essays,” vol. I, p. 306.) History and philology are far more
+solid and certain as a basis for inference than are “index fossils” and
+prehistoric archæology; and the lesson taught by history and philology
+is that primitive man was not a savage, but a cultured being endowed
+with an intellect equal, if not superior, to our own.
+
+But, even if we grant the priority, which evolutionists claim for the
+Old Stone Age, there are not absent even from that cultural level
+evident tokens of artistic genius and high intellectual gifts. Speaking
+of the pictures in the caves of Altamira, of Marsoulas in the Haute
+Garonne, and of Fonte de Gaume in the Dordogne, the archæologist
+Sir Arthur Evans says: “These primeval frescoes display not only
+consummate mastery of natural design, but an extraordinary technical
+resource. Apart from the charcoal used in certain outlines, the chief
+coloring matter was red and yellow ochre, mortars and palettes for the
+preparation of which have come to light. In single animals the tints
+varied from black to dark and ruddy brown or brilliant orange, and so,
+by fine gradations, to paler nuances, obtained by scraping and washing.
+Outlines and details are brought out by white incised lines, and the
+artists availed themselves with great skill of the reliefs afforded by
+convexities of the rock surface. But the greatest marvel of all is
+that such polychrome masterpieces as the bisons, standing and couchant,
+or with limbs huddled together, of the Altamira Cave, were executed
+on the ceilings of inner vaults and galleries where the light of day
+has never penetrated. Nowhere is there any trace of smoke, and it is
+clear that great progress in the art of artificial illumination had
+already been made. We know that stone lamps, decorated in one case
+with the engraved head of an ibex, were already in existence. Such was
+the level of artistic attainment in southwestern Europe, at a modest
+estimate, some 10,000 years earlier than the most ancient monuments
+of Egypt or Chaldæa!” (Smithson. Inst. Rpt. for 1916, pp. 429, 430.)
+While reaffirming our distrust of the undocumented chronology of
+“prehistory,” we cite these examples of palæolithic art as a proof of
+the fact that everywhere the manifestation of man’s physical presence
+coincides with the manifestation of his intelligence, and that neither
+in history nor in prehistory have we any evidence of the existence of
+a bestial or irrational man preceding _Homo sapiens_, as we know him
+today. It is interesting to note in this connection that a certain J.
+Taylor claims to have found a prehistoric engraving of a mastodon on a
+bone found in a rock shelter known as Jacobs’ Cavern in Missouri (cf.
+_Science_, Oct. 14, 1921, p. 357). Incidents of this sort must needs
+dampen the enthusiasm of those who are overeager to believe in the
+enormous antiquity of the Old Stone Age in Europe.
+
+(11) _The Rhodesian Man_: In 1921 a human skull was found by miners
+in the “Bone Cave” of the Broken Hill Mine in southern Rhodesia. It
+was associated with human and animal bones, as well as very crude
+instruments (knives and scrapers) in flint and quartz. It was found
+at a depth of 60 feet below the surface. The lower jaw was missing,
+and has not been recovered. It was sent to the British Museum, South
+Kensington, where it is now preserved. Doctor Smith-Woodward has
+examined and described it. “The skull is in some features the most
+primitive one that has ever been found; at the same time it has many
+points of resemblance to (or even identity with) that of modern man.”
+(_Science_, Feb. 3, 1922, p. 129.) The face is intact. The forehead is
+low, and the brow ridges are more pronounced than in any known fossil
+human skull. The prognathism of the upper jaw is very accentuated.
+The cranium is very flat on top and broad in the back. “Its total
+capacity is surprisingly large. At least one prominent authority
+thinks that this man had quite as much gray matter as the average
+modern man.” (_Loc. cit._, pp. 129, 130.) Woodward, however, estimates
+the cranial capacity of this skull as 1280 c.cm. The neck must have
+had powerful muscles. The nasal bone is prominent and Neanderthaloid
+in character. “The wisdom tooth is reduced in size—another point in
+common with modern man and never found before in a fossil skull.”
+(_Ibidem._) The palate and the teeth in general are like those of
+existing men. The femur is not curved like that of the Neanderthal
+man—“In contrast to the Neanderthal man who is supposed to have walked
+in a crouching position (because of the rather curved femur and other
+bits of evidence), this man is believed to have maintained the upright
+position, because the femur is relatively straight and when fitted to
+the tibia (which was also found) presents a perfectly good, straight
+leg.” (_Ibidem._) According to the writer we have quoted, Dr. Elliot
+Smith entertained hopes that the Rhodesian man might represent the
+“missing link” in man’s ancestry, leaving the Neanderthal man as an
+offshoot from the main ancestral trunk. No comment is necessary. The
+skull may be a pathological specimen, but, in any case, it is evidently
+human as regards its cranial capacity. The remains, moreover, serve
+to emphasize the _fluctuational_ character of the so-called _Homo
+primigenius_ type, being a mixture of modern and Neanderthaloid
+features. They are not fossilized and present a recent appearance.
+Hence, as B. Windle suggests, they may have fallen into the cave
+through a crack, and may be modern rather than prehistoric.
+
+(12) _The Foxhall Man_: This is the earliest known prehistoric man.
+He is known to us, however, only through “his flint instruments
+partly burned with fire, found near the little hamlet of Foxhall, near
+Norwich, on the east coast of England. These flints, discovered in
+1921, constitute the first proofs that man of sufficient intelligence
+to make a variety of flint implements and to use fire existed in
+Britain at the close of the Age of Mammals; this is the first true
+Tertiary man ever found.” (Osborn: _Guide-leaflet_ to “The Hall of the
+Age of Man,” 2nd ed., 1923, p. 9.) Osborn assigns the twelve kinds
+of flint instruments typical of the Foxhallian culture to the Upper
+Pliocene epoch. R. A. Macalister, however, denies that the deposits are
+Tertiary. Abbé Henri Breuil’s verdict was undecided. In any case, the
+Foxhallian culture proves that the earliest of prehistoric men were
+intelligent like ourselves.
+
+_Summa summarum_: So far as science knows, only one human species
+has ever existed on the earth, and that is _Homo sapiens_. All the
+alleged connecting links between men and apes are found, on careful
+examination, to be illusory. When not wholly ambiguous in view of their
+inadequate preservation and fragmentary character, they are (as regards
+both mind and body) distinctly human, like the Neanderthal man, or they
+are purely simian, like the Pithecanthropus, or they are heterogeneous
+combinations of human and simian bones, like the Eoanthropus
+Dawsoni.[18] “With absolute certainty,” says Hugues Obermaier, “we can
+only say that man of the Quaternary period differed in no essential
+respect from man of the present day. In no way did he go beyond the
+limits of variation of the normal human body.” (“The Oldest Remains of
+the Human Body, etc.,” Vienna, 1905.) The so-called _Homo primigenius_,
+therefore, is not a distinct species of human being, but merely an
+ancient race that is, at most, a distinct variety or subspecies of man.
+In spite of tireless searching, no traces of a bestial, irrational
+man have been discovered. Indeed, man whom nature has left naked,
+defenseless, unarmed with natural weapons, and deficient in instinct,
+has no other resource than his reason and could never have survived
+without it. To imagine primitive man in a condition analogous to that
+of the idiot is preposterous. “For other animals,” says St. Thomas of
+Aquin, “nature has prepared food, garments of fur, means of defense,
+such as teeth, horns, and hoofs, or at least swiftness in flight. But
+man is so constituted that, none of these things having been prepared
+for him by nature, reason is given him in their stead, reason by which
+through his handiwork he is enabled to prepare all these things....
+Moreover, in other animals there is inborn a certain natural economy
+respecting those things which are useful or hurtful, as the lamb by
+nature knows the wolf to be its enemy. Some animals also by natural
+instinct are aware of the medicinal properties of herbs and of other
+things which are necessary for life. Man, however, has a natural
+knowledge of these things which are necessary for life only in general,
+as being able to arrive at the knowledge of the particular necessities
+of human life by way of inference from general principles.” (“De regim.
+princ.,” l. I, c. I.) As a matter of fact, man is never found apart
+from evidences of his intelligence. The Neanderthaloid race, with their
+solemn burials and implements of bone and stone, exemplify this truth
+no less than the palæolithic artists of the Cave of Altamira.
+
+    [18] See Addenda.
+
+§ 5. The Edict of the American Association
+
+In the Cincinnati meeting (1923-1924) of the American Association
+for the Advancement of Science, a number of resolutions were passed
+regarding the subject of evolution. True, the session in which these
+resolutions were passed was but sparsely attended, and packed, for the
+most part, with the ultra-partisans of transformism. Nevertheless, it
+is to be regretted that the dignity of this eminent and distinguished
+body was so unfittingly compromised by the fulmination of rhetorical
+anathemas against W. J. Bryan and his Round Head adherents. Among
+the resolutions, of which we have spoken, the following dictatorial
+proclamation occurs: “_The evidences in favor of the evolution of man
+are sufficient to convince every scientist in the world._”
+
+This authoritative decree is both rash and intolerant. The
+resolution-committee of the American Association is by no means
+infallible, and, in the absence of infallibility, no group of men
+should be so unmindful of their own limitations as to strive to make
+their subjective views binding upon others. Scientific questions are
+not settled by authority, but exclusively by means of irresistible
+evidence, which is certainly absent in the present case. Moreover,
+the declaration in question is untrue; for many of the foremost
+palæontologists and anthropologists of the day confess their complete
+ignorance, as scientists, with respect to the origin of man.
+
+Dr. Clark Wissler, for example, who is the Curator-in-Chief of the
+Anthropological section of the American Museum of Natural History
+in New York City, made, in the course of an interview published in
+the _New York American_ of April 2, 1918, the following statement:
+“Man, like the horse or elephant, just happened anyhow, so far as has
+been discovered yet. As far as science has discovered, there always
+was a man—some not so developed, but still human beings in all their
+functions, much as we are today.” Asked by the reporter, whether this
+did not favor the idea of an abrupt, unheralded appearance of man on
+earth, Doctor Wissler replied: “Man came out of a blue sky as far as
+we have been able to delve back.” Fearing lest the reporter might have
+sensationalized his words, the writer took occasion to question the
+learned anthropologist on the subject during the Pan Pacific Conference
+held at Honolulu, Hawaii (Aug. 2-20, 1920). His answer was that the
+foregoing citations were substantially correct.
+
+The same verdict is given by the great palæontologist, Prof. W.
+Branco, Director of the Institute of Geology and Palæontology at the
+University of Berlin. In his discourse on “Fossil Man” delivered
+August 16, 1901, before the Fifth International Zoölogical Congress
+at Berlin, Branco said, with reference to the origin of man:
+“Palæontology tells us nothing on the subject—it knows no ancestors
+of man.” The well-known palæontologist Karl A. von Zittel reached
+the same conclusion. He says somewhere (probably in his “Grundzüge
+der Paläontologie”): “Such material as this (the discovered remains
+of fossil men) throws no light upon the question of race and descent.
+All the human bones of determinable age that have come down to us
+from the European Diluvium, as well as all the skulls discovered in
+caves, are identified by their size, shape, and capacity as belonging
+to _Homo sapiens_, and are fine specimens of their kind. They do not
+by any means fill up the gap between man and the ape.” Joseph Le
+Conte repeats the identical refrain. In the revised Fairchild edition
+(1903) of his “Elements of Geology” we read: “The earliest men yet
+found are in no sense connecting links between man and ape. They are
+distinctly human.” (Ch. VI, p. 638.) Replying to Haeckel, who in his
+“Welträtsel” proclaims man’s descent from pithecoid primates to be
+_an historical fact_, J. Reinke, the biologist of Kiel, declares: “We
+are merely having dust thrown in our eyes when we read in a widely
+circulated book by Ernst Haeckel the following words: ‘That man is
+immediately descended from apes, and more remotely from a long line of
+lower vertebrates, remains established as an indubitable historic fact,
+fraught with important consequences.’ It is absurd to speak of anything
+as a fact when experience lends it no support.” (“Haeckel’s Monism
+and Its Supporters,” Leipzig, 1907, p. 6.) The sum-total, in fact,
+of scientific knowledge concerning the origin of the human body is
+contained in the saying of the geologist, Sir Wm. Dawson, President of
+McGill University: “I know nothing about the origin of man, except what
+I am told in the Scripture—that God created him. I do not know anything
+more than that, and I do not know of anyone who does.”
+
+In view of this uncertainty and ignorance regarding the origin of the
+human body, it is extremely unethical to strive to impose the theory
+of man’s bestial origin by the sheer weight of scientific authority
+and prestige. Conscientious scientists would never venture to abuse
+in such a fashion the confidence which the people at large place in
+their assurances. Hence those who respect their honor and dignity as
+scientists should refrain from dogmatizing on the undemonstrated animal
+origin of man, however much they may personally fancy this theory. “We
+cannot teach,” says Virchow, “nor can we regard as one of the results
+of scientific research, the doctrine that man is descended from the ape
+or from any other animal.” (“The Liberty of Science,” p. 30, et seq.)
+And Professor Reinke of Kiel concludes: “The only statement consistent
+with her dignity, that Science can make, is to say that she knows
+nothing about the origin of man.” (_Der Türmer_, V, Oct., 1902, Part I,
+p. 13.)
+
+A slave, we are told (Tertul., _Apolog._ 33), rode in the triumphal
+chariot of the Roman conqueror, to whisper ever and anon in his ear:
+_Hominem memento te!_—“Remember that thou art a man!” It is unfortunate
+that no similar warning is sounded when the tone of scientific
+individuals or organizations threatens to become unduly imperious
+and intolerant. This tendency, however, to forget limitations and to
+usurp the prerogative of infallibility is sometimes rebuked by other
+reminders. The writer recalls an instance, which happened in connection
+with the Pan Pacific Conference at Honolulu during the August of 1920.
+
+The Conference was attended by illustrious scientists from every
+land bordering upon the Pacific. After the preliminary sessions,
+the delegates paid a visit to the famous volcano of Kilauea. Doctor
+T. A. Jaggar, Jr., vulcanologist and Director of the United States
+Observatory at Kilauea, acted as guide, the writer himself being one
+of the party. In the course of our tour of inspection, we came to the
+extinct volcano of Kenakakoe. There a number of volcanic bombs, some
+shattered and some intact, were pointed out to us. For the benefit of
+readers, who may not know, I may state that a volcanic bomb originates
+as a fragment of foreign material, _e.g._ a stone, which, falling into
+a volcano, becomes coated with an external shell of lava. In addition
+to the bombs, certain holes in the soil were shown to us, which Doctor
+Jaggar, evidently under the influence of military imagery suggested by
+the then recent European War, described as “shell-craters” dug by the
+aforesaid volcanic bombs.
+
+Doctor Jaggar accounted for the bombs and craters by a very ingenious
+theory. In 1790, he said, the year in which Kamehameha I was contending
+with Keoua for the mastery of the large island of Hawaii, the only
+explosive eruption of Kilauea known to history occurred, and it was
+during this eruption (which destroyed part of Keoua’s army) that the
+bombs found at Kenakakoe were ejected from the above-mentioned volcano.
+It was then, we were informed, that these bombs hurtling through the
+air in giant trajectories from Kilauea struck the ground and scooped
+out the “shell-craters” at Kenakakoe. Some of them, it appeared, did
+not remain in the craters, but rebounded to strike again on the rocks
+beyond. Of the latter, part were shattered, while others withstood the
+force of the second impact. The whole party was much impressed by the
+grandeur of this vivid description, and some of the scientists were at
+great pains to photograph the craters as awe-inspiring vestiges of the
+mighty bombardment wrought in times past by Nature’s volcanic artillery.
+
+When I returned to Hilo, I happened to mention to Brother Matthias
+Newell some misgivings which I had felt concerning the size and
+appearance of the so-called “shell-craters.” Brother Newell, a member
+of the Marist Congregation and quite a scientist in his way, is famous
+in the Islands as the discoverer of a fungus, by which the Japanese
+Beetle, a local pest, has been largely exterminated. For several years,
+prior to the advent of Doctor Jaggar and the United States Observatory,
+he had studied extensively the famous volcano on the slopes of Mauna
+Loa. On hearing my narrative of the foregoing incident, Brother Newell
+was curious to know the exact locality, and burst into a hearty laugh
+as soon as I mentioned Kenakakoe. He himself, he told me, in company
+with Brother Henry, had frequently dug for bombs at Kenakakoe. When
+successful in their quest, the two were wont to carry the volcanic
+bomb to the rocks, and to break it open for the purpose of examining
+the inner core. Some of the bombs, however, escaped this fate through
+being too resistent to the hammer. The holes, needless to say, were not
+“shell-craters” scooped by volcanic bombs, but ordinary excavations dug
+by prosaic spades. Such was the simple basis of fact upon which the
+elaborate superstructure of Jaggar’s theory had been reared! Though
+Jaggar was, in a sense, entirely blameless, his theory was pure fiction
+from start to finish. No scientist present, however, took exception to
+it. On the contrary, all of them appeared perfectly satisfied with his
+pseudoscientific explanation.
+
+If the foregoing incident conveys any lesson, it is this, that neither
+singly nor collectively are scientists exempt from error, especially
+when they deal with a remote past, which no one has observed. The
+attempt to reconstruct the past by means of inference alone produces,
+not history, but romance. Doctor Gregory’s genealogy of Man displayed
+in the American Museum is quite as much the fruit of imagination as
+Jaggar’s Kilauean fantasy. The sham pedigree bears like witness to the
+ingenuity of the human mind, but, if anyone is tempted by its false
+show of science to take it seriously, let him think of the bombs of
+Kenakakoe.
+
+
+
+
+                               AFTERWORD
+
+
+With the close of the nineteenth century the hour hand of biological
+science had completed another revolution. One after another, the
+classic systems of evolution had passed into the discard, as its
+remorseless progress registered their doom. The last of these systems,
+De-Vriesianism, enjoyed a meteoric vogue in the first years of the
+present century, but it, too, has gone into eclipse with the rise of
+rediscovered Mendelism. Notwithstanding all these reverses, however,
+the evolutionary theory still continues to number a host of steadfast
+adherents.
+
+Some of its partisans uphold it upon antiquated grounds. Culturally
+speaking, such men still live in the days of Darwin, and fail to
+realize that much water has passed under the bridge since then. It
+has other protagonists, however, who are thoroughly conversant with
+modern data, and fully aware, in consequence, of the inadequacy of
+all existent formulations of the evolutional hypothesis. Minds of the
+latter type are proof, apparently, against any sort of disillusionment,
+and it is manifest that their attitude is determined by some
+consideration other than the actual results of research.
+
+This other consideration is monistic metaphysics. In defect of
+factual confirmation, evolution is demonstrated aprioristically
+from the principle of the minimum. The scope of this methodological
+principle is to simplify or unify causation by dispensing with all
+that is superfluous in the way of explanation. In olden days, it went
+by the name of Occam’s Razor and was worded thus: _Entia non sunt
+multiplicanda praeter necessitatem_—“Things are not to be multiplied
+without necessity.” Evolution meets the requirements of this principle.
+It simplifies the problem of organic origins by reducing the number of
+ancestors to a minimum. Therefore, argues the evolutionist, evolution
+must be true.
+
+As an empirical rule, the principle of the minimum is, no doubt,
+essential to the scientific method. To erect it into a metaphysical
+axiom, however, is preposterous; for _simple_ explanations are
+not necessarily _true_ explanations. In the rôle of aprioristic
+metaphysics, the principle of continuity is destructive, and tends
+to plane down everything to the dead level of materialistic monism.
+For those who transcendentalize it, it becomes the principle “that
+everything is ‘nothing but’ something else, probably inferior to it.”
+(Santayana.) To assert continuity, they are driven to deny, or, at
+least, to leave unexplained and inexplicable, the obvious novelty
+that emerges at each higher level of the cosmic scale. And thus it
+comes to pass that intelligence is pronounced to be nothing but
+sense, and sense to be nothing but physiology, and physiology to be
+nothing but chemistry, and chemistry to be nothing but mechanics,
+until this philosophical nihilism weeps at last for want of further
+opportunities of devastation. Its exponents have an intense horror for
+abrupt transitions, and resent the discovery of anything that defies
+resolution into terms of mass and motion.
+
+Evolution smooths the path for monism of this type by transforming
+nature’s staircase into an inclined plane of imperceptible ascent.
+Hence Dewey refers to evolution as a “clinching proof” of the
+continuity hypothecated by the monist. For the latter, there is no
+hierarchy of values, and all essential distinctions are abolished; for
+him nothing is unique and everything is equally important. He affirms
+the democracy of facts and is blind to all perspective in nature. He
+is, in short, the enemy of all beauty, all spirituality, all culture,
+all morality, and all religion. He substitutes neurons for the soul,
+and enthrones Natural Selection in the place of the Creator. He sets
+up, in a word, the ideal of “an animalistic man and a mechanistic
+universe,” and offers us evolution as a demonstration of this “ideal.”
+
+Vernon Kellogg objects to our indictment. “The evolutionist,” he says,
+“does not like being called a bad man. He does not like being posted
+as an enemy of poetry and faith and religion. He does not like being
+defined as crassly materialist, a man exclusively of the earth earthy.”
+(_Atlantic Monthly_, April 24, 1924, p. 490.) Apart from their object,
+the likes or dislikes of an evolutionist are a matter of indifference.
+What we want to know is whether his dislike is merely for the names, or
+whether it extends to the reality denoted by these names. Human nature
+has a weakness for euphemisms. Men may “want the game without the
+name,” particularly when, deservedly or undeservedly, the name happens
+to have an offensive connotation.
+
+There are, no doubt, evolutionists who mingle enough dualism with their
+philosophy to mitigate the most objectionable aspects of its basic
+monism. In so doing, however, they are governed by considerations that
+are wholly extraneous to evolutionary thought. Indeed, if we take
+Kellogg’s words at their face value (that is, in a sense which he
+would probably disclaim), it is in spite of his philosophy that the
+evolutionist is a spiritualist. “And just as religion and cheating,”
+reasons Kellogg, “can apparently be compassed in one man, so can one
+man be both evolutionist and idealist.” (_Loc. cit._, p. 490.) If this
+comparison holds true, the evolutionist can be an idealist only to the
+extent that he is inconsistent or hypocritical, since under no other
+supposition could piety and crime coëxist in one and the same person.
+
+Be that as it may, the majority of evolutionists are avowed mechanists
+and materialists, in all that concerns the explanation of natural
+phenomena. “That there may be God who has put his Spirit into men”
+(Kellogg, _ibid._, p. 491), they are condescendingly willing to
+concede. And small credit to them for this; for who can _disprove_ the
+existence of God, or the spirituality of the human soul? Nevertheless,
+it is impossible, they maintain, to be _certain_ on these subjects.
+Natural science is in their eyes the only form of human knowledge that
+has any objective validity. Proofs of human spirituality they denounce
+as _metaphysical_, and metaphysics is for them synonymous with “such
+stuff as dreams are made of,” unworthy to be mentioned in the same
+breath with physical science—“Es gibt für uns kein anderes Erkennen als
+das mechanische, ... Nur mechanisch begreifen ist Wissenschaft.” (Du
+Bois-Reymond.)
+
+In practice, therefore, if not in theory, the tendency of evolution
+has been to unspiritualize and dereligionize the philosophy of its
+adherents, a tendency which is strikingly exemplified in one of its
+greatest exponents, Charles Darwin himself. The English naturalist
+began his scientific career as a theist and a spiritualist. He ended
+it as an agnostic and a materialist. His evolutionary philosophy was,
+by his own confession, responsible for the transformation. “When thus
+reflecting,” he says, “I feel compelled to look to a first cause
+having an intelligent mind in some degree analogous to that of man,
+and I deserve to be called a Theist. This conclusion was strong in my
+mind about the time, as far as I remember, when I wrote the ‘Origin
+of Species’; and it is since that time that it has very gradually,
+with many fluctuations, become weaker. But then arises the doubt, can
+the mind of man, which has, as I fully believe, been developed from a
+mind as low as that possessed by the lowest animals, be trusted when
+it draws such grand conclusions? I can not pretend to throw the least
+light on such abstruse problems. The mystery of the beginning of all
+things is insoluble by us; and I, for one, must be content to remain an
+Agnostic.” (“The Life and Letters of Charles Darwin,” edited by Francis
+Darwin, 1887, vol. I, p. 282.)
+
+Darwin likewise exemplifies in his own person the destructive
+influence exercised upon the æsthetic sense by exclusive adherence to
+the monistic viewpoint. Having alluded in his autobiography to his
+former predilection for poetry, music, and the beauties of nature,
+he continues as follows: “But now for many years I cannot endure to
+read a line of poetry: I have tried lately to read Shakespeare, and
+found that it nauseated me. I have also lost my taste for pictures and
+music.... I retain some taste for fine scenery, but it does not cause
+me the exquisite delight which it formerly did.... My mind seems to
+have become a kind of machine for grinding general laws out of large
+collections of facts; ... if I had to live my life again, I would have
+made it a rule to read some poetry and listen to some music at least
+every week; for perhaps the parts of my brain now atrophied would have
+been kept alive through use. The loss of these tastes is a loss of
+happiness, and may possibly be injurious to the intellect, and more
+probably to the moral character by enfeebling the emotional part of our
+nature.” (_Op. cit._, vol. I, pp. 81, 82.)
+
+Evolution, we repeat, has brought us materialistic monism, in whose
+barren soil nor faith, nor idealism, nor morality, nor poesy, nor art,
+nor any of the finer things of life can thrive. To its dystelic and
+atomistic view, Nature has ceased to be the vicar of God, and material
+things are no longer sacramental symbols of eternal verities. It denies
+all design in Nature, and dismembers all beauty into meaningless
+fragments. It is so deeply engrossed in the contemplation of parts,
+that it has forgotten that there is any such thing as a whole. The rose
+and the bird-of-paradise are not ineffable messages from God to man;
+they are but accidental aggregates of colloidal molecules fortuitously
+assembled in the perpetual, yet aimless, flux of evolving matter.
+
+From the standpoint of the moral and sociological consequences,
+however, the gravest count against evolution is the seeming support
+which this theory has given to the monistic conception of an
+animalistic man. Darwin’s doctrine on the bestial origin of man
+brought no other gain to natural science than the addition of one more
+unverified and unverifiable hypothesis to its already extensive stock
+of unfounded speculations. It did, however, work irreparable harm to
+millions of unlearned and credulous persons, whose childlike confidence
+the unscrupulous expounders of this doctrine have not hesitated to
+abuse. The exaggerations and misrepresentations of the latter met
+with an all too ready credence on the part of those who were not
+competent to discriminate between theory and fact. The sequel has been
+a wholesale abandonment of religious and moral convictions, which has
+ruined the lives and blighted the happiness of countless victims.
+
+Has it been worth while, we may well ask of the propounders of this
+theory, to sacrifice so much in exchange for so little? The solid gain
+to natural science has been negligible, but the consequences of the
+blow unfairly dealt to morals and religion are incalculable and beyond
+the possibility of repair. “Morals and Religion,” says Newman, “are not
+represented to the intelligence of the world by intimations and notices
+strong and obvious such as those which are the foundation of physical
+science.... Instead of being obtruded on our notice, so that we cannot
+possibly overlook them, they are the dictates either of Conscience or
+of Faith. They are faint shadows and tracings, certain indeed, but
+delicate, fragile, and almost evanescent, which the mind recognizes at
+one time, not at another, discerns when it is calm, loses when it is
+in agitation. The reflection of sky and mountains in the lake is proof
+that sky and mountains are around it, but the twilight or the mist or
+the sudden thunderstorm hurries away the beautiful image, which leaves
+behind it no memorial of what it was.... How easily can we be talked
+out of our clearest views of duty; how does this or that moral precept
+crumble into nothing when we rudely handle it! How does the fear of sin
+pass off from us, as quickly as the glow of modesty dies away from the
+countenance! and then we say ‘It is all superstition.’ However, after a
+time, we look around, and then to our surprise we see, as before, the
+same law of duty, the same moral precepts, the same protest against
+sin, appearing over against us, in their old places, as if they had
+never been brushed away, like the Divine handwriting upon the wall at
+the banquet.” (“Idea of a University,” pp. 513-515.)
+
+Had evolutionary enthusiasts adhered more strictly to the facts, had
+they proceeded in the spirit of scientific caution, had they shown,
+in fact, even so much as a common regard for the simple truth, the
+“progress of science” would not have been achieved at the expense
+of morals and religion. As it is, this so-called progress has left
+behind a wake of destruction in the shape of undermined convictions,
+blasted lives, crimes, misery, despair, and suicide. It has, in short,
+contributed largely to the present sinister and undeserved triumph of
+Materialism, Agnosticism, and Pessimism, which John Talbot Smith has so
+fittingly characterized as the three D’s of dirt, doubt, and despair. A
+little less sensationalism, a little more conscientiousness, a little
+more of that admirable quality, scientific caution, and the concord of
+faith and reason would have become a truism instead of a problem. But
+such regrets are vain. The evil effects are here to stay, and nothing
+can undo the past.
+
+If man is but a higher kind of brute, if he has no unique, immortal
+principle within him, if his free will is an illusion, if his conduct
+is the necessary resultant of chemical reactions occurring in his
+protoplasm, if he is nothing more than an automaton of flesh, a mere
+decaying organism which is the sport of all the blind physical forces
+and stimuli playing upon it, if he has no prospect of a future life
+of retribution, if he is unaccountable to any higher authority,
+Divine or human, then morality ceases to have a meaning, right and
+wrong lose their significance, virtue and vice are all the same. The
+constancy of the martyr and the patriotism of the fallen soldier become
+unintelligible folly, while a heartless and infamous sensualism preying
+vulturelike upon the carrion of human misery and corruption is to be
+reckoned the highest expression of wisdom and efficiency. The grandest
+ideals that have inspired enthusiasm and devotion in human breasts are
+but idle dreams and worthless delusions. From a world which accepts
+this degraded view of human nature all heroism and chivalry must vanish
+utterly; for it will recognize no loftier incentives to action than
+pleasure and love of self.
+
+Such doctrines, too, are essentially antisocial. They destroy the very
+foundation of altruism. To seek immortality in the effects of one’s
+unselfish deeds becomes ridiculous. For what assurance can we have
+that the fruits of our sacrifice will be acceptable to a progressive
+posterity, or what difference will our self-denial make, when the whole
+human species shall have become extinct on the desolate surface of a
+dying world? Without an adequate motivation for altruism, however, the
+existence of society becomes impossible, since self-interest is not
+a feasible substitute. To urge the observance of social laws on the
+ground that they protect person, life, and property, will hardly appeal
+to men who have no possessions to be protected nor a comfortable life
+to be prolonged. Yet the major portion of mankind are in this category.
+For such the laws can mean nothing more than artificial corruptions, of
+the natural and primitive order of things introduced for the special
+benefit of the rich and powerful.
+
+Under circumstances of this sort, no plea avails to silence the heralds
+of revolt. If there is no future life for the righting of present
+injustices, then naught remains but to terminate the prosperity of the
+wicked here and now. If there is no heaven for man beyond the grave,
+then it behooves everyone to get all the enjoyment he can out of the
+present life. It is high time, therefore, that this earthly heaven
+of mankind should cease to be monopolized by a few coupon-holding
+capitalists and become, instead, the property of the expropriated
+proletariat. Anarchy and Socialism are the consequences which the logic
+of the situation inexorably portends. The starving swine must hurl
+their bloated brethren from the trough that the latter have heretofore
+reserved for themselves. The sequel, of course, can be none other
+than the complete disintegration of civilization and its ultimate
+disappearance in a hideous vortex of carnage, rapine, and barbarity.
+
+Nor is this prognosis based on pure conjecture. In proportion as these
+pernicious doctrines have gained ground, modern society has become
+infected with the virus of animalism, egoism, and perfidy; expediency
+has been substituted for honor; and purity has been replaced by
+prophylaxis. One could not, of course, expect to see a universal and
+thoroughgoing application of these principles in the concrete. The
+materialistic view of human nature is horribly unnatural, and, in
+practice, would be quite unbearable. Natural human goodness and even
+the mere instinct of self-preservation militate against a reduction
+to the concrete of this inhuman conception, and these tend, in real
+life, to mitigate the evil effects of its acceptance. Nevertheless,
+the actual consequences resulting from the spread of evolutionary
+principles are so conspicuous and appalling as to leave no doubt
+whatever of the deadly nature of this philosophy.
+
+Marxian Socialism has been called “scientific” for no other reason than
+that it is based upon materialistic evolution, and this scientific
+socialism has brought upon modern Russia a reign of terror, which
+eclipses that of France in the bloodiest days of the Revolution.
+Eleanor Marx, it will be remembered, after falling a victim to her
+father’s teachings regarding “free love,” committed suicide. The same
+confession of failure has been made by two recent editors of the
+socialist _Appeal to Reason_ (J. W. Wayland and J. O. Welday), both
+of whom committed suicide. These are but a few of the many instances
+that might be cited to show that the life philosophy inculcated by
+materialistic evolution is so intolerably unnatural and revolting that
+neither society nor the individual can survive within the lethal shadow
+of its baleful influence.
+
+But may not the extreme materialism and pessimism of this view be
+peculiar to the sordid and joyless outlook of the social malcontent?
+Does not evolutionary thought conduce to something finer and more
+hopeful in the case of the progressive and optimistic liberal? Vain
+hope! We cannot console ourselves with any delusions on this score.
+Liberalism proclaims the emancipation of humanity from all authority,
+and the rejection of a future life of retribution is the indispensable
+premise of the doctrine that makes man a law unto himself. Hence,
+wherever Liberalism controls the tongues of educators, the human
+soul becomes a myth, religion a superstition, and immortality
+an anodyne for mental weaklings. Strong-minded truth-seekers are
+advised to abandon these irrational beliefs, and to adopt the “New
+Religion,” which dispenses once for all with God and the hereafter.
+“The new religion,” says Charles Eliot, ex-President of Harvard,
+“will not attempt to reconcile people to present ills by the promise
+of future compensation. I believe that the advent of just freedom
+has been delayed for centuries by such promises. Prevention will be
+the watchword of the new religion, and a skillful surgeon will be
+one of its ministers. It cannot supply consolation as offered by old
+religions, but it will reduce the need of consolation.” (“The New
+Religion.”)
+
+Again, it may be objected that evolutionists, for all their
+agnosticism and materialism, frequently put Christians to shame by
+their irreproachably upright and moral lives. That they sometimes
+succeed in doing this cannot be gainsaid. But they do so because they
+borrow their moral standards from Christianity, and do not follow
+the logical consequences of their own principles. Their morality,
+therefore, is parasitic, as Balfour has wisely observed, and it will
+soon die out when the social environment shall have been sufficiently
+de-Christianized. “Eat, drink, and be merry, for tomorrow we die,”
+is their proper philosophy of life, only they have not the courage
+of their convictions. For the rest, their philosophical convictions
+have nothing in common with the moral standards which they actually
+observe. In fact, not only does the monism of evolutionary science
+fail to motivate the Christian code of morals, but it is radically and
+irreconcilably opposed to all that Christianity stands for. Hartmann, a
+modern philosopher, notes with grim satisfaction the clash of the two
+viewpoints, and predicts (with what, perhaps, is premature assurance)
+the ultimate triumph of “modern progress.” “Many there are,” he tells
+us, “who speak and write of the struggle of civilization, but few there
+are who realize that this struggle is the last desperate stand of the
+Christian ideal before its final disappearance from the world, and
+that modern civilization is prepared to resort to any means rather
+than relinquish those things, which it has won at the cost of such
+great toil. For modern civilization and Christianity are antagonistic
+to each other, and it is therefore inevitable that one give place to
+the other. Modern progress can acknowledge no God save one immanent to
+the world and opposed to the transcendent God of Christian revelation,
+nor other morality save only that true kind whose source is the human
+will determining itself by itself and becoming a law unto itself.”
+(“Religion de l’avernir.”)
+
+The World War has done much to dampen the ardor of those who looked
+forward with enthusiasm to the millennium of a purely scientific
+religion. In this spectacular lesson they have learned that science can
+destroy as well as build. They have come to see that biology, physics,
+and chemistry are morally colorless, and that we must go outside the
+realm of natural science when we are in quest of that which can give
+meaning to our lives and noble inspiration to our conduct. When science
+supersedes religion, the result is always disillusionment following in
+the wreck-strewn wake of moral and physical disaster.
+
+    Grave little manikins digging in the slime
+    Intent upon the old game of ‘Once-upon-a-time.’
+    Other little manikins engaged with things-to-come,
+    Building up the sand-heap called Millennium.
+                            (_Theodore MacManus_)
+
+Recently, the chancellor of a great university has seen fit publicly
+to disclaim, in the name of his institution, all responsibility for
+a crime committed by two members of the student body. The young men
+involved in this affair had performed an experimental murder. The
+experimenters, it would seem, were unable to discriminate between man
+and beast. They had been taught by their professors that scientific
+psychology dispenses with the soul, and that the difference
+between men and brutes is one of degree only, and not of kind. Even
+that negligible distinction, they were told, had been bridged by
+evolution. In the sequel, the young men failed, apparently, to see
+why vivisection, which was right in the case of animals, should be
+wrong in the case of human beings. Their astounding obtuseness on this
+particular point was, of course, exceedingly regrettable and hard to
+understand. Yet, somehow, one cannot help thinking but that their
+education was largely responsible for it.
+
+In the startling crime of these students, modern educators will
+find much food for serious thought. It should give pause to those,
+especially, who have been overzealous in popularizing the Darwinian
+conception of human nature. Let men of this type reflect upon what
+slender grounds their dogmatism rests, and let them then weigh well the
+gravity of the responsibility, which they incur. Tuccimei summarizes
+for them, in the following terms, the nature and extent of their
+accountability:
+
+“This perverse determination to place man and brutes in the same
+category, interests me not so much from the scriptural standpoint
+as for reasons moral and social. Science, as the more moderate of
+our adversaries have told us often enough, does not assail religion,
+but proceeds on its way regardless of the consequences. And the
+consequences we see only too plainly, now that the evolutionary
+philosophy has invaded every branch of knowledge and walk of life,
+and has seeped down among the ignorant and turbulent masses. These
+consequences are known as socialism and anarchy. The protagonists of
+the new philosophy strove to repudiate them at first: but now many of
+their number have laid aside even this pretense. Socialistic doctrines
+are based exclusively upon our assumed kinship with the brutes, and the
+leaders of militant socialism have inscribed on the frontispieces of
+their books the chain fatally logical and terribly true of three names,
+Darwin, Spencer, Marx.
+
+“In truth, our common origin with the brutes being taken for granted,
+why should we not enjoy in common with them the right to gratify
+every instinct? Social inequalities are the product of laws and
+conventionalities willed by the rich and powerful. In the natural and
+primitive state of things they did not exist; why not proceed then to a
+general leveling of the existing social order?
+
+“Such an origin of the human race being assumed, the existence of the
+soul and a future life becomes a myth invented by the priests of the
+various religions. With this inconvenient restraint removed, there
+remains no alternative save to aspire to the acquisition of all the
+pleasures of life; and for him who lacks the wherewithal to procure
+them for himself there remains no other recourse than to seek them by
+means of violence or strategy. Hence anarchy. In this supposition,
+morality no longer possesses that sole, true, and efficacious sanction
+which religion alone can furnish; it amounts to nothing more than the
+resultant of the evolution of the individual’s perfections and their
+coördination to the well-being of his race and of society. But if, by
+reason of retarded evolution, the social instincts have not progressed
+to the point of repressing the individual or egoistic instincts,
+what guilt will there be in the delinquent who lapses into the most
+atrocious crimes? Hence free will is another myth that positive
+psychology and the science of moral statistics have already been at
+pains to explode.
+
+“And behold the suffering, the unfortunate, and the dying deprived of
+their sole consolation, the last hope which faith held out to them,
+and society reduced to an inferno of desperadoes and suicides! I could
+go on showing in this way, to what a pass the evolutionistic theories
+bring society and the individual.” (“La teoria dell’ evoluzione e le
+sue applicazioni,” p. 46.)
+
+
+
+
+                               GLOSSARY
+
+
+    _Abiogenesis_: The discredited hypothesis that life may
+    originate spontaneously in lifeless matter, _i.e._, apart from
+    the influence of living matter.
+
+    _Adaptation_: (1) The reciprocal aptitude of organism and
+    environment for each other; (2) a structure, modification of
+    structure, or behavioristic response enabling the organism to
+    solve a special problem imposed by the environment; (3) the
+    process by which the organism’s adjustment to the environment
+    is brought about.
+
+    _Allelomorphs_: Genes located opposite each other on homologous
+    chromosomes and representing contrasting characters; they
+    are separated during meiosis according to the Mendelian
+    law of segregation, _e.g._ the genes for red and white
+    in Four o’clocks which when united give rise to pink, and
+    when segregated, to red and white flowers respectively, are
+    allelomorphs of each other.
+
+    _Alluvial_: Pertaining to the Alluvium, which consists of
+    fresh-water deposits of the Pleistocene and Recent series, to
+    be distinguished from the Diluvium which consists of older
+    Pleistocene formations.
+
+    _Amino-acids_: The chemical building-stones of the
+    proteins—organic acids containing one or more amino-groups
+    (—NH₂) in place of hydrogen, _e.g._, amino-acetic acid,
+    CH₂·NH₂·COOH.
+
+    _Amnion_: A membranous bag which encloses the embryo in
+    higher vertebrates. The lower vertebrates, namely, fishes
+    and amphibia, have no amnion and are termed “anamniotic.”
+    The reptiles, birds, and mammals which possess it are termed
+    amniotic vertebrates.
+
+    _Amphioxus_: The most simply organized animal having a
+    dorsal notochord. It is classified among the Acrania in
+    contradistinction to the craniate Chordates which make up the
+    bulk of the vertebrates.
+
+    _Angiosperms_: The higher plants, which have their seeds
+    enclosed in seed-vessels.
+
+    _Anthropoid Apes_: Apes of the family SIMIIDÆ, which approach
+    man most closely in their organization, namely, the chimpanzee,
+    the gorilla, the gibbon, and orang-utan.
+
+    _Antibody_: Chemical substances produced in the blood in
+    reaction to the injection of antigens or toxic substances and
+    capable of counteracting or neutralizing said substance. Such
+    antibodies are specific for determinate antigens.
+
+    _Antigen_: Any substance that causes the production of special
+    antibodies in the blood of susceptible animals, after one or
+    several injections.
+
+    _Arthropods_: The phylum of exoskeletal invertebrates
+    comprising crustaceans, arachnida, insects, etc.
+
+    _Atavism_: The resemblance to an ancestor more distant than the
+    parents.
+
+    _Automatism_: A spontaneous action, not in response to
+    recognizable stimuli.
+
+
+    _Basichromatin_: That portion of a cell’s nuclear network which
+    contains nuclein and is deeply stained by basic dyes.
+
+    _Biparental_: Derived from two progenitors, _i.e._, a father
+    and mother.
+
+    _Brachiopods_: Invertebrate animals bearing a superficial
+    resemblance to bivalve molluscs, but belonging to a totally
+    different group—lamp shells.
+
+
+    _Cambrian_: The “oldest” system of the Palæozoic group of
+    fossiliferous rocks.
+
+    _Carbohydrates_: The sugars, starches, etc.,—polyhydric
+    alcohols with aldehydic or ketonic groups, and acetals of same,
+    etc.
+
+    _Catalyst_: A substance which accelerates a chemical reaction
+    without permanently participating in it, being left over
+    unchanged at the end of the process.
+
+    _Centriole_: The centrioles or central bodies are the foci of
+    mitotic division in animal cells, as well as the source of
+    the kinetic elements developed by such cells. They are minute
+    bodies usually located within a larger sphere known as the
+    centrosome or centrosphere. They do not occur in the cells of
+    the higher plants.
+
+    _Cephalopods_: A class of molluscs in which the foot is
+    developed into a headlike structure with eyes and a circle of
+    arms, _e.g._, the octopus, the cuttlefish, the squid, and the
+    nautilus.
+
+    _Ceratites_: A genus of extinct cephalopods having a coiled
+    shell and crooked sutures.
+
+    _Character_: An external feature or sensible property of an
+    organism. It is the joint product of germinal factors (genes)
+    and environmental influences.
+
+    _Chlorophyll_: The green pigment formed in the chloroplasts
+    (green plastids) of plant cells. It is a diester of phytyl
+    and methyl alcohols with the tribasic acid, chlorophyllin,
+    one of whose carboxyls is esterified with methyl alcohol, a
+    second with phytol, while the third is otherwise engaged.
+    Chlorophyllin is a tribasic acid consisting of the
+    chlorophyllic chromogen group (containing magnesium) joined to
+    three carboxyl groups.
+
+    _Chondriosomes_: Cytoplasmic granules rodlike, threadlike,
+    or spherical in form, which often appear to divide on the
+    mitotic spindle, and are therefore credited with the power of
+    independent growth and division. The chondriosomes of embryonic
+    tissues are thought to be the original sources of the plastids,
+    the fibrillæ, and certain metaplastic granules.
+
+    _Chordates_: The phylum of animals whose primary axial skeleton
+    consists temporarily or permanently of a notochord.
+
+    _Chromatin_: Same as basichromatin.
+
+    _Chromosomes_: The short threads or rodlike bodies into which
+    the basichromatin of the cell-nucleus is aggregated during
+    mitosis—each chromosome is segmented into granules called
+    chromomeres—in its submicroscopic structure it consists
+    of chain or linear series of genes (hereditary factors)
+    representing characters linked together in heredity,
+    each single chromosome being termed, on this account, a
+    “linkage-group” by geneticists.
+
+    _Ciliate_: A protozoan whose motor-apparatus consists of cilia,
+    _i. e._, hairlike protoplasmic projections capable of rapid and
+    coördinated vibratile movement.
+
+    _Cloaca_: A common passageway through which the intestine,
+    kidneys, and sex organs discharge their products,—it occurs in
+    certain fishes, in amphibia, reptiles, and birds, and in a few
+    mammals.
+
+    _Coccyx_: Lower extremity of the vertebral column in man.
+
+    _Colloids_: Insoluble gumlike substances, which will not
+    diffuse through organic membranes.
+
+    _Commensalism_: The harmonious cohabitation of two organisms
+    belonging to different species, where the relation is not
+    necessarily beneficial nor necessarily harmful to either.
+
+    _Crossover_: The exchange or reciprocal transfer of whole
+    blocks of genes from one homologous chromosome to the
+    other, which sometimes occurs in synapsis, probably at the
+    strepsinema-stage.
+
+    _Crystalloids_: Soluble substances, which usually form crystals
+    and readily diffuse through organic membranes.
+
+    _Cyst_: A protective envelope formed around an organism during
+    period of rest.
+
+    _Cytode_: The non-nucleated cell hypothecated by Haeckel.
+
+    _Cyptoplasm_: The cell-body or extranuclear protoplasm of a
+    cell.
+
+
+    _Endomixis_: A process of nuclear reorganization among the
+    protozoa, which does not require the coöperation of two cells
+    as in conjugation (amphimixis).
+
+    _Endoskeleton_: An internal living skeleton providing
+    support and protection (as well as organs of movement, in
+    the bone-levers to which the muscles are attached)—it is
+    characteristic of the vertebrates.
+
+    _Enzymes_: Organic catalysts, _i. e._, complex chemical
+    substances formed by organisms and serving to accelerate
+    chemical processes taking place in said organisms, _e. g._,
+    the digestive enzymes, which accelerate the hydrolysis of
+    starches, fats, and proteins.
+
+    _Epigenesis_: Development of the embryo by differentiation of
+    previously undifferentiated protoplasm.
+
+
+    _Fats_: Esters of the higher fatty or organic acids (such as
+    stearic, palmitic, and oleic) esterified with the trihydric
+    alcohol glycerine (glycerol).
+
+
+    _Gamete_: A reproductive cell specialized for syngamy, _i.e._,
+    for union with a complementary germ cell, their union giving
+    rise to a synthetic cell known as a zygote.
+
+    _Ganglion_: An aggregate of nerve-cells consisting mainly of
+    neural cell-bodies together with supporting cells.
+
+    _Ganoids_: Fishes covered with enameled bony scales, and now,
+    for the most part, extinct.
+
+    _Gene_: A factor or infinitesimal element in a nuclear thread
+    or chromosome, the latter being a linear aggregate of such
+    factors, each having definite specificity and manifesting
+    itself in the external character which develops from it.
+
+    _Genotype_: The total assemblage of germinal factors
+    transmitted by a given species of organism, that is, the
+    complete complex of genes synthesized in the zygote and
+    perpetuated by equation-divisions in the somatic cells. Hence
+    the basic germinal or hereditary constitution of an organism or
+    group of organisms.
+
+    _Germ Cells_: Cells specialized for reproduction as contrasted
+    with other vital functions, _e.g._, spores and gametes.
+
+    _Germ-plasm_: The material basis of inheritance.
+
+    _Glacial Epoch_: After the close of the Tertiary period,
+    Europe and North America are said to have been covered with
+    vast ice sheets known as continental glaciers (the result of
+    great climatic changes in the Northern hemisphere). As the
+    weather varied these ice sheets advanced and retreated, the
+    retreats corresponding to the so-called Interglacial intervals.
+    Four Glacial and three Interglacial stages are distinguished,
+    and it was during the Second and Third of these Interglacial
+    stages that Palæolithic Man is alleged to have entered Europe.
+     _Golgi Bodies_: A cytoplasmic apparatus consisting, in its
+    localized form, of a network, and, in its dispersed form,
+    of scattered granules. It appears to divide on the mitotic
+    spindle, and seems to have some important function connected
+    with secretion.
+
+
+    _Habitat_: The locality in which a given animal or plant
+    normally lives.
+
+    _Hallux_: The great toe, opposable in the ape, but not in man.
+
+    _Heredity_: “The appearance in offspring of characters whose
+    differential causes are in the germ cells” (Conklin).
+
+    _Heterozygous_: Hybrid,—the condition in which the chromosomal
+    genes paired by syngamy in the zygote are unlike.
+
+    _Homologous Chromosomes_: Corresponding chromosomes of the
+    same synaptic pair, being of paternal and maternal origin
+    respectively.
+
+    _Homozygous_: Pure,—the condition in which the chromosomal
+    genes paired in the zygote by syngamy are alike.
+
+    _Hormone_: An internal secretion elaborated in the endocrine
+    or ductless glands and diffused in the blood stream for the
+    purpose of influencing the activities or metabolism of parts of
+    the organism at a distance from the source of the hormone, _e.
+    g._, secretin, gastrin, adrenalin, etc.
+
+    _Hydrotheca_: The cuplike extension of the perisarc (skeletal
+    sheath) surrounding the hypostome (oral cone) and tentacles of
+    certain polyps.
+
+    _Hyloblatic_: Resembling the gibbon.
+
+
+    _Lemurs_: Four-handed animals allied to the Insectivora, with
+    curved nostrils and a claw instead of a nail on the first
+    finger of the rear hands.
+
+    _Lethals_: A genetical term for hereditary factors (genes)
+    which cause the death of the gametes or the zygotes that
+    contain them. In the case of zygotes, death results from the
+    homozygous, but not from the heterzygous, condition.
+
+    _Linin_: Same as oxychromatin.
+
+    _Litopterna_: A suborder of extinct ungulate mammals from the
+    Miocene and Pliocene of South America resembling horses or
+    llamas.  _Mammals_: Vertebrate animals which suckle their
+    young after birth.
+
+    _Meiosis_: The process whereby the chromosomes of synaptic
+    pairs (in the primary oöcyte or spermatocyte) are separated
+    in such a way that the resulting gametes (eggs, or sperms)
+    receive a haploid (halved) number of unpaired chromosomes,
+    instead of the diploid (double) number of paired chromosomes
+    characteristic of the zygote and the somatic cells of the
+    species.
+
+    _Metista_: Animals and plants normally multicellular and having
+    their cells differentiated into at least two distinct layers or
+    tissues—the Metazoans and Metaphytes.
+
+    _Mitosis_: Typical cell-division, whose mechanism consists of
+    the spindle-fibers, and whose scope is to secure an exactly
+    equal partition of the single components of the nucleus of the
+    dividing cell between the two resultant daughter-cells.
+
+    _Monism_: A system of thought which holds that there is but one
+    substance, either mind (idealistic subjectivism), or matter
+    (objectivistic materialism),—or else a substance that is
+    neither mind nor matter, but is the substantial ground of both.
+    Idealistic monism regards mind as the sole reality and matter
+    as its product. Materialistic monism regards matter as the sole
+    reality and mind as its product.
+
+
+    _Neolithic_: Pertaining to the Young-Stone Age, that is, to
+    prehistoric man of Post-glacial time. The implements of the
+    latter are of polished stone. The Young-Stone Age is said to
+    have begun about 7,000 years B.C., and to have ended with the
+    Copper Culture about 2,000 B.C. The Bronze Age, which followed
+    it, belongs to history.
+
+    _Neurone_: The nerve-cell with all its processes, consisting,
+    therefore, of the nucleated cell-body, the axone or discharging
+    fiber, and the dentrites or receiving fibers.
+
+
+    _Oölites_: An English term for the Jurassic, or middle system
+    of the Mesozoic group of fossiliferous rocks.
+
+    _Ontogeny_: The embryological development of the individual.
+    _Opposable_: A term applied to the thumb or great toe when they
+    are capable of being placed with their tips opposite to those
+    of the other digits.
+
+    _Organelle_: Literally, a “miniature organ,” _i.e._, one of
+    the living components of a cell as distinguished from the
+    metaplastic or non-living inclusions.
+
+    _Oxychromatin_: That portion of the nuclear network which
+    stains with acidic dyes, the finer nuclear reticulum in which
+    the coarser strands of basichromatin appear to be suspended.
+
+
+    _Palæolithic_: Belonging to the Old-Stone Age, which
+    corresponds to the latter half of the Glacial or Pleistocene
+    epoch. It is alleged to be the second period of prehistoric man
+    (following the Eolithic) and is characterized by implements
+    of unpolished stone shaped from flint by the chipping off of
+    flakes of the latter substance.
+
+    _Palæontology_: The science of fossil organisms.
+
+    _Palæozoic_: A term applied to the second group of
+    fossiliferous rocks, following the earliest, or Proterozoic,
+    group, and preceding the Mesozoic group. It comprises the
+    Cambrian, Ordovician, Devonian, Silurian, and Carboniferous
+    systems, and its sediments are the first that contain
+    well-preserved fossils.
+
+    _Parasitism_: A condition in which one organism (the parasite)
+    residing in, or upon, another species of organism (the host)
+    lives at its expense, the relation being detrimental to the
+    latter.
+
+    _Parthenogenesis_: The production of offspring from
+    unfertilized eggs.
+
+    _Phenotype_: The sum-total of external characters by whose
+    enumeration an organism is described—the somatic or expressed
+    characters of an organism (or group of organisms) as
+    distinguished from those that are merely potential in the germ
+    cells.
+
+    _Phylogeny_: Developmental history of the race, the
+    hypothetical evolutionary history of the race, in
+    contradistinction to the embryological development of
+    the individual (ontogeny).  _Phylum_: A term used in
+    classification to denote any primary group of the plant or
+    animal kingdom.
+
+    _Plantigrade_: Walking on the whole sole of the foot, like
+    bears.
+
+    _Plastids_: Permanent organelles or living components of the
+    cellular cytoplasm, _e.g._, chloroplasts, leucoplasts, etc.
+
+    _Pleistocene_: The lower series of the Quaternary system of
+    fossiliferous rocks. It corresponds to the so-called Glacial
+    epoch, and extends from the close of the Tertiary period
+    (system) to the dawn of the Recent or Historical epoch.
+
+    _Polar Cell_: A synonym for polar body, or policyte. The
+    polar bodies are minute abortive cells given off by the egg
+    undergoing meiosis. Into them are shunted the chromosomes
+    which the egg discards in its process of nuclear reduction
+    (maturation).
+
+    _Præformation_: Theory that the egg contains a complete
+    miniature of the organism into which it develops.
+
+    _Prehension_: Grasping, catching hold.
+
+    _Progression_: Advancing movement, locomotion.
+
+    _Pro-simiæ_: The lemurs as distinguished from genuine apes
+    (Simiæ).
+
+    _Protista_: Animals or plants which are normally unicellular
+    and which when multicellular show no differentiation into
+    tissues—the Protozoans and Protophytes.
+
+    _Protoplasm_: Living matter.
+
+
+    _Receptor_: An organ specialized to receive stimuli, _e.g._, a
+    sense-organ.
+
+
+    _Sedimentary_: A term applied to rocks which originated as
+    sediments deposited under water.
+
+    _Serum_: Watery portion of the blood, the plasma.
+
+    _Somatic Cells_: Vegetative cells not especially set aside by
+    the organism for reproductive purposes, _e.g._, tissue-cells.
+
+    _Somite_: One of the uniform segments of the longitudinal
+    series into which a metameric organism (such as an earthworm)
+    is partitioned.
+
+    _Spermatist_: An old term applied to one who held that the
+    animal embryo was produced entirely by the male parent.
+    _Spore_: A single cell, incapable of syngamy, but capable of
+    giving rise to a new individual without the sexual process.
+
+    _Symbiosis_: The obligatory association of two organisms of
+    different species for mutual benefit.
+
+    _Synapsis_: Union in pairs of corresponding (homologous)
+    chromosomes of opposite parental origin as a preliminary to
+    their separation in meiosis.
+
+    _Systematist_: An expert in classification (systematics), _i.
+    e._, a taxonomist.
+
+
+    _Taxonomy_: The science of classification.
+
+    _Tertiary Period_: A geological time-division corresponding to
+    the rock-system that comprises the greater part of the Cenozoic
+    group. It is made up of four series, namely, the Eocene,
+    Oligocene, Miocene, and Pliocene. Its close marks the beginning
+    of the Glacial or Pleistocene epoch.
+
+    _Tissue_: A layer of uniform cells specialized for the same
+    function.
+
+    _Tissue Cell_: One of the somatic cells of which a tissue is
+    composed.
+
+    _Troglodytic_: Resembling the chimpanzee and the gorilla.
+
+
+    _Woods Hole_: The seat of the Marine Biological Laboratory. It
+    is a watering-place on the New England coast opposite Martha’s
+    Vineyard.
+
+
+    _Zygote_: The synthetic cell formed by the union of two gametes
+    and giving rise by division either to a new multicellular
+    organism, or to a rejuvenated cycle of unicellular forms.
+
+
+
+
+                           INDEX TO AUTHORS
+
+
+    Adami, J. G., 57.
+
+    Aeby, Christoph Theod., 274.
+
+    Æsop, 246.
+
+    Alsberg, Moritz, 317.
+
+    Altman, Richard, 141.
+
+    Aquinas, St. Thomas, 32, 73, 268, 343.
+
+    Aristotle, 133, 155, 172, 174, 192, 196, 197, 200, 202, 214, 215,
+      227, 230.
+
+    Armstrong, H. E., 190.
+
+    Arrhénius, Svante, 166, 167, 182, 183, 184.
+
+    Augustine, St., 32, 73, 74, 75.
+
+
+    Bach, Alexis, 145, 146.
+
+    Bacon, Francis, 86, 87.
+
+    Bagg, H. J., 266.
+
+    Balfour, Arthur James, 358.
+
+    Ballou, W. H., 318.
+
+    Bardon, L., 330.
+
+    Bastian, Charlton, 165.
+
+    Bateson, Wm., 1, 5, 12, 13, 16, 17, 18, 20, 21, 25, 28, 30, 43, 44,
+      73, 84, 85, 88, 145, 146, 334.
+
+    Bather, F. A., 3, 40, 76, 77, 86, 87, 90, 91, 92, 93.
+
+    Baudlisch, Oscar, 148.
+
+    Baur, E., 88.
+
+    Beddoe, 333.
+
+    Bergson, Henri, 262.
+
+    Bernouilli, Jacques, 248.
+
+    Bey, Pruner-, 324.
+
+    Binet, Alfred, 220.
+
+    Biot, Jean Baptiste, 135.
+
+    Blackwelder, Eliot, 117.
+
+    Blake, C. Carter, 324.
+
+    Blakeslee, Albert F., 17, 21, 22, 23.
+
+    Blanford, Wm. Thomas, 95.
+
+    Boule, Marcellin, 332.
+
+
+    Bouvier, E. L., 239, 260, 261, 265.
+
+    Bouyssonie, A. J. & P., 330.
+
+    Boveri, Th., 139.
+
+    Branco, W., 344.
+
+    Breuil, Abbé Henri, 290, 342.
+
+    Brown, Barnum, 270, 310.
+
+    Bryan, Wm. Jennings, 1, 343.
+
+    Buffon, C. L., 305.
+
+    Bühler, Karl, 218, 220.
+
+    Bumüller, J., 273, 274.
+
+    Burroughs, John, 244.
+
+    Burton-Opitz, Russel, 299.
+
+
+    Calkins, Gary N., 39, 40, 161.
+
+    Campbell, Marius Robinson, 107 note
+
+    Carazzi, D., 304.
+
+    Castle, W. E., 43.
+
+    Caullery, Maurice, 12, 28, 29, 277.
+
+    Chamberlain, T. C., 125.
+
+    Chetverikov, S. S., 115, 116.
+
+    Chiesa, Luigi, 210.
+
+    Clausen, Roy Elwood, 26.
+
+    Clemont, 324.
+
+    Clifford, Wm. Kingdon, 237.
+
+    Cohn, Ferd. Jul., 182.
+
+    Coleman, Arthur P., 113, 114, 115.
+
+    Comte, (Isidore) Auguste, 225, 226.
+
+    Conklin, E. G., 270.
+
+    Copernicus, Nicholas, XII, XIII.
+
+    Coulter, John Merle, 24.
+
+    Creighton, J. E., 238.
+
+    Croll, James, 290.
+
+    Crookes, Sir Wm., 183.
+
+    Cuvier, Georges, 67, 72, 76, 90, 91, 102.
+
+
+    Dana, James Dwight, 111, 114, 117, 270.
+
+
+    Darwin, Charles, 9, 10, 11, 12, 16, 24, 30, 32, 65, 68, 75, 81, 152,
+      191, 194, 236, 238, 245, 246, 269, 277, 286, 287, 288, 290, 295,
+      296, 297, 298, 302, 305, 307, 338, 349, 352, 353, 360.
+
+    Da Vinci, Leonardo, 257.
+
+    Davis, Bradley Moore, 25, 26, 27, 28.
+
+    Davis, J. Barnard, 324.
+
+    Dawson, Sir John William, 345.
+
+    Dawson, Charles, 320.
+
+    Deaver, J. B., 295.
+
+    De Chardin, Teilhard, 320.
+
+    De Geer, Gerard, 289.
+
+    Delage, Yves, 127, 150, 151.
+
+    De Mattos, Alexander Teixeira, 247 note.
+
+    De Puydt, Marcel, 326.
+
+    Descartes, René, 172, 197, 198, 202, 231, 249.
+
+    De Vires, Hugo, 16, 17, 20.
+
+    Dewey, John, 350.
+
+    Dorlodot, Canon Henri de, XII, 31, 34, 47, 70, 74.
+
+    Dreisch, Hans, 12, 70, 172, 174, 190, 202, 244, 252.
+
+    Dubois, Eugène, 313, 314, 316, 318.
+
+    Du Bois-Reymond, Emil, 11, 268, 277, 352.
+
+    Dumas, Jean Baptiste, 135.
+
+    Duponceau, Pierre Étienne, 338.
+
+    Dupont, André Hubert, 326.
+
+    Dwight, Thomas, 36, 51, 59, 274, 275, 278, 285, 303, 304, 309, 319,
+      320, 328, 336, 337.
+
+
+    Ecclesiastes, 192.
+
+    Ehrlich, Paul, 57.
+
+    Eimer, Th., 7.
+
+    Eliot, Charles W., 358.
+
+    Evans, Sir Arthur, 339.
+
+    Ezekiel, 89.
+
+
+    Fabre, J. H., 240, 247 note, 249, 251, 252, 254, 258, 260, 263, 264,
+      265, 266.
+
+    Fechner, Gustav Theodor, 149.
+
+
+    Fenton, Henry John H., 146.
+
+    Fischer, Emil, 145.
+
+    Fleischmann, Albert, 12.
+
+    Flemming, W., 137.
+
+    Fontaine, T., 208.
+
+    Fraipont, Julien, 327.
+
+    Fuhlrott, C., 323.
+
+
+    Galiani, 11.
+
+    Galilei, Galileo, XII, XIII.
+
+    Garbowski, Thad., 284.
+
+    Gaskell, Walter Holbrook, 293, 294.
+
+    Gatenby, J. B., 140.
+
+    Geikie, Sir Archibald, 96, 97, 107 note.
+
+    Gerard, John, S.J., 82.
+
+    Goodrich, Edwin S., 15, 62.
+
+    Goodspeed, T. H., 26.
+
+    Grabau, Amadeus, Wm., 335.
+
+    Grassi, B., 66.
+
+    Gray, Henry, 299.
+
+    Gregory, W. K., 270, 309, 310, 311, 318, 348.
+
+    Grignard, Victor, 209.
+
+    Gruender, Hubert, 233 note.
+
+    Gummersbach, Joseph, 247 note.
+
+    Guyer, M. F., 15, 266.
+
+
+    Haacke, Joh. Wilh., 275, 317.
+
+    Haeckel, Ernest, 33, 48, 89, 138, 186, 237, 275, 277, 278, 345.
+
+    Hamann, Joh. Georg, 149.
+
+    Handlirsch, Anton, 115.
+
+    Hartmann, Karl Robert Eduard von, 358.
+
+    Harvey, William, 155.
+
+    Haswell, Wm. A., 316, 317.
+
+    Hauser, O., 329.
+
+    Hayes, Charles Willard, 107 note.
+
+    Heilprin, Angelo, 120, 121.
+
+    Heim, Albert, 107 note.
+
+    Helmholtz, Herman von, 182, 298.
+
+    Henderson, Lawrence J., 6, 153, 175, 176, 179.
+
+    Hertwig, Oskar, 284.
+
+    Hertwig, Richard, 315.
+
+    Holmes, Oliver Wendell, 127.
+
+
+    Holworth, Sir Henry, 98.
+
+    Horace, 54, 109.
+
+    Howe, John Allen, 104, 105.
+
+    Howell, Wm. H. 299.
+
+    Hrdlička, A., 316, 318, 319, 322, 323, 325, 328, 329, 331, 332.
+
+    Hubrecht, Ambrosius Arnold William, 309, 317.
+
+    Hume, David, 198.
+
+    Huxley, Thomas H., 20, 67, 76, 98, 111 note, 236, 237, 314, 325, 333.
+
+
+    Jaggar, T. A., Jr., 346, 347, 348.
+
+    James, William, 205, 206, 212, 249.
+
+    Jennings, H. S., 250.
+
+    Johnson, Dr. George, XVI.
+
+    Jordan, David Starr, 4, 18, 28.
+
+    Jörgensen, J., 146, 147.
+
+    Judd, J. W., 94.
+
+
+    Kammerer, Paul, 14, 266.
+
+    Kant, Immanuel, 198.
+
+    Keen, W. W., 48.
+
+    Keith, Arthur, 319, 322, 328, 332, 336, 337.
+
+    Kellogg, Vernon I., 46 note, 53 note, 350, 351.
+
+    Kerr, J. Graham, 280, 282, 284.
+
+    Keyser, C. J., 204.
+
+    Kidd, F., 146.
+
+    Klaatsch, A., 308, 309, 312, 317, 326, 328, 330.
+
+    Koenen, C., 326.
+
+    Kofoid, Charles A., 118, 162.
+
+    Kohlbrugge, J. H. F., 274, 275, 277, 285, 308.
+
+    Kölliker, Rudolph Albert, 7.
+
+    Kollman, Julius, 285, 286, 317.
+
+    Kramberger, K. Gorjanović, 320, 333.
+
+
+    Lamarck, Jean Baptiste, 8, 9, 16, 30, 32, 65, 286, 290.
+
+    Lankester, E. Ray, 186.
+
+    Laplace, Pierre Simon, 181.
+
+    Lebedeff, 183.
+
+    Le Conte, Joseph N., 345.
+
+    Lee, 333.
+
+    Leydig, Franz, 137.
+
+    Linné, Carl von, 4.
+
+    Loeb, Jacques, 159, 249, 250, 252, 264.
+
+    Lohest, Maximin, 326.
+
+    Lotsy, J. P., 25.
+
+    Lucretius, 30.
+
+    Lull, Richard S., 115.
+
+
+    Macalister, R. A. S., 342.
+
+    MacCurdy, George Grant, 317, 326, 329, 331, 332.
+
+    MacDowell, E. C., 266.
+
+    MacManus, T., 359.
+
+    Macnamara, N. C., 314, 325.
+
+    Manouvrier, L., 316, 333.
+
+    Marx, Karl, 360.
+
+    Mathews, Albert, 293, 294, 302.
+
+    Maxwell, J. Clerk, 183.
+
+    McCann, Alfred W., 31, 32, 33, 34, 47, 50, 51.
+
+    McConnell, R. G., 107, note, 109.
+
+    McGregor, J. H., 315, 316, 317, 320, 322.
+
+    Melanchthon, Phillip, 197.
+
+    Mendel, Gregor Johann, 3, 24, 27, 28, 32.
+
+    Mendeléef, Dimitri Ivanovitch, 56.
+
+    Mercier, Désiré Cardinal, 204, 205, 208.
+
+    Meyer, Ludwig, 302, 324.
+
+    Michael Angelo, 257.
+
+    Miller, Arthur M., 97, 98.
+
+    Miller, Gerrit, 321.
+
+    Minchin, E. A., 5.
+
+    Moore, Benjamin F., 150, 165, 166, 167, 168, 170.
+
+    Morgan, C. Lloyd, 233 note, 234 note, 237.
+
+    Morgan, Thomas Hunt, 12, 16, 36, 44, 64, 85, 86, 88, 89, 276, 278,
+      306, 334.
+
+    Morton, Dudley J., 270.
+
+    Muckermann, H., S.J., 325.
+
+    Müller, Fritz, 48, 275, 278.
+
+    Müller, Max, 338.
+
+
+    Nägeli, Karl Wilhelm, 7, 186.
+
+    Newman, John Henry, 354.
+
+    Newell, Bro. Matthias, 347.
+
+    Newton, Sir Isaac, XIII.
+
+    Nicholson, Henry Alleyne, 97, 272.
+
+    Nicomachus, 196.
+
+
+    Obermaier, Hugues, 289, 290, 324, 327, 329, 342.
+
+    Occam, William of, 67, 349.
+
+    Osborn, Henry Fairfield, 2, 33, 65, 70, 76, 88, 89, 90, 170, 289,
+      290, 309, 318, 342.
+
+
+    Paley, William, 11.
+
+    Parker, G. H., 9, 233 note, 295.
+
+    Parker, T. Jeffery, 316, 317.
+
+    Pasteur, Louis, 135, 181.
+
+    Paulsen, Friederich, 206.
+
+    Pawlow, Ivan, 242, 249, 266.
+
+    Pearson, Karl, 310.
+
+    Peckham, Geo. W. and Eliz. G., 265.
+
+    Perrier, Remy, 296.
+
+    Pfizenmayer, E., 91, 92.
+
+    Pictet, Amé, 143.
+
+    Pirrson, L. V., 107 note, 109.
+
+    Plato, 172, 197.
+
+    Poulton, Edward B., 186.
+
+    Price, George McCready, 97, 98, 99, 100, 104, 105, 107, 109, 110, 120.
+
+    Price, T. S., 167.
+
+
+    Quatrefages De Breau, Jean Louis Armand de, 276.
+
+
+    Ranke, J., 271, 272, 273, 274, 324.
+
+    Rautert, 326.
+
+    Ray, John, 5, 20.
+
+    Redi, Francesco, 134, 136, 137.
+
+    Reinke, J., 345, 346.
+
+    Renner, O., 16.
+
+    Richter, Herm. Eberh., 182.
+
+    Riddle, Oscar, 300.
+
+    Robinson, James Harvey, 190, 194, 195, 236.
+
+    Rösch, Joseph, 318.
+
+    Rothpletz, Aug., 107 note.
+
+    Russell, Bertrand, 204.
+
+
+    Santayana, George, 350.
+
+    Sapir, Edward, 338.
+
+    Schaaffhausen, D., 150, 325, 333.
+
+    Schäfer, E. A., 58, 165, 179, 184, 185.
+
+    Schleiden, Matthias J., 136.
+
+    Schmidt, H. D., 260.
+
+    Schoetensack, Otto, 318, 319.
+
+    Schroeder, Ch. F., 251.
+
+    Schuchert, Charles, 97, 98, 104 note, 106, 109, 110.
+
+    Schultze, F. E., 218.
+
+    Schultze, Max, 137, 138.
+
+    Schwalbe, Gust. Alb., 286, 317, 324, 325, 333.
+
+    Schwann, Theodor, 136.
+
+    Scott, Wm. B., 78, 96, 103, 119, 120.
+
+    Sedgwick, A., 95.
+
+    Sellars, R. W., 233 note.
+
+    Sewall, Anna, 236.
+
+    Smith, G. Elliot, 289, 341.
+
+    Smith, John Talbot, 355.
+
+    Smith, William, 102.
+
+    Snell, Karl, 308.
+
+    Sollas, W. J., 289.
+
+    Spallanzani, Lazzaro, 134, 136.
+
+    Spencer, Herbert, 10, 12, 98, 102, 103, 148, 166, 179, 360.
+
+    Starling, Ernest H., 57, 299, 301.
+
+    Stockard, Charles R., 62.
+
+    Stoll, A., 146.
+
+
+    Taylor, J., 340.
+
+    Tertullian, 346.
+
+    Thayer, Wm. Sydney, 135.
+
+    Tholuck, Fried. Aug., 338.
+
+    Thompson, Sir Wm., 182.
+
+    Thorndyke, Edward L., 237.
+
+    Tilden, Sir Wm., 151, 192.
+
+    Titchener, Edward Bradford, 205, 209, 274.
+
+    Tredgold, A. F., 15 note.
+
+    Tuccimei, Giuseppe, XIII, 360, 361.
+
+    Tyndall, John, 149.
+
+
+    Vallisnieri, Antonio, 134.
+
+    Van Loon, Hendrick Willem, 190.
+
+    Vegard, Lars, 183 note.
+
+    Vicari, E. M., 266, 267.
+
+    Virchow, Rudolph, 137, 273, 316, 317, 324, 346.
+
+    Vogt, Carl, 276, 324.
+
+
+    Waagen, W., 16 note.
+
+    Warner, H., 274.
+
+    Walkhoff, O., 317.
+
+    Walsh, James J., 336.
+
+    Ward, James, 163.
+
+    Wasmann, Erich, S.J., XII, 11, 33, 46, 47, 48, 49, 49 note, 67, 70,
+      134, 247 note, 261, 262, 277, 312, 313, 325, 333.
+
+    Waterston, David, 322.
+
+    Watson, John B., 198, 204, 250.
+
+    Wayland, John Walter, 357.
+
+    Weismann, August, 10, 13, 16, 25, 65, 186, 267.
+
+    Weber, Ernest Heinrich, 227.
+
+    Weld, H. P., 253, 255.
+
+    Welday, J. O., 357.
+
+    Wells, H. G., 1, 33, 190.
+
+    Wenstrup, Edward, O.S.B., XVI.
+
+    Werner, Abraham Gottlob, 99, 102, 103.
+
+    Wheeler, Geo. C. and Esther H., 261.
+
+    Wiedersheim, Robert, 292.
+
+    Wilder, Harris Hawthorne, 300, 301.
+
+    Williams, H. S., 96.
+
+    Willis, Bailey, 107 note.
+
+    Willstätter, R., 146, 147.
+
+    Wilson, Edmund B., 6, 12, 13, 140, 141, 143, 160, 164, 168, 170,
+      200, 201, 211.
+
+    Windle, Bertram C. A., 134, 341.
+
+    Wirth, Edmund J., 205.
+
+    Wissler, Clark, 344.
+
+    Woodruff, Lorande Loss, 39, 115.
+
+    Woods, Henry, 77, 78, 79, 80, 86, 118, 119.
+
+    Woodward, A. Smith, 321, 322, 340, 341.
+
+    Woodworth, Robert S., 198.
+
+    Wright, C. F., 289.
+
+    Wundt, Wilhelm, 197, 205, 206, 209, 212, 236, 237, 238.
+
+
+    Zahm, J. A., 268.
+
+    Zeno, 226.
+
+    Zittel, Karl A. von, 313, 345.
+
+
+
+
+                           INDEX OF SUBJECTS
+
+
+    Abiogenesis, 131, 135, 136, 142, 160, 165, 167, 179, 183, 186;
+      “new theory” of, 165;
+      “old theory” of, 165;
+      “philosophical” proof of, 186
+
+    Absence of function, real, 291;
+      apparent, 291
+
+    Abstract concept, 219
+
+    Abstraction, 221, 224, 254, 261, 262;
+      of active intellect predispositive, 221;
+      of intellect, potential, cognitive, 221;
+      power of, 261, 262;
+      process of, 221, 224
+
+    Abstract thought, 215, 267;
+      has soul as its exclusive agent and subject, 215;
+      not same as imagery, 215;
+      unique prerogative of man, 267
+
+    Acids, butyric, 159;
+      carbonic, 145;
+      fatty, 145;
+      formic, 145
+
+    Acromegaly, 294
+
+    Acromikria, 294
+
+    Act, 199
+
+    Action, 174, 175, 176, 177, 215, 216;
+      agent of, 176;
+      an expression of entity, 125, 216;
+      chemical, 175;
+      effect of, 176, 177;
+      electrical, 176;
+      energy-content of, 174;
+      immanent, defined, 177;
+      mechanical, 175;
+      physical, 175;
+      reflexive, 177;
+      subject of, 176;
+      transitive, 174, 177;
+      defined, 177;
+      vital, 175
+
+    Active intellect, 220, 221
+
+    Activity, organic cannot escape physical determinism, 232
+
+    Adaptation, 7, 8, 9, 16, 45, 46, 47, 52, 53, 63, 124, 250, 290, 291,
+      328;
+      acquired, 8, 9, 16, 45, 290, 328, 333
+        —not inheritable, 9;
+      innate (inherited), 45, 46, 47, 52, 53, 63, 124;
+      of instinctive behavior to emergencies, 250;
+      structural, 291
+
+    Additive properties, 233 _note_
+
+    Adjustments, 204
+
+    Adolescence, 155
+
+    Adrenal bodies, 292, 295
+
+    Adults, 276
+
+    Aeschna grandis L., 115
+
+    Aftermath of evolutionary propaganda, 360
+
+    Agametes, 156
+
+    Agamic, 156
+
+    Agent, 171, 177
+
+    Age of Man, 289, 290
+
+    Agnosticism, 352, 355, 358;
+      parasitic, 358
+
+    Agulhas, Lost Land of, 114
+
+    Alberta, 108
+
+    Albumen, living and dead, 144
+
+    Alcohol, methyl, 147;
+      phytyl, 147
+
+    Aldehyde, 145, 148
+
+    Aldol condensation, 145
+
+    Allelomorphic, 42
+
+    Allocation, taxonomic, 320
+
+    Alluvial epoch, 313;
+      loam, 324
+
+    Alpha Centauri, 184
+
+    Alps, 109
+
+    Altamira, caves of, 339, 340, 343
+
+    Alternating personalities, 211;
+      psychopathic condition, 211
+
+    Altruism, 355, 356;
+      without adequate motivation, 356
+
+    Amboceptors, 57
+
+    American Association for Advancement of Science, 343, 344;
+      Edict of, 343
+
+    Ammonites, 84, 86, 249;
+      intergradence in, 84
+
+    Ammonium cyanate, 173
+
+    Ammophila, 264
+
+    Ammophila gryphus, 261
+
+    Ammophila urnaria, 261
+
+    Amnion, 276
+
+    Amœba albida, 159
+
+    Amphibia, 61, 281, 296
+
+    Amphioxus, 60, 161
+
+    Analogous organs, 35, 36, 61
+
+    Analogy, 35, 59, 60;
+      convergent, 61
+
+    Analysis, 144;
+      chemical, 144;
+      physical, 144
+
+    Anarchy, 355, 360
+
+    Anatomists, 296
+
+    Anatomy, 196, 208, 276, 277, 303, 308;
+      comparative, 276, 277, 308;
+      of consciousness, attempted by Associationists, 208
+
+    Ancestors, 55, 59, 76, 82, 83, 92, 95, 115, 270, 280, 296, 304, 308,
+      309, 317, 349;
+      collateral, 76;
+      common, 55, 59, 83, 92, 269, 270, 278, 308;
+      direct, 76;
+      hypothetical, 308, 309, 317;
+      necessary priority of, 82, 83;
+      of man, 298
+        —alleged to be fish-like, 280;
+      tertiary, 270
+
+    Ancestry, 92, 280;
+      entails antecedence in time, 92;
+      of man, 280
+
+    Ancitherium, 76
+
+    Angiosperms, 72, 73
+
+    Animal, 242, 249, 307;
+      appetite, gratification of, 242;
+      as “reflex machines,” 249;
+      cave, 307
+
+    Animalism, 365
+
+    Animalistic man, 350, 352
+
+    Animality of man, not a modern discovery, 191, 192
+
+    Animism, 197, 198
+
+    Anisogametes, 157, 158
+
+    Anisogamy, 157, 158
+
+    Annelida, 117, 278, 280
+
+    Anomalies, 112, 303, 305, 319, 320;
+      anatomical, fluctuational, 303;
+      mutational, 303;
+      of spatial distributions, 112
+
+    Antagonism, 358;
+      between modern progress and Christian ideal, 358
+
+    Anthropomorphism, 236, 246, 250, 262;
+      Darwinian, 236, 250
+
+    Anthropologists, 318, 344;
+      foremost ones confess their ignorance regarding origin of man, 344
+
+    Antibodies, 14, 15
+
+    Antigen, 15
+
+    Antirrhinum, majus and molle, 88
+
+    Anti-vivisectionists, 236
+
+    Ants, 261, 262; leaf-cutting, 261
+
+    Ape, 245, 270, 272, 275, 285, 308, 309, 311, 314, 315, 316, 317, 345;
+      anthropoid, 270, 271, 272, 275, 309, 315, 317;
+      cranial capacity, 314;
+      descended from man-like ancestor, 285;
+      descent from, not a doctrine of science, 345;
+      embryonic skull of, 285;
+      foot of, 50, 51
+        —a hand functionally but not structurally, 50, 51;
+      fossil, 308, 313;
+      giant, geneological tree of, 315;
+      higher, 311;
+      its cranium, 271;
+      large, 315;
+      living, 308
+
+    Ape-like features, acquired adaptation, 330
+
+    Appalachians, 107
+
+    Appetite, 221, 235, 241;
+      rational, 221;
+      sensual, 235, 241
+
+    Appendicitis, 295
+
+    Appendix, vermiform, 295, 296;
+      useful, 296
+
+    Apple-tree, 6, 88, 161
+
+    Apterix, 305
+
+    Arbacia punctulata, 159
+
+    Arboreal life, 271, 308
+
+    Arca, 118
+
+    Archæan, 104, 117;
+      record, damaged condition of, 117
+
+    Archæology, prehistoric, 339
+
+    Archæopteryx, 86
+
+    Archæozoic, 104, 148;
+      times alleged to have been more favorable to origin of life, 148
+
+    Argument, 226;
+      no avail against fact, 226
+
+    Art, palæolithic, 340
+
+    Artefacts, 154
+
+    Artemia salina, 159
+
+    Artemisia absynthium, 248
+
+    Arthropoda, 61, 119, 261, 284
+
+    Artificial illumination, 340
+
+    Artistic attainment, high level of, 340
+
+    Artists, palæolithic, 335
+
+    Asia, 335
+
+    Ass, 5, 81, 304
+
+    Assimilation, 143
+
+    Association, 208, 235, 241, 242
+
+    Associationists, 208, 236
+
+    Astarte, 118
+
+    Asteroidea, 121, 122
+
+    Atavism, 303, 304
+
+    Atlantis, 114
+
+    Atmosphere, 148, 181, 183;
+      coronal of sun, 183;
+      formerly richer in carbon dioxide, 148;
+      of earth, 183
+
+    Atoms, 58, 144, 162, 165, 167, 170, 202;
+      structure of, 58
+
+    Atrophy, 285, 286, 288, 294, 299, 301, 302, 307;
+      due to misuse, 288;
+      somatic, 307
+
+    Attention, 208
+
+    Audist, 219
+
+    Aurignacian Man, 332
+
+    Aurora borealis, 183, 183 _note_, 184 _note_
+
+    Australian, 321, 325, 328, 330, 333;
+      blacks, 325, 333
+        —modern, have brow ridges, 328;
+      modern, 325, 330;
+      skull of, 321
+
+    Author of Nature, 193
+
+    Autogamy, 158, 159, 161
+
+    Automatisms, 238, 240, 262;
+      teleological, 240
+
+    Automixis, 161
+
+    Autonomy, 174, 202;
+      dynamic, 174;
+      vital, 202
+
+    Axiom, 223, 224;
+      of reception, 223, 224
+
+    Axon, 213
+
+    Azoic bottom, 125
+
+
+    Babylonia, 337
+
+    Bacteria, 135, 138, 183, 183 _note_
+
+    Barbarism, 337;
+      historically a state of degeneration and stagnation, 337;
+      not a primitive condition, 337;
+      no instance of spontaneous emergence from, 337
+
+    Bacteriologists, 183
+
+    Baltic Sea, 104, 105
+
+    Banana, 162
+
+    Basichromatin, 139
+
+    Bear Grass quarries, 106
+
+    Beaver, 247, 257
+
+    Bedding plane, 106
+
+    Bees, 257
+
+    Beetles, wingless, 306
+
+    Behavior, 249, 254, 255, 260, 261, 262, 263;
+      instinctive, 249, 254, 255, 260
+        —objectively useful, 254, 255
+        —subjectively agreeable, 254, 255;
+      concursively telic, 260-262;
+      consciously telic, _i. e._, intelligent 262;
+      unconcursively telic, 262;
+      must be perfect from outstart, 263
+
+    Behaviorism, degeneration of psychology into, 198
+
+    Behaviorists, 204, 250
+
+    Bestial man, 340, 342;
+      impossible, 340;
+      no traces of, 342
+
+    Bestial origin, 345, 352;
+      of man, 352;
+      of man, theory of, 345
+
+    Bestial soul, 114, 194, 213, 214, 234;
+      an emergent of matter, 194, 234 _note_
+        —not a product of physicochemical action, 194;
+      exists in the interest of the organism, 214;
+      incomplete complement of matter, 213;
+      material but not corporeal, 194, 214;
+      operates only in conjunction with organism, 213;
+      perishes with dissolution of organism, 213
+
+    Bible, 127
+
+    Biochemists, 179
+
+    Biogenetic Law, 48, 275, 276, 277, 278, 283, 285
+
+    Biologists, 2, 3, 11, 19, 29, 53 _note_, 190, 200, 257
+
+    Biology, xiv, 24, 196, 197, 205
+
+    Bion, 170, 171
+
+    Biophysicists, 179
+
+    Bipinnaria, 283
+
+    “Biotic energy,” 170
+
+    Bird of Paradise, 154, 353
+
+    Birds, 282, 296, 297
+
+    Bison, 331, 332
+
+    “Black Beauty,” 236
+
+    Blackberries, 25
+
+    Blindness, germinal and somatic, 306
+
+    Blue-green Algæ, 138, 149, 181
+
+    Body, 198
+
+    Bone cave, 340
+
+    Bone fibres, 317
+
+    Bos primigenius, 329
+
+    Botany, 31, 55
+
+    Brachiopoda, 117, 118, 120
+
+    Bradypus, 52
+
+    Brain, 274, 315, 316;
+      human, 274
+        —convolutions of, 274;
+      relative and absolute size of, 315;
+      relative size of, 316;
+      simian, 274
+
+    Brain case, 272
+
+    Brain cavities, below modern average, 329
+
+    Brain-fag, due to imaginative, not to intellectual activity, 228,
+      229, 230;
+      follows mere memorizing, 229
+
+    Branchial arches and clefts, 278, 279
+
+    Branchial lamellæ, 279
+
+    Breasts, supernumerary, 304
+
+    Broken Hill Mine, 340
+
+    Bronze Age, historic, 337
+
+    Brow ridges, 328, 330, 333, 341;
+      most pronounced of any human specimen, 341
+
+    Brute, 213, 233, 235, 236, 360;
+      destitute of freedom, morality, responsibility, 233;
+      its psychic functions, all organic, 213;
+      lumination of, 236;
+      our common origin with, 360
+
+    Budding, 156
+
+    Burial, 330, 335;
+      deep, 335;
+      makes age of bones uncertain, 335;
+      solemn, indicates belief in immortality, 330
+
+    Butyric acid, 159
+
+
+    Cæcum, 295
+
+    Cænogenesis, 277, 288
+
+    Cænozoic, 118, 119, 335
+
+    Calcium hydroxide, 145
+
+    Calicurgus, 263
+
+    Cambrian, 99, 100, 104, 105, 110, 116, 117, 118, 125;
+      Lower, 117;
+      terranes below, 125;
+      youthful appearance of, 104, 105
+
+    Canadian Shield, 104 _note_
+
+    Canadian survey, 108
+
+    Canal, alimentary, 293, 295, 301;
+      neural, 293
+
+    Canalization, 265
+
+    Carbohydrates, 145, 148;
+      production of, by plants, 145-148—not a synthesis,
+      146-148—analogous to process in animals, 146, 147
+
+    Carbon dioxide, 145-147
+
+    Carboniferous, 73, 92, 115, 118;
+      Lower, 92;
+      Upper, 115
+
+    Carnivora, 271
+
+    Catarrhine monkeys, 287
+
+    Catastrophes, 72, 182;
+      cosmic, 182
+
+    Catastophism, 67, 68, 98, 312;
+      new, 98
+
+    Caterpillar, 260, 264
+
+    Cats, 284
+
+    Causation, active and efficient, 171, 172
+
+    Cave rat, 307
+
+
+    Caves, 335, 336;
+      of France and Spain, 335, 336;
+      of Spain, 336
+
+    Cell-division, 59, 137, 138, 139, 155, 162, 163
+
+    Cell, 136, 137, 138, 141, 142, 155, 165, 168, 202, 301;
+      definition of, 137;
+      a multimolecule, 165;
+      cannot originate through exclusive agency of physicochemical
+        energies, 142;
+      fundamental unit of organization, 136;
+      germ, 156;
+      simplest of organic units capable of independent existence, 138;
+      simplest of organisms, 147;
+      somatic, 156;
+      submicroscopical components of, 141;
+      simplest form of organic life, 142;
+      vital, 142;
+      sperm, 137
+
+    Cell Theory, 136
+
+    Cellular continuity, 137, 141;
+      Fifth article of, 141;
+      Law of, 141
+
+    Centaur, constellation of, 184
+
+    Centers, sensory and motor, 251
+
+    Central neurones, 213, 222;
+      purpose of, 222
+
+    Centrioles, 140
+
+    Cephalic index, 329
+
+    Ceratites, 86
+
+    Ceratodus, 119
+
+    Cerebral cortex, 206, 213, 221, 222
+
+    Cerebral neurones, 222;
+      an extended receptor not proportioned to dematerialized abstract
+        objects, 222
+
+    Cerebrospinal system, 213
+
+    Certainty, 124, 125;
+      based on objective necessity, 124;
+      scientific, 125
+
+    Ceylon, 315
+
+    Chain-reflex, 250, 252
+
+    Chaldea, 337, 340
+
+    Chalk, 79, 86
+
+    Chance, 11, 151-154;
+      impotent to produce effect so complicatedly telic as an organism,
+        151;
+      its efficacy and impotence, 151-154
+
+    Change, adaptive, 53 _note_;
+      germinal, 42, 43, 68, 307;
+      kinds of, 42;
+      somatic, 68;
+      specific, 7, 23, 68, 88, 89, 307;
+      varietal, 7, 68, 88
+
+    Characters (somatic or external), 5, 6, 17, 18, 41, 62, 63, 87, 88,
+      121, 122, 278, 306, 334;
+      definition of, 41;
+      duplication and suppression of, 306;
+      embryonic not derived from adult, 278;
+      homologous and adaptational, 62, 63, 121
+        —distinction has no experimental basis, 62;
+      “inherited” and “acquired,” 41
+
+    Chapelle-aux-Saintes, 288, 331;
+      Cave of, remains, 331;
+      remains, 228
+
+    Chela, 61, 261;
+      of lobster and African scorpion, 61
+
+    Chemical analysis, 143, 144, 216;
+      destroys life, 143, 144
+
+    Chemical synthesis of living matter possible, 142, 144
+
+    Chemist, 151;
+      guiding intelligence of need in synthesis of organic compounds,
+        151;
+      necessity of regulation, 151
+
+    Chemistry, 142, 350;
+      physical, 142
+
+    Chemotaxis, 264
+
+    Chick, 255
+
+    Chimaeroids, 119
+
+    Chimpanzee, 33, 270, 314, 323
+
+    Chin, 319, 320, 328;
+      may be accentuated by a mutation, 320;
+      prominence in Spy No. 1, 328;
+      recessive, 320;
+      recessiveness of the, 319;
+      recessiveness and protuberance of, 320;
+      recessiveness, an acquired adaptation, 320;
+      receding, acquired, 328
+
+    China, 110, 337
+
+    Chinless mandible, not sloping backward, 332
+
+    Chlorophyll, 62, 145, 147, 148, 149, 151, 154;
+      chromogen group of, 148;
+      chromogen complex, 148;
+      colloidal solution of, 145;
+      not a “sensitizer” like Eosin, 147, 148;
+      regenerated from H₂O and CO₂, 147, 148;
+      “sensitizer,” 145
+
+    Chondriosomes, 140
+
+    Christianity, 359
+
+    Chromatin, 138, 139
+
+    Chromiole, 138
+
+    Chromosomes, 17, 21, 27, 44, 45, 139, 141, 157, 158, 159;
+      diploid number normal, 159;
+      diploid number of, 157, 158, 159;
+      duplication of, 17, 21, 44, 45;
+      haploid number of, 157, 158, 159;
+      homologous,
+    17, 21;
+      random assortment of, 27
+
+    Chronology, 98;
+      lithic, 98;
+      principles of, 98
+
+    Chronometer, palæontological, 135
+
+    Chrysothrix, 274
+
+    Cidaris, 119
+
+    Ciliate, 163
+
+    Circumstances, environmental, 250-252
+
+    Civilization, old, destruction of, 336
+
+    Classes, 37
+
+    Classification, taxonomic, not historical, 112
+
+    Clays, Pleistocene, 289
+
+    Cleavage, 154, 159
+
+    Cloaca, 281
+
+    Coccyx, alleged rudiment of former tail, 297;
+      serves purpose, 298
+
+    Cockroaches, 115
+
+    Coelenterates, 78, 118
+
+    Coexistence of impressions, not a companion of them, 208
+
+    Cognitive intellect, 220, 221
+
+    Colloid systems, aggregates, not units, 168
+
+    Colloidal, 141, 170;
+      substances, 141;
+      systems not analogous to organisms, 170
+
+    Colloids, 166-169;
+      hydrophilic, 168, 169
+
+    Columns, continental and submarine, 114
+
+    Commanchian period, 72
+
+    Commensal, 46
+
+    Commensalism, 52
+
+    Common stock, 39
+
+    Comparative anatomy, 279, 304
+
+    Complexity, “Law” of, 166, 167
+
+    Components, 138, 139, 141, 142, 168;
+      cytoplasmic and nuclear, 138, 139;
+      of cell, 141
+        —self-perpetuating, 168;
+      of protoplasmic system, 141
+
+    Compounds, organic, 142
+
+    Concepts, 219, 220, 221, 247;
+      abstract and general, 220, 247;
+      rational, 247
+
+    Conceptual thought, 219, 222, 223;
+      concerned with the reality of essence, 219;
+      excludes materiality
+    from its specific agent and receptive subject, 222;
+      not communicated to organism, 223;
+      subject in soul alone, 223
+
+    Conduction path, 265
+
+    Condyles, occipital, 272
+
+    Conformity, 105, 107, 110;
+      “deceptive,” 105, 110;
+      normal significance of, 105;
+      “upside-down,” 107
+
+    Conjugation, 157, 161
+
+    Consciousness, 198, 203, 204, 205, 206, 208, 211, 235, 238, 240,
+      248, 262;
+      and unconsciousness, 198;
+      attests existence superficially variable but radically unchangeable
+        subject of mental life, 206;
+      attests persistence of our personal identity, 211;
+      dependence of all science upon, 204;
+      etymology of, 205, 206;
+      its testimony to the reality of the ego, 205;
+      organic and spiritual, 199;
+      phenomenal, 198;
+      sentient, 235, 238, 240, 248;
+      testimony of, 208
+
+    Constructions, complex and systematic, not producible by accident,
+      53, 154
+
+    Consolation, 358, 361;
+      destroyed, 361;
+      eliminated, 358
+
+    Contamination of media, 135
+
+    Contiguity, 241, 242;
+      association of, 241;
+      law of, 241, 242
+
+    Continents, 113, 114;
+      permanence of, 114
+
+    Continuity, 350;
+      destructive as metaphysics, 350;
+      leads to materialistic monism, 350;
+      principles of, 350;
+      nuclear, 137
+
+    Control, 236, 251-253;
+      intelligent, 253;
+      psychic, 251;
+      rational and moral, 236;
+      sensory, 251-253
+
+    Consequences—socialism, anarchy, despair, 360
+
+    Convergence, 10, 36, 58, 59, 61, 63, 77, 78, 79, 80, 277, 283, 284,
+      287;
+      kinds of 77
+
+    Corpuscular, 174
+
+    Correlation, 90, 91, 93, 99, 101, 111;
+      Cuvier’s Law of, 90, 91;
+      stratigraphic, 93, 96, 99, 101, 111
+
+    Cortical, 294, 315;
+      area, 274;
+      surface, 315
+
+
+    Cosmic scale, 350;
+      Cosmogony, 181, 185
+
+    Cosmopolitan species, 73
+
+    Cosmozoa, 182
+
+    Cranial box, 272
+
+    Cranial capacity, 274, 315, 317, 322, 325, 332, 341;
+      absolute, 332;
+      human, 341;
+      large, 341;
+      of man and ape compared, 274;
+      relative, 317, 332
+
+    Cranial vault, more spacious in Spy No. 2, 327
+
+    Cranium, 118, 271, 321, 325, 328, 329, 331, 333, 337, 341;
+      dolichocephalic, 325, 331;
+      flat on top, broad in back, 341;
+      modern, 333;
+      human, 328;
+      of ape, 271;
+      of man, 271;
+      not subsequent to barbarism, 337;
+      Spy, 331
+
+    Creation, 67, 72, 186, 187;
+      defined, 187;
+      new, 67, 72;
+      simultaneous or recessive, 72
+
+    Creationism, 55
+
+    Creator, 72, 249, 298, 350
+
+    Credulous persons misled, 353
+
+    Cretaceous, 100, 104, 108, 109, 111, 118;
+      shales, 109
+
+    Crete, 337
+
+    Cretinism, 294
+
+    Cries, 246;
+      emotional, 246;
+      instinctive, 246
+
+    Crinoids, 119
+
+    Crossing, 4, 5, 19-21, 25-28, 88;
+      interspecific, 19-21, 26, 27;
+      intervarietal, 19, 20, 27, 28;
+      does not produce “new species,” 25-28
+
+    Crossover, 17, 26, 42
+
+    Crust, terrestrial, 113
+
+    Crustaceans, 117
+
+    Cryptorhetic system, 292-294
+
+    Crystalloids, 144
+
+    Crystals, 153
+
+    Crystal units, 144, 165
+
+    Ctenomys, 305
+
+    Cultures, 135, 309, 317;
+      sterilized and aërated, 135
+
+    Curved femur, acquired adaptation, 328
+
+    Cycads, 118
+
+    Cycas, 118
+
+    Cysts, 134
+
+    Cytodes, 138, 179, 207
+
+    Cytologist, 136, 141
+
+
+    Cytology, 137
+
+    Cytoplasm, 137-139, 141;
+      of eggs differentiated, 141
+
+    Cytoplasmic components self-perpetuating, 139
+
+    Cytosome, 140
+
+
+    Darwinism, 1, 5, 6, 16, 24, 29, 30, 32, 78, 79, 85, 263, 265, 285,
+      291, 325;
+      contradicted by history, 337;
+      obsolete theory, 29, 30, 349
+
+    Datura stramonium, 21, 22, 23
+
+    Death, 156
+
+    Deceptive conformities, 98
+
+    Deep sea bottoms, 113
+
+    Degeneracy, 15, 15 _note_, 18, 336
+
+    Degradation of energy, 162, 163, 180;
+      implies beginning of life, 180;
+      law of, 162, 163
+
+    Delitzch, 118
+
+    Dependence, 217, 218, 221, 231;
+      direct, of psycho-organic functions on organism, 231;
+      incompatible with spirituality, 218;
+      intrinsic on matter, 218;
+      objective, not subjective, 221
+
+    Descent, 67, 80, 87, 88, 267, 269, 274, 277, 284, 305, 308, 310,
+      312, 315, 317, 345;
+      collateral, 269, 308, 312, 317
+        —of man, 308, 317
+        —theory of, 269, 312;
+      common, 269, 315
+        —reference of, 269;
+      direct, Darwin’s theory of, 274;
+      from ape, theory of, 274;
+      human, 317, 345
+        —from pithecoid primates, not a historical fact, 345
+        —theory of, 269;
+      lineal, 269, 305, 308, 309, 317
+        —a chain of creatures, 305
+        —from ape, theory of, 269
+        —upheld by Darwin, 269;
+      of man, 308, 310;
+      theory of, 80, 277
+
+    Deterioration of organism does not always involve deterioration of
+      superorganic powers, 230
+
+    Devonian, 62, 99, 103, 106;
+      Middle, 106
+
+    De-Vriesianism, 23, 24, 29, 263, 265, 266, 349
+
+    Diester, phytyl-methyl, 147
+
+    Differences, 9, 12, 13, 16, 28, 37, 46, 81, 82, 84, 86, 89, 121,
+      171, 236, 237, 271, 272, 273, 320, 331, 333, 334, 359;
+      anatomical, between
+      Homo primigenius and Homo sapiens, 331, 334
+        —between man and ape, 271-273;
+      between living and lifeless, 171;
+      fluctuational, 121;
+      generic, 37, 46, 82, 84, 86;
+      individual, 16
+        —alleged summation of, 9, 20, 29;
+      major, 9, 37, 46, 320
+        —relative and absolute, 37;
+      minor, 9, 37, 46, 320;
+      mutational, 121, 334;
+      ordinal, 46;
+      psychological, between man and brute, 236, 237, 359, 360
+        —amount to a distinction of kind, 236, 237, 359, 360;
+      specific, 12, 13, 28, 37, 46, 81, 84, 86, 333, 334;
+      varietal, 46
+
+    Differential threshold, law of, 227
+
+    Differentiation, 284
+
+    Diffusion of venom, 264, 265
+
+    Digestion, stimulates lymphatic glands, 301
+
+    Dileptus gigas, 138, 174
+
+    Diluvium, European, 345
+
+    Dinoflagellata, 118
+
+    Dinosaurs, 100, 271
+
+    Diphasic, 134
+
+    Diploid forms, 44, 45, 47
+
+    Dipnoan, 119
+
+    Diptera, 48, 49
+
+    Discernment, 240
+
+    Discina, 118
+
+    Disconformity, non-evident, 105
+
+    Discrimination, 208
+
+    Discursive analysis, 243, 244
+
+    Disease germs, 141, 169, 170, 216;
+      invisible, identified by the pathological effects, 216;
+      submicroscopic, 141, 169, 170
+
+    Disintegration, atomic, 163
+
+    Dispersing medium, 168
+
+    Dissociation, 235, 242
+
+    Distributed nucleus, 138
+
+    Distribution, 92, 99, 100, 112, 113, 115;
+      chronological, 92;
+      geographical, hard to distinguish from chronological, 99, 100;
+      of plants and animals, 115;
+      spatial, anomalies of, 112, 113
+
+    Disuse, 286, 288, 290, 305, 306;
+      effects, alleged of, 288
+
+    Divergence, 9, 36, 39, 57
+
+    Divine action, vivifying matter, not a miracle, 187, 188
+
+
+    Dog, 248, 255, 287
+
+    Dogmatism, evolutionary, 360
+
+    Dolphins, 80
+
+    Domination of intellect and will over organic powers, 235
+
+    Doubt, “scientific,” 198
+
+    Dragonflies, 115
+
+    Drone, 158
+
+    Drosophila, 17, 18, 19, 27, 85, 86;
+      melanogaster, 85, 86
+        —gradations in eye-color, wing-length and pigmentation of, 85, 86
+
+    Dryopithecus, 270, 310, 311, 323, 345;
+      dentition of, 311, rhenanus, teeth, human-like, 323
+
+    Dualism, 174, 198, 199, 231, 233, 234, 351;
+      conscious and unconscious, of Descartes, 198;
+      hylomorphic, 174, 198, 231;
+      of emergence and resistance, 233, 234 _note_;
+      of potency and act, 199;
+      psychic and physical, of Descartes, 198;
+      psychophysical, 198, 231
+
+    Duckbill, 287
+
+    Duplication, 44, 45, 305;
+      chromosomal, 44, 45;
+      of organs, 305
+
+    Dynamic, 206
+
+
+    Ear, 302, 304;
+      helix of, 304
+
+    Earth columns, 113
+
+    Earthworm, 250, 280
+
+    East Indies, 118
+
+    Echinodermata, 119, 121, 122
+
+    Education, 245, 256, 360;
+      responsible, 360
+
+    Educator, modern, 360
+
+    Effect, 176, 177
+
+    Eggs, 134, 156, 158, 159, 160, 255, 259, 278, 283;
+      of sea urchin, 159, 160;
+      unfertilized, 158;
+      reduced, 158;
+      unreduced, 158
+
+    Ego, 209, 210, 224;
+      the, 209, 210;
+      the thinking, 224
+
+    Egoism, 256
+
+    Egypt, 115, 337, 340
+
+    Electrolytes, 168
+
+    Electronic theory, 56
+
+    Electrons, 163, 174
+
+    Elements, radioactive, 180
+
+    Elephants, 111, 115, 315;
+      brain of, 315;
+      Siberian, sudden extinction of, 111
+
+
+    Elephas:
+      antiquus, 317;
+      primigenius, 326
+
+    Embryologists, 136
+
+    Embryology, 141, 275, 276, 308;
+      comparative, 276;
+      experimental, 141
+
+    Embryonic additions, 276
+
+    Embryos, 276, 278, 279, 280, 281;
+      alleged fish-like stage of, 279, 280;
+      human, 278, 280, 283;
+      mammalian, 281, 283;
+      vertebrate, 281
+
+    Emergents, 233 _note_, 234 _note_
+
+    Energy-content, 174
+
+    Emotion, 214, 231, 246, 247;
+      functions of sensual appetite, 247;
+      a psycho-organic function, 214;
+      organic function, 231
+
+    Emperor moth, 267
+
+    Emulsifier, 169
+
+    Emulsion, 139, 168
+
+    Encasement, 3, 4
+
+    Encystment, 162
+
+    End, 254, 259
+
+    Endocrine glands, 292-295, 298;
+      not functionless, 295
+
+    Endomixis, 161, 162, 163, 178
+
+    Endoskeletal, 36
+
+    Energy, 172, 174;
+      content, 174;
+      defined, 172;
+      kinetic and potential, 172
+
+    Energy-environment, 168
+
+    Enlightenment, 244, 245
+
+    Entelechy, 172-175, 199, 200, 202, 210;
+      definition of, 200;
+      Aristotelian sense perverted by Driesch, 172;
+      a constant in living units, a variant in inorganic units, 175,
+        200, 202, 210;
+      common to inorganic units and living organisms, 173, 174;
+      consubstantial with matter, 202;
+      entitive, not dynamic, 172, 201;
+      equivalent to static affinity or structural valence, 173;
+      inorganic, 174;
+      not an agent but a specifying type, 201
+
+    Entitive, 206
+
+    Environment, 6-9, 12-15, 42, 46, 152, 153, 174, 180-182, 261, 307;
+      cosmic, of life, 180, 181;
+      internal, 14, 15;
+      not a mechanism for molding organisms, 152, 153
+
+    Environmental conditions, 15, 16, 68, 123, 284
+
+    Environmental stimulus, 255
+
+    Enzymes, 143
+
+    Eoanthropus, 320, 322, 323, 342;
+      a combination of simian and human remains, 342;
+      Dawsoni, 320-323, 342;
+      jaw older than cranium, 322
+
+    Eocene, 115, 309, 313, 317;
+      Lower, 313;
+      Middle, 115
+
+    Eoliths, 154, 321
+
+    Eosin, a sensitizer, 147
+
+    Epeira, 248, 249
+
+    Epicyclic subterfuges, 110
+
+    Epigenesis, 3, 4
+
+    Epiphysis, 292
+
+    Equus, 5, 95, 113;
+      American and European, 113;
+      asinus, 5;
+      caballus, 5
+
+    Erosion, 105, 109
+
+    Eskimo, 330, 338;
+      language more complex than English, 338
+
+    Euphemisms, 351
+
+    Europe, 112, 113, 335
+
+    Eurypterids, 117
+
+    Events, 208
+
+    Evolution (active and passive) of life from inorganic matter, 132,
+      133
+
+    Evolution (alleged) of human soul, 194, 195, 268, 352
+
+    Evolution (alleged) of human body, 268, 309, 343
+
+    Evolution, xi-xiv, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 17, 19, 20, 21, 28, 29, 31, 32,
+      34, 43, 44, 45, 63, 66, 70, 74, 75, 76, 78, 79, 80, 83, 86, 90,
+      92, 97, 105, 116, 117, 123, 124, 125, 131, 193, 194, 267, 268,
+      291, 297, 304, 309, 325, 335, 339, 349-361;
+      aspects, moral and social, of, 353-361;
+      causes of, 2, 6;
+      evidence for, experimental, 3, 7, 8, 17, 28
+        —inferential or circumstantial, 3, 8, 125
+        —genetical, 8, 18, 28, 29
+        —zoological, 8, 34, 66, 76
+        —palæontological, 3, 8, 66, 74-76, 78, 79, 80, 83, 92, 97, 105,
+           126;
+      fact of, 2, 86, 124, 126;
+      heliocentric theory not on a par with, xii, xiii, law of, 1, 123;
+      monistic basis of, 349-353;
+      necessary as hypothesis, not as
+    dogma, xi;
+      senses of, 2, 74, 75, 131;
+      spirit not a product of, 193, 194, 268;
+      systems of, 1, 29, 31, 349;
+      Augustinian, 32, 74, 75;
+      Batesonian, 18-21, 43, 44, 79;
+      monophyletic, 69, 70, 116, 117;
+      polyphyletic, 70;
+      progressive, 44, 45, 116
+
+    Evolutionary thought, crisis in, 3, 29
+
+    Evolutionists, 279
+
+    Exoskeletal, 36
+
+    Expediency, 291
+
+    Experience, 238, 241, 253, 256;
+      learning by, 241;
+      sensory, 238, 253
+
+    Experimentation, 197
+
+    Eye, 60, 205, 217, 283, 298;
+      a corporal element intrinsic to the visual sense, 217;
+      an example of convergence, 60;
+      constituent part of agent and subject of vision, 217;
+      human, defective, 298;
+      not replaced by telescope, 205;
+      vertebrate type of, 283
+
+
+    Factorial, complex, 45
+
+    Factors, germinal (genetic, hereditary), 5, 6, 15, 17, 18, 19, 41,
+      42, 44, 45, 68, 122, 151, 152, 174, 207, 291
+        —diagnosis of, 122
+        —fractionation of, 19
+        —positive and inhibitive, 19;
+      environmental, 6, 41, 42, 68, 151, 152, 174, 207, 291
+        —blind, 151, 152
+        —of disuse and selection, 207
+
+    Facts, 205;
+      former cannot be formulated except with reference to ego, 205;
+      in terms denoting or connoting ego, 205;
+      intramental and extramental, 205
+
+    “Falsifications” of ancestral records, 276
+
+    Families, 37, 58;
+      chemical, 58
+
+    Family-tree, evolutionary, 58
+
+    Fats, 145
+
+    Faulting, 107, 108;
+      horizontal and vertical, 108;
+      “Low angle,” 107, 108;
+      normal, 108
+
+    Fayûm, the, 115
+
+    Feldhofer Grotte, 323, 324, 326
+
+    Felis leo fossilis, 319
+
+    Femur, 313, 316, 317, 324, 327, 330, 341;
+      not curved as in Neanderthal type, 341;
+      shows curvature, 327, 330
+
+    Ferns, 118
+
+    Fertilization, 42, 157, 159, 160
+
+    Filiation, 75
+
+    Finality, immanent law of, 174
+
+    First causes, 52, 71, 249
+
+    Fishes, 61, 270, 276, 279, 283, 296;
+      adult, 279, 283;
+      embryo of, 279
+
+    Fish-kidney, 302
+
+    Fission, binary, 156, 161;
+      unequal, 156;
+      multiple, 156
+
+    Fixism, 4, 32, 52, 69, 70, 72, 75, 119, 124, 268;
+      unable to furnish “natural” explanation of homology, 52;
+      uniformitarian, 69
+
+    Flat worms, 278
+
+    Flies, 134
+
+    Fluctuants, 87
+
+    Fluctuations, 10, 16, 29, 302, 333;
+      cause of, 10, 16;
+      instance of, 16;
+      non-inheritable, 10, 16
+
+    Fœtal life, special conditions of, 299
+
+    Fœtus, 301
+
+    Fonte de Gaume, 339
+
+    Foot-and-mouth disease, germ of, 183 _note_
+
+    Foramnifera, 118
+
+    Force, 172, 176;
+      defined, 172;
+      no special vital, 176
+
+    Forehead, 328, 330, 341;
+      higher, 328;
+      low, 341;
+      retreating, 330
+
+    Formaldehyde, 145-148;
+      not first step in origin of life nor in photosynthesis, 145-147
+
+    Formaldehyde-hypothesis, 145-148
+
+    Formaldoxime, 148
+
+    Formations, fossiliferous, 105
+
+    Formations, geological, 75, 84, 93, 95, 99, 100, 103, 105, 108, 118,
+      119, 126;
+      time-value of, 84
+
+    Formed bodies of cell, self-perpetuating, 168
+
+    Formose, 145
+
+    Forms, 246, 275, 276, 312;
+      fossil, sequence of, 276
+        —intermediate, 312;
+      grammatical, 246;
+      intermediate, none between man and apes, 275
+
+    Fortuitous result, 249
+
+    Fossil bones, 319
+
+    Fossil facts, 311
+
+    Fossiliferous stratification, universality of, 102
+
+    Fossil remains, human, 213
+
+    Fossils, 3, 81, 87, 88, 94, 95, 96, 99, 100, 101, 102, 104, 107,
+      110, 111, 112, 118, 309, 317, 334, 335;
+      dated by theory of descent, 334;
+      evade experimental breeding tests, 87, 88, 334;
+      no invariable sequence of, 99, 102;
+      reconstructed, 88;
+      still “medals of Creation,” 94;
+      time-value problematic, 98, 100, 101, 107, 110, 111, 112, 335
+
+    Foxhall Man, 309, 341, 342;
+      alleged to be Tertiary, 309, 341, 342;
+      flint implements prove intelligence of, 342;
+      no fossils of, 342
+
+    Freedom, human, 232;
+      of will, 232
+
+    Free will, a myth, 360, 361
+
+    Frescoes, 339, 340;
+      polychrome, 340;
+      primeval, 339, 340
+
+    Frog, 64, 281;
+      tadpole, 281
+
+    Fruit-flies, eyeless, 306;
+      vestigial, 306;
+      wingless, 306
+
+    Functions, 215, 216, 241, 276;
+      extrinsically dependent on organism, 215, 216;
+      sensitivo-nervous, 241;
+      superorganic, 215
+
+    Fundulus, 62
+
+    Future life, 354, 361;
+      a myth, 361;
+      of retribution, 354
+
+
+    Gametes, 13, 14, 25, 156, 157, 158, 159;
+      production of, 25;
+      specialization of, for kinetic and trophic functions, 157, 158
+
+    Ganoids, 119, 120
+
+    Gar pike, 119
+
+    Gastrula, 159
+
+    Gelation, 168
+
+    Gemmation, 156
+
+    Geneology, 95, 113, 348;
+      hypothetical, 113;
+      of horse, 95;
+      of man, 348
+
+    Geneological tree of man, 348
+
+    Genera, 3, 4, 37, 78, 80, 81, 86, 92, 119, 312, 313;
+      fossil, 3, 4, 78, 80, 81, 86, 312, 313
+
+    Generalization, power of, 261
+
+    Generation, univocal and equivocal, 68, 69
+
+    Genes, 17, 18, 19, 25, 27, 42, 43, 44, 45, 79, 141, 162;
+      inhibitive, 18, 19, 42, 79, 162
+
+    Genetic cellular continuity, law of, no exception to, 163, 164
+
+    Genetic continuity, 142, 160, 165, 311;
+      fivefold law of, 142;
+      law of, 136, 160
+        —may not prevail in submicroscopic world, 165
+
+    Geneticists, 89, 334
+
+    Genetics, 2, 3, 24, 36, 46 _note_, 56, 82, 88, 89, 121, 126, 141,
+      302, 305, 334
+
+    Genital distrophy, 294
+
+    Genotype, 5, 41, 43, 123
+
+    Geodesists, 114
+
+    Geological column, 106, 117, 125, 126
+
+    Geological record, 72, 80-84, 92, 106, 111, 120, 125, 126, 127, 297;
+      damaged, 92;
+      enigmatic, 126, 127;
+      incomplete, 72, 80, 106;
+      incompleteness assumed to explain absence of intermediates, 83;
+      time-value presupposes its completeness, 82, 83, 111
+
+    Geologists, 100, 102, 113, 114, 117, 125, 181
+
+    Geology, xiv, 98, 107, 111, 117;
+      can only prove local order of succession, 111
+
+    Germ, 13, 155, 156, 182;
+      multicellular and unicellular, 155, 156
+
+    Germ cells, 13, 14, 16, 156, 157, 163
+
+    Germ plasm, 14, 25, 26, 41, 42, 45, 265, 303
+
+    Germ tract, 14
+
+    Germinal constitution, 87, 123
+
+    Gerrymandering, geological, 116
+
+    Giantism, 44, 294
+
+    Gibbon, 271, 274, 310, 314, 316
+
+    Gibraltar skull, 322
+
+    Gill arches and clefts, 278, 279
+
+    Gills, 70, 279;
+      permanent, 279
+
+    Glacial, 104 _note_, 289, 320, 327, 329, 330, 331, 332, 334;
+      deposits, 104 _note_;
+      epoch, 320, 332, 334
+        —middle of, 332
+        —close of, 332;
+      period, 289, 327, 329, 330, 331
+        —fourth or last, 327, 329
+        —close of, 331
+
+    Glaciation, 290
+
+    Glacier, continental, 287, 289
+
+    Glacier National Park, 108
+
+    Glaciologists, 289
+
+    Glands, 296, 304;
+      muciparous, 296;
+      supernumerary mammary, 304
+
+    Glaurus overthrust, 107
+
+    Globigerina, 118
+
+    Glucose, 145
+
+    Gluteal region, 273
+
+    Glyceraldehyde, 145
+
+    God, 180, 351;
+      admitted as hypothetical, 351;
+      Author of Life, 180;
+      impossible to prove existence of, 351
+
+    Golgi bodies, 140
+
+    Gonads, interstitial cells of, 292
+
+    Gondwana Land, 114, 115
+
+    Gorilla, 51, 270, 271, 272, 273, 314;
+      face of, 271;
+      skull of, 271
+
+    Gradation, 82, 87, 315;
+      morphological, 82;
+      of forms, 87;
+      series, 315;
+      temporal succession, 82
+
+    Gradual approximation, dogma of, 110
+
+    Grammar, “scientific” revision of, 205
+
+    Graptolites, 78, 100
+
+    Great Peacock Moth, 260
+
+    Grey Worm, 246
+
+    Grignard reaction, 209
+
+    Groups, 335
+
+    Gryphaea, 79
+
+    Guest, 49, 53
+
+
+    Habit, 8, 265, 266, 267, 291, 328, 333, 334;
+      automatisms of, alleged to be source of instinct, 267;
+      body-modifying, 333
+        —of squatting, 328;
+      modern, 334
+
+    Habitat, 99, 112, 182
+
+    Hæmoglobin, 148
+
+    Hallucinations, 235
+
+    Hallux, human, 50;
+      simian, 50
+
+    Halogens, 58
+
+    Haptophores, 57
+
+    Heidelberg Man, 318, 319, 320;
+      jaw anomalous, 319, 320
+
+    Hen, 259, 260
+
+
+    Heredity, 5, 39, 54, 88;
+      alleged cause of homology, 39;
+      biparental, 5
+
+    Heterogametes, 158
+
+    Hererogamy, 158
+
+    Hererozygous, 25, 26, 27
+
+    Histogenesis, 59
+
+    History, 337, 338, 339;
+      contradicts evolutionary assumption, 337, 338;
+      dawn of, 337;
+      proves primitive man to have been civilized, not barbaric, 339
+
+    Homœomorphy, heterogenetic, 79
+
+    Homology, 8, 34, 35, 36, 39, 40, 46, 47, 48, 51, 54, 59, 60, 61, 63,
+      64, 65, 77, 268, 276, 277, 278, 279, 284, 287, 292, 298, 308;
+      definition of, 35;
+      anatomical, 276, 279, 284, 308;
+      application to man, 34, 51, 268;
+      disguised by external diversity, 48;
+      embryological, 48, 278, 279, 284, 308;
+      evolutionary argument from, 34, 47 _note_, 48, 54, 63, 64, 65, 268,
+        292;
+      genetic explanation of, 39, 40, 47
+
+    Homologous organs, 35, 61
+
+    Homo neanderthalensis, 333
+
+    Homo primigenius, 323, 330, 333, 334, 341, 342;
+      a variety, not a distinct species, 342;
+      same as Homo Mousteriensis, 330;
+      type, fluctional nature of, 341
+
+    Homo sapiens, 325, 330, 332, 333, 340, 342, 345;
+      only human species, 342
+
+    Homozygous, 25, 27
+
+    Horizon, 93, 94, 125, 310, 335;
+      level, 335;
+      stratigraphical, 93, 94;
+      stratigraphic, 125, 310, 335
+
+    Hormones 14, 292, 294, 295
+
+    Horse, 5, 78, 81, 82, 304, 332
+
+    Host, 49, 53
+
+    Hottentots, 325
+
+    Human, 224, 227, 256, 335, 341, 342, 345, 352;
+      fossils all belong to the species, Homo sapiens, 345;
+      mind
+        —alleged to be of animal extraction, 352
+        —reflects, 224
+        —spiritual, 227;
+      reason, 256;
+      remains more ancient than formations in which they are found, 335
+
+    Human body, 267, 304, 345;
+      evolution of, 267;
+      ignorance and uncertainty regarding origin, 345;
+      not a mosaic of heterogenetic organs, 304;
+      origin of, 345
+
+    Humanization of brute, subjective, 238
+
+    Humanizers of brute, Darwinian, 263
+
+    Human language attests reality of ego, 205
+
+    Human nature, 360;
+      Darwinian conception of, 360
+        —evils of popularizing it, 360
+
+    Human Soul, 193, 194, 202, 203, 210, 213, 214, 215, 216, 225, 231,
+      232, 233, 267, 268;
+      could only originate by creation, 267;
+      creation of, 193, 267;
+      discarnate, 202, 214
+        —not a complete person or nature, 202;
+      exists for its own sake, 215;
+      immortal, 193;
+      intrinsically independent of organism, 202, 215, 225;
+      not an emergent of matter, 194
+        —alone active in superorganic functions, 202, 214, 216;
+      same as mind, 203;
+      simplicity of, 210
+        —not to be confounded with spirituality of, 210;
+      spirituality of, 193, 203, 214, 215, 216, 231, 232, 233, 233 _note_,
+        268
+        —proofs of, 214, 215, 216, 231
+        —from rational thought and volition, 231, 232, 233, 233 _note_;
+      substantiality of, 210;
+      underivable from matter, 268
+
+    Hunter, life of, 328, 330
+
+    Hyaloplasm, 139, 141
+
+    Hybridism, constant, 25
+
+    Hybridization, 16, 26, 88;
+      interspecific and intervarietal, 26
+
+    Hybrids, 4, 5, 17, 25, 26, 27, 28, 84, 85, 87;
+      interspecific, sterile, 4, 5, 26, 27;
+      invarietal, 19, 20, 27, 28;
+      as intermediates, 84, 85
+
+    Hydrang, 44
+
+    Hydrogen, 175;
+      liquid, 184 _note_
+
+    Hydroglissia, 248
+
+    Hydrosol, 169
+
+    Hydrosphere, 113, 181
+
+    Hydrotheca, 78
+
+    Hydroxylamine, 148
+
+    Hyrozoa erroneously classified, 122
+
+    Hylobatic, 314, 316, 317, 318;
+      type, 318
+
+    Hylomorphic dualism, 198
+
+    Hylomorphic vitalism, does not discourage experimental analysis of
+      life, 201
+
+    Hylomorphism, 174
+
+    Hypogamete, 158
+
+    Hypertrophy, 289, 290, 294;
+      due to use, 289
+
+    Hypophysis, 292, 293, 294, 295;
+      not functionless, 294
+
+
+    Ice Age, 98
+
+    Ichthyosaurs, 80
+
+    Igneous masses, not basal, 125
+
+    Illusions, 235
+
+    Imageless thought, sense of term, 219
+
+    Imagery, 214, 215, 218, 219, 220, 221, 228, 229, 241, 243;
+      a function of the living cerebral cortex, 221;
+      association of, 241;
+      cerebral, 218;
+      concrete, 220, 221;
+      different in different persons, 219;
+      distributed by abnormal state of cortex, 221;
+      motor, 214;
+      neurographic, 243;
+      represents only superficial and exterior properties, 219;
+      rigid, correlated with metabolic process at work in cerebral
+        cortex, 228, 229;
+      rigidly proportioned underlying neurogram, 215;
+      sensible, presupposed by thought and volition, 221;
+      shows corresponding degrees of integrity and intensity, 229;
+      sporadic and fragmentary, 229;
+      tactile, 214
+
+    Imagination, 213, 221, 222, 228, 229, 231;
+      cerebral sense, 222, 228, 229;
+      its normal exercise depends on physiological normality of cerebral
+        cortex, 221;
+      organic function, 231
+
+    Imaginative activity, 229
+
+    Immortality, considered an anodyne, 358
+
+    Immunity, 57
+
+    Immutibility, 50, 52
+
+    Impenetrability, 225;
+      of matter, law of, 225;
+      reflection opposed to, 225
+
+    Improvised structures, 281 _note_, 283
+
+    Incubation, purposeless, 259
+
+    Independent Assortment, Law of, 27
+
+    Index fossils, 93, 94, 96, 97, 100, 104, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111,
+      112, 335, 339;
+      basis of stratigraphic correlation, 93, 94;
+      an arbitrary and elastic criterion, 94, 95;
+      final court of appeal, 93, 96, 97, 335;
+      in conflict with physical and stratigraphic evidence, 100, 104-112
+
+    India, 114
+
+    Indian dialects, work of philosophers, 338
+
+    Indian Ocean, 114, 115
+
+    Individuation, 220, 224;
+      concrete, 224
+
+    Indo-Europeans, 334
+
+    Industry, Mousterian, 326, 327, 329, 330, 331;
+      Acheulean, 331;
+      Aurignacian, 331
+
+    Inertia, defined, 174
+
+    Infusion, 193;
+      not supernatural, 193;
+      of spirit into matter, not a miracle, 193
+
+    Infantilism, 294
+
+    Inference, 221, 240;
+      mediate, 221
+
+    Infundibulum, 293
+
+    Infusoria, supposed abiogenetic origin of, 134
+
+    Inheritance, 2, 8, 9, 24, 27, 38, 40, 41, 42, 45, 56, 57, 62, 63,
+      64, 75, 160, 294, 320;
+      definition of, 41;
+      biparental, 160;
+      chemical theory of, 57;
+      laws of, 2, 24, 27, 42;
+      similifying process, 40, 45
+        —not only one, 56
+        —also said to diversify, 63, 64;
+      variable, 75
+
+    Inhibition, 242, 252
+
+    Initial vivification, 133;
+      act, 133;
+      of matter required a formative, 133;
+      rather than creative, 133
+
+    Inquilines, 46
+
+    Insectivora, 275
+
+    Insects, 225, 307;
+      evolutionary diminuendo of, 116;
+      wingless, 307
+
+    Instinct, 238, 240, 247, 249, 250, 251, 252, 254, 256, 257, 259,
+      263, 264, 265, 267, 291, 343, 361;
+      defined, 255, 256;
+      James’ definition of,
+    249;
+      according to external circumstances, 250-252;
+      according to physiological state of organism, 250;
+      adjustment of, 250, 252;
+      constructive, 251;
+      effective only under normal circumstances 258;
+      evolutionary origin of, 267
+        —improbable, 267;
+      fixity of, 258;
+      improbability of, 267;
+      its regulatory principal sense, 254;
+      not gradually acquired, 263, 264;
+      not intelligence, 254;
+      only slightly undefiable, 256;
+      origin of, 263;
+      psychic regulation of, 249;
+      requires no apprenticeship, 256;
+      teleology of, 249;
+      telic, 259;
+      variability of, 250
+
+    Instinctive acts, 256
+
+    Instruction, 244, 245
+
+    Instrumentation, 197
+
+    Intellect, 220, 221, 224, 226-230, 339;
+      active, 220, 221;
+      activity of, 221;
+      cognitive, 220, 221;
+      conscious of its own operations, 226, 227;
+      indirectly dependent on physiological condition of cortex, 221;
+      its immaterial nature, 224;
+      objectively dependent on organic activity of imagination, 221;
+      not bound to material organ, 226;
+      not debilitated by intense thinking, 227, 228;
+      not incapacitated but invigorated by intense thinking, 228;
+      not regulated by physiological vicissitude, 229;
+      not subject to metabolic laws, 230;
+      rooted in a spiritual principle, 227;
+      superorganic nature of, 227
+
+    Intellectual, 228, 229, 230;
+      activity may reach highest points of concentration and intensity
+        without involving commensurate fatigue on part of organism, 228
+
+    Intelligence, 239-241, 243, 245, 247, 248, 249, 254, 256, 257, 259,
+      262, 263, 267, 329, 330, 340, 343, 350;
+      definition of, 239;
+      autonomous, 259;
+      a generalizing and abstracting power, 257;
+      “bestial,” 245, 247, 257;
+      conscious, 240;
+      deceptive semblance of, 240, 241;
+      Divine, 249;
+      etymology of, 239;
+      finite, 249;
+      genuine, 240, 241;
+      infinite, 248, 249;
+      incapable of being evolved from matter, 267;
+      inherent, 249, 256, 259, 267;
+      of worker bees, 267;
+      subjective or inherent, 248, 249;
+      used to denote power of profiting by experience, 239, 240
+
+    Intensity, 227, 230;
+      does not increase in same proportion as intensity of stimulus, 227;
+      may reach maximum with involving corresponding fatigue, 230;
+      of thought does not follow fluctuations of neural metabolism, 230
+
+    Interactionism, 206
+
+    Interaction, three types of, 175
+
+    Interglacial period, 329;
+      last, 329
+
+    Intergradation, 87
+
+    Intergradence, 84-87;
+      may indicate hybridism, 84, 85;
+      no argument for common ancestry, 84-86;
+      of mutants genetically independent, 85, 86
+
+    Intergradents, 85, 86;
+      hybrid, 85, 86;
+      mutational, 85, 86;
+      specific, 85, 86
+
+    Interjections, negligible part of human language, 247
+
+    Interpretation, ontogenetic, an alternative for phylogenetic, 302
+
+    Intervals, 105;
+      lost, unrepresented by deposition, erosion or disturbance, 105
+
+    Intravitous staining, 143
+
+    Introspection, 204, 205, 212, 225;
+      does not create personality, 212;
+      impossible to a material organ, 225
+
+    Intrusions, igneous, 125
+
+    Invertebrate, 293, 294;
+      stage, 293, 294
+
+    Involution, 160
+
+    Iron, 148
+
+    Irrational man unknown either to history or prehistory, 340
+
+    Islands, 153
+
+    Islets of Langerhans, 292
+
+    Isobares, 172
+
+    Isogametes, 157
+
+    Isogamy, 157
+
+    Isomers, 173
+
+    Isostacy, 113, 114
+
+    Isostatic equilibrium, 114
+
+
+    Jacob’s Cavern, in Missouri, 340
+
+    Java, 313
+
+    Jaw, 331, 340;
+      lower, 331;
+      lower missing, 340
+
+    Jimson Weed, 21, 22
+
+    Judgment, 207, 220
+
+    Jupiter, 184
+
+    Jura, 103
+
+    Jura, European, 96, 106
+
+    Jurassic, 117
+
+
+    Kena Kakoe, 346-348;
+      extinct volcano, 346
+
+    Kidney, 280-283;
+      adult, 282;
+      embryonic, 283;
+      fish, 280, 282;
+      mammalian, 280;
+      permanent, 281, 284
+
+    Kiluea, observatory at volcano of, 346
+
+    Kingdom, animal, 249
+
+    Kleistogamy, 159
+
+    Knowledge, 190, 191, 221, 256;
+      conceptional, 221;
+      experimental, 256;
+      technical, absence of, does not always disqualify, 190, 191
+
+    Krapina, 330, 332;
+      type of, 330
+
+
+    Laboratory syntheses differ from those occurring in organism, 150
+
+    La Chapelle-aux-Saints remains, 232, 330-333
+
+    Lamarckism, 6, 7, 13, 15, 16, 24, 29, 46 _note_, 53, 67, 78, 79,
+      263, 265, 266, 291;
+      recent revival of, 266
+
+    Lamps, 340
+
+    La Naulette remains, 326, 332;
+      alleged to be distinct species, 332;
+      absence of chin, 326;
+      allied to Neanderthal type, 326
+
+    Land bridges, 112
+
+    Language, 245, 246, 247, 330, 338, 339;
+      descriptive, conceptual and articulate, 246, 247;
+      first step in formation of, 245;
+      formation of, presupposes an artist as great as his works, 339;
+      human, 246, 247;
+      indicative, emotional and articulate, 247, 256;
+      of animals, 245,
+    246, 247;
+      of savage races point to former civilization, 330
+
+    La Quina, industry of, 331
+
+    Law, definition of, 166, 167
+
+    Law of Weber, 227
+
+    “Learning” of animals, 243
+
+    Le Moustier, 329, 332;
+      remains, 322, 326, 329, 330
+
+    Lemuroids, 275
+
+    Lemurs, 312
+
+    Lepontine Alps, 109
+
+    Lethals, balanced, 25-28
+
+    Lias, 119
+
+    Liberalism, 257
+
+    Life, 133, 142, 144, 145, 154, 165, 176, 177, 181, 182, 186, 187,
+      188, 203;
+      organic, definition of, 176, 177;
+      active cause of extramundane, 181, 182;
+      alleges submicroscopical units of, 165;
+      Author of, 186, 187;
+      conscious, 203;
+      initiation of, not a creation, 186, 187
+        —not a miracle, 187, 188
+        —not supernatural, 187, 188;
+      integrating and formative principle of, 144;
+      metabolic, sentient and rational, 203;
+      more than a chemical problem, 142;
+      origin of, 133
+      chemical hypothesis, 145
+        —not a problem of translation, 182;
+      spontaneous origin of, 154
+
+    Life-cycle, 69, 112, 138, 155, 156, 160
+
+    Lima, 118
+
+    Limit of microscopic vision, 140
+
+    Limulus polyphemus, 119
+
+    Lingula, 118
+
+    Linin, 139
+
+    Links, 84, 86, 312, 313, 315, 323, 341, 342;
+      connecting, 315, 323
+        —between men and apes, 312;
+      connecting, so called are (a) human, (b) simian, (c) mixed
+        remains, 342;
+      generic and ordinal, insufficient, 86;
+      “missing,” 341;
+      specific, minimum, 86;
+      transitional, 84
+        —none between man and apes, 313
+
+    Linkage groups, 17
+
+    Lithosphere, 113, 114, 181
+
+    Litopterna, 78
+
+    Living beings derive their matter from inorganic world, 123
+
+
+    Living matter, 143, 171;
+      its uniqueness, a simple fact, 171;
+      maintains its specific type, 143
+
+    Lizards, 292
+
+    Loess, 326, 327
+
+    Logarithmic spiral, 248
+
+    Locomotion, mechanism of, 270
+
+    Logic, 198, 220, 245;
+      of scepticism, 198;
+      of thought, escapes our imagery, 220;
+      saltatory, 245
+
+    Loss, 352, 353;
+      of artistic taste by Darwin, 352, 353
+
+    Lucina, 118
+
+    Lumpers, 37
+
+    Lumping, 121
+
+    Lychnis diurna and vespertina, 84
+
+    Lycosa, 247, 263
+
+    Lycosids, 247, 263-265
+
+    Lymphatic glands, stimulated by digestive process, 301
+
+    Lymphatic system, adjuncts of, 300
+
+    Lymphatic vessels, 300
+
+    Lymph nodules, 300
+
+    Lymphocytes, 300, 301
+
+    Lymphoid cells, follicle, 299
+
+
+    Macrogamete, 157, 158
+
+    Macrosomes, 139
+
+    Madeira, 306
+
+    Magalenians, 332
+
+    Maggots, 134
+
+    Magnesium, 146, 147, 148
+
+    Mammal, 46, 59, 60, 72, 73, 100, 115, 116, 275, 280, 282, 283,
+      296, 304, 324, 342;
+      age of, 342;
+      early, 324;
+      evolutionary “crescendo” of, 116
+
+    Mammalian stock, 82
+
+    Mammoth, 91, 115, 326
+
+    Man, 192, 193, 212, 236, 271, 290, 340, 341, 343;
+      bestial, 340;
+      brutalization of, 236;
+      destitute of instincts, 343;
+      face of, 27;
+      indications of his physical presence always accomplished by signs
+        of intelligence, 340;
+      left defenceless by nature, 343;
+      modern, 341;
+      more than a decaying organism, 212;
+      never found apart from evidence of his intelligence, 343;
+      physically helpless, 343;
+      skull of, 271;
+      unique
+    in his soul, not in his body, 192, 193
+
+    Mantids, 247
+
+    Marattia, 118
+
+    Mars, 184
+
+    Marsoulas, caves of, 339
+
+    Marsupial, 114, 296
+
+    Mason bee, 251, 254, 260
+
+    Mastodons, 115, 340;
+      “prehistoric,” engraving of, 340
+
+    Material, 193, 194, 207, 214;
+      functions, 214;
+      organism coöperates intrinsically in organic substrate, 224;
+      sense of term, 193, 194;
+      substance, inaccessible to senses, 207
+
+    Materialism, 178, 199, 212, 214, 236, 352, 355, 357, 358, 361;
+      a purely academic philosophy, 211;
+      attempt to gloss over, 207;
+      Darwinian, 236;
+      evolutionary, 360, 361;
+      its destructive effect on religion, ideals and morality, 361;
+      parasitic, 358
+
+    Materialistic, 207, 351-356, 357;
+      philosophy ignores active rôle of mind, 207;
+      view of human nature unnatural and intolerable—complete and
+        consistent application impossible, 357;
+      view make morality unthinkable—antisocial, 351-356
+
+    Material organ cannot be effected by the supersensible, 222
+
+    Matterhorn, 109
+
+    Materialist, 230
+
+    Materialists, many evolutionists are avowed, 351
+
+    Matter, 71, 173, 174, 179, 181, 186, 194, 199, 200, 204, 210;
+      a constant in inorganic units, 175;
+      a source of indeterminism, 71;
+      a variant in living organisms, 175;
+      constant in chemical reactions, variant in metabolism, 199, 200,
+        210;
+      does not coincide with sum total of reality, 186;
+      initial vivification of, due to supermaterial agency, 179;
+      inorganic, 181;
+      not more real than mind, 204;
+      notions of, 200;
+      ponderable and imponderable, 194
+
+    Maturity, 155
+
+    Mauer, 318
+
+    Mayflies, 115
+
+    Means, 254, 259
+
+    Measles, invisible germ of, 169
+
+    Mechanics, 350
+
+    Mechanism, 153, 154, 171, 179, 250;
+      environmental, 153;
+      teleological but simple, 153, 154
+
+    Mechanist, 58, 200, 204, 351;
+      many evolutionists are avowed, 351
+
+    Mechanistic universe, 350
+
+    Media, 136
+
+    Medium, vibrant, 213
+
+    Meganeura monyi Brogn, 115
+
+    Meiosis, 25, 42, 157
+
+    Melia, 261
+
+    Melocrinidae, 92
+
+    Membrana nictitans, 296, 297;
+      not functionless, 297
+
+    Memory, 213, 238, 242, 243;
+      associative, 238;
+      sensitive, 242, 243;
+      sentiment, 238, 242
+
+    Men, 318, 325, 328, 329;
+      and apes, link between, 318
+      —intermediate between, 318;
+      fossil, 325;
+      of Krapina, 325, 328, 329
+
+    Mendelism, 3, 24, 25, 26, 28, 42, 46, _note_, 57, 349
+
+    Mental protuberance, 272
+
+    Mental states, 205
+
+    Merosthenic, 270
+
+    Mesonephric duct, 281, 282
+
+    Mesonephros, 280, 281, 282, 284
+
+    Mesozoic, 73, 104 _note_, 118, 119, 335;
+      lowest series of, 119;
+      middle system of, 119
+
+    Metabolism, 57, 139, 210, 211, 227, 228;
+      destructive and constructive, 137
+
+    Metagenesis, 122
+
+    Metamorphosis, 123, 283
+
+    Metamorphism, 89, 126;
+      of rocks, 126
+
+    Metanephros, 280, 282
+
+    Metaphysical, 351
+
+    Metaphysics, 152, 185, 231, 349, 350, 351, 352;
+      Epicurian, 152;
+      monistic, 349;
+      vs. physical science, 352
+
+    Metaphytes, 136
+
+    Metazoa, 118
+
+    Metazoans, 136, 170, 284
+
+    Meteorites, 182, 183
+
+
+    Metista, 5, 59, 136, 156, 157, 159, 163
+
+    Microgamete, 158
+
+    Microns, 183
+
+    Microörganism, 169, 183
+
+    Microsomes, 139
+
+    Migrations, 72, 76, 112
+
+    Millennium, 358
+
+    Mimicry, 246
+
+    Mind, 195, 196, 198, 203, 204, 205, 207, 208, 209, 211, 222, 223, 249;
+      active and passive, 207;
+      apprehends material objects under dematerialized form, 223;
+      a substance, 207;
+      connotation of, 203;
+      cannot utilize coöperation of material organ in abstract
+        conceptions, 223;
+      frame of, 211;
+      human, 249;
+      of man alleged to be of animal extraction, 195, 196;
+      phenomenalistic notion of, 209;
+      science of, 197;
+      states of, not less real than states of matter, 204;
+      noumenal, 198
+
+    Minimum, 238, 349, 350;
+      an empirical rule, not an axiom, 350;
+      principle of, 238, 349, 350
+
+    Miocene, 95, 310, 323;
+      Upper, 95
+
+    Miracle, definition of, 187
+
+    Miraculous, 69, 351-356, 357
+
+    Mitachondria, 140
+
+    Mitosis, 59, 138, 139, 155
+
+    Modification, 7, 41, 42, 45, 46, 51, 77, 80, 123, 307, 327, 334;
+      adaptive, 45, 46, 51, 80;
+      environmentally-induced, 123;
+      heritable, 42, 45, 307;
+      non-inheritable, 334;
+      parallel, 77, 80;
+      product of variation, 41;
+      of specific magnitude, 7;
+      of varietal magnitude, 7
+
+    Moeritherium, 115
+
+    Molars, 313, 322;
+      teeth, 322
+
+    Mole, 36, 80, 291, 305
+
+    Mole-cricket, 36, 80
+
+    Molecule, 57, 58, 143, 144, 162, 167, 170, 175, 202, 203;
+      biophoric, 57;
+      complex, 202;
+      complex endothermic, 162;
+      living and dead, 143;
+      structure of, 58
+
+    Molluscs, 117, 118, 119, 123, 278, 283
+
+    Mongolian, 324, 325, 334;
+      cossack, 324
+
+
+    Monism, 350, 351, 352, 359;
+      destructive of culture, spirituality, morality, 350;
+      fail to motivate Christian morality, 358;
+      makes God immanent in world, 359;
+      makes will law unto itself, 359;
+      materialistic, 350, 352
+
+    Monist, 350
+
+    Monistic view vitiates artistic taste, 352
+
+    Monkey, 270, 275
+
+    Monomolecules, 165;
+      are not units, 165
+
+    Monotremeta, 296
+
+    Montana, 107 _note_
+
+    Moral consequences of failure to discriminate, 360
+
+    Morality, 354, 360;
+      evolutionary conception of, 360
+
+    Motor-verbalist, 219
+
+    Morphogenetic forces, 58, 284;
+      Laws, uniform, 284
+
+    Morphogeny, organic, 298
+
+    Morphology, embryonic and adult, 284
+
+    Mountain columns, 113
+
+    Mountains, 113, 153
+
+    Mouse, brain of, 315
+
+    Moustier Cave, 329
+
+    Movements, 241, 242;
+      reflex, 242;
+      spontaneous, 241, 242.
+
+    Mule, 5
+
+    Müllerian duct, 281
+
+    Multimolecule, 58, 144, 162, 165, 166, 168, 170, 179;
+      are not units, 165;
+      colloidal, 166;
+      crystalloidal, 165, 166;
+      not a link between molecules and cells, 179;
+      structure of, 58
+
+    Murder, as an experiment, 359
+
+    Muscles, 298
+
+    Mutants, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 27, 87;
+      chromosomal, 17, 21, 22, 23
+      —balanced and unbalanced, 21, 22
+      —balance, odd and even, 22
+      —status as “new species” not established, 23;
+      factorial, 17, 18, 19, 20;
+      pseudo, 17, 27
+
+    Mutation, 16, 16 _note_, 26, 42, 86, 88, 122, 265, 303, 305, 307,
+      334;
+      changes of loss, 18, 43;
+      chromosomal, 17, 42, 44, 45, 88;
+      factorial,
+    19, 20, 42, 44, 45, 88, 305, 334
+      —a varietal, not a specific change; fortuitous, 265;
+      heritable, 16, 303, 334;
+      pseudo, 17, 42, 88
+
+    Mutation, 16, 20, 46;
+      Theory, 16, 20
+
+    Myxœdema, 294
+
+
+    Nahun beds, 95
+
+    Natural explanations, 69, 70
+
+    Naturalism borrows moral standards, 358
+
+    Natural process, 69, 74
+
+    Natural science, 186
+
+    Natural Selection, 9, 11, 12, 13, 29, 30, 152, 153, 305, 306, 350;
+      a theory of chance, 11, 350;
+      has no positive efficacy, 153;
+      theory has impeded progress of science, 13
+
+    Nature, 151, 185;
+      inorganic impotent to duplicate even laboratory synthesis, not
+        to speak of vital phenomena, 151
+      —lacks means of self-vivification, 185;
+      not automatic, 151
+
+    Nautilus, 118, 283
+
+    Neanderthal, 314, 315, 317, 325, 326, 329, 330, 331, 332, 333, 335,
+      337, 342;
+      bone, show some racial characteristics, 329;
+      cranium, 331, 332
+      —capacity underestimated, 333, not ancestral to Cro-Magnon type, 335;
+      not more ancient than modern type, 337;
+      remains, 325, 332
+      —human, 325;
+      skull, cranial capacity of, 314, 325;
+      type of, 330, 332
+
+    Neanderthal Man, 314, 315, 317, 323, 326, 341, 342;
+      distinctly human, 342;
+      a dwarf, 314;
+      No. 1, 323, 326;
+      divided opinion on, 324;
+      No. 2, skeleton, 326
+      —skull missing, 326
+
+    Neanderthal type, 326, 330, 332, 333, 334, 336;
+      alleged to be distinct species, 332;
+      alleged to be more ancient, 334;
+      degenerate, 336;
+      differences, 334;
+      race, 334;
+      no longer considered oldest type, 336
+
+    Neanderthaloid, 328, 333, 341, 343;
+      characteristics occur in modern skulls, 333;
+      race, 343;
+      skulls, modern features occur in, 333
+
+    Nebular, hypothesis, 181
+
+    Negroes, 334
+
+    Neo-Darwinism, 10
+
+    Neo-Kantian, 203, 219;
+      phenomenalist, 203
+
+    Neo-Lamarkism, 10, 12, 15
+
+    Neolithic, 332
+
+    Neontologists, 76
+
+    Neotoma, 307
+
+    Neo-vitalism, 171, 201, 202;
+      postulates a unique force, an agent “sui generis,” 171
+
+    Neo-vitalists, 58, 200, 201;
+      regard vital principle as force “sui generis,” a unique agent,
+        200, 201
+
+    Nephridia, 280
+
+    Neptune, 184
+
+    Nerve plasm, 265
+
+    Neurograms, 213, 214, 222;
+      extended, 222;
+      imprinted on neurons, 213, 214;
+      objects capable of stimulating an extended organ, 222;
+      objects of, endowed with concrete properties, 222;
+      proportioned to stimuli, 222;
+      physical basis of imagery, 214, 222
+
+    Neurons, 213, 222, 350;
+      sensory and central, 213;
+      utility of sensory, 222
+
+    New names for fossil duplicates of modern species, 119, 120
+
+    New Stone Age, prehistoric, 337
+
+    Nihilism, philosophical, 350
+
+    Nitrogen snow, 183 _note_;
+      reddish light of, 184 _note_
+
+    Non-cosmopolitan species, 283
+
+    Non-enents, 309
+
+    Non-opposability of human hallux, 50
+
+    Non-phenomenon or substance, 209
+
+    Non-specialist, when disqualified and when not, 189-191
+
+    Non-viable, 25
+
+    Novelty, emergent, 350
+
+    Nuclear components, self-perpetuating, 139
+
+    Nuclear reorganization, 155, 160, 161, 162;
+      a restorative process,
+    155, 161;
+      means of rejuvenation, 161;
+      none in somatogenic reproduction, 160;
+      periodic, 162;
+      primitive, 162
+
+    Nuclear sap, 139
+
+    Nucleus, 137, 138, 161;
+      cellular, 138;
+      daughter, 161;
+      distributed, 138;
+      germinal, 161;
+      parent, 161
+
+    Nucula, 118
+
+    Nutrition, a reflexive activity, 175
+
+
+    Object, 217, 223, 224;
+      concurrence of, extrinsic, 217;
+      indicated spiritual nature of mind, 224;
+      (material) abstract, made of representation, 224;
+      of abstract thought, incapable of making impressions or leaving
+        records on material receptors, 223
+
+    Occipital foramen, 272
+
+    Occiput, broad, 332
+
+    Ocean beds, elevation of, 114, 115
+
+    Ocean bottoms, 113-115
+
+    Ocean floor, 115
+
+    Octopus, 64
+
+    Œnothera, 16, 17, 27, 28;
+      gigas, 17;
+      Lamarkiana, 27, 28
+
+    Œsophagus, invertebrate, 293
+
+    Old Stone Age, 332, 337, 339, 340;
+      class of, 332;
+      prehistoric, 337
+
+    Oligocene, 309, 317
+
+    Onion-coat, 99, 102, 103, 109;
+      a convenient device, 109;
+      Alpine, 109;
+      hypothesis of, 102, 103
+      —“transcendental form of,” 102;
+      lithological and biological, 102;
+      mineral envelopes, 102;
+      theory, 99
+
+    Ontogeny, 39, 79, 275, 285
+
+    Oölites, 79
+
+    Opisthonephros, 280, 282
+
+    Opposability of simian hallux, 50
+
+    Opposition, 218, 219, 234, 235;
+      between imagery and thought, 218, 219;
+      between psycho-organic and spiritual activity, 234, 235;
+      entails distinction, 235
+
+    Orang-utan, 33, 271
+
+    Orders, 37
+
+    Organ, 222, 226, 276, 286, 287, 288, 292, 298, 300, 303;
+      embryonic, 276;
+      functionless, 286, 287, 292;
+      incapable of reflection, 226;
+      material, cannot be effected by the supersensible, 222;
+      nascent and rudimentary, 287, 288;
+      distinction, arbitrary, 288;
+      reduced, 286, 287;
+      vestigial, 292, 300, 303;
+      useless, 286
+
+    Organelles, 139
+
+    Organic activity, rigidly regulated by metabolism, 228
+
+    Organic functions, 203, 213, 215;
+      agent and subject of, not soul alone, 203;
+      not only functions in man, 215
+
+    Organic substances, 149, 150;
+      laboratory synthesis of, 149, 150;
+      not to confounded with living or organized substances, 150
+
+    Organisms, 154, 155, 163, 201, 202, 203, 246;
+      a product of the law of Complexity, 167;
+      multicellular, 155;
+      none subcellular, 154;
+      of some species, syntonic, 246;
+      participates as coefficient factor in physiological and sensory
+        functions, 203;
+      soul-informed, 203;
+      unicellular, 154, 163
+
+    Organization, 143, 150;
+      elude art of chemist, 150
+
+    Order, 209;
+      ideal, phenomenalists confuse it with real order of things, 209;
+      real, of things, 209
+
+    Ordivician, 111
+
+    Orientation of forces, centrifugal and centripetal, 179
+
+    Origins, 71, 83, 161, 220, 221, 360;
+      biparental, 161;
+      common, 81
+      —of man and brute, 360;
+      organic, need not be unified in space but should be in time, 71;
+      of concepts, 220, 221
+
+    Orneau, river, 326;
+      valley, 327
+
+    Ornithorhynchus, 59, 287
+
+    Ornithosaurs, 80
+
+    Orthogenesis, 6, 7, 46 _note_, 53;
+      cannot explain adaptation, 53
+
+    Osmia, 252
+
+    Outcrop, 93
+
+    Overthrust, 98, 107, 110;
+      a triumph of modern research, 107
+
+    Ovists, 160
+
+    Oximes, 148
+
+    Oxychromatin, 139
+
+    Oysters, 79
+
+
+    Palæobotany, 117
+
+    Palæolithic, 327, 328, 330, 333, 343;
+      artists, 343;
+      human remains, 330;
+      man, 328, 333
+
+    Palæontological argument, 66-127;
+      defects in, 75, 124;
+      in abstract, 66-75;
+      in concrete, 75-127;
+      a theoretical construction, 126
+
+    Palæontological evidence, 3, 8, 66, 74-80, 83, 89, 97, 105, 107,
+      124, 311, 312;
+      imperfection of, 89;
+      rated as outweighing physical evidence, 97, 107
+
+    Palæontological pedigrees, 3, 76, 78, 81, 82, 84, 126;
+      definition of, 81;
+      of horse, 76, 78, 81, 82, 126;
+      camel, 126,
+      and elephant, 126
+
+    Palæontologists, 76, 86, 87, 88, 91, 119, 190, 310, 313, 321, 334,
+      344;
+      incompetent to decide questions of specific origin or
+        distinction, 87, 88, 89, 334
+
+    Palæontology, 3, 82, 83, 88, 92, 95, 96, 114, 119, 126, 195, 311,
+      312, 313, 344;
+      facts of, 83, 195;
+      ignorant concerning origin of man, 344;
+      orthodox, 95, 96, 119
+
+    Palæotherium, 76
+
+    Palæozoic, 73, 108, 117, 118, 124 _note_, 125, 335
+
+    Palingenesis, 277, 288
+
+    Pan-Pacific Conferences, 344, 346
+
+    Panspermia, 182
+
+    Parallelism, 57, 58;
+      _vs._ divergence, 57
+
+    Paramœcium, 138, 161, 178;
+      aurelia, 138
+
+    Parasites, 46, 53
+
+    Parasitism, 52
+
+    Parathyroids, 292
+
+    Parent cell, 156
+
+    Parthenogenesis, 158, 159, 160, 162;
+      artificial, 159, 160
+      —not violation of law of genetic continuity, 159, 160
+
+    Pathology, 141
+
+    Patient, 176, 177
+
+    Pear-tree, 6, 88
+
+    Pebrine, 44
+
+    Pecking instinct of chicks, 256
+
+    Pecten, 118
+
+    Pedigrees, of genera, 84
+
+    Pelopæus, 260
+
+    Penguin, wings of, 287
+
+    Pentacrinus, 119
+
+    Perception, 208, 212, 253;
+      an act of, 208;
+      of personality, not personality, 212;
+      sensory, 253
+
+    Percepts, objective, 235;
+      sensory, 219
+
+    Periodicity, 56;
+      of elements, 56;
+      families of elements, 56
+
+    Peri Psyches, Aristotle’s, 196, 197, 215
+
+    Perissodactyla, 78
+
+    Permian, 104, 118
+
+    Persistence, 116, 119, 123;
+      cannot be subsumed under same principles as transmutations, 123;
+      its significance intensified by current theories, 123;
+      of types, 119;
+      of unchanged types, 116
+
+    Persistent types, generic and specific, 123
+
+    Personal identity, sense of, 212
+
+    Personality, 205, 211, 212, 238;
+      a unitary and uniform reality, 212;
+      alternating, 211;
+      based on unchanging principle, 212;
+      perception of, 212
+
+    Pessimism, 355, 357
+
+    Petit-Puymoyen, industry of, 331
+
+    Phæophytin, 147
+
+    Pharyngeal arches and clefts, 278, 279
+
+    Phase, reversal of, 168, 169
+
+    Phenomena, 208, 209;
+      phenomenalists’ substantialization of, 209
+
+    Phenomenalism, 207, 208, 211, 212;
+      a purely academic philosophy, 211;
+      identifies mind with “thought stream,” 212
+
+    Phenomenalistic school, 206
+
+    Phenomenalists, 203, 205, 206, 207;
+      inconsistently admit of physical phenomena while denying subject
+        of psychic phenomena, 206, 207
+
+    Phenotype, 5, 19, 25, 27, 41, 43, 68, 123
+
+    Philology, 339;
+      proves primitive man to have been civilized, not barbaric, 339
+
+    Philosophers, 220
+
+    Philosophy, 189, 190, 195;
+      in rôle of critic, 189;
+      in rôle of sycophant,
+    190;
+      materialistic, 195;
+      relation to science, 189
+
+    Phonetic elements, 246
+
+    Photosynthesis, 146
+
+    Phycocyanin, 149
+
+    Phylogeny, 39, 80, 122, 275, 276, 284, 285, 308;
+      human, 285, 308;
+      palæontological, 115
+
+    Phylum, 37, 38, 69, 116
+
+    Physical impressions, 213
+
+    Physical science, 352, 354
+
+    Physicochemical action, reducible to interaction between unequally
+      energized masses and particles, 175
+
+    Physicochemical forces, executive factors in vital operations, 201
+
+    Physiology, 350
+
+    Phytol, 147
+
+    Picotee sweet pea, 19
+
+    Piltdown skull, 320
+
+    Pineal eye, 292
+
+    Pineal gland, 292, 293, 295;
+      not functionless, 293
+
+    Pioneer colonies, 110
+
+    Pithecanthropus, distinctly simian, 342
+
+    Pithecanthropus erectus, 309, 313-318, 342;
+      cranial capacity of, 314;
+      a giant ape, 315;
+      existing casts inaccurate, 318
+
+    Pituitary body, 292, 293
+
+    Pituitrin, 294
+
+    Placenta, 276
+
+    Planarian, 278
+
+    Planetesimal, hypothesis, 181
+
+    Plantigrade, 272
+
+    Plastids, 139, 141
+
+    Platycrinidae, 92
+
+    Platyrhine monkeys, 287
+
+    Pleistocene, 78, 100, 104, 313, 319, 320, 325;
+      Lower, 313, 320;
+      Middle, 319
+
+    Pleurotomaria, 118
+
+    Plica, semilunaris, 297
+
+    Pliocene, 78, 95, 309, 313, 317, 323;
+      Upper, 309, 313, 317
+
+    Pluteus, 159
+
+    Polar body, second, 159
+
+    Polariscope, 144
+
+    Polymorphism, 122
+
+    Polynesians, 325
+
+    Polynuclear condition, 138
+
+    Polyphemus, the Cyclops, 293
+
+    Pompilids, 247, 248, 263, 264
+
+    Pompilius, 247, 261
+
+    Popular trust not to be abused, 345, 346
+
+    Postauricular muscles, 304, 305
+
+    Post-glacial time, 289
+
+    Preadaptations, 46, 47, 52, 53, 63, 124, 279;
+      adventitious appearance of, 46, 47;
+      divergent, 279;
+      entail modifications of specific magnitude, 47;
+      evolution as “natural explanation” of, 53;
+      inherited, 47
+
+    Pre-Cambrian, 100, 116, 118, 125;
+      terranes, 125
+      —extension great, 125
+
+    Preformation, 3, 160
+
+    Prehension, 50, 271, 272
+
+    Prehistoric, 337
+
+    Prehuman, arboreal stage, 309, 217
+
+    Presupposition, latent in materialistic logic, 186
+
+    Pre-tertiary, 312
+
+    Primates, 308
+
+    Primitive man, 338, 342, 343;
+      not irrational, 342, 343;
+      not a savage, 338
+
+    Primula, 19
+
+    Principles, 171, 172;
+      entitive and dynamic, 171, 172
+
+    Priocnemis, flavicornis, 248
+
+    Priority, 76;
+      a “sine qua non” condition of ancestry, 76
+
+    Process, 206, 209, 225;
+      divorced from agents, 209;
+      of reflection entails identity of observer and observed, 225;
+      subjectless and sourceless, of phenomenalists, 206
+
+    Prognathic face, 332
+
+    Prognathism, 325, 330, 333, 341;
+      of upper jaw accentuated, 341
+
+    “Progress,” 355, 359;
+      modern, 359;
+      of science, 355
+
+    Progression, 50, 271, 272, 317;
+      bipedal, 272;
+      modes of, 271, 317
+
+    Prehistory, undocumented, unreliable, 340
+
+    Pronephric duct, 281
+
+    Pronephros, 280, 281 _note_
+
+    Prophylaxis, 356
+
+
+    Propliopithecus, 309, 311
+
+    Prosthenic, 271
+
+    Protein, 140, 144, 145, 147, 151;
+      multimolecule of, 140
+
+    Proterotheres, 78
+
+    Proterotheriidæ, 78
+
+    Proterozoic, 104 _note_, 117
+
+    Protista, 5, 59, 136, 138, 156, 157, 163;
+      polynuclear condition not rare among, 138
+
+    Protoplasm, 141, 143, 144, 151, 160, 161, 175, 181;
+      dead, 143;
+      how reinvigorated, 160, 161;
+      invisible structure, 141;
+      not a chemical compound but a complex system, 142, 143;
+      persistent specificity of, 144;
+      ultramicroscopic structure of, 143;
+      visible, a picture of, 141
+
+    Protococcus, 151;
+      viridis, 151
+
+    Protons, 103, 174
+
+    Protophytes, 135, 136
+
+    Protoplasmic architecture, 174
+
+    Protozoa, 117, 118, 135, 136, 170
+
+    Psyche, 179, 200
+
+    Psychic, 198, 205, 230, 233;
+      and physical dualism of Descartes, 198;
+      functions, 205, 233
+      —of organic type, 233;
+      states, correlated with organic states, 230
+
+    Psychology, 196, 197, 198, 204, 205, 208, 211, 235, 236, 361;
+      alone competent to pronounce origin of man, 196;
+      as science of behavior, 198;
+      human, 235;
+      positive, 361;
+      reveals psychic activities as modification of abiding ego, 205;
+      sole science that studies man on his distinctively human side, 196;
+      vulgar, 236;
+      without a soul, 208, 236
+
+    Psychophysical, 198, 206, 236;
+      dualism, 198;
+      parallelism, 206, 236
+
+    Psychosis, 213, 235, 255, organic, 213, 235
+      —has for agent and recipient the psycho-organic composite, 213;
+      psycho-organic, 255
+
+    Physiological process not reducible to mere physicochemical
+      reaction, 199
+
+    Potency, 199
+
+    Purpose, 11, 249, 255, 258, 259, 298;
+      Divine, 249;
+      unconscious of, 255, 259
+
+    Purposiveness, 248, 249, 262;
+      no intelligence, 262;
+      objective, 248, 249;
+      unconscious, 248
+
+
+    Quadrumana, 296
+
+    Qasr-el-Sagha, 115
+
+    Quaternary, 98, 319;
+      Early, 319
+
+
+    Races, 334, 342
+
+    Radiation, pressure of, 183
+
+    Radioactive elements, 56
+
+    Radio-activity, 118
+
+    Radiolaria, 118
+
+    Radiometer, 183
+
+    Radius, shows curvature, 327
+
+    Ragweed, 16
+
+    Raft of Red River, 154
+
+    Random Assortment, 27, 42;
+      of chromosomes, 27
+
+    Ratio, body-brain, 317
+
+    Rays, 119
+
+    Reactants, 209
+
+    Reaction, 243, 252;
+      elementary, motor, 252;
+      historical basis of 243
+
+    Reaction-systems, 26, 204
+
+    Reason, 235, 240, 244, 245, 259, 267, 343;
+      not evolved, 267;
+      sole means of human preservation, 343;
+      superorganic power of, 244, 245
+
+    Reasoning, 207, 220
+
+    Recapitulation, 48, 275, 278, 279, 285;
+      embryonic, 48, 275, 278, 279
+
+    Receptors, 57, 213, 222;
+      extended, necessary to perceive material stimuli, 222
+
+    Recessive chin, 311
+
+    Recognition, 207
+
+    Recombination, 27, 42;
+      chromosomal, 27;
+      factorial, 27
+
+    Reconstructions, 89, 90, 92, 321;
+      of fossil skulls, 321;
+      psychological motivation of, 89, 90;
+      scientific, 89, 90, 92
+
+    Recuperation, autonomous, 163
+
+    “Recurrent faunas,” 110
+
+    Reduction, 42, 157
+
+    Reflection, 224, 225, 226, 240, 256;
+      a fact, 225, 226;
+      alleged impossibility of, 225;
+      only possible to spiritual agent, 224;
+      undeniable fact of, 225
+
+    Reflexes, innate and conditioned, 238
+
+    Reflexion, 225
+
+    Reflexive orientation, 174, 176;
+      of energies, no living being, 176;
+      of forces in living organism, 174;
+      in living being, 201
+
+    Regression of organ, 305
+
+    Regulation, 253;
+      intelligent, 253;
+      sensory, 253
+
+    Rejuvenation, 155, 161, 163;
+      three kinds of, 161
+
+    Rejuvenescence, 160, 161, 162
+
+    Reign of Terror, 357;
+      French, 357;
+      Russian, 357
+
+    Reindeer, 332
+
+    Re-integration of atoms, impossible, 163
+
+    Relationships, 254;
+      causal and telic, 254;
+      supersensible, 254
+
+    Religion, 354, 361;
+      only sanction of morality, 361
+
+    Remains, Javanese, 318
+
+    Repair-work, 251, 252
+
+    Reproduction, 5, 24, 25, 26, 56, 68, 69, 137, 141, 156, 157, 158,
+      159, 161;
+      biparental (bisexual), 24, 158;
+      cytogenic, 156, 157, 158, 159, 161;
+      link between life-cycles, 156;
+      nonsexual, 156—three kinds of, 156, 157;
+      reducible to cell-division, 163;
+      sexual, 25, 156, 157
+      —autosexual, 158, 159
+      —bisexual, 158
+      —unisexual, 158
+      somatogenic, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 161
+      —limited, 161
+      —no rejuvenation in, 161
+
+    Reptiles, 61, 80, 281, 282, 296, 301;
+      flying, 80;
+      palæozoic and modern, 296
+
+    Resemblance, 38, 54, 58, 63, 79, 80, 284, 340, 341;
+      compatible with separate ancestry, 63, 80
+      —even specific, does not entail common origin, 79, 80;
+      family, 54, 56;
+      generic, 38, 56;
+      heterogenetic, 80;
+      ordinal, 56;
+      phyletic, 56;
+      specific, 38, 56, 79;
+      to modern man, 340, 341
+
+    Responsibility, 232, 360, 361;
+      harmful consequences, 360;
+      implies mastery of will over its own actions, 232;
+      of evolutionary propagandists, 360, 361
+
+    Resultants, 233 _note_, 234 _note_
+
+    Resurrection, natural basis of, 202
+
+    Reversion, 17, 303, 304, 305;
+      to type, 305
+
+    Rhinoceros etruscus, 319;
+      merckii, 329;
+      tichorhinus, 326, 329, 332
+
+    Rhodesian Man, 340, 341;
+      may be modern, 341
+
+    Rhynchonella, 118
+
+    Right-handedness, human, 288;
+      duration of, 290
+
+    River drift, 327
+
+    Rocks, 66, 93, 96, 103, 104, 107, 118, 120, 181, 297, 335;
+      composition and mineral contents disregarded in classification, 96;
+      crystalline, 104, 181;
+      fossiliferous, 104, 107, 118, 181, 279, 335;
+      European classification of, 107;
+      groups of, 120;
+      igneous, 181;
+      metamorphic, 104;
+      sedimentary, 66, 93, 96, 107, 181;
+      systems of, 103
+
+    Rubidium, isotopes of, 173
+
+    Rudiment, 293, 297, 301, 302;
+      ontogenetic, 301, 302;
+      phylogenetic, 301, 302
+
+    Rudimentary, 299
+
+    Rudimentary organs, 286, 291, 293, 298, 305;
+      criticism of, 286;
+      evolutionary argument from, 286;
+      ontogenetic explanation of, 298;
+      phylogenetic, 298
+      —explanation of, 286
+
+    Running birds, 114, 305
+
+
+    S-R bonds, 204
+
+    Salamander, 248
+
+    Saurians, 60
+
+    Savagery, not prior to civilization, 337
+
+    Savages, descended from civilized ancestry not vice versa, 338
+
+    Scandinavia, 110
+
+    Scepticism, 198
+      logic of, 198
+
+    Scholastics, 191, 225
+
+    Scholastic, theory of origin of concepts, 220
+
+    Science, 188, 304, 359;
+      as religion, 359;
+      gives no heed to consequences, 360;
+      its attitude towards philosophy, 188;
+      sham, 304
+
+    Scientists, 344, 348;
+      many not satisfied with “evidence” for human evolution, 344;
+      fallibility of, 348
+
+    Scientific questions, decided by evidence, not by authority, 344
+
+    Scotland, 107
+
+    Sea-anemone, 261
+
+    Sea floor, 113
+
+    Sea-urchin, 119, 140;
+      egg of, 140
+
+    Second causes, 52, 71;
+      efficacy finite, 71
+
+    Sediment, 93, 103, 125;
+      primordial, 125;
+      universal layer of, 103
+
+    Seedlings, 161
+
+    Segregation, 25
+
+    Selection, 11, 12, 13, 65, 152, 153, 306;
+      artificial, 152
+      —not on a par with natural selection, 152;
+      intelligent and fortuitous, 152, 153;
+      principle, 11, 12, 13, 65;
+      values, 306
+
+    Self, 205
+
+    Self-fertilization, 159
+
+    Self-observation, 224, 225;
+      impossible for an organ, 226;
+      power of, cannot reside in material organ, 224, 225;
+      requires a spiritual principle, 225
+
+    Self-regulation, 174, 176, 179
+
+    Self-sacrifice, rendered meaningless, 356
+
+    Semilunar fold, 296, 297
+
+    Senescence, 26, 157, 160, 162;
+      an inherent tendency of living matter, 160;
+      tendency practically if not actually universal, 162
+
+    Sensationists, 218
+
+    Sensations, 209, 227, 242;
+      intensity of, 227
+
+    Sense, 204, 227, 228, 235, 254, 350;
+      debilitated by powerful stimulus, 227;
+      external, 204;
+      organic nature of, 227;
+      their power of reaction temporarily inhibited by process of
+        repair, 227, 228
+
+    Sense organs, 213, 251
+
+    Sense-perception, 199, 203, 214, 219, 220, 227, 231, 235;
+      a brain function 199;
+      a psycho-organic function, 214;
+      concerned with factual reality of existence, 219;
+      involves a decomposition of neural tissue, 227;
+      not independent of body, 227;
+      organic function, 203
+
+    Sensibility, organic, 244, 245
+
+    Sensori-motor, 251
+
+    Sensory functions of the nervous system, 199
+
+    Sensual appetites, exhaustible, 232
+
+    Sensual emotion, organic function, 203
+
+    Sequence, 100, 107, 108;
+      inverted or “wrong,” 107, 108;
+      no invariable order of, 100;
+      of fossiliferous strata, 100;
+      “wrong,” 107, 107 _note_
+
+    Serum, 15
+
+    Sexual (gametic) incompatibility, 4, 5, 19, 20, 21
+
+    Sharks, 80, 119, 296
+
+    “Shell-craters,” 347
+
+    Shoots, 160
+
+    Sight, 217;
+      intrinsic dependence on eye, 217;
+      extrinsic dependence on object, 217
+
+    Silurian, 92, 106, 111, 118;
+      Middle, 92, 106
+
+    Simia satyrus, 32
+
+    Simple explanations not necessarily true, 350
+
+    Siwalik beds, 95, 310
+
+    Skeleton, 60, 61, 331;
+      human, 331
+
+    Skulls, 328, 329, 331, 333, 340, 341;
+      fossil, 33, 341;
+      human, 331
+
+    Skull cap, 271, 313, 314, 324, 328
+
+    Sleep, would interrupt process of relaying consciousness from
+      thought to thought, 212, 213
+
+    Sloth, 52
+
+    Snapdragon, 88
+
+    Social inequalities, artificial laws for benefit of rich, 361
+
+    Socialism, 357, 360;
+      Marxian, 357;
+      Scientific, 357
+
+    Sodium, 165, 166;
+      bromide, 165;
+      chloride, 165, 166;
+      iodide, 165
+
+    Solemn burial, 331, 332, 343;
+      most ancient instances, 332
+
+    Solutreans, 333
+
+    Soma, 13, 59, 303
+
+    Somatella, 59
+
+    Somatic cells, 13, 14, 17, 136, 156, 163
+
+    Somites, 280
+
+    Sophism, Comte’s like that of Zeno, 226
+
+    Soul, 172, 179, 193, 194, 197, 198, 200, 201, 202, 203, 205, 206,
+      209, 210, 211, 216, 268, 311, 350, 361;
+      definition of, 200;
+      a “formative power” and “integrating” and unifying principle, 200,
+        211;
+      a vital entelechy, 210;
+      as revealed in biology and psychology, 205;
+      consubstantial with matter, 202;
+      differs in kind, not merely in degree from bestial soul, 194;
+      discarded by Descartes, 197;
+      discarded by scientific psychology, 359;
+      formal principle of life, 203;
+      functional, 203, 206, 209
+      —cannot be primary principle of life, 206;
+      name, not reality of, rejected, 200;
+      not a complete entity, 201;
+      primary ground of life, 206;
+      rejected in dynamic, not in entitive sense, 200, 201;
+      spiritual, not a product of evolution, 193, 216, 268
+      —originates by a creative act, 193, 268;
+      subject of psychology, 197;
+      subsistent in man, 202;
+      substantial, 203, 209;
+      term alleged to be meaningless, 200
+
+    Specialism, advantages and disadvantages of, 189
+
+    Species, 3, 4, 5, 6, 17, 19, 26, 37, 38, 74, 75, 78, 80, 83, 84,
+      86, 87, 110, 111, 112, 119, 120-123, 131, 157, 256, 257, 312, 313,
+      320, 334, 342;
+      definition of, 4;
+      change of, 4, 6;
+      differentiation and multiplication of, 131;
+      difficulty of distinguishing, 120-123;
+      elementary, 17;
+      extinct and extant, 120-123, 334;
+      extinct, precarious basis for time-scale, 334;
+      formation as contrasted with transformation of, 74, 75, 131;
+      fossil, 3, 4, 83, 92, 120, 122, 312, 313;
+      intermediate,
+    absence of, 80, 83, 84, 334;
+      intersterility of, 4, 5, 26, 38;
+      only one human, 342;
+      persistent, 123;
+      syngamy, an essential requisite of, 5
+
+    Species-by-species method, 87
+
+    Spectral analysis of constitution of sun, 216
+
+    Spectroscope, 144
+
+    Speech, bestial, 245, 246
+
+    Sperm, 156, 158, 159, 160;
+      activation by means of, 159
+
+    Spermists, 160
+
+    Sphex gryphus (Sm), 261
+
+    Spiders, 257
+
+    Spiral cleavage, 278
+
+    Spirit, 194, 311;
+      definition of, 194
+
+    Spiritual, 206
+
+    Spiritualism, 202, 230, 231;
+      Aristotelian, 230, 231
+      —admits direct dependence of lower psychic functions on organism,
+        230
+      —admits indirect dependence of higher psychic functions upon
+        organism, 231;
+      Cartesian, 230;
+      destroyed by facts of physiological psychology, 230;
+      hylomorphic, 202;
+      of Aristotle, 202;
+      psychophysical of Descartes, 202, 203
+
+    Spirituality, 203, 351;
+      excludes co-agency of organism, 203;
+      of human soul, 351
+
+    Spiritual representations, 221
+
+    Spleen, 301
+
+    Splitters, 37
+
+    Splitting, 121
+
+    Spontaneous generation, 131, 132, 133, 136, 142, 148, 149, 167,
+      179, 182, 185, 186;
+      defined, 131-133;
+      antiquity of, 133;
+      old and new exception of, 167;
+      philosophical “proof” of, 185
+
+    Spontogenesis, an outlawed hypothesis, 164
+
+    Spores, 134, 136, 156, 181;
+      bacterial, 181
+
+    Sporulation, 156, 157
+
+    Springopora, 118
+
+    Spy, 329, 330, 333;
+      bones, 329;
+      crania, capacity underestimated, 330
+
+    Spy remains, 319, 325, 326, 327, 329, 330, 332;
+      skeletons of No. 1 and No. 2, 327
+
+    Squatting, a habit of savage races, 328
+
+    Squirrel, 260
+
+    Starfish, 140, 154, 382;
+      egg of, 140;
+      symmetry of, 154
+
+    States, 203, 208;
+      conscious or psychic, 203, 208;
+      mental, active and passive, 208;
+      of matter, not more real, 203
+
+    Statistics, moral, 361
+
+    Stems, 160
+
+    Stentor, 174
+
+    Sterility, interspecific, 5, 21, 38
+
+    Sterilization, 134, 135
+
+    Stimulators, 243
+
+    Stimulus, 227, 228
+
+    Stizus ruficornis, 247
+
+    Stock, 310, 311;
+      hylobatic and troglodyte, 310, 311;
+      pithecoid, 311
+
+    Stone implements, 329, 331, 334, 340, 342;
+      characteristic, unsafe basis for time-scale, 334
+
+    Stratification, 102;
+      scheme of, universal, 102;
+      synchronous deposition of, different in mineral content, 102
+
+    Stratigraphers, 106
+
+    Stratigraphic, 101, 102, 107;
+      continuity, 101;
+      facts, 107;
+      horizons, 101;
+      sequence, 101
+        —invariable order of, 102
+
+    Stratigraphy, 93
+
+    Strata, 66, 83, 87, 92-96, 102, 103,108, 109, 116, 119, 120, 125;
+      classification of, 103;
+      concrete sequence of, 109;
+      dated by fossils and fossils by strata, 94;
+      fossiliferous, 92, 96, 102, 109, 116, 119
+        —classification of, 119
+        —European classification of, 102;
+      how characterized, 96;
+      intervening, skipped, 120;
+      mineral, 102;
+      substitution of fossiliferous for lithological, 103;
+      substitution of fossiliferous for mineral, 103;
+      wrong order of, 108;
+      “younger” and “older,” 108, 116
+
+    Strontium, isotopes of, 173
+
+    Structures, 122, 284;
+      constant and adaptive, 122;
+      distinction influenced by personal equation, 122;
+      embryonic, undifferentiated, 284;
+      homologous and adaptive, 122
+
+    Struggles for existence, 291
+
+    Sturgeons, 119
+
+    Sub-archæan beginnings of life impenetrable, 126
+
+    Subject, 205, 207, 208;
+      abiding, of our thoughts, feelings and desires, 205;
+      active, 208;
+      of thought, active, 207
+
+    Subjective abstractions, phenomenalist objectivation of, 209
+
+    Subjectless thought, an abstraction, 209
+
+    Submicron, 140, 183 _note_
+
+    Submicroscopic dimensions, no obstacle to manifestation of vital
+      phenomena, 170
+
+    Submicroscopic organisms show genetic continuity, reproductiveness
+      and typical vital power, 169, 170
+
+    Subspecies, 334, 342
+
+    Substages, 96, 103
+
+    Substance, 209
+
+    Substantial composite of body and soul, 203
+
+    Succession, 75, 76;
+      to be distinguished from filiation, 75;
+      not descent, 75, 76
+
+    Sunlight, once richer in actinic rays, 148
+
+    Superciliary ridges, 272
+
+    Superorganic, 240
+
+    Superorganic functions, 214, 227;
+      have soul as their exclusive agent and recipient, 214
+
+    Superorganic functions, soul alone active cause and receptive
+      subject, 203
+
+    Supernatural, 186, 187;
+      defined, 187
+
+    Supernumerary, 303, 304, 306;
+      mammary glands, 304;
+      organs, 303, 304
+
+    Superposition, 93, 101, 111;
+      as a criterion of comparative antiquity, 93;
+      criterion of, confined to local areas, 101
+      —not available
+    for correlation of strata in different localities, 101;
+      only safe means of distinguishing between spatial and
+        chronological distribution, 101, 111;
+      restricted to local areas, 93
+
+    Suppression of organs, 305
+
+    Sweden, 289
+
+    Syllogisms, of no avail against facts, 226
+
+    Symbiosis, 52, 124
+
+    Symbiotes, 46, 53
+
+    Synapsis, 17, 25
+
+    Syngamy, 5, 25, 156, 157-161;
+      essential to biparental inheritance, 160;
+      means of rejuvenation, 161;
+      qualification of a true species, 5
+
+    Synthesis, chemical, spontaneous and artificial, 151, 152
+
+    Systems, 96, 101, 141, 142, 151;
+      colloidal, 142;
+      complete polyphasic, 142;
+      how determined, 96;
+      of rocks, 96;
+      of strata, 101;
+      polyphasic, 141;
+      protoplasmic, 141, 142;
+      simple, 151
+
+    Systematist, 46, 121
+
+
+    Tactisms, 204
+
+    Tactualist, 219
+
+    Taenia, 248
+
+    Taiga, 91
+
+    Tarantula, 247, 263
+
+    Tasmanian blacks, 325
+
+    Tautomerism, 202
+
+    Taxonomic questions, 334
+
+    Taxonomist, 128
+
+    Taxonomy, 36, 37, 38, 77, 101, 121, 122, 123, 320;
+      fossil, 101, 122
+      —basis of correlation, 101
+      —arbitrary and unreliable, 122;
+      homology, basis of, 36;
+      influence of palæontology, 77;
+      need of revision in, 121, 123
+
+    Teleological, 225
+
+    Teleology, 154, 240, 248, 249, 259, 267;
+      a material expression of intelligence, 259;
+      does not entail vibrant intelligence, 259;
+      its combination with sentient consciousness, 240;
+      of organisms, 154;
+      of artefacts, 154;
+      psychic
+    implication of, 154;
+      unconscious, 240
+
+    Teleosts, 120
+
+    Telic, 150, 249;
+      phenomena of nature, 249
+
+    Terebratulina, striata, 118, 120;
+      caput serpentis, 118
+
+    Termitomyia, 46
+
+    Termitoxenia Heimi, 48
+
+    Tertiary, 72, 82, 99, 100, 104, 109, 111, 112, 113, 118, 154, 270,
+      308, 311;
+      ancestor, 312;
+      Man, 154
+
+    Tertiary envelopes of eggs, 300
+
+    Tethelin, 294
+
+    Tethys, 109
+
+    Tetraploid race, 23, 45;
+      origin of, not yet observed, 23
+
+    Tetraploidy, 22, 23, 44
+
+    Thigh, bone, 316, 317
+
+    Third eyelid, 296, 297
+
+    Third Interglacial Period, latter half of, 331
+
+    Thoatherium, 78
+
+    Thought, 218-222, 227, 229, 230, 233;
+      and imagery, concomitant but incommensurable, 219;
+      digs below phenomenal surface, 219;
+      distinguished from imagery, 218, 219;
+      intellectual, steady, lucid and continuous, 229;
+      not function of material organism, 233;
+      power does not always degenerate with old age, 230;
+      presupposes imagery, 221;
+      proceeds with complete ease after initial exertion of
+        imagination, 229;
+      rational, 222, 224, 231, 233
+        —has spiritual soul for source and subject, 233
+        —reflective, 224
+        —spiritual, 222
+        —superorganic function of, 231;
+      reflective, a superorganic function, 227;
+      requires substrate of sensible images, 220
+        —on which it is objectively dependent, 222;
+      some in all individuals, 219;
+      spiritual, 222;
+      untranslatable into adequate imagery, 219
+
+    Thrust faults, 107
+
+    Thrust planes like bedding planes, 108
+
+    Thymus, 299, 300, 301, 302;
+      an ontogenetic rudiment, 301, 302
+
+    Thyroid glands, 292, 294, 295, 301
+
+    Thyroxin, 294
+
+    Time-value, 75, 82, 83, 84, 95, 96, 101;
+      of geological formations, dubious, 75;
+      of index fossils, 95, 96
+        —affords no basis for scientific certainty, 101
+
+    Tissue, lymphatic, 301
+
+    Tissue cells, 13, 14, 136, 156
+
+    Tonsils, 301
+
+    Tools, use of, by animals, 261
+
+    Trachelocerca, 138
+
+    Training, 244, 245, 256
+
+    Transformism, 3, 4, 6, 16, 24, 25, 32, 40, 43, 52, 53, 55, 56, 59,
+      61, 67, 69-72, 75, 80, 84, 109, 117, 123, 124, 126, 127, 131, 263,
+      268, 343;
+      definition of, 3;
+      impotent to explain origin of intelligence, 216, 233 _note_, 263;
+      interpretation, not corollary, of fossil facts, 126;
+      monophyletic, 69, 70;
+      “natural” explanation of homology, 52;
+      proofs for, empirical, aphoristic, and aposterioristic, 55, 56;
+      rests on personal belief rather than on facts, 127;
+      ultra-partisans of, 343;
+      unconcerned with origin of life, 131;
+      unifies origins in time, but not in space, 69
+
+    Transformist, 38
+
+    Transmutation, 6, 28, 35, 40, 50, 65, 69, 70, 71, 73, 123, 193
+
+    Trial and error, 241, 243
+
+    Triassic, 118, 119
+
+    Trilobites, 100, 117
+
+    Triploidy, 21, 22
+
+    Troglodyte, 34, 50, 314,
+      type, 314
+
+    Troglodytes niger, 33, 314
+
+    Tropisms, 204
+
+    Tubercule of Darwin, not homologous with apex of horse’s ear, 303
+
+    Tubers, 160
+
+    Tubules, nephridial or excretory, 280
+
+    Types, 54, 55, 66, 83, 84, 92, 116-120, 123, 124, 141, 328, 329,
+      334, 335, 336;
+      Ancestral, 92, 117, 276;
+      annectant, 92;
+      approximation in, 66;
+      common ancestral, 83;
+      Crô-Magnon, 332, 334, 335;
+      no evidence of its descent from Neanderthal
+    type, 334;
+      generalized, 54, 55, 81, 84;
+      are abstractions, 54, 55;
+      generic, 116, 117;
+      persistence of, 118, 123;
+      Grimaldi, 332;
+      intergradent, 83;
+      invertebrate, 117;
+      modern, 116, 120, 334;
+      Neanderthaloid, 329, 335;
+      persistent, 116;
+      persistence of, 119;
+      phyletic, 116, 117;
+      permanence of, 118;
+      specific, 116, 141
+      —persistence of, 118, 123;
+      fossil doctrine of their invariable sequence, 104, 312
+
+
+    Ultramicron, 144, 168;
+      destitute of reproductive power, 168;
+      may not be natural unit, 168;
+      of colloidal solutions, 168
+
+    Ultramicroscope, 140, 144;
+      limit of, 140
+
+    Ultraspiritualism of Descartes, 199, 202
+
+    Ultra-violet rays, 148, 184
+
+    Unchange, not explained by theory of exchange, 123
+
+    Understanding, 235
+
+    Ungulates, 78, 82;
+      fossil, 82
+
+    Uniformitarianism, 67, 68
+
+    Uniformity of nature, 149, 186;
+      only justification for reconstruction of the past, 149;
+      principle of, 169
+
+    Union of soul and body, according to Descartes, 198, 199
+
+    Units, 144, 162, 163, 166, 167, 168, 170, 174-177, 199-201;
+      difference between, 170;
+      inorganic, 144, 163, 166, 170, 174, 175, 176, 177, 201
+      —and living, 170, 175-177
+      —incapable of other than transitive action, 174, 177;
+      living and non-living, 199, 200;
+      natural, 168;
+      new, of life to be discovered, 167;
+      of nature, non-living, 162, 163
+
+    Universe, Stone Book of, 127
+
+    Uranium, 146
+
+    Urea, 173
+
+    Ureter, 282
+
+    Uroleptus mobilis, 138, 161
+
+    Urosthenic, 270
+
+    Ursus spelaeus, 326, 329
+
+    Use, 291
+
+    Utility, 291
+
+
+    Valence, 165;
+      atomic, 165;
+      molecular (residual), 165
+
+    Variation, 9, 18, 40, 41, 42, 45, 63, 64, 88, 303;
+      agencies of, 42;
+      cause of modification, 41;
+      converges and diverges, 63, 64;
+      fluctuational, 9, 303;
+      heritable, 42;
+      intra-specific, 43;
+      mutational, a change of loss, 18;
+      non-inheritable, 42;
+      process of diversifying, 40, 45;
+      trans-specific, 43, 88
+        —no experimental evidence of, 45
+
+    Varieties, 334, 342
+
+    Vault, 329, 332
+
+    Vegetarians, 236
+
+    Versatility, 257, 258, 259;
+      distinctive mark of intelligence, 257, 258
+
+    Vertebræ, 279
+
+    Vertebrate, 60
+
+    Vertebrata, 119, 270, 271, 279-284, 292, 297, 300, 302;
+      amniotic, 280-282;
+      anamniotic, 280, 282
+
+    Vestigial remnants, 299
+
+    Viability, 4, 5, 25, 26, 43, 44
+
+    Vibration, 209;
+      pure, 209;
+      without vibrant medium, 209
+
+    Vinegar fly, 19, 85
+
+    Violet, 25, 159
+
+    Visceral arches and clefts, 278, 279
+
+    Visualist, 219
+
+    Vital activity, 201
+
+    Vital continuity, 134, 139, 155;
+      genetic, first article of, 134;
+      law of, 134, 155;
+      law of, 139;
+      its fourth article, 139
+
+    Vital force, no special, 201
+
+    Vitality, 150;
+      eludes art of chemist, 150
+
+    Vital principle, 172, 200, 203;
+      as defined by Neo-Vitalists, 172;
+      entitive, not dynamic, 172;
+      term alleged to be meaningless, 200;
+      term in disfavor, 200
+
+    Vivisection, 360
+
+    Volcanic bombs, 346-348
+
+    Volition, 221, 231, 233;
+      not function of the material organism, 233;
+      presupposes conception, 221;
+      rational, has spiritual soul for source and subject, 233;
+      rational, superorganic, 231
+
+
+    Walrus, 296
+
+    Wasp, predatory, 247, 263
+
+    Weddas, cranial capacity of, 315
+
+    Weight, 315
+
+    Whale, 35, 46, 60, 279;
+      flipper of, 35, 60, 279
+
+    White Leghorns, 19
+
+    Wild Kirchli, industry of, 331
+
+    Will, 221, 232, 235;
+      insatiable, 232;
+      of man, free, 232;
+      self-determining or reflexive, 232;
+      superior to sensual appetite, 235
+
+    Wing venation, 49 _note_, 49
+
+    Wisconsin, Cambrian sediments of, 105
+
+    Wolffian duct, 281, 282
+
+    Woods Hole, 23, 42, 47
+
+    World War, 359
+
+    Worm, 249
+
+    Wormwood, 248, 255;
+      common, 255
+
+    Würtzburg, School of, 219
+
+
+    X-rays, 144, 317
+
+
+    Yoldia Sea, 289
+
+    Yolk-sac, 276
+
+
+    Zamia, 118
+
+    Zebra, 81
+
+    Zones, stratigraphic, 96, 103, 106;
+      zoögeographical, 99
+
+    Zoölogists, 66, 77
+
+    Zoölogy, 35, 37, 55, 126, 304
+
+    Zoöpsychologists, 240
+
+    Zygote, 25, 136, 156-158
+
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+  <body>   
+<p style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Europe and elsewhere, by Mark Twain</p>
+<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
+most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
+whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
+of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online
+at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you
+are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the
+country where you are located before using this eBook.
+</div>
+
+<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: Europe and elsewhere</p>
+<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: Mark Twain</p>
+<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Contributors: Brander Matthews</p>
+<p style='display:block; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em;'>Albert Bigelow Paine</p>
+<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: July 20, 2022 [eBook #68574]</p>
+<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</p>
+  <p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:left'>Produced by: KD Weeks, Emmanuel Ackerman and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive)</p>
+<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EUROPE AND ELSEWHERE ***</div>
+
+<p class='c000'>de ins.correction { text-decoration:none; border-bottom: thin dotted gray; }</p>
+
+<div class='pbb'>
+ <hr class='pb c001' />
+</div>
+<div class='tnotes'>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+  <div class='nf-center'>
+    <div>Transcriber’s Note:</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c002'>The few footnotes have been collected at the end of each chapter, and are
+linked for ease of reference.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Minor errors, attributable to the printer, have been corrected. Please
+see the transcriber’s <a href='#endnote'>note</a> at the end of this text
+for details regarding the handling of any textual issues encountered
+during its preparation.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>The title and author, as well as the publication date, have been
+added to the image of the front cover.</p>
+
+<div class='htmlonly'>
+
+<p class='c002'>Any corrections are indicated using an <ins class='correction' title='original'>underline</ins>
+highlight. Placing the cursor over the correction will produce the
+original text in a small popup.</p>
+
+<div  class='figcenter id001'>
+<img src='images/cover.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
+</div>
+
+</div>
+<div class='epubonly'>
+
+<p class='c002'>Any corrections are indicated as hyperlinks, which will navigate the
+reader to the corresponding entry in the corrections table in the
+note at the end of the text.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+</div>
+<div>
+  <h1 class='c003'>EUROPE AND ELSEWHERE</h1>
+</div>
+<div  class='figcenter id002'>
+<img src='images/i_half_title.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
+</div>
+
+<div  class='figcenter id003'>
+<img src='images/frontispiece.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
+<div class='ic003'>
+<p><span class='small'>AND I ROSE TO RECEIVE MY GUEST, AND BRACED MYSELF FOR THE<br />THUNDERCRASH AND THE BRIMSTONE STENCH WHICH<br />SHOULD ANNOUNCE HIS ARRIVAL</span></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class='c004'>(<i>See p. <a href='#Page_326'>326</a></i>)</div>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c005'>
+    <div><span class='xxlarge'>EUROPE</span></div>
+    <div><span class='xxlarge'>AND ELSEWHERE</span></div>
+    <div class='c006'>By</div>
+    <div class='c001'><span class='xlarge'>MARK TWAIN</span></div>
+    <div class='c001'>WITH AN APPRECIATION BY</div>
+    <div><span class='large'>BRANDER MATTHEWS</span></div>
+    <div>AND AN INTRODUCTION BY</div>
+    <div><span class='large'>ALBERT BIGELOW PAINE</span></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div  class='figcenter id004'>
+<img src='images/title_page.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
+</div>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+  <div class='nf-center'>
+    <div><span class='large'>HARPER &amp; BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS</span></div>
+    <div>NEW YORK AND LONDON</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='pbb'>
+ <hr class='pb c001' />
+</div>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c005'>
+    <div><span class='pageno' id='Page_I'>I</span>EUROPE AND ELSEWHERE</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class='c007' />
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+  <div class='nf-center'>
+    <div>Copyright, 1923</div>
+    <div>By The Mark Twain Company</div>
+    <div>Printed in the U.S.A.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class='c007' />
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+  <div class='nf-center'>
+    <div><i>First Edition</i></div>
+    <div><span class='small'>E-X</span></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_v'>v</span>
+  <h2 class='c008'>CONTENTS</h2>
+</div>
+
+<table class='table0' summary=''>
+<colgroup>
+<col width='14%' />
+<col width='78%' />
+<col width='7%' />
+</colgroup>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c009'><span class='small'>CHAP.</span></td>
+    <td class='c009'>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class='c010'><span class='small'>PAGE</span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c009'>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class='c009'><span class='sc'>An Appreciation</span></td>
+    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_vii'>vii</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c009'>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class='c009'><span class='sc'>Introduction</span></td>
+    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_xxxi'>xxxi</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c009'>I.</td>
+    <td class='c009'><span class='sc'>A Memorable Midnight Experience</span></td>
+    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_1'>1</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c009'>II.</td>
+    <td class='c009'><span class='sc'>Two Mark Twain Editorials</span></td>
+    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_14'>14</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c009'>III.</td>
+    <td class='c009'><span class='sc'>The Temperance Crusade and Woman’s Rights</span></td>
+    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_24'>24</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c009'>IV.</td>
+    <td class='c009'><span class='sc'>O’Shah</span></td>
+    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_31'>31</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c009'>V.</td>
+    <td class='c009'><span class='sc'>A Wonderful Pair of Slippers</span></td>
+    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_87'>87</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c009'>VI.</td>
+    <td class='c009'><span class='sc'>Aix, the Paradise of the Rheumatics</span></td>
+    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_94'>94</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c009'>VII.</td>
+    <td class='c009'><span class='sc'>Marienbad--A Health Factory</span></td>
+    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_113'>113</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c009'>VIII.</td>
+    <td class='c009'><span class='sc'>Down the Rhône</span></td>
+    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_129'>129</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c009'>IX.</td>
+    <td class='c009'><span class='sc'>The Lost Napoleon</span></td>
+    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_169'>169</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c009'>X.</td>
+    <td class='c009'><span class='sc'>Some National Stupidities</span></td>
+    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_175'>175</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c009'>XI.</td>
+    <td class='c009'><span class='sc'>The Cholera Epidemic in Hamburg</span></td>
+    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_186'>186</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c009'>XII.</td>
+    <td class='c009'><span class='sc'>Queen Victoria’s Jubilee</span></td>
+    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_193'>193</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c009'>XIII.</td>
+    <td class='c009'><span class='sc'>Letters to Satan</span></td>
+    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_211'>211</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c009'>XIV.</td>
+    <td class='c009'><span class='sc'>A Word of Encouragement for Our Blushing Exiles</span></td>
+    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_221'>221</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c009'>XV.</td>
+    <td class='c009'><span class='sc'>Dueling</span></td>
+    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_225'>225</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c009'>XVI.</td>
+    <td class='c009'><span class='sc'>Skeleton Plan of a Proposed Casting Vote Party</span></td>
+    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_233'>233</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c009'>XVII.</td>
+    <td class='c009'><span class='sc'>The United States of Lyncherdom</span></td>
+    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_239'>239</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c009'>XVIII.</td>
+    <td class='c009'><span class='sc'>To the Person Sitting in Darkness</span></td>
+    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_250'>250</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c009'>XIX.</td>
+    <td class='c009'><span class='sc'>To My Missionary Critics</span></td>
+    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_273'>273</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c009'>XX.</td>
+    <td class='c009'><span class='sc'>Thomas Brackett Reed</span></td>
+    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_297'>297</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c009'>XXI.</td>
+    <td class='c009'><span class='sc'>The Finished Book</span></td>
+    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_299'>299</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c009'>XXII.</td>
+    <td class='c009'><span class='sc'>As Regards Patriotism</span></td>
+    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_301'>301</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c009'>XXIII.</td>
+    <td class='c009'><span class='sc'>Dr. Loeb’s Incredible Discovery</span></td>
+    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_304'>304</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c009'>XXIV.</td>
+    <td class='c009'><span class='sc'>The Dervish and the Offensive Stranger</span></td>
+    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_310'>310</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c009'>XXV.</td>
+    <td class='c009'><span class='sc'>Instructions in Art</span></td>
+    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_315'>315</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c009'>XXVI.</td>
+    <td class='c009'><span class='sc'>Sold to Satan</span></td>
+    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_326'>326</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c009'>XXVII.</td>
+    <td class='c009'><span class='sc'>That Day in Eden</span></td>
+    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_339'>339</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c009'>XXVIII.</td>
+    <td class='c009'><span class='sc'>Eve Speaks</span></td>
+    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_347'>347</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c009'>XXIX.</td>
+    <td class='c009'><span class='sc'>Samuel Erasmus Moffett</span></td>
+    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_351'>351</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c009'>XXX.</td>
+    <td class='c009'><span class='sc'>The New Planet</span></td>
+    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_355'>355</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c009'>XXXI.</td>
+    <td class='c009'><span class='sc'>Marjorie Fleming, the Wonder Child</span></td>
+    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_358'>358</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c009'>XXXII.</td>
+    <td class='c009'><span class='sc'>Adam’s Soliloquy</span></td>
+    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_377'>377</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c009'>XXXIII.</td>
+    <td class='c009'><span class='sc'>Bible Teaching and Religious Practice</span></td>
+    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_387'>387</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c009'>XXXIV.</td>
+    <td class='c009'><span class='sc'>The War Prayer</span></td>
+    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_394'>394</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c009'>XXXV.</td>
+    <td class='c009'><span class='sc'>Corn-pone Opinions</span></td>
+    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_399'>399</a></td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_vii'>vii</span>
+  <h2 class='c008'>AN APPRECIATION</h2>
+</div>
+<hr class='c011' />
+
+<p class='c002'>(This “Biographical Criticism” was prepared by Prof.
+Brander Matthews, as an introduction to the Uniform Edition
+of Mark Twain’s Works, published in 1899).</p>
+
+<p class='c012'>It is a common delusion of those who discuss contemporary
+literature that there is such an entity
+as the “reading public,” possessed of a certain uniformity
+of taste. There is not one public; there are
+many publics--as many, in fact, as there are different
+kinds of taste; and the extent of an author’s popularity
+is in proportion to the number of these separate
+publics he may chance to please. Scott, for example,
+appealed not only to those who relished
+romance and enjoyed excitement, but also to those
+who appreciated his honest portrayal of sturdy characters.
+Thackeray is preferred by ambitious youth
+who are insidiously flattered by his tacit compliments
+to their knowledge of the world, by the disenchanted
+who cannot help seeing the petty meannesses of society,
+and by the less sophisticated in whom sentiment
+has not gone to seed in sentimentality. Dickens in
+his own day bid for the approval of those who liked
+broad caricature (and were therefore pleased with
+Stiggins and Chadband), of those who fed greedily
+on plentiful pathos (and were therefore delighted
+with the deathbeds of Smike and Paul Dombey and
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_viii'>viii</span>Little Nell) and also of those who asked for unexpected
+adventure (and were therefore glad to disentangle
+the melodramatic intrigues of Ralph
+Nickleby).</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>In like manner the American author who has
+chosen to call himself Mark Twain has attained to an
+immense popularity because the qualities he possesses
+in a high degree appeal to so many and so
+widely varied publics--first of all, no doubt, to the
+public that revels in hearty and robust fun, but also
+to the public which is glad to be swept along by the
+full current of adventure, which is sincerely touched
+by manly pathos, which is satisfied by vigorous and
+exact portrayal of character, and which respects
+shrewdness and wisdom and sanity and a healthy
+hatred of pretense and affectation and sham. Perhaps
+no one book of Mark Twain’s--with the possible
+exception of <cite>Huckleberry Finn</cite>--is equally a
+favorite with all his readers; and perhaps some of
+his best characteristics are absent from his earlier
+books or but doubtfully latent in them. Mark
+Twain is many sided; and he has ripened in knowledge
+and in power since he first attracted attention
+as a wild Western funny man. As he has grown
+older he has reflected more; he has both broadened
+and deepened. The writer of “comic copy” for a
+mining-camp newspaper has developed into a liberal
+humorist, handling life seriously and making his
+readers think as he makes them laugh, until to-day
+Mark Twain has perhaps the largest audience of any
+author now using the English language. To trace
+the stages of this evolution and to count the steps
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_ix'>ix</span>whereby the sagebrush reporter has risen to the rank
+of a writer of world-wide celebrity, is as interesting
+as it is instructive.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c013'>I</h3>
+
+<p class='c014'>Samuel Langhorne Clemens was born November
+30, 1835, at Florida, Missouri. His father was a
+merchant who had come from Tennessee and who
+removed soon after his son’s birth to Hannibal, a
+little town on the Mississippi. What Hannibal was
+like and what were the circumstances of Mr. Clemen’s
+boyhood we can see for ourselves in the convincing
+pages of <cite>Tom Sawyer</cite>. Mr. Howells has
+called Hannibal “a loafing, out-at-elbows, down-at-the-heels,
+slave-holding Mississippi town”; and
+Mr. Clemens, who silently abhorred slavery, was of
+a slave-owning family.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>When the future author was but twelve his father
+died, and the son had to get his education as best
+he could. Of actual schooling he got little and of
+book learning still less, but life itself is not a bad
+teacher for a boy who wants to study, and young
+Clemens did not waste his <a id='corrix.22'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='chances'>chances.</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_ix.22'><ins class='correction' title='chances'>chances.</ins></a></span> He spent six
+years in the printing office of the little local paper,--for,
+like not a few others on the list of <a id='corrix.24'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='Americnn'>American</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_ix.24'><ins class='correction' title='Americnn'>American</ins></a></span>
+authors that stretches from Benjamin Franklin to
+William Dean Howells, he began his connection with
+literature by setting type. As a journeyman printer
+the lad wandered from town to town and rambled
+even as far east as New York.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>When he was nineteen he went back to the home
+of his boyhood and presently resolved to become a
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_x'>x</span>pilot on the Mississippi. How he learned the river
+he has told us in <cite>Life on the Mississippi</cite>, wherein his
+adventures, his experiences, and his impressions
+while he was a cub pilot are recorded with a combination
+of precise veracity and abundant humor
+which makes the earlier chapters of that marvelous
+book a most masterly fragment of autobiography.
+The life of a pilot was full of interest and excitement
+and opportunity, and what young Clemens saw and
+heard and divined during the years when he was
+going up and down the mighty river we may read in
+the pages of <cite>Huckleberry Finn</cite> and <cite>Pudd’nhead
+Wilson</cite>. But toward the end of the ’fifties the railroads
+began to rob the river of its supremacy as a
+carrier; and in the beginning of the ’sixties the Civil
+War broke out and the Mississippi no longer went
+unvexed to the sea. The skill, slowly and laboriously
+acquired, was suddenly rendered useless, and at
+twenty-five the young man found himself bereft of
+his calling. As a border state, Missouri was sending
+her sons into the armies of the Union and into the
+armies of the Confederacy, while many a man stood
+doubting, not knowing which way to turn. The ex-pilot
+has given us the record of his very brief and
+inglorious service as a soldier of the South. When
+this escapade was swiftly ended, he went to the
+Northwest with his brother, who had been appointed
+Territorial Secretary of Nevada. Thus the man who
+had been born on the borderland of North and South,
+who had gone East as a jour-printer, who had been
+again and again up and down the Mississippi, now
+went West while he was still plastic and impressionable;
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_xi'>xi</span>and he had thus another chance to increase
+that intimate knowledge of American life and
+American character which is one of the most precious
+of his possessions.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>While still on the river he had written a satiric
+letter or two which found their way into print. In
+Nevada he went to the mines and lived the life
+he has described in <cite>Roughing It</cite>, but when he failed
+to “strike it rich,” he naturally drifted into journalism
+and back into a newspaper office again. The
+<cite>Virginia City Enterprise</cite> was not overmanned, and
+the newcomer did all sorts of odd jobs, finding time
+now and then to write a sketch which seemed important
+enough to permit of his signature. He now
+began to sign himself Mark Twain, taking the name
+from a call of the man who heaves the lead on a
+Mississippi River steamboat, and who cries, “By the
+mark, three,” “Mark Twain,” and so on. The
+name of Mark Twain soon began to be known to
+those who were curious in newspaper humor. After
+a while he was drawn across the mountains to San
+Francisco, where he found casual employment on
+the <cite>Morning Call</cite>, and where he joined himself to a
+little group of aspiring <em>literators</em> which included Mr.
+Bret Harte, Mr. Noah Brooks, Mr. Charles Henry
+Webb, and Mr. Charles Warren Stoddard.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>It was in 1867 that Mr. Webb published Mark
+Twain’s first book, <cite>The Celebrated Jumping Frog of
+Calaveras</cite>; and it was in 1867 that the proprietors
+of the <cite>Alta California</cite> supplied him with the
+funds necessary to enable him to become one of the
+passengers on the steamer <i>Quaker City</i>, which had
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_xii'>xii</span>been chartered to take a select party on what is now
+known as the Mediterranean trip. The weekly letters,
+in which he set forth what befell him on this
+journey, were printed in the <cite>Alta</cite> Sunday after Sunday,
+and were copied freely by the other Californian
+papers. These letters served as the foundation of a
+book published in 1869 and called <cite>The Innocents
+Abroad</cite>, a book which instantly brought to the
+author celebrity and cash.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Both of these valuable aids to ambition were increased
+by his next step, his appearance on the
+lecture platform. Mr. Noah Brooks, who was
+present at his first attempt, has recorded that Mark
+Twain’s “method as a lecturer was distinctly unique
+and novel. His slow, deliberate drawl, the anxious
+and perturbed expression of his visage, the apparently
+painful effort with which he framed his sentences,
+the surprise that spread over his face when
+the audience roared with delight or rapturously applauded
+the finer passages of his word painting, were
+unlike anything of the kind they had ever known.”
+In the thirty years since that first appearance the
+method has not changed, although it has probably
+matured. Mark Twain is one of the most effective
+of platform speakers and one of the most artistic,
+with an art of his own which is very individual and
+very elaborate in spite of its seeming simplicity.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Although he succeeded abundantly as a lecturer,
+and although he was the author of the most widely
+circulated book of the decade, Mark Twain still
+thought of himself only as a journalist; and when
+he gave up the West for the East he became an
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_xiii'>xiii</span>editor of the Buffalo <cite>Express</cite>, in which he had
+bought an interest. In 1870 he married; and it is
+perhaps not indiscreet to remark that his was
+another of those happy unions of which there have
+been so many in the annals of American authorship.
+In 1871 he removed to Hartford, where his home
+has been ever since; and at the same time he gave
+up newspaper work.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>In 1872 he wrote <cite>Roughing It</cite>, and in the following
+year came his first sustained attempt at
+fiction, <cite>The Gilded Age</cite>, written in collaboration
+with Mr. Charles Dudley Warner. The character
+of “Colonel Mulberry Sellers” Mark Twain soon
+took out of this book to make it the central figure
+of a play which the late John T. Raymond acted
+hundreds of times throughout the United States,
+the playgoing public pardoning the inexpertness of
+the dramatist in favor of the delicious humor and the
+compelling veracity with which the chief character
+was presented. So universal was this type and so
+broadly recognizable its traits that there were few
+towns wherein the play was presented in which some
+one did not accost the actor who impersonated the
+ever-hopeful schemer to declare: “I’m the original
+of Sellers! Didn’t Mark ever tell you? Well, he
+took the Colonel from me!”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Encouraged by the welcome accorded to this first
+attempt at fiction, Mark Twain turned to the days
+of his boyhood and wrote <cite>Tom Sawyer</cite>, published
+in 1875. He also collected his sketches, scattered
+here and there in newspapers and magazines. Toward
+the end of the ’seventies he went to Europe
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_xiv'>xiv</span>again with his family; and the result of this journey
+is recorded in <cite>A Tramp Abroad</cite>, published in 1880.
+Another volume of sketches, <cite>The Stolen White
+Elephant</cite>, was put forth in 1882; and in the same
+year Mark Twain first came forward as a historical
+novelist--if <cite>The Prince and the Pauper</cite> can fairly
+be called a historical novel. The year after, he
+sent forth the volume describing his <cite>Life on the
+Mississippi</cite>; and in 1884 he followed this with the
+story in which that life has been crystallized forever,
+<cite>Huckleberry Finn</cite>, the finest of his books, the deepest
+in its insight, and the widest in its appeal.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>This Odyssey of the Mississippi was published by
+a new firm, in which the author was a chief partner,
+just as Sir Walter Scott had been an associate
+of Ballantyne and Constable. There was at first
+a period of prosperity in which the house issued
+the <cite>Personal Memoirs</cite> of Grant, giving his widow
+checks for $350,000 in 1886, and in which Mark
+Twain himself published <cite>A Connecticut Yankee at
+King Arthur’s Court</cite>, a volume of <cite>Merry Tales</cite>, and a
+story called <cite>The American Claimant</cite>, wherein
+“Colonel Sellers” reappears. Then there came a
+succession of hard years; and at last the publishing
+house in which Mark Twain was a partner failed,
+as the publishing house in which Walter Scott was
+a partner had formerly failed. The author of
+<cite>Huckleberry Finn</cite> at sixty found himself suddenly
+saddled with a load of debt, just as the author of
+<cite>Waverley</cite> had been burdened full threescore years
+earlier; and Mark Twain stood up stoutly under it,
+as Scott had done before him. More fortunate than
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_xv'>xv</span>the Scotchman, the American has lived to pay the
+debt in full.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Since the disheartening crash came, he has given
+to the public a third Mississippi River tale, <cite>Pudd’nhead
+Wilson</cite>, issued in 1894; and a third historical
+novel <cite>Joan of Arc</cite>, a reverent and sympathetic
+study of the bravest figure in all French
+history, printed anonymously in <cite>Harper’s Magazine</cite>
+and then in a volume acknowledged by the author in
+1896. As one of the results of a lecturing tour
+around the world he prepared another volume of
+travels, <cite>Following the Equator</cite>, published toward
+the end of 1897. Mention must also be made of a
+fantastic tale called <cite>Tom Sawyer Abroad</cite>, sent
+forth in 1894, of a volume of sketches, <cite>The Million
+Pound Bank-Note</cite>, assembled in 1893, and also
+of a collection of literary essays, <cite>How to Tell a Story</cite>,
+published in 1897.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>This is but the barest outline of Mark Twain’s life--such
+a brief summary as we must have before us
+if we wish to consider the conditions under which the
+author has developed and the stages of his growth.
+It will serve, however, to show how various have
+been his forms of activity--printer, pilot, miner,
+journalist, traveler, lecturer, novelist, publisher--and
+to suggest the width of his experience of life.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c013'>II</h3>
+
+<p class='c014'>A humorist is often without honor in his own
+country. Perhaps this is partly because humor is
+likely to be familiar, and familiarity breeds contempt.
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_xvi'>xvi</span>Perhaps it is partly because (for some strange
+reason) we tend to despise those who make us
+laugh, while we respect those who make us weep--forgetting
+that there are formulas for forcing tears
+quite as facile as the formulas for forcing smiles.
+Whatever the reason, the fact is indisputable that the
+humorist must pay the penalty of his humor; he
+must run the risk of being tolerated as a mere fun
+maker, not to be taken seriously, and unworthy
+of critical consideration. This penalty has been
+paid by Mark Twain. In many of the discussions
+of American literature he is dismissed as though
+he were only a competitor of his predecessors,
+Artemus Ward and John Phœnix, instead of being,
+what he is really, a writer who is to be classed--at
+whatever interval only time may decide--rather
+with Cervantes and Molière.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Like the heroines of the problem plays of the
+modern theater, Mark Twain has had to live down
+his past. His earlier writing gave but little promise
+of the enduring qualities obvious enough in his later
+works. Mr. Noah Brooks has told us how he was
+advised, if he wished to “see genuine specimens of
+American humor, frolicsome, extravagant, and audacious,”
+to look up the sketches which the then almost
+unknown Mark Twain was printing in a Nevada
+newspaper. The humor of Mark Twain is still
+American, still frolicsome, extravagant, and audacious;
+but it is riper now and richer, and it has taken
+unto itself other qualities existing only in germ in
+these firstlings of his muse. The sketches in <cite>The
+Jumping Frog</cite> and the letters which made up <cite>The
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_xvii'>xvii</span>Innocents Abroad</cite> are “comic copy,” as the phrase is
+in newspaper offices--comic copy not altogether
+unlike what John Phœnix had written and Artemus
+Ward, better indeed than the work of these newspaper
+humorists (for Mark Twain had it in him to develop
+as they did not), but not essentially dissimilar.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>And in the eyes of many who do not think for
+themselves, Mark Twain is only the author of these
+genuine specimens of American humor. For when
+the public has once made up its mind about any
+man’s work, it does not relish any attempt to force
+it to unmake this opinion and to remake it. Like
+other juries, it does not like to be ordered to reconsider
+its verdict as contrary to the facts of the case.
+It is always sluggish in beginning the necessary readjustment,
+and not only sluggish, but somewhat
+grudging. Naturally it cannot help seeing the later
+works of a popular writer from the point of view it
+had to take to enjoy his earlier writings. And thus
+the author of <cite>Huckleberry Finn</cite> and <cite>Joan of Arc</cite>
+is forced to pay a high price for the early and abundant
+popularity of <cite>The Innocents Abroad</cite>.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>No doubt, a few of his earlier sketches were inexpensive
+in their elements; made of materials worn
+threadbare by generations of earlier funny men, they
+were sometimes cut in the pattern of his predecessors.
+No doubt, some of the earliest of all were
+crude and highly colored, and may even be called
+forced, not to say violent. No doubt, also, they
+did not suggest the seriousness and the melancholy
+which always must underlie the deepest humor, as
+we find it in Cervantes and Molière, in Swift and in
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_xviii'>xviii</span>Lowell. But even a careless reader, skipping
+through the book in idle amusement, ought to have
+been able to see in <cite>The Innocents Abroad</cite> that the
+writer of that liveliest of books of travel was no
+mere merry-andrew, grinning through a horse collar
+to make sport for the groundlings; but a sincere observer
+of life, seeing through his own eyes and setting
+down what he saw with abundant humor, of
+course, but also with profound respect for the eternal
+verities.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>George Eliot in one of her essays calls those who
+parody lofty themes “debasers of the moral currency.”
+Mark Twain is always an advocate of the
+sterling ethical standard. He is ready to overwhelm
+an affectation with irresistible laughter, but he never
+lacks reverence for the things that really deserve
+reverence. It is not at the Old Masters that he
+scoffs in Italy, but rather at those who pay lip service
+to things which they neither enjoy nor understand.
+For a ruin or a painting or a legend that does not
+seem to him to deserve the appreciation in which
+it is held he refuses to affect an admiration he does
+not feel; he cannot help being honest--he was born
+so. For meanness of all kinds he has a burning
+contempt; and on Abelard he pours out the vials
+of his wrath. He has a quick eye for all humbugs
+and a scorching scorn for them; but there is no
+attempt at being funny in the manner of the cockney
+comedians when he stands in the awful presence
+of the Sphinx. He is not taken in by the glamour
+of Palestine; he does not lose his head there; he
+keeps his feet: but he knows that he is standing on
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_xix'>xix</span>holy ground; and there is never a hint of irreverence
+in his attitude.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'><cite>A Tramp Abroad</cite> is a better book than <cite>The Innocents
+Abroad</cite>; it is quite as laughter-provoking,
+and its manner is far more restrained. Mark Twain
+was then master of his method, sure of himself,
+secure of his popularity; and he could do his best
+and spare no pains to be certain that it was his
+best. Perhaps there is a slight falling off in <cite>Following
+the Equator</cite>; a trace of fatigue, of weariness,
+of disenchantment. But the last book of
+travels has passages as broadly humorous as any of
+the first; and it proves the author’s possession of a
+pithy shrewdness not to be suspected from a perusal
+of its earliest predecessor. The first book was the
+work of a young fellow rejoicing in his own fun and
+resolved to make his readers laugh with him or at
+him; the latest book is the work of an older man,
+who has found that life is not all laughter, but whose eye
+is as clear as ever and whose tongue is as plain-spoken.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>These three books of travel are like all other books
+of travel in that they relate in the first person what
+the author went forth to see. Autobiographic also
+are <cite>Roughing It</cite> and <cite>Life on the Mississippi</cite>, and
+they have always seemed to me better books than
+the more widely circulated travels. They are
+better because they are the result of a more intimate
+knowledge of the material dealt with. Every traveler
+is of necessity but a bird of passage; he is a mere
+carpetbagger; his acquaintance with the countries
+he visits is external only; and this acquaintanceship
+is made only when he is a full-grown man. But
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_xx'>xx</span>Mark Twain’s knowledge of the Mississippi was acquired
+in his youth; it was not purchased with a
+price; it was his birthright; and it was internal and
+complete. And his knowledge of the mining camp
+was achieved in early manhood when the mind is
+open and sensitive to every new impression. There
+is in both these books a fidelity to the inner truth,
+a certainty of touch, a sweep of vision, not to be
+found in the three books of travels. For my own
+part I have long thought that Mark Twain could
+securely rest his right to survive as an author on
+those opening chapters in <cite>Life on the Mississippi</cite>
+in which he makes clear the difficulties, the seeming
+impossibilities, that fronted those who wished to
+learn the river. These chapters are bold and brilliant,
+and they picture for us forever a period and a
+set of conditions, singularly interesting and splendidly
+varied, that otherwise would have had to forego
+all adequate record.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c013'>III</h3>
+
+<p class='c014'>It is highly probable that when an author reveals
+the power of evoking views of places and of calling
+up portraits of people such as Mark Twain showed
+in <cite>Life on the Mississippi</cite>, and when he has the
+masculine grasp of reality Mark Twain made evident
+in <cite>Roughing It</cite>, he must needs sooner or later turn
+from mere fact to avowed fiction and become a
+story-teller. The long stories which Mark Twain
+has written fall into two divisions--first, those of
+which the scene is laid in the present, in reality, and
+mostly in the Mississippi Valley, and second, those
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_xxi'>xxi</span>of which the scene is laid in the past, in fantasy
+mostly, and in Europe.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>As my own liking is a little less for the latter
+group, there is no need for me now to linger over
+them. In writing these tales of the past Mark Twain
+was making up stories in his head; personally I prefer
+the tales of his in which he has his foot firm on
+reality. <cite>The Prince and the Pauper</cite> has the essence
+of boyhood in it; it has variety and vigor; it has
+abundant humor and plentiful pathos; and yet I
+for one would give the whole of it for the single
+chapter in which Tom Sawyer lets the contract for
+whitewashing his aunt’s fence.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Mr. Howells has declared that there are two kinds
+of fiction he likes almost equally well--“a real
+novel and a pure romance”; and he joyfully accepts
+<cite>A Connecticut Yankee at King Arthur’s Court</cite> as
+“one of the greatest romances ever imagined.”
+It is a humorous romance overflowing with stalwart
+fun; and it is not irreverent, but iconoclastic, in that
+it breaks not a few disestablished idols. It is intensely
+American and intensely nineteenth century
+and intensely democratic--in the best sense of that
+abused adjective. The British critics were greatly
+displeased with the book;--and we are reminded of
+the fact that the Spanish still somewhat resent <cite>Don
+Quixote</cite> because it brings out too truthfully the
+fatal gap in the Spanish character between the ideal
+and the real. So much of the feudal still survives in
+British society that Mark Twain’s merry and elucidating
+assault on the past seemed to some almost an
+insult to the present.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'><span class='pageno' id='Page_xxii'>xxii</span>But no critic, British or American, has ventured to
+discover any irreverence in <cite>Joan of Arc</cite>, wherein,
+indeed, the tone is almost devout and the humor
+almost too much subdued. Perhaps it is my own
+distrust of the so-called historical novel, my own disbelief
+that it can ever be anything but an inferior
+form of art, which makes me care less for this worthy
+effort to honor a noble figure. And elevated and
+dignified as is the <cite>Joan of Arc</cite>, I do not think that
+it shows us Mark Twain at his best; although it
+has many a passage that only he could have written,
+it is perhaps the least characteristic of his works.
+Yet it may well be that the certain measure of success
+he has achieved in handling a subject so lofty and so
+serious, will help to open the eyes of the public to
+see the solid merits of his other stories, in which his
+humor has fuller play and in which his natural gifts
+are more abundantly displayed.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Of these other stories three are “real novels,” to
+use Mr. Howells’s phrase; they are novels as real
+as any in any literature. <cite>Tom Sawyer</cite> and <cite>Huckleberry
+Finn</cite> and <cite>Pudd’nhead Wilson</cite> are invaluable
+contributions to American literature--for American
+literature is nothing if it is not a true picture of
+American life and if it does not help us to understand
+ourselves. <cite>Huckleberry Finn</cite> is a very amusing
+volume, and a generation has read its pages and
+laughed over it immoderately; but it is very much
+more than a funny book; it is a marvelously accurate
+portrayal of a whole civilization. Mr. Ormsby, in
+an essay which accompanies his translation of <cite>Don
+Quixote</cite>, has pointed out that for a full century
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_xxiii'>xxiii</span>after its publication that greatest of novels was
+enjoyed chiefly as a tale of humorous misadventure,
+and that three generations had laughed over it
+before anybody suspected that it was more than a
+mere funny book. It is perhaps rather with the
+picaresque romances of Spain that <cite>Huckleberry Finn</cite>
+is to be compared than with the masterpiece of
+Cervantes; but I do not think it will be a century
+or take three generations before we Americans generally
+discover how great a book <cite>Huckleberry Finn</cite>
+really is, how keen its vision of character, how close
+its observation of life, how sound its philosophy, and
+how it records for us once and for all certain phases of
+Southwestern society which it is most important for
+us to perceive and to understand. The influence of
+slavery, the prevalence of feuds, the conditions and
+the circumstances that make lynching possible--all
+these things are set before us clearly and without
+comment. It is for us to draw our own moral, each
+for himself, as we do when we see Shakespeare
+acted.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'><cite>Huckleberry Finn</cite>, in its art, for one thing, and
+also in its broader range, is superior to <cite>Tom Sawyer</cite>
+and to <cite>Pudd’nhead Wilson</cite>, fine as both these are in
+their several ways. In no book in our language,
+to my mind, has the boy, simply as a boy, been
+better realized than in <cite>Tom Sawyer</cite>. In some
+respects <cite>Pudd’nhead Wilson</cite> is the most dramatic
+of Mark Twain’s longer stories, and also the most
+ingenious; like <cite>Tom Sawyer</cite> and <cite>Huckleberry Finn</cite>,
+it has the full flavor of the Mississippi River, on
+which its author spent his own boyhood, and
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_xxiv'>xxiv</span>from contact with the soil of which he always rises
+reinvigorated.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>It is by these three stories, and especially by
+<cite>Huckleberry Finn</cite>, that Mark Twain is likely to
+live longest. Nowhere else is the life of the Mississippi
+Valley so truthfully recorded. Nowhere else
+can we find a gallery of Southwestern characters as
+varied and as veracious as those Huck Finn met in
+his wanderings. The histories of literature all praise
+the <cite>Gil Blas</cite> of Le Sage for its amusing adventures,
+its natural characters, its pleasant humor, and
+its insight into human frailty; and the praise is deserved.
+But in everyone of these qualities <cite>Huckleberry
+Finn</cite> is superior to <cite>Gil Blas</cite>. Le Sage set
+the model of the picaresque novel, and Mark Twain
+followed his example; but the American book is
+richer than the French--deeper, finer, stronger. It
+would be hard to find in any language better specimens
+of pure narrative, better examples of the
+power of telling a story and of calling up action so
+that the reader cannot help but see it, than Mark
+Twain’s account of the Shepherdson-Grangerford
+feud, and his description of the shooting of Boggs
+by Sherburn and of the foiled attempt to lynch
+Sherburn afterward.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>These scenes, fine as they are, vivid, powerful,
+and most artistic in their restraint, can be matched
+in the two other books. In <cite>Tom Sawyer</cite> they can
+be paralleled by the chapter in which the boy and
+the girl are lost in the cave, and Tom, seeing a gleam
+of light in the distance, discovers that it is a candle
+carried by Indian Joe, the one enemy he has in the
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_xxv'>xxv</span>world. In <cite>Pudd’nhead Wilson</cite> the great passages
+of <cite>Huckleberry Finn</cite> are rivaled by that most pathetic
+account of the weak son willing to sell his own
+mother as a slave “down the river.” Although
+no one of the books is sustained throughout on this
+high level, and although, in truth, there are in each of
+them passages here and there that we could wish
+away (because they are not worthy of the association
+in which we find them), I have no hesitation in
+expressing here my own conviction that the man who
+has given us four scenes like these is to be compared
+with the masters of literature; and that he can abide
+the comparison with equanimity.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c013'>IV</h3>
+
+<p class='c014'>Perhaps I myself prefer these three Mississippi
+Valley books above all Mark Twain’s other writings
+(although with no lack of affection for those also)
+partly because these have the most of the flavor of
+the soil about them. After veracity and the sense
+of the universal, what I best relish in literature is this
+native aroma, pungent, homely, and abiding. Yet
+I feel sure that I should not rate him so high if
+he were the author of these three books only. They
+are the best of him, but the others are good also,
+and good in a different way. Other writers have
+given us this local color more or less artistically,
+more or less convincingly: one New England and
+another New York, a third Virginia, and a fourth
+Georgia, and a fifth Wisconsin; but who so well as
+Mark Twain has given us the full spectrum of the
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_xxvi'>xxvi</span>Union? With all his exactness in reproducing the
+Mississippi Valley, Mark Twain is not sectional in
+his outlook; he is national always. He is not narrow;
+he is not Western or Eastern; he is American with
+a certain largeness and boldness and freedom and certainty
+that we like to think of as befitting a country
+so vast as ours and a people so independent.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>In Mark Twain we have “the national spirit as
+seen with our own eyes,” declared Mr. Howells;
+and, from more points of view than one, Mark Twain
+seems to me to be the very embodiment of Americanism.
+Self-educated in the hard school of life, he
+has gone on broadening his outlook as he has grown
+older. Spending many years abroad, he has come
+to understand other nationalities, without enfeebling
+his own native faith. Combining a mastery of the
+commonplace with an imaginative faculty, he is a
+practical idealist. No respecter of persons, he has a
+tender regard for his fellow man. Irreverent toward
+all outworn superstitions, he has ever revealed
+the deepest respect for all things truly worthy of
+reverence. Unwilling to take pay in words, he is
+impatient always to get at the root of the matter, to
+pierce to the center, to see the thing as it is. He
+has a habit of standing upright, of thinking for himself,
+and of hitting hard at whatsoever seems to him
+hateful and mean; but at the core of him there is
+genuine gentleness and honest sympathy, brave
+humanity and sweet kindliness. Perhaps it is boastful
+for us to think that these characteristics which we see
+in Mark Twain are characteristics also of the American
+people as a whole; but it is pleasant to think so.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'><span class='pageno' id='Page_xxvii'>xxvii</span>Mark Twain has the very marrow of Americanism.
+He is as intensely and as typically American as
+Franklin or Emerson or Hawthorne. He has not a
+little of the shrewd common sense and the homely
+and unliterary directness of Franklin. He is not
+without a share of the aspiration and the elevation
+of Emerson; and he has a philosophy of his own as
+optimistic as Emerson’s. He possesses also somewhat
+of Hawthorne’s interest in ethical problems,
+with something of the same power of getting at the
+heart of them; he, too, has written his parables and
+apologues wherein the moral is obvious and unobtruded.
+He is uncompromisingly honest; and his
+conscience is as rugged as his style sometimes is.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>No American author has to-day at his command a
+style more nervous, more varied, more flexible, or
+more various than Mark Twain’s. His colloquial
+ease should not hide from us his mastery of all the
+devices of rhetoric. He may seem to disobey the
+letter of the law sometimes, but he is always obedient
+to the spirit. He never speaks unless he has something
+to say; and then he says it tersely, sharply,
+with a freshness of epithet and an individuality of
+phrase, always accurate, however unacademic. His
+vocabulary is enormous, and it is deficient only in
+the dead words; his language is alive always, and
+actually tingling with vitality. He rejoices in the
+daring noun and in the audacious adjective. His instinct
+for the exact word is not always unerring, and
+now and again he has failed to exercise it; but there
+is in his prose none of the flatting and sharping he
+censured in Fenimore Cooper’s. His style has
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_xxviii'>xxviii</span>none of the cold perfection of an antique statue; it is
+too modern and too American for that, and too completely
+the expression of the man himself, sincere
+and straightforward. It is not free from slang,
+although this is far less frequent than one might expect;
+but it does its work swiftly and cleanly. And
+it is capable of immense variety. Consider the tale
+of the Blue Jay in <cite>A Tramp Abroad</cite>, wherein the
+humor is sustained by unstated pathos; what could
+be better told than this, with every word the right
+word and in the right place? And take Huck Finn’s
+description of the storm when he was alone on the
+island, which is in dialect, which will not parse, which
+bristles with double negatives, but which none the
+less is one of the finest passages of descriptive prose
+in all American literature.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c013'>V</h3>
+
+<p class='c014'>After all, it is as a humorist pure and simple that
+Mark Twain is best known and best beloved. In
+the preceding pages I have tried to point out the
+several ways in which he transcends humor, as the
+word is commonly restricted, and to show that he is
+no mere fun maker. But he is a fun maker beyond
+all question, and he has made millions laugh as no
+other man of our century has done. The laughter
+he has aroused is wholesome and self-respecting; it
+clears the atmosphere. For this we cannot but be
+grateful. As Lowell said, “let us not be ashamed
+to confess that, if we find the tragedy a bore, we
+take the profoundest satisfaction in the farce. It is
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_xxix'>xxix</span>a mark of sanity.” There is no laughter in Don
+Quixote, the noble enthusiast whose wits are unsettled;
+and there is little on the lips of Alceste the
+misanthrope of Molière; but for both of them life
+would have been easier had they known how to
+laugh. Cervantes himself, and Molière also, found
+relief in laughter for their melancholy; and it was
+the sense of humor which kept them tolerantly interested
+in the spectacle of humanity, although life had
+pressed hardly on them both. On Mark Twain also
+life has left its scars; but he has bound up his
+wounds and battled forward with a stout heart, as
+Cervantes did, and Molière. It was Molière who
+declared that it was a strange business to undertake
+to make people laugh; but even now, after two
+centuries, when the best of Molière’s plays are acted,
+mirth breaks out again and laughter overflows.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>It would be doing Mark Twain a disservice to liken
+him to Molière, the greatest comic dramatist of all
+time; and yet there is more than one point of similarity.
+Just as Mark Twain began by writing comic
+copy which contained no prophecy of a masterpiece
+like <cite>Huckleberry Finn</cite>, so Molière was at
+first the author only of semiacrobatic farces on the
+Italian model in no wise presaging <cite>Tartuffe</cite> and
+<cite>The Misanthrope</cite>. Just as Molière succeeded first
+of all in pleasing the broad public that likes robust
+fun, and then slowly and step by step developed into
+a dramatist who set on the stage enduring figures
+plucked out of the abounding life about him, so
+also has Mark Twain grown, ascending from <cite>The
+Jumping Frog</cite> to <cite>Huckleberry Finn</cite>, as comic as its
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_xxx'>xxx</span>elder brother and as laughter-provoking, but charged
+also with meaning and with philosophy. And like
+Molière again, Mark Twain has kept solid hold of
+the material world; his doctrine is not of the earth
+earthy, but it is never sublimated into sentimentality.
+He sympathizes with the spiritual side of
+humanity, while never ignoring the sensual. Like
+Molière, Mark Twain takes his stand on common
+sense and thinks scorn of affectation of every sort.
+He understands sinners and strugglers and weaklings;
+and he is not harsh with them, reserving his
+scorching hatred for hypocrites and pretenders and
+frauds.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>At how long an interval Mark Twain shall be rated
+after Molière and Cervantes it is for the future to
+declare. All that we can see clearly now is that it is
+with them that he is to be classed--with Molière
+and Cervantes, with Chaucer and Fielding, humorists
+all of them, and all of them manly men.</p>
+
+<div  class='figright id005'>
+<img src='images/i_xxx.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
+</div>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_xxxi'>xxxi</span>
+  <h2 class='c008'>INTRODUCTION</h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class='drop-capa0_2_0_4 c015'>A number of articles in this volume, even the
+more important, have not heretofore appeared
+in print. Mark Twain was nearly always writing--busily
+trying to keep up with his imagination and
+enthusiasm: A good many of his literary undertakings
+remained unfinished or were held for further
+consideration, in time to be quite forgotten. Few
+of these papers were unimportant, and a fresh interest
+attaches to them to-day in the fact that they present
+some new detail of the author’s devious wanderings,
+some new point of observation, some hitherto
+unexpressed angle of his indefatigable thought.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>The present collection opens with a chapter
+from a book that was never written, a book about
+England, for which the author made some preparation,
+during his first visit to that country, in 1872.
+He filled several notebooks with brief comments,
+among which appears this single complete episode, the
+description of a visit to Westminster Abbey by
+night. As an example of what the book might have
+been we may be sorry that it went no farther.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>It was not, however, quite in line with his proposed
+undertaking, which had been to write a more or
+less satirical book on English manners and customs.
+Arriving there, he found that he liked the people
+and their country too well for that, besides he was
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_xxxii'>xxxii</span>so busy entertaining, and being entertained, that he
+had little time for critical observation. In a letter
+home he wrote:</p>
+
+<div class='quote'>
+
+<p class='c002'>I came here to take notes for a book, but I haven’t done much
+but attend dinners and make speeches. I have had a jolly good
+time, and I do hate to go away from these English folks; they
+make a stranger feel entirely at home, and they laugh so easily
+that it is a comfort to make after-dinner speeches here.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p class='c002'>England at this time gave Mark Twain an even
+fuller appreciation than he had thus far received in
+his own country. To hunt out and hold up to
+ridicule the foibles of hosts so hospitable would have
+been quite foreign to his nature. The notes he made
+had little satire in them, being mainly memoranda of
+the moment....</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“Down the Rhône,” written some twenty years
+later, is a chapter from another book that failed of
+completion. Mark Twain, in Europe partly for his
+health, partly for financial reasons, had agreed to
+write six letters for the New York <cite>Sun</cite>, two of which--those
+from Aix and Marienbad--appear in this
+volume. Six letters would not make a book of
+sufficient size and he thought he might supplement
+them by making a drifting trip down the Rhône,
+the “river of angels,” as Stevenson called it, and
+turning it into literature.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>The trip itself proved to be one of the most delightful
+excursions of his life, and his account of it,
+so far as completed, has interest and charm. But he
+was alone, with only his boatman (the “Admiral”)
+and his courier, Joseph Very, for company, a monotony
+of human material that was not inspiring. He
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_xxxiii'>xxxiii</span>made some attempt to introduce fictitious characters,
+but presently gave up the idea. As a whole
+the excursion was too drowsy and comfortable to
+stir him to continuous effort; neither the notes nor
+the article, attempted somewhat later, ever came to
+conclusion.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Three articles in this volume, beginning with “To
+the Person Sitting in Darkness,” were published in
+the <cite>North American Review</cite> during 1901-02, at a
+period when Mark Twain had pretty well made up
+his mind on most subjects, and especially concerning
+the interference of one nation with another on
+matters of religion and government. He had
+recently returned from a ten years’ sojourn in Europe
+and his opinion was eagerly sought on all public
+questions, especially upon those of international
+aspect. He was no longer regarded merely as a
+humorist, but as a sort of Solon presiding over a
+court of final conclusions. A writer in the <cite>Evening
+Mail</cite> said of this later period:</p>
+
+<div class='quote'>
+
+<p class='c002'>Things have reached the point where, if Mark Twain is not at
+a public meeting or banquet, he is expected to console it with one
+of his inimitable letters of advice and encouragement.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p class='c002'>His old friend, W. D. Howells, expressed an
+amused fear that Mark Twain’s countrymen, who in
+former years had expected him to be merely a
+humorist, should now, in the light of his wider
+acceptance abroad, demand that he be mainly
+serious.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>He was serious enough, and fiercely humorous as
+well, in his article “To the Person Sitting in Darkness”
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_xxxiv'>xxxiv</span>and in those which followed it. It seemed to
+him that the human race, always a doubtful quantity,
+was behaving even worse than usual. On New
+Year’s Eve, 1900-01, he wrote:</p>
+
+<div class='quote'>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+  <div class='nf-center'>
+    <div>A GREETING FROM THE NINETEENTH TO THE</div>
+    <div>TWENTIETH CENTURY</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c002'>I bring you the stately nation named Christendom, returning,
+bedraggled, besmirched, and dishonored, from pirate raids in
+Kiao-Chau, Manchuria, South Africa, and the Philippines, with
+her soul full of meanness, her pocket full of boodle, and her
+mouth full of pious hypocracies. Give her soap and a towel,
+but hide the looking-glass.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p class='c002'>Certain missionary activities in China, in particular,
+invited his attention, and in the first of the
+<cite>Review</cite> articles he unburdened himself. A masterpiece
+of pitiless exposition and sarcasm, its publication
+stirred up a cyclone. Periodicals more or
+less orthodox heaped upon him denunciation and
+vituperation. “To My Missionary Critics,” published
+in the <cite>Review</cite> for April, was his answer. He
+did not fight alone, but was upheld by a vast following
+of liberal-minded readers, both in and out of
+the Church. Edward S. Martin wrote him:</p>
+
+<div class='quote'>
+
+<p class='c002'>How gratifying it is to feel that we have a man among us who
+understands the rarity of plain truth, and who delights to utter
+it, and has the gift of doing so without cant, and with not too
+much seriousness.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p class='c002'>The principals of the primal human drama, our
+biblical parents of Eden, play a considerable part in
+Mark Twain’s imaginative writings. He wrote
+“Diaries” of both Adam and Eve, that of the latter
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_xxxv'>xxxv</span>being among his choicest works. He was generally
+planning something that would include one or both
+of the traditional ancestors, and results of this
+tendency express themselves in the present volume.
+Satan, likewise, the picturesque angel of rebellion
+and defeat, the Satan of <cite>Paradise Lost</cite>, made a
+strong appeal and in no less than three of the articles
+which follow the prince of error variously appears.
+For the most part these inventions offer an aspect of
+humor; but again the figure of the outcast angel is
+presented to us in an attitude of sorrowful kinship
+with the great human tragedy.</p>
+
+<div class='c016'><span class='sc'>Albert Bigelow Paine</span></div>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c005'>
+    <div><span class='xlarge'>EUROPE AND ELSEWHERE</span></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_1'>1</span>
+  <h2 class='c008'>A MEMORABLE MIDNIGHT EXPERIENCE <br /> <span class='small'>(1872)</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class='drop-capa0_1_0_4 c015'>“Come along--and hurry. Few people have got
+originality enough to think of the expedition
+I have been planning, and still fewer could carry it
+out, maybe, even if they <em>did</em> think of it. Hurry,
+now. Cab at the door.”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>It was past eleven o’clock and I was just going to
+bed. But this friend of mine was as reliable as he
+was eccentric, and so there was not a doubt in my
+mind that his “expedition” had merit in it. I put
+on my coat and boots again, and we drove away.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“Where is it? Where are we going?”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“Don’t worry. You’ll see.”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>He was not inclined to talk. So I thought this
+must be a weighty matter. My curiosity grew with
+the minutes, but I kept it manfully under the surface.
+I watched the lamps, the signs, the numbers,
+as we thundered down the long streets, but it was of
+no use--I am always lost in London, day or night. It
+was very chilly--almost bleak. People leaned
+against the gusty blasts as if it were the dead of
+winter. The crowds grew thinner and thinner and
+the noises waxed faint and seemed far away. The
+sky was overcast and threatening. We drove on,
+and still on, till I wondered if we were ever going
+to stop. At last we passed by a spacious bridge and
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_2'>2</span>a vast building with a lighted clock tower, and
+presently entered a gateway, passed through a sort
+of tunnel, and stopped in a court surrounded by the
+black outlines of a great edifice. Then we alighted,
+walked a dozen steps or so, and waited. In a little
+while footsteps were heard and a man emerged from
+the darkness and we dropped into his wake without
+saying anything. He led us under an archway of
+masonry, and from that into a roomy tunnel, through
+a tall iron gate, which he locked behind us. We
+followed him down this tunnel, guided more by his
+footsteps on the stone flagging than by anything
+we could very distinctly see. At the end of it we
+came to another iron gate, and our conductor
+stopped there and lit a little bull’s-eye lantern. Then
+he unlocked the gate--and I wished he had oiled it
+first, it grated so dismally. The gate swung open
+and we stood on the threshold of what seemed a
+limitless domed and pillared cavern carved out of the
+solid darkness. The conductor and my friend took off
+their hats reverently, and I did likewise. For the
+moment that we stood thus there was not a sound,
+and the silence seemed to add to the solemnity of the
+gloom. I <em>looked</em> my inquiry!</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“It is the tomb of the great dead of England--<cite>Westminster
+Abbey</cite>.”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>(One cannot express a start--in words.) Down
+among the columns--ever so far away, it seemed--a
+light revealed itself like a star, and a voice came
+echoing through the spacious emptiness:</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“Who goes there!”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“Wright!”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'><span class='pageno' id='Page_3'>3</span>The star disappeared and the footsteps that accompanied
+it clanked out of hearing in the distance.
+Mr. Wright held up his lantern and the vague
+vastness took something of form to itself--the
+stately columns developed stronger outlines, and a
+dim pallor here and there marked the places of lofty
+windows. We were among the tombs; and on every
+hand dull shapes of men, sitting, standing, or stooping,
+inspected us curiously out of the darkness--reached
+out their hands toward us--some appealing,
+some beckoning, some warning us away. Effigies,
+they were--statues over the graves; but they
+looked human and natural in the murky shadows.
+Now a little half-grown black-and-white cat squeezed
+herself through the bars of the iron gate and came
+purring lovingly about us, unawed by the time or
+the place--unimpressed by the marble pomp that
+sepulchers a line of mighty dead that ends with a
+great author of yesterday and began with a sceptered
+monarch away back in the dawn of history more
+than twelve hundred years ago. And she followed
+us about and never left us while we pursued our
+work. We wandered hither and thither, uncovered,
+speaking in low voices, and stepping softly by
+instinct, for any little noise rang and echoed there
+in a way to make one shudder. Mr. Wright flashed
+his lantern first upon this object and then upon that,
+and kept up a running commentary that showed
+that there was nothing about the venerable Abbey
+that was trivial in his eyes or void of interest. He is
+a man in authority--being superintendent of the
+works--and his daily business keeps him familiar
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_4'>4</span>with every nook and corner of the great pile. Casting
+a luminous ray now here, now yonder, he would
+say:</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“Observe the height of the Abbey--one hundred
+and three feet to the base of the roof--I measured
+it myself the other day. Notice the base of this
+column--old, very old--hundreds and hundreds of
+years; and how well they knew how to build in
+those old days. Notice it--every stone is laid
+horizontally--that is to say, just as nature laid it
+originally in the quarry--not set up edgewise; in
+our day some people set them on edge, and then
+wonder why they split and flake. Architects cannot
+teach nature anything. Let me remove this
+matting--it is put there to preserve the pavement;
+now, there is a bit of pavement that is seven hundred
+years old; you can see by these scattering clusters
+of colored mosaics how beautiful it was before time
+and sacrilegious idlers marred it. Now there, in the
+border, was an inscription once; see, follow the
+circle--you can trace it by the ornaments that have
+been pulled out--here is an A, and there is an O,
+and yonder another A--all beautiful old English
+capitals--there is no telling what the inscription
+was--no record left, now. Now move along in this
+direction, if you please. Yonder is where old King
+Sebert the Saxon, lies--his monument is the oldest
+one in the Abbey; Sebert died in 616, and that’s as
+much as twelve hundred and fifty years ago--think
+of it!--twelve hundred and fifty years. Now yonder
+is the last one--Charles Dickens--there on the floor
+with the brass letters on the slab--and to this day
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_5'>5</span>the people come and put flowers on it. Why, along
+at first they almost had to <em>cart</em> the flowers out, there
+were so many. Could not <em>leave</em> them there, you
+know, because it’s where everybody walks--and
+a body wouldn’t want them trampled on, anyway.
+All this place about here, now, is the Poet’s
+Corner. There is Garrick’s monument, and Addison’s,
+and Thackeray’s bust--and Macaulay lies
+there. And here, close to Dickens and Garrick, lie
+Sheridan and Doctor Johnson--and here is old Parr--Thomas
+Parr--you can read the inscription:</p>
+
+<div class='quote'>
+
+<p class='c002'>“Tho: Par of Y Covnty of Sallop Borne A :1483. He
+Lived in Y Reignes of Ten Princes, viz: K. Edw. 4
+K. Ed. 5. K. Rich 3. K. Hen. 7. K. Hen. 8. Edw. 6. QVV. Ma.
+Q. Eliz. K. IA. and K. Charles, Aged 152 Yeares, And
+Was Buryed Here Novemb. 15. 1635.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p class='c002'>“Very old man indeed, and saw a deal of life.
+(Come off the grave, Kitty, poor thing; she keeps
+the rats away from the office, and there’s no harm
+in her--her and her mother.) And here--this is
+Shakespeare’s statue--leaning on his elbow and
+pointing with his finger at the lines on the scroll:</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c017'>
+  <div class='linegroup'>
+    <div class='group'>
+      <div class='line'>“The cloud-capt towers, the gorgeous palaces,</div>
+      <div class='line'>The solemn temples, the great globe itself,</div>
+      <div class='line'>Yea, all which it inherit shall dissolve,</div>
+      <div class='line'>And, like the baseless fabric of a vision,</div>
+      <div class='line'>Leave not a wrack behind.</div>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c014'>“That stone there covers Campbell the poet.
+Here are names you know pretty well--Milton, and
+Gray who wrote the ‘Elegy,’ and Butler who wrote
+‘Hudibras,’ and Edmund Spencer, and Ben Jonson--there
+are three tablets to him scattered about the
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_6'>6</span>Abbey, and all got ‘O Rare Ben Jonson’ cut on
+them--you were standing on one of them just now--he
+is buried standing up. There used to be a tradition
+here that explains it. The story goes that he
+did not dare ask to be buried in the Abbey, so he
+asked King James if he would make him a present of
+eighteen inches of English ground, and the king
+said yes, and asked him where he would have it, and
+he said in Westminster Abbey. Well, the king
+wouldn’t go back on his word, and so there he is
+sure enough--stood up on end. Years ago, in Dean
+Buckland’s time--before my day--they were digging
+a grave close to Jonson and they uncovered him and
+his head fell off. Toward night the clerk of the
+works hid the head to keep it from being stolen, as
+the ground was to remain open till next day. Presently
+the dean’s son came along and he found a
+head, and hid it away for Jonson’s. And by and by
+along comes a stranger, and <em>he</em> found a head, too,
+and walked off with it under his cloak, and a month
+or so afterward he was heard to boast that he had
+Ben Jonson’s head. Then there was a deal of correspondence
+about it, in the <cite>Times</cite>, and everybody
+distressed. But Mr. Frank Buckland came out and
+comforted everybody by telling how he saved the
+true head, and so the stranger must have got one
+that wasn’t of any consequence. And then up speaks
+the clerk of the works and tells how <em>he</em> saved the
+right head, and so <em>Dean Buckland</em> must have got a
+wrong one. Well, it was all settled satisfactorily at
+last, because the clerk of the works <em>proved</em> his head.
+And then I believe they got that head from the
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_7'>7</span>stranger--so now we have three. But it shows you
+what regiments of people you are walking over--been
+collecting here for twelve hundred years--in
+some places, no doubt, the bones are fairly matted
+together.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“And here are some unfortunates. Under this
+place lies Anne, queen of Richard III, and daughter
+of the Kingmaker, the great Earl of Warwick--murdered
+she was--poisoned by her husband. And
+here is a slab which you see has once had the figure of
+a man in armor on it, in brass or copper, let into the
+stone. You can see the shape of it--but it is all
+worn away now by people’s feet; the man has been
+dead five hundred years that lies under it. He was
+a knight in Richard II’s time. His enemies pressed
+him close and he fled and took sanctuary here in the
+Abbey. Generally a man was safe when he took
+sanctuary in those days, but this man was not. The
+captain of the Tower and a band of men pursued
+him and his friends and they had a bloody fight here
+on this floor; but this poor fellow did not stand
+much of a chance, and they butchered him right
+before the altar.”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>We wandered over to another part of the Abbey,
+and came to a place where the pavement was being
+repaired. Every paving stone has an inscription on
+it and covers a grave. Mr. Wright continued:</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“Now, you are standing on William Pitt’s grave--you
+can read the name, though it is a good deal
+worn--and you, sir, are standing on the grave of
+Charles James Fox. I found a very good place here
+the other day--nobody suspected it--been curiously
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_8'>8</span>overlooked, somehow--but--it is a very nice place
+indeed, and very comfortable” (holding his bull’s
+eye to the pavement and searching around). “Ah,
+here it is--this is the stone--nothing under here--nothing
+at all--a very nice place indeed--and very
+comfortable.”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Mr. Wright spoke in a professional way, of course,
+and after the manner of a man who takes an interest
+in his business and is gratified at any piece of good
+luck that fortune favors him with; and yet <a id='corr8.10'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='will'>with</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_8.10'><ins class='correction' title='will'>with</ins></a></span> all
+that silence and gloom and solemnity about me,
+there was something about his idea of a nice, comfortable
+place that made the cold chills creep up my
+back. Presently we began to come upon little
+chamberlike chapels, with solemn figures ranged
+around the sides, lying apparently asleep, in sumptuous
+marble beds, with their hands placed together
+above their breasts--the figures and all their surroundings
+black with age. Some were dukes and
+earls, some where kings and queens, some were
+ancient abbots whose effigies had lain there so many
+centuries and suffered such disfigurement that their
+faces were almost as smooth and featureless as the
+stony pillows their heads reposed upon. At one time
+while I stood looking at a distant part of the pavement,
+admiring the delicate tracery which the now
+flooding moonlight was casting upon it through a
+lofty window, the party moved on and I lost them.
+The first step I made in the dark, holding my hands
+before me, as one does under such circumstances,
+I touched a cold object, and stopped to feel its
+shape. I made out a thumb, and then delicate
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_9'>9</span>fingers. It was the clasped, appealing hands of one
+of those reposing images--a lady, a queen. I
+touched the face--by accident, not design--and
+shuddered inwardly, if not outwardly; and then
+something rubbed against my leg, and I shuddered
+outwardly and inwardly both. It was the cat. The
+friendly creature meant well, but, as the English say,
+she gave me “such a turn.” I took her in my arms
+for company and wandered among the grim sleepers
+till I caught the glimmer of the lantern again. Presently,
+in a little chapel, we were looking at the sarcophagus,
+let into the wall, which contains the bones
+of the infant princes who were smothered in the
+Tower. Behind us was the stately monument of
+Queen Elizabeth, with her effigy dressed in the royal
+robes, lying as if at rest. When we turned around,
+the cat, with stupendous simplicity, was coiled up
+and sound asleep upon the feet of the Great Queen!
+Truly this was reaching far toward the millennium
+when the lion and the lamb shall lie down together.
+The murderer of Mary and Essex, the conqueror of
+the Armada, the imperious ruler of a turbulent
+empire, become a couch, at last, for a tired kitten!
+It was the most eloquent sermon upon the vanity of
+human pride and human grandeur that inspired
+Westminster preached to us that night.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>We would have turned puss out of the Abbey, but
+for the fact that her small body made light of railed
+gates and she would have come straight back again.
+We walked up a flight of half a dozen steps and,
+stopping upon a pavement laid down in 1260, stood
+in the core of English history, as it were--upon the
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_10'>10</span>holiest ground in the British Empire, if profusion of
+kingly bones and kingly names of old renown make
+holy ground. For here in this little space were the
+ashes, the monuments and gilded effigies, of ten of
+the most illustrious personages who have worn
+crowns and borne scepters in this realm. This
+royal dust was the slow accumulation of hundreds of
+years. The latest comer entered into his rest four
+hundred years ago, and since the earliest was sepulchered,
+more than eight centuries have drifted by.
+Edward the Confessor, Henry the Fifth, Edward the
+First, Edward the Third, Richard the Second, Henry
+the Third, Eleanor, Philippa, Margaret Woodville--it
+was like bringing the <a id='corr10.14'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='collossal'>colossal</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_10.14'><ins class='correction' title='collossal'>colossal</ins></a></span> myths of history
+out of the forgotten ages and speaking to them face
+to face. The gilded effigies were scarcely marred--the
+faces were comely and majestic, old Edward the
+First looked the king--one had no impulse to be
+familiar with him. While we were contemplating
+the figure of Queen Eleanor lying in state, and
+calling to mind how like an ordinary human being
+the great king mourned for her six hundred years
+ago, we saw the vast illuminated clock face of the
+Parliament House tower glowering at us through a
+window of the Abbey and pointing with both hands to
+midnight. It was a derisive reminder that we were a
+part of this present sordid, plodding, commonplace
+time, and not august relics of a bygone age and the
+comrades of kings--and then the booming of the
+great bell tolled twelve, and with the last stroke
+the mocking clock face vanished in sudden darkness
+and left us with the past and its grandeurs again.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'><span class='pageno' id='Page_11'>11</span>We descended, and entered the nave of the
+splendid Chapel of Henry VII. Mr. Wright said:</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“Here is where the order of knighthood was conferred
+for centuries; the candidates sat in these
+seats; these brasses bear their coats of arms; these
+are their banners overhead, torn and dusty, poor old
+things, for they have hung there many and many a
+long year. In the floor you see inscriptions--kings
+and queens that lie in the vault below. When this
+vault was opened in our time they found them lying
+there in beautiful order--all quiet and comfortable--the
+red velvet on the coffins hardly faded any.
+And the bodies were sound--I saw them myself.
+They were embalmed, and looked natural, although
+they had been there such an awful time.
+Now in this place here, which is called the chantry,
+is a curious old group of statuary--the figures are
+mourning over George Villiers, Duke of Buckingham,
+who was assassinated by Felton in Charles I’s
+time. Yonder, Cromwell and his family used to lie.
+Now we come to the south aisle and this is the grand
+monument to Mary Queen of Scots, and her effigy--you
+easily see they get all the portraits from this
+effigy. Here in the wall of the aisle is a bit of a
+curiosity pretty roughly carved:</p>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+  <div class='nf-center'>
+    <div>Wm. WEST TOOME</div>
+    <div>SHOWER</div>
+    <div>1698</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c002'>“William West, tomb shower, 1698. That fellow
+carved his name around in several places about the
+Abbey.”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'><span class='pageno' id='Page_12'>12</span>This was a sort of revelation to me. I had been
+wandering through the Abbey, never imagining but
+that its shows were created only for us--the people
+of the nineteenth century. But here is a man (become
+a show himself now, and a curiosity) to whom
+all these things were sights and wonders a hundred
+and seventy-five years ago. When curious idlers
+from the country and from foreign lands came here
+to look, he showed them old Sebert’s tomb and those
+of the other old worthies I have been speaking of, and
+called them ancient and venerable; and he showed
+them Charles II’s tomb as the newest and latest
+novelty he had; and he was doubtless present at the
+funeral. Three hundred years before his time some
+ancestor of his, perchance, used to point out the
+ancient marvels, in the immemorial way and then
+say: “This, gentlemen, is the tomb of his late
+Majesty Edward the Third--and I wish I could see
+him alive and hearty again, as I saw him twenty
+years ago; yonder is the tomb of Sebert the Saxon
+king--he has been lying there well on to eight
+hundred years, they say. And three hundred years
+before <em>this</em> party, Westminster was still a show, and
+Edward the Confessor’s grave was a novelty of some
+thirty years’ standing--but old “Sebert” was
+hoary and ancient still, and people who spoke of
+Alfred the Great as a comparatively recent man
+pondered over Sebert’s grave and tried to take in all
+the tremendous meaning of it when the “toome
+shower” said, “This man has lain here well nigh five
+hundred years.” It does seem as if all the generations
+that have lived and died since the world was
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_13'>13</span>created have visited Westminster to stare and wonder--and
+still found ancient things there. And some
+day a curiously clad company may arrive here in a
+balloon ship from some remote corner of the globe,
+and as they follow the verger among the monuments
+they may hear him say: “This is the tomb of Victoria
+the Good Queen; battered and uncouth as it
+looks, it once was a wonder of magnificence--but
+twelve hundred years work a deal of damage to these
+things.”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>As we turned toward the door the moonlight was
+beaming in at the windows, and it gave to the
+sacred place such an air of restfulness and peace
+that Westminster was no longer a grisly museum of
+moldering vanities, but her better and worthier self--the
+deathless mentor of a great nation, the guide
+and encourager of right ambitions, the preserver of
+just fame, and the home and refuge for the nation’s
+best and bravest when their work is done.</p>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_14'>14</span>
+  <h2 class='c008'>TWO MARK TWAIN EDITORIALS</h2>
+</div>
+
+<div class='quote'>
+
+<p class='c012'>(Written 1869 and 1870, for the Buffalo <cite>Express</cite>, of which
+Mark Twain became editor and part owner)</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<h3 class='c013'>I <br /> “SALUTATORY”</h3>
+
+<p class='drop-capa0_2_0_4 c018'>Being a stranger, it would be immodest and
+unbecoming in me to suddenly and violently
+assume the associate editorship of the <cite>Buffalo Express</cite>
+without a single explanatory word of comfort
+or encouragement to the unoffending patrons of the
+paper, who are about to be exposed to constant attacks
+of my wisdom and learning. But this explanatory
+word shall be as brief as possible. I only
+wish to assure parties having a friendly interest in
+the prosperity of the journal, that I am not going to
+hurt the paper deliberately and intentionally at any
+time. I am not going to introduce any startling
+reforms, or in any way attempt to make trouble. I
+am simply going to do my plain, unpretending duty,
+when I cannot get out of it; I shall work diligently
+and honestly and faithfully at all times and upon all
+occasions, when privation and want shall compel
+me to do it; in writing, I shall always confine myself
+strictly to the truth, except when it is attended
+with inconvenience; I shall witheringly rebuke all
+forms of crime and misconduct, except when committed
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_15'>15</span>by the party inhabiting my own vest; I shall
+not make use of slang or vulgarity upon any occasion
+or under any circumstances, and shall never use
+profanity except in discussing house rent and taxes.
+Indeed, upon second thought, I will not even use it
+then, for it is unchristian, inelegant, and degrading--though
+to speak truly I do not see how house rent
+and taxes are going to be discussed worth a cent
+without it. I shall not often meddle with politics,
+because we have a political editor who is already
+excellent, and only needs to serve a term in the
+penitentiary in order to be perfect. I shall not write
+any poetry, unless I conceive a spite against the
+subscribers.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Such is my platform. I do not see any earthly use
+in it, but custom is law, and custom must be obeyed,
+no matter how much violence it may do to one’s
+feelings. And this custom which I am slavishly following
+now is surely one of the least necessary that
+ever came into vogue. In private life a man does
+not go and trumpet his crime before he commits it,
+but your new editor is such an important personage
+that he feels called upon to write a “salutatory” at
+once, and he puts into it all that he knows, and all
+that he don’t know, and some things he thinks he
+knows but isn’t certain of. And he parades his list
+of wonders which he is going to perform; of reforms
+which he is going to introduce, and public evils which
+he is going to exterminate; and public blessings
+which he is going to create; and public nuisances
+which he is going to abate. He spreads this all out
+with oppressive solemnity over a column and a half
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_16'>16</span>of large print, and feels that the country is saved.
+His satisfaction over it, something enormous. He
+then settles down to his miracles and inflicts profound
+platitudes and impenetrable wisdom upon a
+helpless public as long as they can stand it, and then
+they send him off consul to some savage island in the
+Pacific in the vague hope that the cannibals will like
+him well enough to eat him. And with an inhumanity
+which is but a fitting climax to his career
+of persecution, instead of packing his trunk at once
+he lingers to inflict upon his benefactors a “valedictory.”
+If there is anything more uncalled for
+than a “salutatory,” it is one of those tearful,
+blubbering, long-winded “valedictories”--wherein
+a man who has been annoying the public for ten
+years cannot take leave of them without sitting
+down to cry a column and a half. Still, it is the
+custom to write valedictories, and custom should be
+respected. In my secret heart I admire my predecessor
+for declining to print a valedictory, though
+in public I say and shall continue to say sternly, it is
+custom and he ought to have printed one. People
+never read them any more than they do the “salutatories,”
+but nevertheless he ought to have honored
+the old fossil--he ought to have printed a valedictory.
+I said as much to him, and he replied:</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“I have resigned my place--I have departed this
+life--I am journalistically dead, at present, ain’t I?”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“Yes.”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“Well, wouldn’t you consider it disgraceful in a
+corpse to sit up and comment on the funeral?”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>I record it here, and preserve it from oblivion, as
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_17'>17</span>the briefest and best “valedictory” that has yet
+come under my notice.</p>
+
+<div class='c016'><span class='sc'>Mark Twain.</span></div>
+
+<p class='c002'>P. S.--I am grateful for the kindly way in which
+the press of the land have taken notice of my irruption
+into regular journalistic life, telegraphically
+or editorially, and am happy in this place to express
+the feeling.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c013'>II <br /> A TRIBUTE TO ANSON BURLINGAME</h3>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c001'>
+    <div>(February, 1870)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='drop-capa0_2_0_4 c019'>On Wednesday, in St. Petersburg, Mr. Burlingame
+died after a short illness. It is not easy
+to comprehend, at an instant’s warning, the exceeding
+magnitude of the loss which mankind sustains
+in this death--the loss which all nations and
+all peoples sustain in it. For he had outgrown the
+narrow citizenship of a state and become a citizen
+of the world; and his charity was large enough and
+his great heart warm enough to feel for all its races
+and to labor for them. He was a true man, a brave
+man, an earnest man, a liberal man, a just man, a
+generous man, in all his ways and by all his instincts
+a noble man; he was a man of education and culture,
+a finished conversationalist, a ready, able, and graceful
+speaker, a man of great brain, a broad and deep
+and weighty thinker. He was a great man--a very,
+very great man. He was imperially endowed by
+nature; he was faithfully befriended by circumstances,
+and he wrought gallantly always, in whatever
+station he found himself.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'><span class='pageno' id='Page_18'>18</span>He was a large, handsome man, with such a face
+as children instinctively trust in, and homeless and
+friendless creatures appeal to without fear. He was
+courteous at all times and to all people, and he had
+the rare and winning faculty of being always <em>interested</em>
+in whatever a man had to say--a faculty which
+he possessed simply because nothing was trivial to
+him which any man or woman or child had at heart.
+When others said harsh things about even unconscionable
+and intrusive bores after they had retired
+from his presence, Mr. Burlingame often said a
+generous word in their favor, but never an unkind one.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>A chivalrous generosity was his most marked
+characteristic--a large charity, a noble kindliness
+that could not comprehend narrowness or meanness.
+It is this that shows out in his fervent abolitionism,
+manifested at a time when it was neither very creditable
+nor very safe to hold such a creed; it was this
+that prompted him to hurl his famous Brooks-and-Sumner
+speech in the face of an astonished South
+at a time when all the North was smarting under
+the sneers and taunts and material aggressions of
+admired and applauded Southerners. It was this
+that made him so warmly espouse the cause of
+Italian liberty--an espousal so pointed and so
+vigorous as to attract the attention of Austria,
+which empire afterward declined to receive him
+when he was appointed Austrian envoy by Mr.
+Lincoln. It was this trait which prompted him to
+punish Americans in China when they imposed upon
+the Chinese. It was this trait which moved him,
+in framing treaties, to frame them in the broad
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_19'>19</span>interest of the world, instead of selfishly seeking to
+acquire advantages for his own country alone and
+at the expense of the other party to the treaty, as had
+always before been the recognized “diplomacy.” It
+was this trait which was and is the soul of the crowning
+achievements of his career, the treaties with
+America and England in behalf of China. In every
+labor of this man’s life there was present a good and
+noble motive; and in nothing that he ever did or
+said was there anything small or base. In real
+greatness, ability, grandeur of character, and achievement,
+he stood head and shoulders above all the
+Americans of to-day, save one or two.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Without any noise, or any show, or any flourish,
+Mr. Burlingame did a score of things of shining
+mark during his official residence in China. They
+were hardly heard of away here in America. When
+he first went to China, he found that with all their
+kingly powers, American envoys were still not of
+much consequence in the eyes of their countrymen
+of either civil or official position. But he was a man
+who was always “posted.” He knew all about the
+state of things he would find in China before he
+sailed from America. And so he took care to demand
+and receive additional powers before he turned
+his back upon Washington. When the customary
+consular irregularities placidly continued and he
+notified those officials that such irregularities must
+instantly cease, and they inquired with insolent
+flippancy what the consequence might be in case
+they did not cease, he answered blandly that he
+would <em>dismiss</em> them, from the highest to the lowest!
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_20'>20</span>(He had quietly come armed with absolute authority
+over their official lives.) The consular irregularities
+ceased. A far healthier condition of American
+commercial interests ensued there.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>To punish a foreigner in China was an unheard-of
+thing. There was no way of accomplishing it. Each
+Embassy had its own private district or grounds,
+forced from the imperial government, and into that
+sacred district Chinese law officers could not intrude.
+All foreigners guilty of offenses against
+Chinamen were tried by their own countrymen, in
+these holy places, and as no Chinese testimony was
+admitted, the culprit almost always went free. One
+of the very first things Mr. Burlingame did was
+to make a Chinaman’s oath as good as a foreigner’s;
+and in his ministerial court, through Chinese and
+American testimony combined, he very shortly
+convicted a noted American ruffian of murdering a
+Chinaman. And now a community accustomed to
+light sentences were naturally startled when, under
+Mr. Burlingame’s hand, and bearing the broad seal
+of the American Embassy, came an order to take
+him out and hang him!</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Mr. Burlingame broke up the “extra-territorial”
+privileges (as they were called), as far as our country
+was concerned, and made justice as free to all and
+as untrammeled in the metes and bounds of its jurisdiction,
+in China, as ever it was in any land.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Mr. Burlingame was the leading spirit in the co-operative
+policy. He got the Imperial College established.
+He procured permission for an American
+to open the coal mines of China. Through his efforts
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_21'>21</span>China was the first country to close her ports against
+the war vessels of the Southern Confederacy; and
+Prince Kung’s order, in this matter, was singularly
+energetic, comprehensive, and in earnest. The ports
+were closed then, and never opened to a Southern
+warship afterward.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Mr. Burlingame “construed” the treaties existing
+between China and the other nations. For many
+years the ablest diplomatists had vainly tried to
+come to a satisfactory understanding of certain obscure
+clauses of these treaties, and more than once
+powder had been burned in consequences of failure
+to come to such understandings. But the clear and
+comprehensive intellect of the American envoy reduced
+the wordy tangle of diplomatic phrases to a
+plain and honest handful of paragraphs, and these
+were unanimously and thankfully accepted by the
+other foreign envoys, and officially declared by them
+to be a thorough and satisfactory elucidation of all
+the uncertain clauses in the treaties.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Mr. Burlingame did a mighty work, and made
+official intercourse with China lucid, simple, and
+systematic, thenceforth for all time, when he persuaded
+that government to adopt and accept the
+code of international law by which the civilized
+nations of the earth are guided and controlled.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>It is not possible to specify all the acts by which
+Mr. Burlingame made himself largely useful to the
+world during his official residence in China. At least
+it would not be possible to do it without making
+this sketch too lengthy and pretentious for a newspaper
+article.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'><span class='pageno' id='Page_22'>22</span>Mr. Burlingame’s short history--for he was only
+forty-seven--reads like a fairy tale. Its successes,
+its surprises, its happy situations, occur all along,
+and each new episode is always an improvement
+upon the one which went before it.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>He begins life an assistant in a surveying party
+away out on the Western frontier; then enters a
+branch of a Western college; then passes through
+Harvard with the honors; becomes a Boston lawyer
+and looks back complacently from his high perch
+upon the old days when he was a surveyor nobody
+in the woods; becomes a state senator, and makes
+laws; still advancing, goes to the Constitutional
+Convention and makes regulations wherewith to rule
+the makers of laws; enters Congress and smiles
+back upon the Legislature and the Boston lawyer,
+and from these smiles still back upon the country
+surveyor, recognizes that he is known to fame in
+Massachusetts; challenges Brooks and is known to
+the nation; next, with a long stride upward, he is
+clothed with ministerial dignity and journeys to the
+under side of the world to represent the youngest
+in the court of the oldest of the nations; and finally,
+after years go by, we see him moving serenely among
+the crowned heads of the Old World, a magnate
+with secretaries and undersecretaries about him, a
+retinue of quaint, outlandish Orientals in his wake,
+and a long following of servants--and the world is
+aware that his salary is unbelievably enormous, not
+to say imperial, and likewise knows that he is invested
+with power to make treaties with all the chief
+nations of the earth, and that he bears the stately
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_23'>23</span>title of Ambassador, and in his person represents
+the mysterious and awful grandeur of that vague
+colossus, the Emperor of China, his mighty empire
+and his four hundred millions of subjects! Down
+what a dreamy vista his backward glance must
+stretch, now, to reach the insignificant surveyor in
+the Western woods!</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>He was a good man, and a very, very great man.
+America lost a son, and all the world a servant, when
+he died.</p>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_24'>24</span>
+  <h2 class='c008'>THE TEMPERANCE CRUSADE AND <br />WOMAN’S RIGHTS <br /> <span class='small'>(1873)</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class='drop-capa0_2_0_4 c015'>The women’s crusade against the rum sellers continues.
+It began in an Ohio village early in
+the new year, and has now extended itself eastwardly
+to the Atlantic seaboard, 600 miles, and
+westwardly (at a bound, without stopping by the
+way,) to San Francisco, about 2,500 miles. It has
+also scattered itself along down the Ohio and Mississippi
+rivers southwardly some ten or twelve hundred
+miles. Indeed, it promises to sweep, eventually, the
+whole United States, with the exception of the little
+cluster of commonwealths which we call New England.
+Puritan New England is sedate, reflective,
+conservative, and very hard to inflame.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>The method of the crusaders is singular. They
+contemn the use of force in the breaking up of the
+whisky traffic. They only assemble before a drinking
+shop, or within it, and sing hymns and pray,
+hour after hour--and day after day, if necessary--until
+the publican’s business is broken up and he
+surrenders. This is not force, at least they do not
+consider it so. After the surrender the crusaders
+march back to headquarters and proclaim the
+victory, and ascribe it to the powers above. They
+rejoice together awhile, and then go forth again in
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_25'>25</span>their strength and conquer another whisky shop
+with their prayers and hymns and their staying
+capacity (pardon the rudeness), and spread <em>that</em>
+victory upon the battle flag of the powers above. In
+this generous way the crusaders have parted with
+the credit of not less than three thousand splendid
+triumphs, which some carping people say they gained
+their own selves, without assistance from any quarter.
+If I am one of these, I am the humblest. If I seem to
+doubt that prayer is the agent that conquers these
+rum sellers, I do it honestly, and not in a flippant
+spirit. If the crusaders were to stay at home and
+pray for the rum seller and for his adoption of a better
+way of life, or if the crusaders even assembled together
+in a church and offered up such a prayer with
+a united voice, and it accomplished a victory, I
+would then feel that it was the praying that moved
+Heaven to do the miracle; for I believe that if the
+prayer is the agent that brings about the desired
+result, it cannot be necessary to pray the prayer in
+any particular place in order to get the ear, or move
+the grace, of the Deity. When the crusaders go and
+invest a whisky shop and fall to praying, one suspects
+that they are praying rather less to the Deity
+than <em>at</em> the rum man. So I cannot help feeling (after
+carefully reading the details of the rum sieges) that
+as much as nine tenths of the credit of each of the
+3,000 victories achieved thus far belongs of right to
+the crusaders themselves, and it grieves me to see
+them give it away with such spendthrift generosity.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>I will not afflict you with statistics, but I desire
+to say just a word or two about the character of this
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_26'>26</span>crusade. The crusaders are young girls and women--not
+the inferior sort, but the very best in the village
+communities. The telegraph keeps the newspapers
+supplied with the progress of the war, and thus the
+praying infection spreads from town to town, day
+after day, week after week. When it attacks a
+community it seems to seize upon almost everybody
+in it at once. There is a meeting in a church,
+speeches are made, resolutions are passed, a purse
+for expenses is made up, a “praying band” is appointed;
+if it be a large town, half a dozen praying
+bands, each numbering as many as a hundred women,
+are appointed, and the working district of each band
+marked out. Then comes a grand assault in force, all
+along the line. Every stronghold of rum is invested;
+first one and then another champion ranges up before
+the proprietor and offers up a special petition for
+him; he has to stand meekly there behind his bar,
+under the eyes of a great concourse of ladies who are
+better than he is and are aware of it, and hear all the
+secret iniquities of his business divulged to the angels
+above, accompanied by the sharp sting of wishes for
+his regeneration, which imply an amount of need for
+it which is in the last degree uncomfortable to him.
+If he holds out bravely, the crusaders hold out more
+bravely still--or at least more persistently; though
+I doubt if the grandeur of the performance would
+not be considerably heightened if one solitary
+crusader were to try praying at a hundred rum
+sellers in a body for a while, and see how it felt to
+have everybody against her instead of for her. If
+the man holds out the crusaders camp before his
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_27'>27</span>place and keep up the siege till they wear him out.
+In one case they besieged a rum shop two whole
+weeks. They built a shed before it and kept up the
+praying all night and all day long every day of the
+fortnight, and this in the bitterest winter weather,
+too. They conquered.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>You may ask if such an investment and such interference
+with a man’s business (in cases where he is
+“protected” by a license) is lawful? By no means.
+But the whole community being with the crusaders,
+the authorities have usually been overawed and
+afraid to execute the laws, the authorities being, in
+too many cases, mere little politicians, and more
+given to looking to chances of re-election than fearlessly
+discharging their duty according to the terms
+of their official oaths.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Would you consider the conduct of these crusaders
+justifiable? I do--thoroughly justifiable.
+They find themselves voiceless in the making of
+laws and the election of officers to execute them.
+Born with brains, born in the country, educated,
+having large interests at stake, they find their
+tongues tied and their hands fettered, while every
+ignorant whisky-drinking foreign-born savage in
+the land may hold office, help to make the laws,
+degrade the dignity of the former and break the
+latter at his own sweet will. They see their fathers,
+husbands, and brothers sit inanely at home and
+allow the scum of the country to assemble at the
+“primaries,” name the candidates for office from
+their own vile ranks, and, unrebuked, elect them.
+They live in the midst of a country where there is
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_28'>28</span>no end to the laws and no beginning to the execution
+of them. And when the laws intended to protect
+their sons from destruction by intemperance lie
+torpid and without sign of life year after year, they
+recognize that here is a matter which interests them
+personally--a matter which comes straight home to
+them. And since they are allowed to lift no legal
+voice against the outrageous state of things they
+suffer under in this regard, I think it is no wonder
+that their patience has broken down at last, and
+they have contrived to persuade themselves that
+they are justifiable in breaking the law of trespass
+when the laws that should make the trespass
+needless are allowed by the voters to lie dead and
+inoperative.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>I cannot help glorying in the pluck of these
+women, sad as it is to see them displaying themselves
+in these unwomanly ways; sad as it is to see
+them carrying their grace and their purity into
+places which should never know their presence; and
+sadder still as it is to see them trying to save a set
+of men who, it seems to me, there can be no reasonable
+object in saving. It does not become us to
+scoff at the crusaders, remembering what it is they
+have borne all these years, but it does become us to
+admire their heroism--a heroism that boldly faces
+jeers, curses, ribald language, obloquy of every
+kind and degree--in a word, every manner of thing
+that pure-hearted, pure-minded women such as these
+are naturally dread and shrink from, and remains
+steadfast through it all, undismayed, patient, hopeful,
+giving no quarter, asking none, determined to
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_29'>29</span>conquer and succeeding. It is the same old superb
+spirit that animated that other devoted, magnificent,
+mistaken crusade of six hundred years ago. The
+sons of such women as these must surely be worth
+saving from the destroying power of rum.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>The present crusade will doubtless do but little
+work against intemperance that will be really permanent,
+but it will do what is as much, or even more,
+to the purpose, I think. I think it will suggest to
+more than one man that if women could vote they
+would vote on the side of morality, even if they did
+vote and speak rather frantically and furiously;
+and it will also suggest that when the women once
+made up their minds that it was not good to leave
+the all-powerful “primaries” in the hands of loafers,
+thieves, and pernicious little politicians, they would
+not sit indolently at home as their husbands and
+brothers do now, but would hoist their praying
+banners, take the field in force, pray the assembled
+political scum back to the holes and slums where
+they belong, and set up some candidates fit for decent
+human beings to vote for.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>I dearly want the women to be raised to the
+political altitude of the negro, the imported savage,
+and the pardoned thief, and allowed to vote. It is
+our last chance, I think. The women will be voting
+before long, and then if a B. F. Butler can still continue
+to lord it in Congress; if the highest offices in
+the land can still continue to be occupied by perjurers
+and robbers; if another Congress (like the
+forty-second) consisting of 15 honest men and 296
+of the other kind can once more be created, it will at
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_30'>30</span>last be time, I fear, to give over trying to save the
+country by human means, and appeal to Providence.
+Both the great parties have failed. I wish we might
+have a woman’s party now, and see how that would
+work. I feel persuaded that in extending the suffrage
+to women this country could lose absolutely nothing
+and might gain a great deal. For thirty centuries
+history has been iterating and reiterating that in a
+moral fight woman is simply dauntless, and we all
+know, even with our eyes shut upon Congress and
+our voters, that from the day that Adam ate of the
+apple and told on Eve down to the present day,
+man, in a moral fight, has pretty uniformly shown
+himself to be an arrant coward.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>I will mention casually that while I cannot bring
+myself to find fault with the women whom we call
+the crusaders, since I feel that they, being politically
+fettered, have the natural right of the oppressed to
+rebel, I have a very different opinion about the
+clergymen who have in a multitude of instances
+attached themselves to the movement, and by voice
+and act have countenanced and upheld the women
+in unlawfully trespassing upon whisky mills and
+interrupting the rum sellers’ business. It seems to
+me that it would better become clergymen to teach
+their flocks to respect the laws of the land, and urge
+them to refrain from breaking them. But it is not
+a new thing for a thoroughly good and well-meaning
+preacher’s soft heart to run away with his soft head.</p>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_31'>31</span>
+  <h2 class='c008'>O’SHAH</h2>
+</div>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c006'>
+    <div>(A series of news letters describing a visit to England by the</div>
+    <div>Shah of Persia)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<h3 class='c013'>I <br /> THE ARRIVAL IN ENGLAND</h3>
+
+<div class='c020'><span class='sc'>London</span>, <i>June 18, 1873</i>.</div>
+
+<p class='drop-capa0_2_0_4 c019'>“Would you like to go over to Belgium and
+help bring the Shah to England?”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>I said I was willing.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“Very well, then; here is an order from the
+Admiralty which will admit you on board Her
+Majesty’s ship <i>Lively</i>, now lying at Ostend, and
+you can return in her day after to-morrow.”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>That was all. That was the end of it. Without
+stopping to think, I had in a manner taken upon
+myself to bring the Shah of Persia to England. I
+could not otherwise regard the conversation I had
+just held with the London representative of the New
+York <cite>Herald</cite>. The amount of discomfort I endured
+for the next two or three hours cannot be set down
+in words. I could not eat, sleep, talk, smoke with
+any satisfaction. The more I thought the thing over
+the more oppressed I felt. What was the Shah to
+me, that I should go to all this worry and trouble on
+his account? Where was there the least occasion for
+taking upon myself such a responsibility? If I got
+him over all right, well. But if I lost him? if he died
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_32'>32</span>on my hands? if he got drowned? It was depressing,
+any way I looked at it. In the end I said to myself,
+“If I get this Shah over here safe and sound I never
+will take charge of another one.” And yet, at the
+same time I kept thinking: “This country has
+treated me well, stranger as I am, and this foreigner
+is the country’s guest--that is enough, I will help
+him out; I will fetch him over; I will land him in
+London, and say to the British people, ‘Here is your
+Shah; give me a receipt.’”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>I felt easy in my mind now, and was about to go
+to bed, but something occurred to me. I took a cab
+and drove downtown and routed out that <cite>Herald</cite>
+representative.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“Where is Belgium?” said I.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“Where is Belgium? I never heard such a
+question!”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“That doesn’t make any difference to me. If I
+have got to fetch this Shah I don’t wish to go to the
+wrong place. Where is Belgium? Is it a shilling
+fare in a cab?”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>He explained that it was in foreign parts--the
+first place I have heard of lately which a body could
+not go to in a cab for a shilling.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>I said I could not go alone, because I could not
+speak foreign languages well, could not get up in
+time for the early train without help, and could not
+find my way. I said it was enough to have the Shah
+on my hands; I did not wish to have everything piled
+on me. Mr. Blank was then ordered to go with me.
+I do like to have somebody along to talk to when I
+go abroad.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'><span class='pageno' id='Page_33'>33</span>When I got home I sat down and thought the
+thing all over. I wanted to go into this enterprise
+understandingly. What was the main thing? That
+was the question. A little reflection informed me.
+For two weeks the London papers had sung just one
+continual song to just one continual tune, and the
+idea of it all was “how to impress the Shah.” These
+papers had told all about the St. Petersburg splendors,
+and had said at the end that splendors would
+no longer answer; that England could not outdo
+Russia in that respect; therefore some other way of
+impressing the Shah must be contrived. And these
+papers had also told all about the Shahstic reception
+in Prussia and its attendant military pageantry.
+England could not improve on that sort of thing--she
+could not impress the Shah with soldiers; something
+else must be tried. And so on. Column after
+column, page after page of agony about how to
+“impress the Shah.” At last they had hit upon a
+happy idea--a grand naval exhibition. That was
+it! A man brought up in Oriental seclusion and
+simplicity, a man who had never seen anything but
+camels and such things, could not help being surprised
+and delighted with the strange novelty of ships. The
+distress was at an end. England heaved a great sigh
+of relief; she knew at last how to impress the
+Shah.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>My course was very plain, now, after that bit of
+reflection. All I had to do was to go over to Belgium
+and impress the Shah. I failed to form any definite
+plan as to the process, but I made up my mind to
+manage it somehow. I said to myself, “I will impress
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_34'>34</span>this Shah or there shall be a funeral that will be
+worth contemplating.”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>I went to bed then, but did not sleep a great deal,
+for the responsibilities were weighing pretty heavily
+upon me. At six o’clock in the morning Mr. Blank
+came and turned me out. I was surprised at this,
+and not gratified, for I detest early rising. I never
+like to say severe things, but I was a good deal tried
+this time. I said I did not mind getting up moderately
+early, but I hated to be called day before
+yesterday. However, as I was acting in a national
+capacity and for a country that I liked, I stopped
+grumbling and we set out. A grand naval review is
+a good thing to impress a Shah with, but if he would
+try getting up at six o’clock in the morning--but no
+matter; we started.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>We took the Dover train and went whistling along
+over the housetops at the rate of fifty miles an hour,
+and just as smoothly and pleasantly, too, as if we
+were in a sleigh. One never can have anything but
+a very vague idea of what speed is until he travels
+over an English railway. Our “lightning” expresses
+are sleepy and indolent by comparison. We looked
+into the back windows of the endless ranks of houses
+abreast and below us, and saw many a homelike little
+family of early birds sitting at their breakfasts. New
+views and new aspects of London were about me;
+the mighty city seemed to spread farther and wider
+in the clear morning air than it had ever done before.
+There is something awe-inspiring about the mere
+look of the figures that express the population of
+London when one comes to set them down in a good
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_35'>35</span>large hand--4,000,000! It takes a body’s breath
+away, almost.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>We presently left the city behind. We had started
+drowsy, but we did not stay so. How could we, with
+the brilliant sunshine pouring down, the balmy wind
+blowing through the open windows, and the Garden
+of Eden spread all abroad? We swept along through
+rolling expanses of growing grain--not a stone or a
+stump to mar their comeliness, not an unsightly fence
+or an ill-kept hedge; through broad meadows covered
+with fresh green grass as clean swept as if a broom
+had been at work there--little brooks wandering up
+and down them, noble trees here and there, cows in
+the shade, groves in the distance and church spires
+projecting out of them; and there were the quaintest
+old-fashioned houses set in the midst of smooth lawns
+or partly hiding themselves among fine old forest
+trees; and there was one steep-roofed ancient cottage
+whose walls all around, and whose roof, and whose
+chimneys, were clothed in a shining mail of ivy
+leaves!--so thoroughly, indeed, that only one little
+patch of roof was visible to prove that the house
+was not a mere house of leaves, with glass windows
+in it. Imagine those dainty little homes surrounded
+by flowering shrubs and bright green grass and all
+sorts of old trees--and then go on and try to imagine
+something more bewitching.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>By and by we passed Rochester, and, sure enough,
+right there, on the highest ground in the town and
+rising imposingly up from among clustering roofs,
+was the gray old castle--roofless, ruined, ragged, the
+sky beyond showing clear and blue through the
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_36'>36</span>glassless windows, the walls partly clad with ivy--a
+time-scarred, weather-beaten old pile, but ever so
+picturesque and ever so majestic, too. There it was,
+a whole book of English history. I had read of
+Rochester Castle a thousand times, but I had never
+really believed there was any such building before.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Presently we reached the sea and came to a stand
+far out on a pier; and here was Dover and more
+history. The chalk cliffs of England towered up
+from the shore and the French coast was visible.
+On the tallest hill sat Dover Castle, stately and
+spacious and superb, looking just as it has always
+looked any time these ten or fifteen thousand years--I
+do not know its exact age, and it does not matter,
+anyway.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>We stepped aboard the little packet and steamed
+away. The sea was perfectly smooth, and painfully
+brilliant in the sunshine. There were no curiosities
+in the vessel except the passengers and a placard
+in French setting forth the transportation fares for
+various kinds of people. The lithographer probably
+considered that placard a triumph. It was printed
+in green, blue, red, black, and yellow; no individual
+line in one color, even the individual letters were
+separately colored. For instance, the first letter of
+a word would be blue, the next red, the next green,
+and so on. The placard looked as if it had the smallpox
+or something. I inquired the artist’s name and
+place of business, intending to hunt him up and kill
+him when I had time; but no one could tell me. In
+the list of prices first-class passengers were set down
+at fifteen shillings and four pence, and dead bodies
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_37'>37</span>at one pound ten shillings and eight pence--just
+double price! That is Belgian morals, I suppose.
+I never say a harsh thing unless I am greatly stirred;
+but in my opinion the man who would take advantage
+of a dead person would do almost any odious
+thing. I publish this scandalous discrimination
+against the most helpless class among us in order
+that people intending to die abroad may come back
+by some other line.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>We skimmed over to Ostend in four hours and
+went ashore. The first gentleman we saw happened
+to be the flag lieutenant of the fleet, and he told
+me where the <i>Lively</i> lay, and said she would sail about
+six in the morning. Heavens and earth. He said
+he would give my letter to the proper authority, and
+so we thanked him and bore away for the hotel.
+Bore away is good sailor phraseology, and I have
+been at sea portions of two days now. I easily pick
+up a foreign language.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Ostend is a curious, comfortable-looking, massively
+built town, where the people speak both the French
+and the Flemish with exceeding fluency, and yet I
+could not understand them in either tongue. But
+I will write the rest about Ostend in to-morrow’s
+letter.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>We idled about this curious Ostend the remainder
+of the afternoon and far into the long-lived twilight,
+apparently to amuse ourselves, but secretly I had a
+deeper motive. I wanted to see if there was anything
+here that might “impress the Shah.” In the
+end I was reassured and content. If Ostend could
+impress him, England could amaze the head clear off
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_38'>38</span>his shoulders and have marvels left that not even
+the trunk could be indifferent to.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>These citizens of Flanders--Flounders, I think they
+call them, though I feel sure I have eaten a creature
+of that name or seen it in an aquarium or a menagerie,
+or in a picture or somewhere--are a thrifty, industrious
+race, and are as commercially wise and farsighted
+as they were in Edward the Third’s time,
+and as enduring and patient under adversity as they
+were in Charles the Bold’s. They are prolific in the
+matter of children; in some of the narrow streets
+every house seemed to have had a freshet of children,
+which had burst through and overflowed into the
+roadway. One could hardly get along for the pack
+of juveniles, and they were all soiled and all healthy.
+They all wore wooden shoes, which clattered noisily
+on the stone pavements. All the women were hard
+at work; there were no idlers about the houses.
+The men were away at labor, no doubt. In nearly
+every door women sat at needlework or something
+of that marketable nature--they were knitting principally.
+Many groups of women sat in the street,
+in the shade of walls, making point lace. The lace
+maker holds a sort of pillow on her knees with a strip
+of cardboard fastened on it, on which the lace pattern
+has been punctured. She sticks bunches of pins in
+the punctures and about them weaves her web of
+threads. The numberless threads diverge from the
+bunch of pins like the spokes of a wheel, and the
+spools from which the threads are being unwound
+form the outer circle of the wheel. The woman
+throws these spools about her with flying fingers, in
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_39'>39</span>and out, over and under one another, and so fast that
+you can hardly follow the evolutions with your eyes.
+In the chaos and confusion of skipping spools you
+wonder how she can possibly pick up the right one
+every time, and especially how she can go on gossiping
+with her friends all the time and yet never seem
+to miss a stitch. The laces these ingenious Flounders
+were making were very dainty and delicate in texture
+and very beautiful in design.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Most of the shops in Ostend seemed devoted to
+the sale of sea shells. All sorts of figures of men and
+women were made of shells; one sort was composed
+of grotesque and ingenious combinations of lobster
+claws in the human form. And they had other
+figures made of stuffed frogs--some fencing, some
+barbering each other, and some were not to be
+described at all without indecent language. It must
+require a barbarian nature to be able to find humor
+in such nauseating horrors as these last. These
+things were exposed in the public windows where
+young girls and little children could see them, and
+in the shops sat the usual hairy-lipped young woman
+waiting to sell them.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>There was a contrivance attached to the better
+class of houses which I had heard of before, but
+never seen. It was an arrangement of mirrors outside
+the window, so contrived that the people within
+could see who was coming either up or down the
+street--see all that might be going on, in fact--without
+opening the window or twisting themselves
+into uncomfortable positions in order to look.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>A capital thing to watch for unwelcome (or welcome)
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_40'>40</span>visitors with, or to observe pageants in cold
+or rainy weather. People in second and third stories
+had, also, another mirror which showed who was
+passing underneath.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>The dining room at our hotel was very spacious
+and rather gorgeous. One end of it was composed
+almost entirely of a single pane of plate glass, some
+two inches thick--for this is the plate-glass manufacturing
+region, you remember. It was very clear
+and fine. If one were to enter the place in such a way
+as not to catch the sheen of the glass, he would suppose
+that the end of the house was wide open to the
+sun and the storms. A strange boyhood instinct
+came strongly upon me, and I could not really enjoy
+my dinner, I wanted to break that glass so badly.
+I have no doubt that every man feels so, and I know
+that such a glass must be simply torture to a boy.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>This dining room’s walls were almost completely
+covered with large oil paintings in frames.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>It was an excellent hotel; the utmost care was
+taken that everything should go right. I went to
+bed at ten and was called at eleven to “take the
+early train.” I said I was not the one, so the servant
+stirred up the next door and he was not the one;
+then the next door and the next--no success--and
+so on till the reverberations of the knocking were
+lost in the distance down the hall, and I fell asleep
+again. They called me at twelve to take another
+early train, but I said I was not the one again, and
+asked as a favor that they would be particular to call
+the rest next time, but never mind me. However,
+they could not understand my English; they only said
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_41'>41</span>something in reply to signify that, and then went
+on banging up the boarders, none of whom desired
+to take the early train.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>When they called me at one, it made my rest seem
+very broken, and I said if they would skip me at two
+I would call myself--not really intending to do it,
+but hoping to beguile the porter and deceive him.
+He probably suspected that and was afraid to trust
+me, because when he made his rounds at that hour
+he did not take any chances on me, but routed me
+out along with the others. I got some more sleep
+after that, but when the porter called me at three
+I felt depressed and jaded and greatly discouraged.
+So I gave it up and dressed myself. The porter
+got me a cup of coffee and kept me awake while
+I drank it. He was a good, well-meaning sort of
+Flounder, but really a drawback to the hotel, I
+should think.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Poor Mr. Blank came in then, looking worn and
+old. He had been called for all the different trains,
+too, just as I had. He said it was a good enough
+hotel, but they took too much pains. While we sat
+there talking we fell asleep and were called again at
+four. Then we went out and dozed about town till
+six, and then drifted aboard the <i>Lively</i>.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>She was trim and bright, and clean and smart;
+she was as handsome as a picture. The sailors were
+in brand-new man-of-war costume, and plenty of
+officers were about the decks in the state uniform
+of the service--cocked hats, huge epaulettes, claw-hammer
+coats lined with white silk--hats and coats
+and trousers all splendid with gold lace. I judged
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_42'>42</span>that these were all admirals, and so got afraid and
+went ashore again. Our vessel was to carry the
+Shah’s brother, also the Grand Vizier, several Persian
+princes, who were uncles to the Shah, and other
+dignitaries of more or less consequence. A vessel
+alongside was to carry the luggage, and a vessel just
+ahead (the <i>Vigilant</i>) was to carry nobody but just
+the Shah and certain Ministers of State and servants
+and the Queen’s special ambassador, Sir Henry
+Rawlinson, who is a Persian scholar and talks to the
+Shah in his own tongue.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>I was very glad, for several reasons, to find that
+I was not to go in the same ship with the Shah.
+First, with him not immediately under my eye I
+would feel less responsibility for him; and, secondly,
+as I was anxious to impress him, I wanted to
+practice on his brother first.</p>
+
+<h4 class='c021'>THE SHAH’S QUARTERS</h4>
+
+<p class='c014'>On the afterdeck of the <i>Vigilant</i>--very handsome
+ship--a temporary cabin had been constructed for
+the sole and special use of the Shah, temporary
+but charmingly substantial and graceful and pretty.
+It was about thirty feet long and twelve wide,
+beautifully gilded, decorated and painted within
+and without. Among its colors was a shade of
+light green, which reminds me of an anecdote about
+the Persian party, which I will speak of in to-morrow’s
+letter.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>It was getting along toward the time for the Shah
+to arrive from Brussels, so I ranged up alongside my
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_43'>43</span>own ship. I do not know when I ever felt so ill at
+ease and undecided. It was a sealed letter which I
+had brought from the Admiralty, and I could not
+guess what the purport of it might be. I supposed
+I was intended to command the ship--that is, I had
+supposed it at first, but, after seeing all those splendid
+officers, I had discarded that idea. I cogitated a
+good deal, but to no purpose. Presently a regiment
+of Belgian troops arrived and formed in line along
+the pier. Then a number of people began to spread
+down carpets for fifty yards along the pier, by the
+railway track, and other carpets were laid from these
+to the ships. The gangway leading on board my
+ship was now carpeted and its railings were draped
+with bright-colored signal flags. It began to look as
+if I was expected; so I walked on board. A sailor
+immediately ran and stopped me, and made another
+sailor bring a mop for me to wipe my feet on, lest I
+might soil the deck, which was wonderfully clean
+and nice. Evidently I was not the person expected,
+after all. I pointed to the group of officers and asked
+the sailor what the naval law would do to a man if
+he were to go and speak to some of those admirals--for
+there was an awful air of etiquette and punctilio
+about the premises; but just then one of those officers
+came forward and said that if his instinct was correct
+an Admiralty order had been received giving
+me a passage in the ship; and he also said that he
+was the first lieutenant, and that I was very welcome
+and he would take pains to make me feel at home,
+and furthermore there was champagne and soda
+waiting down below; and furthermore still, all the
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_44'>44</span>London correspondents, to the number of six or
+seven, would arrive from Brussels with the Shah,
+and would go in our ship, and if our passage were
+not a lively one, and a jolly and enjoyable one, it
+would be a very strange thing indeed. I could have
+jumped for joy if I had not been afraid of breaking
+some rule of naval etiquette and getting hanged
+for it.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Now the train was signaled, and everybody got
+ready for the great event. The Belgian regiment
+straightened itself up, and some two hundred
+Flounders arrived and took conspicuous position
+on a little mound. I was a little afraid that this
+would impress the Shah; but I was soon occupied
+with other interests. The train of thirteen cars
+came tearing in, and stopped abreast the ships.
+Music and guns began an uproar. Odd-looking
+Persian faces and felt hats (brimless stovepipes)
+appeared at the car windows.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Some gorgeous English officials fled down the
+carpet from the <i>Vigilant</i>. They stopped at a long
+car with the royal arms upon it, uncovered their
+heads, and unlocked the car door. Then the Shah
+stood up in it and gave us a good view. He was a
+handsome, strong-featured man, with a rather European
+fairness of complexion; had a mustache, wore
+spectacles, seemed of a good height and graceful build
+and carriage, and looked about forty or a shade less.
+He was very simply dressed--brimless stovepipe and
+close-buttoned dark-green military suit, without
+ornament. No, not wholly without ornament, for
+he had a band two inches wide worn over his shoulder
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_45'>45</span>and down across his breast, scarf fashion, which
+band was one solid glory of fine diamonds.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>A Persian official appeared in the Shah’s rear and
+enveloped him in an ample quilt--or cloak, if you
+please--which was lined with fur. The outside of
+it was of a whitish color and elaborately needle-worked
+in Persian patterns like an India shawl.
+The Shah stepped out and the official procession
+formed about him and marched him down the carpet
+and on board the <i>Vigilant</i> to slow music. Not a
+Flounder raised a cheer. All the small fry swarmed
+out of the train now.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>The Shah walked back alongside his fine cabin,
+looking at the assemblage of silent, solemn Flounders;
+the correspondent of the London <cite>Telegraph</cite> was
+hurrying along the pier and took off his hat and
+bowed to the “King of Kings,” and the King of
+Kings gave a polite military salute in return. This
+was the commencement of the excitement. The
+success of the breathless <cite>Telegraph</cite> man made all the
+other London correspondents mad, every man of
+whom flourished his stovepipe recklessly and cheered
+lustily, some of the more enthusiastic varying the
+exercise by lowering their heads and elevating their
+coat tails. Seeing all this, and feeling that if I was
+to “impress the Shah” at all, now was my time, I
+ventured a little squeaky yell, quite distinct from
+the other shouts, but just as hearty. His Shahship
+heard and saw and saluted me in a manner that was,
+I considered, an acknowledgment of my superior importance.
+I do not know that I ever felt so ostentatious
+and absurd before. All the correspondents came
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_46'>46</span>aboard, and then the Persian baggage came also,
+and was carried across to the ship alongside of ours.
+When she could hold no more we took somewhere
+about a hundred trunks and boxes on board our
+vessel. Two boxes fell into the water, and several
+sailors jumped in and saved one, but the other
+was lost. However, it probably contained nothing
+but a few hundred pounds of diamonds and
+things.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>At last we got under way and steamed out through
+a long slip, the piers on either side being crowded with
+Flounders; but never a cheer. A battery of three
+guns on the starboard pier boomed a royal salute,
+and we swept out to sea, the <i>Vigilant</i> in the lead,
+we right in her wake, and the baggage ship in ours.
+Within fifteen minutes everybody was well acquainted;
+a general jollification set in, and I was thoroughly glad
+I had come over to fetch the Shah.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c013'>II <br /> MARK TWAIN EXECUTES HIS CONTRACT AND DELIVERS <br /> THE SHAH IN LONDON</h3>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c001'>
+    <div><span class='sc'>London</span>, <i>June 19, 1873</i>.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<h4 class='c021'>SOME PERSIAN FINERY</h4>
+
+<p class='c014'>Leaving Ostend, we went out to sea under a
+clear sky and upon smooth water--so smooth,
+indeed, that its surface was scarcely rippled. I say
+the sky was clear, and so it was, clear and sunny;
+but a rich haze lay upon the water in the distance--a
+soft, mellow mist, through which a scattering sail
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_47'>47</span>or two loomed vaguely. One may call such a morning
+perfect.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>The corps of correspondents were well jaded with
+their railway journey, but after champagne and soda
+downstairs with the officers, everybody came up
+refreshed and cheery and exceedingly well acquainted
+all around. The Persian grandees had meantime
+taken up a position in a glass house on the afterdeck,
+and were sipping coffee in a grave, Oriental
+way. They all had much lighter complexions and
+a more European cast of features than I was prepared
+for, and several of them were exceedingly
+handsome, fine-looking men.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>They all sat in a <a id='corr47.14'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='cricle'>circle</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_47.14'><ins class='correction' title='cricle'>circle</ins></a></span> on a sofa (the deckhouse
+being circular), and they made a right gaudy spectacle.
+Their breasts were completely crusted with
+gold bullion embroidery of a pattern resembling
+frayed and interlacing ferns, and they had large
+jeweled ornaments on their breasts also. The Grand
+Vizier came out to have a look around. In addition
+to the sumptuous gold fernery on his breast he wore
+a jeweled star as large as the palm of my hand, and
+about his neck hung the Shah’s miniature, reposing
+in a bed of diamonds, that gleamed and flashed in a
+wonderful way when touched by the sunlight. It
+was said that to receive the Shah’s portrait from
+the Shah was the highest compliment that could be
+conferred upon a Persian subject. I did not care so
+much about the diamonds, but I would have liked
+to have the portrait very much. The Grand Vizier’s
+sword hilt and the whole back of the sheath from
+end to end were composed of a neat and simple
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_48'>48</span>combination of some twelve or fifteen thousand
+emeralds and diamonds.</p>
+
+<h4 class='c021'>“IMPRESSING” A PERSIAN GENERAL</h4>
+
+<p class='c014'>Several of the Persians talked French and English.
+One of them, who was said to be a general, came up
+on the bridge where some of us were standing, pointed
+to a sailor, and asked me if I could tell him what
+that sailor was doing?</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>I said he was communicating with the other ships
+by means of the optical telegraph--that by using
+the three sticks the whole alphabet could be
+expressed. I showed him how A, B and C were
+made, and so forth. Good! This Persian was
+“impressed”! He showed it by his eyes, by his
+gestures, by his manifest surprise and delight. I
+said to myself, if the Shah were only here now, the
+grand desire of Great Britain could be accomplished.
+The general immediately called the other grandees
+and told them about this telegraphic wonder. Then
+he said:</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“Now does everyone on board acquire this
+knowledge?”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“No, only the officers.”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“And this sailor?”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“He is only the signalman. Two or three sailors
+on board are detailed for this service, and by order
+and direction of the officers they communicate with
+the other ships.”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“Very good! very fine! Very great indeed!”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>These men were unquestionably impressed. I got
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_49'>49</span>the sailor to bring the signal book, and the matter
+was fully explained, to their high astonishment;
+also the flag signals, and likewise the lamp signals
+for night telegraphing. Of course, the idea came
+into my head, in the first place, to ask one of the
+officers to conduct this bit of instruction, but I at
+once dismissed it. I judged that this would all go
+to the Shah, sooner or later. I had come over on
+purpose to “impress the Shah,” and I was not going
+to throw away my opportunity. I wished the Queen
+had been there; I would have been knighted, sure.
+You see, they knight people here for all sorts of
+things--knight them, or put them into the peerage
+and make great personages of them. Now, for
+instance, a king comes over here on a visit; the Lord
+Mayor and sheriffs do him becoming honors in the
+city, and straightway the former is created a baronet
+and the latter are knighted. When the Prince of
+Wales recovered from his illness one of his chief
+physicians was made a baronet and the other was
+knighted. Charles II made duchesses of one or two
+female acquaintances of his for something or other--I
+have forgotten now what it was. A London shoe-maker’s
+apprentice became a great soldier--indeed,
+a Wellington--won prodigious victories in many
+climes and covered the British arms with glory all
+through a long life; and when he was 187 years old
+they knighted him and made him Constable of the
+Tower. But he died next year and they buried him
+in Westminster Abbey. There is no telling what
+that man might have become if he had lived. So
+you see what a chance I had; for I have no doubt in
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_50'>50</span>the world that I have been the humble instrument,
+under Providence, of “impressing the Shah.” And
+I really believe that if the Queen comes to hear of
+it I shall be made a duke.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Friends intending to write will not need to be
+reminded that a duke is addressed as “Your Grace”;
+it is considered a great offense to leave that off.</p>
+
+<h4 class='c021'>A PICTURESQUE NAVAL SPECTACLE</h4>
+
+<p class='c014'>When we were a mile or so out from Ostend conversation
+ceased, an expectant look came into all
+faces, and opera glasses began to stand out from
+above all noses. This impressive hush lasted a few
+minutes, and then some one said:</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“There they are!”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“Where?”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“Away yonder ahead--straight ahead.”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Which was true. Three huge shapes smothered
+in the haze--the <i>Vanguard</i>, the <i>Audacious</i>, and the
+<i>Devastation</i>--all great ironclads. They were to do
+escort duty. The officers and correspondents gathered
+on the forecastle and waited for the next act.
+A red spout of fire issued from the <i>Vanguard’s</i> side,
+another flashed from the <i>Audacious</i>. Beautiful these
+red tongues were against the dark haze. Then there
+was a long pause--ever so long a pause and not a
+sound, not the suspicion of a sound; and now, out
+of the stillness, came a deep, solemn “boom! boom!”
+It had not occurred to me that at so great a distance
+I would not hear the report as soon as I saw the
+flash. The two crimson jets were very beautiful,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_51'>51</span>but not more so than the rolling volumes of white
+smoke that plunged after them, rested a moment
+over the water, and then went wreathing and curling
+up among the webbed rigging and the tall masts,
+and left only glimpses of these things visible, high
+up in the air, projecting as if from a fog.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Now the flashes came thick and fast from the
+black sides of both vessels. The muffled thunders
+of the guns mingled together in one continued roll,
+the two ships were lost to sight, and in their places
+two mountains of tumbled smoke rested upon the
+motionless water, their bases in the hazy twilight
+and their summits shining in the sun. It was good
+to be there and see so fine a spectacle as that.</p>
+
+<h4 class='c021'>THE NAVAL SALUTE</h4>
+
+<p class='c014'>We closed up fast upon the ironclads. They fell
+apart to let our flotilla come between, and as the
+<i>Vigilant</i> ranged up the rigging of the ironclads was
+manned to salute the Shah. And, indeed, that was
+something to see. The shrouds, from the decks clear
+to the trucks, away up toward the sky, were black
+with men. On the lower rounds of these rope ladders
+they stood five abreast, holding each other’s hands,
+and so the tapering shrouds formed attenuated
+pyramids of humanity, six pyramids of them towering
+into the upper air, and clear up on the top of
+each dizzy mast stood a little creature like a clothes
+pin--a mere black peg against the sky--and that
+mite was a sailor waving a flag like a postage stamp.
+All at once the pyramids of men burst into a cheer,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_52'>52</span>and followed it with two more, given with a will;
+and if the Shah was not impressed he must be the
+offspring of a mummy.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>And just at this moment, while we all stood there
+gazing---</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>However breakfast was announced and I did not
+wait to see.</p>
+
+<h4 class='c021'>THE THIRTY-FOUR-TON GUNS SPEAK</h4>
+
+<p class='c014'>If there is one thing that is pleasanter than another
+it is to take breakfast in the wardroom with a dozen
+naval officers. Of course, that awe-inspiring monarch,
+the captain, is aft, keeping frozen state with the
+Grand Viziers when there are any on board, and so
+there is nobody in the wardroom to maintain naval
+etiquette. As a consequence none is maintained.
+One officer, in a splendid uniform, snatches a champagne
+bottle from a steward and opens it himself;
+another keeps the servants moving; another opens
+soda; everybody eats, drinks, shouts, laughs in the
+most unconstrained way, and it does seem a pity
+that ever the thing should come to an end. No
+individual present seemed sorry he was not in the
+ship with the Shah. When the festivities had been
+going on about an hour, some tremendous booming
+was heard outside. Now here was a question between
+duty and broiled chicken. What might that booming
+mean? Anguish sat upon the faces of the correspondents.
+I watched to see what they would do,
+and the precious moments were flying. Somebody
+cried down a companionway:</p>
+
+<p class='c002'><span class='pageno' id='Page_53'>53</span>“The <i>Devastation</i> is saluting!”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>The correspondents tumbled over one another,
+over chairs, over everything in their frenzy to get
+on deck, and the last gun reverberated as the last
+heel disappeared on the stairs. The <i>Devastation</i>, the
+pride of England, the mightiest war vessel afloat,
+carrying guns that outweigh any metal in any
+service, it is said (thirty-five tons each), and these
+boys had missed that spectacle--at least I knew
+that some of them had. I did not go. Age has
+taught me wisdom. If a spectacle is going to be
+particularly imposing I prefer to see it through
+somebody else’s eyes, because that man will always
+exaggerate. Then I can exaggerate his exaggeration,
+and my account of the thing will be the most
+impressive.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>But I felt that I had missed my figure this time,
+because I was not sure which of these gentlemen
+reached the deck in time for a glimpse and which
+didn’t. And this morning I cannot tell by the
+London papers. They all have imposing descriptions
+of that thing, and no one of them resembles
+another. Mr. X’s is perhaps the finest, but he was
+singing a song about “Spring, Spring, Gentle Spring,”
+all through the bombardment, and was overexcited,
+I fear.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>The next best was Mr. Y’s; but he was telling
+about how he took a Russian battery, along with
+another man, during the Crimean War, and he was
+not fairly through the story till the salute was over,
+though I remember he went up and saw the smoke.
+I will not frame a description of the <i>Devastation’s</i>
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_54'>54</span>salute, for I have no material that I can feel sure
+is reliable.</p>
+
+<h4 class='c021'>THE GRAND SPECTACULAR CLIMAX</h4>
+
+<p class='c014'>When we first sailed away from Ostend I found
+myself in a dilemma; I had no notebook. But
+“any port in a storm,” as the sailors say. I found
+a fair, full pack of ordinary playing cards in my
+overcoat pocket--one always likes to have something
+along to amuse children with--and really
+they proved excellent to take notes on, although
+bystanders were a bit inclined to poke fun at
+them and ask facetious questions. But I was content;
+I made all the notes I needed. The aces and
+low “spot” cards are very good indeed to write
+memoranda on, but I will not recommend the
+Kings and Jacks.</p>
+
+<h4 class='c021'>SPEAKING BY THE CARDS</h4>
+
+<p class='c014'>Referring to the seven of hearts, I find that
+this naval exhibition and journey from Ostend to
+Dover is going to cost the government £500,000.
+Got it from a correspondent. It is a round
+sum.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Referring to the ace of diamonds, I find that along
+in the afternoon we sighted a fresh fleet of men-of-war
+coming to meet us. The rest of the diamonds,
+down to the eight spot (nines and tens are no
+good for notes) are taken up with details of that
+spectacle. Most of the clubs and hearts refer to
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_55'>55</span>matters immediately following that, but I really
+can hardly do anything with them because I
+have forgotten what was trumps.</p>
+
+<h4 class='c021'>THE SPECTACLE</h4>
+
+<p class='c014'>But never mind. The sea scene grew little by
+little, until presently it was very imposing. We
+drew up into the midst of a waiting host of vessels.
+Enormous five-masted men-of-war, great turret ships,
+steam packets, pleasure yachts--every sort of craft,
+indeed--the sea was thick with them; the yards and
+riggings of the warships loaded with men, the packets
+crowded with people, the pleasure ships rainbowed
+with brilliant flags all over and over--some with
+flags strung thick on lines stretching from bowsprit
+to foremast, thence to mainmast, thence to mizzenmast,
+and thence to stern. All the ships were in
+motion--gliding hither and thither, in and out,
+mingling and parting--a bewildering whirl of flash
+and color. Our leader, the vast, black, ugly, but
+very formidable <i>Devastation</i>, plowed straight through
+the gay throng, our Shah-ships following, the lines
+of big men-of-war saluting, the booming of the guns
+drowning the cheering, stately islands of smoke
+towering everywhere. And so, in this condition of
+unspeakable grandeur, we swept into the harbor of
+Dover, and saw the English princes and the long
+ranks of red-coated soldiers waiting on the pier,
+civilian multitudes behind them, the lofty hill
+front by the castle swarming with spectators, and
+there was the crash of cannon and a general hurrah
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_56'>56</span>all through the air. It was rather a contrast
+to silent Ostend and the unimpressible Flanders.</p>
+
+<h4 class='c021'>THE SHAH “IMPRESSED” AT LAST</h4>
+
+<p class='c014'>The Duke of Edinburgh and Prince Arthur received
+the Shah in state, and then all of us--princes, Shahs,
+ambassadors, Grand Viziers and newspaper correspondents--climbed
+aboard the train and started off
+to London just like so many brothers.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>From Dover to London it was a sight to see.
+Seventy miles of human beings in a jam--the gaps
+were not worth mentioning--and every man, woman,
+and child waving hat or handkerchief and cheering.
+I wondered--could not tell--could not be sure--could
+only wonder--would this “impress the Shah”?
+I would have given anything to know. But--well,
+it ought--but--still one could not tell.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>And by and by we burst into the London Railway
+station--a very large station it is--and found it
+wonderfully decorated and all the neighboring streets
+packed with cheering citizens. Would this impress
+the Shah? I--I--well, I could not yet feel certain.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>The Prince of Wales received the Shah--ah, you
+should have seen how gorgeously the Shah was
+dressed now--he was like the sun in a total eclipse
+of rainbows--yes, the Prince received him, put him
+in a grand open carriage, got in and made him
+sit over further and not “crowd,” the carriage clattered
+out of the station, all London fell apart on
+either side and lifted a perfectly national cheer,
+and just at that instant the bottom fell out of
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_57'>57</span>the sky and forty deluges came pouring down at
+once!</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>The great strain was over, the crushing suspense
+at an end. I said, “Thank God, this will impress
+the Shah.”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Now came the long files of Horse Guards in silver
+armor. We took the great Persian to Buckingham
+Palace. I never stirred till I saw the gates open
+and close upon him with my own eyes and knew he
+was there. Then I said:</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“England, here is your Shah; take him and be
+happy, but don’t ever ask me to fetch over another
+one.”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>This contract has been pretty straining on me.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c013'>III <br /> THE SHAH AS A SOCIAL STAR</h3>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c001'>
+    <div><span class='sc'>London</span>, <i>June 21, 1873</i>.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c012'>After delivering the Shah at the gates of that
+unsightly pile of dreary grandeur known as
+Buckingham Palace I cast all responsibility for him
+aside for the time being, and experienced a sense of
+relief and likewise an honest pride in my success,
+such as no man can feel who has not had a Shah at
+nurse (so to speak) for three days.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>It is said by those who ought to know that when
+Buckingham Palace was being fitted up as a home
+for the Shah one of the chief rooms was adorned
+with a rich carpet which had been designed and
+manufactured especially to charm the eye of His
+Majesty. The story goes on to say that a couple of
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_58'>58</span>the Persian suite came here a week ago to see that
+all things were in readiness and nothing overlooked,
+and that when they reached that particular room
+and glanced at the lovely combination of green
+figures and white ones in that carpet they gathered
+their robes carefully up about their knees and then
+went elaborately tiptoeing about the floor with the
+aspect and anxiety of a couple of cats hunting for
+dry ground in a wet country, and they stepped only
+on the white figures and almost fainted whenever
+they came near touching a green one. It is said that
+the explanation is that these visiting Persians are
+all Mohammedans, and green being a color sacred
+to the descendants of the Prophet, and none of these
+people being so descended, it would be dreadful
+profanation for them to defile the holy color with
+their feet. And the general result of it all was that
+carpet had to be taken up and is a dead loss.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Man is a singular sort of human being, after all,
+and his religion does not always adorn him. Now,
+our religion is the right one, and has fewer odd and
+striking features than any other; and yet my
+ancestors used to roast Catholics and witches and
+warm their hands by the fire; but they would be
+blanched with horror at the bare thought of breaking
+the Sabbath, and here is a Persian monarch who
+never sees any impropriety in chopping a subject’s
+head off for the mere misdemeanor of calling him
+too early for breakfast, and yet would be consumed
+with pious remorse if unheeding foot were to chance
+to step upon anything so green as you or I, my
+reader.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'><span class='pageno' id='Page_59'>59</span>Oriental peoples say that women have no souls
+to save and, almost without my memory, many
+American Protestants said the same of babies. I
+thought there was a wide gulf between the Persians
+and ourselves, but I begin to feel that they are
+really our brothers after all.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>After a day’s rest the Shah went to Windsor
+Castle and called on the Queen. What that suggests
+to the reader’s mind is this:--That the Shah took
+a hand satchel and an umbrella, called a cab and
+said he wanted to go to the Paddington station;
+that when he arrived there the driver charged him
+sixpence too much, and he paid it rather than have
+trouble; that he tried now to buy a ticket, and was
+answered by a ticket seller as surly as a hotel clerk
+that he was not selling tickets for that train yet;
+that he finally got his ticket, and was beguiled of
+his satchel by a railway porter at once, who put it
+into a first-class carriage and got a sixpence, which
+the company forbids him to receive; that presently
+when the guard (or conductor) of the train came
+along the Shah slipped a shilling into his hand and
+said he wanted to smoke, and straightway the guard
+signified that it was all right; that when the Shah
+arrived at Windsor Castle he rang the bell, and when
+the girl came to the door asked her if the Queen was
+at home, and she left him standing in the hall and
+went to see; that by and by she returned and said
+would he please sit down in the front room and Mrs.
+Guelph would be down directly; that he hung his
+hat on the hatrack, stood his umbrella up in the
+corner, entered the front room and sat down on a
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_60'>60</span>haircloth chair; that he waited and waited and got
+tired; that he got up and examined the old piano,
+the depressing lithographs on the walls and the
+album of photographs of faded country relatives
+on the center table, and was just about to fall
+back on the family Bible when the Queen entered
+briskly and begged him to sit down and apologized
+for keeping him waiting, but she had just got a
+new girl and everything was upside down, and so
+forth and so on; but how are the family, and
+when did he arrive, and how long should he stay
+and why didn’t he bring his wife. I knew that
+that was the picture which would spring up in the
+American reader’s mind when it was said the Shah
+went to visit the Queen, because that was the
+picture which the announcement suggested to
+my own mind.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>But it was far from the facts, very far. Nothing
+could be farther. In truth, these people made as
+much of a to do over a mere friendly call as anybody
+else would over a conflagration. There were
+special railway trains for the occasion; there was
+a general muster of princes and dukes to go along,
+each one occupying room 40; there were regiments
+of cavalry to clear the way; railway stations
+were turned into flower gardens, sheltered with
+flags and all manner of gaudy splendor; there were
+multitudes of people to look on over the heads of
+interminable ranks of policemen standing shoulder
+to shoulder and facing front; there was braying of
+music and booming of cannon. All that fuss, in
+sober truth, over a mere off-hand friendly call.
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_61'>61</span>Imagine what it would have been if he had brought
+another shirt and was going to stay a month.</p>
+
+<h4 class='c021'>AT THE GUILDHALL</h4>
+
+<p class='c014'>Truly, I am like to suffocate with astonishment
+at the things that are going on around me here. It
+is all odd, it is all queer enough, I can tell you;
+but last night’s work transcends anything I ever
+heard of in the way of--well, how shall I express it?
+how can I word it? I find it awkward to get at it.
+But to say it in a word--and it is a true one, too, as
+hundreds and hundreds of people will testify--last
+night the Corporation of the City of London, with a
+simplicity and ignorance which almost rise to sublimity,
+actually gave a ball to a Shah who does not
+dance. If I would allow myself to laugh at a cruel
+mistake, this would start me. It is the oddest thing
+that has happened since I have had charge of the
+Shah. There is some excuse for it in the fact that the
+Aldermen of London are simply great and opulent
+merchants, and cannot be expected to know much
+about the ways of high life--but then they could
+have asked some of us who have been with the Shah.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>The ball was a marvel in its way. The historical
+Guildhall was a scene of great magnificence. There
+was a high dais at one end, on which were three
+state chairs under a sumptuous canopy; upon the
+middle one sat the Shah, who was almost a Chicago
+conflagration of precious stones and gold bullion
+lace. Among other gems upon his breast were a
+number of emeralds of marvelous size, and from
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_62'>62</span>a loop hung an historical diamond of great size
+and wonderful beauty. On the right of the Shah
+sat the Princess of Wales, and on his left the wife
+of the Crown Prince of Russia. Grouped about
+the three stood a full jury of minor princes,
+princesses, and ambassadors hailing from many
+countries.</p>
+
+<h4 class='c021'>THE TWO CORRALS</h4>
+
+<p class='c014'>The immense hall was divided in the middle by a
+red rope. The Shah’s division was sacred to blue
+blood, and there was breathing room there; but the
+other corral was but a crush of struggling and perspiring
+humanity. The place was brilliant with gas
+and was a rare spectacle in the matter of splendid
+costumes and rich coloring. The lofty stained-glass
+windows, pictured with celebrated episodes in the
+history of the ancient city, were lighted from the
+outside, and one may imagine the beauty of the effect.
+The great giants, Gog and Magog (whose origin and
+history, curiously enough, are unknown even to
+tradition), looked down from the lofty gallery, but
+made no observation. Down the long sides of the
+hall, with but brief spaces between, were imposing
+groups of marble statuary; and, contrasted with the
+masses of life and color about them, they made a
+picturesque effect. The groups were statues (in
+various attitudes) of the Duke of Wellington. I do
+not say this knowingly, but only supposingly; but
+I never have seen a statue in England yet that
+represented anybody but the Duke of Wellington,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_63'>63</span>and, as for the streets and terraces and courts and
+squares that are named after him or after selections
+from his 797 titles, they are simply beyond the
+grasp of arithmetic. This reminds me that, having
+named everything after Wellington that there was
+left to name in England (even down to Wellington
+boots), our British brothers, still unsatisfied, still
+oppressed with adulation, blandly crossed over
+and named our Californian big trees Wellington,
+and put it in Latin at that. They did that, calmly
+ignoring the fact that we, the discoverers and owners
+of the trees, had long ago named them after a larger
+man. However, if the ghost of Wellington enjoys
+such a proceeding, possibly the ghost of Washington
+will not greatly trouble itself about the matter. But
+what really disturbs me is that, while Wellington is
+justly still in the fashion here, Washington is fading
+out of the fashion with us. It is not a good sign. The
+idols we have raised in his stead are not to our
+honor.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Some little dancing was done in the sacred corral
+in front of the Shah by grandees belonging mainly
+to “grace-of-God” families, but he himself never
+agitated a foot. The several thousand commoner
+people on the other side of the rope could not dance
+any more than sardines in a box. Chances to view
+the Guildhall spectacle were so hungered for that
+people offered £5 for the privilege of standing three
+minutes in the musicians’ gallery and were refused.
+I cannot convey to you an idea of the inordinate
+desire which prevails here to see the Shah better than
+by remarking that speculators who held four-seat
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_64'>64</span>opera boxes at Covent Garden Theater to-night
+were able to get $250 for them. Had all the seats
+been sold at auction the opera this evening would
+have produced not less than one hundred and twenty-five
+thousand dollars in gold! I am below the figures
+rather than above them. The greatest house (for
+money) that America ever saw was gathered together
+upon the occasion of Jenny Lind’s first concert at
+Castle Garden. The seats were sold at auction and
+produced something over twenty thousand dollars.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>I am by no means trying to describe the Guildhall
+affair of last night. Such a crush of titled swells;
+such a bewildering array of jeweled uniforms and
+brilliant feminine costumes; such solemn and awful
+reception ceremonies in the library; such grim and
+stately imposing addresses and Persian replies; such
+imposing processional pageantry later on; such depressing
+dancing before the apathetic Shah; such
+ornate tables and imperial good cheer at the banquet--it
+makes a body tired to merely think of trying
+to put all that on paper. Perhaps you, sir, will be
+good enough to imagine it, and thus save one who
+respects you and honors you five columns of solid
+writing.</p>
+
+<h4 class='c021'>THE LUNATIC ASYLUM IS BLESSED WITH A GLIMPSE</h4>
+
+<p class='c014'>As regards the momentous occasion of the opera,
+this evening, I found myself in a grievous predicament,
+for a republican. The tickets were all sold
+long ago, so I must either go as a member of the
+royal family or not at all. After a good deal of
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_65'>65</span>reflection it seemed best not to mix up with that
+class lest a political significance might be put upon
+it. But a queer arrangement had been devised
+whereby I might have a glimpse of the show, and I
+took advantage of that. There is an immense barn-like
+glass house attached to the rear of the theater,
+and that was fitted up with seats, carpets, mirrors,
+gas, columns, flowers, garlands, and a meager row
+of shrubs strung down the sides on brackets--to
+create an imposing forest effect, I suppose. The
+place would seat ten or twelve hundred people. All
+but a hundred paid a dollar and a quarter a seat--for
+what? To look at the Shah three quarters of a
+minute, while he walked through to enter the theater.
+The remaining hundred paid $11 a seat for the same
+privilege, with the added luxury of rushing on the
+stage and glancing at the opera audience for one
+single minute afterward, while the chorus sung “God
+Save the Queen!” We are all gone mad, I do believe.
+Eleven hundred five-shilling lunatics and a hundred
+two-guinea maniacs. The <cite>Herald</cite> purchased a ticket
+and created me one of the latter, along with two or
+three more of the staff.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Our cab was about No. 17,342 in the string that
+worked its slow way through London and past the
+theater. The Shah was not to come till nine o’clock,
+and yet we had to be at the theater by half past six,
+or we would not get into the glass house at all, they
+said. We were there on time, and seated in a small
+gallery which overlooked a very brilliantly dressed
+throng of people. Every seat was occupied. We
+sat there two hours and a half gazing and melting.
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_66'>66</span>The wide, red-carpeted central aisle below offered
+good display ground for officials in fine uniforms,
+and they made good use of it.</p>
+
+<h4 class='c021'>ROYALTY ARRIVES</h4>
+
+<p class='c014'>By and by a band in showy uniform came in and
+stood opposite the entrance. At the end of a tedious
+interval of waiting trumpets sounded outside, there
+was some shouting, the band played half of “God
+Save the Queen,” and then the Duke and Duchess
+of Cambridge and a dozen gorgeous Persian officials
+entered. After a little the young Prince Arthur
+came, in a blue uniform, with a whole broadside of
+gold and silver medals on his breast--for good
+behavior, punctuality, accurate spelling, penmanship,
+etc., I suppose, but I could not see the inscriptions.
+The band gave him some bars of “God Save
+the Queen,” too, while he stood under us talking,
+with altogether unroyal animation, with the Persians--the
+crowd of people staring hungrily at him the
+while--country cousins, maybe, who will go home
+and say, “I was as close to him as I am to that chair
+this minute.”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Then came the Duke of Teck and the Princess
+Mary, and the band God-Save-the-Queen’d them
+also. Now came the Prince of Wales and the Russian
+Tsarina--the royal anthem again, with an extra
+blast at the end of it. After them came a young,
+handsome, mighty giant, in showy uniform, his
+breast covered with glittering orders, and a general’s
+chapeau, with a flowing white plume, in his hand--the
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_67'>67</span>heir to all the throne of all the Russias. The
+band greeted him with the Russian national anthem,
+and played it clear through. And they did right; for
+perhaps it is not risking too much to say that this
+is the only national air in existence that is really
+worthy of a great nation.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>And at last came the long-expected millennium
+himself, His Imperial Majesty the Shah, with the
+charming Princess of Wales on his arm. He had all
+his jewels on, and his diamond shaving brush in his
+hat front. He shone like a window with the westering
+sun on it.</p>
+
+<h4 class='c021'>WHAT THE ASYLUM SAW</h4>
+
+<p class='c014'>The small space below us was full now--it could
+accommodate no more royalty. The august procession
+filed down the aisle in double rank, the Shah
+and the Princess of Wales in the lead, and cheers
+broke forth and a waving of handkerchiefs as the
+Princess passed--all said this demonstration was
+meant for her. As the procession disappeared
+through the farther door, the hundred eleven-dollar
+maniacs rushed through a small aperture, then
+through an anteroom, and gathered in a flock on
+the stage, the chorus striking up “God Save the
+Queen” at the same moment.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>We stood in a mighty bandbox, or a Roman
+coliseum, with a sea of faces stretching far away
+over the ground floor, and above them rose five
+curving tiers of gaudy humanity, the dizzy upper
+tier in the far distance rising sharply up against the
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_68'>68</span>roof, like a flower garden trying to hold an earthquake
+down and not succeeding. It was a magnificent
+spectacle, and what with the roaring of the
+chorus, the waving of handkerchiefs, the cheering
+of the people, the blazing gas, and the awful splendor
+of the long file of royalty, standing breast to breast
+in the royal box, it was wonderfully exhilarating,
+not to say exciting.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>The chorus sang only three-quarters of a minute--one
+stanza--and down came the huge curtain and
+shut out the fairyland. And then all those eleven-dollar
+people hunted their way out again.</p>
+
+<h4 class='c021'>A NATION DEMENTED</h4>
+
+<p class='c014'>We are certainly gone mad. We scarcely look at
+the young colossus who is to reign over 70,000,000
+of people and the mightiest empire in extent which
+exists to-day. We have no eyes but for this splendid
+barbarian, who is lord over a few deserts and a
+modest ten million of ragamuffins--a man who has
+never done anything to win our gratitude or excite
+our admiration, except that he managed to starve
+a million of his subjects to death in twelve months.
+If he had starved the rest I suppose we would set
+up a monument to him now.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>The London theaters are almost absolutely empty
+these nights. Nobody goes, hardly. The managers
+are being ruined. The streets for miles are crammed
+with people waiting whole long hours for a chance
+glimpse of the Shah. I never saw any man “draw”
+like this one.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'><span class='pageno' id='Page_69'>69</span>Is there any truth in the report that your bureaus
+are trying to get the Shah to go over there and
+lecture? He could get $100,000 a night here and
+choose his own subject.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>I know a showman who has got a pill that belonged
+to him, and which for some reason he did not take.
+That showman will not take any money for that pill.
+He is going to travel with it. And let me tell you
+he will get more engagements than he can fill in a
+year.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c013'>IV <br />MARK TWAIN HOOKS THE PERSIAN OUT OF <br />THE ENGLISH CHANNEL</h3>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c001'>
+    <div><span class='sc'>London</span>, <i>June 26, 1873</i>.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c014'>I suppose I am the only member of the Shah’s
+family who is not wholly broken down and worn
+out; and, to tell the truth, there is not much of me
+left. If you have ever been limited to four days in
+Paris or Rome or Jerusalem and been “rushed” by
+a guide you can form a vague, far-away sort of conception
+of what the Shah and the rest of us have
+endured during these late momentous days. If this
+goes on we may as well get ready for the imperial
+inquest.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>When I was called at five o’clock the other morning
+to go to Portsmouth, and remembered that the
+Shah’s incessant movements had left me only three
+hours’ sleep that night, nothing but a sense of duty
+drove me forth. A cab could not be found, nor a
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_70'>70</span>carriage in all London. I lost an hour and a half
+waiting and trying, then started on foot and lost
+my way; consequently I missed one train by a
+good while, another one by three minutes, and then
+had more than half an hour to spare before another
+would go. Most people had had a similar experience,
+and there was comfort in that. We started at last,
+and were more than three hours going seventy-two
+miles. We stopped at no stations, hardly, but we
+halted every fifteen minutes out in the woods and
+fields for no purpose that we could discover. Never
+was such an opportunity to look at scenery. There
+were five strangers in our car, or carriage, as the
+English call it, and by degrees their English reserve
+thawed out and they passed around their sherry
+and sandwiches and grew sociable.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>One of them had met the Russian General of
+Police in St. Petersburg, and found him a queer old
+simple-hearted soldier, proud of his past and devoted
+to his master, the present Tsar, and to the memory
+of his predecessor, Nicholas. The English gentleman
+gave an instance of the old man’s simplicity which
+one would not expect in a chief of police. The
+general had been visiting London and been greatly
+impressed by two things there--the admirable police
+discipline and the museum. It transpired that the
+museum he referred to was not that mighty collection
+of marvels known to all the world as the British
+Museum, but Mme. Toussaud’s Waxworks Show;
+and in this waxwork show he had seen a figure of
+the Emperor Nicholas. And did it please him? Yes,
+as to the likeness; for it was a good likeness and a
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_71'>71</span>commanding figure; but--“<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><i>Mon Dieu!</i></span> try to fancy
+it, m’sieu--dressed in the uniform of a simple colonel
+of infantry!--the great Nicholas of Russia, my
+august late master, dressed in a colonel’s uniform!”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>The old general could not abide that. He went
+to the proprietor and remonstrated against this
+wanton indignity. The proprietor was grieved;
+but it was the only Russian uniform he could get,
+and----</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“Say no more!” said the general. “May I get
+you one?”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>The proprietor would be most happy. The general
+lost not a moment; he wrote <a id='corr71.13'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='it'>at</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_71.13'><ins class='correction' title='it'>at</ins></a></span> once to the Emperor
+Alexander, describing with anguish the degradation
+which the late great Nicholas was suffering day by
+day through his infamously clothed waxen representative,
+and imploring His Majesty to send suitable
+raiment for the imperial dummy, and also a
+letter to authenticate the raiment. And out of
+regard for the old servant and respect for his
+outraged feelings the Emperor of all the Russias
+descended from his Alpine altitude to send to the
+Toussaud waxwork the general’s uniform worn last
+by his father, and to write with his own hand an
+authenticating letter to go with it. So the simple-hearted
+police chief was happy once more, and never
+once thought of charging the “museum” $10,000
+for these valuable additions to the show, which he
+might easily have done, and collected the money,
+too. How like our own chiefs of police this good
+old soul is!</p>
+
+<p class='c002'><span class='pageno' id='Page_72'>72</span>Another of these English gentlemen told an anecdote,
+which, he said, was old, but which I had not
+heard before. He said that one day St. Peter and
+the devil chanced to be thrown together, and found
+it pretty dull trying to pass the time. Finally they
+got to throwing dice for a lawyer. The devil threw
+sixes. Then St. Peter threw sixes. The devil threw
+sixes again. St. Peter threw sixes again. The devil
+threw sixes once more. Then St. Peter threw sevens,
+and the devil said, “Oh, come now, Your Honor,
+cheat fair. None of your playing miracles here!”
+I thought there was a nice bit of humor in that
+suggestion to “cheat fair.”</p>
+
+<h4 class='c021'>A SMALL PRIVATE NAUTICAL RACE</h4>
+
+<p class='c014'>I am getting to Portsmouth about as fast in this
+letter as I did in that train. The Right Honorable
+the Mayor of Portsmouth had had a steamer placed
+at his disposal by the Admiralty, and he had invited
+the Lord Mayor of London and other guests to go
+in her. This was the ship I was to sail in, and she
+was to leave her pier at 9 <span class='fss'>A.M.</span> sharp. I arrived at
+that pier at ten minutes to eleven exactly. There
+was one chance left, however. The ship had stopped
+for something and was floating at ease about a mile
+away.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>A rusty, decayed, little two-oared skiff, the size
+of a bathtub, came floating by, with a fisherman and
+his wife and child in it. I entreated the man to
+come in and take me to the ship. Presently he consented
+and started toward me. I stood impatient
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_73'>73</span>and all ready to jump the moment he should get
+within thirty yards of me; he halted at the distance
+of thirty-five and said it would be a long pull; did I
+think I could pay him two shillings for it, seeing it was
+a holiday? All this palaver and I in such a state
+of mind! I jumped aboard and told him to rush,
+which he did; at least he threw his whole heart into
+his little, useless oars, and we moved off at the rate
+of a mile a week. This was solid misery. When
+we had gone a hundred and nine feet and were gaining
+on the tenth a long, trim, graceful man-of-war’s
+boat came flying by, bound for the flagship. Without
+expecting even the courtesy of a response, I
+hailed and asked the coxswain to take me to the
+mayor’s vessel. He said, “Certainly, sir!--ease her,
+boys!” I could not have been more astonished at
+anything in the world. I quickly gave my man his
+two shillings, and he started to pull me to the boat.
+Then there was a movement of discontent among
+the sailors, and they seemed about to move on. I
+thought--well, you are not such generous fellows,
+after all, as I took you to be, or so polite, either; but
+just then the coxswain hailed and said:</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“The boys don’t mind the pull, and they’re perfectly
+willing to take you, but they say they ain’t
+willing to take the fisherman’s job away from
+him.”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Now that was genuine manliness and right conduct.
+I shall always remember that honorable act.
+I told them the fisherman was already paid, and I
+was in their boat the next moment. Then ensued
+the real fun of the day, as far as I was personally
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_74'>74</span>concerned. The boys glanced over their shoulders
+to measure the distance, and then at the order to
+“Give way!” they bent to it and the boat sped
+through the water like an arrow. We passed all kinds
+of craft and steadily shortened the distance that
+lay between us and the ship. Presently the coxswain
+said:</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“No use! Her wheels have begun to turn over.
+Lively now, lively!”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Then we flew. We watched the ship’s movement
+with a sharp interest and calculated our chances.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“Can you steer?” said the coxswain.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“Can a duck swim?” said I.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“Good--we’ll make her yet!”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>I took the helm and he the stroke oar, and that
+one oar did appear to add a deal to that boat’s speed.
+The ship was turning around to go out to sea, and
+she did seem to turn unnecessarily fast, too; but
+just as she was pointed right and both her wheels
+began to go ahead our boat’s bow touched her companionway
+and I was aboard. It was a handsome
+race, and very exciting. If I could have had that
+dainty boat and those eight white-shirted, blue-trousered
+sailors for the day I would not have gone
+in any ship, but would have gone about in vast
+naval style and experienced the feelings of an
+admiral.</p>
+
+<h4 class='c021'>OLD HISTORICAL MEN-OF-WAR</h4>
+
+<p class='c014'>Our ship sailed out through a narrow way, bordered
+by piers that swarmed with people, and likewise
+by prodigious men-of-war of the fashion of a
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_75'>75</span>hundred years ago. There were, perhaps, a dozen
+of the stately veterans, these relics of an historic
+past; and not looking aged and seedy, either, but
+as bright and fresh as if they had been launched and
+painted yesterday. They were the noblest creatures
+to look upon; hulls of huge proportion and great
+length; four long tiers of cannon grinning from their
+tall sides; vast sterns that towered into the air like
+the gable end of a church; graceful bows and figureheads;
+masts as trim and lofty as spires--surely no
+spectacle could be so imposing as a sea fight in the
+old times, when such beautiful and such lordly ships
+as these ruled the seas. And how it must have
+stirred the heart of England when a fleet of them
+used to come sailing in from victory, with ruined
+sides and tattered spars and sails, while bells and
+cannon pealed a welcome!</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>One of the grandest of these veterans was the
+very one upon whose deck Nelson himself fell in
+the moment of triumph. I suppose England would
+rather part with ten colonies than with that illustrious
+old ship. We passed along within thirty steps
+of her, and I was just trying to picture in my mind
+the tremendous scenes that had transpired upon her
+deck upon that day, the proudest in England’s
+naval history, when the venerable craft, stirred by
+the boom of saluting cannon, perhaps, woke up
+out of her long sleep and began to vomit smoke
+and thunder herself, and then she looked her own
+natural self again, and no doubt the spirit of Nelson
+was near. Still it would have been pleasanter to be on
+her decks than in front of her guns; for, as the white
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_76'>76</span>volumes of smoke burst in our faces, one could not help
+feeling that a ball might by accident have got mixed
+up with a blank cartridge, and might chip just enough
+off the upper end of a man to disfigure him for life;
+and, besides, the powder they use in cannon is in
+grains as large as billiard chalks, and it does not
+all explode--suppose a few should enter one’s system?
+The crash and roar of these great guns was
+as unsettling a sound as I have ever heard at short
+range. I took off my hat and acknowledged the
+salute, of course, though it seemed to me that it
+would have been better manners if they had
+saluted the Lord Mayor, inasmuch as he was on
+board.</p>
+
+<h4 class='c021'>THE WORLD’S GREATEST NAVY ON VIEW</h4>
+
+<p class='c014'>We went out to the Spithead and sailed up and
+down there for four hours through four long ranks
+of stately men-of-war--formidable ironclads they
+were--the most insignificant of which would make
+a breakfast of a whole fleet of Nelson’s prodigious
+ships and still be hungry. The show was very fine,
+for there were forty-nine of the finest ironclads the
+world can show, and many gunboats besides. Indeed,
+here in its full strength was the finest navy in the
+world, and this the only time in history that just
+such a spectacle has been seen, and none who saw
+it that day is likely to live long enough to see its like
+again. The vessels were all dressed out with flags,
+and all about them frolicked a bewildering host of
+bannered yachts, steamers, and every imaginable sort
+of craft. It would be hard to contrive a gayer scene.
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_77'>77</span>One of the royal yachts came flying along presently
+and put the Shah on board one of the ironclads, and
+then the yards of the whole fleet were manned
+simultaneously, and such another booming and bellowing
+of great guns ensued as I cannot possibly
+describe. Within two minutes the huge fleet was
+swallowed up in smoke, with angry red tongues of
+fire darting through it here and there. It was wonderful
+to look upon. Every time the <i>Devastation</i>
+let off one of her thirty-five-ton guns it seemed as
+if an entire London fog issued from her side, and
+the report was so long coming that if she were to
+shoot a man he would be dead before he heard it,
+and would probably go around wondering through
+all eternity what it was that happened to him. I
+returned to London in a great hurry by a train that
+was in no way excited by it, but failed in the end
+and object I had in view after all, which was to
+go to the grand concert at Albert Hall in honor
+of the Shah. I had a strong desire to see that
+building filled with people once. Albert Hall is one
+of the many monuments erected to the memory
+of the late Prince Albert. It is a huge and costly
+edifice, but the architectural design is old, not to
+say in some sense a plagiarism; for there is but little
+originality in putting a dome on a gasometer. It
+is said to seat 13,000 people, and surely that is a
+thing worth seeing--at least to a man who was not
+at the Boston Jubilee. But no tickets were to be
+had--every seat was full, they said. It was no
+particular matter, but what made me mad was to
+come so extremely close and then miss. Indeed, I
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_78'>78</span>was madder than I can express, to think that if the
+architect had only planned the place to hold 13,001
+I could have got in. But, after all, I was not the
+only person who had occasion to feel vexed.
+Colonel X, a noted man in America, bought a
+seat some days ago for $10 and a little afterward
+met a knowing person who said the Shah would
+be physically worn out before that concert night
+and would not be there, and consequently nobody
+else; so the seat was immediately sold for $5.
+Then came another knowing one, who said the
+Shah would unquestionably be at the concert, so
+the colonel went straight and bought his ticket
+back again. The temporary holder of it only
+charged him $250 for carrying it around for him
+during the interval! The colonel was at the concert,
+and took the Shah’s head clerk for the
+Shah all the evening. Vexation could go no further
+than that.</p>
+
+<h3 class='c013'>V <br /> MARK TWAIN GIVES THE ROYAL PERSIAN <br />A “SEND-OFF”</h3>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c001'>
+    <div><span class='sc'>London</span>, <i>June 30, 1873</i>.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c002'>For the present we are done with the Shah in
+London. He is gone to the country to be further
+“impressed.” After all, it would seem that he was
+more moved and more genuinely entertained by the
+military day at Windsor than by even the naval
+show at Portsmouth. It is not to be wondered at,
+since he is a good deal of a soldier himself and not
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_79'>79</span>much of a sailor. It has been estimated that there
+were 300,000 people assembled at Windsor--some
+say 500,000. That was a show in itself. The Queen
+of England was there; so was Windsor Castle; also
+an imposing array of cavalry, artillery, and infantry.
+And the accessories to these several shows were
+the matchless rural charms of England--a vast
+expanse of green sward, walled in by venerable
+forest trees, and beyond them glimpses of hills
+clothed in Summer vegetation. Upon such a theater
+a bloodless battle was fought and an honorable victory
+won by trained soldiers who have not always
+been carpet knights, but whose banners bear the
+names of many historic fights.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>England is now practically done with the Shah.
+True, his engagement is not yet completed, for he is
+still billed to perform at one or two places; but
+curiosity is becoming sated, and he will hardly draw
+as good houses as heretofore. Whenever a star has
+to go to the provinces it is a bad sign. The poor
+man is well nigh worn out with hard work. The
+other day he was to have performed before the Duke
+of Buccleuch and was obliged to send an excuse.
+Since then he failed of his engagement at the Bank
+of England. He does not take rest even when he
+might. He has a telegraphic apparatus in his apartments
+in Buckingham Palace, and it is said that he
+sits up late, talking with his capital of Persia
+by telegraph. He is so fascinated with the wonderful
+contrivance that he cannot keep away from it.
+No doubt it is the only homelike thing the exile
+finds in the hard, practical West, for it is the next
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_80'>80</span>of kin to the enchanted carpets that figure in
+the romance and traditions of his own land, and
+which carry the wanderer whither he will about
+the earth, circumscribing the globe in the twinkling
+of an eye, propelled by only the force of an
+unspoken wish.</p>
+
+<h4 class='c021'>GOSSIP ABOUT THE SHAH</h4>
+
+<p class='c014'>This must be a dreary, unsatisfactory country to
+him, where one’s desires are thwarted at every turn.
+Last week he woke up at three in the morning and
+demanded of the Vizier on watch by his bedside
+that the ballet dancers be summoned to dance
+before him. The Vizier prostrated himself upon the
+floor and said:</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“O king of kings, light of the world, source of
+human peace and contentment, the glory and admiration
+of the age, turn away thy sublime countenance,
+let not thy fateful frown wither thy slave; for
+behold the dancers dwell wide asunder in the desert
+wastes of London, and not in many hours could they
+be gathered together.”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>The Shah could not even speak, he was so astounded
+with the novelty of giving a command that could
+not be obeyed. He sat still a moment, suffering,
+then wrote in his tablets these words:</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“<span class='sc'>Mem.</span>--Upon arrival in Teheran, let the Vizier
+have the coffin which has just been finished for the
+late general of the household troops--it will save
+time.”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>He then got up and set his boots outside the door
+to be blacked and went back to bed, calm and comfortable,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_81'>81</span>making no more to-do about giving away
+that costly coffin than I would about spending a
+couple of shillings.</p>
+
+<h4 class='c021'>THE LESSON OF HIS JOURNEY</h4>
+
+<p class='c014'>If the mountains of money spent by civilized
+Europe in entertaining the Shah shall win him to
+adopt some of the mild and merciful ways that prevail
+in Christian realms it will have been money well
+and wisely laid out. If he learns that a throne may
+rest as firmly upon the affections of a people as upon
+their fears; that charity and justice may go hand in
+hand without detriment to the authority of the
+sovereign; that an enlarged liberty granted to the
+subject need not impair the power of the monarch;
+if he learns these things Persia will be the gainer by
+his journey, and the money which Europe has
+expended in entertaining him will have been profitably
+invested. That the Shah needs a hint or two
+in these directions is shown by the language of the
+following petition, which has just reached him from
+certain Parsees residing here and in India:</p>
+
+<h4 class='c021'>THE PETITION</h4>
+
+<div class='quote'>
+
+<p class='c014'>1. A heavy and oppressive poll tax, called the Juzia, is imposed
+upon the remnant of the ancient Zoroastrian race now residing
+in Persia. A hundred years ago, when the Zoroastrian
+population was 30,000 families, and comparatively well-to-do, the
+tax was only 250 toomans; now, when there are scarcely six
+thousand souls altogether, and stricken with poverty, they have
+to pay 800 toomans. In addition to the crushing effect of this
+tax, the government officials oppress these poor people in enforcing
+the tax.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'><span class='pageno' id='Page_82'>82</span>2. A Parsee desirous of buying landed property is obliged to
+pay twenty per cent. on the value of the property as fee to the
+Kazee and other authorities.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>3. When a Parsee dies any member of his family, no matter
+however distant, who may have previously been converted to
+Mohammedanism, claims and obtains the whole property of the
+deceased, to the exclusion of all the rightful heirs. In enforcing
+this claim the convert is backed and supported by government
+functionaries.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>4. When a Parsee returns to Persia from a foreign country
+he is harassed with all sorts of exactions at the various places
+he has to pass through in Persia.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>5. When any dispute arises, whether civil or criminal, between
+a Mohammedan and a Parsee, the officials invariably side with
+the former, and the testimony of one Mohammedan--no matter
+how false on its very face--receives more credit than that of a
+dozen or any number of Parsee witnesses. If a Mohammedan
+kills a Parsee he is only fined about eight toomans, or four
+pounds sterling; but on the contrary, if a Parsee wounds or
+murders a Mohammedan he is not only cut to pieces himself,
+but all his family and children are put to the sword, and sometimes
+all the Parsees living in the same street are harassed in a
+variety of ways. The Parsees are prevented from dressing themselves
+well and from riding a horse or donkey. No matter, even
+if he were ill and obliged to ride, he is compelled to dismount in
+the presence of a Mohammedan rider, and is forced to walk to
+the place of his destination. The Parsees are not allowed to trade
+in European articles, nor are they allowed to deal in domestic
+produce, as grocers, dyers, or oilmen, tailors, dairymen, &amp;c.,
+on the ground that their touch would pollute the articles and
+supplies and make them unfit for the use of Mohammedans.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>6. The Parsees are often insulted and abused in every way by
+the Mohammedans, and their children are stolen or forcibly
+taken away from them by the Mohammedans. These children
+are concealed in Mohammedan houses, their names are changed,
+and they are forced to become Mohammedans, and when they
+refuse to embrace the Mohammedan faith they are maltreated
+in various ways. When a man is forcibly converted, his wife and
+family are also forced to join him as Mohammedans. The Mohammedans
+desecrate the sacred places of worship of the Zoroastrians
+and the places for the disposal of their dead.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'><span class='pageno' id='Page_83'>83</span>7. In general the Parsees are heavily taxed in various ways,
+and are subjected to great oppression. In consequence of such
+persecution the Parsee population of Persia has, during this
+century, considerably decreased and is now so small that it consists
+of a few thousand families only. It is possible that these
+persecutions are practiced on the Zoroastrian inhabitants of
+Persia without the knowledge of His Majesty the Shah.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+  <div class='nf-center'>
+    <div>THE INGENIOUS BARON REUTER</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c002'>It is whispered that the Shah’s European trip was
+not suggested by the Shah himself, but by the noted
+telegraphic newsman, Baron Reuter. People who
+pretend to know say that Reuter began life very
+poor; that he was an energetic spirit and improved
+such opportunities as fell in his way; that he learned
+several languages, and finally became a European
+guide, or courier, and employed himself in conducting
+all sorts of foreigners through all sorts of countries
+and wearing them out with the usual frantic
+system of sight-seeing. That was a good education
+for him; it also gave him an intimate knowledge of
+all the routes of travel and taught him how certain
+long ones might be shortened. By and by he got
+some carrier pigeons and established a news express,
+which necessarily prospered, since it furnished journals
+and commercial people with all matters of
+importance considerably in advance of the mails.
+When railways came into vogue he obtained concessions
+which enlarged his facilities and still enabled
+him to defy competition. He was ready for
+the telegraph and seized that, too; and now for
+years</p>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+  <div class='nf-center'>
+    <div><span class='pageno' id='Page_84'>84</span>“REUTER’S TELEGRAMS”</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'>has stood in brackets at the head of the telegraphic
+column of all European journals. He became rich;
+he bought telegraph lines and built others, purchased
+a second-hand German baronetcy, and finally
+sold out his telegraphic property to his government
+for $3,000,000 and was out of business for
+once. But he could not stay out.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>After building himself a sort of a palace, he looked
+around for fresh game, singled out the Shah of
+Persia and “went for him,” as the historian Josephus
+phrases it. He got an enormous “concession” from
+him and then conceived the admirable idea of
+exhibiting a Shah of Persia in the capitals of Europe
+and thus advertising his concession before needful
+capitalists. It was a sublimer idea than any that
+any showman’s brain has ever given birth to. No
+Shah had ever voluntarily traveled in Europe before;
+but then no Shah had ever fallen into the hands of
+a European guide before.</p>
+
+<h4 class='c021'>THE FAT “CONCESSION”</h4>
+
+<p class='c014'>The baron’s “concession” is a financial curiosity.
+It allows him the sole right to build railways in
+Persia for the next seventy years; also street railroads;
+gives all the land necessary, free of charge,
+for double tracks and fifty or sixty yards on each
+side; all importations of <em>material</em>, etc., free of duty;
+all the baron’s exports free of duty also. The baron
+may appropriate and work all mines (except those
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_85'>85</span>of the precious metals) free of charge, the Shah to
+have 15 per cent of the profits. Any private mine
+may be “gobbled” (the Persian word is <i>akbamarish</i>)
+by the baron if it has not been worked during
+five years previously. The baron has the exclusive
+privilege of making the most of all government
+forests, he giving the Shah 15 per cent of the
+profits from the wood sold. After a forest is removed,
+the baron is to be preferred before all other
+purchasers if he wants to buy the land. The baron
+alone may dig wells and construct canals, and
+he is to own all the land made productive by
+such works. The baron is empowered to raise
+$30,000,000 on the capital stock for working purposes,
+and the Shah agrees to pay 7 per cent interest
+on it; and Persia is wholly unencumbered with debt.
+The Shah hands over to the baron the management
+of his customs for twenty years, and the baron
+engages to pay for this privilege $100,000 a year
+more than the Shah now receives, so the baron
+means to wake up that sleepy Persian commerce.
+After the fifth year the baron is to pay the Shah an
+additional 60 per cent of the profits, if his head is
+still a portion of his person then. The baron is to
+have first preference in the establishment of a bank.
+The baron has preference in establishing gas, road,
+telegraph, mill, manufacturing, forge, pavement, and
+all such enterprises. The Shah is to have 20 per
+cent of the profits arising from the railways.
+Finally, the baron may sell out whenever he
+wants to.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>It is a good “concession” in its way. It seems to
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_86'>86</span>make the Shah say: “Run Persia at my expense and
+give me a fifth of the profits.”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>One’s first impulse is to envy the baron; but,
+after all, I do not know. Some day, if things do not
+go to suit the Shah, he may say, “There is no head
+I admire so much as this baron’s; bring it to me on
+a plate.”</p>
+
+<h4 class='c021'>DEPARTURE OF THE IMPERIAL CIRCUS.</h4>
+
+<p class='c014'>We are all sorry to see the Shah leave us, and yet
+are glad on his account. We have had all the fun
+and he all the fatigue. He would not have lasted
+much longer here. I am just here reminded that the
+only way whereby you may pronounce the Shah’s
+title correctly is by taking a pinch of snuff. The
+result will be “t-Shah!”</p>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_87'>87</span>
+  <h2 class='c008'>A WONDERFUL PAIR OF SLIPPERS</h2>
+</div>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c006'>
+    <div>(WITH LETTERS CONCERNING THEM FROM MARK</div>
+    <div>TWAIN AND ELSIE LESLIE LYDE)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+  <div class='nf-center'>
+    <div><span class='sc'>Mark Twain’s Letter</span></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='c016'><span class='sc'>Hartford</span>, <i>Oct. 5, ’89</i>.</div>
+
+<p class='c002'><span class='sc'>Dear Elsie</span>: The way of it was this. Away last
+spring, Gillette<a id='r1' /><a href='#f1' class='c023'><sup>[1]</sup></a> and I pooled intellects on this proposition:
+to get up a pleasant surprise of some kind for
+you against your next visit--the surprise to take the
+form of a tasteful and beautiful testimonial of some
+sort or other, which should express somewhat of the
+love we felt for you. Together we hit upon just the
+right thing--a pair of slippers. Either one of us
+could have thought of a single slipper, but it took
+both of us to think of two slippers. In fact, one of
+us did think of one slipper, and then, quick as a
+flash, the other thought of the other one. It shows
+how wonderful the human mind is. It is really
+paleontological; you give one mind a bone, and the
+other one instantly divines the rest of the animal.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Gillette embroidered his slipper with astonishing
+facility and splendor, but I have been a long
+time pulling through with mine. You see, it was
+my very first attempt at art, and I couldn’t rightly
+get the hang of it along at first. And then I was so
+busy that I couldn’t get a chance to work at it at
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_88'>88</span>home, and they wouldn’t let me embroider on the
+cars; they said it made the other passengers afraid.
+They didn’t like the light that flared into my eye
+when I had an inspiration. And even the most fair-minded
+people doubted me when I explained what it
+was I was making--especially brakemen. Brakemen
+always swore at it, and carried on, the way ignorant
+people do, about art. They wouldn’t take
+my word that it was a slipper; they said they believed
+it was a snowshoe that had some kind of a
+disease.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>But I have pulled through, and within twenty-four
+hours of the time I told you I would--day before
+yesterday. There ought to be a key to the
+designs, but I haven’t had time to get one up.
+However, if you will lay the work before you with
+the forecastle pointing north, I will begin at that end
+and explain the whole thing, layer by layer, so that
+you can understand it.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>I began with that first red bar, and without
+ulterior design, or plan of any sort--just as I would
+begin a Prince and Pauper, or any other tale. And
+mind you it is the easiest and surest way; because if
+you invent two or three people and turn them loose
+in your manuscript, something is bound to happen
+to them--you can’t help it; and then it will take
+you the rest of the book to get them out of the natural
+consequences of that occurrence, and so, first thing
+you know, there’s your book all finished up and never
+cost you an idea. Well, the red stripe, with a bias
+stitch, naturally suggested a blue one with a perpendicular
+stitch, and I slammed it in, though when
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_89'>89</span>it came daylight I saw it was green--which didn’t
+make any difference, because green and blue are
+much the same, anyway, and in fact from a purely
+moral point of view are regarded by the best authorities
+as identical. Well, if you will notice, a blue
+perpendicular stitch always suggests a ropy red involved
+stitch, like a family of angle-worms trying to
+climb in under each other to keep warm--it would
+suggest that, every time, without the author of the
+slipper ever having to think about it at all.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Now at that point, young Dr. Root came in,
+and, of course, he was interested in the slipper right
+away, because he has always had a passion for art
+himself, but has never had a chance to try, because
+his folks are opposed to it and superstitious about it,
+and have done all they could to keep him back; and
+so he was eager to take a hand and see what he could
+do. And it was beautiful to see him sit there and tell
+Mrs. Clemens what had been happening while we
+were off on summer vacation, and hold the slipper
+up toward the end of his nose, and forget the sordid
+world, and imagine the canvas was a “subject”
+with a scalp wound, and nimbly whirl in that lovely
+surgical stitch which you see there--and never
+hesitating a moment in his talk except to say “Ouch”
+when he stuck himself, and then going right on again
+as smooth and easy as nothing. Yes, it was a charming
+spectacle. And it was real art, too--realistic,
+just native untaught genius; you can see the very
+scalp itself, showing through between the stitches.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Well, next I threw in that sheaf of green rods which
+the lictors used to carry before the Roman consuls
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_90'>90</span>to lick them with when they didn’t behave--they
+turned blue in the morning, but that is the way green
+always acts.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>The next week, after a good rest, I snowed in
+that sea of frothy waves, and set that yellow thing
+afloat in it and those two things that are skewered
+through it. It isn’t a home plate, and it isn’t a papal
+tiara with the keys of St. Peter; no, it is a heart--my
+heart--with two arrows stuck through it--arrows
+that go in blue and come out crimson--crimson with
+the best drops in that heart, and gladly shed for love
+of you, dear.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Now then, as you strike to the south’ard and drift
+along down the starboard side, abaft the main-to’-gallant
+scuppers, you come to that blue quarter-deck
+which runs the rest of the way aft to the jumping-off
+place. In the midst of that blue you will see some
+big red letters--M. T.; and west’ard, over on the
+port side, you will see some more red letters--<span class='sc'>to
+E. L.</span> Aggregated, these several groups of letters
+signify, Mark Twain to Elsie Leslie. And you will
+notice that you have a gift for art yourself, for the
+southern half of the L, embroidered by yourself, is
+as good as anything I can do, after all my experience.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>There, now you understand the whole work. From
+a professional point of view I consider the Heart
+and Arrows by all odds the greatest triumph of the
+whole thing; in fact, one of the ablest examples of
+civil engineering in a beginner I ever saw--for it
+was all inspiration, just the lightninglike inspiration
+of the moment. I couldn’t do it again in a hundred
+years--even if I recover this time and get just as
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_91'>91</span>well and strong as I was before. You notice what
+fire there is in it--what rapture, enthusiasm, frenzy--what
+blinding explosions of color. It is just a
+“Turner”--that is what it is. It is just like his
+“Slave Ship,” that immortal work. What you see
+in the “Slave Ship” is a terrific explosion of radiating
+rags and fragments of flaming crimson flying
+from a common center of intense yellow which is
+in violent commotion--insomuch that a Boston
+reporter said it reminded him of a yellow cat dying
+in a platter of tomatoes.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Take the slippers and wear them next your heart,
+Elsie dear; for every stitch in them is a testimony
+of the affection which two of your loyalest friends
+bear you. Every single stitch cost us blood. I’ve
+got twice as many pores in me now as I used to
+have; and you would never believe how many places
+you can stick a needle into yourself until you go
+into the embroidery line and devote yourself to art.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Do not wear these slippers in public, dear; it
+would only excite envy; and, as like as not, somebody
+would try to shoot you.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Merely use them to assist you in remembering
+that among the many, many people who think all
+the world of you is your friend,</p>
+
+<div class='c016'><span class='sc'>Mark Twain</span>.</div>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c006'>
+    <div><span class='sc'>Elsie’s Reply.</span></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='c016'><span class='sc'>New York</span>, <i>October g, 1889</i>.</div>
+
+<p class='c002'><span class='sc'>My Dear Mr. Clemens</span>: The slipper the long
+letter and all the rest came this afternoon, I think
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_92'>92</span>they are splendid and shall have them framed and
+keep them among my very most prechus things. I
+have had a great many nice things given to me and
+people often say very pleasant things but I am not
+quite shure they always mean it or that they are as
+trustable as you and “Leo” and I am very shure
+thay would not spend their prechus time and shed
+their blood for me so you see that is one reason why
+I will think so much of it and then it was all so
+funny to think of two great big men like you and
+“little Willie” (that is what “Leo” calls himself to
+me) imbroidering a pair of slippers for a little girl
+like me of corse you have a great many large words
+in your letter that I do not quite understand. One
+word comencing with P. has fifteen letters in it and
+I do not know what you mean by pooled unless you
+mean you and Leo put your two minds together to
+make the slippers which was very nice of you both
+I think you are just right about the angle worms
+thay did look like that this summer when I used to
+dig them for bate to fish with please tell Dr. Root
+I will think of him when I look at the part he
+did the Surgicle Stich I mean I hope you will be
+quite well and strong by the time you get this
+letter as you were before you made my slipper it
+would make me very sad if you were to be ill.
+Give my love to Mrs. Clemens Susie Clara Gene
+I-know and you-know and Vix and all of my
+Hartford friends tell Gene I wish I was with her
+and we would have a nice jump in the hay loft.
+When you come to New York you must call and
+see me then we will see about those big words
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_93'>93</span>my address is up in the top left corner of this
+letter.</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-r c024'>
+  <div class='linegroup'>
+    <div class='group'>
+      <div class='line'>To my loyal friend</div>
+      <div class='line in15'>Mark Twain</div>
+      <div class='line in11'>From his little friend</div>
+      <div class='line in32'><span class='sc'>Elsie Leslie Lyde</span>.</div>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c014'>[Not Little Lord Fauntleroy now, but Tom Canty of Offal
+Court and Little Edward of Wales.]<a id='r2' /><a href='#f2' class='c023'><sup>[2]</sup></a></p>
+
+<hr class='c025' />
+<div class='footnote' id='f1'>
+<p class='c002'><a href='#r1'>1</a>. William Gillette, the distinguished actor and playwright.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f2'>
+<p class='c002'><a href='#r2'>2</a>. Elsie Leslie, then a little girl, played Little Lord Fauntleroy and
+the double part of Tom Canty and the Little Prince, with great
+success.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_94'>94</span>
+  <h2 class='c008'>AIX, THE PARADISE OF THE <br /> RHEUMATICS <br /> <span class='small'>(Contributed to the New York <cite>Sun</cite>, 1891)</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c012'>Aix-les-Bains. Certainly this is an enchanting
+place. It is a strong word, but I think the
+facts justify it. True, there is a rabble of nobilities,
+big and little, here all the time, and often a king or
+two; but as these behave quite nicely and also keep
+mainly to themselves, they are little or no annoyance.
+And then a king makes the best advertisement
+there is, and the cheapest. All he costs is a
+reception at the station by the mayor and the police
+in their Sunday uniforms, shop-front decorations
+along the route from station to hotel, brass band at
+the hotel, fireworks in the evening, free bath in the
+morning. This is the whole expense; and in return
+for it he goes away from here with the broad of his
+back metaphorically stenciled over with display ads.,
+which shout to all nations of the world, assisted by
+the telegraph:</p>
+
+<div class='quote'>
+
+<p class='c002'>Rheumatism routed at Aix-les-Bains!</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Gout admonished, Nerves braced up!</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>All diseases welcomed, and satisfaction given or the money
+returned at the door!</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p class='c002'>We leave nature’s noble cliffs and crags undefiled
+and uninsulted by the advertiser’s paint brush. We
+use the back of a king, which is better and properer
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_95'>95</span>and more effective, too, for the cliffs stay still and
+few see it, but the king moves across the fields of the
+world and is visible from all points, like a constellation.
+We are out for kings this week, but one will
+be along soon--possibly His Satanic Majesty of
+Russia. There’s a colossus for you! A mysterious
+and terrible form that towers up into unsearchable
+space and casts a shadow across the universe like a
+planet in eclipse. There will be but one absorbing
+spectacle in this world when we stencil him and start
+him out.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>This is an old valley, this of Aix, both in the history
+of man and in the geological records of its
+rocks. Its little lake of Bourget carries the human
+history back to the lake dwellers, furnishing seven
+groups of their habitations, and Dr. William Wakefield
+says in his interesting local guide that the mountains
+round about furnish “Geographically, a veritable
+epitome of the globe.” The stratified chapters
+of the earth’s history are clearly and permanently
+written on the sides of the roaring bulk of the Dent
+du Chat, but many of the layers of race, religion,
+and government which in turn have flourished and
+perished here between the lake dweller of several
+thousand years ago and the French republican of
+to-day, are ill defined and uninforming by comparison.
+There are several varieties of pagans. They
+went their way, one after the other, down into night
+and oblivion, leaving no account of themselves, no
+memorials. The Romans arrived 2,300 years ago,
+other parts of France are rich with remembrances
+of their eight centuries of occupation, but not many
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_96'>96</span>are here. Other pagans followed the Romans. By
+and by Christianity arrived, some 400 years after the
+time of Christ. The long procession of races, languages,
+religions, and dynasties demolished one another’s
+records--it is man’s way always.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>As a result, nothing is left of the handiwork of the
+remoter inhabitants of the region except the constructions
+of the lake dwellers and some Roman odds
+and ends. There is part of a small Roman temple,
+there is part of a Roman bath, there is a graceful
+and battered Roman arch. It stands on a turfy level
+over the way from the present great bath house, is
+surrounded by magnolia trees, and is both a picturesque
+and suggestive object. It has stood there some
+1,600 years. Its nearest neighbor, not twenty steps
+away, is a Catholic church. They are symbols of
+the two chief eras in the history of Aix. Yes, and of
+the European world. I judge that the venerable arch
+is held in reverent esteem by everybody, and that
+this esteem is its sufficient protection from insult, for
+it is the only public structure I have yet seen in
+France which lacks the sign, “It is forbidden to post
+bills here.” Its neighbor the church has that sign
+on more than one of its sides, and other signs, too,
+forbidding certain other sorts of desecration.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>The arch’s nearest neighbor--just at its elbow, like
+the church--is the telegraph office. So there you
+have the three great eras bunched together--the era
+of War, the era of Theology, the era of Business.
+You pass under the arch, and the buried Cæsars seem
+to rise from the dust of the centuries and flit before
+you; you pass by that old battered church, and are
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_97'>97</span>in touch with the Middle Ages, and with another step
+you can put down ten francs and shake hands with
+Oshkosh under the Atlantic.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>It is curious to think what changes the last of the
+three symbols stand for; changes in men’s ways and
+thoughts, changes in material civilization, changes in
+the Deity--or in men’s conception of the <a id='corr97.7'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='Diety'>Deity</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_97.7'><ins class='correction' title='Diety'>Deity</ins></a></span>, if
+that is an exacter way of putting it. The second of
+the symbols arrived in the earth at a time when the
+Deity’s possessions consisted of a small sky freckled
+with mustard-seed stars, and under it a patch of
+landed estate not so big as the holdings of the Tsar
+to-day, and all His time was taken up in trying to
+keep a handful of Jews in some sort of order--exactly
+the same number of them that the Tsar has lately
+been dealing with in a more abrupt and far less loving
+and long-suffering way. At a later time--a time
+within all old men’s memories--the Deity was otherwise
+engaged. He was dreaming His eternities away
+on His Great White Throne, steeped in the soft bliss
+of hymns of praise wafted aloft without ceasing from
+choirs of ransomed souls, Presbyterians and the rest.
+This was a Deity proper enough to the size and conditions
+of things, no doubt a provincial Deity with
+provincial tastes. The change since has been inconceivably
+vast. His empire has been unimaginably
+enlarged. To-day He is a Master of a universe made
+up of myriads upon myriads of gigantic suns, and
+among them, lost in that limitless sea of light, floats
+that atom. His earth, which once seemed so good
+and satisfactory and cost so many days of patient
+labor to build, is a mere cork adrift in the waters of
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_98'>98</span>a shoreless Atlantic. This is a business era, and no
+doubt he is governing His huge empire now, not by
+dreaming the time away in the buzz of hymning
+choirs, with occasional explosions of arbitrary power
+disproportioned to the size of the annoyance, but
+by applying laws of a sort proper and necessary to
+the sane and successful management of a complex
+and prodigious establishment, and by seeing to it
+that the exact and constant operation of these laws
+is not interfered with for the accommodation of any
+individual or political or religious faction or nation.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Mighty has been the advance of the nations and
+the liberalization of thought. A result of it is a
+changed Deity, a Deity of a dignity and sublimity
+proportioned to the majesty of His office and the
+magnitude of His empire, a Deity who has been
+freed from a hundred fretting chains and will in time
+be freed from the rest by the several ecclesiastical
+bodies who have these matters in charge. It was,
+without doubt, a mistake and a step backward when
+the Presbyterian Synods of America lately decided,
+by vote, to leave Him still embarrassed with the
+dogma of infant damnation. Situated as we are, we
+cannot at present know with how much of anxiety
+He watched the balloting, nor with how much of
+grieved disappointment He observed the result.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Well, all these eras above spoken of are modern,
+they are of last week, they are of yesterday, they
+are of this morning, so to speak. The springs, the
+healing waters that gush up from under this hillside
+village, indeed are ancient. They, indeed, are a
+genuine antiquity; they antedate all those fresh
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_99'>99</span>human matters by processions of centuries; they
+were born with the fossils of the Dent du Chat,
+and they have been always abundant. They furnished
+a million gallons a day to wash the lake
+dwellers with, the same to wash the Cæsars with,
+no less to wash Balzac with, and have not diminished
+on my account. A million gallons a day for how
+many days? Figures cannot set forth the number.
+The delivery, in the aggregate, has amounted to an
+Atlantic. And there is still an Atlantic down in
+there. By Doctor Wakefield’s calculation the
+Atlantic is three-quarters of a mile down in the
+earth. The calculation is based upon the temperature
+of the water, which is 114 degrees to 117 degrees
+Fahrenheit, the natural law being that below a certain
+depth heat augments at the rate of one degree
+for every sixty feet of descent.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Aix is handsome, and is handsomely situated, too,
+on its hill slope, with its stately prospect of mountain
+range and plain spread out before it and about
+it. The streets are mainly narrow, and steep and
+crooked and interesting, and offer considerable
+variety in the way of names; on the corner of one
+of them you read this: “Rue du Puits d’Enfer”
+(“Pit of Hell Street”). Some of the sidewalks are
+only eighteen inches wide; they are for the cats,
+probably. There is a pleasant park, and there are
+spacious and beautiful grounds connected with the
+two great pleasure resorts, the Cercle and the Villa
+des Fleurs. The town consists of big hotels, little
+hotels, and <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><i>pensions</i></span>. The season lasts about six
+months, beginning with May. When it is at its
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_100'>100</span>height there are thousands of visitors here, and in
+the course of the season as many as 20,000 in the
+aggregate come and go.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>These are not all here for the baths; some come
+for the gambling facilities and some for the climate.
+It is a climate where the field strawberry flourishes
+through the spring, summer, and fall. It is hot in
+the summer, and hot in earnest; but this is only in
+the daytime; it is not hot at night. The English
+season is May and June; they get a good deal of
+rain then, and they like that. The Americans take
+July, and the French take August. By the 1st of
+July the open-air music and the evening concerts
+and operas and plays are fairly under way, and from
+that time onward the rush of pleasure has a steadily
+increasing boom. It is said that in August the great
+grounds and the gambling rooms are crowded all the
+time and no end of ostensible fun going on.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>It is a good place for rest and sleep and general
+recuperation of forces. The book of Doctor Wakefield
+says there is something about this atmosphere
+which is the deadly enemy of insomnia, and I think
+this must be true, for if I am any judge, this town
+is at times the noisiest one in Europe, and yet a body
+gets more sleep here than he would at home, I don’t
+care where his home is. Now, we are living at a most
+comfortable and satisfactory <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><i>pension</i></span>, with a garden
+of shade trees and flowers and shrubs, and a convincing
+air of quiet and repose. But just across the
+narrow street is the little market square, and at the
+corner of that is the church that is neighbor to
+the Roman arch, and that narrow street, and that
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_101'>101</span>billiard table of a market place, and that church are
+able, on a bet, to turn out more noise to a cubic yard
+at the wrong time than any other similar combination
+in the earth or out of it. In the street you
+have the skull-bursting thunder of the passing hack, a
+volume of sound not producible by six hacks anywhere
+else; on the hack is a lunatic with a whip which
+he cracks to notify the public to get out of his way.
+This crack is as keen and sharp and penetrating and
+ear-splitting as a pistol shot at close range, and the
+lunatic delivers it in volleys, not single shots. You
+think you will not be able to live till he gets by, and
+when he does get by he leaves only a vacancy for the
+bandit who sells <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><cite>Le Petit Journal</cite></span> to fill with his
+strange and awful yell. He arrives with the early
+morning and the market people, and there is a dog
+that arrives at about the same time and barks
+steadily at nothing till he dies, and they fetch another
+dog just like him. The bark of this breed is the
+twin of the whip volley, and stabs like a knife. By
+and by, what is left of you the church bell gets.
+There are many bells, and apparently six or seven
+thousand town clocks, and as they are all five minutes
+apart--probably by law--there are no intervals.
+Some of them are striking all the time--at least, after
+you go to bed they are. There is one clock that
+strikes the hour and then strikes it over again to see
+if it was right. Then for evenings and Sundays
+there is a chime--a chime that starts in pleasantly
+and musically, then suddenly breaks into a frantic
+roar, and boom, and crash of warring sounds that
+makes you think Paris is up and the Revolution come
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_102'>102</span>again. And yet, as I have said, one sleeps here--sleeps
+like the dead. Once he gets his grip on his
+sleep, neither hack, nor whip, nor news fiend, nor
+dog, nor bell cyclone, nor all of them together, can
+wrench it loose or mar its deep and tranquil continuity.
+Yes, there is indeed something in this air
+that is death to insomnia.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>The buildings of the Cercle and the Villa des
+Fleurs are huge in size, and each has a theater in it,
+and a great restaurant, also conveniences for gambling
+and general and variegated entertainment.
+They stand in ornamental grounds of great extent and
+beauty. The multitudes of fashionable folk sit at
+refreshment tables in the open air, afternoons, and
+listen to the music, and it is there that they mainly
+go to break the Sabbath.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>To get the privilege of entering these grounds and
+buildings you buy a ticket for a few francs, which is
+good for the whole season. You are then free to go
+and come at all hours, attend the plays and concerts
+free, except on special occasions, gamble, buy
+refreshments, and make yourself symmetrically
+comfortable.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Nothing could be handier than those two little
+theaters. The curtain doesn’t rise until 8.30; then
+between the acts one can idle for half an hour in
+the other departments of the building, damaging his
+appetite in the restaurants or his pocketbook in the
+baccarat room. The singers and actors are from
+Paris, and their performance is beyond praise.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>I was never in a fashionable gambling hell until I
+came here. I had read several millions of descriptions
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_103'>103</span>of such places, but the reality was new to me. I very
+much wanted to see this animal, especially the new
+historic game of baccarat, and this was a good place,
+for Aix ranks next to Monte Carlo for high play and
+plenty of it. But the result was what I might have
+expected--the interest of the looker-on perishes with
+the novelty of the spectacle; that is to say, in a few
+minutes. A permanent and intense interest is acquirable
+in baccarat, or in any other game, but you
+have to buy it. You don’t get it by standing around
+and looking on.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>The baccarat table is covered with green cloth and
+is marked off in divisions with chalk or something.
+The banker sits in the middle, the croupier opposite.
+The customers fill all the chairs at the table, and the
+rest of the crowd are massed at their back and leaning
+over them to deposit chips or gold coins. Constantly
+money and chips are flung upon the table, and
+the game seems to consist in the croupier’s reaching
+for these things with a flexible sculling oar, and
+raking them home. It appeared to be a rational
+enough game for him, and if I could have borrowed
+his oar I would have stayed, but I didn’t see where
+the entertainment of the others came in. This was
+because I saw without perceiving, and observed
+without understanding. For the widow and the
+orphan and the others do win money there. Once an
+old gray mother in Israel or elsewhere pulled out,
+and I heard her say to her daughter or her granddaughter
+as they passed me, “There, I’ve won six
+louis, and I’m going to quit while I’m ahead.” Also
+there was this statistic. A friend pointed to a young
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_104'>104</span>man with the dead stub of a cigar in his mouth,
+which he kept munching nervously all the time and
+pitching hundred-dollar chips on the board while two
+sweet young girls reached down over his shoulders to
+deposit modest little gold pieces, and said: “He’s
+only funning, now; wasting a few hundred to pass
+the time--waiting for the gold room to open, you
+know, which won’t be till after midnight--then
+you’ll see him bet! He won £14,000 there last night.
+They don’t bet anything there but big money.”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>The thing I chiefly missed was the haggard
+people with the intense eye, the hunted look, the
+desperate mien, candidates for suicide and the
+pauper’s grave. They are in the description, as a rule,
+but they were off duty that night. All the gamblers,
+male and female, old and young, looked abnormally
+cheerful and prosperous.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>However, all the nations were there, clothed richly
+and speaking all the languages. Some of the women
+were painted, and were evidently shaky as to character.
+These items tallied with the descriptions well
+enough.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>The etiquette of the place was difficult to master.
+In the brilliant and populous halls and corridors you
+don’t smoke, and you wear your hat, no matter
+how many ladies are in the thick throng of drifting
+humanity, but the moment you cross the sacred
+threshold and enter the gambling hell, off the hat
+must come, and everybody lights his cigar and goes
+to suffocating the ladies.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>But what I came here for five weeks ago was the
+baths. My right arm was disabled with rheumatism.
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_105'>105</span>To sit at home in America and guess out the European
+bath best fitted for a particular ailment or combination
+of ailments, it is not possible, and it would
+not be a good idea to experiment in that way, anyhow.
+There are a great many curative baths on the
+Continent, and some are good for one disease and
+bad for another. So it is necessary to let your
+physician name a bath for you. As a rule, Americans
+go to Europe to get this advice, and South
+Americans go to Paris for it. Now and then an
+economist chooses his bath himself and does a
+thousand miles of railroading to get to it, and then
+the local physicians tell him he has come to the wrong
+place. He sees that he has lost time and money and
+strength, and almost the minute he realizes this he
+loses his temper. I had the rheumatism and was
+advised to go to Aix, not so much because I had that
+disease as because I had the promise of certain others.
+What they were was not explained to me, but they
+are either in the following menu or I have been sent
+to the wrong place. Doctor Wakefield’s book says:</p>
+
+<div class='quote'>
+
+<p class='c002'>We know that the class of maladies benefited by the water
+and baths at Aix are those due to defect of nourishment, debility
+of the nervous system, or to a gouty, rheumatic, herpetic, or
+scrofulous diathesis--all diseases extremely debilitating, and
+requiring a tonic, and not depressing action of the remedy. This
+it seems to find here, as recorded experience and daily action can
+testify. According to the line of treatment followed particularly
+with due regard to the temperature, the action of the Aix waters
+can be made sedative, exciting, derivative, or alterative and tonic.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p class='c002'>The “Establishment” is the property of France,
+and all the officers and servants are employees of
+the French government. The bathhouse is a huge
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_106'>106</span>and massive pile of white marble masonry, and looks
+more like a temple than anything else. It has several
+floors and each is full of bath cabinets. There is
+every kind of bath--for the nose, the ears, the
+throat, vapor baths, swimming baths, and all people’s
+favorite, the douche. It is a good building to get
+lost in, when you are not familiar with it. From
+early morning until nearly noon people are streaming
+in and streaming out without halt. The majority
+come afoot, but great numbers are brought in
+sedan chairs, a sufficiently ugly contrivance whose
+cover is a steep little tent made of striped canvas.
+You see nothing of the patient in this diving bell as
+the bearers tramp along, except a glimpse of his
+ankles bound together and swathed around with
+blankets or towels to that generous degree that the
+result suggests a sore piano leg. By attention and
+practice the pallbearers have got so that they can
+keep out of step all the time--and they do it. As a consequence
+their veiled churn goes rocking, tilting, swaying
+along like a bell buoy in a ground swell. It makes
+the oldest sailor homesick to look at that spectacle.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>The “course” is usually fifteen douche baths and
+five tub baths. You take the douche three days in
+succession, then knock off and take a tub. You
+keep up this distribution through the course. If one
+course does not cure you, you take another one after
+an interval. You seek a local physician and he
+examines your case and prescribes the kind of bath
+required for it, with various other particulars; then
+you buy your course tickets and pay for them in
+advance--nine dollars. With the tickets you get a
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_107'>107</span>memorandum book with your dates and hours all
+set down on it. The doctor takes you into the bath
+the first morning and gives some instructions to the
+two <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><i>doucheurs</i></span> who are to handle you through the
+course. The <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><i>pourboires</i></span> are about ten cents to each
+of the men for each bath, payable at the end of the
+course. Also at the end of the course you pay three
+or four francs to the superintendent of your department
+of the bathhouse. These are useful particulars
+to know, and are not to be found in the books. A
+servant of your hotel carries your towels and sheet to
+the bath daily and brings them away again. They
+are the property of the hotel; the French government
+doesn’t furnish these things.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>You meet all kinds of people at a place like this,
+and if you give them a chance they will submerge
+you under their circumstances, for they are either
+very glad or very sorry they came, and they want
+to spread their feelings out and enjoy them. One of
+these said to me:</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“It’s great, these baths. I didn’t come here for
+my health; I only came to find out if there was anything
+the matter with me. The doctor told me if
+there was the symptoms would soon appear. After
+the first douche I had sharp pains in all my muscles.
+The doctor said it was different varieties of rheumatism,
+and the best varieties there were, too.
+After my second bath I had aches in my bones, and
+skull and around. The doctor said it was different
+varieties of neuralgia, and the best in the market,
+anybody would tell me so. I got many new kinds of
+pains out of my third douche. These were in my
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_108'>108</span>joints. The doctor said it was gout, complicated
+with heart disease, and encouraged me to go on.
+Then we had the fourth douche, and I came out on a
+stretcher that time, and fetched with me one vast,
+diversified undulating continental kind of pain, with
+horizons to it, and zones, and parallels of latitude,
+and meridians of longitude, and isothermal belts, and
+variations of the compass--oh, everything tidy, and
+right up to the latest developments, you know. The
+doctor said it was inflammation of the soul, and
+just the very thing. Well, I went right on gathering
+them in, toothache, liver complaint, softening of the
+brain, nostalgia, bronchitis, osteology, fits, Coleoptera,
+hydrangea, Cyclopædia Britannica, delirium
+tremens, and a lot of other things that I’ve got down
+on my list that I’ll show you, and you can keep it if
+you like and tally off the bric-à-brac as you lay it in.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>The doctor said I was a grand proof of what these
+baths could do; said I had come here as innocent of
+disease as a grindstone, and inside of three weeks these
+baths had sluiced out of me every important ailment
+known to medical science, along with considerable
+more that were entirely new and patentable. Why,
+he wanted to exhibit me in his bay <a id='corr108.24'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='window!'>window!”</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_108.24'><ins class='correction' title='window!'>window!”</ins></a></span></p>
+
+<p class='c002'>There seem to be a good many liars this year. I
+began to take the baths and found them most enjoyable;
+so enjoyable that if I hadn’t had a disease
+I would have borrowed one, just to have a pretext for
+going on. They took me into a stone-floored basin
+about fourteen feet square, which had enough strange-looking
+pipes and things in it to make it look like a
+torture chamber. The two half-naked men seated
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_109'>109</span>me on a pine stool and kept a couple of warm-water
+jets as thick as one’s wrist playing upon me while they
+kneaded me, stroked me, twisted me, and applied all
+the other details of the scientific massage to me for
+seven or eight minutes. Then they stood me up and
+played a powerful jet upon me all around for another
+minute. The cool shower bath came next, and the
+thing was over. I came out of the bathhouse a few
+minutes later feeling younger and fresher and finer
+than I have felt since I was a boy. The spring and
+cheer and delight of this exaltation lasted three
+hours, and the same uplifting effect has followed the
+twenty douches which I have taken since.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>After my first douche I went to the chemist’s on
+the corner, as per instructions, and asked for half a
+glass of Challe water. It comes from a spring sixteen
+miles from here. It was furnished to me, but, perceiving
+that there was something the matter with it,
+I offered to wait till they could get some that was
+fresh, but they said it always smelled that way.
+They said that the reason that this was so much
+ranker than the sulphur water of the bath was that
+this contained thirty-two times as much sulphur as
+that. It is true, but in my opinion that water comes
+from a cemetery, and not a fresh cemetery, either.
+History says that one of the early Roman generals
+lost an army down there somewhere. If he could
+come back now I think this water would help him
+find it again. However, I drank the Challe, and have
+drunk it once or twice every day since. I suppose
+it is all right, but I wish I knew what was the matter
+with those Romans.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'><span class='pageno' id='Page_110'>110</span>My first baths developed plenty of pain, but the
+subsequent ones removed almost all of it. I have got
+back the use of my arm these last few days, and I am
+going away now.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>There are many beautiful drives about Aix, many
+interesting places to visit, and much pleasure to be
+found in paddling around the little Lake Bourget
+on the small steamers, but the excursion which
+satisfied me best was a trip to Annecy and its neighborhood.
+You go to Annecy in an hour by rail,
+through a garden land that has not had its equal for
+beauty perhaps since Eden; and certainly not Eden
+was cultivated as this garden is. The charm and
+loveliness of the whole region are bewildering.
+Picturesque rocks, forest-clothed hills, slopes richly
+bright in the cleanest and greenest grass, fields of
+grain without freck or flaw, dainty of color and as
+shiny and shimmery as silk, old gray mansions and
+towers, half buried in foliage and sunny eminences,
+deep chasms with precipitous walls, and a swift
+stream of pale-blue water between, with now and
+then a tumbling cascade, and always noble mountains
+in view, with vagrant white clouds curling about
+their summits.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Then at the end of an hour you come to Annecy
+and rattle through its old crooked lanes, built solidly
+up with curious old houses that are a dream of the
+Middle Ages, and presently you come to the main
+object of your trip--Lake Annecy. It is a revelation;
+it is a miracle. It brings the tears to a body’s eyes, it
+affects you just as all things that you instantly recognize
+as perfect affect you--perfect music, perfect
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_111'>111</span>eloquence, perfect art, perfect joy, perfect grief. It
+stretches itself out there in a caressing sunlight, and
+away toward its border of majestic mountains, a
+crisped and radiant plain of water of the divinest
+blue that can be imagined. All the blues are there,
+from the faintest shoal-water suggestion of the color,
+detectable only in the shadow of some overhanging
+object, all the way through, a little blue and a little
+bluer still, and again a shade bluer, till you strike the
+deep, rich Mediterranean splendor which breaks the
+heart in your bosom, it is so beautiful.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>And the mountains, as you skim along on the
+steamboat, how stately their forms, how noble their
+proportions, how green their velvet slopes, how soft
+the mottlings of the sun and shadow that play about
+the rocky ramparts that crown them, how opaline
+the vast upheavals of snow banked against the sky
+in the remotenesses beyond--Mont Blanc and the
+others--how shall anybody describe? Why, not
+even the painter can quite do it, and the most the
+pen can do is to suggest.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Up the lake there is an old abbey--Tallories--relic
+of the Middle Ages. We stopped there; stepped
+from the sparkling water and the rush and boom
+and fret and fever of the nineteenth century into the
+solemnity and the silence and the soft gloom and the
+brooding mystery of a remote antiquity. The stone
+step at the water’s edge had the traces of a worn-out
+inscription on it; the wide flight of stone steps that
+led up to the front door was polished smooth by the
+passing feet of forgotten centuries, and there was not
+an unbroken stone among them all. Within the pile
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_112'>112</span>was the old square cloister with covered arcade all
+around it where the monks of the ancient times used
+to sit and meditate, and now and then welcome to
+their hospitalities the wandering knight with his tin
+breeches on, and in the middle of the square court
+(open to the sky) was a stone well curb, cracked and
+slick with age and use, and all about it were weeds,
+and among the weeds moldy brickbats that the
+Crusaders used to throw at one another. A passage
+at the further side of the cloister led to another
+weedy and roofless little inclosure beyond where there
+was a ruined wall clothed to the top with masses of
+ivy, and flanking it was a battered and picturesque
+arch. All over the building there were comfortable
+rooms and comfortable beds and clean plank floors
+with no carpets on them. In one room upstairs were
+half a dozen portraits, dimming relics of the vanished
+centuries--portraits of abbots who used to be as
+grand as princes in their old day, and very rich, and
+much worshiped and very bold; and in the next room
+there were a howling chromo and an electric bell.
+Downstairs there was an ancient wood carving with a
+Latin word commanding silence, and there was a
+spang-new piano close by. Two elderly French
+women, with the kindest and honestest and sincerest
+faces, have the abbey now, and they board and
+lodge people who are tired of the roar of cities and
+want to be where the dead silence and serenity
+and peace of this old nest will heal their blistered
+spirits and patch up their ragged minds. They fed
+us well, they slept us well, and I wish I could
+have stayed there a few years and got a solid rest.</p>
+
+<p class='c026'><span class='pageno' id='Page_113'>113</span>MARIENBAD--A HEALTH FACTORY</p>
+
+<hr class='c027' />
+<p class='c028'>THE SIMPLE BUT SUFFICIENT REGIMEN IMPOSED ON
+PATIENTS IN AN AUSTRIAN RESORT--OBSERVATIONS
+ON DIGESTION.</p>
+<hr class='c027' />
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+  <div class='nf-center'>
+    <div>(Contributed to the New York <cite>Sun</cite>, 1891)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c014'>This place is the village of Marienbad, Bohemia.
+It seems no very great distance from Annecy,
+in Haute-Savoie, to this place--you make it in less
+than thirty hours by these continental express
+trains--but the changes in the scenery are great; they
+are quite out of proportion to the distance covered.
+From Annecy by Aix to Geneva, you have blue lakes,
+with bold mountains springing from their borders,
+and far glimpses of snowy wastes lifted against the
+horizon beyond, while all about you is a garden
+cultivated to the last possibility of grace and beauty--a
+cultivation which doesn’t stop with the handy
+lower levels, but is carried right up the sheer steeps
+and propped there with ribs of masonry, and made
+to stay there in spite of Newton’s law. Beyond
+Geneva--beyond Lausanne, at any rate--you have
+for a while a country which noticeably resembles
+New England, and seems out of place and like an
+intruder--an intruder who is wearing his every-day
+clothes at a fancy-dress ball. But presently on your
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_114'>114</span>right, huge green mountain ramparts rise up, and
+after that for hours you are absorbed in watching
+the rich shadow effects which they furnish, and are
+only dully aware that New England is gone and that
+you are flying past quaint and unspeakable old towns
+and towers. Next day you have the lake of Zurich,
+and presently the Rhine is swinging by you. How
+clean it is! How clear it is! How blue it is! How
+green it is! How swift and rollicking and insolent
+are its gait and style! How vivid and splendid its
+colors--beautiful wreck and chaos of all the soap
+bubbles in the universe! A person born on the
+Rhine must worship it.</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c017'>
+  <div class='linegroup'>
+    <div class='group'>
+      <div class='line'>I saw the blue Rhine sweep along; I heard, or seemed to hear,</div>
+      <div class='line'>The German songs we used to sing in chorus sweet and clear.</div>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c014'>Yes, that is where his heart would be, that is
+where his last thoughts would be, the “soldier of
+the legion” who “lay dying in Algiers.”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>And by and by you are in a German region, which
+you discover to be quite different from the recent
+Swiss lands behind you. You have a sea before you,
+that is to say; the green land goes rolling away, in
+ocean swells, to the horizon. And there is another
+new feature. Here and there at wide intervals you
+have islands, hills two hundred and three hundred
+feet high, of a haystack form, that rise abruptly out
+of the green plain, and are wooded solidly to the top.
+On the top there is just room for a ruined
+castle, and there it is, every time; above the summit
+you see the crumbling arches and broken towers
+projecting.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'><span class='pageno' id='Page_115'>115</span>Beyond Stuttgart, next day, you find other changes
+still. By and by, approaching and leaving Nuremberg
+and down by Newhaus, your landscape is
+humped everywhere with scattered knobs of rock,
+unsociable crags of a rude, towerlike look, and
+thatched with grass and vines and bushes. And
+now and then you have gorges, too, of a modest
+pattern as to size, with precipice walls curiously
+carved and honeycombed by--I don’t know what--but
+water, no doubt.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>The changes are not done yet, for the instant the
+country finds it is out of Württemberg and into
+Bavaria it discards one more thickness of soil to go
+with previous disrobings, and then nothing remains
+over the bones but the shift. There may be a poorer
+soil somewhere, but it is not likely.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>A couple of hours from Bayreuth you cross into
+Bohemia, and before long you reach this Marienbad,
+and recognize another sharp change, the change
+from the long ago to to-day; that is to say from the
+very old to the spick and span new; from an architecture
+totally without shapeliness or ornament to
+an architecture attractively equipped with both;
+from universal dismalness as to color to universal
+brightness and beauty as to tint; from a town which
+seems made up of prisons to a town which is made
+up of gracious and graceful mansions proper to the
+light of heart and crimeless. It is like jumping out
+of Jerusalem into Chicago.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>The more I think of these many changes, the more
+surprising the thing seems. I have never made so
+picturesque a journey before, and there cannot be
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_116'>116</span>another trip of like length in the world that can
+furnish so much variety and of so charming and
+interesting a sort.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>There are only two or three streets here in this
+snug pocket in the hemlock hills, but they are handsome.
+When you stand at the foot of a street and
+look up at the slant of it you see only block fronts of
+graceful pattern, with happily broken lines and the
+pleasant accent of bay projections and balconies in
+orderly disorder and harmonious confusion, and
+always the color is fresh and cheery, various shades
+of cream, with softly contrasting trimmings of white,
+and now and then a touch of dim red. These blocks
+are all thick walled, solid, massive, tall for this
+Europe; but it is the brightest and newest looking
+town on the Continent, and as pretty as anybody
+could require. The steep hills spring high aloft from
+their very back doors and are clothed densely to
+their tops with hemlocks.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>In Bavaria everybody is in uniform, and you
+wonder where the private citizens are, but here in
+Bohemia the uniforms are very rare. Occasionally
+one catches a glimpse of an Austrian officer, but it
+is only occasionally. Uniforms are so scarce that
+we seem to be in a republic. Almost the only striking
+figure is the Polish Jew. He is very frequent.
+He is tall and of grave countenance and wears a
+coat that reaches to his ankle bones, and he has a
+little wee curl or two in front of each ear. He has
+a prosperous look, and seems to be as much respected
+as anybody.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>The crowds that drift along the promenade at
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_117'>117</span>music time twice a day are fashionably dressed after
+the Parisian pattern, and they look a good deal
+alike, but they speak a lot of languages which you
+have not encountered before, and no ignorant person
+can spell their names, and they can’t pronounce them
+themselves.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Marienbad--Mary’s Bath. The Mary is the Virgin.
+She is the patroness of these curative springs.
+They try to cure everything--gout, rheumatism,
+leanness, fatness, dyspepsia, and all the rest. The
+whole thing is the property of a convent, and has
+been for six or seven hundred years. However,
+there was never a boom here until a quarter of a
+century ago.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>If a person has the gout, this is what they do
+with him: they have him out at 5.30 in the morning,
+and give him an egg and let him look at a cup of
+tea. At six he must be at his particular spring, with
+his tumbler hanging at his belt--and he will have
+plenty of company there. At the first note of the
+orchestra he must lift his tumbler and begin to sip
+his dreadful water with the rest. He must sip slowly
+and be a long time at it. Then he must tramp about
+the hills for an hour or so, and get all the exercise
+and fresh air possible. Then he takes his tub or
+wallows in his mud, if mud baths are his sort. By
+noon he has a fine appetite, and the rules allow him
+to turn himself loose and satisfy it, so long as he is
+careful and eats only such things as he doesn’t
+want. He puts in the afternoon walking the hills
+and filling up with fresh air. At night he is allowed
+to take three ounces of any kind of food he doesn’t
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_118'>118</span>like and drink one glass of any kind of liquor that
+he has a prejudice against; he may also smoke one
+pipe if he isn’t used to it. At half past nine sharp
+he must be in bed and his candle out. Repeat the
+whole thing the next day. I don’t see any advantage
+in this over having the gout.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>In the case of most diseases that is about what
+one is required to undergo, and if you have any
+pleasant habit that you value, they want that. They
+want that the first thing. They make you drop
+everything that gives an interest to life. Their idea
+is to reverse your whole system of existence and
+make a regenerating revolution. If you are a Republican,
+they make you talk free trade. If you are a
+Democrat they make you talk protection; if you
+are a Prohibitionist, you have got to go to bed
+drunk every night till you get well. They spare
+nothing, they spare nobody. Reform, reform, that
+is the whole song. If a person is an orator, they gag
+him; if he likes to read, they won’t let him; if he
+wants to sing, they make him whistle. They say
+they can cure any ailment, and they do seem to do
+it; but why should a patient come all the way here?
+Why shouldn’t he do these things at home and save
+the money? No disease would stay with a person
+who treated it like that.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>I didn’t come here to take baths, I only came to
+look around. But first one person, then another
+began to throw out hints, and pretty soon I was a
+good deal concerned about myself. One of these
+goutees here said I had a gouty look about the eye;
+next a person who has catarrh of the intestines asked
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_119'>119</span>me if I didn’t notice a dim sort of stomach ache
+when I sneezed. I hadn’t before, but I did seem to
+notice it then. A man that’s here for heart disease
+said he wouldn’t come downstairs so fast if he had
+my build and aspect. A person with an old-gold
+complexion said a man died here in the mud bath
+last week that had a petrified liver--good deal such
+a looking man as I am, and the same initials, and
+so on, and so on.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Of course, there was nothing to be uneasy about,
+and I wasn’t what you may call really uneasy; but
+I was not feeling very well--that is, not brisk--and
+I went to bed. I suppose that that was not a good
+idea, because then they had me. I started in at the
+supper end of the mill and went through. I am said
+to be all right now, and free from disease, but this
+does not surprise me. What I have been through
+in these two weeks would free a person of pretty
+much everything in him that wasn’t nailed there--any
+loose thing, any unattached fragment of bone,
+or meat or morals, or disease, or propensities or
+accomplishments, or what not. And I don’t say
+but that I feel well enough, I feel better than I would
+if I was dead, I reckon. And, besides, they say I
+am going to build up now and come right along and
+be all right. I am not saying anything, but I wish
+I had enough of my diseases back to make me aware
+of myself, and enough of my habits to make it
+worth while to live. To have nothing the matter
+with you and no habits is pretty tame, pretty colorless.
+It is just the way a saint feels, I reckon; it is
+at least the way he looks. I never could stand a
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_120'>120</span>saint. That reminds me that you see very few
+priests around here, and yet, as I have already said,
+this whole big enterprise is owned and managed by
+a convent. The few priests one does see here are
+dressed like human beings, and so there may be
+more of them than I imagine. Fifteen priests dressed
+like these could not attract as much of your attention
+as would one priest at Aix-les-Bains. You cannot
+pull your eye loose from the French priest as
+long as he is in sight, his dress is so fascinatingly
+ugly. I seem to be wandering from the subject,
+but I am not. This is about the coldest place I ever
+saw, and the wettest, too. This August seems like
+an English November to me. Rain? Why, it seems
+to like to rain here. It seems to rain every time
+there is a chance. You are strictly required to be
+out airing and exercising whenever the sun is shining,
+so I hate to see the sun shining because I hate air
+and exercise--duty air and duty exercise taken for
+medicine. It seems ungenuine, out of season,
+degraded to sordid utilities, a subtle spiritual something
+gone from it which one can’t describe in
+words, but--don’t you understand? With that gone
+what is left but canned air, canned exercise, and
+you don’t want it.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>When the sun does shine for a few moments or
+a few hours these people swarm out and flock through
+the streets and over the hills and through the pine
+woods, and make the most of the chance, and I have
+flocked out, too, on some of these occasions, but as
+a rule I stay in and try to get warm.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>And what is there for means, besides heavy clothing
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_121'>121</span>and rugs, and the polished white tomb that
+stands lofty and heartless in the corner and thinks
+it is a stove? Of all the creations of human insanity
+this thing is the most forbidding. Whether it is
+heating the room or isn’t, the impression is the
+same--cold indifference. You can’t tell which it is
+doing without going and putting your hand on it.
+They burn little handfuls of kindlings in it, no substantial
+wood, and no coal.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>The fire burns out every fifteen minutes, and there
+is no way to tell when this has happened. On these
+dismal days, with the rain steadily falling, it is no
+better company than a corpse. A roaring hickory
+fire, with the cordial flames leaping up the chimney--But
+I must not think of such things, they make a
+person homesick. This is a most strange place to
+come to get rid of disease.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>That is what you think most of the time. But in
+the intervals, when the sun shines and you are tramping
+the hills and are comparatively warm, you get
+to be neutral, maybe even friendly. I went up to
+the Aussichtthurm the other day. This is a tower
+which stands on the summit of a steep hemlock
+mountain here; a tower which there isn’t the least
+use for, because the view is as good at the base of
+it as it is at the top of it. But Germanic people are
+just mad for views--they never get enough of a
+view--if they owned Mount Blanc, they would
+build a tower on top of it.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>The roads up that mountain through that hemlock
+forest are hard packed and smooth, and the grades
+are easy and comfortable. They are for walkers,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_122'>122</span>not for carriages. You move through steep silence
+and twilight, and you seem to be in a million-columned
+temple; whether you look up the hill or
+down it you catch glimpses of distant figures flitting
+without sound, appearing and disappearing in the
+dim distances, among the stems of the trees, and it
+is all very spectral, and solemn and impressive. Now
+and then the gloom is accented and sized up to your
+comprehension in a striking way; a ray of sunshine
+finds its way down through and suddenly calls your
+attention, for where it falls, far up the hillslope in
+the brown duskiness, it lays a stripe that has a
+glare like lightning. The utter stillness of the forest
+depths, the soundless hush, the total absence of stir
+or motion of any kind in leaf or branch, are things
+which we have no experience of at home, and consequently
+no name for in our language. At home
+there would be the plaint of insects and the twittering
+of birds and vagrant breezes would quiver the
+<a id='corr122.20'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='foilage'>foliage</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_122.20'><ins class='correction' title='foilage'>foliage</ins></a></span>. Here it is the stillness of death. This is
+what the Germans are forever talking about, dreaming
+about, and despairingly trying to catch and
+imprison in a poem, or a picture, or a song--they
+adored Waldeinsamkeit, loneliness of the woods.
+But how catch it? It has not a body; it is a spirit.
+We don’t talk about it in America, or dream of it,
+or sing about it, because we haven’t it. Certainly
+there is something wonderfully alluring about it,
+beguiling, dreamy, unworldly. Where the gloom is
+softest and richest, and the peace and stillness
+deepest, far up on the side of that hemlock mountain,
+a spot where Goethe used to sit and dream,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_123'>123</span>is marked by a granite obelisk, and on its side is
+carved this famous poem, which is the master’s idea
+of Waldeinsamkeit:</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c017'>
+  <div class='linegroup'>
+    <div class='group'>
+      <div class='line'><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Ueber allen Wipfeln ist Ruh,</span></div>
+      <div class='line'><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">In allen Wipfeln spürest du</span></div>
+      <div class='line in4'><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Kaum einen Hauch:</span></div>
+      <div class='line'><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Die Vogel in schweigen in Walde.</span></div>
+      <div class='line'><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Warte nur--Balde</span></div>
+      <div class='line in4'><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Ruhest du auch.</span></div>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c014'>It is raining again now. However, it was doing
+that before. I have been over to the establishment
+and had a tub bath with two kinds of pine juice in
+it. These fill the room with a pungent and most
+pleasant perfume; they also turn the water to a
+color of ink and cover it with a snowy suds, two or
+three inches deep. The bath is cool--about 75° or
+80° F., and there is a cooler shower bath after it.
+While waiting in the reception room all by myself
+two men came in and began to talk. Politics, literature,
+religion? No, their ailments. There is no other
+subject here, apparently. Wherever two or three of
+these people are gathered together, there you have
+it, every time. The first that can get his mouth
+open contributes his disease and the condition of it,
+and the others follow with theirs. The two men
+just referred to were acquaintances, and they followed
+the custom. One of them was built like a gasometer
+and is here to reduce his girth; the other was built
+like a derrick and is here to fat up, as they express
+it, at this resort. They were well satisfied with the
+progress they were making. The gasometer had lost
+a quarter of a ton in ten days, and showed the record
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_124'>124</span>on his belt with pride, and he walked briskly across
+the room, smiling in a vast and luminous way, like
+a harvest moon, and said he couldn’t have done that
+when he arrived here. He buttoned his coat around
+his equator and showed how loose it was. It was
+pretty to see his happiness, it was so childlike and
+honest. He set his feet together and leaned out over
+his person and proved that he could see them. He
+said he hadn’t seen them from that point before for
+fifteen years. He had a hand like a boxing glove.
+And on one of his fingers he had just found a diamond
+ring which he had missed eleven years ago.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>The minute the derrick got a chance he broke in
+and began to tell how he was piling on blubber right
+along--three-quarters of an ounce every four days;
+and he was still piping away when I was sent for.
+I left the fat man standing there panting and blowing,
+and swelling and collapsing like a balloon, his
+next speech all ready and urgent for delivery.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>The patients are always at that sort of thing,
+trying to talk one another to death. The fat ones
+and the lean ones are nearly the worse at it, but not
+quite; the dyspeptics are the worst. They are at
+it all day and all night, and all along. They have
+more symptoms than all the others put together and
+so there is more variety of experience, more change
+of condition, more adventure, and consequently more
+play for the imagination, more scope for lying, and
+in every way a bigger field to talk. Go where you
+will, hide where you may, you cannot escape that
+word liver; you overhear it constantly--in the
+street, in the shop, in the theater, in the music
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_125'>125</span>grounds. Wherever you see two or a dozen people
+of ordinary bulk talking together, you know they are
+talking about their livers. When you first arrive
+here your new acquaintances seem sad and hard to
+talk to, but pretty soon you get the lay of the land
+and the hand of things, and after that you haven’t
+any more trouble. You look into the dreary dull
+eye and softly say:</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“Well, how’s your liver?”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>You will see that dim eye flash up with a grateful
+flame, and you will see that jaw begin to work, and
+you will recognize that nothing is required of you
+from this out but to listen as long as you remain conscious.
+After a few days you will begin to notice
+that out of these people’s talk a gospel is framing
+itself and next you will find yourself believing it.
+It is this--that a man is not what his rearing, his
+schooling, his beliefs, his principles make him, he
+is what his liver makes him; that with a healthy
+liver he will have the clear-seeing eye, the honest
+heart, the sincere mind, the loving spirit, the loyal
+soul, the truth and trust and faith that are based as
+Gibraltar is based, and that with an unhealthy liver
+he must and will have the opposite of all these, he
+will see nothing as it really is, he cannot trust anybody,
+or believe in anything, his moral foundations
+are gone from under him. Now, isn’t that interesting?
+I think it is.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>One of the most curious things in these countries
+is the street manners of the men and women. In
+meeting you they come straight on without swerving
+a hair’s breadth from the direct line and wholly ignoring
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_126'>126</span>your right to any part of the road. At the last
+moment you must yield up your share of it and step
+aside, or there will be a collision. I noticed this
+strange barbarism first in Geneva twelve years ago.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>In Aix-les-Bains, where sidewalks are scarce and
+everybody walks in the streets, there is plenty of
+room, but that is no matter; you are always escaping
+collisions by mere quarter inches. A man or
+woman who is headed in such a way as to cross
+your course presently without a collision will actually
+alter his direction shade by shade and compel a
+collision unless at the last instant you jump out of
+the way. Those folks are not dressed as ladies and
+gentlemen. And they do not seem to be consciously
+crowding you out of the road; they seem to be
+innocently and stupidly unaware that they are
+doing it. But not so in Geneva. There this class,
+especially the men, crowd out men, women, and
+girls of all rank and raiment consciously and intentionally--crowd
+them off the sidewalk and into the
+gutter.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>There was nothing of this sort in Bayreuth. But
+here--well, here the thing is astonishing. Collisions
+are unavoidable unless you do all the yielding yourself.
+Another odd thing--here this savagery is confined
+to the folk who wear the fine clothes; the
+others are courteous and considerate. A big burly
+Comanche, with all the signs about him of wealth
+and education, will tranquilly force young ladies to
+step off into the gutter to avoid being run down by
+him. It is a mistake that there is no bath that will
+cure people’s manners. But drowning would help.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'><span class='pageno' id='Page_127'>127</span>However, perhaps one can’t look for any real
+showy amount of delicacy of feeling in a country
+where a person is brought up to contemplate without
+a shudder the spectacle of women harnessed up
+with dogs and hauling carts. The woman is on one
+side of the pole, the dog on the other, and they bend
+to the work and tug and pant and strain--and the
+man tramps leisurely alongside and smokes his pipe.
+Often the woman is old and gray, and the man is
+her grandson. The Austrian national ornithological
+device ought to be replaced by a grandmother harnessed
+to a slush cart with a dog. This merely in
+the interest of fact. Heraldic fancy has been a little
+too much overworked in these countries, anyway.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Lately one of those curious things happened here
+which justify the felicitous extravagances of the stage
+and help us to accept them. A despondent man,
+bankrupt, friendless, and desperate, dropped a dose
+of strychnia into a bottle of whisky and went out
+in the dusk to find a handy place for his purpose,
+which was suicide. In a lonely spot he was stopped
+by a tramp, who said he would kill him if he didn’t
+give up his money. Instead of jumping at the chance
+of getting himself killed and thus saving himself the
+impropriety and annoyance of suicide, he forgot all
+about his late project and attacked the tramp in a
+most sturdy and valiant fashion. He made a good
+fight, but failed to win. The night passed, the morning
+came, and he woke out of unconsciousness to
+find that he had been clubbed half to death and left
+to perish at his leisure. Then he reached for his
+bottle to add the finishing touch, but it was gone. He
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_128'>128</span>pulled himself together and went limping away, and
+presently came upon the tramp stretched out stone
+dead with the empty bottle beside him. He had
+drunk the whisky and committed suicide innocently.
+Now, while the man who had been cheated out of
+his suicide stood there bemoaning his hard luck and
+wondering how he might manage to raise money
+enough to buy some more whisky and poison, some
+people of the neighborhood came by and he told
+them about his curious adventure. They said that
+this tramp had been the scourge of the neighborhood
+and the dread of the constabulary. The inquest
+passed off quietly and to everybody’s satisfaction,
+and then the people, to testify their gratitude to the
+hero of the occasion, put him on the police, on a
+good-enough salary, and he is all right now and is
+not meditating suicide any more. Here are all the
+elements of the naïvest Arabian tale; a man who
+resists robbery when he hasn’t anything to be robbed
+of does the very best to save his life when he has
+come out purposely to throw it away; and finally is
+victorious in defeat, killing his adversary in an effectual
+and poetic fashion after being already hors du
+combat himself. Now if you let him rise in the service
+and marry the chief of police’s daughter it has the
+requisite elements of the Oriental romance, lacking
+not a detail so far as I can see.</p>
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_129'>129</span>
+  <h2 class='c008'>DOWN THE RHÔNE <br /> <span class='small'>(1891)</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class='drop-capa0_2_0_4 c015'>In old times a summer sail down the Rhône was a
+favorite trip with travelers. But that day is long
+gone by. The conveniences for the sail disappeared
+many years ago--driven out of existence by the
+railway.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>In August, 1891, I made this long-neglected voyage
+with a boatman and a courier. The following account
+of it is part diary and part comment. The main idea
+of the voyage was, not to see sights, but to rest up
+from sight-seeing. There was little or nothing on
+the Rhône to examine or study or write didactically
+about; consequently, to glide down the stream in
+an open boat, moved by the current only, would
+afford many days of lazy repose, with opportunity
+to smoke, read, doze, talk, accumulate comfort, get
+fat, and all the while be out of reach of the news and
+remote from the world and its concerns.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Our point of departure was to be the Castle of
+Châtillon on Lake Bourget, not very far from Aix-les-Bains.
+I went down from Geneva by rail on a
+Saturday afternoon, and reached the station nearest
+the castle during the evening. I found the courier
+waiting for me. He had been down in the lake
+region several days, hunting for a boat, engaging
+the boatman, etc.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'><span class='pageno' id='Page_130'>130</span><i>From my log.</i>--The luggage was given to the porters--a
+couple of peasant girls of seventeen or
+eighteen years, and a couple of younger ones--children,
+one might say, of twelve or thirteen. It
+consisted of heavy satchels and holdalls, but they
+gathered it up and trudged away, not seeming to
+mind the weight. The road was through woods and
+uphill--dark and steep and long. I tried to take
+the heavy valise from the smallest one, telling her I
+would carry it myself. She did not understand, of
+course, and resisted. I tried, then, to take the bag
+by gentle force. This alarmed her. The courier
+came and explained that she was afraid she was
+going to lose the trifle of money she was earning.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>The courier told her this was not the case, but
+she looked doubtful and concluded to hang on to a
+sure thing.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“How much is it she’s going to get?”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“She will charge about half a franc.”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“Then pay her <em>now</em>, and she’ll give up the bag.”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>But that scheme failed, too. The child hung to
+the bag and seemed distressed. No explanation
+could be got out of her, but one of the other girls
+said the child was afraid that if she gave it up, the
+fact would be used against her with tourists as proof
+that she was not strong enough to carry their luggage
+for them, and so she would lose chances to get work.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>By and by the winding road carried us by an open
+space where we could see very well--see the ruins
+of a burned-out little hamlet of the humblest sort--stone
+walls with empty window holes, narrow alleys
+cluttered with wreckage and fallen thatch, etc. Our
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_131'>131</span>girls were eager to have us stop and view this wonder,
+the result of the only conflagration they had ever
+seen, the only large event that had ever accented
+their monotonous lives. It had happened a couple
+of months before, and the villagers had lost everything,
+even to their stockings of savings, and were
+too poor to rebuild their houses. A young woman,
+an old one, and all the horses had been burned to
+death; the young girls said they could take us among
+the ruins and show us the very spot.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>We finally came out on the top of the hill, and
+there stood the castle, a rather picturesque old
+stack of masonry with a walled yard about it and
+an odd old stumpy tower in a corner of the yard
+handsomely clothed in vines. The castle is a private
+residence, whose owner leaves it in charge
+of his housekeeper and some menservants, and
+lives in Lyons except when he wants to fish or
+shoot.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>The courier had engaged rooms, but the fact had
+probably been forgotten, for we had trouble in rousing
+the garrison. It was getting late and they were
+asleep. Eventually a man unlocked and unbarred
+the door and led us up a winding stair of heavy and
+very plain stonework. My bed was higher from the
+floor than necessary. This is apparently the rule in
+old French houses of the interior. But there is a
+stepladder.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>In the morning I looked out of my window and
+saw the tops of trees below me, thick and beautiful
+foliage, and below the trees was the bright blue
+water of the lake shining in the sun. The window
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_132'>132</span>seemed to be about two hundred feet above the
+water. An airy and inspiring situation, indeed. A
+pope was born in that room a couple of centuries
+ago. I forget his name.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>In that old day they built for utility, this was
+evident. Everything--floors, sashes, shutters, beams,
+joists--were cheap, coarse, ornamentless, but everlastingly
+solid and substantial. On the wall hung
+an indication of the politics of the present owner.
+This was a small photograph with “Philippe Comte
+de Paris” written under it.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>The castle was ancient, in its way, but over the
+door of one of its rooms there was a picture set in a
+frame whose profound antiquity made all its surroundings
+seem modern and fresh. This frame was
+of good firm oak, as black as a coal, and had once
+been part of a lake-dweller’s house. It was already
+a thing of antiquity when the Romans were planting
+colonies in France before the time of Christ. The
+remains of a number of lake villages have been dug
+out of the mud of Lake Bourget.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Breakfast was served in the open air on a precipice
+in a little arbor sheltered by vines, with glimpses
+through the tree tops of the blue water far below,
+and with also a wide prospect of mountain scenery.
+The coffee was the best I ever drank in Europe.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Presently there was a bugle blast from somewhere
+about the battlements--a fine Middle Age effect--and
+after a moment it was answered from the
+further shore of the lake, and we saw a boat put
+out from that shore. It was ours. We were soon
+on board and away.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'><span class='pageno' id='Page_133'>133</span>It was a roomy, long flatboat, very light and easy
+to manage--easy to manage because its sides tapered
+a little toward both ends, and both ends curved up
+free from the water and made the steering prompt
+and easy. The rear half was sheltered from sun and
+rain by a temporary (and removable) canopy
+stretched over hoop-pole arches, after the fashion
+of the old-time wagon covers of the emigrants to
+California. We at once rolled the sides of the
+canopy high up, so that we might have the breeze
+and a free view on every hand.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>On the other side of the lake we entered a narrow
+canal, and here we had our last glimpse of that
+picturesque Châtillon perched on its high promontory.
+The sides of the canal were walled with vines
+heavily laden with black grapes. The vine leaves
+were white with the stuff which is squirted on them
+from a thing like a fire extinguisher to kill the
+calamitous phylloxera. We saw only one living creature
+for the first lonely mile--a man with his extinguisher
+strapped on his back and hard at his deadly
+work. I asked our admiral, Joseph Rougier, of the
+village of Chanaz, if it would be a good idea to offer
+to sell this Sabbath breaker a few choice samples of
+foreign phylloxera, and he said yes, if one wanted to
+play the star part in an inquest.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>At last two women and a man strolling churchward
+in their Sunday best gave us a courteous hail
+and walked briskly along abreast of us, plying the
+courier and the sailor with eager questions about our
+curious and unaccountable project, and by the time
+they had got their fill and dropped astern to digest
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_134'>134</span>the matter and finish wondering over it, we were
+serene again and busy discussing the scenery; for
+now there was really some scenery to look at, of a
+mild but pleasant type--low precipices, a country
+road shaded by large trees, a few cozy thatched
+cabins scattered along, and now and then an irruption
+of joyous children who flocked to inspect us
+and admire, followed by friendly dogs who stood
+and barked at us, but wagged their tails to say no
+offense was intended.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Soon the precipice grew bolder, and presently
+Chanaz came in sight and the canal bore us along
+its front--along its street, for it had only one. We
+stepped ashore. There was a roll of distant drums,
+and soon a company or two of French infantry came
+marching by. All the citizens were out, and every
+male took off his hat politely as the soldiers moved
+past him, and this salute was always returned by
+the officers.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>I wanted envelopes, wine, grapes, and postage
+stamps, and was directed to a stone stairway and
+told to go up one flight. Up there I found a small
+well-smoked kitchen paved with worn-out bricks,
+with pots and pans hanging about the walls, and a
+bent and humped woman of seventy cooking a very
+frugal dinner. The tiredest dog I have seen this
+year lay asleep under the stove, in a roasting heat,
+an incredible heat, a heat that would have pulled a
+remark of the Hebrew children; but the dog slept
+along with perfect serenity and did not seem to
+know that there was anything the matter with the
+weather. The old woman set off her coffee pot.
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_135'>135</span>Next she removed her pork chop to the table; it
+seemed to me that this was premature--the dog
+was better done.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>We asked for the envelopes and things; she
+motioned us to the left with her ladle. We passed
+through a door and found ourselves in the smallest
+wholesale and retail commercial house in the world,
+I suppose. The place was not more than nine feet
+square. The proprietor was polite and cheerful
+enough for a place five or six times as large. He was
+weighing out two ounces of parched coffee for a little
+girl, and when the balances came level at last he took
+off a light bean and put on a heavier one in the handsomest
+way and then tied up the purchase in a piece
+of paper and handed it to the child with as nice a
+bow as one would see anywhere. In that shop he
+had a couple of bushels of wooden shoes--a dollar’s
+worth, altogether, perhaps--but he had no other
+articles in such lavish profusion. Yet he had a pound
+or so or a dipperful of any kind of thing a person
+might want. You couldn’t buy two things of a kind
+there, but you could buy one of any and every kind.
+It was a useful shop, and a sufficient one, no doubt,
+yet its contents could not have cost more than ten
+dollars. Here was home on a small scale, but everything
+comfortable, no haggard looks visible, no
+financial distress apparent. I got all the things I
+came for except double-postage stamps for foreign
+service; I had to take domestic stamps instead.
+The merchant said he kept a double-stamp in stock
+a couple of years, but there was no market for it,
+so he sent it back to Paris, because it was eating
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_136'>136</span>up its insurance. A careful man and thrifty; and
+of such is the commonwealth of France.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>We got some hot fried fish in Chanaz and took
+them aboard and cleared out. With grapes and
+claret and bread they made a satisfactory luncheon.
+We paddled a hundred yards, turned a rock corner,
+and here was the furious gray current of the Rhône
+just a-whistling by! We crept into it from the
+narrow canal, and laid in the oars. The floating
+was begun. One needs no oar-help in a current like
+that. The shore seemed to fairly spin past. Where
+the current assaults the heavy stone barriers thrown
+out from the shores to protect the banks, it makes a
+break like the break of a steamboat, and you can
+hear the roar a couple of hundred yards off.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>The river where we entered it was about a hundred
+yards wide, and very deep. The water was at
+medium stage. The Rhône is not a very long river--six
+hundred miles--but it carries a bigger mass of
+water to the sea than any other French stream.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>For the first few miles we had lonely shores--hardly
+ever a house. On the left bank we had high
+precipices and domed hills; right bank low and
+wooded.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>At one point in the face of a precipice we saw a
+great cross (carved out of the living rock, the Admiral
+said) forty feet above the carriage road, where a
+doctor has had his tomb scooped in the rock and
+lies in there safe from his surviving patients--if any.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>At 1.25 <span class='fss'>P.M.</span> we passed the slumbrous village of
+Massigneux de Rive on the right and the ditto
+village of Huissier on the left (in Savoie). We had
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_137'>137</span>to take all names by sound from the Admiral; he
+said nobody could spell them. There was a ferry
+at the former village. A wire is stretched across the
+river high overhead; along this runs a wheel which
+has ropes leading down and made fast to the ferryboat
+in such a way that the boat’s head is held
+farther upstream than its stern. This angle enables
+the current to drive the boat across, and no other
+motive force is needed. This would be a good thing
+on minor rivers in America.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>2.10 <span class='fss'>P.M.</span>--It is delightfully cool, breezy, shady
+(under the canopy), and still. Much smoking and
+lazy reflecting. There is no sound but the rippling
+of the current and the moaning of far-off breaks,
+except that now and then the Admiral dips a screechy
+oar to change the course half a point. In the distance
+one catches the faint singing and laughter of playing
+children or the softened note of a church bell or town
+clock. But the reposeful stillness--that is the charm--and
+the smooth swift gliding--and the fresh, clear,
+lively, gray-green water. There was such a rush,
+and boom, and life, and confusion, and activity in
+Geneva yesterday--how remote all that seems now,
+how wholly vanished away and gone out of this world!</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>2.15.--Village of Yenne. Iron suspension bridge.
+On the heights back of the town a chapel with a
+tower like a thimble, and a very tall white Virgin
+standing on it.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>2.25.--Precipices on both sides now. River narrow--sixty
+yards.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>2.30.--Immense precipice on right bank, with
+groups of buildings (Pierre Châtel) planted on the
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_138'>138</span>very edge of it. In its near neighborhood a massive
+and picturesque fortification.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>All this narrow gut from the bridge down to the
+next bridge--a mile or two--is picturesque with its
+frowning high walls of rock.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>In the face of the precipice above the second bridge
+sits a painted house on a rock bench--a chapel, we
+think, but the Admiral says it is for the storage of
+wine.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>More fortifications at the corner where the river
+turns--no cannon, but narrow slits for musketry
+commanding the river. Also narrow slits in the
+solid (hollowed-out) precipice. Perhaps there is no
+need of cannon here where you can throw a biscuit
+across from precipice to precipice.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>2.45.--Below that second bridge. On top of the
+bluffs more fortifications. Low banks on both sides
+here.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>2.50.--Now both sets of fortifications show up,
+look huge and formidable, and are finely grouped.
+Through the glass they seem deserted and falling to
+ruin. Out of date, perhaps.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>One will observe, by these paragraphs, that the
+Rhône is swift enough to keep one’s view changing
+with a very pleasant alacrity.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>At midafternoon we passed a steep and lofty
+bluff--right bank--which was crowned with the
+moldering ruins of a castle overgrown with trees.
+A relic of Roman times, the Admiral said. Name?
+No, he didn’t know any name for it. Had it a history?
+Perhaps; he didn’t know. Wasn’t there even
+a legend connected with it? He didn’t know of any.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'><span class='pageno' id='Page_139'>139</span>Not even a legend. One’s first impulse was to be
+irritated; whereas one should be merely thankful;
+for if there is one sort of invention in this world
+that is flatter than another, it is the average folklore
+legend. It could probably be proven that even the
+adventures of the saints in the Roman calendar are
+not of a lower grade as works of the inventor’s art.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>The dreamy repose, the infinite peace of these
+tranquil shores, this Sabbath stillness, this noiseless
+motion, this strange absence of the sense of sin, and
+the stranger absence of the desire to commit it--this
+was the perfectest day the year had brought!
+Now and then we slipped past low shores with
+grassy banks. A solitary thatched cottage close to
+the edge, one or two big trees with dense foliage
+sheltering the cottage, and the family in their Sunday,
+clothes grouped in the deep shade, chatting, smoking,
+knitting, the dogs asleep about their feet, the kittens
+helping with the knitting, and all hands content and
+praising God without knowing it. We always got a
+friendly word of greeting and returned it. One of
+these families contained eighteen sons, and all were
+present. The Admiral was acquainted with everybody
+along the banks, and with all the domestic
+histories, notwithstanding he was so ineffectual on
+old Roman matters.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>4.20.--Bronze statue of the Virgin on a sterile
+hill slope.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>4.45.--Ruined Roman tower on a bluff. Belongs
+to the no-name series.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>5.--Some more Roman ruins in the distance.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>At 6 o’clock we rounded to. We stepped ashore
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_140'>140</span>in a woodsy and lonely place and walked a short
+mile through a country lane to the sizable and rather
+modern-looking village of St.-Genix. Part of the way
+we followed another pleasure party--six or eight
+little children riding aloft on a mountain of fragrant
+hay. This is the earliest form of the human pleasure
+excursion, and for utter joy and perfect contentment
+it stands alone in a man’s threescore years and ten;
+all that come after it have flaws, but this has
+none.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>We put up at the Hôtel Labully, in the little
+square where the church stands. Satisfactory dinner.
+Later I took a twilight tramp along the high
+banks of a moist ditch called the Guires River. If
+it was my river I wouldn’t leave it outdoors nights,
+in this careless way, where any dog can come along
+and lap it up. It is a tributary of the Rhône when
+it is in better health.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>It became dark while we were on our way back,
+and then the bicyclers gave us many a sudden chill.
+They never furnished us an early warning, but
+delivered the paralyzing shock of their rubber-horn
+hoot right at our shoulder blades and then flashed
+spectrally by on their soundless wheels and floated
+into the depths of the darkness and vanished from
+sight before a body could collect his remark and
+get it out. Sometimes they get shot. This is right.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>I went to my room, No. 16. The floor was bare,
+which is the rule down the Rhône. Its planks were
+light colored, and had been smoothed by use rather
+than art; they had conspicuous black knots in them.
+The usual high and narrow bed was there, with the
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_141'>141</span>usual little marble-topped commode by the head of
+it and the usual strip of foot carpet alongside, where
+you climb in. The wall paper was dark--which is
+usual on the Continent; even in the northern regions
+of Germany, where the daylight in winter is of such
+poor quality that they don’t even tax it now.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>When I woke in the morning it was eight o’clock
+and raining hard, so I stayed in bed and had my
+breakfast and a ripe old Paris paper of last week
+brought up. It was a good breakfast--one often gets
+that; and a liberal one--one seldom gets that. There
+was a big bowl for the coffee instead of a stingy cup
+which has to be refilled just as you are getting interested
+in it; there was a quart of coffee in the pot
+instead of a scant half pint; instead of the usual
+hollow curl of brittle butter which evades you when
+you try to scoop it on to the knife and crumbles when
+you try to carve it, there was a solid cream-colored
+lump as big as a brick; there was abundance of hot
+milk, and there was also the usual ostensible cream
+of Europe. There <em>must</em> be cream in Europe somewhere,
+but it is not in the cows; they have been
+examined.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>The rain continued to pour until noon, then the
+sun burst out and we were soon up and filing through
+the village. By the time we had tramped our mile
+and pushed out into the stream, the watches marked
+1.10 and the day was brilliant and perfect.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Over on the right were ruins of two castles, one of
+them of some size.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>We passed under a suspension bridge; alongside
+of it was an iron bridge of a later pattern. Near by
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_142'>142</span>was a little steamer lying at the bank with no signs
+of life about her--the first boat, except ferryboats,
+encountered since we had entered the Rhône. A
+lonely river, truly.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>We drifted past lofty highlands, but there was
+nothing inspiring about them. In Switzerland the
+velvet heights are sprinkled with homes clear to the
+clouds, but these hills were sterile, desolate, gray,
+melancholy, and so thin was the skin on them that
+the rocky bones showed through in places.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>1.30.--We seem lost in the intricate channels of
+an archipelago of flat islands covered with bushes.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>1.50.--We whirl around a corner into open river
+again, and observe that a vast bank of leaden clouds
+is piling itself up on the horizon; the tint thrown
+upon the distant stretches of water is rich and fine.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>The river is wide now--a hundred and fifty yards--and
+without islands. Suddenly it has become
+nearly currentless and is like a lake. The Admiral
+explains that from this point for nine miles it is
+called L’Eau Morte--Dead Water.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>The region is not entirely barren of life, it seems--solitary
+woman paddling a punt across the wide still
+pool.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>The boat moved, but that is about all one could
+say. It was indolent progress; still, it was comfortable.
+There were flaming sunshine behind and
+that rich thunder gloom ahead, and now and then
+the fitful fanning of a pleasant breeze.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>A woman paddled across--a rather young woman
+with a face like the “Mona Lisa.” I had seen the
+“Mona Lisa” only a little while before, and stood
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_143'>143</span>two hours in front of that painting, repeating to
+myself: “People come from around the globe to
+stand here and worship. What is it they find in
+it?” To me it was merely a serene and subdued face,
+and there an end. There might be more in it, but
+I could not find it. The complexion was bad; in
+fact, it was not even human; there are no people of
+that color. I finally concluded that maybe others still
+saw in the picture faded and vanished marvels which
+<em>had</em> been there once and were now forever vanished.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Then I remembered something told me once by
+Noel Flagg,<a id='r3' /><a href='#f3' class='c023'><sup>[3]</sup></a> the artist. There was a time, he said,
+when he wasn’t yet an artist but thought he was.
+His pictures sold, and gave satisfaction, and that
+seemed a good-enough verdict. One day he was
+daubing away in his studio and feeling good and
+inspired, when Dr. Horace Bushnell, that noble old
+Roman, straggled in there without an invitation and
+fastened that deep eye of his on the canvas. The
+youth was proud enough of such a call, and glad
+there was something on the easel that was worthy
+of it. After a long look the great divine said:</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“You have talent, boy.” (That sounded good.)
+“What you want is teaching.”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Teaching--he, an accepted and competent artist!
+He didn’t like that. After another long look:</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“Do you know the higher mathematics?”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“I? No, sir.”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“You must acquire them.”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“As a proper part of an artist’s training?”
+This with veiled irony.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'><span class='pageno' id='Page_144'>144</span>“As an <em>essential</em> part of it. Do you know
+anatomy?”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“No, sir.”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“You must learn how to dissect a body.  What
+are you studying, now--principally?”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“Nothing, I believe.”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“And the time flying, the time flying!  Where
+are your books? What do you read?”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“There they are, on the shelves.”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“I see. Poetry and romance. They must wait.
+Get to your mathematics and your anatomy right
+away. Another point: you must train your eye--you
+must teach yourself to see.”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“Teach myself to see? I believe I was born with
+that ability.”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“But nobody is born with a <em>trained</em> ability--nobody.
+A cow sees--she sees all the outsides of
+things, no doubt, but it is only the trained eye that
+sees deeper, sees the soul of them, the meaning of
+them, the spiritual essence. Are you sure that you
+see more than the cow sees? You must go to Paris.
+You will never learn to see here. There they’ll
+teach you; there they’ll train you; there they’ll
+work you like a slave; there they’ll bring out the
+talent that’s in you. Be off! Don’t twaddle here
+any longer!”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Flagg thought it over and resolved that the advice
+was worth taking. He and his brother cleared for
+Paris. They put in their first afternoon there scoffing
+at the works of the old masters in the Louvre.
+They laughed at themselves for crossing a wide
+ocean to learn what masterly painting might be by
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_145'>145</span>staring at these odious things. As for the “Mona
+Lisa,” they exhausted their treasure of wit in making
+fun of it.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Next day they put themselves into the hands of
+the Beaux Arts people, and that was the end of
+play. They had to start at the very bottom of their
+trade and learn it over again, detail by detail, and
+learn it <em>right</em>, this time. They slaved away, night
+and day for three months, and wore themselves to
+shadows. Then they had a day off, and drifted
+into the Louvre. Neither said a word for some time;
+each disliked to begin; but at last, in front of the
+“Mona Lisa,” after standing mute awhile one of
+them said:</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“Speak out. Say it.”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“Say it yourself.”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“Well, then, we <em>were</em> cows before!”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“Yes--it’s the right name for it. That is what
+we were. It is unbelievable, the change that has
+come over these pictures in three months. It is the
+difference between a landscape in the twilight and
+the same landscape in the daytime.” Then they fell
+into each other’s arms.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>This all came back to me, now, as I saw this living
+“Mona Lisa” punting across L’Eau Morte.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>2.40 <span class='fss'>P.M.</span>--Made for a village on the right bank
+with all speed--Port de Groslee. Remains of Roman
+aqueduct on hilltop back of village. Rain!--Deluges
+of it. Took refuge in an inn on the bank--Hôtel
+des Voyageurs. The public room was full
+of voyageurs and tobacco smoke. The voyageurs
+may have been river folk in the old times when the
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_146'>146</span>inn was built, but this present crowd was made up
+of teamsters. They sat at bare tables, under their
+feet was the bare floor, about them were the four
+bare walls--a dreary place at any time, a heart-breaking
+place now in the dark of the downpour.
+However, it was manifestly not dreary to the teamsters.
+They were sipping red wine and smoking;
+they all talked at once, and with great energy and
+spirit, and every now and then they gave their
+thighs a sounding slap and burst into a general
+horse laugh. The courier said that this was in
+response to rude wit and coarse anecdotes. The
+brace of modest-looking girls who were waiting on
+the teamsters did not seem troubled. The courier
+said that they were used to all kinds of language
+and were not defiled by it; that they had probably
+seldom heard a spade called anything but a spade,
+therefore the foulest words came innocent to their
+ears.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>This inn was built of stone--of course; everybody’s
+house on the Continent, from palace to
+hovel, is built of that dismal material, and as a
+rule it is as square as a box and odiously plain and
+destitute of ornament; it is formal, forbidding, and
+breeds melancholy thoughts in people used to friendlier
+and more perishable materials of construction.
+The frame house and the log house molder and pass
+away, even in the builder’s time, and this makes a
+proper bond of sympathy and fellowship between
+the man and his home; but the stone house remains
+always the same to the person born in it; in his old
+age it is still as hard, and indifferent, and unaffected
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_147'>147</span>by time as it was in the long-vanished days of his
+childhood. The other kind of house shows by many
+touching signs that it has noted his griefs and misfortunes
+and has felt for them, but the stone house
+doesn’t--it is not of his evanescent race, it has no
+kinship with him, nor any interest in him.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>A professional letter writer happened along presently,
+and one of the young girls got him to write
+a letter for her. It seemed strange that she could
+not write it herself. The courier said that the peasant
+women of the Rhône do not care for education, but
+only for religion; that they are all good Catholics,
+and that their main ambition in life is to see the
+Rhône’s long procession of stone and bronze Virgins
+added to, until the river shall be staked out with
+them from end to end; and that their main pleasure
+in life is to contribute from their scant centimes to
+this gracious and elevating work. He says it is a
+quite new caprice; that ten years ago there was not
+a Virgin in this part of France at all, and never had
+been. This may be true, and, of course, there is
+nothing unreasonable about it, but I have already
+found out that the courier’s statements are not
+always exact.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>I had a hot fried fish and coffee in a garden shed
+roofed with a mat of vines, but the rain came
+through in streams and I got drenched in spite of
+our umbrellas, for one cannot manage table implements
+and umbrellas all at the same time with
+anything like good success.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'><i>Mem.</i>--Last evening, for economy’s sake, proposed
+to be a Frenchman because Americans and English
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_148'>148</span>are always overcharged. Courier said it wouldn’t
+deceive unless I played myself for a deaf-and-dumb
+Frenchman--which I did, and so the rooms were
+only a franc and a half each. But the Admiral
+must have let it out that I was only deaf and dumb
+in French, for prices were raised in the bill this
+morning.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>4.10 <span class='fss'>P.M.</span>--Left Port de Groslee.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>4.50 <span class='fss'>P.M.</span>--Château of the Count Cassiloa--or
+something like that--the Admiral’s pronunciation
+is elusive. Courier guesses the spelling at “Quintionat.”
+I don’t quite see the resemblance. This
+courier’s confidence in himself is a valuable talent.
+He must be descended from the idiot who taught
+our forefathers to spell tizzik with a <i>ph</i> and a <i>th</i>.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>The river here is as still and smooth and nearly as
+dead as a lake. The water is swirly, though, and
+consequently makes uneasy steering.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>River seems to draw together and greatly narrow
+itself below the count’s house. No doubt the current
+will smarten up there.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Three new quarries along here. Dear me! how
+little there is in the way of sight-seeing, when a
+quarry is an event! Remarked upon with contentment.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Swept through the narrow canallike place with a
+good current.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>On the left-hand point below, bush-grown ruins
+of an ancient convent (St. Alban’s), picturesquely
+situated on a low bluff. There is a higher and handsomer
+bluff a trifle lower down. How did they
+overlook it? Those people generally went for the
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_149'>149</span>best, not second best. Shapely hole in latter bluff
+one hundred feet above the water--anchorite’s nest?
+Interesting-looking hole, and would have cost but
+little time and trouble to examine it, but it was not
+done. It is no matter; one can find other holes.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>At last, below bluffs, we find some greensward--not
+extensive, but a pleasant novelty.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>5.30.--Lovely sunset. Mottled clouds richly
+painted by sinking sun, and fleecy shreds of clouds
+drifting along the fronts of neighboring blue mountains.
+Harrow in a field. Apparently harrow, but
+was distant and could not tell; could have been a
+horse.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>5.35.--Very large gray broken-arched and unusually
+picturesque ruin crowning a hilltop on right.
+Name unknown. This is a liberal mile above village
+of Briord (my spelling--the Admiral’s pronunciation),
+on same side. Passed the village swiftly, and
+left it behind. The villagers came out and made fun
+of our strange tub. The dogs chased us and were
+more noisy than necessary.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>6 <span class='fss'>P.M.</span>--Another suspension bridge--this is the
+sixth one. They have ceased to interest. There
+was nothing exciting about them, from the start.
+Presently landed on left bank and shored the boat
+for the night. Hôtel du Rhône Moine. Isolated.
+Situated right on the bank. Sort of a village--villagette,
+to be exact--a little back. Hôtel is two
+stories high and not pretentious--family dwelling
+and cow stable all under one roof.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>I had been longing to have personal experience
+of peasant life--be “on the inside” and see it for
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_150'>150</span>myself, instead of at second hand in books. This
+was an opportunity and I was excited about it and
+glad. The kitchen was not clean, but it was a
+sociable place, and the family were kind and full
+of good will. There were three little children, a
+young girl, father, mother, grandparents, some dogs,
+and a plurality of cats. There was no discord; perfect
+harmony prevailed.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Our table was placed on the lawn on the river
+bank. One had no right to expect any finer style
+here than he would find in the cheapest and shabbiest
+little tavern in America, for the Hôtel du Rhône
+Moine was for foot wanderers and laborers on the
+flatboats that convey stone and sand and wood to
+Lyons, yet the style <em>was</em> superior--very much so.
+The tablecloth was white, and it and the table
+furniture were perfectly clean. We had a fish of a
+pretty coarse grain, but it was fresh from the river
+and hot from the pan; the bread was good, there
+was abundance of excellent butter, the milk was
+rich and pure, the sugar was white, the coffee was
+considerably better than that which is furnished
+by the choice hotels of the capitals of the Continent.
+Thus far, peasant life was a disappointment, it was
+so much better than anything we were used to at
+home in some respects. Two of the dogs came out,
+presently, and sat down by the table and rested
+their chins on it, and so remained. It was not to
+beg, for they showed no interest in the supper; they
+were merely there to be friendly, it was the only
+idea they had. A squadron of cats came out by
+and by and sat down in the neighborhood and looked
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_151'>151</span>me over languidly, then wandered away without
+passion, in fact with what looked like studied indifference.
+Even the cats and the dogs are well and
+sufficiently fed at the Hôtel du Rhône Moine--their
+dumb testimony was as good as speech.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>I went to bed early. It is inside the house, not
+outside, that one really finds the peasant life. Our
+rooms were over the stable, and this was not an
+advantage. The cows and horses were not very
+quiet, the smell was extraordinary, the fleas were a
+disorderly lot, and these things helped the coffee to
+keep one awake. The family went to bed at nine
+and got up at two. The beds were very high; one
+could not climb into them without the help of a
+chair; and as they were narrow and arched, there
+was danger of rolling out in case one drifted into
+dreams of an imprudent sort. These lofty bedsteads
+were not high from caprice, but for a purpose--they
+contained chests of drawers, and the drawers were
+full of clothing and other family property. On the
+table in my room were some bright-colored, even
+gorgeous little waxen saints and a Virgin under bell-glasses;
+also the treasures of the house--jewelry
+and a silver watch. It was not costly jewelry, but
+it was jewelry, at any rate, and without doubt the
+family valued it. I judged that this household were
+accustomed to having honest guests and neighbors
+or they would have removed these things from the
+room when I entered it, for I do not look honester
+than others.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Not that I have always thought in this way about
+myself, for I haven’t. I thought the reverse until
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_152'>152</span>the time I lost my overcoat, once, when I was going
+down to New York to see the Water Color exhibition,
+and had a sort of adventure in consequence.
+The house had been robbed in the night, and when I
+came downstairs to rush for the early train there
+was no overcoat. It was a raw day, and when I got
+to New York at noon I grew colder and colder as I
+walked along down the Avenue. When I reached
+East Thirty-fourth street I stopped on the corner
+and began to consider. It seemed to me that it
+must have been just about there that Smith,<a id='r4' /><a href='#f4' class='c023'><sup>[4]</sup></a> the
+artist, took me one winter’s night, with others,
+five years before, and caroused us with roasted
+oysters and Southern stories and hilarity in his
+fourth story until three or four in the morning; and
+now if I could only call to mind which of those
+houses over the way was his, I could borrow an
+overcoat. All the time that I was thinking and
+standing there and trying to recollect, I was dimly
+conscious of a figure near me, but only dimly, very
+dimly; but now as I came out of my reverie and
+found myself gazing, rapt but totally unconscious,
+at one of the houses over there, that figure solidified
+itself and became at once the most conspicuous
+thing in the landscape. It was a policeman. He
+was standing not six feet away, and was gazing as
+intently at my face as I had been gazing at the house.
+I was embarrassed--it is always embarrassing to
+come to yourself and find a stranger staring at you.
+You blush, even when you have not been doing any
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_153'>153</span>harm. So I blushed--a thing that does not commend
+a person to a policeman; also I tried to smile a
+placating smile, but it did not get any response, so
+then I tried to make it a kind of friendly smile,
+which was a mistake, because that only hardens a
+policeman, and I saw at once that this smile had
+hardened this one and made my situation more
+difficult than ever; and so, naturally, my judgment
+being greatly impaired by now, I spoke--which
+was an error, because in these circumstances
+one cannot arrange without reflection a remark
+which will not seem to have a kind of suspicious
+something about it to a policeman, and that was
+what happened this time; for I had fanned up that
+haggard smile again, which had been dying out
+when I wasn’t noticing, and said:</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“Could you tell me, please, if there’s a Mr. Smith
+lives over there in----”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“<em>What</em> Smith?”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>That rude abruptness drove his other name out
+of my mind; and as I saw I never should be able
+to think of it with the policeman standing there
+cowing me with his eye, that way, it seemed to me
+best to get out a name of some kind, so as to avert
+further suspicion, therefore I brought out the first
+one which came into my mind, which was John--another
+error. The policeman turned purple--apparently
+with a sense of injury and insult--and said
+there were a million John Smiths in New York, and
+<em>which</em> one was this? Also what did I want with
+Smith? I could not remember--the overcoat was
+gone out of my mind. So I told him he was a pupil
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_154'>154</span>of mine and that I was giving him lessons in morals;
+moral culture--a new system.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>That was a lucky hit, anyway. I was merely
+despicable, now, to the policeman, but harmless--I
+could see it in his eye. He looked me over a moment
+then said:</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“You give him lessons, do you?”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“Yes, sir.”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“How long have you been giving him lessons?”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“Two years, next month.” I was getting my
+wind again, and confidence.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“Which house does he live in?”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“That one--the middle one in the block.”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“Then what did you ask <em>me</em> for, a minute ago?”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>I did not see my way out. He waited for an
+answer, but got tired before I could think of one
+that would fit the case and said:</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“How is it that you haven’t an overcoat on, such
+a day as this?”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“I--well, I never wear them. It doesn’t seem
+cold to me.”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>He thought awhile, with his eye on me, then said,
+with a sort of sigh:</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“Well, maybe you are all right--I don’t know--but
+you want to walk pretty straight while you are
+on my beat; for, morals or no morals, blamed if I
+take much stock in you. Move on, now.”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Then he turned away, swinging his club by its
+string. But his eye was over his shoulder, my way;
+so I had to cross to that house, though I didn’t
+want to, any more. I did not expect it to be Smith’s
+house, now that I was so out of luck, but I thought
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_155'>155</span>I would ring and ask, and if it proved to be some one
+else’s house, then I would explain that I had come to
+examine the gas meter and thus get out the back
+way and be all right again. The door was opened
+by a middle-aged matron with a gentle and friendly
+face, and she had a sweet serenity about her that
+was a notable contrast to my nervous flurry. I asked
+after Smith and if he lived there, and to my surprise
+and gratitude she said that this was his home.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“Can I see him? Can I see him right away--immediately?”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>No; he was gone downtown. My rising hopes
+fell to ruin.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“Then can I see Mrs. Smith?”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>But alas and alas! she was gone downtown with
+him. In my distress I was suddenly smitten by one
+of those ghastly hysterical inspirations, you know,
+when you want to do an insane thing just to astonish
+and petrify somebody; so I said, with a rather overdone
+pretense of playful ease and assurance:</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“Ah, this is a very handsome overcoat on the
+hat rack--be so good as to lend it to me for a day
+or two!”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“With pleasure,” she said--and she had the coat
+on me before I knew what had happened. It had
+been my idea to astonish and petrify her, but I was
+the person astonished and petrified, myself. So
+astonished and so petrified, in fact, that I was out
+of the house and gone, without a thank-you or a
+question, before I came to my senses again. Then
+I drifted slowly along, reflecting--reflecting pleasantly.
+I said to myself, “She simply divined my
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_156'>156</span>character by my face--what a far clearer intuition
+she had than that policeman.” The thought sent
+a glow of self-satisfaction through me.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Then a hand was laid on my shoulder and I
+shrank together with a crash. It was the policeman.
+He scanned me austerely and said:</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“Where did you get that overcoat?”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Although I had not been doing any harm, I had
+all the sense of being caught--caught in something
+disreputable. The officer’s accusing eye and unbelieving
+aspect heightened this effect. I told what
+had befallen me at the house in as straightforward a
+way as I could, but I was ashamed of the tale, and
+looked it, without doubt, for I knew and felt how
+improbable it must necessarily sound to anybody,
+particularly a policeman. Manifestly he did not
+believe me. He made me tell it all over again, then
+he questioned me:</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“You don’t know the woman?”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“No, I don’t know her.”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“Haven’t the least idea who she is?”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“Not the least.”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“You didn’t tell her your name?”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“No.”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“She didn’t ask for it?”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“No.”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“You just asked her to lend you the overcoat,
+and she let you take it?”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“She put it on me herself.”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“And didn’t look frightened?”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“Frightened? Of course not.”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“Not even surprised?”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'><span class='pageno' id='Page_157'>157</span>“Not in the slightest degree.”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>He paused. Presently he said:</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“My friend, I don’t believe a word of it. Don’t
+you see, yourself, it’s a tale that won’t wash? Do
+<em>you</em> believe it?”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“Yes. I know it’s true.”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“Weren’t you surprised?”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“Clear through to the marrow!”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>He had been edging me along back to the house.
+He had a deep design; he sprung it on me now.
+Said he:</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“Stop where you are. I’ll mighty soon find out!”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>He walked to the door and up the steps, keeping
+a furtive eye out toward me and ready to jump for
+me if I ran. Then he pretended to pull the bell, and
+instantly faced about to observe the effect on me.
+But there wasn’t any; I walked toward him instead
+of running away. That unsettled him. He came
+down the steps, evidently perplexed, and said:</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“Well, I can’t make it out. It may be all right,
+but it’s too many for me. I don’t like your looks
+and I won’t have such characters around. Go along,
+now, and look sharp. If I catch you prowling around
+here again I’ll run you <em>in</em>.”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>I found Smith at the Water Color dinner that
+night, and asked him if it were merely my face that
+had enabled me to borrow the overcoat from a
+stranger, but he was surprised and said:</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“No! What an idea--and what intolerable conceit!
+She is my housekeeper, and remembered your
+drawling voice from overhearing it a moment that
+night four or five years ago in my house; so she knew
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_158'>158</span>where to send the police if you didn’t bring the coat
+back!”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>After all those years I was sitting here, now, at
+midnight in the peasant hotel, in my night clothes,
+and honoring womankind in my thoughts; for here
+was another woman, with the noble and delicate
+intuitions of her sex, trusting me, a total stranger,
+with all her modest wealth. She entered the room,
+just then, and stood beaming upon me a moment with
+her sweet matronly eyes--then took away the jewelry.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'><i>Tuesday, September 22d.</i>--Breakfast in open air.
+Extra canvas was now to be added to the boat’s
+hood to keep the passengers and valises better protected
+during rainstorms. I passed through the villagette
+and started to walk over the wooded hill, the
+boat to find us on the river bank somewhere below,
+by and by. I soon got lost among the high bushes
+and turnip gardens. Plenty of paths, but none went
+to river. Reflection. Decision--that the path most
+traveled was the one leading in the right direction.
+It was a poor conclusion. I got lost again; this time
+worse than before. But a peasant of above eighty
+(as she said, and certainly she was very old and
+wrinkled and gray and bent) found me presently and
+undertook to guide me safely. She was vigorous,
+physically, prompt and decided of movement, and
+altogether soldierlike; and she had a hawk’s eye
+and beak, and a gypsy’s complexion. She said that
+from her girlhood up to not so very many years ago
+she had done a man’s work on a woman’s pay on
+the big keel boats that carry stone down the river,
+and was as good a man as the best, in the matter
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_159'>159</span>of handling stone. Said she had seen the great
+Napoleon when she was a little child. Her face was
+so wrinkled and dark and so eaglelike that she reminded
+me of old Indians one sees out on the Great
+Plains--the outside signs of age, but in the eye an
+indestructible spirit. She had a couple of laden
+baskets with her which I had found heavy after
+three minutes’ carrying, when she was finding the
+way for me, but they seemed nothing to her. She
+impressed one rather as a man than as a woman;
+and so, when she spoke of her child that was drowned,
+and her voice broke a little and her lip quivered, it
+surprised me; I was not expecting it. “Grandchild?”
+No--it was her own child. “Indeed? When?” So
+then it came out that it was sixty years ago. It
+seemed strange that she should mind it so long. But
+that was the woman of it, no doubt. She had a fragment
+of newspaper--religious--with rude holy woodcuts
+in it and doubtful episodes in the lives of mediæval
+saints and anchorites--and she could read these
+instructive matters in fine print without glasses; also,
+her eyes were as good at long distances. She led
+hither and thither among the paths and finally
+brought me out overlooking the river. There was a
+steep sandy frontage there, where there had recently
+been a small landslide, and the faint new path ran
+straight across it for forty feet, like a slight snow
+track along the slant of a very steep roof. I halted
+and declined. I had no mind to try the crumbly
+path and creep and quake along it with the boiling
+river--and maybe some rocks--under my elbow
+thirty feet below. Such places turn my stomach.
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_160'>160</span>The old woman took note of me, understood, and
+said what sounded like, “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><i>Lass’ ma allez au premier</i></span>”--then
+she tramped briskly and confidently across
+with her baskets, sending miniature avalanches of
+sand and gravel down into the river with each step.
+One of her feet plowed from under her, about midway,
+but she snatched it back and marched on, not
+seeming to mind it. My pride urged me to move
+along, and put me to shame. After a time the old
+woman came back and coaxed me to try, and did at
+last get me started in her wake and I got as far as
+midway all right; but then to hearten me still more
+and show me how easy and safe it was, she began to
+prance and dance her way along, with her knuckles
+in her hips, kicking a landslide loose with every skip.
+The exhibition struck a cold panic through me and
+made my brain swim. I leaned against the slope and
+said I would stay there until the boat came and testified
+as to whether there were rocks under me or
+not. For the third time in my life I was in that
+kind of a fix--in a place where I could not go backward
+or forward, and mustn’t stay where I was. The
+boat was a good while coming, but it seemed longer
+than that. Where I was, the slope was like a roof;
+where the slope ended the wall was perpendicular
+thence to the water, and one could not see over and
+tell what the state of things might be down there.
+When the boat came along, the courier said there
+was nothing down there but deep water--no rocks.
+I did not mind the water; so my fears disappeared,
+now, and I finished my march without discomfort.
+I gave the old woman some money, which pleased
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_161'>161</span>her very much and she tried her grateful best to
+give us a partridge, newly killed, which she rummaged
+out of one of her baskets, and seemed disappointed
+when I would not take it. But I couldn’t;
+it would have been a shabby act. Then she went
+her way with her heavy baskets and I got aboard
+and afloat once more, feeling a great respect for her
+and very friendly toward her. She waved a good-by
+every now and then till her figure faded out in the
+plain, joining that interminable procession of friends
+made and lost in an hour that drifts past a man’s
+life from cradle to grave and returns on its course no
+more. The courier said she was probably a poacher
+and stole the partridge.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>The courier was not able to understand why I had
+not nerve enough to walk along a crumbling slope
+with a precipice only thirty feet high below me; but
+I had no difficulty in understanding it. It is constitutional
+with me to get nervous and incapable under
+the probability of getting myself dropped thirty feet
+on to a pile of rocks; it does not come from culture.
+Some people are made in one way, and some in
+another--and the above is my way. Some people
+who can skirt precipices without a tremor have a
+strong dread of the dentist’s chair, whereas I was
+born without any prejudices against the dentist’s
+chair; when in it I am interested, am not in a hurry,
+and do not greatly mind the pain. Taken by and
+large, my style of make has advantages over the
+other, I think. Few of us are obliged to circumnavigate
+precipices, but we all have to take a chance
+at the dental chair.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'><span class='pageno' id='Page_162'>162</span>People who early learn the right way to choose a
+dentist have their reward. Professional superiority
+is not everything; it is only part. All dentists talk
+while they work. They have inherited this from
+their professional ancestors, the barbers. The dentist
+who talks well--other things being equal--is the
+one to choose. He tells anecdotes all the while and
+keeps his man so interested and entertained that he
+hardly notices the flight of time. For he not only
+tells anecdotes that are good in themselves, but he
+adds nice shadings to them with his instruments as
+he goes along, and now and then brings out effects
+which could not be produced with any other kind of
+tools at all. All the time that such a dentist as this
+is plowing down into a cavity with that spinning
+gouge which he works with a treadle, it is observable
+that he has found out where he has uncovered a
+nerve down in there, and that he only visits it at
+intervals, according to the needs of his anecdote,
+touching it lightly, very lightly and swiftly, now and
+then, to brighten up some happy conceit in his tale
+and call a delicate electric attention to it; and all
+the while he is working gradually and steadily up
+toward his climax with veiled and consummate art--then
+at last the spindle stops whirling and thundering
+in the cavity, and you know that the grand
+surprise is imminent, now--is hanging in the very
+air. You can hear your heart beat as the dentist
+bends over you with his grip on the spindle and his
+voice diminished to a murmur. The suspense grows
+bigger--bigger--bigger--your breath stops--then
+your heart. Then with lightning suddenness the
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_163'>163</span>“nub” is sprung and the spindle drives into the raw
+nerve! The most brilliant surprises of the stage are
+pale and artificial compared with this.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>It is believed by people generally--or at least by
+many--that the exquisitely sharp sensation which
+results from plunging the steel point into the raw
+nerve is pain, but I think that this is doubtful. It
+is so vivid and sudden that one has no time to
+examine properly into its character. It is probably
+impossible, with our human limitations, to determine
+with certainty whether a sensation of so high and
+perfect an order as that is pain or whether it is
+pleasure. Its location brings it under the disadvantage
+of a common prejudice; and so men mistake
+it for pain when they might perceive that it is the
+opposite of that if it were anywhere but in a tooth.
+I may be in error, but I have experimented with
+it a great deal and I am satisfied in my own mind that
+it is not pain. It is true that it always feels like
+pain, but that proves nothing--ice against a naked
+back always passes for fire. I have every confidence
+that I can eventually prove to everyone’s satisfaction
+that a nerve-stab produces pleasure; and
+not only that, but the most exquisite pleasure, the
+most perfect felicity which we are capable of feeling.
+I would not ask more than to be remembered hereafter
+as the man who conferred this priceless benefaction
+upon his race.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>11.30.--Approaching the Falls of the Rhône.
+Canal to the left, walled with compact and beautiful
+masonry. It is a cut-off. We could pass through it
+and avoid the Falls--are advised by the Admiral to
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_164'>164</span>do it, but all decline, preferring to have a dangerous
+adventure to talk about.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>However....</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>The truth is, the current began to grow ominously
+swift--and presently pretty lumpy and perturbed;
+soon we seemed to be simply flying past the shores.
+Then all of a sudden three hundred yards of boiling
+and tossing river burst upon our sight through the
+veiling tempest of rain! I did not see how our flimsy
+ark could live through such a place. If we were
+wrecked, swimming could not save us; the packed
+multitude of tall humps of water meant a bristling
+chaos of big rocks underneath, and the first rock we
+hit would break our bones. If I had been fortified
+with ignorance I might have wanted to stay in the
+boat and see the fun; but I have had much professional
+familiarity with water, and I doubted if there
+was going to be any fun there. So I said I would
+get out and walk, and I did. I need not tell anybody
+at home; I could leave out the Falls of the
+Rhône; they are not on the map, anyhow. If an
+adventure worth recording resulted, the Admiral and
+the courier would have it, and that would answer. I
+could see it from the bank--nothing could be better;
+it seemed even providential.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>I ran along the bank in the driving rain, and enjoyed
+the sight to the full. I never saw a finer show
+than the passage of that boat was, through the fierce
+turmoil of water. Alternately she rose high and
+plunged deep, throwing up sheets of foaming spray
+and shaking them off like a mane. Several times she
+seemed to fairly bury herself, and I thought she
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_165'>165</span>was gone for good, but always she sprang high aloft the
+next moment, a gallant and stirring spectacle to see.
+The Admiral’s steering was great. I had not seen
+the equal of it before.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>The boat waited for me down at the Villebois
+bridge, and I presently caught up and went aboard.
+There was a stretch of a hundred yards of offensively
+rough water below the bridge, but it had no dangerous
+features about it. Still, I was obliged to claim
+that it had, and that these perils were much greater
+than the others.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Noon.--A mile of perpendicular precipices--very
+handsome. On the left, at the termination of this
+stately wall, a darling little old tree-grown ruin
+abreast a wooded islet with a large white mansion
+on it. Near that ruin nature has gotten up a clever
+counterfeit of one, tree-grown and all that, and,
+as its most telling feature, has furnished it a battered
+monolith that stands up out of the underbrush by
+itself and looks as if men had shaped it and put it
+there and time had gnawed it and worn it.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>This is the prettiest piece of river we have found.
+All its aspects are dainty and gracious and alluring.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>1 <span class='fss'>P.M.</span>--Château de la Salette. This is the port
+of the Grotte de la Balme, “one of the seven wonders
+of Dauphiny.” It is across a plain in the face of a
+bluff a mile from the river. A grotto is out of the
+common order, and I should have liked to see this
+one, but the rains have made the mud very deep
+and it did not seem well to venture so long a trip
+through it.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>2.15 <span class='fss'>P.M.</span>--St.-Etienne. On a distant ridge inland
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_166'>166</span>a tall openwork structure commandingly situated,
+with a statue of the Virgin standing on it.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Immense empty freight barges being towed upstream
+by teams of two and four big horses--not on
+the bank, but under it; not on the land, but always
+in the water--sometimes breast deep--and around
+the big flat bars.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>We reached a not very promising-looking village
+about four o’clock, and concluded to land; munching
+fruit and filling the hood with pipe smoke had grown
+monotonous. We could not have the hood furled,
+because the floods of rain fell unceasingly. The
+tavern was on the river bank, as is the custom. It
+was dull there, and melancholy--nothing to do but
+look out of the window into the drenching rain and
+shiver; one could do that, for it was bleak and cold
+and windy, and there was no fire. Winter overcoats
+were not sufficient; they had to be supplemented
+with rugs. The raindrops were so large and struck
+the river with such force that they knocked up the
+water like pebble splashes.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>With the exception of a very occasional wooden-shod
+peasant, nobody was abroad in this bitter
+weather--I mean of our sex. But all weathers are
+alike to the women in these continental countries.
+To them and the other animals life is serious;
+nothing interrupts their slavery. Three of them
+were washing clothes in the river under the window
+when we arrived, and they continued at it as long
+as there was light to work by. One was apparently
+thirty; another--the mother?--above fifty; the
+third--grandmother?--so old and worn and gray
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_167'>167</span>she could have passed for eighty. They had no
+waterproofs or rubbers, of course; over their heads
+and shoulders they wore gunny sacks--simply conductors
+for rivers of water; some of the volume
+reached ground, the rest soaked in on the way.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>At last a vigorous fellow of thirty-five arrived,
+dry and comfortable, smoking his pipe under his big
+umbrella in an open donkey cart--husband, son, and
+grandson of those women? He stood up in the cart,
+sheltering himself, and began to superintend, issuing
+his orders in a masterly tone of command, and showing
+temper when they were not obeyed swiftly
+enough. Without complaint or murmur the drowned
+women patiently carried out the orders, lifting the
+immense baskets of soaked clothing into the cart and
+stowing them to the man’s satisfaction. The cart
+being full now, he descended, with his umbrella,
+entered the tavern, and the women went drooping
+homeward in the wake of the cart, and soon were
+blended with the deluge and lost to sight. We
+would tar and feather that fellow in America, and
+ride him on a rail.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>When we came down into the public room he had
+his bottle of wine and plate of food on a bare table
+black with grease, and was chomping like a horse.
+He had the little religious paper which is in everybody’s
+hands on the Rhône borders, and was enlightening
+himself with the histories of French saints
+who used to flee to the desert in the Middle Ages to
+escape the contamination of women.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Wednesday.--After breakfast, got under way.
+Still storming as hard as ever. The whole land looks
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_168'>168</span>defeated and discouraged. And very lonely; here
+and there a woman in the fields. They merely accent
+the loneliness.</p>
+
+<div class='quote'>
+
+<p class='c002'><span class='sc'>Note.</span>--The record ends here. Luxurious enjoyment of the
+excursion rendered the traveler indifferent to his notes. The drift
+continued to Arles, whence Mark Twain returned to Geneva and
+Ouchy by rail. Ten years later he set down another picture of this
+happy journey--“The Lost Napoleon”--which follows.--A. B. P.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<hr class='c025' />
+<div class='footnote' id='f3'>
+<p class='c002'><a href='#r3'>3</a>. Of Hartford, Connecticut.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f4'>
+<p class='c002'><a href='#r4'>4</a>. <i>Note, 1904.</i> Hopkinson Smith, now a distinguished man in
+literature, art, and architecture. S. L. C.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_169'>169</span>
+  <h2 class='c008'>THE LOST NAPOLEON</h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class='drop-capa0_2_0_4 c015'>The lost Napoleon is a part of a mountain range.
+Several miles of it--say six. When you stand
+at the right viewpoint and look across the plain,
+there, miles away, stretched out on his back under
+the sky, you see the great Napoleon, sleeping, with
+his arm folded upon his breast. You recognize him
+at once and you catch your breath and a thrill goes
+through you from head to foot--a most natural thing
+to happen, for you have never been so superbly
+astonished in your life before, and you realize, if
+you live a century, it is not likely that you will ever
+encounter the like of that tremendous surprise again.
+You see, it is unique. You have seen mountain
+ridges before that looked like men lying down, but
+there was always some one to pilot you to the right
+viewpoint, and prepare you for the show, and then
+tell you which is the head and which the feet and
+which the stomach, and at last you get the idea and
+say, “Yes, now I see it, now I make it out--it is a
+man, and wonderful, too.” But all this has damaged
+the surprise and there is not much thrill; moreover,
+the man is only a third-rate celebrity or no celebrity
+at all--he is no Napoleon the Great. But I discovered
+this stupendous Napoleon myself and was
+caught wholly by surprise, hence the splendid
+emotion, the uplifting astonishment.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'><span class='pageno' id='Page_170'>170</span>We have all seen mountains that looked like
+whales, elephants, recumbent lions--correctly figured,
+too, and a pleasure to look upon--but we did
+not discover them, somebody pointed them out to
+us, and in the same circumstances we have seen and
+enjoyed stately crags and summits known to the
+people thereabouts as “The Old Man’s Head,”
+“The Elephant’s Head,” “Anthony’s Nose,” “The
+Lady’s Head,” etc., and we have seen others that
+were named “Shakespeare’s Head,” and “Satan’s
+Head,” but still the fine element of surprise was in
+almost all cases wanting.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>The Lost Napoleon is easily the most colossal and
+impressive statue in the world. It is several miles
+long; in form and proportions it is perfect. It
+represents Napoleon himself and not another; and
+there is something about the dignity and repose of
+the great figure that stirs the imagination and half
+persuades it that this is not an unsentient artifice of
+nature, but the master of the world sentient and
+dreaming--dreaming of battle, conquest, empire. I
+call it the Lost Napoleon because I cannot remember
+just where I was when I saw it. My hope, in writing
+this, is that I may move some wandering tourist or
+artist to go over my track and seek for it--seek for
+it, find it, locate it exactly, describe it, paint it, and
+so preserve it against loss again.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>My track was down the Rhône; I made the excursion
+ten or eleven years ago in the pleasantest
+season of the year. I took a courier with me and
+went from Geneva a couple of hours by rail to the blue
+little Lake Bourget, and spent the night in a mediæval
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_171'>171</span>castle on an island in that little lake. In the early
+morning our boat came for us. It was a roomy open
+boat fifteen or twenty feet long, with a single pair of
+long oars, and with it came its former owner, a
+sturdy big boatman. The boat was mine now; I
+think I paid five dollars for it. I was to pay the boatman
+a trifling daily wage and his keep, and he was to
+take us all the way down the Rhône to Marseilles.
+It was warm weather and very sunny, but we built a
+canvas arch, like a wagon cover, over the aftermost
+third of the boat, with a curtain at its rear which
+could be rolled up to let the breeze blow through,
+and I occupied that tent and was always comfortable.
+The sailor sat amidships and manned the oars,
+and the courier had the front third of the boat to
+himself. We crossed the lake and went winding down
+a narrow canal bordered by peasant houses and vineyards,
+and after about a league of this navigation we
+came in sight of the Rhône, a troubled gray stream
+which went tearing past the mouth of the peaceful
+canal at a racing gait. We emerged into it and laid
+in the oars. We could go fast enough in that current
+without artificial aid. During the first days we
+slipped along down the curving bends at a speed of
+about five miles an hour, but it slackened later.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Our days were all about alike. About four in the
+afternoon we tied up at a village and I dined on the
+greensward in front of the inn by the water’s edge,
+on the choicest chickens, vegetables, fruit, butter,
+and bread, prepared in French perfection and
+served upon the whitest linen; and as a rule I had
+the friendly house cat and dog for guests and company
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_172'>172</span>and willing and able helpers. I slept in the
+inn; often in clean and satisfactory quarters, sometimes
+in the same room with the cows and the fleas.
+I breakfasted on the lawn in the morning with cat
+and dog again; then laid in a stock of grapes and
+other fruits gathered fresh from the garden and some
+bottles of red wine made on the premises, and at
+eight or nine we went floating down the river again.
+At noon we went ashore at a village, bought a
+freshly caught fish or two, had them broiled, got
+some bread and vegetables, and set sail again at once.
+We always lunched on board as we floated along. I
+spent my days reading books, making notes, smoking,
+and in other lazy and enchanting ways, and
+had the delightfulest ten-day voyage I have ever
+experienced.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>It took us ten days to float to Arles. There the
+current gave out and I closed the excursion and returned
+to Geneva by rail. It was twenty-eight miles
+to Marseilles, and we should have been obliged to
+row. That would not have been pleasure; it would
+have meant work for the sailor, and I do not like
+work even when another person does it.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>I think it was about the eighth day that I discovered
+Napoleon. My notes cover four or five days;
+there they stop; the charm of the trip had taken possession
+of me, and I had no energy left. It was
+getting toward four in the afternoon--time to tie
+up for the day. Down ahead on the right bank I
+saw a compact jumble of yellowy-browny cubes
+stacked together, some on top of the others, and no
+visible cracks in the mass, and knew it for a village--a
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_173'>173</span>village common to that region down there; a
+village jammed together without streets or alleys,
+substantially--where your progress is mainly <em>through</em>
+the houses, not <em>by</em> them, and where privacy is a
+thing practically unknown; a village which probably
+hadn’t had a house added to the jumble for five
+hundred years. We were anywhere from half a mile
+to a mile above the village when I gave the order
+to proceed to that place and tie up. Just then I
+glanced to my left toward the distant mountain
+range, and got that soul-stirring shock which I have
+said so much about. I pointed out the grand figure
+to the courier, and said:</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“Name it. Who is it?”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“Napoleon!”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“Yes, it is Napoleon. Show it to the sailor and
+ask him to name it.”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>The sailor said, “Napoleon.” We watched the
+figure all the time then until we reached the village.
+We walked up the river bank in the morning to see
+how far one might have to go before the shape would
+materially change, but I do not now remember the
+result. We watched it afterward as we floated away
+from the village, but I cannot remember at what point
+the shape began to be marred. However, the
+mountains being some miles away, I think that the
+figure would be recognizable as Napoleon along a
+stretch of as much as a mile above and a mile below
+the village, though I think that the likeness would
+be strongest at the point where I first saw it--that
+is, half a mile or more above the village.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>We talked the grand apparition over at great length
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_174'>174</span>and with a strong interest. I said I believed that
+if its presence were known to the world such shoals of
+tourists would come flocking there to see it that all
+the spare ground would soon be covered with hotels;
+and I think so yet. I think it would soon be the most
+celebrated natural curiosity on the planet, that it
+would be more visited than Niagara or the Alps, and
+that all the other famous natural curiosities of the
+globe would fall to a rank away below it. I think so
+still.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>There is a line of lumbering and thundering great
+freight steamers on the Rhône, and I think that if
+some man will board one of them at Arles and make
+a trip of some hours upstream--say from three to
+six--and keep an eye out to the right and watch that
+mountain range he will be certain to find the Lost
+Napoleon and have no difficulty in rediscovering the
+mighty statue when he comes to the right point.
+It will cost nothing to make the experiment, and I
+hope it will be done.</p>
+
+<div class='quote'>
+
+<p class='c002'><span class='sc'>Note.</span>--Mark Twain’s biographer rediscovered it in 1913. It is
+some miles below Valence, opposite the village of Beauchastel.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_175'>175</span>
+  <h2 class='c008'>SOME NATIONAL STUPIDITIES <br /> <span class='small'>(1891-1892)</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class='drop-capa0_2_0_4 c015'>The slowness of one section of the world about
+adopting the valuable ideas of another section
+of it is a curious thing and unaccountable. This
+form of stupidity is confined to no community, to no
+nation; it is universal. The fact is the human race
+is not only slow about borrowing valuable ideas--it
+sometimes persists in not borrowing them at all.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Take the German stove, for instance--the huge
+white porcelain monument that towers toward the
+ceiling in the corner of the room, solemn, unsympathetic,
+and suggestive of death and the grave--where
+can you find it outside of the German countries?
+I am sure I have never seen it where German
+was not the language of the region. Yet it is by long
+odds the best stove and the most convenient and
+economical that has yet been invented.<a id='r5' /><a href='#f5' class='c023'><sup>[5]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c002'>To the uninstructed stranger it promises nothing;
+but he will soon find that it is a masterly performer,
+for all that. It has a little bit of a door which you
+couldn’t get your head into--a door which seems
+foolishly out of proportion to the rest of the edifice;
+yet the door is right, for it is not necessary that bulky
+fuel shall enter it. Small-sized fuel is used, and marvelously
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_176'>176</span>little of that. The door opens into a tiny
+cavern which would not hold more fuel than a baby
+could fetch in its arms. The process of firing is quick
+and simple. At half past seven on a cold morning
+the servant brings a small basketful of slender pine
+sticks--say a modified armful--and puts half of
+these in, lights them with a match, and closes the
+door. They burn out in ten or twelve minutes. He
+then puts in the rest and <em>locks</em> the door, and carries
+off the key. The work is done. He will not come
+again until next morning. All day long and until
+past midnight all parts of the room will be delightfully
+warm and comfortable, and there will be no
+headaches and no sense of closeness or oppression.
+In an American room, whether heated by steam,
+hot water, or open fires, the neighborhood of the
+register or the fireplace is warmest--the heat is not
+equally diffused through the room; but in a German
+room one is as comfortable in one part of it as in
+another. Nothing is gained or lost by being near the
+stove. Its surface is not hot; you can put your
+hand on it anywhere and not get burnt. Consider
+these things. One firing is enough for the day; the
+cost is next to nothing; the heat produced is the
+same all day, instead of too hot and too cold by
+turns; one may absorb himself in his business in
+peace; he does not need to feel any anxieties or
+solicitudes about his fire; his whole day is a realized
+dream of bodily comfort.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>The German stove is not restricted to wood; peat
+is used in it, and coal bricks also. These coal bricks
+are made of waste coal dust pressed in a mold. In
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_177'>177</span>effect they are dirt and in fact are dirt cheap. The
+brick is about as big as your two fists; the stove will
+burn up twenty of them in half an hour, then it will
+need no more fuel for that day.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>This noble stove is at its very best when its front
+has a big square opening in it for a <em>visible</em> wood fire.
+The real heating is done in the hidden regions of the
+great structure, of course--the open fire is merely
+to rejoice your eye and gladden your heart.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>America could adopt this stove, but does America
+do it? No, she sticks placidly to her own fearful and
+wonderful inventions in the stove line. She has fifty
+kinds, and not a rational one in the lot. The American
+wood stove, of whatsoever breed, is a terror.
+There can be no tranquillity of mind where it is. It
+requires more attention than a baby. It has to be
+fed every little while, it has to be watched all the
+time; and for all reward you are roasted half your
+time and frozen the other half. It warms no part of
+the room but its own part; it breeds headaches and
+suffocation, and makes one’s skin feel dry and
+feverish; and when your wood bill comes in you
+think you have been supporting a volcano.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>We have in America many and many a breed of
+coal stoves, also--fiendish things, everyone of them.
+The base-burner sort are handy and require but
+little attention; but none of them, of whatsoever
+kind, distributes its heat uniformly through the
+room, or keeps it at an unvarying temperature, or
+fails to take the life out of the atmosphere and leave
+it stuffy and smothery and stupefying.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>It seems to me that the ideal of comfort would be
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_178'>178</span>a German stove to heat one’s room, and an open
+wood fire to make it cheerful; then have furnace-heat
+in the halls. We could easily find some way
+to make the German stove beautiful, and that is all
+it needs at present. Still, even as it is to-day, it is
+lovely, it is a darling, compared with any “radiator”
+that has yet been intruded upon the world. That
+odious gilded skeleton! It makes all places ugly that
+it inhabits--just by contagion.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>It is certainly strange that useful customs and
+devices do not spread from country to country with
+more facility and promptness than they do. You
+step across the German border almost anywhere, and
+suddenly the German stove has disappeared. In
+Italy you find a foolish and ineffectual modification
+of it, in Paris you find an unprepossessing “adaptation”
+of our base-burner on a reduced pattern.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Fifteen years ago Paris had a cheap and cunning
+little fire kindler consisting of a pine shaving, curled
+as it came from the carpenter’s plane, and gummed
+over with an inflammable substance which would
+burn several minutes and set fire to the most obdurate
+wood. It was cheap and handy, but no
+stranger carried the idea home with him. Paris has
+another swift and victorious kindler, now, in the
+form of a small black cake made of I don’t know
+what; but you shove it under the wood and touch a
+match to it and your fire is made. No one will think
+to carry that device to America, or elsewhere. In
+America we prefer to kindle the fire with the kerosene
+can and chance the inquest. I have been in a
+multitude of places where pine cones were abundant,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_179'>179</span>but only in the French Riviera and in one place in
+Italy have I seen them in the wood box to kindle the
+fires with.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>For perfect adaptation to the service required,
+look at the American gum shoe and the American
+arctic. Their virtues ought to have carried them to
+all wet and snowy lands; but they haven’t done anything
+of the kind. There are few places on the continent
+of Europe where one can buy them.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>And observe how slowly our typewriting machine
+makes its way. In the great city of Florence I was
+able to find only one place where I could get typewriting
+done; and then it was not done by a native,
+but by an American girl. In the great city of Munich
+I found one typewriting establishment, but the
+operator was sick and that suspended the business.
+I was told that there was no opposition house. In
+the prodigious city of Berlin I was not able to find
+a typewriter at all. There was not even one in our
+Embassy or its branches. Our representative there
+sent to London for the best one to be had in that
+capital, and got an incapable, who would have been
+tarred and feathered in Mud Springs, Arizona. Four
+years ago a typewritten page was a seldom sight in
+Europe, and when you saw it it made you heartsick,
+it was so inartistic, and so blurred and shabby
+and slovenly. It was because the Europeans made
+the machines themselves, and the making of nice
+machinery is not one of their gifts. England imports
+ours, now. This is wise; she will have her
+reward.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>In all these years the American fountain pen has
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_180'>180</span>hardly got a start in Europe. There is no market
+for it. It is too handy, too inspiring, too capable,
+too much of a time saver. The dismal steel pen and
+the compass-jawed quill are preferred. And semi-liquid
+mud is preferred to ink, apparently, everywhere
+in Europe. This in face of the fact that there
+is ink to be had in America--and at club rates, too.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Then there is the elevator, lift, <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><i>ascenseur</i></span>. America
+has had the benefit of this invaluable contrivance for
+a generation and a half, and it is now used in all our
+cities and villages, in all hotels, in all lofty business
+buildings and factories, and in many private dwellings.
+But we can’t spread it, we can’t beguile
+Europe with it. In Europe an elevator is even to
+this day a rarity and a curiosity. Especially a curiosity.
+As a rule it seats but three or four persons--often
+only two--and it travels so slowly and cautiously
+and timorously and piously and solemnly
+that it makes a person feel creepy and crawly and
+scary and dismal and repentant. Anybody with
+sound legs can give the continental elevator two
+flights the start and beat it to the sixth floor. Every
+time these nations merely import an American idea,
+instead of importing the concreted thing itself, the
+result is a failure. They tried to make the sewing
+machine, and couldn’t; they are trying to make
+fountain pens and typewriters and can’t; they are
+making these dreary elevators, now--and patenting
+them! Satire can no further go.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>I think that as a rule we develop a borrowed
+European idea forward, and that Europe develops
+a borrowed American idea backward. We borrowed
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_181'>181</span>gas lighting and the railroad from England, and the
+arc light from France, and these things have improved
+under our culture. We have lent Europe our
+tramway, telegraph, sewing machine, phonograph,
+telephone, and kodak, and while we may not claim
+that in these particular instances she has developed
+them backward, we are justified in claiming that
+she has added no notable improvements to them.
+We have added the improvements ourselves and
+she has accepted them. Why she has not accepted
+and universally adopted the improved elevator is a
+surprising and puzzling thing. Its rightful place is
+among the great ideas of our great age. It is an
+epoch maker. It is a concentrator of population,
+and economizer of room. It is going to build our
+cities skyward instead of out toward the horizons.<a id='r6' /><a href='#f6' class='c023'><sup>[6]</sup></a>
+It is going to enable five millions of people to live
+comfortably on the same ground space that one
+million uncomfortably lives on now. It is going to
+make cheap quarters for Tom, Dick, and Harry near
+their work, in place of three miles from it, as is the
+rule to-day. It is going to save them the necessity of
+adding a six-flight climb to the already sufficient
+fatigue of their day’s labor.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>We imitate some of the good things which we find
+in Europe, and we ought to imitate more of them.
+At the same time Europe ought to imitate us somewhat
+more than she does. The crusty, ill-mannered
+and in every way detestable Parisian cabman ought
+to imitate our courteous and friendly Boston cabman--and
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_182'>182</span>stop there. He can’t learn anything from
+the guild in New York. And it would morally help
+the Parisian shopkeeper if he would imitate the fair
+dealing of his American cousin. With us it is not
+necessary to ask the price of small articles before we
+buy them, but in Paris the person who fails to take
+that precaution will get scorched. In business we
+are prompt, fair, and trustworthy in all our small
+trade matters. It is the rule. In the friendliest spirit
+I would recommend France to imitate these humble
+virtues. Particularly in the kodak business. Pray
+get no kodak pictures developed in France--and
+especially in Nice. They will send you your bill to
+Rome or Jericho, or whithersoever you have gone,
+but that is all you will get. You will never see your
+negatives again, or the developed pictures, either.
+And by and by the head house in Paris will demand
+payment once more, and constructively threaten
+you with “proceedings.” If you inquire if they
+mailed your package across the frontier without
+registering it, they are coldly silent. If you inquire
+how they expected to trace and recover a lost package
+without a post-office receipt, they are dumb
+again. A little intelligence inserted into the kodak
+business in those regions would be helpful, if it could
+be done without shock.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>But the worst of all is, that Europe cannot be
+persuaded to imitate our railway methods. Two or
+three years ago I liked the European methods, but
+experience has dislodged that superstition. All over
+the Continent the system--to call it by an extravagant
+term--is sufficiently poor and slow and clumsy,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_183'>183</span>or unintelligent; but in these regards Italy and France
+are entitled to the chromo. In Italy it takes more
+than half an hour to buy a through ticket to Paris
+at Cook &amp; Sons’ offices, there is such a formidable
+amount of red tape and recording connected with the
+vast transaction. Every little detail of the matter
+must be written down in a set of books--your
+name, condition, nationality, religion, date, hour,
+number of the train, and all that; and at last you
+get your ticket and think you are done, but you are
+not; it must be carried to the station and stamped;
+and even that is not the end, for if you stop over at
+any point it must be stamped again or it is forfeited.
+And yet you save time and trouble by going to Cook
+instead of to the station. Buying your ticket does
+not finish your job. Your trunks must be weighed,
+and paid for at about human-being rates. This takes
+another quarter of an hour of your time--perhaps
+half an hour if you are at the tail of the procession.
+You get paper checks, which are twice as easy to
+lose as brass ones. You cannot secure a seat beforehand,
+but must take your chances with the
+general rush to the train. If you have your family
+with you, you may have to distribute them among
+several cars. There is one annoying feature which is
+common all over the Continent, and that is, that if
+you want to make a short journey you cannot buy
+your ticket whenever you find the ticket office open,
+but must wait until it is doing business for your
+particular train; and that only begins, as a rule, a
+quarter of an hour before the train’s time of starting.
+The cars are most ingeniously inconvenient, cramped,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_184'>184</span>and uncomfortable, and in Italy they are phenomenally
+dirty. The European “system” was devised
+either by a maniac or by a person whose idea was to
+hamper, bother, and exasperate the traveler in all conceivable
+ways and sedulously and painstakingly discourage
+custom. In Italy, as far as my experience
+goes, it is the custom to use the sleeping cars on the
+day trains and take them off when the sun goes down.
+One thing is sure, anyway: if that is not the case, it
+will be, presently, when they think of it. They can
+be depended upon to snap up as darling an idea as
+that with joy.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>No, we are bad enough about not importing valuable
+European ideas, but Europe is still slower about
+introducing ours. Europe has always--from away
+back--been neglectful in this regard. Take our
+admirable postal and express system, for instance.
+We had it perfectly developed and running smoothly
+and beautifully more than three hundred years ago;
+and Europe came over and admired it and eloquently
+praised it--but didn’t adopt it. We Americans....
+But let Prescott tell about it. I quote from the
+<cite>Conquest of Peru</cite>, chapter 2, vol. 1:</p>
+
+<div class='quote'>
+
+<p class='c002'>As the distance each courier had to perform was small, they
+ran over the ground with great swiftness, and messages were
+carried through the whole extent of the long routes at the rate
+of a hundred and fifty miles a day. Their office was not limited
+to carrying dispatches. They brought various articles. Fish
+from the distant ocean, fruits, game, and different commodities
+from the hot regions of the coast were taken to the capital in
+good condition. It is remarkable that this important institution
+should have been found among two barbarian nations of
+the New World long before it was introduced among the civilized
+nations of Europe. By these wise contrivances of the Incas,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_185'>185</span>the most distant parts of the long-extended empire of Peru
+were brought into intimate relations with each other. And
+while the capitals of Christendom, but a few hundred miles
+apart, remained as far asunder as if seas had rolled between
+them, the great capitals Cuzco and Quito were placed in immediate
+correspondence. Intelligence from the numerous provinces
+was transmitted on the wings of the wind to the Peruvian
+metropolis, the great focus to which all the lines of communication
+converged.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p class='c002'>There--that is what we had, three hundred and
+twenty-five years before Europe had anything that
+could be called a businesslike and effective postal
+and express service. We are a great people. We
+have always been a great people, from the start:
+always alive, alert, up early in the morning, and ready
+to teach. But Europe has been a slow and discouraging
+pupil from the start; always, from the very
+start. It seems to me that something ought to be
+done about this.</p>
+
+<hr class='c025' />
+<div class='footnote' id='f5'>
+<p class='c002'><a href='#r5'>5</a>. Compare with his remarks on the same subject, in “Marienbad--A
+Health Factory,” written about a year earlier.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f6'>
+<p class='c002'><a href='#r6'>6</a>. This was good prophecy. There were no skyscrapers in New
+York City when it was written.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_186'>186</span>
+  <h2 class='c008'>THE CHOLERA EPIDEMIC IN HAMBURG <br /> <span class='small'>(1892)</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class='drop-capa0_0_0_4 c015'>I believe I have never been so badly situated
+before as I have been during these last four weeks.
+To begin with, the time-hallowed and business-worn
+thunderbolt out of the clear sky fell about the
+18th of August--people in Hamburg dying like flies
+of something resembling cholera! A normal death
+rate of forty a day suddenly transformed into a
+terrific daily slaughter without notice to anybody
+to prepare for such a surprise! Certainly that was
+recognizable as that kind of a thunderbolt.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>It was at this point that the oddity of the situation
+above referred to began. For you will grant that it
+is odd to live four weeks a twelve-hour journey from
+a devastating plague nest and remain baffled and
+defeated all that time in all your efforts to get at the
+state of the case there. Naturally one flies to the
+newspapers when a pestilence breaks out in his
+neighborhood. He feels sure of one thing, at any
+rate: that the paper will cast all other interests into
+the background and devote itself to the one supreme
+interest of the day; that it will throw wide its
+columns and cram them with information, valuable
+and otherwise, concerning that great event; and that
+it will even leave out the idle jaunts of little dukes and
+kinglets to make room for the latest plague item. I
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_187'>187</span>sought the newspapers, and was disappointed. I
+know now that nothing that can happen in this
+world can stir the German daily journal out of its
+eternal lethargy. When the Last Day comes it will
+note the destruction of the world in a three-line
+paragraph and turn over and go to sleep again.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>This sort of journalism furnishes plenty of wonders.
+I have seen ostensible telegrams from Hamburg four
+days old, gravely put forth as news, and no apology
+offered. I have tracked a news item from one paper
+to another day after day until it died of old age and
+fatigue--and yet everybody treated it with respect,
+nobody laughed. Is it believable that these antiquities
+are forwarded by telegraph? It would be
+more rational to send them by slow freight, because
+less expensive and more speedy.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Then, the meagerness of the news meal is another
+marvel. That department of the paper is not headed
+“Poverty Column,” nobody knows why. We know
+that multitudes of people are being swept away daily
+in Hamburg, yet the daily telegrams from there could
+be copied on a half page of note paper, as a rule. If
+any newspaper has sent a special reporter thither
+he has not arrived yet.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>The final miracle of all is the character of this daily
+dribble of so-called news. The wisest man in the
+world can get no information out of it. It is an Irish
+stew made up of unrelated odds and ends, a mere
+chaotic confusion and worthless. What can one
+make out of statistics like these:</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Up to noon, 655 cases, 333 deaths. Of these 189
+were previously reported.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'><span class='pageno' id='Page_188'>188</span>The report that 650 bodies are lying unburied is
+not true. There are only 340, and the most of these
+will be buried to-night.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>There are 2,062 cases in the hospitals, 215 deaths.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>The figures are never given in such a way as to
+afford one an opportunity to compare the death list
+of one day with that of another; consequently there
+is no way of finding out whether the pest abates or
+increases. Sometimes a report uses the expression
+“to-day” and does not say when the day began or
+ended; sometimes the deaths for several days are
+bunched together in a divisionless lump; sometimes
+the figures make you think the deaths are five or six
+hundred a day, while other figures in the same paragraph
+seem to indicate that the rate is below two
+hundred.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>A day or two ago the word cholera was not discoverable
+at all in that day’s issue of one of our
+principal dailies; in to-day’s issue of the same paper
+there is no cholera report from Hamburg. Yet a
+private letter from there says the raging pestilence
+is actually increasing.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>One might imagine that the papers are forbidden
+to publish cholera news. I had that impression myself.
+It seemed the only explanation of the absence
+of special Hamburg correspondence. But it appears
+now, that the Hamburg papers are crammed with
+matter pertaining to the cholera, therefore that idea
+was an error. How does one find this out? In this
+amazing way: that a daily newspaper located ten or
+twelve hours from Hamburg describes with owl-eyed
+wonder the stirring contents of a Hamburg daily
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_189'>189</span>journal <em>six days old</em>, and yet gets from it the only
+informing matter, the only matter worth reading,
+which it has yet published from that smitten city
+concerning the pestilence.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>You see, it did not even occur to that petrified
+editor to bail his columns dry of their customary
+chloroform and copy that Hamburg journal entire.
+He is so used to shoveling gravel that he doesn’t
+know a diamond when he sees it. I would trust that
+man with untold bushels of precious news, and nobody
+to watch him. Among other things which he
+notes in the Hamburg paper is the fact that its
+supplements contained one hundred of the customary
+elaborate and formal German death notices. That
+means--what nobody has had reason to suppose
+before--that the slaughter is not confined to the poor
+and friendless. I think so, because that sort of death
+notice occupies a formidable amount of space in an
+advertising page, and must cost a good deal of money.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>I wander from my proper subject to observe that
+one hundred of these notices in a single journal must
+make that journal a sorrow to the eye and a shock to
+the taste, even among the Germans themselves, who
+are bred to endure and perhaps enjoy a style of “display
+ads” which far surpasses even the vilest American
+attempts, for insane and outrageous ugliness.
+Sometimes a death notice is as large as a foolscap
+page, has big black display lines, and is bordered
+all around with a coarse mourning border as thick
+as your finger. The notices are of all sizes from
+foolscap down to a humble two-inch square, and
+they suggest lamentation of all degrees, from the
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_190'>190</span>hundred-dollar hurricane of grief to the two-shilling
+sigh of a composed and modest regret. A newspaper
+page blocked out with mourning compartments of
+fifty different sizes flung together without regard
+to order or system or size must be a spectacle to see.</p>
+
+<div class='fatborder'>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+  <div class='nf-center'>
+    <div><span class='xlarge'>Todes-Anzeige.</span></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class='c007' />
+
+<p class='c002'><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Theilnehmenden Freunden und Bekannten hierdurch
+die schmerzliche Nachricht, daß mein lieber
+Freund und langjähriger, treuer Mitarbeiter</span></p>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+  <div class='nf-center'>
+    <div><span class='xlarge'>Rudolf Beck</span></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c022'><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">gestern Abend an einem Herzschlag plötzlich verschieden
+ist.</span></p>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+  <div class='nf-center'>
+    <div><span lang="de" xml:lang="de"><span class='large'><b>Langen</b></span>, den 5. September 1892.</span></div>
+    <div class='c001'><span class='xlarge'>Otto Steingoetter</span></div>
+    <div class='c001'>Firma <b>Beck &amp; Steingoetter</b>.</div>
+    <div class='c001'>Die Beerdigung findet Dienstag, den 6. Sept.,</div>
+    <div>Nachmittags 3½ Uhr, statt.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='c016'>25958</div>
+
+</div>
+
+<p class='c002'>The notice copied above is modest and straightforward.
+The advertiser informs sympathizing
+friends and acquaintances that his dear friend and
+old and faithful fellow laborer has been suddenly
+smitten with death; then signs his name and adds
+“of the firm of Beck &amp; Steingoetter,” which is
+perhaps another way of saying that the business
+will be continued as usual at the old stand. The
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_191'>191</span>average notice is often refreshed with a whiff of
+business at the end.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>The 100 formal notices in the Hamburg paper did
+not mean merely 100 deaths; each told of one death,
+but many of them told of more--in some cases they
+told of four and five. In the same issue there were
+132 one-line death notices. If the dates of these
+deaths were all stated, the 232 notices together could
+be made the basis of a better guess at the current
+mortality in Hamburg than the “official” reports
+furnished, perhaps. You would know that a certain
+number died on a certain day who left behind them
+people able to publish the fact and pay for it. Then
+you could correctly assume that the vast bulk of
+that day’s harvest were people who were penniless
+and left penniless friends behind. You could add your
+facts to your assumption and get <em>some</em> sort of idea of
+the death rate, and this would be strikingly better than
+the official reports, since they give you no idea at all.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>To-day a physician was speaking of a private
+letter received here yesterday from a physician in
+Hamburg which stated that every day numbers of
+poor people are snatched from their homes to the
+pest houses, and that that is the last that is heard
+of a good many of them. No intelligible record is
+kept; they die unknown and are buried so. That
+no intelligible record is kept seems proven by the
+fact that the public cannot get hold of a burial list
+for one day that is not made impossible by the record
+of the day preceding and the one following it.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>What I am trying to make the reader understand
+is, the strangeness of the situation here--a mighty
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_192'>192</span>tragedy being played upon a stage that is close to
+us, and yet we are as ignorant of its details as we
+should be if the stage were in China. We sit “in
+front,” and the audience is in fact the world; but
+the curtain is down and from behind it we hear only
+an inarticulate murmur. The Hamburg disaster
+must go into history as the disaster without a history.
+And yet a well-trained newspaper staff would find a
+way to secure an accurate list of the new hospital
+cases and the burials daily, and would do it, and
+not take it out in complaining of the foolishness and
+futility of the official reports. Every day we know exactly
+what is going on in the two cholera-stricken ships
+in the harbor of New York. That is all the cholera
+news we get that is worth printing or believing.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>All along we have heard rumors that the force of
+workers at Hamburg was too small to cope with the
+pestilence; that more help was impossible to get;
+and we have seen statements which confirmed these
+sorrowful facts; statements which furnished the pitiful
+spectacle of brave workers dying at their posts
+from exhaustion; of corpses lying in the halls of the
+hospitals, waiting there because there was no worker
+idle; and now comes another confirmatory item; it is
+in the physician’s letter above referred to--an item
+which shows you how hard pressed the authorities
+are by their colossal burden--an item which gives
+you a sudden and terrific sense of the situation there;
+for in a line it flashes before you this ghastly picture,
+a thing seen by the physician: a wagon going along
+the street with five sick people in it, and with them
+four corpses!</p>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_193'>193</span>
+  <h2 class='c008'>QUEEN VICTORIA’S JUBILEE <br /> <span class='small'>(1897)</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class='drop-capa0_2_0_4 c015'>So far as I can see, a procession has value in but
+two ways--as a show and as a symbol; its minor
+function being to delight the eye, its major one to
+compel thought, exalt the spirit, stir the heart, and
+inflame the imagination. As a mere show, and meaningless--like
+a Mardi-Gras march--a magnificent
+procession is a sight worth a long journey to see; as
+a symbol, the most colorless and unpicturesque procession,
+if it have a moving history back of it, is
+worth a thousand of it.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>After the Civil War ten regiments of bronzed New
+York veterans marched up Broadway in faded uniforms
+and bearing faded battle flags that were mere
+shot-riddled rags--and in each battalion as it swung
+by, one noted a great gap, an eloquent vacancy where
+had marched the comrades who had fallen and would
+march no more! Always, as this procession advanced
+between the massed multitudes, its approach was
+welcomed by each block of people with a burst of
+proud and grateful enthusiasm--then the head of it
+passed, and suddenly revealed those pathetic gaps,
+and silence fell upon that block; for every man in it
+had choked up, and could not get command of his
+voice and add it to the storm again for many minutes.
+That was the most moving and tremendous effect
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_194'>194</span>that I have ever witnessed--those affecting silences
+falling between those hurricanes of worshiping
+enthusiasm.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>There was no costumery in that procession, no
+color, no tinsel, no brilliancy, yet it was the greatest
+spectacle and the most gracious and exalting and
+beautiful that has come within my experience. It
+was because it had history back of it, and because it
+was a symbol, and stood for something, and because
+one viewed it with the spiritual vision, not the
+physical. There was not much for the physical eye
+to see, but it revealed continental areas, limitless
+horizons, to the eye of the imagination and the spirit.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>A procession, to be valuable, must do one thing or
+the other--clothe itself in splendors and charm the
+eye, or symbolize something sublime and uplifting,
+and so appeal to the imagination. As a mere spectacle
+to look at, I suppose that the Queen’s procession
+will not be as showy as the Tsar’s late pageant;
+it will probably fall much short of the one in Tannhäuser
+in the matter of rich and adorable costumery;
+in the number of renowned personages on view in it,
+it will probably fall short of some that have been
+seen in England before this. And yet in its major
+function, its symbolic function, I think that if all the
+people in it wore their everyday clothes and marched
+without flags or music, it would still be incomparably
+the most memorable and most important procession
+that ever moved through the streets of London.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>For it will stand for English history, English
+growth, English achievement, the accumulated
+power and renown and dignity of twenty centuries
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_195'>195</span>of strenuous effort. Many things about it will set
+one to reflecting upon what a large feature of this
+world England is to-day, and this will in turn move
+one, even the least imaginative, to cast a glance down
+her long perspective and note the steps of her progress
+and the insignificance of her first estate. In this
+matter London is itself a suggestive object lesson.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>I suppose that London has always existed. One
+cannot easily imagine an England that had no London.
+No doubt there was a village here 5,000 years
+ago. It was on the river somewhere west of where
+the Tower is now; it was built of thatched mud huts
+close to a couple of limpid brooks, and on every hand
+for miles and miles stretched rolling plains of fresh
+green grass, and here and there were groups and
+groves of trees. The tribes wore skins--sometimes
+merely their own, sometimes those of other animals.
+The chief was monarch, and helped out his complexion
+with blue paint. His industry was the chase;
+his relaxation was war. Some of the Englishmen
+who will view the procession to-day are carrying his
+ancient blood in their veins.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>It may be that that village remained about as it
+began, away down to the Roman occupation, a couple
+of thousand years ago. It was still not much of a
+town when Alfred burned the cakes. Even when the
+Conqueror first saw it, it did not amount to much.
+I think it must have been short of distinguished architecture
+or he would not have traveled down into the
+country to the village of Westminster to get crowned.
+If you skip down 350 years further you will find a
+London of some little consequence, but I believe that
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_196'>196</span>that is as much as you can say for it. Still, I am
+interested in that London, for it saw the first two
+processions which will live longer than any other in
+English history, I think; the date of the one is 1415,
+that of the other is 1897.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>The compactly built part of the London of 1415
+was a narrow strip not a mile long, which stretched
+east and west through the middle of what is now
+called “the City.” The houses were densest in the
+region of Cheapside. South of the strip were scattering
+residences which stood in turfy lawns which
+sloped to the river. North of the strip, fields and
+country homes extended to the walls. Let us represent
+that London by three checker-board squares
+placed in a row; then open out a New York
+newspaper like a book, and the space which it covers
+will properly represent the London of to-day by comparison.
+It is the difference between your hand and
+a blanket. It is possible that that ancient London
+had 100,000 inhabitants, and that 100,000 outsiders
+came to town to see the procession. The present
+London contains five or six million inhabitants, and
+it has been calculated that the population has jumped
+to 10,000,000 to-day.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>The pageant of 1415 was to celebrate the gigantic
+victory of Agincourt, then and still the most colossal
+in England’s history.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>From that day to this there has been nothing that
+even approached it but Plassey. It was the third
+and greatest in the series of monster victories won by
+the English over the French in the Hundred Years’
+War--Crecy, Poitiers, Agincourt. At Agincourt,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_197'>197</span>according to history, 15,000 English, under Henry
+V, defeated and routed an army of 100,000 French.
+Sometimes history makes it 8,000 English and 60,000
+French; but no matter, in both cases the proportions
+are preserved. Eight thousand of the French nobility
+were slain and the rest of the order taken prisoners--1,500
+in number--among them the Dukes of
+Orléans and Bourbon and Marshal Boucicaut; and
+the victory left the whole northern half of France an
+English possession. This wholesale depletion of the
+aristocracy made such a stringent scarcity in its
+ranks that when the young peasant girl, Joan of Arc,
+came to undo Henry’s mighty work fourteen years
+later she could hardly gather together nobles enough
+to man her staff.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>The battle of Agincourt was fought on the 25th
+of October, and a few days later the tremendous
+news was percolating through England. Presently
+it was sweeping the country like a tidal wave, like a
+cyclone, like a conflagration. Choose your own figure,
+there is no metaphor known to the language that can
+exaggerate the tempest of joy and pride and exultation
+that burst everywhere along the progress of that
+great news.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>The king came home and brought his soldiers with
+him--he and they the idols of the nation, now. He
+brought his 1,500 captive knights and nobles, too--we
+shall not see any such output of blue blood as
+that to-day, bond or free. The king rested three
+weeks in his palace, the Tower of London, while the
+people made preparations and prepared the welcome
+due him. On the 22d of December all was ready.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'><span class='pageno' id='Page_198'>198</span>There were no cables, no correspondents, no newspapers
+then--a regrettable defect, but not irremediable.
+A young man who would have been a correspondent
+if he had been born 500 years later was
+in London at the time, and he remembers the details.
+He has communicated them to me through a competent
+spirit medium, phrased in a troublesome mixture
+of obsolete English and moldy French, and I
+have thoroughly modernized his story and put it into
+straight English, and will here record it. I will
+explain that his Sir John Oldcastle is a person whom
+we do not know very well by that name, nor much
+care for; but we know him well and adore him, too,
+under his other name--Sir John Falstaff. Also, I
+will remark that two miles of the Queen’s progress
+to-day will be over ground traversed by the procession
+of Henry V; all solid bricks and mortar, now,
+but open country in Henry’s day, and clothed in that
+unapproachable beauty which has been the monopoly
+of sylvan England since the creation. Ah, where
+now are those long-vanished forms, those unreturning
+feet! Let us not inquire too closely. Translated,
+this is the narrative of the spirit-correspondent, who
+is looking down upon me at this moment from his
+high home, and admiring to see how the art and
+mystery of spelling has improved since his time!</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>NARRATIVE OF THE SPIRIT CORRESPONDENT</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>I was commanded by my lord the Lord Mayor to
+make a report for the archives, and was furnished
+with a fleet horse, and with a paper permitting me
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_199'>199</span>to go anywhere at my will, without let or hindrance,
+even up and down the processional route, though no
+other person not of the procession itself was allowed
+this unique privilege during the whole of the 21st and
+the 22d.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>On the morning of the 22d, toward noon, I rode
+from the Tower into the city, and through it as far
+as St. Paul’s. All the way, on both sides, all the windows,
+balconies, and roofs were crowded with people,
+and wherever there was a vacancy it had been built
+up in high tiers of seats covered with red cloth, and
+these seats were also filled with people--in all cases
+in bright holiday attire--the woman of fashion
+barring the view from all in the rear with those tiresome
+extinguisher hats, which of late have grown to
+be a cloth-yard high. From every balcony depended
+silken stuffs of splendid and various colors, and
+figured and pictured rich tapestries. It was brisk,
+sharp weather, but a rare one for sun, and when one
+looked down this swinging double wall of beautiful
+fabrics, glowing and flashing and changing color like
+prisms in the flooding light, it was a most fair sight
+to see. And there were frequent May poles, garlanded
+to their tops, and from the tops swung sheaves
+of silken long ribbons of all bright colors, which in
+the light breeze writhed and twisted and prettily
+mingled themselves together.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>I rode solitary--in state, as it might be--and was
+envied, as I could see, and did not escape comment,
+but had a plenty of it; for the conduits were running
+gratis wine, and the results were accumulating. I
+got many ribald compliments on my riding, on my
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_200'>200</span>clothes, on my office. Everybody was happy, so it
+was best to seem so myself, which I did--for those
+people’s aim was better than their eggs.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>A place had been reserved for me on a fine and
+fanciful erection in St. Paul’s Churchyard, and there
+I waited for the procession. It seemed a long time,
+but at last a dull booming sound arose in the distance,
+and after a while we saw the banners and the head of
+the procession come into view, and heard the muffled
+roar of voices that welcomed it. The roar moved
+continuously toward us, growing steadily louder and
+louder, and stronger and stronger, and with it the
+bray and crash of music; and presently it was right
+with us, and seemed to roll over us and submerge us,
+and stun us, and deafen us--and behold, there was
+the hero of Agincourt passing by!</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>All the multitude was standing up, red-faced, frantic,
+bellowing, shouting, the tears running down their
+faces; and through the storm of waving hats and
+handkerchiefs one glimpsed the battle banners and
+the drifting host of marching men as through a
+dimming flurry of snow.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>The king, tall, slender, handsome, rode with his
+visor up, that all might see his face. He was clad in
+his silver armor from head to heel, and had his great
+two-handed sword at his side, his battle-ax at his
+pommel, his shield upon his arm, and about his helmet
+waved and tossed a white mass of fluffy plumes.
+On either side of him rode the captive dukes, plumed
+like himself, but wearing long crimson satin gowns
+over their armor; after these came the French marshal
+similarly habited; after him followed the fifteen
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_201'>201</span>hundred French knights, with robes of various colors
+over their armor, and with each two rode two English
+knights, sometimes robed in various colors, sometimes
+in white with a red cross on the shoulder, these
+white-clad ones being Knights Templars. Every man
+of the three thousand bore his shield upon his left
+arm, newly polished and burnished, and on it was
+his device.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>As the king passed the church he bowed his head
+and lifted his shield, and by one impulse all the
+knights did the same; and so as far down the line as
+the eye could reach one saw the lifted shields simultaneously
+catch the sun, and it was like a sudden
+mile-long shaft of flashing light; and, Lord! it lit up
+that dappled sea of color with a glory like “the
+golden vortex in the west over the foundered sun”!
+(The introduction of this quotation is very interesting,
+for it shows that our literature of to-day has a circulation
+in heaven--pirated editions, no doubt.--M.T.)</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>The knights were a long time in passing; then
+came 5,000 Agincourt men-at-arms, and they were
+a long time; and at the very end, last of all, came
+that intolerable old tun of sack and godless ruffler,
+Sir John Oldcastle (now risen from the dead for the
+third time), fat-faced, purple with the spirit of bygone
+and lamented drink, smiling his hospitable, wide
+smile upon all the world, leering at the women,
+wallowing about in his saddle, proclaiming his
+valorous deeds as fast as he could lie, taking the
+whole glory of Agincourt to his single self, measuring
+off the miles of his slain and then multiplying them
+by 5, 7, 10, 15, as inspiration after inspiration came
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_202'>202</span>to his help--the most inhuman spectacle in England,
+a living, breathing outrage, a slander upon the
+human race; and after him came, mumming and
+blethering, his infamous lieutenants; and after them
+his “paladins,” as he calls them, the mangiest lot of
+starvelings and cowards that was ever littered, the
+disgrace of the noblest pageant that England has
+ever seen. God rest their souls in the place appointed
+for all such!</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>There was a moment of prayer at the Temple, the
+procession moved down the country road, its way
+walled on both sides by welcoming multitudes, and
+so, by Charing Cross, and at last to the Abbey for
+the great ceremonies. It was a grand day, and will
+remain in men’s memories.</p>
+
+<p class='c012'>That was as much of it as the spirit correspondent
+could let me have; he was obliged to stop there
+because he had an engagement to sing in the choir,
+and was already late.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>The contrast between that old England and the
+present England is one of the things which will make
+the pageant of the present day impressive and
+thought-breeding. The contrast between the England
+of the Queen’s reign and the England of any previous
+British reign is also an impressive thing. British
+history is two thousand years old, and yet in a good
+many ways the world has moved further ahead since
+the Queen was born than it moved in all the rest of
+the two thousand put together. A large part of this
+progress has been moral, but naturally the material
+part of it is the most striking and the easiest to
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_203'>203</span>measure. Since the Queen first saw the light she
+has seen invented and brought into use (with the
+exception of the cotton gin, the spinning frames, and
+the steamboat) every one of the myriad of strictly
+modern inventions which, by their united powers,
+have created the bulk of the modern civilization and
+made life under it easy and difficult, convenient and
+awkward, happy and horrible, soothing and irritating,
+grand and trivial, an indispensable blessing and
+an unimaginable curse--she has seen all these
+miracles, these wonders, these marvels piled up in
+her time, and yet she is but seventy-eight years old.
+That is to say, she has seen more things invented than
+any other monarch that ever lived; and more than
+the oldest old-time English commoner that ever lived,
+including Old Parr; and more than Methuselah himself--five
+times over.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Some of the details of the moral advancement
+which she has seen are also very striking and easily
+graspable.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>She has seen the English criminal laws prodigiously
+modified, and 200 capital crimes swept from the
+statute book.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>She has seen English liberty greatly broadened--the
+governing and lawmaking powers, formerly the
+possession of the few, extended to the body of the
+people, and purchase in the army abolished.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>She has seen the public educator--the newspaper--created,
+and its teachings placed within the reach
+of the leanest purse. There was nothing properly
+describable as a newspaper until long after she was
+born.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'><span class='pageno' id='Page_204'>204</span>She has seen the world’s literature set free, through
+the institution of international copyright.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>She has seen America invent arbitration, the eventual
+substitute for that enslaver of nations, the standing
+army; and she has seen England pay the first
+bill under it, and America shirk the second--but
+only temporarily; of this we may be sure.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>She has seen a Hartford American (Doctor Wells)
+apply anæsthetics in surgery for the first time in
+history, and for all time banish the terrors of the
+surgeon’s knife; and she has seen the rest of the
+world ignore the discoverer and a Boston doctor
+steal the credit of his work.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>She has seen medical science and scientific sanitation
+cut down the death rate of civilized cities by
+more than half, and she has seen these agencies set
+bounds to the European march of the cholera and
+imprison the Black Death in its own home.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>She has seen woman freed from the oppression of
+many burdensome and unjust laws; colleges established
+for her; privileged to earn degrees in men’s
+colleges--but not get them; in some regions rights
+accorded to her which lifted her near to political
+equality with man, and a hundred bread-winning
+occupations found for her where hardly one existed
+before--among them medicine, the law, and professional
+nursing. The Queen has herself recognized
+merit in her sex; of the 501 lordships which
+she has conferred in sixty years, one was upon a
+woman.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>The Queen has seen the right to organize trade
+unions extended to the workman, after that right had
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_205'>205</span>been the monopoly of guilds of masters for six
+hundred years.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>She has seen the workman rise into political notice,
+then into political force, then (in some parts of the
+world) into the chief and commanding political force;
+she has seen the day’s labor of twelve, fourteen, and
+eighteen hours reduced to eight, a reform which has
+made labor a means of extending life instead of a
+means of committing salaried suicide.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>But it is useless to continue the list--it has no
+end.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>There will be complexions in the procession to-day
+which will suggest the vast distances to which the
+British dominion has extended itself around the fat
+rotundity of the globe since Britain was a remote
+unknown back settlement of savages with tin for
+sale, two or three thousand years ago; and also
+how great a part of this extension is comparatively
+recent; also, how surprisingly speakers of the English
+tongue have increased within the Queen’s time.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>When the Queen was born there were not more
+than 25,000,000 English-speaking people in the world;
+there are about 120,000,000 now. The other long-reign
+queen, Elizabeth, ruled over a short 100,000
+square miles of territory and perhaps 5,000,000 subjects;
+Victoria reigns over more territory than any
+other sovereign in the world’s history ever reigned
+over; her estate covers a fourth part of the habitable
+area of the globe, and her subjects number about
+400,000,000.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>It is indeed a mighty estate, and I perceive now
+that the English are mentioned in the Bible:</p>
+
+<p class='c002'><span class='pageno' id='Page_206'>206</span>“Blessed are the meek, for they shall inherit the
+earth.”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>The Long-Reign Pageant will be a memorable
+thing to see, for it stands for the grandeur of England,
+and is full of suggestion as to how it had its beginning
+and what have been the forces that have built it up.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>I got to my seat in the Strand just in time--five
+minutes past ten--for a glance around before the
+show began. The houses opposite, as far as the eye
+could reach in both directions, suggested boxes in a
+theater snugly packed. The gentleman next to me
+likened the groups to beds of flowers, and said he
+had never seen such a massed and multitudinous
+array of bright colors and fine clothes.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>These displays rose up and up, story by story, all
+balconies and windows being packed, and also the
+battlements stretching along the roofs. The sidewalks
+were filled with standing people, but were not
+uncomfortably crowded. They were fenced from
+the roadway by red-coated soldiers, a double stripe
+of vivid color which extended throughout the six
+miles which the procession would traverse.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Five minutes later the head of the column came
+into view and was presently filing by, led by Captain
+Ames, the tallest man in the British army. And then
+the cheering began. It took me but a little while to
+determine that this procession could not be described.
+There was going to be too much of it, and too much
+variety in it, so I gave up the idea. It was to be a
+spectacle for the kodak, not the pen.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Presently the procession was without visible
+beginning or end, but stretched to the limit of sight
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_207'>207</span>in both directions--bodies of soldiery in blue, followed
+by a block of soldiers in buff, then a block of
+red, a block of buff, a block of yellow, and so on, an
+interminable drift of swaying and swinging splotches
+of strong color sparkling and flashing with shifty
+light reflected from bayonets, lance heads, brazen
+helmets, and burnished breastplates. For varied and
+beautiful uniforms and unceasing surprises in the
+way of new and unexpected splendors, it much surpassed
+any pageant that I have ever seen.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>I was not dreaming of so stunning a show. All
+the nations seemed to be filing by. They all seemed
+to be represented. It was a sort of allegorical suggestion
+of the Last Day, and some who live to see
+that day will probably recall this one if they are not
+too much disturbed in mind at the time.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>There were five bodies of Oriental soldiers of five
+different nationalities, with complexions differentiated
+by five distinct shades of yellow. There were about
+a dozen bodies of black soldiers from various parts
+of Africa, whose complexions covered as many shades
+of black, and some of these were the very blackest
+people I have ever seen yet.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Then there was an exhaustive exhibition of the
+hundred separate brown races of India, the most
+beautiful and satisfying of all the complexions that
+have been vouchsafed to man, and the one which
+best sets off colored clothes and best harmonizes
+with all tints.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>The Chinese, the Japanese, the Koreans, the
+Africans, the Indians, the Pacific Islanders--they
+were all there, and with them samples of all the
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_208'>208</span>whites that inhabit the wide reach of the Queen’s
+dominions.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>The procession was the human race on exhibition,
+a spectacle curious and interesting and worth traveling
+far to see. The most splendid of the costumes
+were those worn by the Indian princes, and they
+were also the most beautiful and richest. They were
+men of stately build and princely carriage, and
+wherever they passed the applause burst forth.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Soldiers, soldiers, soldiers, and still more and more
+soldiers and cannon and muskets and lances--there
+seemed to be no end to this feature. There are
+50,000 soldiers in London, and they all seemed to be
+on hand. I have not seen so many except in the
+theater, when thirty-five privates and a general
+march across the stage and behind the scenes and
+across the front again and keep it up till they have
+represented 300,000.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>In the early part of the procession the colonial
+premiers drove by, and by and by after a long time
+there was a grand output of foreign princes, thirty-one
+in the invoice.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>The feature of high romance was not wanting, for
+among them rode Prince Rupert of Bavaria, who
+would be Prince of Wales now and future king of
+England and emperor of India if his Stuart ancestors
+had conducted their royal affairs more wisely than
+they did. He came as a peaceful guest to represent
+his mother, Princess Ludwig, heiress of the house of
+Stuart, to whom English Jacobites still pay unavailing
+homage as the rightful queen of England.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>The house of Stuart was formally and officially
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_209'>209</span>shelved nearly two centuries ago, but the microbe
+of Jacobite loyalty is a thing which is not exterminable
+by time, force, or argument.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>At last, when the procession had been on view an
+hour and a half, carriages began to appear. In the
+first came a detachment of two-horse ones containing
+ambassadors extraordinary, in one of them Whitelaw
+Reid, representing the United States; then six containing
+minor foreign and domestic princes and
+princesses; then five four-horse carriages freighted
+with offshoots of the family.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>The excitement was growing now; interest was
+rising toward the boiling point. Finally a landau
+driven by eight cream-colored horses, most lavishly
+<a id='corr209.15'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='unholstered'>upholstered</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_209.15'><ins class='correction' title='unholstered'>upholstered</ins></a></span> in gold stuffs, with postilions and no
+drivers, and preceded by Lord Wolseley, came bowling
+along, followed by the Prince of Wales, and all
+the world rose to its feet and uncovered.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>The Queen Empress was come. She was received
+with great enthusiasm. It was realizable that she
+was the procession herself; that all the rest of it was
+mere embroidery; that in her the public saw the
+British Empire itself. She was a symbol, an allegory of
+England’s grandeur and the might of the British name.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>It is over now; the British Empire has marched past
+under review and inspection. The procession stood for
+sixty years of progress and accumulation, moral, material,
+and political. It was made up rather of the beneficiaries
+of these prosperities than of the creators of them.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>As far as mere glory goes, the foreign trade of
+Great Britain has grown in a wonderful way since the
+Queen ascended the throne. Last year it reached
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_210'>210</span>the enormous figure of £620,000,000, but the capitalist,
+the manufacturer, the merchant, and the
+workingmen were not officially in the procession to
+get their large share of the resulting glory.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Great Britain has added to her real estate an average
+of 165 miles of territory per day for the past
+sixty years, which is to say she has added more than
+the bulk of an England proper per year, or an aggregate
+of seventy Englands in the sixty years.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>But Cecil Rhodes was not in the procession; the
+Chartered Company was absent from it. Nobody
+was there to collect his share of the glory due for
+his formidable contributions to the imperial estate.
+Even Doctor Jameson was out, and yet he had tried
+so hard to accumulate territory.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Eleven colonial premiers were in the procession,
+but the dean of the order, the imperial Premier, was
+not, nor the Lord Chief Justice of England, nor the
+Speaker of the House. The bulk of the religious
+strength of England dissent was not officially represented
+in the religious ceremonials. At the Cathedral
+that immense new industry, speculative expansion,
+was not represented unless the pathetic shade of
+Barnato rode invisible in the pageant.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>It was a memorable display and must live in history.
+It suggested the material glories of the reign
+finely and adequately. The absence of the chief
+creators of them was perhaps not a serious disadvantage.
+One could supply the vacancies by imagination,
+and thus fill out the procession very effectively.
+One can enjoy a rainbow without necessarily
+forgetting the forces that made it.</p>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_211'>211</span>
+  <h2 class='c008'>LETTERS TO SATAN <br /> <span class='small'>(1897)</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<h3 class='c013'>SWISS GLIMPSES</h3>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c001'>
+    <div>I</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c002'>If Your Grace would prepay your postage it would
+be a pleasant change. I am not meaning to
+speak harshly, but only sorrowfully. My remark
+applies to all my outland correspondents, and to
+everybody’s. None of them puts on the full postage,
+and that is just the same as putting on none at all:
+the foreign governments ignore the half postage,
+and we who are abroad have to pay full postage on
+those half-paid letters. And as for writing on thin
+paper, none of my friends ever think of it; they all
+use pasteboard, or sole leather, or things like that.
+But enough of that subject; it is painful.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>I believe you have set me a hard task; for if it is
+true that you have not been in the world for three
+hundred years, and have not received into your
+establishment an educated person in all that time,
+I shall be obliged to talk to you as if you had just
+been born and knew nothing at all about the things
+I speak of. However, I will do the best I can, and
+will faithfully try to put in all the particulars,
+trivial ones as well as the other sorts. If my report
+shall induce Your Grace to come out of your age-long
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_212'>212</span>seclusion and make a pleasure tour through the
+world in person, instead of doing it by proxy through
+me, I shall feel that I have labored to good purpose.
+You have many friends in the world; more than
+you think. You would have a vast welcome in
+Paris, London, New York, Chicago, Washington,
+and the other capitals of the world; if you would
+go on the lecture platform you could charge what
+you pleased. You would be the most formidable
+attraction on the planet. The curiosity to see you
+would be so great that no place of amusement would
+contain the multitude that would come. In London
+many devoted people who have seen the Prince of
+Wales only fifteen hundred or two thousand times
+would be willing to miss one chance of seeing him
+again for the sake of seeing you. In Paris, even
+with the Tsar on view, you could do a fairly good
+business; and in Chicago--Oh, but you ought to
+go to Chicago, you know. But further of this anon.
+I will to my report, now, and tell you about Lucerne,
+and how I journeyed hither; for doubtless you will
+travel by the same route when you come.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>I kept house a few months in London, with my
+family, while I arranged the matters which you were
+good enough to intrust me with. There were no
+adventures, except that we saw the Jubilee. Afterward
+I was invited to one of the Queen’s functions,
+which was a royal garden party. A garden is a
+green and bloomy countrified stretch of land which--But
+you remember the Garden of Eden; well,
+it is like that. The invitation prescribed the costume
+that must be worn: “Morning dress with trousers.”
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_213'>213</span>I was intending to wear mine, for I always wear
+something at garden parties where ladies are to be
+present; but I was hurt by this arbitrary note of
+compulsion, and did not go. All the European courts
+are particular about dress, and you are not allowed
+to choose for yourself in any case; you are always
+told exactly what you must wear; and whether it is
+going to become you or not, you are not allowed to
+make any changes. Yet the court taste is often bad,
+and sometimes even indelicate. I was once invited
+to dine with an emperor when I was living awhile
+in Germany, and the invitation card named the
+dress I must wear: “Frock coat and black cravat.”
+To put it in English, that meant swallow-tail and
+black cravat. It was cold weather, too, the middle
+of winter; and not only that, but ladies were to be
+present. That was five years ago. By this time the
+coat has gone out, I suppose, and you would feel
+at home there if you still remember the old Eden
+styles.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>As soon as the Jubilee was fairly over we broke
+up housekeeping and went for a few days to what
+is called in England “an hotel.” If we could have
+afforded an horse and an hackney cab we could have
+had an heavenly good time flitting around on our
+preparation errands, and could have finished them
+up briskly; but the buses are slow and they wasted
+many precious hours for us. A bus is a sort of
+great cage on four wheels, and is six times as strong
+and eleven times as heavy as the service required
+of it demands--but that is the English of it. The
+bus aptly symbolizes the national character. The
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_214'>214</span>Englishman requires that everything about him
+shall be stable, strong, and permanent, except the
+house which he builds to rent. His own private
+house is as strong as a fort. The rod which holds
+up the lace curtains could hold up an hippopotamus.
+The three-foot flagstaff on his bus, which supports
+a Union Jack the size of a handkerchief, would still
+support it if it were one of the gates of Gaza. Everything
+he constructs is a deal heavier and stronger
+than it needs to be. He built ten miles of terraced
+benches to view the Jubilee procession from, and
+put timber enough in them to make them a permanent
+contribution to the solidities of the world--yet
+they were intended for only two days’ service.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>When they were being removed an American said,
+“Don’t do it--save them for the Resurrection.”
+If anything gets in the way of the Englishman’s
+bus it must get out of it or be bowled down--and
+that is English. It is the serene self-sufficient spirit
+which has carried his flag so far. He ought to put
+his aggressive bus in his coat of arms, and take the
+gentle unicorn out.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>We made our preparations for Switzerland as fast
+as we could; then bought the tickets. Bought them
+of Thomas Cook &amp; Sons, of course--nowadays
+shortened to “Cook’s,” to save time and words.
+Things have changed in thirty years. I can remember
+when to be a “Cook’s tourist” was a thing to be
+ashamed of, and when everybody felt privileged to
+make fun of Cook’s “personally conducted” gangs
+of economical provincials. But that has all gone
+by, now. All sorts and conditions of men fly to
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_215'>215</span>Cook in our days. In the bygone times travel in
+Europe was made hateful and humiliating by the
+wanton difficulties, hindrances, annoyances, and
+vexations put upon it by ignorant, stupid, and disobliging
+transportation officials, and one had to
+travel with a courier or risk going mad. You could
+not buy a railway ticket on one day which you
+purposed to use next day--it was not permitted.
+You could not buy a ticket for <em>any</em> train until
+fifteen minutes before that train was due to leave.
+Though you had twenty trunks, you must manage
+somehow to get them weighed and the extra weight
+paid for within that fifteen minutes; if the time was
+not sufficient you would have to leave behind such
+trunks as failed to pass the scales. If you missed
+your train, your ticket was no longer good. As a
+rule, you could make neither head nor tail of the
+railway guide, and if your intended journey was a
+long one you would find that the officials could tell
+you little about which way to go; consequently
+you often bought the wrong ticket and got yourself
+lost. But Cook has remedied all these things and
+made travel simple, easy, and a pleasure. He will
+sell you a ticket to any place on the globe, or all the
+places, and give you all the time you need, and
+as much more besides; and it is good for all trains
+of its class, and its baggage is weighable at all hours.
+It provides hotels for you everywhere, if you so desire;
+and you cannot be overcharged, for the coupons
+show just how much you must pay. Cook’s servants
+at the great stations will attend to your baggage,
+get you a cab, tell you how much to pay cabmen and
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_216'>216</span>porters, procure guides for you, or horses, donkeys,
+camels, bicycles, or anything else you want, and
+make life a comfort and a satisfaction to you. And
+if you get tired of traveling and want to stop, Cook
+will take back the remains of your ticket, with 10
+per cent off. Cook is your banker everywhere, and
+his establishment your shelter when you get caught
+out in the rain. His clerks will answer all the questions
+you ask, and do it courteously. I recommend
+Your Grace to travel on Cook’s tickets when you
+come; and I do this without embarrassment, for I
+get no commission. I do not know Cook. (But if
+you would rather travel with a courier, let me
+recommend Joseph Very. I employed him twenty
+years ago, and spoke of him very highly in a book,
+for he was an excellent courier--then. I employed
+him again, six or seven years ago--for a while. Try
+him. And when you go home, take him with you.)</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>That London hotel was a disappointment. It was
+up a back alley, and we supposed it would be cheap.
+But, no, it was built for the moneyed races. It was
+all costliness and show. It had a brass band for
+dinner--and little else--and it even had a telephone
+and a lift. A telephone is a wire stretched on poles
+or underground, and has a thing at each end of it.
+These things are to speak into and to listen at. The
+wire carries the words; it can carry them several
+hundred miles. It is a time-saving, profanity-breeding,
+useful invention, and in America is to be
+found in all houses except parsonages. It is dear
+in America, but cheap in England; yet in England
+telephones are as rare as are icebergs in your place.
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_217'>217</span>I know of no way to account for this; I only know
+that it is extraordinary. The English take kindly
+to the other modern conveniences, but for some
+puzzling reason or other they will not use the telephone.
+There are 44,000,000 people there who have
+never even seen one.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>The lift is an elevator. Like the telephone, it
+also is an American invention. Its office is to hoist
+people to the upper stories and save them the fatigue
+and delay of climbing. That London hotel could
+accommodate several hundred people, and it had just
+one lift--a lift which would hold four persons. In
+America such an hotel would have from two to six
+lifts. When I was last in Paris, three years ago, they
+were using there what they thought was a lift. It
+held two persons, and traveled at such a slow gait
+that a spectator could not tell which way it was
+going. If the passengers were going to the sixth
+floor, they took along something to eat; and at
+night, bedding. Old people did not use it; except
+such as were on their way to the good place, anyhow.
+Often people that had been lost for days were found
+in those lifts, jogging along, jogging along, frequently
+still alive. The French took great pride in their
+ostensible lift, and called it by a grand name--<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><i>ascenseur</i></span>.
+An hotel that had a lift did not keep it
+secret, but advertised it in immense letters, <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><i><a id='corr217.27'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='Il'>“Il</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_217.27'><ins class='correction' title='Il'>“Il</ins></a></span>  y a une ascenseur,”</i></span> with three exclamation points after it.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>In that London hotel--But never mind that
+hotel; it was a cruelly expensive and tawdry and
+ill-conditioned place, and I wish I could do it a
+damage. I will think up a way some time. We
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_218'>218</span>went to Queenboro by the railroad. A railroad is
+a--well, a railroad is a railroad. I will describe it
+more explicitly another time.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Then we went by steamer to Flushing--eight
+hours. If you sit at home you can make the trip
+in less time, because then you can travel by the
+steamer company’s advertisement, and that will
+take you across the Channel five hours quicker than
+their boats can do it. Almost everywhere in Europe
+the advertisements can give the facts several hours’
+odd in the twenty-four and get in first.</p>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+  <div class='nf-center'>
+    <div>II</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c002'>We tarried overnight at a summer hotel on the
+seashore near Flushing--the Grand Hôtel des Bains.
+The word Grand means nothing in this connection;
+it has no descriptive value. On the Continent, all
+hotels, inns, taverns, hash houses and slop troughs
+employ it. It is tiresome. This one was a good-enough
+hotel, and comfortable, but there was nothing
+grand about it but the bill, and even that was
+not extravagant enough to make the title entirely
+justifiable. Except in the case of one item--Scotch
+whisky. I ordered a sup of that, for I always take
+it at night as a preventive of toothache. I have
+never had the toothache; and what is more, I never
+intend to have it. They charged me a dollar and a
+half for it. A dollar and a half for half a pint; a
+dollar and a half for that wee little mite--really
+hardly enough to break a pledge with. It will be a
+kindness to me if Your Grace will show the landlord
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_219'>219</span>some special attentions when he arrives. Not
+merely on account of that piece of extortion, but
+because he got us back to town and the station
+next day, more than an hour before train time.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>There were no books or newspapers for sale there,
+and nothing to look at but a map. Fortunately it
+was an interesting one. It was a railway map of
+the Low Countries, and was of a new sort to me,
+for it was made of tiles--the ground white, the
+lines black. It could be washed if it got soiled, and
+if no accident happens to it it will last ten thousand
+years and still be as bright and fine and new and
+beautiful then as it is to-day. It occupied a great
+area of the wall, and one could study it in comfort
+halfway across the house. It would be a valuable
+thing if our own railway companies would adorn
+their waiting rooms with maps like that.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>We left at five in the afternoon. The Dutch road
+was admirably rough; we went bumping and bouncing
+and swaying and sprawling along in a most
+vindictive and disorderly way; then passed the
+frontier into Germany, and straightway quieted
+down and went gliding as smoothly through the
+landscape as if we had been on runners. We reached
+Cologne after midnight.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>But this letter is already too long. I will close it
+by saying that I was charmed with England and
+sorry to leave it. It is easy to do business there. I
+carried out all of Your Grace’s instructions, and did
+it without difficulty. I doubted if it was needful to
+grease Mr. Cecil Rhodes’s palm any further, for I
+think he would serve you just for the love of it;
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_220'>220</span>still, I obeyed your orders in the matter. I made him
+Permanent General Agent for South Africa, got him
+and his South Africa Company whitewashed by the
+Committee of Inquiry, and promised him a dukedom.
+I also continued the European Concert in office,
+without making any change in its material. In my
+opinion this is the best material for the purpose that
+exists outside of Your Grace’s own personal Cabinet.
+It coddles the Sultan, it has defiled and degraded
+Greece, it has massacred a hundred thousand Christians
+in Armenia and a splendid multitude of them
+in Turkey, and has covered civilization and the
+Christian name with imperishable shame. If Your
+Grace would instruct me to add the Concert to the
+list of your publicly acknowledged servants, I think it
+would have a good effect. The Foreign Offices of
+the whole European world are now under your
+sovereignty, and little attentions like this would keep
+them so.</p>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_221'>221</span>
+  <h2 class='c008'>A WORD OF ENCOURAGEMENT FOR OUR <br /></h2>
+</div>
+<p class='c012'>BLUSHING EXILES | <span class='small'>(1898)</span></p>
+
+<div class='quote'>
+
+<p class='c012'>... Well, what do you think of our country <em>now</em>? And
+what do you think of the figure she is cutting before the eyes
+of the world? For one, I am ashamed--(Extract from a long
+and heated letter from a Voluntary Exile, Member of the
+American Colony, Paris.)</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p class='c002'>And so you are ashamed. I am trying to think
+out what it can have been that has produced
+this large attitude of mind and this fine flow of sarcasm.
+Apparently you are ashamed to look Europe
+in the face; ashamed of the American name; temporarily
+ashamed of your nationality. By the light
+of remarks made to me by an American here in
+Vienna, I judge that you are ashamed because:</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>1. We are meddling where we have no business and
+no right; meddling with the private family matters
+of a sister nation; intruding upon her sacred right
+to do as she pleases with her own, unquestioned by
+anybody.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>2. We are doing this under a sham humanitarian
+pretext.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>3. Doing it in order to filch Cuba, the formal and
+distinct disclaimer in the ultimatum being very, very
+thin humbug, and easily detectable as such by you
+and virtuous Europe.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>4. And finally you are ashamed of all this because
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_222'>222</span>it is new, and base, and brutal, and dishonest; and
+because Europe, having had no previous experience
+of such things, is horrified by it and can never respect
+us nor associate with us any more.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Brutal, base, dishonest? We? Land thieves?
+Shedders of innocent blood? We? Traitors to our
+official word? We? Are we going to lose Europe’s
+respect because of this new and dreadful conduct?
+Russia’s, for instance? Is she lying stretched out on
+her back in Manchuria, with her head among her
+Siberian prisons and her feet in Port Arthur, trying
+to read over the fairy tales she told Lord Salisbury,
+and not able to do it for crying because we are
+maneuvering to treacherously smouch Cuba from
+feeble Spain, and because we are ungently shedding
+innocent Spanish blood?</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Is it France’s respect that we are going to lose?
+Is our unchivalric conduct troubling a nation which
+exists to-day because a brave young girl saved it
+when its poltroons had lost it--a nation which
+deserted her as one man when her day of peril came?
+Is our treacherous assault upon a weak people distressing
+a nation which contributed Bartholomew’s
+Day to human history? Is our ruthless spirit offending
+the sensibilities of the nation which gave us the
+Reign of Terror to read about? Is our unmanly
+intrusion into the private affairs of a sister nation
+shocking the feelings of the people who sent Maximilian
+to Mexico? Are our shabby and pusillanimous
+ways outraging the fastidious people who have
+sent an innocent man (Dreyfus) to a living hell,
+taken to their embraces the slimy guilty one, and
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_223'>223</span>submitted to a thousand indignities Emile Zola--the
+manliest man in France?</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Is it Spain’s respect that we are going to lose? Is
+she sitting sadly conning her great history and contrasting
+it with our meddling, cruel, perfidious one--our
+shameful history of foreign robberies, humanitarian
+shams, and annihilations of weak and unoffending
+nations? Is she remembering with pride
+how she sent Columbus home in chains; how she
+sent half of the harmless West Indians into slavery
+and the rest to the grave, leaving not one alive; how
+she robbed and slaughtered the Inca’s gentle race,
+then beguiled the Inca into her power with fair
+promises and burned him at the stake; how she
+drenched the New World in blood, and earned and
+got the name of The Nation with the Bloody Footprint;
+how she drove all the Jews out of Spain in a
+day, allowing them to sell their property, but forbidding
+them to carry any money out of the country;
+how she roasted heretics by the thousands and thousands
+in her public squares, generation after generation,
+her kings and her priests looking on as at a
+holiday show; how her Holy Inquisition imported
+hell into the earth; how she was the first to institute
+it and the last to give it up--and then only under
+compulsion; how, with a spirit unmodified by time,
+she still tortures her prisoners to-day; how, with her
+ancient passion for pain and blood unchanged, she
+still crowds the arena with ladies and gentlemen and
+priests to see with delight a bull harried and persecuted
+and a gored horse dragging his entrails on the
+ground; and how, with this incredible character surviving
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_224'>224</span>all attempts to civilize it, her Duke of Alva
+rises again in the person of General Weyler--to-day
+the most idolized personage in Spain--and we see a
+hundred thousand women and children shut up in
+pens and pitilessly starved to death?</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Are we indeed going to lose Spain’s respect? Is
+there no way to avoid this calamity--or this compliment?
+Are we going to lose her respect because we
+have made a promise in our ultimatum which she
+thinks we shall break? And meantime is she trying
+to recall some promise of her own which she has
+kept?</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Is the Professional Official Fibber of Europe really
+troubled with our morals? Dear Parisian friend, are
+you taking seriously the daily remark of the newspaper
+and the orator about “this noble nation with
+an illustrious history”? That is mere kindness, mere
+charity for a people in temporary hard luck. The
+newspaper and the orator do not mean it. They
+wink when they say it.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>And so you are ashamed. Do not be ashamed;
+there is no occasion for it.</p>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_225'>225</span>
+  <h2 class='c008'>DUELING <br /> <span class='small'>(Vienna, Austria, 1898)</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class='drop-capa0_2_0_4 c015'>This pastime is as common in Austria to-day as
+it is in France. But with this difference--that
+here in the Austrian states the duel is dangerous,
+while in France it is not. Here it is tragedy, in
+France it is comedy; here it is a solemnity, there it
+is monkeyshines; here the duelist risks his life, there
+he does not even risk his shirt. Here he fights with
+pistol or saber, in France with a hairpin--a blunt
+one. Here the desperately wounded man tries to
+walk to the hospital; there they paint the scratch so
+that they can find it again, lay the sufferer on a
+stretcher, and conduct him off the field with a band
+of music.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>At the end of a French duel the pair hug and kiss
+and cry, and praise each other’s valor; then the surgeons
+make an examination and pick out the scratched
+one, and the other one helps him on to the litter and
+pays his fare; and in return the scratched one treats
+to champagne and oysters in the evening, and then
+“the incident is closed,” as the French say. It is all
+polite, and gracious, and pretty, and impressive. At
+the end of an Austrian duel the antagonist that is
+alive gravely offers his hand to the other man, utters
+some phrases of courteous regret, then bids him
+good-by and goes his way, and that incident also is
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_226'>226</span>closed. The French duelist is painstakingly protected
+from danger, by the rules of the game. His
+antagonist’s weapon cannot reach so far as his body;
+if he gets a scratch it will not be above his elbow.
+But in Austria the rules of the game do not provide
+against danger, they carefully provide <em>for</em> it, usually.
+Commonly the combat must be kept up until one of
+the men is disabled; a nondisabling slash or stab
+does not retire him.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>For a matter of three months I watched the
+Viennese journals, and whenever a duel was reported
+in their telegraphic columns I scrap-booked it. By
+this record I find that dueling in Austria is not confined
+to journalists and old maids, as in France, but
+is indulged in by military men, journalists, students,
+physicians, lawyers, members of the legislature, and
+even the Cabinet, the bench, and the police. Dueling
+is forbidden by law; and so it seems odd to see the
+makers and administrators of the laws dancing on
+their work in this way. Some months ago Count
+Badeni, at that time chief of the government, fought
+a pistol duel here in the capital city of the Empire
+with Representative Wolf, and both of those distinguished
+Christians came near getting turned out of
+the Church--for the Church as well as the state forbids
+dueling.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>In one case, lately, in Hungary, the police interfered
+and stopped a duel after the first innings. This
+was a saber duel between the chief of police and the
+city attorney. Unkind things were said about it by
+the newspapers. They said the police remembered
+their duty uncommonly well when their own officials
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_227'>227</span>were the parties concerned in duels. But I think the
+underlings showed bread-and-butter judgment. If
+their superiors had carved each other well, the public
+would have asked, “Where were the police?” and
+their place would have been endangered; but custom
+does not require them to be around where mere
+unofficial citizens are explaining a thing with sabers.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>There was another duel--a double duel--going on
+in the immediate neighborhood at the time, and in
+this case the police obeyed custom and did not disturb
+it. Their bread and butter was not at stake
+there. In this duel a physician fought a couple of
+surgeons, and wounded both--one of them lightly, the
+other seriously. An undertaker wanted to keep people
+from interfering, but that was quite natural again.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Selecting at random from my record, I next find
+a duel at Tranopol between military men. An
+officer of the Tenth Dragoons charged an officer of
+the Ninth Dragoons with an offense against the laws
+of the card table. There was a defect or a doubt
+somewhere in the matter, and this had to be examined
+and passed upon by a court of honor. So the
+case was sent up to Lemberg for this purpose. One
+would like to know what the defect was, but the
+newspaper does not say. A man here who has fought
+many duels and has a graveyard says that probably
+the matter in question was as to whether the accusation
+was true or not; that if the charge was a very
+grave one--cheating, for instance--proof of its truth
+would rule the guilty officer out of the field of honor;
+the court would not allow a gentleman to fight with
+such a person. You see what a solemn thing it is;
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_228'>228</span>you see how particular they are; any little careless
+speech can lose you your privilege of getting yourself
+shot, here. The court seems to have gone into the
+matter in a searching and careful fashion, for several
+months elapsed before it reached a decision. It then
+sanctioned a duel and the accused killed his accuser.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Next I find a duel between a prince and a major;
+first with pistols--no result satisfactory to either
+party; then with sabers, and the major badly hurt.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Next, a saber duel between journalists--the one a
+strong man, the other feeble and in poor health. It
+was brief; the strong one drove his sword through
+the weak one, and death was immediate.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Next, a duel between a lieutenant and a student
+of medicine. According to the newspaper report,
+these are the details: The student was in a restaurant
+one evening; passing along, he halted at a
+table to speak with some friends; near by sat a
+dozen military men; the student conceived that one
+of these was “staring” at him; he asked the officer
+to step outside and explain. This officer and another
+one gathered up their capes and sabers and went out
+with the student. Outside--this is the student’s
+account--the student introduced himself to the
+offending officer and said, “You seemed to stare at
+me”; for answer, the officer struck the student with
+his fist; the student parried the blow; both officers
+drew their sabers and attacked the young fellow, and
+one of them gave him a wound on the left arm; then
+they withdrew. This was Saturday night. The duel
+followed on Monday, in the military riding school--the
+customary dueling ground all over Austria, apparently.
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_229'>229</span>The weapons were pistols. The dueling terms
+were somewhat beyond custom in the matter of
+severity, if I may gather that from the statement
+that the combat was fought “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">unter sehr schweren
+Bedingungen</span>”--to wit, “distance, 15 steps--with 3
+steps advance.” There was but one exchange of
+shots. The student was hit. “He put his hand on
+his breast, his body began to bend slowly forward,
+then collapsed in death and sank to the ground.”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>It is pathetic. There are other duels in my list,
+but I find in each and all of them one and the same
+ever-recurring defect--the <em>principals</em> are never present,
+but only by their sham representatives. The
+<em>real</em> principals in any duel are not the duelists themselves,
+but their <em>families</em>. They do the mourning,
+the suffering; theirs is the loss and theirs the misery.
+They stake all that, the duelist stakes nothing but
+his life, and that is a trivial thing compared with
+what his death must cost those whom he leaves
+behind him. Challenges should not mention the
+duelist; he has nothing much at stake, and the real
+vengeance cannot reach him. The challenge should
+summon the offender’s old gray mother and his
+young wife and his little children--these, or any of
+whom he is a dear and worshiped possession--and
+should say, “You have done me no harm, but I am
+the meek slave of a custom which requires me to
+crush the happiness out of your hearts and condemn
+you to years of pain and grief, in order that I may
+wash clean with your tears a stain which has been
+put upon me by another person.”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>The logic of it is admirable; a person has robbed
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_230'>230</span>me of a penny; I must beggar ten innocent persons
+to make good my loss. Surely nobody’s “honor” is
+worth all that.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Since the duelist’s family are the real principals in
+a duel, the state ought to compel them to be present
+at it. Custom, also, ought to be so amended as to
+require it; and without it no duel ought to be
+allowed to go on. If that student’s unoffending
+mother had been present and watching the officer
+through her tears as he raised his pistol, he--why,
+he would have fired in the air! We know that. For
+we know how we are all made. Laws ought to be
+based upon the ascertained facts of our nature. It
+would be a simple thing to make a dueling law which
+would stop dueling.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>As things are now, the mother is never invited.
+She submits to this; and without outward complaint,
+for she, too, is the vassal of custom, and
+custom requires her to conceal her pain when she
+learns the disastrous news that her son must go to
+the dueling field, and by the powerful force that is
+lodged in habit and custom she is enabled to obey
+this trying requirement--a requirement which exacts
+a miracle of her, and gets it. In January a neighbor
+of ours who has a young son in the army was awakened
+by this youth at three o’clock one morning, and
+she sat up in bed and listened to his message:</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“I have come to tell you something, mother,
+which will distress you, but you must be good and
+brave and bear it. I have been affronted by a fellow
+officer and we fight at three this afternoon. Lie
+down and sleep, now, and think no more about it.”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'><span class='pageno' id='Page_231'>231</span>She kissed him good night and lay down paralyzed
+with grief and fear, but said nothing. But she did
+not sleep; she prayed and mourned till the first
+streak of dawn, then fled to the nearest church and
+implored the Virgin for help; and from that church
+she went to another and another; church after
+church, and still church after church, and so spent
+all the day until three o’clock on her knees in agony
+and tears; then dragged herself home and sat down,
+comfortless and desolate, to count the minutes, and
+wait, with an outward show of calm, for what had
+been ordained for her--happiness, or endless misery.
+Presently she heard the clank of a saber--she had
+not known before what music was in that sound--and
+her son put his head in and said:</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“X was in the wrong and he apologized.”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>So that incident was closed; and for the rest of
+her life the mother will always find something pleasant
+about the clank of a saber, no doubt.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>In one of my listed duels--However, let it go,
+there is nothing particularly striking about it except
+that the seconds interfered. And prematurely, too,
+for neither man was dead. This was certainly irregular.
+Neither of the men liked it. It was a duel with
+cavalry sabers, between an editor and a lieutenant.
+The editor walked to the hospital; the lieutenant
+was carried. In Austria an editor who can write
+well is valuable, but he is not likely to remain so
+unless he can handle a saber with charm.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>The following very recent telegram shows that also
+in France duels are humanely stopped as soon as
+they approach the (French) danger point:</p>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+  <div class='nf-center'>
+    <div><span class='pageno' id='Page_232'>232</span>(Reuter’s Telegram)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='c016'><span class='sc'>Paris</span>, <i>March 5th</i>.</div>
+
+<div class='quote'>
+
+<p class='c002'>The duel between Colonels Henry and Picquart took place
+this morning in the riding school of the École Militaire, the
+doors of which were strictly guarded in order to prevent intrusion.
+The combatants, who fought with swords, were in position
+at ten o’clock.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>At the first re-engagement Lieut.-Col. Henry was slightly
+scratched in the forearm, and just at the same moment his own
+blade appeared to touch his adversary’s neck. Senator Ranc,
+who was Colonel Picquart’s second, stopped the fight, but as
+it was found that his principal had not been touched, the combat
+continued. A very sharp encounter ensued, in which Colonel
+Henry was wounded in the elbow, and the duel then terminated.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p class='c002'>After which the stretcher and the band. In lurid
+contrast with this delicate flirtation, we have an
+account of a deadly duel of day before yesterday in
+Italy, where the earnest Austrian duel is in vogue.
+I knew one of the principals, Cavalotti, slightly, and
+this gives me a sort of personal interest in his duel.
+I first saw him in Rome several years ago. He was
+sitting on a block of stone in the Forum, and was
+writing something in his notebook--a poem or a
+challenge, or something like that--and the friend
+who pointed him out to me said, “That is Cavalotti--he
+has fought thirty duels; do not disturb him.”
+I did not disturb him.</p>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_233'>233</span>
+  <h2 class='c008'>SKELETON PLAN OF A PROPOSED <br />CASTING VOTE PARTY <br /><span class='small'>(1901)</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<div class='quote'>
+
+<p class='c012'><span class='sc'>Note.</span>--Mark Twain’s effort was always for clean politics. In
+1901 he formulated what to him seemed a feasible plan to obtain
+this boon. It is here first published.--A. B. P.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+  <div class='nf-center'>
+    <div>ITS MAIN OBJECT</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c002'>To compel the two Great Parties to nominate
+their <em>best man</em> always.</p>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+  <div class='nf-center'>
+    <div>FOUNDATION PRINCIPLES</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c002'>With the offices all filled by the best men of
+either of the two Great Parties, we shall have good
+government. We hold that this is beyond dispute,
+and does not need to be argued.</p>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+  <div class='nf-center'>
+    <div>DETAILS</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c002'>1. The C. V. Party should be <em>organized</em>. This,
+in order to secure its continuance and permanency.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>2. Any of the following acts must sever the connection
+of a member with the Casting Vote party:</p>
+
+  <ul  class='ul_1'>
+    <li>The seeking of any office, appointive or elective.
+    </li>
+    <li>The acceptance of a nomination to any such office.
+    </li>
+    <li>The acceptance of such an office.
+    </li>
+  </ul>
+
+<p class='c002'><span class='pageno' id='Page_234'>234</span>3. The organization should never vote for <em>any but
+a nominee of one or the other of the two Great Parties</em>,
+and should then cast their <em>entire vote</em> for that nominee.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>4. They should have no dealings with minor
+parties.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>5. There should be ward organizations, township,
+town, city, congressional district, state and national
+organizations. The party should work wherever
+there is an elective office, from the lowest up to the
+Presidency.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>6. As a rule, none of the organizations will need
+to be large. In most cases they will be able to control
+the action of the two Great Parties without that.
+In the matter of membership, quality will be the
+main thing, rather than quantity.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>In small constituencies, where a town constable or
+a justice of the peace is to be elected it will often be
+the case that a Casting Vote lodge of fifty members
+can elect the nominee it prefers. In every such
+community the material for the fifty is present. It
+will be found among the men who are disgusted with
+the prevailing political methods, the low ambitions
+and ideals, of the politicians; dishonesty in office;
+corruption; the frank distribution of appointments
+among characterless and incompetent men as pay
+for party service; the evasion and sometimes
+straight-out violation of the civil-service laws. The
+fifty will be found among the men who are ashamed
+of this condition of things and who have despaired of
+seeing it bettered; <em>who stay away from the polls and
+do not vote;</em> who do not attend primaries, and would
+be insulted there if they did.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'><span class='pageno' id='Page_235'>235</span>The fifty exist in every little community; they
+are not seen, not heard, not regarded--but they are
+there. There, and deeply and sincerely desirous of
+good and sound government, and ready to give the
+best help they can if any will place before them a
+competent way. They are reserved and quiet merchants
+and shopkeepers, middle-aged; they are
+young men making their way in the offices of doctors
+and lawyers and behind counters; they are journeyman
+high-class mechanics; they are organizers of,
+and workers for, the community’s charities, art and
+other social-improvement clubs, university settlements,
+Young Men’s Christian Association, circulating
+libraries; they are readers of books, frequenters
+of the library. They have never seen a primary,
+and they have an aversion for the polls.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>7. Men proposing to create a Casting Vote lodge
+should not advertise their purpose; conspiracies for
+good, like conspiracies for evil, are best conducted
+privately until success is sure. The poll of the two
+Great Parties should be examined, and the winning
+party’s majority noted. <em>It is this majority which
+the Casting Vote must overcome and nullify.</em> If the
+total vote cast was 1,000 and the majority vote
+fifty, the proposers of a lodge should canvass
+privately until they have secured 75 or 100 names;
+they can organize then, without solicitude; the
+balance of power is in their hands, and this fact by
+itself will add names to its membership. If the total
+vote is 10,000 and the majority vote 1,000, the procedure
+should be as before: the thousand-and-upward
+should be secured by private canvass before
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_236'>236</span>public organization is instituted. Where a total
+vote is 1,000,000 the majority vote is not likely to
+exceed 30,000. Five or six canvassers can begin the
+listing; each man secured becomes a canvasser,
+ten know three apiece who will join; the thirty
+know three apiece who will join; the ninety know
+three hundred, the three hundred know a thousand,
+the thousand know three thousand--and so on; the
+required thirty or forty thousand can be secured in
+ten days, the lodge organized, and its casting vote
+be ready and self-pledged and competent to elect
+the best of the nominees the two Great Parties may
+put up at that date or later.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>8. In every ward of every city there is enough of
+this material to hold the balance of power over the
+two Great Parties in a ward election; in every city
+there is enough of it to determine which of the two
+nominees shall be mayor; in every congressional
+district there is enough of it to elect the Governor;
+also to elect the legislature and choose the U. S.
+Senators; and in the United States there is enough
+of it to throw the Casting Vote for its choice between
+the nominees of the two Great Parties and seat him
+in the presidential chair.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>9. From constable up to President there is no
+office for which the two Great Parties cannot furnish
+able, clean, and acceptable men. Whenever the
+balance of power shall be lodged in a permanent
+third party with no candidates of its own and no
+function but to cast its <em>whole vote</em> for the best man
+put forward by the Republicans and Democrats,
+these two parties <em>will select the best men they have in
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_237'>237</span>their ranks</em>. Good and clean government will follow,
+let its party complexion be what it may; and the
+country will be quite content.</p>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+  <div class='nf-center'>
+    <div>THE LODGES</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c002'>The primal lodge--call it A--should consist of
+10 men only. It is enough and can meet in a dwelling
+house or a shop, and get well acquainted at
+once. It has before it the names of the nominees
+of the two Great Parties--Jones (Republican), Smith
+(Democrat). It fails of unanimity--both candidates
+perchance being good men and about equally acceptable--and
+casts seven votes, say, for Jones and three
+for Smith.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>It elects one of its ten to meet similar delegates
+from any number of local A lodges and hand in its
+vote. This body--call it a B lodge--examines the
+aggregate vote; this time the majority may be with
+Smith. The members carry the result to the A
+lodges; and these, by the conditions of their membership,
+must vote for Smith.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>In the case of a state election, bodies each consisting
+of a number of B lodges would elect a delegate
+to a state council, and the state council would
+examine the aggregate vote and give its decision in
+favor of the Republican or Democratic candidate
+receiving the majority of the Casting Vote’s suffrages.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>In the case of a presidential contest, the state
+council would appoint delegates to a national convention,
+and these would examine the aggregate
+Casting Vote vote and determine and announce the
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_238'>238</span>choice of the Casting Vote organizations of the whole
+country. At the presidential election the A lodges
+throughout the land would vote for presidential
+electors of the Party indicated.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>If the reader thinks well of the project, let him
+begin a private canvass among his friends and give
+it a practical test, without waiting for other people
+to begin. If in the hands of men who regard their
+citizenship as a high trust this scheme shall fail
+upon trial, a better must be sought, a better must
+be invented; for it cannot be well or safe to let the
+present political conditions continue indefinitely.
+They can be improved, and American citizenship
+should rouse up from its disheartenment and see that
+it is done.</p>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_239'>239</span>
+  <h2 class='c008'>THE UNITED STATES OF LYNCHERDOM <br /> <span class='small'>(1901)</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<div class='quote'>
+
+<p class='c012'>law, and when in 1901 a particularly barbarous incident occurred
+in his native state he was moved to express himself in print. The
+article was not offered for publication, perhaps because the moment
+of timeliness had passed. Its general timeliness, however, is perennial
+and a word from “America’s foremost private citizen” on
+the subject is worthy of preservation.--A. B. P.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+  <div class='nf-center'>
+    <div>I</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c002'>And so Missouri has fallen, that great state!
+Certain of her children have joined the lynchers,
+and the smirch is upon the rest of us. That handful
+of her children have given us a character and labeled
+us with a name, and to the dwellers in the four
+quarters of the earth we are “lynchers,” now, and
+ever shall be. For the world will not stop and think--it
+never does, it is not its way; its way is to
+generalize from a single sample. It will not say,
+“Those Missourians have been busy eighty years
+in building an honorable good name for themselves;
+these hundred lynchers down in the corner of the
+state are not real Missourians, they are renegades.”
+No, that truth will not enter its mind; it will generalize
+from the one or two misleading samples and
+say, “The Missourians are lynchers.” It has no
+reflection, no logic, no sense of proportion. With
+it, figures go for nothing; to it, figures reveal nothing,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_240'>240</span>it cannot reason upon them rationally; it
+would say, for instance, that China is being swiftly
+and surely Christianized, since nine Chinese Christians
+are being made every day; and it would fail,
+with him, to notice that the fact that 33,000 pagans
+are <em>born</em> there every day, damages the argument. It
+would say, “There are a hundred lynchers there,
+therefore the Missourians are lynchers”; the considerable
+fact that there are two and a half million
+Missourians who are <em>not</em> lynchers would not affect
+their verdict.</p>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+  <div class='nf-center'>
+    <div>II</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c002'>Oh, Missouri!</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>The tragedy occurred near Pierce City, down in
+the southwestern corner of the state. On a Sunday
+afternoon a young white woman who had started
+alone from church was found murdered. For there
+are churches there; in my time religion was more
+general, more pervasive, in the South than it was
+in the North, and more virile and earnest, too, I
+think; I have some reason to believe that this is
+still the case. The young woman was found murdered.
+Although it was a region of churches and
+schools the people rose, lynched three negroes--two
+of them very aged ones--burned out five negro
+households, and drove thirty negro families into the
+woods.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>I do not dwell upon the provocation which moved
+the people to these crimes, for that has nothing to
+do with the matter; the only question is, does the
+assassin <em>take the law into his own hands</em>? It is very
+simple, and very just. If the assassin be proved to
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_241'>241</span>have usurped the law’s prerogative in righting his
+wrongs, that ends the matter; a thousand provocations
+are no defense. The Pierce City people had
+bitter provocation--indeed, as revealed by certain
+of the particulars, the bitterest of all provocations--but
+no matter, they took the law into their own
+hands, when by the terms of their statutes their
+victim would certainly hang if the law had been
+allowed to take its course, for there are but few
+negroes in that region and they are without authority
+and without influence in overawing juries.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Why has lynching, with various barbaric accompaniments,
+become a favorite regulator in cases of
+“the usual crime” in several parts of the country?
+Is it because men think a lurid and terrible punishment
+a more forcible object lesson and a more effective
+deterrent than a sober and colorless hanging
+done privately in a jail would be? Surely sane men
+do not think that. Even the average child should
+know better. It should know that any strange and
+much-talked-of event is always followed by imitations,
+the world being so well supplied with excitable
+people who only need a little stirring up to make
+them lose what is left of their heads and do mad
+things which they would not have thought of ordinarily.
+It should know that if a man jump off Brooklyn
+Bridge another will imitate him; that if a person
+venture down Niagara Whirlpool in a barrel another
+will imitate him; that if a Jack the Ripper make
+notoriety by slaughtering women in dark alleys he
+will be imitated; that if a man attempt a king’s
+life and the newspapers carry the noise of it
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_242'>242</span>around the globe, regicides will crop up all around.
+The child should know that one much-talked-of
+outrage and murder committed by a negro will upset
+the disturbed intellects of several other negroes and
+produce a series of the very tragedies the community
+would so strenuously wish to prevent; that each
+of these crimes will produce another series, and year
+by year steadily increase the tale of these disasters
+instead of diminishing it; that, in a word, the
+lynchers are themselves the worst enemies of their
+women. The child should also know that by a law
+of our make, communities, as well as individuals,
+are imitators; and that a much-talked-of lynching
+will infallibly produce other lynchings here and
+there and yonder, and that in time these will breed a
+mania, a fashion; a fashion which will spread wide
+and wider, year by year, covering state after state,
+as with an advancing disease. Lynching has reached
+Colorado, it has reached California, it has reached
+Indiana--and now Missouri! I may live to see a
+negro burned in Union Square, New York, with
+fifty thousand people present, and not a sheriff visible,
+not a governor, not a constable, not a colonel,
+not a clergyman, not a law-and-order representative
+of any sort.</p>
+
+<div class='quote'>
+
+<p class='c002'><i>Increase in Lynching.</i>--In 1900 there were eight more cases
+than in 1899, and probably this year there will be more than
+there were last year. The year is little more than half gone,
+and yet there are eighty-eight cases as compared with one
+hundred and fifteen for all of last year. The four Southern
+states, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Mississippi are the
+worst offenders. Last year there were eight cases in Alabama,
+sixteen in Georgia, twenty in Louisiana, and twenty in Mississippi--over
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_243'>243</span>one-half the total. This year to date there have
+been nine in Alabama, twelve in Georgia, eleven in Louisiana,
+and thirteen in Mississippi--again more than one-half the total
+number in the whole United States.--Chicago <cite>Tribune</cite>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p class='c002'>It must be that the increase comes of the inborn
+human instinct to imitate--that and man’s commonest
+weakness, his aversion to being unpleasantly
+conspicuous, pointed at, shunned, as being on the
+unpopular side. Its other name is Moral Cowardice,
+and is the commanding feature of the make-up of
+9,999 men in the 10,000. I am not offering this as
+a discovery; privately the dullest of us knows it
+to be true. History will not allow us to forget or
+ignore this supreme trait of our character. It persistently
+and sardonically reminds us that from the
+beginning of the world no revolt against a public
+infamy or oppression has ever been begun but by
+the one daring man in the 10,000, the rest timidly
+waiting, and slowly and reluctantly joining, under
+the influence of that man and his fellows from the
+other ten thousands. The abolitionists remember.
+Privately the public feeling was with them early,
+but each man was afraid to speak out until he got
+some hint that his neighbor was privately feeling
+as he privately felt himself. Then the boom followed.
+It always does. It will occur in New York,
+some day; and even in Pennsylvania.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>It has been supposed--and said--that the people
+at a lynching enjoy the spectacle and are glad of a
+chance to see it. It cannot be true; all experience
+is against it. The people in the South are made like
+the people in the North--the vast majority of whom
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_244'>244</span>are right-hearted and compassionate, and would be
+cruelly pained by such a spectacle--and <em>would
+attend it</em>, and let on to be pleased with it, if the public
+approval seemed to require it. We are made like
+that, and we cannot help it. The other animals are
+not so, but we cannot help that, either. They lack
+the Moral Sense; we have no way of trading ours
+off, for a nickel or some other thing above its value.
+The Moral Sense teaches us what is right, and how
+to avoid it--when unpopular.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>It is thought, as I have said, that a lynching
+crowd enjoys a lynching. It certainly is not true;
+it is impossible of belief. It is freely asserted--you
+have seen it in print many times of late--that
+the lynching impulse has been misinterpreted; that
+it is <em>not</em> the outcome of a spirit of revenge, but of a
+“mere atrocious hunger <em>to look upon human suffering</em>.”
+If that were so, the crowds that saw the
+Windsor Hotel burn down would have enjoyed the
+horrors that fell under their eyes. Did they? No
+one will think that of them, no one will make that
+charge. Many risked their lives to save the men and
+women who were in peril. Why did they do that?
+Because <em>none would disapprove</em>. There was no
+restraint; they could follow their natural impulse.
+Why does a crowd of the same kind of people in
+Texas, Colorado, Indiana, stand by, smitten to the
+heart and miserable, and by ostentatious outward
+signs pretend to enjoy a lynching? Why does it
+lift no hand or voice in protest? Only because it
+would be unpopular to do it, I think; each man is
+afraid of his neighbor’s disapproval--a thing which,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_245'>245</span>to the general run of the race, is more dreaded than
+wounds and death. When there is to be a lynching
+the people hitch up and come miles to see it, bringing
+their wives and children. Really to see it? No--they
+come only because they are afraid to stay at
+home, lest it be noticed and offensively commented
+upon. We may believe this, for we all know how
+<em>we</em> feel about such spectacles--also, how we would
+act under the like pressure. We are not any better
+nor any braver than anybody else, and we must
+not try to creep out of it.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>A Savonarola can quell and scatter a mob of
+lynchers with a mere glance of his eye: so can a
+Merrill<a id='r7' /><a href='#f7' class='c023'><sup>[7]</sup></a> or a Beloat.<a id='r8' /><a href='#f8' class='c023'><sup>[8]</sup></a> For no mob has any sand in
+the presence of a man known to be splendidly brave.
+Besides, a lynching mob would <em>like</em> to be scattered,
+for of a certainty there are never ten men in it who
+would not prefer to be somewhere else--and would
+be, if they but had the courage to go. When I was
+a boy I saw a brave gentleman deride and insult a
+mob and drive it away; and afterward, in Nevada,
+I saw a noted desperado make two hundred men
+sit still, with the house burning under them, until
+he gave them permission to retire. A plucky man
+can rob a whole passenger train by himself; and the
+half of a brave man can hold up a stagecoach and
+strip its occupants.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Then perhaps the remedy for lynchings comes to
+this: station a brave man in each affected community
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_246'>246</span>to encourage, support, and bring to light the deep
+disapproval of lynching hidden in the secret places
+of its heart--for it is there, beyond question. Then
+those communities will find something better to
+imitate--of course, being human, they must imitate
+something. Where shall these brave men be found?
+That is indeed a difficulty; there are not three
+hundred of them in the earth. If merely <em>physically</em>
+brave men would do, then it were easy; they could
+be furnished by the cargo. When Hobson called for
+seven volunteers to go with him to what promised to
+be certain death, four thousand men responded--the
+whole fleet, in fact. Because <em>all the world would
+approve</em>. They knew that; but if Hobson’s project
+had been charged with the scoffs and jeers of the
+friends and associates, whose good opinion and
+approval the sailors valued, he could not have got
+his seven.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>No, upon reflection, the scheme will not work.
+There are not enough morally brave men in stock.
+We are out of moral-courage material; we are in a
+condition of profound poverty. We have those two
+sheriffs down South who--but never mind, it is not
+enough to go around; they have to stay and take
+care of their own communities.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>But if we only <em>could</em> have three or four more
+sheriffs of that great breed! Would it help? I
+think so. For we are all imitators: other brave
+sheriffs would follow; to be a dauntless sheriff
+would come to be recognized as the correct and only
+thing, and the dreaded disapproval would fall to the
+share of the other kind; courage in this office would
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_247'>247</span>become custom, the absence of it a dishonor, just
+as courage presently replaces the timidity of the
+new soldier; then the mobs and the lynchings would
+disappear, and----</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>However. It can never be done without some
+starters, and where are we to get the starters?
+Advertise? Very well, then, let us advertise.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>In the meantime, there is another plan. Let us
+import American missionaries from China, and send
+them into the lynching field. With 1,511 of them
+out there converting two Chinamen apiece per annum
+against an uphill birth rate of 33,000 pagans per day,<a id='r9' /><a href='#f9' class='c023'><sup>[9]</sup></a>
+it will take upward of a million years to make the
+conversions balance the output and bring the Christianizing
+of the country in sight to the naked eye;
+therefore, if we can offer our missionaries as rich a
+field at home at lighter expense and quite satisfactory
+in the matter of danger, why shouldn’t they
+find it fair and right to come back and give us a
+trial? The Chinese are universally conceded to be
+excellent people, honest, honorable, industrious,
+trustworthy, kind-hearted, and all that--leave them
+alone, they are plenty good enough just as they are;
+and besides, almost every convert runs a risk of
+catching our civilization. We ought to be careful.
+We ought to think twice before we encourage a risk
+like that; for, <em>once civilized, China can never be
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_248'>248</span>uncivilized again</em>. We have not been thinking of
+that. Very well, we ought to think of it now. Our
+missionaries will find that we have a field for them--and
+not only for the 1,511, but for 15,011. Let them
+look at the following telegram and see if they have
+anything in China that is more appetizing. It is
+from Texas:</p>
+
+<div class='quote'>
+
+<p class='c002'>The negro was taken to a tree and swung in the air. Wood and
+fodder were piled beneath his body and a hot fire was made.
+<em>Then it was suggested that the man ought not to die too quickly,
+and he was let down to the ground while a party went to Dexter,
+about two miles distant, to procure coal oil.</em> This was thrown on
+the flames and the work completed.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p class='c002'>We implore them to come back and help us in our
+need. Patriotism imposes this duty on them. Our
+country is worse off than China; they are our countrymen,
+their motherland supplicates their aid in
+this her hour of deep distress. They are competent;
+our people are not. They are used to scoffs, sneers,
+revilings, danger; our people are not. They have
+the martyr spirit; nothing but the martyr spirit
+can brave a lynching mob, and cow it and scatter it.
+They can save their country, we beseech them to
+come home and do it. We ask them to read that
+telegram again, and yet again, and picture the scene
+in their minds, and soberly ponder it; then multiply
+it by 115, add 88; place the 203 in a row, allowing
+600 feet of space for each human torch, so that there
+may be viewing room around it for 5,000 Christian
+American men, women, and children, youths and
+maidens; make it night, for grim effect; have the
+show in a gradually rising plain, and let the course
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_249'>249</span>of the stakes be uphill; the eye can then take
+in the whole line of twenty-four miles of blood-and-flesh
+bonfires unbroken, whereas if it occupied level
+ground the ends of the line would bend down and
+be hidden from view by the curvature of the earth.
+All being ready, now, and the darkness opaque, the
+stillness impressive--for there should be no sound
+but the soft moaning of the night wind and the
+muffled sobbing of the sacrifices--let all the far
+stretch of kerosened pyres be touched off simultaneously
+and the glare and the shrieks and the
+agonies burst heavenward to the Throne.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>There are more than a million persons present;
+the light from the fires flushes into vague outline
+against the night the spires of five thousand churches.
+O kind missionary, O compassionate missionary,
+leave China! come home and convert these Christians!</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>I believe that if anything can stop this epidemic
+of bloody insanities it is martial personalities that
+can face mobs without flinching; and as such personalities
+are developed only by familiarity with
+danger and by the training and seasoning which
+come of resisting it, the likeliest place to find them
+must be among the missionaries who have been under
+tuition in China during the past year or two. We
+have abundance of work for them, and for hundreds
+and thousands more, and the field is daily growing
+and spreading. Shall we find them? We can try.
+In 75,000,000 there must be other Merrills and
+Beloats; and it is the law of our make that each
+example shall wake up drowsing chevaliers of the
+same great knighthood and bring them to the front.</p>
+
+<hr class='c025' />
+<div class='footnote' id='f7'>
+<p class='c002'><a href='#r7'>7</a>. Sheriff of Carroll County, Georgia.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f8'>
+<p class='c002'><a href='#r8'>8</a>. Sheriff, Princeton, Indiana. By that formidable power which
+lies in an established reputation for cold pluck they faced lynching
+mobs and securely held the field against them.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f9'>
+<p class='c002'><a href='#r9'>9</a>. These figures are not fanciful; all of them are genuine and
+authentic. They are from official missionary records in China.
+See Doctor Morrison’s book on his pedestrian journey across China;
+he quotes them and gives his authorities. For several years he has
+been the London <cite>Times’s</cite> representative in Peking, and was there
+through the siege.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_250'>250</span>
+  <h2 class='c008'>TO THE PERSON SITTING IN DARKNESS <br /> <span class='small'>(<cite>North American Review</cite>, 1901)</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c012'>See introduction to this volume for some account
+of this and the following article.</p>
+
+<div class='quote'>
+
+<p class='c002'>Christmas will dawn in the United States over a people full of
+hope and aspiration and good cheer. Such a condition means
+contentment and happiness. The carping grumbler who may
+here and there go forth will find few to listen to him. The
+majority will wonder what is the matter with him and pass
+on.--New York <cite>Tribune</cite>, on Christmas Eve.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p class='c002'>From the <cite>Sun</cite>, of New York:</p>
+
+<div class='quote'>
+
+<p class='c002'>The purpose of this article is not to describe the terrible
+offenses against humanity committed in the name of Politics
+in some of the most notorious East Side districts. <em>They could
+not be described, even verbally.</em> But it is the intention to let the
+great mass of more or less careless citizens of this beautiful
+metropolis of the New World get some conception of the havoc
+and ruin wrought to man, woman, and child in the most densely
+populated and least-known section of the city. Name, date, and
+place can be supplied to those of little faith--or to any man who
+feels himself aggrieved. It is a plain statement of record and
+observation, written without license and without garnish.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Imagine, if you can, a section of the city territory completely
+dominated by one man, without whose permission neither legitimate
+nor illegitimate business can be conducted; <em>where illegitimate
+business is encouraged and legitimate business discouraged</em>;
+where the respectable residents have to fasten their doors and
+windows summer nights and sit in their rooms with asphyxiating
+air and 100-degree temperature, rather than try to catch the
+faint whiff of breeze in their natural breathing places, the stoops
+of their homes; <em>where naked women dance by night in the streets,
+and unsexed men prowl like vultures through the darkness on
+“business”</em> not only permitted but encouraged by the police;
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_251'>251</span><em>where the education of infants begins with the knowledge of prostitution</em>
+and the training of little girls is training in the arts of
+Phryne; where <em>American</em> girls brought up with the refinements
+of <em>American</em> homes are imported from small towns up-state,
+Massachusetts, Connecticut, and New Jersey, and kept as
+virtually prisoners as if they were locked up behind jail bars
+until they have lost all semblance of womanhood; <em>where small
+boys are taught to solicit for the women of disorderly houses</em>; where
+there is an organized society of young men <em>whose sole business
+in life is to corrupt young girls and turn them over to bawdy houses</em>;
+where men walking with their wives along the street are openly
+insulted; <em>where children that have adult diseases are the chief
+patrons of the hospitals and dispensaries</em>; where it is the rule,
+rather than the exception, that <em>murder, rape, robbery, and theft
+go unpunished</em>--in short where the Premium of the most awful
+forms of Vice is the Profit of the politicians.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p class='c002'>The following news from China appeared in the
+<cite>Sun</cite>, of New York, on Christmas Eve. The italics
+are mine:</p>
+
+<div class='quote'>
+
+<p class='c002'>The Rev. Mr. Ament, of the American Board of Foreign
+Missions, has returned from a trip which he made for the purpose
+of collecting indemnities for damages done by Boxers.
+<em>Everywhere he went he compelled the Chinese to pay.</em> He says
+that all his native Christians are now provided for. He had
+700 of them under his charge, and 300 were killed. He has
+<em>collected 300 taels for each</em> of these murders, and has <em>compelled
+full payment for all the property belonging to Christians</em> that was
+destroyed. He also assessed <em>fines</em> amounting to <span class='fss'>THIRTEEN
+TIMES</span> the amount of the indemnity. <em>This money will be used
+for the propagation of the Gospel.</em></p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Mr. Ament declares that the compensation he has collected
+is <em>moderate</em> when compared with the amount secured by the
+Catholics, who demand, in addition to money, <em>head for head</em>.
+They collect 500 taels for each murder of a Catholic. In the
+Wenchiu country, 680 Catholics were killed, and for this the
+European Catholics here demand 750,000 strings of cash and
+680 <em>heads</em>.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>In the course of a conversation, Mr. Ament referred to the
+attitude of the missionaries toward the Chinese. He said:</p>
+
+<p class='c002'><span class='pageno' id='Page_252'>252</span>“I deny emphatically that the missionaries are <em>vindictive</em>, that
+they <em>generally</em> looted, or that they have done anything <em>since</em>
+the siege that <em>the circumstances did not demand</em>. I criticize the
+Americans. <em>The soft hand of the Americans is not as good as
+the mailed fist of the Germans.</em> If you deal with the Chinese
+with a soft hand they will take advantage of it.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“The statement that the French government will return the
+loot taken by the French soldiers is the source of the greatest
+amusement here. The French soldiers were more systematic
+looters than the Germans, and it is a fact that to-day <em>Catholic
+Christians</em>, carrying French flags and armed with modern guns,
+<em>are looting villages</em> in the Province of Chili.”</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p class='c002'>By happy luck, we get all these glad tidings on
+Christmas Eve--just in time enable us to celebrate
+the day with proper gayety and enthusiasm. Our
+spirits soar, and we find we can even make jokes:
+Taels, I win, Heads you lose.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Our Reverend Ament is the right man in the right
+place. What we want of our missionaries out there
+is, not that they shall merely represent in their acts
+and persons the grace and gentleness and charity
+and loving-kindness of our religion, but that they
+shall also represent the American spirit. The oldest
+Americans are the Pawnees. Macallum’s History says:</p>
+
+<div class='quote'>
+
+<p class='c002'>When a white Boxer kills a Pawnee and destroys his property,
+the other Pawnees do not trouble to seek <em>him</em> out, they kill any
+white person that comes along; also, they make some white
+village pay deceased’s heirs the full cash value of deceased,
+together with full cash value of the property destroyed; they
+also make the village pay, in addition, <em>thirteen times</em> the value
+of that property into a fund for the dissemination of the Pawnee
+religion, which they regard as the best of all religions for the
+softening and humanizing of the heart of man. It is their idea
+that it is only fair and right that the innocent should be made
+to suffer for the guilty, and that it is better that ninety and nine
+innocent should suffer than that one guilty person should escape.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p class='c002'><span class='pageno' id='Page_253'>253</span>Our Reverend Ament is justifiably jealous of those
+enterprising Catholics, who not only get big money
+for each lost convert, but get “head for head”
+besides. But he should soothe himself with the
+reflections that the entirety of their exactions are
+for their own pockets, whereas he, less selfishly,
+devotes only 300 taels per head to that service, and
+gives the whole vast thirteen repetitions of the
+property-indemnity to the service of propagating
+the Gospel. His magnanimity has won him the
+approval of his nation, and will get him a monument.
+Let him be content with these rewards. We all
+hold him dear for manfully defending his fellow
+missionaries from exaggerated charges which were
+beginning to distress us, but which his testimony
+has so considerably modified that we can now contemplate
+them without noticeable pain. For now
+we know that, even before the siege, the missionaries
+were not “generally” out looting, and that, “since
+the siege,” they have acted quite handsomely,
+except when “circumstances” crowded them. I
+am arranging for the monument. Subscriptions for
+it can be sent to the American Board; designs for
+it can be sent to me. Designs must allegorically
+set forth the Thirteen Reduplications of the Indemnity,
+and the Object for which they were exacted;
+as Ornaments, the designs must exhibit 680 Heads,
+so disposed as to give a pleasing and pretty effect;
+for the Catholics have done nicely, and are entitled
+to notice in the monument. Mottoes may be suggested,
+if any shall be discovered that will satisfactorily
+cover the ground.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'><span class='pageno' id='Page_254'>254</span>Mr. Ament’s financial feat of squeezing a thirteenfold
+indemnity out of the pauper peasants to square
+other people’s offenses, thus condemning them and
+their women and innocent little children to inevitable
+starvation and lingering death, in order that the
+blood money so acquired might be “<em>used for the
+propagation of the Gospel</em>,” does not flutter my
+serenity; although the act and the words, taken
+together, concrete a blasphemy so hideous and so
+colossal that, without doubt, its mate is not findable
+in the history of this or of any other age. Yet, if a
+layman had done that thing and justified it with
+those words, I should have shuddered, I know. Or,
+if I had done the thing and said the words myself--However,
+the thought is unthinkable, irreverent as
+some imperfectly informed people think me. Sometimes
+an ordained minister sets out to be blasphemous.
+When this happens, the layman is out of the
+running; he stands no chance.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>We have Mr. Ament’s impassioned assurance
+that the missionaries are not “vindictive.” Let
+us hope and pray that they will never become
+so, but will remain in the almost morbidly fair
+and just and gentle temper which is affording
+so much satisfaction to their brother and champion
+to-day.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>The following is from the New York <cite>Tribune</cite> of
+Christmas Eve. It comes from that journal’s Tokyo
+correspondent. It has a strange and impudent
+sound, but the Japanese are but partially civilized
+as yet. When they become wholly civilized they
+will not talk so:</p>
+
+<div><span class='pageno' id='Page_255'>255</span></div>
+<div class='quote'>
+
+<p class='c002'>The missionary question, of course, occupies a foremost place
+in the discussion. It is now felt as essential that the Western
+Powers take cognizance of the sentiment here, that religious
+invasions of Oriental countries by powerful Western organizations
+are tantamount to filibustering expeditions, and should
+not only be discountenanced, but that stern measures should
+be adopted for their suppression. The feeling here is that the
+missionary organizations constitute a constant menace to peaceful
+international relations.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p class='c002'><i>Shall we?</i> That is, shall we go on conferring our
+Civilization upon the peoples that sit in darkness,
+or shall we give those poor things a rest? Shall we
+bang right ahead in our old-time, loud, pious way,
+and commit the new century to the game; or shall
+we sober up and sit down and think it over first?
+Would it not be prudent to get our Civilization
+tools together, and see how much stock is left on
+hand in the way of Glass Beads and Theology, and
+Maxim Guns and Hymn Books, and Trade Gin and
+Torches of Progress and Enlightenment (patent
+adjustable ones, good to fire villages with, upon
+occasion), and balance the books, and arrive at the
+profit and loss, so that we may intelligently decide
+whether to continue the business or sell out the
+property and start a new Civilization Scheme on the
+proceeds?</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Extending the Blessings of Civilization to our
+Brother who Sits in Darkness has been a good trade
+and has paid well, on the whole; and there is money
+in it yet, if carefully worked--but not enough, in
+my judgment, to make any considerable risk advisable.
+The People that Sit in Darkness are getting
+to be too scarce--too scarce and too shy. And such
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_256'>256</span>darkness as is now left is really of but an indifferent
+quality, and not dark enough for the game. The
+most of those People that Sit in Darkness have been
+furnished with more light than was good for them or
+profitable for us. We have been injudicious.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>The Blessings-of-Civilization Trust, wisely and
+cautiously administered, is a Daisy. There is more
+money in it, more territory, more sovereignty, and
+other kinds of emolument, than there is in any other
+game that is played. But Christendom has been
+playing it badly of late years, and must certainly
+suffer by it, in my opinion. She has been so eager
+to get every stake that appeared on the green cloth,
+that the People who Sit in Darkness have noticed
+it--they have noticed it, and have begun to show
+alarm. They have become suspicious of the Blessings
+of Civilization. More--they have begun to
+examine them. This is not well. The Blessings of
+Civilization are all right, and a good commercial
+property; there could not be a better, in a dim light.
+In the right kind of a light, and at a proper distance,
+with the goods a little out of focus, they furnish
+this desirable exhibit to the Gentlemen who Sit in
+Darkness:</p>
+
+<table class='table1' summary=''>
+<colgroup>
+<col width='50%' />
+<col width='50%' />
+</colgroup>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c029'><span class='sc'>Love</span>,</td>
+    <td class='c030'><span class='sc'>Law and Order</span>,</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c029'><span class='sc'>Justice</span>,</td>
+    <td class='c030'><span class='sc'>Liberty</span>,</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c029'><span class='sc'>Gentleness</span>,</td>
+    <td class='c030'><span class='sc'>Equality</span>,</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c029'><span class='sc'>Christianity</span>,</td>
+    <td class='c030'><span class='sc'>Honorable Dealing</span>,</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c029'><span class='sc'>Protection to the Weak</span>,</td>
+    <td class='c030'><span class='sc'>Mercy</span>,</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c029'><span class='sc'>Temperance</span>,</td>
+    <td class='c030'><span class='sc'>Education</span>,</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr><td class='c031' colspan='2'>--and so on.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class='c002'><span class='pageno' id='Page_257'>257</span>There. Is it good? Sir, it is pie. It will bring
+into camp any idiot that sits in darkness anywhere.
+But not if we adulterate it. It is proper to be
+emphatic upon that point. This brand is strictly
+for Export--apparently. <em>Apparently.</em> Privately
+and confidentially, it is nothing of the kind. Privately
+and confidentially, it is merely an outside cover,
+gay and pretty and attractive, displaying the special
+patterns of our Civilization which we reserve for
+Home Consumption, while <em>inside</em> the bale is the
+Actual Thing that the Customer Sitting in Darkness
+buys with his blood and tears and land and liberty.
+That Actual Thing is, indeed, Civilization, but it is
+only for Export. Is there a difference between the
+two brands? In some of the details, yes.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>We all know that the Business is being ruined.
+The reason is not far to seek. It is because our Mr.
+McKinley, and Mr. Chamberlain, and the Kaiser,
+and the Tsar and the French have been exporting the
+Actual Thing <em>with the outside cover left off</em>. This is
+bad for the Game. It shows that these new players
+of it are not sufficiently acquainted with it.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>It is a distress to look on and note the mismoves,
+they are so strange and so awkward. Mr. Chamberlain
+manufactures a war out of materials so inadequate
+and so fanciful that they make the boxes
+grieve and the gallery laugh, and he tries hard to
+persuade himself that it isn’t purely a private raid
+for cash, but has a sort of dim, vague respectability
+about it somewhere, if he could only find the spot;
+and that, by and by, he can scour the flag clean
+again after he has finished dragging it through the
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_258'>258</span>mud, and make it shine and flash in the vault of
+heaven once more as it had shone and flashed there
+a thousand years in the world’s respect until he laid
+his unfaithful hand upon it. It is bad play--bad.
+For it exposes the Actual Thing to Them that Sit
+in Darkness, and they say: “What! Christian
+against Christian? And only for money? Is <em>this</em>
+a case of magnanimity, forbearance, love, gentleness,
+mercy, protection of the weak--this strange and
+overshowy onslaught of an elephant upon a nest of
+field mice, on the pretext that the mice had squeaked
+an insolence at him--conduct which “no self-respecting
+government could allow to pass unavenged”?
+as Mr. Chamberlain said. Was that a
+good pretext in a small case, when it had not been
+a good pretext in a large one?--for only recently
+Russia had affronted the elephant three times and
+survived alive and unsmitten. Is this Civilization
+and Progress? Is it something better than we already
+possess? These harryings and burnings and desert-makings
+in the Transvaal--is this an improvement
+on our darkness? Is it, perhaps, possible that there
+are two kinds of Civilization--one for home consumption
+and one for the heathen market?”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Then They that Sit in Darkness are troubled, and
+shake their heads; and they read this extract from
+a letter of a British private, recounting his exploits
+in one of Methuen’s victories, some days before
+the affair of Magersfontein, and they are troubled
+again:</p>
+
+<div class='quote'>
+
+<p class='c002'>We tore up the hill and into the intrenchments, and the Boers
+saw we had them; so they dropped their guns and went down
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_259'>259</span>on their knees and put up their hands clasped, and begged for
+mercy. And we gave it them--<em>with the long spoon</em>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p class='c002'>The long spoon is the bayonet. See <cite>Lloyd’s
+Weekly</cite>, London, of those days. The same number--and
+the same column--contained some quite unconscious
+satire in the form of shocked and bitter
+upbraidings of the Boers for their brutalities and
+inhumanities!</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Next, to our heavy damage, the Kaiser went to
+playing the game without first mastering it. He
+lost a couple of missionaries in a riot in Shantung,
+and in his account he made an overcharge for them.
+China had to pay a hundred thousand dollars apiece
+for them, in money; twelve miles of territory, containing
+several millions of inhabitants and worth
+twenty million dollars; and to build a monument,
+and also a Christian church; whereas the people of
+China could have been depended upon to remember
+the missionaries without the help of these expensive
+memorials. This was all bad play. Bad, because
+it would not, and could not, and will not now or
+ever, deceive the Person Sitting in Darkness. He
+knows that it was an overcharge. He knows that
+a missionary is like any other man: he is worth
+merely what you can supply his place for, and no
+more. He is useful, but so is a doctor, so is a sheriff,
+so is an editor; but a just Emperor does not charge
+war prices for such. A diligent, intelligent, but
+obscure missionary, and a diligent, intelligent country
+editor are worth much, and we know it; but
+they are not worth the earth. We esteem such an
+editor, and we are sorry to see him go; but, when he
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_260'>260</span>goes, we should consider twelve miles of territory,
+and a church, and a fortune, overcompensation for
+his loss. I mean, if he was a Chinese editor, and we
+had to settle for him. It is no proper figure for an
+editor or a missionary; one can get shop-worn kings
+for less. It was bad play on the Kaiser’s part. It
+got this property, true; but it <em>produced the Chinese
+revolt</em>, the indignant uprising of China’s traduced
+patriots, the Boxers. The results have been expensive
+to Germany, and to the other Disseminators of
+Progress and the Blessings of Civilization.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>The <a id='corr260.12'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='Kasier’s'>Kaiser’s</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_260.12'><ins class='correction' title='Kasier’s'>Kaiser’s</ins></a></span> claim was paid, yet it was bad play,
+for it could not fail to have an evil effect upon
+Persons Sitting in Darkness in China. They would
+muse upon the event, and be likely to say: “Civilization
+is gracious and beautiful, for such is its reputation;
+but can we afford it? There are rich Chinamen,
+perhaps they can afford it; but this tax is not laid
+upon them, it is laid upon the peasants of Shantung;
+it is they that must pay this mighty sum, and their
+wages are but four cents a day. Is this a better
+civilization than ours, and holier and higher and
+nobler? Is not this rapacity? Is not this extortion?
+Would Germany charge America two hundred thousand
+dollars for two missionaries, and shake the
+mailed fist in her face, and send warships, and send
+soldiers, and say: ‘Seize twelve miles of territory,
+worth twenty millions of dollars, as additional pay
+for the missionaries; and make those peasants build
+a monument to the missionaries, and a costly
+Christian church to remember them by?’ And later
+would Germany say to her soldiers: ‘March through
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_261'>261</span>America and slay, <em>giving no quarter</em>; make the German
+face there, as has been our Hun-face here, a terror
+for a thousand years; march through the Great
+Republic and slay, slay, slay, carving a road for
+our offended religion through its heart and bowels?’
+Would Germany do like this to America, to England,
+to France, to Russia? Or only to China, the helpless--imitating
+the elephant’s assault upon the field
+mice? Had we better invest in this Civilization--this
+Civilization which called Napoleon a buccaneer
+for carrying off Venice’s bronze horses, but which
+steals our ancient astronomical instruments from
+our walls, and goes looting like common bandits--that
+is, all the alien soldiers except America’s; and
+(Americans again excepted) storms frightened villages
+and cables the result to glad journals at home
+every day: ‘Chinese losses, 450 killed; ours, <em>one
+officer and two men wounded</em>. Shall proceed against
+neighboring village to-morrow, where a <em>massacre</em> is
+reported.’ Can we afford Civilization?”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>And next Russia must go and play the game
+injudiciously. She affronts England once or twice--with
+the Person Sitting in Darkness observing
+and noting; by moral assistance of France and Germany,
+she robs Japan of her hard-earned spoil, all
+swimming in Chinese blood--Port Arthur--with the
+Person again observing and noting; then she seizes
+Manchuria, raids its villages, and chokes its great
+river with the swollen corpses of countless massacred
+peasants--that astonished Person still observing and
+noting. And perhaps he is saying to himself: “It
+is yet <em>another</em> Civilized Power, with its banner of the
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_262'>262</span>Prince of Peace in one hand and its loot basket and
+its butcher knife in the other. Is there no salvation
+for us but to adopt Civilization and lift ourselves
+down to its level?”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>And by and by comes America, and our Master of
+the Game plays it badly--plays it as Mr. Chamberlain
+was playing it in South Africa. It was a mistake
+to do that; also, it was one which was quite unlooked
+for in a Master who was playing it so well in Cuba.
+In Cuba, he was playing the usual and regular
+<em>American</em> game, and it was winning, for there is
+no way to beat it. The Master, contemplating
+Cuba, said: “Here is an oppressed and friendless
+little nation which is willing to fight to be free;
+we go partners, and put up the strength of seventy
+million sympathizers and the resources of the United
+States: play!” Nothing but Europe combined
+could call that hand: and Europe cannot combine
+on anything. There, in Cuba, he was following our
+great traditions in a way which made us very proud
+of him, and proud of the deep dissatisfaction which
+his play was provoking in continental Europe. Moved
+by a high inspiration, he threw out those stirring
+words which proclaimed that forcible annexation
+would be “criminal aggression”; and in that utterance
+fired another “shot heard round the world.”
+The memory of that fine saying will be outlived by
+the remembrance of no act of his but one--that he
+forgot it within the twelvemonth, and its honorable
+gospel along with it.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>For, presently, came the Philippine temptation.
+It was strong; it was too strong, and he made that
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_263'>263</span>bad mistake: he played the European game, the
+Chamberlain game. It was a pity; it was a great
+pity, that error; that one grievous error, that irrevocable
+error. For it was the very place and time
+to play the American game again. And at no cost.
+Rich winnings to be gathered in, too; rich and
+permanent; indestructible; a fortune transmissible
+forever to the children of the flag. Not land, not
+money, not dominion--no, something worth many
+times more than that dross: our share, the spectacle
+of a nation of long harassed and persecuted slaves
+set free through our influence; our posterity’s share,
+the golden memory of that fair deed. The game
+was in our hands. If it had been played according
+to the American rules, Dewey would have sailed
+away from Manila as soon as he had destroyed the
+Spanish fleet--after putting up a sign on shore
+guaranteeing foreign property and life against damage
+by the Filipinos, and warning the Powers that
+interference with the emancipated patriots would be
+regarded as an act unfriendly to the United States.
+The Powers cannot combine, in even a bad cause,
+and the sign would not have been molested.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Dewey could have gone about his affairs elsewhere,
+and left the competent Filipino army to starve out
+the little Spanish garrison and send it home, and the
+Filipino citizens to set up the form of government
+they might prefer, and deal with the friars and their
+doubtful acquisitions according to Filipino ideas of
+fairness and justice--ideas which have since been
+tested and found to be of as high an order as any
+that prevail in Europe or America.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'><span class='pageno' id='Page_264'>264</span>But we played the Chamberlain game, and lost
+the chance to add another Cuba and another honorable
+deed to our good record.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>The more we examine the mistake, the more clearly
+we perceive that it is going to be bad for the Business.
+The Person Sitting in Darkness is almost sure to say:
+“There is something curious about this--curious and
+unaccountable. There must be two Americas: one
+that sets the captive free, and one that takes a once-captive’s
+new freedom away from him, and picks a
+quarrel with him with nothing to found it on; then
+kills him to get his land.”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>The truth is, the Person Sitting in Darkness <em>is</em>
+saying things like that; and for the sake of the
+Business we must persuade him to look at the
+Philippine matter in another and healthier way. We
+must arrange his opinions for him. I believe it can
+be done; for Mr. Chamberlain has arranged England’s
+opinion of the South African matter, and done
+it most cleverly and successfully. He presented the
+facts--some of the facts--and showed those confiding
+people what the facts meant. He did it statistically,
+which is a good way. He used the formula:
+“Twice 2 are 14, and 2 from 9 leaves 35.” Figures
+are effective; figures will convince the elect.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Now, my plan is a still bolder one than Mr.
+Chamberlain’s, though apparently a copy of it. Let
+us be franker than Mr. Chamberlain; let us audaciously
+present the whole of the facts, shirking none,
+then explain them according to Mr. Chamberlain’s
+formula. This daring truthfulness will astonish and
+dazzle the Person Sitting in Darkness, and he will
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_265'>265</span>take the Explanation down before his mental vision
+has had time to get back into focus. Let us say
+to him:</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“Our case is simple. On the 1st of May, Dewey
+destroyed the Spanish fleet. This left the Archipelago
+in the hands of its proper and rightful owners,
+the Filipino nation. Their army numbered 30,000
+men, and they were competent to whip out or starve
+out the little Spanish garrison; then the people
+could set up a government of their own devising.
+Our traditions required that Dewey should now set
+up his warning sign, and go away. But the Master
+of the Game happened to think of another plan--the
+European plan. He acted upon it. This was,
+to send out an army--ostensibly to help the native
+patriots put the finishing touch upon their long and
+plucky struggle for independence, but really to take
+their land away from them and keep it. That is,
+in the interest of Progress and Civilization. The
+plan developed, stage by stage, and quite satisfactorily.
+We entered into a military alliance with the
+trusting Filipinos, and they hemmed in Manila on
+the land side, and by their valuable help the place,
+with its garrison of 8,000 or 10,000 Spaniards, was
+captured--a thing which we could not have accomplished
+unaided at that time. We got their help by--by
+ingenuity. We knew they were fighting for
+their independence, and that they had been at it
+for two years. We knew they supposed that we
+also were fighting in their worthy cause--just as we had
+helped the Cubans fight for Cuban independence--and
+we allowed them to go on thinking so. <em>Until
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_266'>266</span>Manila was ours and we could get along without them.</em>
+Then we showed our hand. Of course, they were
+surprised--that was natural; surprised and disappointed;
+disappointed and grieved. To them it
+looked un-American; uncharacteristic; foreign to
+our established traditions. And this was natural,
+too; for we were only playing the American Game
+in public--in private it was the European. It was
+neatly done, very neatly, and it bewildered them.
+They could not understand it; for we had been so
+friendly--so affectionate, even--with those simple-minded
+patriots! We, our own selves, had brought
+back out of exile their leader, their hero, their hope,
+their Washington--Aguinaldo; brought him in a
+warship, in high honor, under the sacred shelter and
+hospitality of the flag; brought him back and restored
+him to his people, and got their moving and eloquent
+gratitude for it. Yes, we had been so friendly to
+them, and had heartened them up in so many ways!
+We had lent them guns and ammunition; advised
+with them; exchanged pleasant courtesies with them;
+placed our sick and wounded in their kindly care;
+intrusted our Spanish prisoners to their humane and
+honest hands; fought shoulder to shoulder with
+them against “the common enemy” (our own
+phrase); praised their courage, praised their gallantry,
+praised their mercifulness, praised their fine
+and honorable conduct; borrowed their trenches,
+borrowed strong positions which they had previously
+captured from the Spaniards; petted them, lied to
+them--officially proclaiming that our land and naval
+forces came to give them their freedom and displace
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_267'>267</span>the bad Spanish Government--fooled them, used
+them until we needed them no longer; then derided
+the sucked orange and threw it away. We kept the
+positions which we had beguiled them of; by and
+by, we moved a force forward and overlapped patriot
+ground--a clever thought, for we needed trouble,
+and this would produce it. A Filipino soldier, crossing
+the ground, where no one had a right to forbid
+him, was shot by our sentry. The badgered patriots
+resented this with arms, without waiting to know
+whether Aguinaldo, who was absent, would approve
+or not. Aguinaldo did not approve; but that availed
+nothing. What we wanted, in the interest of Progress
+and Civilization, was the Archipelago, unencumbered
+by patriots struggling for independence; and
+War was what we needed. We clinched our opportunity.
+It is Mr. Chamberlain’s case over again--at
+least in its motive and intention; and we played
+the game as adroitly as he played it himself.”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>At this point in our frank statement of fact to the
+Person Sitting in Darkness, we should throw in a
+little trade taffy about the Blessings of Civilization--for
+a change, and for the refreshment of his spirit--then
+go on with our tale:</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“We and the patriots having captured Manila,
+Spain’s ownership of the Archipelago and her sovereignty
+over it were at an end--obliterated--annihilated--not
+a rag or shred of either remaining
+behind. It was then that we conceived the divinely
+humorous idea of <em>buying</em> both of these specters from
+Spain! [It is quite safe to confess this to the Person
+Sitting in Darkness, since neither he nor any other
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_268'>268</span>sane person will believe it.] In buying those ghosts
+for twenty millions, we also contracted to take care
+of the friars and their accumulations. I think we
+also agreed to propagate leprosy and smallpox, but as
+to this there is doubt. But it is not important; persons
+afflicted with the friars do not mind other diseases.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“With our Treaty ratified, Manila subdued, and our
+Ghosts secured, we had no further use for Aguinaldo
+and the owners of the Archipelago. We forced a
+war, and we have been hunting America’s guest and
+ally through the woods and swamps ever since.”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>At this point in the tale, it will be well to boast a
+little of our war work and our <a id='corr268.13'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='heriosms'>heroisms</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_268.13'><ins class='correction' title='heriosms'>heroisms</ins></a></span> in the field,
+so as to make our performance look as fine as
+England’s in South Africa; but I believe it will not
+be best to emphasize this too much. We must be
+cautious. Of course, we must read the war telegrams
+to the Person, in order to keep up our frankness; but
+we can throw an air of humorousness over them, and
+that will modify their grim eloquence a little, and
+their rather indiscret exhibitions of gory exultation.
+Before reading to him the following display heads
+of the dispatches of November 18, 1900, it will be
+well to practice on them in private first, so as to get
+the right tang of lightness and gayety into them:</p>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+  <div class='nf-center'>
+    <div>“ADMINISTRATION WEARY OF</div>
+    <div>PROTRACTED HOSTILITIES!”</div>
+    <div class='c001'>“REAL WAR AHEAD FOR FILIPINO</div>
+    <div>REBELS!”<a id='r10' /><a href='#f10' class='c023'><sup>[10]</sup></a></div>
+    <div class='c001'><span class='pageno' id='Page_269'>269</span>“WILL SHOW NO MERCY!”</div>
+    <div>“KITCHENER’S PLAN ADOPTED!”</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c002'>Kitchener knows how to handle disagreeable
+people who are fighting for their homes and their
+liberties, and we must let on that we are merely
+imitating Kitchener, and have no national interest
+in the matter, further than to get ourselves admired
+by the Great Family of Nations, in which august
+company our Master of the Game has bought a place
+for us in the back row.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Of course, we must not venture to ignore our
+General MacArthur’s reports--oh, why do they keep
+on printing those embarrassing things?--we must
+drop them trippingly from the tongue and take the
+chances:</p>
+
+<div class='quote'>
+
+<p class='c002'>During the last ten months our losses have been 268 killed
+and 750 wounded; Filipino loss, <em>three thousand two hundred and
+twenty-seven killed</em>, and 694 wounded.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p class='c002'>We must stand ready to grab the Person Sitting
+in Darkness, for he will swoon away at this confession,
+saying: “Good God! those ‘niggers’ spare their
+wounded, and the Americans massacre theirs!”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>We must bring him to, and coax him and coddle
+him, and assure him that the ways of Providence are
+best, and that it would not become us to find fault
+with them; and then, to show him that we are only
+imitators, not originators, we must read the following
+passage from the letter of an American soldier lad in
+the Philippines to his mother, published in <cite>Public
+Opinion</cite>, of Decorah, Iowa, describing the finish of
+a victorious battle:</p>
+
+<p class='c002'><span class='pageno' id='Page_270'>270</span>“<span class='sc'>We never left one alive. If one was
+wounded, we would run our bayonets through
+him.</span>”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Having now laid all the historical facts before the
+Person Sitting in Darkness, we should bring him to
+again, and explain them to him. We should say to
+him:</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“They look doubtful, but in reality they are not.
+There have been lies; yes, but they were told in a
+good cause. We have been treacherous; but that
+was only in order that real good might come out of
+apparent evil. True, we have crushed a deceived
+and confiding people; we have turned against the
+weak and the friendless who trusted us; we have
+stamped out a just and intelligent and well-ordered
+republic; we have stabbed an ally in the back and
+slapped the face of a guest; we have bought a
+Shadow from an enemy that hadn’t it to sell; we
+have robbed a trusting friend of his land and his
+liberty; we have invited our clean young men to
+shoulder a discredited musket and do bandits’ work
+under a flag which bandits have been accustomed to
+fear, not to follow; we have debauched America’s
+honor and blackened her face before the world; but
+each detail was for the best. We know this. The
+Head of every State and Sovereignty in Christendom
+and 90 per cent of every legislative body in Christendom,
+including our Congress and our fifty state
+legislatures, are members not only of the church,
+but also of the Blessings-of-Civilization Trust. This
+world-girdling accumulation of trained morals, high
+principles, and justice cannot do an unright thing,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_271'>271</span>an unfair thing, an ungenerous thing, an unclean
+thing. It knows what it is about. Give yourself
+no uneasiness; it is all right.”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Now then, that will convince the Person. You will
+see. It will restore the Business. Also, it will elect
+the Master of the Game to the vacant place in the
+Trinity of our national gods; and there on their
+high thrones the Three will sit, age after age, in the
+people’s sight, each bearing the Emblem of his
+service: Washington, the Sword of the Liberator;
+Lincoln, the Slave’s Broken Chains; the Master,
+the Chains Repaired.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>It will give the Business a splendid new start.
+You will see.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Everything is prosperous, now; everything is just
+as we should wish it. We have got the Archipelago,
+and we shall never give it up. Also, we have every
+reason to hope that we shall have an opportunity
+before very long to slip out of our congressional
+contract with Cuba and give her something better
+in the place of it. It is a rich country, and many
+of us are already beginning to see that the contract
+was a sentimental mistake. But now--right now--is
+the best time to do some profitable rehabilitating
+work--work that will set us up and make us comfortable,
+and discourage gossip. We cannot conceal
+from ourselves that, privately, we are a little troubled
+about our uniform. It is one of our prides; it is
+acquainted with honor; it is familiar with great deeds
+and noble; we love it, we revere it; and so this
+errand it is on makes us uneasy. And our flag--another
+pride of ours, our chiefest! We have worshiped
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_272'>272</span>it so; and when we have seen it in far lands--glimpsing
+it unexpectedly in that strange sky, waving
+its welcome and benediction to us--we have
+caught our breaths, and uncovered our heads, and
+couldn’t speak, for a moment, for the thought of
+what it was to us and the great ideals it stood for.
+Indeed, we <em>must</em> do something about these things; it
+is easily managed. We can have a special one--our
+states do it: we can have just our usual flag, with
+the white stripes painted black and the stars replaced
+by the skull and crossbones.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>And we do not need that Civil Commission out
+there. Having no powers, it has to invent them,
+and that kind of work cannot be effectively done by
+just anybody; an expert is required. Mr. Croker
+can be spared. We do not want the United States
+represented there, but only the Game.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>By help of these suggested amendments, Progress
+and Civilization in that country can have a boom,
+and it will take in the Persons who are Sitting in
+Darkness, and we can resume Business at the old
+stand.</p>
+
+<hr class='c025' />
+<div class='footnote' id='f10'>
+<p class='c002'><a href='#r10'>10</a>. “Rebels!” Mumble that funny word--don’t let the Person
+catch it distinctly.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_273'>273</span>
+  <h2 class='c008'>TO MY MISSIONARY CRITICS <br /> <span class='small'>(<cite>North American Review</cite>, 1901)</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class='drop-capa0_0_0_4 c015'>I have received many newspaper cuttings; also
+letters from several clergymen; also a note from
+the Rev. Dr. Judson Smith, Corresponding Secretary
+of the American Board of Foreign Missions--all of
+a like tenor; all saying, substantially, what is said
+in the cutting here copied:</p>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+  <div class='nf-center'>
+    <div>AN APOLOGY DUE FROM MR. CLEMENS</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='quote'>
+
+<p class='c002'>The evidence of the past day or two should induce Mark
+Twain to make for the amen corner and formulate a prompt
+apology for his scathing attack on the Rev. Dr. Ament, the
+veteran Chinese missionary. The assault was based on a Peking
+dispatch to the New York <cite>Sun</cite>, which said that Dr. Ament had
+collected from the Chinese in various places damages thirteen
+times in excess of actual losses. So Mark Twain charged Mr.
+Ament with bullyragging, extortion, and things. A Peking
+dispatch to the <cite>Sun</cite> yesterday, however, explains that the amount
+collected was not thirteen times the damage sustained, but <em>one-third
+in excess of the indemnities</em>, and that the blunder was due
+to a cable error in transmission. The 1-3d got converted into
+13. Yesterday the Rev. Judson Smith, Secretary of the American
+Board, received a dispatch from Dr. Ament, calling attention
+to the cable blunder, and declaring that all the collections which
+he made were <em>approved by the Chinese officials</em>. The fractional
+amount that was collected in excess of actual losses, he explains,
+is being <em>used for the support of widows and orphans</em>.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>So collapses completely--and convulsively--Mark Twain’s
+sensational and ugly bombardment of a missionary whose
+character and services should have exempted him from such an
+assault.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'><span class='pageno' id='Page_274'>274</span>From the charge the underpinning has been knocked out.
+To Dr. Ament Mr. Clemens has done an injustice which is gross
+but unintentional. If Mark Twain is the man we take him to
+be he won’t be long in filing a retraction, plus an apology.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p class='c002'>I have no prejudice against apologies. I trust I
+shall never withhold one when it is due; I trust I
+shall never even have a disposition to do so. These
+letters and newspaper paragraphs are entitled to my
+best attention; respect for their writers and for the
+humane feeling which has prompted their utterances
+requires this of me. It may be barely possible that,
+if these requests for an apology had reached me before
+the 20th of February, I might have had a sort of
+qualified chance to apologize; but on that day
+appeared the two little cablegrams referred to in the
+newspaper cutting copied above--one from the Rev.
+Dr. Smith to the Rev. Dr. Ament, the other from
+Dr. Ament to Dr. Smith--and my small chance died
+then. In my opinion, these cablegrams ought to have
+been suppressed, for it seems clear that they give
+Dr. Ament’s case entirely away. Still, that is only
+an opinion, and may be a mistake. It will be best
+to examine the case from the beginning, by the light
+of the documents connected with it.</p>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+  <div class='nf-center'>
+    <div>EXHIBIT A</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c002'>This is a dispatch from Mr. Chamberlain,<a id='r11' /><a href='#f11' class='c023'><sup>[11]</sup></a> chief of
+the <cite>Sun’s</cite> correspondence staff in Peking. It appeared
+in the <cite>Sun</cite> last Christmas Eve, and in referring to
+it hereafter I will call it the “C. E. dispatch” for
+short:</p>
+
+<div><span class='pageno' id='Page_275'>275</span></div>
+<div class='quote'>
+
+<p class='c002'>The Rev. Mr. Ament, of the American Board of Foreign
+Missions, has returned from a trip which he made for the purpose
+of collecting indemnities for damages done by Boxers.
+Everywhere he went he compelled the Chinese to pay. He says
+that all his native Christians are now provided for. He had
+seven hundred of them under his charge, and three hundred
+were killed. He has collected 300 taels for each of these murders,
+and has compelled full payment for all the property belonging
+to Christians that was destroyed. He also assessed fines amounting
+to thirteen times<a id='r12' /><a href='#f12' class='c023'><sup>[12]</sup></a> the amount of the indemnity. This
+money will be used for the propagation of the Gospel.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Mr. Ament declares that the compensation he has collected
+is moderate when compared with the amount secured by the
+Catholics, who demand, in addition to money, head for head.
+They collect 500 taels for each murder of a Catholic. In the
+Wen-Chiu country 680 Catholics were killed, and for this the
+European Catholics here demand 750,000 strings of cash and 680
+heads.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>In the course of a conversation Mr. Ament referred to the
+attitude of the missionaries toward the Chinese. He said:</p>
+
+<p class='c002'><a id='corr275.21'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='I'>“I</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_275.21'><ins class='correction' title='I'>“I</ins></a></span> deny emphatically that the missionaries are vindictive, that
+they generally looted, or that they have done anything since the
+siege that the circumstances did not demand. I criticize the
+Americans. The soft hand of the Americans is not as good as
+the mailed fist of the Germans. If you deal with the Chinese
+with a soft hand they will take advantage of it.”</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p class='c002'>In an article addressed “To the Person Sitting in
+Darkness,” published in the <cite>North American Review</cite>
+for February, I made some comments upon this C. E.
+dispatch.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>In an Open Letter to me, from the Rev. Dr. Smith,
+published in the <cite>Tribune</cite> of February 15th, doubt is
+cast upon the authenticity of the dispatch.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Up to the 20th of February, this doubt was an
+important factor in the case: Dr. Ament’s brief cablegram,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_276'>276</span>published on that date, took the importance
+all out of it.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>In the Open Letter, Dr. Smith quotes this passage
+from a letter from Dr. Ament, dated November 13th.
+The italics are mine:</p>
+
+<div class='quote'>
+
+<p class='c002'><em>This</em> time I proposed to settle affairs <em>without the aid of soldiers or</em>
+legations.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p class='c002'>This cannot mean two things, but only one: that,
+previously, he <em>had</em> collected by armed force.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Also, in the Open Letter, Dr. Smith quotes some
+praises of Dr. Ament and the Rev. Mr. Tewksbury,
+furnished by the Rev. Dr. Sheffield, and says:</p>
+
+<div class='quote'>
+
+<p class='c002'>Dr. Sheffield is not accustomed to speak thus of <em>thieves</em>, or
+<em>extortioners</em>, or <em>braggarts</em>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p class='c002'>What can he mean by those vigorous expressions?
+Can he mean that the first two would be applicable
+to a missionary who should collect from B, with the
+“aid of soldiers,” indemnities possibly due by A, and
+upon occasion go out looting?</p>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+  <div class='nf-center'>
+    <div>EXHIBIT B</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c002'>Testimony of George Lynch (indorsed as entirely
+trustworthy by the <cite>Tribune</cite> and the <cite>Herald</cite>), war
+correspondent in the Cuban and South African wars,
+and in the march upon Peking for the rescue of the
+legations. The italics are mine:</p>
+
+<div class='quote'>
+
+<p class='c002'>When the <em>soldiers</em> were prohibited from looting, no such prohibitions
+seemed to operate with the <em>missionaries</em>. For instance,
+the <em>Rev. Mr. Tewksbury held a great sale of looted goods, which
+lasted several days</em>.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>A day or two after the relief, when looking for a place to sleep
+in, I met the Rev. Mr. Ament, of the American Board of Foreign
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_277'>277</span>Missions. <em>He told me</em> he was going to take possession of the
+house of a wealthy Chinaman who was an old enemy of his, as
+he had interfered much in the past with his missionary labors
+in Peking. A couple of days afterwards <em>he did so</em>, and held a
+<em>great sale of his enemy’s effects</em>. I bought a sable cloak at it for
+$125, and a couple of statues of Buddha. As the stock became
+depleted <em>it was replenished by the efforts of his converts, who were
+ransacking the houses in the neighborhood</em>.--New York <cite>Herald</cite>,
+February 18th.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p class='c002'>It is Dr. Smith, not I, who has suggested that
+persons who act in this way are “thieves and
+extortioners.”</p>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+  <div class='nf-center'>
+    <div>EXHIBIT C</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c002'>Sir Robert Hart, in the <cite>Fortnightly Review</cite> for
+January, 1901. This witness has been for many
+years the most prominent and important Englishman
+in China, and bears an irreproachable reputation
+for moderation, fairness, and truth-speaking. In
+closing a description of the revolting scenes which
+followed the occupation of Peking, when the Christian
+armies (with the proud exception of the American
+soldiery, let us be thankful for that) gave themselves
+up to a ruthless orgy of robbery and spoliation,
+he says (the italics are mine):</p>
+
+<div class='quote'>
+
+<p class='c002'>And even some <em>missionaries</em> took such a <em>leading</em> part in “spoiling
+the Egyptians” for the greater glory of God that a bystander
+was heard to say: “<em>For a century to come Chinese converts will
+consider looting and vengeance Christian <a id='corr277.28'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='virtues:'>virtues.</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_277.28'><ins class='correction' title='virtues:'>virtues.</ins></a></span></em>”</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p class='c002'>It is Dr. Smith, not I, who has suggested that persons
+who act in this way are “thieves and extortioners.”
+According to Mr. Lynch and Mr. Martin
+(another war correspondent), Dr. Ament helped to
+spoil several of those Egyptians. Mr. Martin took
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_278'>278</span>a photograph of the scene. It was reproduced in the
+<cite>Herald</cite>. I have it.</p>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+  <div class='nf-center'>
+    <div>EXHIBIT D</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c002'>In a brief reply to Dr. Smith’s Open Letter to me,
+I said this in the <cite>Tribune</cite>. I am italicizing several
+words--for a purpose:</p>
+
+<div class='quote'>
+
+<p class='c002'>Whenever he (Dr. Smith) can produce from the Rev. Mr.
+Ament an assertion that the <cite>Sun’s</cite> character-blasting dispatch
+was not authorized <em>by him</em>, and whenever Dr. Smith can buttress
+Mr. Ament’s disclaimer with a confession from <em>Mr. Chamberlain</em>,
+the head of the Laffan News Service in China, that that dispatch
+was a false invention <em>and unauthorized</em>, the case against
+Mr. Ament will fall at once to the ground.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+  <div class='nf-center'>
+    <div>EXHIBIT E</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c002'>Brief cablegrams, referred to above, which passed
+between Dr. Smith and Dr. Ament, and were published
+on February 20th:</p>
+
+<div class='quote'>
+
+<p class='c002'>Ament, Peking: Reported December 24 your collecting
+thirteen times actual losses; using for propagating the Gospel.
+Are these statements true? Cable specific answer.</p>
+
+<div class='c016'><span class='sc'>Smith.</span></div>
+
+<p class='c002'>Statement untrue. Collected 1-3 for church expenses, additional
+actual damages; now supporting widows and orphans.
+Publication thirteen times blunder cable. All collections received
+approval Chinese officials, who are urging further settlements
+same line.</p>
+
+<div class='c016'><span class='sc'>Ament.</span></div>
+
+</div>
+
+<p class='c002'>Only two questions are asked; “specific” answers
+required; no perilous wanderings among the other
+details of the unhappy dispatch desired.</p>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+  <div class='nf-center'>
+    <div>EXHIBIT F</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c002'>Letter from Dr. Smith to me, dated March
+8th. The italics are mine; they tag inaccuracies of
+statement:</p>
+
+<div><span class='pageno' id='Page_279'>279</span></div>
+<div class='quote'>
+
+<p class='c002'>Permit me to call your attention to the marked paragraphs in
+the inclosed papers, and to ask you to note their relation to the
+two conditions named in your letter to the New York <cite>Tribune</cite>
+of February 15th.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>The first is <em>Dr. Ament’s denial of the truth of the dispatch in
+the New York “Sun,”</em> of December 24th, on which your criticisms
+of him in the <cite>North American Review</cite> of February were
+founded. The second is a correction by the <cite>“Sun’s”</cite> <em>special
+correspondent</em> in Peking of the dispatch printed in the <cite>Sun</cite> of
+December 24th.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Since, as you state in your letter to the <cite>Tribune</cite>, “the case
+against Mr. Ament would fall to the ground” <em>if Mr. Ament
+denied the truth</em> of the <cite>Sun’s</cite> first dispatch, and <em>if the ‘Sun’s’
+news agency</em> in Peking also <em>declared that dispatch false</em>, and these
+two conditions <em>have thus been fulfilled</em>, I am sure that upon having
+these <em>facts</em> brought to your attention you will gladly withdraw
+the criticisms that were <em>founded on a “cable blunder.”</em></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p class='c002'>I think Dr. Smith ought to read me more carefully;
+then he would not make so many mistakes. Within
+the narrow space of two paragraphs, totaling eleven
+lines, he has scored nine departures from fact out of
+a possible 9½. Now, is that parliamentary? I do
+not treat him like that. Whenever I quote him, I
+am particular not to do him the least wrong, or make
+him say anything he did not say.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>(1) Mr. Ament doesn’t “deny the truth of the
+C. E. dispatch”; he merely changes one of its phrases,
+without materially changing the meaning, and (immaterially)
+corrects a cable blunder (which correction
+I accept). He was asked no question about the
+other four fifths of the C. E. dispatch. (2) I said
+nothing about “special” correspondents; I named
+the right and responsible man--Mr. Chamberlain.
+The “correction” referred to is a repetition of the
+one I have just accepted, which (immaterially)
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_280'>280</span>changes “thirteen times” to “one third” extra tax.
+(3) I did not say anything about “the <cite>Sun’s</cite> news
+agency”; I said “Chamberlain.” I have every confidence
+in Mr. Chamberlain, but I am not personally
+acquainted with the others. (4) Once more--Mr.
+Ament didn’t “deny the truth” of the C. E.
+dispatch, but merely made unimportant emendations
+of a couple of its many details. (5) I did not
+say “if Mr. Ament denied the truth” of the C. E.
+dispatch: I said, if he would assert that the dispatch
+was not “authorized” <em>by him</em>. For example, I did
+not suppose that the charge that the Catholic missionaries
+wanted 680 Chinamen beheaded was true;
+but I did want to know if Dr. Ament personally
+authorized that statement and the others, as coming
+from his lips. Another detail: one of my conditions
+was that Mr. Chamberlain must not stop with confessing
+that the C. E. was a “false invention,” he
+must also confess that it was “<em>unauthorized</em>.” Dr.
+Smith has left out that large detail. (6) The <cite>Sun’s</cite>
+news agency did not “declare the C. E. dispatch
+false,” but confined itself to correcting one unimportant
+detail of its long list--the change of “13
+times” to “one third” extra. (7) The “two conditions”
+have not “been fulfilled”--far from it. (8)
+Those details labeled “facts” are only fancies. (9)
+Finally, my criticisms were by no means confined to
+that detail of the C. E. dispatch which we now accept
+as having been a “cable blunder.”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Setting to one side these nine departures from fact,
+I find that what is left of the eleven lines is straight
+and true. I am not blaming Dr. Smith for these discrepancies--it
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_281'>281</span>would not be right, it would not be
+fair. I make the proper allowances. He has not
+been a journalist, as I have been--a trade wherein
+a person is brought to book by the rest of the
+press so often for divergencies that, by and by,
+he gets to be almost morbidly afraid to indulge
+in them. It is so with me. I always have the disposition
+to tell what is not so; I was born with
+it; we all have it. But I try not to do it now,
+because I have found out that it is unsafe. But
+with the Doctor of course it is different.</p>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+  <div class='nf-center'>
+    <div>EXHIBIT G</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c002'>I wanted to get at the whole of the facts as regards
+the C. E. dispatch, and so I wrote to China for them,
+when I found that the Board was not going to do it.
+But I am not allowed to wait. It seemed quite
+within the possibilities that a full detail of the facts
+might furnish me a chance to make an apology to
+Mr. Ament--a chance which, I give you my word, I
+would have honestly used, and not abused. But it
+is no matter. If the Board is not troubled about
+the bulk of that lurid dispatch, why should I be?
+I answered the apology-urging letters of several clergymen
+with the information that I had written to
+China for the details, and said I thought it was the
+only sure way of getting into a position to do fair
+and full justice to all concerned; but a couple of
+them replied that it was not a matter that could
+wait. That is to say, groping your way out of a
+jungle in the dark with guesses and conjectures is
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_282'>282</span>better than a straight march out in the sunlight of
+fact. It seems a curious idea.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>However, those two clergymen were in a large
+measure right--from their point of view and the
+Board’s; which is, putting it in the form of a couple
+of questions:</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>1. <i>Did Dr. Ament collect the assessed damages and
+thirteen times over?</i> The answer is: He did <em>not</em>. He
+collected only a <em>third</em> over.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>2. <i>Did he apply the third to the “propagation of the
+Gospel?”</i> The answer is this correction: He applied
+it to “church expenses.” Part or all of the outlay,
+it appears, goes to “supporting widows and orphans.”
+It may be that church expenses and supporting
+widows and orphans are not part of the machinery
+for propagating the Gospel. I supposed they were,
+but it isn’t any matter; I prefer this phrasing; it is
+not so blunt as the other.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>In the opinion of the two clergymen and of the
+Board, these two points are <em>the only important ones</em>
+in the whole C. E. dispatch.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>I accept that. Therefore let us throw out the
+rest of the dispatch as being no longer a part of
+Dr. Ament’s case.</p>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+  <div class='nf-center'>
+    <div>EXHIBIT H</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='quote'>
+
+<p class='c002'>The two clergymen and the Board are quite content with Dr.
+Ament’s answers upon the two points.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p class='c002'>Upon the first point of the two, my own viewpoint
+may be indicated by a question:</p>
+
+<p class='c002'><i>Did Dr. Ament collect from B (whether by compulsion
+or simple demand) even so much as a penny in
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_283'>283</span>payment for murders or depredations, without knowing,
+beyond question, that B, and not another, committed
+the murders or the depredations?</i></p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Or, in other words:</p>
+
+<p class='c002'><i>Did Dr. Ament ever, by chance or through ignorance,
+make the innocent pay the debts of the guilty?</i></p>
+
+<p class='c002'>In the article entitled “To the Person Sitting in
+Darkness,” I put forward that point in a paragraph
+taken from Macallum’s (imaginary) “History”:</p>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+  <div class='nf-center'>
+    <div>EXHIBIT I</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='quote'>
+
+<p class='c002'>When a white Boxer kills a Pawnee and destroys his property
+the other Pawnees do not trouble to seek <em>him</em> out; they kill any
+white person that comes along; also, they make some white
+village pay deceased’s heirs the full cash value of deceased,
+together with full cash value of the property destroyed; they
+also make the village pay, in addition, <em>thirteen times</em><a id='r13' /><a href='#f13' class='c023'><sup>[13]</sup></a> the value
+of that property into a fund for the dissemination of the Pawnee
+religion, which they regard as the best of all religions for the
+softening and humanizing of the heart of man. It is their idea
+that it is only fair and right <em>that the innocent should be made to
+suffer for the guilty</em>, and that it is better that 90 and 9 innocent
+should suffer than that one guilty person should escape.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p class='c002'>We all know that Dr. Ament did not bring suspected
+persons into a duly organized court and try
+them by just and fair Christian and civilized methods,
+but proclaimed his “conditions,” and collected damages
+from the innocent and the guilty alike, without
+any court proceedings at all.<a id='r14' /><a href='#f14' class='c023'><sup>[14]</sup></a> That he himself, and
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_284'>284</span>not the villagers, made the “conditions,” we learn
+from his letter of November 13th, already quoted
+from--the one in which he remarked that, upon <em>that</em>
+occasion he brought no soldiers with him. The
+italics are mine:</p>
+
+<div class='quote'>
+
+<p class='c002'>After our <em>conditions</em> were known many villagers came of their
+own accord and brought their money with them.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p class='c002'>Not all, but “many.” The Board really believes
+that those hunted and harried paupers out there
+were not only willing to strip themselves to pay
+Boxer damages, whether they owed them or not,
+but were sentimentally eager to do it. Mr. Ament
+says, in his letter: “The villagers were extremely
+grateful because I brought no foreign soldiers, and
+were glad to settle on the terms proposed.” Some
+of those people know more about theology than they
+do about human nature. I do not remember encountering
+even a Christian who was “glad” to pay money
+he did not owe; and as for a Chinaman doing it, why,
+dear me, the thing is unthinkable. We have all seen
+Chinamen, many Chinamen, but not that kind. It
+is a new kind: an invention of the Board--and
+“soldiers.”</p>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+  <div class='nf-center'>
+    <div>CONCERNING THE COLLECTIONS</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c002'>What was the “one third extra”? Money due?
+No. Was it a theft, then? Putting aside the “one
+third extra,” what was the <em>remainder</em> of the exacted
+indemnity, if collected from persons not <em>known</em> to
+owe it, and without Christian and civilized forms of
+procedure? Was <em>it</em> theft, was it robbery? In
+America it would be that; in Christian Europe it
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_285'>285</span>would be that. I have great confidence in Dr.
+Smith’s judgment concerning this detail, and he calls
+it “theft and extortion”--even in China; for he
+was talking about the “thirteen times” at the time
+that he gave it that strong name.<a id='r15' /><a href='#f15' class='c023'><sup>[15]</sup></a> It is his idea that,
+when you make guilty and innocent villagers pay
+the appraised damages, and then make them pay
+thirteen times that, besides, the <em>thirteen</em> stand for
+“theft and extortion.”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Then what does <em>one third</em> extra stand for? Will
+he give that one third a name? Is it Modified Theft
+and Extortion? Is that it? The girl who was
+rebuked for having borne an illegitimate child
+excused herself by saying, “But it is such a <em>little</em> one.”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>When the “thirteen-times-extra” was alleged, it
+stood for theft and extortion, in Dr. Smith’s eyes,
+and he was shocked. But when Dr. Ament showed
+that he had taken only a <em>third</em> extra, instead of
+thirteenfold, Dr. Smith was relieved, content, happy.
+I declare I cannot imagine why. That editor--quoted
+at the head of this article--was happy about it, too.
+I cannot think why. He thought I ought to “make
+for the amen corner and formulate a prompt apology.”
+To whom, and for what? It is too deep for me.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>To Dr. Smith, the “thirteenfold extra” clearly
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_286'>286</span>stood for “theft and extortion,” and he was right,
+distinctly right, indisputably right. He manifestly
+thinks that when it got scaled away down to a mere
+“one third,” a little thing like that was something
+other than “theft and extortion.” Why? Only the
+Board knows! I will try to explain this difficult
+problem, so that the Board can get an idea of it.
+If a pauper owes me a dollar, and I catch him unprotected
+and make him pay me fourteen dollars, thirteen
+of it is “theft and extortion”; if I make him
+pay only a dollar and thirty-three and a third cents
+the thirty-three and a third cents are “theft and
+extortion” just the same. I will put it in another
+way, still simpler. If a man owes me one dog--any
+kind of a dog, the breed is of no consequence--and
+I----But let it go; the Board would never
+understand it. It <em>can’t</em> understand these involved
+and difficult things.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>But <em>if</em> the Board could understand, then I could
+furnish some more instruction--which is this. The
+one third, obtained by “theft and extortion,” is
+<em>tainted money</em>, and cannot be purified even by defraying
+“church expenses” and “supporting widows and
+orphans” with it. It has to be restored to the
+people it was taken from.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Also, there is another view of these things. By
+our Christian code of morals and law, the <em>whole</em>
+$1.33 1-3, if taken from a man not formally <em>proven</em>
+to have committed the damage the dollar represents,
+is “theft and extortion.” It cannot be honestly
+used for any purpose at all. It must be handed back
+to the man it was taken from.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'><span class='pageno' id='Page_287'>287</span>Is there no way, then, to justify these thefts and
+extortions and make them clean and fair and honorable?
+Yes, there is. It can be done; it has been
+done; it continues to be done--by revising the Ten
+Commandments and bringing them down to date:
+for use in pagan lands. For example:</p>
+
+<div class='quote'>
+
+<p class='c002'><em>Thou shalt not steal</em>--except when it is the custom of the country.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p class='c002'>This way out is recognized and <em>approved</em> by all
+the best authorities, including the Board. I will cite
+witnesses.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'><i>The newspaper cutting, above</i>: “Dr. Ament declares
+that all the collections which he made were approved
+by the <em>Chinese</em> officials.” The editor is satisfied.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'><i>Dr. Ament’s cable to Dr. Smith</i>: “All collections
+received approval <em>Chinese</em> officials.” Dr. Ament is
+satisfied.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'><i>Letters from eight clergymen</i>--all to the same effect:
+Dr. Ament merely did as the <em>Chinese</em> do. So they
+are satisfied.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'><i>Mr. Ward, of the “Independent.”</i></p>
+
+<p class='c002'><i>The Rev. Dr. Washington Gladden.</i></p>
+
+<p class='c002'>I have mislaid the letters of these gentlemen and cannot
+quote their words, but they are of the satisfied.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'><i>The Rev. Dr. Smith</i>, in his Open Letter, published
+in the <cite>Tribune:</cite> “The whole procedure [Dr. Ament’s]
+is in accordance with a custom among the <em>Chinese</em>,
+of holding a village responsible for wrongs suffered
+in that village, and especially making the head man
+of the village accountable for wrongs committed
+there.” Dr. Smith is satisfied. Which means that
+the Board is satisfied.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'><span class='pageno' id='Page_288'>288</span>The “head man”! Why, then, this poor rascal,
+innocent or guilty, must pay the whole bill, if he
+cannot squeeze it out of his poor-devil neighbors.
+But, indeed, he can be depended upon to try, even
+to the skinning them of their last brass farthing,
+their last rag of clothing, their last ounce of food. He
+can be depended upon to get the indemnity out of them,
+though it cost stripes and blows, blood-tears, and flesh.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>THE TALE OF THE KING AND HIS TREASURER</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>How strange and remote and romantic and Oriental
+and Arabian-Nighty it all seems--and is. It
+brings back the old forgotten tales, and we hear the
+King say to his Treasurer:</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“Bring me 30,000 gold tomauns.”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“Allah preserve us, Sire! the treasury is empty.”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“Do you hear? Bring the money--in ten days.
+Else, send me your head in a basket.”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“I hear and obey.”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>The Treasurer summons the head men of a hundred
+villages, and says to one:</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“Bring me a hundred gold tomauns.” To another,
+“Bring me five hundred.” To another, “Bring a
+thousand. In ten days. Your head is the forfeit.”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“Your slaves kiss your feet! Ah, high and mighty
+lord, be merciful to our hard-pressed villagers; they
+are poor, they are naked, they starve; oh, these
+impossible sums! even the half----”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“Go! Grind it out of them, crush it out of them,
+turn the blood of the fathers, the tears of the mothers,
+the milk of the babes to money--or take the consequences.
+Have you heard?”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'><span class='pageno' id='Page_289'>289</span>“His will be done, Who is the Fount of love and
+mercy and compassion, Who layeth this heavy burden
+upon us by the hand of His anointed servants--blessed
+be His holy Name! The father shall bleed,
+the mother shall faint for hunger, the babe shall
+perish at the dry breast. The chosen of God have
+commanded: it shall be as they say.”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>I am not meaning to object to the substitution of
+pagan customs for Christian, here and there and
+now and then, when the Christian ones are inconvenient.
+No; I like it and admire it. I do it myself.
+And I admire the alertness of the Board in watching
+out for chances to trade Board morals for Chinese
+morals, and get the best of the swap; for I cannot
+endure those people, they are yellow, and I have
+never considered yellow becoming. I have always
+been like the Board--perfectly well-meaning, but
+destitute of the Moral Sense. Now, one of the main
+reasons why it is so hard to make the Board understand
+that there is no moral difference between a
+big filch and a little filch, but only a legal one, is
+that vacancy in its make-up. Morally, there are
+no degrees in stealing. The Commandment merely
+says, “Thou shalt not <em>steal</em>,” and stops there. It
+doesn’t recognize any difference between stealing a
+third and stealing thirteenfold. If I could think of
+a way to put it before the Board in such a plain and--</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>THE WATERMELONS</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>I have it, now. Many years ago, when I was
+studying for the gallows, I had a dear comrade, a
+youth who was not in my line, but still a thoroughly
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_290'>290</span>good fellow, though devious. He was preparing to
+qualify for a place on the Board, for there was going
+to be a vacancy by superannuation in about five
+years. This was down South, in the slavery days.
+It was the nature of the negro then, as now, to steal
+watermelons. They stole three of the melons of an
+adoptive brother of mine, the only good ones he
+had. I suspected three of a neighbor’s negroes, but
+there was no proof: and, besides, the watermelons
+in those negroes’ private patches were all green and
+small, and not up to indemnity standard. But in
+the private patches of three other negroes there were
+a number of competent melons. I consulted with
+my comrade, the understudy of the Board. He
+said that if I would approve his arrangements, he
+would arrange. I said, “Consider me the Board;
+I approve: arrange.” So he took a gun, and went
+and collected three large melons for my brother-on-the-half-shell,
+and one over. I was greatly pleased,
+and asked:</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“Who gets the extra one?”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“Widows and orphans.”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“A good idea, too. Why didn’t you take thirteen?”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“It would have been wrong; a crime, in fact--Theft
+and Extortion.”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“What is the one third extra--the odd melon--the
+same?”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>It caused him to reflect. But there was no result.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>The justice of the peace was a stern man. On the
+trial, he found fault with the scheme, and required
+us to explain upon what we based our strange conduct--as
+he called it. The understudy said:</p>
+
+<p class='c002'><span class='pageno' id='Page_291'>291</span>“On the custom of the niggers. They all do it.”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>The justice forgot his dignity, and descended to
+sarcasm:</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>“Custom of the niggers! Are our morals so inadequate
+that we have to borrow of niggers?” Then
+he said to the jury: “Three melons were owing;
+they were collected from persons not proven to owe
+them; this is theft. They were collected by compulsion;
+this is extortion. A melon was added--for
+the widows and orphans. It was owed by no one.
+It is another theft, another extortion. Return it
+whence it came, with the others. It is not permissible,
+here, to apply to any object goods dishonestly
+obtained--not even to the feeding of widows and
+orphans, for that would be to put a shame upon
+charity and dishonor it.”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>He said it in open court, before everybody, and
+to me it did not seem very kind.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>A clergyman, in a letter to me, reminds me, with
+a touch of reproach, that “many of the missionaries
+are good men, kind-hearted, earnest, devoted to their
+work.” Certainly they are. No one is disputing it.
+Instead of “many,” he could have said “almost all,”
+and still said the truth, no doubt. I know many
+missionaries; I have met them all about the globe,
+and have known only one or two who could not fill
+that bill and answer to that description. “Almost
+all” comes near to being a proportion and a description
+applicable also to lawyers, authors, editors, merchants,
+manufacturers--in fact, to most guilds and
+vocations. Without a doubt, Dr. Ament did what
+he believed to be right, and I concede that when a
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_292'>292</span>man is doing what he believes to be right, there is
+argument on his side. I differ with Dr. Ament, but
+that is only because he got his training from the
+Board and I got mine outside. Neither of us is
+responsible, altogether.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>RECAPITULATION</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>But there is no need to sum up. Mr. Ament has
+acknowledged the “one third extra”--no other witness
+is necessary. The Rev. Dr. Smith has carefully
+considered the act and labeled it with a stern name,
+and his verdict seems to have no flaw in it. The
+morals of the act are Chinese, but are approved by
+the Board, and by some of the clergy and some of
+the newspapers, as being a valuable improvement
+upon Christian ones--which leaves me with a closed
+mouth, though with a pain in my heart.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>IS THE AMERICAN BOARD ON TRIAL?</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Do I think that Dr. Ament and certain of his fellow
+missionaries are as bad as their conduct? No,
+I do not. They are the product of their training;
+and now that I understand the whole case, and where
+they got their ideals, and that they are merely
+subordinates and subject to authority, I comprehend
+that they are rather accessories than principals, and
+that their acts only show faulty heads curiously
+trained, not bad hearts. Mainly, as it seems to me,
+it is the American Board that is on trial. And
+again, it is a case of the head, not of the heart.
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_293'>293</span>That it has a heart which has never harbored an
+evil intention, no one will deny, no one will question;
+the Board’s history can silence any challenge on
+that score. The Board’s heart is not in court: it is
+its head that is on trial.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>It is a sufficiently strange head. Its ways baffle
+comprehension; its ideas are like no one else’s; its
+methods are novelties to the practical world; its
+judgments are surprises. When one thinks it is
+going to speak and must speak, it is silent; when one
+thinks it ought to be silent and must be silent, it
+speaks. Put your finger where you think it ought
+to be, it is not there; put it where you think it ought
+not to be, there you find it.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>When its servant in China seemed to be charging
+himself with amazing things, in a reputable journal--in
+a dispatch which was copied into many other
+papers--the Board was as silent about it as any
+dead man could have been who was informed that
+his house was burning over his head. An exchange
+of cablegrams could have enabled it, within two days,
+to prove to the world--possibly--that the damaging
+dispatch had not proceeded from the mouth of its
+servant; yet it sat silent and asked no questions
+about the matter.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>It was silent during thirty-eight days. Then the
+dispatch came into prominence again. It chanced
+that I was the occasion of it. A break in the stillness
+followed. In what form? An exchange of
+cablegrams, resulting in proof that the damaging
+dispatch had not been authorized? No, in the form
+of an Open Letter by the Corresponding Secretary
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_294'>294</span>of the American Board, the Rev. Dr. Smith, in which
+it was <em>argued</em> that Dr. Ament could not have said
+and done the things set forth in the dispatch.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Surely, this was bad politics. A repudiating telegram
+would have been worth more than a library of
+argument.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>An extension of the silence would have been better
+than the Open Letter, I think. I thought so at the
+time. It seemed to me that mistakes enough had
+been made and harm enough done. I thought it
+questionable policy to publish the Letter, for I “did
+not think it likely that Dr. Ament would disown
+the dispatch,” and I telegraphed that to the Rev.
+Dr. Smith. Personally, I had nothing against Dr.
+Ament, and that is my attitude yet.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Once more it was a good time for an extension of
+the silence. But no; the Board has its own ways,
+and one of them is to do the unwise thing, when
+occasion offers. After having waited fifty-six days,
+it cabled to Dr. Ament. No one can divine why it
+did so then, instead of fifty-six days earlier.<a id='r16' /><a href='#f16' class='c023'><sup>[16]</sup></a> It
+got a fatal reply--and was not aware of it. That
+was that curious confession about the “one third
+extra”; its application, not to the “propagation of
+the Gospel,” but only to “church expenses,” support
+of widows and orphans; and, on top of this confession,
+that other strange one revealing the dizzying
+fact that our missionaries, who went to China to
+teach Christian morals and justice, had adopted
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_295'>295</span>pagan morals and justice in their place. <em>That cablegram
+was dynamite.</em></p>
+
+<p class='c002'>It seems odd that the Board did not see that that
+revelation made the case far worse than it was before;
+for there was a saving doubt, before--a doubt which
+was a Gibraltar for strength, and should have been
+carefully left undisturbed. Why did the Board allow
+that revelation to get into print? Why did the
+Board not suppress it and keep still? But no; in
+the Board’s opinion, this was once more the time for
+speech. Hence Dr. Smith’s latest letter to me, suggesting
+that I speak also--a letter which is a good
+enough letter, barring its nine defects, but is another
+evidence that the Board’s head is not as good as its
+heart.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>A missionary is a man who is pretty nearly all
+heart, else he would not be in a calling which requires
+of him such large sacrifices of one kind and another.
+He is made up of faith, zeal, courage, sentiment,
+emotion, enthusiasm; and so he is a mixture of
+poet, devotee, and knight errant. He exiles himself
+from home and friends and the scenes and associations
+that are dearest to him; patiently endures discomforts,
+privations, discouragements; goes with
+good pluck into dangers which he knows may cost
+him his life; and when he must suffer death, willingly
+makes that supreme sacrifice for his cause.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Sometimes the headpiece of that kind of a man
+can be of an inferior sort, and error of judgment can
+result--as we have seen. Then, for his protection,
+as it seems to me, he ought to have at his back a
+Board able to know a blunder when it sees one, and
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_296'>296</span>prompt to bring him back upon his right course when
+he strays from it. That is to say, I think the captain
+of a ship ought to understand navigation. Whether
+he does or not, he will have to take a captain’s share
+of the blame, if the crew bring the vessel to grief.</p>
+
+<hr class='c025' />
+<div class='footnote' id='f11'>
+<p class='c002'><a href='#r11'>11</a>. Testimony of the manager of the <cite>Sun</cite>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f12'>
+<p class='c002'><a href='#r12'>12</a>. Cable error. For “thirteen times” read “one third.” This
+correction was made by Dr. Ament in his brief cablegram published
+February 20th, previously referred to.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f13'>
+<p class='c002'><a href='#r13'>13</a>. For “thirteen times” read “one third.”--M. T.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f14'>
+<p class='c002'><a href='#r14'>14</a>. In civilized countries, if a mob destroy property in a town, the
+damage is paid out of the town treasury, and no taxpayer suffers
+a disproportionate share of the burden; the mayor is not privileged
+to distribute the burden according to his private notions, sparing
+himself and his friends, and fleecing persons he holds a spite against--as
+in the Orient--and the citizen who is too poor to be a taxpayer
+pays no part of the fine at all.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f15'>
+<p class='c002'><a href='#r15'>15</a>. In his Open Letter, Dr. Smith cites Dr. Ament’s letter of
+November 13th, which contains an account of Dr. Ament’s collecting
+tour; then Dr. Smith makes this comment: “Nothing is said
+of securing ‘thirteen times’ the amount of the losses.” Farther
+down, Dr. Smith quotes praises of Dr. Ament and his work (from
+a letter of the Rev. Dr. Sheffield), and adds this comment: “Dr.
+Sheffield is not accustomed to speak thus in praise of thieves, or
+extortioners, or braggarts.” The reference is to the “thirteen-times”
+extra tax.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f16'>
+<p class='c002'><a href='#r16'>16</a>. The cablegram went on the day (February 18th) that Mr.
+George Lynch’s account of the looting was published. See “Exhibit
+B.” It seems a pity it did not inquire about the looting and get it
+denied.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_297'>297</span>
+  <h2 class='c008'>THOMAS BRACKETT REED</h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class='drop-capa0_2_0_4 c015'>He wore no shell. His ways were frank and open,
+and the road to his large sympathies was
+straight and unobstructed. His was a nature which
+invited affection--compelled it, in fact--and met it
+halfway. Hence he was “Tom” to the most of his
+friends, and to half of the nation. The abbreviating
+of such a man’s name is a patent of nobility, and is
+conferred from the heart. Mr. Reed had a very
+strong and decided character, and he may have had
+enemies; I do not know; if he had them--outside
+of politics--they did not know the man. He was
+transparently honest and honorable, there were no
+furtivenesses about him, and whoever came to know
+him trusted him and was not disappointed. He was
+wise, he was shrewd and alert, he was a clear and
+capable thinker, a logical reasoner, and a strong and
+convincing speaker. His manner was easy and engaging,
+his speeches sparkled with felicities of phrasing
+thrown off without apparent effort, and when he
+needed the happy help of humor he had a mine of
+it as deep and rich as Kimberly to draw from. His
+services to his country were great, and they were
+gratefully acknowledged.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>I cannot remember back to a time when he was
+not “Tom” Reed to me, nor to a time when he would
+have been offended at being so addressed by me. I
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_298'>298</span>cannot remember back to a time when I could let
+him alone in an after-dinner speech if he was present,
+nor to a time when he did not take my extravagances
+concerning him and misstatements about him in good
+part, nor yet to a time when he did not pay them
+back with usury when his turn came. The last
+speech he made was at my birthday dinner at the
+end of November, when naturally I was his text; my
+last word to him was in a letter the next day; a day
+later I was illustrating a fantastic article on Art with
+his portrait among others--a portrait now to be laid
+reverently away among the jests that begin in humor
+and end in pathos. These things happened only
+eight days ago, and now he is gone from us, and the
+nation is speaking of him as one who <em>was</em>. It seems
+incredible, impossible. Such a man, such a friend,
+seems to us a permanent possession; his vanishing
+from our midst is unthinkable; as unthinkable as
+was the vanishing of the Campanile, that had stood
+for a thousand years, and was turned to dust in a
+moment.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>I have no wish, at this time, to enter upon light
+and humorous reminiscences connected with yachting
+voyages with Mr. Reed in northern and southern
+seas, nor with other recreations in his company in
+other places--they do not belong in this paper, they
+do not invite me, they would jar upon me. I have
+only wished to say how fine and beautiful was his
+life and character, and to take him by the hand and
+say good-by, as to a fortunate friend who has done
+well his work and goes a pleasant journey.</p>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_299'>299</span>
+  <h2 class='c008'>THE FINISHED BOOK <br /><span class='small'>(On Finishing <cite>Joan of Arc</cite>)</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<div class='c032'><span class='sc'>Paris</span>, 1895.</div>
+
+<p class='drop-capa0_2_0_4 c019'>Do you know that shock? I mean, when you
+come, at your regular hour, into the sick room
+where you have watched for months, and find the
+medicine bottles all gone, the night table removed,
+the bed stripped, the furniture set stiffly to rights,
+the windows up, the room cold, stark, vacant--and
+you catch your breath. Do you know that shock?</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>The man who has written a long book has that
+experience the morning after he has revised it for the
+last time, seen the bearers convey it from the house,
+and sent it away to the printer. He steps into his
+study at the hour established by the habit of months--and
+he gets that little shock. All the litter and
+the confusion are gone. The piles of dusty reference
+books are gone from the chairs, the maps from the
+floor; the chaos of letters, manuscripts, notebooks,
+paper knives, pipes, matches, photographs, tobacco
+jars, and cigar boxes is gone from the writing table.
+The furniture is back where it use to be in the long
+ago. The housemaid, forbidden the place for five
+months, has been there, and tidied it up, and scoured
+it clean, and made it repellent and awful.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>I stand here this morning, contemplating this desolation,
+and I realize that if I would bring back the
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_300'>300</span>spirit that made this hospital homelike and pleasant
+to me, I must restore the aids to lingering dissolution
+to their wonted places, and nurse another patient
+through and send it forth for the last rites, with
+many or few to assist there, as may happen; and
+that I will do.</p>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_301'>301</span>
+  <h2 class='c008'>AS REGARDS PATRIOTISM <br /> <span class='small'>(About 1900)</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class='drop-capa0_2_0_4 c015'>It is agreed, in this country, that if a man can
+arrange his religion so that it perfectly satisfies
+his conscience, it is not incumbent upon him to care
+whether the arrangement is satisfactory to anyone
+else or not.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>In Austria and some other countries this is not
+the case. There the state arranges a man’s religion
+for him, he has no voice in it himself.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Patriotism is merely a religion--love of country,
+worship of country, devotion to the country’s flag
+and honor and welfare.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>In absolute monarchies it is furnished from the
+throne, cut and dried, to the subject; in England
+and America it is furnished, cut and dried, to the
+citizen by the politician and the newspaper.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>The newspaper-and-politician-manufactured
+Patriot often gags in private over his dose; but he
+takes it, and keeps it on his stomach the best he can.
+Blessed are the meek.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Sometimes, in the beginning of an insane shabby
+political upheaval, he is strongly moved to revolt,
+but he doesn’t do it--he knows better. He knows
+that his maker would find it out--the maker of his
+Patriotism, the windy and incoherent six-dollar
+subeditor of his village newspaper--and would bray
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_302'>302</span>out in print and call him a Traitor. And how dreadful
+that would be. It makes him tuck his tail between
+his legs and shiver. We all know--the reader knows
+it quite well--that two or three years ago nine
+tenths of the human tails in England and America
+performed just that act. Which is to say, nine
+tenths of the Patriots in England and America
+turned traitor to keep from being called traitor.
+Isn’t it true? You know it to be true. Isn’t it
+curious?</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Yet it was not a thing to be very seriously ashamed
+of. A man can seldom--very, very seldom--fight a
+winning fight against his training; the odds are too
+heavy. For many a year--perhaps always--the
+training of the two nations had been dead against
+independence in political thought, persistently inhospitable
+toward patriotism manufactured on a man’s
+own premises, Patriotism reasoned out in the man’s
+own head and fire-assayed and tested and proved
+in his own conscience. The resulting Patriotism
+was a shop-worn product procured at second hand.
+The Patriot did not know just how or when or where
+he got his opinions, neither did he care, so long as he
+was with what seemed the majority--which was the
+main thing, the safe thing, the comfortable thing.
+Does the reader believe he knows three men who
+have actual reasons for their pattern of Patriotism--and
+can furnish them? Let him not examine, unless
+he wants to be disappointed. He will be likely to
+find that his men got their Patriotism at the public
+trough, and had no hand in its preparation
+themselves.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'><span class='pageno' id='Page_303'>303</span>Training does wonderful things. It moved the
+people of this country to oppose the Mexican War;
+<a id='corr303.3'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='them'>then</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_303.3'><ins class='correction' title='them'>then</ins></a></span> moved them to fall in with what they supposed
+was the opinion of the majority--majority Patriotism
+is the customary Patriotism--and go down there
+and fight. Before the Civil War it made the North
+indifferent to slavery and friendly to the slave interest;
+in that interest it made Massachusetts hostile
+to the American flag, and she would not allow it to
+be hoisted on her State House--in her eyes it was
+the flag of a faction. Then by and by, training
+swung Massachusetts the other way, and she went
+raging South to fight under that very flag and
+against that aforetime protected interest of hers.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>There is nothing that training cannot do. Nothing
+is above its reach or below it. It can turn bad
+morals to good, good morals to bad; it can destroy
+principles, it can recreate them; it can debase angels
+to men and lift men to angelship. And it can do any
+one of these miracles in a year--even in six months.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Then men can be trained to manufacture their
+own Patriotism. They can be trained to labor it
+out in their own heads and hearts and in the privacy
+and independence of their own premises. It can
+train them to stop taking it by command, as the
+Austrian takes his religion.</p>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_304'>304</span>
+  <h2 class='c008'>DR. LOEB’S INCREDIBLE DISCOVERY</h2>
+</div>
+
+<div class='quote'>
+
+<p class='drop-capa0_2_0_4 c015'>Experts in biology will be apt to receive with some skepticism
+the announcement of Dr. Jacques Loeb of the University
+of California as to the creation of life by chemical agencies....
+Doctor Loeb is a very bright and ingenious experimenter,
+but <em>a consensus of opinion among biologists</em> would show that
+he is voted rather as a man of lively imagination than an inerrant
+investigator of natural phenomena.--New York <cite>Times</cite>,
+March 2d.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p class='c012'>I wish I could be as young as that again. Although
+I seem so old, now, I was once as young as that. I
+remember, as if it were but thirty or forty years ago,
+how a paralyzing Consensus of Opinion accumulated
+from Experts a-setting around, about brother experts
+who had patiently and laboriously cold-chiseled their
+way into one or another of nature’s safe-deposit
+vaults and were reporting that they had found something
+valuable was a plenty for me. It settled it.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>But it isn’t so now--no. Because, in the drift of
+the years I by and by found out that a Consensus
+examines a new thing with its feelings rather oftener
+than with its mind. You know, yourself, that that
+is so. Do those people examine with feelings that
+are friendly to evidence? You know they don’t. It
+is the other way about. They do the examining by
+the light of their prejudices--now isn’t that true?</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>With curious results, yes. So curious that you
+wonder the Consensuses do not go out of the business.
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_305'>305</span>Do you know of a case where a Consensus
+won a game? You can go back as far as you want
+to and you will find history furnishing you this (until
+now) unwritten maxim for your guidance and profit:
+Whatever new thing a Consensus coppers (colloquial
+for “bets against”), bet your money on that very
+card and do not be afraid.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>There was that primitive steam engine--ages back,
+in Greek times: a Consensus made fun of it. There
+was the Marquis of Worcester’s steam engine, 250
+years ago: a Consensus made fun of it. There was
+Fulton’s steamboat of a century ago: a French Consensus,
+including the Great Napoleon, made fun of
+it. There was Priestly, with his oxygen: a Consensus
+scoffed at him, mobbed him, burned him out,
+banished him. While a Consensus was proving, by
+statistics and things, that a steamship could not
+cross the Atlantic, a steamship did it. A Consensus
+consisting of all the medical experts in Great Britain
+made fun of Jenner and inoculation. A Consensus
+consisting of all the medical experts in France made
+fun of the stethoscope. A Consensus of all the
+medical experts in Germany made fun of that young
+doctor (his name? forgotten by all but doctors, now,
+revered now by doctors alone) who discovered and
+abolished the cause of that awful disease, puerperal
+fever; made fun of him, reviled him, hunted him,
+persecuted him, broke his heart, killed him. Electric
+telegraph, Atlantic cable, telephone, all “toys,” and
+of no practical value--verdict of the Consensuses.
+Geology, palæontology, evolution--all brushed into
+space by a Consensus of theological experts, comprising
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_306'>306</span>all the preachers in Christendom, assisted by
+the Duke of Argyle and (at first) the other scientists.
+And do look at Pasteur and his majestic honor roll
+of prodigious benefactions! Damned--each and
+every one of them in its turn--by frenzied and ferocious
+Consensuses of medical and chemical Experts
+comprising, for years, every member of the tribe in
+Europe; damned without even a casual <em>look</em> at what
+he was doing--and he pathetically imploring them
+to come and take at least one little look before
+making the damnation eternal. They shortened his
+life by their malignities and persecutions; and thus
+robbed the world of the further and priceless services
+of a man who--along certain lines and within certain
+limits--had done more for the human race than any
+other one man in all its long history: a man whom
+it had taken the Expert brotherhood ten thousand
+years to produce, and whose mate and match the
+brotherhood may possibly not be able to bring forth
+and assassinate in another ten thousand. The
+preacher has an old and tough reputation for bull-headed
+and unreasoning hostility to new light; why,
+he is not “in it” with the doctor! Nor, perhaps,
+with some of the other breeds of Experts that sit
+around and get up the Consensuses and squelch the
+new things as fast as they come from the hands of
+the plodders, the searchers, the inspired dreamers,
+the Pasteurs that come bearing pearls to scatter in
+the Consensus sty.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>This is warm work! It puts my temperature up
+to 106 and raises my pulse to the limit. It always
+works just so when the red rag of a Consensus jumps
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_307'>307</span>my fence and starts across my pasture. I have been
+a Consensus more than once myself, and I know the
+business--and its vicissitudes. I am a compositor-expert,
+of old and seasoned experience; nineteen
+years ago I delivered the final-and-for-good verdict
+that the linotype would never be able to earn its own
+living nor anyone else’s: it takes fourteen acres of
+ground, now, to accommodate its factories in England.
+Thirty-five years ago I was an expert precious-metal
+quartz-miner. There was an outcrop in my
+neighborhood that assayed $600 a ton--gold. But
+every fleck of gold in it was shut up tight and fast
+in an intractable and impersuadable base-metal
+shell. Acting as a Consensus, I delivered the finality
+verdict that no human ingenuity would ever be able
+to set free two dollars’ worth of gold out of a ton of
+that rock. The fact is, I did not foresee the cyanide
+process. Indeed, I have been a Consensus ever so
+many times since I reached maturity and approached
+the age of discretion, but I call to mind no instance
+in which I won out.</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>These sorrows have made me suspicious of Consensuses.
+Do you know, I tremble and the goose
+flesh rises on my skin every time I encounter one,
+now. I sheer warily off and get behind something,
+saying to myself, “It looks innocent and all right,
+but no matter, ten to one there’s a cyanide process
+under that thing somewhere.”</p>
+
+<p class='c002'>Now as concerns this “creation of life by chemical
+agencies.” Reader, take my advice: don’t you copper
+it. I don’t say bet on it; no, I only say, don’t
+you copper it. As you see, there is a Consensus out
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_308'>308</span>against it. If you find that you can’t control your
+passions; if you feel that you have <em>got</em> to copper
+something and can’t help it, copper the Consensus.
+It is the safest way--all history confirms it. If you
+are young, you will, of course, have to put up, on one
+side or the other, for you will not be able to restrain
+yourself; but as for me, I am old, and I am going to
+wait for a new deal.</p>
+
+<p class='c014'><i>P.S.</i>--In the same number of the <cite>Times</cite> Doctor
+Funk says: “Man may be as badly fooled by believing
+too little as by believing too much; the hard-headed
+skeptic Thomas was the only disciple who was
+cheated.” Is that the right and rational way to look
+at it? I will not be sure, for my memory is faulty, but
+it has always been my impression that Thomas was the
+only one who made an examination and proved a fact,
+while the others were accepting, or discounting, the
+fact on trust--like any other Consensus. If that is so,
+Doubting Thomas removed a doubt which must
+otherwise have confused and troubled the world until
+now. Including Doctor Funk. It seems to me that
+we owe that hard-headed--or sound-headed--witness
+something more than a slur. Why does Doctor
+Funk <em>examine</em> into spiritism, and then throw stones
+at Thomas. Why doesn’t he take it on trust? Has
+inconsistency become a jewel in Lafayette Place?</p>
+
+<div class='c033'><span class='sc'>Old-Man-Afraid-of-the-Consensus.</span></div>
+
+<p class='c014'><i>Extract from Adam’s Diary.</i>--Then there was a
+Consensus about it. It was the very first one. It
+sat six days and nights. It was then delivered of the
+verdict that a world could not be made out of
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_309'>309</span>nothing; that such small things as sun and moon
+and stars might, maybe, but it would take years
+and years, if there was considerable many of them.
+Then the Consensus got up and looked out of the
+window, and there was the whole outfit spinning and
+sparkling in space! You never saw such a disappointed
+lot.</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-r c024'>
+  <div class='linegroup'>
+    <div class='group'>
+      <div class='line in2'>his</div>
+      <div class='line'><span class='sc'>Adam</span>--i--</div>
+      <div class='line in2'>mark</div>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_310'>310</span>
+  <h2 class='c008'>THE DERVISH AND THE OFFENSIVE<br /> STRANGER</h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class='drop-capa0_2_0_4 c034'><i>The Dervish</i>: I will say again, and yet again, and
+still again, that a good deed----</p>
+
+<p class='c035'><i>The Offensive Stranger</i>: Peace, and, O man of narrow
+vision! There is no such thing as a good <em>deed</em>----</p>
+
+<p class='c035'><i>The Dervish</i>: O shameless blasphe----</p>
+
+<p class='c035'><i>The Offensive Stranger</i>: And no such thing as an
+evil deed. There are good <em>impulses</em>, there are evil
+impulses, and that is all. Half of the results of a
+good intention are evil; half the results of an evil
+intention are good. No man can command the
+results, nor allot them.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'><i>The Dervish</i>: And so----</p>
+
+<p class='c035'><i>The Offensive Stranger</i>: And so you shall praise
+men for their good intentions, and not blame them
+for the evils resulting; you shall blame men for
+their evil intentions, and not praise them for the
+good resulting.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'><i>The Dervish</i>: O maniac! will you say----</p>
+
+<p class='c035'><i>The Offensive Stranger</i>: Listen to the law: From
+<em>every</em> impulse, whether good or evil, flow two streams;
+the one carries health, the other carries poison.
+From the beginning of time this law has not changed,
+to the end of time it will not change.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'><i>The Dervish</i>: If I should strike thee dead in
+anger----</p>
+
+<p class='c035'><span class='pageno' id='Page_311'>311</span><i>The Offensive Stranger</i>: Or kill me with a drug which
+you hoped would give me new life and strength----</p>
+
+<p class='c035'><i>The Dervish</i>: Very well. Go on.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'><i>The Offensive Stranger</i>: In either case the results
+would be the same. Age-long misery of mind for
+you--an evil result; peace, repose, the end of sorrow
+for me--a good result. Three hearts that hold me
+dear would break; three pauper cousins of the third
+removed would get my riches and rejoice; you would
+go to prison and your friends would grieve, but your
+humble apprentice-priest would step into your shoes
+and your fat sleek life and be happy. And are these
+all the goods and all the evils that would flow from
+the well-intended or ill-intended act that cut short
+my life, O thoughtless one, O purblind creature? The
+good and evil results that flow from <em>any</em> act, even
+the smallest, breed on and on, century after century,
+forever and ever and ever, creeping by inches around
+the globe, affecting all its coming and going populations
+until the end of time, until the final cataclysm!</p>
+
+<p class='c035'><i>The Dervish</i>: Then, there being no such thing
+as a good deed----</p>
+
+<p class='c035'><i>The Offensive Stranger</i>: Don’t I tell you there
+are good <em>intentions</em>, and evil ones, and there an
+end? The <em>results</em> are not foreseeable. They are of
+both kinds, in all cases. It is the law. Listen:
+this is far-Western history:</p>
+
+<h3 class='c013'>VOICES OUT OF UTAH</h3>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c036'>
+    <div>I</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c035'><i>The White Chief</i> (<i>to his people</i>): This wide plain
+was a desert. By our Heaven-blest industry we have
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_312'>312</span>damned the river and utilized its waters and turned
+the desert into smiling fields whose fruitage makes
+prosperous and happy a thousand homes where
+poverty and hunger dwelt before. How noble, how
+beneficent, is Civilization!</p>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c024'>
+    <div>II</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c035'><i>Indian Chief</i> (<i>to his people</i>): This wide plain,
+which the Spanish priests taught our fathers to
+irrigate, was a smiling field, whose fruitage made
+our homes prosperous and happy. The white American
+has damned our river, taken away our water
+for his own valley, and turned our field into a desert;
+wherefore we starve.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'><i>The Dervish</i>: I perceive that the good intention
+did really bring both good and evil results in equal
+measure. But a single case cannot prove the rule.
+Try again.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'><i>The Offensive Stranger</i>: Pardon me, <em>all</em> cases
+prove it. Columbus discovered a new world and
+gave to the plodding poor and the landless of Europe
+farms and breathing space and plenty and
+happiness----</p>
+
+<p class='c035'><i>The Dervish</i>: A good result.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'><i>The Offensive Stranger</i>: And they hunted and
+harried the original owners of the soil, and robbed
+them, beggared them, drove them from their homes,
+and exterminated them, root and branch.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'><i>The Dervish</i>: An evil result, yes.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'><i>The Offensive Stranger</i>: The French Revolution
+brought desolation to the hearts and homes of five
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_313'>313</span>million families and drenched the country with blood
+and turned its wealth to poverty.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'><i>The Dervish</i>: An evil result.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'><i>The Offensive Stranger</i>: But every great and
+precious liberty enjoyed by the nations of continental
+Europe to-day are the gift of that Revolution.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'><i>The Dervish</i>: A good result, I concede it.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'><i>The Offensive Stranger</i>: In our well-meant effort to
+lift up the Filipino to our own moral altitude with
+a musket, we have slipped on the ice and fallen down
+to his.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'><i>The Dervish</i>: A large evil result.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'><i>The Offensive Stranger</i>: But as an offset we are a
+World Power.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'><i>The Dervish</i>: Give me time. I must think this
+one over. Pass on.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'><i>The Offensive Stranger</i>: By help of three hundred
+thousand soldiers and eight hundred million dollars
+England has succeeded in her good purpose of lifting
+up the unwilling Boers and making them better and
+purer and happier than they could ever have become
+by their own devices.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'><i>The Dervish</i>: Certainly that is a good result.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'><i>The Offensive Stranger</i>: But there are only eleven
+Boers left now.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'><i>The Dervish</i>: It has the appearance of an evil
+result. But I will think it over before I decide.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'><i>The Offensive Stranger</i>: Take yet one more
+instance. With the best intentions the missionary
+has been laboring in China for eighty years.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'><i>The Dervish</i>: The evil result is----</p>
+
+<p class='c035'><span class='pageno' id='Page_314'>314</span><i>The Offensive Stranger</i>: That nearly a hundred
+thousand Chinamen have acquired our Civilization.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'><i>The Dervish</i>: And the good result is----</p>
+
+<p class='c035'><i>The Offensive Stranger</i>: That by the compassion
+of God four hundred millions have escaped it.</p>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_315'>315</span>
+  <h2 class='c008'>INSTRUCTIONS IN ART<br /> <span class='small'>(With Illustrations by the Author)</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class='drop-capa0_2_0_4 c034'>The great trouble about painting a whole gallery
+of portraits at the same time is, that the housemaid
+comes and dusts, and does not put them back
+the way they were before, and so when the public
+flock to the studio and wish to know which is
+Howells and which is Depew and so on, you have
+to dissemble, and it is very embarrassing at first.
+Still, you know they are there, and this knowledge
+presently gives you more or less confidence, and
+you say sternly, “<em>This</em> is Howells,” and watch the
+visitor’s eye. If you see doubt there, you correct
+yourself and try another. In time you find one that
+will satisfy, and then you feel relief and joy, but
+you have suffered much in the meantime; and you
+know that this joy is only temporary, for the next
+inquirer will settle on another Howells of a quite
+different aspect, and one which you suspect is
+Edward VII or Cromwell, though you keep that to
+yourself, of course. It is much better to label a
+portrait when you first paint it, then there is no
+uncertainty in your mind and you can get bets
+out of the visitor and win them.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>I believe I have had the most trouble with a portrait
+which I painted in installments--the head on
+one canvas and the bust on another.</p>
+
+<div  class='figcenter id006'>
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_316'>316</span>
+<img src='images/i316.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
+<div class='ic003'>
+<p>THE HEAD ON ONE CANVAS</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c035'>The housemaid stood the bust up sideways, and
+now I don’t know which way it goes. Some authorities
+think it belongs with the breastpin at the top,
+under the man’s chin; others think it belongs the
+reverse way, on account of the collar, one of these
+saying, “A person can wear a breastpin on his
+stomach if he wants to, but he can’t wear his collar
+anywhere he dern pleases.” There is a certain
+amount of sense in that view of it. Still, there is
+no way to determine the matter for certain; when
+you join the installments, with the pin under the
+chin, that seems to be right; then when you reverse
+it and bring the collar under the chin it seems as
+right as ever; whichever way you fix it the lines
+come together snug and convincing, and either way
+you do it the portrait’s face looks equally surprised
+and rejoiced, and as if it wouldn’t be satisfied to
+have it any way but just that one; in fact, even if
+you take the bust away altogether the face seems
+surprised and happy just the same--I have never
+seen an expression before, which no vicissitudes could
+alter. I wish I could remember who it is. It looks
+a little like Washington, but I do not think it can be
+Washington, because he had as many ears on one
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_317'>317</span>side as the other. You can always tell Washington
+by that; he was very particular about his ears, and
+about having them arranged the same old way all
+the time.</p>
+
+<div  class='figcenter id001'>
+<img src='images/i317.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
+<div class='ic003'>
+<p>AND THE BUST ON ANOTHER</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c035'>By and by I shall get out of these confusions,
+and then it will be plain sailing; but first-off the
+confusions were natural and not to be avoided. My
+reputation came very suddenly and tumultuously
+when I published my own portrait, and it turned my
+head a little, for indeed there was never anything
+like it. In a single day I got orders from sixty-two
+people not to paint their portraits, some of them
+the most distinguished persons in the country--the
+President, the Cabinet, authors, governors, admirals,
+candidates for office on the weak side--almost everybody
+that was anybody, and it would really have
+turned the head of nearly any beginner to get so
+much notice and have it come with such a frenzy
+of cordiality. But I am growing calm and settling
+down to business, now; and pretty soon I shall cease
+to be flurried, and then when I do a portrait I shall
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_318'>318</span>be quite at myself and able on the instant to tell it
+from the others and pick it out when wanted.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>I am living a new and exalted life of late. It
+steeps me in a sacred rapture to see a portrait
+develop and take soul under my hand. First, I
+throw off a study--just a mere study, a few apparently
+random lines--and to look at it you would
+hardly ever suspect who it was going to be; even I
+cannot tell, myself. Take this picture, for instance:</p>
+
+<div  class='figcenter id007'>
+<img src='images/i318.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
+<div class='ic003'>
+<p>FIRST YOU THINK IT’S DANTE; NEXT YOU THINK IT’S EMERSON; THEN YOU THINK IT’S WAYNE MAC VEAGH. YET IT ISN’T ANY OF THEM; IT’S THE BEGINNINGS OF DEPEW</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c035'>First you think it’s Dante; next you think it’s
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_319'>319</span>Emerson; then you think it’s Wayne Mac Veagh.
+Yet it isn’t any of them; it’s the beginnings of
+Depew. Now you wouldn’t believe Depew could
+be devolved out of that; yet the minute it is finished
+here you have him to the life, and you say, yourself,
+“If that isn’t Depew it isn’t anybody.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>Some would have painted him speaking, but he
+isn’t always speaking, he has to stop and think
+sometimes.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>That is a <em>genre</em> picture, as we say in the trade,
+and differs from the encaustic and other schools in
+various ways, mainly technical, which you wouldn’t
+understand if I should explain them to you. But
+you will get the idea as I go along, and little by
+little you will learn all that is valuable about Art
+without knowing how it happened, and without any
+sense of strain or effort, and then you will know what
+school a picture belongs to, just at a glance, and
+whether it is an animal picture or a landscape. It
+is then that the joy of life will begin for you.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>When you come to examine my portraits of Mr.
+Joe Jefferson and the rest, your eye will have become
+measurably educated by that time, and you will
+recognize at once that no two of them are alike. I
+will close the present chapter with an example of the
+nude, for your instruction.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>This creation is different from any of the other
+works. The others are from real life, but this is an
+example of still-life; so called because it is a portrayal
+of a fancy only, a thing which has no actual and active
+existence. The purpose of a still-life picture is to
+concrete to the eye the spiritual, the intangible, a
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_320'>320</span>something which we feel, but cannot see with the
+fleshy vision--such as joy, sorrow, resentment, and
+so on. This is best achieved by the employment of
+that treatment which we call the impressionist, in
+the trade. The present example is an impressionist
+picture, done in distemper, with a chiaroscuro motif
+modified by monochromatic technique, so as to secure
+tenderness of feeling and spirituality of expression.
+At a first glance it would seem to be a Botticelli, but
+it is not that; it is only a humble imitation of that
+great master of longness and slimness and limbfulness.</p>
+
+<div  class='figcenter id008'>
+<img src='images/i320.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
+<div class='ic003'>
+<p>THAT THING IN THE RIGHT HAND IS NOT A SKILLET; IT IS A TAMBOURINE</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c035'>The work is imagined from Greek story, and
+represents Proserpine or Persepolis, or one of those
+other Bacchantes doing the solemnities of welcome
+before the altar of Isis upon the arrival of the annual
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_321'>321</span>shipload of Athenian youths in the island of Minos
+to be sacrificed in appeasement of the Dordonian
+Cyclops.</p>
+
+<div  class='figcenter id008'>
+<img src='images/i321.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
+<div class='ic003'>
+<p>THE PORTRAIT REPRODUCES MR. JOSEPH JEFFERSON, THE COMMON FRIEND OF THE HUMAN RACE</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c035'>The figure symbolizes solemn joy. It is severely
+Greek, therefore does not call details of drapery or
+other factitious helps to its aid, but depends wholly
+upon grace of action and symmetry of contour for
+its effects. It is intended to be viewed from the
+south or southeast, and I think that that is best;
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_322'>322</span>for while it expresses more and larger joy when viewed
+from the east or the north, the features of the face
+are too much foreshortened and wormy when viewed
+from that point. That thing in the right hand is
+not a skillet; it is a
+tambourine.</p>
+
+<div  class='figleft id009'>
+<img src='images/i322.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
+<div class='ic003'>
+<p>EITHER MR. HOWELLS OR MR. LAFFAN. I CANNOT TELL WHICH BECAUSE THE LABEL IS LOST</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c035'>This creation will
+be exhibited at the
+Paris Salon in June,
+and will compete for
+the <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><i>Prix de Rome</i></span>.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>The above is a
+marine picture, and
+is intended to educate
+the eye in the
+important matters
+of perspective and
+foreshortening. The
+mountainous and
+bounding waves in
+the foreground, contrasted
+with the
+tranquil ship fading
+away as in a dream
+the other side of the fishing-pole, convey to us the idea
+of space and distance as no words could do. Such
+is the miracle wrought by that wondrous device,
+perspective.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>The portrait reproduces Mr. Joseph Jefferson, the
+common friend of the human race. He is fishing,
+and is not catching anything. This is finely expressed
+by the moisture in the eye and the anguish of the
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_323'>323</span>mouth. The mouth is holding back words. The
+pole is bamboo, the line is foreshortened. This foreshortening,
+together with the smoothness of the
+water away out there where the cork is, gives a
+powerful impression of distance, and is another way
+of achieving a perspective effect.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>We now come to the next portrait, which is
+either Mr. Howells or Mr. Laffan. I cannot tell
+which, because the label is lost. But it will do for
+both, because the features are Mr. Howells’s, while
+the expression is Mr. Laffan’s. This work will bear
+critical examination.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>The next picture is part of an animal, but I do
+not know the name of it. It is not finished. The
+front end of it went around a corner before I could
+get to it.</p>
+
+<div  class='figcenter id006'>
+<img src='images/i323.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
+<div class='ic003'>
+<p>THE FRONT END OF IT WENT AROUND A CORNER BEFORE I COULD GET TO IT</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<div  class='figleft id009'>
+<img src='images/i324.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
+<div class='ic003'>
+<p>THE BEST AND MOST WINNING AND ELOQUENT PORTRAIT MY BRUSH HAS EVER PRODUCED</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c035'>We will conclude with the portrait of a lady in
+the style of Raphael. Originally I started it out for
+Queen Elizabeth, but was not able to do the lace
+hopper her head projects out of, therefore I tried to
+turn it into Pocahontas, but was again baffled, and
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_324'>324</span>was compelled to make further modifications, this
+time achieving success. By spiritualizing it and
+turning it into the noble mother of our race and
+throwing into the countenance the sacred joy which
+her first tailor-made outfit infuses into her spirit,
+I was enabled to add to my gallery the best and
+most winning and
+eloquent portrait my
+brush has ever produced.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>The most effective
+encouragement a beginner
+can have is
+the encouragement
+which he gets from
+noting his own progress
+with an alert
+and persistent eye.
+Save up your works
+and date them; as
+the years go by, run
+your eye over them
+from time to time,
+and measure your
+advancing stride.
+This will thrill you,
+this will nerve you, this will inspire you as nothing
+else can.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>It has been my own course, and to it I owe the
+most that I am to-day in Art. When I look back and
+examine my first effort and then compare it with
+my latest, it seems unbelievable that I have climbed
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_325'>325</span>so high in thirty-one years. Yet so it is. Practice--that
+is the secret. From three to seven hours a day.
+It is all that is required. The results are sure;
+whereas indolence achieves nothing great.</p>
+
+<div  class='figcenter id010'>
+<img src='images/i325.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
+<div class='ic003'>
+<p>IT SEEMS UNBELIEVABLE THAT I HAVE CLIMBED SO HIGH IN THIRTY-ONE YEARS</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_326'>326</span>
+  <h2 class='c008'>SOLD TO SATAN <br /> <span class='small'>(1904)</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class='drop-capa0_2_0_4 c034'>It was at this time that I concluded to sell my
+soul to Satan. Steel was away down, so was
+St. Paul; it was the same with all the desirable
+stocks, in fact, and so, if I did not turn out to be
+away down myself, now was my time to raise a stake
+and make my fortune. Without further consideration
+I sent word to the local agent, Mr. Blank, with
+description and present condition of the property,
+and an interview with Satan was promptly arranged,
+on a basis of 2½ per cent, this commission payable
+only in case a trade should be consummated.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>I sat in the dark, waiting and thinking. How still
+it was! Then came the deep voice of a far-off bell
+proclaiming midnight--Boom-m-m! Boom-m-m!
+Boom-m-m!--and I rose to receive my guest, and
+braced myself for the thunder crash and the brimstone
+stench which should announce his arrival.
+But there was no crash, no stench. Through the
+closed door, and noiseless, came the modern Satan,
+just as we see him on the stage--tall, slender, graceful,
+in tights and trunks, a short cape mantling his
+shoulders, a rapier at his side, a single drooping
+feather in his jaunty cap, and on his intellectual
+face the well-known and high-bred Mephistophelian
+smile.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'><span class='pageno' id='Page_327'>327</span>But he was not a fire coal; he was not red, no!
+On the contrary. He was a softly glowing, richly
+smoldering torch, column, statue of pallid light,
+faintly tinted with a spiritual green, and out from
+him a lunar splendor flowed such as one sees glinting
+from the crinkled waves of tropic seas when the
+moon rides high in cloudless skies.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>He made his customary stage obeisance, resting
+his left hand upon his sword hilt and removing his
+cap with his right and making that handsome sweep
+with it which we know so well; then we sat down.
+Ah, he was an incandescent glory, a nebular dream,
+and so much improved by his change of color. He
+must have seen the admiration in my illuminated
+face, but he took no notice of it, being long ago used
+to it in faces of other Christians with whom he had
+had trade relations.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>... A half hour of hot toddy and weather chat,
+mixed with occasional tentative feelers on my part
+and rejoinders of, “Well, I could hardly pay <em>that</em> for
+it, you know,” on his, had much modified my shyness
+and put me so much at my ease that I was
+emboldened to feed my curiosity a little. So I
+chanced the remark that he was surprisingly different
+from the traditions, and I wished I knew what it was
+he was made of. He was not offended, but answered
+with frank simplicity:</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“Radium!”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“That accounts for it!” I exclaimed. “It is the
+loveliest effulgence I have ever seen. The hard and
+heartless glare of the electric doesn’t compare with it.
+I suppose Your Majesty weighs about--about----”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'><span class='pageno' id='Page_328'>328</span>“I stand six feet one; fleshed and blooded I would
+weigh two hundred and fifteen; but radium, like
+other metals, is heavy. I weigh nine hundred-odd.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>I gazed hungrily upon him, saying to myself:</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“What riches! what a mine! Nine hundred
+pounds at, say, $3,500,000 a pound, would be--would
+be----” Then a treacherous thought burst
+into my mind!</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>He laughed a good hearty laugh, and said:</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“I perceive your thought; and what a handsomely
+original idea it is!--to kidnap Satan, and stock him,
+and incorporate him, and water the stock up to ten
+billions--just three times its actual value--and
+blanket the world with it!” My blush had turned
+the moonlight to a crimson mist, such as veils and
+spectralizes the domes and towers of Florence at
+sunset and makes the spectator drunk with joy to
+see, and he pitied me, and dropped his tone of irony,
+and assumed a grave and reflective one which had a
+pleasanter sound for me, and under its kindly
+influence my pains were presently healed, and I
+thanked him for his courtesy. Then he said:</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“One good turn deserves another, and I will pay
+you a compliment. Do you know I have been
+trading with your poor pathetic race for ages, and
+you are the first person who has ever been intelligent
+enough to divine the large commercial value of my
+make-up.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>I purred to myself and looked as modest as I
+could.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“Yes, you are the first,” he continued. “All
+through the Middle Ages I used to buy Christian
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_329'>329</span>souls at fancy rates, building bridges and cathedrals
+in a single night in return, and getting swindled out
+of my Christian nearly every time that I dealt with
+a priest--as history will concede--but making it
+up on the lay square-dealer now and then, as <em>I</em>
+admit; but none of those people ever guessed where
+the <em>real</em> big money lay. You are the first.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>I refilled his glass and gave him another Cavour.
+But he was experienced, by this time. He inspected
+the cigar pensively awhile; then:</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“What do you pay for these?” he asked.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“Two cents--but they come cheaper when you
+take a barrel.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>He went on inspecting; also mumbling comments,
+apparently to himself:</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“Black--rough-skinned--rumpled, irregular,
+wrinkled, barky, with crispy curled-up places on it--burnt-leather
+aspect, like the shoes of the damned
+that sit in pairs before the room doors at home of a
+Sunday morning.” He sighed at thought of his
+home, and was silent a moment; then he said,
+gently, “Tell me about this projectile.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“It is the discovery of a great Italian statesman,”
+I said. “Cavour. One day he lit his cigar, then
+laid it down and went on writing and forgot it. It
+lay in a pool of ink and got soaked. By and by he
+noticed it and laid it on the stove to dry. When it
+was dry he lit it and at once noticed that it didn’t
+taste the same as it did before. And so----”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“Did he say what it tasted like before?”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“No, I think not. But he called the government
+chemist and told him to find out the source of that
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_330'>330</span>new taste, and report. The chemist applied the
+tests, and reported that the source was the presence
+of sulphate of iron, touched up and spiritualized with
+vinegar--the combination out of which one makes
+ink. Cavour told him to introduce the brand in the
+interest of the finances. So, ever since then this
+brand passes through the ink factory, with the great
+result that both the ink and the cigar suffer a sea
+change into something new and strange. This is
+history, Sire, not a work of the imagination.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>So then he took up his present again, and touched
+it to the forefinger of his other hand for an instant,
+which made it break into flame and fragrance--but
+he changed his mind at that point and laid the
+torpedo down, saying, courteously:</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“With permission I will save it for Voltaire.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>I was greatly pleased and flattered to be connected
+in even this little way with that great man and be
+mentioned to him, as no doubt would be the case,
+so I hastened to fetch a bundle of fifty for distribution
+among others of the renowned and lamented--Goethe,
+and Homer, and Socrates, and Confucius,
+and so on--but Satan said he had nothing against
+those. Then he dropped back into reminiscences
+of the old times once more, and presently said:</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“They knew nothing about radium, and it would
+have had no value for them if they had known about
+it. In twenty million years it has had no value for
+your race until the revolutionizing steam-and-machinery
+age was born--which was only a few
+years before you were born yourself. It was a
+stunning little century, for sure, that nineteenth!
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_331'>331</span>But it’s a poor thing compared to what the twentieth
+is going to be.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>By request, he explained why he thought so.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“Because power was so costly, then, and everything
+goes by power--the steamship, the locomotive,
+and everything else. Coal, you see! You have to
+have it; no steam and no electricity without it;
+and it’s such a waste--for you burn it up, and it’s
+gone! But radium--that’s another matter! With
+my nine hundred pounds you could light the world,
+and heat it, and run all its ships and machines and
+railways a hundred million years, and not use up
+five pounds of it in the whole time! And then----”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“Quick--my soul is yours, dear Ancestor; take
+it--we’ll start a company!”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>But he asked my age, which is sixty-eight, then
+politely sidetracked the proposition, probably not
+wishing to take advantage of himself. Then he went
+on talking admiringly of radium, and how with its
+own natural and inherent heat it could go on melting
+its own weight of ice twenty-four times in twenty-four
+hours, and keep it up forever without losing
+bulk or weight; and how a pound of it, if exposed
+in this room, would blast the place like a breath
+from hell, and burn me to a crisp in a quarter of a
+minute--and was going on like that, but I interrupted
+and said:</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“But <em>you</em> are here, Majesty--nine hundred pounds--and
+the temperature is balmy and pleasant. I don’t
+understand.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“Well,” he said, hesitatingly, “it is a secret, but
+I may as well reveal it, for these prying and impertinent
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_332'>332</span>chemists are going to find it out sometime or
+other, anyway. Perhaps you have read what
+Madame Curie says about radium; how she goes
+searching among its splendid secrets and seizes upon
+one after another of them and italicizes its specialty;
+how she says ‘the compounds of radium are <em>spontaneously
+luminous</em>’--require no coal in the production
+of light, you see; how she says, ‘a glass vessel containing
+radium <em>spontaneously charges itself with electricity</em>’--no
+coal or water power required to generate
+it, you see; how she says ‘radium possesses the
+remarkable property of <em>liberating heat spontaneously
+and continuously</em>’--no coal required to fire-up on the
+world’s machinery, you see. She ransacks the pitch-blende
+for its radioactive substances, and captures
+three and labels them; one, which is embodied with
+bismuth, she names polonium; one, which is embodied
+with barium, she names radium; the name given to
+the third was actinium. Now listen; she says ‘<em>the
+question now was to separate the polonium from the
+bismuth</em> ... this is the task that has occupied us
+for years and has been a most difficult one.’ For
+years, you see--for <em>years</em>. That is their way, those
+plagues, those scientists--peg, peg, peg--dig, dig,
+dig--plod, plod, plod. I wish I could catch a cargo
+of them for my place; it would be an economy. Yes,
+for years, you see. They never give up. Patience,
+hope, faith, perseverance; it is the way of all the
+breed. Columbus and the rest. In radium this
+lady has added a new world to the planet’s possessions,
+and matched--Columbus--and his peer. She
+has set herself the task of divorcing polonium and
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_333'>333</span>bismuth; when she succeeds she will have done--what,
+should you say?”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“Pray name it, Majesty.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“It’s another new world added--a gigantic one.
+I will explain; for you would never divine the size
+of it, and she herself does not suspect it.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“Do, Majesty, I beg of you.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“Polonium, freed from bismuth and made independent,
+is the one and only power that can control
+radium, restrain its destructive forces, tame them,
+reduce them to obedience, and make them do useful
+and profitable work for your race. Examine my
+skin. What do you think of it?”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“It is delicate, silky, transparent, thin as a gelatine
+film--exquisite, beautiful, Majesty!”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“It is made of polonium. All the rest of me is
+radium. If I should strip off my skin the world
+would vanish away in a flash of flame and a puff of
+smoke, and the remnants of the extinguished moon
+would sift down through space a mere snow-shower
+of gray ashes!”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>I made no comment, I only trembled.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“You understand, now,” he continued. “I burn,
+I suffer within, my pains are measureless and eternal,
+but my skin protects you and the globe from harm.
+Heat is power, energy, but is only useful to man when
+he can control it and graduate its application to his
+needs. You cannot do that with radium, now; it
+will not be prodigiously useful to you until polonium
+shall put the slave whip in your hand. I can release
+from my body the radium force in any measure I
+please, great or small; at my will I can set in motion
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_334'>334</span>the works of a lady’s watch or destroy a world. You
+saw me light that unholy cigar with my finger?”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>I remembered it.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“Try to imagine how minute was the fraction of
+energy released to do that small thing! You are
+aware that everything is made up of restless and
+revolving molecules?--everything--furniture, rocks,
+water, iron, horses, men--everything that exists.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“Yes.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“Molecules of scores of different sizes and weights,
+but none of them big enough to be seen by help of
+any microscope?”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“Yes.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“And that each molecule is made up of thousands
+of separate and never-resting little particles called
+atoms?”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“Yes.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“And that up to recent times the smallest atom
+known to science was the hydrogen atom, which was
+a thousand times smaller than the atom that went
+to the building of any other molecule?”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“Yes.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“Well, the radium atom from the positive pole
+is 5,000 times smaller than <em>that</em> atom! This unspeakably
+minute atom is called an <em>electron</em>. Now then,
+out of my long affection for you and for your lineage,
+I will reveal to you a secret--a secret known to no
+scientist as yet--the secret of the firefly’s light and
+the glowworm’s; it is produced by a single electron
+imprisoned in a polonium atom.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“Sire, it is a wonderful thing, and the scientific
+world would be grateful to know this secret, which
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_335'>335</span>has baffled and defeated all its searchings for more
+than two centuries. To think!--a single electron,
+5,000 times smaller than the invisible hydrogen
+atom, to produce that explosion of vivid light which
+makes the summer night so beautiful!”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“And consider,” said Satan; “it is the only
+instance in all nature where radium exists in a pure
+state unencumbered by fettering alliances; where
+polonium enjoys the like emancipation; and where
+the pair are enabled to labor together in a gracious
+and beneficent and effective partnership. Suppose
+the protecting polonium envelope were removed; the
+radium spark would flash but once and the firefly
+would be consumed to vapor! Do you value this
+old iron letterpress?”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“No, Majesty, for it is not mine.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“Then I will destroy it and let you see. I lit
+the ostensible cigar with the heat energy of a single
+electron, the equipment of a single lightning bug.
+I will turn on twenty thousand electrons now.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>He touched the massive thing and it exploded
+with a cannon crash, leaving nothing but vacancy
+where it had stood. For three minutes the air was
+a dense pink fog of sparks, through which Satan
+loomed dim and vague, then the place cleared and
+his soft rich moonlight pervaded it again. He said:</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“You see? The radium in 20,000 lightning bugs
+would run a racing-mobile forever. There’s no waste,
+no diminution of it.” Then he remarked in a quite
+casual way, “We use nothing but radium at home.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>I was astonished. And interested, too, for I have
+friends there, and relatives. I had always believed--in
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_336'>336</span>accordance with my early teachings--that the
+fuel was soft coal and brimstone. He noticed the
+thought, and answered it.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“Soft coal and brimstone is the tradition, yes, but
+it is an error. We could use it; at least we could
+make out with it after a fashion, but it has several
+defects: it is not cleanly, it ordinarily makes but a
+temperate fire, and it would be exceedingly difficult,
+if even possible, to heat it up to standard, Sundays;
+and as for the supply, all the worlds and systems
+could not furnish enough to keep us going halfway
+through eternity. Without radium there could be
+no hell; certainly not a satisfactory one.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“Why?”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“Because if we hadn’t radium we should have to
+dress the souls in some other material; then, of
+course, they would burn up and get out of trouble.
+They would not last an hour. You know that?”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“Why--yes, now that you mention it. But I supposed
+they were dressed in their natural flesh; they
+look so in the pictures--in the Sistine Chapel and in
+the illustrated books, you know.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“Yes, our damned look as they looked in the
+world, but it isn’t flesh; flesh could not survive any
+longer than that copying press survived--it would
+explode and turn to a fog of sparks, and the result
+desired in sending it there would be defeated. Believe
+me, radium is the only wear.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“I see it now,” I said, with prophetic discomfort,
+“I know that you are right, Majesty.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“I am. I speak from experience. You shall see,
+when you get there.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'><span class='pageno' id='Page_337'>337</span>He said this as if he thought I was eaten up with
+curiosity, but it was because he did not know me.
+He sat reflecting a minute, then he said:</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“I will make your fortune.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>It cheered me up and I felt better. I thanked
+him and was all eagerness and attention.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“Do you know,” he continued, “where they find
+the bones of the extinct moa, in New Zealand? All
+in a pile--thousands and thousands of them banked
+together in a mass twenty feet deep. And do you
+know where they find the tusks of the extinct mastodon
+of the Pleistocene? Banked together in acres
+off the mouth of the Lena--an ivory mine which has
+furnished freight for Chinese caravans for five hundred
+years. Do you know the phosphate beds of
+our South? They are miles in extent, a limitless
+mass and jumble of bones of vast animals whose
+like exists no longer in the earth--a cemetery, a
+mighty cemetery, that is what it is. All over the
+earth there are such cemeteries. Whence came the
+instinct that made those families of creatures go to
+a chosen and particular spot to die when sickness
+came upon them and they perceived that their end
+was near? It is a mystery; not even science has
+been able to uncover the secret of it. But there
+stands the fact. Listen, then. For a million years
+there has been a firefly cemetery.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>Hopefully, appealingly, I opened my mouth--he
+motioned me to close it, and went on:</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“It is in a scooped-out bowl half as big as this
+room on the top of a snow summit of the Cordilleras.
+That bowl is level full--of what? Pure firefly
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_338'>338</span>radium and the glow and heat of hell? For
+countless ages myriads of fireflies have daily flown
+thither and died in that bowl and been burned to
+vapor in an instant, each fly leaving as its contribution
+its only indestructible particle, its single electron
+of pure radium. There is energy enough there to
+light the whole world, heat the whole world’s machinery,
+supply the whole world’s transportation power
+from now till the end of eternity. The massed
+riches of the planet could not furnish its value in
+money. You are mine, it is yours; when Madame
+Curie isolates polonium, clothe yourself in a skin of
+it and go and take possession!”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>Then he vanished and left me in the dark when
+I was just in the act of thanking him. I can find
+the bowl by the light it will cast upon the sky; I
+can get the polonium presently, when that illustrious
+lady in France isolates it from the bismuth. Stock
+is for sale. Apply to Mark Twain.</p>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_339'>339</span>
+  <h2 class='c008'>THAT DAY IN EDEN <br /> <span class='small'>(Passage from Satan’s Diary)</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class='drop-capa0_2_0_4 c034'>Long ago I was in the bushes near the Tree of
+Knowledge when the Man and the Woman
+came there and had a conversation. I was present,
+now, when they came again after all these years.
+They were as before--mere boy and girl--trim,
+rounded, slender, flexible, snow images lightly
+flushed with the pink of the skies, innocently unconscious
+of their nakedness, lovely to look upon,
+beautiful beyond words.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>I listened again. Again as in that former time
+they puzzled over those words, Good, Evil, Death,
+and tried to reason out their meaning; but, of course,
+they were not able to do it. Adam said:</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“Come, maybe we can find Satan. He might
+know these things.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>Then I came forth, still gazing upon Eve and
+admiring, and said to her:</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“You have not seen me before, sweet creature,
+but I have seen you. I have seen all the animals,
+but in beauty none of them equals you. Your hair,
+your eyes, your face, your flesh tints, your form, the
+tapering grace of your white limbs--all are beautiful,
+adorable, perfect.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>It gave her pleasure, and she looked herself over,
+putting out a foot and a hand and admiring them;
+then she naïvely said:</p>
+
+<p class='c035'><span class='pageno' id='Page_340'>340</span>“It is a joy to be so beautiful. And Adam--he is
+the same.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>She turned him about, this way and that, to show
+him off, with such guileless pride in her blue eyes,
+and he--he took it all as just matter of course, and
+was innocently happy in it, and said, “When I have
+flowers on my head it is better still.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>Eve said, “It is true--you shall see,” and she
+flitted hither and thither like a butterfly and plucked
+flowers, and in a moment laced their stems together
+in a glowing wreath and set it upon his head; then
+tiptoed and gave it a pat here and there with her
+nimble fingers, with each pat enhancing its grace
+and shape, none knows how, nor why it should so
+result, but in it there is a law somewhere, though
+the delicate art and mystery of it is her secret alone,
+and not learnable by another; and when at last it
+was to her mind she clapped her hands for pleasure,
+then reached up and kissed him--as pretty a sight,
+taken altogether, as in my experience I have seen.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>Presently, to the matter in hand. The meaning
+of those words--would I tell her?</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>Certainly none could be more willing, but how
+was I to do it? I could think of no way to make her
+understand, and I said so. I said:</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“I will try, but it is hardly of use. For instance--what
+is pain?”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“Pain? I do not know.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“Certainly. How should you? Pain is not of
+your world; pain is impossible to you; you have
+never experienced a physical pain. Reduce that to
+a formula, a principle, and what have we?”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'><span class='pageno' id='Page_341'>341</span>“What have we?”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“This: Things which are outside of our orbit--our
+own particular world--things which by our constitution
+and equipment we are unable to see, or
+feel, or otherwise experience--<em>cannot be made comprehensible
+to us in words</em>. There you have the whole
+thing in a nutshell. It is a principle, it is axiomatic,
+it is a law. Now do you understand?”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>The gentle creature looked dazed, and for all
+result she was delivered of this vacant remark:</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“What is axiomatic?”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>She had missed the point. Necessarily she would.
+Yet her effort was success for me, for it was a vivid
+confirmation of the truth of what I had been saying.
+Axiomatic was for the present a thing outside of the
+world of her experience, therefore it had no meaning
+for her. I ignored her question and continued:</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“What is fear?”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“Fear? I do not know.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“Naturally. Why should you? You have not
+felt it, you cannot feel it, it does not belong in your
+world. With a hundred thousand words I should
+not be able to make you understand what fear is.
+How then am I to explain death to you? You have
+never seen it, it is foreign to your world, it is impossible
+to make the word mean anything to you, so
+far as I can see. In a way, it is a sleep----”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“Oh, I know what that is!”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“But it is a sleep only in a way, as I said. It is
+more than a sleep.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“Sleep is pleasant, sleep is lovely!”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“But death is a long sleep--very long.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'><span class='pageno' id='Page_342'>342</span>“Oh, all the lovelier! Therefore I think nothing
+could be better than death.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>I said to myself, “Poor child, some day you may
+know what a pathetic truth you have spoken; some
+day you may say, out of a broken heart, ‘Come to
+me, O Death the compassionate! steep me in the
+merciful oblivion, O refuge of the sorrowful, friend
+of the forsaken and the desolate!’” Then I said
+aloud, “But this sleep is eternal.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>The word went over her head. Necessarily it
+would.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“Eternal. What is eternal?”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“Ah, that also is outside of your world, as yet.
+There is no way to make you understand it.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>It was a hopeless case. Words referring to things
+outside of her experience were a foreign language to
+her, and meaningless. She was like a little baby
+whose mother says to it, “Don’t put your finger in
+the candle flame; it will burn you.” Burn--it is a
+foreign word to the baby, and will have no terrors
+for it until experience shall have revealed its meaning.
+It is not worth while for mamma to make the remark,
+the baby will goo-goo cheerfully, and put its finger
+in the pretty flame--once. After these private reflections
+I said again that I did not think there was any
+way to make her understand the meaning of the
+word eternal. She was silent awhile, turning these
+deep matters over in the unworn machinery of her
+mind; then she gave up the puzzle and shifted her
+ground, saying:</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“Well, there are those other words. What is
+good, and what is evil?”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'><span class='pageno' id='Page_343'>343</span>“It is another difficulty. They, again, are outside
+of your world; they have place in the moral
+kingdom only. You have no morals.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“What are morals?”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“A system of law which distinguishes between right
+and wrong, good morals and bad. These things do
+not exist for you. I cannot make it clear; you would
+not understand.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“But try.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“Well, obedience to constituted authority is a
+moral law. Suppose Adam should forbid you to put
+your child in the river and leave it there overnight--would
+you put the child there?”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>She answered with a darling simplicity and
+guilelessness:</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“Why, yes, if I wanted to.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“There, it is just as I said--you would not know
+any better; you have no idea of duty, command,
+obedience; they have no meaning for you. In your
+present estate you are in no possible way responsible
+for anything you do or say or think. It is impossible
+for you to do wrong, for you have no more notion
+of right and wrong than the other animals have.
+You and they can do only right; whatever you and
+they do is right and innocent. It is a divine estate,
+the loftiest and purest attainable in heaven and in
+earth. It is the angel gift. The angels are wholly
+pure and sinless, for they do not know right from
+wrong, and all the acts of such are blameless. No
+one can do wrong without knowing how to distinguish
+between right and wrong.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“Is it an advantage to know?”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'><span class='pageno' id='Page_344'>344</span>“Most certainly not! That knowledge would
+remove all that is divine, all that is angelic, from
+the angels, and immeasurably degrade them.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“Are there any persons that know right from
+wrong?”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“Not in--well, not in heaven.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“What gives that knowledge?”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“The Moral Sense.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“What is that?”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“Well--no matter. Be thankful that you lack it.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“Why?”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“Because it is a degradation, a disaster. Without
+it one cannot do wrong; with it, one can. Therefore
+it has but one office, only one--to teach how to do
+wrong. It can teach no other thing--no other
+thing whatever. It is the <em>creator</em> of wrong; wrong
+cannot exist until the Moral Sense brings it into
+being.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“How can one acquire the Moral Sense?”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“By eating of the fruit of the Tree, here. But
+why do you wish to know? Would you like to have
+the Moral Sense?”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>She turned wistfully to Adam:</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“Would you like to have it?”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>He showed no particular interest, and only said:</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“I am indifferent. I have not understood any of
+this talk, but if you like we will eat it, for I cannot
+see that there is any objection to it.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>Poor ignorant things, the command of refrain had
+meant nothing to them, they were but children, and
+could not understand untried things and verbal
+abstractions which stood for matters outside of their
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_345'>345</span>little world and their narrow experience. Eve
+reached for an apple!--oh, farewell, Eden and your
+sinless joys, come poverty and pain, hunger and
+cold and heartbreak, bereavement, tears and shame,
+envy, strife, malice and dishonor, age, weariness,
+remorse; then desperation and the prayer for the
+release of death, indifferent that the gates of hell
+yawn beyond it!</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>She tasted--the fruit fell from her hand.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>It was pitiful. She was like one who wakens slow
+and confusedly out of a sleep. She gazed half
+vacantly at me, then at Adam, holding her curtaining
+fleece of golden hair back with her hand; then
+her wandering glance fell upon her naked person.
+The red blood mounted to her cheek, and she sprang
+behind a bush and stood there crying, and saying:</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“Oh, my modesty is lost to me--my unoffending
+form is become a shame to me!” She moaned and
+muttered in her pain, and dropped her head, saying,
+“I am degraded--I have fallen, oh, so low, and I
+shall never rise again.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>Adam’s eyes were fixed upon her in a dreamy
+amazement, for he could not understand what had
+happened, it being outside his world as yet, and her
+words having no meaning for one void of the Moral
+Sense. And now his wonder grew: for, unknown
+to Eve, her hundred years rose upon her, and faded
+the heaven of her eyes and the tints of her young
+flesh, and touched her hair with gray, and traced
+faint sprays of wrinkles about her mouth and eyes,
+and shrunk her form, and dulled the satin luster of
+her skin.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'><span class='pageno' id='Page_346'>346</span>All this the fair boy saw: then loyally and bravely
+he took the apple and tasted it, saying nothing.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>The change came upon him also. Then he gathered
+boughs for both and clothed their nakedness, and
+they turned and went their way, hand in hand and
+bent with age, and so passed from sight.</p>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_347'>347</span>
+  <h2 class='c008'>EVE SPEAKS</h2>
+</div>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c036'>
+    <div>I</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='drop-capa0_2_0_4 c037'>They drove us from the Garden with their swords
+of flame, the fierce cherubim. And what had we
+done? We meant no harm. We were ignorant, and
+did as any other children might do. We could not
+know it was wrong to disobey the command, for
+the words were strange to us and we did not understand
+them. We did not know right from wrong--how
+should we know? We could not, without the
+Moral Sense; it was not possible. If we had been
+given the Moral Sense first--ah, that would have
+been fairer, that would have been kinder; then we
+should be to blame if we disobeyed. But to say to
+us poor ignorant children words which we could not
+understand, and then punish us because we did not
+do as we were told--ah, how can that be justified?
+We knew no more then than this littlest child of
+mine knows now, with its four years--oh, not so
+much, I think. Would I say to it, “If thou touchest
+this bread I will overwhelm thee with unimaginable
+disaster, even to the dissolution of thy corporeal
+elements,” and when it took the bread and smiled
+up in my face, thinking no harm, as not understanding
+those strange words, would I take advantage of
+its innocence and strike it down with the mother
+hand it trusted? Whoso knoweth the mother heart,
+let him judge if it would do that thing. Adam says
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_348'>348</span>my brain is turned by my troubles and that I am
+become wicked. I am as I am; I did not make
+myself.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>They drove us out. Drove us out into this harsh
+wilderness, and shut the gates against us. We that
+had meant no harm. It is three months. We were
+ignorant then; we are rich in learning, now--ah,
+how rich! We know hunger, thirst, and cold; we
+know pain, disease, and grief; we know hate, rebellion,
+and deceit; we know remorse, the conscience
+that prosecutes guilt and innocence alike, making
+no distinction; we know weariness of body and spirit,
+the unrefreshing sleep, the rest which rests not, the
+dreams which restore Eden, and banish it again with
+the waking; we know misery; we know torture and
+the heartbreak; we know humiliation and insult;
+we know indecency, immodesty, and the soiled
+mind; we know the scorn that attaches to the transmitted
+image of God exposed unclothed to the day;
+we know fear; we know vanity, folly, envy, hypocrisy;
+we know irreverence; we know blasphemy;
+we know right from wrong, and how to avoid the
+one and do the other; we know all the rich product
+of the Moral Sense, and it is our possession. Would
+we could sell it for one hour of Eden and white
+purity; would we could degrade the animals with it!</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>We have it all--that treasure. All but death.
+Death.... Death. What may that be?</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>Adam comes.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“Well?”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“He still sleeps.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>That is our second-born--our Abel.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'><span class='pageno' id='Page_349'>349</span>“He has slept enough for his good, and his garden
+suffers for his care. Wake him.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“I have tried and cannot.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“Then he is very tired. Let him sleep on.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“I think it is his hurt that makes him sleep so
+long.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>I answer: “It may be so. Then we will let him
+rest; no doubt the sleep is healing it.”</p>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c024'>
+    <div>II</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c035'>It is a day and a night, now, that he has slept.
+We found him by his altar in his field, that morning,
+his face and body drenched in blood. He said his
+eldest brother struck him down. Then he spoke no
+more and fell asleep. We laid him in his bed and
+washed the blood away, and were glad to know the
+hurt was light and that he had no pain; for if he
+had had pain he would not have slept.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>It was in the early morning that we found him.
+All day he slept that sweet, reposeful sleep, lying
+always on his back, and never moving, never turning.
+It showed how tired he was, poor thing. He is
+so good and works so hard, rising with the dawn and
+laboring till the dark. And now he is overworked;
+it will be best that he tax himself less, after this, and
+I will ask him; he will do anything I wish.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>All the day he slept. I know, for I was always
+near, and made dishes for him and kept them warm
+against his waking. Often I crept in and fed my
+eyes upon his gentle face, and was thankful for that
+blessed sleep. And still he slept on--slept with his
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_350'>350</span>eyes wide; a strange thing, and made me think he
+was awake at first, but it was not so, for I spoke
+and he did not answer. He always answers when I
+speak. Cain has moods and will not answer, but
+not Abel.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>I have sat by him all the night, being afraid he
+might wake and want his food. His face was very
+white; and it changed, and he came to look as he
+had looked when he was a little child in Eden long
+ago, so sweet and good and dear. It carried me back
+over the abyss of years, and I was lost in dreams and
+tears--oh, hours, I think. Then I came to myself;
+and thinking he stirred, I kissed his cheek to wake
+him, but he slumbered on and I was disappointed.
+His cheek was cold. I brought sacks of wool and the
+down of birds and covered him, but he was still
+cold, and I brought more. Adam has come again,
+and says he is not yet warm. I do not understand it.</p>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c024'>
+    <div>III</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c035'>We cannot wake him! With my arms clinging
+about him I have looked into his eyes, through the
+veil of my tears, and begged for one little word,
+and he will not answer. Oh, is it that long sleep--is
+it death? And will he wake no more?</p>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c024'>
+    <div>FROM SATAN’S DIARY</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c035'>Death has entered the world, the creatures are
+perishing; one of The Family is fallen; the product
+of the Moral Sense is complete. The Family think
+ill of death--they will change their minds.</p>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_351'>351</span>
+  <h2 class='c008'>SAMUEL ERASMUS MOFFETT <br /> <span class='small'>AUGUST 16, 1908</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c036'>
+    <div>HIS CHARACTER AND HIS DEATH</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='drop-capa0_2_0_4 c037'><i>August 16th.</i>--Early in the evening of the first
+day of this month the telephone brought us a
+paralyzing shock: my nephew, Samuel E. Moffett,
+was drowned. It was while sea bathing. The seas
+were running high and he was urged not to venture
+out, but he was a strong swimmer and not afraid.
+He made the plunge with confidence, his frightened
+little son looking on. Instantly he was helpless.
+The great waves tossed him hither and thither, they
+buried him, they struck the life out of him. In a
+minute it was all over.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>He was forty-eight years old, he was at his best,
+physically and mentally, and was well on his way
+toward earned distinction. He was large-minded
+and large-hearted, there was no blot nor fleck upon
+his character, his ideals were high and clean, and
+by native impulse and without effort he lived up to
+them.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>He had been a working journalist, an editorial
+writer, for nearly thirty years, and yet in that exposed
+position had preserved his independence in full
+strength and his principles undecayed. Several
+years ago he accepted a high place on the staff of
+<cite>Collier’s Weekly</cite> and was occupying it when he died.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'><span class='pageno' id='Page_352'>352</span>In an early chapter of my <cite>Autobiography</cite>, written
+three years ago, I have told how he wrote from San
+Francisco, when he was a stripling and asked me to
+help him get a berth on a daily paper there; and
+how he submitted to the severe conditions I imposed,
+and got the berth and kept it sixteen years.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>As child and lad his health was delicate, capricious,
+insecure, and his eyesight affected by a malady which
+debarred him from book study and from reading.
+This was a bitter hardship for him, for he had a
+wonderful memory and a sharp hunger for knowledge.
+School was not for him, yet while still a little boy he
+acquired an education, and a good one. He managed
+it after a method of his own devising: he got permission
+to listen while the classes of the normal
+school recited their abstruse lessons and black-boarded
+their mathematics. By questioning the
+little chap it was found that he was keeping up
+with the star scholars of the school.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>In those days he paid us a visit in Hartford. It
+was when he was about twelve years old. I was
+laboriously constructing an ancient-history game at
+the time, to be played by my wife and myself, and
+I was digging the dates and facts for it out of
+cyclopædias, a dreary and troublesome business. I
+had sweated blood over that work and was pardonably
+proud of the result, as far as I had gone. I
+showed the child my mass of notes, and he was at
+once as excited as I should have been over a Sunday-school
+picnic at his age. He wanted to help, he
+was eager to help, and I was as willing to let him
+as I should have been to give away an interest in a
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_353'>353</span>surgical operation that I was getting tired of. I
+made him free of the cyclopædias, but he never consulted
+them--he had their contents in his head. All
+alone he built and completed the game rapidly and
+without effort.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>Away back in ’80 or ’81 when the grand eruption
+of Krakatoa, in the Straits of Sunda, occurred, the
+news reached San Francisco late in the night--too
+late for editors to hunt for information about that
+unknown volcano in cyclopædias and write it up
+exhaustively and learnedly in time for the first edition.
+The managing editor said, “Send to Moffett’s
+home; rout him out and fetch him; he will know
+all about it; he won’t need the cyclopædia.” Which
+was true. He came to the office and swiftly wrote
+it all up without having to refer to books.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>I will take a few paragraphs from the article about
+him in <cite>Collier’s Weekly</cite>:</p>
+
+<div class='quote'>
+
+<p class='c035'>If you wanted to know any fact about any subject it was
+quicker to go to him than to books of reference. His good
+nature made him the martyr of interruptions. In the middle
+of a sentence, in a hurry hour, he would look up happily, and
+whether the thing you wanted was railroad statistics or international
+law, he would bring it out of one of the pigeonholes in
+his brain. A born dispenser of the light, he made the giving of
+information a privilege and a pleasure on all occasions.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>This cyclopædic faculty was marvelous because it was only
+a small part of his equipment which became invaluable in
+association with other gifts. A student and a humanist, he
+delighted equally in books and in watching all the workings of
+a political convention.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>For any one of the learned professions he had conspicuous
+ability. He chose that which, in the cloister of the editorial
+rooms, makes fame for others. Any judge or Cabinet Minister
+of our time may well be proud of a career of such usefulness
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_354'>354</span>as his. Men with such a quality of mind as Moffett’s are
+rare.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>Anyone who discussed with him the things he advocated
+stood a little awed to discover that here was a man who had
+carefully thought out what would be best for all the people in
+the world two or three generations hence, and guided his work
+according to that standard. This was the one broad subject
+that covered all his interests; in detail they included the movement
+for universal peace about which he wrote repeatedly; so
+small a thing as a plan to place flowers on the window sills and
+fire escapes of New York tenement houses enlisted not only the
+advocacy of his pen, but his direct personal presence and
+co-operation; again and again, in his department in this paper,
+he gave indorsement and aid to similar movements, whether
+broad or narrow in their scope--the saving of the American
+forests, fighting tuberculosis, providing free meals for poor
+school children in New York, old-age pensions, safety appliances
+for protecting factory employees, the beautifying of American
+cities, the creation of inland waterways, industrial peace.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p class='c035'>He leaves behind him wife, daughter, and son--inconsolable
+mourners. The son is thirteen, a beautiful
+human creature, with the broad and square face
+of his father and his grandfather, a face in which
+one reads high character and intelligence. This boy
+will be distinguished, by and by, I think.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>In closing this slight sketch of Samuel E. Moffett
+I wish to dwell with lingering and especial emphasis
+upon the dignity of his character and ideals. In an
+age when we would rather have money than health,
+and would rather have another man’s money than
+our own, he lived and died unsordid; in a day when
+the surest road to national greatness and admiration
+is by showy and rotten demagoguery in politics and
+by giant crimes in finance, he lived and died a
+gentleman.</p>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_355'>355</span>
+  <h2 class='c008'>THE NEW PLANET</h2>
+</div>
+
+<div class='quote'>
+
+<p class='c038'>(The astronomers at Harvard have observed “perturbations
+in the orbital movement of Neptune,” such as might be caused
+by the presence of a new planet in the vicinity.)</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p class='drop-capa0_0_0_4 c034'>I believe in the new planet. I was eleven
+years old in 1846, when Leverrier and Adams
+and Mary Somerville discovered Neptune through
+the disturbance and discomfort it was causing
+Uranus. “Perturbations,” they call that kind of
+disturbance. I had been having those perturbations
+myself, for more than two months; in fact, all
+through watermelon time, for they used to keep
+dogs in some of the patches in those days. You
+notice that these recent perturbations are considered
+remarkable because they perturbate through three
+seconds of arc, but really that is nothing: often I
+used to perturbate through as much as half an hour
+if it was a dog that was attending to the perturbating.
+There isn’t any Neptune that can outperturbate
+a dog; and I know, because I am not speaking
+from hearsay. Why, if there was a planet two
+hundred and fifty thousand “light-years” the other
+side of Neptune’s orbit, Professor Pickering would
+discover it in a minute if it could perturbate equal
+to a dog. Give me a dog every time, when it comes
+to perturbating. You let a dog jump out at you all
+of a sudden in the dark of the moon, and you will
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_356'>356</span>see what a small thing three seconds of arc is: the
+shudder that goes through you then would open the
+seams of Noah’s Ark itself, from figurehead to rudder
+post, and you would drop that melon the same as if
+you had never had any but just a casual interest in
+it. I know about these things, because this is not
+tradition I am writing, but history.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>Now then, notice this. About the end of August,
+1846, a change came over me and I resolved to lead
+a better life, so I reformed; but it was just as well,
+anyway, because they had got to having guns and
+dogs both. Although I was reformed, the perturbations
+did not stop! Does that strike you? They
+did not stop, they went right on and on and on, for
+three weeks, clear up to the 23d of September; then
+Neptune was discovered and the whole mystery
+stood explained. It shows that I am so sensitively
+constructed that I perturbate when any other planet
+is disturbed. This has been going on all my life.
+It only happens in the watermelon season, but that
+has nothing to do with it, and has no significance:
+geologists and anthropologists and horticulturists all
+tell me it is only ancestral and hereditary, and that
+is what I think myself. Now then, I got to perturbating
+again, this summer--all summer through; all
+through watermelon time: and <em>where</em>, do you think?
+Up here on my farm in Connecticut. Is that significant?
+Unquestionably it is, for you couldn’t raise
+a watermelon on this farm with a derrick.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>That perturbating was caused by the new planet.
+That Washington Observatory may throw as much
+doubt as it wants to, it cannot affect me, because I
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_357'>357</span>know there <em>is</em> a new planet. I know it because I
+don’t perturbate for nothing. There has got to be a
+dog or a planet, one or the other; and there isn’t
+any dog around here, so there’s <em>got</em> to be a planet.
+I hope it is going to be named after me; I should
+just love it if I can’t have a constellation.</p>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_358'>358</span>
+  <h2 class='c008'>MARJORIE FLEMING, THE WONDER <br />CHILD</h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class='drop-capa0_2_0_4 c034'>Marjorie has been in her tiny grave a
+hundred years; and still the tears fall for
+her, and will fall. What an intensely human little
+creature she was! How vividly she lived her small
+life; how impulsive she was; how sudden, how
+tempestuous, how tender, how loving, how sweet,
+how loyal, how rebellious, how repentant, how wise,
+how unwise, how bursting with fun, how frank, how
+free, how honest, how innocently bad, how natively
+good, how charged with quaint philosophies, how
+winning, how precious, how adorable--and how perennially
+and indestructibly interesting! And all this
+exhibited, proved, and recorded before she reached
+the end of her ninth year and “fell on sleep.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>Geographically considered, the lassie was a Scot;
+but in fact she had no frontiers, she was the world’s
+child, she was the human race in little. It is one of
+the prides of my life that the first time I ever heard
+her name it came from the lips of Dr. John Brown--his
+very own self--Dr. John Brown of Edinburgh--Dr.
+John Brown of <cite>Rab and His Friends</cite>--Dr. John
+Brown of the beautiful face and the sweet spirit,
+whose friends loved him with a love that was worship--Dr.
+John Brown, who was Marjorie’s biographer,
+and who had clasped an aged hand that had
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_359'>359</span>caressed Marjorie’s fifty years before, thus linking
+me with that precious child by an unbroken chain
+of handshakes, for I had shaken hands with Dr.
+John. This was in Edinburgh thirty-six years ago.
+He gave my wife his little biography of Marjorie,
+and I have it yet.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>Is Marjorie known in America? No--at least to
+only a few. When Mr. L. MacBean’s new and
+enlarged and charming biography<a id='r17' /><a href='#f17' class='c023'><sup>[17]</sup></a> of her was published
+five years ago it was sent over here in sheets,
+the market not being large enough to justify recomposing
+and reprinting it on our side of the water.
+I find that there are even cultivated Scotchmen
+among us who have not heard of Marjorie Fleming.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>She was born in Kirkcaldy in 1803, and she died
+when she was eight years and eleven months old.
+By the time she was five years old she was become
+a devourer of various kinds of literature--both
+heavy and light--and was also become a quaint
+and free-spoken and charming little thinker and
+philosopher whose views were a delightful jumble
+of first-hand cloth of gold and second-hand rags.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>When she was six she opened up that rich mine,
+her journals, and continued to work it by spells
+during the remainder of her brief life. She was a
+pet of Walter Scott, from the cradle, and when he
+could have her society for a few hours he was content,
+and required no other. Her little head was full
+of noble passages from Shakespeare and other favorites
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_360'>360</span>of hers, and the fact that she could deliver them
+with moving effect is proof that her elocution was a
+born gift with her, and not a mechanical reproduction
+of somebody else’s art, for a child’s parrot-work
+does not move. When she was a little creature of
+seven years, Sir Walter Scott “would read ballads
+to her in his own glorious way, the two getting wild
+with excitement over them; and he would take her
+on his knee and make her repeat Constance’s speeches
+in <cite>King John</cite> till he swayed to and fro, sobbing his
+fill.” [Dr. John Brown.]</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“<em>Sobbing his fill</em>”--that great man--over that little
+thing’s inspired interpretations. It is a striking picture;
+there is no mate to it. Sir Walter said of her:</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“She’s the most extraordinary creature I ever met
+with, and her repeating of Shakespeare overpowers
+me as nothing else does.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>She spent the whole of her little life in a Presbyterian
+heaven; yet she was not affected by it; she
+could not have been happier if she had been in the
+other heaven.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>She was made out of thunderstorms and sunshine,
+and not even her little perfunctory pieties and shop-made
+holiness could squelch her spirits or put out
+her fires for long. Under pressure of a pestering
+sense of duty she heaves a shovelful of trade godliness
+into her journals every little while, but it does
+not offend, for none of it is her own; it is all borrowed,
+it is a convention, a custom of her environment,
+it is the most innocent of hypocrisies, and
+this tainted butter of hers soon gets to be as delicious
+to the reader as are the stunning and worldly sincerities
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_361'>361</span>she splatters around it every time her pen
+takes a fresh breath. The adorable child! she hasn’t
+a discoverable blemish in her make-up anywhere.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>Marjorie’s first letter was written before she was
+six years old; it was to her cousin, Isa Keith, a young
+lady of whom she was passionately fond. It was
+done in a sprawling hand, ten words to the page--and
+in those foolscap days a page was a spacious thing:</p>
+
+<p class='c039'>“<span class='sc'>My Dear Isa</span>--</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“I now sit down on my botom to answer all the
+kind &amp; beloved letters which you was so so good as
+to write to me. This is the first time I ever wrote
+a letter in my life.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“Miss Potune, a lady of my acquaintance, praises
+me dreadfully. I repeated something out of Deen
+Swift &amp; she said I was fit for the stage, &amp; you may
+think I was primmed up with majestick Pride, but
+upon my word I felt myself turn a little birsay--birsay
+is a word which is a word that William composed
+which is as you may suppose a little enraged.
+This horid fat Simpliton says that my Aunt is beautifull
+which is intirely impossible for that is not her
+nature.”</p>
+
+<p class='c040'>Frank? Yes, Marjorie was that. And during the
+brief moment that she enchanted this dull earth with
+her presence she was the bewitchingest speller and
+punctuator in all Christendom.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>The average child of six “prints” its correspondence
+in rickety and reeling Roman capitals, or
+dictates to mamma, who puts the little chap’s message
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_362'>362</span>on paper. The sentences are labored, repetitious,
+and slow; there are but three or four of them;
+they deal in information solely, they contain no
+ideas, they venture no judgments, no opinions; they
+inform papa that the cat has had kittens again;
+that Mary has a new doll that can wink; that
+Tommy has lost his top; and will papa come soon
+and bring the writer something nice? But with
+Marjorie it is different.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>She needs no amanuensis, she puts her message
+on paper herself; and not in weak and tottering
+Roman capitals, but in a thundering hand that can
+be heard a mile and be read across the square
+without glasses. And she doesn’t have to study,
+and puzzle, and search her head for something to
+say; no, she had only to connect the pen with the
+paper and turn on the current; the words spring
+forth at once, and go chasing after each other like
+leaves dancing down a stream. For she has a faculty,
+has Marjorie! Indeed yes; when she sits down on
+her bottom to do a letter, there isn’t going to be any
+lack of materials, nor of fluency, and neither is her
+letter going to be wanting in pepper, or vinegar, or
+vitriol, or any of the other condiments employed
+by genius to save a literary work of art from flatness
+and vapidity. And as for judgments and opinions,
+they are as commodiously in her line as they are in
+the Lord Chief Justice’s. They have weight, too,
+and are convincing: for instance, for thirty-six years
+they have damaged that “horid Simpliton” in my eyes;
+and, more than that, they have even imposed upon
+me--and most unfairly and unwarrantably--an aversion
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_363'>363</span>to the horid fat Simpliton’s name; a perfectly
+innocent name, and yet, because of the prejudice
+against it with which this child has poisoned my
+mind for a generation I cannot see “Potune” on
+paper and keep my gorge from rising.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>In her journals Marjorie changes her subject
+whenever she wants to--and that is pretty often.
+When the deep moralities pay her a passing visit
+she registers them. Meantime if a cherished love
+passage drifts across her memory she shoves it into
+the midst of the moralities--it is nothing to her that
+it may not feel at home there:</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“We should not be happy at the death of our fellow
+creatures, for they love life like us love your
+neighbor &amp; he will love you Bountifulness and
+Mercifulness are always rewarded. In my travels
+I met with a handsome lad named Charles Balfour
+Esge [Esqr.] and from him I got offers of marage--ofers
+of marage did I say? nay plainly [he] loved me.
+Goodness does not belong to the wicked but badness
+dishonor befals wickedness but not virtue, no disgrace
+befals virtue perciverence overcomes almost
+al difficulties no I am rong in saying almost I should
+say always as it is so perciverence is a virtue my Csosin
+says pacience is a cristain virtue, which is true.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>She is not copying these profundities out of a book,
+she is getting them out of her memory; her spelling
+shows that the book is not before her. The easy
+and effortless flow of her talk is a marvelous thing
+in a baby of her age. Her interests are as wide and
+varied as a grown person’s: she discusses all sorts
+of books, and fearlessly delivers judgment upon them;
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_364'>364</span>she examines whomsoever crosses the field of her
+vision, and again delivers a verdict; she dips into
+religion and history, and even into politics; she
+takes a shy at the news of the day, and comments
+upon it; and now and then she drops into poetry--into
+rhyme, at any rate.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>Marjorie would not intentionally mislead anyone,
+but she has just been making a remark which moves
+me to hoist a danger-signal for the protection of the
+modern reader. It is this one: “<em>In my travels.</em>”
+Naturally we are apt to clothe a word with its
+present-day meaning--the meaning we are used to,
+the meaning we are familiar with; and so--well,
+you get the idea: some words that are giants to-day
+were very small dwarfs a century ago, and if we are
+not careful to take that vast enlargement into account
+when we run across them in the literatures of the
+past, they are apt to convey to us a distinctly wrong
+impression. To-day, when a person says “<em>in my
+travels</em>” he means that he has been around the globe
+nineteen or twenty times, and we so understand him;
+and so, when Marjorie says it, it startles us for a
+moment, for it gives us the impression that <em>she</em> has
+been around it fourteen or fifteen times; whereas,
+such is not at all the case. She has traveled prodigiously
+for <em>her</em> day, but not for ours. She had
+“traveled,” altogether, three miles by land and eight
+by water--per ferryboat. She is fairly and justly
+proud of it, for it is the exact equivalent, in grandeur
+and impressiveness, in the case of a child of our day,
+to two trips across the Atlantic and a thousand miles
+by rail.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'><span class='pageno' id='Page_365'>365</span>“In the love novels all the heroins are very desperate
+Isabella will not allow me to speak about
+lovers and heroins, and tiss too refined for my taste
+a loadstone is a curous thing indeed it is true Heroic
+love doth never win disgrace this is my maxum and
+I will follow it forever Miss Eguards [Edgeworth]
+tails are very good particularly some that are very
+much adopted for youth as Lazy Lawrence Tarelton
+False Key &amp;c &amp;c Persons of the parlement house
+are as I think caled Advocakes Mr Cay &amp; Mr Crakey
+has that honour. This has been a very mild winter.
+Mr Banestors Budget is to-night I hope it will be a
+good one. A great many authors have expressed
+themselfs too sentimentaly.... The Mercandile
+Afares are in a perilous situation sickness &amp; a
+delicante frame I have not &amp; I do not know what
+it is, but Ah me perhaps I shall have it.<a id='r18' /><a href='#f18' class='c023'><sup>[18]</sup></a> Grandure
+reigns in Edinburgh.... Tomson is a beautifull
+author and Pope but nothing is like Shakepear of
+which I have a little knolegde of. An unfortunate
+death James the 5 had for he died of greif Macbeth
+is a pretty composition but awful one Macbeth is
+so bad &amp; wicked, but Lady Macbeth is so hardened
+in guilt she does not mind her sins &amp; faults No.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“... A sailor called here to say farewell, it must
+be dreadful to leave his native country where he
+might get a wife or perhaps me, for I love him very
+much &amp; with all my heart, but O I forgot Isabella
+forbid me to speak about love.... I wish everybody
+would follow her example &amp; be as good as
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_366'>366</span>pious &amp; virtious as she is &amp; they would get husbands
+soon enough, love is a parithatick [pathetic] thing
+as well as troublesome &amp; tiresome but O Isabella
+forbid me to speak about it.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>But the little rascal can’t <em>keep</em> from speaking about
+it, because it is her supreme interest in life; her heart
+is not capacious enough to hold all the product that
+is engendered by the ever-recurring inflaming spectacle
+of man-creatures going by, and the surplus is
+obliged to spill over; Isa’s prohibitions are no sufficient
+dam for such a discharge.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“Love I think is the fasion for everybody is marring
+[marrying].... Yesterday a marrade man
+named Mr John Balfour Esg [Esq.] offered to kiss
+me, &amp; offered to marry me though the man was
+espused [espoused], &amp; his wife was present &amp; said
+he must ask her permission but he did not, I think
+he was ashamed or confounded before 3 gentleman
+Mr Jobson and two Mr Kings.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>I must make room here for another of Marjorie’s
+second-hand high-morality outbreaks. They give
+me a sinful delight which I ought to grieve at, I suppose,
+but I can’t seem to manage it:</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“James Macary is to be transported for murder
+in the flower of his youth O passion is a terible thing
+for it leads people from sin to sin at last it gets so
+far as to come to greater crimes than we thought we
+could comit and it must be dreadful to leave his
+native country and his friends and to be so disgraced
+and affronted.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>That is Marjorie talking shop, dear little diplomat--to
+please and comfort mamma and Isa, no doubt.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'><span class='pageno' id='Page_367'>367</span>This wee little child has a marvelous range of
+interests. She reads philosophies, novels, baby books,
+histories, the mighty poets--reads them with burning
+interest, and frankly and freely criticizes them all;
+she revels in storms, sunsets, cloud effects, scenery of
+mountain, plain, ocean, and forest, and all the other
+wonders of nature, and sets down her joy in them
+all; she loves people, she detests people, according
+to mood and circumstances, and delivers her opinion
+of them, sometimes seasoned with attar of roses,
+sometimes with vitriol; in games, and all kinds of
+childish play she is an enthusiast; she adores animals,
+adores them all; none is too forlorn to fail of favor
+in her friendly eyes, no creature so humble that she
+cannot find something in it on which to lavish her
+caressing worship.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“I am going to-morrow to a delightfull place,
+Braehead by name, belonging to Mrs. Crraford
+[Crauford], where there is ducks cocks hens bobblyjocks
+2 dogs 2 cats and swine which is delightful.
+I think it is shocking to think that the dog and cat
+should bear them and they are drowned after all.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>She is a dear child, a bewitching little scamp; and
+never dearer, I think, than when the devil has had
+her in possession and she is breaking her stormy
+little heart over the remembrance of it:</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“I confess I have been very more like a little
+young divil than a creature for when Isabella went
+up stairs to teach me religion and my multiplication
+and to be good and all my other lessons I stamped
+with my foot and threw my new hat which she had
+made on the ground and was sulky and was dreadfully
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_368'>368</span>passionate, but she never whiped me but said
+Marjory go into another room and think what a
+great crime you are committing letting your temper
+git the better of you. But I went so sulkily that
+the devil got the better of me but she never never
+never whips me so that I think I would be the better
+of it &amp; the next time that I behave ill I think she
+should do it for she never does it.... Isabella has
+given me praise for checking my temper for I was
+sulky even when she was kneeling an whole hour
+teaching me to write.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>The wise Isabella, the sweet and patient Isabella!
+It is just a hundred years now (May, 1909) since
+the grateful child made that golden picture of you
+and laid your good heart bare for distant generations
+to see and bless; a hundred years--but if the picture
+endures a thousand it will still bring you the blessing,
+and with it the reverent homage that is your
+due. You had the seeing eye and the wise head. A
+fool would have punished Marjorie and wrecked
+her, but you held your hand, as knowing that when
+her volcanic fires went down she would repent, and
+grieve, and punish herself, and be saved.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>Sometimes when Marjorie was miraculously good,
+she got a penny for it, and once when she got an
+entire sixpence, she recognized that it was wealth.
+This wealth brought joy to her heart. Why?
+Because she could spend it on somebody else! We
+who know Marjorie would know that without being
+told it. I am sorry--often sorry, often grieved--that
+I was not there and looking over her shoulder
+when she was writing down her valued penny
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_369'>369</span>rewards: I would have said, “Save that scrap of
+manuscript, dear; make a will, and leave it to your
+posterity, to save them from want when penury shall
+threaten them; a day will come when it will be
+worth a thousand guineas, and a later day will come
+when it will be worth five thousand; here you are,
+rejoicing in copper farthings, and don’t know that
+your magic pen is showering gold coin all over the
+paper.” But I was not there to say it; those who
+were there did not think to say it; and so there is
+not a line of that quaint precious cacography in
+existence to-day.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>I have adored Marjorie for six-and-thirty years;
+I have adored her in detail, I have adored the whole
+of her; but above all other details--just a little
+above all other details--I have adored her because
+she detested that odious and confusing and unvanquishable
+and unlearnable and shameless invention,
+the multiplication table:</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“I am now going to tell you the horible and
+wretched plaege [plague] that my multiplication gives
+me you can’t conceive it the most Devilish thing is
+8 times 8 &amp; 7 times 7 it is what nature itself cant
+endure.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>I stand reverently uncovered in the presence of
+that holy verdict.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>Here is that person again whom I so dislike--and
+for no reason at all except that my Marjorie doesn’t
+like her:</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“Miss Potune is very fat she pretends to be very
+learned she says she saw a stone that dropt from
+the skies, but she is a good christian.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'><span class='pageno' id='Page_370'>370</span>Of course, stones have fallen from the skies, but I
+don’t believe this “horid fat Simpliton” had ever seen
+one that had done it; but even if she had, it was
+none of her business, and she could have been better
+employed than in going around exaggerating it and
+carrying on about it and trying to make trouble
+with a little child that had never done <em>her</em> any
+harm.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“... The Birds do chirp the Lambs do leap and
+Nature is clothed with the garments of green yellow,
+and white, purple, and red.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“... There is a book that is called the Newgate
+Calender that contains all the Murders: all the
+Murders did I say, nay all Thefts &amp; Forgeries that
+ever were committed &amp; fills me with horror &amp;
+consternation.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>Marjorie is a diligent little student, and her education
+is always storming along and making great time
+and lots of noise:</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“Isabella this morning taught me some French
+words one of which is bon suar the interpretation is
+good morning.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>It slanders Isabella, but the slander is not intentional.
+The main thing to notice is that big word,
+“interpretation.” Not many children of Marjorie’s
+age can handle a five syllable team in that easy and
+confident way. It is observable that she frequently
+employs words of an imposingly formidable size, and
+is manifestly quite familiar with them and not at all
+afraid of them.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“Isa is teaching me to make Simecolings nots of
+interrigations periods &amp; commas &amp;c. As this is Sunday
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_371'>371</span>I will meditate uppon senciable &amp; Religious subjects
+first I should be very thankful I am not a beggar
+as many are.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>That was the “first.” She didn’t get to her second
+subject, but got side-tracked by a saner interest, and
+used her time to better purpose.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“It is melancholy to think, that I have so many
+talents, &amp; many there are that have not had the
+attention paid to them that I have, &amp; yet they contrive
+to be better then me.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“... Isabella is far too indulgent to me &amp; even
+the Miss Crafords say that they wonder at her
+patience with me &amp; it is indeed true for my temper
+is a bad one.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>The daring child wrote a (synopsized) history of
+Mary Queen of Scots and of five of the royal Jameses
+in rhyme--but never mind, we have no room to discuss
+it here. Nothing was entirely beyond her literary
+jurisdiction; if it had occurred to her that the
+laws of Rome needed codifying she would have taken
+a chance at it.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>Here is a sad note:</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“My religion is greatly falling off because I dont
+pray with so much attention when I am saying my
+prayers and my character is lost a-mong the Breahead
+people I hope I will be religious again but as for
+regaining my character I despare of it.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>When religion and character go, they leave a large
+vacuum. But there are ways to fill it:</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“I’ve forgot to say, but I’ve four lovers, the other
+one is Harry Watson, a very delightful boy....
+James Keith hardly ever Spoke to me, he said Girl!
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_372'>372</span>make less noise.... Craky hall ... I walked
+to that delightfull place with a delightful young man
+beloved by all his friends and espacialy by me his
+loveress but I must not talk any longer about him
+for Isa said it is not proper for to speak of gentalman
+but I will never forget him....</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“The Scythians tribe live very coarsely for a
+Gluton Introduced to Arsaces the Captain of the
+Army, 1 man who Dressed hair &amp; another man who
+was a good cook but Arsaces said that he would keep
+1 for brushing his horses tail and the other to fead
+his pigs....</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“On Saturday I expected no less than three well-made
+bucks, the names of whom is here advertised.
+Mr. Geo. Crakey [Cragie], and Wm. Keith and Jn
+Keith--the first is the funniest of every one of them.
+Mr. Crakey and I walked to Craky-hall [Craigiehall]
+hand and hand in Innocence and matitation
+sweet thinking on the kind love which flows in
+our tender hearted mind which is overflowing
+with majestic pleasure no one was ever so polite to
+me in the hole state of my existence. Mr. Craky
+you must know is a great Buck and pretty good-looking.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>For a purpose, I wish the reader to take careful
+note of these statistics:</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“I am going to tell you of a melancholy story.
+A young turkie of 2 or 3 months old, would you
+believe it, the father broke its leg, &amp; he killed
+another! I think he ought to be transported or
+hanged.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>Marjorie wrote some verses about this tragedy--I
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_373'>373</span>think. I cannot be quite certain it is this one, for
+in the verses there are three deaths, whereas these
+statistics do not furnish so many. Also in the statistics
+the father of the deceased is indifferent about
+the loss he has sustained, whereas in the verses he
+is not. Also in the third verse, the <em>mother</em>, too,
+exhibits feeling, whereas in the two closing verses
+of the poem she--at least it seems to be she--is
+indifferent. At least it looks like indifference to me,
+and I believe it <em>is</em> indifference:</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c041'>
+  <div class='linegroup'>
+    <div class='group'>
+      <div class='line'>“Three turkeys fair their last have breathed,</div>
+      <div class='line'>And now this world forever leaved;</div>
+      <div class='line'>Their father, and their mother too,</div>
+      <div class='line'>They sighed and weep as well as you;</div>
+      <div class='line'>Indeed, the rats their bones have cranched.</div>
+      <div class='line'>Into eternity theire launched.</div>
+      <div class='line'>A direful death indeed they had,</div>
+      <div class='line'>As wad put any parent mad;</div>
+      <div class='line'>But she was more than usual calm,</div>
+      <div class='line'>She did not give a single dam.”</div>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c040'>The naughty little scamp! I mean, for not leaving
+out the <em>l</em> in the word “Calm,” so as to perfect
+the rhyme. It seems a pity to damage with a
+lame rhyme a couplet that is otherwise without a
+blemish.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>Marjorie wrote four journals. She began the first
+one in January, 1809, when she was just six years
+old, and finished it five months later, in June.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>She began the second in the following month, and
+finished it six months afterward (January, 1810),
+when she was just seven.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>She began the third one in April, 1810, and finished
+it in the autumn.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'><span class='pageno' id='Page_374'>374</span>She wrote the fourth in the winter of 1810-11, and
+the last entry in it bears date July 19, 1811, and
+she died exactly five months later, December 19th,
+aged eight years and eleven months. It contains
+her rhymed Scottish histories.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>Let me quote from Dr. John Brown:</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“The day before her death, Sunday, she sat up
+in bed, worn and thin, her eye gleaming as with the
+light of a coming world, and with a tremulous, old
+voice repeated a long poem by Burns--heavy with
+the shadow of death, and lit with the fantasy of the
+judgment seat--the publican’s prayer in paraphrase,
+beginning:</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c041'>
+  <div class='linegroup'>
+    <div class='group'>
+      <div class='line'>“‘Why am I loth to leave this earthly scene?</div>
+      <div class='line in4'>Have I so found it full of pleasing charms?</div>
+      <div class='line'>Some drops of joy, with draughts of ill between,</div>
+      <div class='line in4'>Some gleams of sunshine ’mid renewing storms.’</div>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c040'>“It is more affecting than we care to say to read
+her mother’s and Isabella Keith’s letters written
+immediately after her death. Old and withered,
+tattered and pale, they are now; but when you read
+them, how quick, how throbbing with life and love!
+how rich in that language of affection which only
+women, and Shakespeare, and Luther can use--that
+power of detaining the soul over the beloved object
+and its loss.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>Fifty years after Marjorie’s death her sister, writing
+to Dr. Brown, said:</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“My mother was struck by the patient quietness
+manifested by Marjorie during this illness, unlike
+her ardent, impulsive nature; but love and poetic
+feeling were unquenched. When Dr. Johnstone
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_375'>375</span>rewarded her submissiveness with a sixpence, the
+request speedily followed that she might get out ere
+New Year’s Day came. When asked why she was so
+desirous of getting out, she immediately rejoined:
+‘Oh, I am so anxious to buy something with my
+sixpence for my dear Isa Keith.’ Again, when lying
+very still, her mother asked her if there was anything
+she wished: ‘Oh yes, if you would just leave the
+room door open a wee bit, and play the <cite>Land o’ the
+Leal</cite>, and I will lie and <em>think</em> and enjoy myself’
+(this is just as stated to me by her mother and mine).
+Well, the happy day came, alike to parents and child,
+when Marjorie was allowed to come forth from the
+nursery to the parlor. It was Sabbath evening, and
+after tea. My father, who idolized this child, and
+never afterward in my hearing mentioned her name,
+took her in his arms; and while walking her up and
+down the room she said: ‘Father, I will repeat something
+to you; what would you like?’ He said,
+‘Just choose for yourself, Maidie.’ She hesitated for
+a moment between the paraphrase, ‘Few are thy
+days and full of woe,’ and the lines of Burns already
+quoted, but decided on the latter; a remarkable
+choice for a child. The repeating of these lines
+seemed to stir up the depths of feeling in her soul.
+She asked to be allowed to write a poem. There
+was a doubt whether it would be right to allow her,
+in case of hurting her eyes. She pleaded earnestly,
+‘Just this once’; the point was yielded, her slate
+was given her, and with great rapidity she wrote an
+address of fourteen lines ‘To my loved cousin on the
+author’s recovery.’”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'><span class='pageno' id='Page_376'>376</span>The cousin was Isa Keith.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“She went to bed apparently well, awoke in the
+middle of the night with the old cry of woe to a
+mother’s heart, ‘My head, my head!’ Three days
+of the dire malady, ‘water in the head,’ followed,
+and the end came.”</p>
+
+<hr class='c025' />
+<div class='footnote' id='f17'>
+<p class='c035'><a href='#r17'>17</a>. <cite>Marjorie Fleming.</cite> By L. MacBean. G. P. Putnam’s Sons,
+publishers, London and New York.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>Permission to use the extracts quoted from Marjorie’s Journal
+in this article has been granted me by the publishers.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f18'>
+<p class='c035'><a href='#r18'>18</a>. It is a whole century since the dimly conscious little prophet said
+it, but the pathos of it is still there.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_377'>377</span>
+  <h2 class='c008'>ADAM’S SOLILOQUY</h2>
+</div>
+
+<div class='quote'>
+
+<p class='c038'>(The spirit of Adam is supposed to be visiting New York City
+inspecting the dinosaur at the Museum of Natural History)</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c024'>
+    <div>(1905)</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c024'>
+    <div>I</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='drop-capa0_2_0_4 c037'>It is strange ... very strange. <em>I</em> do not remember
+this creature. (<em>After gazing long and admiringly.</em>)
+Well, it is wonderful! The mere <em>skeleton</em>
+fifty-seven feet long and sixteen feet high! Thus
+far, it seems, they’ve found only this sample--without
+doubt a merely medium-sized one; a person
+could not step out here into the Park and happen
+by luck upon the largest horse in America; no, he
+would happen upon one that would look small alongside
+of the biggest Normandy. It is quite likely that
+the biggest dinosaur was ninety feet long and twenty
+feet high. It would be five times as long as an elephant;
+an elephant would be to it what a calf is to an
+elephant. The bulk of the creature! The weight of
+him! As long as the longest whale, and twice the substance
+in him! And all good wholesome pork, most
+likely; meat enough to last a village a year....
+Think of a hundred of them in line, draped in shining
+cloth of gold!--a majestic thing for a coronation procession.
+But expensive, for he would eat much; only
+kings and millionaires could afford him.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>I have no recollection of him; neither Eve nor I
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_378'>378</span>had heard of him until yesterday. We spoke to
+Noah about him; he colored and changed the subject.
+Being brought back to it--and pressed a
+little--he confessed that in the matter of stocking
+the Ark the stipulations had not been carried out
+with absolute strictness--that is, in minor details,
+unessentials. There were some irregularities. He
+said the boys were to blame for this--the boys
+mainly, his own fatherly indulgence partly. They
+were in the giddy heyday of their youth at the time,
+the happy springtime of life; their hundred years sat
+upon them lightly, and--well, he had once been a
+boy himself, and he had not the heart to be too
+exacting with them. And so--well, they did things
+they shouldn’t have done, and he--to be candid, he
+winked. But on the whole they did pretty faithful
+work, considering their age. They collected and
+stowed a good share of the really useful animals;
+and also, when Noah was not watching, a multitude
+of useless ones, such as flies, mosquitoes, snakes,
+and so on, but they did certainly leave ashore a
+good many creatures which might possibly have
+had value some time or other, in the course of time.
+Mainly these were vast saurians a hundred feet
+long, and monstrous mammals, such as the megatherium
+and that sort, and there was really some
+excuse for leaving them behind, for two reasons:
+(1) it was manifest that some time or other they
+would be needed as fossils for museums and (2)
+there had been a miscalculation, the Ark was smaller
+than it should have been, and so there wasn’t room
+for those creatures. There was actually fossil material
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_379'>379</span>enough all by itself to freight twenty-five Arks
+like that one. As for the dinosaur----But Noah’s
+conscience was easy; it was not named in his cargo
+list and he and the boys were not aware that there
+was such a creature. He said he could not blame
+himself for not knowing about the dinosaur, because
+it was an American animal, and America had not
+then been discovered.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>Noah went on to say, “I did reproach the boys
+for not making the most of the room we had, by
+discarding trashy animals and substituting beasts
+like the mastodon, which could be useful to man in
+doing heavy work such as the elephant performs,
+but they said those great creatures would have
+increased our labors beyond our strength, in the
+matter of feeding and watering them, we being
+short-handed. There was something in that. We
+had no pump; there was but one window; we
+had to let down a bucket from that, and haul it up
+a good fifty feet, which was very tiresome; then we
+had to carry the water downstairs--fifty feet again,
+in cases where it was for the elephants and their
+kind, for we kept them in the hold to serve for
+ballast. As it was, we lost many animals--choice
+animals that would have been valuable in menageries--different
+breeds of lions, tigers, hyenas, wolves,
+and so on; for they wouldn’t drink the water after
+the salt sea water got mixed with the fresh. But
+we never lost a locust, nor a grasshopper, nor a
+weevil, nor a rat, nor a cholera germ, nor any of
+that sort of beings. On the whole, I think we did
+very well, everything considered. We were shepherds
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_380'>380</span>and farmers; we had never been to sea before;
+we were ignorant of naval matters, and I know this
+for certain, that there is more difference between
+agriculture and navigation than a person would
+think. It is my opinion that the two trades do not
+belong together. Shem thinks the same; so does
+Japheth. As for what Ham thinks, it is not important.
+Ham is biased. You find me a Presbyterian
+that isn’t, if you think you can.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>He said it aggressively; it had in it the spirit of a
+challenge. I avoided argument by changing the subject.
+With Noah, arguing is a passion, a disease, and
+it is growing upon him; has been growing upon him
+for thirty thousand years, and more. It makes him
+unpopular, unpleasant; many of his oldest friends
+dread to meet him. Even strangers soon get to
+avoiding him, although at first they are glad to meet
+him and gaze at him, on account of his celebrated
+adventure. For a time they are proud of his notice,
+because he is so distinguished; but he argues them
+to rags, and before long they begin to wish, like the
+rest, that something had happened to the Ark.</p>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c024'>
+    <div>II</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c035'>(<i>On the bench in the Park, midafternoon, dreamily
+noting the drift, of the human species back and forth.</i>)
+To think--this multitude is but a wee little fraction
+of the earth’s population! And all blood kin to me,
+every one! Eve ought to have come with me; this
+would excite her affectionate heart. She was never
+able to keep her composure when she came upon a
+relative; she would try to kiss every one of these
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_381'>381</span>people, black and white and all. (<i>A baby wagon
+passes.</i>) How little change one can notice--none at
+all, in fact. I remember the first child well----Let
+me see ... it is three hundred thousand years ago
+come Tuesday. This one is just like it. So between
+the first one and the last one there is really nothing
+to choose. The same insufficiency of hair, the same
+absence of teeth, the same feebleness of body and
+apparent vacancy of mind, the same general unattractiveness
+all around. Yet Eve worshiped that
+early one, and it was pretty to see her with it. This
+latest one’s mother worships <em>it</em>; it shows in her
+eyes--it is the very look that used to shine in Eve’s.
+To think that so subtle and intangible a thing as a
+<em>look</em> could flit and flash from face to face down a
+procession three hundred thousand years long and
+remain the same, without shade of change! Yet
+here it is, lighting this young creature’s face just as
+it lighted Eve’s in the long ago--the newest thing
+I have seen in the earth, and the oldest. Of course,
+the dinosaur----But that is in another class.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>She drew the baby wagon to the bench and sat
+down and began to shove it softly back and forth
+with one hand while she held up a newspaper with
+the other and absorbed herself in its contents.
+Presently, “My!” she exclaimed; which startled
+me, and I ventured to ask her, modestly and respectfully,
+what was the matter. She courteously passed
+the paper to me and said--pointing with her finger:</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“There--it reads like fact, but I don’t know.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>It was very embarrassing. I tried to look at my
+ease, and nonchalantly turned the paper this and
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_382'>382</span>that and the other way, but her eye was upon me
+and I felt that I was not succeeding. Pretty soon
+she asked, hesitatingly:</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“Can’t--can’t--you--read?”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>I had to confess that I couldn’t. It filled her
+with wonder. But it had one pleasant effect--it
+interested her in me, and I was thankful, for I was
+getting lonesome for some one to talk to and listen
+to. The young fellow who was showing me around--on
+his own motion, I did not invite him--had
+missed his appointment at the Museum, and I was
+feeling disappointed, for he was good company.
+When I told the young woman I could not read,
+she asked me another embarrassing question:</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“Where are you from?”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>I skirmished--to gain time and position. I said:</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“Make a guess. See how near you can come.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>She brightened, and exclaimed:</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“I shall dearly like it, sir, if you don’t mind. If
+I guess right will you tell me?”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“Yes.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“Honor bright?”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“Honor bright? What is that?”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>She laughed delightedly and said:</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“That’s a good start! I was <em>sure</em> that that phrase
+would catch you. I know one thing, now, all right.
+I know----”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“What do you know?”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“That you are not an American. And you aren’t,
+<em>are</em> you?”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“No. You are right. I’m not--honor bright, as
+you say.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'><span class='pageno' id='Page_383'>383</span>She looked immensely pleased with herself, and
+said:</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“I reckon I’m not always smart, but <em>that</em> was
+smart, anyway. But not so <em>very</em>, after all, because
+I already knew--believed I knew--that you were a
+foreigner, by another sign.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“What was that?”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“Your accent.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>She was an accurate observer; I do speak English
+with a heavenly accent, and she had detected the
+foreign twang in it. She ran charmingly on, most
+naïvely and engagingly pleased with her triumph:</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“The minute you said, ‘See ’ow near you can
+come to it,’ I said to myself, ‘Two to one he is a
+foreigner, and ten to one he’s English.’ Now that
+<em>is</em> your nationality, <em>isn’t</em> it?”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>I was sorry to spoil her victory, but I had to do it:
+“Ah--you’ll have to guess again.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“What--you are not an Englishman?”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“No--honor bright.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>She looked me searchingly over, evidently communing
+with herself--adding up my points, then
+she said:</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“Well, you don’t <em>look</em> like an Englishman, and
+that is true.” After a little she added, “The fact
+is, you don’t look like <em>any</em> foreigner--not quite
+like ... like <em>anybody</em> I’ve seen before. I will guess
+some more.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>She guessed every country whose name she could
+think of and grew gradually discouraged. Finally
+she said:</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“You must be the Man Without a Country--the
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_384'>384</span>one the story tells about. You don’t seem to have
+any nationality at all. How did you come to come
+to America? Have you any kinfolks here?”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“Yes--several.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“Oh, then you came to see <em>them</em>.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“Partly--yes.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>She sat awhile, thinking, then:</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“Well, I’m not going to give up quite yet. Where
+do you live when you are at home--in a city, or in
+the country?”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“Which do you think?”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“Well, I don’t quite know. You <em>do</em> look a little
+countrified, if you don’t mind my saying it; but
+you look a little citified, too--not much, but a little,
+although you can’t read, which is very curious, and
+you are not used to newspapers. Now <em>my</em> guess is
+that you live mainly in the country when you are at
+home, and not very much in the city. Is that right?”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“Yes, quite right.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“Oh, good! Now I’ll take a fresh start.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>Then she wore herself to the bone, naming cities.
+No success. Next she wanted me to help her a
+little with some “pointers,” as she phrased it. Was
+my city large? Yes. Was it very large? Yes. Did
+they have mobiles there? No. Electric light? No.
+Railroads, hospitals, colleges, cops? No.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“Why, then, it’s not civilized! Where <em>can</em> that
+place be? Be good and tell me just one peculiarity
+of it--then maybe I can guess.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“Well, then, just one; it has gates of pearl.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“Oh, go along! That’s the New Jerusalem. It
+isn’t fair to joke. Never mind. I’ll guess it yet--it
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_385'>385</span>will come into my head pretty soon, just when I’m
+not expecting it. Oh, I’ve got an idea! Please talk
+a little in your own language--that’ll be a good
+pointer.” I accommodated her with a sentence or
+two. She shook her head despondently.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“No,” she said, “it doesn’t sound human. I
+mean, it doesn’t sound like any of these other foreigners.
+It’s pretty enough--it’s quite pretty, I
+think--but I’m sure I’ve not heard it before. Maybe
+if you were to pronounce your name----&nbsp;&nbsp;What <em>is</em>
+your name, if you’ll be so good?”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“Adam.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“Adam?”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“Yes.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“But Adam <em>what</em>?”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“That is all--just Adam.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“Nothing at all but just that? Why, how curious!
+There’s plenty of Adams; how can they tell you
+from the rest?”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“Oh, that is no trouble. I’m the only one there
+is, there where I’m from.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“Upon my word! Well, it beats the band! It
+reminds a person of the old original. That was his
+name, too, and he hadn’t any but that--just like
+you.” Then, archly, “You’ve heard of him, I
+suppose?”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“Oh yes! Do you know him? Have you ever
+seen him?”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“<em>Seen</em> him? Seen <em>Adam</em>? Thanks to goodness,
+no! It would scare me into fits.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“I don’t see why.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“You don’t?”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'><span class='pageno' id='Page_386'>386</span>“No.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“<em>Why</em> don’t you see why?”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“Because there is no sense in a person being scared
+of his kin.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“<em>Kin?</em>”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“Yes. Isn’t he a distant relative of yours?”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>She thought it was prodigiously funny, and said it
+was perfectly true, but <em>she</em> never would have been
+bright enough to think of it. I found it a new and
+most pleasant sensation to have my wit admired,
+and was about to try to do some more when that
+young fellow came. He planted himself on the other
+side of the young woman and began a vapid remark
+about the weather, but she gave him a look that
+withered him and got stiffly up and wheeled the
+baby away.</p>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_387'>387</span>
+  <h2 class='c008'>BIBLE TEACHING AND RELIGIOUS <br />PRACTICE</h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class='drop-capa0_2_0_4 c034'>Religion had its share in the changes of civilization
+and national character, of course. What
+share? The lion’s. In the history of the human
+race this has always been the case, will always be
+the case, to the end of time, no doubt; or at least
+until man by the slow processes of evolution shall
+develop into something really fine and high--some
+billions of years hence, say.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>The Christian’s Bible is a drug store. Its contents
+remain the same; but the medical practice changes.
+For eighteen hundred years these changes were
+slight--scarcely noticeable. The practice was allopathic--allopathic
+in its rudest and crudest form.
+The dull and ignorant physician day and night, and
+all the days and all the nights, drenched his patient
+with vast and hideous doses of the most repulsive
+drugs to be found in the store’s stock; he bled him,
+cupped him, purged him, puked him, salivated him,
+never gave his system a chance to rally, nor nature
+a chance to help. He kept him religion sick for
+eighteen centuries, and allowed him not a well day
+during all that time. The stock in the store was
+made up of about equal portions of baleful and
+debilitating poisons, and healing and comforting
+medicines; but the practice of the time confined
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_388'>388</span>the physician to the use of the former; by consequence,
+he could only damage his patient, and that
+is what he did.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>Not until far within our century was any considerable
+change in the practice introduced; and then
+mainly, or in effect only, in Great Britain and the
+United States. In the other countries to-day, the
+patient either still takes the ancient treatment or
+does not call the physician at all. In the English-speaking
+countries the changes observable in our
+century were forced by that very thing just referred
+to--the revolt of the patient against the system;
+they were not projected by the physician. The
+patient fell to doctoring himself, and the physician’s
+practice began to fall off. He modified his method
+to get back his trade. He did it gradually, reluctantly;
+and never yielded more at a time than the
+pressure compelled. At first he relinquished the
+daily dose of hell and damnation, and administered
+it every other day only; next he allowed another
+day to pass; then another and presently another;
+when he had restricted it at last to Sundays, and
+imagined that now there would surely be a truce,
+the homœopath arrived on the field and made him
+abandon hell and damnation altogether, and administered
+Christ’s love, and comfort, and charity and
+compassion in its stead. These had been in the drug
+store all the time, gold labeled and conspicuous among
+the long shelfloads of repulsive purges and vomits and
+poisons, and so the practice was to blame that they
+had remained unused, not the pharmacy. To the
+ecclesiastical physician of fifty years ago, his predecessor
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_389'>389</span>for eighteen centuries was a quack; to the
+ecclesiastical physician of to-day, his predecessor of
+fifty years ago was a quack. To the every-man-his-own-ecclesiastical-doctor
+of--when?--what will the
+ecclesiastical physician of to-day be? Unless evolution,
+which has been a truth ever since the globes,
+suns, and planets of the solar system were but wandering
+films of meteor dust, shall reach a limit and become
+a lie, there is but one fate in store for him.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>The methods of the priest and the parson have
+been very curious, their history is very entertaining.
+In all the ages the Roman Church has owned slaves,
+bought and sold slaves, authorized and encouraged
+her children to trade in them. Long after some
+Christian peoples had freed their slaves the Church
+still held on to hers. If any could know, to absolute
+certainty, that all this was right, and according to
+God’s will and desire, surely it was she, since she
+was God’s specially appointed representative in the
+earth and sole authorized and infallible expounder
+of his Bible. There were the texts; there was no
+mistaking their meaning; she was right, she was
+doing in this thing what the Bible had mapped out
+for her to do. So unassailable was her position that
+in all the centuries she had no word to say against
+human slavery. Yet now at last, in our immediate
+day, we hear a Pope saying slave trading is wrong,
+and we see him sending an expedition to Africa to
+stop it. The texts remain: it is the practice that
+has changed. Why? Because the world has corrected
+the Bible. The Church never corrects it; and
+also never fails to drop in at the tail of the procession--and
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_390'>390</span>take the credit of the correction. As she
+will presently do in this instance.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>Christian England supported slavery and encouraged
+it for two hundred and fifty years, and her
+Church’s consecrated ministers looked on, sometimes
+taking an active hand, the rest of the time
+indifferent. England’s interest in the business may
+be called a Christian interest, a Christian industry.
+She had her full share in its revival after a long
+period of inactivity, and this revival was a Christian
+monopoly; that is to say, it was in the hands of
+Christian countries exclusively. English parliaments
+aided the slave traffic and protected it; two English
+kings held stock in slave-catching companies. The
+first regular English slave hunter--John Hawkins, of
+still revered memory--made such successful havoc,
+on his second voyage, in the matter of surprising
+and burning villages, and maiming, slaughtering,
+capturing, and selling their unoffending inhabitants,
+that his delighted queen conferred the chivalric
+honor of knighthood on him--a rank which had
+acquired its chief esteem and distinction in other
+and earlier fields of Christian effort. The new knight,
+with characteristic English frankness and brusque
+simplicity, chose as his device the figure of a negro
+slave, kneeling and in chains. Sir John’s work was
+the invention of Christians, was to remain a bloody
+and awful monopoly in the hands of Christians for a
+quarter of a millennium, was to destroy homes, separate
+families, enslave friendless men and women,
+and break a myriad of human hearts, to the end
+that Christian nations might be prosperous and comfortable,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_391'>391</span>Christian churches be built, and the gospel
+of the meek and merciful Redeemer be spread abroad
+in the earth; and so in the name of his ship, unsuspected
+but eloquent and clear, lay hidden prophecy.
+She was called <i>The Jesus</i>.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>But at last in England, an illegitimate Christian
+rose against slavery. It is curious that when a
+Christian rises against a rooted wrong at all, he is
+usually an illegitimate Christian, member of some
+despised and bastard sect. There was a bitter
+struggle, but in the end the slave trade had to go--and
+went. The Biblical authorization remained, but
+the practice changed.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>Then--the usual thing happened; the visiting
+English critic among us began straightway to hold
+up his pious hands in horror at our slavery. His
+distress was unappeasable, his words full of bitterness
+and contempt. It is true we had not so many
+as fifteen hundred thousand slaves for him to worry
+about, while his England still owned twelve millions,
+in her foreign possessions; but that fact did not
+modify his wail any, or stay his tears, or soften his
+censure. The fact that every time we had tried
+to get rid of our slavery in previous generations,
+but had always been obstructed, balked, and defeated
+by England, was a matter of no consequence
+to him; it was ancient history, and not worth the
+telling.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>Our own conversion came at last. We began to
+stir against slavery. Hearts grew soft, here, there,
+and yonder. There was no place in the land where
+the seeker could not find some small budding sign of
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_392'>392</span>pity for the slave. No place in all the land but one--the
+pulpit. It yielded at last; it always does. It
+fought a strong and stubborn fight, and then did what
+it always does, joined the procession--at the tail end.
+Slavery fell. The slavery text remained; the practice
+changed, that was all.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>During many ages there were witches. The Bible
+said so. The Bible commanded that they should not
+be allowed to live. Therefore the Church, after
+doing its duty in but a lazy and indolent way for
+eight hundred years, gathered up its halters, thumb-screws,
+and firebrands, and set about its holy work
+in earnest. She worked hard at it night and day
+during nine centuries and imprisoned, tortured,
+hanged, and burned whole hordes and armies of
+witches, and washed the Christian world clean with
+their foul blood.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>Then it was discovered that there was no such
+thing as witches, and never had been. One does not
+know whether to laugh or to cry. Who discovered
+that there was no such thing as a witch--the priest,
+the parson? No, these never discover anything.
+At Salem, the parson clung pathetically to his witch
+text after the laity had abandoned it in remorse and
+tears for the crimes and cruelties it has persuaded
+them to do. The parson wanted more blood, more
+shame, more brutalities; it was the unconsecrated
+laity that stayed his hand. In Scotland the parson
+killed the witch after the magistrate had pronounced
+her innocent; and when the merciful legislature proposed
+to sweep the hideous laws against witches from
+the statute book, it was the parson who came imploring,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_393'>393</span>with tears and imprecations, that they be suffered
+to stand.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>There are no witches. The witch text remains;
+only the practice has changed. Hell fire is gone, but
+the text remains. Infant damnation is gone, but
+the text remains. More than two hundred death
+penalties are gone from the law books, but the
+texts that authorized them remain.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>Is it not well worthy of note that of all the multitude
+of texts through which man has driven his
+annihilating pen he has never once made the mistake
+of obliterating a good and useful one? It does certainly
+seem to suggest that if man continues in the
+direction of enlightenment, his religious practice may,
+in the end, attain some semblance of human decency.</p>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_394'>394</span>
+  <h2 class='c008'>THE WAR PRAYER <br /> <span class='small'>(Dictated 1904-05)</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class='drop-capa0_2_0_4 c034'>It was a time of great and exalting excitement.
+The country was up in arms, the war was on,
+in every breast burned the holy fire of patriotism;
+the drums were beating, the bands playing, the toy
+pistols popping, the bunched firecrackers hissing and
+spluttering; on every hand and far down the receding
+and fading spread of roofs and balconies a fluttering
+wilderness of flags flashed in the sun; daily the
+young volunteers marched down the wide avenue
+gay and fine in their new uniforms, the proud fathers
+and mothers and sisters and sweethearts cheering
+them with voices choked with happy emotion as
+they swung by; nightly the packed mass meetings
+listened, panting, to patriot oratory which stirred
+the deepest deeps of their hearts, and which they
+interrupted at briefest intervals with cyclones of
+applause, the tears running down their cheeks the
+while; in the churches the pastors preached devotion
+to flag and country, and invoked the God of
+Battles, beseeching His aid in our good cause in
+outpouring of fervid eloquence which moved every
+listener. It was indeed a glad and gracious time,
+and the half dozen rash spirits that ventured to disapprove
+of the war and cast a doubt upon its righteousness
+straightway got such a stern and angry
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_395'>395</span>warning that for their personal safety’s sake they
+quickly shrank out of sight and offended no more
+in that way.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>Sunday morning came--next day the battalions
+would leave for the front; the church was filled;
+the volunteers were there, their young faces alight
+with martial dreams--visions of the stern advance,
+the gathering momentum, the rushing charge, the
+flashing sabers, the flight of the foe, the tumult, the
+enveloping smoke, the fierce pursuit, the surrender!--them
+home from the war, bronzed heroes, welcomed,
+adored, submerged in golden seas of glory! With
+the volunteers sat their dear ones, proud, happy,
+and envied by the neighbors and friends who had
+no sons and brothers to send forth to the field of
+honor, there to win for the flag, or, failing, die the
+noblest of noble deaths. The service proceeded; a
+war chapter from the Old Testament was read; the
+first prayer was said; it was followed by an organ
+burst that shook the building, and with one impulse
+the house rose, with glowing eyes and beating
+hearts, and poured out that tremendous invocation--</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c041'>
+  <div class='linegroup'>
+    <div class='group'>
+      <div class='line'>“God the all-terrible! Thou who ordainest,</div>
+      <div class='line'>Thunder thy clarion and lightning thy sword!”</div>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c040'>Then came the “long” prayer. None could remember
+the like of it for passionate pleading and moving
+and beautiful language. The burden of its supplication
+was, that an ever-merciful and benignant Father
+of us all would watch over our noble young soldiers, and
+aid, comfort, and encourage them in their patriotic
+work; bless them, shield them in the day of battle
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_396'>396</span>and the hour of peril, bear them in His mighty hand,
+make them strong and confident, invincible in the
+bloody onset; help them to crush the foe, grant to
+them and to their flag and country imperishable
+honor and glory--</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>An aged stranger entered and moved with slow
+and noiseless step up the main aisle, his eyes fixed
+upon the minister, his long body clothed in a robe
+that reached to his feet, his head bare, his white
+hair descending in a frothy cataract to his shoulders,
+his seamy face unnaturally pale, pale even to ghastliness.
+With all eyes following him and wondering,
+he made his silent way; without pausing, he ascended
+to the preacher’s side and stood there, waiting. With
+shut lids the preacher, unconscious of his presence,
+continued his moving prayer, and at last finished it
+with the words, uttered in fervent appeal, “Bless
+our arms, grant us the victory, O Lord our God,
+Father and Protector of our land and flag!”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>The stranger touched his arm, motioned him to
+step aside--which the startled minister did--and
+took his place. During some moments he surveyed
+the spellbound audience with solemn eyes, in which
+burned an uncanny light; then in a deep voice he
+said:</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“I come from the Throne--bearing a message
+from Almighty God!” The words smote the house
+with a shock; if the stranger perceived it he gave no
+attention. “He has heard the prayer of His servant
+your shepherd, and will grant it if such shall be your
+desire after I, His messenger, shall have explained
+to you its import--that is to say, its full import.
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_397'>397</span>For it is like unto many of the prayers of men, in
+that it asks for more than he who utters it is aware
+of--except he pause and think.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“God’s servant and yours has prayed his prayer.
+Has he paused and taken thought? Is it one prayer?
+No, it is two--one uttered, the other not. Both
+have reached the ear of Him Who heareth all supplications,
+the spoken and the unspoken. Ponder this--keep
+it in mind. If you would beseech a blessing
+upon yourself, beware! lest without intent you invoke
+a curse upon a neighbor at the same time. If you
+pray for the blessing of rain upon your crop which
+needs it, by that act you are possibly praying for a
+curse upon some neighbor’s crop which may not
+need rain and can be injured by it.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“You have heard your servant’s prayer--the
+uttered part of it. I am commissioned of God to
+put into words the other part of it--that part
+which the pastor--and also you in your hearts--fervently
+prayed silently. And ignorantly and
+unthinkingly? God grant that it was so! You
+heard these words: ‘Grant us the victory, O Lord
+our God!’ That is sufficient. The <em>whole</em> of the
+uttered prayer is compact into those pregnant words.
+Elaborations were not necessary. When you have
+prayed for victory you have prayed for many unmentioned
+results which follow victory--<em>must</em> follow it,
+cannot help but follow it. Upon the listening spirit
+of God the Father fell also the unspoken part of the
+prayer. He commandeth me to put it into words.
+Listen!</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“O Lord our Father, our young patriots, idols of
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_398'>398</span>our hearts, go forth to battle--be Thou near them!
+With them--in spirit--we also go forth from the
+sweet peace of our beloved firesides to smite the foe.
+O Lord our God, help us to tear their soldiers to
+bloody shreds with our shells; help us to cover their
+smiling fields with the pale forms of their patriot
+dead; help us to drown the thunder of the guns with
+the shrieks of their wounded, writhing in pain; help
+us to lay waste their humble homes with a hurricane
+of fire; help us to wring the hearts of their unoffending
+widows with unavailing grief; help us to turn
+them out roofless with their little children to wander
+unfriended the wastes of their desolated land in rags
+and hunger and thirst, sports of the sun flames of
+summer and the icy winds of winter, broken in
+spirit, worn with travail, imploring Thee for the
+refuge of the grave and denied it--for our sakes who
+adore Thee, Lord, blast their hopes, blight their
+lives, protract their bitter pilgrimage, make heavy
+their steps, water their way with their tears, stain
+the white snow with the blood of their wounded
+feet! We ask it, in the spirit of love, of Him Who
+is the Source of Love, and Who is the ever-faithful
+refuge and friend of all that are sore beset and seek
+His aid with humble and contrite hearts. Amen.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>(<i>After a pause.</i>) “Ye have prayed it; if ye still
+desire it, speak! The messenger of the Most High
+waits.”</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>It was believed afterward that the man was a
+lunatic, because there was no sense in what he said.</p>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_399'>399</span>
+  <h2 class='c008'>CORN-PONE OPINIONS <br /> <span class='small'>(Written in 1900)</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class='drop-capa0_2_0_4 c034'>Fifty years ago, when I was a boy of fifteen
+and helping to inhabit a Missourian village on
+the banks of the Mississippi, I had a friend whose
+society was very dear to me because I was forbidden
+by my mother to partake of it. He was a gay and
+impudent and satirical and delightful young black
+man--a slave--who daily preached sermons from
+the top of his master’s woodpile, with me for sole
+audience. He imitated the pulpit style of the several
+clergymen of the village, and did it well, and with
+fine passion and energy. To me he was a wonder. I
+believed he was the greatest orator in the United
+States and would some day be heard from. But
+it did not happen; in the distribution of rewards he
+was overlooked. It is the way, in this world.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>He interrupted his preaching, now and then, to
+saw a stick of wood; but the sawing was a pretense--he
+did it with his mouth; exactly imitating the
+sound the bucksaw makes in shrieking its way
+through the wood. But it served its purpose; it
+kept his master from coming out to see how the
+work was getting along. I listened to the sermons
+from the open window of a lumber room at the back
+of the house. One of his texts was this:</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>“You tell me whar a man gits his corn pone, en
+I’ll tell you what his ’pinions is.“</p>
+
+<p class='c035'><span class='pageno' id='Page_400'>400</span>I can never forget it. It was deeply impressed
+upon me. By my mother. Not upon my memory,
+but elsewhere. She had slipped in upon me while I
+was absorbed and not watching. The black philosopher’s
+idea was that a man is not independent, and
+cannot afford views which might interfere with his
+bread and butter. If he would prosper, he must train
+with the majority; in matters of large moment, like
+politics and religion, he must think and feel with the
+bulk of his neighbors, or suffer damage in his social
+standing and in his business prosperities. He must
+restrict himself to corn-pone opinions--at least on
+the surface. He must get his opinions from other
+people; he must reason out none for himself; he
+must have no first-hand views.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>I think Jerry was right, in the main, but I think
+he did not go far enough.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>1. It was his idea that a man conforms to the
+majority view of his locality by calculation and
+intention.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>This happens, but I think it is not the rule.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>2. It was his idea that there is such a thing as a
+first-hand opinion; an original opinion; an opinion
+which is coldly reasoned out in a man’s head, by a
+searching analysis of the facts involved, with the
+heart unconsulted, and the jury room closed against
+outside influences. It may be that such an opinion
+has been born somewhere, at some time or other, but
+I suppose it got away before they could catch it and
+stuff it and put it in the museum.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>I am persuaded that a coldly-thought-out and
+independent verdict upon a fashion in clothes, or
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_401'>401</span>manners, or literature, or politics, or religion, or
+any other matter that is projected into the field of
+our notice and interest, is a most rare thing--if it
+has indeed ever existed.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>A new thing in costume appears--the flaring hoopskirt,
+for example--and the passers-by are shocked,
+and the irreverent laugh. Six months later everybody
+is reconciled; the fashion has established itself;
+<a id='corr401.9'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='is'>it</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_401.9'><ins class='correction' title='is'>it</ins></a></span> is admired, now, and no one laughs. Public opinion
+resented it before, public opinion accepts it now, and
+is happy in it. Why? Was the resentment reasoned
+out? Was the acceptance reasoned out? No. The
+instinct that moves to conformity did the work. It
+is our nature to conform; it is a force which not
+many can successfully resist. What is its seat? The
+inborn requirement of self-approval. We all have
+to bow to that; there are no exceptions. Even the
+woman who refuses from first to last to wear the
+hoopskirt comes under that law and is its slave;
+she could not wear the skirt and have her own
+approval; and that she <em>must</em> have, she cannot help
+herself. But as a rule our self-approval has its
+source in but one place and not elsewhere--the
+approval of other people. A person of vast consequences
+can introduce any kind of novelty in dress
+and the general world will presently adopt it--moved
+to do it, in the first place, by the natural instinct to
+passively yield to that vague something recognized
+as authority, and in the second place by the human
+instinct to train with the multitude and have its
+approval. An empress introduced the hoopskirt,
+and we know the result. A nobody introduced the
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_402'>402</span>bloomer, and we know the result. If Eve should
+come again, in her ripe renown, and reintroduce her
+quaint styles--well, we know what would happen.
+And we should be cruelly embarrassed, along at
+first.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>The hoopskirt runs its course and disappears.
+Nobody reasons about it. One woman abandons the
+fashion; her neighbor notices this and follows her
+lead; this influences the next woman; and so on
+and so on, and presently the skirt has vanished out
+of the world, no one knows how nor why; nor cares,
+for that matter. It will come again, by and by;
+and in due course will go again.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>Twenty-five years ago, in England, six or eight
+wine glasses stood grouped by each person’s plate
+at a dinner party, and they were used, not left idle
+and empty; to-day there are but three or four in the
+group, and the average guest sparingly uses about
+two of them. We have not adopted this new fashion
+yet, but we shall do it presently. We shall not think
+it out; we shall merely conform, and let it go at
+that. We get our notions and habits and opinions
+from outside influences; we do not have to study
+them out.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>Our table manners, and company manners, and
+street manners change from time to time, but the
+changes are not reasoned out; we merely notice and
+conform. We are creatures of outside influences;
+as a rule we do not think, we only imitate. We cannot
+invent standards that will stick; what we mistake
+for standards are only fashions, and perishable.
+We may continue to admire them, but we drop the
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_403'>403</span>use of them. We notice this in literature. Shakespeare
+is a standard, and fifty years ago we used to
+write tragedies which we couldn’t tell from--from
+somebody else’s; but we don’t do it any more, now.
+Our prose standard, three quarters of a century ago,
+was ornate and diffuse; some authority or other
+changed it in the direction of compactness and simplicity,
+and conformity followed, without argument.
+The historical novel starts up suddenly, and sweeps
+the land. Everybody writes one, and the nation is
+glad. We had historical novels before; but nobody
+read them, and the rest of us conformed--without reasoning
+it out. We are conforming in the other way,
+now, because it is another case of everybody.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>The outside influences are always pouring in upon
+us, and we are always obeying their orders and
+accepting their verdicts. The Smiths like the new
+play; the Joneses go to see it, and they copy the
+Smith verdict. Morals, religions, politics, get their
+following from surrounding influences and atmospheres,
+almost entirely; not from study, not from
+thinking. A man must and will have his own
+approval first of all, in each and every moment and
+circumstance of his life--even if he must repent of a
+self-approved act the moment after its commission,
+in order to get his self-approval <em>again</em>: but, speaking
+in general terms, a man’s self-approval in the large
+concerns of life has its source in the approval of the
+peoples about him, and not in a searching personal
+examination of the matter. Mohammedans are
+Mohammedans because they are born and reared
+among that sect, not because they have thought it
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_404'>404</span>out and can furnish sound reasons for being Mohammedans;
+we know why Catholics are Catholics;
+why Presbyterians are Presbyterians; why Baptists
+are Baptists; why Mormons are Mormons; why
+thieves are thieves; why monarchists are monarchists;
+why Republicans are Republicans and
+Democrats, Democrats. We know it is a matter of
+association and sympathy, not reasoning and examination;
+that hardly a man in the world has an
+opinion upon morals, politics, or religion which he
+got otherwise than through his associations and sympathies.
+Broadly speaking, there are none but corn-pone
+opinions. And broadly speaking, corn-pone
+stands for self-approval. Self-approval is acquired
+mainly from the approval of other people. The
+result is conformity. Sometimes conformity has a
+sordid business interest--the bread-and-butter interest--but
+not in most cases, I think. I think that in
+the majority of cases it is unconscious and not calculated;
+that it is born of the human being’s natural
+yearning to stand well with his fellows and have
+their inspiring approval and praise--a yearning
+which is commonly so strong and so insistent that
+it cannot be effectually resisted, and must have its
+way.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>A political emergency brings out the corn-pone
+opinion in fine force in its two chief varieties--the
+pocketbook variety, which has its origin in self-interest,
+and the bigger variety, the sentimental
+variety--the one which can’t bear to be outside the
+pale; can’t bear to be in disfavor; can’t endure the
+averted face and the cold shoulder; wants to stand
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_405'>405</span>well with his friends, wants to be smiled upon,
+wants to be welcome, wants to hear the precious
+words, “<em>He’s</em> on the right track!” Uttered, perhaps
+by an ass, but still an ass of high degree, an ass whose
+approval is gold and diamonds to a smaller ass, and
+confers glory and honor and happiness, and membership
+in the herd. For these gauds many a man
+will dump his life-long principles into the street, and
+his conscience along with them. We have seen it
+happen. In some millions of instances.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>Men think they think upon great political questions,
+and they do; but they think with their party,
+not independently; they read its literature, but not
+that of the other side; they arrive at convictions,
+but they are drawn from a partial view of the matter
+in hand and are of no particular value. They swarm
+with their party, they feel with their party, they are
+happy in their party’s approval; and where the
+party leads they will follow, whether for right and
+honor, or through blood and dirt and a mush of
+mutilated morals.</p>
+
+<p class='c035'>In our late canvass half of the nation passionately
+believed that in silver lay salvation, the other half
+as passionately believed that that way lay destruction.
+Do you believe that a tenth part of the people,
+on either side, had any rational excuse for having
+an opinion about the matter at all? I studied that
+mighty question to the bottom--came out empty.
+Half of our people passionately believe in high tariff,
+the other half believe otherwise. Does this mean
+study and examination, or only feeling? The latter,
+I think. I have deeply studied that question, too--and
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_406'>406</span>didn’t arrive. We all do no end of feeling, and
+we mistake it for thinking. And out of it we get an
+aggregation which we consider a boon. Its name is
+Public Opinion. It is held in reverence. It settles
+everything. Some think it the Voice of God.</p>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c024'>
+    <div>THE END</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='pbb'>
+ <hr class='pb c001' />
+</div>
+<p class='c035'><a id='endnote'></a></p>
+<div>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c024'>
+    <div><span class='large'>Transcriber’s Note</span></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c035'>Errors deemed most likely to be the printer’s have been corrected, and
+are noted here. The references are to the page and line in the original.</p>
+
+<table class='table2' summary=''>
+<colgroup>
+<col width='12%' />
+<col width='69%' />
+<col width='18%' />
+</colgroup>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c009'><a id='c_ix.22'></a><a href='#corrix.22'>ix.22</a></td>
+    <td class='c009'>did not waste his chances[.]</td>
+    <td class='c042'>Added.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c009'><a id='c_ix.24'></a><a href='#corrix.24'>ix.24</a></td>
+    <td class='c009'>on the list of Americ[n/a]n authors</td>
+    <td class='c042'>Replaced.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c009'><a id='c_8.10'></a><a href='#corr8.10'>8.10</a></td>
+    <td class='c009'>and yet wi[ll/th] all that silence</td>
+    <td class='c042'>Replaced.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c009'><a id='c_10.14'></a><a href='#corr10.14'>10.14</a></td>
+    <td class='c009'>the col[l]ossal myths of history</td>
+    <td class='c042'>Removed.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c009'><a id='c_47.14'></a><a href='#corr47.14'>47.14</a></td>
+    <td class='c009'>They all sat in a c[ri/ir]cle</td>
+    <td class='c042'>Transposed.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c009'><a id='c_71.13'></a><a href='#corr71.13'>71.13</a></td>
+    <td class='c009'>he wrote [i/a]t once to the Emperor</td>
+    <td class='c042'>Replaced.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c009'><a id='c_97.7'></a><a href='#corr97.7'>97.7</a></td>
+    <td class='c009'>men’s conception of the D[ie/ei]ty</td>
+    <td class='c042'>Transposed.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c009'><a id='c_108.24'></a><a href='#corr108.24'>108.24</a></td>
+    <td class='c009'>in his bay window![”]</td>
+    <td class='c042'>Added.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c009'><a id='c_122.20'></a><a href='#corr122.20'>122.20</a></td>
+    <td class='c009'>breezes would quiver the fo[il/li]age</td>
+    <td class='c042'>Transposed.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c009'><a id='c_209.15'></a><a href='#corr209.15'>209.15</a></td>
+    <td class='c009'>most lavishly u[n/p]holstered</td>
+    <td class='c042'>Replaced.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c009'><a id='c_217.27'></a><a href='#corr217.27'>217.27</a></td>
+    <td class='c009'><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><i>[“]Il  y a une ascenseur,”</i></span></td>
+    <td class='c042'>Added.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c009'><a id='c_260.12'></a><a href='#corr260.12'>260.12</a></td>
+    <td class='c009'>The Ka[si/is]er’s claim was paid</td>
+    <td class='c042'>Transposed.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c009'><a id='c_268.13'></a><a href='#corr268.13'>268.13</a></td>
+    <td class='c009'>our war work and our her[io/oi]sms</td>
+    <td class='c042'>Transposed.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c009'><a id='c_275.21'></a><a href='#corr275.21'>275.21</a></td>
+    <td class='c009'>[“]I deny emphatically</td>
+    <td class='c042'>Added.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c009'><a id='c_277.28'></a><a href='#corr277.28'>277.28</a></td>
+    <td class='c009'>Christian virtues[:/.]</td>
+    <td class='c042'>Replaced.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c009'><a id='c_303.3'></a><a href='#corr303.3'>303.3</a></td>
+    <td class='c009'>the[m/n] moved them to fall</td>
+    <td class='c042'>Replaced.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c009'><a id='c_401.9'></a><a href='#corr401.9'>401.9</a></td>
+    <td class='c009'>i[s/t] is admired</td>
+    <td class='c042'>Replaced.</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+</div>
+
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author	nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org>	2025-01-21 06:16:31 -0800
committer	nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org>	2025-01-21 06:16:31 -0800
commit	9631ec56d076ea9fdfd02edd855bf60831531ea8 (patch)
tree	2ab9fb308a01e33b441447201c6be6b2f0ff6736