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diff --git a/old/68562-0.txt b/old/68562-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index de12068..0000000 --- a/old/68562-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,4280 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of The peoples of Europe, by Herbert John -Fleure - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: The peoples of Europe - -Author: Herbert John Fleure - -Release Date: July 18, 2022 [eBook #68562] - -Language: English - -Produced by: Al Haines - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PEOPLES OF EUROPE *** - - - - - - - -[Illustration: Front end paper] - - - - - - THE PEOPLES - OF - EUROPE - - - BY - - HERBERT JOHN FLEURE, D.Sc. - - PROFESSOR OF GEOGRAPHY AND ANTHROPOLOGY AT THE UNIVERSITY - COLLEGE OF WALES - HON. SECRETARY TO THE GEOGRAPHICAL ASSOCIATION - - - - LONDON - OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS - HUMPHREY MILFORD - - 1922 - - - - - Oxford University Press - - _London Edinburgh Glasgow Copenhagen - New York Toronto Melbourne Cape Town - Bombay Calcutta Madras Shanghai_ - - Humphrey Milford Publisher to the UNIVERSITY - - - - -CONTENTS - - -Introduction - -1. 'Races' - -2. Language Families--Introductory - -3. The Peoples of Romance Speech - -4. The Peoples of German Speech - -5. Some Peoples intermediate between Romance and -Germanic in Speech - -6. Peoples of Low German and Scandinavian Speech - -7. The Peoples on the Eastern Border of Europe-of-the-Sea - -8. The Slav-speaking Peoples and the Borders of the East - -9. Some Phases of Evolution of European Life before the -Industrial Revolution - -10. Aspects of Modern Europe - -Bibliographical Note - - - - -{5} - -INTRODUCTION - -If there be any truth in the view that our philosophical theories -grow out of our circumstances, it cannot be doubted that the -philosophy of change, sometimes optimistically called progress, is -curiously appropriate to Europe. The intimate juxtaposition of -small areas of mountain and plateau, of river and sea, of valley -and plain has multiplied contacts between men of diverse activities, -experience, and outlook, and has thus encouraged not only -exchange of ideas but also fermentation of thought. Economically, -also, the trend has always been towards mutual dependence, -and the penetration of inland seas far into the Continent has -further assisted intercourse from far-off times. A self-sufficing -community left to itself will evolve a routine and may stagnate -therein; external contacts are most important in that they may -ward off this danger. On the other hand, it must be remembered -that these contacts may prove disastrous by breaking threads of -tradition developing towards a fuller realization of the good life. -Thus social importations into many regions of the Mediterranean -in the days of the growth of the Roman dominion were brought -about through conquest followed by transportation of the enslaved -foemen, with grievous results both to Rome and to the slaves. -Or again, the rapid growth of British trade at the Industrial -Revolution brought many new contacts that, as in the case of -Rome long before, promoted exploitation on a large scale, and -made the stories both of the factory-children of England and of -the slaves of America stand dismally parallel with those of the -slaves of ancient Rome. In both instances the loss of social and -intellectual heritage involved in these ugly schemes is full of -fateful consequences, which worked themselves out in the case -{6} -of Rome and may be doing so in the case of Britain. Contact -and association without alien dominations, whether personal or -regional, at any rate are of the utmost value as refreshers, and -Europe has had unequalled opportunities in this direction. - -But Europe, as known in current geography, is not an effective -human unit. In a certain broad sense it becomes one if we add -to it a good deal of South-west Asia and North Africa, so that -all the frame of the Mediterranean, Euxine, and Caspian is -included. In a more real and detailed sense, however, we should -be careful to distinguish that portion which is intimately affected -by the sea from that part which is in the first place the threshold -of the great interior. - -Europe, west of the Pripet Marshes, rarely suffers from extreme -heat, and its winter frosts are less severe and prolonged than those -of Muscovy. The temperature north and west of the Alps varies -just enough on either side of the optimum of 60°-64° F. to -provide desirable physiological stimuli, with only short and -irregular periods when conditions are really harmful. The -Russian plain beyond the Pripet Marshes is, on the other hand, -subject to painful extremes which seriously limit man's efficiency -in both winter and summer, and leave him but short periods in -spring and autumn for effective freshness and enterprise. In -consequence of this, Western Europe, or we may call it -Europe-of-the-Sea, shows continuity of activity through the changing -seasons, a continuity of thought and criticism which has exercised -a powerful influence on government and social order, while the -sea, as above suggested, has promoted contacts and kept things -moving. In Europe-of-the-Sea, at least where we do not get the -ill effects of alien domination above mentioned, we thus find that, -between the warrior leaders and the labourers, the traders and -professional people or middle class have developed power and -have acted as a cement for society on the one hand, and as organizers -for its maintenance on the other. Spain (with its long struggle -{7} -between Christianity and Islam), Ireland (under English domination), -the Balkans (under one dominator after another and finally -under the Turk), all show historic inhibitions which have delayed -and hampered the healthy development of a society free to work -for that fuller realization of the good life. Elsewhere it is -noteworthy that there have been many attempts, some successful for -a time and all valuable, to secure real participation by the people -in their problems of social organization, real liberation from the -inhibitions involved in government by a superposed class or -group. In spite of the difficulties of the present generation, -the tendency is for these attempts to gain in power and scope, -and to overstep the artificial boundaries of nation and state which -are becoming a bed of Procrustes for the peoples of Europe. - -On the other hand, east of the Pripet Marshes the long periods -of trying climate, coming regularly in winter and in summer, -limit, for the folk who have to live unprotected lives, -the possibilities -of the effective vigilance and criticism whereby the western -European organizations are kept going. There is actual pressing -need of a routine of tradition on which to fall back in these times -of stress. There is also the fear of the grassland tribes tending -to keep the people organized on a traditional basis as war leaders -and labourers, while the distance from the sea diminishes trade -and the middle class, and helps to maintain localism, which in -its turn strengthens routine. There we thus find typically a -middle class largely immigrant and alien to the military and -labouring classes, and this further complicates the problems of -social development and organization. - -Europe, east and west, thus shows striking contrasts which have -fateful consequences; there are also contrasts of importance -between north and south. The latitude of most of Europe is such -that the sun's rays strike the soil too obliquely to act chemically -upon it with sufficient rapidity to decompose fresh material for -plant growth as fast as plants use it up. In the Mediterranean -{8} -region this is hardly the case, but in several parts the soil -possibilities are very indifferent, so that our contrast is more between -Europe and the Tropics than between north and south in Europe, -though it is a valuable clue to many of the differences between -the German plain and the Paris basin. Broadly we may say that -our latitude has made a really self-dependent agriculture almost -an impossibility for Europe, and we note in illustration that -Bohemia is suffering sadly because foreign fertilizers could not be -imported in 1914-18. The problem of diminishing fertility has -made itself insistent again and again in European life, and has -proved a goad to drive men to agricultural experiment on the -one hand and to trade as a supplementary source of wealth on -the other. The contrast between Europe and many parts of -China in this respect is a profitable study, if we do not exaggerate, -as is so often done, the supposed stagnation of the Orient. - -From trade the men of Europe have been lured on into large-scale -industry with the application of coal, oil, water, and sundry -other forms of power in immense amounts. The opportunities -for domination and consequently exploitation which this -has brought are working out fatefully for us all in many varieties -of hurtful contacts, needing humanization most urgently if the -situation is to be saved for our children. - -The process of change, we realize, has progressed faster and -farther in the west than in the east of Europe, which goes forward -against the pressure of severe inhibitions that make its problems -differ from our own. At times we are content to look down upon -the wild ways of East and South-east Europe, forgetting that in -many respects, such as the exposure of severed heads recently -commented upon as happening in the Balkans, we were not long -ago at least as wild as they seem to be now. But we must also -guard against the thought that they are merely some steps behind -us on the path we all are treading; that concept of human evolution -as a procession along a path is a wrong and very misleading one. -{9} -We must reach the broader view which thinks of East Europe -not as undeveloped West, but as diverse. - -In our changeful continent we may thus follow out one of the -most varied and perilous of the stories of men, a story of -hardly-won triumph over serious obstacles, triumph maintained for -a while in the face of serious threats that never ceased. It is -a story that leads us to the appreciation of Europe's precarious -position of industrial and administrative leadership, with its -implications of conflict and unsettlement that make our Chinese -friends think of us as the White Peril. - -We may study our physical racial origins and see how every -modern European people has come to be composed of moderately -diverse elements, probably attaining some of their present -characteristics during the marked changes of climate and opportunity -accompanying the retreat of the glaciers at the close of the great -Ice Age of Europe, and developing them further with changes -of location and opportunity in subsequent times. We may see, -as it were afar off, facts that will be clearer to the scientific men -of fifty years hence, facts of the Mendelian inheritance of physical -characters, leading, on the one hand, to the maintenance of types -very little changed even through thousands of years, and on the -other to the combination of diverse heritages from many sources, -making an individual in many cases a mosaic of characteristics -from different ancestral types. - -We may study the languages and religions of European peoples -and see that in the days before writing and markets became -features of local life, languages changed, albeit slowly, spreading -in waves of civilization, with only a subordinate relation to the -waves of racial type. And if languages spread in waves of -civilization, this has been the case still more in matters of religion, -though folk tradition has a remarkable power of resurgence that -leads to the local adaptation of religious movements time after -time. - -{10} - -We may finally study economic activities and follow their -influence in waves, the power and direction of which are affected -by racial facts because temperament is no doubt related to physical -type, but are more governed by language distributions because -difference of language makes such a bar to economic intercourse, -at least in early stages. In later stages, with the utilization of -coal and steam the international web is woven more closely and -more subtly, and this has sadly aggravated the catastrophe due -to its rupture by the clumsiness of politicians in the years leading -on to 1914. - -And all through the process of evolution of races, of language -and religion and of industry, we may follow the social life of the -European peoples and the development of its organization and -its expression in response to those processes of evolution. We -must see at the same time how it both affects and reflects -alterations which are always occurring in the European environment -through changes of climate, rising and sinking of the land, clearing -of forests and draining of swamps by mankind, development of -communications, and other results of the labour of man. - - - - -{11} - -1 - -'_Races_' - -Human diversities are deep enough to make the idea of -'European Man' a mere abstraction; we need to think rather -of 'European Men' and to study with that broad fact always -in mind, realizing that Russians and ourselves are not to be thought -of as at different steps on the same ladder, and that the unity -which has undoubtedly been trying to grow up in Europe must -be a unity-in-diversity with an accompanying growth of education -in toleration and breadth of appreciation. - -As physical racial facts may be claimed to be to a large extent -very old, it will be well to begin our survey with them, but for -our present purposes it is permissible to neglect the scattered -facts thus far ascertained about the European men of the days -before the close of the last major phase (Würmian phase) of the -Ice Age. From the period of climatic improvement (Aurignacian) -next succeeding, we have several human skeletons that demonstrate -the presence already at that early time of diverse physical types. -One type, known from two skeletons at Grimaldi (lower -Aurignacian), as well as from later remains, shows features in the -mouth and nose as well as in the very long and high skull which -relate it to types that have become specialized as Negroids of -various kinds in Africa, but need not have had marked negroid -characters in the first instance. Another type also possessed of -a very long and high-ridged skull is known from several skeletons -(Brunn, Brux, Combe Capelle, &c.), of which that from Brunn -is the best known. There can be little doubt that this type -with its strong brows, deep-set low eyes, cheek-bones projecting -at the sides, broad nose, projecting upper jaw and dark colouring -{12} -is an element in the modern population of remote spots in several -parts of the maritime fringe of Europe to-day, and was an important -element (whatever its colouring then) among the people of the -'Kurgan' burials so numerous along the borders of the South -Russian steppe. Nor can we any longer doubt that this type, -modified in the course of time, has been an important element -in the evolution of modern European breeds. A third type -remains mysterious; it is that represented by the skeleton of an -old man at Cro-Magnon with tall stature and a fairly long head, -which, however, was not very high or ridged. The nose was -narrower, but the eyes were low and the jaws and cheek-bones very -strong. The matter has been confused by the frequent application -of the term 'Cro-Magnon Type' to all the above indiscriminately, -mainly on the ground of long-headedness, and this -makes it difficult at times to ascertain what writers really mean -when they speak of survivals of the Cro-Magnon type in modern -populations. There is, however, no doubt from Collignon's -careful descriptions that both the Cro-Magnon and the Combe -Capelle types survive in the Dordogne district of Central France, -and it seems likely that the former as well as the latter also -survives at least in the north of the Iberian peninsula. - -However this may be, it seems clear that the peoples of -Europe in the Aurignacian and the next following ages (Solutrean -and Magdalenian) were long-headed, with varied accompanying -characters which may still be seen nowadays. Those were ages -of intermittent retreat of the Ice Sheets which had for ages -previously made Europe so inhospitable to mankind, but at the -end of the Magdalenian Age the snow line definitively crept up -the mountain sides to something like its present level, and the -mountain regions were made available for a beginning of human -occupation. The coming of broad-headed men, probably from -Asia Minor, then less divided from Europe, is characteristic of -this period of change, and the mountain axis of Europe has ever -{13} -since been a region of broad-headed men, separating provinces of -long-headed men to the north around the Baltic and (for a time) in -Russia, and to the south around the western Mediterranean, then -becoming increasingly cut off from tropical Africa by the -supervention of desert conditions, in place of grassland, in what we -now call the Sahara. - -The long-headed men around the Baltic and in early prehistoric -Russia became, in course of time, what is called the Nordic -race, and those around the western Mediterranean, with allied -elements in the Aegean Isles, the Mediterranean race. In both -cases they include survivors of the Combe Capelle type, and in -the latter at least some of the Grimaldi type as well, and they are -both still long-headed, though in both there has been a general, -if slight, rounding of the head, so that it is less long and narrow -than it was in early times. In the cool and cloudy north, with -long continuance of the open-air life, sex maturity has come late, -growth has been long continued, muscularity and the accompanying -roughness of bone have been maintained and even developed, -the nose has grown long and narrow, and with it the face has -lengthened, the colouring has become fair. In the sunny south -the settled life is of old standing, and sex maturity comes early. -Growth is not so long continued, muscularity is less developed, -and the tendency is towards smoothness of bone, the nose and -face are moderate, the colouring is rather dark. - -The provinces of Nordic and Mediterranean races are widely -separated by the mountain zone in Central Europe, but in the -west they grade into one another, and here the old long-headed -type has become neither purely Nordic nor purely Mediterranean. -Especially in Britain, of old a refuge of the past off the shores of -Europe, Aurignacian types have persisted markedly, and this is -still more noteworthy in Ireland. The mass of the population of -our islands is long-headed and intermediate in character between -the two differentiated races, tall, gaunt, and dark in parts of -{14} -the Scottish Highlands and North Wales, short and almost -Mediterranean in parts of South Wales and Ireland, and 'betwixt -and between' almost everywhere. Probably almost every hundred, -not to say every parish, of the British Isles has examples of these -Intermediate Types, as well, of course, as of Nordics due to -immigrations from Scandinavia and the Baltic. - -The broad-heads of the mountain axis of Central Europe are -technically called the Alpine race. They are distinguished by -a thick-set appearance, rather straight brown or chestnut hair, -grey to brown eyes, often a dry whitish skin, a short face, a moderate -nose, sometimes pointing out rather markedly. In the Illyrian -Alps and parts of the Carpathians, and stretching from the latter, -on the south side of the Pripet Marshes away into Muscovy, this -stock is often tall and dark. In the Swiss and French Alps it is -rather short and stocky. In the Balkan Peninsula it is often -characterized by a flattening of the back of the very high and -short head; in the west the tendency is rather towards general -rounding of the head. - -It is interesting to notice from the above that the main -facts of distribution of race type in Europe probably date from the -beginning of the Neolithic Age, the period of ultimate recession -of the great Ice Sheets. In the subsequent ages there has probably -been modification of the race types to some extent, but the main -facts of distribution of human stocks in Europe became settled in -that early time. - -Some of the modifications of this scheme must be noticed briefly. - -The old long-headed stocks of the Steppe border in South Russia -probably still form elements of the mixed Cossack populations, but -the spreads of broad-heads both from the Carpathian forelands -and from the Asiatic steppe have altered the average type a good -deal. Asiatic broad-heads with the big cheek-bones and Tungus -(often called Mongol) eyes have also long occupied the Arctic -border of Russia, as Lapps, Samoyedes, &c., and, mixed with -{15} -Nordics, they form the Finn populations. Their features have -at times been said to be distinguishable right down the east side -of the Baltic into East Prussia in individuals here and there; -one certainly finds them now and again in Gothlanders and even -in Swedes. The net result is that the long-headed type is not -a dominant element in Russia, save perhaps in parts of the one -time Baltic provinces, that is in the new Baltic States. - -The line along which the hill masses of Central Europe grade -down into the European plain that stretches from Ypres to the -Urals is marked out in many ways in European life. Not far -from it is the main line of European coalfields, a most momentous -factor for modern times. It is a line of exchange towns of ancient -renown. Near it is a belt of loess, that is of loose wind-blown -material laid there in the interglacial phases of the Ice Age, so -fine grained that it does not encourage and has never encouraged -tree growth, though it is valuable for cultivation. The loess belt, -because of its freedom from forest, was naturally of importance -as a line of movement of early man as well as a line of early -settlement, and it lay between the province of the long-heads (Nordics) -and that of the broad-heads (Alpines). All along here are found -and have long been found breeds originating from intimate -inter-mixture of Nordic and Alpine stocks. - -The general fact seems to be that the head form is derived from -the Alpine, and so is broad, but the colouring is more usually -inherited from the other side, and so is generally fair. There are -many varieties with distinctive facial and other features, but the -broad fact is that the southern zone of the European plain, where -the two stocks have had much fractionated contact (contacts of -small groups) in little clearings of the forests that grew in Neolithic -times, is a region of Alpine-Nordic stocks which have spread to -Britain and through the Danube gaps towards the Balkans as well -as in many other directions. - -The amount of intermixture and intermediacy on the south -{16} -side of the mountain axis is less marked, for here there were not -the same occasions for mingling of small groups. The -broad-headed stocks have, however, spread downhill, and occupy a -great deal of North Italy. They are of less consequence in the -Iberian Peninsula; the Balkan Peninsula is and probably has been -their home from early times. A broad-headed stock with markedly -dark colouring and frequently massive build is found on coastal -patches here and there along the Mediterranean shores and on -the coasts of Western Europe. It occurs as an important -percentage in many coastal communities, and is almost certainly -composed of survivors of prospectors and traders of the dawn of -the Bronze Age and some later periods. - -These few references must suffice to illustrate the kind of -modification which the early and fundamental racial distribution -has undergone; it may be condensed into the statement that -broad-headedness has on the whole spread downhill, and has -increasingly limited long-headedness to the fringes of Europe. -It has done this not so much by sheer replacement of population -as through its biological advantage of dominance over long-headedness -in many cases of mixture. There has, however, been a definite -spread of people of broad-headed type into the Russian plain, -as well as many movements of peoples, to some of which we get -references in the early chapters of written history. - - - - -2 - -_Language Families--Introductory_ - -The languages of the European peoples are to a large extent -grouped into Celtic, Romance, Teutonic, and Slavonic families, -all of which have sufficiently similar features to be classed together -with Sanskrit as Indo-European or, to use a much-disputed term, -Aryan. Asiatic immigrants into Europe both in Arctic regions -{17} -and on the steppes of South Russia have brought in Asiatic -languages which have managed to persist as far west as Lapland, -Finland, Esthonia, and Hungary, but they are not sufficient to -affect the general statement. - -The prior home of the Indo-European languages has been -discussed almost _ad nauseam_, and it is still so unsettled a question -as to make it unprofitable to discuss afresh whether that home -was on the Asiatic steppe, in the mountain and plateau country -from Asia Minor to the Hindu Kush, on the grassland borders of -South Russia, or somewhere near the Baltic. - -It would at any rate seem that these languages did not originate -in the Mediterranean, and that the languages of that region in -pre-classical times were of other affinities. Minoan, Etruscan, &c., -are still undeciphered. If then the classical languages came into -that region from outside, the probabilities are that they came in -from the north, where are found related languages which have -certainly not come from the Mediterranean. - -The only language which is of older date in Western Europe -than those of the Indo-European family is Basque, still spoken in -and near the western Pyrenees. It is a mistake, however, to speak -of a Basque race, for the physical types to north and south of the -Pyrenees are predominantly broader and longer headed respectively. -Educated people in Basque country speak either French or -Spanish in addition to the mother tongue, and the Basque language -has thus taken up many words from its neighbours; it has very -little literature and has contributed extremely little, so far as is -known, to French and Spanish. Its affinities are quite unknown, -though a kinship with the Bronze Age languages of the Mediterranean -is suspected, and suggestions of relations to languages of -North Africa have been made. - -Of the Indo-European languages it seems to be generally agreed -that Lithuanian is the most primitive surviving in Europe, and -may be the most primitive of all. - -{18} - -This might be held to imply that Lithuania is near the ancient -home of these languages, but it is more probable that old forms -survive here because it is a forest country shut off from the great -highways of human movement by the immense Pripet swamps -to the south of it. It is as likely a place for a 'refuge of the past' -as any spot in Europe. Lettish is related to Lithuanian, but the -Letts have long been active and commercial, and their language -has shed archaisms and borrowed a good deal from Slavonic -tongues. Prussian is now quite extinct. Meillet describes this -little group as Baltic; and it is related to the Slavonic family. -Other writers give the stricter name of Lettic. The Albanian -dialects in the Illyrian Alps are another ancient survival with -unknown but doubtless Indo-European affinities, and also a -considerable Romance element. - -Albanian and Letto-Lithuanian apart, the four great families -of Indo-European language, Classical and Romance, Celtic, -Teutonic, and Slavonic, must have become distinct before the -days of the Roman Empire, and must already at that time have -developed diverse forms in their various areas. The Classical -languages seem to have reached Greece and Italy from the north; -how and when we shall not attempt to speculate. The Celtic -languages now spoken by the varied and mixed racial stocks on -the westernmost fringe of France, Britain, and Ireland, include -two groups, one of which, in its use of the _q_ sound and in other -features, is held to be fairly close to the root language of Latin, -while the other often uses _p_ instead of _q_. - -The q-Celtic languages spoken in parts of Ireland, Isle of Man, -and the Highlands of Scotland are usually supposed by archaeologists -to have spread westward from Central Europe with the -men of the leaf-shaped (bronze) sword about 1000 B.C. The -view of Zimmer and Kuno Meyer that the q languages reached -Ireland via France without touching Britain is now held to -be less probable. The p-Celtic languages are almost universally -{19} -associated with the invaders of Britain in the pre-Roman Iron -Age (the La Tene period). That these men occupied south-east -Britain to a considerable extent there can be no doubt, and it is -highly probable that their physical type is far more characteristic -of the English plain to-day than of any part of Wales, save probably -the Severn valley. Yet it is Wales that talks the p-Celtic language, -which may have reached it in Roman times, while the Severn valley -and the English plain have taken to English speech. Thus we see -how inadvisable it is to speak of language-groups as race-groups. - -The Baltic or Lettic and the Celtic languages are in essentials -survivals of antiquity, of great interest and value as preserving -elements which would otherwise have been lost by process of -time, but of uncertain future, for no man can say to what extent -they are likely to be spoken a few centuries hence. It is otherwise -with the Romance, Teutonic, and Slavonic families of languages; -they are the definite possessions of the peoples of various regions -for centuries to come, and it will be well for us to try to realize how -this has come to pass. - -Whatever their origins, the Classical tongues spread -southward into the Mediterranean. Greek was propagated far and -wide by trade and by the movements of which Alexander's march -to India was a sign as well as a factor. Rome gathered up into -itself the general heritage of antiquity for better and for worse, -and associated it with the Latin language, which became a lingua -franca in some sort within the bounds of the Roman dominion, -so that it influenced deeply not only the language of Gaul but also -that of Britain (the p-Celtic language). The power of Latin -was so great that only insensibly did the more modern languages, -Portuguese, Spanish, Catalan, Italian, Provençal, and French, -arise out of it, leaving ancient forms like Walloon, Romansch, -Ladin, and Frioul in remoter spots. Their rise was an event of -the Middle Ages, though the habit of using Latin for scholarly -purposes persisted far longer. In earlier times languages evidently -{20} -were more fluid. Walloon is practically French with Latin and -Celtic elements rather stronger than they are in Parisian, and we -have little doubt of the Latinization and subsequent Gallicization -of a previously Celtic-speaking people. But since the Middle -Ages language frontiers have hardly moved. - -This fixation of language has several factors. - -In the first place, while villagers beginning to conquer a forest -may be feeble and isolated, and liable to rapid change of domination -and of culture relations, the process of closer settlement -brings them into relation with one another, at any rate over -small areas, and gives language a much greater hold on a larger -number of people. - -In the second place, closer settlement generally implies the -evolution of markets, substituted in some cases for the seasonal -fairs that were sufficient in times of smaller needs and sparser -population. And the market with its settled population of -tradesfolk and lawyers makes a language centre. With this goes also -some development of communications, or at least of their use, -and the possibility of the rise of language beyond mere localism. -The crusaders, pilgrims, students, and minstrels of the Middle -Ages need to be in the student's mind in this connexion. - -In the third place, the development of the art of writing and -its increased use are great factors of language fixation, and -associated with this is the development of a settled legal system. - -We should have these points in mind in trying to understand -the evolution of the modern distribution of the languages belonging -to the three great families, an evolution which has occurred -to a large extent since the fall of the Roman Empire. - - - - -{21} - -3 - -_The Peoples of Romance Speech_ - -Rome may be said to have gathered up the heritages of antiquity -and to have passed them on to that part of Europe which the -Empire administered, profoundly influencing for a time at least -the intimate life, and therefore the language, of the people in all -parts in which it found people not as yet accustomed to writing. - -In the Aegean, Greek was old established, and intercourse had -developed a unified language out of the variants and dialects of -earlier times; hence Latin did not impose itself, and a modified -Greek has persisted down to modern times, with the serious limitation -that the written language is very different from the conversational -one, and that therefore the vitality of literature is much -reduced, and the life of the people held back thereby. - -It has often been noticed that whereas Latin spread far and -wide from Rome to Portugal, the Rhine and Rumania, Greek -did not spread, or at least did not maintain the majority of its -temporary spreads, from the Aegean. - -The reasons for this are doubtless numerous, but among them -one may note that the spread from the Aegean could hardly be -into regions just being opened up for agricultural settlement, and -that the Latin spread was associated with the spread of a great -scheme of communications and of legal organization. Again, one -should realize the localism which was so deep-seated in Greek -feeling, and contrast it with the famous idea of 'Civis Romanus'. -In accord with this we naturally find that the Eastern Church -translated the sacred books into the Slav languages, whereas the -Western Church has insisted on Latin in a way that has been full -of the most momentous consequences for modern Europe. We -must also remember the progressive hemming in of the Greek -region by Islam at the time when languages were growing out of -{22} -Latin in the west, so that the Greek base had nothing like the -expansive power of the Latin one. - -Facts of physical geography had a good deal to do with the rise -of the Romance languages from Latin. The Empire reached to -the Danube and Rhine and over the English plain. It had some -hold over Wales, and for a time over South Scotland, but none -over the regions where Celtic has persisted in Gaelic form. It is -abundantly proved that the hold of Rome over Britain was less -close than that over Gaul, where much Romanization of the -leader classes occurred, and the Romanized urban life was fixed -for all later time in the south. Fragments of evidence from -Silchester and elsewhere go to show that Latin was widely used in -urban life, and so its vocabulary penetrated the language of the -pagani or peasantry, and Welsh to this day retains many traces -of this contact with Latin. But a country with marked contrast -of speech between peasant and citizen is linguistically weak, and -the Anglo-Saxons were thus helped to spread their language -when they arrived after the Romans lost their grip and many -Romano-British leaders had emigrated to Brittany. Romance -languages do not now reach the banks of the Rhine anywhere, -though they approach them fairly closely at the gate of Belfort, -that approach to the Rhine where southern influences would -spread most powerfully. Wallony, as a dissected plateau, rather -remote and backward until the coal period, has retained its -Romance speech, and has increasingly assimilated it to modern -French. Lorraine, separated from the Rhine basin by the forested -heights of Hunsrück and Hardt, has also remained stubbornly -French, but German has spread up the Rhine tributaries through -North Switzerland, up the Ill basin, which is now Alsace, up the -Moselle gorge between Hunsrück and Eifel, so that Trier (Augusta -Trevirorum, Treves) is now German, up the tributaries of the -lower Moselle, so that the peasantry of Luxembourg, the people -of the Eifel and of the Saar basin, are largely or even mainly -{23} -German speaking, and along the lowland to Flanders, which -maintains Low German dialects, collectively called Flemish. The -Flemish plain and the Walloon plateau were long separated by -the forests of Hainaut and Brabant, but the clearing of those -forests in the Middle Ages, mainly by people spreading down -from the plateau, extended the area of Gallic speech and reduced -the chances of development of a real linguistic unity in the -Flemish fringe. Flanders in consequence suffers from disparity -of dialects, and French has been widely used as a language of -civilization. With the rise of the nationalist sentiment (see p. 98) -in modern times, a severe reaction against the dominance of -French has set in, and now threatens the very existence of the -Belgian kingdom. A part of the département du Nord, in France, -speaks Flemish, but French has long been gaining ground slightly -on Flemish in France and probably in Belgium too, in spite of -a modern spread of Flemish workpeople into the French -speaking area. - -East of Switzerland the great Alpine barrier between the Roman -bank of the Danube and the real Latin areas brought it to -pass that the pagani near the Danube were not fully Romanized, -and made the whole region fall linguistically to the invading -languages, German and Magyar, but a small island of Ladin, -a collective name for several ancient dialects, still persists around -Cortina and in the upper Grodenthal. The allied Frioul (with -more Italian admixture) is spoken in eastern Venetia, and -Romansch, also related, in the south of Grisons, East Switzerland. -The main boundary between Romance and Germanic is, as usual, -not along a main watershed. The watershed, which is pierced by -the Brenner Pass, has German spoken on both sides, and the -agency town on its south side (Bozen) is still German in language, -though strategic considerations have made the victors move the -new bounds of Italy right up to the Brenner. - -A curious result of language changes is observable in Rumania. -{24} -The Roman frontier province of Dacia was strongly occupied for -a time (A.D. 107-255), and the Low-Latin element must have had -a marked cultural superiority over the indigenous migratory -shepherds. They imposed their language, and the Transylvanian -mountains have assisted its survival ever since, but it has survived -only thanks to large borrowings which have made its vocabulary -three-fifths Slav. In spite of military pressure from time to time, -the people of this hill knot have followed the usual rule for people -so situated, and have spread downhill, giving an area of modified -Romance language from the Dniester almost to the Tisa (Theiss) -and from Bukovina to the Balkan Danube. This area was, -however, seriously isolated from the other Romance regions after -A.D. 270, and it naturally received Christianity from Constantinople, -so that it has come to be distinct (p. 79) religiously from -the other areas of Romance speech, which are the stronghold of -the Roman Catholic Church. - -The large Slav element in Rumanian well illustrates the general -principle that vocabulary is more easily changed than syntax, -a principle one may follow along the Flemish border, where -Flemish idiom is maintained with French words, or along the -Welsh border, where the form of sentence is so often Welsh -though the words be English. - -Speaking generally we see that there has been on the whole -a certain recession of Latin from the old boundaries of the Roman -Empire, but that, this apart, that Empire exercised a most potent -influence on the speech of its European citizens. The recession -was due to mass invasions which, however, as a general rule, -penetrated much farther into the Roman domain than one would -judge from linguistic evidence alone; in other words, the Latin -influence has surged up again, and indeed in one sense those -repeated resurgences of Latin feeling have been a main feature -of European life in the last twelve or fourteen centuries, while -the swaying of the power of Latin and non-Latin elements has -{25} -been one of the chief causes of war and disunion on the Continent. -We may now glance at a few aspects of this swaying of boundaries -which are germane to the object of this little book. - -The Roman Empire in Gaul seems to have been divisible into -belts, the southern of which, with its dry and sunny summer, -became deeply Romanized in city and country, language and -tradition, a zone in which the cities were the residences of all -who had sufficient wealth. The middle one, in the main the -Paris basin, had fewer cities, but the country was Romanized in -language at least. The northern one near the Rhine had -strong Roman cities, especially frontier-towns along the river, -but the country does not seem to have been Romanized at all -deeply. - -The Franks seem to have been bodies of adventurers seeking -new homes, the surplus population of Teutonic regions in what -is now north-western Germany. They were not trained to city -life, and though the strong frontier-cities survived their passage, -the cities of the Paris basin seem to have weakened under their -onset, albeit the invaders were not able to break the continuity -of civic life in the south. The Paris basin thus became provided -with a rural Frankish landed aristocracy around which later on -there developed the localism which is called the feudal system. -As is the way of aristocracies the rude Franks adopted and modified -the Romanized language of the Gauls, making the _langue d'oïl_ -the mother of modern French. In the south, older forms persisted -less altered as the dialects of the _langue d'oc_. - -Though in more modern times French has more or less -triumphed in the south, two variants of the old languages persist -and have acquired some literary strength; they are Provençal, in -use in Provence, east of the lower Rhone, and Catalan, in use in -Catalonia, and to some extent in Roussillon, modified by contact -with Spanish. Needless to say the _patois_ of the peasantry of -southern France retains many traces of the _langue d'oc_, and the -{26} -boundary between the _langue d'oc_ and _langue d'oïl_ has been traced -by French scholars. A study of that boundary shows that the -_langue d'oïl_ penetrated through the gate of Poitou between the -Central Plateau and the barren lands of La Gatine, and established -its hold in the basin of the Charente, and almost as far as -the gates of Bordeaux. Farther east the lower slopes of the -Central Plateau form its effective boundary; the export of men -and women downhill from the plateau being apparently sufficient -to restrain the general tendency to uphill spread of the language -of the plain. In the Rhone valley the boundary of the _langue d'oc_ -bends southwards, so that Lyons belongs to the _langue d'oïl_, and -the whole Isère region is intermediate between north and south. -The boundary near the Rhone is at the narrowing of the river -valley near Valence. The narrow, formerly forested, section of -the Rhone valley between Valence and Donzère has been a barrier -in several ways; Mr. Peake has shown that it divided a Burgundian -from a southern culture in the earlier phases of the Bronze Age. -It was a factor in the southern boundary of the Burgundian -kingdom of Theodoric's time (_c._ A.D. 520), in the boundaries -of the Comté de Provence and the Comté du Valentinois, and so -on. Donzère is approximately the northern limit of the olive, -and the Isère basin has forests that are distinctly non-Mediterranean -on its great slopes. As one journeys from the Isère region -to that of Drôme and Durance one finds the aspect of the country -changing from that of the forest of summer green to that of -bare rock masses and a marked tendency to summer brown. - -[Illustration: Central France] - -That this boundary is not an isolated phenomenon is well seen -by comparing it with the boundary between the France which -reintroduced the Roman law (_Droit Écrit_) early in the Middle -Ages and the France which preferred to go on judging by customary -law (_Droit Coutumier_). This boundary and that of language -intertwine, but the influence of big cities as legal centres accounts -for some differences. The legal boundary naturally keeps some -{28} -distance north of the linguistic one near the great southern city -of Bordeaux. On the other hand, the influence of valley cities -like Clermont-Ferrand helped the northern law to penetrate up -the slopes of the Central Plateau, so that the legal boundary is -here the more southerly. Lyons, a southern city in so many -ways, pushed the legal boundary far to the north of the linguistic -one in the Rhone-Saone basin. The boundary line of old-time -(pre-1789) Customs Dues, the boundaries of the various Salt -Dues (_Gabelles_), of the Governments in existence in 1789, of -the general prevalence of the Gothic style in architecture, of -the general prevalence of (north) steep-roofed and (south) -flat-roofed houses respectively and so on, are all related to the above -lines, and can be followed in some detail to work out interesting -divergences. The net result of a study of these lines is to show -that the French people, apart from the German borderland, -consist of two cultural elements, a southern with Roman survivals -in cities, language, &c., and a more northern one which is much -less Roman. Between them is an intermediate area with mixed -allegiance. The study of such a set of boundaries can be given -a special value, for it shows us that the linear boundary, however -necessary it may be under our outworn system of aggressive states -in politics, is an artificiality when applied to the study of peoples. -Boundaries are zones, not lines, zones of intermediacy which -with better political organization might become interpreters -rather than causes of conflict as they have been in the past. - -In order to understand the German borderlands better it would -be well to use similar methods in studying them, though here -we have difficulties due to political prejudice. We have seen -that in the Paris basin the rural Franks adopted in modified form -the Romanized language of the Gauls, and with this came in the -influence of the Roman Church, the heir of the imperial tradition, -not only here, but also along the old frontier of the Rhine-Danube. -Under this influence civic life grew afresh, and the towns of the -{29} -Paris basin with their market-places dominated by the cathedral -are a most notable feature. As these towns grew, the enlargement -of the churches under the influence of the great wave of mediaeval -enthusiasm led to the adoption of what is called the Ogival or -Gothic style of building, in the Ile-de-France, and soon in the -Paris basin generally, as a substitute for a Romanesque style -which had been tending to change under pressure of Eastern -(Byzantine-Lombardic) influences. With the details of -architecture we are not primarily concerned, but the spread of the -Gothic over the Paris basin, its failure to oust the Romanesque -in the south, its penetration along the Route de S. Jacques -(Pilgrim Road to Compostella) to Bordeaux, Bayonne, Burgos, -and Léon, its later spread through the Flemish lowland and also -across the hills to Metz, Strasbourg, and Basle, are a useful indication -of the spread of Gallic feeling. In the Rhine region it spread -with difficulty, and the Romanesque is highly characteristic here; -beyond the Rhine it spread only with much modification. - -The contrasts between the boundary of the fully French Gothic -and the intertwined boundary of French speech, over against -German, are like the contrasts above noted between south and -north in France, and one might further study the growth of -the historic kingdom of France, the lines of Customs Dues, -Gabelles, and so on, as well as facts about the occurrence and -relative importance of Protestantism in various parts. All would -show that between the Paris basin and the Rhine is a zone of -people with mixed allegiances, and that, however convenient -language may be as a distinctive mark, it by no means gives -a full idea of the complexity of the case. - -Flanders is Low German in speech, but profoundly affected by -France in many ways, as its architecture suggests; its zealous -Catholicism is a marked feature. Wallony is Celto-Romano-Gallic -in foundation, marvellously altered by modern industrialism. -Luxembourg is indefinitely debatable, Lorraine mainly French, -{30} -Alsace Alemannic (Old High German) in speech, but in other -respects deeply affected by France. - -The study of the zone behind the old Roman frontier of the -Danube could be worked out on somewhat similar lines, but with -less profit, owing to complications connected with the spread of -Asiatic peoples and armies in subsequent times. - -The rise of the various peoples of Romance speech behind the -ancient frontier is again best studied without too much -concentration on the modern states, though language and state do -correlate fairly closely. - -In the Iberian peninsula, Basque spoken on either side of the -western end of the Pyrenees, but over a larger area on their -southern side, gives its name to a people physically not very -different from their Spanish neighbours, save that probably there -are among them more survivors of ancient (Aurignacian) types, -especially, it is said, of the Cro-Magnon, than among the majority -of the Spaniards. Economically they have a certain amount of -distinctness as mountain dwellers on the one hand, and as sailors -on the other. Historically, too, they have a certain distinctness; -their connexion with the Carthaginians and the Romans, with -the kingdom of the Wisigoths and later with the Arab Emirates, -was much less close and continuous than that of regions immediately -to the south. The people of the little Pyrenean republic -of Andorra speak not Basque but Catalan, and are one of a number -of instances (San Marino, the four original cantons of Switzerland, -Lichtenstein, Montenegro) of the apartness of little mountain -groups; there was a number of such groups a few centuries -ago. - -The main part of the peninsula uses languages that have arisen -from Latin, one on the west coast which is known in the two -forms of Portuguese and Galician, one along the northern portion -of the east coast which is called Catalan, and is more nearly -related to the _langue d'oc_ than to Spanish, which is the language -{31} -of the great plateau of the peninsula, and has become also the -language of Andalusia and of the non-Catalan east coast. - -In the early part of the eighth century, Islam, at first -represented by Berbers and later by Saracens, occupied roughly what -had once been Carthaginian Spain, only temporarily holding the -north-western quadrant which became a centre of Christian -resistance; it had previously remained, for a time at least, apart -from the Wisigothic kingdom. The hold of Islam on the east -coast north of Tarragona was also only temporary, but as a result -of this the Barcelona region during the formative period of -language was more in touch with South France than with the -north-western and Christian part of Spain, whence its language -came to have the kinship with the _langue d'oc_ already noted. In -the centuries of Iberian weakness in face of Islam the west coastal -plain diverged in speech from the upper Douro basin. As Islam -weakened in Spain the west coast language spread southward, -while the plateau language (Spanish) spread south especially -via Toledo, the Guadiana region being largely waste land for the -time. As Spanish, the language of the defenders of Christianity, -became the replacer of Islamic languages, it, rather than Catalan, -spread over the parts of the east coast south of the Ebro as they -were recovered for Christianity. When the north-west was the -basis of resistance to Islam, the age-long sanctity of Compostella -came into prominence, and the great shrine of St. James (Santiago -da Compostella) became world famous, and later on, a centre of -pilgrimages. Thus in spite of the kinship of Galician with -Portuguese, Galicia became part of the kingdom of Spain, though its -seafarers had much in common with the coast-dwellers of northern -Portugal. One should note also that, whereas in Portugal the -coastal plain has the severe barrier of the plateau edge to divide -it from Spain, in Galicia the lines of hill spurs grade down to the -sunken coast-line without any marked change. - -Though Berber and Saracen elements have been suppressed, -{32} -a good deal remains to attest their influence not only in cities -and their buildings but in the cultivation of the south, and -especially in the irrigated gardens (_buertas_) of the east coast -and in many features of the people's life, even in some details of -dialect. Arabic is now studied a good deal as a 'classical' language -in these regions. - -There are sharp contrasts in physical geography between the -indented coast of Galicia, the narrow coastal strip of North Spain, -the plateau-basin of the historic Léon and Castile, the lower -lying dry eastern basin of Aragon, the Catalonian coastal plain -with hills between it and Aragon, the barren plateau of New -Castile, the southern trough of Andalusia, the east coastal regions -of Murcia and Valencia. These contrasts have hindered the growth -of intercommunication and of unity, and it is said that recently -there were one thousand villages in Spain still lacking effective -connexions with the road system. The distinctness of the people -of the different regions is therefore a marked feature so far as -custom and social inheritance is concerned, and the commercial -Catalans have often thought of separating themselves from the -old-fashioned agriculturists of Spain. The long duration of the -struggle with Islam kept the Spaniards a people of leaders and -common soldiers with, for a time, a Jewish middle class -(Sephardim). But religious zeal led to expulsion of the Sephardim, -though not a little of their blood remains, and they have taken -a good deal of Spanish blood with them to their later homes in -Salonika and elsewhere. Spain's development of a middle class -thus lagged far behind that development among the other west -European peoples in the Middle Ages, and the weakness of that -class has been a factor of Spain's difficulties ever since, of her -troubles in America, of her political weakness at home, of the -subjection of her mining wealth to English exploiters, and of -her long-continued financial troubles. The railway has improved -matters to some extent by promoting communication, but such -{33} -was the fear of France that the Spanish gauge is different from -that of the rest of western Europe. The stoppage of the blood-drain -of soldiers and governors formerly sent to maintain her old -empire seems to have helped Spain greatly, and the importance -of her products in the recent war made her prosper, and her -peseta went up far above its old par value, which was 25-22½ pesetas -= £1 expressed in English terms. Since the war, difficulties in -Morocco, internal strains, resumption of imports, and payments -for transport services have sent the peseta down again. It is now -28.50 = £1, but that is still nearly twice the value of its former -French, three and a half times the value of its former Greek, and -more than three times the value of its former Italian equivalent. -The general spread of irritability and of the war spirit, however, -seems to have increased the political difficulties between Spaniards -and Catalans, as it has those between English and Irish, in both -cases partly because the Continent has, elsewhere, so largely been -settled on the principle of nationality based upon language, or -tradition, or both. - -The Portuguese of the north are rather distinct from those of -the south, in part because among the latter there is a good deal -of African blood derived from intermixture with slaves from the -seventeenth century, an intermixture which does not appear to -have had good effects. The steep edge of the Spanish plateau -behind the Portuguese coastal plain, so sharp that its river-breaches -are mostly deep and narrow, helps to keep Portuguese and Spanish -distinct. - -The old-fashioned agricultural life of the people, based upon -corn and sheep in Castile and Aragon, and vines, oranges, and -olives in Andalusia and in suitable parts of both east and west -coasts; the paucity of harbours, save in Galicia; the ecclesiastical -zeal derived from the long fight with Islam and the struggle -with the schismatic Low Countries, have all helped the lack of -communications to keep Spain old fashioned. The -{34} -Counter-Reformation, arising out of the struggle with the Protestants of -the Low Countries, has been anti-national everywhere, and has -contributed its part in hindering the growth of modern nationalism -in Spain. Further, owing to her weak middle-class life and her -lack of coal, Spain has not utilized even the opportunities she had -of industrial development, so she stands apart, in this way as well, -from the life of modern Europe. Perhaps the modern development -of hydro-electric power may alter this to some extent, and -in any case the non-industrialization of the country in the coal -age may prove an advantage to the country in the end. Memories -of old unhappy far-off things are too apt to make Englishmen -emphasize the religious persecutions by Catholics in Spain, -forgetting too easily the religious and political persecutions -barely extinct in the British Isles. We should remember, on -the other side, the traditions of Salamanca University with its -blending of Christian and Arab thought at the northern outlet -of a mountain pass from Arab Spain, the glories of Santiago, and -the part its pilgrimages played in the development of European -literature, the galaxy of great names, among which Lull, Cervantes, -Vives, and Velasquez are but the best known of many, and last, -but not least, the influence of the early phases of Saracen -civilization in the south on the then semi-barbaric peoples of Western -Europe. We should also remember that Spanish remains one of -the great world languages, current not only in the mother country, -but also in the greater part of Latin America, with a fine tradition -in literature and oratory, as well as in other forms of art. It is -interesting that under the newly revised scheme (1921) Spain -is added to the four nations (Britain, France, Italy, and Japan) -which provide permanent members of the Council of the League -of Nations. - -South of the great curve of the western Alps the varying -dialects have ultimately fused into the beautiful Italian language, -the most direct descendant of Latin. Since Roman times there -{35} -have been notable intrusions from without, such as that of the -Longobards or Lombards into the Po basin in the sixth century, -and those of Islam and of the Normans into the south, but the -Latin element has assimilated all these, though in the Alps -themselves the tendency is towards French on the west and German -on the north, with the curious survival of Romansch and Ladin, -already noted in the north-east. A small area of Italian speech -near the coast (Mentone) has been included in France. In -Calabria there are a few small Greek patches, and there are -Albanian ones in various parts, while Slavonic (Slovene) is spoken -in various parts of eastern Venetia and Istria. - -The home tradition of Rome was that of the city-state, and -it resurged during the period of mediaeval trade and operated -against the growth of national consciousness. The influence of -the other city-states, notably Venice, operated in the same way -in the Middle Ages. This was further held back by the struggles -of Germanic peoples to gain Rome and revive the Imperial -tradition, and still more by the influence of the Church, -particularly since the advent of the Counter-Reformation and the -Jesuit power. But the railway made the old localism impossible, -and the widespread nationalist movement of the nineteenth -century had its effect in Italy as well as elsewhere. The struggle -for the unification of Italy and the redemption of Italian lands -from foreign dominion by Mazzini, Cavour, and Garibaldi is one -of the romances of humanity, and from it has arisen the modern -Italian kingdom (1870 onwards) with its promise of magnificent -development. - -The difficulties in the way include three large ones. Industrial -power was lacking until hydro-electric schemes became practicable; -they are remedying the position to some extent in the north, -and the cleanliness of these schemes encourages high-grade -industries. The deep social and even racial contrasts between -the Po basin and the south of the peninsula are another difficulty. -{36} -A third is that of the large and often neglected estates (_latifundia_) -of the south. There neglected drainage has allowed accumulation -of stagnant water, and the swamps are infested with malaria, -which not only kills many children, but also weakens those who -survive its pernicious attentions. - -The Italians are among the best engineers of the world, and -are minded to remove this difficulty by drainage works, as well -as by social reorganization now proceeding actively and -contributing an element of unrest that makes Italy's recovery from -war sacrifices a complex problem. It is, however, a problem that -cannot but be solved, and with the redevelopment of Mediterranean -trade following the opening of the Suez Canal and the -retreat of the Turk from non-Turkish lands, the future of the -centrally placed kingdom of Italy should be a bright one. - -Hydro-electric schemes during the past twenty years have -drawn North Italy (Milan) and Switzerland, and to some extent -South Germany, together, and Milan has grown in wealth and -importance as one of the first-rank cities of Europe with her -high-grade industries in the city, thanks to the transmissibility of -power by cable. The city's long and powerful artistic tradition -is an important factor of her industrial future. Of late these -tendencies have been encouraged by the policy of the Western -Powers, for it now pays Italy to import from Germany rather -than from England, and this redevelopment of mid-European -economic relations will help to rehabilitate the value of Italian -money if internal social politics permit. - -The fame of Italian workmen for road and bridge building as -well as for cultivation is world wide, and they have spread in -considerable numbers both to other European countries and to -America. In every case, however, they have found the lands -of immigration developed already beyond possibilities of language -change, and so the Italian emigrant tends, in the long run, to -change his heritage; but in the meantime he sends surplus earnings -{37} -back home, and these remittances and the money brought in by -emigrants returning are an important resource for Italy. It is -interesting to contrast French and Italians in this respect; the -Frenchman emigrates with the greatest reluctance, but has -planted his language very firmly in such places as the St. Lawrence -estuary and Mauritius, though political organization there has -passed out of his hands. Those emigrations were made when the -lands in question were not yet occupied at all by Europeans, and -therein lies the difference. The French, Spanish, and Italian -peoples of late years have been working to revive the idea of the -Mediterranean as a Roman, or rather now a Romance, lake, and -have spread their influence along the North African coast, Spain -on the Moroccan coast. France into Morocco and Algeria, both -France and Italy into Tunisia, and Italy into Tripoli and the -Cyrenaica. These are fields of linguistic and cultural as well as -administrative expansion, as the French and Italians, at least, -appear likely to organize closer settlement and an economic life -very different from that which they found. - -The French-speaking and Italian-speaking parts of Switzerland -can best be treated with Switzerland as a whole, and of the other -outlying Romance groups only a few words need be said. In -the Channel Isles, the pre-Norman basis was Celtic-speaking, -and there are abundant indications of links with Brittany. Norsemen -came in and Norse place-names are well in evidence, but the -islands under this influence became merely an outlying fragment -of Normandy, and Norman French became the language. The -islands, in spite of very close settlement, have doggedly retained -distinctive dialectical peculiarities. There are many other -examples of this non-fusion in islands such as Ireland, Crete, -Ceylon, and Java. - -Guernsey has at least three varieties, for example. The importance -of the roadstead of St. Peter Port in Guernsey for British -commerce with Bordeaux in the Middle Ages was a powerful -{38} -factor in the dissociation of the Channel Isles from Normandy -and their retention by the kings of England, and their strong -anti-French prejudices were long a feature. The growth of -commerce with England and the fact that the local dialects have -no literature make the islands one of the comparatively rare cases -of modern language change long after the organization of close -settlement. Of the islands of the western Mediterranean it may -be said that in the Balearics a variant of Catalan is spoken, while -the other islands, including Corsica, use Italian dialects, save -that the Alghero district in Sardinia uses the same dialect as the -Balearic Islands. - - - - -4 - -_The Peoples of German Speech_ - -Without attempting to estimate what was the speech of the -early long-headed types of man on the European plain (the -almost level belt from Calais via Vilna to the Urals), and without -trying to dig back deeply into prehistoric time, it may be stated -that in the early days of history the home of the Teutonic family -of languages seems to have been on the western portion of the -European plain and in the related parts of Scandinavia, no doubt -with various Baltic extensions. Of its attempts to spread towards -the Paris basin then, as in later times, there is little doubt, but -its ultimate extension in this direction has already been discussed. -It is most probable that the people who used these languages -were mainly Nordic coast-dwellers and occupiers of the wet -marsh and moorland country on the west side of the Elbe. In -many parts their physique must have been Alpine-Nordic to -a large extent. - -The area of Teutonic speech historically falls into three: the -Scandinavian area including Jutland north of Flensburg, the -Low German plains from the Elbe to the mouths of Rhine and -{39} -Maas, and the Highlands east of the Rhine, into which Teutonic -speech spread, and in which it became enriched by mixture with -Celtic, and, later on, with Latin and Romance elements, and so -became Alemannic, and, ultimately, High German. - -In Roman times Teutonic speech was thus most characteristic -of the belt outside the Rhine frontier of the Roman Empire, -and from this basis we may trace the Teutonic peoples onwards. -The forests of Germany were dense and extensive, and apparently -in post-Roman times they were being attacked in two ways: the -hill people were moving down and making the population more -Alpine in physical type and more Alemannic in language, and the -Church was founding abbeys and spreading its influence across -the Rhine from the erstwhile Roman frontier-cities then becoming -cities of the Roman Church in most cases. The wave of Roman -civilization interrupted by the barbarian movements was thus -resumed under Church leadership, and with it went the growth -of towns and of intercourse, after some time making the contrast -between south and north in Germany not only a contrast between -hills and plains and between High German and Low German, -but also a contrast between a much more Romanized and civic -south and a much less Romanized and more rural north, though -the Church did establish itself in the north in due course. - -Alemannic became characteristic of the hill belt next beyond -the region of French speech, and there replaced a Brythonic -Celtic language. But farther east the languages of the hill people -had by this time taken Slavonic form, so that the Alemannic belt -was of but moderate width, including the Alps and their northern -flanks down to the Prussian plain, but not Bohemia and the -Carpathian arc which were of Slavonic speech (p. 61). The -downhill movement above mentioned characterized the Slavonic hill -lands as well as the Alemannic, so that on the Prussian plain east -of the Elbe old languages (probably of Lettic kinship, see p. 18) -gave way to Slavonic, and in course of time the Elbe became the -{40} -frontier between German and Slavonic, with the Altmark (old -frontier territory) to the west of it. - -The progress of Germanization eastwards to the Mittelmark, -between Elbe and Oder, and the Neu-Mark farther east, towards -but not up to the Vistula, must not be interpreted as meaning -that these regions were still purely Slavonic in the days of the -Elbe frontier. Probably German was already in use here and -there, but Germanization and the spread of the Church involved -agricultural development and closer settlement, and so changed -the character of the country. It was done under German leadership, -and brought in German settlers. In the early Middle Ages -there was a recession of Slavonic on the Prussian plain, and now -only one fully Slavonic region in the German area remains. This -is the Wendish area, and the Wends are supposed to have spread -down from the hill slopes on the northern frontier of Bohemia. -The present area of the Wends is astride the upper Spree, and -especially around Kottbus, and the district is called Lusatia, but -in the Middle Ages they spread farther north. It is largely -Germanized in speech at the present time, but preserves old -features and Slav names. Slav place-names are as characteristic -on the German plain east of the Elbe as are Celtic names in the -non-Celtic speaking part of Scotland, and illustrate a change of -language of a people already having some settled organization. -This contrasts with the rarity of survival of Celtic town names -on the English plain. The changes of language areas since the -Middle Ages have probably been quite small. The zone west of -the Vistula has remained a zone of admixture of German and -Polish-speaking people, whence the 'Polish corridor to Danzig' -of the recent treaties, linguistically and traditionally justifiable -and yet admitted to be dangerous politically. - -The relation of the Teutonic languages of Jutland to one -another in origin is beyond our scope, but the dialect of the -western side of the base of Jutland has remained fairly distinct -{41} -as 'Frisian', and has attempted a literary development in the -last century. The new treaty boundary between Germany and -Denmark gives what was North Slesvig to Denmark, and is intended -to run along a line in the linguistic frontier-zone. The Low -German speech of the Rhine mouths, with the long isolation of -the people of that region and their concentration on the work -of fighting the sea, developed into Dutch. - -We thus have Dutch, Frisian, Low German, High German or -Alemannic, and naturally a Middle German developing between -the two latter along the zone where the southern hills grade into -the northern plain. - -The complex topography of the south German hill country -had given rise to an infinite muddle of small states, and at the -end of the fifteenth century they agreed, as the people of South -France had done centuries before, to 'receive' the Roman Law. -This reception was effective over most of the hill country, but -not in any considerable part of the plain, a natural consequence -of the contrasts already noted, and a further accentuation of -them for the succeeding period. In the early sixteenth century -came the religious schism, during which the northern plain and -the foothill region left the Catholic Church almost _en bloc_, while -the people of the hill and valley country of South Germany -remained attached to Rome. This, however, by no means -adequately describes the territories of the two ecclesiastical -systems, for the Roman influence on the Rhine seems to have -kept the Ems region largely Catholic, while Protestantism occupied -the south along the Cassel-Frankfort line, and spread through -Württemberg and the Nürnberg district. The strongly Catholic -regions are the Rhine (except about Mainz), the Ems basin, the -upper Main area, focusing on Würzburg and Bamberg, and the -upper Danube basin (the chief part of Bavaria proper). The -Rhine and Danube, with the Roman frontier towns becoming -ecclesiastical cities, stand out remarkably in this connexion. - -{42} - -The contrasts between north and south have been discussed -for the Middle Ages, but they have diminished on the whole in -later times. Germany's vernacular literature gained its great -impetus from Luther's fine translation of the Bible. He used -a Saxon dialect of mixed High and Middle German, and, as in -other countries affected by the Great Schism, the language of the -Bible became the literary and political language to a large extent, -thanks in great part to the practice of requiring every confirmand -to learn a portion of Scripture in the vernacular, and to the -consequent spread of the reading habit and the demand for -books. The growth of newspapers, schools, and public -discussions has spread this Middle German as the standard speech -of the whole country, but Frisian and Alemannic dialects do still -survive within the borders of the new German republic. - -Intermixture between Nordic and Alpine stocks has spread the -dominant broad-headedness of the Alpine over most of what is -now Germany, but it is often combined with characters derived -from the Nordic side (fair colouring and certain facial features), -and a good deal of Nordic physique survives in the north-west -and in Württemberg, as well as on the forested Thuringian hills. -This spread of broad-headedness may be thought of alongside of -the spread of modified High German and of the spread of southern -rulers like the Hohenzollerns northwards, and it will then be seen -how, in many ways, the south has permeated the north in more -modern as well as in more remote times. It is useful to bear -these things in mind as an offset against the danger of over-emphasizing -the effects of the spread of Prussian political organizations -over the south in the nineteenth century; it is also well to -remember how much of that organizing power is traceable -directly and indirectly to the Huguenot refugees finding homes -in the hospitable Brandenburg of the seventeenth century. - -If the cathedrals are the sign and token of the people's effort -in the Paris basin, the Universities, based upon that of Paris, are -{43} -the characteristic feature of civilization in the hill region of -Germany, and, if prose is the triumphant expression of the -French genius, lyrics and music are the glory of the German. -The sharp criticism and startling clarity of French thought, -growing where all the racial stocks of Europe jostle one another -in a good wine country, stands in unceasing contrast to the more -laborious stodginess of the more or less Alpinized German with -his heavier menu in both food and drink. The quick enterprising -Nordic element is present here and there; but it is the Alpine -patience and appetite for detail that has increasingly dominated -the psychology of the German people, working out into a power -of combination that has had remarkable results in the industrial -period. - -Just as we have had occasion to trace Romanization in the -German belt, so we are able to follow Germanization in the -Slavonic belt, but this time with differences. In the first place, -there are settlements of Germans in forest clearings, as noted -already for the plain east of the Elbe. But for the most part the -western zone of the Slavonic belt had been Christianized, in large -measure via Bohemia, before efforts at Germanization developed -seriously, and so it was the next stage of social development that -was affected by the German spread, namely the growth of towns. -We thence find some areas of Germanized rural population, but -also, through what have become Poland and Transylvania, German -groups in the towns, and a similar movement into Russia has -been a feature of the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. - -The most important area of Germanized people in the Slavonic -belt is what is now known as East Prussia, the disconnected -province of the German Republic (1919). This is the zone of -gradation from the broad-headed people of Central Europe to -the long-headed Baltic folk speaking old languages, of which the -now extinct Prussian was one, related to Lithuanian. Christianity -had spread down the Vistula before the Germanizing process had -{44} -got far across the Oder, so that agricultural organization, fixing -the popular language, made the lower Vistula mainly Slavonic -on its western side. The next stage of progress of the Roman -tradition had now to be across the Vistula into East Prussia, and -it took place at the suggestion of the ruler of Danzig and the -monks of Oliva near by. It was carried out by the Teutonic -Knights, and involved Germanization at least of the formerly -Prussian-speaking people near the coast. The Masurians farther -inland among their marshes were, and remained, more Slavonic, -but felt the Germanizing influence sufficiently to secede, along -with their northern Germanized neighbours, from the Roman -Church in the sixteenth century. The result is a curious one: the -modern East Prussians are mainly Polish-speaking, but largely -Protestant, among the Masurian Lakes, and German-speaking, -and, for Germans, rather unusually long-headed on the coastal -plain. In the recent plebiscite even the Masurian Poles showed -marked aversion to incorporation in the re-created and intensely -Roman Catholic republic of Poland, and it seems probable that, -when treaty allocations are finally made, the Masurians as well as -the coastal peoples will remain under Germany. East Prussia -is a rural region with large estates, and this fact, added to that of -its position as a sort of German frontier outpost, has made it -intensely patriotic and very conservatively minded. The East -Prussian population becomes mixed with people of Lithuanian -speech across the Niemen, but Memel, as a town, is naturally -largely German. Its fate is (April 1922) not yet settled. - -The other groups of German speech and associations in Eastern -Europe beyond the Vistula and Austria are in no case sufficiently -large to be described as _peoples_, though they form important -communities, and it may be useful to give a short list here. - -In Hungary they occur in numbers in the Pécs district -(south-west), around Budapest, north-west of the Bakony -Wald, &c. - -{45} - -In Yugoslavia there are groups in the Backa, between the -lower Theiss and the Danube, and in the Banat. - -The enlarged Rumania has a number of German groups in -the metalliferous district east of the Banat, between the upper -Maros and the upper Alt, especially near Sibiu (formerly Hermannstadt), -around Cluj (formerly Kolozsvar) and Bistrita (Bistritz), -in Bukovina, and also in southern Bessarabia. - -Numerous groups are studded along the Bug and around the -southern side of the Pripet Marshes. In South Russia there are -again several groups in the Odessa region and north of the Sea of -Azov. Still larger numbers live along the Volga in the Saratov -region. The German settlements in Transylvania, often loosely -styled Saxon, date in large part from the twelfth century, and the -people came in considerable numbers from the Rhine in its -'Low German' section; the Bukovina and Russian areas received -their German influx towards the end of the eighteenth century. - - - - -5 - - _Some Peoples intermediate between Romance and - Germanic in speech_ - -Having now referred to Italians, French, and Germans, it seems -appropriate to invite consideration of the Swiss people, so marked -a unit in European life in spite of differences of language, religion, -and economic activity. A very early but apparently incomplete -development of the settled life on lake shores was correlated with -a good deal of seasonal and other migration of people using the -hill pastures in summer and developing dairying activities. Feudal -localism came in as on the more open areas round about, but did -not take such root as it did on the richer plains, so that though, -with exceptions (p. 23), the form of speech approximated to that -{46} -of surrounding lands (Italian, French, and Alemannic), political -domination by the surrounding lands was strongly and, in the -end, successfully resisted. The landed aristocracy in the end -either left the poor territory (parts of Neuchatel) or gave up their -privileges and merged in the people as leaders (especially in -French and German Switzerland); they had to be a _noblesse de -campagne_ rather than a _noblesse de cour_, and the fate of the former, -even in France, but much more in Norway and in Finland, has -been to merge itself in the people. There has been a persistence -of localism without the accompaniment of feudalism, and the -cantons have democratized their government to a remarkable -degree, developing pacific ideals combined with zeal for local -defence. They now furnish a most interesting example of a strong -union for defensive purposes with little possibility of the passing -of defence into aggression. Centuries of poverty have led to -emigration and to a keenness on intellectual equipment paralleled -in Scotland, Denmark, and modern Wales, but reaching a unique -level in Switzerland with its seven institutions of university rank -and their relatively enormous student population. The value -of the Swiss Universities has brought them students from all -over the world, and the hospitality of Switzerland to refugees and -to tourists has made the country a most important international -centre, as the Red Cross and the League of Nations head-quarters -testify. Side by side with this has grown the importance of -Switzerland as a banking centre, this line of work being much -promoted by the growing tension in economic relations in Europe, -due to the huge development of militarist aggression since 1895. -Another aspect of this development of banking has been that -connected with the industrial transformation of several parts of -Switzerland through application of hydro-electric power, a process -which has brought Switzerland into closer relation with South -Germany and North Italy, and has made her external commerce -an important matter. It need hardly be said that Switzerland's -{47} -hospitality to refugees has brought her craftsmen, thinkers, and -artists for centuries, and has thus enormously enriched her life. -The debts of Holland and of the British Isles to refugees from -the intellectual elite of other lands may be compared with that -of Switzerland. In Britain the families at the centre of the -commercial and intellectual life of our cities are often closely -bound up with groups of refugees, as their association with -Unitarian Churches and the Society of Friends often shows. - -Another region which may appropriately be treated after -consideration of the Romance and the German Teutonic peoples is -the British Isles. Reference has already been made to the British -and Irish peoples in the chapter on races (p. 11) and the section -on the Celtic languages (p. 18). It was there suggested that these -islands were a remote fringing region in ancient times, and as -such retain old types of long-headed men, with comparatively -little alteration, such as the types of Combe Capelle man of -Aurignacian times, the related river-bed types, and the long-barrow -types of later, but probably still pre-Bronze Age, times. - -At the dawn of the Bronze Age came others, mainly -broad-headed types, among whom we can distinguish the brawny, -rough-browed 'Beaker-making' people found in the round -barrows and surviving, much refined in some cases, in the modern -population, the strongly built and sometimes tall, dark broad-heads -still found on patches along our western coasts and around -the coasts of Ireland, and provisionally identified with the -prospectors for tin and copper who spread from the eastern -Mediterranean in the third and perhaps the second millennium before -Christ, the broad-heads of the short cist graves of our east coasts -especially from the Humber to Caithness, the tall longer-headed -people of the Iron Age (La Tene) movements, and the descendants -of Angles, Saxons, Jutes, Danes, and Vikings, all more or less -tall and fair, and for the most part long-headed. The Norman -Conquest seems to have brought in broad-heads from across the -{48} -Channel, as one judges from contents of mediaeval ossuaries, -which sometimes contrast strikingly with the modern populations -of their districts. It seems likely that the growth of modern -industrialism has led to a resurgence of the older and dark -long-headed types, which seem able to withstand the evil conditions -of the slums to some extent, while the tall, fair long-heads and -the descendants of the beaker-makers seem inclined to drift off, -unless circumstances allow them to rise to a position of leadership -and comfort. - -The study of language shows how completely Teutonic speech -replaced Celtic, even as regards names of settlements, on the -English plain, though eager etymology may have exaggerated -this completeness and may have unduly emphasized the change -of population supposed to be involved. The fractionation of old -elements among the Welsh hills has permitted the old language -to survive, though it is now spoken not so much by the physical -heirs of the people who brought it to Britain as by the older -stocks to whom they taught it. The openness and good centres -of the Central Lowland of Scotland were unfavourable to the -survival of Celtic, which it was so hard to mingle with Teutonic -speech, but this compact region, well marked off from the English -plain by the southern uplands, the Cheviots, and the moorlands -of north England, kept a sufficient organization (largely of the -Celtic Church) through the post-Roman centuries to hand on -many of the old place-names and to develop an organized national -consciousness at the earliest opportunity. Wales, lacking an -administrative centre, has lost its law but kept its language. -Scotland, with the great centres of its Central Lowland, has -developed its own law, but its old languages are almost gone. - -History follows out for us the growth of national consciousness -on the English plain in Plantagenet times right up to its -organization under the Tudors and its great outburst under Elizabeth, -when the common revolt of the English plain and central Scotland -{49} -against Rome drew the two historic units towards one another, -helped by community of language and by the weakening of old -ties between Lowland Scotland and Catholic Bourbon France. -The rise of industrialism may be said to have consummated the -union, albeit with an attendant loss of valuable elements of the -population in the events following eighteenth-century highland -rebellions and nineteenth-century evictions for the creation of -deer forests. The remnants of old-time people and ways in the -western Highlands and the Hebrides are nevertheless interesting -and important from several points of view; they preserve valuable -elements of traditional civilization, and possibly even distinctive -spiritual faculties, which our industrial civilization seems to kill, -or at any rate to damp down. - -Ireland, it will be seen, was not led to co-operation with England -in at all the same ways, and it also illustrates the diversity -which is so apt to persist in off-shore islands, largely because of -the diverse outlooks of their different shores (compare Ceylon, -Java, Crete, &c.). In the case of Ireland the poverty of its centre -has played a great part in maintaining disunion. But neither -was it led to revolt against Rome along with England and Scotland, -nor was it transformed as they were by industrialism, save in its -north-east corner. So, _mutatis mutandis_, the small, if interesting -survivals of old tradition and feeling noticed in the western -Highlands are the characteristic of large areas of Ireland, and its -Catholicism has been ever deeper rooted in the people's minds -by the bitterly cruel persecutions maintained by England. The -net result has thus been, as in Czechoslovakia, a tendency to -redevelop separate and antagonistic national consciousness, and -to make it likely that association rather than subordination is the -line of solution of this difficult problem. The openness of Ireland -to the sea and her many connexions with the Continent seem -to have been, along with repressive politics, causes of loss of native -language which, in any case, would have been difficult to adjust -{50} -to modern needs, so that Ireland is a case of nationality in which -the language basis is not a real vital fact, however much enthusiasts -may try to insist on it. But apart from this the cases of Ireland -and Czechoslovakia are remarkably analogous; the latter is as -much within striking distance of the German centres as Ireland -is within striking distance of us, they both have an industrial -element which finds it difficult to co-operate with the agricultural -majority and claims separate treatment, both look back to -centuries of unhappy memories of undoubted wrongs, and both -have strong claims on the thoughts of those who desire peace. - -The Scottish people have found a _modus vivendi_, and with the -recent growth of toleration a _modus vivendi_ has almost been -attained for the Welsh people, but in any case the matter of Wales -is different from that of Ireland; the language difference in -Wales does not cut so deep as the religious difference in Ireland, -and the industrialized population is a majority in Wales, but -a minority in Ireland. The gradation of Welsh into English on -the Welsh side of the border is another important factor in the -case of Wales, and that country is becomingly increasingly able -to develop the spiritual heritage of her rural areas in pacific -fashion. With moderation on the part of England there seems -hope that Great Britain may thus be able to maintain and develop -a scheme of unity-in-diversity, and recent developments hold -out hopes for Ireland too. - -Man with its Gaelic and Norse elements, the Hebrides with -their immemorial survivals, Orkney and Shetland with their -Norse background, are all of great interest to the ethnologist, -and contribute interesting diversities to the enrichment of British -civilization, but hardly constitute serious problems. - - - - -{51} - -6 - -_Peoples of Low German and Scandinavian Speech_ - -We now come to the Low German and Scandinavian peoples. - -The Dutch include the fair-haired Nordic and Nordic Alpine -people of what may be called the mainland, and the dark broad-heads -of the islands of the Rhine mouth. Whether these latter -are Alpine peoples or maritime settlers of prehistoric time one -does not know, but their strong seafaring interests, on the whole, -support the latter hypothesis, in spite of the power of -environment. The common effort and common sacrifices to fight the -sea have been a cement for the people of Holland, and, beyond -the Rhine, they were comparatively little influenced by Rome. -Their absorption in the struggle with the sea and their apartness -from Romance Europe of the Middle Ages have had results in -their provision of refuge for Jews and heretics, in their secession -from Rome during the religious schism, and in their increasing -separateness from their Flemish linguistic cousins on the Roman -side of the fateful river. The thoughtfulness encouraged by -old-established, if incomplete, toleration has made Holland -contribute to thought in a way quite disproportionate to her size; -and her sea-beggars, becoming in time sailors of the world's seas, -inherited the East Indies from the Portuguese, and inaugurated -what, under the English name of New York, has become the -biggest port of the world. If vulnerability to organized militarism -beyond her borders and England's advantages of position for -maritime primacy have led Holland, especially with the growth -of British industrialism, to fall somewhat to the rear commercially, -her people, nevertheless, remain a most important element both -in the life of Europe and in the commercial relations of the world. -Her language has developed a literary standard to which have -been approximated the Flemish dialects of a people struggling -{52} -for recognition, but unlikely to seek union with Holland because -of religious divergence. This nevertheless increases the strength -of the Dutch tradition, while the growth of German industry -has meant almost as much for both Rotterdam and Amsterdam -as it has for Antwerp. Further, the provisioning of the big -centres of industry has given Holland new commercial opportunities, -and she is thus in a position to play her part in relation -to her big German and English neighbours, while nevertheless -maintaining her own individuality, and, indeed, making that -individuality rather a difficulty in connexion with the complex -international problem of Antwerp and the Scheldt. That problem, -being one of economics rather than of peoples, need not be -discussed here beyond an indication of the extremely international -development of that premier outlet for the European plain prior -to 1914. - -Standardized German has not ousted old forms of speech in -the rural parts of the north-west German coasts, and there has -been a tendency to give Frisian literary expression in the nineteenth -century, but this movement, like that in favour of Provençal, -has not gone far enough to have economic influence or to bear -much upon politics. On the whole, with the growth of systems -of education, Frisian has receded, and is now chiefly spoken on -the west coast of Holstein and of the part of Slesvig which, by -plebiscite, has recently decided to remain German. - -Denmark at the Baltic entry, and linked to the life of that sea -especially by its islands and the important passage of the Sound, -makes with Norway and Sweden the Scandinavian sub-group in -the Teutonic family of languages, and here nations and languages -correspond reasonably closely. - -Whereas Holstein, at the base of the peninsula of Jutland, -became included in the Holy Roman Empire of the Middle Ages, -Slesvig remained outside that attempted organization. German -speech and thought pervaded South Slesvig as far north as the -{53} -fjord which has Flensburg at its head, but in spite of political -effort, 1864-1914, North Slesvig remained steadily Danish in -feeling, and has now been liberated to rejoin the little kingdom. -The boundary chosen seems to show a fair-minded interpretation -of the recent plebiscite, though there are minorities on both sides -of the line. - -Denmark has a very long story from the days of her prehistoric -kitchen-middens onwards, and she owes something to the fact -that Jutland was in some sort a north-western terminus of a belt -of loess, heath, and sand-hill, stretching westward from the steppe -border of South Russia. Along this belt came to her the -pre-Bronze Age immigrants distinguished by their 'Beaker pottery', -and the amber trade seems to have used a part of this route. - -The Danes have thus long been a racial complex, but the fair -Nordic type predominates on the whole. Denmark's share, -especially in the organizing aspects of the great maritime -movements of post-Roman times, is well known, but Petersson's view -that this occurred during a period of favourable climate and -ice-free coasts in the northern seas helps one to realize the connexion -of that activity with a particular period. The association of -Denmark and Norway in maritime activity was long continued, -and when the latter fell on bad times in the Middle Ages, the -domination of the former became very marked. The political -aspect of the matter is outside our scope, but with the nineteenth -century the weakening of Denmark under German pressure -loosed the bonds, and circumstances gave Norway in the end -a remarkable opportunity. It thus came about that in 1864 -Denmark saw the end of her _ancien régime_, and began a new career. -The name of her Bishop Grundtvig stands out in company with -that of Abbé of Jena and a few others in the drab century of -commercial imperialisms. He set out to re-educate the Danish -people in co-operation and simplicity, and, with his high schools -for the development not so much of the technicalities as of the -{54} -amenities of life, he became one of those who builded better than -he knew. The sheer financial success of the new agriculture of -Denmark, thanks to skilled co-operative organization, is an -outstanding phenomenon, however much may be due to the general -increase of prosperity of the stock-raiser in the regions round the -manufacturing centres. Copenhagen has become a centre for -the wholesale marketing of butter, with train ferries and other -communications making links with Esbjerg, with Germany, with -Sweden, and across to the east side of the Baltic. Like Switzerland -and Holland, Denmark contributes in no small measure to the -intellectual life of Europe, partly through the opportunities her -sons find in Berlin and other large centres of the big nations. - -Of the first peopling of Norway comparatively little is known, -but the population must have been sparse indeed until man was -fairly well equipped to cope with that region's serious difficulties. -It is a country of ledges along a broken coast, fantastically cut -by fjords which are deep valleys of the edge of a high plateau -modified by ice and then partially submerged under the sea. -The partial submergence has converted outlying hillocks into -a maze of islands, between which and the land there is, for long -distances, a fairly open channel, an old longitudinal valley no -doubt. The men of the fjords are in large measure of the tall, -fair, long-headed Nordic type, but around the seaward ends of -the southern fjords are dark broad-heads, who in this case are -almost beyond doubt settlers from the sea. The physical geography -of Trondhjem Fjord, on land and water, helps to make clear its -special early importance, particularly during a period of good -climate, but the whole of Norway suffered sadly in the fourteenth -century from bad harvests and Hanseatic interference, and from that -time onwards to the nineteenth century Norway's fortunes were low. - -As in other lands of ancient poverty (note Finland and Switzerland) -the nineteenth century brought the final merging of the -old aristocracy in the people; the relation with Denmark was -{55} -loosed and a temporary link with Sweden, partly under fear of -Russian Tsarist aggression, did not take deep root in the lives of -the people. Much importance must be attached to the linguistic -and literary revival of which the famous Bjornsen is the central -figure. Meanwhile British Free Trade, and especially the repeal -of the British Navigation Acts (1849), gave the Norse sailor and -shipbuilder a chance, and the country developed a great mercantile -marine, which managed to maintain itself until 1914, in spite of -the advent of the iron ship and steamer. During and since the -war Norway has not managed to keep pace with other mercantile -marines like those of the United States of America and Japan. - -Internally, Norway was from far-off times till quite recently -a people of fisher-farmers prizing individual property on the small -cultivable ledges beside the fjords, and leading cattle to summer -pastures on the high grasslands of the great mountain plateau. -The practice of inheritance by the first-born son is traditionally -associated with these little farms so difficult to subdivide, and the -long-continued absences of much of the male part of the population -(fishing) are another feature. The latter fact is said to be -accountable for the unique power of women in Norwegian affairs, -and the women have certainly contributed much to the modern -development of Norway as a pacific, self-reliant democracy. In -the twentieth century there has already been a great growth -of industry based on the hydro-electric power available in such -quantity in the fjords; the chemical industry, including the -preparation of nitrates from atmospheric nitrogen, is a feature. -Since the war the value of Norwegian currency has gone down -with the slackness of shipping and the inability of Germany to -trade as she used to do, but the depreciation is not very great, -and may well right itself if the war-clouds clear. Fish and timber -have long been, and are likely to remain, valuable commercial -assets; the need of imported cereals is a permanent difficulty. - -At the back of Norway, on the high mountain plateau, are the -{56} -Lapps, whose seasonal wanderings disregard the international -frontier between Norway and Sweden. Fortunately, therefore, -when Sweden and Norway gave up (in 1905) their artificial and -temporary union, it was mutually agreed, as became enlightened -peoples, that the frontier would be entirely demilitarized. The -separation coincided with a great development of Norway's trade, -based upon the application of hydro-electric power to industry. - -The Norwegian people centuries ago seemed to be giving up -their language for Danish, but here, as in so many other countries -(Bohemia, Serbia, Finland, Flanders, Catalonia, and Wales), the -nineteenth century brought a resurgence of local speech, and the -work of Bjornsen and Ibsen gave that speech a literary standard, -and made its literature a power in the modern world, fortunately -with comparatively little development of international antagonism, -for by this time there was no language competing locally with -Norwegian; Danish had retired and Swedish was too far off to -matter seriously, though its pressure was at one time threatened. - -The Western Scandinavians of late Viking times spread across -the northern seas to Iceland, Greenland, and 'Wineland', which -has been identified with the New England coast of North America. -The connexion with America was lost, and that with Greenland -almost, if not quite, lost as well, probably in the severities of -climate of the fourteenth century, but that with the Faroes and -Iceland persisted. In this way Iceland has become in some sort -a repository of the Scandinavian past, and thence has spread in -modern times a knowledge and appreciation of the ancient sagas -of the Norse rovers, with elements embedded in them that date -back far beyond Viking times. Icelandic and the literature -embodied in it have thus become an important matter for students -of European tradition and literary history, and the influence -thence exerted on modern Germany, notably through Wagner, -has been far-reaching and many-sided. - -Sweden's associations are necessarily very different from those -{57} -of Norway. It is true that the high plateau is fairly sharply -marked off from the rest of Sweden, but the steps down are less -precipitous than on the Norwegian side, and though Sweden has -a Lapp-world as her mystery soil for folk-tale, yet contacts between -Swede and Lapp and Finn do take place and influence type. -The recent beautiful atlas of photographs of Swedish types -illustrates this for that country, but shows that the most -characteristic element, as in Norway, is the tall, fair Nordic type. - -It is apparently chiefly since the recovery of the north from the -severities of the fourteenth-century climate that Sweden as a unit -people has shown the most marked activity. A factor in this was -undoubtedly the weakening effect of the great religious schism in -Germany with the opportunities this gave to the France of the -Counter-Reformation and the Bourbons. - -Sweden even went through a phase of control of nearly the -whole of the Baltic (_c._ 1660), but this could not be maintained, -though the southern peninsula of Scania has never returned to -its old associations, which date back to prehistoric times, with -Denmark. The rise of Russia brought about the withdrawal -of the Swedish influence from the east side of the Baltic, but the -Finlanders of the south-west include several Swedish-speaking -groups, and 96 per cent. in Aland use that language. The episode -of military glory contributed to the maintenance of a local -aristocracy, which has made Sweden very distinct, socially, from -Norway, though democratization has gone a long way even here, -and no new titles of nobility are created. Her more extensive -lowlands, with possibilities of wheat in the southern half, make -farming a richer matter than it can be in either Norway or -Finland, while timber and good iron ore open up industrial and -commercial possibilities, to which the zone of lakes and its canal -system contribute not a little in the way of transport facilities. -Sweden is thus a relatively rich Baltic land, though many features -are shared in common with the peoples of the other (Finnish, -{58} -Lettish, and German) Baltic coasts, and her natural associations -with Baltic Germany should be understood and appreciated. -Sweden has come through the war with her money at a general -European premium, a distinction she shares with Holland and -Switzerland alone among all the peoples of Europe. - - - - -7 - - _The Peoples on the Eastern Border of - Europe-of-the-Sea_ - -We have now surveyed the linguistic groups of Romance, Celtic, -and Teutonic speech, and may note that among those of Celtic -speech we find the most marked survivals of antiquity in social -features. Among the Romance- and Teutonic-speaking peoples we find -that there has long been a tendency towards closer accord between -linguistic and political groupings, and that now, with some exceptions -it is true, the political units are also linguistic ones. The -regions of Romance and Teutonic speech are the great regions of -organization of the State; they have a stable scheme of administration -and revenue, a settled legal order, an approach to representative -government based upon a franchise; in short, they are -the regions of the patriotic nation-state. The exceptions have -been noted here and there in the above sketch. Alsace is -Alemannic in speech but French in attachment in many respects. -Switzerland is a unique combination of units belonging to three -language groups. Flanders, or the area of Flemish speech, is -partly in France and partly in Belgium. Flanders and Alsace are -two of the most serious of European problems, and even if they -be mitigated by political foresight, the dangers from them are -not likely to diminish definitively unless the 'nation-state' can -be made to occupy less of the political horizon. - -When we turn our attention eastwards from the lands of -{59} -Romance and Teutonic to those of Slavonic and Baltic languages, -we find that, until recently at all events, there was no accord -between the political and the linguistic units, and that, even now, -the accord is fragmentary enough. We find also that in place of -the principle of 'one region, one language', which applies broadly -in the west, there is nearly always a minority language alongside -the majority one. The 1914-18 crisis has shown how very unstable -were the political units of the last fifty years, and the -'nation-state', that is a settled administration worthy of the name of -'state' combined with a social unit based upon tradition, has -only just begun its career in Eastern Europe. Furthermore, in -this eastern part of Europe we find languages of non-European -character in Finland, Esthonia, Hungary, and Turkey, and to -some extent in Bulgaria. This is then the zone of Euro-Asiatic -contacts and interpenetrations, and these contacts have determined -a great deal of the characteristics of the social order in -this part of the Continent. - -While the above statement is broadly true, it must, nevertheless, -be stated that history records considerable and persistent, if -partially unsuccessful, efforts to develop the nation-state in those -western Slavonic lands which felt the influence of Rome either -through the Empire or through the Church, while the contagion -of nineteenth-century nationalism has spread far and wide. - -During the period of close settlement and fixation of language -and of growth of administration in the west there were periods -of pressure Europewards from Asia, illustrated by the coming -of Szeklers and Magyars, and the formation of the Magyar kingdom -of Hungary, by the advance of the Bulgars, since practically -Slavonized, by the pressure of the Mongols on Russia, and by the -spread of the Turks. The spread of Finn or Finno-Ugrian peoples -westward along the north is probably older, and has been more -gradual and less organized. - -Apart from this northern Finn-route and subordinate -{60} -Finn-ways (Perm, Kazan, Samara) to the Volga, the westward roads -have been along the loess, either that of the Polish platform or -that of Wallachia and the Hungarian plain, and the defence of -the west against pressure along these ways gathered chiefly around -Vienna and around Poland (Cracow in earlier times and Warsaw -later on). Austria, as we now know it, was once the Ostmark, -the eastern march or frontier domain of the German-speaking -peoples, and the Austro-Hungarian Empire which has just -collapsed after a long process of decay was the fruition of the -organization that defended Western Europe from Asiatic pressure -on the south-east. It was obviously not a nation-state, for besides -its German and Magyar elements it included under its control -the many Slavonic and partially Slavonic people of the hill frame -around the middle Danube. Its day of greatness coincided with -the holding up and the beginning of retreat of the Turkish -pressure; its subsequent history is one of clever diplomacy aiming -at maintaining a power created for a purpose that was now no -more. The improbability of any renewal of effective pressure -from Asia on the now so highly armed west of Europe did away -with the _raison d'être_ of Vienna as a city of camp and court, and -it will require a higher development of European unity to make -Vienna take its definitive place as the nerve centre of the -Continent's land-communications. For the present, therefore, the -size and magnificence of Vienna seem to lack justification, and -there is manifest distress. A far smaller city would do admirably -for the capital of the small area henceforward to be called Austria, -and the past traditions of Vienna expressed in palaces and luxuries -are hardly what would naturally grow up around a modern railway -centre. When, however, we realize the need for increased -unity of Europe we cannot but feel how valuable the University -Museums and Libraries of Vienna might be were they internationally -developed so as to give Europe a natural culture-centre -second only to Paris. The suggestion to make Vienna the -{61} -capital of the League of Nations revealed an over-emphasis on the -military and diplomatic tradition of Vienna, an aspect of that -city's life which it might be perilous to redevelop. - -But as we are concerned with the peoples of Europe rather than -with the states, this slight mention of Vienna must suffice, and -we may proceed to deal with the linguistic groups of Europe east -of the Teutonic and Romance areas in the way in which we have -touched upon those of the west. - -The Baltic or Letto-Lithuanian languages have already been -mentioned, and little more need be said save that they have long felt -the double pressure of Teutonic and Slavonic influences and have -absorbed words from both. Apart from them, the languages spoken -are largely of the Slavonic family, and it is frequently said that -the Slavonic languages are less distinct from one another than are -the languages of the Romance and the Teutonic families. They -have been less influenced by written forms than have the latter; -oral tradition has counted for more, and differences have -consequently not become so fixed as farther west. There is a certain -amount of dispute as to the primary home of Slavonic speech, -but it seems increasingly likely that it arose as an adaptation of -older forms of Indo-European languages by the people of the -Carpathian arc and the Polish platform on its north-eastern -flank, and that it spread thence especially in the post-Roman -centuries. Schlüter has found reason to believe in a considerable -movement from the hills to the valleys and plains in those centuries, -and with this we may connect progress of forest clearings and -spread of Slav languages, especially towards Muscovy. Most of -the regions of Slav speech came into touch with Christianity first -of all through Constantinople, but in the case of the more westerly -ones the influence of the Roman Church outweighed that of its -eastern sister before many centuries had passed, and the Roman -principles spread eastward as far as the bounds of what has been -called above 'Europe-of-the-Sea'. - - - - -{62} - -8 - - _The Slav-speaking Peoples and the Borders - of the East_ - -Of the western Slavonic-speaking peoples the Czechs, inhabiting -the hill-girt country of Bohemia, are among the most important. -They were first Christianized by the Eastern Church, but became -Roman Catholic, the early religious centre being at Taus -(Domazlice), at the Bohemian exit of a pass from Bavaria. Later on, -Prague was founded and became the capital, and it should be -noticed that in it, as in many other cities of Slavonic language, -the cathedral is within the castle, typifying association between -religious and political leadership, both being frequently more -western (German) than the rest of the population. It was natural -both that the small, compact, and distinct mass of Czechs should -early attain a sort of national self-consciousness, and that their -country, in spite of its physical separateness, should receive German -immigrants, especially up the Elbe gap. The distinctive personality -of Bohemia is illustrated by the fact that the University -of Prague, founded on the Paris model, was the first University -established beyond the Rhine; it is illustrated also by the fact -that Bohemia at so early a date, under John Huss (_c._ A.D. 1398), -revolted against Papal abuses, and would undoubtedly have become -schismatic had military force not been exerted strongly from -without. Nevertheless Bohemia has not been able to maintain -political independence in the past. After a short period of power -it subsided under Hapsburg influence as Vienna began to gather -Europe around her to defend Christianity. And later on (1620) -the Czechs were subjugated, and the Counter-Reformation and -the Jesuits with their universalist and anti-nationalist ideas -repressed the Slavonic tradition until it broke loose once more -in the revival of Romantic literature and Nationalist feeling -{63} -which was such a feature of the nineteenth century. In that -century the rise of industry brought many more Germans into -North and North-west Bohemia, making that region a sort of -'Ulster', distinct in feeling from the rest of Bohemia, which is -far more agricultural. But the rise of Czech feeling spread -afresh the use of that language in spite of two centuries of -severe repression, and Prague had to develop Czech and German -Universities side by side. The relation of Bohemia to Vienna -politically was also reflected financially; Vienna was until 1918 -to a large extent the money centre for Bohemia, while that country -supplied the rest of the Austro-Hungarian Empire with a large -proportion of its needs in manufactured goods. As a result of -the defeat of Germany and Austria-Hungary, Bohemia has risen -to power again, and has many advantages for the immediate -future in spite of dire need of fertilizers, machinery, and credit. -Her new government is promising well, and stands out in favourable -contrast to those of some of the other countries which have -risen suddenly after the war. Its problems will be that of -arranging for German co-operation and that of devising substitutes for -the old financial links with Vienna. - -Between Bohemia and the Carpathians, or more strictly the -Tatra, is a physiographical trough such as so often occurs between -fold-mountains (e.g. Tatra) and old blocks (e.g. Bohemia). It -is occupied by the March (or Morava) river, is called Moravia, -and is known as the Moravian gate, for through it Vienna -communicates north-eastward not only with the Oder basin via -Breslau, but also with the Vistula basin via Cracow. Somewhat -more German than Bohemia the Moravian gate is still mainly -Slavonic, with dialects grading eastwards towards Polish. There -has been some difficulty in settling the limits of Moravia and -Poland, the former having properly been allocated to the Czech, -or better, Czechoslovak, state in the recent treaties. The dispute -centred chiefly upon Děčin -(formerly called Teschen), and was -{64} -solved by the cession to Czechoslovakia of the greater part of -the coalfield and the railway which lies in Czechoslovakia, both -before it enters and after it leaves -Děčin territory. The town -of Děčin itself goes to Poland. -Not only does Czechoslovakia -include Moravia, but it also stretches along the south flank of -the Carpathians through a region of Slovak speech and rural -life right on to the small district where Ruthenian just emerges -west of the Carpathians. Thanks to their different language -these Ruthenians are to have local autonomy under Czechoslovakia. - -The new state is thus of considerable size, and includes several -dialects of Slav; it is both agricultural and industrial; it is -keenly patriotic, and disposed, one hears, to split off from the -Roman Church, just as it was so disposed in the Middle Ages. -This state is contrasted to some extent with the majority of the -Slavonic regions, in that, in spite of a large German element, -there is more homogeneity and strength of cultural tradition -throughout the Czech country than there is among many other -Slav-speaking peoples. - -Farther east the pressure from the Asiatic grasslands and -plateaux hindered the development of social settled life in the -Middle Ages, when it was progressing farther west, and as a -consequence the population of the towns is often different in tradition -from that of the country. In the rural districts, again, the -culture connexions of the ruling classes have often been different -from those of the simple village folk. The result is that in many -parts there have long been three social strata, often differing in -language, religion, and political association. Upper Silesia has, -in parts, German towns set in Polish country, and though some -of the German element is of fairly recent introduction (and -connected with industrial development), it nevertheless illustrates -the social and political problem. - -In the Middle Ages the Jews previously inhabiting the Rhine -{65} -lands found it difficult to fit into western schemes, as we know -from English history, and some moved eastwards (Ashkenazim) -into the Slav lands to form an important element of the -population of the towns, especially in Poland, where their numbers -were increased by Tsarist restrictions on their settlement in -Russia itself. Their language, Yiddish, is generally described as -a modified German dialect written in Hebrew characters and -owing some debt to Hebrew tradition in other respects. As they -have a linguistic and religious entity of their own, and as -inter-marriage with Gentiles has been restricted, it follows that they -form a very distinct block, most difficult to work into any State -organization of a western type. It must therefore be very open -to question whether the recent treaties endeavouring to spread -western state-theory eastwards are the best ways to provide for -the life of the people concerned. A modern state needs towns -and industry; the Jewish element in the towns of East-Central -Europe is enormously important, and cannot be dispensed with -save at great cost, as well as with the greatest injustice, and -yet assimilation of Jew to Gentile in East-Central Europe is -almost out of the question. The development of a nation-state is -necessarily held back when there are such diverse elements, and -League of Nations schemes for protection of minorities offer -a valuable line of progress if they can be realized. - -In western Poland the peasantry are Polish for the most part, -the townsfolk are Jews and Germans with a few Poles, and the -aristocracy until 1914 was to some extent German. Farther east -the aristocracy was Polish and largely anti-German, the peasantry -Polish, and the intermediate people still largely German and Jew. -Farther east still the middle class of the towns continued the -same general character, but while the aristocracy was Polish, -the peasantry was Lithuanian or White Russian or Ruthenian, -according to district. One needs but to play upon the possible -combinations among these elements to realize how difficult it is -{66} -to secure unity. It is often the natural fate of aristocracies to -fade out unless they can recruit themselves from below, and that -recruitment has usually meant the ultimate merging of the -aristocracy in the tradition of the simple folk, the classic case -being the merging of the Norman aristocracy of Britain in the -Anglo-Celtic heritage of the commoners. But the merging of -aristocracies would not bring unity because of the burgher -element, largely German, and the labouring element, largely -Jewish. Farther west the petit-bourgeois element of the market -towns has often mediated differences between peasant elements -of different regions, but as in Poland the former is not to any -extent Polish, it is inconceivable that it should mediate between -the Polish peasantry farther west and the Ruthenian and other -elements farther east. In Rumania the difficulties are analogous, -and so are those of Hungary. Parts of Yugoslavia seem fortunate -in having a simpler problem. - -A mere catalogue of the peoples of East-Central Europe with -appended notes would hardly justify the space it would need in -this small book, especially as information of the kind is easily -available in standard works of reference. It therefore seems more -useful to sketch in broad outline the physical and vegetational -facts of East-Central and Eastern Europe in order to bring out -the essentials of the setting of human life and the variation of -that setting with the region so that peoples of diverging outlook -and traditions have grown up in those regions. - -The first and simplest physical fact is the immense broadening -out of the European plain, which, in the region between the Rhine -and Vistula, is practically Prussia alone, while farther east it has -added to it the ancient land-elements of the north, so that its -effective extent is from the White Sea to the Black Sea through -degrees of latitude, and consequently through marked gradations -of climate. The climatic facts are equally well known. The -great extent of the land surface, and still more the fact that it -{67} -is but a small extension of the far greater land surface of the -Asiatic interior, give it a condition of dense dry cold air through -the winter. - -The form of the plain, with the consequent possibility of ingress -of westerly winds eastwards along the plain in summer, i.e. when -the cold anticyclone has gone, gives a wedge of summer rain, -alternating with considerable warmth, and this wedge is of the -utmost importance in human geography. It is the area in which -the summer green and winter black and white forest can grow, -but as already stated the beech grows only in its western portion, -and stops along a line from about Danzig or Königsberg to the -east of Bukovina. - -Farther east the wedge is occupied by oak and elm, but the -valuable beech is absent. The deciduous forest region includes -South-west Finland, and its northern boundary runs eastward -from the vicinity of Petrograd past Vologda. In many current -maps its southern boundary is made much too sharp; the -possibility of its growth depends here largely upon moisture, so it -spreads into the drier south-east along river and other lines of -relative dampness. The country with zones of deciduous forest -interspersed with grass land is known as the 'Ukraine' or 'Border', -and on its border towards the grasslands and semi-desert we have -the Cossack country, with the Don Cossacks on the western side -of the barren patches near the lower Volga, and the Orenburg -Cossacks on their eastern side. The Ukraine and its eastern -extensions are floored to a large extent with earth rich in organic -matter (black earth, Tchernoziom), and have possibilities of -considerable agricultural development if a settled scheme of life can -be devised. In the south-west the language of the peasantry is -Ruthenian, farther east Russian, both variants of Slavonic speech, -but variants which seem fated to diverge from one another more -and more. The climate of the Russian plain largely inhibits the -higher grades of intellectual activity during the seasons of severe -{68} -cold and heat, with the result that those whose circumstances -do not give them artificial protection from the weather must -depend to a large extent on routine for the continuance of social -organization. Conditions are thus not favourable for development -of a complex unity over a wide area, and localism is therefore -the prevailing tendency, carrying with it probabilities of -maintenance and even of development of dialect-differences rather -than of linguistic unification. These brief indications give us an -insight into some of the more serious, if less appreciated, problems -of governmental schemes in the varied vegetative regions of what -was once Russia, which yet lacks convenient orographical boundary -lines between its different parts. - -Our memories from earliest years are stored largely in verbal -forms, and as a consequence the language of our early youth -has deep-seated associations, which remain as conscious or -unconscious memories, the latter if we forget our early speech -and learn a new language. That the old language is not -completely lost seems to be proved by experiments in -hypnosis, which show that the associations of that old language -remain, and that therefore the associations with the second -language learnt tend to remain incomplete unless a very special -personal effort is made, made therefore by a supernormal mind, -to overcome this difficulty. Common language-associations of -early childhood are thus a most important link between men, -promoting mutual understanding and easing intercourse and -mutual confidence for the subnormal and normal, rather than -supernormal, individuals who form the bulk of a population, -and this helps us to see why the linguistic unit is so important in -political matters, and unity of language is so often the basis of -the successful state, which is consequently so difficult to organize -in Eastern Europe. - -These reflections apply more particularly to the region formerly -known politically as Russia, but they also apply to some extent -{69} -in South-east Europe, though the phenomena of language are there -to some extent masked by others. The region commonly known -as the Balkan Peninsula is to a very large extent high land, with -opportunities for seasonal pasturage on the hills, and this, together -with the unsettlement due to the strikingly contrasted life of the -thin coastal fringe and to the pressures from Asia Minor and from -the North, has impeded the evolution of the settled life, the -market town, and the nation-state. - -The thin coastal fringe is a zone of Mediterranean life in which, -already prior to classical times, hoe-culture and the tending of -fruit trees had become one of the mainstays of life, but commerce -was almost equally important. It is the home of the city-state, -and in times of peace Greek became the chief language, with -Latin, and later Italian, on the Adriatic coast. In times of -disturbance the commercial element seems to have been partly -submerged, and Slavonic or Slavonized elements have spread in, -so that in Dalmatia it is possible to debate indefinitely the affinities -of the people's social heritage, and much the same might be said -of various portions of the north coast of the Aegean. - -Inland the great height implies cold winters, and these supervene -even in the lowlands when the latter are open to the north -(Vardar) or to the east (Danube). The conditions here are thus -practically those of Central and even of East-Central Europe, and -as social evolution has been impeded we find here still a good deal -of seasonal nomadism or _transhumance_ (p. 90), a marked survival -of the large family unit holding and working lands in common -(the Serb Zadruga), and an early and still feebly organized type -of town (especially the lesser towns of Rumania). A Jewish -element (Ashkenazim in Rumania) is valuable commercially in -most of the towns, and the vestiges of the Turk are found far -and wide. - -Whereas lands which now have Romance, Celtic, or Teutonic -speech have received large elements of civilization, and therewith -{70} -of religion, from or through Rome and the western Mediterranean, -the east of Europe has been largely outside the sphere of Roman -influence, and has received contributions to its civilization and -religious organization from Constantinople, with results that are -different in many ways, though Constantinople owes a great deal -to Rome, and though both Rome and Constantinople look back -to ancient Mediterranean civilization. - -Rome, through empire or through church, has spread her ideas -to the eastern bounds of Europe-of-the-Sea, to the border of the -Pripet Marshes in the centre, and farther north, to the surround -of the Baltic Sea. On the south the boundary of Roman work -persistent in the Church is largely the periphery of the Adriatic -Sea, with complex interrelations between Rome and Byzantium -all over South-east Europe. In the parts of the Balkan Peninsula -more easily reached from Constantinople, and on the Russian -plain with its prehistoric links via Kief, &c., with Byzantium and -the Aegean, the Byzantine organization of the Church has -persisted. In South-east Europe, the Danubian lands and the -Carpathian arc, we have the debatable zone between the two -organizations, the wedge of weakness into which Islam was able -to penetrate, as Prof. Stanley Roberts has pointed out to me. - -Even as far west as Bohemia the first arrival of Christianity -was due to Byzantine work, but the conflict of Constantinople -with Asia and the difficulty of communications were against the -persistence of this element, and the Roman tradition established -itself in Bohemia, Poland, Hungary, Croatia, and largely in Slavonia. - -In the eastern Carpathians an interesting compromise was -reached in the seventeenth century by the recognition of the -Uniate Church acknowledging the Pope, but keeping a Slavonic -ritual. The persecution of that church by Romanizers in Poland -and by the Byzantine Church of Russia is a great difficulty at -the present time, but it should be understood that the Roman -Church does not dispute the validity of Byzantine orders of -{71} -priesthood and sacraments, so that the difference between Roman -and Greek Christianity does not cut so deep as that between -the Roman Church and western schismatics, such as Calvinists, -Lutherans, Anglicans, and so on. - -On the other hand, very important divergences have grown up -in organization between the two churches in ways which deeply -affect the life of the people. The western church, based upon -the Roman Empire, has had its waves of enthusiasm in the early -Middle Ages and during the Counter-Reformation for the unity -of Europe, and the differentiation of religious organizations within -the various language groups of Western Europe has been checked. -As a result the more distant ones have seceded from Rome, but -those which remain Roman all own allegiance to the Pope, an -allegiance that creates problems for many a modern state. Reference -has already been made to the vast importance of the Jesuits -in maintaining this 'universalist' feature of religious and social -life. - -In the east, Constantinople, long involved in her ultimately -unsuccessful conflict with Asia and Islam, was not sufficiently -strongly placed to spread analogous waves of enthusiasm. Also -her lines of communication were decidedly difficult, and her -ambassadors of religion depended more on local factors and local -aid. Then again some of the lands reached from her knew nothing -of Rome, and here her influence persisted, while others like -Hungary, &c., had been for a time in the empire ruled from -Rome and gravitated to the Roman Church. The case of Wallachia -and Moldavia must be left for discussion later on. - -The Eastern Church has thus carried the universalist idea less -far than the Roman. It has developed daughter churches, sometimes -with well-marked peculiarities, within the language groups, -so that now allegiance to one or another branch of the Eastern -Church is often made a criterion of nationality in the Balkan -areas of linguistic gradation and confusion. Religious -{72} -organization has tended to be within the State, and often a substitute -for the State in Eastern Europe, instead of being above the State, -at least in its claims, as in the west. - -With these facts of situation, physiography, people, languages, -and religion in mind, we may now proceed to a somewhat closer -survey of the peoples in the chief natural regions of Europe east -of the Teutonic and Romance areas, allowing that the Bohemian -(Czechoslovak) hill people and the Poles have already been dealt -with to a large extent. - -To the north of the forest of autumn leaf-fall swamps spread -far and wide between Petrograd and Vologda, and on their -northern flanks the coldness of the soil restricts root action so -much that the pines and the birch are the chief forest trees, and -the forest is only here and there worth clearing for corn growing. -This is a region for hunters and fishers and gatherers, with a few -animals and poor crops in small patches. Its peoples include -a large element related to and derived from the peoples of Arctic -Asia, Samoyedes, and Lapps, and an element among the Finns, -and it is this element which has provided the languages of the -region in several parts. The Finn is a mixture of this Asiatic-Arctic -stock of broad-headed, dark-skinned people with the tall, -fair, long-headed peoples of North Europe, and as it is the former -who have provided the language, it is probable that they also -provided the women, i.e. that the Nordics were forest hunters -and adventurers, moving about without many women. In -Karelia (east of the new republic of Finland) the Finn is more -Asiatic in appearance than he is in Finland itself, and for the -latter people Miss Czaplicka suggests the use of the name -'Finlanders'. In Karelia and the river basins feeding the White Sea -there is naturally also a considerable Slavonic admixture. The -antiquity of the Asiatic immigration is a disputed point: it may -be very old, as Peake once argued, but he and others incline to -make the movement fairly recent, and to connect the ancient -{73} -Arctic cultures of the region with old types of long-headed men. -Near the Baltic coast the physical type of the people becomes -practically pure Nordic in several places, and some districts on -the coast speak Swedish, as do the people of the Aland Islands. - -The south-west of Finland is so much influenced by the sea -that it has a zone of the forest of leaf-fall, and thus can grow -reasonable amounts of corn. On it stand the essentially European -cities of Abo and Helsingfors, and the relation to the sea and the -west is shown not only in the fact that 'Baltic' style characterizes -most Finnish things, but also in the fact that Finland became -Roman Catholic under the influence of missions from Sweden -in the twelfth century. It thus contrasts with the regions farther -east, which were Christianized by the Eastern Church. Until -the rise of Russia as a power, Swedish influence was dominant in -Finland, but the growth of Petrograd and the efforts of Russian -power to organize itself in a western fashion altered the balance -and Russia became dominant, taking Finland definitely into the -Tsar's domains in 1809. In the nineteenth century long and -vain attempts were made by autocratic Russia to work in double -harness with Finland, which belonged so markedly to Western -Europe by tradition, had seceded from the Roman Church and -become Protestant at the Great Schism, and was feeling, along -with Western Europe, the nationalist revival with its literary -movement attempting in this case to perpetuate Finnish and -develop it as a culture language. As in some other northern -regions (notably Norway) the aristocracy merged itself in the -people, and became the leader-element in trade and commerce. -The small amount of good land has made it a precious possession, -and the Finlanders are keenly interested in peasant proprietorship. -In all these ways the contrast between them and Russia is strongly -marked, and the new rulers of Russia have evidently recognized -this in their treaty with the now sovereign state of Finland. -Finland's timber is a precious asset, and her cattle are likely to -{74} -bring her some wealth; her future is as a Baltic people, and it -may be hoped a member of a future Baltic federation. The -Alanders inhabit a maze of islands, which are a partially -submerged extension of the Finnish plateau; -their historic associations -have been with Finland, but, like the people of some coastal -regions of Finland, they speak Swedish. The League of Nations -has suggested for them a scheme of local autonomy under Finland, -and this is under consideration, but they seem to wish for a closer -link with Sweden. Such a link educationally and religiously would -be of value, and we have here merely one more example of the -hampering effects of our present undue insistence on the idea -of the sovereign state rather than on that of the United States -of Europe. The Karelians and other Finnish peoples of the -north, east of Finland, have been affected a good deal by monastic -settlements made by the Eastern Church; they may get a living -partly by lumbering and partly in fur trade; cultivation and even -stock-raising must remain poorly developed. - -Turning south of the line from Petrograd to Vologda we are, -at least theoretically, in the zone of the forest of leaf-fall, that -is a forest with the oak and birch, not, however, the beech. Here -again the Baltic coast lands have peoples strongly marked off by -culture associations from those of the interior, but, as regards -the interior, the penetration of Finnish or more broadly Asiatic -influences is not nearly so marked until we come to the Volga -below Kazan, where are to be found the Mordva. In this eastern -region are also found groups of Tatar speech and Asiatic origin, -some of whom were gradually forced by past Russian governments -to give up nomad pasturing and become settled cultivators. -A Tatar republic now centres round Kazan (1921). An Asiatic -influence may nevertheless be traced far and wide in the physique -of the Russian people of Muscovy, though they owe their main -inheritance to the broad-headed, dark, central European stock -which has colonized the Russian forest bit by bit from the more -{75} -open lands of the Polish-Galician platform, moving around the -south side of the Pripet Marshes and entering the Muscovite -forest via the Dnieper crossing at Kief. An important element -in the life of the people has been their association with the -mediaeval fur trade of the Hanse, and a study of Russian physique -suggests a Nordic sprinkling all over the country, and especially -among the landowners; but the villagers are mainly of the -broad-headed type, characteristic of the mountain axis of Europe, -albeit in the better lands taller than they are in the Alps and -Cevennes, and in other ways also more like some types found in -the Balkan Peninsula. - -The social study of the people of Central Russia is probably one -of the best clues to the understanding of that stage of our own -past, in Western Europe, when settlement in forest-clearings was -the most marked feature of development of social organization. -The Tsar's Government had in recent years persisted in a policy -of modernization of rural arrangements, but, in the words of -a supporter of that policy, the villagers fell back upon their old -communist schemes as soon as the war crisis made them rely on -themselves; it was the one scheme they understood. - -How far this is really true, or how far some at least of the -villagers tried to develop individual proprietorship, must remain -doubtful, but there can be no doubt that localism and the Soviet -idea have become marked features in Russia, with the paralysing -of the more modern schemes of life which were previously trying -to spread in the country with the growth of industry and commerce. -That the more modern schemes seemed to permit a larger population -seems clear, but that they were faced with difficulties due -both to climate and to history is not always appreciated. The -west in the nineteenth century was too apt to think its individualism -applicable to all conditions and peoples the world over; it had -not sufficiently understood its individualism as a historic growth -under western conditions which masked the conflict, for example, -{76} -between it and the Christianity the west supposed itself to accept. -Of the life of the Russian village we shall have more to say later -on, but it is well to have its attitude in mind so that we may -contrast this with the characteristics of the Baltic fringe. Here, -since the war, new states have been created and recognized (1921) -by the League of Nations under the names of Esthonia, Latvia, -and Lithuania. - -The two first have a Baltic-German element which has in the past -been a land-holding class, and has its historic links both with the -Teutonic Knights and with the Hanse--for Riga is an old Hanse -city of special importance. - -The Finnish element is strong enough in Esthonia to impose -its language on the people, but farther south tongues of ancient -Baltic lineage are dominant, and the new states are largely on -a basis of peasant language, the German elements being -disregarded, and to a considerable extent dispossessed. Having -passed through a stage of feudal subjection, the peasants are bent -on individual proprietorship, as they were in the eighteenth -century in France; and the war has brought a social revolution -along this border zone between the domains of the two churches, -with some marked resemblances to that of 1789-93 in France. -In Esth-speaking country there is but little forest that is not pine, -and only 10 per cent. of the soil can be made arable, it is said. -Though the Lett country is better, it can grow neither beech -nor oak to any extent; it is interested in dairying, and in this -matter naturally has commercial links with Denmark. The -Lithuanians are a grave European problem; they escaped the -Germanizing efforts of the Teutonic Knights, and felt instead the -Polonizing of their aristocracy, the abler scions of which have long -found opportunities at Warsaw. Set in the Lithuanian country -is Vilna, the station on the one reasonably dry entry from the -west into Central Russia, and therefore a trading town with large -German, Jewish, and Polish elements illustrating more tragically -{77} -than any other town the difficulty of creation of states in this -eastern boundary zone of Western Europe. The forests of -Lithuania are very important for the country's economic future. - -Thus south, as north, of the Petrograd-Vologda line, we have -contrasted conditions in the west, the centre, the east, but on -the south the Finn element is much less marked, and the central -European one much more so. Moving south again beyond the -Pripet marshes we find corresponding contrasts. - -On the west the Polish platform grades south-eastward into -the Ukraine or Border Land, with its great stretches of loess, -but also its patches of forest, especially near the waterways. -The forest thins out towards the open steppe of South Russia, -which in turn grades into desert patches near the Caspian. The -open steppe of South Russia is but the continuation of the great -steppes of Asia. - -To understand the peoples of this belt let us remember first -that the ancient graves contain many long-headed skulls, and that -this element in the people probably persists to a greater extent -than average figures show, in spite of the pressure of central -European, of late at least Slavonic-speaking, immigrants from the -west via Kief, and of Tatar immigrants from the east. Byzantine -elements from the south need also to be allowed for in the people -as well as in their civilization, in which matter Kief has become -as markedly the Byzantine sacred city of Russia as Canterbury is -the Romano-Gallic sacred city of England. - -In the Ukraine Poles have done a good deal of organizing work, -and put themselves in the position of landowners and leaders over -a Ruthenian peasantry. The landlords were attached to the -Roman Catholic faith, but the peasants to the Uniate Church -until the latter was crushed by Russia. The border of the -Ukraine towards the steppe is a very doubtful matter. Here -is the zone of unrest, with Tatar pressure at times and European -pressure at others; it is the limit of the settled life, and the -{78} -cultivated patches have needed specially watchful defence. Under -these conditions the Cossack people have grown up with a military -order of society and landholding for service. The people seem -to include an element of the old long-headed population (see -pp. 11, 14, and 77), together with both Slav and Tatar contributions, -Jews and Germans in the towns which are mostly of recent -creation, and a motley gathering of escaped serfs and landless -men from all around. - -The Don Cossacks are fairly distinct from the Orenburg and -Siberian Cossacks who live east of the desert patches that lie -north-west of the Caspian Sea. In what is broadly Cossack -country lies the very different Kuban country, with an almost -Mediterranean climate and possibilities of fruit cultivation; it -is said to have had an autonomous organization of its own for -some time during the recent years of unrest. Its people are -doubtless related to various elements among the Cossacks, but -one gathers that the descendants of old traders are more marked -than elsewhere. The Tatar (Turki) groups are so obviously an -intrusion from Asia that we need not say much about them as -such; we may more profitably think of them as pressing upon -Europe at one time and being pressed upon by Europe at another. - -Their tribal organization on a kinship basis and their mobility -have given them a power and a cohesion for offensive purposes -from time to time, and as Huns, Magyars, Bulgars, Szeklers, and -Tatars, they have been formidable hindrances to the settlement -of East and South-east Europe on western lines. We may note -first that Huns, Magyars, Szeklers, and Bulgars, penetrating far -from the South Russian steppe either past the Iron Gates, or -through the Carpathians or over the Danube into the Balkan -Mountains, have become settled folk. - -In Hungary they have formed a landed aristocracy with its -rural dependants, while leaving the peopling of the towns largely -to Jews and Germans and persons of mixed blood. In the Balkan -{79} -Mountains under less spacious conditions and with Turk -interference they have merged into a South Slav people, but have -modified that people and its language in the course of the process. -In South and East Russia there are many groups still distinct, and -the Crimea has long been theirs in principle. The relation of -these Asiatic warriors with Muscovy makes up the political -history of the Middle Ages in the future Russian plain, and when -that plain did become Russian, its religious autocracy found -greater possibilities of co-operation with the Asiatic element than -with the Western Powers then developing so fast towards -industrialism. So it came about that Peter the Great's historic -experiment in westernization, difficult for reasons of climate, -position, and opportunities, failed, and the Tsardom was drawn -towards the Orient on the whole against its will. - -The westward path of the Asiatic herdsmen beyond South -Russia led them into Moldavia and Wallachia, where the native -Vlach population sought refuge in the Carpathians and in the -hills of the centre of the Balkan Peninsula. It is a population -with a language of Latin syntactical affinities, and a 60 per -cent. Slav vocabulary, and is spoken by people who looked back with -pride to the days of Roman occupation of their land as Dacia. -So the Vlach people, essentially Central European round-heads -like the Slavs generally, have come to be distinct from their -neighbours in speech and in pride. In the matter of religion the -openness of the Danube entry and the coastal ways up the west -side of the Black Sea have made the people members of the -Eastern Church so far as Moldavia and Wallachia are concerned, -but the Vlachs of the Transylvanian hills are, or were, to -a large extent members of the Uniate Church (p. 70), -intermediate, as has been said, between the Roman and the Eastern. -After centuries of subjection and fractionization the Vlach peoples -have (1919) suddenly found themselves united in the new -Rumania, with the political and agrarian influence wrested from -{80} -their former Magyar, Szekler, and German lords, and the -peasantry of Wallachia and Moldavia have also secured a good -deal of the land previously in aristocratic, though in this case -often not alien hands. The old direction of the country was in -the hands of the aristocracy, and was often much criticized in -the west. The Jewish and German town populations were said -to be specially held down. Whether the new government will -merely continue the old with a peasant admixture or whether it -will seek to take a new line, remains to be seen. It is at any rate -interesting that this large language group is, for the first time, -a governmental unit, and tragic that so inexperienced a group -has within it such large and, for that matter, valuable elements -of alien language. It is said that the Oriental aspect of society -is well marked in the lesser towns, the greater having been -westernized, but it is questionable whether we should not be -more correct in describing these lesser towns as more resembling -our own in early mediaeval times before the garden-closes were -built upon to accommodate people crowding within their walls -for protection. - -The Vlachs beyond the new Rumania, in the centre of the -Balkan Peninsula, illustrate for us a noteworthy problem of that -troubled region. Whereas if we wish to get a picture of the -early stages of the settled life of cultivation in Europe we naturally -look to Russia, we may go to the Balkans for glimpses of the -remnants of the still earlier scheme of society when kinship groups -moved from place to place with flocks and herds. In the Peninsula -the western mountains shelter many a clan of ancient local -lineage, and much as these mountain clans have been affected by -Slav, Bulgar, Greek, Roman, Turkish, Magyar, and German-Austrian -pressure, a considerable group have remained true to -their pre-Slavonic language (Albanian), and, despite deep religious -differences amongst themselves, seem to tend towards some vague -national unity, largely as a protection against Greek and Slav in -{81} -the next generation. It is well to realize that these old -populations, even when Slavonized, are often most distinct from the -Slavs, and that they and the Vlachs are the nearest approaches -we have to an autochthonous population in the Peninsula. They -for the most part limit their movements to seasonal shifts up and -down hill, and, like the Highlanders of Scotland and others -similarly situated, have done their share of raiding on valley -cultivators, for if 'the mountain sheep are sweeter, the valley -sheep are fatter', as Peacock put it. Among the Albanian peoples -the Greek Church has done a good deal of propaganda at various -times, and as they are near the Adriatic and the Roman Via -Egnatia, the Roman Church has also used opportunities of -reinforcing them against Greek pressure. Moreover, all along this -mountain country Manichaean ideas replaced old heathendom -and primitive Christianity alike, and with the Manichaean -objection to symbolism and all approach to idolatry there was -a natural tendency to accept Islam without too much difficulty, -when it was brought by conquerors. So along the western -mountains of the Balkan Peninsula are many old groups confirmed -in their ancient possessions by the Turk, and practising -Islam in succession to Manichaean doctrines rather than to -Christianity. As the people on the fringes of the truly Albanian -clans speak two languages, in many cases there is as much doubt -about the proper political boundary of an Albanian state as there -would be about that of a Welsh state were it proposed to make -one separate from and hostile to England! Much harm has -recently been done by conscientious demarcators taking the -frontier line along 'empty' ridges which were really summer -pastures or ways thereto for many a shepherd clan now cut off -from its livelihood and ruined or forced to maraud. Among the -Albanian clansmen the leaders are often rather fine types with -the strength arising from a long maintenance of tradition, the -change to Islam not having been as fundamental as might be -{82} -supposed. It is the more regrettable that the antipathies -between them and their Slavonized brethren should have become -so acute. - -In the west of the peninsula, north of the region of Albanian -speech, many of the people are Slavonized autochthones, rather -than real Slav intruders, and this is true of the mountains of -Montenegro and of Bosnia, in the latter of which large numbers -of the landed folk are Muslim. The Slav peoples have, however, -penetrated everywhere from the valleys of the Save and Morava, -though one can still often recognize the old hill-type at sight. -Both are broad-headed, and are branches of the same basal stock, -but the old hill-type is often bigger and more lithe, and there -seem to be accompanying mental differences. At any rate these -distinctions were found practically useful in contacts with refugees -from Serbia in the recent war. The distinction between the -Illyrio-Slav and the Bulgar-Slav on the west and east of the -Balkan Peninsula is one with indefinite gradations and with -collateral complications due to Vlach elements on the hills and -long-established Greek elements along the coastal plain. The -appeal to race and language as a basis for political division is -almost futile; the appeal to history is misleading, for as in the -early west of Europe, so also here we find sudden growths and -more sudden collapses of empires based upon the ability and -ambitions of a leader; the appeal to religion has been encouraged -by the fact that Eastern Christianity tends to encourage national -churches and has education in its hands. We thus find that the -Bulgars by educational propaganda made their variant of Balkan -speech the definitive one in most of Macedonia, and that the -conflict between them and the Serbs has become fatally acute, -the more so as both have been used as cat's-paws by the Great -Powers of Europe ever since the Turkish hold weakened. The -erection of organized political frontiers within the Peninsula -limited the power of movement of the wandering shepherds, and -{83} -seems to have affected especially the Vlach elements of the centre, -which are said to be losing their separate character and to be -settling down. It also sharpened the internecine conflict, especially -since Russia, France, and Britain saw their opportunity of using -Serbia, from 1906 onwards, to resist the Central Powers, while -Bulgaria became of less interest to the Tsardom as she grew strong -enough to do without Russian tutelage. - -Broadly then, while Russia gave us an example of the poor -success of an attempt to fasten a State organization on a population -deeply immersed in localism and traditionalism but settled -and cultivating the land, the Balkan Peninsula illustrates tragically -the weaknesses of competing attempts to fasten State organizations -on a population, parts of which have as yet barely reached -the stage of settlement. The difficulties within the Peninsula -are undoubtedly enhanced by the sharp contrasts between the -highland interior and the coastal fringe on which for milleniums -already the influences of Crete and Babylon, Phoenicia, Greece -and Rome have been playing. - -It is a Mediterranean fringe with its hoe cultivation and -olive-trees already long established as the successors of an ancient -barley culture, and it has trade as such a long-standing secondary -feature of its life that observers not infrequently mistake it for -the primary one. Roman ideas have spread along the Istrian and -Dalmatian shores, and, in spite of Slavonizing influences, have -remained strong at Zara, Fiume, and Trieste, while, though -Croatia and Slavonia have remained Slavonic, their religion has -become Roman Catholic and their alphabet western. It thus -comes about that a not very deep difference of language between -the Slav regions of Serbia, on the one hand, and of Slavonia and -Croatia on the other is emphasized because the one uses the -Cyrillic alphabet, the others the western, and each has its systems -of schools on a religious basis, a serious problem for the new State -of Yugoslavia. It is probable that the recent settlement of the -{84} -Adriatic quarrel between Italy and Yugoslavia represents a fair -compromise so far as the two are concerned. - -South of Albania and around the Aegean the coastal fringe is -dominated by the Greek element, and the new Greece claims to -include all these coastal lands and to have the reversion of -Constantinople, the great inter-continental city which at the same -time commands the way from the steppe-lands to the Great Sea. -Constantinople is the more maritime successor of the less maritime -Troy of antiquity, and this, in conjunction with its history as -the basis of the Eastern Empire, the head-quarters of the Eastern -Church, and the seat of the Caliphate of Islam, all seems to argue -against its absorption in a nation-state organization and its -government by trustees acting not less for Islam than for Europe. -The problem of Constantinople is also that of the coastal fringe, -wherever the interior is non-Greek. On the language basis the -Greek claim is strong; on the economic basis, again, the traders -have rights of protection, but the cutting off of the coast from -the interior must be prejudicial to the latter. Unfortunately, -a trusteeship for government is almost put out of the question -by the fact that practically every European Great Power has -intrigued for a paramount influence, and all are justly suspect. -Thus both the national and the international solution of the -problem of a political and social organization of Balkan life seem -fraught with difficulty, and one can but urge the old, old argument -against preaching 'Peace, peace', where there is no peace. The -present hope would seem to be in the smaller nations of Europe -and perhaps in the American powers, for Latin America seems -likely to wish to play such a part in the reorganization of the -world as its growing economic importance justifies. - -The real difficulties of the Balkan peoples are enhanced in every -way by their disastrous political history, for none have, for centuries -past, had reasonable opportunities of self-expression. They therefore -lack the experience and the discipline of government, and they -{85} -have little effective written tradition, with the result that what -is written now is often very different from the spoken language -of the peasantry, and is correspondingly artificial and lacking in -healthy standardization. One may contrast the good fortune of -the Norwegians in having relatively peaceful opportunities of -revival of folk life and in having the wise and luminous Bjornsen -to develop literary expression in continuity with folk tradition. - -Of the Turk in Europe one cannot at present say much that is -definite. He is largely Europeanized in physique, and it is -doubtful whether much that is truly Turk remains in Europe outside -eastern Thrace. The Muslim elements in Albania and Bosnia -have other origins for the most part, as has been discussed. -Constantinople and Adrianople are markedly Turk. - -While, then, the various new states of the Peninsula are largely -on a language basis, it should be noticed that Vlach-speaking -peoples are scattered in groups in what is now Yugoslavia, and -their numbers are variously estimated up to 250,000 or more. -A considerable portion of Yugoslav Macedonia would probably -consider itself Bulgar, and there are Greek elements in the -Macedonian towns. Apart from Greek elements in the towns there -is little that is alien in the reduced Bulgaria. Rumania has groups -of many languages and traditions in all her newly acquired -territories, and will need to exercise every care to prevent serious -trouble in the near future. Yugoslavia includes a good deal of -German, a little Italian, some Magyar, and some Rumanian, as -well as Greek and more or less Bulgar elements, and a neutral -commission should go carefully into the question of the Albanian -boundaries. Italy's gains in Istria include a large Yugoslav -element. Greek acquisitions have such a mixed population that -little can be stated in detail. Finally, the Jewish element is of -widespread importance in the towns; the Ashkenazim (Central -European) element being very strong in Wallachia, and especially -in Moldavia, and the Sephardim element (once Spanish) having -{86} -its head-quarters at Salonica. Before leaving the Balkan peoples -it should be pointed out that, apart from their ancient hatreds, -there is really every reason for mutual help between them. -Rumania with its wheat and maize, Serbia with its forest-fed -pigs and its plums and other fruits, Bulgaria with its mixed -farming, and the Greek zones with their oil and wine, could -supplement each other if suspicions were diminished and mutual -credit arranged. The Greek element, with its long experience -of commerce, would be a natural intermediary, as Venizelos -saw when he planned a Balkan Federation; the obvious danger -would be that of exploitation of producers by middlemen, -especially if the latter were in a strong position politically. - -The use of Czech, Slovak, Polish, Ruthenian, Serb, Croat, and -Slovene for centuries largely as rural languages, with German to -a considerable extent a lingua franca for educated intercourse, -and Magyar imposed in and around Hungary by an aristocracy, -hindered the growth of the Slavonic languages until the nineteenth -century, and in that century it has been especially Czech, -Polish, and Croat that have pushed forward towards the status -of languages of civilization. Ruthenian remains in a sense the -most backward member of the group, so much so that its claims -have been conspicuously disregarded by the makers of the recent -treaties. The Ruthenes west of the Carpathians inhabit a poor -region which is to be included in Czechoslovakia with a measure -of local autonomy. Ruthenes in what was once Galicia are -largely under Polish proprietors, and that territory is to be -incorporated with Poland, while the Ruthenes of the Bukovina -and the west bank of the Dniester are now included in the -enormously enlarged Rumania. It may be that under the new -conditions these peoples will settle into the framework created -by the treaties, a framework based to a considerable extent upon -physical geography. But, on the other hand, if the Ukraine -should become strong and the Ruthenian language develop, there -{87} -is undoubtedly the possibility of the growth of an idea of 'Ruthenia -Irredenta' which may bring difficulties later on. At present -Ruthenes might well use Russian as their language. - -This seems the most appropriate place for a brief catalogue of -the peoples of East-Central and Eastern Europe whose languages -do not belong to the Indo-European family, though many have -already been mentioned. The Lapps moving between the high -moorlands of Scandinavia and the Kola peninsula speak a language -belonging to the Arctic-Asiatic group and are nomad herdsmen -of the reindeer; their numbers are small, but they provide a -curious background to Scandinavian life; and a certain amount -of intermarriage has caused some Swedes to carry their features. -Forms of Finnish speech, all more or less akin, are widespread from -Finland to the Urals, and the nationalist and democratic -movements of the last century have strengthened the speech of the -Finlanders proper at the expense of Swedish, the old language of -external culture relations in West Finland, and of Russian which -the Tsarist government sought to impose. Esth is closely related -to Finnish, and under the new conditions of nominal independence -may maintain itself by association with Finnish in spite of poverty -of land and people. Livonian is related to Esth and still survives -in parts of Latvia. Various groups of Finns, retaining their -languages, still remain distinct in the government of Perm and -near Kazan and Saratov. The Tatar groups on the grassland -and desert-border in South-east Russia so obviously belong to -Asia that they may be omitted from this survey. Like so many -mountain regions the Caucasus forms a refuge for ancient racial -types, old customs, and old forms of speech, but a survey of these -would take us far from European problems. - -Bulgar has been mentioned as a language with a Tatar element, -though it has been very largely Slavonized, but this fate has not -overcome the Magyar tongue, which is the distinctive feature of the -erstwhile ruling caste in Hungary and Transylvania. The language -{88} -is used both by the Magyars of Hungary and by the Szeklers, -who are a people of closely related origins, in parts of -Transylvania. The people are almost completely Europeanized in their -physique, but as they secured some degree of national cohesion -and of close attachment to their soil at an early stage of history, -their language has lived on, and of late its use has been fostered -by political ambition; it has become a mark of a ruling caste. It -may now become the rallying ground of aspirations for national -recovery after the collapse of 1918 and the severities of the recent -treaty. The Powers of Europe in framing the new boundaries -have at least suggested a campaign of linguistic nationalism to the -Magyars, for the reduced Hungary has considerable numbers of -people speaking its language who are now subjects of the states -around its borders. There has been no incentive to outsiders -to learn Magyar, and it remains isolated in Europe, useless beyond -its homeland and unlikely to contribute much to other languages. - - - - -9 - - _Some Phases of Evolution of European Life before the - Industrial Revolution_ - -We have now glanced around all the chief language groups in -Europe, and in the course of this rapid survey have noted that -whereas the peoples of Romance and Teutonic speech have built -up the organization known as the nation-state, in most cases on -a basis of linguistic unity, the peoples of the Slavonic regions, -with the partial exception of Bohemia, have hardly achieved this. -The intermingling of peoples and the difference of tradition -between town and country over wide areas are in part the cause -of this, but it has also been suggested that, in the east of Europe, -we have still surviving an earlier stage of the process of settlement -in the cleared forest than farther west, while in the south-east -{89} -we note the persistence of elements still hardly settled at all. It -will therefore repay us if we now try to make a rapid survey of -the evolution of the process of settlement with its variants in -different regions and of the indications of persistence of different -stages of the general process in various parts, chiefly of Eastern -Europe. - -All the evidence we have goes to show that after the Würm -Ice Age the first European peoples were hunters apparently -spreading up from the western Mediterranean basin. To them -must be added the hunters who seem to have spread along the -loess westwards. These two groups were bearers of the -Aurignacian and Solutrean cultures of anthropologists. Hunting -has remained a feature of European life ever since, but time has -brought too many changes in the hunter's life and position to -make it profitable to discuss possibilities of social survivals from -so long ago. The partial regrowth of the glaciers (Bühl period) -modified the hunting life; and associated with this cold-cycle -civilization (Magdalenian Age of the anthropologists) was the -great development of pictorial and sculptural art which has so -astonished the world since its rediscovery. As the cold passed -away, this time definitively, the sinking of the west converted -Britain and Ireland into islands, and so brought maritime -influences far into the Continent, with the result that forests -spread far and wide with wolf, bear, boar, wild cats, and birds -of prey to dispute them for a time with man. The zone of loess -and some wind-swept or calcareous areas near the sea or on the hills -remained relatively clear of forests and dry enough for occupation -by man, and on these areas men practised the art of herding -animals, moving from pasture to pasture, as circumstances required -or, increasingly, with the cycle of the seasons. There were -possibly already cultivators beginning to grow barley as a -supplement to herding or hunting. We should, however, be careful -not to argue that the beginning of cultivation necessarily implies -{90} -settling down in one place; the Vlachs often sow and reap a -barley crop without making more than a very temporary sojourn. - -The development of civilization was not purely and simply -a development of herding from hunting, nor was the herding -purely analogous in social features to that of the tribe on the -grasslands. The development was accompanied by differentiation, -and it seems clear that herding was very early carried on -with much greater restriction of movement than on the grass-lands -and desert borders of Asia. There was quite early a tendency -to a regular cycle of seasonal change (_transhumance_) rather than to -broad wandering, and our territorial instinct is very old. - -With this statement properly goes another to the effect that -some kind of cultivation became a supplement to the herder's -life almost at the outset, and we may further surmise that some -part of the population would soon remain near the more cultivable -lands to guard them. Thus restriction of seasonal wandering -to a part of the population is another very old feature of life, one -judges, in many, though not in all parts of Europe. In the -Val d'Anniviers, so clearly marked that territorial disputes could -hardly arise, and at the same time freed from ravages of wild -beasts, practically the whole population still moves up and down -with the change of the seasons, though it has permanent buildings -at each of its four stations. Reference has already been made -to the Vlach wanderers of the Balkan Peninsula, and one might -also speak of the Lapps, whose movements along the moorlands -of Scandinavia were formerly a source of frontier trouble between -Sweden and Norway. - -With the development of the phase of civilization called -Neolithic in Europe goes the making of pottery, which implies -tendencies to live in one place at least for a time, the utilizing of -particular types of stone from particular spots suggesting a -long-continued exploitation of the special source, the making of very -definite settlements on the Swiss lakes, and the developing of -{91} -crop-growing and weaving and so on by their inhabitants. Both -settlement and trade seem indicated, but it is most probable that -many of the lake-dwellers also used the spring pastures on the -hills. The distribution of the great stone monuments and several -other matters indicate the growth of long-distance sea trade -about the end of the Neolithic Age and in the period when the use -of copper and bronze was spreading round the coasts of Europe; -and a recently discovered Mesopotamian tablet dated 2800 B.C. gives -facts about tribute paid to Babylon from tin lands beyond -the Great Sea (Spain). Development of settlement must have -continued in the Bronze Age, still mainly on the naturally -open lands rather than in the cleared forest, and it is a notable -fact that, save in a very few areas with special explanations -available, the regions of megaliths do not show examples of the kind -of village, with strips once owned in common, which is so -characteristic of regions of cleared forest, though not the only type -there. - -The hardening of bronze was one of the most important facts -affecting man's advance in the Bronze Age, and we have -abundant indications (see papers in archaeological and anthropological -journals by H. J. E. Peake) of man's ability to attack the -forest seriously ere bronze gave place to iron. The attack -on the forest was undoubtedly redoubled when man acquired -iron weapons, and so the Early Iron Age witnessed extensive -settlement in forest clearings in Europe north of the Alps, and -with that went increase of corn-growing. South of the Alps the -warming of the climate after the Ice Age had helped to reduce -the forest, especially in view of the large stretches of limestone -and the sharp slopes which have always hindered regrowth of -forest once destroyed. - -The Mediterranean region, by reason of the long summer -drought, has become with the establishment of its present climate -less fit for pasturing of animals and more suited to the goat than -{92} -to cattle or sheep. As a result of this the destructive goat has -reduced the forests and hindered their regrowth. The difficulty -of stock-raising encouraged efforts towards cultivation, which is -certainly very old in the Mediterranean region, and has passed -through several phases that need elucidation. It seems probable -that barley cultivation was established very early, and bee and -fruit culture were gradually gathered around it, the olive proving -invaluable as a substitute for animal fat. But ere the olive could -be grown in quantity there had to be a good deal of organization, -for it does not begin to bear till it is almost eight years old, and -is in full bearing when it is nearing its thirtieth year. To wait -for the olive, therefore, meant possession of some reserves and -assurance of food supplies, such as imported grain, ere much land -could be turned into olive groves. War and unsettlement worked -against olive culture, for the risks of destruction of an olive grove -were then serious, and the consequences disastrous. - -If, however, olive culture was, on the one hand, the result of -a measure of peace and prosperity, it was also in most cases the -presage of further growth of prosperity; the harvest was reasonably -assured and immensely valuable, especially as it could be -transported far and wide by sea. The relation of olive culture -to the classical period in Greece is well known. We seem to have -grounds for associating city growth in the Mediterranean with -trade and the spread of large-scale olive culture as well as with -the question of defence. - -Both north and south of the Alps the dependence of man on -cereals after he gave up his milk and flesh diet seems to have made -him desire salt, and the Early Iron Age settlements of Gaul are -closely related to sources of salt, while the Mediterranean -coast-lands had ample opportunities of salt getting. The pig had been -domesticated by this time, and the salting of bacon and fish gave -a reserve for the winter, but it has been claimed that salt was also -in request for forms of porridge, &c. In thinking of the early -{93} -settlements we should remember that north of the Alps there was -perpetual danger lurking in the dark forest, while in the south -there were the rough goatherds of the mountains. - -In the last millennium before Christ the worsening of the -Scandinavian climate drove peoples southwards towards Gaul, and thus -led to a growth of hill-fortress towns, of which the supreme -examples were Alesia, Gergovia, and Bibracte, and from Gaul -the building of these fortress towns spread, with sea commerce, -up the west coast of Britain, where Tre'r Ceiri on Yr Eifl in -Carnarvonshire furnishes us with one of the best examples of this -type of settlement of the Iron Age or Romano-British times. - -For the purposes of this sketch it is not necessary to go into -great detail about the Roman efforts, but we should note that -within the bounds of their Empire they spread wheat cultivation, -road communications, and their legal system, and that along with -this seems to have gone a cheapening of iron. All these changes -helped to knit the people to the soil, to make neighbourhood -take the place of kinship as a basis of association, to root a language -in the people's hearts. It is the men who 'lacte et carne vivunt', -as Caesar puts it, who organize on a kinship basis, move from -place to place, and lack the written records which do so much for -language fixation. - -We thus see in Gaul villages of various types in regions of -differing history and opportunity, but pre-Roman fortress towns -and Roman cities between them networking the country and -related to roads built or adapted by the conquering engineers, -and we note the implanting of linguistic features that not all the -shocks of later disruptions have contrived to uproot. In Britain -again are villages of varying types, pre-Roman or Romano-British -fortress towns, chiefly on the west coast headlands, Roman cities -for the most part speedily ruined, and Roman roads. The -difference in the vitality of the cities is to be correlated with the -difference as to language; the Roman elements in our language -{94} -are for the most part the result of reintroduction later on. The -Roman element in Welsh is usually allowed to be important. - -If the spread of the rural Franks and of the Anglo-Saxons into -the erstwhile Roman domains led to the submergence of the old -cities and to much village foundation, there is at any rate a -growing opinion that it did not destroy all continuity in either Gaul -or Britain, that a good deal in our rural life goes back, as above -hinted, to the late Bronze Age. The system of the manor under -which the villagers give service to a military protector is too easily -mixed up with the village system in discussions. The manor, -with complex origins, is characteristic of post-Roman days -of movement and strife. The civilizing element promoting -agriculture and the law is furnished by the Church, which, with -the centuries, spread its work over the Rhine, beyond the bounds -of the Empire, right away to the limits of Europe-of-the-Sea, -that is of the lands near Baltic or Mediterranean, or west of a -north-south line near the east ends of those seas. - -With the settling down which heralded the Middle Ages after -the Dark Centuries of movement and war, we thus find the -following broad facts. In the Mediterranean, where fruit culture -and the city-state and trade were already old, that type of life -reasserted itself even though the division of life on the north and -the south sides (characteristic long before in Phoenician times) -of the sea made grave difficulties. - -In Spain the conflict between Islam and Christians inhibited the -development of both and delayed everything. In both cases the -military organization was unhealthily important, and the Muslim -of the south kept much of their old social scheme based on the -tribe, whereas they should have been adapting themselves to the rich -land of Andalusia which they held. The result of the inhibitions -made the Muslim far more of a misfit in the Andalusian garden -than were the Christians on the heights of northern Spain, where -seasonal movement of flocks and herds (_transhumance_) is still -{95} -very important. The Muslim of the south thus gradually declined -both in value and in influence, and though in earlier times they -had been far more cultured than their Christian foemen, they had -dropped far behind in organization before their subjugation in -the fifteenth century. One should nevertheless bear in mind -possible valuable survivals from the Muslim in matters of detail -or of individual work. In Gaul cultivation had spread and had -improved under monastic leadership; markets were growing -under protection of the cathedrals, and were becoming the -town centres that have persisted as the highly characteristic -market towns of the Paris basin. After years of rivalry with -Frankish dialects the old Roman heritage of language triumphed -with some compromises, and became the _langue d'oïl_, the speech of -the Paris basin and upper Burgundy, and the progenitor of standard -modern French. In Britain the rural element seems to have -predominated until Gaulish influences again became strong in the -eleventh century. - -In the lands beyond the Rhine the abbeys were promoting -agriculture, with towns growing some time after the corresponding -phases were carried through in Gaul, and with the power of -the war lord very strongly marked. In the Slavonic lands the -phases of settlement and town growth are later still with the -church and the war lord in close association, as is exemplified -both by the Teutonic Knights in East Prussia and by the inclusion -of the cathedral in the castle precincts in Prague and Cracow. - -Growth of market towns and of communications, still largely -mule tracks no doubt, was leading to fixation of language as -discussed in an earlier chapter. One may mention, incidentally, -that old mule tracks persist on lands in old-fashioned corners like -the Channel Islands, where they are very numerous, and may -form rings around the demesnes of the more important houses. -The growth of markets was bringing neighbours together, weakening -dialectal differences, and so helping to fuse local groups into -{96} -nations on a basis of common language and common tradition -expressed in growing poetry and prose in the evolving languages. -Against these influences must be set that of the Roman heritage -of universalism so vigorously represented by the Church, which -the Holy Roman Empire tried so hard to imitate. - -The poverty of the villagers and their weakness in face of the -dangers of the forest and its wanderers, outlaws, and adventurers -is an outstanding fact of the development of the next phase. -There was insufficient freedom for agricultural experiment save -to some extent in the monastery gardens, and insufficient -knowledge for useful discussion, so cultivation methods remained in -the grip of custom, with the modification due to the spread of -the three-field system. Even the fallows could not keep the -land up to a proper grade of fertility. - -So traditional cultivation on lands owned or worked in common -by the villagers was ever under threat of disruption, and doubtless -the severities of climate and plague in the fourteenth century -contributed their quota to the disintegration of the old mode of -life. The complaint of diminished fertility made itself heard far -and wide, and the end of the Middle Ages witnessed the breakdown -of the old village system in the west. Trade and the voyages -of discovery furnished supplementary sources of wealth, and the -beginnings of larger industry grew out of this. In East-Central -Europe change was delayed partly because there was still much -forest land to be adapted, but largely because of the absorption -of the people in struggles against Turk and Tatar. Even there, -however, the old village system decayed in the end, and it is only -in central Russia that it has maintained itself among the Slavonic -peoples, who, almost to this day, from one point of view, may be -looked upon as colonists spreading in the forests and their borders -in Muscovy. - -Of the lands north of the Mediterranean, France was most -favoured agriculturally, and owed most to the Roman heritage -{97} -of unity, and here grew _la grande nation_, while farther east national -growth was delayed largely by attempts at an imperial unity, -worked up as a device for defence against the Turk and Tatar. -National growth in isolated or semi-isolated lands like the English -plain, Holland, Sweden, and the central Scottish lowland was also -a feature, while the diverse outlooks of the diverse coasts of -Ireland and the weakness of that country's interior made the -Green Isle the tragic type of the island which is so generally -disunited. - -Villagers with common lands gave place, with many a struggle, -to landholding by proprietors with labourers under them, and if -in Britain the labourer became landless and so fitted himself to -become machine-fodder in the Industrial Revolution, in France -he struggled to keep his link with the sacred soil of that sunny -land, and ultimately won his position of ownership in the -Revolution of the end of the eighteenth century. This change -made itself felt as far as the Rhine, beyond which the peasant -still remained subject to heavy seigniorial dues. It is claimed -that during the recent war there has been a great move towards -peasant proprietorship or something akin to it in the lands near -the eastern border of Europe-of-the-Sea, carrying eastward, as it -were, the work done one hundred years ago in France. - -Facts about decline of the old village communities are legion, -and cannot even be listed here, but attention may be drawn to -the spread of root crops (for winter food for man and beast) in -the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. This helped materially -to break down traditionalism, for it interfered with the old right -of the villagers to free pasture of all the village cattle all over the -stubble left after harvest: the lands with root crops had to remain -enclosed. Of the new wealth brought in by individual -proprietorship and root crops and other agricultural experiments, -we have much evidence in the farmhouse buildings of the seventeenth -and eighteenth centuries; those of the years 1720-60 or -{98} -so seem specially characteristic in Guernsey, Channel Islands. -But the problem of fertility was not solved, even though -leguminous crops were ploughed in and the chemical decomposition -of the soil was speeded up by liming. Trade and long sea voyages -loomed larger in the lives of the European peoples and industry -grew ever larger, so that the urban element gained immensely in -numbers and influence. We thus have a picture of the preface, -as it were, to the Industrial Revolution, but another series of -changes had been working to the same end. - -The spread of the habit of sea trade from the Mediterranean -to North-west Europe led to changes in the design and -construction of ships. By the middle of the seventeenth century old -difficulties about disease due to stinking bilge-water had largely -been overcome, and ships were being built with better proportions -for speed and manoeuvring, and in the early eighteenth -century came the full adaptation of the fore-and-aft sail and the -use of mahogany and other hard woods from the tropics for -ship furniture, and so for house furniture too. With all this went -increased size and speed of ships and ability to tack effectively, -and so, broadly, to follow a course even if winds were variable. -With all this new power and also the development of armaments, -Europe found herself in a position to exploit the other parts of -the earth inhabited by other races less well equipped. They -gradually, nay almost suddenly, became the producers of raw -materials, food-stuffs, and fertilizers for the vastly increasing -populations of industrial Europe, which began to teem in the -manufacturing cities when coal and steam machinery were added -to the European equipment. - -Along with this industrial development has gone the nationalist -revival to which reference has already been made in several places -(pp. 23, 33, 35, 49, 62-3), a cultural movement which in the -nineteenth century became politically embittered, and which through -its imperialistic outgrowths in England, Germany, France, and -Russia has been a main factor of the recent war. - - - - -{99} - -10 - -_Aspects of Modern Europe_ - -The Industrial Revolution supervened in England first. Her -landless labourers, her rather uncertain harvests, her severance -from the Roman tradition at the religious schism, her growth of -sea-power and trade, as well as the invention of James Watt, all -contributed to this end. The necessary coal was found in places -mostly remote from the great centres of English tradition, and -industry grew where the civic heritage was weak and the lands, -even the common lands of the market towns, had been enclosed -by proprietors, who also often replaced the monks of the -Middle Ages as landlords without attempting to fulfil their -other functions. The growth of our huge industrial agglomerates -on private land with an oligarchic government of landowners, -and, since 1830, factory owners and their associates, has naturally -had as a result the policy of non-interference, so that crowding -has been permitted and even encouraged, and the slum, which -is now deteriorating the quality of the population, is the inevitable -result, bringing in its train practically all the most serious social -problems of our day, the stunting of growth and judgement, the -craving for excitement and emotion as a substitute for thought, -the aesthetic degradation which carries with it the loss of -keenness on one's work. To compensate for this we have only got -a vast accumulation of profits in the form of mobile capital, so -much of which has been blown into space in 1914-18. The -accumulation of capital, it should be appreciated, would have -been far less had it not been that industrial primacy and the -primacy of the carrying trade happened, as above suggested, to -be closely associated in one and the same people. - -From England the Revolution has spread along the coal belt -through northern France and Belgium, Germany, Bohemia, and -{100} -Poland to Russia, with characteristic modifications from region -to region, according to the local circumstances and social heritage -of the people affected. But before proceeding to note these -differences it is important to realize one general change which -has many aspects. In the old village with its law based on the -custom of the neighbourhood, each had his or her place unless -cast out: one's status was all-important and not easily changed. -In England the labourer became landless, drifted to the factories, -made a contract for his labour, and so changed the organization -of society from an organization based on status to one based on -contract. That change is still going on, and the remnants of old -ideas of status have struggled hard against such measures as -death duties, super-tax, and the rest, which all tend in the -direction of making labour, however disguised, the great medium -of exchange. This big alteration from status to contract has -affected the whole of industrial Europe and has spread thence as -a ferment of change far beyond our continent, but in Europe the -change has hardly anywhere gone so far as it has in Britain. - -In France coal was far less abundant than it was in England, and -the struggle for the soil went in favour of the peasantry rather -than of the plutocracy as with us. Both these facts, added to -those of the sunny climate, have made the Industrial Revolution -far more feeble in France. The antiquity and continuity of life -in the market towns has led to the persistence of small industries, -often with a very long-standing personal link between master -and men; hence the difficulty of the impersonality of industrial -organization from which we suffer so badly in Britain is less -general in France, though they also have the limited company -to contend with. The wealth of the country for so many -centuries has encouraged high-class--one might say, -luxurious--manufacture, and jewellery, porcelain, -and silk are characteristic -products. - -The persistence of special quality lines in the cloth trade -{101} -is another feature, but on the whole the story of French industry -has been one of half-hearted effort only. The Treaty of Versailles -puts an enormous amount of iron ore into the French Customs -Union, so that France becomes by far the greatest European -producer of iron minerals, though her coal supply is deficient. It -remains to be seen whether the French people will develop more -industrial activity in consequence of this, and also whether they -will go in for increased use of the hydro-electric power they have -within their territory. - -The Flemings have an old-established industrial and commercial -tradition much less divorced from peasant life than in our country. -Their Walloon neighbours, on the other hand, have entered into -industrialism recently, and their country has changed suddenly -from a backward rural area to a very busy manufacturing one, -using large quantities of imported raw material. The people were -cultivators and stock-raisers by long tradition, and they have tried -to keep up this activity in some measure, while a protective -customs duty on meat keeps up the stock-raising business. Another -traditional (in fact racial) feature here is the genius for -co-operation, and this works itself out in widespread insurance schemes -maintained by the people. - -Among the Germans the background of industrial development -was very different from that which we have noted in Britain. -Where the river valleys leave the hills for the northern plain are -old cities of great dignity and fame, and though they were -somewhat decadent after the decay of the Hanse, they were strong -enough to keep their common lands and their tradition of city -government from the Middle Ages. Coal was found along this -zone, and it became industrialized, but the new movement had -to respect the cities, which grew often on public land. The old -city of Nürnberg developed industrial refinements on the basis -of craftsmanship, which owed a great deal to the old business of -distributing goods from the East brought up from Venice to its -{102} -mart. There was thus neither on the one hand the same general -growth of slums as in Britain, nor on the other the accumulation -of immense profits from slum development to be used as liquid -capital for speculative purposes. Moreover, the industrial effort -in Germany was contemporaneous with the effort to make Germany -a real nation-state, and each movement influenced the other. -Much thought was given to the question of the national balance-sheet, -and industry was made to help agriculture by conversion -of waste products into fertilizers. Thus, though Germany was -experiencing the same cityward drift of people as Britain, her -agriculture remained in a far stronger position than ours, and with -that went the probability of better maintenance of the quality of -the people. The wasting of resources on war, the distrust created -by aggressive intrigues, the loss of territory and minerals, and the -loss of health of the people through the blockade, all imply -changes in the situation of the German people, the consequences -of which it is difficult to foresee. - -German industry utilized Polish labour in large quantities, and -was much concerned with the westward-flowing Slavonic stream -which was said to be altering the character of the German people. -On the other hand, a German stream of organization flowed -eastward and south-eastward, and the industrial fever made great -strides in the latter half of the nineteenth century in Bohemia, -in Austria proper, in Upper Silesia, and in Poland. In Bohemia it -emphasized the differences between German and Slavonic elements -of the people; in Upper Silesia and in Poland the Germans were -mainly found in the towns, especially in the leader class, and often -difference of language and sentiment between masters and men -was a very undesirable feature. - -Polish industrial centres were correspondingly notorious for -their bad social conditions before the war. - -The industrial fever spread to Russia, and of its entry into that -country we get a useful sketch in Kropotkin's _Fields, Factories, -{103} -and Workshops_. Here was a country with marked seasonal cycles, -and often at first manufacture was made a winter occupation, -and was hoped by some to offer a means of rescuing many of the -people from some of the evils of the severe Russian winter. In -the Ukraine Poles seem to have done a good deal of the industrial -organization, and it was natural that German experience should -carry great influence. It was said that the co-operative, -even communist, traditions of the people accounted for much -in the form of organization of industry, the guilds or artels being -a distinctive feature. Needless to say that, with transport ill -developed, education neglected, and self-government impossible -under the Tsar, Russian industry was of doubtful efficiency and -social conditions bad. One must, however, remember that -industry was only beginning. - -In addition to the main zone of industry which we have now -followed along the coal zone from Britain to Russia, the attempt -was made near small coalfields elsewhere, and even at times away -from coal, to glean some of the wealth industry brought. About -1895, however, hydro-electric power became transmissible over -long distances and thus much more applicable. This change -created new regions of industry in Scandinavia and around the -Alps. Both Sweden and Norway use this power, and it has -made an immense difference, especially to Norway. In the case -of Norway the weakness of class distinctions has led to the careful -organization of good social conditions, in spite of serious -difficulties because of the very limited sites available. In Switzerland, -South Germany, and Italy, up to 1914, the use of hydro-electric -power was creating a valuable community of interest and problems -that was drawing the whole region together, while Switzerland -was becoming strong economically in a way undreamed of before. -Post-war developments will need to be watched with care and -breadth of view. Hydro-electric power was being developed in -pre-war France, and will probably be a great help to that country -{104} -if greater care is taken on the social side than was taken in the -early stages of the movement. It has been claimed that a -hydro-electric power system could be developed all around the Iberian -plateau, and something is said to have been done recently towards -its development. In the British Isles only a few spots can give -enough power to make an installation an economic success in the -present state of knowledge, so that in a water-power age Britain -would have a minor position. It seems doubtful at present -whether this form of power will become anything more than -an accessory. It is noteworthy that in the Alpine region it helps -a population fundamentally inclined to patient detailed work to -build up an industry in fine electrical machinery partly developed -from an old watchmaking tradition. - -The utilization of tidal power has been debated, and a scheme -for the Severn estuary, as well as one for the north coast of Brittany, -has been elaborated. Should this line of development be followed -in the future, Britain's position and the power of the tides at -several points would assist greatly. - -For the present, however, the fashionable power is oil, of which, -so far as is known, Britain has only a very little, and in which the -whole of Western Europe is also poor. But oil is rather easily -transportable, and Western Europe's powers of transport are being -used to exploit sources of oil in such places as are not already in -the sphere of influence of the United States of America. However -this may be disguised, it is none the less an indication of Europe's -increasing dependence on other regions for what her industry -needs. Large amounts of raw products now come from outside -Europe, and if power also comes from afar, Europe's advantages -will be restricted to her climate in its relation to efficiency, her -capital, her tradition of skill which she has endangered by the -enormous amount of specialization developed among her workers, -and her ownership and control of transport by sea. On this last -point it is noteworthy that the great advance made by the -{105} -United States of America does not seem to be fully maintaining -itself. - -For the immediate future the incalculable water-power available -in the monsoon lands, the immense and easily workable deposits -of coal in Shansi (North China), the coal and oil available in and -near the United States of America, the huge water-power that -might be utilized in several parts of America, the possibilities of -tidal power in many regions, and the production of power-alcohol -from equatorial vegetation, are all interesting factors of a situation -the precariousness of which for the thickly populated areas of -Western Europe is obvious to all. With their organization based -upon skill and patience, the peoples of Central Europe may well -go on developing, perhaps even exploiting, the Russian and -Turanian lands on their eastern flank, as these latter do not seem -likely to become industrial for some time. On the other hand, -a Sino-Japanese development of industry on a large scale is always -possible, and, if wisely managed, should have the benefit of the -skill, taste, and honesty of the Chinese merchant as well as of the -skilful industry of the Chinese workman, whose frugality and -cheerfulness would make him a formidable competitor. The -signs of the times are thus in favour of the departure of industrial -primacy from Europe, however much political effort may contrive -to delay the change. - -Before following out this thought it will be best to mention -some of the collateral developments in European and other lands -more indirectly affected by industrialism. The huge factory -populations need food, and the imported food supply of Europe -is an enormous problem. Cereals and some fruits may be carried -with ease, but the factory hands and especially the miners and -furnacemen need meat, and though meat can be carried in -refrigerators or alive, yet imported meat suffers through transport. -While therefore Australia, Argentina, and other regions are very -busy supplying stock products, there is a good deal of stock-raising -{106} -and dairy work to be done in Europe. Holland and Denmark -have specialized in this matter, and the latter made herself a centre -for dairy produce from Holland and Lithuania and even Russia -before 1914. With political and social peace Ireland would -undoubtedly develop in this way. Several hill regions, like Central -France and parts of Switzerland, were also busy stock-raising, and -are likely to prosper in this direction if European industry -maintains itself. - -In Switzerland the high ledge-pastures or alps have a remarkable -growth of hay in spring after the snow melts, and this gives -advantages over our British high lands. For their better utilization -it would be necessary to improve the breeds of grasses, and -important experiments for this purpose are in progress in Wales. -In the Highlands of Scotland the population is decreasing fast, -and thus Britain is losing a most valuable element in her -population, an element trained to endure hardness and traditionally -interested in serious thought. - -The large financial resources of industrial populations and the -thriftlessness so inevitably developed under the circumstances of -their life in its present anarchic phase, further lead to a demand -for luxury foods, flowers, and so on, and Holland and the Channel -Islands are notable providers of these extras. The increase of -fine machinery and other factors make it fairly certain that olive -oil will have a good market for a long time, even if pea-nut oil -is used alongside of it. Olive oil and fruits offer opportunities -for the Mediterranean. - -Thus practically every part of Europe is directly or indirectly -brought into the process of industrial development, and all are -increasingly dependent on the world outside, however much the -German people may have tried to maintain their agriculture. - -This dependence and the precariousness of Europe's industrial -position, added to the fact that with an effort and some amount -of goodwill the peoples of Europe could grow to understand one -{107} -another, especially in view of their common debt to the Roman -heritage, make it unthinkable that what is practically civil war -can be tolerated much longer in Europe. Before 1914 the Labour -Movement was clearly working towards the weakening of the -idea of the nation-state and its sovereignty, but the events of -1914 showed that the movement had not yet gained a real hold -on men's imagination. The new League of Nations movement -is an evidence of development of the same line of thought among -the thinkers of the Continent, and is slowly gathering momentum -through the creation of institutions with laws for their guidance, -and the promise of the growth of a body of lawyers as interested to -maintain those institutions as the lawyers of the nation-states have -been to maintain that form of organization. The League has had -to take up the question of the relations of Europe to distant lands, -and has stood for a principle of trusteeship, the fate of which is -trembling in the balance. The more hopeful Europeans see signs -of the growth of co-operation, and find indications of it even as -between France and Germany. Britain is torn between the -attitudes of solidarity with Europe and of aloofness from Europe -and association with distant lands of English speech. Perhaps -the improvement of the League of Nations scheme or its -transformation after discussions with the leaders of the United States -of America will give a means to put an end to this dilemma by -reconciling both aims. - -Therein lies one of the greatest hopes for the salvaging of -civilization, though Britain's other problem of rescuing her -population from degenerative tendencies due to industrialism is -as clamant for solution if the world's peace is to develop. That -industry should spread, that every people should maintain an -agricultural background, and that the peoples of Europe should -find means to co-operate in matters of imports from the tropics, -transport arrangements, and labour conditions, must be the hope -of all who think of the future seriously, even if this means the -{108} -discarding of ambitions of power which in less critical times -disguised themselves under the cloak of patriotism. This does -not mean the destruction of patriotism, but rather its ennoblement -into a passion for the well-being and the health of future -generations of the people, for the enrichment of each heritage -of language, literature, tradition, and art by active effort, and for -the growth of that toleration which is the accompaniment of -self-control and its attendant liberty and peace. - - -[NOTE.--The writer wishes to express his most sincere thanks to -his friends and fellow workers in the fields of research concerned, -especially to Miss R. M. Fleming and Mr. H. J. E. Peake, and -the late Professor V. Giuffrida-Ruggeri.] - - - - -{109} - -BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTES - -Among the most important general reference works one must mention the -chief encyclopaedias, Reclus's _Géographie universelle_ -(also in English), the -_International Geography_, -the _Dictionnaire de Géographie universelle_ (V. de -S. Martin). Ratzel's _Anthropogeographie_ -and Brunhes's _La Géographie humaine_ -and _Géographie humaine de la France_ -should also be mentioned here. Bowman, -_The New World_, has a fine collection of maps -relating to the political -resettlement of Europe. - -On Race Questions the standard book is -W. Z. Ripley's famous work, _The -Races of Europe_, supplemented by -G. Sergi's _Europa_ in Italian and by a -number of papers by Keith, Parsons, Peake, Fleure, -and others in the _Journal -of the Royal Anthropological Institute_ -during the last ten years. Dr. Haddon -and Mrs. Quiggin have issued a valuable -revision of Keane's _Man, Past and -Present_. Déchelette's _Archéologie_ -is the standard work in its field and may -be supplemented from Burkitt's _Prehistory_ -and Macalister's _Archaeology_. - -On Languages and their Distribution the student may begin by consulting -A. Meillet's _Les Langues dans l'Europe nouvelle_ -and L. Dominian on _Frontiers -of Language and Nationality in Europe_. -From these books a bibliography can -be compiled to suit the student's purpose. - -The evolution of social conditions in Europe -is so complex that it has not -as yet received synthetic treatment, -but some tentative efforts are useful if -read critically. Among them one may note -the files of _La Science sociale_ and -Demolins's _Comment la route crée le type social_, -Guizot's _Histoire de la -Civilisation en Europe_, Kropotkin's _Mutual Aid_, -his _Fields, Factories, and Workshops_, -and his _Memoirs of a Revolutionist_, -as well as Jenks's works, such as the little -_History of Politics_, and Geddes's _Cities in Evolution_. - -It is impossible to give an adequate list of books -on special regions, but the -following will be found of value for various parts -of the Continent involved in -the recent treaties: - -P. Vidal de la Blache, _Tableau de la Géographie -de la France_; P. Vidal de -la Blache, _La France de l'Est_; R. Blanchard, -_La Flandre_; H. J. Mackinder, -_The Rhine_; _Atlas de Finlande_; P. Leroy Beaulieu, -_The Empire of the Tsars_; -A. B. Boswell, _Poland and the Poles_; J. Cvijic, -_La Péninsule balkanique_; -M. I. Newbigin, _Geographical Aspects -of Balkan Problems_; M. E. Durham, -{110} -_The Burden of the Balkans_; E. de Martonne, -_La Valachie_; A. Philippson, -_Das Mittelmeergebiet_; D. G. Hogarth, _The Nearer East_. - -Further guidance to books on regions of Europe will be found in the -valuable handbooks issued by the British Government in two series, -i.e. the handbooks issued by the Intelligence Department -of the Admiralty, and -the handbooks issued by the Historical Section of the Foreign Office. - -The reader interested in some of the problems may wish to consult -J. Fairgrieve's _Geography and World-Power_, -H. J. Mackinder's _Democratic Ideals and -Reality_, H. J. Fleure's _Human Geography in Western Europe_, -and C. B. Fawcett's -_Frontiers_. - -The standard journals have issued important articles by Hinks, Lyde, -Newbigin, and others on the rearranged -boundaries of European states, and -among books concerned with the new Europe one may mention J. M. Keynes, -_Economic Consequences of the Peace_; I. Bowman, _The New World_; -M. I. Newbigin, _Aftermath_; and H. J. Fleure, -_The Treaty Settlement in Europe_. - -The new _Times Atlas_ is invaluable, and may be supplemented on the -historical side by use of the well-known -historical atlases of F. Schrader, Poole, -Ramsay Muir, Diercke, and others. -Several valuable maps occur only in Vidal -de la Blache, _Atlas général_. - - - - PRINTED IN ENGLAND - AT THE OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS - - - - -[Illustration: Rear end paper] - - - - - - - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PEOPLES OF EUROPE *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part -of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm -concept and trademark. 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