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diff --git a/old/68412-0.txt b/old/68412-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 49c78f3..0000000 --- a/old/68412-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,13416 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of Philosophical transactions,, by Royal -Society - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: Philosophical transactions, - Giving some account of the present undertakings, studies, and - labours of the ingenious, in many considerable parts of the - world. Vol. L. Part II - -Author: Various - -Compiler: Royal Society - -Release Date: June 26, 2022 [eBook #68412] - -Language: English - -Produced by: Charlene Taylor, Eleni Christofaki and the Online - Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This - file was produced from images generously made available by - The Internet Archive) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PHILOSOPHICAL -TRANSACTIONS, *** - - - - - -Transcriber’s Note - -Variable spelling and hyphenation have been retained. Minor punctuation -inconsistencies have been silently repaired. The Errata of the original -edition have been corrected. Other changes made can be found at the end -of the book. Formatting and special characters are indicated as follows: - - [Sidenotes] - _italic_ - +spaced font+ - =bold= - - - - - PHILOSOPHICAL - TRANSACTIONS, - GIVING SOME - ACCOUNT - OF THE - Present Undertakings, Studies, _and_ Labours, - OF THE - INGENIOUS, - IN MANY - Considerable Parts of the WORLD. - - - VOL. L. +PART II.+ For the Year 1758. - - _LONDON_: - - Printed for +L. DAVIS+ and +C. REYMERS+, - Printers to the +ROYAL SOCIETY+, - against _Gray’s-Inn Gate_, in _Holbourn_. - - M.DCC.LIX. - - - - - THE - CONTENTS - TO - PART II. VOLUME L. - - - LIX. _AN Account of the Effects of Electricity in paralytic Cases. - In a Letter to_ John Pringle, _M. D. F.R.S. from_ Benjamin Franklin, - _Esq; F.R.S._ p. 481. - - LX. _Observations on the late Comet in_ September _and_ October - _1757; made at the_ Hague _by Mr._ D. Klinkenberg: _In a Letter to - the Rev._ James Bradley, _D. D. Astronomer Royal, and F.R.S. and - Member of the Royal Academy of Sciences at_ Paris. _Translated from - the_ Low Dutch. p. 483. - - LXI. _Remarks on the different Temperature of the Air at_ Edystone, - _from that observed at_ Plymouth, _between the 7th and 14th of_ July - _1757. By Mr._ John Smeaton, _F.R.S._ p. 488. - - LXII. _An Account of the Earthquake felt in the Island of_ Sumatra, - _in the_ East Indies, _in_ November _and_ December _1756. In a - Letter from Mr._ Perry _to the Rev. Dr._ Stukeley, _dated at_ Fort - Marlborough, _in the Island of_ Sumatra, Feb. _20. 1757. Communicated - by the Rev._ Wm. Stukeley, _M. D. F.R.S._ p. 491. - - LXIII. _Concerning the Fall of Water under Bridges. By Mr._ J. - Robertson, _F.R.S._ p. 492. - - LXIV. _An Account of the Earthquake in the West Parts of_ Cornwall, - July _15th 1757. By the Rev._ William Borlase, _M. A. F.R.S. - Communicated by the Rev._ Charles Lyttelton, _LL. D. Dean of_ Exeter, - _F.R.S._ p. 499. - - LXV. _Some Observations upon the Sleep of Plants; and an Account - of that Faculty, which_ Linnæus _calls_ Vigiliæ Florum; _with an - Enumeration of several Plants, which are subject to that Law. - Communicated to_ Wm. Watson, _M. D. F.R.S. by Mr._ Richard Pulteney - _of_ Leicester. p. 506. - - LXVI. _An Account of the Case of a Boy troubled with convulsive Fits - cured by the Discharge of Worms. By the Rev._ Richard Oram, _M. A. - Chaplain to the Lord Bishop of_ Ely. p. 518. - - _An Account of the same Subject, in a Letter from Mr._ John Gaze, - _of_ Walket, _in the County of_ Norfolk, _to Mr._ Wm. Arderon, - _F.R.S. Communicated by Mr._ Henry Baker, _F.R.S._ p. 521. - - LXVII. _An Account of the extraordinary Heat of the Weather in_ July - _1757, and of the Effects of it. In a Letter from_ John Huxham, _M. - D. F.R.S. to_ Wm. Watson, _M. D. F.R.S._ p. 523. - - LXVIII. _An Account of the fossile Thigh-bone of a large Animal, dug - up at_ Stonesfield, _near_ Woodstock, _in Oxfordshire. In a Letter to - Mr._ Peter Collinson, _F.R.S. from Mr._ Joshua Platt. p. 524. - - LXIX. _A Discourse of the Usefulness of Inoculation of the horned - Cattle to prevent the contagious Distemper among them. In a Letter - to the Right Hon._ George _Earl of_ Macclesfield, _P. R. S. from_ - Daniel Peter Layard, _M. D. F.R.S._ p. 528. - - LXX. _Trigonometry abridged. By the Rev._ Patrick Murdoch, _A. M. - F.R.S._ p. 538. - - LXXI. _An Account of Two extraordinary Cases of Gall-Stones. By_ - James Johnstone, _M. D. of_ Kidderminster. _Communicated by the Rev._ - Charles Lyttelton, _LL. D. Dean of_ Exeter. p. 543. - - LXXII. _A remarkable Case of Cohesions of all the intestines_, &c. - _in a Man of about Thirty-four years of Age who died sometime last - Summer, and afterwards fell under the Inspection of Mr._ Nicholas - Jenty. p. 550. - - LXXIII. _Of the best Form of Geographical Maps. By the Rev._ Patrick - Murdoch, _M. A. F.R.S._ p. 553. - - LXXIV. _A short Dissertation on Maps and Charts: In a Letter to the - Rev._ Thomas Birch, _D. D. and Sec. R. S. By Mr._ William Mountaine, - _F.R.S._ p. 563. - - LXXV. _Cases of the remarkable Effects of Blisters in lessening the - Quickness of the Pulse in Coughs, attended with Infarction of the - Lungs and Fever: By_ Robert Whytt, _M. D. F.R.S. Fellow of the Royal - College of Physicians, and Professor of Medicine in the University - of_ Edinburgh. p. 569. - - LXXVI. _A remarkable Instance of Four rough Stones, that were - discovered in an human urinary Bladder, contrary to the received - Opinion; and successfully extracted by the lateral Method of Cutting - for the Stone. By Mr._ Joseph Warner, _F.R.S. and Surgeon to_ - Guy’s-Hospital. p. 579. - - LXXVII. _Observations on the_ Limax non cochleata Purpuram ferens, - _The naked Snail producing Purple. By_ John Andrew Peyssonel, _M. D. - F.R.S. Translated from the_ French. p. 585. - - LXXVIII. _New Observations upon the Worms that form Sponges. By_ John - Andrew Peyssonel, _M. D. F.R.S. Translated from the_ French. p. 590. - - LXXIX. _Account of an Experiment, by which it appears, that Salt of - Steel does not enter the Lacteal Vessels; with Remarks. In a Letter - to the Rev._ Thomas Birch, _D. D. Secret. R. S. By_ Edward Wright, - _M. D._ p. 594. - - LXXX. _A Dissertation on the Antiquity of Glass in Windows. In a - Letter to the Rev._ Tho. Birch, _D. D. Secret. R. S. By the Rev._ - John Nixon, _M. A. F.R.S._ p. 601. - - LXXXI. _An Account of an extraordinary Case of the Efficacy of the - Bark in the Delirium of a Fever. By_ Nicˢ. Munckley, _M. D. Physician - to_ Guy’s-Hospital, _and F.R.S._ p. 609. - - LXXXII. _An Account of an Earthquake felt at_ Lingfield _in_ Surrey, - _and_ Edenbridge _in_ Kent, _on the 24th of_ January _1758. By_ James - Burrow, _Esq; R. S. V. P._ p. 614. - - LXXXIII. _An Account of the Case of the First Joint of a Thumb torn - off, with the Flexor Tendon in its whole Extent torn out. By_ Robert - Home, _late Surgeon to the Thirtieth Regiment of Foot, and Surgeon - at_ Kingston upon Hull. _In a Letter to_ John Pringle, _M. D. F.R.S._ - p. 617. - - LXXXIV. _An Account of the late Discoveries of Antiquities at_ - Herculaneum, _and of an Earthquake there; in a Letter from_ Camillo - Paderni, _Keeper of the Museum at_ Herculaneum, _and F.R.S. to_ Tho. - Hollis, _Esq; F.R.S. dated_ Portici, Feb. _1. 1758._ p. 619. - - LXXXV. _A further Attempt to facilitate the Resolution of - Isoperimetrical Problems. By Mr._ Thomas Simpson, _F.R.S._ p. 623. - - LXXXVI. _Observations on the_ Alga Marina latifolia; _The Sea - Alga with broad Leaves. By_ John Andrew Peyssonel, _M. D. F.R.S. - Translated from the_ French. p. 631. - - LXXXVII. _An Account of the distilling Water fresh from Sea-Water - by Wood-Ashes. By Capt._ William Chapman: _In a Letter to_ John - Fothergill, _M. D._ p. 635. - - LXXXVIII. _Observatio Eclipsis Lunaris facta_ Matriti _a Pª._ Joanne - Wendlingen, _Societatis_ Jesu, _in Regali Observatorio Collegii - Imperialis ejusdem Societatis, Die 30_ Julii _1757_. p. 640. - - _Observatio Eclipsis Lunaris, facta ab eodem, eodem modo, eodem loco, - iisdemque instrumentis, Die 24_ Januar. _Anni 1758._ p. 642. - - LXXXIX. _Observations upon a slight Earthquake, tho’ very particular, - which may lead to the Knowlege of the Cause of great and violent - ones, that ravage whole Countries, and overturn Cities. By_ John - Andrew Peyssonel, _M. D. F.R.S. Translated from the_ French. p. 645. - - XC. _A Catalogue of the_ Fifty Plants _from_ Chelsea Garden, - _presented to the_ Royal Society _by the worshipful Company of - Apothecaries, for the Year 1757, pursuant to the Direction of Sir_ - Hans Sloane, _Baronet, Med. Reg. & Soc. Reg. nuper Præses, by_ John - Wilmer, _M. D. clariss. Societatis Pharmaceut._ Lond. _Socius, - Hort._ Chelsean. _Præfectus & Prælector Botanic._ p. 648. - - XCI. _An Historical Memoir concerning a Genus of Plants called_ - Lichen _by_ Michelli, Haller, _and_ Linnæus; _and comprehended by_ - Dillenius _under the Terms_ Usnea, Coralloides, _and_ Lichenoides: - _Tending principally to illustrate their several Uses. Communicated - by_ William Watson, _M. D. F.R.S._ p. 652. - - XCII. _An Account of the fossil Bones of an Allegator, found on - the Sea-shore, near_ Whitby _in_ Yorkshire: _In a Letter to_ John - Fothergill, _M. D. from Capt._ William Chapman. p. 688. - - XCIII. _De rariori quadam_ Orthoceratitis _Specie, in_ Suecia - _reperta, tractatus: in literis a_ Nicholao de Himsel, _M. D._ Riga - Livono, _ad_ Gul. Watson, _M. D. R. S. S._ p. 692. - - XCIV. _A further Account of the Effects of Electricity in the Cure of - some Diseases: In a Letter from Mr._ Patrick Brydone _to Dr._ Robert - Whytt, _Professor of Medicine in the University of_ Edinburgh, _and - F.R.S._ p. 695. - - XCV. _An Account of the Black Assize at_ Oxford, _from the Register - of_ Merton College _in that University. Communicated by_ John Ward, - _LL. D. With some additional Remarks._ p. 699. - - XCVI. _A Description of the Plan of_ Peking, _the Capital of_ China; - _sent to the Royal Society by Father_ Gaubil, è Societate Jesu. - _Translated from the_ French. p. 704. - - XCVII. _An Attempt to improve the Manner of working the Ventilators - by the Help of the Fire-Engine. In a Letter to_ Tho. Birch, _D. D. - Secret. R. S. from_ Keane Fitz-Gerald, _Esq; F.R.S._ p. 727. - - XCVIII. _An Account of some Experiments concerning the different - Refrangibility of Light. By Mr._ John Dollond. _With a Letter from_ - James Short, _M. A. F.R.S. Acad. Reg. Suec. Soc._ p. 733. - - XCIX. _An Account of some extraordinary Effects arising from - Convulsions; being Part of a Letter to_ John Huxham, _M. D. and - F.R.S. from_ William Watson, _M. D. R. S. S._ p. 743. - - C. _An Account of an extraordinary Storm of Hail in_ Virginia. _By_ - Francis Fauquier, _Esq; Lieutenant Governor of_ Virginia, _and F.R.S. - Communicated by_ William Fauquier, _Esq; F.R.S._ p. 746. - - CI. _An Account of an extraordinary Case of a diseased Eye: In a - Letter to_ Matthew Maty, _M. D. F.R.S. By_ Daniel Peter Layard, _M. - D. F.R.S._ p. 747. - - CII. _An Account of the Heat of the Weather in_ Georgia: _In a Letter - from his Excellency_ Henry Ellis, _Esq; Governor of_ Georgia, _and - F.R.S. to_ John Ellis, _Esq; F.R.S._ p. 754. - - CIII. _The Invention of a General Method for determining the Sum of - every 2d, 3d, 4th, or 5th_, &c. _Term of a Series, taken in order, - the Sum of the whole Series being known. By_ Thomas Simpson, _F.R.S._ - p. 757. - - CIV. _Observatio Eclipsis Lunæ Die 30_ Julii _1757. habita_ - Olissipone _à_ Joanne Chevalier, _Congregationis Oratorii Presbytero, - è Regiâ_ Londinensi _Societate. Communicated by_ Jacob de Castro - Sarmiento, _M. D. F.R.S._ p. 769. - - CV. _Singular Observations upon the_ Manchenille Apple. _By_ John - Andrew Peyssonel, _M. D. F.R.S. Translated from the_ French. p. 772. - - CVI. _Abstract of a Letter from Mr._ William Arderon, _F.R.S. to Mr._ - Henry Baker, _F.R.S. on the giving Magnetism and Polarity to Brass. - Communicated by Mr._ Baker. p. 774. - - CVII. _An Account of the_ Sea Polypus, _by Mr._ Henry Baker, _F.R.S._ - p. 777. - - CVIII. _A Description of the fossil Skeleton of an Animal found in - the Alum Rock near_ Whitby. _By Mr._ Wooller. _Communicated by_ - Charles Morton, _M. D. F.R.S._ p. 786. - - CIX. _A Dissertation on the_ Phœnician _Numeral Characters antiently - used at_ Sidon. _In a Letter to the Rev._ Tho. Birch, _D. D. Secret. - R. S. from the Rev._ John Swinton, _M. A. of_ Christ-Church, Oxon. - _F.R.S._ p. 791. - - CX. _Of the Irregularities in the Motion of a Satellite arising from - the Spheroidical Figure of its Primary Planet: In a Letter to the - Rev._ James Bradley, _D. D. Astronomer Royal, F.R.S. and Member of - the Royal Academy of Sciences at_ Paris; _by Mr._ Charles Walmesley, - _F.R.S. and Member of the Royal Academy of Sciences at_ Berlin, _and - of the Institute at_ Bologna. p. 809. - - CXI. _Some Observations on the History of the_ Norfolk Boy. _By_ J. - Wall, _M. D. In a Letter to the Rev._ Charles Lyttelton, _LL. D. Dean - of_ Exeter. p. 836. - - CXII. _Observations upon the_ Corona Solis Marina Americana; _The_ - American Sea-Sun-Crown. _By_ John Andrew Peyssonel, _M. D. F.R.S._ - p. 843. - - CXIII. _An Account of several rare Species of Barnacles. In a Letter - to Mr._ Isaac Romilly, _F.R.S. from_ John Ellis, _Esq; F.R.S._ - p. 845. - - CXIV. _A further Account of the poisonous Effects of the_ Oenanthe - Aquatica Succo viroso crocante _of_ Lobel, _or Hemlock Dropwort. By_ - W. Watson, _M. D. F.R.S._ p. 856. - - CXV. _Extract of a Letter to_ John Eaton Dodsworth, _Esq; from Dr._ - George Forbes _of_ Bermuda, _relating to the_ Patella, _or_ Limpet - Fish, _found there_. p. 859. - - CXVI. _A Discourse on the_ Cinnamon, Cassia, _or_ Canella. _By_ - Taylor White, _Esq; F.R.S._ p. 860. - - - - -LIX. _An Account of the Effects of Electricity in paralytic Cases. In a -Letter to_ John Pringle, _M. D. F.R.S. from_ Benjamin Franklin, _Esq; -F.R.S._ - -[Read Jan. 12, 1758.] - -SIR, - -THE following is what I can at present recollect, relating to the -effects of electricity in paralytic cases, which have fallen under my -observation. - -Some years since, when the news-papers made mention of great cures -performed in Italy or Germany, by means of electricity, a number of -paralytics were brought to me from different parts of Pensylvania, and -the neighbouring provinces, to be electrised; which I did for them at -their request. My method was, to place the patient first in a chair, on -an electric stool, and draw a number of large strong sparks from all -parts of the affected limb or side. Then I fully charged two six-gallon -glass jars, each of which had about three square feet of surface -coated; and I sent the united shock of these thro’ the affected limb or -limbs; repeating the stroke commonly three times each day. The first -thing observed was an immediate greater sensible warmth in the lame -limbs, that had received the stroke, than in the others: and the next -morning the patients usually related, that they had in the night felt -a pricking sensation in the flesh of the paralytic limbs; and would -sometimes shew a number of small red spots, which they supposed were -occasioned by those prickings. The limbs too were found more capable of -voluntary motion, and seemed to receive strength. A man, for instance, -who could not the first day lift the lame hand from off his knee, would -the next day raise it four or five inches, the third day higher; and -on the fifth day was able, but with a feeble languid motion, to take -off his hat. These appearances gave great spirits to the patients, and -made them hope a perfect cure; but I do not remember, that I ever saw -any amendment after the fifth day: which the patients perceiving, and -finding the shocks pretty severe, they became discouraged, went home, -and in a short time relapsed; so that I never knew any advantage from -electricity in palsies, that was permanent. And how far the apparent -temporary advantage might arise from the exercise in the patients -journey, and coming daily to my house, or from the spirits given by the -hope of success, enabling them to exert more strength in moving their -limbs, I will not pretend to say. - -Perhaps some permanent advantage might have been obtained, if the -electric shocks had been accompanied with proper medicine and regimen, -under the direction of a skilful physician. It may be, too, that a few -great strokes, as given in my method, may not be so proper as many -small ones; since, by the account from Scotland of a case, in which two -hundred shocks from a phial were given daily, it seems, that a perfect -cure has been made. As to any uncommon strength supposed to be in the -machine used in that case, I imagine it could have no share in the -effect produced; since the strength of the shock from charged glass is -in proportion to the quantity of surface of the glass coated; so that -my shocks from those large jars must have been much greater than any, -that could be received from a phial held in the hand. - -I am, with great respect, - - SIR, - Your most obedient Servant, - R. Franklin. - -London, Dec. 21, 1757. - - - - -LX. _Observations on the late Comet in_ September _and_ October 1757; -_made at the_ Hague _by Mr._ D. Klinkenberg: _In a Letter to the Rev._ -James Bradley, _D. D. Astronomer Royal, and F.R.S. and Member of the -Royal Academy of Sciences at_ Paris. _Translated from the_ Low Dutch. - -[Read Jan. 12, 1758.] - -SIR, - -I Hope you will be pleased to excuse the liberty, which I take, of -troubling you with my observations on the comet, which made its -appearance here, and in other parts of Europe, in the months of -September and October last; and which, according to the news-papers, -was first observed the 11th September by Mr. Gartner, at Dorlkeurtz -near Dresden; then, by me, on the 16th of the said Month, here in the -Hague; and afterwards in different places. As I find, that you have -observed the comet, I doubt not but that you have done it in the most -accurate manner; and my great love for this science induces me to beg, -that I may have the happiness of knowing some of your observations. -My good friend Mr. Struyk at Amsterdam wrote me some time ago, that -he intended to ask the same favour of you; but I have not since heard -any further from him. I observed this comet from Septemb. 16th in -the morning, until Octob. the 11th in the morning; and found its -situations, according to my method, as follows: - - _Longit._ _Latit._ - 1757. ° ´ ° ´ - Sept. 16. at 4 h. ante mer. The comet in ♋ 10 15 with 10 10 North. - 17 -- 3 -- -- -- -- -- ♋ 14 7 ---- 9 38 - 18 -- 3¾ -- -- -- -- -- ♋ 18 10 ---- 8 57 - 19 -- 4 -- -- -- -- -- ♋ 22 1 ---- 8 17 - 22 -- 2¾ -- -- -- -- -- ♌ 3 46 ---- 6 15 - 23 -- 4 -- -- -- -- -- ♌ 7 36 ---- 5 24 - 25 -- 4¼ -- -- -- -- -- ♌ 14 50 ---- 4 6 - 28 -- 4 -- -- -- -- -- ♌ 24 22 ---- 1 41 - Oct. 1 -- 4¾ -- -- -- -- -- ♍ 2 46 ---- 0 12 South. - 4 -- 4½ -- -- -- -- -- ♍ 9 45 ---- 1 30 - 9 -- 4½ -- -- -- -- -- ♍ 20 20 ---- 2 40 - 11 -- 5 -- -- -- -- -- ♍ 24 46 ---- 3 9 - -But the two last observations will, in my opinion, differ the most; -because, when I made them, I was in some doubt about the adjustment -of my instruments; and the comet was then far advanced into the -morning rays. I have, since the month of February last to the end of -May, made sundry observations on fixed stars, with a telescope of 16 -inches, made by Mr. Short; and with a pendulum clock, made after the -manner of Mr. Graham, by Mr. Vryhthoff of this place. In the months -of February and March, by a medium of eight observations, I found, -that by the clock, the star Rigel, in every daily revolution, passed -4 min. 2⁴⁄₉ seconds of time earlier, in the telescope; and in the -latter end of May I found, by six observations, (the clock not in the -least changed or altered) on the star Spica Virginis, that that star, -in every revolution, passed 4 min. 5¹⁄₂₀ sec. earlier, in the same -telescope; which intervals differ pretty nearly 2⅗ seconds of time from -one another. Whether this difference arises from any defect in the -clock, or whether it proceeds from any small difference of velocity -of the earth’s motion round its axis, I would have been very glad to -have endeavoured to find out by farther inquiry, had not the death of -Mr. S. Koenig intervened, and I thereby hindered from continuing my -observations. The above observations were taken in the observatory of -his illustrious Highness the minor Prince of Orange and Nassau, _&c. -&c._ under the direction, and with the approbation of the aforesaid -Mr. Koenig. After the death of that gentleman, I petitioned her Royal -Highness the Princess Governess of these Provinces, _&c._ that I might -have leave to continue my astronomical observations; but as yet I have -not been able to obtain her Royal Highness’s permission: otherwise I -would have observed this last comet with more exactness. Had I been -able to pursue the above-mentioned observations, I would, for the -greater certainty in regard to the pendulum, have made use of a farther -precaution. By means of a stove, with the help of a thermometer, I -would have endeavoured to have kept the room (in which the clock stood) -in the winter, and at all times, in the same degree of heat it had at -the time I made the observations in the summer. I would also have daily -observed and noted the moon’s place, at the time of the observations. -Tho’ this is but a slight observation of mine; yet I make no doubt, but -that in case, by the different distances of the earth from the sun, -and the different distances and situations of the moon with respect -to the earth, and the respective effects produced by these causes, -any inequality arises in the velocity of the diurnal motion of the -earth on its axis, you (who have made the most sublime observations on -the aberration of the fixed stars, and more than any mortal ever did -before) must have discovered, and are well acquainted, with the same. - -As my above-mentioned observations on the comet appeared too incorrect -to undertake a calculation for the ascertaining of its path from the -theory, I contented myself with effecting it by a construction. By this -means I found, on a figure, whose globular or spherical diameter was -13½ Rhineland inches, as follows: - -That the comet was in its perihelion the 21st of October, at two of the -clock in the afternoon: the place of the perihelion 3 degrees in Leo. -The comet’s distance in the perihelion from the sun was about 34 parts, -whereof 100 make the mean distance between the sun and the earth. The -inclination of the comet’s orbit with the ecliptic 13 degrees; and the -southern latitude of the perihelion also 13 decrees: the ascending or -north node ☊ 4⅓ degrees in Scorpio; and the comet’s motion direct, or -according to the order of the signs of the zodiac. On this supposition -I have, for some of the times of observations, estimated the apparent -places of the comet, and found them as follows: - - _Long._ _Latit._ - Sept. 18, at 3¾ ante merid. In ♋ 18¹⁄₁₂ and 9 deg. North. - 19 -- 4 -- -- -- ♋ 22 ---- 8⅖ - 22 -- 2¾ -- -- -- ♌ 3⅝ ---- 6¼ - 23 -- 4 -- -- -- ♌ 7⅗ ---- 5½ - 25 -- 4¼ -- -- -- ♌ 14⅔ ---- 4 - 28 -- 4 -- -- -- ♌ 24⅓ ---- 1¾ - Oct. 4 -- 4½ -- -- -- ♍ 9⅓ ---- 2 ---- South. - 9 -- 4¾ -- -- -- ♍ 19⅔ ---- 3⅖ - 11 -- 5 -- -- -- ♍ 23⅛ ---- 3⅘ - -The observations, which I have taken, to ground the measurement on, are -those of the 16th and 23d of September, and of the 1st of October. It -appears very evident, not only from this rough calculation, but every -other circumstance of this comet, that it is not the same with that -in the year 1682: which, on certain accounts, is very desirable to be -known; for both here, and in other parts of the Netherlands, there -have been some people, who have published mere conjectures; and have -ventured (very minutely and exactly, as they pretended) about the time -that this comet first made its appearance, to predict the return of -the comet of the year 1682. But by the above, the weakness of their -pretensions is very evident to all the world: whereas, if this had -proved to be the expected comet, they would have assumed to themselves -much undue praise, and have pretended to knowlege even superior to the -every-where much celebrated Newton and Halley. - -It appears also probable to me, that this comet is none of those -already calculated, or brought upon a list, by Messieurs Halley and -Struyk. It is somewhat remarkable, that the line of the nodes is -almost at right angles with the long axis of the ellipsis; which -corresponds nearly with the comets of the years 1580, 1683, and 1686: -but those had their perihelions northward of the ecliptic; whereas the -perihelion of the last, which we have lately seen, was to the southward -of the ecliptic. - -I have the honour to subscribe myself, with the most perfect esteem for -you, and your sublime studies, very respectfully, - - SIR, - Your very humble and obedient Servant, - D. Klinkenberg. - -Hague, 13th Dec. 1757. - - - - -LXI. _Remarks on the different Temperature of the Air at_ Edystone, -_from that observed at_ Plymouth, _between the 7th and 14th of_ July -1757. _By Mr._ John Smeaton, _F.R.S._ - -[Read Jan. 12, 1758.] - -SIR, - -ON the reading of Dr. Huxham’s letter at the last meeting, some -observations occurred to me, concerning the different temperature of -the air, which I had observed at the Edystone, from what had been -observed by the Doctor at Plymouth, between the 7th and 14th of July -last: which having been desired by some members to be put into writing, -I beg leave to trouble you with the following. - -Edystone is distant from Plymouth about 16 miles, and without the -head-lands of the Sound about 11. - -The 7th and 8th were not remarkable at Edystone for heat or cold; the -weather was very moderate, with a light breeze at east; which allowed -us to work upon the rock both days, when the tide served. - -About midnight, between the 8th and 9th, the wind being then fresh at -east, it was remarkably cold for the season, as I had more particular -occasion to observe, on account of a ship that was cast away upon the -rocks. The wind continued cold the 9th all day; which was complained -of by some of the shipwrecked seamen, who had not time to save their -cloaths; and so fresh at east, as prevented our going near the rocks, -or the wreck; and so continued till Sunday the 10th; when, seeing no -prospect of a sudden alteration of weather, I returned to Plymouth in -a sailing boat, wrapped up in my thick coat. As soon as we got within -the headlands, I could perceive the wind to blow considerably warmer; -but not so warm as to make my great coat uneasy. Having had a quick -passage, in this manner I went home, to the great astonishment of the -family to see me so wrapped up, when they were complaining of the -excessive heat: and indeed, it was not long before I had reason to join -in their opinion. - -This heat I experienced till Tuesday the 12th, when I again went off to -sea, where I found the air very temperate, rather cool than warm; and -so continued till Thursday the 14th. - -In my journal for Wednesday the 13th I find the following remarks, -_viz._ “This evening’s tide” (from 6 A. till 12 A.) “the wind at east, -but moderate, with frequent flashes of lightning to the southward. Soon -after we got on board the store-vessel, a squall of wind arose from the -south-west on a sudden, and continued for about a minute; part of which -time it blew so hard, we expected the masts to go by the board: after -which it was perfectly calm, and presently after a breeze returned from -the east.” - -And in the journal of the 14th is entered, “This morning’s tide” -(_viz._ from 1 M. to 1 A.) “the air and sea quite calm.” - -Hence it appears, how different the temper of the air may be in a -small distance; and to what small spaces squalls of wind are sometimes -confined. - -It may not be amiss further to observe upon this head, that once, in -returning from Edystone, having got within about two miles of the -Ramhead, we were becalmed; and here we rolled about for at least four -hours; and yet at the same time saw vessels, not above a league from -us, going out of Plymouth Sound with a fresh of wind, whose direction -was towards us, as we could observe from the trim of their sails; and -as we ourselves experienced, after we got into it by tacking and rowing. - -I am, Sir, - - Your most humble Servant, - J. Smeaton. - -Furnival’s-Inn Court, 12th Jan. 1758. - - - - -LXII. _An Account of the Earthquake felt in the Island of_ Sumatra, _in -the_ East-Indies, _in_ November _and_ December 1756. _In a Letter from -Mr._ Perry _to the Rev. Dr._ Stukeley, _dated at_ Fort Marlborough, _in -the Island of_ Sumatra, Feb. 20. 1757. _Communicated by the Rev._ Wm. -Stukeley, _M. D. F.R.S._ - -[Read Jan. 12, 1758.] - -THE earthquake at Lisbon, which you gave me an account of, was -certainly the most awful tremendous calamity, that has ever happened -in the world. Its effects are extremely wonderful and amazing; and it -seems, as you observe, to have been felt in all parts of the globe. -On the 3d day of the same month the earthquake of Lisbon happened, I -felt at Manna[1] a violent shock myself; and from that time to the 3d -of December following I felt no less than twelve different shocks, all -which I took an exact account of in my pocket-bock. Since which we have -had two very severe earthquakes, felt, we believe, throughout this -island[2]. The walls of[3] Cumberland-house[4] were greatly damaged -by them. Salop-house[4], my own (formerly Mr. Massey’s), the houses -of Laye[5] and Manna, were all cracked by them; and the works at the -sugar-plantation[6] received considerable damage. The ground opened -near the _qualloe_[7] at Bencoolen, and up the River in several places; -and there issued therefrom sulphureous earth, and large quantities of -water, sending forth a most intolerable stench. Poblo Point[8] was much -cracked at the same time; and some _doosoons_[9] in-land at Manna were -destroyed, and many people in them. - -These are all the ill effects, that have come to our knowlege; but, it -is reasonable to suppose, not all the damage, that has happened upon -the island. - - - - -LXIII. _Concerning the Fall of Water under Bridges. By Mr._ J. -Robertson, _F.R.S._ - -[Read Jan. 19, 1758.] - -SOME time before the year 1740, the problem about the fall of water, -occasioned by the piers of bridges built across a river, was much -talked of at London, on account of the fall that it was supposed would -be at the new bridge to be built at Westminster. In Mr. Hawksmore’s -and Mr. Labelye’s pamphlets, the former published in 1736, and the -latter in 1739, the result of Mr. Labelye’s computations was given: but -neither the investigation of the problem, nor any rules, were at that -time exhibited to the public. - -In the year 1742 was published Gardiner’s edition of Vlacq’s Tables; -in which, among the examples there prefixed to shew some of the -uses of those tables drawn up by the late William Jones, Esq; there -are two examples, one shewing how to compute the fall of water at -London-bridge, and the other applied to Westminster-bridge: but that -excellent mathematician’s investigation of the rule, by which those -examples were wrought, was not printed, altho’ he communicated to -several of his friends copies thereof. Since that time, it seems as -if the problem had in general been forgot, as it has not made its -appearance, to my knowlege, in any of the subsequent publications. As -it is a problem somewhat curious, tho’ not difficult, and its solution -not generally known (having seen four different solutions, one of them -very imperfect, extracted from the private books of an office in one of -the departments of engineering in a neighbouring nation), I thought it -might give some entertainment to the curious in these matters, if the -whole process were published. In the following investigation, much the -same with Mr. Jones’s, as the demonstrations of the principles therein -used appeared to be wanting, they are here attempted to be supplied. - - -PRINCIPLES. - -I. _A heavy body, that in the first second of time has fallen the -height of a feet, has acquired such a velocity, that, moving uniformly -therewith, will in the next second of time move the length of 2 a feet._ - -II. _The spaces run thro’ by falling bodies are proportional to one -another as the squares of their last or acquired velocities._ - - These two principles are demonstrated by the writers on mechanics. - -III. _Water forced out of a larger chanel thro’ one or more smaller -passages, will have the streams thro’ those passages contracted in the -ratio of 25 to 21._ - - This is shewn in the 36th prop. of the 2d book of Newton’s Principia. - -IV. _In any stream of water, the velocity is such, as would be acquired -by the fall of a body from a height above the surface of that stream._ - - This is evident from the nature of motion. - -V. _The velocities of water thro’ different passages of the same -height, are reciprocally proportional to their breadths._ - - For, at some time, the water must be delivered as fast as it comes; - otherwise the bounds would be overflowed. - - At that time, the same quantity, which in any time flows thro’ a - section in the open chanel, is delivered in equal time thro’ the - narrower passages; or the momentum in the narrow passages must be - equal to the momentum in the open chanel; or the rectangle under the - section of the narrow passages, by their mean velocity, must be equal - to the rectangle under the section of the open chanel by its mean - velocity. - - Therefore the velocity in the open chanel is to the velocity in the - narrower passages, as the section of those passages is to the section - of the open chanel. - - But the heights in both sections being equal, the sections are - directly as the breadths; - - Consequently the velocities are reciprocally as the breadths. - -VI. _In a running stream, the water above any obstacles put therein -will rise to such a height, that by its fall the stream may be -discharged as fast as it comes._ - - For the same body of water, which flowed in the open chanel, must - pass thro’ the passages made by the obstacles: - - And the narrower the passages, the swifter will be the velocity of - the water: - - But the swifter the velocity of the water, the greater is the height, - from whence it has descended: - - Consequently the obstacles, which contract the chanel, cause the - water to rise against them. - - But the rise will cease, when the water can run off as fast as it - comes: - - And this must happen, when, by the fall between the obstacles, the - water will acquire a velocity in a reciprocal proportion to that in - the open chanel as the breadth of the open chanel is to the breadth - of the narrow passages. - -VII. _The quantity of the fall caused by an obstacle in a running -stream is measured by the difference between the heights fallen from -to acquire the velocities in the narrow passages and open chanel._ - - For just above the fall, the velocity of the stream is such, as would - be acquired by a body falling from a height higher than the surface - of the water: - - And at the fall, the velocity of the stream is such, as would be - acquired by the fall of a body from a height more elevated than the - top of the falling stream; and consequently the real fall is less - than this height. - - Now as the stream comes to the fall with a velocity belonging to a - fall above its surface; - - Consequently the height belonging to the velocity at the fall must be - diminished by the height belonging to the velocity, with which the - stream arrives at the fall. - - -PROBLEM. - -_In a chanel of running water, whose breadth is contracted by one or -more obstacles; the breadth of the chanel, the mean velocity of the -whole stream, and the breadth of the water-way between the obstacles -being given; To find the quantity of the fall occasioned by those -obstacles._ - - Let _b_ = breadth of the chanel in feet. - _v_ = mean velocity of the water in feet per sec. - _c_ = breadth of the water-way between the obstacles. - -Now 25: 21∷ _c_: 21 ⁄ 25 _c_ the water-way contracted. _Principle III._ - -And 21 ⁄ 25 _c_: _b_∷ _v_: 25_b_ ⁄ 21_c_ _v_ the veloc. _per_ sec. in -the water-way between the obstacles. _Princip. V._ - -Also (2_a_)²: _vv_∷ _a_: _vv_ ⁄ 4_a_ the height fallen to acquire the -vel. v. I. & II. - -And (2_a_)²: (25_b_ ⁄ 21_c_)² × _vv_∷ _a_: (25_b_ ⁄ 21_c_)² × _vv_ ⁄ -4_a_ the height fallen to acquire the vel. 25_b_ ⁄ 21_c_ _v_. I. & II. - -Then (25_b_ ⁄ 21_c_)² x (_vv_ ⁄ 4_a_) - (_vv_ ⁄ 4_a_) is the measure of -the fall required. VII. - -Or ((25_b_ ⁄ 21_c_)² - 1) × _vv_ ⁄ 4_a_ is a rule, by which the fall -may be readily computed. - -Here _a_ = 16,0899 feet and 4_a_ = 64,3596. - - -EXAMPLE I. _For London-Bridge._ - -By the observations made by Mr. Labelye in 1746, - -The breadth of the Thames at London-bridge is 926 feet; - -The sum of the water-ways at the time of the greatest fall is 236 feet; - -The mean velocity of the stream taken at its surface just above bridge -is 3⅙ feet _per_ second. - -Under almost all the arches there are great numbers of drip-shot piles, -or piles driven into the bed of the water-way, to prevent it from being -washed away by the fall. These drip-shot piles considerably contract -the water-ways, at least ⅙ of their measured breadth, or about 39⅓ feet -in the whole. - -So that the water-way will be reduced to 196⅔ feet. - -Now _b_ = 926; _c_ = 196⅔; _v_ = 3⅙; 4_a_ = 64,3596. - -Then 25_b_ ⁄ 21_c_ = 23150 ⁄ 4130 = 5,60532. - -And 5,60532² = 31,4196; and 31,4196 - 1 = 30,4196 = (25_b_ ⁄ 21_c_)² - -1. - -Also _vv_ = (19 ⁄ 6)² = 361 ⁄ 36; And _vv_ ⁄ 4_a_ = 361 ⁄ (36 × -64,3596) = 0,15581. - -Then 30,4196 × 0,15581 = 4,739 feet, the fall sought after. - -By the most exact observations made about the year 1736, the measure of -the fall was 4 feet 9 inches. - - -EXAMPLE II. _For Westminster-Bridge._ - -Altho’ the breadth of the river at Westminster-bridge is 1220 feet; -yet, at the time of the greatest fall, there is water thro’ only the -thirteen large arches, which amount to 820 feet: to which adding the -breadth of the twelve intermediate piers, equal to 174 feet, gives 994 -for the breadth of the river at that time: and the velocity of the -water just above bridge (from many experiments) is not greater than 2¼ -feet _per_ second. - -Here _b_ = 994; _c_ = 820; _v_ = 2¼; 4_a_ = 64,3596. - -Now 25_b_ ⁄ 21_c_ = 24850 ⁄ 17220 = 1,443. - -And 1,443² = 2,082; And 2,082 - 1 = 1,082 = (25_b_ ⁄ 21_c_)² - 1. - -Also _vv_ = (⁹⁄₄)² = ⁸¹⁄₁₆; And _vv_ ⁄ 48 = 81 ⁄ (16 × 64,3696) = -0,0786. - -Then 1,082 × 0,0786 = 0,084 feet, the fall sought. - -Which is about 1 inch; and is about half an inch more than the greatest -fall observed by Mr. Labelye. - - - - -LXIV. _An Account of the Earthquake in the West Parts of_ Cornwall, -July _15th 1757. By the Rev._ William Borlase, _M. A. F.R.S. -Communicated by the Rev._ Charles Lyttelton, _LL.D. Dean of_ Exeter, -_F.R.S._ - -[Read Jan. 26, 1758.] - -ON Friday the 15th of July, 1757. a violent shock of an earthquake was -felt in the western parts of Cornwall. - -The thermometer had been higher than usual, and the weather hot, or -calm, or both, for eight days before; wind east and north-east. On the -14th in the morning, the wind shifting to the south-west, the weather -calm and hazy, there was a shower. The afternoon hazy and fair, wind -north-west. The barometer moderately high, but the mercury remarkably -variable. - -On the 15th in the morning, the wind fresh at north-west, the -atmosphere hazy. Being on the sands, half a mile east of Penzance, at -10 A. M. near low water, I perceived on the surface of the sands a -very unusual inequality: for whereas there are seldom any unevennesses -there, but what are made by the rippling of the water, I found the -sands, for above 100 yards square, all full of little tubercles (each -as large as a moderate mole-hill), and in the middle a black speck on -the top, as if something had issued thence. Between these convexities -were hollow basons of an equal diameter. From one of these hollows -there issued a strong rush of water, about the bigness of a man’s -wrist, never observed there before nor since. - -About a quarter after six, P. M. the sky dusky, the wind being at west -north-west, it fell quite calm. At half past six, being then in the -summer-house at Keneggy, the seat of the Hon. J. Harris, Esq; near -Penzance, with some company, we were suddenly alarmed with a rumbling -noise, as if a coach or waggon had passed near us over an uneven -pavement; but the noise was as loud in the beginning and at the end, -as in the middle; which neither the sound of thunder, or of carriages, -ever is. The sash-casements jarred: one gentleman thought his chair -moved under him; and the gardener, then in the dwelling house (about an -hundred yards distant from us) felt the stone pavement of the room he -was in move very sensibly. - -In what place the shock began, and whether progressive or instantaneous -in the several places where it was felt, is uncertain, for want of -accurately determining the precise point of time in distant places. - -The shock was not equally loud or violent. Its extent was from the -isles of Scilly eastward as far as Liskerd, and towards the north as -far as Camelford; thro’ which district I shall trace it, according to -the best informations I could procure. - -In the island of St. Mary, Scilly, the shock was violent. On the -shores of Cornwall, opposite to Scilly (in the parish of Senan, near -the Land’s-end) the noise was heard like that of a spinning-wheel on -a chamber-floor. Below stairs there was a cry, that the house was -shaking; and the brass pans and pewter rattled one against another -in several houses in the same parish. In the adjoining parish of -St. Just, two young men being then swimming, felt a strong and very -unusual agitation of the sea. In the town of Penzance, in one house -the chamber-bell rung; in another the pewter plates, placed edgeways -on a shelf, shifted, and slid to one end of the shelf: and it was -every-where perceived more or less, according as people’s attention was -engaged. - -At Trevailer, the seat of William Veale, Esquire, about two miles from -Penzance, the noise was heard, and thought at first to be thunder: -the windows shook, and the walls of the parlour, where Mr. Veale -sat, visibly moved. The jarring of the windows continued near half a -minute; but the motion of the walls not quite so long: and some masons, -being at work on a contiguous new building, the upright poles of the -scaffolds shook so violently, that, for fear of falling, they laid -hold on the walls, which, to their still greater surprize, they found -agitated in the same manner. And a person present, who was at London -at the time of the two shocks in the year 1751, thought this shock to -resemble the second, both in degree and duration[10]. - -At Marazion, the next market-town east of Penzance, the houses of -several persons shook to that degree, that people ran out into the -street, lest the houses should fall upon them. - -In the borough of St. Ives, on the north sea, six miles north of -Penzance, the shock was so violent, that a gentleman, who had been at -Lisbon during several shocks, said, that this exceeded all he had met -with, except that on the 1st of November 1755, so fatal to that city. - -At Tehidy, the seat of Francis Basset, Esq; the rooms shook, and -the grounds without doors were observed to move. The shock was felt -sensibly at Redruth, St. Columb, Bodman, _&c._ along to Camelford, -which is about 90 miles from the isle of Scilly. From Marazion eastward -it was felt at several places in like manner, as far as Lostwythyel; -but at Liskerd, about ten miles east of Lostwythyel, it was but faintly -perceived, and that by a few persons. It was still less sensible at Loo -and Plymouth, “scarcely sufficient to excite curiosity or fear”[11]. - -The times of its duration were various. At Keneggy we thought the noise -could not have lasted above six seconds; at Trevailer, not two miles -distant to the west, it was thought to have lasted near half a minute; -in the parish of Gwynier half a minute; at Ludgvan, three miles east -of Penzance, the noise was rather longer than half a minute; but the -shaking felt in the garden, and observed in the houses, short and -momentary. In Germo great Pinwork, seven miles east of Penzance, it -lasted only a few seconds; but in the isles of Scilly it was computed -at 40 seconds. - -Thus was this earthquake felt in towns, houses, and grounds adjacent; -but still more particularly alarming in our mines, where there is less -refuge, and consequently a greater dread from the tremors of the earth. - -In Carnorth adit, in the parish of St. Just, the shock was sensibly -felt 18 fathom deep; in the mine called Boscadzhill-downs, more than 30 -fathom. - -At Huel-rith mine, in the parish of Lannant, people saw the earth -move under them, first quick, then in a slower wavy tremor; and -the stage-boards of the little winds or shafts 20 fathom deep were -perceived to move. - -In Herland mine, commonly called the Manor, in the parish of Gwynier, -the noise was heard 55 and 60 fathom deep, as if a studdle[12] had -broke, and the deads[13] were set a running. It was nothing like the -noise of thunder. - -In Chace-water mine the same noise was heard, at least 70 fathom under -the surface. - -At Huel-rith mine, near Godolphin, the noise was seemingly underneath. -I felt (says the director of the mine) the earth move under me with a -prodigious swift, and apparently horizontal tremor: its continuance was -but for a few seconds of time, not like thunder, but rather a dull -rumbling even sound, like deads running under ground. In the smith’s -shop the window-leaves shook, and the slating of the house cracked. -The whim-house shook so terribly, that a man there at work ran out of -it, concluding it to be falling. Several persons then in the mine, -working 60 fathom deep, thought they found the earth about them to -move, and heard an uncommon noise: some heard the noise, and felt no -tremor; others, working in a mine adjoining called Huel-breag, were -so frightened, that they called to their companions above to be drawn -up from the bottoms. Their moor-house was shaken, and the padlock of -their candle-chest was heard to strike against the staples. To shew, -that this noise proceeded from below, and not from any concussion in -the atmosphere above, this very intelligent captain of the mine[14] -observes, from his own experience, that thunder was never known to -affect the air at 60 fathoms deep, even in a single shaft pierced into -the hardest stone; much less could it continue the sound thro’ such -workings as there are in this mine, impeded in all parts with deads, -great quantities of timber, various noises, such as the rattling of -chains, friction of wheels and ropes, and dashing of waters; all which -must contribute to break the vibrations of the air as they descend: and -I intirely agree with this gentleman’s conclusion, that thunder, or any -other noises from above in the atmosphere, could not be heard at half -the depth of this mine. This therefore could be no other than a real -tremor of the earth, attended with a noise, owing to a current of air -and vapour proceeding upwards from the earth. - -I do not hear of any person in those parts, who was so fortunate as to -be near any pool or lake, and had recollection enough to attend to the -motion of the waters; but it may be taken for granted, that during the -tremors of the earth the fluids must be more affected than the solids: -nay, the waters will apparently be agitated, when there is no motion -of the earth perceptible, as was the case of our ponds and lake-waters -in most parts of Britain on the 1st of November 1755. Whence this -happens is difficult to say: whether the earth’s bosom undergoes at -such times a kind of respiration, and alternately emits and withdraws -a vapour thro’ its most porous parts sufficient to agitate the waters, -yet not sufficient to shake the earth; or whether the earth, during the -agitation of the waters, does rock and vacillate, tho’ not so as to be -sensible to man; is what I shall leave to future inquiry. - -Earthquakes are very rare in Cornwall. This was but of short duration, -and did no harm any-where, as far as I can learn; and it is to be hoped -not the sooner forgotten for that reason; but rather remembered with -all the impressions of gratitude suitable to an incident so alarming -and dangerous, and yet so inoffensive. - - - - -LXV. _Some Observations upon the Sleep of Plants; and an Account -of that Faculty, which_ Linnæus _calls_ Vigiliæ Florum; _with an -Enumeration of several Plants, which are subject to that Law. -Communicated to_ Wm. Watson, _M. D. F.R.S. by Mr._ Richard Pultney _of_ -Leicester. - -[Read Jan. 26, 1758.] - -ACosta and Prosper Alpinus, who both wrote near the conclusion of the -XVIth century, are, I believe, the first, who recorded that nocturnal -change in the leaves of plants, which has since been called _somnus_. -It is an observation indeed as old as Pliny’s time, that the leaves of -trefoil assume an erect situation[15] upon the coming of storms. The -same is observable of our wood-sorrel; and Linnæus adds, of almost all -plants with declinated stamina[16]. In the _Trifolium pratense album -C. B._ or common white-flowered meadow trefoil, it is so obvious, that -the common people in Sweden remark, and prognosticate the coming of -tempests and rain from it. - -The examples of sleeping plants instanced by Alpinus are but few. -That author says, it was common to several Egyptian species[17]; -but specifies only the Acaciæ, Abrus, Absus, Sesban, and the -Tamarindtree. Cornutus some time afterwards remarked this property -in the Pseudo-acacia Americana. From that time it has remained almost -unnoticed, till Linnæus, ever attentive to nature’s works, discovered -that the same affair was transacted in many other plants; and his -observations have furnished us with numerous and obvious examples -thereof. Mr. Miller mentions it in the _Medicago arborea Lin. Sp. Pl. -778_. and we may add to the list two other common plants not mentioned -by Linnæus: these are the _Phaseolus vulgaris_, common kidney-bean; -and the _Trifolium pratense purpureum majus_, or clover-grass: in both -which this nocturnal change is remarkably displayed. Doubtless the same -property exists in numberless other species; and future observation -will very probably confirm Dr. Hill’s sentiment, that no “plant or tree -is wholly unaffected by it.” - -It is now more than twenty years since Linnæus first attended to this -quality in plants. In his _Flora Lapponica_, when speaking of the -_Trifolium pratense album_, as above-mentioned, he remarks, that the -leaves of the Mimosa, Cassia, Bauhinia, Parkinsonia, Guilandina, and -others in affinity with them, were subject to this change in the night -time: and he had then carried his observations so far, as to find, that -heat and cold were not the cause of this quality; since they were alike -influenced by it when placed in stoves, where the temperature of the -air was always the same. - -The merit of reviving this subject is therefore due to the illustrious -Swede; and the naturalist is greatly indebted to him for so far -extending his observations thereon. - -The subject of the _somnus plantarum_ cannot but be highly entertaining -to the lovers of natural knowlege: and such, I apprehend, cannot be -less entertained with that faculty, which Linnæus calls _vigiliæ -florum_; of which we shall give a brief account. - -Previous to our explanation of this affair it is proper to observe, -that the flowers of most plants, after they are once opened, continue -so night and day, until they drop off, or die away. Several others, -which shut in the night-time, open in the morning either sooner or -later, according to their respective situation in the sun or shade, -or as they are influenced by the manifest changes of the atmosphere. -There are however another class of flowers, which make the subject of -these observations, which observe a more constant and uniform law in -this particular. These open and shut duly and constantly at certain and -determinate hours, exclusive of any manifest changes in the atmosphere; -and this with so little variation in point of time, as to render the -phænomenon well worth the observation of all, whose taste leads them -this way. - -This faculty in the flowers of plants is not altogether a new -discovery; but we are indebted to the same hand for additional -observations upon this head likewise. It is so manifest in one of our -common English plants, the _Tragopogon luteum_, that our country people -long since called it _John-go-to-bed-at-noon_. Linnæus’s observations -have extended to near fifty species, which are subject to this law. -What we find principally upon this subject is in the _Philosophia -Botanica_, p. 273. We will enumerate these plants, and mention the -time when the flowers open and shut, that those, who have opportunity -and inclination, may gratify themselves, and probably at the same time -extend this branch of botanic knowlege still farther. - -It is proper to observe, that as these observations were made by -Linnæus in the academical garden at Upsal, whoever repeats them in -this country will very probably find, that the difference of climate -will occasion a variation in point of time: at least this will obtain -in some species, as our own observations have taught us; in others the -time has corresponded very exactly with the account he has given us. - -Whether this faculty hath any connexion with the great article of -fecundation in the oeconomy of flowers, I cannot determine: in the -mean time it is not improbable. Future and repeated observations, and -well-adapted experiments, will tend to illustrate this matter, and it -may be lead the way to a full explanation of the cause. - - -1. Anagallis flore phœniceo C. B. pin. 252. Raii Syn. p. 282. Anagallis -arvensis Lin. Spec. plant. p. 148. _The Male Pimpernel._ The flowers -of this plant open about eight o’clock in the morning, and never -close till past noon. This plant is common in kitchen-gardens and in -corn-fields, and flowers in June, and continues in flower three months. - -2. The Anagallis cærulea foliis binis ternisve ex adverso nascentibus -C. B. pin. p. 252. Raii Hist. Plant. p. 1024. Anagallis Monelli Sp. -plant. 148. _Blue-flowered Pimpernel with narrow leaves._ The flowers -of this plant observe nearly the same time in opening and shutting as -the foregoing. - -3. Convolvulus peregrinus cæruleus folio oblongo C. B. pin. 295. -Convolvulus tricolor Sp. plant. 158. _Little blue Convolvulus, or -Bindweed._ This opens its flowers between the hours of five and six in -the morning, and shuts them in the afternoon. - -4. Phalangium parvo flore ramosum C. B. pin. 29. Raii Hist. Pl. 1193. -_Branched Spiderwort with a small flower._ These open about seven in -the morning, and close between the hours of three and four in the -afternoon. - -5. Lilium rubrum Asphodeli radice C. B. pin. 80. Hemerocallis fulvus -Sp. pl. 324. _The Day Lily._ The flowers open about five in the -morning, and shut at seven or eight in the evening. - -6. Plantago aquatica minor. Park. 1245. Raii Syn. 257. Alisma -ranunculoides Sp. pl. 343. Fl. Suec. 2. Nº. 325. _The lesser -Water-Plantain_, during its flowering-time, only opens its flowers each -day about noon. - -7. Caryophyllus sylvestris prolifer C. B. pin. 209. Raii Syn. 337. -Dianthus prolifer Sp. pl. 410. _Proliferous Pink._ The flowers expand -about eight in the morning, and close again about one in the afternoon. - -8. Spergula purpurea J. B. III. 722. Raii Syn. p. 351. Arenaria rubra. -Sp. pl. 423. _Purple Spurrey._ These expand between nine and ten in the -morning, and close between two and three in the afternoon. This little -plant is common among the corn in sandy soils, and flowers in June. - -9. Portulaca latifolia sativa C. B. pin. 288. Portulaca oleracea Sp. -pl. p. 445. _Common Purslain_, opens its flowers about nine or ten in -the morning, and closes them again in about an hour’s time. - -10. Ficoides Africana, folio plantaginis undulato micis argenteis -adsperso Boerh. Ludg. I. p. 291. Mesembryanthemum chrystallinum Sp. pl. -480. _Diamond Ficoides._ The flowers of this plant open at nine or ten, -and close at three or four in the afternoon. - -11. Ficoides Africana folio tereti in villos radiatos abeunte. Tourn. -Mesembryanthemum barbatum Sp. pl. 482. The flowers of this species -expand at seven or eight in the morning, and close about two in the -afternoon. - -12. Ficoides folio tereti Neapolitana flore candido Herm. Ludg. -252. Kali Crassulæ minoris foliis C. B. pin. 289. Mesembryanthemum -nodiflorum Sp. pl. 480. The flowers of this plant open at ten or eleven -in the morning, and close at three in the afternoon. - -13. Mesembryanthemum folio linguiformi latiore Dillen. Hort. -Elth. Mesembryanthemum linguiforme Sp. pl. 488. _Ficoides with a -tongue-shaped leaf._ These open at seven or eight in the morning, and -are closed about three in the afternoon. - -14. Nymphæa alba J. B. III. 770. Raii Syn. 368. Nymphæa alba Sp. pl. -510. Fl. Suec. 2. Nº. 470. _White Water Lily._ This plant grows in -rivers, ponds, and ditches, and the flowers lie upon the surface of the -water. At their time of expansion, which is about seven in the morning, -the stalk is erected, and the flower more elevated above the surface. -In this situation it continues till about four in the afternoon, when -the flower sinks to the surface of the water, and closes again. - -15. Papaver erraticum nudicaule flore flavo odorato Dillen. Hort. Elth. -302. Papaver nudicaule Sp. pl. p. 507. _Wild Poppy with a naked stalk -and a yellow sweet-smelling flower._ The flower of this plant opens at -five in the morning, and closes at seven in the evening. - -16. Alyssoides incanum, foliis sinuatis Tourn. Inst. 213. Alyssum -sinuatum Sp. pl. 651. _Hoary Madwort with sinuated leaves._ The flowers -of this plant expand between the hours of six and eight in the morning, -and close at four in the afternoon. - -17. Abutilon repens alceæ foliis, flore helvolo Dillen. Hort. Elth. 5. -Malva Caroliniana Sp. pl. 688. _Creeping Indian Mallow with leaves like -Vervain Mallow, and a flesh-coloured flower._ These open at nine or ten -in the morning, and close at one in the afternoon. - -18. Tragopogon luteum Ger. 595. Raii Syn. 171. Tragopogon pratense -Sp. pl. 789. _Yellow Goats Beard_, or _Go-to-bed-at-noon_. The latter -of these names was given to this plant long since, on account of this -remarkable property. The flowers open in general about three or four -o’clock, and close again about nine or ten, in the morning. These -flowers will perform their _vigiliæ_, if set in a phial of water, -within doors for several mornings successively; and I have sometimes -observed them to be quite closed, from their utmost state of expansion, -in less than a quarter of an hour. It flowers in June. - -19. Tragopogon gramineis foliis, hirsutis. C. B. pin. 275. Raii. Hist. -Plant. 253. _Rose-coloured Goats Beard._ These open between five and -six in the morning, and close about eleven. Tragopog. hybridum Sp. -plant. 789. - -20. Tragopogon, calycibus corolla brevioribus inermibus, foliis -lyrato-sinuatis. Hort. Ups. 244. Sp. pl. 790. Hall. Hort. Gotting. 2. -p. 419. The flowers of this plant open at six or seven in the morning, -and shut between the hours of twelve and four in the afternoon. - -21. Sonchus Tingitanus papaveris folio. Tourn. Raii Suppl. 137. -Scorzonera Tingitana Sp. pl. 791. _African Sowthistle with a poppy -leaf._ This plant opens its flowers between four and six in the -morning, and closes them in about three hours. - -22. Sonchus repens, multis hieracium majus J. B. II. 1017. Raii Syn. -163. Sonchus arvensis Sp. pl. 793. _Tree Sowthistle._ These flowers -expand about six or seven, and close between eleven and twelve in the -forenoon. This is common in corn-fields, and flowers in June, July, and -August. - -23. Sonchus lævis Ger. Raii Syn. 161. Sonchus oleraceus Sp. pl. 794. -_Smooth or unprickly Sowthistle, Hares Lettuce._ These open about five -in the morning, and close again at eleven or twelve. - -24. Sonchus lævis laciniatus cæruleus C. B. pin. 124. Raii Hist. pl. -225. Sonchus alpinus Sp. pl. 794. _Blue-flowered Mountain Sowthistle._ -These open about seven, and close about noon. - -25. Sonchus tricubitalis, folio cuspidato Merr. pin. Raii Syn. 163. -Sonchus asper arborescens C. B. pin. 124. Sonchus palustris Sp. pl. -793. _The greatest Marsh tree Sowthistle._ It expands its flowers about -six or seven, and closes them about two in the afternoon. - -26. Lactuca sativa C. B. pin. 122. Sp. pl. 795. _Garden Lettuce_, opens -its flowers about seven, and closes them about ten, in the forenoon. - -27. Dens leonis Ger. 228. Raii Syn. 170. Leontodon Taraxacum Sp. pl. -798. _Dandelion._ It expands at five or six, and closes at eight or -nine, in the forenoon. This flowers early in the spring, and again in -the autumn. - -28. Dens leonis hirsutus leptocaulos, Hieracium dictus. Raii Syn. -171. Leontodon hispidum Sp. pl. 799. _Rough Dandelion_, or _Dandelion -Hawkweed_. This plant opens its flower about four in the morning, and -keeps it expanded till three in the afternoon. In May. - -29. Hieracium minus præmorsa radice. Park. 794. Raii Syn. 164. -Leontodon autumnale. Sp. pl. 799. _Hawkweed with bitten roots_, or -_Yellow Devil’s-bit_. The flowers open about seven, and keep in an -expanded state till about three in the afternoon. It flowers in July -and August. - -30. Pilosella repens Ger. 573. Raii Syn. 170. Hieracium Pilosella Sp. -pl. 800. _Common creeping Mouse-ear._ It opens about eight in the -morning, and closes about two in the afternoon. Very common on dry -pastures, flowering in June and July. - -31. Hieracium murorum folio pilosissimo C. B. pin. 129. Raii Syn. 168. -Hieracium murorum Sp. pl. 802. The flowers of this plant expand about -six or seven, and close about two in the afternoon. Upon old walls, -flowering in June and July. This is called in English, _French_ or -_Golden Lungwort_. - -32. Hieracium fruticosum angustifolium majus. C. B. pin. 129. Hieracium -umbellatum Sp. pl. 804. _Narrow-leaved bushy Hawkweed._ The flowers of -this species expand about six in the morning, and remain open till five -in the afternoon. - -33. Hieracium fruticosum latifolium hirsutum C. B. pin. 129. Raii -Syn. p. 167. Hieracium sabaudum Sp. pl. 804. _Bushy Hawkweed with -broad rough leaves._ These flowers are in their expanded state from -about seven in the morning till one or two in the afternoon. In woods, -flowering in June and July. - -34. Hieracium montanum cichorii folio. Raii. Syn. p. 166. Hieracium -paludosum Sp. pl. 638. Fl. Suec. 2. Nº. 702. _Succory-leaved Mountain -Hawkweed._ The flowers expand about six in the morning, and close about -five in the afternoon. - -35. Hieracium hortense floribus atro-purpurascentibus C. B. pin. -128. Hieracium aurantiacum Sp. pl. 801. _Garden Hawkweed with deep -purple flowers_, or _Sweet Indian Mouse-ear_. The flowers are in their -expanded state from six or seven in the morning till three or four in -the afternoon. - -36. Hieracium luteum glabrum, sive minus hirsutum. J. B. Raii Syn. 165. -Crepis tectorum Sp. pl. 807. _Smooth Succory Hawkweed._ The flowers of -this plant expand about four in the morning, and close about noon. - -37. Hieracium Alpinum Scorzoneræ folio Tourn. Inst. 472. Crepis Alpina -Sp. pl. 806. _Mountain Hawkweed with a vipers-grass leaf._ These open -about five or six, and close at eleven in the forenoon. - -38. Hieracium dentis leonis folio, flore suave-rubente, C. B. pin. 127. -Raii hist. pl. 231. Crepis rubra Sp. pl. 806. _Hawkweed of Apulia with -a flesh-coloured flower._ The flowers remain in their expanded state -from six or seven in the morning till one or two in the afternoon. - -39. Hieracium echioides, capitulis cardui benedicti C. B. pin. 128. -Raii Syn. 166. Picris echioides Sp. pl. 792. _Lang de bœuf._ On banks -about hedges, and about the borders of fields, flowering in August. -These expand about four or five in the morning, and never close before -noon: sometimes they remain open till nine at night. - -40. Hieracium Alpinum latifolium hirsutie incanum flore magno. C. -B. pin. 128. Raii Syn. p. 167. Hypochæris maculata Sp. pl. 810. -_Broad-leaved Hungarian Hawkweed._ These flowers are in their -vigilating state from six in the morning till four in the afternoon. - -41. Hieracium ramosum, floribus amplis, calycibus valde hirsutis, -foliis oblongis obtusis: dentibus majoribus inæqualibus incisis Raii -Suppl. 144. 76. Hypochæris Achyrophorus Sp. pl. 810. This plant opens -its flowers about seven or eight in the morning, and closes them about -two in the afternoon. - -42. Hieracium minus dentis leonis folio, oblongo glabro C. B. pin. 127. -Hypochæris glabra Sp. pl. 811. These expand about nine in the morning, -and close about twelve or one o’clock. - -43. Hieracium falcatum alterum Raii Hist. 256. Lapsana calycibus -fructus undique patentibus, radiis subulatis, foliis lyratis Hort. Ups. -245. Sp. pl. 812. The flowers open at five or six, and close between -the hours of ten and one. - -44. Hedypnois annua Tourn. Inst. 478. Hyoseris hedypnois Sp. pl. 809. -The flowers open at seven or eight, and close again at two in the -afternoon. - -45. Hieracium montanum alterum leptomacrocaulon Col. Raii Hist. 234. -Lapsana chondrilloides Sp. pl. 812. _Mountain Hawkweed with long -slender stalks and small flowers._ The flowers are in their expanded or -vigilating state from five or six in the morning till about ten. - -46. Cichoreum sylvestre Ger. em. 284. Raii Syn. 172. Cichorium Intybus -Sp. pl. 813. _Wild Succory._ On the borders of fields, flowering in -August and September. The flowers open about eight in the forenoon, and -keep expanded till about four in the afternoon. - -47. Calendula arvensis C. B. pin. 275. Raii Hist. 338. Calendula -officinalis Sp. pl. 921. _Wild Marigold._ The flowers expand from nine -in the morning till three in the afternoon. - -48. Calendula foliis dentatis Roy. Ludg. 177. Miller, p. 50. Tab. 75. -f. 1. Calendula pluvialis Sp. pl. 921. _Marigold with indented leaves._ -The flowers expand from seven in the morning till three or four in the -afternoon. Linnæus observes of this plant, that if its flowers do not -expand about their usual time in the morning, it will almost assuredly -rain that day; with this restriction indeed, that the plant is not -affected by thunder showers. Phil. Bot. 275. - -49. Sonchus pedunculis squamatis, foliis lanceolatis indivisis -sessilibus. Hort. Upsal. 244. Flor. Suec. 2. Nº. 690. Lactuca Salicis -folio, flore cæruleo. Amman. ruth. 211. Of this plant it is remarked, -that whenever the flowers are in the expanded state in the night-time, -the following day generally proves rainy. - - - - -LXVI. _An Account of the Case of a Boy troubled with convulsive Fits -cured by the Discharge of Worms. By the Rev._ Richard Oram, _M. A. -Chaplain to the Lord Bishop of_ Ely. - -[Read Jan. 26, 1758.] - -JOseph, son of John and Mary Postle, of Ingham in the county of -Norfolk, was subject to convulsive fits from his infancy; which were -common and tolerable till he was about seven years of age. About -that time they began to attack him in all the varieties that can be -conceived. Sometimes he was thrown upon the ground; sometimes he was -twirled round like a top by them; at others he would spring upwards -to a considerable height, _&c._ and once he leaped over an iron bar, -that was placed purposely before the fire to prevent his falling into -it. He was much burned; but was rendered so habitually stupid by his -fits, that he never expressed the least sense of pain after this -accident. His intellect was so much impaired, and almost destroyed, -by the frequency and violence of his fits, that he scarce seemed -to be conscious of any thing. He did not acknowlege his father or -mother by any expressions or signs; nor seemed to distinguish them -from other people. If at any time he escaped out of the house without -the observation of the family, he had not understanding to find and -return to it; but would pursue the direction or road he first took, -and sometimes lose himself. Once he was missing for a whole night; and -found the next morning in the middle of a fen, stuck fast in mud as -deep as his breast. He was very voracious, and would frequently call -for something to eat; which was the only indication he gave of his -knowing any thing. No kind of filth or nastiness can be conceived, -which he would not eat or drink without distinction. He appeared to be -as ill as he really was; for he was become a most shocking spectacle. -He was so much emaciated, that he seemed to have no flesh upon his -bones; and his body so distorted, that he was rendered quite a cripple. -His parents consulted a physician at Norwich, who very judiciously (as -it will appear) considered his disorder as a worm-case, and prescribed -for it accordingly; but (being afraid, I presume, to give too violent -medicines to the boy) without success. In short, he was so singularly -afflicted, that his parents told me they could not help thinking him -under some evil influence. - -It was observed, that his disorder varied, and grew worse, at certain -periods of the moon. - -In these miserable circumstances the poor boy continued to languish, -till he was about eleven years of age (July 1757), when he accidentally -found a mixture of white lead[18] and oil, which had some time before -been prepared for some purpose of painting, set by on a shelf, and -placed, as it was thought, out of his reach. There was near half a pint -of this mixture when he found it; and, as he did not leave much, it is -thought he swallowed about a quarter of a pint of it. There was also -some lamp-black in the composition; which was added to give it a proper -colour for the particular use it was intended for in painting. It was, -as I suppose it usually is, linseed oil, which had been mixed with the -lead and lamp-black. - -The draught began to operate very soon, by vomiting and purging him for -near 24 hours in the most violent manner. A large quantity of black -inky matter was discharged; and an infinite number of worms, almost -as small as threads, were voided. These operations were so intense, -that his life was despaired of. But he has not only survived them, but -experienced a most wonderful change and improvement after them: for his -parents assured me in November 1757, when I saw him, that he had daily -grown better from the time of his drinking the mixture, both in body -and mind. Instead of a skeleton, as he almost was before, he is become -fat, and rather corpulent: and his appetite is no longer ravenous, but -moderate and common. His body too is become straight and erect. His -understanding is at least as much benefited by this peculiar remedy. It -cannot be expected, that he should already have attained much knowlege, -as he seemed, before he was so wonderfully relieved, to be almost -destitute of ideas. But he appeared, when I saw him, to have acquired -nearly as much knowlege in four months, as children usually do in four -years; and to reason pretty well on those things, which he knew. He is -now capable of being employed on many occasions; is often sent a mile -or two on errands, which he discharges as carefully, and then returns -as safely, as any person. - -It is farther remarkable, that the boy’s mother, her father, and -sister, are frequently infested with worms. Her father, tho’ about 60 -years of age, is still much troubled with them: the worms, which he -voids, appear flat, and much larger than those, which his children have -observed. Her sister is often exceedingly disordered by them. About -three months since they threw her into violent convulsions, and for -some time deprived her of her senses. But the mother of the boy has -been affected in a more extraordinary manner than the rest. About 20 -years ago she voided some worms, which forced their way thro’ the pores -of the skin, as it is supposed; for they were found in small clusters -under her arms. As she was very young then, she does not remember -how she was particularly affected; only, that she suffered violent -struggles and convulsions. She is still, about five or six times in a -year, seized with fainting fits, which usually attack her in bed, and -last three or four minutes; but she cannot certainly say, tho’ there is -very little reason to doubt, that they are occasioned by worms. - - -_An Account of the same Subject, in a Letter from Mr._ John Gaze, _of_ -Walket, _in the County of_ Norfolk, _to Mr._ Wm. Arderon, _F.R.S. -Communicated by Mr._ Henry Baker, _F.R.S._ - -[Read Jan. 26, 1758.] - -JOseph Postle, son of John Postle, of Ingham in Norfolk, until about -the age of seven years was an healthy well-looking child; but about -that age was afflicted with stoppages, which often threw him into -convulsive fits, and at last rendered him quite an idiot. He continued -in this condition for about four years, eating and drinking all that -time any thing that came in his way, even his own excrements, if -not narrowly watched. His father took the advice of several eminent -physicians, both at Norwich and elsewhere; but all their prescriptions -proved of no service. - -About the beginning of August last he happened to get at a -painting-pot, wherein there was about a pound of white lead and -lamp-black mixed up with linseed oil. This he eat almost all up -before he was discovered. It vomited and purged him, and brought away -prodigious numbers of small worms. In a few days he grew well, his -senses returned, and he is now able to give as rational answers as can -be expected from a boy of his age. His appetite is good, he is very -brisk, and has not had the least return of his former disorder. - -I heard of the above by several people; but not being satisfied, got -my friend to go to Mr. Postle’s house, of whom he had the foregoing -account. - -January 12th, 1758. - - - - -LXVII. _An Account of the extraordinary Heat of the Weather in_ July -1757, _and of the Effects of it. In a Letter from_ John Huxham, _M. D. -F.R.S. to_ Wm. Watson, _M. D. F.R.S._ - -[Read Feb. 2, 1758.] - -I Find by your letter, that the heat at London was not so great in -the beginning of July 1757, as at Plymouth by two or three degrees of -Fahrenheit’s thermometer. We had again, after much rain at the close -of the month, and in the beginning of August, excessive heat; _viz._ -on the 8th, 9th, and 10th of August; which mounted the mercury in that -thermometer to 85; nay, on the 9th, to near 86. I never before remember -the mercury in that thermometer to exceed 84; and that is even here a -very extraordinary degree of heat. - -The consequences of this extremely hot season were hæmorrhages from -several parts of the body; the nose especially in men and children, -and the uterus in women. Sudden and violent pains of the head, and -vertigo, profuse sweats, great debility and oppression of the spirits, -affected many. There were putrid fevers in great abundance; and a vast -quantity of fluxes of the belly both bilious and bloody, with which the -fevers also were commonly attended. These fevers were always ushered -in by severe pains of the head, back, and stomach; vomitings of green -and sometimes of black bile, with vast oppression of the _præcordia_, -continual anxiety, and want of sleep. These were soon succeeded by -_tremores tendinum_, _subsultus_, delirium, or stupor. The pulse was -commonly very quick, but seldom tense or strong; was sometimes heavy -and undose. The blood oftentimes florid, but loose; sometimes livid, -very rarely sizy: in some however, at the very attack, it was pretty -dense and florid. The tongue was generally foul, brown, and sometimes -blackish; and towards the crisis often dry. The urine was commonly high -coloured, and in small quantity; frequently turbid, and towards the end -deposed a great deal of lateritious sediment. A vast number were seized -with this fever, during, and soon after, the excessive heats; tho’ but -few died in proportion. Long and great heats always very much exalt the -acrimony of the bilious humours; of which we had this summer abundant -instances. - -Bleeding early was generally beneficial; profuse, always hurtful, -especially near the state of the fever. - - - - -LXVIII. _An Account of the fossile Thigh-bone of a large Animal, dug up -at_ Stonesfield, _near_ Woodstock, _in_ Oxfordshire. _In a Letter to -Mr._ Peter Collinson, _F.R.S. from Mr._ Joshua Platt. - -[Read Feb. 2, 1758.] - -Dear Sir, - -ABOUT three years ago I sent you some _vertebræ_ of an enormous size, -which were found in the slate-stone pit at Stonesfield, near Woodstock, -in this county. - -[Illustration: _Philos. Trans. Vol. L._ TAB. XIX. _p. 525_. - -_J. Mynde sc._] - -I have lately been so lucky as to procure from the same place the -thigh-bone of a large animal, which probably belonged to the same -creature, or one of the same genus, with the _vertebræ_ above-mentioned. - -As the bone, and the stone, in which it is bedded, weigh no less than -two hundred pounds, I have sent you a drawing of it (_See_ TAB. XIX.); -from which, and the following short description, you may, I hope, form -some idea of this wonderful fossile. - -The bone is 29 inches in length; its diameter, at the extremity of -the two trochanters, is 8 inches; at the lower extremity the condyles -form a surface of 6 inches. The lesser trochanter is so well expressed -in the drawing, that you cannot mistake it; and both the extremities -appear to be a little rubbed by the fluctuating water, in which I -apprehend it lay some time before the great jumble obtained, which -brought it to this place; and from whence I imagine it to have been -part of a skeleton before the flood. For if it had been corroded by any -menstruum in the earth, or during the great conflux of water before the -draining of the earth, it must have suffered in other parts as well as -at each end: but as the extremities only are injured, we can attribute -such a partial effect to the motion of the water only, which caused it -to rub and strike against the sand, _&c._ - -The small trochanter was broken in lifting it out of the hamper, in -which it was brought to me; but not unhappily; since all the _cancelli_ -were by that means discovered to be filled with a sparry matter, that -fixed the stone of the stratum, in which it lay. The outward coat or -cortex is smooth, and of a dusky brown colour, resembling that of the -stone, in which it is bedded. - -One half of the bone is buried in the stone; yet enough of it is -exposed to shew, that it is the thigh-bone of an animal of greater bulk -than the largest ox. I have compared it with the recent thigh-bone of -an elephant; but could observe little or no resemblance between them. -If I may be allowed to assume the liberty, in which fossilists are -often indulged, and to hazard a vague conjecture of my own, I would say -it may probably have belonged to the hippopotamus, to the rhinoceros, -or some such large animal, of whose anatomy we have not yet a competent -knowlege. - -The slate-pit, in which this bone was found, is about a quarter of -a mile north-west from Stonesfield, upon the declivity of a rising -ground, the upper stratum of which is a vegetable mould about eight -or ten inches thick: under this is a bed of rubble, with a mixture of -sand and clay, very coarse, about six feet deep, in which are a great -number of _anomiæ_ both plain and striated, and many small oblong -oysters, which the workmen call the sickle-oyster, some of them being -found crooked, and bearing some resemblance to that instrument; but all -differing from the _curvi-rostra_[19] of Moreton. - -Immediately under this stratum of rubble is a bed of soft grey stone, -of no use; but containing the _echini ovarii_, with great _mamillæ_, -the _clypeati_ of different sizes, all well preserved; and also many -_anomiæ_ and _pectines_. This bed, which is about seven or eight feet -in depth, lies immediately above the stratum of stone, in which the -bone was found. - -This stratum is never wrought by the workmen, being arenarious, and too -soft for their use. It is about four or five feet thick, and forms a -kind of roof to them, as they dig out the stone, of which the slates -are formed; for they work these pits in the same manner as they do the -coal-pits, leaving pillars at proper distances to keep their roof from -falling in. - -This last bed of slate-stone is about five feet depth, and lower than -this they never dig. So that the whole depth of the pit amounts to -about 24 or 25 feet. - -It was by working out the slate-stone, that this bone was discovered -sticking to the roof of the pit, where the men were pursuing their -work; and with a great deal of caution, and no less pains, they got it -down intire, but attached to a large piece of stone; and in this state -it now remains in my possession. - -There is no water in the works, but such as descends from the surface -thro’ perpendicular fissures; and the whole is spent in forming the -stalactites and stalagmites, of which there is great variety, and whose -dimensions are constantly increasing. One of the workmen has been so -curious, as to mark the time of the growth of some of them for several -years past. - -I am, with the greatest esteem, - - Dear Sir, - Your ever obedient, - and most humble Servant, - Joshua Platt. - -Oxon, Jan. 20. 1758. - - - - -LXIX. _A Discourse on the Usefulness of Inoculation of the horned -Cattle to prevent the contagious Distemper among them. In a Letter to -the Right Hon._ George _Earl of_ Macclesfield, _P. R. S. from_ Daniel -Peter Layard, _M. D. F.R.S._ - -[Read Feb. 2, 1758.] - -My Lord, - -THE honour you have done me, in condescending to peruse my Essay on the -contagious Distemper among the horned Cattle, claims my most respectful -thanks; and I am no less obliged to your Lordship for the just remark -you made, “That before inoculation could be practised on the horned -Cattle, it is necessary to bring proofs, that this disease is not -susceptible more than once; and also assurances, that a recovery from -the distemper by inoculation guards the beast from a second infection.” - -An intire conviction of the analogy between this disease and the -small-pox would not permit me to omit mentioning the great advantages, -which must arise from inoculation; and therefore, my Lord, I recommend -its use: nor do I find any reason to alter my opinion, after having -carefully read over what has been published, and made the strictest -inquiry I was able in several parts of Great Britain. - -I shall, in the concisest manner possible, submit the following -particulars to your Lordship’s consideration, and the learned Society, -over which you so deservedly preside. - -The Marquis de Courtivron, in two memoirs read before the Royal -Academy of Sciences in the year 1748, and published by that learned -body, relates the observations he, together with Monsieur Pelversier -de Gombeau, formerly surgeon to the regiment de la Sarre, made on -the rise, progress, and fatality, of the contagious distemper at -Issurtille, a town in Burgundy; to which are added experiments they -made, by application, digestion, and inoculation, towards communicating -the disease; and concludes from the failure of these attempts, that the -distemper can only be communicated from one beast to another. Besides, -notwithstanding the Marquis observes[20] the regularity of the illness, -the critical days, on the seventh and ninth, and particularly that all -such as recovered had more or fewer pustules broke out in different -parts of the body; yet[21] he will not allow of Rammazzini’s opinion, -of the analogy between this distemper and the small-pox, nor that it is -an eruptive fever; but ranks it as a plague. - -But the Marquis goes still farther. He positively say,[22] “That in -the preceding years, in the provinces of Bresse, Maconnois, and Bugey, -some private persons had suffered by buying cattle recovered from the -distemper, which had, at that time, the pustules remaining on them: -which cattle had the distemper afterwards.” Nay, he adds that “even -after recovering twice, a third infection has seized and killed many.” - -No wonder, my Lord, that such positive assertions should stagger, and -cause the practice of inoculation not to be received, till the nature -of the disease be absolutely determined, and facts prove the contrary -of what has been asserted. - -In a matter of so great importance to every nation, it were to -be wished, that the Marquis de Courtivron had produced attested -observations of these second and third infections: for tho’ a nobleman -of his rank, character, and great abilities, would not willingly impose -upon the world; yet it may happen, that he may have received wrong -informations. - -As to the nature, rise, progress, and fatality, of this distemper -at Issurtille, it appears to be the same disease as raged in these -kingdoms. All the symptoms agree, as described by Rammazzini, Lancisi, -the Marquis, and in my Essay. A distempered beast gave rise to the -three infections. The illness was every-where the same in Italy, -France, and Britain; and either terminated _fatally_ on the fourth or -fifth day, when a scouring prevented the salutary eruptions, or in -some cases by abortion; and on the seventh or ninth _favourably_, when -the pustules had regularly taken their course. Tho’ the Marquis did -not observe, that any particular medicines were of use, he says, that -in general acids were beneficial, especially poor thin wines somewhat -sour; and that the distempered beasts were all fond of these acids[23]. - -The fatality was likewise the same, as will appear from the Marquis’s -tables. Of 192 head of cattle, 176 died. The mortality was chiefly -among the fat cattle, cows with calf, and young sucking or yearling -calves; and of the surviving sixteen, only two calves out of -seventy-seven lived, and these two, with seven other beasts of the -sixteen, escaped the infection, tho’ constantly among the diseased: so -that it is plain, - - Of 192 beasts, 176 died - 7 recovered - 9 escaped the infection. - --- - 192 - -The mortality was as considerable in these kingdoms. - -Whoever will compare the appearances, progress, and fatality, of the -small-pox, with what is remarked by authors of authority, as Rammazzini -and Lancisi, and other observers, relative to the contagious distemper -among the horned cattle, will not be at a loss one moment to determine, -whether this disease be an eruptive fever, like unto the small-pox, or -not. - -Now if, as the Marquis has granted in both his memoirs[24], it be a -general observation, that an eruption of pustules on some parts of the -body, regularly thrown out, digested, and dried, is the means used by -nature to effect the cure; and that in general the morbid matter does -not affect the parotid, inguinal, or other glands, nor produce large -carbuncles and abscesses, as the plague does: Nay more, since it is -observed by the Marquis, that the difference between the contagious -distemper of 1745 and 1746, and of 1747 and 1748, was, that in the -former the salutary eruptions appeared, but in the latter were, as he -justly apprehends, checked by the excessive cold weather; and should -it appear, that by inoculation the same regular eruptive fever has -been produced, with every stage, and the same symptoms as arise in the -small-pox; the nature of this distemper will then be ascertained. - -I shall now proceed, my Lord, to lay before your Lordship and the -Society the accounts I have received relating to the infection -and inoculation of the cattle, and make some observations on the -experiments made at Issurtille. - -So long, my Lord, as the distemper has raged in Great Britain, not -one attested proof has been brought of any beast having this disease -regularly more than once. I make no doubt but these creatures may be -liable to eruptions of different kinds; but as all sorts of eruptions, -says Dr. Mead[25], are not the small-pox, nor measles, so every pustule -is not a sign of the plague. Thro’ ignorance, or fraud, persons may -have been deceived in purchasing cattle, and have lost them, as well -in England as in the provinces of France mentioned by the Marquis; but -until a second infection be proved, the general opinion must prevail in -this case, as in the small-pox: for tho’ many have insisted on the same -thing with regard to the small-pox, yet a single instance, properly -vouched and attested, has never been produced, either after recovery -from the natural way, or from inoculation; unless what is frequently -the case with nurses and others attending the small-pox, that is, -pustules breaking out in their arms and face, be allowed as the signs -of a second infection. - -The farmers and graziers in Huntingdonshire, Cambridgeshire, -Lincolnshire, Kent, and Yorkshire, from whence I have written -testimonies, all agree, that they never knew of a beast having the -contagious distemper more than once. In this county particularly, Mr. -J. Mehew, the farmer mentioned in my Essay, has now among his stock -at Godmanchester _eight cows_, which had the contagious distemper the -first time it appeared in Godmanchester in 1746. It returned in 1749, -1755, and 1756; the two last not so generally over the town as the two -former years. All these four times Mr. Mehew suffered by the loss of -his cattle; yet those _eight cows_, which recovered in 1746, remained -all the while the distemper was in the farm the three years it raged, -were in the midst of the sick cattle, lay with them in the same barns, -eat of the same fodder, nay of such as the distempered beasts had left -and slabbered upon, drank after them, and constantly received their -breath and steams, without ever being in the least affected. Is not -this a convincing proof? If in general the cattle be susceptible of a -second infection, how comes it, that not one of these _eight_ cows were -affected? - -In the years abovementioned the distemper spared no beast, but such as -had recovered from that disease: and this is confirmed to me by Mr. -Mehew’s father and brother, all the chief farmers of Godmanchester, and -is the opinion of all the farmers and graziers in Huntingdonshire, who -are so thoroughly convinced of there being no second infection, that -they are always ready to give an advanced price for such cattle as have -recovered from the contagious distemper. - -The Rev. Mr. Scaife, assistant to the Rev. Dr. Greene, Dean of -Salisbury, in his parish of Cottenham, Cambridgeshire, acquaints me, -that the farmers in that neighbourhood lost, in 1746 and 1747, twelve -hundred head of cattle, in 1751 four hundred and seventy; and tells me, -that Mr. Ivett, Sayers, Moor, Dent, Lawson, chief farmers at Cottenham, -Mr. Taylor, Sumpter, and Matthews, of his own parish of Histon, and -the farmers of Wivelingham alias Willingham, unanimously declare, they -never had one instance of a beast having the distemper twice. - -Mr. Thorpe, a farmer and grazier near Gainsborough in Lincolnshire, has -had beasts recovered from the distemper, which have herded with cattle -fallen ill afterwards, and never met with a single instance of a second -infection. - -Mr. Lostie, an eminent surgeon at Canterbury, has inquired for me of -the farmers and graziers in that part of Kent, and about Romney-Marsh; -and from whence no belief of a second infection can be had. - -The Rev. Dr. Fountayne, Dean of York, writes me word, that no beast has -been known, in his neighbourhood, to have had the distemper twice. And -several persons from that county, and others, have told me the same -thing. - -If the above testimony of persons of character and veracity, together -with the concurrent persuasion of farmers in general, be allowed of, it -must be determined, that there is no instance of a second infection. -Supposing now it should appear, that this distemper is regularly, as -in the natural way, tho’ in a milder manner, produced by inoculation, -and that inoculation secures a beast also from a second infection; then -undoubtedly inoculation will be recommendable. - -The very few trials made in England, and those not with the greatest -exactness or propriety, will yet serve to put this matter out of all -doubt. - -The Rev. Dean of York had five beasts inoculated, by means of a skein -of cotton dipped in the matter, and passed thro’ a hole, like a seaton, -in the dew-lap. Of these five, one cow near the time of calving died: -the other four, after going thro’ the several stages of this contagious -disease, recovered; two of which, being cows young with calf, did not -slip their calves. All four have herded with distempered cattle a long -while, and never had the least symptom of a second infection. - -Mr. Bewley, a surgeon of reputation in Lincolnshire, inoculated three -beasts two years old, for Mr. Wigglesworth of Manton, in the dew-lap, -and with _mucus_ from the nostrils. All three had the regular symptoms -of the contagious distemper in a mild manner, recovered, and tho’ they -herded a twelvemonth after with five or six distempered beasts, they -never were the least affected. Mr. Bewley also declared to Mr. Thorpe, -that there never was one instance produced, that he knew of, of a -second infection. - -Since it is plain, that notwithstanding neither well-digested _pus_ was -made use of, nor incisions made in the properest places, and it may be -supposed few medicines were given; yet inoculation succeeded so as to -bring on the distemper in a regular and mild manner, as appears by the -cows with calf not slipping their calves. One may fairly conclude, that -in this contagious distemper, like unto the small-pox, the practice of -inoculation is not only warrantable, but much to be recommended. - -But how comes it then, that neither by application, digestion, nor -inoculation, the distemper was not communicated in France? - -The Marquis says, that this distemper is not communicated but from -one beast to another immediately. I must beg leave to say, that to my -knowlege the distemper in February 1756 was carried from the farm-yard, -where I visited some distempered cattle, to two other farm-yards, each -at a considerable distance, without any communication of the cattle -with each other, and merely by the means of servants going to and fro, -or of dogs. - -The experiments made on four beasts, by tying over their heads part of -distempered hides, or pieces of linen and woollen cloth or silk, which -had received the breath and steams of dying cattle, serve to shew, by -the bullock’s forcing off the cloth tied about him, that the putrid -stench was disagreeable to him; but that neither his blood, nor that of -the other three beasts, was then in a state to receive the infection. - -With regard to the pustules, which the Marquis relates were mixed -with oats and bran, or dissolved in white wine; the distempered bile, -which was mixed with milk; milk taken from diseased cows; water, in -which part of a distempered hide had been steeped; and the precaution -taken to force these mixtures into the paunch of calves, by means of -a funnel, whose end was covered with a piece of raw distempered skin, -that the beast might both swallow and suck in the disease. All these -experiments could have no other effect than what followed; which was, -that the acrimony of the distempered bile created first a _nausea_, and -then produced a violent scouring, which killed the beast, leaving marks -of its irritation on the intestines. - -The practice of inoculation is but lately followed, and even now but -little known, in the provinces of France. Its advantages have not long -since been strangely disputed at Paris. In the case of inoculating -cattle, instead of a slip of raw hide taken from a beast just dead, or -putting a pustule into the neck, they should either have passed in the -dewlap cotton or silk dipped in well-digested _pus_, or have inserted -in proper incisions cotton-thread or silk soaked with _pus_ either on -the shoulders or buttocks; the true way of inoculating in the English -manner. Some persons have indeed thought, that to inoculate with the -blood of the infected would answer the intention; but most of the -modern practitioners chuse to depend on digested matter. - -Several constitutions will not receive infection, let them be -inoculated ever so judiciously. A Ranby, a Hawkins, a Middleton, and -other inoculators, will tell us, that the incisions have sometimes -suppurated so much, and pustules have appeared round the edges of the -wound, without any other particular marks of the disease; and yet the -patient has never had the small-pox afterwards. The Marquis mentions an -instance somewhat of the same kind in his first Memoir, p. 147. - -The examination of these very important and interesting particulars -has, I observe, drawn me into a prolixity, which I fear may prove -tedious to your Lordship: but should I have removed all doubts, -and brought convincing proofs of the absurdity of fearing a second -infection; should I have shewn inoculation to be a necessary practice, -and that the contagious distemper may be communicated more ways than -one; I hope your Lordship will excuse the length of this letter. -I shall only add my earnest wishes, that the legislature may, by -effectual means, prevent the importation of distempered cattle -and hides into these kingdoms; the only means of naturalizing and -perpetuating a dreadful distemper, now, thank God! much decreased among -us. - -I am, with the greatest respect, - - My Lord, - Your Lordship’s - Most humble and most obedient Servant, - Daniel Peter Layard. - -Huntingdon, 26 Nov. 1757. - - - - -LXX. _Trigonometry abridged. By the Rev._ Patrick Murdoch, _A. M. -F.R.S._ - -[Read Feb. 2, 1758.] - -THE cases in trigonometry, that can properly be called different from -one another are no more than _four_; which may be resolved by _three_ -general rules or theorems, expressed in the sines of arcs only; using -the supplemental triangle as there is occasion. - -[Illustration: _Philos. Trans. Vol. L._ TAB. XX. _p. 539_. - -_J. Mynde sc._] - -CASE I. - -_When of three given parts two stand opposite to each other, and the -third stands opposite to the part required._ - - -THEOREM I. - -_The sines of the sides are proportional to the sines of angles -opposite to them._ - - -DEMONSTRATION. - -Let QR (TAB. XX. _Fig._ 1.) be the base of a spherical triangle; its -sides PQ, PR, whose planes cut that of the base in the diameters QC_q_, -RC_r_. And if, from the angle P, the line PL is perpendicular to the -plane of the base, meeting it in L, all planes drawn through PL will -be perpendicular to the same, by 18. _el._ 11. Let two such planes be -perpendicular likewise to the semicircles of the sides, cutting them in -the straight lines PG, PH; and the plane of the base in the lines LG, -LH. - -Then the plane of the triangle PGL being perpendicular to the two -planes, whose intersection is QGC_q_, the angles PGQ LGQ will be right -angles, by 19. _el._ 11. PG likewise subtends a right angle PLG, and -the angle PGL measures the inclination of the semicircle QP_q_ to the -plane of the base (_def._ 6. _el._ 11.) that is (by 16 _el._ 3. and 10 -_el._ 11.) it is equal to the spherical angle PQR: whence PG is to PL -as the radius to the sine of PQR. The same way PL is to PH as the sine -of PRQ is to the radius: and therefore, _ex æquo_. PG the sine of the -side PQ is to PH the sine of PR, as the sine of PRQ is to the sine of -PQR. - - -CASES II. _and_ III. - -_When the three parts are of the same name._ - -And, - -_When two given parts include between them a given part of a different -name, the part required standing opposite to this middle part._ - - -THEOREM II. - -_Let_ S _and_ s _be the sines of two sides of a spherical triangle_, -d _the sine of half the difference of the same sides_, a _the sine of -half the included angle_, b _the sine of half the base; and writing -unity for the radius, we have_ Ssa² + d² - b² = 0; _in which_ a _or_ b -_may be made the unknown quantity, as the case requires_. - - -DEMONSTRATION. - -Let PQR (_Fig._ 2.) be a spherical triangle, whose sides are PQ PR, -the angle included QPR, the base QR, PC the semiaxis of the sphere, in -which the planes of the sides intersect. - -To the pole P, draw the great circle AB, cutting the sides (produced, -if needful) in M and N; and thro’ Q and R, the lesser circles Q_q_, -_r_R, cutting off the arcs Q_r_ _q_R equal to the difference of the -sides; join MN, Q_q_, _r_R, QR, _qr_. - -Then the planes of the circles described being parallel (_Theod. -sphæric._ 2. 2.), and the axis PC perpendicular to them (_10. 1. of -the same_), their intersections with the planes of the sides, as QT, -and R_t_, will make right angles with PC; that is, QT and R_t_ are the -sines (S, _s_.) of the sides PQ PR, and MC NC are whole sines. Now the -isosceles triangles MCN, QT_q_, _rt_R, being manifestly similar; as -also MN, the subtense of the arc which measures the angle QPR, being -equal to (2_a_) twice the sine of half that angle; we shall have MN: -MC∷ Q_q_: QT∷ _r_R: R_t_; or, in the notation of the theorem, Q_q_ = -2S_a_, _r_R = 2_sa_. And further, the chords Q_r_ _q_R being equal, and -equally distant from the center of the sphere, as also equally inclined -to the axis PC, will, if produced, meet the axis produced, in one point -Z. Whence the points Q, _q_, R, _r_, are in one plane (2. _el._ 11.), -and in the circumference in which that plane cuts the surface of the -sphere: the quadrilateral Q_q_R_r_ is also a segment of the isosceles -triangle ZQ_q_, cut off by a line parallel to its base, making the -diagonals QR, _qr_, equal. And therefore, by a known property of the -circle, Q_q_ × _r_R + (_q_R)² = (QR)²; which, substituting for Q_q_ and -R_r_ the values found above, 2_d_ for Q_r_, 2_b_ for QR, and taking the -fourth part of the whole, becomes S_sa_² + _d_² = _b_² the proposition -that was to be demonstrated. - - _Note_ 1. If this, or the preceding, is applied to a plane triangle, - the sines of the sides become the sides themselves; the triangle - being conceived to lie in the surface of a sphere greater than any - that can be assigned. - - _Note_ 2. If the two sides are equal, _d_ vanishing, the operation - is shorter: as it likewise is when one or both sides are quadrants. - - _Note_ 3. By comparing this proposition with that of the Lord - Neper[26], which makes the 39th of Keill’s Trigonometry, it appears, - that if AC, AM, are two arcs, then sin. (AC + AM) ⁄ 2 × sin. (AC - - AM) ⁄ 2 = ((_b_ + _d_) × (_b_ - _d_) =) (sin. ½ AC + sin. ½ AM) × - (sin. ½ AC - sin. ½ AM). And in the solution of Case II. the first of - these products will be the most readily computed. - - -CASE IV. - -_When the part required stands opposite to a part, which is likewise -unknown_: Having from the _data_ of Case I. found a fourth part, let -the sines of the given sides be S, _s_; those of the given angles Σ, -σ; and the sines of half the unknown parts _a_ and _b_; and we shall -have, as before, S_sa_² + _d_² - _b_² = 0; and if the equation of the -supplements be (Σσα² + δ²) - β² = 0; then, because α² = 1 - _b_² = 1 - -(S_sa_² + _d_²), and β² = 1 - _a_², substituting these values in the -second equation, we get - -THEOREM III. - -(1 - Σσ × (1 - _d_²) - δ²) ⁄ (1 - S_s_Σσ) = _a_²; in words thus: - -_Multiply the product of the sines of the two known angles by the -square of the cosine of half the difference of the sides: add the -square of the sine of half the difference of the angles; and divide the -complement of this sum to unity, by the like complement of the product -of the four sines of the sides and angles; and the square root of the -quotient shall be the sine of half the unknown angle._ - -If we work by logarithms, the operation will not be very -troublesome; but the rule needs not be used, unless when a table -of the trigonometrical analogies is wanting. To supply which, the -foregoing theorems will be found sufficient, and of ready use; being -either committed to memory, or noted down on the blank leaf of the -trigonometrical tables. - - _Note_, The schemes may be better, raised in card-paper, or with bent - wires and threads. - - - - -LXXI. _An Account of Two extraordinary Cases of Gall-Stones._ By James -Johnstone, _M. D. of_ Kidderminster. _Communicated by the Rev._ Charles -Lyttelton, _L. L. D. Dean of_ Exeter. - - _To the Rev. Dr._ Lyttelton, _Dean of_ Exeter. -[Read Feb. 9, 1758.] - -Rev. Sir, - -ACcording to promise I send you a short account of the two -extraordinary cases we talked of, the last time I had the pleasure of -seeing you at Kidderminster. - -The truth of the first narrated case you are already a sufficient judge -of; and if it is at all necessary to ascertain the second in like -manner, I can at any time produce the poor woman and her husband before -you, who will attest the truth of sufferings, which will not easily -escape their memory. - -You are at liberty to dispose of this paper as you shall think proper. -I am, - - Reverend Sir, - Your respectful and most humble Servant, - J. Johnstone. - -Kidderminster, Sept. 11. 1757. - - -THO’ it is now pretty well known, that colicky and icteric diseases -often arise from gall-stones generated in the bilious receptacle, and -obstructing its canals; yet an example of one, of such enormous size, -voided into the _duodenum_ from the _ductus communis_, as happened in -the first of the following cases, is a very rare, if not intirely an -unexampled occurrence. It will encourage us not too easily to despair -of the expulsion of the largest _calculi_ from the gall-bladder; and -will teach us, that all violent attacks of pain about the stomach -are not owing to gout reflected upon that organ: it will make us -more cautious of giving drastic cathartics, heating and inflaming -medicines, upon such a vague presumption; and ought to dispose those, -who are trusted with the lives of their fellow-creatures, to a nicer -observation of even the minutest symptoms and circumstances, which may -occur in diseases. - -The second case points out, under certain circumstances, the -practibility of extracting, by incision into the gall-bladder itself, -those _calculi_, which, from their figure, or other impediments, cannot -be voided in the natural way. The method of performing this unusual -operation, and some instances of its success, have already been made -public in the Memoires de l’Acad. de Chirurg. - - -1. Mrs. F----, a sedentary corpulent old lady, had been much subject -to colicky complaints, without jaundice, in the vigour of life. The -seat of the pain was chiefly under the right _hypochondrium_, as high -as the stomach. She had been tolerably free from it for at least eight -years past. December 5, 1753, about eleven o’clock in the evening, she -was suddenly seized with a violent pain, extending from that part of -the stomach lying under the right side, thro’ to her back. She compared -it to a sword driven in that direction. This pain continued not only -with unremitted violence, but even increased, till seven o’clock in the -morning: all this time she vomited and strained almost incessantly; -but after her stomach was emptied of its contents, nothing came up -besides clear slime, streaked with blood. About seven o’clock in the -morning she felt her pain fall or move lower, as she expressed it, -and from that time became remarkably easier. Soon after this change, -she became extremely sick, and vomited up, for the first time, a -prodigious quantity of greenish yellow bile. She had not before this -seizure been remarkably costive; and in her pain had a free motion -to stool with effect; but during the remainder of the (6th) day had -none, tho’ all this time emollient clysters were injected; and she -took regularly every two hours a powder of _magnes. alb. terr. fol. -tartar. tart. vitriol. ana_ ℈j. _ol. nuc. mosch. gutt._ j. with a -draught of the _succ. limon. & sal. absinth_. But in the middle of the -night, and all day (the 7th), she had an abundant discharge of loose -bilious stools. She had continued free from excessive pain since the -morning of the former day, only now and then complained of uneasiness -sometimes in one, sometimes in another, part of her bowels. About -twenty-four hours after her first seizure, she felt a great pain -striking towards the bottom of her back, and one hour after voided -the extraordinary _calculus_, of which the figure and description are -subjoined. Some time after pieces of skins were voided by stool, which -were evidently of the texture and appearance of the internal villous -coat of the intestines and gall-bladder. The above medicines were the -only ones she used, by my direction, under her painful complaint, -excepting an external fomentation, and bleeding, which the hardness and -contractedness of her pulse seemed to require. She was ordered to drink -plentifully of thin broths, and other soft diluent liquors. During the -course of her disorder she had no appearance of jaundice, nor since; -and, considering her years, enjoys at present (Sept. 1757) very good -health. - -This _calculus_, as appears by the figure, was of a pyriform shape, -resembling the form of the _cystis fellea_ itself. Its surface was -quite smooth and polished, excepting towards the base, at that part -marked A, where it was scabrous, as if some other substance had lain -contiguous to it. When broken through, it was composed of concentrical -laminæ, which were alternately white and ochre-coloured. In length it -measured one inch and three tenths; its transverse section measured at -least seven tenths of an inch. It had a saponaceous smoothness, like -other gall-stones, and floated upon water. It weighed only about 126 -grains. - -Tho’ it be difficult to conceive, how so bulky a substance, generated -in the gall-bladder, could be conveyed along so narrow a passage as -the common biliary duct, especially considering the obliquity of its -insertion for near half an inch of length betwixt the coats of the -_duodenum_; yet there seem sufficient _data_ in the above case to -prove, that this animal stone was not formed in the alimentary tube, -but (large as it was) had come into it from the _ductus communis -choledochus_. - -The shape and saponaceous smoothness, and colour of the laminæ, of this -substance, shew it was moulded in the gall-bladder, and formed from -bilious particles. The severe pain and torture, and enormous vomiting, -she underwent, for seven hours after her first seizure, argue, that it -must then be lodged in some canal much narrower and straighter than the -alimentary canal; for so soon as it dropped into that, the severe pain -in a great measure ceased. - -But that straight canal, in which it was situated during those -seven hours of torture, could be no other than the _ductus communis -choledochus_; for, during this space of time, no bile was emptied -into the bowels, nor thrown up by the strongest efforts of vomiting. -But no sooner had she perceived the cause of her pain to move or drop -downwards (a sensation, which points out the precise moment the stone -must have dropped into the _duodenum_), than she began to sicken, -and instantly after vomited up a vast quantity of bilious matter; -which now, from the de-obstructed duct, began to flow freely into -the _duodenum_. The obstruction of the _ductus choledochus_ was of -too short a duration (only three hours) to occasion any observable -jaundice. And it appears by the bloody flesh-like knots, thrown up -with phlegm by vomiting, that the passage of the substance was not -effected without considerable laceration of the small bilious ducts. -And this easily accounts for the separation of the villous coat, which -afterwards appeared in this patient’s stools. - -[Illustration: This coarse delineation represents the figure and true -bulk of the _calculus_; which, I believe, is still in my patient’s -custody.] - -2. In February 1752. I was called to relieve a poor woman of this -place, Sarah Ewdall, aged 30 years and upwards, and the mother of -several children. She laboured under the jaundice, and complained of -a severe acute pain striking thro’ from the right _hypochondrium_ -to her back, with frequent vomitings. A præternatural hardness, of -a compass not exceeding the hollow of the hand, was then plainly to -be felt at the pit of the stomach, or a little nearer to the right -_hypochondrium_. When that particular part was pressed, she complained -of great pain. The pain at this part was always increased by attempting -to lie upon the left side. She was blooded, fomented externally, -had emollient saponaceous clysters injected, and a nitrous apozem, -and pills composed of _galban. & sap. Castillens._ and soon after -recovered. She had frequent returns of the same complaint after this; -but I saw her not again till Jan. 1755, when she lay insensible in a -fit, which for several days deprived her of the use of her speech and -of all her senses, only she tossed her limbs about. About a quarter of -a year after she had recovered from this fit, Mr. Cooper of this place, -her apothecary, informed me, that from a small sore at the pit of her -stomach, which came since her last illness, she had voided several -gall-stones. Curiosity prompted me to inquire into the matter of fact -from herself. She shewed me the sore, which was now almost cicatrized. -She said, that soon after her last illness a little pimple arose upon -that part of the pit of the stomach, which had been hard ever since she -had been subject to the jaundice. This pimple broke, ran matter, and at -different times the _calculi_, which she shewed me, had come out with -the matter. Her stomach had been somewhat painful before it broke, but -was now easy. The _calculi_, which she shewed me, had the appearance -of being fragments of larger ones, and some were almost dust; tho’ she -assured me they all came from the sore in that condition. Of these -fragments I have two or three of the largest now in my custody: they -are light, swim on water, smooth like soap; are of a yellow colour, and -in some parts brown like snuff; and consist of similar concentrical -layers. The poor woman has since then been troubled with returns of -pain and jaundice, in the intervals of which her skin is perfectly -clear and white. She is still alive, and ready to attest the truth of -this narrative. - - J. Johnstone. - -Kidderminster, Sept. 11th, 1757. - - - -LXXII. _A remarkable Case of Cohesions of all the Intestines_, &c. -_in a Man of about Thirty-four Years of Age, who died some time last -Summer, and afterwards fell under the Inspection of Mr._ Nicholas Jenty. - -[Read Feb. 9, 1758.] - -THE subject was tall, and partly emaciated. I found nothing externally -but a wound in the left side, which seemed to me to have been -degenerated into an ulcer. As I did not know the man when he was alive, -and had him two days after his decease, I cannot give an immediate -account of the cause of his death. But in opening his abdomen, I found -the epiploon adhering close to the intestines, in such a manner, that I -could not part it without tearing it. It felt rough and dry. And as I -was going to remove the intestines, to examine the mesentery, I found -them so coherent one with the other, that it was impossible for me to -divide them without laceration. Then I inflated the intestinal tube, -for the inspection of this extraordinary phænomenon; but, to my great -surprize, all the external parts of the intestines appeared smooth; -very few of the circumvolutions were seen, occasioned by the strong -lateral cohesions of their sides with each other. The substance of the -intestines was rough, and a great many pimples, as big as the head of -a pin, appeared in them, and were almost free from any moisture. It is -proper to observe, that these pimples have been taken for glands by the -late Dr. James Douglas, and others; whereas they are in reality nothing -else but the orifices of the exhaling vessels obstructed, and are not -to be met with except in morbid cases. - -After having made incisions in that part of the _colon_ next to -the _rectum_, I found the _peritonæum_, or external membrane which -invests the intestines, and the _viscera_ of the _abdomen_, to be of -the thickness of a six-pence; and I fairly drew all the intestines -from their external membrane without separating their cohesions; -the _peritonæum_, or external membrane, afterwards appearing like -another set of intestines. I found a fluid in the intestines; and I -will not take upon me to say, how the peristaltic motion must have -been performed. And afterwards I parted the stomach from its external -tunic, as I had done the intestines. I found no obstruction in the -mesenteric glands; but every evolution of the mesentery firmly cohered -together. The liver also adhered closely to the diaphragm, and its -adjacent parts: and in the _vesicula fellis_ I found the bile pretty -thick, neither too green nor too yellow, but a tint between both. I -met with nothing remarkable in the other parts of the _abdomen_. In -opening the _thorax_, I found the lungs closely adhering to the ribs -laterally, and posteriorly and interiorly close to the _pericardium_. -In making an incision to open the _pericardium_, I found it so closely -adhering to the heart, that I could not avoid wounding that organ, and -with much difficulty could part it from it. I met with no fluid in the -_pericardium_. The heart was small; and in the internal side the pores -of the _pericardium_ appeared so large, that one might have insinuated -the head of a middling pin into them. They have been described by some -anatomists, who have met with cases somewhat similar to this, but -without such universal adhesions; and they have been supposed to have -been glands. The same pores likewise appeared on the heart; which, in -my opinion, are nothing but the extremities of the exhaling vessels. In -removing the heart, I found the _dorsal_, and other lymphatic glands -above the lungs, quite large, indurated, and of a dark greyish colour. -Nothing remarkable appeared in the lungs; only, that the portion of -the _pleura_, which invests the lungs, and is generally thin, was here -thick and rough; and thro’ a glass it appeared as if covered with -grains of sand; and might in several places have been easily torn from -the lungs. - -The _aorta_ was pretty large; and in that part of it, which runs on the -tenth _dorsal vertebra_, I found a _cystis_, as big as an olive, full -of _pus_; and lower down, immediately before that vessel perforates the -diaphragm, I found another, something less, full of matter likewise; -both which portions I have by me. That portion of the _aorta_, where -the _cystis_ appeared, was rather thicker than the other, and osseous. -In opening the _cranium_, I found in that part of the _cerebrum_, which -lies over the _cerebellum_, a table spoonfull of _pus_, of a greenish -colour; and examining it thro’ a glass, there was an appearance of -_animalcula_ in it. - - - - -LXXIII. _Of the best Form of Geographical Maps. By the Rev._ Patrick -Murdoch, _M. A. F.R.S._ - -[Read Feb. 9, 1758.] - -I. WHEN any portion of the earth’s surface is projected on a plane, -or transferred to it by whatever method of description, the real -dimensions, and very often the figure and position of countries, are -much altered and misrepresented. In the common projection of the -two hemispheres, the meridians and parallels of latitude do indeed -intersect at right angles, as on the globe; but the linear distances -are every-where diminished, excepting only at the extremity of the -projection: at the center they are but half their just quantity, and -thence the superficial dimensions but one-fourth part: and in less -general maps this inconvenience will always, in some degree, attend the -_stereographic_ projection. - -The _orthographic_, by parallel lines, would be still less exact, -those lines falling altogether oblique on the extreme parts of the -hemisphere. It is useful, however, in describing the circum-polar -regions: and the rules of both projections, for their elegance, as well -as for their uses in astronomy, ought to be retained, and carefully -studied. As to Wright’s, or Mercator’s, nautical chart, it does not -here fall under our consideration: it is perfect in its kind; and will -always be reckoned among the chief inventions of the last age. If it -has been misunderstood, or misapplied, by geographers, they only are to -blame. - - -II. The particular methods of description proposed or used by -geographers are so various, that we might, on that very account, -suspect them to be faulty; but in most of their works we actually -find these two blemishes, _the linear distances visibly false_, and -_the intersections of the circles oblique_: so that a quadrilateral -rectangular space shall often be represented by an oblique-angled -rhomboid figure, whose diagonals are very far from equal; and yet, -by a strange contradiction, you shall see a fixed scale of distances -inserted in such a map. - - -III. The only maps I remember to have seen, in which the last of these -blemishes is removed, and the other lessened, are some of P. Schenk’s -of Amsterdam, a map of the Russian empire, the Germania Critica of the -famous Professor Meyer, and a few more[27]. In these the meridians are -straight lines converging to a point; from which, as a center, the -parallels of latitude are described: and a rule has been published for -the drawing of such maps[28]. But as that rule appears to be only an -easy and convenient approximation, it remains still to be inquired, -_What is the construction of a particular map, that shall exhibit the -superficial and linear measures in their truest proportions?_ In order -to which, - - -IV. Let E_l_LP, in this figure (_See_ TAB. XXI.) be the quadrant of -a meridian of a given sphere, whose center is C, and its pole P; EL, -E_l_, the latitudes of two places in that meridian, EM their middle -latitude. Draw LN, _ln_, cosines of the latitudes, the sine of the -middle latitude MF, and its cotangent MT. Then writing unity for the -radius, if in CM we take C_x_ = N_n_ ⁄ (L_l_ × MF × MT), and thro’ _x_ -we draw _x_R, _xr_, equal each to half the arc L_l_, and perpendicular -to CM; the conical surface generated by the line R_r_, while the figure -revolves on the axis of the sphere, will be equal to the surface of -the zone that is to be described in the same time by the arc L_l_; as -will easily appear by comparing that conical surface with the zone, as -measured by _Archimedes_. - -[Illustration: _Philos. Trans. Vol. L._ TAB. XXI. _p. 554_. - -_J. Mynde sc._] - -And, lastly, If from the point _t_, in which _r_R produced meets the -axis, we take the angle C_t_V in proportion to the longitude of the -proposed map, as MF the sine of the middle latitude is to radius, and -draw the parallels and meridians as in the figure, the whole space -SOQV will be the proposed part of the conical surface expanded into a -plane; in which the places may now be inserted according to their known -longitudes and latitudes. - - -EXAMPLE. - -V. Let L_l_, the breadth of the zone, be 50°, lying between 10° and 60° -north latitude; its longitude 110°, from 20° east of the Canaries to -the center of the western hemisphere; comprehending the western parts -of Europe and Africa, the more known parts of North America, and the -ocean that separates it from the old continent. - -And because C_x_ = N_n_ ⁄ (L_l_ × MF × MT), add these three logarithms. - - Log. 0.8726650 (= 50° to radius 1) -1.9408476 - Log. MF (sin. 35°) -1.7585913 - Log. MT (tang. 55°) 0.1547732 - ---------- - Take the sum -1.8542121 - from log. N_n_ (= .6923772) -1.8403427 - ---------- - the remainder -1.9861306 - is the logarithm of C_x_. And because 1: - C_x_ ∷ MT : _xt_, to this adding the log. MT 0.1547732 - ---------- - The sum 0.1409038 - -is the log. of _xt_ = 1.383260; and _x_R (= _xr_ = ½ L_l_) being -.4363325, R_t_ will be 0.9469275, _rt_ = 1.8195925. Whence having fixed -upon any convenient size for our map, the center _t_ is easily found. -As, allowing an inch to a degree of a great circle, or 50 inches to the -line R_r_, R_t_ the semidiameter of the least parallel will be 54.255 -inches, and that of the greatest parallel 104.255 inches. - -Again, making as radius to MF so the longitude 110° to the angle S_t_V, -that angle will be 63° 5´ ⅗. Divide the meridians and parallels, and -finish the map as usual. - - _Note_, The log. MT being repeated in this computation with a - contrary sign, we may find _xt_ immediately by subtracting the sum of - the logarithms of L_l_ and MF from the log. of N_n_. - - -VI. A map drawn by this rule will have the following properties: - -1. The intersections of the meridians and parallels will be -rectangular. - -2. The distances north and south will be exact; and any meridian will -serve as a scale. - -3. The parallels thro’ _z_ and _y_, where the line R_r_ cuts the arc -L_l_, or any small distances of places that lie in those parallels, -will be of their just quantity. At the extreme latitudes they will -exceed, and in mean latitudes, from _x_ towards _z_ or _y_, they will -fall short of it. But unless the zone is very broad, neither the excess -nor the defect will be any-where considerable. - -4. The latitudes and the superficies of the map being exact, by the -construction, it follows, that the excesses and defects of distance, -now mentioned, compensate each other; and are, in general, of the least -quantity they can have in the map designed. - -5. If a thread is extended on a plane, and fixed to it at its two -extremities, and afterwards the plane is formed into a pyramidal or -conical surface, it may be easily shewn, that the thread will pass -thro’ the same points of the surface as before; and that, _conversely_, -the shortest distance between two points in a conical surface is -the right line which joins them, when that surface is expanded into -a plane. Now, in the present case, the shortest distances on the -conical surface will be, if not equal, always nearly equal, to the -correspondent distances on the sphere: and therefore, all rectilinear -distances on the map, applied to the meridian as a scale, will, nearly -at least, shew the true distances of the places represented. - -6. In maps, whose breadth exceeds not 10° or 15°, the rectilinear -distances may be taken for sufficiently exact. But we have chosen our -example of a greater breadth than can often be required, on purpose -to shew how high the errors can ever arise; and how they may, if it is -thought needful, be nearly estimated and corrected. - - -Write down, in a vacant space at the bottom of the map, a table of the -errors of equidistant parallels, as from five degrees to five degrees -of the whole latitude; and having taken the mean errors, and diminished -them in the ratio of radius to the sine of the mean inclination of -the line of distance to the meridian, you shall find the correction -required; remembering only to distinguish the distance into its parts -that lie _within_ and _without_ the sphere, and taking the difference -of the correspondent errors, in _defect_ and in _excess_. - -But it was thought needless to add any examples; as, from what has been -said, the intelligent reader will readily see the use of such a table; -and chiefly as, whenever exactness is required, it will be more proper, -and indeed more expeditious, to compute the distances of places by the -following canon. - -_Multiply the product of the cosines of the two given latitudes by -the square of the sine of half the difference of longitude; and to -this product add the square of the sine of half the difference of the -latitudes; the square root of the sum shall be the sine of half the arc -of a great circle between the two places given._ - -Thus, if we are to find the true distance from one angle of our map to -the opposite, that is, from S to Q, the operation will be as follows: - - L. sin. 30° = -1.6989700 - L. sin. 80° = -1.9933515 - 2 L. sin. 55° = -1.8267290 - ---------- - -1.5190505 = log. of 0.330408 - and 2 L. sin. 25° = -1.2518966 = log. of 0.178606 - ---------- -------- - Log. of the sum 0.509014 is -1.7067297 - Whose half is -1.8533648 - the L. sin. of 45° 31´, the double of which is 91° 2´, or 5462 - geographical miles. - -And seeing the lines TS, TQ, reduced to minutes of a degree, are -6255.189 and 3255.189 respectively, and the angle STV is 63° 5´⅗, the -right line SQ on the map will be 5594´, exceeding its just value by -132´ or ¹⁄₄₂ of the whole. - -7. The errors on the parallels increasing fast towards the north, -and the line SQ having, at last, nearly the same direction, it is not -to be wondered that the errors in our example should amount to ¹⁄₄₂. -Greater still would happen, if we measured the distance from O to Q -by a straight line joining those points: for that line, on the conic -surface, lying every-where at a greater distance from the sphere than -the points O and Q, must plainly be a very improper measure of the -distance of their correspondent points on the sphere. And therefore, to -prevent all errors of that kind, and confine the other errors in this -part of our map to narrower bounds, it will be best to terminate it -towards the pole by a straight line KI touching the parallel OQ in the -middle point K, and on the east and west by lines, as HI, parallel to -the meridian thro’ K, and meeting the tangent at the middle point of -the parallel SV in H. By this means too we shall gain more space than -we lose, while the map takes the usual rectangular form, and the spaces -GHV remain for the _title_, and other inscriptions. - - -VII. Another, and not the least considerable, property of our map -is, that it may, without sensible error, be used as a sea-chart; the -rumb-lines on it being logarithmic spirals to their common pole _t_, -as is partly represented in the figure: and the arithmetical solutions -thence derived will be found as accurate as is necessary in the art of -sailing. - -Thus if it were required to find the course a ship is to steer between -two ports, whose longitudes and latitudes are known, we may use the -following - -RULE. - -_To the logarithm of the number of minutes in the difference of -longitude add the constant logarithm[29] -4.1015105, and to their sum -the logarithm sine of the mean latitude, and let this last sum be_ S. - -_The cotangent of the mean latitude being_ T, _and an arithmetical mean -between half the difference of latitude and its tangent being called_ -m, _from the logarithm of_ T + m _take the logarithm of_ T - m, _and -let the logarithm of their difference be_ D; _then shall_ S - D _be -nearly the logarithm tangent of the angle, in which the ship’s course -cuts the meridians_. - - _Note_, We ought, in strictness, to use the ratio of _tx_ + _x_R to - _tx_ - _x_R instead of T + _m_ to T - _m_; but we substitute this - last as more easily computed, and very little different. - - -EXAMPLE 1. - -Let the latitudes, on the same side of the equator, be 10° and 60°; -then the middle latitude and its complement are 35° and 55°, and half -the difference of the latitudes is 25°: and the difference of longitude -being 110°, the operation will stand as below. - - Log. 6600´ (in 110°) 3.8195439 - Constant log. -4.1015105 - ---------- - -1.9210544 - Log. sin. 35° -1.7585913 - ---------- - S = ... -1.6796457 - Again T = 1.4281480 - _m_ = .4513202 - --------- - Log. (T + _m_) (= 1.8794682) 0.2740350 - Log. (T - _m_) (= 0.9768278) -1.9898180 - ---------- - Log. 0.2842170 = D = -1.4536500 - ---------- - S - D (= log. tangent 59° 16´) = 0.2259957 - agreeing to a minute with the solution by a table of meridional - parts. - - -EXAMPLE 2. - -The rest remaining, let the difference of longitude be only 40°; then - - Log. 2400´ (in 40°) 3.3802112 - Constant log. -4.1015105 - ---------- - -1.4817217 - Log. sin. 35° -1.7585913 - ---------- - S = -1.2403130 - D (as before) = -1.4536500 - ---------- - S - D (= log. tang. 31° 27´ ½) -1.7866630 - - -EXAMPLE 3. - -Let the difference of longitude be 40°; but the latitudes 56° and 80°; - - And log. 2400´ } - + log. constant } = -1.4817217 - Log. sin. 68° = -1.9671659 - ---------- - S = -1.4488876 - T (tang. 22°) = .4040262 - _m_ = .2109980 - -------- - Log. (T + _m_) (= .6150242) -1.7888921 - Log. (T - _m_) (= .1830282) -1.2625181 - ---------- - Log. 0.5263740 = D = -1.7212944 - ---------- - S - D (= log. tangent 28° 6´) = -1.7275932 - wanting of the true answer no more than 1° 4´. - -And in all cases that can occur, the error of this rule will be -inconsiderable. - -It is not meant, however, that it ought to take place of the easier and -better computation by a table of meridional parts: but it was thought -proper to shew, by some examples, how safely the map itself may be -depended on in the longest voyages; provided it is sufficiently large, -and the necessary rumb-lines are exactly drawn[30]. - - - - -LXXIV. _A short Dissertation on Maps and Charts: In a Letter to the -Rev._ Thomas Birch, _D. D. and Secret. R. S. By Mr._ Wm. Mountaine, -_F.R.S._ - -[Read April 6, 1758.] - - London, March 21. 1758. - -SIR, - -AMONG the several improvements made in arts and sciences by ingenious -men, the construction of _globes_, _maps_, or _charts_, deserves a -place: not only on account of the pleasure and satisfaction that -arises to speculative minds, in surveying the extent and divisions of -this terraqueous globe, but also for their real use and service to -navigation, trade, and commerce. - -_Globes_ perhaps were first invented, as bearing the nearest semblance -to the natural form of the earth and sea, with proper circles thereon -described, and the several empires and kingdoms, according to their -extent, latitudes, and longitudes, as far as geography and history -would admit. - -But tho’ these convey the most general and truest ideas of the position -and situation of places; yet, as containing but a small surface, they -were found not extensive enough to take in particular kingdoms or -states, with their subdivisions, cities, and rivers, so as to convey -an adequate and sufficient representation. Besides, they were not so -portable and commodious in voyages or travels. - -_Maps_ and _Charts_ were therefore thought of, as being most convenient -for both the purposes above-mentioned; the accuracy of which depends -on representing the meridians and parallels in such manner, that when -places are laid thereon, according to their latitudes and longitudes, -they may have such respect to each other, as they have on the globe -itself; and those are either _globular_ or _rectilinear_. - -_Globular_, or _curvilinear_, are either general or particular. - -_General_, are the hemispheres; for the most part constructed -stereographically. - -_Particular_, contain only some part of the terraqueous globe; and of -this sort there are sundry modes of construction, which for the most -part are defective, so as not to be applied with accuracy and facility -to the purposes intended, in determining the courses or bearings of -places, their distances, or both. - -_Rectilinear_ were therefore very early adopted, on which the meridians -were described parallel to each other, and the degrees of latitude and -longitude every-where equal; the rumbs were consequently right lines; -and hereby it was thought, that the courses or bearings of places would -be more easily determined. - -But these were found also insufficient and erroneous, the meridians -being parallel, which ought to converge; and no method or device used -to accommodate that parallelism. - -Notwithstanding the great deficiency in this plane map or chart, it was -preferred, especially in nautical business; and hath its uses at this -day in topographic constructions, as in bays, harbours, and very narrow -zones. - -However, the errors herein were sooner discovered than corrected, both -by mathematicians and mariners, as by Martin Cortese, Petrus Nonius, -Coigniet, and some say by Ptolemy himself. - -The first step towards the improvement of this chart was made by -Gerardus Mercator, who published a map about the year 1550, wherein the -degrees of latitude were increased from the equator towards each pole; -but upon what principles this was constructed, he did not exhibit. - -About the year 1590, Mr. Edward Wright, an Englishman, discovered -the true principles upon which such a chart should be constructed; -and communicated the same to one Jodocus Hondius, an engraver, who, -contrary to his honest faith and engagement, published the same as -his own invention: This occasioned Mr. Wright, in the year 1599, to -exhibit his method of construction, in his book, intitled, _Correction -of Errors in Navigation_; in the preface of which book may be seen -his charge and proof against Hondius; and also how far Mercator has -any right to share in the honour due for this great improvement in -geography and navigation. - -Blundevill, in his Exercises, page 327, published anno 1594, gives a -table of meridional parts answering to even degrees, from 1° to 80° -of latitude, with the sketch of a chart constructed therefrom; but -this table he acknowledged to have received from Mr. Wright, in the -following words, page 326, _viz._ “In the mean time to reform the saide -faults,” (in the plane chart) “Mercator hath in his universal chard or -mappe made the spaces of the parallels of latitude to bee wider everie -one than other from the equinoctial towards either of the poles, by -what rule I know not, unless it be by such a table as my friend Maister -Wright of Caius-college in Cambridge at my request sent me (I thank -him) not long since for that purpose, which table with his consent, I -have plainlie set down,” _&c._ - -About the year 1720, a globular chart was published, said to be -constructed by Mr. Henry Wilson; the errors in which were obviated -by Mr. Thomas Haselden, in a letter to Dr. Halley; who at the same -time exhibited a new scale, whereby distances on a given course may -be measured, or laid off, at one extent of the compasses, on Wright’s -projection; and was intended to render the same as easy in practice as -the plane chart. - -The above chart was published in opposition to Mr. Wright’s, which that -author charged with imperfections and errors, and that it represented -places bigger than they are upon the globe. - -It is true, the surface is apparently enlarged; but the position of -places, in respect to one another, are in no wise distorted; and it may -be asserted, with the same parity of reason, that the lines of sines, -tangents, and secants, are false, because the degrees of the circle, -which are equal among themselves, are thereupon represented unequal. - -Yet if a map or chart was so constructed, as to shew the situation and -true extent of countries, _&c. primâ facie_ (if I may be allowed the -expression), and yet retain all the properties, uses, and simplicity, -of Wright’s construction, it would be a truly great improvement; but -this seems to be impossible. - -The method exhibited by the Rev. Mr. Murdoch, in his paper, read before -the Royal Society on the 9th of February last, shews the situation of -places, and seems better calculated for determining superficial and -linear measures, than any other that has occurred to me. - -This Gentleman illustrates his theory with examples justly intended to -point out the quantity of error, that will happen in a large extent. - -For instance; Between latitudes 10° and 60° N. and containing 110 -degrees difference of longitude, Mr. Murdoch computes the distance at -5594 miles; which, upon the arc of a great circle, is found to be 5477, -or by other methods 5462; so that the difference is only 117, or at -most 132 miles in so great an extent, and to an high latitude; and the -higher the latitude the greater the error is like to be, where-ever -middle latitude is concerned. - -His courses also agree very nearly with computations made from the -tables of meridional parts. - -In example the first they are the very same: - -In example the 2d they agree to half a minute: - -In example the 3d they vary 1° 4´, on account of the high latitudes, -which extend from 56° to 80° N. - -However, I do not esteem this method so simple, easy, and concise, in -the practice of navigation, as Mr. Wright’s construction, especially in -determining the bearings or courses from place to place: nor will it (I -presume) admit of a zone containing both north and south latitude. - -Of these inconveniences Mr. Murdoch seems to be extremely well -acquainted, when he expresses himself in the following very candid and -ingenuous terms, _viz._ “As to Wright’s or Mercator’s nautical chart, -it does not here fall under our consideration: it is perfect in its -kind; and will always be reckoned among the chief inventions of the -last age. If it has been misunderstood or misapplied by geographers, -they only are to blame.”--And again, at the end of his nautical -examples, he concludes thus, _viz._ “It is not meant, however, that it -ought to take place of the easier and better computation by a table of -meridional parts.” - -I have the honour to be, with the greatest respect, - - SIR, - The ROYAL SOCIETY’S, and - _Your_ most obedient Servant, - William Mountaine. - - -ADDENDA _to Mr._ Murdoch_’s Paper_, Nº. LXXIII. - - IF it is required “to draw a map, in which the superficies of a given - zone shall be equal to the zone on the sphere, while at the same time - the projection from the center is strictly geometrical;” _Take_ Cx - _to_ CM _as a geometrical mean between_ CM _and_ Nn, _is to the like - mean between the cosine of the middle latitude, and twice the tangent - of the semidifference of latitudes_; and project on the conic surface - generated by _xt_. But here the degrees of latitude towards the - middle will fall short of their just quantity, and at the extremities - exceed it: which hurts the eye. Artists may use either rule: or, in - most cases, they need only make C_x_ to CM as the arc ML is to its - tangent, and finish the map; either by a projection, or, as in the - first method, by dividing that part of _xt_ which is intercepted by - the secants thro’ L and _l_, into equal degrees of latitude. - - Mr. Mountaine justly observes, “that my rule does not admit of a - zone containing N. and S. latitudes.” But the remedy is, _to extend - the lesser latitudes to an equality with the greater; that the cone - may be changed into a cylinder, and the rumbs into straight lines_. - - - - -LXXV. _Cases of the remarkable Effects of Blisters in lessening the -Quickness of the Pulse in Coughs, attended with Infarction of the -Lungs and Fever: By_ Robert Whytt, _M. D. F.R.S. Fellow of the Royal -College of Physicians, and Professor of Medicine in the University of_ -Edinburgh. - -[Read Feb. 16, 1758.] - -ONE of the most natural effects of blistering plaisters, when applied -to the human body, is to quicken the pulse, and increase the force -of the circulation. This effect they produce, not only by means of -the pain and inflammation they raise in the parts to which they are -applied, but also because the finer particles of the _cantharides_, -which enter the blood, render it more apt to stimulate the heart and -vascular system. - -The apprehension, that blisters must in every case accelerate the -motion of the blood, seems to have been the reason, why some eminent -physicians have been unwilling to use them in feverish and inflammatory -disorders, till after the force of the disease was a good deal abated, -and the pulse beginning to sink. However, an attentive observation -of the effects, which follow the application of blisters in those -diseases, will shew, that instead of increasing, they often remarkably -lessen the frequency of the pulse. This I had occasion formerly to take -notice of[31], and shall now evince more fully by the following cases. - - -I. A widow lady, aged about 50, was seized (December 1755) with a bad -cough, oppression about her stomach and breast, and a pain in her -right side, tho’ not very acute. Her pulse being quick, and skin hot, -some blood was taken away, which was a good deal sizy: attenuating and -expectorating medicines were also prescribed. But as her complaints -did not yield to these remedies, I was called on December 26th, after -she had been ill about ten days; at which time her pulse beat from 96 -to 100 times in a minute, but was not fuller than natural. I ordered -her to lose seven or eight ounces more of blood, which, like the -former, was sizy; and next day, finding no abatement of her complaints, -I advised a blister to be applied, in the evening, to that part of -her right side which was pained. Next morning, when the blister was -removed, the pain of her side was gone, and her pulse beat only 88 -times in a minute, and in two days more it came down to 78. However, -after the blistered part became dry, the pulse rose in one day’s time -to 96, and continued between that number and 90 for four days; after -which I ordered a large blister to be put between her shoulders. When -this plaister was taken off, her pulse beat under 90 times in a minute; -and next day it fell to 76, and the day after to 72. The cough and -other symptoms, which were relieved by the first blister, were quite -cured by the second. - - -II. John Graham, bookbinder, in Edinburgh, aged 37, of a thin habit -of body, formerly subject to coughs, and thought to be in danger of -a _phthisis pulmonalis_, having exposed himself unwarily to cold -in the night time, was, about the end of January 1756, seized with -a bad cough and feverishness; for which he was blooded, and had a -diaphoretic julep, a pectoral decoction, and a mixture with _gum. -ammoniacum_ and _acetum scilliticum_, given him by Mr. James Russell, -surgeon-apothecary in this place. On the 12th of February, after he -had been ill above a fortnight, I was desired to visit him. He seemed -to be a good deal emaciated; his eyes were hollow, and cheeks fallen -in: he was almost constantly in a sweat; coughed frequently, and spit -up a great quantity of tough phlegm, somewhat resembling _pus_: his -pulse beat from 112 to 116 times in a minute. In this condition I -ordered immediately a blister to be applied between his shoulders, -which lessened in some degree his cough and spitting, as well as the -frequency of his pulse; but the blistered part no sooner began to -heal, than he became as ill as before, and continued in this bad way -nine or ten days, gradually wasting, with continued sweats, and a -great spitting of a thick _mucus_. During this time he used _tinctura -rosarum_, and the mixture with _gum. ammon._ and _acet. scillit._ -without any sensible benefit, and had six ounces of blood taken away, -which was very watery, and the _crassamentum_ was of a lax texture. -In this almost desperate condition, another blister, larger than the -former, was put between his shoulders, which remarkably lessened his -cough and spitting, and in two or three days reduced his pulse to -96 strokes in a minute. After this he continued to recover slowly, -without the assistance of any other medicine, except the _tinctura -rosarum_ and the mixture with _gum. ammon._ and _acet. scillit._ and at -present he enjoys good health. - - -III. Mrs.----, aged upwards of 40, who had for several years been -subject to a cough and spitting in the winter months, was, in October -1756, seized with those complaints in a much greater degree than -usual; to remove which, she was blooded, and got some attenuating and -pectoral medicines from Mr. John Balfour, surgeon-apothecary in Leith. -I was called on November 11th, after she had been ill several weeks, -and found her in a very unpromising condition. She had a frequent -and severe cough, with great shortness of breath and a wheezing; her -lungs seemed to be quite stuffed with phlegm, of which she spit a vast -quantity every day, and of such an appearance, that I was apprehensive -it was, in part at least, truly purulent. When she sat up in a chair, -her pulse beat above 130 times in a minute. She had a considerable -thirst, and her tongue was of a deep red colour, with a beginning -aphthous crust on some parts of it. She was so weak, and her pulse so -feeble, that there was no place for further bleeding: a blister was -therefore applied to her back, November 11th, which somewhat lowered -her pulse, and lessened the shortness of breathing and quantity of -phlegm in her lungs. November 16th, a second blister was laid to her -side, which gave her still more sensible relief than the former, and -reduced her pulse to 114 strokes in a minute. November 25th, a third -blister was applied to her back; by which her cough and wheezing were -rendered considerably easier, and the phlegm, which she spit up, lost -its purulent appearance, became thinner, more frothy, and was much -less in quantity. Her pulse beat now only 104 times in a minute. After -this, her cough and spitting increasing again, she had, on the 20th of -December, a fourth blister applied to her back, which, like the former, -did her great service. Her stomach being extremely delicate, I scarce -ordered any medicines for her all this time, except a cordial julep, -with _spir. volat. oleos._ tincture of rhubarb as a laxative, and a -julep of _aqu. rosar. acet. vin. alb._ and _syr. balsam._ of which last -she took two table spoonfuls twice or thrice a day in a quarter of a -pint of lintseed tea. After the fourth blister, she drank for some time -a cupful of _infusum amarum_ twice a day, and continued to recover -slowly: and tho’ during the remaining part of the winter she was, as -usually, a good deal troubled with a cough, yet in the spring she got -free from it, and is now in her ordinary health. - - -IV. Christian Mʿewen, aged 21, had laboured under a cough, thick -spitting, pain of her breast, and pains in her sides affecting her -breathing, for about a twelvemonth: and after getting, by proper -remedies, in a good measure free from those complaints, her cough, from -catching a fresh cold, increased to a greater degree than ever, became -hard and dry, and was attended with a constant difficulty of breathing, -pain in her left side, and head-ach. After having been seven or eight -days in this condition, she was admitted into the Royal Infirmary, -January 9th, 1757. As her pulse was small, tho’ very quick, _viz._ -beating 130 in a minute, I thought it unnecessary to bleed her, as -from former experience I did not doubt but that blistering alone would -relieve her: I ordered, therefore, a large blister to be applied to her -left side, where she complained of pain, and prescribed for her the -following julep: - - ℞ _Aqu. menth. simp. spirit. Minderer. ana_ ℥ iij. _acet. scillit._ ℥ - i. _sacchar. alb._ ℥ ij. _misce; cap. coch._ ij. _ter in die_. - -She was also desired to breathe frequently over the steam of hot water, -and to drink lintseed tea. - -January 10th. Her pulse beat only 112 times in a minute, and was -somewhat fuller than on the 9th. The blister was not removed till late -in the evening, and made a plentiful discharge. The cough having been -so severe last night, as to keep her from sleep, I ordered her the -following anodyne draught: - - ℞ _Spirit. Minderer._ ℥ ss. _acet. scillit._ ȝ i. _syr. papav. alb._ - ȝ vi. _misce; cap. hor. somni._ - -Jan. 11th. The cough easier last night; difficulty of breathing less; -pulse 108 in a minute. Ordered the anodyne draught to be repeated, and -the use of the julep, with _acet. scillit._ to be continued. - -Jan. 12th. Pulse slower; cough and pain of the side easier; but still -complains of a head-ach. - -Jan. 13th. Pulse 94 in a minute; cough continues easier in the night, -but is troublesome in the day-time. - -Jan. 14th. Every way better; pulse only 80 in a minute. As her cough -is still bound, ordered her, besides the medicines above-mentioned, a -pectoral decoction of _rad. alth._ &c. - -Jan. 15th. Cough and other complaints in a great measure removed; pulse -65 in a minute. - -From this time her cough gave her little trouble; but on the 18th she -complained of a pain in the _epigastrium_, with sickness at stomach, -want of apetite, and a giddiness in her head, which were considerably -relieved by a vomit, _infusum amarum_, and stomachic purges; and were -almost wholly cured by the return of her menses on the 5th of February, -after an interval of eight weeks. - - -V. A girl 21 months old, who had (December 1756) a great load of -the small-pox, and not of a good kind, with a cough and obstructed -breathing, was, on the seventh day from the eruption, blistered on the -back; by which the pulse was lessened from 200 to 156 strokes in a -minute. Next day her legs were also blistered, and the pulse thereby -fell to 136. But the child’s lungs being much oppressed, and her throat -being so full of pustules that she could scarce swallow any thing, she -died towards the end of the ninth day. - - -I could add several other cases of the remarkable effects of blisters -in lessening the quickness of the pulse in coughs attended with fever, -pain in the side, and pituitous infarction of the lungs: but those -above may be sufficient to put this matter out of doubt, as well as to -remove any prejudice, that may still remain against the free use of so -efficacious a remedy. - -In a true peripneumony, especially where the inflammation is great, -repeated bleeding is the principal remedy, and blisters early applied -are not so proper. But when the peripneumony is of a mixed kind; -when the lungs are not so much inflamed as loaded with a pituitous -matter; when bleeding gives but little relief; when the pulse, tho’ -quick, is small; when the patient is little able to bear evacuations, -and the disease has continued for a considerable time; in all these -cases blistering will produce remarkable good effects, and, far from -increasing, will generally lessen the frequency of the pulse, and -fever, more speedily than any other remedy. - -On the other hand, when the fever and frequency of the pulse proceed -from a true inflammation of the lungs, from large obstructions tending -to suppuration, or from an open ulcer in them, blisters will be of less -use, nay, sometimes will do harm, except in the last case, where they, -as well as issues and setons, are often beneficial, tho’ seldom able -to compleat a cure. But as in pituitous infarctions of the lungs, with -cough and fever, repeated blisters applied to the back and sides are -far preferable to issues or setons, so these last seem most proper in -an open ulcer of the lungs. The former make a greater and more sudden -derivation, and are therefore adapted to acute cases; the latter act -more slowly, but for a much longer time, and are therefore best suited -to chronic diseases. Further, while blisters evacuate chiefly the -serous humours, issues and setons generally discharge true purulent -matter, and on this account may be of greatest service in internal -ulcers. - -In what manner blisters may lessen the fever and frequency of the -pulse attending internal inflammations, I have elsewhere endeavoured -to explain[32]; and shall only add here, that in the cases above -recited, where the quick pulse and feverishness proceeded more from a -pituitous infarction than a true inflammation of the lungs, blisters, -by relieving this organ, in some measure, of the load of humours -oppressing it, would render the circulation through its vessels freer, -and consequently lessen the quickness of the pulse, and other feverish -symptoms. - -It may not, however, be improper briefly to point out the reason, -why blisters, which have been observed to be remarkably efficacious, -even when early applied, in pleurisies[33], are less so in true -peripneumonies. This difference, I imagine, may be accounted for from -there being no immediate communication between the pulmonary vessels -and those of the sides and back, to which the blisters are applied; -whereas the _pleura_, and intercostal muscles, are furnished with -blood-vessels from the intercostal arteries, which also supply the -teguments of the _thorax_: so that while a greater flow of serous -humours, and also indeed of red blood, is derived into the vessels of -the external parts, to which the vesicatories are applied, the force -of the fluids in the vessels of the inflamed _pleura_, or intercostal -muscles, must be considerably lessened. Further, as the intercostal -muscles and _pleura_ are, as well as the teguments of the _thorax_, -supplied with nerves from the _true_ intercostals, blisters applied to -the back and sides may perhaps, on this account also, have a greater -effect in relieving inflammations there than in the lungs, which have -nerves from the eighth pair, and from the _intercostals_ improperly so -called. - -Edinburgh, May 23d, 1757. - - -_Extract of a Letter from Dr._ Whytt, _Professor of Medicine in the -University of_ Edinburgh, _and F. R. S. to Dr._ Pringle, _F.R.S._ - - Edinburgh, 10 Nov. 1757. - -WHAT you remark with regard to blisters being freely used by the -physicians at London, in the cases mentioned in the paper I last sent -you, is very just, and indeed what I knew; but altho’ their efficacy -in such circumstances is now generally acknowleged both in England -and Scotland, yet I do not remember that their remarkable quality in -lessening the quickness of the pulse has been particularly attended to. -This, therefore, I thought it might not be amiss to ascertain by a few -careful observations. - -I agree intirely with you, as to the use of blisters in fevers; being -of opinion, that when there is no particular part obstructed or -inflamed, they are of little service, and sometimes hurtful, unless -perhaps towards the end, when the pulse begins to sink. Nay, in fevers, -where the substance of the brain is affected, and not its membranes, -I have never found any sensible benefit from blisters: and I always -suspect the brain itself affected, when a fever and delirium come on -without any preceding head-ach, or redness in the _tunica albuginea_ of -the eyes. This kind of fever I have met with several times, and have -observed it to be generally fatal. - - - - -LXXVI. _A remarkable Instance of Four rough Stones, that were -discovered in an human urinary Bladder, contrary to the received -Opinion; and successfully extracted by the lateral Method of Cutting -for the Stone. By Mr._ Joseph Warner, _F. R. S. and Surgeon to_ -Guy’s-Hospital. - -[Read Feb. 23, 1758.] - -THE favourable reception those few papers have met with from the Royal -Society, which I have done myself the honour of addressing to them, -encourages me to take the liberty of offering the following account to -their consideration: and I am the more immediately induced to submit -this paper to their perusal, as the fact hereafter related may possibly -be not esteemed a matter of mere curiosity; since it is probable, -that the inferences deduced from the history of the subsequent case, -when attended to, may prove of the greatest consequence to the future -ease and welfare of the patient, as well as be a means of preventing -the operator from falling into such errors, as cannot fail of drawing -an imputation upon his character, in the practice of one of the most -capital and difficult undertakings in his profession. - -It is a maxim laid down by the most judicious and best received writers -upon operations in surgery, that when the surface of a stone, which -has been extracted from the bladder, appears to be totally rough, it -amounts to a proof of its having been there alone. But notwithstanding -I admit it is from experience found, that the observation is in general -well grounded, it may nevertheless appear, from the following case, -that this rule is not unexceptionable: for which reason perhaps it may -be thought right, that we should not be determined from circumstances -only; but, on the contrary, that it is necessary for every surgeon to -take such methods during the operation, as will enable him to judge -with that degree of certainty, without which he cannot be enabled to do -so. - -The methods I would recommend are these: That after the extraction of -a stone from the bladder, tho’ the whole of its surface be rough, the -operator should nevertheless introduce the forefinger of his left or -right hand thro’ the wound into the cavity of the bladder; by which -means, if the subject be under twelve years of age, he will be enabled -to come in contact with every internal part of the bladder with his -finger: but if the subject be an adult, and of a corpulent habit of -body, the finger, under these circumstances, not being found to be -sufficiently long for the purpose, he must have recourse to a female -catheter, or some other instrument that is nearly strait, quite smooth -and polished, and of about nine or ten inches long; which will serve -the purpose equally well, if of a proper form and thickness. This is -the method I have made use of upon the like occasions of late years, -without giving any great degree of pain to the patient, or considerably -retarding the operation. - -Since I have had the opportunity of making the following observation, -as well as a prior observation something similar to this, where two -rough stones were extracted by me a few years ago from a young man’s -bladder of 15 years of age, I cannot help suspecting, that there may -have been instances of one or more stones being left behind in the -bladder at the time of operating, merely from the operator’s putting -too great a confidence in this general rule. Which suspicion I am led -into from having known people, who have undergone the operation of -cutting for the stone, relapse into the like disorder in a short time -after the healing of their wounds, attended with such symptoms, as have -obliged them to submit to a second operation; when the stone, upon -being extracted, has appeared of so considerable a size, as to make it -suspicious, that this stone must probably have been of a much longer -growth, than the short time betwixt the two operations could admit of. -The maxim laid down to us by authors, of a smooth and polished stone -in the bladder being never there alone, but always accompanied with -one or more stones of the same kind, I know no exception to. But if -this phænomenon should ever occur, the strict observance of that rule -(delivered to us by judicious writers in surgery) of always searching -the bladder under the like appearances, on presumption of one or more -stones being left behind, cannot be attended with any future mischief -to the patient, when carefully executed by the methods recommended -above, and undoubtedly should always be strictly attended to. The -smooth and polished appearances of the surfaces of human _calculi_ are -universally supposed to arise from their rubbing one against the other; -which may with reason be supposed to be the case: but I confess this -inference is not satisfactory to me; since it is probable, if this was -the sole cause of their smoothness, the same effect would probably be -always produced, when attended with the same degree of friction. But -as this may be considered as a matter of mere speculation, I refer the -decision of this point to those of superior abilities. - - -CASE. - -Mr. William Woodhams, a gentleman farmer, of a corpulent habit of body, -in the 46th year of his age, now living in the parish of Udimore, -within three miles of Rye in Sussex, was attacked about eight years ago -with severe complaints in his loins, accompanied with an incapacity of -voiding his urine without the assistance of proper medicines, which -were administered to him by a neighbouring apothecary for that purpose. -These medicines had the desired effect: they promoted a secretion, and -an evacuation of urine; which appeared to be loaded with a considerable -quantity of gravelly particles mixed with a _mucus_ of a whitish -colour. In the space of three weeks he had perfectly recovered from -this attack, and continued well for near five years afterwards, without -any return of his complaint, except when he rode hard on horseback, or -drank more freely of strong liquors than usual. At the expiration of -five years he was seized with an acute fever, of which he recovered in -a few weeks. - -Very soon after his recovery from this illness, he began to complain -of excessive pain in voiding his urine, or upon going to stool; -which symptoms were so greatly increased for many months before he -submitted to the operation, as to quite disable him from riding, from -walking, or from using any kind of exercise. His urine, of late, was -continually and involuntarily flowing from him in small quantities. He -complained of great pain and soreness in his fundament, attended with -a _tenesmus_. This account he delivered to me on the second day after -the operation; and at the same time he very feelingly told me, that he -had enjoyed but very few and short intervals of ease for the three last -years, till since the operation. - -On the 30th of January 1758, I cut him, at his own house in Sussex, -having first prepared him for the operation in the manner, that is -usual upon the like occasion. In the operation, I extracted the four -stones, which I now have the honour of laying before the Royal Society. -The whole surfaces of these stones appear to be rough, not having the -least marks of ever having rubbed against each other during their -confinement in the bladder: but yet I conjecture this must frequently -have been the case, as there was no difficulty in embracing these -_calculi_ with the forceps: for had they been contained in different -cells or pouches in the bladder, which sometimes have been observed -from dissections, this circumstance would, in all probability, have -rendered it impracticable for me to have so immediately got at them, if -at all. - -The forceps was introduced only three times into the bladder for -effecting the extraction of the three first stones, and only twice for -the extraction of the fourth stone. Besides these four stones, which -I have presented to the Society for their inspection, I thought it -not improper to produce, at the same time, some other human _calculi_, -for their further satisfaction, each of which was found single in the -urinary bladders of different subjects. The surfaces of these stones -may be observed to be much smoother than the surface of either of the -four stones, that were extracted from Mr. Woodhams’s bladder in the -operation I have just now recited; and therefore it was more reasonable -to expect to find each of these stones accompanied with one or more -stones in the same bladder (according to the received opinion), than it -was to find more stones than one in the case of Mr. Woodhams’s, which -has given rise to these observations. - -But as the fact before us does of itself shew the impropriety and -danger of determining from the surfaces of such extraneous bodies, -perhaps it may be thought needless to enlarge upon this subject, to -strengthen those precautions so reasonable to be observed in this -operation. However, as I have already taken notice of the smooth and -polished appearances of the surfaces of such stones, as are probably -never found single in the bladder; I have produced two stones of this -kind, that were extracted from the same bladder, to shew, that these -stones do no more resemble those stones of Mr. Woodhams’s, than a piece -of polished marble can be said to resemble a rough block of the same -species. - - _P. S._ I am informed, by a letter from Sussex, dated the 18th - instant, that Mr. Woodhams is perfectly well in health; that the whole - of his urine had passed through the urethra for the last five or six - days; and that his wound will, in all probability, be soon healed. - - Joseph Warner. - -Hatton-Garden, February 22. 1758. - -[Illustration: _Philos. Trans. Vol. L._ TAB. XXII.(a) _p. 584_. - -Plate _is an exact representation of the sizes and external appearances -of the four rough stones described in the preceding paper_ - -_J. Mynde sc._] - - - - -LXXVII. _Observations on the_ Limax non cochleata Purpur ferens, _The -naked Snail producing Purple. By_ John Andrew Peyssonel, _M. D. F.R.S. -Translated from the_ French. - -[Read Feb. 23, 1758.] - -AMONG the fish we meet with in the seas of the Antilles of America, -we find, that this I am going to describe will appear precious, from -the beautiful purple colour it produces, in the same manner, that the -cuttle-fish produces its ink, if a means could be found to procure this -liquor in a sufficient quantity to render it an article of commerce. -These fishes are soft, viscous, without shells, scales, or bones; are -of the nature of the _polypi_, and such other kinds, without feet, -fins, or any thing to supply their places. Their motion is vermicular; -and, like the slugs, they wreath themselves up, and when touched make -themselves quite round. - -They fill up certain membranes of the body with water. Their local -motion; _antennæ_, which they lengthen and contract; and a great many -other properties, which they have in common with snails, slugs, and -turbinated shell-fish, made me call them naked snails: and altho’ they -have not the most essential qualities of snails, I thought I might -give them the name; for they have no particular appellation in this -country. Some call them piss-a beds, some sea-cats, and others a less -modest name, _tapecon_, taken from Pliny. The Negroes and country -people disagree upon this subject; and therefore I thought all their -names ought to be rejected, in order to adopt a more significant one, -which I have given them; and that altho’ they are without shells, a -quality essential to snails, they had a right to that class by their -other properties and qualities. - -This fish is commonly four inches long, and two thick; of a greenish -colour, spotted with black, each of which forms a circle. The under -part is like that of snails, flat, with kinds of _mamillæ_, or -rugosities, which are adhesive; by means of which they advance in a -vermicular motion; and when touched become round, by retracting their -neck and head; and afterwards protrude them considerably, according to -their motion and progression, crawling upon rocks to seek their food. - -The head of this animal has a flatness, or is inclinable to a square or -parallelogram. On each side there are membranes or skins, which form -kinds of ears; and under them others, which at times fill with water, -and are then transparent. Under this thick skin there is a _cranium_, -of a kind of coriaceous or cartilaginous matter; and in the _cranium_ -we find the brain, which is a white substance, and very firm. At the -basis of the head its oval wide mouth is placed, being above two lines -long, which often discovers a white hard edge, with which he crops the -fucus’s, and other sea-plants, for his nourishment. - -About half an inch from the ears there are two horns, or _antennæ_, -like those of some testaceous animals, which serve them for eyes; and -these _antennæ_ extend and contract at will, turning to either side -also. The _oesophagus_ begins at the upper and inner part of the mouth, -which is a delicate long tube; near which there is another thick one, -and made nearly like the colon, which leads to a bag, or the first -stomach, which may be likened to the craw of a fowl: it is always -filled with fucus mixed with sand. Sometimes this stomach is double, or -at least lengthens itself considerably, and the aliment parts it, as it -were, into two portions. After this craw, or stomach, we find another, -which performs the same office with the gizzard of fowls. The membranes -are thick, and are set with twelve stones, or horny pieces, of a bright -yellow colour, and as transparent as fine yellow amber, ending in -points like a diamond; so that the great side, or basis, is set into -the membrane of the gizzard as a diamond in its socket: others differ -in size, having different figures, that in acting all together they may -be able to break and grind the herbs the animal feeds upon, as well by -the strength of the muscle or gizzard, which puts them into action, as -by the situation of these stones, assisted by grains of sand found in -it, turning the whole by this trituration into a liquor. Afterwards, -what was thus triturated by the power of the gizzard passes into a -third belly or stomach, which is covered by a purple body, resembling -the _parenchyma_ of the liver, and nearly of the same consistence: then -this belly turns into a long tube, which surrounds this _parenchyma_, -and is covered in like manner by a very fine membrane: it is full -of a white liquor, like chyle, and goes to discharge itself into -another reservoir, at the side of which is a yellowish gland, like -a _pancreas_. From these two bodies or glands one of which may be -called hepatic, and the other pancreatic, two conduits pass out; that -of the _pancreas_ is white, the other of a blackish purple: the first -conducts its chyle, condensed, into a reservoir or bladder, which may -be resembled to the _receptaculum chyli_ of Pequet, and from thence -passes to the fecal matter: the other conducts to a body made like the -mesentery, but which is always found out of the common capacity or -cavity, in which all the _viscera_ are contained; which I thus describe: - -This common capacity is very large, beginning at the head and ending -at the tail of the fish: it is sometimes filled with a yellowish -water, and is formed by the fleshy body of the animal; which is only a -membrane composed of fibres every way interwoven together, open at the -top, where the organs are situated, which contain the purple juice. - -There is a hollow upon the back of the animal, where the canal, filled -with a reddish juice, passes out, carrying it to a fringed body like a -mesentery; and it is there the purple juice is brought to perfection; -and afterwards goes to a long sack lying under a kind of horny plate, -not like the bone of the cuttle-fish, but like the bone of the _sepia_, -or little cuttle-fish, which we call _le couteau_. This bone, or -horny substance, is transparent; and is of a triangular figure, or -approaching the form of a bivalve shell. On the right side it is -fastened by a strong cartilaginous muscle, which binds it to the body -of the animal; and on the left it is open and detached, and easy to be -pulled up: then it is easy to see underneath both the mesenteric body, -and the tube or reservoir of the purple juice. This bone, or horny -plate, is covered by a loose membrane, which is by no means attached to -it, but capable of being filled and inflated with water or wind. - -The whole is covered with two membranes, which are continuations of the -flesh of the fish’s body: the membranes are loose, and larger than are -necessary to the bone: they are wrinkled or rumpled over one another, -to cover the whole, and to defend the bone and _viscera_ from all kinds -of pressure; but they are ready to stretch one from the other, and -leave the parts destined for the purple juice uncovered. They begin a -little under the neck, and extend, in the female animal, to the tail, -which is flat; and in the male they do not go so low, but end at some -distance from the tail. - -The females are oviparous; for eggs are found in the grand cavity, at -the side of the pancreatic body. - -I have already said, that when the animal is touched, he makes himself -round, and throws out his purple juice, as the cuttle-fish does his -ink. This juice is of a beautiful deep colour: it tinges linen, and the -tincture is difficult to get out. It remains at present to try if we -can collect a sufficient quantity of this juice, and to find a means of -preserving the tincture; which would then be certainly of great value: -to which purpose I may apply myself. - -When the fish is boiled, or put into spirits, it shrinks up, and -loses two thirds of its size; because all the water, which is in -the interstices of the fibres, is dissipated, and the dried fibres -contract: which clearly appears from dissecting them. - -Dated at Guadaloupe, 20 Mar. 1757. - - Peyssonel. - - - - -LXXVIII. _New Observations upon the Worms that form Sponges. By_ John -Andrew Peyssonel, _M. D. F.R.S. Translated from the_ French. - -[Read Feb. 23, 1758.] - -THE existence of the nests of corallines and lithophyta, and the -mechanism of their polypi, made me conjecture, that it was the same -with respect to sponges; that animals, nested in the interstices of -their fibres, gave them their origin and growth: but I had not yet seen -nor discovered the insects, nor observed their work. Sponges appeared -to me only as skeletons: but I at length discovered these worms, which -form sponges, in the four following species: - -1. _Spongia Americana tubo similis_; The tube-like sponge of Plumier. - -2. _Spongia Americana longissima funiculo similis_; The cord-like -sponge of Plumier. - -3. _Spongia Americana capitata et digitata_; The fingered sponge of -Plumier. - -4. _Spongia Americana favo similis_; The honeycomb sponge of Plumier. - -These four kinds only differ in form: they have the same qualities, are -made by the same kinds of worm, and what may be said of the one agrees -exactly with all the rest; for I made the same observations upon them -all. - -They may be classed among the _spongiæ hyrcinæ_, so called by J. -Bauhin, because of the roughness of their fibres, by a metaphor, from -pieces covered with mud; or among those called by Pliny _tragos_, or -_aphysiæ_, being foul, and difficult to cleanse; and may take the name, -which Father Plumier has given them, drawn from their figure. - -These four kinds of sponges are composed of hard, firm, dirty fibres, -sometimes brittle; separated one from another, having large hollows, -or cylindrical tubes, dispersed thro’ their substance. These tubes -are smooth within. The interstices of their fibres are filled with a -mucilaginous gluey matter, when the sponge is just taken out of the -sea. The mucilage is of a blackish colour, soon putrifies in the water, -or falls into dust when dried in the sun. - -When a fresh sponge is squeezed, this mucilage comes out frothy, by -the mixture of the windings of its fibres: it always issues forth with -sand, or little parcels of shells crushed by the sea. These fibres, -which consist of the twisted doubles of the sponge, form as it were a -labyrinth filled with worms, which are easily crushed, and their juice -is confused with the mucilage; but having carefully torn the sponges, -and their gross fibres, I discovered the living worms, such as I shall -mention hereafter. - -These species of sponge commonly grow upon sandy bottoms. At their -origins we perceive, as it were, a nodule of sand, or other matter, -almost petrified, round which the worms begin to work, and round which -they retire, as to their last seat or refuge; where I had the pleasure -of seeing them play, exercise themselves, and retire, by examining them -with the microscope; and I have even made my observations without its -assistance. - - -_A Description of the Worms which form the Sponges._ - -The worms I found in these kinds of sponges are about one-third of a -line thick, and two or three lines in length. They are so transparent, -that one may discern their _viscera_ thro’ their coverings and -substance: the blood may be seen to circulate, and all their parts to -act. They have a conic figure, with a small black head furnished with -two pincers: the other extremity is almost square, and much larger than -the head. Upon the back may be seen two white streaks or fillets, as if -they contained the chyle: these two canals are parallel to each other -from the head to the other extremity, where they come together. In the -middle, where the belly and _viscera_ ought to be placed, a blackish -matter is perceivable, which has a kind of circulation: sometimes -it fills all the body of the worm, sometimes it gathers towards the -head, or at the other end, and sometimes it follows the motion of the -animal. This vermicular motion or progression begins at the posterior -extremity, and ends at the head, which is pushed, and consequently -advances forward. I kept these worms alive out of the sponge, quite -detached from it, more than an hour, having examined them thoroughly -with a middling magnifier; for a great magnifier would be the grave of -the insect. - -I was surprised, after having finished my observations, when I put them -near a piece of the fresh sponge, where the nests were moist, and from -which I had pulled them, to see them enter into them, and disappear, -being lost in the windings of the tubes. I thought to have found them -again; but it was a difficult task to search for them. I crushed them, -or they were themselves mashed in the tubes, which I pressed, and of -which I had consequently spoiled the texture; but I could not find -them; and this happened several times. - -These worms have no particular lodge: they walk indifferently into -the tubular labyrinth. So that, without offence to Pliny and other -naturalists, I do not see, that it is in their power to dilate and -contract the bodies of the sponges; which always remain in the same -state of magnitude, without being any way sensible to the touch, or -any other motion of the sea, nor to any other accident whatsoever, -being an inanimate body; for the animal sensitive life, or whatever -you will have it, belongs only to the worms, that form these bodies, -and which are their dwelling-places; and which, by the slaver or juice -they deposit, make the sponge increase or grow, as bees, wasps, and -especially the wood-lice of America, increase their nests or cells. - -These sponges, nests, or cells, are attached to some solid body in the -sea. Some kinds are fixed to rocks; others, as those I am speaking of, -are fastened to heaps of sand, or to pieces of petrified matter, and -even upon sandy bottoms; and the sea putting in motion the sand, and -the little parcels of broken shells, forces them into the holes of the -sponge: there the sand binds and mixes with mucilaginous juice, and -never is loosed from it but when the sponge is well dried, or with -the mucilage when putrified, or in powder; and yet some part will -remain, which it is very difficult to take out from the twisted canals, -especially in those sponges of the _tragos_ kind, so hard to cleanse. -In a word, the blood or humours, which the ancients have observed, is -no other than the mucilage or juice of the substance of these worms. - -Dated at Guadaloupe, 1 March, 1757. - - - - -LXXIX. _Account of an Experiment, by which it appears, that Salt of -Steel does not enter the Lacteal Vessels; with Remarks. In a Letter to -the Rev._ Tho. Birch, _D. D. Secr. R. S. By_ Edward Wright, _M. D._ - -[Read Mar. 2, 1758.] - -SIR, - -THO’ iron is universally allowed to be one of the most powerful -medicines now in use, yet many physicians observing, that the _fæces_ -of patients, who used it either in a metallic or saline form, were -tinged of a black colour, have been led to think, that, in a metallic -state, it could not be reduced into particles fine enough to be -received by the lacteal vessels; and if taken in a saline form, that -it underwent a precipitation in the intestines, by which, being -reduced to an earth or calx, it was in like manner rendered incapable -of making its way into the blood. But the accurate experiments, with -which Signor Menghini has favoured the public in the Memoirs of the -Bononian Academy[34], sufficiently prove, that the ore and filings of -iron, finely levigated, enter the blood in considerable quantity; as -does also the _crocus_, _calx_, or earthy part of the metal, tho’ in -less proportion than the two former, which were found to act with a -violent _stimulus_ on the vessels, and to have dissolved and broke the -_crasis_ of the blood of different animals, that had used them for some -weeks in large doses mixed with their ordinary food. Tho’ it must be -allowed, that these experiments are very curious, yet the subject seems -to require a further inquiry, viz. _Whether iron is capable of entering -the blood in a state of solution, or under a saline form_: for, from -the violent _stimulus_, as well as from the dissolution of the blood, -and other symptoms brought on by the use of the ore and filings, these -substances (not being properly dissolved) appear to have acted in a -manner so grossly mechanical, that, whatever Signor Menghini may think, -very little is to be concluded from them, with regard to the action of -iron on the human body, in such cases, as indicate its use, and where a -rational physician would think proper to prescribe it as a medicine. - -Having read Signor Menghini’s memoir, I recollected, that in the year -1753 I had, with the assistance of two friends, made the following -experiment, in order to discover, whether iron, in a saline form, is -capable of entering the lacteals. - -An ounce and a half of salt of steel dissolved in a sufficient quantity -of water, filtrated and mixed with about a pound of bread and milk, -were forced down the throat of a dog, that had been kept fasting for -36 hours. An hour after he had swallowed this mixture, having secured -him in a supine posture, as is usual in such experiments, we opened the -abdomen, and observed the lacteal vessels, like white threads, running -along the mesentery in a very beautiful manner. Upon slitting open part -of the small guts, we there found a good deal of the mixture, which -appeared frothy, but without any black colour, or the least sign of the -salt being precipitated; and struck a deep inky colour with infusion -of galls. Tho’ the white colour of the lacteals convinced us, that -they were full of chyle, yet, as it would have been impossible to have -collected a sufficient quantity of it from them, we found it necessary -to open the thorax, and tie the thoracic duct a little above the -receptacle, which, from the ligature, soon became turgid, the animal -being alive and warm, and the chyle still continuing its course towards -the thoracic duct. Having cut open the receptacle, we easily collected -a sufficient quantity of chyle, and immediately mixed therewith, drop -by drop, infusion of galls; a very simple and easy method, by which an -incredibly small quantity of salt of steel may be discovered in most -liquors: but not the smallest change of colour was observed, tho’ they -were rubbed together for some time, and allowed to stand several hours. -Now had there been a single atom (so to speak) of the salt in so small -a portion of chyle, as that used in this experiment, which was, as near -as I could guess, some what less than half an ounce, it is not to be -imagined, that it could have failed to discover itself by this method -of trial; for upon adding one fourth of a grain of the salt, this -mixture instantly became of a bright purple: and I have found, by other -experiments, that the smallest quantity of salt of steel shews itself -as readily in the chyle by galls, as in any other liquor of the same -consistence. - -This experiment (which was as fair as could have been desired), -together with another observation I have made, _viz._ that neither the -blood nor urine of patients, during the use of salt of steel, in the -least change colour with galls, renders it more than probable, that -this salt _does not enter the blood_. - -As the salt was found to have undergone no change in the small guts, -it appears, that it is not prevented from entering the lacteals by its -being decomposed or precipitated, as has been imagined; but, on the -contrary, that what renders it incapable of being received by these -vessels, is its _astringency_: for the lacteals seem to be endowed with -that admirable faculty of admitting such particles of pure chyle as -they happen to be in contact with, and of accommodating their diameters -to them, at the same time that by their natural irritability, and -power of constriction they obstinately exclude such as are astringent; -which, were they to enter the lacteals, would either produce dangerous -obstructions in these vessels, or, if they got into the blood, would -occasion polypous concretions in the larger vessels, or coagulations -incapable of being transmitted thro’ the minute vessels of the lungs; -the effects of which would be either sudden death, or at least -inflammations and suppurations from obstructions in the pulmonary -vessels; inconveniences, which nature, by precluding astringents from -entering the lacteals, has carefully and wisely avoided. - -Salt of steel, taken internally, must retain its astringency until it -be precipitated; which can scarce ever fail to happen in the great -guts, from the putrid _fæces_ they contain, which are always observed -to be tinged of a black colour from the metallic basis of the salt, -part of which, as it has little or no astringency, may, no doubt, -enter the blood, as Signor Menghini observed of the _crocus_, which -is the same substance; and we know, from the experiments of Lister -and Musgrave[35], that particles much grosser than those of the white -chyle, provided they be not astringent, or very acrid, are conveyed by -the lacteals. But the metallic basis being separated from its acid, and -thus reduced to a mere calx or earth, can scarce be supposed to have -any medicinal quality whatsoever, or at least to have any share in the -virtues justly attributed to salt of steel. - -As this salt is not only astringent, and consequently a strengthener, -but at the same time acts with a gentle _stimulus_, all its virtues -(which are known to be very great in diseases, where the fluids are -either viscid, cold, and phlegmatic, or dissolved and watery, from a -laxity of the solids) may be accounted for from its immediate effects -on the stomach and _primæ viæ_, and on the system of the solids in -general by consent; which it would be needless to illustrate by similar -examples, because well known to every one the least versed in medical -studies. I shall therefore only beg leave, from the obvious qualities -of this medicine, and from what has been observed above, to deduce the -following corollaries. - -1. That salt of steel has no deobstruent or aperient virtue by any -immediate action, that it can possibly have on the blood, or other -animal fluids, as some have imagined; but that, on the contrary, it -owes this quality to its _not entering the blood_, which it would -otherwise coagulate, and to _its action on the solids alone_. - -2. That in diseases proceeding from a laxity of the solids, great care -ought to be taken to restore and invigorate the _primæ viæ_; since a -medicine (and this we may presume not the only one) whose immediate -action is confined to those parts, is yet found by experience to -produce so salutary effects in such diseases. - -3. That as this salt does not enter the blood, and consequently cannot -be in danger of too much stimulating or constricting the vessels, on -which it only acts by consent, it may, in small doses, be successfully -used in many cases, where it has been imagined to be hurtful, -particularly in consumptions of the lungs, so frequent and fatal in -this island; which are commonly attended with too great a laxity of -the _primæ viæ_, and of the solids in general, tho’ they seem more -immediately to proceed from a laxity and weakness of the pulmonary -vessels; in which circumstances it must be of the utmost consequence -to restore the tone of those principal organs of chylification, the -_primæ viæ_; as good chyle not only corrects the acrimony of the blood, -which in the advanced stages of consumptions so much prevails, but -likewise saves a great deal of labour, which the lungs (already too -much oppressed) must otherwise undergo from a crude and ill-concocted -chyle. Agreeably to this we find, in the _Essays Physical and Literary_ -of Edinburgh[36], two well-vouched histories of patients far gone in -consumptions, with the usual symptoms of pain in the breast, cough, -gross spitting of fetid matter, difficulty of breathing, hectic fits, -and morning sweats, perfectly cured in a few weeks, by the use of the -Hartfell-Spaw near Moffat; which, contrary to what is observed in most -natural chalybeat waters, contains a fixed vitriol of iron. - - -These, Sir, are the few observations I had to make at present on this -subject. I have taken the liberty to address them to you, in order, if -you shall think proper, to be communicated to your illustrious Society; -which, I hope, will continue to latest posterity those interesting -researches for the advancement of every branch of natural knowlege, by -which it has already acquired so much and so deserved honour; and am, -with the greatest respect, - - SIR, - Your most obedient humble Servant, - Edward Wright. - -Strand, Feb. 28. 1758. - - - - -LXXX. _A Dissertation on the Antiquity of Glass in Windows. In a Letter -to the Rev._ Tho. Birch, _D. D. Secret. R. S. By the Rev._ John Nixon, -_M. A. F.R.S._ - -[Read Mar. 2, 1758.] - - London, March 2. 1758. - -Dear Sir, - -I Had the honour last winter to lay before the Royal Society a few -observations upon some of the curiosities found at Herculaneum, -_&c._[37]. Among other articles, I just mentioned a piece of a plate -of white glass; and now beg leave to inquire into the uses, to which -such plates might be applied in the early age, to which this fragment -undoubtedly belongs. - -And here a person, who forms his ideas of ancient customs by what -he sees practised in later times, may be ready to offer several -conjectures; in some of which he will, probably, be mistaken; as in -others he may be justified by the genuine evidences of antiquity. - -And, first, It is obvious to imagine, that such plates might serve -for _specula_, or looking-glasses. And, indeed, that _specula_ were -anciently made, not only of metals, and some stones, as the[38] -phengites, _&c._ but also of glass, may, I think, be collected from -Pliny, who, having mentioned the city of Sidon as formerly famous for -glass-houses, adds immediately afterwards, _Siquidem etiam specula -excogitaverat_[39]. But then it is to be observed, that before the -application of quicksilver in the constructing of these glasses (which, -I presume, is of no great antiquity), the reflection of images by such -_specula_ must have been effected by their being besmeared _behind_, -or tinged _thro’_ with some dark colour, especially black, which would -obstruct the refraction of the rays of light[40]. Upon these hypotheses -(supposing the tincture to be given after fusion) the _lamina_ before -us may be allowed to be capable of answering the purpose here assigned. - -It may further be suggested, that plates of this kind might be intended -to be wrought into lens’s, or convex glasses, either for burning, or -magnifying objects placed in their focus. But this designation cannot -be supported by proper vouchers from antiquity. On the contrary, we -are informed, that the ancients used either _specula_[41] of metal, or -balls[42] of glass for the former of these purposes; as it is well -known, that glass was not applied to the latter, in optical uses, till -the beginning of the XIIIth century[43]. - -However, we may with greater probability propose another use, for -which the ancients might employ such plates of glass, as are now under -consideration, _viz._ the adorning the walls of their apartments by -way of wainscot. This I take to be the meaning of the _vitreæ cameræ_ -mentioned by Pliny[44]; who intimates, that this fashion took its rise -from glass being used by M. Scaurus[45] for embellishing the scene -of that magnificent theatre, which he erected for exhibiting shows -to the Roman people in his ædileship[46]. And we may collect from -the same author[47] (what is further confirmed by his contemporary -[48]Seneca), that this kind of ornament had been admitted, in his -time, into chambers in houses, baths, _&c._ Whether the plates used for -this purpose were stained with various colours (as mentioned above), -or had tints of divers kinds applied to the back part of them, I shall -not pretend to determine: but in either way they would have a very -agreeable effect. - -The last destination, which the obvious congruity of the thing itself, -countenanced by the practice of many ages past, as well as of the -present time, would induce one to ascribe to such plates of glass, is -that of windows for houses, baths, portico’s, _&c._ But I am sensible, -that whoever should be hardy enough to advance such an hypothesis, -would be censured as an innovator, in opposing the general opinion of -the connoisseurs in antiquity. These gentlemen are almost unanimous in -asserting, that whenever we meet with mention made of _specularia_ in -ancient writers (especially those _of_, or near _to_, the age, to which -we must refer this fragment), we are to understand by that term nothing -but fences made of _laminæ_, either of a certain stone called from its -transparent quality _lapis specularis_[49], brought first from Hispania -Citerior, and afterwards found in Cyprus, Cappadocia, Sicily, and -Africa; or of another stone of the same nature, _viz._ the phengites. -These, tho’ expressly distinguished from each other by Pliny[50], -are yet reckoned by some moderns[51] as one and the same thing; and -thought to have been nothing but a kind of white transparent talc, of -which (according to Mons.[52] Valois) there is found a great quantity -in Moscovy at this day. - -Now that this _lapis specularis_, or phengites, was really used for -windows by the ancient Romans in their houses, _&c._ cannot be denied; -since (according to the opinion of the learned[53] in antiquity) this -usage is mentioned by Seneca[54] among other improvements in luxury -introduced in his time. But whether it was so used exclusive of other -materials (particularly glass), may, I think, admit a doubt. Salmasius -is of opinion[55], that nothing can be determined upon this point from -the word _specular_ itself, which seems to be a generical term, equally -applicable to windows of all kinds, whether consisting of the _lapis -specularis_, or any other transparent substance. - -And as (according to this learned writer) there is nothing in the term -_specular_ itself, which hinders it from being extended to windows made -of other materials besides those above-mentioned; so others imagine, -that there are some intimations in ancient authors, which require, that -it should actually be so extended. Thus Mr. Castells, the ingenious -illustrator of the villa’s of the ancients, thinks[56], that “if this -had not been the case, Palladius would not have given directions to his -husbandman to make _specularia_ in the _olearium_[57], or store-room, -where the olives were preserved. For it appears (says this author) from -Pliny’s describing a temple[58] built of the _lapis specularis_, or -phengites, as the greatest rarity in his time, and the mention Plutarch -makes of a room in Domitian’s palace lined with it, that it was not -common enough for husbandmen to purchase;” _viz._ in such quantities, -as were required for the purposes mentioned above. - -I shall not take upon me to decide upon the weight of this argument of -Mr. Castells; but only observe, that if any one should be induced by -it to think, that the use of glass for windows may be of much greater -antiquity than is commonly allowed, or even as old as the fragment, -which occasions these remarks, he may find other probable reasons to -corroborate his opinion. As, first, that there seems to have been a -natural and obvious transition from the practice of using glass plates -for the ornamenting the walls of apartments to that of introducing -light into those apartments, (as we find the _lapis specularis_ -was in fact employed at the same time for both those purposes) and -consequently it seems reasonable to suppose, that the latter of these -applications could not be long in point of time after the former. -But it appears from the authorities produced above, that the former -of these usages did actually subsist in the age[59] of Pliny; and -therefore before the destruction of Herculaneum, where he lost his -life[60]. From whence we may draw no improbable conclusion, that the -latter destination of plates of glass, (_viz._ for window-fences) did -likewise precede the same event. - -Give me leave to add further, that this presumptive argument in -favour of the antiquity of windows made of plates of glass receives -an additional force from the close relation, which must be allowed to -subsist between them, and those composed of the _lapis specularis_. The -former must be looked upon as an improvement upon the other, as they -answered all the purposes of convenience, and at the same time were -more beautiful; and being the manufacture[61] of Italy, might probably -be purchased at a less expence. Upon all which accounts it seems -reasonable to conclude, that one of these inventions would naturally be -introductory to the other: and consequently, that as window-lights of -the _lapis specularis_ began to be used within the memory of Seneca, -who died[62] under Nero, about _anno Christi_ 68. (_Helvic._), the -original of those of glass may have fair pretensions to a place within -the period assigned in the foregoing paragraph, _viz._ some years -before the destruction[63] of Herculaneum, in whose ruins the plate -before us was buried. - - -To conclude: I need not observe to you, that all the evidence here -produced to prove the usage of glass-windows to have been coæval -with the fragment we are now considering, is of the conjectural kind -only: for, I must confess, I have not been able to trace it up by any -positive authority higher than about 200 years short of the epocha last -mentioned, _viz._ to the latter end of the third century[64], when -it is expresly mentioned by Lactantius in these words:--_Manifestius -est, mentem esse, quæ per oculos ea, quæ sunt opposita, transpiciat, -quasi per fenestras lucente vitro aut speculari lapide obductas._--De -opificio Dei, cap. v. - -I am, - - SIR, - Your most obedient humble Servant, - J. Nixon. - - - - -LXXXI. _An Account of an extraordinary Case of the Efficacy of the Bark -in the Delirium of a Fever. By_ Nicˢ. Munckley, _M. D. Physician to_ -Guy’s-Hospital, _and F.R.S._ - -[Read April 6, 1758.] - -AS the following case contains some circumstances, which are curious in -themselves, and which may be of service to be known, I have thought it -proper to be laid before the Society. - -On Sunday the 5th of March I was sent for to a gentleman, of about 30 -years of age, who had been for some days ill of a fever. I found him -with a degree of heat considerably above what was natural, and with a -pulse rather low, but quick, and beating, as measured by a stop-watch, -about a hundred strokes in a minute. In this situation he continued, -without any remarkable alteration, for the two following days; and, -from the appearance of this disease, I imagined, that it would not be -speedily terminated. On Wednesday, the third day of my seeing him, I -found him however much better; his heat being considerably abated, and -his pulse being more than twenty strokes in a minute slower than it -had been the day before. On this alteration, so much in his favour, -it might have been thought he was growing well, had it not been, that -there was no appearance either by sweat or urine, or on the skin, by -which it could be imagined the disease was perfectly judged. On this -account no alteration was made in his treatment that day: but finding, -the next morning, that he had slept well the preceding night, and that -his pulse continued quiet, being no more than 74 strokes in a minute, -he was allowed to get up in the evening, to have his bed made; and I -should have thought him well, had not every appearance of a critical -separation been still wanting. On this account, I thought him to be -very liable to a return of his fever; and therefore, when early the -next morning I was informed, that he had been without any sleep, -and quite delirious, the whole night, I was not greatly alarmed, as -thinking he had a feverish paroxysm, to which the bark would probably -put an end. When I saw him that morning, I found him very delirious; -but, to my great surprise, quite free from all kind of fever whatever; -his pulse being then as calm as it had been the preceding day. In this -condition he remained all that day, and the following night; nothing, -that was attempted to relieve him, having done him the least service: -on the contrary, his delirium increased so much, as to make it very -difficult for the attendants to keep him in bed. The next morning he -was much as he had been the day before; his imagination continuing -greatly disturbed, and he at times laughing, and playing antic tricks, -and using gestures the most opposite to his common demeanour when -well; and which, tho’ the pulse had not been so perfectly quiet, had -more the appearance of a _mania_, than of the delirium of a fever. In -this unhappy situation, there was but one thing, which seemed likely -to bring the affair to a speedy determination: this it was proper to -attempt, tho’ the indications for it were very obscure, and the event -perfectly uncertain. On recollecting the time of this delirium’s -coming on, which was about 36 hours after the pulse had grown quiet; -and perceiving, that one glass of the water, which had been made in -the night, was thick, and seemed disposed to drop a sediment; there -was some reason to suspect, and indeed to hope, that tho’ the pulse -had been perfectly calm during the whole time of the delirium, there -was something of the fever still at the bottom of this complaint. -From these indications, obscure as they were, it was judged proper to -make a trial of the bark; which was accordingly ordered to be taken -immediately, and to be repeated every two hours. This method succeeded -beyond what could have been imagined; insomuch that it was observable, -even by the attendants on this gentleman, that his mind came evidently -more and more to itself after every dose: and in the evening, after he -had taken six drachms, his urine grew thick, and dropt a lateritious -sediment; and, excepting the weakness naturally consequent on such -violent emotions as he had undergone, both of mind and body, he was -as well as ever he had been in his life. He hath repeated the bark at -proper intervals, as is usual after intermittent fevers, and continues -to this day perfectly well. - -The use of the bark, in the most irregular intermittent disorders, is -very happily so well known in this island, that it might perhaps have -been thought needless to have recited any case merely in confirmation -of this practice: and I am too well aware of the insufficiency of -every thing, but a number of facts on which to found any philosophical -truth, to presume to rest any thing on one single instance only. But -the case above related is of so very extraordinary a kind, as to make -it worthy of being mentioned, both on its own account, and for that -analogy, which being found by experience to subsist between diseases, -affords the surest method of reasoning on practical subjects. The two -remarkable circumstances of this case are, the delirium’s coming on, -and continuing, without any exacerbation of the pulse; and the bark’s -proving so speedy and effectual a remedy, tho’ given at a time, when -there was no appearance of any remission of the symptom, which it -was intended to remove. It hath been thought, that a quick pulse is -so essential to the definition of a fever, as to be a pathognomonic -symptom of it. But experience is against this notion: perhaps the -present case is a proof of the contrary; however this be, there have -not been wanting instances, in which, towards the end of a fever, the -pulse has grown quiet, without the abatement of any other symptom, and -the patient hath generally lain comatose, and with the appearance of -one, who hath taken a large quantity of opium. Galen, in the third book -of the Presages of the Pulse, mentions this symptom, and pronounces -it to be almost a fatal sign: and the same thing hath happened in -more instances than one, which have come to my knowlege. May not then -the above-recited case lead to this useful inquiry, Whether in fevers -of every kind, when the pulse is quiet, the bark is not proper to be -given, and likely to prove a remedy? In this case it proved absolutely -such: and that it is at least a safe medicine in all such cases, in -which any practitioner of experience or judgment would ever think -of giving it, is now certainly known. For my own part, I can safely -declare, that in near ten years experience of it in Guy’s-Hospital, -during which time I find I have given it, on different occasions, to -above five hundred patients in that house only, I never, from the -most accurate observation I could make, saw it do any harm, or bring -on any bad symptom, even in cases where it did not succeed according -to the intention for which it was ordered; and (which I have thought -worth remarking) in chronical cases, even in those, where the bark -hath been by many thought the most prejudicial, when, on the coming on -of an intermittent fever, the bark hath been necessary to cure this -secondary disease, the original distemper hath gone on, according to -the best judgment I could form of it, exactly in the same manner, as it -would have done had the bark never been given. - - - - -LXXXII. _An Account of an Earthquake felt at_ Lingfield _in_ Surrey, -_and_ Edenbridge _in_ Kent, _on the 24th of_ January 1758. _By_ James -Burrow, _Esq., R. S. V. P._ - -[Read April 6, 1758.] - -IN the London Chronicle, Nº. 181, published on the 25th of February -1758, in page 185, is the following article: “We hear, that about -two o’clock in the morning of the 24th of last month” (which was the -month of January), “an Earthquake was felt in the parishes of Worthe, -and East-Grinsted, in Sussex; Lingfield, in Surrey; and Edenbridge, -in Kent; and other adjacent places: which alarmed several of the -inhabitants very much; but no damage ensued.” - -Mr. Burrow, having some connection with these two last parishes of -Lingfield and Edenbridge, immediately wrote to the Rev. Mr. Goodricke -of Lingfield, to inquire into the truth of this report: and Mr. -Goodricke’s answer confirmed the fact of its being felt there, and at -other adjacent places; and added, “that it shook the beds and windows, -and made the plates rattle; and went off with a noise, like a small -gust of wind.” - -However, Mr. Burrow did not then judge it to be either regular or -proper to trouble the Society with this account; because Mr. Goodricke -only received it from hearsay and report, he himself happening to be -absent from Lingfield at that time. - -But Mr. Burrow having passed some days, during the late recess of -the Society, at a place called Starborough-castle, which lies nearly -_between_ the two churches of Lingfield and Edenbridge (scarce four -miles distant from each other), he has had an opportunity of being -more particularly and circumstantially informed of the fact, as far -as relates to those two parishes: and he is now assured, that it was -certainly and undoubtedly felt and observed by _some_ persons in each -of those two parishes; tho’ (as it happened in the dead of the night, -when most people were fast asleep) it was not _generally_ perceived: -nor was it much spoken of, even by those, who were sure they felt it. - -The persons, from whose own mouths he can authenticate the fact, are -James Martin, Adam Killick, Mrs. Jewell, and Mr. Chapman: and he has -no less doubt as to Mr. Orgles and Mrs. Pigott (who was waked and much -frighted by it), tho’ he did not indeed personally converse with either -of the two last. - -These two, and Mrs. Jewell, all inhabit quite close to Lingfield -church-yard, on different sides of it: and Chapman lives within a -quarter of a mile of it, to the south-west. - -James Martin lives within a bow-shot of Starborough-castle, at the -eastern edge of the parish of Lingfield, where it joins to that of -Edenbridge; and Adam Killick’s habitation is three miles north-east of -Starborough, at the north-western point of the parish of Edenbridge. - -All these four, with whom Mr. Burrow personally conversed, agreed -as to the _time_ of the concussion; _viz._ between one and two in -the morning: and they all agreed as to the _shaking_ of their beds -and windows; and all of them described the _continuance_ of the -shock as not much more than instantaneous: but they did _not_ all -hear the _noise_, which _some_ of them observed it to conclude with; -particularly Adam Killick heard NO _noise_ at all; and yet, he says, -he was broad awake when it first began: and it shook his house and -bed, and made his windows rattle so much, that he was apprehensive of -their being broken; and even caused one pane of glass (which was indeed -loose before) actually to drop out. But James Martin, who was likewise -fully awake (as was his wife too), _did hear_ the noise distinctly. He -says, he felt his house and bed shake, heard his windows rattle, and -some earthen ware clatter upon a chest of drawers; and also heard a -noise, like the distant discharge of a cannon: whereupon he immediately -said to his wife, “Lord! what is _that_?” but she happening, at that -very instant, either to cough or sneeze (she cannot recollect which of -the two), did not, tho’ quite awake, perceive any thing at all of the -matter. However, she confirmed her husband’s asking her this question -under an apparent surprize. - -Mr. Burrow had a very particular conversation with these two -separately: and he had also a very minute detail from Adam Killick -(who works for him as a sort of gardener at Starborough); who further -added, “that the shock waked and frighted his wife, tho’ she was fast -asleep before.” - -6th April, 1758. - - James Burrow. - - - - -LXXXIII. _An Account of the Case of the First Joint of the Thumb torn -off, with the Flexor Tendon in its whole Extent torn out. By_ Robert -Home, _late Surgeon to the Thirtieth Regiment of Foot, and Surgeon at_ -Kingston upon Hull. _In a Letter to_ John Pringle, _M. D. F.R.S._ - -[Read April 6, 1758.] - -SIR, - -I Take the liberty of inclosing to you a case in surgery, which I -imagine is not very common. Marchetis indeed has an observation of the -same kind; and there are several others collected together by Mons. -Morand, in the second volume of the Memoires of the Royal Academy -of Surgery at Paris: but as I have not heard of that volume’s being -translated into English, and believe there is no observation of a -similar nature in the Philosophical Transactions, I beg the favour of -you to communicate it to the Royal Society, of which you are a Fellow; -and at the same time to make them an offer of the joint of the thumb, -with its adherent tendon, which you will receive at the same time with -this; hoping they will do me the honour of accepting it, as a testimony -(tho’ trifling) of my great esteem and respect for the most learned -Society in Europe. Your Friend Dr. Knox saw the patient dressed oftener -than once; and Mr. Thornhill, late Surgeon and Manmidwife in Bristol, -saw it when near healed. - -I beg you will believe me to be, with great truth, - - SIR, - Your most obedient, - and most humble Servant, - Robert Home. - -Hull, March 17th, 1758. - - -JAnuary 2d, 1758, William Taylor, 17 years of age, an apprentice to a -white-smith in this place, in endeavouring to make his escape from one, -who was going to correct him, opened the door of a cellar, and threw -himself into it; but in his hurry so intangled his right thumb with the -latch, that the whole weight of his body was suspended by it, until it -gave way, and was torn off at the first articulation; the flexor tendon -being at the same time pulled out in its whole length, having broke -when it became muscular. I was immediately sent for, found little or no -hæmorrhage, and the bone of the second phalanx safe, and covered with -its cartilage, but protruding considerably, occasioned by part of the -skin belonging to it being irregularly torn off with the first joint. - -I was doubtful, whether or not I should be obliged, at last, to make a -circular incision, and saw the bone even with the skin; but thought it -proper to give him a chance for the use of the whole phalanx. - -He complained only for the first day of a pretty sharp pain in the -course of the tendon; to which compresses, wrung out of warm brandy, -were applied: but his arm was never swelled; there was no _ecchymosis_; -nor had he so much fever, as to require bleeding even once. The cure -proceeded happily, no symptoms arising from the extracted tendon. At -the third dressing the bone was covered; and no other application but -dry lint was necessary during the whole time. No exfoliation happened; -yet it was twelve weeks before it was intirely cicatrised, owing to the -loss of skin: and he seems to enjoy the use of the stump as completely, -as if that tendon was not lost. - - - - -LXXXIV. _An Account of the late Discoveries of Antiquities at_ -Herculaneum, _and of an Earthquake there; in a Letter from_ Camillo -Paderni, _Keeper of the Museum at_ Herculaneum, _and F.R.S. to_ Tho. -Hollis, _Esq; F.R.S. dated_ Portici, Feb. 1. 1758. - -[Read April 6, 1758.] - -WE have been working continually at Herculaneum, Pompeii, and Stabiæ, -since my last of Dec. 16, 1756. The most remarkable discoveries made -there are these, which follow. - -February 1757, was found a small and most beautiful figure of a naked -Venus in bronze, the height of which is six Neapolitan inches. She has -silver eyes, bracelets of gold on her arms, and chains of the same -metal above her feet; and appears in the attitude of loosening one of -her sandals. The base is of bronze inlaid with foliage of silver, on -one side of which is placed a dolphin. - -In July we met with an inscription, about twelve Neapolitan palms in -length, which I have here copied. - - IMP·CAESAR·VESPASIANVS·AVG·PONTIF·MAX - - TRIB·POT·̅VĪĪ·IMP·X̅VĪĪ·P·P·COS·̅VĪĪ·DESIGN·̅VĪĪĪ - - TEMPLVM·MATRIS·DEVM·TERRAE·MOTV·CONLAPSVM·RESTITVIT - -After having found a great number of volumes of papirus in Herculaneum; -many pugillaries, styles, and stands with ink in them, as formerly -mentioned; at length, in the month of August, upon opening a small box, -we also found, to our exceeding great joy, the instrument, with which -they used to write their manuscripts. It is made of wood, of an oblong -form, but petrified, and broke into two pieces. There is no slit in it, -that being unnecessary, as the ancients did not join their letters in -the manner we do, but wrote them separate. - -In September were discovered eight marble busts, in the form of terms. -One of these represents Vitellius, another Archimedes; and both are -of the finest workmanship. The following characters, in a black tint, -are still legible on the latter, namely, ΑΡΧΙΜΕΔ which is all the -inscription that now remains. - -In October was dug up a curious bust of a young person, who has a -helmet on his head, adorned with a civic crown, and cheek-pieces -fastened under his chin. Also another very fine bust of a philosopher, -with a beard, and short thick hair, having a slight drapery on his left -shoulder. Likewise two female busts; one unknown, in a veil; the other -Minerva, with a helmet; both of middling workmanship. - -In November we met with two busts of philosophers, of excellent -workmanship, and, as may be easily perceived, of the same artist; but -unfortunately, like many others, without names. - -In January was found a small, but most beautiful eagle, in bronze. -It hath silver eyes, perches on a _praefericulum_, and holds a fawn -between its talons. - -In the same month we discovered, at Stabiæ, a term six palms high, on -which is a head of Plato, in the finest preservation, and performed in -a very masterly manner. Also divers vases, instruments for sacrificing, -scales, balances, weights, and other implements for domestic uses, all -in bronze. - -At length I have finished, with much labour, the examination and -arrangement of the scales, balances, and weights, which are very -numerous in this museum; and, what is remarkable, many of the former, -with all the weights, exactly answer those now in use at Naples. -At present I am considering the liquid measures; and also engaged -in disposing the paintings in the new apartment allotted for them. -These affairs, with my usual province of inspecting the workmen, who -are busied in digging; my being obliged to keep an exact register of -every thing, that is discovered; besides other daily and accidental -occurrences; employ my time so intirely, that I have not a moment’s -repose, but in my bed. - -The square belonging to the palace, in which the museum is deposited, -will be finished, and completely ornamented, by Easter. In the center -of it I have placed the bronze horse, which was broken in many pieces, -and restored by me, as mentioned in my last. In the walls of the -colonades are affixed all the inscriptions hitherto discovered: and I -shall yet adorn them with altars, curule chairs, and other antiquities -proper for such places. The principal entrance into the museum hath -been made to correspond with the grand stair-case. On the right side -of it stands the consular statue of Marcus Nonius Balbus, the father; -and on the left, that of Marcus Nonius Balbus, the son; with two -inscriptions relating to, and found near them. Upon the stair-case -are placed eight antique statues in bronze, on beautiful pedestals -of polished marble. In an opening in the center of the right hand -colonade is fixed the statue of the wife of the elder Balbus, with the -antique inscription belonging to it. At the entrance of the square, -a magnificent pair of iron gates, with palisades, are just put up, -ornamented with many bronzes, which are gilt; and on the sides of these -gates are two other consular statues of persons unknown. - - -The whole day and night of the 24th of last month it seemed as if Mount -Vesuvius would again have swallowed up this country. On that day it -suffered two internal fractures, which intirely changed its appearance -within the crater, destroying the little mountain, that had been -forming within it for some years, and was risen above the sides; and -throwing up, by violent explosions, immense quantities of stones, lava, -ashes, and fire. At night the flames burst out with greater vehemence, -the explosions were more frequent and horrible, and our houses shook -continually. Many fled to Naples, and the boldest persons trembled. -For my own part, I resolved to abide the event here at Portici, on -account of my family, consisting of eight children, and a very weak -and aged mother, whose life must have been lost by a removal in such -circumstances, and so rigorous a season. But it pleased God to preserve -us; for the mountain having vented itself that night and the succeeding -day, is since become calm, and throws out only a few ashes. - - - - -LXXXV. _A further Attempt to facilitate the Resolution of -Isoperimetrical Problems. By Mr._ Thomas Simpson, _F.R.S._ - -[Read April 13, 1758.] - -ABOUT three years ago I had the honour to lay before the Royal -Society the investigation of a general rule for the resolution of -isoperimetrical problems of that kind, wherein one, only, of the two -indeterminate quantities enters along with the fluxions, into the -equations expressing the conditions of the problem. Under which kind -are included the determination of the greatest figures under given -bounds, lines of the swiftest descent, solids of the least resistance, -with innumerable other cases. But altho’ cases of this sort do, indeed, -most frequently occur, and have therefore been chiefly attended to by -mathematicians, others may nevertheless be proposed, such as actually -arise in inquiries into nature, wherein _both_ the flowing quantities, -together with their fluxions, are jointly concerned. The investigation -of a _rule_ for the resolution of these, is what I shall in this paper -attempt, by means of the following - -GENERAL PROPOSITION. - -_Let_ Q, R, S, T, &c. _represent any variable quantities, expressed in -terms of_ x _and_ y (_with given coefficients_), _and let_ q, r, s, t, -&c. _denote as many other quantities, expressed in terms of_ ẋ _and_ ẏ; -_It is proposed to find an equation for the relation of_ x _and_ y, _so -that the fluent of_ Qq + Rr + Ss + Tt, &c. _corresponding to a given -value of_ x (_or_ y), _may be a_ maximum _or_ minimum. - -[Illustration] - -Let _A E_, _A F_, and _A G_, denote any three values of the quantity -_x_, having indefinitely small _equi-differences E F_, _F G_; and let -_E L_, _F M_, and _G N_, (perpendicular to _A G_) be the respective -values of _y_, corresponding thereto; and, supposing _EF_ (= _FG_ = -_ẋ_) to be denoted by _e_, let _c M_ and _d N_ (the successive values -of _ẏ_) be represented by _u_ and _w_. Moreover, supposing _P´p´_ -and _P´´p´´_ to be ordinates at the middle points _P´ P´´_, between -_E_, _F_ and _F_, _G_, let the former (_P´p´_) be denoted α, and the -latter (_P´´p´´_) by β; putting _A P´_ = _a_ and _A P´´_ = _b_. Then, -if _a_ and α (the mean values of _x_ and _y_, between the ordinates -_E L_ and _F M_) be supposed to be substituted for _x_ and _y_, in -the given quantity _Qq_ + _Rr_ + _Ss_ + _Tt_, _&c._ and if, instead -of _ẋ_ and _ẏ_, their equals _e_ and _u_ be also substituted, and the -said (given) quantity, after such substitution, be denoted by _Q´q´_ + -_R´r´_ + _S´s´_ + _T´t´_, _&c._ it is then evident, that this quantity -_Q´q´_ + _R´r´_ + _S´s´_ + _T´t´_, _&c._ will express so much of the -whole required fluent, as is comprehended between the ordinates _E L_ -and _F M_, or as answers to an increase of _E F_ in the value of _x_. -And thus, if _b_ and β be conceived to be wrote for _x_ and _y_, _e_ -for _ẋ_, and _w_ for _ẏ_, and the quantity resulting be denoted by -_Q´´q´´_ + _R´´r´´_ + _S´´s´´_ + _T´´t´´_, _&c._ this quantity will, -in like manner, express the part of the required fluent corresponding -to the interval _F G_. Whence that part answering to the interval _E -G_ will consequently be equal to _Q´q´_ + _R´r´ &c._ + _Q´´q´´_ + -_R´´r´´ &c._ But it is manifest, that the whole required fluent cannot -be a _maximum_ or _minimum_, unless this part, supposing the bounding -ordinates _E L_, _G N_ to remain the same, is also a _maximum_ or -_minimum_. Hence, in order to determine the fluxion of this expression -(_Q´q´_ + _R´r´ &c. Q´´q´´_ + _R´´r´´ &c._) which must, of consequence, -be equal to nothing, let the fluxions of _Q´_ and _q´_ (taking α and -_u_ as variable) be denoted by _̅Q_̇α and _̅qu⋅_; also let _̅R_̇α and -_̅ru⋅_ denote the respective fluxions of _R´_ and _r´_; and let, in -like manner, the fluxions of _Q´´, q´´, R´´, r´´, &c._ be represented -by _̿Q_̇β, _̿q͘w_, _̿R_͘͘β͘ _̿rẇ_, _&c._ respectively. Then, by the -common rule for finding the fluxion of a rectangle, the fluxion of our -whole expression (_Q´q´_ + _R´r´ &c._ + _Q´´q´´_ + _R´´r´´ &c._) will -be given equal to _Q´ ̅qu⋅_ + _q´ ̅Q_̇α + _R´ ̅ru⋅_ + _r´ ̅R_̇α _&c._ -+ _Q´´̿qẇ_ + _q´´ ̿Q_̇͘͘͘β + _R´´ ̿r͘w_ + _r´´ ̿R_̇β _&c._ = 0. - -But _u_ + _w_ being = _GN_ - _EL_, and β - α = (_GN_ - _EL_) ⁄ 2 (a -constant quantity), we therefore have _ẇ_ = -_u͘_, and ̇β = ̇α: also -_u_ being (= 2_rp´_) = 2α - 2_EL_, thence will _u͘_ = 2̇α: which values -being substituted above, our equation, after the whole is divided by -̇α, will become - - 2_Q´ ̅q_ + _q´ ̅Q_ + 2_R´ ̅r_ + _r´ ̅R, &c._ - 2_Q´´ ̿q_ + _q´´ - ̿Q_ - 2_R´´ ̿r_ + _r´ ̿R, &c._ = 0; - - or, _Q´´ ̿q_ - _Q´ ̅q_ + _R´´ ̿r_ - _R´ ̅r &c._ = (_q´ ̅Q_ + _q´´ - ̿Q_) ⁄ 2 + (_r´ ̅R_ + _r´´ ̿R_) ⁄ 2, _&c._ - -But _Q´´ ̿q_ - _Q´ ̅q_, the excess of _Q´´ ̿q_ above _Q´ ̅q_, is -the increment or fluxion (answering to the increment, or fluxion, -_ẋ_) arising by substituting _b_ for _a_, β for α, and _w_ for _u_. -Moreover, with regard to the quantities on the other side of the -equation, it is plain, seeing the difference of _q´ ̅Q_ and _q´´ ̿Q_ -is indefinitely little in comparison of their sum, that _q´ ̅Q_ may be -substituted in the room of (_q´ ̅Q_ + _q´´ ̿Q_) ⁄ 2, _&c._ which being -done, our equation will stand thus: - - _Flux. Q´ ̅q_ + _R´ ̅r &c._ = _q´ ̅Q_ + _r´ ̅R &c._ - -But _q´ ̅Q_ + _r´ ̅R &c._ represents (by the preceding notation) the -fluxion of _q´Q´_ + _r´R´ &c._ (or of _Qq_ + _Rr &c._) arising by -substituting α for _y_, making α alone variable, and casting off ̇α. -If, therefore, that fluxion be denoted by ̇υ, we shall have _flux. Q´ -̅q_ + _R´ ̅r &c._ = ̇υ, and consequently _Q´ ̅q_ + _R´ ̅r &c._ = υ. But -_Q´ ̅q_ + _R´ ̅r &c._ (by the same notation) appears to be the fluxion -of _Q´q´_ + _R´r´ &c._ (or of _Qq_ + _Rr &c._) arising by substituting -_u_ for _ẏ_, making _u_ alone variable, and casting off _̇u_. Whence -the following - - -GENERAL RULE. - -_Take the fluxion of the given expression_ (_whose fluent is required -to be a_ maximum _or_ minimum) _making_ ẏ _alone variable; and, having -divided by_ ÿ, _let the quotient be denoted by_ υ: _Then take, again, -the fluxion of the same expression, making_ y _alone variable, which -divide by_ ẏ; _and then this last quotient will be_ = ̇υ. - -When _ẏ_ is not found in the quantity given, υ will then be = 0; and, -consequently, the expression for ̇υ, equal to nothing also. But if -_y_ be absent, then will ̇υ = 0, and consequently the value of υ = a -constant quantity. It is also easy to comprehend, that, instead of _ẏ_ -and _y, ẋ_ and _x_ may be made successively variable. Moreover, should -the case to be resolved be confined to other restrictions, besides that -of the _maximum_ or _minimum_, such as, having a certain number of -other fluents, at the same time, equal to given quantities, still the -same method of solution may be applied, and that with equal advantage, -if from the particular expressions exhibiting all the several -conditions, one general expression composed of them all, with unknown -(but determinate) coefficients, be made use of. - -In order to render this matter quite clear, let _A, B, C, D, &c._ be -supposed to represent any quantities expressed in terms of _x, y_, and -their fluxions, and let it be required to determine the relation of _x_ -and _y_, so that the fluent of _Aẋ_ shall be a _maximum_, or _minimum_, -when the cotemporary fluents of _Bẋ, Cẋ, Dẋ, &c._ are, all of them, -equal to given quantities. - -It is evident, in the first place, that the fluent of _Aẋ_ + _bBẋ_ -+ _cCẋ_ + _dDẋ, &c._ (_b, c, d, &c._ being any constant quantities -whatever) must be a _maximum_, or _minimum_, in the proposed -circumstance: and, if the relation of _x_ and _y_ be determined (_by -the rule_), so as to answer this single condition (under all possible -values of _b, c, d, &c._) it will also appear evident, that such -relation will likewise answer and include all the other conditions -propounded. For, there being in the general expression, thus derived, -as many unknown quantities _b, c, d, &c._ (to be determined) as there -are equations, by making the fluents of _Bẋ, Cẋ, Dẋ, &c._ equal to the -values given; those quantities may be so assigned, or conceived to be -such, as to answer all the conditions of the said equations. And then, -to see clearly that the fluent of the first expression, _Aẋ_, cannot -be greater than arises from hence (other things remaining the same) -let there be supposed some other different relation of _x_ and _y_, -whereby the conditions of all the other fluents of _Bẋ, Cẋ, Dẋ, &c._ -can be fulfilled; and let, _if possible_, this new relation give a -greater fluent of _Aẋ_ than the relation above assigned. Then, because -the fluents _bBẋ, cCẋ, dDẋ, &c._ are given, and the same in both cases, -it follows, according to this supposition, that this new relation must -give a greater fluent of _Aẋ_ + _bBẋ_ + _cCẋ_ + _dDẋ, &c._ (under all -possible values of _b, c, d, &c._) than the former relation gives: -_which is impossible_; because (whatever values are assigned to _b, -c, d, &c._) _that_ fluent will, it is demonstrated, be the greatest -possible, when the relation of _x_ and _y_ is that above determined, by -the General Rule. - -To exemplify, now, by a particular case, the method of operation above -pointed out, let there be proposed the fluxionary quantity (_xⁿ yᵐ -ẏᵖ_) ⁄ _ẋ⁽ᵖ ⁻ ¹⁾_; wherein the relation of _x_ and _y_ is so required, -that the fluent, corresponding to given values of _x_ and _y_, shall -be a _maximum_, or _minimum_. Here, by taking the fluxion, making _ẏ_ -alone variable (_according to the rule_) and dividing by _ÿ_, we shall -have (_pxⁿ yᵐ ẏ⁽ᵖ ⁻ ¹⁾_) ⁄ _ẋ⁽ᵖ ⁻ ¹⁾_ = υ. And, by taking the fluxion -a second time, making _y_ alone variable, and dividing by _ẏ_, will be -had (_mxⁿ y⁽ᵐ ⁻ ¹⁾ ẏᵖ_) ⁄ _ẋ⁽ᵖ ⁻ ¹⁾_ = ̇υ. Now from these equations to -exterminate υ, let the latter be divided by the former; so shall _mẏ_ -⁄ _py_ = ̇υ ⁄ υ; and therefore _ay⁽ᵐ ⁄ ᵖ⁾_ = υ (_a_ being a constant -quantity). From whence _y⁽ᵐ ⁄ ᵖ⁾ẏ_ = _(a ⁄ p)⁽¹ ⁄ ⁽ᵖ ⁻ ¹⁾⁾_ × _ẋx⁽⁻⁽ⁿ ⁄ -⁽ᵖ ⁻ ¹⁾⁾⁾_; and consequently (_p_ ⁄ (_m + p_)) × _y⁽⁽ᵐ + ᵖ⁾ ⁄ ᵖ⁾_ = _(a -⁄ p)⁽¹ ⁄ ⁽ᵖ ⁻ ¹⁾⁾_ × (_p_ - 1) ⁄ (_p_ - _n_ - 1) × _x_⁽⁽_ᵖ_ ⁻ _ⁿ_ ⁻ ¹⁾ -⁄ ⁽_ᵖ_ ⁻ ¹⁾⁾. - -Let there be now proposed the two fluxions _xⁿyᵐẋ_ and _xᵖy⒬ẏ_, the -fluent of the former being required to be a _maximum_, or _minimum_, -and that of the latter, at the same time, equal to a given quantity. -Then the latter, with the general coefficient _b_ prefixed, being -joined to the former, we shall here have _xⁿyᵐẋ_ + _bxᵖy⒬ẏ_. From -whence, by proceeding as before, _bxᵖy⒬_ = υ, and _mxⁿy⁽ᵐ ⁻ ¹⁾ẋ_ + -_qbxᵖy⁽ᵖ ⁻¹⁾ẏ_ = ̇υ. From the former of which equations, by taking the -fluxions on both sides, will be had _pbx⁽ᵖ ⁻¹⁾y⒬ẋ_ + _qbxᵖy⁽⒬ ⁻ ¹⁾ẏ_ (= -̇υ) = _mxⁿy⁽ᵐ ⁻ ¹⁾ẋ_ + _qbxᵖy⁽⒬ ⁻ ¹⁾ẏ_. Whence _pbx⁽ᵖ ⁻ ¹⁾y⒬_ = _mxⁿy⁽ᵐ -⁻ ¹⁾_; and therefore _pby⁽⒬ ⁻ ᵐ ⁺ ¹⁾_ = _mx⁽ⁿ ⁻ ᵖ ⁺ ¹⁾_. And in the -same manner proper equations, to express the relation of _x_ and _y_, -may be derived, in any other case, and under any number of limitations. - - - - -LXXXVI. _Observations on the_ Alga Marina latifolia; _The Sea Alga with -broad Leaves. By_ John Andrew Peyssonel, _M.D. F.R.S. Translated from -the_ French. - -[Read April 13, 1758.] - -HAVING cast anchor at Verdun, the road at the entrance of the river of -Bourdeaux, I was fishing with a kind of drag-net upon a bank of sand, -which was very fine and muddy. We collected a number of sea-plants, -and among them the great broad-leaved Alga, which I did not know: and -as the root or pedicle of this plant appeared to be very particular, I -observed it with attention. The following is its description, and the -detail of my observations. - -From a pedicle, which is sometimes flat, and sometimes round (for they -vary in these plants, and might be about three lines in diameter, -and an inch high, of a blackish colour, and coriaceous substance, -approaching to the nature of the bodies of lithophyta), a single -flat leaf arises, about an inch or an inch and half broad, thick in -its middle to about three lines, ending at the sides in a kind of -edge, like a two-edged sabre, almost like the common Alga, formed of -longitudinal fibres interlaced with other very delicates ones, and the -whole filled with a thick juice, like the _parenchyma_ of succulent -plants, such as the Sedum, Aloes, and the like, of a clear yellowish -green, and transparent. This first leaf is always single, and serves -instead of a trunk or stem to the whole plant. - -When it rises to about a foot high, more or less, it throws out at the -sides other leaves formed of a continuation of the longitudinal fibres; -and these second leaves are of the same thickness and substance with -the first: they are two or three feet long, and the whole plant is -five or six, or more (for one can hardly tell the length); and is not -capable of supporting itself, but is sustained by the strength of the -waters, in which it floats. - -The substance of the plant is not so solid as that of the common Alga, -which is capable of drying as it fades, and of being kept: whereas -the leaves of this great Alga shrink and wither in the air, become -of a blackish colour, and very friable, or indeed soon fall into -putrifaction. I never observed, that they bore any fruit: perhaps this -was not the season. - -But what we find particular in this plant is its root or foot: First, -this pedicle extends in ribs, like what we call the thighs of certain -trees: these thighs are in right lines: perhaps they run in the same -direction or situation, that is, placed north and south, or east and -west; but this I could not observe. They are about three or four -lines high towards the pedicle, and, ending, are lost. They flourish -and spread at the bottom, forming an elliptical bladder, like an egg, -flattened above and below, and rounded at the sides, being intirely -empty: it is rough without, and very smooth within. This egg, or oval -bladder, is exactly round at the ends of the great diameter, but varies -a little in the lesser diameter, and forms itself like the body of a -fiddle. The under part is a little flattened; and there is a hole, -which is very considerable, in the center of the two diameters. This -hole is about an inch wide, and is quite round: it gives passage to -the root, or pivot, which I shall by and by mention: the edges appear -to turn a little inward: and it is by this hole that the egg fills -with sea-water. The whole substance of this bladder or egg is of a -coriaceous matter, firm and transparent, and of a clear green; nor can -there be any fibres, either longitudinal or transverse, observed upon -it. - -The vault at the top, surmounted by the thighs, is as it were -granulated; but at the rounding of the egg it produces a kind of -_mammæ_, or little elevations, very round and cylindrical, intirely -full; of the same nature and substance with the egg. - -In examining the under part of the egg, we found a second rank of these -_mamellæ_, somewhat longer than the first, and at equal distances -from one another, in a circular line; then a third yet longer; then a -fourth, which at the extremities were bifurcated; and at last a fifth -rank, which divided into three, and sometimes into five, branches: -these last, placed round the hole, were wreathed inwards, and several -were joined together, and only formed a small body; and in wreathing -themselves thus they close and embrace the pivot mentioned below. -None of these _mamellæ_ have any apparent opening: their substance is -compact, of the same nature with the bladder or egg, that produces them. - -Below the trunk and thighs the plant protrudes a pivot, of a like -substance with that of the bladder. This pivot, which is large at its -origin, proceeding thus from the trunk and thighs, forms something like -the knot of the sea-tree: it descends perpendicularly to the trunk, -diminishing as it lengthens, and as it grows round; and then divides -into a number of _mamellæ_, branched and wreathed inwards so firmly, as -not to be retracted; of a coriaceous nature, blackish, forming a bunch -like what we call the Rose of Jericho. I cannot recollect the name of -this plant or flower. - -This bunch, or wreathed rose, incloses a heap of gravel, as if -petrified or hardened, and ends upon a level with the hole of the egg, -exactly as high as the last rank of _mamellæ_, which wreath upon, -embrace, and sustain it, leaving always an empty space to let the -sea-water pass in, which should fill the inside of the egg or bladder, -and even to let in little fishes and shells. - -I was surprised to find in one little living muscles, as they always -are attached to some solid body by their beards. Now by what means -could they enter into this egg? I conjectured, that they had their -beginning there, by the seminal matter of muscles carried in by the -sea-water. I also found some small star-fish, whose rays might be about -four or five lines long. - -If my stay here had been longer, I had continued my observations; -and perhaps should have made some discoveries. It belongs to the -academicians of Bourdeaux to push these observations further, if they -think proper. - -From the Entrance of the river of Bourdeaux, the 4th of August, 1756. - - Peyssonel. - - - - -LXXXVII. _An Account of the distilling Water fresh from Sea-water -by Wood-ashes. By Capt._ William Chapman: _In a Letter to_ John -Fothergill, _M. D._ - -[Read April 13, 1758.] - - Whitby, 10th 2d mo. Feb. 1758. - -THY kind acceptance of my last emboldens me to inform thee, how, on -my return from a voyage to the north part of Russia, I procured a -sufficient quantity of fresh water from sea-water, without taking with -me either instruments or ingredients expressly for the purpose. - -Some time in September last, when I had been ten days at sea, by an -accident (off the north cape of Finland) we lost the greatest part of -our water. We had a hard gale of wind at south-west, which continued -three weeks, and drove us into 73° lat. During this time I was very -uneasy, as knowing, if our passage should hold out long, we must be -reduced to great straits; for we had no rains, but frequent fogs, which -yielded water in very small quantities. I now blamed myself for not -having a still along with me (as I had often thought no ship should be -without one). But it was now too late; and there was a necessity to -contrive some means for our preservation. - -I was not a stranger to Appleby’s method: I had also a pamphlet wrote -by Dr. Butler, intituled, _An easy Method of procuring of fresh Water -at Sea_. And I imagined, that soap might supply the place of capital -lees, mentioned by him. I now set myself at work, to contrive a still; -and ordered an old pitch-pot, that held about ten quarts, to be made -clean: my carpenter, by my direction, fitted to it a cover of fir deal, -about two inches thick, very close; so that it was easily made tight by -luting it with paste. We had a hole thro’ the cover, in which was fixed -a wooden pipe nearly perpendicular. This I call the still-head: it was -bored with an augre of 1½ inch diameter, to within three inches of the -top or extremity, where it was left solid. We made a hole in this, -towards the upper part of its cavity (with a proper angle) to receive -a long wooden pipe, which we fixed therein, to descend to the tub in -which the worm should be placed. Here again I was at a loss; for we -had no lead pipe, nor any sheet-lead, on board. I thought, if I could -contrive a strait pipe to go thro’ a large cask of cold water, it might -answer the end of a worm. We then cut a pewter dish, and made a pipe -two feet long; and at three or four trials (for we did not let a little -discourage us) we made it quite tight. We bored a hole thro’ a cask, -with a proper descent, in which we fixed the pewter pipe, and made -both holes in the cask tight, and filled it with sea-water: the pipe -stuck without the cask three inches on each side. Having now got my -apparatus in readiness, I put seven quarts of sea-water, and an ounce -of soap, into my pot, and set it on the fire. The cover was kept from -rising by a prop of wood to the bow. We fixed on the head, and into it -the long wooden pipe above-mentioned, which was wide enough to receive -the end of the pewter one into its cavity. We easily made the joint -tight. - -I need not tell thee with what anxiety I waited for success: but I -was soon relieved; for, as soon as the pot boiled, the water began -to run; and in twenty-eight minutes I got a quart of fresh water. I -tried it with an hydrometer I had on board, and found it as light as -river-water; but it had a rank oily taste, which I imagine was given it -by the soap. This taste diminished considerably in two or three days, -but not so much as to make it quite palateable. Our sheep and fowls -drank this water very greedily without any ill effects. We constantly -kept our still at work, and got a gallon of water every two hours; -which, if there had been a necessity to drink it, would have been -sufficient for our ship’s crew. - -I now thought of trying to get water more palateable; and often perused -the pamphlet above-mentioned, especially the quotation from Sir R. -Hawkins’s voyage, who “with four billets distilled a hogshead of water -wholsome and nourishing.” I concluded he had delivered this account -under a veil, lest his method should be discovered: for it is plain, -that by four billets he could not mean the fuel, as they would scarce -_warm_ a hogshead of water. When, ruminating on this, it came into my -head, that he burnt his four billets to ashes, and with the mixture -of those ashes with sea-water he distilled a hogshead of fresh water -wholsome and nourishing. Pleased with this discovery, I cut a billet -small, and burnt it to ashes; and after cleaning my pot, I put into -it a spoonful of those ashes, with the usual quantity of sea-water. -The result answered my expectations: the water came off bright and -transparent, with an agreeable pungent taste, which at first I thought -was occasioned by the ashes, but afterwards was convinced it received -it from the resin or turpentine in the pot, or pipes annexed to it. -I was now relieved from my fears of being distressed thro’ want of -water; yet thought it necessary to advise my people not to be too free -in the use of this, whilst we had any of our old stock remaining; and -told them, I would make the experiment first myself; which I did, by -drinking a few glasses every day without any ill effect whatever. This -water was equally light with the other, and lathered very well with -soap. We had expended our old stock of water before we reached England; -but had reserved a good quantity of that which we distilled. After my -arrival at Shields, I invited several of my acquaintance on board to -taste the water: they drank several glasses, and thought it nothing -inferior to spring-water. I made them a bowl of punch of it, which was -highly commended. - -I have not the convenience of a still here, or should have repeated the -experiment for the conviction of some of my friends: for as to myself, -I am firmly persuaded, that wood-ashes mixed with sea-water will yield, -when distilled, as good fresh water as can be wished for. And I think, -if every ship bound a long voyage was to take a small still with Dr. -Hales’s improvements, they need never want fresh water. Wood-ashes -may easily be made, whilst there is any wood in the ship; and the -extraordinary expence of fuel will be trifling, if they contrive so -that the still may stand on the fire along with the ship’s boiler. - -I shall think myself sufficiently recompensed, if any hints here may -tend to the relief of my brother sailors from the dismal extremity of -want of water; an extremity too little regarded by those, who have -never experienced it. - - _P. S._ During my passage from Russia we very rarely had any _aurora - borealis_; and those few we saw were faint, and of short continuance: - at which I was much surprised; for about ten years ago, being in a - high north latitude, we had very beautiful ones almost every night in - the month of September; which exceeded any I have seen described in - the _Philosophical Transactions_, or _Memoires de l’Academie Royale_. - - Wm. Chapman. - - - - -LXXXVIII. _Observatio Eclipsis Lunaris facta_ Matriti _a Pª._ Joanne -Wendlingen, _Societatis_ Jesu, _in Regali Observatorio Collegii -Imperialis ejusdem Societatis, Die_ 30 Julii 1757. - - _Quælibet observatio bis instituta fuit, semel interjecto oculum - inter lentemque ocularem vitri clari, cærulei, plani, ac bene tersi, - fragmento. Hæ observationes notantur hac voce_ cerul. _Telescopium, - quo usus sum, est_ Gregorianum _trium pedum_ Anglicanorum, _omnino - præclarum_. - -_Communicated by_ Matthew Maty, _M. D. F.R.S._ - -[Read April 20, 1758.] - - IMMERSIONES. |Tempus verum| Differentia - | h ´ ´´ | - PRincipium eclipsis, _clar._ | 9 47 34 | - Mare Humorum, _clar._ | -- 52 47 | - { _cær._ | -- 54 28 | ´´ - Grimaldus { _clar._| -- 55 27 | ---- 59 - {_cær._ | 10 1 21 | ---- 13 - Bullialdus {---- | 10 1 34 | - {---- | -- 9 35 | ---- 10 - Keplerus {---- | -- 9 45 | - {---- | -- 16 15 | ---- 12 - Copernicus {---- | -- 16 28 | - {---- | -- 18 14 | ---- 10 - Heraclides {---- | -- 18 24 | - - Manilius {_clar._ | 10 30 43 | ´´ - {_cær._ | 10 30 54 | ---- 11 - Menelaus {---- | -- 34 11 | ---- 9 - {---- | -- 34 20 | - Promontorium {---- | -- 44 49 | ---- 9 - {---- | -- 44 58 | - Mare Crisium {---- | -- 45 33 | ---- 11 - {---- | -- 45 44 | - Proclus, _clar._ | -- 46 54 | - {---- | -- 54 48 | ---- 14 - Plato {---- | -- 55 2 | - {---- | 11 7 3 | - Langrenus {---- | 11 7 23 | ---- 20 - - EMERSIONES. |Tempus verum| Differentia - | h ´ ´´ | - Plato {_clar._ | 11 40 34 | ´´ - {_cær._ | 11 40 48 | ---- 14 - Heraclides {---- | -- 41 27 | ---- 12 - {---- | -- 41 39 | - Grimaldus {---- | -- 47 57 | ---- 7 - {---- | -- 48 4 | - Keplerus {---- | -- 52 58 | ---- 10 - {---- | -- 53 8 | - Copernicus {---- | 12 1 36 | ---- 12 - {---- | 12 1 48 | - Menelaus {---- | -- 17 18 | ---- 10 - {---- | -- 17 28 | - Finis eclipseos, _clar._ | -- 52 15 | - - -_Observatio Eclipsis Lunaris, facta ab eodem, eodem modo, eodem loco, -iisdemque instrumentis Die_ 24 Januar. _Anni_ 1758. - -_Ab hora 5ᵗᵃ usque ad finem observationis tantum commovebatur -imprægnata plurimum vaporibus athmosphæra, ut tota lunæ illuminatæ -portio præter morem undulare videretur. Flabat boreas, indicante -thermometro Reaumuriano. 1. grandem infra aquæ congelationem._ - - IMMERSIONES. |Tempus verum| Differentia - | h ´ ´´ | - Principium | 4 7 42 | ´´ - Grimaldus {_cær._ | -- 9 55 | ---- 38 - {_clar._ | -- 10 33 | - Aristarchus {---- | -- 15 37 | ---- 34 - {---- | -- 16 11 | - Mare Humorum {---- | -- 20 48 | ---- 24 - {---- | -- 21 12 | - Copernicus {---- | -- 26 45 | ---- 13 - {---- | -- 26 58 | - Plato {---- | -- 35 41 | ---- 41 - {---- | -- 36 22 | - Tycho {---- | -- 39 31 | ---- 38 - {---- | -- 40 9 | - Menelaus {---- | -- 45 43 | ---- 39 - {---- | -- 46 22 | - Plinius {---- | -- 50 17 | ---- 27 - {---- | -- 50 44 | - Promontorium Somni {---- | -- 58 15 | ---- 27 - {---- | -- 58 42 | - Cleomedes {---- | 5 0 22 | ---- 14 - {---- | 5 0 36 | - - Proclus {_cær._ | 5 2 9 | - {_clar._ | 5 2 15 | ---- 6 - Princip. Maris Crisii {---- | -- 3 6 | ---- 25 - {---- | -- 3 31 | - Langrenus {---- | -- 7 40 | ---- 14 - {---- | -- 7 54 | - Immers. tot. Maris Crisii {---- | -- 8 19 | ---- 11 - {---- | -- 8 30 | - Immersio totalis Lunæ {---- | -- 12 50 | ---- 40 - {---- | -- 13 30 | - -In fine cœlum serenum, & athmosphæra quieta. - - -REFLEXIO. - -Notabilis appulsus umbræ terrestris ad faculas maculasque lunares -differentia, dum partim vitro colore cæruleo tincto, partim absque -eo, observationes instituuntur, inventa a Dº. de Barros, & tum in -observatorio Parisino tum alibi sæpius confirmata, ad me duplicem -hanc lunæ eclipsim, ea qua vel licuit circumspectione, instituendam -determinavit, spe fretus; me phænomeni hujus causas, si non veras, -veritati saltem proximas, inventurum; unde in tempore de vitris planis -bene tersis, diametri mediæ lineæ, partim colore cæruleo claro, partim -flavo tinctis mihi provideram, his tamen ultimis uti non licuit ob -nimiam umbræ penumbræque confusionem. - -Interjecto oculum inter, lentemque ocularem vitri cærulei fragmento, -sequentia observavi. 1. Umbra terrestris in immersione citius maculam -aut faculam lunarem attigit, & in emersione tardius deseruit, quam dum -absque eo observationem institui. 2. Claritas lunæ, alioquin offendens -oculum, suavior apparebat. 3. Limites umbræ perfecte terminabantur -excepta secunda eclipsi, in qua (flante borea) ab hora quinta -illuminata lunæ pars undulare videbatur. - -Suppositis his phænomenis, uti et athmosphæra lunari, de qua vix -dubio locus, sequentia intuli: 1. Quo densior dicta athmosphæra -fuerit, major radiorum portio ab hac in immersam umbræ terrestri lunæ -portionem, limitibus saltem proximam, reflectetur, eosque reddet -dubios, quod quidem contingit, dum absque adminiculo per nudum -telescopium observatio instituitur, secus vero dum oculum inter, -lentemque ocularem, vitrum cæruleo colore tinctum interjicitur. Addito -secundo, ac tertio phænomeno, nempe per vitrum cæruleum lumen multum -apparere suavius, infertur, si color cæruleus sufficit ad mitigandam -tantopere eam lunæ illuminatæ portionem, quæ extra omnem umbram -conspicitur, quanto magis sufficit, ad tollendam omnem claritatem, quæ -ab athmosphæra lunari in hoc corpus reflectitur? & ecce tibi secundam -illationem, nempe limites umbræ facilius determinari. 3. Diametrum -umbræ majorem videri debere, & vel ideo immersiones macularum aut -facularum lunarium citius, emersiones vero tardius succedere debere; -quæ quidem omnia cum observationibus congruunt. - -Dixi in prima illatione, reflecti aliquam luminis portionem a lunæ -athmosphæra in ipsam eclipsatam corporis hujus portionem, non secus, -ac in globo hoc terraqeno accidit, qui post solis occasum aliquo adhuc -tempore illuminatur. Hæc lucis reflexio tanto erit major, quanto -athmosphæra fuerit densior, & quia supponere licat, hanc in luna non -semper esse æqualem, infertur, differentiam temporis appulsus umbræ non -in omni eclipsi lunari posse esse æqualem, quod demum convenire videtur -duplici meæ observationi, ut ex adnotatis temporum differentiis liquet. -Hæc mea est circa propositum phænomenon opinandi ratio. - - - - -LXXXIX. _Observations upon a slight Earthquake, tho’ very particular, -which may lead to the Knowlege of the Cause of great and violent ones, -that ravage whole Countries, and overturn Cities. By_ John Andrew -Peyssonel, _M. D. F.R.S. Translated from the_ French. - -[Read April. 20, 1758.] - -I Went to make my observations upon the natural history of the sea; -and when I arrived at a place called the Cauldrons of Lance Caraibe, -near Lancebertrand, a part of the island of Grande Terre Guadaloupe, -in which place the coast runs north-east and south-west, the sea being -much agitated that day flowed from the north-west. There the coast is -furnished with hollow rocks, and vaults underneath, with chinks and -crevices: and the sea, pushed into these deep caverns by the force -and agitation of the waves, compresses the air, which, recovering its -spring, forces the water back in the form of the most magnificent -fountains; which cease, and begin again at every great pressure. This -phænomenon is common to many places in this island. The explanation of -it is easy; but the following is what I particularly observed. - -As I walked within about forty paces from the brink of the sea, where -the waves broke, I perceived, in one place, the plants were much -agitated by some cause, that was not yet apparent. I drew near, and -discovered a hole about six feet deep, and half a foot diameter; -and stopping to consider it, I perceived the earth tremble under my -feet. This increased my attention; and I heard a dull kind of noise -underground, like that which precedes common earthquakes; which I have -observed many a time. It was followed by a quivering of the earth; and -after this a wind issued out of the hole, which agitated the plants -round about. I watched to see whether the motion extended to any -distance; but was sensible it did not reach above three or four paces -from the hole, and that no motion was perceived farther off. - -I further observed, that this phænomenon never happens till after the -seventh wave rolls in; for it is a common thing in this country to find -the sea appear calm for some time, and then to produce seven waves, -which break upon the coast one after another: the first is not very -considerable; the second is somewhat stronger; and thus they go on -increasing to the seventh, after which the sea grows calm again, and -retires. This phænomenon of the seven waves is observed by navigators -with great attention, especially at low water, in order to be the -better able to go in or come out at the very time that the sea grows -quiet. These seven waves successively fill the caverns, which are all -along the coast; and when the seventh comes to open itself, the air -at the bottom of the caverns being greatly compressed, acted by its -elasticity, and immediately made those fountains and gushings I have -mentioned; and the waters continuing in the caverns, up to the very -place of the hole, began to produce that dull noise, caused the emotion -or earthquake, and finished with the violent wind forced up thro’ the -hole; after which the water retired into the sea, and having no further -impelling cause, on account of the waves, rendered every thing quiet -again. - -I observed, that this phænomenon happened at no limited time, but -according to the approach of the waves, being strongly put in motion -after the seventh. I remained near half an hour to observe it; and -nearly followed the course of the cavern to its entrance, directed by -the disposition of the coast. I made my negroes go down where the water -broke; for they doubted the report of the greatness of these caverns; -and when the sea was calm one of them ventured in, but returned very -quickly, or he must have perished. Therefore I conclude, that these -small earthquakes round the hole, about forty paces from the wave, were -only caused by the compressed air in some great vault about this place, -and that by its force was driven up the hole that appeared: that this -air in the caverns, compressed to a certain degree, first caused the -dull noise, by the rolling of the waters, which resisted in the cavern; -then acting more violently, caused the small earthquake, which ceased -when the wind passed out of the hole, and that the sea retired, and -gave liberty to the air, which was contained and compressed. - -Such are the observations I have made; from which the learned, who are -endeavouring to find the cause of earthquakes, since that dreadful one, -which destroyed the city of Lisbon, may make such conclusions as they -shall think proper. - -At Guadaloupe, Jan. 6. 1757. - - Peyssonel. - - - - -XC. _A Catalogue of the_ Fifty Plants _from_ Chelsea Garden, _presented -to the_ Royal Society _by the worshipful Company of Apothecaries, for -the Year 1757, pursuant to the Direction of Sir_ Hans Sloane, _Baronet, -Med. Reg. & Soc. Reg. nuper Præses, by_ John Wilmer, _M. D. clariss. -Societatis Pharmaceut._ Lond. _Socius, Hort._ Chelsean. _Præfectus & -Prælector Botanic._ - -[Read April 20, 1758.] - - 1751 ALlium sylvestre latifolium. C. B. P. 74. - Allium ursin. bifolium vernum sylvatic. J. B. 2. 565. - 1752 Anacampseros flavo flore Amman. Ruth. 96. - 1753 Anchusa strigosa, foliis linearibus dentatis, pedicellis - bractea minoribus, calycibus fructiferis inflatis. - Lefl. Linn. Sp. Plant. 133. - 1754 Asplenium sive Ceterach. J. B. 3. 749. Offic. 121. - 1755 Bidens calyce oblongo squamoso, feminibus radii corolla non - decidua coronatis, Miller. Icon. - 1756 Cactus repens decemangularis Lin. Sp. Pl. 467. - 1757 Cerasus pumila Canadensis, oblongo angusto folio, fructu parvo, - Du Hamel. Mill. Icons. - 1758 Ceratocarpus Amæn. Acad. 1. p. 412. Hort. Ups. 281. - 1759 Cotula flore luteo, radiato. Tourn. 495. Buphthalmum Cotulæ - folio C. B. P. 134. - 1760 Cracca minor Rivini. Vicia segetum cum filiquis plurimis - hirsutis C. B. P. 345. - 1761 Cucubalus calycibus subglobosis glabris reticulato-venosis, - capsulis trilocularibus, corollis subnudis, Flor. suec. 360. - 1762 Cucubalus calycibus subglobosis, caule ramoso patulo, foliis - linearibus acutis, Mill. Dict. - Lychnis sylvestris quæ Been album vulgo, foliis - angustioribus et acutioribus C. B. P. 205. - 1763 Cunonia floribus sessilibus, spathis maximis. - Butner Cunonia, tab. 1. - 1764 Cupressus foliis imbricatis frondibus ancipitibus. Linn. Spec. - Plant. 1003. - Cupressus nana Mariana fructu cæruleo parvo. Pluk. Mantiss. 61. - 1765 Cyclamen Hederæ folio C. B. P. 308. Offic. 162. - 1766 Diosma foliis lineari-lanceolatis subtus convexis, bifariam - imbricatis. Linn. Sp. Plant. 198. - 1767 Euonymoides Canadensis Saraz. Boerh. Ind. Alt. 237. - 1768 Filipendula foliis ternatis Hort. Cliff. 191. - 1769 Filipendula vulgaris, an Molon Plinii C. B. 163. Offic. 197. - 1770 Heliotropium foliis ovato-lanceolatis, spicis plurimis - confertis, caule fruticoso. Miller’s Icons. - 1771 Hieracium fruticosum latifolium hirsutum C. B. P. 129. - 1772 Hyoscyamus rubello flore. C. B. P. 169. - Hyoscyamus Syriacus. Cam. Icon. 21. J. B. 3. 628. - 1773 Hypericum floribus monogynis staminibus corolla longioribus, - calycibus coloratis caule fruticoso. Miller’s Icons. - 1774 Hypericum floribus trigynis, calycibus acutis, staminibus - corolla brevioribus, caule fruticoso. Linn. Hort. Cliff. 380. - Miller’s Icons. - 1775 Iris corollis barbatis, germinibus trigonis, foliis ensiformibus - longissimis, caule foliis longiore bifloro. Miller’s Icons. - 1776 Isatis sativa, sive latifolia. C. B. P. 113. Glastum sativum. J. - B. 2. 909. - 1777 Juniperus vulgaris fruticosa C. B. 488. Off. 252. - 1778 Ixia foliis gladiolatis linearibus caule bulbifero. - Miller’s Icons. - 1779 Ixia foliis gladiolatis glabris, floribus corymbosis - terminalibus. Miller’s Icons. - 1780 Larix C. B. 493. Officin. 264. - 1781 Laserpitium foliis amplioribus, semine crispo. Tourn. 324. - 1782 Linum calycibus capsulisque obtusis. _Sibirian Flax._ Miller’s - Icons. - 1783 Liriodendrum. Hort. Cliff. 223. - Tulipifera arbor Virginiana. Hort. Lugd. Bat. 612. - 1784 Oenanthe Apii folio C. B. P. 162. - 1785 Passerina foliis linearibus. Hort. Cliff. 146. Sp. 1. - 1786 Platanus Orientalis verus. Park. 1427. - 1787 Platanus Occidentalis aut Virginiensis. Park. 1427. - 1788 Platanus Orientalis Aceris folio. T. Cor. 41. - 1789 Prenanthes foliis integris serratis scabris, radice repente, - flore purpureo cæruleo. Mill. Dict. - 1790 Ruta sylvestris linifolia; Hispanica Boccon. Barrel Icon. 1186 - H. Mus. p. 2. 82. tab. 73. - 1791 Saxifraga muscosa; trifido folio. Tourn. - 1792 Scabiosa Virgæ Pastoris folio. C. B. P. 270. - Scabiosa latifolia peregrina. Tabern. Icon. 160. - 1793 Thalictrum majus, siliqua angulosa aut striata, C. B. P. 336. - 1794 Thalictrum majus non striatum. C. B. P. 336. - 1795 Thalictrum Canadense majus caulibus viridantibus. Boerhaav. - 1796 Thalictrum Alpinum Aquilegiæ foliis. Tourn. - 1797 Thalictrum minus Asphodeli radice magno flore. Tourn. 271. - 1798 Thuya strobilis squarrosis squamis acuminatis reflexis. Hort. - Upsal. 289. - 1799 Tordylium Narbonense minus. Tourn. 320. - 1800 Tridax. Hort. Cliff. 418. After American. procumbens, foliis - laciniatis et hirsutis. Houston. - - - - -XCI. _An Historical Memoir concerning a Genus of Plants called_ Lichen, -_by_ Micheli, Haller, _and_ Linnæus; _and comprehended by_ Dillenius -_under the Terms_ Usnea, Coralloides, _and_ Lichenoides: _Tending -principally to illustrate their several Uses. Communicated by_ Wm. -Watson, _M. D. F.R.S._ - - ----_Natura nihil frustra creaverit, posteros tamen tot inventuros - utilitates ex_ Muscis _auguror, quot ex reliquis vegetabilibus_. - - Cui bono? Amæn. Acad. III. p. 241. - -[Read Apr. 27 & May 4, 1758.] - -THE whole class of mosses were taken but very little notice of by -the revivers of botany in the sixteenth century: they indeed took -some pains to distinguish the particular species that the ancients -had mentioned, but disregarded almost all the rest. Modern botanists -however suppose, that they were but little successful in general in -their application of the ancient names to plants: nor is a failure in -such attempts to be wondered at, considering the too great conciseness, -and frequent obscurity, of their descriptions. In the class of mosses, -as in many others, the accounts transmitted to us are little more than -a scene of uncertainty and confusion. - -It is to the moderns we are indebted for the discovery of the far -greater number of the plants of this class. In this branch of -botany our own countrymen Mr. Ray, Buddle, Dale, Doody, Petiver, and -Dr. Morison, Sherard, Richardson, and others, have distinguished -themselves: and amongst foreigners M. Vaillant, Sig. Micheli, and -the very eminent Dr. Haller: but, beyond all, the late learned and -indefatigable professor at Oxford, Dr. Dillenius, has herein made the -most ample discoveries and improvements, of which his elaborate history -will ever remain a standing proof. - -The word _lichen_ occurs in the writings of Dioscorides and Pliny; -and tho’ it may be doubtful, there is nevertheless good reason to -apprehend, that Dioscorides meant to describe under that name the very -plant, or at least one of the same genus, to which the commentators -agreed to affix his description. Since then the name has been variously -applied by different authors; on which account it is necessary to -premise, that the _lichen sive hepatica Off._ or liverwort of the -shops, does not fall under this generical term, as it is now formed by -the three above-named authors. They comprehend under the term _Lichen_, -and Dillenius under those of _Usnea_, _Coralloides_, and _Lichenoides_, -the hairy tree-moss or _usnea_ of the shops; the _muscus pulmonarius_, -tree-lungwort, or oak-lungs; the _lichen terrestris cinereus_, or -ash-coloured ground liverwort; the coralline-mosses; the cup-mosses; -horned mosses; the _orchel_, or Canary-weed; the _muscus islandicus_ of -Bartholine; and a multitude of others found upon trees, walls, rocks, -and stones, in all parts of the world, and in many parts thereof in -very great abundance. - -Caspar Bauhine in his _Pinax_, John Bauhine, and countrymen Gerard -and Parkinson, and their cotemporaries, as they wrote before the time -that generical characters in botany were in use, included these lichens -among the other herbaceous mosses, under the general name of _muscus_; -adding to the name in general some epithet descriptive of its form, -place of growth, or supposed virtue. - -Mr. Ray, both in his History of Plants, and in the Supplement, as -he was usually averse to the forming of new names, has interspersed -them among other mosses, under the character of _musci steriles seu -aspermi_, retaining the synonyms of the two Bauhines, Gerard, and -Parkinson, to the general species. - -Dr. Morison seems to have been the first, who separated them intirely -from the herbaceous mosses; and, from the analogy he supposed they had -with the fungus tribe, formed them into a genus, under the name of -_musco-fungus_. He enumerates fifty species and upwards under this term -in the _Historia Oxoniensis_, and has divided them into five orders, -according to their different appearances, as follows: - - 1. _Musco-fungi e terra prominentes, latiores._ 5. - 2. _Musco-fungi pixidati._ 11. - 3. _Musco-fungi corniculati._ 26. - 4. _Musco-fungi crustæ modo adnascentes._ 37. - 5. _Musco-fungi corticibus arborum dependentes._ 53. - -Table the 7th of his 15th section exhibits several good figures of some -of these lichens. - -Tournefort was the first, who adapted the generical term _lichen_ to -them; but it was in consequence of his joining them to the lichen -of the shops. He has however excluded the coralline-mosses, and -forms them into a genus, by the name of _coralloides_; to which he -has connected some plants, properly of the fungus tribe. In this -distinction he is followed by Dr. Boerhaave in his _Index alter -Plantarum_. - -Dr. Dillenius first called them _lichenoides_, in the catalogue of -plants growing about Giessen, chusing to retain the word _lichen_ to -the liverwort of the shops. Under this name however, in this work, he -does not comprehend the _usneæ_, or hairy tree-mosses, but refers them -to the _conservæ_, adding the epithet _arborea_ to each species, to -distinguish them from the water kinds. He enumerates upwards of sixty -species of _lichenoides_, but has applied few or no synonyms to them. - -Under the same generic term he has introduced them into the third -edition of Ray’s Synopsis of British Plants, taking in the _usneæ_, and -recounting upwards of ninety species, all found spontaneously growing -in England. Many of these are undoubtedly only varieties. They are in -this work very naturally divided into several orders and subdivisions, -for the greater ease of distinguishing them, as follows: - -_Lichenoides_ - - _caulifera_ - 1. _Capillacea et non tubulosa scutellata._ - 2. _Coralliformia tuberculosa plerumque._ - a. _Solida et non tubulosa._ - b. _Tubulosa._ - 3. _Pyxidata._ - 4. _Fungiformia._ - - _cauliculis destituta_ - 1. _Mere crustacea._ - 2. _Crusta foliosa scutellata seu foliis scutellatis arcte - adnascentibus_ - - a. _Substantiæ gelatinosæ._ - b. _Substantiæ durioris._ - 3. _Foliis magis liberis nec tam arcte adnascentibus_ - a. _Scutellatis et tuberculatis._ - b. _Peltatis._ - -M. Vaillant, in the _Botanicon Parisiense_, retains Tournefort’s -names. Many of these lichens, as well as other mosses, are accurately -represented in the elegant tables, which adorn that work. Dr. Haller -tells us he learnt to distinguish almost all the mosses solely by the -help of these tables, so well are they expressed. The lovers of botanic -science are greatly indebted to Boerhaave for his publication of that -work. - -Micheli, after Tournefort, adopts the term _lichen_, and comprehends -all the species under it, except one or two, which he calls -_lichenoides_. This author however does not take into this genus the -liverwort of the _materia medica_; he describes the species of that -genus under the name of _marchantiæ_. Near twenty of the plates in his -_Nova Plantarum Genera_ are taken up in representing various species -of this genus. In this work they are divided into thirty-eight orders -or subdivisions; a circumstance very necessary indeed, considering -how greatly he has multiplied the number of the species. It is to -be regretted, that so indefatigable an author, one whose genius -particularly led him to scrutinize the minuter subjects of the science, -should have been so solicitous to increase the number of species under -all his genera: an error this, which tends to great confusion and -embarassment, and must retard the progress and real improvement of the -botanic science. - -Dr. Haller retains Micheli’s term, and enumerates 160 kinds in his -_Enumeratio Stirpium Helvetiæ_: he divides them into seven orders, -according to the following titles: - - 1. _Lichenes corniculati & pixidati._ - 2. _Lichenes coralloidei._ - 3. _Lichenes fruticosi alii._ - 4. _Lichenes pulmonarii._ - 5. _Lichenes crustacei scutis floralibus ornati._ - 6. _Lichenes scutellis ornati._ - 7. _Lichenes crustacei non scutati._ - -The extensive number of the species, and the difficulty of -distinguishing them with a tolerable degree of certainty, has deterred -Dr. Haller from adding so full and complete a list of synonyms to the -plants of this genus as he has elsewhere done in that splendid work. -Plate the 2d exhibits several elegant sorts of these lichens. - -Linnæus, and the followers of his method, who seem to have established -their generical character from Micheli’s discoveries, retain also his -generical title. Micheli’s passion for the multiplication of species -is no-where more conspicuous than in the plants of this genus, which -he has most enormously augmented to the number of 298 species. The -Swedish professor cannot be charged with this foible: it is one of the -excellencies of his writings, that they inculcate the reverse. He has -so far retrenched this genus, that in his general enumeration of plants -he recounts only eighty species belonging to it. They are in this work -divided into eight orders, according to the difference of appearance -which they form by their _facies externa_, little or no regard being -had to what are usually called the parts of fructification. - - 1. _Lichenes leprosi tuberculati._ - 2. _Lichenes leprosi scutellati._ - 3. _Lichenes imbricati._ - 4. _Lichenes foliacei._ - 5. _Lichenes coriacei._ - 6. _Lichenes scyphiferi._ - 7. _Lichenes fructiculosi._ - 8. _Lichenes filamentosi._ - -Dr. Dillenius, in his most elaborate work, intituled, _Historia -Muscorum_, has divided this Michelian genus into three, under the names -of _usnea_, _coralloides_, and _lichenoides_. Under the word _usnea_ -he comprehends the hairy tree-mosses, among which are the _usnea_ of -the shops, and the true _usnea_ of the Arabians. Of these he describes -sixteen species. Under _coralloides_ he describes thirty-nine species, -among which are the cup-mosses, and many others, disposed according to -the following scheme: - -Ordo I. _Fungiformia, non tubulosa, nec ramosa._ 5. - -Ordo II. _Scyphiformia, tubulosa, simplicia et prolifera._ - - Series 1. _Scyphis perfectioribus._ 13. Cup-mosses. - Series 2. _Scyphis imperfectis._ 20. Horned mosses. - -Ordo III. _Ramosa fruticuli specie summitatibus acutis multifariam -divisis._ - - Series 1. _Species tubulosæ._ 30. Tubulous coralline mosses. - Series 2. _Species solidæ._ 39. Solid coralline mosses; among which is - the _orchel_. - -The genus of _lichenoides_ contains 135 species, disposed according to -the following scheme: - - Ordo I. _Species aphyllæ mere crustaceæ._ {1. _Tuberculosæ._ 8. - {2. _Scutellatæ._ 18. - - {1. _Gelatinosæ tuberculosæ et - scutellatæ._ 35. - Ordo II. _Species foliosæ._ {2. _Aridiores et exsuccæ, - scutellatæ._ 100. - {3. _Aridiores peltatæ et clypeatæ._ 121. - -These plants are not only largely described, and accompanied with the -most perfect assemblage of synonyms; but every species is accurately -figured, and many of them in various views, and at different ages of -their growth; by which this laborious work, notwithstanding it is -conversant upon the minutest, and consequently the most abstruse -parts of botany, may nevertheless be justly esteemed, without any -exaggeration, one of the most complete works extant of the kind. - -Dr. Hill, in his History of Plants, has disposed them into five -genera, under the following names: 1. _Usnea_, comprehending the hairy -tree-mosses; 2. _Platysma_, flat-branched tree-mosses, the lungwort, -and others; 3. _Cladonia_, containing the orchel and coralline-mosses; -4. _Pyxidium_, the cup-mosses; 5. _Placodium_, the crustaceous mosses. - -The plants of this extensive genus are very different in their form, -manner of growing, and general appearance: on which account those -authors, who preserve them under the same name, saw the propriety and -necessity of arranging them into different orders and subdivisions, -that the species might be distinguished with greater facility. Upon the -same principle Dr. Dillenius and Dr. Hill have formed them into several -genera. - -So far as the parts of fructification are distinguishable in these -plants, they appear in different forms upon different species: on some, -in the form of tubercles; on others, in the form of little concave -dishes, called _scutellæ_; on others, of oblong flat shields or pelts. -All these are conceived by Micheli and Linnæus to be receptacles of -male flowers. The female flowers and seeds are suspected by the same -authors to be dispersed in the form of farina or dust upon the same -plants, and in some instances on separate ones. Dillenius has not -dared to determine any thing positively with regard to the real parts -of fructification in these lichens: time will hereafter, it is to be -hoped, throw more light upon the subject. - -In order to convey a more distinct idea of the several plants of this -genus, which enter into œconomical or medical uses in the various parts -of the world, we shall distribute them into several orders, according -to the custom of former writers: and as is not consistent with our plan -to describe each of these species, we shall refer to the page of the -more modern authors, where they may be found. - - -1. Lichenes filamentosi. - -_Such as consist of mere solid filaments, of a firm and solid but -flexible texture, having the appearance of fructification in the -form of_ scutellæ, _or flat round bodies growing from the sides or -extremities of these filaments_. - -This order or division comprehends the hairy tree-mosses, or _usnea_ -of Dillenius and Hill; several of the species of the fifth order of -lichens of Micheli; and the _lichenes filamentosi_ of Linnæus. - -Dr. Dillenius describes sixteen species under the term _usnea_, several -of which are found in England, tho’ some of them, as the common _usnea_ -of the shops, but very sparingly, and none of them in any considerable -plenty. The thick woods in many other parts of Europe, and the rest of -the globe, afford them in great plenty. They hang from the branches of -various kinds of trees, like large tufts of hair, to a considerable -length: some species grow several feet long. The rocks on the tops -of high mountains afford several kinds. They are of various colours; -some whitish, ash-coloured, others grey or blackish, and two or three -species have a yellow or orange hue. - -The commentators in general agreed in making the _bryon_ of[65] -Dioscorides one of these hairy tree-mosses, which they called _usnea_. -No wonder, therefore, that at the restoration of letters it became a -matter of controversy, which of them was the _usnea_ of the ancients. -Dioscorides recommends his as an astringent; and tells us, that -“the best grew upon the cedar; but that from whatever tree it was -gathered, the whitest and most fragrant was preferable to the black.” -The several _usneæ_ would undoubtedly in different countries be found -upon different trees. In Italy, that of the larch-tree was the most -odoriferous; and on that account Matthiolus[66] preferred it to all -others. That kind, which at length obtained a place in the shops as the -_usnea_ of the ancients, was a species commonly found in our countries -on old oaks and other trees, and is called by Dillenius[67] stringy -tree-moss, or _usnea_ of the shops. Many excellent virtues have been -ascribed to it, on a supposition of its being the true _usnea_; but it -does not appear to have deserved them: and the present practice, at -least in England, has quite expunged it, and that perhaps very justly. - -Dr. Dillenius is evidently of opinion however, that this common -_usnea_, tho’ it obtained a place in the shops as such, is not the -_bryon_ of Dioscorides and Pliny, or the _phaseon_ of Theophrastus, -since he has applied these names from those fathers of botany to -another species, which he calls the _beard usnea_[68]. Nor does either -of these species appear to be the true _usnea_ of the Arabians, -whatever title they may seem to have to it, either from their colour -or smell. Bellonius, as he is quoted by Dr. Dillenius, tells us, “that -the true _usnea_, or _bryon_, as he calls it, is sold at Constantinople -under the name of _usnech_; and tells us we are deceived in believing -ours to be the true _usnea_.” Dillenius has therefore described another -species[69], which he received from the East Indies, from Madagascar, -and St. Helen’s, as the _Usnea Arabum_. This plant the Indians call -_saliaga_; and Camelli assures us, that, while fresh, it has a very -fragrant musk-smell. He adds, that he had himself experienced what -Serapio says of it; _viz._ that a vinous infusion of it restrains -fluxes, stops vomiting, strengthens the stomach, and induces sleep. - -The common _usnea_ of the shops was said to be the basis of that fine -perfumed powder, which the French called _corps de cypre gris_, and -which formerly made a great article of trade at Montpelier. Dr. Brown -hints[70], that the perfumers use it still; but he does not add, where. -John Bauhine gives us the whole process[71] for making that power, -which was vended in great quantities to all parts of France. It is -nevertheless true, that other of the lichens had as great a share in -the competition as the _usnea_; as the demand for that powder could -not have been answered, if the makers had confined themselves to the -_usnea_ alone. It was necessary too, inasmuch as other species are -equally well adapted to the same uses[72]. - -This _usnea_ is abundantly plentiful in the woods of Lapland; and -Linnæus[73] relates, that the inhabitants apply it to their feet, -when they are sore and excoriated with much walking. The benefit they -receive from it in this case is undoubtedly owing to its styptic -quality, which is remarked by Matthiolus, and by Mr. Ray[74] from the -German Ephemerides. - -The _beard usnea_ before mentioned, which is abundantly common upon -the trees both in the northern regions of Europe and America, as well -as in the eastern kingdoms, and is described by Mr. Ray as hanging -to the length of two feet, the filaments of which are not thicker -than a common thread, and of a greenish white colour, is used by -the inhabitants of Pensylvania to dye an orange colour with. This -information Dillenius received from Mr. Bartram. - -The black _mane usnea_, which grows in vast quantities in the Lapland -woods, in a defect of the common coralline moss makes part of the -fodder, and is equally acceptable to the rein-deer in the winter -time[75]. - -The long beaded _usnea_, or necklace-moss[76], enters into the -like œconomical uses in Virginia, where it is very plentiful. The -inhabitants find it a very agreeable fodder in the winter season to -both sheep and cows[77]. - -The Norwegians appropriate one of these _usnea_ to a singular use. -Pontoppidan tells us[78], “they have a certain kind of yellow moss -hanging on the branches of trees of the firs and pines, which is very -venomous, yet applied to a necessary use; for being mixed in pottage, -or with flesh, as a bait for the wolves, they infallibly die of it.” -That the species here referred to is the brass-wired _usnea_ of -Dillenius[79], or the _lichen vulpinus_ of Linnæus, cannot be doubted, -since this last author mentions[80] the same application of it with -very little variation. In England it is very rare; in Sweden plentiful, -especially in the province of Smoland, where the natives dye woollen -goods yellow with it. - -John Bauhine describes a very beautiful species, under the name of -_laricus muscus_[81], which gives a very elegant citron colour upon -chewing, or upon maceration in water. Dillenius is doubtful, whether -this is what he has described under the name of the orange-coloured -forked _usnea_[82]. - -We may here observe by the bye, that the _usnea cranii humani_, which -thro’ the influence of superstition formerly obtained a place in the -catalogues of the _materia medica_, does not belong to this division -of the lichens. The writers of those times distinguished two kinds of -_usnea humana_, under the names of _crustacea_ and _villosa_. Any of -the crustaceous lichens, but more properly the common grey-blue pitted -_lichenoides_ of Dillenius, was used for the former of these; and, as -Dale tells us, was held in most esteem. The _villosa_ was a species of -the genus of _hypnum_. Indeed it does not appear, that they were in -those days very curious in determining the exact kind; and doubtless -any moss, which happened to grow upon an human skull, was sufficient -for the purposes designed. - - -2. Lichenes fruticulosi. - -_Such as consist of a tough flexible matter, formed into ramifications, -in some species almost simple, in others resembling small shrubs: in -some of the species the branches are quite solid, in others tubular._ - -This order comprehends the third of Dillenius’s genus of _coralloides_; -the whole _cladonia_ of Hill; the second, and several species of the -third order of Haller’s lichens; several species of the fifth, and -the whole sixth, order of Micheli; and the _lichenes fruticulosi_ of -Linnæus. - -The plants of this genus grow principally upon the ground on heaths, -forests, and mountainous barren places; except the _orcelle_, or -Canary-weed, which is found upon the rocks on the sea-coast. - -To this division belongs the horned moss[83]. It is found with us in -rocky barren ground, and upon old walls not uncommon. It was formerly -in great credit as a pectoral; but is now quite in disrepute. - -The common branched coralline-moss[84] is one of the most useful -plants of all the tribe of lichens. It is pretty frequent with us on -our heaths, forests, and mountains. The northern regions afford it in -abundance; and there it is peculiarly and singularly useful. It is -indeed the very support and foundation of all the Lapland œconomy, and -without which the inhabitants could not sustain their rein-deer in the -winter time. Linnæus tells us[85], that Lapland affords no vegetables -in such plenty as this, and other of the lichens. Plains of several -miles extent are totally covered over with it, as if with snow; and -where no other plant will even take root, this will thrive and be -luxuriant. These dreary and inclement wastes, these _terræ damnatæ_, -as a foreigner would readily call them; these, are the Lapland fields -and fertile pastures. On this lichen the rein-deer, those sources of -all their wealth, feed in the winter time, when it is in its most -flourishing condition, and no other vegetable is to be had: with this -too they will even become fat. The riches of the Laplanders consist in -their number of these cattle: they are cloathed with their skins, fed -with their flesh, and from their milk they make both butter and cheese. -Nature, by the inclemency of their seasons, has almost denied them -the cultivation of their earth: they neither sow nor reap; but live a -perpetual migratory life, tending their flocks of rein-deer, upon which -their whole care is centered and employed. - -The milk of the rein-deer is very remarkably fat and rich: it tastes -indeed like cow’s milk, with which some butter, and a small quantity of -fat or suet, has been intimately united. Dr. Haller[86] suspects, that -this richness of the milk is owing to the animals feeding upon this -moss. Most of the plants of this family are of an astringent quality, -which indeed they manifest to the taste. This astringency of their food -will doubtless contribute much to that effect. - -The rein-deer are not the only animals that will feed upon the -coralline moss. The Novaccolæ[87] gather vast quantities of it to -fodder their oxen with in the winter. They take the opportunity of -raking it together in the rainy seasons, when it is tough; for in dry -weather it easily crumbles into powder. This they moisten with a little -water in the winter season when they use it, and find it excellent -fodder. - -The coralline mosses are subject to great variation: and altho’ there -are several really distinct species, yet they run so into one another, -that it is no easy matter to fix upon the real specific distinctions, -in many instances. Some species are perfectly white; others have the -extremities of the branches reddish, some brown, and others almost -black. The common coralline moss in Lapland not unfrequently grows to -be several inches long, and even a foot high. - -The tubular or hollow branched coralline mosses are not the only -kinds upon which the rein-deer will feed. Almost all the lichens -are abundantly more plentiful in those northern, than in these more -southerly climates. There are several species with solid branches; one, -which Dillenius calls _The crisp warty Alpine coralloides_[88], which -is almost as plentiful as the common sort, and is equally acceptable -to those animals[89]. It was before observed, that, in defect of these -mosses, the black _mane usnea_ is a substitute equally acceptable to -those animals. - -Another of the most remarkable and useful plants of this division -is the _orchel_[90], or _argol_, as it is commonly called. This -enters more into œconomical uses among us than any other of the whole -genus. How considerable an article it forms in the dying trade, in -which its uses are various and extensive, is very well known. Its -tinging property has been known from ancient times; and some of our -most celebrated botanic writers are of opinion, that it was used as a -dye even in the days of Theophrastus. That father of botany mentions -a _fucus_, which, he says, grew upon the rocks about the island of -Crete; and that they dyed woollen garments of a purple, or rather a red -colour, with it. It grows on the rocks by the sea-coast in many parts -of the Archipelago, and in the Canary Islands; from whence we generally -import it, as well as from the Cape Verd, which afford it in plenty. -The demand for _orchel_ is so great, that Mr. Hellot[91], of the Royal -Academy of Sciences, informs us, they gather yearly, upon an average, -from the isle of Teneriffe 500 quintals, which amounts to 25 ton -weight; from the Canary Islands 400 quintals, from Forteventura 300, -from Lancerota 300, the same from Gomera, and from Ferro 800. - -The way of manufacturing the _orchel_ for the uses of dying, was for -a considerable time a secret in few hands; but it is now done in -London, and other parts of Europe, to great perfection. Mr. Ray, from -Imperatus, gives a brief account of the process[92]. Micheli has since -delivered a more exact detail of it. His, at least, seems to be the -method[93], which the dyers at Florence used. From both these accounts, -urine and pot-ash appear to be the principal ingredients used in -extracting its colour. - -Many other plants of this genus contain the same tophaceous matter as -the _orchel_; and upon trial have been found to strike a good colour. -Micheli, after he has related the preparation of the _orchel_, suggests -the same thing; and M. Hellot, in the treatise before mentioned, tells -us, there are many other mosses, which will give as good a colour as -the _orchel_. In fact, he adds, that M. Bernard de Jussieu brought him -some from the forest of Fontainbleau, which, upon experiments with -urine and lime, took a purple colour. In the sequel of this memoir we -shall point out some of these kinds. M. Hellot has given us a process, -which he made use of for discovering whether any of these lichens -would yield a red or purple colour. It is as follows: “Put about two -drachms of any of these lichens into a little glass jar: moisten it -well with equal parts of strong lime-water, and volatile spirit of _sal -ammoniac_; tie a wet bladder close over the top of the vessel, and let -it stand three or four days. At the end of this time, if the lichen -is likely to answer, that small quantity of liquor, which you will -find in the glass, will be of a deep crimson red; and the plant will -retain the same colour when the liquor is all dried up. If neither the -liquor nor the plant have taken any colour, it is needless to make any -further trials with it.” This process is simple and easy, and well -worth observation by all who are disposed to prosecute experiments of -this nature: and indeed it is worth the trial, whether several lichens, -which we have plentifully enough in England, would not answer in this -respect. - - -3. Lichenes pyxidati. - -_Such as consist of a firm tough flexible matter, formed into simple -tubular stalks, whose tops are expanded into the form of little cups._ - -This division contains the cup-mosses of authors; the second order of -_coralloides_ of Dillenius; great part of the first order of lichens in -Haller; the 7th, 8th, 9th, and 10th order in Micheli; and the _lichenes -schyphiferi_ of Linnæus. Dr. Hill has constituted a genus intirely of -these cup-mosses, under the name of _pyxidium_. - -They are common with us on heaths, and other dry and barren places. -Some of them are proliferous, even to the third degree, and form a very -beautiful appearance. Some have tubercles on the edges of the cups, of -a beautiful scarlet colour. - -The cup-moss[94] was a long time in great and established use for -coughs, and especially for the whooping cough in children; for which -it was long accounted a specific. To this end it was given in various -forms. Gerard and Parkinson recommend the powder to be taken for -several days together. Dr. Willis was particularly one of its patrons. -He has given us[95] several forms for its exhibition, as that of the -powder, a decoction, and a syrup from it. - -The present practice has quite exploded it, and very justly perhaps, as -in any degree specific in the above disorder. Nevertheless, it seems to -have sustained that character with as great a reputation, and perhaps -with as good a title to it, as almost any of the specifics of that age. -It has been observed before, on another occasion, that this tribe of -mosses have in general an astringent property; as such, the cup-mosses -are consequently of a strengthening nature: it is no wonder, therefore, -that they should be helpful in this disorder, merely as corroborants. -That they were useful in some measure can scarcely be doubted; and -our very eminent Dr. Huxham[96], in treating upon this obstinate -complaint, seems to allow this of the cup-moss in preference to other -idle specifics. Happily for us, the Peruvian bark supplies a remedy of -infinitely more use, where such analeptics are required. - -Dr. Lister, in some ingenious observations of his, printed in the -Philosophical Transactions[97], touching colours and dyes, observes, -that the scarlet heads of these mosses, upon the affusion of lye, will -strike a purple which will stand. - - -4. Lichenes crustacei. - -_Such as consist of a dry and friable matter, more or less thick, -formed into flat crusts, very closely adhering to whatever they grow -upon._ - -Some of the species of this division consist of an exceeding fine thin -crustaceous, or rather, as Micheli calls it, farinaceous matter, the -fructifications appearing in the form of tubercles. Others consist of -a thicker scabrous crust, having the fructifications in the form of -little cups, called _scutellæ_. - -This division contains the first order of the _lichenoides_ of -Dillenius; the 5th, 6th, and 7th orders of Haller’s lichens; the -_lichenes leprosi_ and _crustacei_ of Linnæus; and several of the -_placodium_ of Hill. - -The species are numerous, and most of them very common on rocks, -stones, old walls, the bark of trees, old pales, _&c._ which are -commonly covered over with them, in undisturbed places. They form a -very agreeable variety, and some of them have a very elegant appearance. - -Dr. Dillenius describes a species of this order, which he found upon -the tops of the mountains in Caernarvonshire in Wales; and which the -inhabitants told him they used as a red dye, and found it preferable -to the cork, or arcel, which they call _kenkerig_. He has intitled it, -in English, _The white tartareous scarlet-dying lichenoides_[98]. He -is of opinion, that this is the moss which Martin mentions, in his -account of the Western Islands of Scotland, under the name of _corkir_; -with which the inhabitants of the island of Sky dye a scarlet colour. -They prepare it by drying, powdering it, and then steeping it for three -weeks in urine. Linnæus queries whether this moss be not the same as -his _lichen calcareus_[99]; a species so peculiar to limestone rocks, -that where-ever that stone occurs among others, it may be distinguished -at the first view by this moss growing upon it. This is a singularity -which Dr. Dillenius has not mentioned in his moss: on the other hand, -Linnæus does not mention any tinging property in his. - -The _pérèlle d’Auvergne_, or _orseille de terre_, of the French, -belongs to this order of lichens, and is called by Dillenius[100] _The -crayfish-eye-like lichenoides_. It is gathered in large quantities in -the province of Auvergne, and is used as _orchel_; to which however -it is greatly inferior. They prepare it with lime and urine; and were -acquainted with its use as a dye long before the Canary weed was -known[101] to them; and it is at this day in more common use than -the _orchel_. We have it frequent with us upon old walls, rocks, and -stones; but it is to be had in larger quantities in several other parts -of Europe. - -The mealy tartareous _lichenoides_[102] with brown dishes, forms an -article of trade with the people of West Gothland. They manufacture -a beautiful red dye from it, which they sell under the name of -_byttelet_[103]. Dr. Hill says we have this moss abundantly in -Leicestershire and Warwickshire. - -The Welch make a red dye, with urine, from another moss of this order, -which Dillenius describes[104] by the name of _The large leprous -lichenoides with yellow plates_. These are not the only species, which -are endowed with a tinging quality: other kinds have been observed to -give a red or purple colour to paper in which they have occasionally -been inclosed. Doubtless several would, upon sufficient trials, be -found to answer equally well with the _orchel_. - -With regard to these crustaceous mosses in general, it is highly -worthy our regard, that in the œconomy of nature they answer singular -and important uses. To an unobserving eye, no class of vegetables may -appear more insignificant, or less adapted to advantageous purposes -in the creation, than these. This vulgar estimation of things is -frequently erroneous; and it is certainly so in the instance before -us. These minute and seemingly insignificant mosses serve, under some -circumstances, to valuable purposes. No sooner is a rock left bare by -the sea, but these lichens lay the foundation for its future fertility. -Their seeds, which are presently brought thither by the winds, soon -cover it all over. These corrupting, presently afford a soil sufficient -to nourish other smaller mosses; which, in their turn, form one deep -enough for larger plants and trees; and thus the rock becomes a fertile -island[105]. - - -5. Lichenes foliacei scutellati. - -_Such as consist of a more lax and flexible matter, formed into a -foliaceous appearance, having the parts of fructification in the form -of_ scutellæ. - -Some of the plants of this division are interspersed with the former -in some of the systems of botanic authors. In general this division -contains the whole first series of the second order of _lichenoides_ -in Dillenius; the first division of the second series, and the latter -part of the second division, of the same: it comprehends the _lichenes -imbricati_ and _umbilicati_ of Linnæus; and many of the _placodium_ of -Hill. - -The plants of this order are many of them not less common in England -than the foregoing, on rocks, stones, old pales, trees, _&c._ Some -adhere very closely to what they grow upon, and seem to be only -foliaceous about the edges: others adhere but loosely, and are much -expanded and divaricated, so as to form something like ramifications. - -It was remarked, from Linnæus’s observation, that one of the -crustaceous lichens was scarcely ever found growing but upon limestone -rocks. On the contrary, the same author has observed of a foliose -lichen belonging to this order, that it will thrive on all kind of -rocks but limestone rocks. This species[106] Dillenius calls _The -common grey-blue pitted lichenoides_. It is very common with us upon -trees, old wooden pales, _&c._ as well as upon rocks and stones. It is -the _usnea cranii humani_ of the old _materia medica_. Linnæus adds, -that it will dye a purplish colour. - -Hither likewise must be referred the cork or arcel[107], which is -used by the Scotch, and others, to dye a purple or scarlet colour. -The preparation of it is by powdering, and making it into a mass with -urine. Parkinson tells us[108] the poor people in Derbyshire scrape -it from the rocks, and make the same use of it. Mr. Ray[109] adds to -this account, that the Welch, who call it _kenkerig_, have long been -acquainted with this property, and have it in common use. The colour -from this moss is but very dull; but if the same methods were taken -to improve it, as have been with the _orchel_, it would undoubtedly -be rendered much better, and more durable. Linnæus relates[110], that -there is an immense quantity of this moss about the rocks of the isle -of Aland in the Baltick; where the good women themselves make a yellow -dye with it from a simple decoction of the plant, without the addition -of any saline article. He adds, that those, who would heighten the -colour, add a small quantity of _roucou_[111] to the decoction. - -Professor Linnæus tells us, that the Gothlanders manufacture a yellow -dye from the common curled _lichenoides_ with yellow leaves and -plates[112]. He adds, that it is a celebrated medicine in the esteem -of the country people, as a specific in the jaundice[113]. Helwingius, -in the Supplement to the _Flora Prussica_, affirms, that this moss -will tinge paper and linen of a lively carnation colour, which too -will stand the test of being exposed to the open sun for a long time -without fading. It seems very probable, however, that he must mean some -other plant of this genus, as Dillenius tells us he made the experiment -unsuccessfully. - -Sweden affords a moss of this order, which, as far as hitherto appears, -seems to be unknown to former botanists, and which Linnæus says will -dye a deep purple colour[114]. - - -6. Lichenes erecti ramosi plani. - -_Such as consist of a firm tough matter, disposed into flat and thin -ramifications growing erect, and bearing their scutellæ upon the edges, -surfaces, and at the extremities._ - -This division comprehends the flat branched tree-mosses of authors; -many of the fourth order of Haller’s lichens; the first part of the -second division of series the second in Dillenius; and the _platisma_ -of Hill. - -The plants of this division grow upon old trees, especially in thick -and unfrequented woods; some of them upon rocks: they are many of them -extremely common in England upon all kinds of trees. As they were some -of the most obvious, so they were some of the first lichens noticed by -the old writers, by whom they were called _lichenes arborum_. - -The mosses of this order were substituted in the room of the _usnea_ -in the composition of the _pulvis cyprius_. The very species, which -was most frequently used for this purpose, was the channel-leaved -_lichenoides_ of Dillenius[115], on account of its being easily reduced -into a fine powder, of a good white colour. Nevertheless, others are -undoubtedly as well adapted to the same purposes: and, if it was of -importance enough to employ them to any purposes of the like nature in -our own country, they might be procured in sufficient plenty. - -One of the plants of this order is applicable to the same uses as -the Canary-weed, and is reckoned not much inferior to it; and as it -is found in the same places, it is very often packed up with it in -considerable quantities. Dillenius calls it _The flat dyers lichenoides -with longer and sharper horns_[116]. It is truly and properly a plant -of the lichen genus, tho’ the older writers of the last century -called it a fucus. They were led into this mistake by its having flat -ramifications, and from its growing on the rocks by the sea side. It is -found in the East Indies upon trees, and is frequent on the coasts of -the Mediterranean, as well as about the Canary Islands. - - -7. Lichenes peltati. - -_Such as consist of a tough or coriaceous matter, disposed into a -foliaceous appearance; on the edges of which, in general, the parts of -fructification are placed, in the form of flattish oblong bodies, in -these mosses called_ shields _or_ pelts. - -This division contains the third series of the second order of -Dillenius’s _lichenoides_; the _lichenes coriacei_ of Linnæus; and -several of the _placodium_ of Hill. - -That celebrated and well-known plant, the ash-coloured ground -liverwort[117] of Ray belongs to this order. It is very common all over -England on dry and barren ground; and indeed almost all Europe, and -America too, seems to afford it in sufficient plenty, as we find it -observed by almost all the botanic writers since Ray, who was one of -the first that described it. - -The earliest account we have of its use for the bite of a mad dog is in -the Philosophical Transactions[118], from Mr. Dampier, in whose family -it had been a secret for a number of years. It was communicated first -to Sir Hans Sloane, as a kind of fungus, or Jew’s-ear; and, at the -request of Dr. Mead, was some years afterwards received into the London -dispensatory. Scarce any of the boasted specifics of former ages ever -acquired so great reputation as this plant has done in modern times, -for its prevalence against the bite of a mad dog; and the patronage -of the late learned Dr. Mead made it sufficiently known throughout -all the world. Happy would it be indeed, if it fully deserved the -high encomiums, which have been bestowed upon it. A great and eminent -physician[119] has doubted its efficacy at all in such cases; and -it is well known, that Boerhaave even laughed at it. Dr. Mead had -certainly an high opinion of it: he tells us it never failed, thro’ -the course of thirty years experience, where it was duly given before -the _hydrophobia_ came on[120]. Later instances have shewn, that it is -not infallible; and Dr. Van Swieten’s supposition is but too likely -to prove true. It must be confessed, that Dr. Mead’s exhibition of it -seems too much complicated with other means to leave room for judging -fully of its real efficacy; and it may really be questioned, whether -bleeding, pepper, and cold-bathing, have not had more to do in the case -than the lichen. - -The _muscus pulmonarius officinarum_[121], tree-lungwort, or oak-lungs, -belongs to this order. It is found about old oaks, and upon rocks and -stones overgrown with moss, in many of our thick woods in England; but -not in any great plenty. - -Few, perhaps, of the antiquated simples were in more repute, in their -day, than this plant. It was celebrated for ages, on account of its -supposed prevalence in pulmonary complaints of almost all kinds; and -yet, upon inquiry into the original of its use in such cases, it would -probably appear, that it arose more from a fansied resemblance they -found in the plant to the lungs themselves, than from any real and -well-grounded proofs of its efficacy. As a gentle astringent, like most -other species of the family, it would doubtless contribute to relieve -in many cases where the lungs were affected, as in _hæmoptoës_, and -some others: but it does not seem, by any means, to deserve that high -character in medicine which has been given to it. - -The people in Herefordshire, where this moss is called _rags_, dye -their stockings of a brown colour with it. This is done by a very -strong but simple decoction in water, and the colour stands well[122]. - -The fine green _lichenoides_ with black warts[123], is a celebrated -medicine, and in very frequent use, with the country people about -Upsal, for the thrush in children: to this end they give an infusion -of it in milk. A medicine of this kind is of great importance in those -countries, where that disorder occurs much more frequently than with -us[124]. It is not received into the Swedish dispensatory; but is known -however in the shops, under the name of _muscus cumatilis_. We have it -not in England; and Dillenius found it but in one place about Geissen: -in the woods of Sweden it is more plentiful. A singular case, which -is related in the _Amænitates Academicæ_[125], has given rise to an -opinion of its usefulness in the worms also. The case briefly was this: -A country girl had, for near half a year, complained of excruciating -pains in her stomach and bowels, which were attended with vomiting, -anxiety, and great watchfulness. All that had been prescribed for her -by Professor Linnæus and others, who took her case for the worms, -proved altogether fruitless. Being afterwards left to the care of her -neighbours and relations, some good women gave her a decoction of this -moss, which the Uplanders call _elfnefwer_. After she had taken it a -few days, she vomited up six or seven roundish worms, and was cured. -These were found, upon examination, to be the maggots of a kind of -brown bee-fly, described by Mr. Ray[126], and by Linnæus[127]. - -However insufficient this history may be, to prove the usefulness of -this plant as a vermifuge, it will at least serve to exemplify this -fact; namely, that other animals of the insect kind, besides the -_teniæ_, _lumbrici_, and _ascarides_, may subsist a long time in the -_primæ viæ_ of the human body, and be the cause of great disturbances -therein[128]. - -Necessity is frequently the parent of the most useful and important -discoveries: and the uses to which a plant of this order is -appropriated by the natives of Iceland, is a standing proof of the -truth of this observation. That climate will scarcely permit the -cultivation of any kind of grain; but the want of it is in a great -measure happily supplied by the eryngo-leaved _lichenoides_[129], which -is abundant in the northern regions; and in that island particularly -the natives have long been acquainted with the methods of applying it -both to the purposes of food and of physic. - -Ray has long since informed us[130], from Bartholine, that in the -spring time, while it is young, it will purge; in consequence of which -it is used as common spring physic. This quality it loses in a short -time; and what serves for physic in the spring, is converted the -remaining part of the year into food. They collect large quantities -of it, grind it into meal, and make both pottage and bread of it. It -is in common use not only with the islanders, but in several parts -of Sweden also, where it is found to be a very appropriate diet in -phthisical cases[131]. These accounts of the excellent use of this -lichen correspond perfectly well with the last accounts of it in Mr. -Horrebow’s Natural History of Iceland, just published; and which I -shall take the liberty of transcribing as follows: “There is another -herb, called _muscus catharticus islandiæ_, or mountain-grass, which -they cook up into a delicate dish. I have often eat of it; at first out -of curiosity, but afterwards for its palateableness and wholesomeness. -The excellent qualities of this herb are described in the Memoires -of the Society of Arts and Sciences in Sweden. It grows in great -abundance; and those that live near the places, where it is found, -gather great quantities for their own use, and to send to market. -People that live at a great distance will send and fetch horse-loads -away. Many use no meal or flour at all, when they are stocked with this -herb, which in every respect is good and wholesome food”[132]. - -This moss is not very common in the southern countries of Europe. -England affords it but very sparingly. Mr. Newton and Dr. Dillenius -found it in Wales; Sibbald, in Scotland. It is frequent on the Alps of -Switzerland; and Dr. Haller mentions it in his _Iter Hercynium_. Sweden -and Lapland have it in plenty: and on account of its great abundance -and usefulness in Iceland, Bartholine, and after him others, called it -_muscus islandicus_. - - -CONCLUSION. - -I cannot help remarking, by way of conclusion, that we have in this -genus of plants a convincing instance of the utility which may -result from the study of natural science in general, and even of -its minuter and hitherto most neglected branches. From a view of -the foregoing memoir it is evident, I presume, that the œconomical -uses of the lichens, in the various parts of the world, are already -very considerable and important: and altho’ it does not appear, that -the sensible qualities of any of them, or the experience of former -ages, will warrant our ascertaining any singular powers to them in a -medicinal way, yet posterity will doubtless find the means of employing -them to many valuable purposes in human life to us unknown. - -It will at once be acknowleged, that the vegetable kingdom supplies -us with the far greater share of the necessaries, the conveniences, -and even the elegancies, of life. The cultivation of that knowlege, -which leads to the investigation of its subjects, cannot, therefore, -but be highly useful and necessary: and altho’ the bare science of -natural knowlege is of itself worthy of applause, yet it ought to -be considered, in reality, as the necessary means only of applying -the subjects of nature’s kingdoms to their true ends and purposes, -the service of mankind. To know and distinguish, by determined and -specific characters, even but a small share of that amazing multitude -of objects, with which the great Parent of nature has furnished our -globe, is a task far more than equal to the duration of human life. To -investigate and ascertain their various qualities and uses is equally -arduous and impracticable. While the naturalists, therefore, are -employed in distinguishing the forms of things, let others exert the -united efforts of genius and application to investigate their various -properties and uses. I need not say the field for both is boundless: -it doubtless will be so for ages yet to come. The hopes of discovering -some latent property, which may turn out to the advantage of his -fellow creatures, will animate the man, whose mind is truly formed for -relishing the pleasures of natural science; and however the result may -be, the inspection and contemplation of nature’s productions will ever -afford that satisfaction, which will amply repay him for his trouble. -The minuter, and, as they are commonly estimated, the most abject and -insignificant things are not beneath our notice; and an attentive mind -will readily conceive how much farther, and more extensively useful, -every branch of nature’s kingdom may yet prove in the œconomy of -human life. The man, therefore, whom a genius and love for natural -history has allured into its pursuits, and whose leisure permits his -gratification in such researches, if he is not happy enough to be -crowned with success, at least deserves it, and merits the thanks of -his fellow-creatures for his application and diligence. - - - - -XCII. _An Account of the fossile Bones of an Allegator, found on -the Sea-shore, near_ Whitby _in_ Yorkshire. _In a Letter to_ John -Fothergill, _M. D. from Capt._ William Chapman. - - Whitby, 20th of 1st mo. 1758. - -[Read May. 4, 1758.] - -A Few days since we discovered on the sea-shore, about half a mile from -this place, part of the bones of an animal, appearing as in the annexed -figure (_See_ TAB. XXII.). The ground they laid in is what we call -allum-rock; a kind of black slate, that may be taken up in flakes, and -is continually wearing away by the surf of the sea, and the washing of -stones, sand, _&c._ over it every tide. - -The bones were covered five or six feet with the water every full -sea, and were about nine or ten yards from the cliff, which is nearly -perpendicular, and about sixty yards high, and is continually wearing -away, by the washing of the sea against it; and, if I may judge by -what has happened in my own memory, it must have extended beyond -these bones less than a century ago. There are several regular strata -or layers of stone, of some yards thickness, that run along the cliff, -nearly parallel to the horizon and to one another. I mention this to -obviate an objection, that this animal may have been upon the surface, -and in a series of years may have sunk down to where it lay; which will -now appear impossible, at least when the stones, _&c._ have had their -present consistence. - -[Illustration: _Philos. Trans. Vol. L._ TAB. XXII(b) _p. 689_. - -_J. Mynde sc._] - - -_References to the Draught._ - -_A_, _B_, _C_, the head and bill, not in the same line or range with -the rest of the bones. - -_a_, _b_, A bone, with its processes, which I take to be similar to -that, which includes the brain in fishes. The part between the bone and -outlines appeared to be a smooth membrane; but was so thin, that in -taking up it broke. - - It is evident this is the upper part of the head inverted. - -_B_, _C_, the superior _maxilla_ intire, and in some places covered -with the inferior one for four or five inches together. Where this -happens, the vacuity is filled with matter like the rock in which it -lays; and there are large teeth in each jaw, at such distances, and so -posited, that those in one jaw fill up the vacuities in the other, and -appear like one continued row, the mouth being shut. - - Where there is only the superior _maxilla_ remaining, there are - no teeth; but the sockets are visible and deep, and at the same - distances from each other as the teeth in the other part of the jaw. - The tip or extremity of the bill was intire for four or five inches, - having both _maxillæ_, with their teeth, and towards the point large - fangs. Part of the bill and head were covered with the rock; which - was removed before they appeared as in the figure. - -_A_, _D_, _F_, _G_, cavities in the rock, about two inches deep, where, -I suppose, the wanting _vertebræ_ have laid, as they are exactly suited -to have received them. - -_D_, _F_, Ten _vertebræ_, from three to four half inches in diameter, -and about three inches long, some of them separated in taking up. They -were about two inches in the rock. - -_E,_ Here we observed something like bone to stretch from the -_vertebræ_, and intending to take it up whole, begun to cut at what -we thought a proper distance; but found we cut thro’ a bone; and with -the _vertebræ_ brought up three or four inches of the _os femoris_, -with the ball, covered with the _periosteum_: but the animal has been -so crushed hereabouts, that we could make little of the socket or _os -innominata_. Several of the ribs came up with the _vertebræ_: they were -broke, and laid parallel to the _vertebræ_; but not quite close, there -being some of the rock between them. The _periosteum_ is visible on -many of the bones. - -_G_, _H_, Twelve _vertebræ_ remaining in the rock, with which they are -almost covered, especially towards the extremity. - -The place, where these bones lay, was frequently covered with sea-sand, -to the depth of two feet, and seldom quite bare; which was the occasion -of their being rarely seen: but being informed that they had been -discovered by some people two or three years ago, we had one of them -with us upon the spot, who told us, that when he first saw it, it -was intire, and had two short legs on that part of the _vertebræ_ -wanting towards the head. Altho’ we could not suspect the veracity of -this person, we thought he was mistaken; for we had hitherto taken -it for a fish. But when we took it up, and found the _os femoris_ -above-mentioned, we had cause to believe his relation true, and to rank -this animal amongst those of the lizard kind: by the length (something -more than ten feet) it seems to have been an allegator; but I shall be -glad to have thy opinion about it. - - I am thy friend, - William Chapman _Sen._ - -_The bones were sent up, and are herewith presented to the Royal -Society by_ - - J. Fothergill. - - - - -XCIII. _De rariori quadam_ Orthoceratitis _Specie, in_ Suecia _reperta, -tractatus; in literis a_ Nicholao de Himsel, _M. D._ Riga Livono, _ad_ -Gul. Watson, _M. D. R.SS._ - -[Read May 11, 1758.] - -ORthoceratiti recti in loco quodam Kelwika dicto, prope Fahlunam in -Dahlia, reperti. Inhærebant lapidi cineracei coloris calcareo, variæ -magnitudinis orthoceratiti, quorum portiones hic delineatas describo. - - -_Vide_ TAB. XXIII. - -_Fig. A._ Orthoceratitis portio, cujus pars inferior saxo adhuc -adhæret; ex lapide calcareo constans lente in apicem decrescens. -Licet ex parvis ejus fragmentis judicari possit, cylindrum esse -orthoceratitem, ea tamen si conjunguntur, verum formant conum, et mihi -videtur ex crassitie siphonis, orthoceratitem hunc conicum duos fere -superavisse pedes. Vidi orthoceratitem in alio lapide calcareo, quem -etiam ibidem loci, Kelwikæ, reperi, longitudine duorum cum semisse -pedum: sed impossibile erat, integrum eum excutere, nimis enim fragile -erat. Est portio hæc orthoceratitis testa sua ambiente vestita in _a b -c_. Quinque conspiciuntur articuli, thalami quondam, arctissime sibi -invicem insidentes, per quos a latere procedit sipho _m n_ sat crassus, -qui in omnibus fere, quas possideo portionibus orthoceratitarum, a -centro semper remotus, hic ad peripheriam positus conspicitur. Sipho -admodum lente decrescit, ex quo etiam de longitudine coni hujus -judicare licet. Crustæ vel testæ _a b c_ interior pars, quæ articulos -tegit, crysstallina est, ex spati crystallis tenuioribus irregularibus -constans. - -[Illustration: _Philos. Trans. Vol. L._ TAB. XXIII. _p. 692_. - -_J. Mynde sc._] - -_Fig. B._ Portio alia, in qua articuli minus crassi; sipho quoque ad -peripheriam positus, testa sua in _a_ tecta. Conspicitur septum illud -testaceum in _b_, communi tenuior, quod ab ipso articulo superiori -procedens, siphonis partem _r s_ investit. - -_Fig. B, C._ Portio orthoceratitis ex lapide calcareo cineracei -coloris: sipho vero, fluore spatoso egregie crystallisato, constat. - -_Fig. C._ Portio alia per axin divisa, cujus pars exterior, testa quæ -striis circularibus levioribus externe ornata, investita conspicitur. - - Ex parte interiori _Fig. D._ confirmatio ejus interna adparet. Sipho -_x z_ gracilior, inter centrum et peripheriam positus, dimidia parte -ambiente articulo denudatus adparet; dimidia altera, inferiori articulo -_c d e_ tegitur. Articulus _a b_ spato crystallisato pellucido polygono -repletus est. Articulus _c d e_ vero, saxo spatoso incarnato paululum -repletus est. _x_. Siphonis pars superior, ubi radii a peripheria ad -centrum tendentes conspiciuntur. Inter crystallos spatosos in articulo -_a b_ striæ hinc et inde adparent nigræ, asphalto repletæ; ita etiam -cavitas articuli _a b_, æque ac superficies convexa articuli _c e_, quæ -in primam concavam recipitur, lamina asphalti vestitæ sunt. - -_Fig. E._ Pars alia orthoceratitis majoris, et quidem facies exterior. - -_Fig. F._ Facies ejus interior, in medio divisi, cum siphone transeunte -satis crasso. _a b c_ et reliquæ striæ leves, sunt diaphragmata, -articulos _a b_ invicem separantia, siphonem proprie constituentia, -siphonisque tenuiorem membranam, quæ in _o_ et _p_ adhuc conspicitur, -ambientia. Sunt diaphragmata hæc crassiora in siphonis vestigiis, et -sibi invicem ab inferiori parte insident. Sipho hic inter centrum et -peripheriam positus est. - -_Fig. G._ Materies calcarea, quæ siphonem replevit striata, et quidem -pars ejus interior, qua centrum orthoceratitis respicit, peripheriæ -opposita. - -_Fig. H._ Facies posterior, peripheriæ propior. - -_Fig. I._ Pars concava articuli majoris orthoceratitis, in qua -diaphragmatis testacei jam crystallisati portiunculæ albicantes _m n r_ -conspiciuntur cum siphone transeunte. - -_Fig. K._ Portio alia orthoceratitis majoris, ejusque facies -exterior, cum siphone _g_ ad peripheriam posito. Conspiciuntur his -diaphragmata, quæ ab utroque latere, ab articulis procedunt, se invicem -conjungunt, et siphonem ab exteriori parte obtegunt. _a_ est testæ -satis crassæ portiuncula, qua portio hæc orthoceratitis vestita adhuc -est. - - - - -XCIV. _A further Account of the Effects of Electricity in the Cure of -some Diseases[133]: In a Letter from Mr._ Patrick Brydone _to Dr._ -Robert Whytt, _Professor of Medicine in the University of_ Edinburgh, -_and F.R.S._ - - Coldinghame, January 9th, 1758. - -[Read May 11, 1758.] - -A Young woman of Aiton, a village about two miles from this place, had -her right leg drawn back by a contraction of the muscles that bend the -knee, so that she had not been able to put that foot to the ground -for near a twelvemonth. She had taken the advice of some Surgeons in -the country, and had used several remedies to no purpose. At last, -hearing of the cure of the paralytic woman, whose case I sent you -some time ago, she insisted on being brought hither; and underwent a -course of electrical shocks for near two months, receiving every day -at least fifty or sixty in the following manner. She sat close by the -machine, and grasping the phial in her hand, she presented the wire to -the barrel or conductor, and drew the sparks from it for about half a -minute. The phial being thus charged, she then touched her knee with -the wire, and thereby received such severe strokes, as would sometimes -instantly raise a blister on the part. The joint was at last so much -relaxed, as that she could walk home with the help of a crutch, tho’ -her leg was so weak, that she had very little use of it. After she had -continued in this state for some weeks, she was advised to use the cold -bath: but that soon brought back the contraction; and I have been since -informed that she was worse than ever. - - -A soldier’s wife, a genteel looking woman, of about 30 years of age, -was seized with a slight palsy, about Newcastle, on her way to this -country: but before she got to this place, she had lost all the feeling -in her left side, and so far the power of it, that she was brought to -us in a cart. After receiving 600 strokes from the electrical machine -in the usual way, and in the space of two days, she recovered the use -of her side, and set out on foot to make out the rest of her journey. -However, for fear of a relapse, I gave her a recommendatory letter -to Mr. Sommer, Surgeon at Haddington, as she was to pass thro’ that -town, and as I knew that he was likewise provided with an electrical -apparatus. - - -A young woman from _Home_, a village in this shire, but at a good -distance, complained of a coldness and insensibility in her left hand -and wrist, of two years standing. When I felt that hand, it was as cold -as a stone, whilst the other was sweating; and she told me, that it -never had been warmer all that time. I made her draw the sparks from -an egg (which for some other purpose was suspended by a wire from the -conductor) for about half an hour; and at the end of that time I found -the dead hand in a far greater sweat than the other. She then wrapt -it up in a piece of flannel, as she used to do, and retired. Next day -she told me, that since the operation she had been able to put off and -on her cloaths without help, which she had not been able to do for a -twelvemonth before. She was again electrised; and believing she was -then quite well, she went away: but some weeks after, upon the coldness -of her hand beginning to return, she made me another visit, was again -electrised, and was dismissed a second time apparently cured. This is -about two months ago, and I have heard nothing of her since. - - -As these two last women are at such a distance, I cannot pretend to -send you their own testimony of their cure. But for the two cases in -the separate paper, as the persons are inhabitants of this place, I -have taken care that they themselves should sign them, along with my -father; since you have acquainted me, that accounts of this kind should -have the attestation both of the patients and the minister of the -parish. - -I shall only add here, that several persons have been relieved of -rheumatic pains, by electrising the parts affected. And a woman -was cured of a deafness of six months standing, contracted, as she -imagined, by cold. This woman held the phial in her hand, whilst -another person standing on a cake of resin gave her the shock, by -putting the end of the wire into her ear. This manner of electrising -brought always on a profuse sweat over the head, which we encouraged, -by wrapping it up in flannel. The first day she came here, she could -scarce hear what was spoken by those about her; but in five days she -seemed to be perfectly cured. - - I am, _&c._ - Patrick Brydone. - - -_Copy of the separate Paper before mentioned._ - -Robert Haigs, of Coldinghame, a labouring man of about 45, after having -been for ten days ill of a regular tertian ague, at my desire underwent -the electrical shocks in the common way. After having received about -thirty or forty very severe ones, he grew pale, and staggering for -several steps, would have fallen down, had he not been supported. He -then fell into a sweat, which continued near half an hour. I desired -him to come back the next morning, immediately before the fit, which -he said came on about ten o’clock. He accordingly came, and told me he -had not the usual symptoms preceding the fit. He was that day again -strongly electrised; and has been without any aguish symptom ever -since; _viz._ for the space of four months. - -The truth of this is attested by - - ROBERT HAIGS, _the person cured_. - ROBᵗ. BRYDONE, _Minister of Coldinghame_. - - -Ann Torry, of Coldinghame, a young woman of about 20, had a regular -tertian (being the first time she ever had the ague) for near a -fortnight. The fit came on early in the morning. She was electrised on -her well day in the afternoon; and the next morning, having had only a -slight shivering, she was electrised again about ten o’ clock, and has -had no symptom of the ague since; _viz._ for three months. - -The above is attested by - - ANN TORRY, _the person cured_. - ROBᵗ. BRYDONE, _Minister of Coldinghame_. - - - - -XCV. _An Account of the Black Assize at_ Oxford, _from the Register of_ -Merton College _in that University. Communicated by_ John Ward, _LL. D. -With some additional Remarks._ - -_Anno nono_ D. Bickley _Custodis_, 1577. - -[Read May 25, 1758.] - -VIcessimo[134] primo Julii in vestiario Dñus custos et octo Seniores -dispensarunt cum _Decreto de concione et appictantia habendis, die -Dominico post festum Sᵗⁱ Petri ad vincula_; ne vocata et conveniente -turba, morbus ille, qui ante quinque dies quamplurimos infestarat, -dissipatior et periculosior fiat. Etenim 15, 16, et 17, hujus Julii -aegrotant plus minus trecenti homines; et infra duodecim dierum spatium -mortui sunt (ne quid errem) centum scholares, praeter cives non paucos. -Tempus sine dubio calamitosissimum et luctu plenum. Nam quidam -lectos differentes[135], agitati nescio quo morbi et doloris furore, -suos custodes baculis caedunt et abigunt; alii per areas et plateas -insanientium more circumcursant; alii in profundam aquarum praecipites -insiliunt; nemo tamen, summo Deo gratia, desperanter perit. Franguntur -omnium animi. Fugiunt medici, non propter necessitatem fratrum, sed -propter se et cistas creati. Relinquuntur miseri. Domini, doctores, -et collegiorum praefecti, ad unum pene omnes abeunt. Custos noster, -longe omnium vigilantissimus, domi apud nos manet; in aegrotis omnem -curam, laborem, diligentiam impensus[136] collocat; die toto, et nocte -etiam intempesta, eos sedulo invisit. Moriuntur e nostris quinque. -Omnis aula, omne collegium, aut domi, aut in via ad patriam, suos habet -mortuos. Mirari quis posset multitudinem ad medicastrorum domos cum -matulis citato cursu properantium. Pharmacopolarum etiam conservata -syrupos, olea, aquas dulces, pixides, cujusque generis confectiones, -brevissimo tempore exhausta. Laborant aegroti vehementissimo tum -capitis tum stomachi dolore; vexantur phrenesi; privantur intellectu, -memoria, visu, auditu, et caeteris etiam sensibus. Crescente morbo, -non capiunt cibos, non dormiunt, ministros aut custodes non patiuntur. -Semper, vel in ipsa morte, mirae orum strenuitas et corporis robur; -et eo declinante, omnia modis impense contrariis eveniunt. Nulli -complexioni aut constitutioni parcitur; cholericos tamen praecipue -hic morbus molestos habet; cujus ut causas, sic et curas ignorant -medici. Natum suspicantur multi, vel ex foetido et pestilenti furum e -carceribus prodeuntium aëre (quorum duo vel tres sunt ante paucos dies -in vinculis mortui) vel ex artificiosis diabolicis et plane papisticis -flatibus e Lovaniensi barathro excitatis, et ad nos scelestissime et -clam emissis. Nam illi solum et hic et alibi decumbunt aegroti, qui in -castro, et _guilda_, quam appellant, aula, quinto et sexto hujus mensis -adsunt[137]. Assisiorum judices, dominus Robertus Bell, capitatis baro -scaccarii etc. qualem hactenus non peperit Anglia; dominus Johannes -Barrham, dominae reginae serviens ad legem; papisticae pravitatis -uterque apertissimi hostes et acerrimi vindices: vicecomes Oxoniensis -comitatis[138], equites aurati duo, armigeri et pacis justiciarii -octo, generosi plures, horum non pauci famuli, omnes (uno aut attero -exceptis) _de grandi_, ut loquuntur, _jure_, statim post fere relictam -Oxoniam mortui sunt. Et ut quisque fortissimus, ita citissime moritur. -Foeminae non petuntur, nec certe pauperes; neque etiam inficitur -quisquam, qui aegrotorum necessitatibus subministrarit, aut eos -inviserit. Sed ut fuit morbus hic insigniter violentus, ita neque diu -duravit. Nam infra unius mensis curriculum ad pristinam pene sanitatem -restituuntur omnes; ut jam denuo mirari possis tot scholares, tot -etiam cives, urbem et plateas linteis capitibus obambulantes, et nomen -clementissimi Dei nostri in omne aevum suspicere[139]. - -Vicessimo quarto Julii Joannes May, socius et artium magister, in -collegio vitam finit. Sepelitur in ecclesia. - -Vicessimo septimo ejusdem Browne clericus moritur in collegio. - -Vicessimo octavo ejusdem Gaunte portionista moritur in collegio. - -Vicessimo nono Dnus Lea, electus probationarius 20 Julii, moritur in -collegio. - - -_Additional Remarks, by_ Tho. Birch, _D. D. Secret. R. S._ - -CAmden, in his Annals of Queen Elizabeth[140], observes, that almost -all, except women and children, who were present at the assizes at -Oxford, at the tryal of Rowland Jenkes, a Bookseller there, for -seditious words, died, to the number of about three hundred. Mr. -John Stow, in his _Chronicle of England_[141], enlarges this number, -and affirms, that there died in Oxford three hundred persons, and in -other places two hundred and odd, from the 6th of July to the 12th of -August; _after which died not any of that sickness; for one of them -infected not another_: And this historian agrees with Camden, that not -any one woman or child died thereof. Dr. George Ethryg, a physician, -who practised at that time at Oxford[142], in the 2d book of his -_Hypomnemata quædam in aliquot Libros Pauli Æginetæ, seu Observationis -Medicamentorum, quæ hâc ætate in usu sunt_, printed at London in 1588, -in 8vo, mentions, that on the first night of the appearance of the -dissease about six hundred fell sick of it; and that the next night -an hundred more were seized in the villages near Oxford. Lord Bacon, -in his _Natural History_, evidently refers to this, and one or two -more instances of the same kind, in the following passage, _Century_ -X. _Nº._ 914. “The most pernicious infection next the plague is the -smell of the goal, where prisoners have been long and close and nastily -kept; whereof we have had in our time experience twice or thrice, when -both the judges, that sat upon the goal, and numbers of those, that -attended the business, or were present, sickened upon it, and died. -Therefore it were good wisdom, that in such cases the goal were aired -before they be brought forth.” We have likewise an account in Mr. -Anthony Wood[143], that at the quarter-session at Cambridge, in Lent in -the year 1522, and the 13th of the reign of Henry VIII. the justices, -gentlemen, and bailiffs, with most of the persons present, were seized -with a disease, which proved mortal to a considerable number of them; -those, who escaped, having been very dangerously sick. With regard to -the unhappy instance of the same kind of contagion, which happened at -the session in the Old Baily in May 1750, see Dr. Pringle’s excellent -work, intitled, _Observations on the Diseases of the Army in Camp and -in Garison_[144]. - - - - -XCVI. _A Description of the Plan of_ Peking, _the Capital of_ China; -_sent to the Royal Society by Father_ Gaubil, è Societate Jesu. -_Translated from the_ French. - -KING CHE. THE COURT. - -[Read June 1, 1758.] - -IN this plan are the inclosures of walls, which form as it were three -cities. - -[Kong tching, Tse kin.] - -The first is the imperial palace, or imperial city. It is called _Kong -tching_ or _Tse kin_. The numbers 11, 17, 21, 24, mark the great gates -of this inclosure. - -[Hoang tching.] - -The second inclosure is _Hoang tching_. The numbers 3, 18, 30, 86, mark -four great gates of this inclosure. - -[King tching.] - -The third inclosure is _King tching_, or Royal City. The numbers 235, -1, 99, 146, 173, 183, 188, 109, 211, mark nine gates of this inclosure. - -At the four angles east and west of the north and south walls is a -large pavillion in the form of a fortress. It is a kind of arsenal -or magazine of arrows, bows, guns, bucklers, cuirasses, pikes, small -cannon, _&c._ - -Observe the angle made by the inclosure _Hoang tching_ on the south of -the gate Nº. 84, to the north of Nº. 260. The inclosure extends to the -east, then to the south, and continues to the east, passing by Nº. 3. - -[Illustration: _Philos. Trans. Vol. L._ TAB. XXIV. _p. 704_. - -_J. Mynde sc._ ] - -[Illustration: _Philos. Trans. Vol. L._ TAB. XXV. _p. 704_. - -_J. Mynde sc._] - -1. is the great gate _Hien men_. As you go on to the north, 2, 143, -214, are three gates of a great court with magnificent walls. Thro’ the -gate 3 you enter into a court, where is the _Tay miao_ Nº. 7. There are -reposited the tablets of the ancestors of the reigning emperor, and of -the illustrious subjects deceased, who have served the dynasty. This -_miao_ or palace is a vast one, and well kept. At regular times the -emperor, princes, and great men, go thither to perform ceremonies. - -Nº. 9 is the _Che tsi tan_, where are performed, at regular times, the -ceremonies to the ancients, who have taught the art of agriculture. -This palace is a very beautiful one. 4, 5, 6, are the gates of a court, -where the _reguli_ and princes go frequently to receive the emperor’s -orders. There are halls for their reception. The mandarins give them -tea to drink, and mark their names in a register. When upon the fixed -days they cannot attend, they are required to give notice of it. It is -in this court, that the tributary princes, or their envoys, do homage, -and receive the presents of the emperor; which presents are considered -as rewards. - -Nº. 11 is _Ou men_, the great gate with a beautiful pavillion of a -considerable height, in which is a large bell[145]. This gate, with -those marked Nº. 12, 13, are those of the great court; whence going -to the north, you enter into the beautiful and vast court _Tay ho -tien_, the gates and galleries of which, with the balconies, make a -fine appearance. In this court, on the first day of the year, and on -other fixed days, the mandarins, according to their ranks, perform the -ceremony to the emperor, who is seated on his throne in the hall called -_Tay ho tien_. This hall is a vast and magnificent one. The princes, -ministers, and great men of the first order, place themselves there -by the emperor. It is in this hall, that the emperor gives audience -to foreign princes and their ambassadors. You go up to this hall by -magnificent steps. - -To the north of _Tay ho tien_ is a large court, whither the princes, -great men, ministers, and principal mandarins, go in turns every day, -to receive the emperor’s orders, or to present their petitions. To the -north of this court are the apartments of the emperor, the empress, the -queens, and ladies. The great gate of the place, where these apartments -are, is Nº. 23. All these apartments are in the space contained within -the walls, which have this figure - - +----- -----+ - | 23 |. - +----- A -----+ - -At A is a beautiful gate to the south. The walls of the inclosure of -the apartments of the emperor and empress are higher than those of the -inclosures of the queens and ladies. In them are orchards, jets d’eau, -flowering shrubs, and a great number of small chambers for the eunuchs. - -To the west of the court _Tay ho tien_ is the fine palace _Tsi ning -kong_. The empress-mother lives there at present. Every thing in this -palace is beautiful. There are little gardens very neat and well kept. -At the east of the _Tay ho tien_ is likewise a fine palace, where -the prince heir, with his court, resided in the time of the emperor -_Kanghi_. It is a very beautiful palace, and highly ornamented. - -In the inclosure of _Kong tching_, or _Tse kin_, there are tribunals, a -great number of magazines, manufactures, the imperial apothecary’s shop -and printing-house; schools for the Chinese and Tartar languages; and -several temples of idols, one of which, lately made for the lamas, cost -immense sums. - -Nº. 26, 28, 29, are the gates of the great inclosure called _Kin chan_. -It is properly a beautiful pleasure-house, which the present emperor -has caused to be extremely embellished. There are in it fine gardens -with walks of trees, very rich and elegant apartments, halls for the -musicians and comedians. From the mountain _m_, the last emperor of the -dynasty _Ming_, seeing the city taken by the rebels, hanged himself -on the morning of the 15th of April of the year of our Lord 1644. On -the day before, the 14th of April, the empress hanged herself in the -evening in the palace. The mountain in _Kin chan_ was made by art a -long time ago. - -At the west of the inclosure _Kin chan_ and _Tse kin_ observe the -great laos. 54 is the _peta_, or white pyramid. This pyramid stands -on a small mountain, which makes an island. The present emperor has -built there, in the form of an amphitheatre, I do not know how many -apartments with covered and open galleries, well built, and in a good -taste: the point of view is charming, and the galleries, which run -over the lake, are extremely beautiful. There are two or three temples -of idols. 53 is a fine building with a temple of idols; and in it a -statue of _Fo_ of an extraordinary height. It is of copper, gilt, and -cost great sums. 76 is a very beautiful palace called _Yng tay_, with -fine gardens, fine halls, and fine walks. - -55 is the palace, in which is placed the tablet of the emperor _Kang -hi_, grandfather to the present emperor, who at regular times goes -thither, in order to honour the memory of that great prince, one of the -most illustrious and fortunate sovereigns of the empire of China. - -81 is the house and church of the French Jesuits. The house stands in -39° 55´ of northern latitude, or possibly some seconds more, and 114° -to the east of the observatory of Paris. This situation, with regard -to latitude and longitude, is founded upon a considerable number of -astronomical observations. By means of a scale, which may be made, we -have the distance between this house and the other parts of the city, -north and south, east and west; as likewise the latitude and longitude -of all the places in the city of Peking. 248 is the house and church -of the Portuguese Jesuits; 170 the house and church of the Portuguese -Jesuits[146]; 131 the house and church of the Russians. A little to the -east of Nº. 176 is a small house and chapel for the Russians settled at -Peking for above seventy years past. - -31 is _Kou leou_[147], the Tower of the Drum; 32 is _Tchong leou_, the -Tower of the Bell; in which is a very large bell[148]. - -179 was formerly the palace of the fourth son of the emperor _Kang hi_ -after the death of _Kang hi_. This prince reigned under the name of -_Yong tching_. His son the present emperor caused this palace to be -demolished, and to be rebuilt with an extraordinary magnificence. In -the hall is the tablet of _Yong tching_; and there are in this palace -grand apartments for the emperor, when he goes thither to honour the -memory of his father. The emperor has erected here a temple of idols -for the lama of Thibet; and there are apartments for above three -hundred lama’s. These have Chinese and Tartar disciples to the number -of two hundred. Here are taught, in the Thibetan language, called here -_Tan gout_, the sciences, arts, mathematics, physic, spirituality, and -the pagan religion. In this beautiful inclosure there are statuaries -and painters. This building is not at all inferior in beauty and -magnificence to those of the palace of Peking, or to those, which the -present emperor is going on to erect in his pleasure-houses. - -180 _Koue he kien_ is the imperial college. The great hall, where -Confucius is honoured, is a very beautiful one. There are likewise -halls for honouring the disciples of this philosopher and several -eminent Chinese learned men, who have followed his doctrine with -success. The emperor goes thither sometimes to perform the ceremony to -Confucius as master and instructor to the empire. The avenues, courts, -and apartments, of _Koue he kien_ have a most majestic appearance. - -70 the smaller observatory. - -108 the imperial observatory, built by _Kia hing_, emperor of the last -dynasty _Ming_. - -136 the tribunal of mathematics, _Kin tien kien_. - -137 the tribunal of mandarins, _Ly pou_. - -139 the tribunal of rites and ceremonies[149], _Ly pou_. - -133 _Ping pou_, the tribunal of war. - -134 _Kong pou_, the tribunal for public works. - -140 _Heu pou_, the tribunal for the finances. - -142 the tribunal of princes, _Tsong gin fou_. - -168 _Hing pou_, the tribunal for criminal causes. - -144 _Li fan yuen_, the tribunal for foreign nations, Thibetans, -Eleuthians, Russians, and indeed for all foreigners, who come by the -way of Tartary from the west. - -369 _Tou tcha yuen_, the tribunal of the censors of the empire. It has -under it the _provosts_ and _mare-chaussée_. - -233 the tribunal of _Kieou men ti tou_, or governor of the nine gates, -that is, the governor of the city. - -185 the tribunal of the judge of the city. This judge is here called -_Fou yn_. He has under him two judges named _Tchi hyen_. One of these -is the judge of the district called _Ouang ping hien_ 193. The other is -called the district of _Tay tsing hien_ 182. These districts are within -the city and without it. What is called at Peking _tou yn_ is called -elsewhere _tchi fou_. - -128 is the tribunal of _Han lin_, or the chosen doctors of the empire. -This tribunal, called _Han lin yuen_, is a very considerable one: it -has the care of the registers for the Chinese history. All the learned -men of the empire, and the colleges and schools, depend upon this -tribunal. Here are chosen the judges and examiners of the compositions -for the degrees of the learned men; as likewise those, who are most -capable of writing verses and pieces of eloquence for the use of the -palace and emperor. - -107 _Kong yuen_ is the inclosure, where the compositions are drawn up -for the examination of the learned men. Here are a great number of -little chambers or cells for the composers, and fine apartments for the -mandarins appointed to preserve good order, and to prevent those, who -compose, from making use of the compositions of others. - -273 _Tchoua kou ting_ is a pavillion, in which is a drum. Mandarins -and soldiers keep guard here day and night. In ancient times, when any -person had not justice done him, and thought himself oppressed, he went -and beat this drum; at the sound of which the mandarins ran, and were -obliged to carry the complaint of the party oppressed to the great -men or ministers. Upon which information was taken of the fact, and -justice done. At present the use of this drum is abolished; but it has -been thought proper to preserve this ancient monument of the Chinese -government. - -217 _Ti ouang miao_ is a palace, wherein are the tablets of a great -number of the ancient emperors of China. At the time of the equinoxes -the emperor goes thither to perform the ceremonies to these deceased -emperors. See the notes on the _Ti ouang miao_, p. 723. - -92, and the continuation of the buildings to the north, contain the -magazines of gunpowder, salt-petre, and nitre. In the city are many -other magazines. I do not name them here. They have their numbers. -These magazines are of cloth, mats, skins, oil, wine, vinegar, wood, -coal, porcelain, tea, varnish, silk, _&c._ - -The city is divided into eight quarters for the bannieres of the -Tartars _Mantcheou_, the Tartars _Mongou_, and the Chinese called _Han -kun_, who follow the Tartars _Mantcheou_, and submitted to them when -they entered China. Since that time the Chinese _Han kun_ are become -numerous and powerful. These eight bannieries are divided by this -means as it were into twenty-four; _viz._ eight of _Mantcheou_, eight -of _Mongou_, and eight of _Han kun_. Each banniery has its officers, -magazines, and arsenal. These are pretty spacious inclosures, each of -which has its number. - -94 is an inclosure, in which are kept tygers; and 240 an inclosure, -wherein are elephants. - -65 _Tsan yuen_ is an inclosure for silk-worms. - -147, 150, 151, are public granaries, very well built. Without the gates -146, 173, are many of these public granaries; as also in the environs -of the city to the north, south, east, and west. The largest and most -magnificent are in the city of _Tong tcheou_, four French Leagues to -the east of Peking. - -37, 38, 42, 52, 54, 59, 60, 66, 80, 83, 84, 85, 91, 93, 117, 118, 152, -154, 156, 160, 165, 178, 196, 203, 210, 215, 218, 225, 229, 230, 250, -255, 261, these numbers mark temples of idols. Some of these numbers -mark halls for honouring of illustrious deceased persons; but of -these there are only a few. There are several small _miao_, which are -not numbered. In the Chinese city, in the suburbs, are many temples -of idols; and some even in the emperor’s palace. And almost all the -palaces of the princes have idol temples. - -33, 35, 36, 61, 62, 64, 67, 68, 71, 109, 126, 128, 133, 134, 135, -136, 137, 139, 140, 141, 142, 144, 180, 182, 185, 193, 219, 222, 233, -243, 251, 252, 253, 254, 255, 259, 260, 267, 268, 269, 270, 271, 297, -these numbers mark the tribunals, as well those, which I have already -mentioned, as many other subaltern ones, which depend on them. There is -one for the physicians. - -101, 119, 121, 124, 125, 129, 148, 149, 155, 161, 162, 166, 172, 174, -175, 176, 192, 194, 195, 202, 208, 209, 216, 220, 221, 224, 232, -237, 238, 239, 241, 244, 247, 249, 262, 263, 264, mark the palaces -of the princes of the blood, who are divided into several classes -_Tsing ouang_, _reguli_ of the first order; _Kun ouang_, _reguli_ of -the second order; _Pey le_, _reguli_ of the third order; _Pey tse_, -_reguli_ of the fourth order; _Kong_, or counts, divided still farther -into other classes; and _Tsiang kun_, or generals of armies, divided -likewise into other classes. - -Some years ago the emperor caused to be measured the circumference of -the walls of _King tching_, of _Hoang tching_, and of _He kin_, _&c._ -as likewise the breadth of the streets, the space filled by the _miao_, -our three churches, that of the Russians, palaces, _&c._ The Chinese -city was not measured. A drawing of all this was made at large, -and then reduced to a smaller scale, as it appears here. I will not -undertake for the perfect exactness of it, either in the measures or -the reduction. All this is by a Chinese hand. The foot made use of in -this mensuration is to that of France as 1000 to 1016. 1800 of these -feet make a _ly_[150]. By the scale to be seen in the small plan, and -from the dimensions of the south and east walls of _King tching_, may -be deduced all the dimensions. The circumference of the walls of the -Chinese city has been formerly measured, and well, by several measures; -and the result of them may be seen here by the scale. - -The south wall of _King tching_ is from east to west eleven _ly_ and -near a third. The east wall from north to south is nine _ly_ and some -paces. So that the city is not square, as several persons have written. - -The persons employed by the emperor to measure did not think of -measuring the space, which contains the house and church of the -congregation _de propagandâ fide_. This house and church are situated -to the south between number 207 and a small bridge to the west of -number 201. - -In the accounts sufficient mention has been made of the walls and gates -of the city of _King tching_; for which reason it is not necessary for -me to say any thing concerning it. - -In the year of our Lord 1267, the Tartar emperor _Koublay han_ (in -Chinese _Yuen chi tsou_) built the city called _Ta tou_. It is the -principal part of the present city of _King tching_. It contained the -_Kin chun_, a palace _Yng tay_, _Hoang tching_, _Tse kin_, &c. the -walls of the city, an observatory, the towers of the Drum and the -Bell. _Yong lo_, emperor of the last dynasty _Tay ming_, made great -alterations in the city built by _Yuen chi tsou_. - -In the year 1406 the emperor _Yong lo_ undertook to build stronger and -higher walls, and more magnificent gates, to the city; to rebuild the -_Hoang tching_, the emperor and empress’s proper habitation, and the -several parts of _Tse kin_, the courts, hall of the throne or of _Tay -ho tien_, the _Kou leou_, the _Tchong leou_. He undertook also to build -the _Sien nong tan_ and _Tien tan_, which are now in the Chinese city. -On account of the wars with the Tartars, the works undertaken by _Yong -lo_ were not finished till the year of our Lord 1421. Since that time, -in the _Kin tchin_ some alterations have been made in the palace, and a -good number of new _miao_ and palaces have been built. The emperor _Kia -tsing_ built the Chinese city in the year of Christ 1544. - -The gates and walls of the Chinese city are not all equal in beauty to -those in the city _King tching_. The streets are neither so broad, nor -so well kept in repair. More than a third of the space of the Chinese -city is not inhabited. It consists only of fields and gardens. The -spaces occupied by the _Sien nong tan_ and the _Tien tan_ are vast; -and between these two there is a very broad road. In this Chinese -city are some mosques for the Mahometans. The inhabited part of this -city is much more so than the city _King tching_ and _Hoang tching_. -In the Chinese city are vast inns for those, who come out of the -southern provinces to Peking. Here are likewise a curious manufacture -of _lieou ly_ or Chinese glass, rich merchants of women’s ornaments, -of gold, of the plant _gin cheng_ so much esteemed and so dear here, -of varnished furniture, tea, stuffs of value, _&c._ The booksellers -shops are also in this city. It is to be remarked, that the walls of -the Chinese city and _King tching_ do not run directly north and south -and east and west, but decline towards the north-west 2° 30´, and -as much south-east. It is probable, that the architects employed in -directing the building of these walls made use of a compass; and that -the declinatiation of the needle was then what is mentioned above. - -What I have said of the walls of the city is likewise to be said of the -walls of _Hoang tching_ and of _Tse king_. - -At the time of building the city _King tching_, and the Chinese city, -the Chinese astronomers very well understood, that the north and south -of the compass was not the north and south of the heavens at Peking; -they knew, that the needle declined to the north-west and south-east; -but that this declination was not considerable. - -Without the gates of the Chinese city, and of _King tching_, I mark the -suburbs; which are very full of people and merchants, and like so many -cities. In most of these suburbs there are fine temples of idols. - -The _Sien nong tan_ in the Chinese city is almost six _ly_ in circuit. -These three words signify, The hill of the ancient husbandmen. - -The emperor goes thither every year in the spring to till the ground, -and sacrifices on that hill to heaven. The emperor’s apartments there -have nothing magnificent in them; but the ceremony of ploughing is a -solemn and curious one, and deserves a particular description. The -emperor tills under a small covering of mat. When he has ploughed -about half an hour, he ascends a large alcove, from whence he sees -the princes, great men, and mandarins, plough in the fields, which -are not covered with mats. While the emperor is ploughing, a good -number of peasants sing ancient songs on the importance of ploughing. -The emperor, princes, and great men, are dressed in the habit of -plough-men, and their instruments of husbandry are very neat, and -kept in a magazine. There are granaries for the grain produced by -this tillage; and it is carefully remarked, that the grain from the -emperor’s tillage is much better than that from the labour of others. -From this grain are made several cakes for the various sacrifices to -Heaven or _Chang ti_. The emperor prepares himself for this ceremony by -fasting, prayers to heaven, and a kind of retreat: and the intention -of it is to keep up a memorial of those times, in which the princes -themselves tilled the ground. This ceremony is of the highest antiquity -in China. - -Over against the _Sien nong tan_ is the _Tien tan_, or Hill of Heaven, -near ten _ly_ in circuit. Every thing here is magnificent. The emperor -goes thither every year at the winter solstice to sacrifice to heaven. -He prepares himself three days for this ceremony by fasting, in a -palace of _Tien tan_, called the _palace of fasting_. The hill, on -which the emperor sacrifices, is magnificently adorned. At the four -avenues are beautiful triumphal arches of fine marble; and the hill is -ascended by elegant steps. In this ceremony are introduced many usages -contrary to the ancient Chinese doctrine concerning the sacrifice to -heaven. On the day of the winter solstice are added the honours paid -to the five planets, that is, to their spirit. These ceremonies added -to the sacrifice to heaven are not very ancient. There are likewise -honours to the first founders of the reigning dynasty. At several other -times the emperor goes to _Tien tan_ to perform a sacrifice to heaven, -and to honour his deceased ancestors. - -To the north of the Hill of Heaven is a large and high terrace, on -which is a most magnificent hall in honour of _Chang ti_, or the -sovereign Lord, and of his ancestors. On the frontispiece of this hall -the present Tartar emperors have caused an inscription to be placed -to _Ap cai han_, or the Lord of heaven. To this Tartar inscription -answers the Chinese character _Kien_; which has the same meaning as -the character _Tien_, heaven; and it signifies the _Chang ti_, who is -intended to be honoured in this hall. The tablet for the _Chang ti_ is -in a place, which shews, that the honour paid to _Chang ti_ is of a -different kind from the honour paid to ancestors. - -Without the eastern gate of _King tching_, Nº. 145, is _Ge tan_, or -Hill of the Sun. At the vernal equinox the emperor sends hither a -prince or great man to honour the sun, that is, the spirit of the sun. -This inclosure, tho’ elegant enough, has nothing very remarkable; nor -is the ceremony very ancient. - -Without the north gate of _King tching_, at Nº. 183, is _Ti tan_, or -the Hill of the Earth. At the summer solstice the emperor goes thither -to sacrifice to the earth on the hill. Many of the learned men at -present distinguish this sacrifice in the _Ti tan_ from the sacrifice -in the _Tien tan_. But, according to the doctrine of Confucius, the -sacrifice to the earth has the same object as the sacrifice to heaven. -In both the supreme Lord _Chang ti_ is to be honoured. I do not know, -whether the emperor adheres to the pure doctrine of Confucius, and -whether he does not pretend to honour the earth, or spirit of the -earth, by performing a sacrifice, which originally had for its object -the _Chang ti_, as we are assured by Confucius. The inclosure of _Ti -tan_ is a vast one; but is not at all equal in beauty to the _Tien tan_. - -Without the western gate of _King tching_, Nº. 211, is _Yue tan_, the -Hill of the Moon. At the autumnal equinox the emperor sends thither a -prince or great man to honour the moon, or spirit of the moon. This -ceremony is not very ancient. This inclosure is a neat one, and pretty -large. - -Between the two north gates of _King tching_, Nº. 183 and 188, is a -vast esplanade for the exercise of the troops both horse and foot. - -To the north of this esplanade are two beautiful temples of idols for -the lamas. These two monasteries are very elegant. The emperor and the -Tartars _Mon gou_ lay out great sums on these two monasteries and the -two temples of the lamas. - -In the year 1111 before Christ, _Ou ouang_, founder of the dynasty -_Tcheou_, nominated his brother _Tchao kong_ prince of _Yen_. _Yen_ is -the ancient name of a pretty extensive country, in which Peking stands. -This prince of _Yen_ built a city there, a league and half south-west -of the city _King tching_. This city was called _Yen king_, or the -court of _Yen_. It became afterwards considerable; and the prince of -_Yen_ very powerful in the country of _Petcheli_ and _Leao tong_. In -the year 222 before Christ the emperor _Tsin chi hoang_ destroyed the -power of the princes of _Yen_, the defendants of _Tchao kong_, and -seized their dominions. The founder of the dynasty _Han_ destroyed the -power of the family of _Tsin chi hoang_. In the time of the dynasty -_Tsin_, before the Christian æra, and of the dynasty _Han_, the city -of _Yen_ was an important government, on account of the neighbourhood -of the Tartars. Some time after the dynasty _Han_ several Tartar -princes _Sien pi_ made themselves masters of the country of _Yen_. -During the dynasty of _Tang_ the city of _Yen_ was still a considerable -one. After the destruction of that dynasty the Tartars _Ki tan_[151] -made themselves masters of Tartary, and the provinces of _Chansy_, -_Petcheli_, and _Leao tong_. Their power was formidable to the Chinese. -Their court was in the city of _Yen_, which they adorned and inlarged. -These Tartars had, like the Chinese emperors, tribunals; one for the -mathematics, and another for history[152]. They had likewise some -illustrious princes, and kept some correspondence with the Caliphs. - -The Tartars _Nuntche_ destroyed the power of _Leao_. Their court was -also at _Yen_; and they made it as magnificent and large a city as -Peking is now. The Mogol Tartars destroyed the empire of the _Nuntche_ -or _Kin_. Their court was at first at _Yen_; but the Tartar Mogol -emperor _Koublay_ demolished that city, and built what is now called -_King tching_: at least _King tching_ is a good part of the city built -by _Koublay_, which was some _ly_ larger. The emperor’s palace was -likewise larger. - -This city _King tching_ is that, which Marco Paulo calls _Cambalu_. -_Car_ is _khan_, which signifies a _king_; and _balu_ is a corruption -of an old Mogol word _balga_, or _balah_, which signifies a _city_: -whence is formed the word _balgasan_ in Mogol or Mongou, which -signifies city. _Khan balu_, or _khan balou_, signifies the royal -city. _King tching_, in the time of Marco Paulo, was the capital of -the empire of China. The Persians and Arabians, from the Mongou word -_khan balou_, or _khan balgasun_, or _khan balga_, formed the word -_khan balik_ or _khan balek_, which signifies also the royal city. -This name was given by the eastern people to the city of _Caifong -fou_, the capital of _Honan_, and to that of _Nanking_, the capital of -_Kiangnan_, at the time when these cities were the court of princes. -This name was also given to the cities of Tartary, when some powerful -princes kept sometimes their court there. What I have remarked -concerning the words _khan balik_, _khan balek_, _khan balga_, &c. is -to be applied to the words _ordo balik_, _ordou balik_. _Ordo_, or -_ordou_, or _orto_, signifies royal, imperial, in the Mogol or Mongou -language. So _ordou balik_ signifies a court, a royal city; and these -words are in fact the names of some old cities, where the Mogol or -Mongou kings kept their courts. - - -REMARKS _on_ Nº. 5, _Fan king tchang_; which is the place where the -foreign classical books are kept. - -_Tchang_ signifies magazine, or large place, where any thing is -contained. _Fan_ signifies stranger or foreigner; and _king_ signifies -a classical book. - -The Jews of _Caifong fou_, the capital of _Honan_, first told the -Jesuit missionaries, that they conceived, that the Hebrew Bible was -preserved at Peking in the place called _Fan king tchang_. These first -missionaries neglected to make a search for it at Peking, or did not -think of it. But it did not escape the attention of Father Bouvet, -a French Jesuit, who went to _Fan king tchang_. The antient place, -where the foreign books were kept, had been destroyed; and those books -removed into a neighbouring _miao_ where there were bonzes. Father -Bouvet went to this _miao_ with two other French Jesuits; but they -found only the Koran, fragments of the classical books of the Indians, -and the classical books of the lamas; the whole in bad condition. -Father Bouvet thought, that he saw in an old coffer Chaldee, Syriac, -and Hebrew characters. The bonze would not shew the place, where Father -Bouvet thought that he had seen those characters, which, on returning -to the _miao_, were not found. The emperor had ordered the bonzes -to shew every thing to Father Bouvet. All the classical books were -afterwards removed to the palace; the _miao_ was demolished; and there -remained nothing but the name of _Fan king tchang_. When I passed thro’ -_Caifong fou_, the Jews, in the presence of Father Gozani, who served -me as interpreter, assured me, that I should find the Bible in the _Fan -king tchang_. These Jews had not been at Peking. What they said was in -consequence of what they had been told by old Jews, who were deceased. -When I arrived at Peking, I made inquiries myself, and caused inquiries -to be made by others; but I could not find the Bible. It is not yet an -hundred years since there were at Peking some Jewish families; which -afterwards turned Mahometans. A Mahometan, who was a man of parts, -assured me several times, that the Bible was in the possession of the -Mahometans here, whose ancestors were Jews. But when, in consequence of -what he said, inquiries were made, nothing was found. This Mahometan -informed me likewise, that he had made inquiries; but if he had done -so, his researches proved unsuccessful. - - -REMARKS _on the_ Ti ouang miao, Nº. 217. - -1. The emperors, whose memory is honoured there, are - -The emperors _Tou hi_, _Chin Nong_, _Hoang ti_. - -The emperors _Chao hao_, _Tchouen hiu_, _Ty co_, _Yao_, _Chun_. - -The emperor _Yu_, the founder of the dynasty _Hia_, and thirteen other -emperors of that dynasty. - -The emperor _Tching tang_, the founder of the dynasty _Chang_, and -twenty-five emperors of that dynasty. - -The emperor _Ou ouang_, the founder of the dynasty _Tcheou_, and -thirty-one emperors of that dynasty. - -The founder of the dynasty _Han_, and twenty emperors of that dynasty, -who are called western _Han_, eastern _Han_, and later _Han_. - -The founder of the dynasty _Tang_, and fourteen emperors of that -dynasty. - -The founder of the dynasty _Song_, and thirteen emperors of that -dynasty; which is called the northern _Song_ and the southern _Song_. - -_Gen tchis khan_, or _Temoug in_, the founder of the dynasty _Yuen_, -is the dynasty of the Mongol or Mogol Tartars. Besides the founder -of this dynasty, there are ten other emperors of this dynasty, whose -memory is honoured in the _Ti ouang miao_. The four first emperors of -this dynasty, _viz. Gen tchis khan_, _Ogo tay_, _Kouey yevou_, and -_Meng ko_, reigned in the northern provinces, and had not conquered all -China. The emperor _Cobilay_, or _Koublay_, in Chinese _Yuen chitsou_, -completed the conquest of China. - -The founder of the dynasty _Ming_, and the eleven emperors of this -dynasty. - -The emperor _Ogo tay_, the second of the dynasty _Yuen_, completed -the destruction of the dynasty of the eastern Tartars, called _Kin_. -It reigned to the north as long as the dynasty _Song_ reigned to the -south. In the _Ti ouang miao_ is honoured the memory of the founder of -this dynasty _Kin_, and four other emperors of it. - -The founder of the Tartar dynasty _Kin_ destroyed the dynasty of the -Tartars _Ki tan_, called _Leao_, which conquered a great part of North -China and Tartary. - -In the _Ti ouang miao_ is honoured the memory of this Tartar dynasty -_Leao_, and five other emperors of the Tartars _Ki tan_, whose country -was in that of Parin in Tartary, among the Mongou or Mogols. - - -_Continuation of the Remarks on the_ Ti ouang miao. - -2. In the palace of Peking, and elsewhere, there are great halls, in -which honours are paid to the memory of the deceased emperors of the -reigning dynasty of the _Mantcheou_. The first and second emperor -reigned in East Tartary. The emperor _Chun tchi_ began to reign in -China. If we reckon the present emperor in the number, there are six -emperors _Mantcheou_. Father Couplet, and others, are mistaken in -reckoning one more. This error was occasioned by the years of the -reign of _Tay hong_, the second emperor, having had two names. Father -Couplet, and others, took the two names of the years of the reign for -the name or title of the two emperors. - -3. In the _Ti ouang miao_ is honoured the memory of some illustrious -persons in the different dynasties. The same is done in the hall, where -honour is paid to the memory of the deceased emperors _Montcheou_: and -there are there tablets for so many illustrious persons among those -emperors. - -4. In the _Ti ouang miao_ are placed none of the emperors of the -dynasty _Hin_ before Christ, nor any of those between the dynasties -_Tang_ and _Han_, nor of those of the five small dynasties after that -of _Tang_. Besides, in each dynasty there are some emperors, whose -tablets are not placed in the _Ti ouang miao_. The reigning dynasty has -not thought it a duty to pay honours to those emperors, but considered -them as unworthy the pompous title of _Tin tse_, or _Sons of Heaven_. - -5. The Tartars _Sien pi_, who came from the confines of _Leao tong_ and -Mongol or Mogol Tartary, had hords named _To pa_. One of these hords -made themselves masters of Tartary _Leao tong_, and of several northern -provinces of China. This Tartar power has the Chinese name of _Ouey_. -It has produced several great princes. The year of Christ 386 is -reckoned the first of that dynasty[153], which reigned above 180 years. -I do not know why the reigning dynasty has not placed the name of any -of these emperors in the _Ti ouang miao_. - -6. If we suppose, first, that all the books of the history of China -should be lost, or the contents of them should not be known in Europe; -and secondly, that the catalogue of the emperors, who are mentioned -in the _Ti ouang miao_, should fall into the hands of some European -critics; it is probable, that such a catalogue would occasion many -false reasonings with relation to the succession of the emperors, who -have reigned in China. - - - - -XCVII. _An Attempt to improve the Manner of working the Ventilators by -the Help of the Fire-Engine. In a Letter to_ Tho. Birch, _D. D. Secret. -R. S. from_ Keane Fitz-Gerald, _Esq; F.R.S._ - -[Read June 8, 1758.] - -SIR, - -THE reverend and ingenious Dr. Hales, from whom mankind has received -such benefit by his useful application of ventilators, being inclined -to extend its use to those, who work in mines at great depths under -ground, where the lives of many are lost by damps and noxious vapours, -occasioned by the want of a free circulation of air; and finding by -experience, that ventilators worked by wind do not operate above one -third part of the year, and in calm hot weather, when most wanted, do -not operate at all; did me the honour of applying to me for assistance -in contriving a machine to work the ventilator, by the help of the -fire-engine, which is now generally used in all mines for drawing off -the water; and which I have accordingly attempted, and hope it will -answer the purpose. - -As the lever of the fire-engine works up and down alternately, and -performs at a common medium about a dozen strokes in a minute, it -was necessary to contrive some way to make the beam, tho’ moving -alternately, to turn a wheel constantly round one way, and also to -increase the number of strokes to fifty or sixty in a minute. - -The model of a machine for this purpose is composed of four wheels of -different sizes, two clicks, three pinions, and a fly; which is put -into motion by the part of a wheel fixed to the arch of the lever of -the fire-engine. - -The wheel, which is turned by the lever, or rather moved up and down -by it, is loose on its arbor; and likewise one of the rochets, and the -wheel next to it. The outside rochet and outside wheel are fixed on the -arbor. - -There are two pinion-wheels fixed on the arbor; one on each side, near -the edge of the wheel moved by the lever, which turns them. - -There are also two clicks; one fixed to the great wheel, the other to -the frame. These exclusive of the wheel that moves the fly. - -The effect is, When the lever moves the wheel downwards, its click -forces the rochet fixed on the arbor to move along with it, and the -other wheels the same way. When it moves upwards, the click fixed on -the frame stops the larger rochet, and the wheel next to it, which are -pinned together. This wheel being stopped, and the great wheel carried -upwards by the lever, the pinion towards the edge of the great wheel -is forced round it, and moves the pinion on the other side the great -wheel; which pinion moves the wheel fixed on the arbor, the contrary -way to the great wheel, which is carried upwards by the lever. By which -means, the arbor is constantly turned the same way, when the lever of -the fire-engine is moved either upwards, or downwards. - -Upon the arbor there is also another great wheel fixed, which turns -a pinion: on the arbor of which pinion is a crank to move the -ventilator, and also a fly fixed to the end, to help the motion of the -crank, which in the model is turned three times for each stroke of the -lever, and may be increased or diminished, according to the number of -teeth in the pinion. - -The number of teeth in the great wheel moved by the lever is sixty-six; -but need not have teeth above half way round. - -The wheel fixed to the rochet has thirty-three teeth, and its pinion -eleven. - -The wheel fixed on the arbor, on the outside, has twenty-four teeth, -and its pinion sixteen. - -The wheel, which turns the fly, has ninety teeth, and the pinion turn’d -by this wheel ten. - -The greater the number of teeth in the rochets, the better. - -This machine may also be applied to other useful purposes at mines; and -it may be easily made to turn a mill to grind corn; or to turn a wheel -to raise coals, or whatever else is wanted to be raised from the mines. -As I have not met with any thing of the kind described, I take the -liberty of desiring you to lay it before the Society; and I hope it may -be made some way useful to the public. - -I am, Sir, - - Your most obedient humble Servant, - Kea. Fitz-Gerald. - -Poland-Street, June 7th, 1758. - - -_Explanation of the Three Tables._ - -The wheel A (_Tab. 26._), which is turned by the lever B (_Tab. 27._), -or rather moved up and down by it, is loose on its arbor; and likewise -one of the rochets C (_Tab. 26._), and the wheel next to it D. The -outside rochet E, and outside wheel F, are fixed on the arbor. - -There are two pinion-wheels G and H fixed on one arbor; one on each -side, near the edge of the wheel A, moved by the lever. - -There are also two clicks _a_ and _b_; one _a_ fixed to the great wheel -A, the other _b_ fixed to the frame. These exclusive of the wheel I, -that moves the pinion _c_, on the arbor of which, the crank _d_, and -fly _e_, (_Tab. 27._) are fixed. - -The effect is, when the lever B moves the wheel A downwards; its click -_a_, forces the rochet E, fixed on the arbor K, to move along with it, -and the other wheels the same way. When it moves upwards, the click _b_ -fixed to the frame, stops the larger rochet C, and the wheel D next to -it, which are pinned together; and as the wheel A is carried upwards -by the lever, the pinion G towards the edge of it, is forced round the -wheel D, and moves the pinion H, on the other side the great wheel A, -which moves the wheel F fixed on the arbor K, the contrary way to the -wheel A. By which means, the arbor K is constantly turned the same way, -when the lever of the fire-engine moves either upwards, or downwards. - -The pinion G, by being made proportionally smaller than the pinion H, -keeps the arbor K in the same swiftness of motion, when the lever is -moved upwards, as downwards. - -[Illustration: _Philos. Trans. Vol. L._ TAB. XXVI. _p. 730_. - -_J. Mynde sc._] - -[Illustration: _Philos. Trans. Vol. L._ TAB. XXVII. _p. 730_. - -_J. Mynde sc._] - -[Illustration: _Philos. Trans. Vol. L._ TAB. XXVIII. _p. 730_. - -_J. Mynde sc._] - -The great wheel I, fixed on the arbor K, turns the pinion _c_, on the -arbor of which the crank _d_ (to move the ventilator), and the fly -_e_ (to help the motion), are fixed. The pinion _c_, is turned three -times by each alternate motion of the lever; which may be increased, or -diminished, according to the number of teeth in the pinion _c_. - -The number of teeth in the wheel A is sixty-six, but need not be -toothed above half way. Instead of this wheel there might be a barrel, -with a chord round it, fixed at each end of the arch of the lever, and -projecting somewhat from it; which, by the motion of the lever, would -work in the same manner in other respects, and be easier made, and at -less expence. - -The wheel D fixed to the rochet C has thirty-three teeth, and its -pinion G eleven. - -The wheel F fixed on the arbor K has twenty-four teeth, and its pinion -H sixteen. - -The greater the number of teeth in the rochets, the better. - -_Tab. 26._ contains the plan (in parts) of the whole machine, except -the lever B and fly _e_, which are in _Tab. 27._ - -_Tab. 27._ also contains the elevation of the arbor, with its different -fixtures; _viz._ - -_Fig. 1._ The rochet C and wheel D (_Tab. 26._) fixed together. - - 2. The outside wheel F that works the pinion-wheel H (_Tab. 26_). - - 3. The two pinion-wheels H and G (_Tab. 26._) fixed on their arbor. - - 4. The same fixed to the wheel A (_Tab. 26._) by means of two cocks - _u_ and _w_ (_Tab. 26._). - - 5. The arbor, with the wheel L and rochet E fixed; _t_ the place, - where the wheel A is fixed. - - 6. The elevation of the whole arbor. - -_Tab. 28._ The elevation of the whole machine, the lever B (_Tab. 27._) -working the wheel A (_Tab. 26_). - - _s_ (_Tab. 26._) a thin piece of metal screwed to the wheel A, to - keep it in its place _t_ on the arbor K (_Tab. 27._) - - _u_ (_Tab. 26._) the cock, that fastens the pinion G, to the inside - of the wheel A. - - _w_ (_Tab. 26._) the cock, that fastens the pinion H on the outside - of the wheel A. - - _x_ (_Tab. 27._) the arbor, on which the pinions G and H are fixed. - - _y_ (_Tab. 26._) a spring, that keeps the click _a_ in its place. - - L (_Tab. 26._) a frame-plate with the centers marked. - - _z_ The opposite hole enlarged, to admit the pinion _c_ to pass - through. - - - - -XCVIII. _An Account of some Experiments concerning the different -Refrangibility of Light. By Mr._ John Dollond. _With a Letter from_ -James Short, _M. A. F.R.S. Acad. Reg. Suec. Soc._ - -[Read June 8, 1758.] - - _To the Rev. Dr._ Birch, _Secret. R. S._ - -Dear Sir, - -I Have received the inclosed paper from Mr. Dollond, which he desires -may be laid before the Royal Society. It contains the theory of -correcting the errors arising from the different refrangibility of -the rays of light in the object-glasses of refracting telescopes; and -I have found, upon examination, that telescopes made according to -this theory are intirely free from colours, and are as distinct as -reflecting telescopes. I am, - - Dear Sir, - Your most obedient humble Servant, - Ja. Short. - -Surrey-street, 8th June, 1758. - - -IT is well known, that a ray of light, refracted by passing thro’ -mediums of different densities, is at the same time proportionally -divided or spread into a number of parts, commonly called homogeneal -rays, each of a different colour; and that these, after refraction, -proceed diverging; a proof, that they are differently refracted, and -that light consists of parts that differ in degrees of refrangibility. - -Every ray of light passing from a rarer into a denser medium, is -refracted towards the perpendicular; but from a denser into a rarer -one, from the perpendicular; and the sines of the angles of incidence -and refraction are in a given ratio. But light consisting of parts, -which are differently refrangible, each part of an original or compound -ray has a ratio peculiar to itself; and therefore the more a heterogene -ray is refracted, the more will the colours diverge, since the ratios -of the sines of the homogene rays are constant; and equal refractions -produce equal divergencies. - -That this is the case when light is refracted by one given medium only, -as suppose any particular sort of glass, is out of all dispute, being -indeed self-evident; but that the divergency of the colours will be -the same under equal refractions, whatsoever mediums the light may be -refracted by, tho’ generally supposed, does not appear quite so clearly. - -However, as no medium is known, which will refract light without -diverging the colours, and as difference of refrangibility seems thence -to be a property inherent in light itself, Opticians have, upon that -consideration, concluded, that equal refractions must produce equal -divergencies in every sort of medium: whence it should also follow, -that equal and contrary refractions must not only destroy each other, -but that the divergency of the colour from one refraction would -likewise be corrected by the other; and there could be no possibility -of producing any such thing as refraction, which would not be affected -by the different refrangibility of light; or, in other words, that -however a ray of light might be refracted backwards and forwards by -different mediums, as water, glass, _&c._ provided it was so done, that -the emergent ray should be parallel to the incident one, it would ever -after be white; and, conversely, if it should come out inclined to the -incident, it would diverge, and ever after be coloured. From which it -was natural to infer, that all spherical object-glasses of telescopes -must be equally affected by the different refrangibility of light, in -proportion to their apertures, whatever material they may be formed of. - -But it seems worthy of consideration, that notwithstanding this notion -has been generally adopted as an incontestable truth, yet it does not -seem to have been hitherto so confirmed by evident experiment, as the -nature of so important a matter justly demands; and this it was that -determined me to attempt putting the thing to issue by the following -experiment. - -I cemented together two plates of parallel glass at their edges, so as -to form a prismatic or wedge-like vessel, when stopped at the ends or -bases; and its edge being turned downwards, I placed therein a glass -prism with one of its edges upwards, and filled up the vacancy with -clear water: thus the refraction of the prism was contrived to be -contrary to that of the water, so that a ray of light transmitted thro’ -both these refracting mediums would be refracted by the difference only -between the two refractions. Wherefore, as I found the water to refract -more or less than the glass prism, I diminished or increased the angle -between the glass plates, till I found the two contrary refractions to -be equal; which I discovered by viewing an object thro’ this double -prism; which, when it appeared neither raised nor depressed, I was -satisfied, that the refractions were equal, and that the emergent rays -were parallel to the incident. - -Now, according to the prevailing opinion, the object should have -appeared thro’ this double prism quite of its natural colour; for -if the difference of refrangibility had been equal in the two equal -refractions, they would have rectified each other: but the experiment -fully proved the fallacy of this received opinion, by shewing the -divergency of the light by the prism to be almost double of that by -the water; for the object, tho’ not at all refracted, was yet as much -infected with prismatic colours, as if it had been seen thro’ a glass -wedge only, whose refracting angle was near 30 degrees. - - _N. B._ This experiment will be readily perceived to be the same as - that which Sir Isaac Newton mentions[154]; but how it comes to differ - so very remarkably in the result, I shall not take upon me to account - for; but will only add, that I used all possible precaution and care - in the process, and that I keep the apparatus by me to evince the - truth of what I write, whenever I may be properly required so to do. - -I plainly saw then, that if the refracting angle of the water-vessel -could have admitted of a sufficient increase, the divergency of -the coloured rays would have been greatly diminished, or intirely -rectified; and there would have been a very great refraction without -colour, as now I had a great discolouring without refraction: but the -inconveniency of so large an angle, as that of the vessel must have -been, to bring the light to an equal divergency with that of the glass -prism, whose angle was about 60 degrees, made it necessary to try some -experiments of the same kind, by smaller angles. - -I ground a wedge of common plate glass to an angle of somewhat less -than 9 degrees, which refracted the mean rays about 5 degrees. I then -made a wedge-like vessel, as in the former experiment, and filling it -with water, managed it so, that it refracted equally with the glass -wedge; or, in other words, the difference of their refractions was -nothing, and objects viewed thro’ them appeared neither raised nor -depressed. This was done with an intent to observe the same thing over -again in these small angles, which I had seen in the prism: and it -appeared indeed the same in proportion, or as near as I could judge; -for notwithstanding the refractions were here also equal, yet the -divergency of the colours by the glass was vastly greater than that -by the water; for objects seen by these two refractions were very -much discoloured. Now this was a demonstration, that the divergency -of the light, by the different refrangibility, was far from being -equal in these two refractions. I also saw, from the position of the -colours, that the excess of divergency was in the glass; so that I -increased the angle of the water-wedge, by different trials, till the -divergency of the light by the water was equal to that by the glass; -that is, till the object, tho’ considerably refracted, by the excess -of the refraction of the water, appeared nevertheless quite free from -any colours proceeding from the different refrangibility of light; -and, as near as I could then measure, the refraction by the water was -about ⁵⁄₄ of that by the glass. Indeed I was not very exact in taking -the measures, because my business was not at that time about the -proportions, so much as to shew, that the divergency of the colours, by -different substances, was by no means in proportion to the refractions; -and that there was a possibility of refraction without any divergency -of the light at all. - -Having, about the beginning of the year 1757, tried these experiments, -I soon after set about grinding telescopic object-glasses upon the -new principles of refractions, which I had gathered from them; -which object-glasses were compounded of two spherical glasses with -water between them. These glasses I had the satisfaction to find, -as I had expected, free from the errors arising from the different -refrangibility of light: for the refractions, by which the rays were -brought to a focus, were every-where the differences between two -contrary refractions, in the same manner, and in the same proportions, -as in the experiment with the wedges. - -However, the images formed at the foci of these object-glasses were -still very far from being so distinct as might have been expected -from the removal of so great a disturbance; and yet it was not very -difficult to guess at the reason, when I considered, that the radii of -the spherical surfaces of those glasses were required to be so short, -in order to make the refractions in the required proportions, that -they must produce aberrations, or errors, in the image, as great, or -greater, than those from the different refrangibility of light. And -therefore, seeing no method of getting over that difficulty, I gave up -all hopes of succeeding in that way. - -And yet, as these experiments clearly proved, that different substances -diverged the light very differently, in proportion to the refraction; -I began to suspect, that such variety might possibly be found in -different sorts of glass, especially as experience had already shewn, -that some made much better object-glasses, in the usual way, than -others: and as no satisfactory cause had as yet been assigned for such -difference, there was great reason to presume, that it might be owing -to the different divergency of the light by their refractions. - -Wherefore, the next business to be undertaken, was to grind wedges -of different kinds of glass, and apply them together, so that the -refractions might be made in contrary directions, in order to discover, -as in the foregoing experiments, whether the refraction and divergency -of the colours would vanish together. But a considerable time elapsed -before I could set about that work; for tho’ I was determined to try -it at my leisure, for satisfying my own curiosity, yet I did not -expect to meet with a difference sufficient to give room for any great -improvement of telescopes; so that it was not till the latter end of -the year that I undertook it, when my first trials convinced me, that -this business really deserved my utmost attention and application. - -I discovered a difference, far beyond my hopes, in the refractive -qualities of different kinds of glass, with respect to their divergency -of colours. the yellow or straw-coloured foreign sort, commonly called -Venice glass, and the English crown glass, are very near alike in that -respect, tho’ in general the crown glass seems to diverge the light -rather the least of the two. The common plate glass made in England -diverges more; and the white crystal or flint English glass, as it is -called, most of all. - -It was not now my business to examine into the particular qualities of -every kind of glass that I could come at, much less to amuse myself -with conjectures about the cause, but to fix upon such two sorts -as their difference was the greatest; which I soon found to be the -crown, and the white flint or crystal. I therefore ground a wedge of -white flint of about 25 degrees, and another of crown of about 29 -degrees, which refracted nearly alike; but their divergency of the -colours was very different. I then ground several others of crown to -different angles, till I got one, which was equal, with respect to the -divergency of the light, to that in the white flint: for when they were -put together, so as to refract in contrary directions, the refracted -light was intirely free from colour. Then measuring the refractions -of each wedge, I found that of the white glass to be to that of the -crown nearly as 2 to 3; and this proportion would hold very nearly in -all small angles. Wherefore any two wedges made in this proportion, -and applied together, so as to refract in a contrary direction, would -refract the light without any difference of refrangibility. - -To make therefore two spherical glasses, that shall refract the light -in contrary directions, it is easy to understand, that one must be -concave, and the other convex; and as the rays are to converge to a -real focus, the excess of refraction must evidently be in the convex; -and as the convex is to refract most, it appears from the experiment, -that it must be made with crown glass, and the concave with white flint -glass. - -And further, as the refractions of spherical glasses are in an inverse -ratio of their focal distances; it follows, that the focal distances -of the two glasses should be inversely as the ratio’s of the fractions -of the wedges: for being thus proportioned, every ray of light, that -passes thro’ this combined glass, at whatever distance it may pass from -its axe, will constantly be refracted, by the difference between two -contrary refractions, in the proportion required; and therefore the -different refrangibility of the light will be intirely removed. - -Having thus got rid of the principal cause of the imperfection of -refracting telescopes, there seemed to be nothing more to do, but to go -to work upon this principle: but I had not made many attempts, before -I found, that the removal of one impediment had introduced another -equally detrimental (the same as I had before found in two glasses with -water between them): for the two glasses, that were to be combined -together, were the segments of very deep spheres; and therefore the -aberrations from the spherical surfaces became very considerable, and -greatly disturbed the distinctness of the image. Tho’ this appeared -at first a very great difficulty, yet I was not long without hopes -of a remedy: for considering, the surfaces of spherical glasses admit -of great variations, tho’ the focal distance be limited, and that by -these variations their aberrations may be made more or less, almost at -pleasure; I plainly saw the possibility of making the aberrations of -any two glasses equal; and as in this case the refractions of the two -glasses were contrary to each other, their aberrations, being equal, -would intirely vanish. - -And thus, at last, I obtained a perfect theory for making -object-glasses, to the apertures of which I could scarce conceive any -limits: for if the practice could come up to the theory, they must -certainly admit of very extensive ones, and of course bear very great -magnifying powers. - -But the difficulties attending the practice are very considerable. -In the first place, the focal distances, as well as the particular -surfaces, must be very nicely proportioned to the densities or -refracting powers of the glasses; which are very apt to vary in the -same sort of glass made at different times. Secondly, the centres -of the two glasses must be placed truly on the common axis of the -telescope, otherwise the desired effect will be in a great measure -destroyed. Add to these, that there are four surfaces to be wrought -perfectly spherical; and any person, but moderately practised in -optical operations, will allow, that there must be the greatest -accuracy throughout the whole work. - -Notwithstanding so many difficulties, as I have enumerated, I have, -after numerous trials, and a resolute perseverance, brought the matter -at last to such an issue, that I can construct refracting telescopes, -with such apertures and magnifying powers, under limited lengths, as, -in the opinion of the best and undeniable judges, who have experienced -them, far exceed any thing that has been hitherto produced, as -representing objects with great distinctness, and in their true colours. - - John Dollond. - - - - -XCIX. _An Account of some extraordinary Effects arising from -Convulsions; being Part of a Letter to_ John Huxham, _M.D. and F.R.S. -from_ William Watson, _M.D. F.R.S._ - - 6 June, 1758. - -[Read June 15, 1758.] - -IN the month of January 1757, I was concerned for a young gentle-woman, -who, if the number, continuance, and frequency of their returns, -be considered, suffered the most violent and severe convulsions I -ever knew. At some times the muscular spasms were general; at other -times single muscles only, or a number of them, subservient to some -particular purpose in the animal oeconomy, were affected. And such -was the peculiarity of this case, that after and in proportion as -any single muscle, or any determined number of muscles, had been in -a state of spasm, a paralytic inability succeeded to those muscles, -which very much disordered and impaired, and several times even for no -small continuance prevented the patient from performing, several of -her necessary functions. When the muscles, for instance, subservient to -deglutition had been convulsed, for many hours after the fits had left -her, she has not been able to swallow a single drop of liquid: so that -when attempts have been made to cause her to drink, unless the liquor -was immediately thrown back, there was imminent danger of her being -strangled. When her eyes have been affected, several times a compleat -_gutta serena_, and total blindness, has ensued; the patient being able -to bear the strong day-light with open eyes, without being sensible of -its influence, or in the least contracting her widely dilated pupils. -After one of these fits the blindness continued full five days; and I -began to be in fear for the return of her sight. - -You, Sir, who are so excellently well versed in the animal oeconomy, -are not to be informed, that vocification is performed in the _aspera -arteria_; but that the articulation of sounds into syllables and words -is modulated principally by the tongue, and muscles about the larynx. -In the case before you, very early in the disease, the spasms seized -the muscles about the larynx: the consequence of which was, that after -they were over, the patient was unable to utter a word. This faculty -however she again once recovered; but it continued a very short time, -as the fits returned, which again left her deprived of the power -of speech. After having lost her voice a second time, her power of -speech did not return, even after she was freed from her convulsions, -and her general health restored. Fourteen months passed, whilst this -patient continued absolutely speechless; when, after having violently -heated herself by four hours dancing, on a sudden her power of speech -returned, and it has continued perfectly free ever since. - -What is still further remarkable in this case is, that during the whole -time of this patient’s continuing speechless, her life was rendered yet -more uncomfortable by her having, from the injury to her brain by the -spasms, forgot how to write, so as to express her meaning that way: but -upon the recovery of her speech, this faculty likewise returned, which -she has retained ever since. During the severity of this disease, which -continued several weeks, almost every day of which, from the number -and violence of the convulsions, I feared would be the patient’s last, -nothing was left unattempted, which I imagined could tend to prevent -the return of the spasms, or lessen their effects. My endeavours so far -happily succeeded, that her fits did not return; but the consequences -of them continued, more particularly her inability to speak. After some -months however, when she was recruited in her strength, I was desirous -of trying the effects of electricity, more particularly applied about -her throat. This was accordingly attempted; but such was the state of -her nerves, and their sensibility to its effects, that electrizing -brought back the fits, which again affected her sight: so that I was -compelled to desist, lest, in endeavouring to restore her speech, I -might not only fail in this attempt, but might bring possibly on a -permanent blindness. I determined therefore to trust the whole to time, -which has happily removed all her complaints. - - - - -C. _An Account of an extraordinary Storm of Hail in_ Virginia. _By_ -Francis Fauquier, _Esq; Lieutenant Governor of_ Virginia, _and F.R.S. -Communicated by_ William Fauquier, _Esq; F.R.S._ - -_To the Rev._ Tho. Birch, _D. D. Secret. R. S._ - -[Read Nov. 9, 1758.] - -SIR, - -IN a letter I received from my brother, the lieutenant governor of -Virginia, he gives an account of a very remarkable storm of hail; -which, if you think it worth communicating to the Society, is very much -at their service. - -It happened on Sunday the 9th of July, about four o’clock in the -afternoon, and was preceded by some thunder and lightning. It was a -small cloud, that did not seem to threaten much before its breaking, -and did not extend a full mile in breadth. It passed over the middle of -the town of Williamsburgh, and the skirts of the town had but little of -it. Its course was from N. by W. to S. by E. The hail-stones, or rather -pieces of ice, were most of them of an oblong square form; many of them -an inch and half long, and about three fourths of an inch wide and -deep; and from one side of most of them there proceeded sharp spikes, -protuberant at least half an inch. He says he cooled his wine, and -froze cream, with some of them the next day; and they were not totally -dissolved when he went to bed on Monday night. This storm broke every -pane of glass on the north side his house, and destroyed all his garden -things intirely. - -He mentions likewise the heats to have been rather more than usual in -that country this summer; and particularly on the 9th of August his -thermometer (which is hung on the outside of his house on the north -aspect) was at 97, by Fahrenheit’s graduation, and some other days as -high as 94 or 95. I am, - - SIR, - Your most obedient humble Servant, - Wm. Fauquier. - -Jermyn street, 18 October, 1758. - - - - -CI. _An Account of an extraordinary Case of a diseased Eye; In a Letter -to_ Matthew Maty, _M. D. F.R.S. By_ Daniel Peter Layard, _M. D. F.R.S._ - -[Read Nov. 9. 1758.] - - Huntingdon, 20th May, 1758. - -Dear Sir, - -IN October 1755. I communicated to you, and you inserted in the last -volume of your _Journal Britannique_, the case of Susannah Earle, of -Hemmingford-Grey in this County, who, in consequence of the whooping -cough, was afflicted with a protruded eye. The case I now send you, -somewhat similar to that young girl’s in its first appearance and -progress, but by accident attended with a second disease, will perhaps -deserve your attention, and not seem unworthy of being presented to -the Royal Society. - -John Law, of Fenny-Stanton, also in the County of Huntingdon, a strong -and robust lad, thirteen years and six months old, in Easter week -1756, beating dung about a close with unusual force, on a sudden felt -a violent pain in his left eye. The pain increased, an inflammation -ensued, and the eye grew daily larger. The poor boy’s mother followed -the directions, which she received, without the least benefit to her -child, after having, besides other expences, been defrauded by a quack -of two guineas; a great sum for a poor cottager! - -The widow Law, in her distress, heard of Susannah Earl’s cure. She -went to see her; and determined to bring her son to Huntingdon, for -Mr. Hopkins’s assistance. Accordingly, October the 7th 1756, she came -to Mr. Daniel Hopkins, surgeon, in this town; and having desired my -opinion, we both examined the eye together. - -The left eye was protruded out of its orbit, and hung down over the -cheek to the upper lip. The coats were greatly discoloured, all the -vessels turgid, the sight totally lost, and the humours appeared like -fluctuating pus. We saw the necessity of an immediate extirpation, to -save the right eye, already greatly inflamed; and having apprized the -mother and boy of the state the eye was in, a consultation was desired -with two surgeons of St. Ives. Mr. Dawkes, who was present with Mr. -Skeeles at Susannah Earle’s operation, being dead since that time, Mr. -Thomas Skeeles and Mr. Thomas Want very charitably met Mr. Hopkins and -me the next day, October the 8th, at the widow Law’s cottage. - -The eye appeared to these gentlemen as I have related: and upon Mr. -Want’s pressing with his finger on the pupil, the globe burst at the -edge of the _Iris_, and discharged pus. The extirpation of the eye was -unanimously agreed upon, and immediately performed. - -Mr. Hopkins made a puncture with a lancet close to the external and -small canthus of the eye, and then with a pair of crooked scissars took -off all the distended globe close to the eye-lids. He then cleaned the -cavity of the purulent humours, and filled it with soft lint, over -which he applied bolsters dipped in warm red wine and water, and the -_monoculus_ bandage to keep on the whole dressings. The lad was bled -in the arm; nitrous medicines, and anodynes, were prescribed, and a -suitable regimen. The fever, and inflammation of the eye, gradually -decreased; the suppuration of the wound in few days was good, the -distended eye-lids contracted, and a cure was soon expected. - -But on November the 7th the lad went to open the street-door, and -it being a cold and rainy evening, he quickly felt the bad effects -of the cold wind, which drove the rain in upon him. That night the -wound became again very painful, the eye-lids puffed up, and next -day appeared much inflamed, as were all the contents of the orbit. -Fungous excrescences soon followed, and an intermittent fever. An -emetic being improper, he was purged with rhubarb, and afterwards took -the bark infused in red wine. The fever was removed after some time; -but the contents of the orbit continued increasing, and the fungous -excrescences became so large and spongy, as to be of equal bulk with -the diseased eye before extirpation. All topical applications, to -contract this fungus, were ineffectual, and the application of caustics -or escharotics was prudently avoided, lest they should produce a -carcinomatous ulcer. The discharge was chiefly a purulent serum: on -which account, ever since the beginning of November he was kept upon a -dry diet. - -In February 1757. the remaining coats of the eye began to appear at -the most prominent parts of the excrescence, and seemed white like a -part of the _conjunctiva_. On touching it with the finger, a distinct -fluctuation was felt, and an _hydrophthalmia_ perfectly discovered; but -neither the thickness of the coats, nor the sensibility of the parts, -would permit a puncture to be made, till the cyst, which appeared -formed by the distension of one of the coats of the eye, was freer from -the fungus. - -The cyst continued daily to extend itself, and to separate the fungous -edges; the fluctuation became more manifest, and the membranes thinner. -At length, on the 15th of June 1757, Mr. Hopkins opened the cyst -with the point of a lancet, and let out a large cup-full of limpid -serum, without smell or taste. The boy felt very little pain in this -operation. The cavity was filled with dry lint, and compresses dipt in -warm red wine and water were applied over it. All the night following, -and several days after, a great discharge of serum came away. On the -19th the fungus was considerably lessened. Mr. Hopkins then dressed -the wound with warm _unguentum é gummi elemi_, and washed the fungus -with a lotion of _aquarum calcis_, _rosarum_, _et tincturæ myrrhæ_. -On the 23d, upon his removing the dressings, he saw the cyst loose -and collapsed; which he extracted with his forceps, without the least -difficulty, or pain to his patient. The fungus daily wasted afterwards, -the wound digested well, and the lad was intirely cured on the 7th of -August. - -His right eye is perfectly strong, and he has been free from complaint -ever since. The remainder of the coats of the eye, and of the muscles, -bear up the eye-lids, that when uncovered he only seems to have closed -the left eye: however, he has wore all the winter a back patch over it, -to guard against fresh cold. - -The cyst, when first taken away, measured three inches and half in -length, one inch and half in diameter, and contained a large cup-full -of water. It appeared to be the _tunica sclerotica_, was of a clear -pellucid white, and of so delicate a texture, as scarce to admit of -being touched without tearing; and when dried with all possible care, -became so brittle, that Mr. Hopkins could hardly preserve it in the -manner I now send it. - - -REMARKS. - -In both Susannah Earle and John Law’s cases, the eye was distended by -the accumulation of the aqueous humour, separated in great quantity -by the repeated straining of the blood-vessels in the whooping cough, -which might gradually relax and enlarge the aqueous ducts of Susannah -Earle’s eye; and possibly by the rupture of those ducts, and of some -blood-vessels, at the time John Law exerted himself violently in -beating dung about the close: for in either case the _impetus_ of the -blood must have been so violent, as to produce those effects. However, -from the _hydrophthalmia_ succeeding the operation on John Law, the -fungous excrescence, and continual serous discharge during several -months from the wound, it plainly appears, that an abundance of aqueous -humour was discharged at first by the distention or laceration of the -aqueous ducts, and latterly for want of a contraction of those vessels, -and of the lymphatics, which were no longer of use. - -Both these cases shew the necessity of inquiring particularly into -the causes of diseases of the eyes, as well as of other parts of the -body; for by barely attending to the symptoms, the disease will not -be removed, tho’ the symptoms be alleviated. Bleeding, and moderate -evacuations, would certainly have, at first, decreased the tension and -pain, and assuaged the inflammation; but both topical applications, and -internal medicines, were properly to be adapted, and a suitable diet -regulated. - -Not to mention the absurd and impertinent abuse of empirics, what -benefit could accrue, in both these cases, from unctuous, laxative, -or emollient applications, from drastic and mercurial purges? Tho’ -such applications might be well intended, to take off the tension -and inflammation; yet, as the distension of the blood-vessels only -increased gradually, as the globe of the eye was enlarged; so whatever -application relaxed the coats of the eye, must infallibly stretch out -the vessels yet farther, and cause a greater pain and inflammation; -which drastic and mercurial purges would also increase. - -The only method then to be pursued in such bad cases would be at first -to endeavour to remove the fullness of the blood, and make use of such -topical remedies as would contract without irritation. If the cause -remains, as the whooping cough in Susannah Earle’s case, no amendment -of the eye can be expected, while the patient’s blood-vessels are -continually strained by frequent coughing. This illness therefore -should be attended to, and removed as soon as possible. - -But should the eye be so enlarged, as to protrude itself out of the -orbit, there seems no other way to lessen the bulk of the eye, than -by making a puncture with a proper instrument, to let out the aqueous -humour; and then apply such agglutinant and contracting _collyria_, as -may reduce the distended coats and vessels to their former size. This -operation should be performed before the humours are vitiated, the -sight lost, the vessels in a state of suppuration, and the coats of the -eye too far extended; for at that time nothing less than extirpation -can be of use. - -Professor Nuck, in his _Tractatus de Ductibus Oculorum Aquosis_, p. -120, _& seq._ relates the success he had in curing a young man by five -repeated punctures, and a strict observance in a proper use of all the -non-naturals. - -I am, with the greatest regard and esteem, - - Dear Sir, - Your most affectionate Brother, - and very humble Servant, - D. P. Layard. - - - - -CII. _An Account of the Heat of the Weather in_ Georgia: _In a Letter -from his Excellency_ Henry Ellis, _Esq; Governor of_ Georgia, _and -F.R.S. to_ John Ellis, _Esq; F.R.S._ - -[Read Nov. 16, 1758.] - - Georgia, 17 July, 1758. - -Dear Sir, - -THO’ some weeks have passed since I wrote to you, yet so little -alteration has happened in the state of our affairs, that nothing -occurs to me relative to them worth committing to paper. This indeed -I need not regret, as one cannot sit down to any thing, that requires -much application, but with extreme reluctance; for such is the -debilitating quality of our violent heats at this season, that an -inexpressible languor enervates every faculty, and renders even the -thought of exercising them painful. - -’Tis now about three o’ clock; the sun bears nearly S. W. and I am -writing in a piazza, open at each end, on the north-east side of my -house, perfectly in the shade: a small breeze at S. E. blows freely -thro’ it; no buildings are nearer, to reflect the heat, than 60 yards: -yet in a thermometer hanging by me, made by Mr. Bird, and compared by -the late Mr. George Graham with an approved one of his own, the mercury -stands at 102. Twice it has risen this Summer to the same height; -_viz._ on the 28th of June, and the 11th of July. Several times it has -been at 100, and for many days successively at 98; and did not in the -nights sink below 89. I think it highly probable, that the inhabitants -of this town breathe a hotter air than any other people on the face of -the earth. The greatest heat we had last year was but 92, and that but -once: from 84 to 90 were the usual variations; but this is reckoned -an extraordinary hot summer. The weather-wise of this country say it -forebodes a hurricane; for it has always been remarked, that these -tempests have been preceded by continual and uncommon heats. I must -acquaint you, however, that the heats we are subject to here are more -intense than in any other parts of the province, the town of Savannah -being situated upon a sandy eminence, and sheltered all round with high -woods. But it is very sufficient, that the people actually breathe so -hot an air as I describe; and no less remarkable, that this very spot, -from its height and dryness, is reckoned equally healthy with any other -in the province. - -I have frequently walked an hundred yards under an umbrella, with a -thermometer suspended from it by a thread to the height of my nostrils, -when the mercury has rose to 105; which is prodigious. At the same -time I have confined this instrument close to the hottest part of my -body, and have been astonished to observe, that it has subsided several -degrees. Indeed, I never could raise the mercury above 97 with the heat -of my body. - -You know, dear Sir, that I have traversed a great part of this globe, -not without giving some attention to the peculiarities of each climate; -and I can fairly pronounce, that I never felt such heats any-where as -in Georgia. I know experiments on this subject are extremely liable to -error; but I presume I cannot now be mistaken, either in the goodness -of the instrument, or in the fairness of the trials, which I have -repeatedly made with it. This same thermometer I have had thrice in the -equatorial parts of Africa; as often at Jamaica, and the West India -islands; and, upon examination of my journals, I do not find, that the -quicksilver ever rose in those parts above the 87th degree, and to that -but seldom: its general station was between the 79th and 86th degree; -and yet I think I have felt those degrees, with a moist air, more -disagreeable than what I now feel. - -In my relation of the late expedition to the north-west, if I -recollect right, I have observed, that all the changes and variety of -weather, that happen in the temperate zone throughout the year, may be -experienced at the Hudson’s Bay settlements in 24 hours. But I may now -extend this observation; for in my cellar the thermometer stands at 81, -in the next story at 102, and in the upper one at 105; and yet these -heats, violent as they are, would be tolerable, but for the sudden -changes that succeed them. On the 10th of December last the mercury was -at 86; on the 11th it was so low as 38 of the same instrument. What -havock must this make with an European constitution? Nevertheless, but -few people die here out of the ordinary course; tho’ indeed one can -scarce call it living, merely to breathe, and trail about a vigorless -body; yet such is generally our condition from the middle of June to -the middle of September. Dear Sir, - - Yours most affectionately, - Henry Ellis. - - - - -CIII. _The Invention of a General Method for determining the Sum of -every 2d, 3d, 4th, or 5th_, &c. _Term of a Series, taken in order; the -Sum of the whole Series being known. By_ Thomas Simpson, _F.R.S._ - -[Read Nov. 16, 1758.] - -AS the doctrine of Series’ is of very great use in the higher branches -of the mathematics, and their application to nature, every attempt -tending to extend that doctrine may justly merit some degree of regard. -The subject of the paper, which I have now the honour to lay before the -Society, will be found an improvement of some consequence in that part -of science. And how far the business of finding fluents may, in some -cases, be facilitated thereby, will appear from the examples subjoined, -in illustration of the general method here delivered. - -The series propounded, whose sum (_S_) is supposed to be given (either -in algebraic terms, or by the measures of angles and ratio’s, _&c._) -I shall here represent by _a_ + _bx_ + _cx_² + _dx_³ + _ex_⁴, &c. and -shall first give the solution of that case, where every third term is -required to be taken, or where the series to be summed is _a_ + _dx_³ + -_gx_⁶ + _kx_⁶, &c. By means whereof, the general method of proceeding, -and the resolution of every other case, will appear evident. - -Here, then, every _third_ term being required to be taken, let the -series (_a_ + _dx_³ + _gx_⁶, &c.), whose value is sought, be conceived -to be composed of _three_ others. - - ⅓ × (_a_ + _b_ × (_px_) + _c_ × (_px_)² + _d_ × (_px_)³ + _e_ × - (_px_)⁴, &c.) - - ⅓ × (_a_ + _b_ × (_qx_) + _c_ × (_qx_)² + _d_ × (_qx_)³ + _e_ × - (_qx_)⁴, &c.) - - ⅓ × (_a_ + _b_ × (_rx_) + _c_ × (_rx_)² + _d_ × (_rx_)³ + _e_ × - (_rx_)⁴, &c.) - -having all the _same form_, and the _same coefficients_ with the series -first proposed, and wherein the converging quantities _px_, _qx_, _rx_, -are also in a determinate (tho’ yet unknown) ratio to the original -converging quantity _x_. Now, in order to determine the quantities -of these ratios, or the values of _p_, _q_, and _r_, let the terms -containing the same powers of _x_, in the two equal values, be equated -in the common way: - -So shall, - - ⅓ _b_ × _px_ + ⅓ _b_ × _qx_ + ⅓ _b_ × _rx_ = 0 - ⅓ _c_ × _p_²_x_² + ⅓ _c_ × _q_²_x_² + ⅓ _c_ × _r_²_x_² = 0 - ⅓ _d_ × _p_³_x_³ + ⅓ _d_ × _q_³_x_³ + ⅓ _d_ × _r_³_x_³ = _dx_³ - ⅓ _e_ × _p_⁴_x_⁴ + ⅓ _e_ × _q_⁴_x_⁴ + ⅓ _e_ × _r_⁴_x_⁴ = 0 - &c. - -And consequently, - - _p_ + _q_ + _r_ = 0 - _p_² + _q_² + _r_² = 0 - _p_³ + _q_³ + _r_³ = 3 - _p_⁴ + _q_⁴ + _r_⁴ = 0, &c. - -Make, now, _p_³ = 1, _q_³ = 1, and _r_³ = 1; that is, let _p_, _q_, -and _r_, be the three roots of the cubic equation _z_³ = 1, or _z_³ - -1 = 0: then, seeing both the second and third terms of this equation -are wanting, not only the sum of all the roots (_p_ + _q_ + _r_) but -the sum of all their squares (_p_² + _q_² + _r_²) will vanish, or be -equal to nothing (by common algebra), as they ought, to fulfil the -conditions of the two first equations. Moreover, since _p_³ = 1, _q_³ -= 1, and _r_³ = 1, it is also evident, that _p_⁴ + _q_⁴ + _r_⁴ (= _p_ -+ _q_ + _r_) = 0, _p_⁵ + _q_⁵ + _r_⁵ (= _p_² +_q_² + _r_²) = 0, _p_⁶ -+ _q_⁶ + _r_⁶ (= _p_³ + _q_³ + _r_³) = 3. Which equations being, in -effect, nothing more than the first three repeated, the values of -_p_, _q_, _r_, above assigned, equally fulfil the conditions of these -also: so that the series arising from the addition of three assumed -ones will agree, in every term, with _that_ whose sum is required: but -those series’ (whereof the quantity in question is composed) having -all of them the _same form_ and the _same coefficients_ with the -original series _a_ + _bx_ + _cx_² + _dx_³, &c. (= _S_), their sums -will therefore be truly obtained, by substituting _px_, _qx_, and _rx_, -successively, for _x_, in the given value of _S_. And, by the very same -reasoning, and the process above laid down, it is evident, that, if -every _nᵗʰ_ term (instead of every third term) of the given series be -taken, the values of _p_, _q_, _r_, _s_, &c. will then be the roots of -the equation _zⁿ_ - 1 = 0[155]; and that, the sum of all the terms so -taken, will be truly obtained by substituting _px_, _qx_, _rx_, _sx_, -&c. successively for _x_, in the given value of _S_, and then dividing -the sum of all the quantities thence arising by the given number _n_. - -The same method of solution holds equally, when, in taking every _n_ᵗʰ -term of the series, the operation begins at some term after the first. -For all the terms preceding _that_ may be transposed, and the whole -equation divided by the power of _x_ in the first of the remaining -terms; and then the sum of every _nᵗʰ_ term (beginning at the first) -will be found by the preceding directions; which sum, multiplied by -the power of _x_ that before divided, will evidently give the true -value required to be determined. Thus, for example, let it be required -to find the sum of every third term of the given series _a_ + _bx_ + -_cx_² + _dx_³ + _ex_⁴, &c. (= _S_), beginning with _cx_². Then, by -transposing the two first terms, and dividing the whole by _x_², we -shall have _c_ + _dx_ + _ex_² + _fx_³, &c. = (_S_ - _a_ - _bx_) ⁄ -(_xx_) (= _S´_). From whence having found the sum of every third term -of the series _c_ + _dx_ + _ex_² + _fx_³, &c. beginning at the first -(_c_), that sum, multiplied by _x_², will manifestly give the true -value sought in the present case. - -And here it may be worth while to observe, that all the terms preceding -_that_ at which the operation (in any case) begins, may (provided they -exceed not in number the given interval _n_) be intirely disregarded, -as having no effect at all in the result. For if in that part ((-_a_ - -_bx_) ⁄ _xx_) of the value of _S´_, above exhibited, in which the first -terms, _a_ and _bx_, enter, there be substituted _px_, _qx_, _rx_, -successively, for _x_ (according to the _prescript_) the sum of the -quantities thence arising will be - - - _a_ ⁄ (_p_²_x_²) - _a_ ⁄ (_q_²_x_²) - _a_ ⁄ (_r_²_x_²) - - _b_ ⁄ _px_ - _b_ ⁄ _qx_ - _b_ ⁄ _rx_ - -which, because _p_³ = 1, _q_³ = 1, &c. (or _p_² = 1 ⁄ _p_, _q_² = 1 ⁄ -_q_, &c.) may be expressed thus; - - - _a_ ⁄ _xx_ × (_p_ + _q_ + _r_) - - _b_ ⁄ _x_ × (_p_² + _q_² + _r_²) - -But, that _p_ + _q_ + _r_ = 0, and _p_² + _q_² + _r_² = 0, hath been -already shewn; whence the truth of the general observation is manifest. -Hence it also appears, that the method of solution above delivered, -is not only general, but includes this singular beauty and advantage, -that in all series’ whatever, whereof the terms are to be taken -according to the same assigned order, the quantities (_p_, _q_, _r_, -&c.), whereby the resolution is performed, will remain invariably the -same. The greater part of these quantities are indeed _imaginary_ ones; -and so likewise will the quantities be that result from them, when -substitution is made in the given expression for the value of _S_. But -by adding, as is usual in like cases, every two corresponding values, -so resulting together, all marks of _impossibility_ will disappear. - -If, in the series to be summed, the alternate terms (_viz._ the 2d, -4th, 6th, _&c._) should be required to be taken under signs contrary to -what they have in the original series given; the reasoning and result -will be no-ways different; only, instead of making _p_³ + _q_³ + _r_³ -(or _pⁿ_ + _qⁿ_ + _rⁿ_, &c.) = +3 (or +_n_), the same quantity must, -here, be made = -3 (or -_n_). From whence, _pⁿ_ being = -1, _qⁿ_ = -1, -&c. the values of _p_, _q_, _r_, &c. will, in this case, be the roots -of the equation _zⁿ_ + 1 = 0. - -It may be proper, now, to put down an example, or two, of the use and -application of the general conclusions above derived. First, then, -supposing the series, whose sum is given, to be _x_ + _x²_ ⁄ 2 + _x³_ -⁄ 3 + _x⁴_ ⁄ 4 ... + _xᵐ_ ⁄ _m_ + _xᵐ ⁺ ¹_) ⁄ (_m_ + 1) + _xᵐ ⁺ ²_ ⁄ -(_m_ + 2) ... + _xᵐ ⁺ ⁿ_ ⁄ (_m_ + _n_) + _xᵐ ⁺ ⁿ ⁺ ¹_ ⁄ (_m_ + _n_ + 1) -+, &c. = - H. Log.(1-_x_) (= _S_); let it be required, from hence, to -find the sum of the series (_xᵐ_ ⁄ _m_ + _xᵐ ⁺ ⁿ_ ⁄ (_m_ + _n_) + _xᵐ -⁺ ²ⁿ_ ⁄ (_m_ + 2_n_) &c.) arising by taking every _nᵗʰ_ term thereof, -beginning with that whose exponent (_m_) is any integer less than _n_. -Here, the terms preceding _xᵐ_ ⁄ _m_ being transposed, and the whole -equation divided by _xᵐ_, we shall have 1 ⁄ _m_ + _x_ ⁄ (_m_ + 1) + -_x_² ⁄ (_m_ + 2) + _x_³ ⁄ (_m_ + 3), &c. = -(1 ⁄ _xᵐ_) × H. Log.(1 - -_x_) - (_x_ + ½_x_², &c.) ⁄ _xᵐ_. In which value, let _px_, _qx_, _rx_, -&c. be, successively, substituted for _x_ (according to prescript) -neglecting intirely the terms (_x_ + ½_x_²) ⁄ _xᵐ_, as having no effect -at all in the result: from whence we get -1 ⁄ (_(px)ᵐ_) × Log.(1 - -_px_) - (1 ⁄ _(qx)ᵐ_) × Log.(1 - _qx_) - (1 ⁄ _(rx)ᵐ_) × Log.(1 - -_rx_), &c. Which multiplied by _xᵐ_ (the quantity that before divided) -gives -1 ⁄ (_pᵐ_) × Log.(1 - _px_) - 1 ⁄ (_qᵐ_) × Log.(1 - _qx_) - 1 ⁄ -(_rᵐ_) × Log.(1 - _rx_), &c. = _n_ times the quantity required to be -determined. - -But now, to get rid of the imaginary quantities _q_, _r_, &c. by means -of their known values α + √(αα - 1), α - √(αα - 1), &c. it will be -necessary to observe, that, as the product of any two corresponding -ones (α + √(αα - 1) × (α - √(αα - 1)) is equal to unity, we may -therefore write (α - √(αα - 1))_ᵐ_ (= _rᵐ_) instead of its equal 1 -⁄ (_qᵐ_), and (α + √(αα - 1))_ᵐ_ (= _qᵐ_) instead of its equal 1 ⁄ -(_rᵐ_): by which means the two terms, wherein these two quantities -enter, will stand thus; -(α - √(αα - 1))_ⁿ_ × Log. (1 - _qx_) - (α + -√(αα - 1))_ᵐ_ × Log. (1 - _rx_). - -But, if _A_ be assumed to express the co-sine of an arch (_Q_), _m_ -times as great as that (360° ⁄ _n_) whose co-sine is here denoted by α; -then will _A_ - √(_AA_ - 1) = [156](α - √(αα - 1))_ᵐ_, and _A_ + √(_AA_ -- 1) = (α + √(αα - 1))_ᵐ_: which values being substituted above, we -thence get - - -_A_ × (log. (1 - _qx_) + log. (1 - _rx_)) + √(_AA_ - - 1) × (log. (1 - _qx_) - log. (1 - _rx_)); - - -whereof the former part (which, exclusive of the factor _A_, I shall -hereafter denote by _M_) is manifestly equal to -_A_ × log. ((1 - _qx_) -× (1 - _rx_)) (by the nature of logarithms) = -_A_ × log. 1 - (_q_ + -_r_)._x_ + _qrx_² = -_A_ × log. (1 - 2α_x_ + _xx_) (by substituting -the values of _q_ and _r_): which is now intirely free from imaginary -quantities. But, in order to exterminate them out of the latter part -also, put _y_ = log. (1 - _qx_) - log. (1 - _rx_); then will _ẏ_ = --_qẋ_ ⁄ (1 - _qx_) + _rẋ_ ⁄ (1 - _rx_) = -((_q_ - _r_) × _ẋ_) ⁄ (1 - -(_q_ + _r_) × _x_ + _xx_) = -(2√(αα - 1) × _ẋ_) ⁄ (1 - 2α_x_ + _xx_) -= -(2√(-1) × √(1 - αα) × _ẋ_) ⁄ (1 - 2αx + xx); where (√(1 - αα) × ẋ) -⁄ (1 - 2α_x_ + _xx_) expresseth the fluxion of a circular arch (_N_) -whose radius is 1, and sine = (√(1 - αα) × _ẋ_) ⁄ (1 - 2α_x_ + _xx_); -consequently _y_ will be = -2√(-1) × _N_: which, multiplied by √(_AA_ - -1), or its equal √(-1) × √(1 - _AA_), gives 2√(1 - _AA_) × _N_; and, -this value being added to that of the former part (found above), and -the whole being divided by _n_, we thence obtain (-_AM_ + 2√(1 - _AA_) -× _N_) ⁄ _n_, or 1 ⁄_n_ × (-co-s. _Q_ × _M_ + sin. _Q_ × 2_N_) for that -part of the value sought depending on the two terms affected with _q_ -and _r_. From whence the sum of any other two corresponding terms will -be had, by barely substituting one letter, or value, for another: So -that, - - { -log. (1 - _x_) - { -co-s. _Q_ × _M_ + sin. _Q_ × 2_N_ - (1 ⁄ _n_) × { -co-s. _Q´_ × _M´_ + sin. _Q´_ × 2_N´_ - { -co-s. _Q´´_ × _M´´_ + sin. _Q´´_ × 2_N´´_ - { -&c. + &c. - -will truly express the sum of the series proposed to be determined; -_M_, _M´_, _M´´_ &c. being the hyperbolical logarithms of 1 - 2α_x_ + -_xx_, 1 - 2β_x_ + _xx_, 1 - 2γ_x_ + _xx_, &c. _N_, _N´_, _N´´_ &c. the -arcs whose sines are _x_√(1 - αα) ⁄ √(1 - 2α_x_ + _xx_), _x_√(1 - ββ) ⁄ -√(1 - 2β_x_ + _xx_), _x_√(1 - γγ) ⁄ √(1 - 2γ_x_ + _xx_), &c. and _Q_, -_Q´_, _Q´´_, &c. the measures of the angles expressed by (360° ⁄ _n_) -× _m_, 2 × (360° ⁄ _n_) × _m_, 3 × (360° ⁄ _n_) × _m_, &c. And here it -may not be amiss to take notice, that the series _xᵐ_ ⁄ _m_ + _xᵐ ⁺ ⁿ_ -⁄ (_m_ + _n_) + _xᵐ ⁺ ²ⁿ_ ⁄ (_m_ + 2_n_) + &c. thus determined, is that -expressing the fluent of (_xᵐ ⁻ ¹ẋ_) ⁄ (1 - _xⁿ_); corresponding to one -of the two famous _Cotesian forms_. From whence, and the reasoning -above laid down, the fluent of the other _form_, _xᵐ ⁻ ¹ẋ_ ⁄ (1 + -_xⁿ_), may be very readily deduced. For, since the series (_xᵐ_ ⁄ _m_ - -_xᵐ ⁺ ⁿ_ ⁄ (_m_ + _n_) + _xᵐ ⁺ ²ⁿ_ ⁄ (_m_ + 2_n_) - _xᵐ ⁺ ³ⁿ_ ⁄ (_m_ + -3_n_) &c.) for this last fluent, is that which arises by changing the -signs of the alternate terms of the former; the quantities _p_, _q_, -_r_, &c. will here (agreeably to a preceding observation) be the roots -of the equation _zⁿ_ + 1 = 0; and, consequently, α, β, γ, δ, &c. the -co-sines of the arcs 180° ⁄ _n_, 3 × 180° ⁄ _n_, 5 × 180° ⁄ _n_, &c. -(as appears by the foregoing note). So that, making _Q_, _Q´_, _Q´´_, -&c. equal, here, to the measures of the angles (180° ⁄ _n_) × _m_, 3 × -(180° ⁄ _n_) × _m_, 5 × (180° ⁄ _n_) × _m_, &c. the fluent sought will -be expressed in the very same manner as in the preceding case; except -that the first term, -log. (1 - _x_) (arising from the _rational_ root -_p_ = 1) will here have no place. - -After the same manner, with a small increase of trouble, the fluent of -_xᵐ ⁻ ¹ẋ_ ⁄ (1 ± 2_lxⁿ_ + _x_²_ⁿ_) may be derived, _m_ and _n_ being -any integers whatever. But I shall now put down one example, wherein -the impossible quantities become exponents of the powers, in the terms -where they are concerned. - -The series here given is 1 - _x_ + _x_² ⁄ 2 + _x_³ ⁄ (2.3) + _x_⁴ -⁄ (2.3.4) - _x_⁵ ⁄ (2.3.4.5), &c. = the number whose hyp. log. is --_x_, and it is required to find the sum of every _nᵗʰ_ term thereof, -beginning at the first. Here the quantity sought will (according to the -general rule) be truly defined by the _nᵗʰ_ part of the sum of all the -numbers whose respective logarithms are -_px_, -_qx_, -_rx_, &c.; which -numbers, if _N_ be taken to denote the number whose hyp. log. = 1, -will be truly expressed by _N⁻ᵖˣ_, _N⁻⒬ˣ_, _N⁻ʳˣ_, &c. From whence, by -writing for _p_, _q_, _r_, &c. their equals 1, α + √(αα - 1), α - √(αα -- 1), β + √(ββ - 1), β - √(ββ - 1), &c. and putting α´ = √(1 - αα), β´ -= √(1 - ββ), &c. we shall have 1 ⁄ _n_ × (_N⁻ᵖˣ_ + _N⁻⒬ˣ_ + _N⁻ʳˣ_), -&c. = 1 ⁄ _n_ into _N⁻ˣ_ + _N⁻ᵃˣ_ × (_N⁻ᵃ‘ˣ_√⁻¹) + (_Nᵃ‘ˣ_√⁻¹) + _N⁻ᵝˣ_ -× (_N⁻ᵝ‘ˣ√⁻¹_) + _Nᵝ‘ˣ√⁻¹_) + &c. But _N⁻ᵃ‘ˣ√⁻¹_ + _Nᵃ‘ˣ√⁻¹_ is known -to express the double of the co-sine of the arch whose measure (to the -radius 1) is α´_x_. Therefore we have 1 ⁄ _n_ into _N⁻ˣ_ + _N⁻ᵃˣ_ × 2 -co-s. α´_x_ + _N⁻ᵝˣ_ × 2 co-s. β´_x_, &c. for the true sum, or value -proposed to be determined. - -The solution of this case, in a manner a little different, I have -given some time since, in another place; where the principles of the -general method, here extended and illustrated, are pointed out. I shall -put an end to this paper with observing, that if, in the series given, -the even powers of _x_, or any other terms whatever, be wanting, their -places must be supplied with cyphers; which, in the order of numbering -off, must be reckoned as real terms. - - - -CIV. _Observatio Eclipsis Lunæ Die_ 30 Julii 1757. _habita Olissipone -à_ Joanne Chevalier, _Congregationis Oratorii Presbytero, é Regia_ -Londinensi _Societate. Communicated by_ Jacob de Castro Sarmiento, -_M.D. F.R.S._ - -Tubo optico 8 pedum. - -[Read Nov. 16, 1758.] - - h ´ ´´ - Initium penumbræ 9 15 18 - Initium dubium eclipsis 9 22 24 - Certo jam incœperat 9 23 34 - Umbra ad mare humorum observata vitro plano cæruleo 9 31 2 - Solo tubo optico observata 9 31 29 - Vitro flavo observata 9 31 48 - Umbra tangit Grimaldum observata vitro plano cæruleo 9 31 20 - Solo tubo optico 9 31 50 - Vitro plano flavo 9 32 8 - Totus Grimaldus tegitur observatus vitro plano cæruleo 9 34 4 - Solo tubo optico 9 34 28 - Vitro flavo 9 34 47 - Umbra ad Tychonem observata vitro plano cæruleo 9 38 25 - Solo tubo optico 9 38 42 - Vitro flavo 9 38 59 - Umbra ad Harpalum vitro cæruleo observata 9 55 6 - Solo tubo optico 9 55 35 - Umbra ad Fracastorium 9 59 57 - Umbra ad Mare Nectaris 10 00 50 - Observata vitro flavo 10 1 8 - Umbra ad Dionysium 10 5 2 - Umbra tangit Mare Tranquillitatis 10 5 50 - Umbra ad Mare Serenitatis 10 10 16 - Umbra tegit Menelaum observata vitro cæruleo 10 11 4 - Solo tubo optico 10 11 29 - Vitro flavo 10 11 50 - Totum Mare Fœcunditatis tegitur 10 18 39 - Umbra tangit Mare Crisium vitro cæruleo observata 10 22 52 - Solo tubo optico 10 23 12 - Vitro flavo 10 23 29 - Umbra ad Proclum 10 23 33 - Possidonius totus tegitur 10 23 50 - Totum Mare Serenitatis tegitur 10 24 36 - Totum Mare Crisium ab umbra tegitur 10 30 27 - Plato tegitur vitro cæruleo observatus 10 31 26 - Solo tubo optico 10 31 48 - Vitro flavo 10 32 4 - Obscuratio maxima 10 55 40 - -EMERSIONES. - - h ´ ´´ - Plato emergit observatus vitro flavo 11 19 5 - Solo tubo optico 11 19 31 - Vitro cæruleo 11 19 50 - Aristarchus emergit 11 21 3 - Gassendus incepit emergere observatus vitro flavo 11 25 36 - Observatus solo tubo optico 11 25 52 - Observatus vitro cæruleo 11 26 11 - Gassendus totus extra umbram 11 28 2 - Schicardus incipit emergere 11 45 44 - Totus extra umbram 11 47 10 - Totum Mare Humorum extra umbram 11 46 50 - Menelaus extra umbram 11 55 36 - Mare Serenitatis extra umbram 11 59 46 - Tycho extra umbra observatus vitro flavo 12 00 33 - Solo tubo optico 12 00 52 - Vitro cæruleo 12 1 14 - Incipit emergere Mare Crisium 12 8 31 - Totum Mare Crisium extra umbram 12 16 28 - Finis eclipsis 12 28 26 - -Observatio hæc peracta é cœlo claro; umbra autem terræ ita diluta erat, -ut maculæ in ea conditæ satis dignoscerentur. - - - - -CV. _Singular Observations upon the_ Manchenille Apple. _By_ John -Andrew Peyssonnel, _M. D. F.R.S. Translated from the_ French. - -[Read Nov. 16, 1758.] - -THe cruel effects of the tree called Manchenille are known to all the -world: its milk, which the savages make use of to poison their arrows, -makes the wounds inflicted with them mortal. The rain, which washes -the leaves and branches, causes blisters to rise like boiling oil; -even the shade of the tree makes those who repose under it to swell; -and its fruit is esteemed a deadly poison. I was informed, as a very -extraordinary thing, that a breeding woman was so mad as to eat three -of them, which did her very little harm; and this was looked upon as a -miracle, and a proof of the surprising effects of the imagination and -longings of women with child. - -But here is a fact, which will scarce be credited by many persons, who -have frequented these Islands: which I declare to be true. - -One Vincent Banchi, of Turin in Piedmont, a strong robust man, and an -old soldier, of about forty-five years of age, belonging to the horse, -was a slave with the Turks eleven years, having been taken prisoner at -the siege of Belgrade. He was overseer of my habitation towards the -month of July of the year 1756. He was one day walking upon the sea -side, and seeing a great number of apples upon the ground, was charmed -with their beautiful colours, and sweet smell, resembling that of the -apple called d’apis: he took and eat of them, without knowing what they -were; he found they had a subacid taste; and having eaten a couple of -dozen of them, he fill’d his pockets, and came home, eating the rest as -he came. The Negroes, that saw him eat this cruel fruit, told him it -was mortal; upon which he ceased to eat them, and threw away the rest. - -About four in the afternoon, _viz._ an hour after this repast, his -belly swelled considerably, and he felt as it were a consuming fire -in his bowels. He could not keep himself upright; and at night the -swelling of his belly increased, with the burning sensation of his -bowels. His lips were ulcerated with the milk of the fruit, and he was -seized with cold sweats; but my principal Negro made him a decoction of -the leaves of a _Ricinus_[157] in water, and made him drink plentifully -of it, which brought on a vomiting, followed by a violent purging; -both which continued for four hours, during which it was thought he -would die. At length these symptoms grew less; and my Negroes made him -walk, and stir about by degrees; and soon after they were stopped. -Rice-gruel, which they gave him, put an end to all these disorders; and -in four-and-twenty hours he had no more ailments nor pain; the swelling -of his belly diminished in proportion to his evacuations upwards and -downwards, and he has continued his functions without being any more -sensible of the poison. We see by this, that the effects of the poison -of the Manchenille are different from those of the fish at Guadaloupe, -which I mentioned. - -Dec. 2. 1756. - - - - -CVI. _Abstract of a Letter from Mr._ William Arderon, _F.R.S. to Mr._ -Henry Baker, _F.R.S. on the giving Magnetism and Polarity to Brass. -Communicated by Mr._ Baker. - -[Read Nov. 16, 1758.] - -Dear Sir, - -FOR some time past I have been making experiments on the magnetism of -brass, and amongst many pieces that I have tried, find several that -readily attract the needle; but whether they have had this property -originally, or have received it by hammering, filing, clipping, or any -other such-like cause, I cannot yet determine. - -I have a very handsome compass-box made of pure brass, as far as I can -judge: the needle being taken out, and placed upon a pin fixed properly -in a board, and clear of all other magnetics, the box will attract this -needle at half an inch distance; and, if suffered to touch, will draw -it full 90 degrees from the north or south points; and I think those -parts of the box marked north and south attract the strongest. The -cover of the box also attracts the needle nearly as much as the box -itself. - -As to your supposition, that iron may be mixed with the brass, I do not -know; but I have been informed it cannot be, as brass fluxes with a -much less degree of heat than iron, and iron naturally swims on fluid -brass. Besides, many of the specimens of brass I have tried were new -as they came from the mill, where they were wrought into plates, and -I presume were not mixed[158]; yet these I have given the magnetic -virtue to, when they had it not; and some pieces of brass, which -naturally attract the needle, seem to the eye as fine a bright yellow -as any other, and are as malleable as any I ever met with. - -Pieces of brass without any magnetic power, by properly hammering and -giving them the double touch, after Mr. Mitchel’s method, I have made -attract and repel the needle, as a magnet does, having two regular -poles: and I now send you one such piece of brass, which I have thus -made magnetical. You will also receive a couple of needles, which I -made myself after the late Zachary Williams’s method, and a little -stand whereon to place them, the better to shew how this magnetic bar -attracts and repels the needle when properly applied; for it must be -noted, that in making these experiments it is necessary to employ a -very good needle, about 3-½ inches long, well and tenderly set, and not -covered with glass. - -You will observe, when you try this bar, that the same poles repel each -other, and the contrary poles attract; which proves this piece of brass -to be indued with true magnetic virtue and polarity. However it must be -noted, that though the same poles repel each other, yet, like natural -magnets, in contact, or nearly so, they attract each other; therefore -when you would shew the repelling power of this brass bar, you must not -bring it nearer the needle than ²⁄₁₀ of an inch. - -Magnetic brass does not attract iron, not even the least particle, so -far as I can find: whether this is owing to the weakness of magnetism -in the brass, or to some other cause, I don’t pretend to know. - -I have tried to infuse magnetic virtue into several pieces of copper, -lead and pewter; but all my endeavours have not been able to make them -attract the needle at all. Indeed, when I have held a piece of pewter, -that I have tryed to make magnetical, to the needle, the needle would -tremble, but not approach the pewter. - -I send you another piece of brass, whose either end attracts either of -the poles; this I have infused the magnetic virtue into, and can at any -time, so as to attract and repel the needle; but, like steel that is -set a low blue, it loseth that polarity in a few hours; which may arise -for its being too short for its weight, or from its different temper of -hardness or softness. - -A third piece I also send you, which with all my endeavours I cannot -make attract the needle in the least; and yet I can perceive no -difference between the appearance of this piece and that of those which -do. - -Would some ingenious man pursue these experiments, perhaps we might -have needles made of brass to act as strongly as steel ones do, which -would have the advantage of being less liable to rust at sea than steel -ones are. - -But my whole design was to shew, that brass is by no means a proper -metal to make compass-boxes of, or to be employed in any instrument -where magnetism is concerned. For as it is demonstrable, beyond -all contradiction, that some brass is found endued with a power of -attracting the magnetic needle; that other pieces are capable of -receiving it either by accident or design, (let it be from its being -mixed with iron, or any other cause whatever) brass must be a very -improper metal for compass-boxes, as it may occasion many sad and fatal -accidents. - -Norwich, Octob. 20th, 1758. - - -It is well known, that brass has been sometimes found to affect and -disturb the magnetic needle; but, to give magnetism and polarity -to brass, has not, that I have yet heard, been before attempted. I -therefore have taken the liberty to lay the above account before this -Royal Society, and have also brought the pieces of brass mentioned -therein, which have been thus made magnetical. - - H. Baker. - -London, Nov. 15. 1759. - - - - -CVII. _An Account of the_ Sea Polypus, _by Mr._ Henry Baker, _F.R.S._ - -_To the Right Honourable the_ EARL _of_ MACCLESFIELD, President _of -the_ Royal Society. - -[Read Nov. 23, 1758.] - -My Lord, - -I now return the marine animal your Lordship did me the honour to -recommend to my examination; which I find to be a species of one kind -of the Sea Polypi, mentioned by naturalists; but I think not very -accurately described. - - -The kinds of Sea Polypi are understood to be, - -_First_, The Polypus, particularly so called, the Octopus, Preke, or -Pour-contrel: to which kind our subject belongs. - -_Secondly_, The Sepia, or Cuttle-fish. - -_Thirdly_, The Loligo, or Calamary. And each of these has its different -species and varieties[159]. The ancients add the Nautilus; and some -sorts of Star-fish might perhaps be not improperly ranged among them. - -All of the first kind have eight arms, placed at equal distances round -the head; below the arms are two eyes, and the body is short and thick. - -The Cuttle-fish, and the Calamary, have each of them ten arms; of which -eight are shorter ones, tapering gradually to a point from the head, -where they all rise, to their extremities: the other two (frequently -called Tentacula) are three or four times as long, perfectly round, -slender, and of an equal thickness for above two thirds of their whole -length; then spreading into a form nearly like that of the shorter -arms. Great numbers of _acetabula_, or suckers, are placed somewhat -irregularly on each of the shorter arms, and on the spreading parts of -the Tentacula, where some of the suckers are a great deal larger than -the rest. - -The body of the Cuttle-fish is broad and flat, having within it a broad -friable white bone; that of the Calamary is a sort of cartilaginous -case holding the intestines, of a roundish oblong shape, furnished with -two fins, and having within it a thin transparent elastic substance -like Isinglass. - -[Illustration: _Philos. Trans. Vol. L._ TAB. XXIX. _p. 779_ - - _G. Edwards delin AD. 1758_ _J. Mynde sc._] - -The mouth of the Pour-contrel, Cuttle-fish, and Calamary, is placed in -the fore-part of the head, between the arms, having an horny beak, hard -and hooked like a parrot’s, which some writers call the teeth. The eyes -of them all are nearly in the same position. - -As the subject under examination resembles in some particulars all the -above kinds of Polypi, this short account of them may, it is hoped, -render the following description of it the more intelligible: and -with the same view, Mr. George Edwards, Fellow of the Royal Society, -has been so obliging as to make drawings of the animal itself, in -four different positions, and of the natural size; which drawings are -herewith presented to your Lordship. - -Our Polypus is of the Pour-contrel kind, and I believe of that species -called Bolytæna; which is said to have a musky smell; but if ours had -such a smell, the spirits wherein it lies have taken it quite away. - -In the drawing [_See_ TAB. XXIX. _Fig._ 1.] is shewn the anterior part -of this animal, which has much the appearance of a Star-fish. Here -are eight arms about three inches in length, united at their roots, -and placed circularly at equal distances in the same plane, which has -a considerable sinking towards the center. These arms diminish from -their rise to their extremities, and end exceedingly small. Near the -head they are quadrilateral, but the under-side contracting gradually -to an edge, they become towards the ends trilateral. On the upper side -of each arm are two rows of _acetabula_, or suckers, standing in a -beautiful order, as close as they can well be placed, and beginning -from the center of all the arms. These suckers are perfectly circular, -with edges flat on the top, and a round cavity in the middle of each. -They are largest in the widest part of the arm, and lessen as the arm -diminishes, till they become so small as hardly to be discernable. It -is very difficult to tell their number: I counted as far as fifty in a -row, but am certain there are many more; and I don’t imagine the eight -arms have so few as a thousand on them. They rise some height above the -surface of the skin; and wherever they are not, the skin of the arms -(unless on the under-side) is granulated like shagreen[160]. - -As in the other kinds of Polypi the mouth is placed between the arms -conspicuously enough, I expected to find it so in this; but the spirits -had contracted it so much, that I could discern no opening at all -where I thought the mouth must be; and therefore could not say, with -assurance, that the mouth was placed there. Under this difficulty -I applied to Sir Hans Sloane’s most valuable collection of natural -history in the British Musæum, where I found several species of this -kind of Polypi, and amongst the rest a small dried specimen of the same -species as ours, and a much larger one in spirits, of a species that -comes very near it. - -This large specimen afforded the information I stood in need of: for -though here also the mouth was closed, and the beak drawn down into -the center between the arms, so as not to be seen at all; yet, by the -help of Dr. Morton and Mr. Empson, I had the satisfaction to see the -mouth opened, and the beak in the same situation, and of the same form -and substance, as in the other kinds of Polypi. Having gained this -knowledge, by applying the point of a bodkin, I easily felt the beak -in our Polypus; but in so small a subject it cannot be brought to view -without dissection, which is the reason it does not appear in these -drawings. - -_Fig. 2._ represents the Polypus so placed as to shew the situation of -the eyes and the form of its body, and also in what manner the arms -are turned back in the specimen before us; but we may suppose them -thus disposed merely in the act of dying, and that when alive they are -moveable in all directions. - -On that side of the body opposite to the eyes, and which therefore may -be termed the belly-part, there appears a transverse slit or opening -in the skin, not in a strait line, but a little semicircular; from the -anterior part whereof a tube or pipe proceeds, about one third of an -inch in length, smaller at the extremity, where it opens with a round -orifice, than at the base, and reaching to within a small distance of -the arms. As both the Cuttle-fish and Calamary have a pipe nearly in -the same situation, though somewhat different in figure, through which -they occasionally discharge an inky liquor, and some writers say the -fæces also, it is probable the pipe in this animal may serve to a like -purpose; and as the body of the Calamary is included in a case, the -slit across the body of this animal shews its belly part to have also -a sort of case, though on its back there is no separation as in the -Calamary. - -Out of the aforesaid slit or opening a bag issues with a very slender -neck, extending towards the tail, and enlarging gradually to its end. -This bag is above half the length of the body, and appears like another -body appendant thereto. I should be intirely at a loss concerning -this bag, did not some passages in Mr. Turberville Needham’s curious -observations on the milt vessels of the Calamary enable me to form some -conjectures about its use. - -Having dissected several Calamaries on the coast of Portugal, without -the least indication of milt or roe, and consequently without knowing -which were male or female, he was much surprised (about the middle -of the month of December) to find a new vessel forming itself in an -obvious part, and replete with a milky juice. This was an oval bag, in -which the milt vessels formed themselves gradually, the bag unfolding -as these framed and disposed themselves in bundles. Before that time -he had observed two collateral tubes, which are alike in both sexes; -but a regular progress in the expansion of the milt-bag and formation -of the milt-vessels had not presented itself before. Those tubes till -then appeared open at one extremity, much resembling the female parts -of generation in a snail, but did not terminate in a long oval bag -extending in a parallel with the stomach more than half the length of -the fish, as he found them afterwards when the milt vessels that filled -the whole cavity were ripe for ejection. The same ducts without the bag -are found in the female also, perhaps for the deposition of the spawn. -Vid. _Needham’s Microscopical Discoveries, cap._ v. - -It appears from this account that the male Calamary (at a certain time -of the year only) has a bag wherein the milt-vessels are contained, -and that the female has no such bag. Since therefore the bag of our -Polypus is found in the same situation as that of the Calamary, (which -is also a kind of Polypus) we may suppose it to be the milt bag, and -that our Polypus is a male, taken at a time when the milt was ready for -ejection. In the dried specimen at the British Museum, and also in the -other specimens, there is the same opening, with the pipe that rises -above it towards the arms, but not the least appearance of the bag in -question: they are therefore probably females, or if males, were caught -before such bag was formed. - -_Fig. 3._ presents another view of this Polypus, its arms extended -circularly with their under-sides next the eye, and the body so -disposed as to shew the transverse opening _a_, the oval bag issuing -therefrom _b_, and the pipe rising upwards towards the arms _c_. - -_Fig. 4._ shews the Polypus with its transverse opening and the pipe -rising therefrom, but without the oval bag; it is figured thus by -Rondeletius and Gesner, and the specimen at the British Museum has also -this appearance. It is here shewn with the arms extended forwards. K -is a magnified figure of one of the _acetabula_, or suckers; of which -there are two rows on each arm of this Polypus, as before described. - -Mr. Needham, in his description of the suckers of the Calamary, -(which he had many opportunities of examining whilst alive, and whose -mechanism is probably the same as in those of our Polypus) informs -us, “that the action of the suckers depends partly on their shape, -which, when they are extended resembles nearly that of an acorn-cup, -and partly upon a deep circular cartilaginous ring, armed with small -hooks, which is secured in a thin membrane something transparent, -by the projection of a ledge investing the whole circumference about -the middle of its depth, and not to be extracted without some force. -That each sucker is fastened by a tendinous stem to the arm of the -animal: which stem, together with part of the membrane that is below -the circumference of the cartilaginous ring, rises into and fills -the whole cavity when the animal contracts the sucker for action. In -this state whatever touches it is first held by the minute hooks, and -then drawn up to a closer adhesion by the retraction of the stem and -inferior part of the membrane, much in the same manner as a sucker of -wet leather sustains the weight of a small stone.” Vid. _Microscopical -Discoveries_, p. 22. - -M shews one of the cartilaginous rings armed with small hooks, of its -real size. The ring this is drawn from was taken out of a large sucker -of a larger Polypus, and is presented herewith. - -By these suckers the Polypus can fix itself to rocks, and prevent its -being tossed about in storms and tempests; but their principal use -must undoubtedly be to seize and hold its prey: and to this purpose -they are most admirably adapted; for when they are all applied and act -together, unless the Polypus pleases to withdraw them, nothing can get -from it whose strength is insufficient to tear off its arms. Something -like these suckers is found by the microscope in the minute fresh water -Polype, whereby it is able to bind down and manage a worm much larger -and seemingly stronger than itself[161]. In like manner the _stella -arborescens_ (which may also be called a Polypus), though it has not -suckers, yet by the hooks along its arms, and the multiplicity of -their branchings, which have been counted as far as 80,000, it can, by -spreading its arms abroad like a net, so fetter and entangle the prey -they inclose when they are drawn together, as to render it incapable of -exerting its strength: for however feeble these branches or arms may -singly be, their power united becomes surprising. And we are assured -nature is so kind to all these animals, that if in their struggles any -of their arms are broken off, after some time they will grow again; of -which a specimen at the British Museum is an undoubted proof; for a -little new arm is there seen sprouting forth in the room of a large one -that had been lost. - -It is evident from what has been said, that the Sea Polypus must be -terrible to the inhabitants of the waters, in proportion to its size -(and Pliny mentions one whose arms were thirty feet in length); for the -close embraces of its arms and the adhesion of its suckers must render -the efforts of its prey ineffectual either for resistance or escape, -unless it be endued with an extraordinary degree of strength. - -Sea Polypi are frequent in the Mediterranean: but Mr. Haviland of Bath, -to whom we are obliged for this, which is of a different species, -thinks it came from the West Indies, where it is called a Cat-fish. -That like it in the British Museum also came from thence. - -As the Polypus I have endeavoured to describe is much contracted by -lying long in spirits, and dissection would destroy a specimen well -worth preserving, I hope to be excused if this account should be found -deficient in several particulars, or chargeable with some mistakes. - -Permit me the honour to be, - - My LORD, - Your Lordship’s - Most humble and obedient Servant, - H. Baker. - -Strand, Nov. 23d, 1758. - - - - -CVIII. _A Description of the fossil Skeleton of an Animal found in the -Alum Rock near_ Whitby. _By Mr._ Wooller. _Communicated by_ Charles -Morton, _M. D. F.R.S._ - -[Read Nov. 23, 1758.] - -IT is in this rock, that the Ammonitæ, or Snake-stones, as they are -commonly called, are found, which have undoubtedly been formed in the -_exuviæ_ of fishes of that shape; and though none of that species -are now to be met with in the seas thereabouts, yet they in many -particulars resemble the Nautilus, which is well known. The internal -substance of those stones, upon a section thereof, appears to be -a stony concretion, or muddy sparr. Stones of the same matter or -substance, in the shape of muscles, cockles, &c. of various sizes, -are also found therein, and now and then pieces of wood hardened and -crusted over with a stony substance are likewise found in it. - -[Illustration: _Philos. Trans. Vol. L._ TAB. XXX. _p. 787_. - -_Part of the Fossil Skeleton of an Animal as it appeared on and united -to the Allom Rock near_ Whitby, _Jan. 3. 1758_. - -a. a. _&c. The Ammonitæ or Snake Stones_. - -_J. Mynde sc._] - -Many naturalists have already observed, that among the vast variety -of extraneous substances found at several depths in the earth, where -it is impossible they should have been bred, there are not so many -productions of the earth as of the sea; and it appears by the accounts -of authors both ancient and modern, that bones, teeth, and sometimes -entire skeletons of men and animals, have been dug up or discovered -in all ages, and the most remarkable for size commonly the most taken -notice of. In the first particular this skeleton will most probably -appear to have belonged to an animal of the lizard kind, quadruped and -amphibious; and as to its size, much larger than any thing of that kind -ever met with or found in this part of the world; though, from the -accounts of travellers, something similar is still to be met with in -many of the rivers, lakes, &c. of the other three. - -When the annexed drawing thereof was taken January 5, 1758. [_See_ -TAB. XXX.] there remained no more of the _vertebræ_ than is therein -expressed; that is, 10 between D and F, and 12 between G and H: but -when it was first discovered, about 10 years ago, they were compleat; -and there was besides the appearance of what was then thought to have -been fins, near the back part of the head at A, the same as appeared -further backward at E, when this design was made. The _vertebræ_, &c. -now wanting having been either dug up by curious persons, or washed -away by the violence of the waves at high water, and the accidental -beating about of stones, sand, &c. during that time; the water covering -this skeleton several feet at high water in spring tides; the cavities -in the rock still remaining as in the design. - -The substance of the bones, with their _periostium_, on the covered -or under side, in most parts remains intire, and their native colour -in some places in a good measure preserved, and the teeth with their -smooth polish plainly to be discovered. Part of the mandible near the -extremity was covered with a shelf of the rock about three inches -thick; which being cut away and removed, both the mandibles appeared -under it compleat, with the teeth of the upper and under one, plainly -locking or passing by each other. These appeared to be of the _dentes -exerti_ or fang kind, as well as all the others in the narrow part of -the mandible, and further backwards they were not observed. From this -ledge or shelf the mandible towards B is single, and appears to be the -upper one of the living animal; and from the head not being exactly -in the line of the body, that part has been inverted, or quite turned -over, and the body itself, as appears from the transverse processes of -the _vertebræ_, lies on the right side. There appears one row of teeth -only on each side of the mandible, and they are about ¾ of an inch -asunder. - -The mandible B A, the _cranium g h_, and the _vertebræ_ from D to F, -were attempted to be taken up whole; but the bones being rendered -extremely brittle, and the rock in which they were fixed being a -brittle blackish slate, with joints or fissures running in every -direction, would not hold together: the whole therefore fell in many -pieces, the _vertebræ_ in the joints only, which makes them easy to -join together again, and besides shows very plainly the transverse and -spinal processes thereof, with the foramen in the latter for the spinal -marrow. It was now that a piece of the _os femoris_, about four inches -long, shewed itself in the sparry concreted substance at E, together -with a piece of the _os innominatum_, to which it had been articulated -or joined. This, with what has been before remarked, will sufficiently -prove this to have been an animal of the quadruped, and probably, from -the shape of the cranium peculiar to fishes, of the amphibious kind. At -the same time many pieces of the _costæ_ or ribs, as broke and crushed -up against the _vertebræ_, were plainly visible. The cavities of all -the bones were filled with a substance, which appeared the same as the -rock itself; and the substance on each side the _vertebræ_, as they -laid, was a mixture of sparry concreted matter with that of the rock -itself, which is a blackish slate. The animal, when living, must have -been at least 12 or 14 feet long. And the dimensions of the whole, -or particular parts of the skeleton, may be measured from the scale -annexed thereto. - -This skeleton lay about six yards from the foot of the cliff, which is -about sixty yards in perpendicular height, and must have been covered -by it probably not much more than a century ago. The cliff there -is composed of various _strata_, beginning from the top, of earth, -clay, marle, stones both hard and soft, of various thicknesses, and -intermixed with each other, till it comes down to the black slate or -alum rock, and about 10 or 12 feet deep in this rock, this skeleton -laid horizontally, and exactly as designed. The probability, that this -cliff has formerly covered this animal, and extended much more into -the sea, is not in the least doubted of by those that know it. The -various _strata_, of which it is composed, are daily mouldering and -falling down; and the bottom, being the slaty alum rock, is also daily -beat, washed, and wore away, and the upper parts undermined, whence -many thousand tuns often tumble down together. Many antient persons now -living, whose testimony can be no way doubted of, remember this very -cliff extending in some places twenty yards further out than it does at -present. In short there is sufficient evidence, that at the beginning -it must have extended near a mile further down to the sea than it does -at present; and so much the sea has there gained of the land. - -These are the principal facts and circumstances attending the situation -and discovery of this skeleton; which from the condition it is in, and -from the particular disposition of the _strata_ above the place where -it is found, seem clearly to establish the opinion, and almost to a -demonstration, that the animal itself must have been antediluvian, -and that it could not have been buried or brought there any otherwise -than by the force of the waters of the universal deluge. The different -_strata_ above this skeleton never could have been broken through at -any time, in order to bury it, to so great a depth as upwards of 180 -feet; and consequently it must have been lodged there, if not before, -at least at the time when those _strata_ were formed, which will not -admit of a later date than that above-mentioned. - - _P. S._ In the xlixth vol. page 639, of the _Philosophical - Transactions_, an animal is described by Mr. Edwards, which was - brought from the Ganges, and resembles this in every respect. He - calls it _Lacerta (crocodilus) ventre marsupio donato, faucibus - Merganseris rostrum æmulantibus_. - - - - -[Illustration: _Philos. Trans. Vol. L._ TAB. XXXI. _p. 791_. - -PHŒNICIAN Coins. - -_J. Mynde sc._] - - - - -CIX. _A Dissertation upon the_ Phœnician _Numeral Characters antiently -used at_ Sidon. _In a Letter to the Rev._ Thomas Birch, _D. D. Secret. -R. S. from the Rev._ John Swinton, _M. A. of_ Christ-Church, Oxon. -_F.R.S._ - -[Read Dec. 7, 1758.] - -Reverend Sir, - -HAVING, by the assistance of the Palmyrene numeral characters, lately -made a discovery, which may perhaps hereafter be of considerable -service to chronology; I could not longer defer, though now deeply -engaged in other matters, communicating it to the Royal Society. Nor -will the memoir containing this, I flatter myself, be deemed altogether -unworthy the attention of that learned and illustrious body. For, -unless I am greatly deceived, it will bid fair to ascertain, with a -sufficient degree of precision, the Phœnician dates of several antient -Sidonian coins, one of which was struck above a century before the -birth of CHRIST, hitherto utterly unknown; and evince the notation of -the Phœnicians, at least those of Sidon, when they first appeared, to -have been extremely similar to, if not nearly the same with, that of -the Palmyrenes. - - -I. - -A small brass coin of Sidon[162], now in my possession, exhibits on the -reverse three Phœnician letters, that form the word SIDON, over the -prow of a ship, the usual symbol of the city wherein it was struck. -This coin, which is in good conservation, I formerly[163] published and -explained. The characters however in the exergue, which I could then -make nothing of, were not with sufficient accuracy described. This has -induced me to transmit you another draught of the same medal, wherein -proper care has been taken to remedy that defect. The two first of -those characters, though somewhat imperfect, appear manifestly enough -to be _Schin_ and _Tzade_; as the former occurs on the Palmyrene[164] -marbles, and the latter on several very valuable[165] Phœnician coins. -The others so nearly resemble the numeral characters of the Palmyrenes, -that they may undoubtedly be considered as pointing out to us a date. -Which if we admit, the _Schin_ and _Tzade_ will seem to be the initial -letters of the words צה שנת, THE YEAR OF SIDON, or IN THE YEAR OF -SIDON; as the elements _Pe_ and _Schin_ apparently denote שנת פסח, THE -PASCHA OF THE YEAR, or IN THE BEGINNING OF THE YEAR, on the reverse of -the famous Samaritan coin of Bologna, published by Sig. Bianconi[166] -not many years since. Nor can the phrase, THE YEAR OF SIDON, or IN THE -YEAR OF SIDON, intimating the year of the proper æra of that city, be -looked upon as repugnant either to the Jewish or Phœnician genius; a -similar expression having been used, both in their writings[167] and -on their coins[168], about the time that the Phœnician medal before -me was struck, by the Jews. That the first of the numeral characters -here stands for TWENTY, we may infer from the correspondent one of the -Palmyrenes, to the form of which it is by no means unlike. This will -likewise be confirmed by the dates preserved on other Phœnician coins, -which will be immediately produced. The next, denoting a lesser number, -and not representing FIVE, which we find always expressed by minute -right lines on the Sidonian medals, must indubitably occupy the place -of TEN. The six following strokes, after what has been just observed, -will be acknowleged to add SIX to the foregoing numbers; so that the -inscription in the exergue will no longer remain a mystery, the whole -only importing, IN THE YEAR OF SIDON XXXVI. - - -II. - -I have three other coins of Sidon[169], of almost intirely the same -type; only one of them exhibits a date in Greek numerals, and two bear -Phœnician dates. The Greek numerals are EOT, CCCLXXV; and the Phœnician -correspond with the numbers CXX, CXXVII, to both of which are prefixed -the above-mentioned initial letters. We meet with draughts of two -similar medals in[170] Arigoni, adorned with characters, expressing the -numbers CXXVIII, CXXX. All these coins present to our view a turrited -head and a branch of palm, pointing out to us the country to which they -belong, and on the reverse the usual symbol of Sidon. The year handed -down to us by the Greek date EOT, is the 375th of the æra of Seleucus; -and those denoted by the Phœnician numerals answer to the 120th, 127th, -128th, and 130th, of the proper æra of Sidon, as will be hereafter more -fully evinced. Hence we may certainly collect, that these pieces were -struck at Sidon in the years of CHRIST 11, 18, 19, 21, and 64. - - -III. - -Three coins of Sidon, different from the former, occur in[171] Sig. -Haym, and seven[172] more in my little cabinet, whose type is -altogether the same, with Phœnician dates, preceded by the two -aforesaid initial letters, upon them. To which we may add five, -preserved in the noble[173] cabinet bequeathed to Christ-Church, -Oxon. by Archbishop Wake, and another in the valuable collection of -the Rev. Dr. Barton[174], Canon of the said collegiate church, and a -worthy member of this Society. On one side these medals all exhibit -the head of Jupiter, and on the reverse the prow of a ship, the common -symbol of Sidon. Most of them had various Phœnician letters at first -imprest on the upper part of the reverse, and one of them (which is -pretty remarkable) nearly the same characters there that appear in -the exergue. The first of the coins mentioned here was struck in the -year of Sidon 5. This has been perfectly well preserved, and is more -curious than any of the rest; which were emitted from the mint at Sidon -in various years of the proper æra of that city, _viz._ the 107th, -108th, 110th, 111th, 112th, 114th, 115th, 116th, 117th, and 119th. We -meet on none of these medals with the figure denoting TWENTY, used -by the Sidonians, during the period I am now upon. It not a little -resembles that which prevailed at Tadmor[175] in the reign of the -emperor Claudius, about forty-nine years after the birth of CHRIST. The -most antient of the Phœnician coins I am now considering preceded the -commencement of the Christian æra 104 years, and is consequently 153 -years older than the earliest Palmyrene inscription that has hitherto -come to our hands[176]. - - -IV. - -Some years since I published a small brass medal of Sidon[177], with -the heads of Jupiter and Juno on one side, and the prow of a ship -on the reverse; but did not accurately enough describe the numeral -characters, and two initial letters, in the exergue. I therefore take -the liberty to send[178] you a new draught, perfectly well done, -of that inscription. Two more coins of the same type I have since -acquired, and another may be seen in[179] Sig. Haym. These four pieces -only exhibit the years of Sidon 125 and 132. - - -V. - -My small collection likewise affords two[180] other Phœnician medals -of Sidon,[181] and Archbishop Wake’s noble cabinet one, of the same -type, with different Phœnician dates in the exergue. To these may be -added five, with the publication of which the learned world has been -obliged by Sig. Arigoni[182]. The anterior faces of these coins are -adorned with a veiled head, representing the genius of the city wherein -they were struck; and the reverses with a human figure leaning upon -a pillar, and holding a branch of palm in its right hand. Several -Phœnician letters also there appear, which may perhaps at first sight -seem to render it somewhat doubtful, whether the medals belong to -Sidon or not. But every suspicion arising from hence must immediately -vanish, when we cast our eyes upon the two initial elements, and the -numeral characters, in the exergue; which clearly enough indicate the -pieces to have been struck at Sidon, in the 83d, 87th, 95th, 105th, -106th, 108th, 114th, and 116th years of the æra peculiar to that city. -A Phœnician coin of Sidon likewise occurs in one[183] of Sig. Arigoni’s -plates, and another[184] in my collection, with the turrited head and -branch of palm visible on three of the[185] medals above described, -which indisputably appertain to that city, together with the very -Phœnician letters and symbol imprest on the Sidonian coins now before -me. This, exclusive of other considerations, that might be offered, -must set the point I am here insisting upon beyond dispute. - - -VI. - -I have another brass Phœnician medal of Sidon[186], not a little -resembling those above-mentioned, both in workmanship and size, -presenting to our view on one side the head of Jupiter, and on the -other a human figure with a lance in its right hand. This coin, which -has never yet been published, is adorned with a Phœnician legend -on the reverse, different from those of all the others that have -hitherto appeared. I therefore judged that a draught of it would not -be unacceptable, though the date imprest originally in the exergue -(answering to the 26th year of Sidon) has a little suffered from the -injuries of time. - - -VII. - -The next Phœnician medal of Sidon, which I shall take the liberty here -to describe, is a small brass one[187], now in my hands, with a veiled -head on the anterior face, and the prow of a ship on the reverse. -M. Bouterouë[188], who has published it, rightly asserts it to be a -Phœnician coin. The year of Sidon, preserved in the exergue of mine, -is 74; and that in the exergue of M. Bouterouë’s, 73, though the first -numeral character of the latter is somewhat deformed. - - -VIII. - -The last Phœnician medals I shall at present produce, in order to -settle the point in view, are[189] two in my possession, intirely -agreeing both in type and form, as remarkable as any of the others here -touched upon. A similar coin has been published by Sig. Arigoni[190], -and another[191] by M. Bouterouë; both of which, on several accounts, -merit the attention of the learned. They exhibit on one side the -head of Jupiter laureated, with a beard; and on the reverse a double -cornucopia, together with three or four Phœnician elements, one or -two of which are in a great measure defaced. A brass medal of Sidon -occurs in Archbishop Wake’s[192] collection, as well as one in[193] -mine, with the head of Jupiter done exactly after the same manner -as that on the pieces before me, and Europa carried by a bull on -the reverse; which, exclusive of the inscriptions in the exergue, -demonstrate the latter to belong to Sidon. The first of mine was struck -in the 143d year of the proper æra of that city, and the second five -years after. They correct the barbarous date assigned by Sig. Arigoni -to his coin. M. Bouterouë has not favoured the learned world with an -explication of the medal, of which he has given us a draught. Nor has -M. l’Abbé Barthelemy, who likewise mentions this very coin, informed -us to what place it appertains; but contented himself with barely[194] -observing, that the letters preserved on the reverse are Phœnician. I -flatter myself therefore that I shall not be charged with plagiarism -by this celebrated antiquary, in case what is here submitted to the -consideration of the Royal Society should be so happy as to meet with -the approbation of that learned and illustrious body; not even by -_only_ acquainting the public, with a sort of _politesse_ so peculiar -to his countrymen, that it is now become one of the most distinguishing -characteristics of their nation[195], “that a certain Oxford doctor has -done him the honour to _adopt_ the explication he had given.” - - -IX. - -For the farther illustration of what has been here advanced, it will -be requisite to observe, that two æra’s were antiently followed at -Sidon; the æra of Seleucus, and another peculiar to the inhabitants -of that city[196]. On the Greek brass coins of Sidon, according to -F. Frœlich[197], both these epochs seem to have been used. However, -the supputation pointed out to us by the date on the Greek medal -above-mentioned was undoubtedly made according to the æra of Seleucus; -since otherwise the year exhibited by that date must have been nearly -coincident with the 266th of CHRIST, which by those versed in this kind -of literature will never be allowed. For had the piece presented to -our view so recent a date, as Sidon first became a Roman colony in the -reign of Elagabalus[198], above forty years before; the reverse ought -to have been adorned with some other letters intimating this, as were -those of the Sidonian[199] coins posterior to that event. As certain -is it that all the Phœnician medals of Sidon, whose numeral characters -have been interpreted here, acknowledge no other epoch than the proper -one of that city, which commenced in the year[200] of Rome 643. This, I -flatter myself, from the following considerations, exclusive of others -that might, with equal facility, be offered, will even to demonstration -appear. - -1. The fifth year mentioned by the oldest of these coins cannot be -the fifth year of the æra of Seleucus, because the Sidonians were -then subject to Antigonus[201], in whose territories the supputation -according to that epoch did not take place; and consequently the piece -itself must have been struck in the fifth year of the proper æra of -Sidon, nearly coincident with the 648th of Rome[202]. - -2. No dates ever occurred upon the medals of the Syrian kings presiding -over the people of Sidon, either to F. Frœlich or Dr. Vaillant[203], -who have so eminently distinguished themselves in this branch of -literature, before the year of Seleucus 112; and therefore neither -the Phœnician dates preserved on the aforesaid Sidonian coins whose -numeral characters do not amount to 112, nor the Greek dates on others -falling short of that number, can rationally be supposed to bear any -relation to the æra of that prince. This certainly must be considered -as a strong presumption, or rather an incontestable proof, that the -last-mentioned Phœnician dates were deduced from the commencement of -the proper Sidonian epoch, as from their genuine cardinal point. Which -reasoning will by analogy extend, as the numeral characters exhibited -by all the coins here explained are of the same kind, to every one of -the rest. - -3. None of the medals of the Syrian kings, with Phœnician letters -upon them[204], hitherto published, bear any Phœnician dates. This, -after what has been said, renders it extremely probable, that the -pieces of Sidon I am considering were posterior to those coins; and -even that their Phœnician dates referred to an æra different from that -of Seleucus, followed by the Greek dates on the medals of the Syrian -kings. Which if we admit, this æra could have been no other than the -new one of the Sidonians, that commenced in the seventh century of Rome. - -4. That the dates visible on these coins were supputed according to -the latter epoch of Sidon, will be manifest from an examination of -the Greek and Phœnician brass medals of that city explained, in[205] -the beginning of this paper; whose type and workmanship are extremely -similar, if not almost intirely the same. For this circumstance is -to me an evident proof, that they could not have been struck at very -distant times. Now if we take the Greek coin to have followed the æra -of Seleucus, as was undoubtedly the case, and the others that peculiar -to Sidon; the first of the Phœnician dates[206] will not be prior to -the Greek one above fifty-three years, nor the last of them precede it -above forty-three years. Whereas if we suppose the numeral inscriptions -in the exergues of the Phœnician Sidonian coins to have been supputed -according to the Seleucian epoch, the difference between the aforesaid -dates will be five times as much; which with the similarity of -workmanship and type, already observed, will be altogether incompatible. - -5. As the Jews[207], about the time that the first of our medals was -struck, denominated the æra of Seleucus, THE ÆRA OF THE KINGDOM OF -THE GREEKS; we cannot well doubt but it went amongst the Sidonians, -who were neighbours to the Jews, under the same denomination. From -whence it will follow, that the epoch styled by them emphatically, THE -ÆRA OF SIDON, must have been different from the æra of Seleucus; and -consequently that which, after the 643d year of Rome, was peculiar to -them. - -[Illustration: _Philos. Trans. Vol. L._ TAB. XXXII. _p. 804_ - -PHŒNICIAN Numerals antiently used at SIDON, from _One_ to a _Thousand_. - -_J. Mynde sc._] - -The powers of the Phœnician numeral characters antiently used at Sidon, -which I flatter myself are now discovered, having been for many ages -unknown; the Society will perhaps not be displeased to see accurate -draughts of the principal Phœnician medals, from whence they are -deduced. I have therefore taken the liberty to transmit them[208] such -draughts, which may be intirely depended upon. I have also constructed -a table[209] of the numeral characters themselves, from UNITY TO A -THOUSAND; which will demonstrate, in the clearest manner possible, the -great affinity between them and those of the Palmyrenes. - -1. From this table it plainly appears, that the people of Sidon had -no particular character to denote Five, whilst the Phœnician numerals -here explained were in vogue amongst them; that they expressed TWENTY -by a character, during that period, not very different from the -correspondent one used at Tadmor; and that in all other respects the -Phœnician notation then prevailing at Sidon was, in a manner, the same -with that of the[210] Palmyrenes. - -2. It may not be improper to observe, that two of the Sidonian coins I -have been considering[211] exhibit the Phœnician word מא, equivalent -to the Hebrew מאה, and Syriac מאא, AN HUNDRED, instead of the centenary -numeral character. This, in conjunction with the appearance of that -character, occupying the very place of the term אמ, on others of those -coins, first induced me to believe, that the inscription preserved by -every one of them in the exergue could be nothing else but a date. - -3. I shall beg leave farther to remark, that none of the indubitable -medals of Tyre, adorned with Phœnician letters, as far as I have been -able to discover, present to our view any Phœnician dates at all. -This still more clearly evinces the second element prefixed to the -Phœnician numerals in the exergue to point out to us the city of Sidon, -and not that of Tyre; which[212], indeed, seems already to have been -sufficiently proved. - -4. From the foregoing observations we may likewise collect, that -the coin assigned to Demetrius III. by Mr. Masson, F. Frœlich[213], -and Sig. Haym, exhibiting a Phœnician legend, without a Phœnician -date, in the exergue, ought in reality to be attributed to Demetrius -I. Those three learned men therefore have been guilty of a mistake in -this particular. Nor can the head on this medal be denied to bear some -resemblance to that of Demetrius I.[214] with a moderate beard, as it -appears on a coin published by Dr. Vaillant, and in one of F. Frœlich’s -plates. That the letters A K, behind the head, indicate the piece -to have been struck in the twenty-first year of the proper Sidonian -æra[215], as Mr. Masson and F. Frœlich are pleased to assert, can never -be proved. On the contrary, the improbability of such a notion may be -inferred from two similar letters, behind the turrited head of the _Dea -Syria_[216], on a Phœnician coin, which Mr. Masson makes to point out -the forty-first year of the proper epoch of Sidon; whereas, in truth, -that piece seems to have been struck either in the reign of Demetrius -I. or Antiochus IV.[217] many years before. Nay, that it was actually -struck when Demetrius I. sat upon the Syrian throne, is rendered almost -incontestable by a medal of that prince now in my possession, with a -_Beta_ behind the head on the anterior part, and the very reverse of -the last-mentioned coin. From the former of which circumstances it -farther appears, that the alphabetic characters MA, supposed by Mr. -Masson to denote 41, are by no means to be taken for a date. To which -we may add, that the head on a Phœnician medal, with the two Greek -elements AK behind it, published by Mr. Reland[218], is apparently that -of Demetrius I.; and that the posterior part of this coin is nearly -the same, in all respects, with the reverse of that supposed to[219] -appertain to Demetrius III. by Mr. Masson and Sig. Haym. But to wave -all other considerations, relative to the point in view, that may -occur, the features and turns of the face on the medals of Demetrius -III. are so different[220], that no inference of any validity can be -drawn from the pretended identity or similitude of them, in support of -Mr. Masson’s opinion. - -5. The Palmyrene and Phœnician numerals, deduced from coins and -inscriptions, may perhaps be thought not unworthy a place amongst the -arithmetical characters of various nations, formerly[221] collected -by Bishop Beveridge; and consequently may be allowed to render -somewhat more complete the chronological institutions, or rather the -chronological arithmetic, of that learned and judicious author. - -You will pardon the prolixity of this letter, which the novelty of -the subject may perhaps render a little more excusable than it would -otherwise have been; and believe me to be, with the most perfect -consideration and esteem, - - SIR, - Your most obedient humble Servant, - J. Swinton. - -Christ Church, Oxon. Nov. 17. 1758. - - - - -[Illustration: _Philos. Trans. Vol. L._ TAB. XXXIII. _p. 809_. - -_J. Mynde sc._] - - - - -CX. _Of the Irregularities in the Motion of a Satellite arising from -the spheroidical Figure of its Primary Planet: In a Letter to the Rev._ -James Bradley _D. D. Astronomer Royal, F.R.S. and Member of the Royal -Academy of Sciences at_ Paris; _by Mr._ Charles Walmesley, _F.R.S. -and Member of the Royal Academy of Sciences at_ Berlin, _and of the -Institute of_ Bologna. - -[Read Dec. 14, 1758.] - -Reverend Sir, - -SINCE the time that astronomers have been enabled by the perfection of -their instruments to determine with great accuracy the motions of the -celestial bodies, they have been solicitous to separate and distinguish -the several inequalities discovered in these motions, and to know their -cause, quantity, and the laws according to which they are generated. -This seems to furnish a sufficient motive to mathematicians, wherever -there appears a cause capable of producing an alteration in those -motions, to examine by theory what the result may amount to, though -it comes out never so small: for as one can seldom depend securely -upon mere guess for the quantity of any effect, it must be a blameable -neglect entirely to overlook it without being previously certain of its -not being worth our notice. - -Finding therefore it had not been considered what effect the figure -of a planet differing from that of a sphere might produce in the -motion of a satellite revolving about it, and as it is the case of the -bodies of the Earth and Jupiter which have satellites about them, not -to be spherical but spheroidical, I thought it worth while to enter -upon the examination of such a problem. When the primary planet is an -exact globe, it is well known that the force by which the revolving -satellite is retained in its orbit, tends to the center of the planet, -and varies in the inverse ratio of the square of the distance from -it; but when the primary planet is of a spheroidical figure, the -same rule then no longer holds: the gravity of the satellite is no -more directed to the center of the planet, nor does it vary in the -proportion above-mentioned; and if the plane of the satellite’s orbit -be not the same with the plane of the planet’s equator, the protuberant -matter about the equator will by a constant effort of its attraction -endeavour to make the two planes coincide. Hence the regularity of -the satellite’s motion is necessarily disturbed, and though upon -examination this effect is found to be but small in the moon, the -figure of the earth differing so little from that of a sphere, yet in -some cases it may be thought worth notice; if not, it will be at least -a satisfaction to see that what is neglected can be of no consequence. -But however inconsiderable the change may be with regard to the moon, -it becomes very sensible in the motions of the satellites of Jupiter -both on account of their nearer distances to that planet when compared -with its semidiameter, as also because the figure of Jupiter so far -recedes from that of a sphere. This I have shewn and exemplified in -the fourth satellite; in which case indeed the computation is more -exact than it would be for the other satellites: for as my first design -was to examine only how far the moon’s motion could be affected by -this cause, I supposed the satellite to revolve at a distance somewhat -remote from the primary planet, and the difference of the equatoreal -diameter and the axis of the planet not to be very considerable. There -likewise arises this other advantage from the present theory, that -it furnishes means to settle more accurately the proportion of the -different forces which disturb the celestial motions, by assigning the -particular share of influence which is to be ascribed to the figure of -the central bodies round which those motions are performed. - -I have added at the end a proposition concerning the diurnal motion -of the earth. This motion has been generally esteemed to be exactly -uniform; but as there is a cause that must necessarily somewhat alter -it, I was glad to examine what that alteration could amount to. If we -first suppose the globe of the earth to be exactly spherical, revolving -about its axis in a given time, and afterwards conceive that by the -force of the sun or moon raising the waters its figure be changed into -that of a spheroid, then according as the axis of revolution becomes a -different diameter of the spheroid, the velocity of the revolution must -increase or diminish: for, since some parts of the terraqueous globe -are removed from the axis of revolution and others depressed towards -it, and that in a different proportion as the sun or moon approaches -to or recedes from the equator, when the whole quantity of motion -which always remains the same is distributed through the spheroid, the -velocity of the diurnal rotation cannot be constantly the same. This -variation however will scarce be observable, but as it is real, it may -not be thought amiss to determine what its precise quantity is. - -I am sensible the following theory, as far as it relates to the motion -of Jupiter’s satellites, is imperfect and might be prosecuted further; -but being hindered at present from such pursuit by want of health and -other occupations, I thought I might send it you in the condition it -has lain by me for some time. You can best judge how far it may be of -use, and what advantage might arise from further improvements in it. I -am glad to have this opportunity of giving a fresh testimony of that -regard which is due to your distinguished merit, and of professing -myself with the highest esteem, - - Reverend Sir, - Your very humble Servant, - C. Walmesley. - -Bath, Oct. 21. 1758. - - -LEMMA I. - -_Invenire gravitatem corporis longinqui ad circumferentiam circuli -ex particulis materiæ in duplicatâ ratione distantiarum inversè -attrahentibus constantem._ - -ESTO NIK (_Vid._ TAB. xxxiii. _Fig._ 1.) circumferentia circuli, -in cujus puncta omnia gravitet corpus longinquum S locatum extra -planum circuli. In hoc planum agatur linea perpendicularis SH, et per -circuli centrum X ducatur recta HXK secans circulum in I et K, et SR -parallela ad HX: producatur autem SH ad distantiam datam SD, et agantur -rectæ DC, XC, ipsis HX, SD, parallelæ. Tum ductâ chordâ quavis MN ad -diametrum IK normali eamque secante in L, ex punctis M, N, demittantur -in SR perpendiculares MR, NR, concurrentes in R; junctisque SM, SN, -erit SM = SN, MR = NR, SR = HL. Dicantur jam SD, _k_; HX sive DC, -_h_; XL, _x_; CX, _z_; XI, _r_; eritque HL = _h_ - _x_, et SH = _k_ -- _z_. Est autem SM ad SH ut attractio (1 ⁄ (SM)²) corporis S versus -particulam M in directione SM ad ejusdem corporis attractionem in -directione SH, quæ proinde erit SH ⁄ (SM)³: sed est SR = HL, et (SM)² -= (SR)² + (MR)² = (SR)² + (SH)² + (ML)²; unde sit SH ⁄ (SM)³ = SH ⁄ -((HL)² + (SH)² + (ML)²⁽³⁄²⁾), et ductâ _mn_ parallelâ ad MN, vis qua -corpus S attrahitur ad arcus quàm minimos M_m_, N_n_, exponitur per -(SH × 2M_m_) ⁄ (SM)³ = SH × 2M_m_ × ((HL)² + (SH)² + (ML)²⁽⁻³⁄²⁾). Est -autem (HL)² + (SH)² + (ML)² = _kk_ - 2_kz_ + _zz_ + _hh_ - 2_hx_ + -_rr_, hincque ponendo _kk_ + _hh_ = _ll_, ((HL)² + (SH)² = (ML)²)⁽⁻³⁄²⁾ -= (1 ⁄ _l_³) + (3_kz_ ⁄ _l_⁵) + (3_hx_ ⁄ _l_⁵) - (3_rr_ ⁄ 2_l_⁵) - -(3_zz_ ⁄ 2_l_⁵) + (15_kkzz_ ⁄ 2_l_⁷) + (15_khzx_ ⁄ 2_l_⁷) + (15_hhxx_ -⁄ 2_l_⁷), neglectis terminis ulterioribus ob longinquitatem quam -supponimus corporis S. Quarè, si scribatur _d_ pro circumferentiâ IMKN, -gravitas corporis S ad totam illam circumferentiam secundum SH, sive -fluens fluxionis SH × 2M_m_ × ((HL)² + (SH)² + (ML)²)⁽⁻³⁄²⁾ evadit (_k_ -- _z_) × _d_ in (1 ⁄ _l_³) + (3_kz_ ⁄ _l_⁵) - (3_rr_ ⁄ 2_l_⁵) - (3_zz_ -⁄ 2_l_⁵) + (15 _kkzz_) ⁄ (2 _l_⁷) + (15 _hhrr_) ⁄ (4 _l_⁷). Simili -modo obtinebitur gravitas ejusdem corporis S secundum SR. _Q. E. I._ - - -LEMMA II. - -_Corporis longinqui gravitatem ad Sphæroidem oblatam determinare._ - -Retentis iis quæ sunt in lemmate superiori demonstrata; esto C centrum -sphæroidis, cujus æquatori parallelus sit circulus IMK. Sphæroidis -hujus semiaxis major sit _a_, semiaxis minor _b_, eorum differentia -_c_, quam exiguam esse suppono; et dicatur D circumferentia æquatoris. -Centro C et radio æquali semiaxi minori describi concipiatur -circulus qui secet IK in _i_, eritque gravitas in directione SD, qua -urgetur corpus S versus materiam sitam inter circumferentiam IMKN et -circumferentiam centro X et radio X_i_ descriptam, æqualis gravitati -in lemmate præcedenti definitæ ductæ in rectam I_i_. Sed est I_i_. -_c_∷ IX. _a_, atque _d_. D∷ IX. _a_; unde I_i_ × _d_. D × _c_∷ (IX)². -_aa_, hoc est, ex naturâ ellipseos, ob CX = _z_, et IX = _r_, I_i_ -× _d_. D × _c_∷ _bb_ - _zz_. _bb_, adeoque I_i_ × _d_ = (D × _c_) ⁄ -(_bb_) × (_bb_ - _zz_), atque _rr_ = _aa_ - (_aazz_) ⁄ (_bb_); scribi -autem potest in sequenti calculo _bb_ - _zz_ pro _rr_ ob parvitatem -differentiæ semiaxium in quam omnes termini ducuntur. Gravitas igitur -corporis S in materiam inter circumferentias supradictas consistentem -exprimetur per (D × _c_) ⁄ (_bb_) × (_bb_ - _zz_) × (_k_ - _z_) in 1 -⁄ _l_³ + (3_kz_) ⁄ _l_⁵ - (3_bb_) ⁄ (2_l_⁵) - (15_zz_) ⁄ (4_l_⁵) + -(15_bbhh_) ⁄ (4_l_⁷) + (45_kkzz_) ⁄ (4_l_⁷). Et si addatur gravitas -in similem materiam ex alterâ parte centri C ad æqualem à centro -distantiam, quia tunc CX sive _z_ evadit negativa, gravitas corporis S -in hanc duplicem materiam erit (D × _c_) ⁄ _bb_ × (_bb_ - _zz_) in 2_k_ -⁄ _l_³ - 6_kzz_ ⁄ _l_⁵ - 3_kbb_ ⁄ _l_⁵ + 15_k_³_zz_ ⁄ _l_⁷ + 15_hhkbb_ -⁄ 2_l_⁷ - 15_hhkzz_ ⁄ 2_l_⁷. Ducatur jam gravitas hæc in _ż_, et sumptâ -gravitatum omnium summâ, factâ _z_ = _b_, gravitatio tota corporis S -in totam materiam globo interiori superiorem secundum directionem SD -æquatori perpendicularem prodit (D × _c_) × (4_kb_ ⁄ 3_l_³ - 4_kb_³ ⁄ -5_l_⁵ + 2_khhb_³ ⁄ _l_⁷). Simili ratiocinio gravitatio corporis S in -eamdem materiam secundum directionem SR æquatori parallelam invenitur -æqualis D × _c_ × (4_hb_ ⁄ 3_l_³ + 2_hb_³ ⁄ 5_l_⁵ - 2_hkkb_³ ⁄ _l_⁷). -Tum si addatur gravitatio corporis S in globum interiorem, ex unâ parte -scilicet 2_b_³_k_D ⁄ 3_al_³, et ex alterâ 2_b_³_h_D ⁄ 3_al_³, habebitur -gravitas corporis S in totum sphæroidem. _Q. E. I._ - - -COROLL. - -Igitur gravitas corporis S secundum SD est ad ejusdem gravitatem -secundum SR sive DC in materiam sphæroidis globo interiori incumbentem -ut 2_k_ ⁄ 3 - 2_kb_² ⁄ 5_l_² + _khhb_² ⁄ _l_⁴ ad 2_h_ ⁄ 3 + _hb_² ⁄ -5_l_² - _hkkb_² ⁄ _l_⁴, adeoque si gravitas prior exponatur per _k_, -posterior exprimetur per _h_ - 3_hb_² ⁄ 5_l_² quamproximè. Unde cum -sit DC = _h_, patet gravitatem corporis S in sphæroidem oblatam non -tendere ad centrum C, sed ad punctum _c_ rectæ DC in plano æquatoris -jacentis vicinius puncto D. - - -PROPOSITIO I. - -PROBLEMA. - -_Vires determinare quibus perturbatur motus Satellitis circa Primarium -suum revolventis._ - -Exhibeat jam sphærois prædicta planetam quemvis figurâ hac donatum, -et corpus S satellitem circa planetam tanquàm primarium gyrantem. -Quantitas materiæ globo sphæroidis interiori incumbentis æqualis est -4_bbc_D ⁄ 3_a_ sive 4_bc_D ⁄ 3 proximè, et si materia illa locaretur -in centro sphæroidis C, attraheret satellitem S secundum SC vi 4_bc_D -⁄ 3_l_², quæ reducta ad directionem SD fit 4_bck_D ⁄ 3_l_³, et ad -directionem DC fit 4_bch_D ⁄ 3_l_³. Cum igitur vis 4_bc_D ⁄ 3_l_² non -turbat motum satellitis, utpote quæ tendat ad centrum motûs et quadrato -distantiæ ab eodem centro sit reciprocè proportionalis, vires illæ -4_bck_D ⁄ 3_l_³, 4_bch_D ⁄ 3_l_³, in quas resolvitur, etiam motum non -turbabunt. Itaque ex vi D × _c_ × (4_kb_ ⁄ 3_l_³ - 4_kb_³ ⁄ 5_l_⁵ + -2_khhb_³ ⁄ _l_⁷) auferatur vis 4_bck_D ⁄ 3_l_³, et ex vi D × _c_ × -(4_hb_ ⁄ 3_l_³ + 2_hb_³ ⁄ 5_l_⁵ - 2_hkkb_³ ⁄ _l_⁷) auferatur 4_bch_D -⁄ 3_l_³, et remanebunt vires D × _c_ × - (4_kb_³ ⁄ 5_l_⁵ + 2_khhb_³ ⁄ -_l_⁷), D × _c_ × (2_hb_³ ⁄ 5_l_⁵ - 2_hkkb_³ ⁄ _l_⁷), motuum satellitis -S perturbatrices. Designetur vis D × _c_ × (2_hb_³ ⁄ 5_l_⁵ - 2_hhkb_³ ⁄ -_l_⁷) per rectam S_r_ (_Fig. 2._) ac resolvatur in vim S_q_ tendentem -ad centrum planetæ primarii C et ob triangula similia S_rq_, SDC, -æqualem D × _c_ × (2_b_³ ⁄ 5_l_⁴ - 2_kkb_³ ⁄ _l_⁶), existentibus ut -priùs, SD = _k_, DC = _h_, SC = _l_; et in vim _rq_ rectæ SD parallelam -et æqualem D × _c_ × (2_kb_³ ⁄ 5_l_⁵ - 2_k_³_b_³ ⁄ _l_⁷); atque hæc vis -posterior subducta ex vi D × _c_ × - (4_kb_³ ⁄ 5_l_⁵ + 2_khhb_³⁄_l_⁷) -relinquet D × _c_ × 4_kb_³ ⁄ 5_l_⁵ pro vi perturbatrice in directione -SD. Unde cum massa tota planetæ sit 2_ab_D ⁄ 3, gravitas satellitis -tota in planetam erit 2_ab_D ⁄ 3_l_² proximé, vel etiam 2_bb_D ⁄ 3_l_², -et hæc gravitas est ad vim D × _c_ × 4_kb_³ ⁄ 5_l_⁵ ut 1 ad 6_kbc_ ⁄ -5_l_³. - -Deinde vis illius D × _c_ × 4_kb_³ ⁄ 5_l_⁵ secundum SD pars ea quæ agit -in directione SC est D × _c_ × 4_kkb_³ ⁄ 5_l_⁶, quæ addita vi Sq dat D -× _c_ × (2_b_³ ⁄ 5_l_⁴ - 6_kkb_³ ⁄ 5_l_⁶) vim perturbatricem tendentem -ad centrum planetæ primarii, atque hæc vis est ad satellitis gravitatem -2_bb_D ⁄ 3_l_² in primarium ut 3_bc_ ⁄ 5_l_² - 9_kkbc_ ⁄ 5_l_⁴ ad 1. -_Q. E. I._ - - -COROLL. - -Designet CK (_Fig._ 3.) lineam intersectionis planorum æquatoris -planetæ et orbitæ satellitis, et resolvatur vis SD = 6_kbc_ ⁄ -5_l_³, quæ agit perpendiculariter ad planum æquatoris, in vim DR -perpendicularem ad planum orbitæ satellitis, et in vim SR jacentem -in eodem plano. Producatur SR donec occurrat CK in K, eritque SK -normalis ad CK, et planum SDK normale ad planum orbis satellitis; -ac proptereà ob similia triangula SDK, SRD, si _m_ denotet sinum ad -radium 1 et _n_ cosinum anguli SKD, inclinationis scilicet orbitæ -satellitis ad æquatorem planetæ, erit DR = SD × _n_ = 6_kbcn_ ⁄ -5_l_³, et SR = SD × _m_ = 6_kbcm_ ⁄ 5_l_³, existente 1 gravitate totâ -satellitis in primarium suum. Jam quoniam vis SR jacet in plano orbitæ -satellitis, hujus plani situm non mutat; accelerat quidem vel retardat -motum satellitis revolventis, sed hæc acceleratio vel retardatio ob -brevitatem temporis ad quantitatem sensibilem non exurgit: vis DR eidem -plano perpendicularis continuò mutat ejus situm, et motum nodi generat, -quem sequenti propositione definiemus. - - -PROPOSITIO II. - -PROBLEMA. - -_Invenire motum nodi ex prædictâ causâ oriundum._ - -Per motum nodi in hac propositione intelligo motum intersectionis -planorum æquatoris planetæ et orbitæ satellitis; orbitam autem -satellitis quamproximé circularem suppono. Esto S locus satellitis in -orbe suo SN cujus centrum C, (_Fig._ 4.) SF arcus centro C descriptus -perpendicularis in circulum æquatoris planetæ FN; SB arcus eodem -centro descriptus perpendicularis ad orbem SN, atque in SB sumatur -lineola S_r_ æqualis duplo spatio, quod satelles percurrere posset -impellente vi DR in Coroll. præced. determinatâ, quo tempore in -orbe suo describeret arcum quàm minimum _p_S: per puncta _r_, _p_, -describatur centro C circulus _rpn_ secans equatorem in _n_, qui -exhibebit situm orbitæ satellitis post illam particulam temporis, nodo -N translato in _n_. Agantur SC, CN, et SH perpendicularis in lineam -nodorum CN, et N_m_ perpendicularis in _rpn_. Jam cum sint lineolæ -S_r_, N_m_, ut sinus arcuum S_p_, SN, erit S_p_. S_r_∷ SH. N_m_; deinde -in triangulo rectangulo N_mn_ habetur _m_. 1∷ N_m_. N_n_; unde per -compositionem rationum S_p_ × _m_. S_r_∷ SH. N_n_ = ((S_r_ × SH) ⁄ -(S_p_ × _m_)): dato igitur arcu S_p_, est N_n_ sive motus nodi ut S_r_ -× SH. In triangulo sphærico rectangulo SFN est sinus anguli N, hoc est, -anguli inclinationis orbitæ satellitis ad æquatorem planetæ, ad sinum -arcûs SF, ut radius ad sinum arcûs SN, id est, _m_. (_k ⁄ l_)∷ 1. SH, -adeoque _k ⁄ l_ = _m_ × SH; est igitur _k ⁄ l_ ut SH. Vis autem S_r_ -per Coroll. Prop. præced. est ut _k ⁄ l_, adeoque ut SH; quamobrem -est S_r_ × SH, proindeque et N_n_, ut (SH)², hoc est, motus horarius -nodi vi præfatâ genitus est in duplicatâ ratione distantiæ satellitis -à nodo. Et quoniam summa omnium (SH)², quo tempore satelles periodum -suam absolvit, est dimidium summæ totidem (SC)², ideò motus periodicus -est subduplus ejus qui, si satelles in declinatione suâ maximâ ab -æquatore planetæ continuò perstaret, eodem tempore generari posset. -Sit igitur satelles in maximâ suâ declinatione sive in quadraturâ cum -nodo, eritque SN quadrans circuli, et N_m_ mensura anguli N_pm_ sive -S_pr_, eritque in hoc casu N_n_ sive motus horarius nodi ad N_m_, hoc -est, ad angulum S_pr_, ut 1 ad _m_; est autem angulus S_pr_ ad duplum -angulum, quem subtendit sinus versus arcûs S_p_ satellitis gravitate -in primarium eodem tempore descripti, id est, ad angulum SC_p_ qui est -motus horarius satellitis circa primarium, ut vis S_r_ ad gravitatem -satellitis in primarium, hoc est (per Coroll. Prop. I.), ut (6_kbcn_) ⁄ -5_l_³ ad 1, sive, quia est in hoc casu _k_ ⁄ _l_ = _m_, ut (6_bcmn_) ⁄ -5_l_² ad 1. Unde conjunctis rationibus est motus horarius nodi ad motum -horarium satellitis ut (6_bcn_) ⁄ 5_l_² ad 1; et si S denotet tempus -periodicum solis apparens, et L tempus periodicum satellitis circa -primarium suum, cum sit motus horarius satellitis ad motum horarium -solis ut S ad L, erit motus horarius nodi ad motum horarium solis ut -(6_bcn_) ⁄ 5_l_² × S ⁄ L ad 1, et in eadem ratione erit motus nodi -annuus ad motum solis annuum, hoc est, ad 360°. Quarè, si satelles -maneret toto anno in maximâ suâ declinatione ab æquatore primarii, vis -prædicta ex figurâ sphæroidicâ planetæ primarii proveniens generaret -eodem tempore motum nodi æqualem (6_bcn_) ⁄ 5_l_² × S ⁄ L × 360°, et -ex supradictis motus verus nodi annuus erit hujus subduplus, nempe -(3_bcn_) ⁄ 5_l_² × S ⁄ L × 360°. _Q. E. I._ - - -COROLL. - -Si computatio instituatur pro lunâ, assumendo mediocrem ejus orbitæ -inclinationem ad æquatorem terrestrem, erit _n_ cosinus anguli 23° -28´½; et posito semiaxi terræ _b_ = 1, erit distantia lunæ à centro -terræ mediocris _l_ = 60 circiter, indeque in hypothesi quod sit -differentia semiaxium _c_ = ¹⁄₂₂₉, erit (3_bcn_) ⁄ (5_l_²) × S ⁄ L × -360° = 11´´ ½; et si fuerit _c_ = ¹⁄₁₇₇, manente terrâ uniformiter -densâ, erit ille motus = 15´´. Hic erit motus nodorum annuus lunæ -regressivus in plano æquatoris terrestris, qui reductus ad eclipticam, -uti posteà docebitur, pro vario nodorum situ evadet multò velocior. - -Notabilis multò magis erit motus intersectionis orbitarum satellitum -Jovis in plano æquatoris Jovialis; et computabitur satis accuratè per -formulam suprà traditam, modò satelles non sit Jovi nimis vicinus. -Sic pro satellite extimo erit L = 16ᵈ 16ʰ 32´, _b_ = 1, _l_ = 25,299 -circiter, semiaxium Jovis differentia _c_ = ¹⁄₁₃; et positâ orbis hujus -satellitis inclinatione ad æquatorem Jovis æquali 3°, erit _n_ cosinus -hujus inclinationis, atque inde prodibit (3_bcn_) ⁄ (5_l_²) × S ⁄ L × -360° = 34´ circiter, motus scilicet nodorum annuus satellitis quarti in -plano æquatoris Jovis in antecedentia. Si minùs vel magìs inclinatur -orbis ad Jovis æquatorem, augeri vel minui debet hic motus in ratione -cosinûs hujus inclinationis. - -Cæterùm patet motum hunc nodorum in plano æquatoris planetæ primarii, -æstimando distantiam satellitis in semidiametris primarii, generatìm -esse, dato tempore, in ratione compositâ, ex ratione directâ -differentiæ semiaxium planetæ et cosinûs inclinationis orbis satellitis -ad planetæ æquatorem, conjunctìm; et ex ratione inversâ temporis -periodici satellitis et quadrati distantiæ satellitis à centro planetæ, -item conjunctìm. - - -PROPOSITIO III. - -PROBLEMA. - -_Motum nodorum Lunæ supra determinatum ad Eclipticam reducere._ - -Sunto NAD (_Fig._ 5.) æquator, AGE ecliptica secans æquatorem in A, -E æquinoctium vernum, A autumnale, LGN orbis lunæ secans eclipticam -in G et æquatorem in N, LD circulus maximus perpendicularis in -æquatorem; et sunto DN, LN, quadrantes circuli. Tempore dato -vi prædictâ transferratur intersectio N in _n_, et describatur -circulus L_gn_ exhibens situm orbis lunaris post illud tempus, -secetque eclipticam in _g_. Ut autem intersectiones N et G sine -verborum ambagibus distinguantur, priorem in posterum vocabo _Nodum -Æquatorium_, posteriorem _Nodum Eclipticum_. Ductis itaque N_m_, G_d_, -perpendicularibus in orbem lunæ, est N_n_: N_m_∷ 1: sin. GNA, et N_m_: -G_d_∷ 1: sin. LG, itemque G_d_: G_g_∷ sin. G_gd_: 1; unde conjunctis -rationibus provenit N_n_: G_g_∷ sin. G_gd_: sin. GNA × sin. LG, adeoque -G_g_ = N_n_ × (sin. GNA × sin. LG) ⁄ sin. G_gd_. Scribantur _s_ pro -sinu et _t_ pro cosinu anguli G_gd_, inclinationis scilicet orbitæ -lunaris ad eclipticam, ad radium 1, _v_ pro sinu et _u_ pro cosinu -arcûs EG, _p_ pro sinu et _q_ pro cosinu obliquitatis eclipticæ; atque -per resolutionem trianguli sphærici GAN, habebitur cos. GNA = _n_ = -_qt_ + _psu_, indeque sin. GNA = √(1 - _qqtt_ - 2_pqstu_ - _p_² _s_² -_u_²); sed scribi potest 1 pro _t_, et rejici terminus _p_² _s_² _u_² -ob exiguitatem sinûs _s_ anguli 5° 8´ ½, proindeque erit sin. GNA = -√(_pp_ - 2_pqsu_); prætereà est sin. GNA: sin. GA sive _v_∷ sin. GAN -sive _p_: sin. GN, ideoque sin. GN sive cos. LG = (_pv_ ⁄ sin. GNA), -et sin. LG = _u_ - (_qsvv_ ⁄ _p_), ac sin GNA × sin. LG = pu - qs -quamproximé. Quarè fit Gg = Nn × ((_pu_ - _qs_) ⁄ _s_), atque hic est -motus nodorum lunarium tempore dato in plano eclipticæ: quod si tempus -illud datum sit annus solaris, habetur N_n_ = (3_bcn_ ⁄ 5_l_²) × (S -⁄ L) × 360°, unde motus ille eclipticus nodorum annuus, nullâ habitâ -ratione mutationis sitûs nodorum ex aliâ causâ per id temporis factæ, -fiet (3_bc_ ⁄ 5_l_²) × (_qt_ + _psu_) × ((_pu_ - _qs_) ⁄ _s_) × (S ⁄ L) -× 360°, vel etiam (3_bcq_ ⁄ 5_l_²) × ((_pu_ - _qs_) ⁄ _s_) × (S ⁄ L) × -360° proximé. _Q. E. I._ - -Quo motum nodi lunaris in hac propositione ad eclipticam reduximus, -eodem prorsùs ratiocinio motus nodi satellitis cujusvis ad orbitam -planetæ primarii reducetur. - - -COROLL. I. - -Exinde liquet nullum esse hunc motum nodi, ubi sin. LG = 0, vel etiam -ubi _pu_ = _qs_, quod contingit ubi orbitæ lunaris arcus GN eclipticam -et æquatorem æqualis est 90°, sive ubi nodi lunares versantur in -punctis declinationis lunaris maximæ, sive ubi arcus AG, cujus cosinus -est _u_, evadit æqualis 78° 5´, id est, ubi nodus ascendens lunæ -versatur in 11° 55´ Cancri, vel 18° 5´ Sagittarii. Eritque progressivus -hic motus, id est, fiet secundum seriem signorum, dum nodus ascendens -lunæ transit retrocedendo ab 18° 5´ Sagittarii ad 11° 55´ Cancri, -regressivus autem in reliquâ parte revolutionis; et maximus evadit -motus regressivus, ubi _u_ = -1, id est, ubi nodus ascendens versatur -in principio Arietis; et maximus progressivus, ubi _u_ = 1, id est, -ubi idem nodus occupat initium Libræ. Itaque cùm motus ille nodorum -annuus, de quo hîc agitur, universaliter sit æqualis (3_bcq_ ⁄ 5_l_²) × -((_pu_ - _qs_) ⁄ _s_) × (S ⁄ L) × 360°, hoc est, per Coroll. Prop. 2. -æqualis 11´´ ½ × ((_pu_ - _qs_) ⁄ _s_) vel 15´´ × ((_pu_ - _qs_) ⁄ _s_) -prout differentia semiaxium terræ fuerit ¹⁄₂₂₉ vel ¹⁄₁₇₇, existentibus -scilicet _p_ sinu et _q_ cosinu anguli 23° 28´ ½, atque _s_ sinu anguli -5° 8´ ½; eo anno, in cujus medio circiter nodus lunæ ascendens tenuerit -principium Arietis, motus nodorum regressivus, qui et maximus, erit -1´ 2´´ vel 1´ 20´´; ubi verò idem nodus subierit signum Libræ, motus -maximus progressivus erit 41´´ vel 53´´. In aliis nodorum positionibus -eodem modo computabitur. - - -COROLL. II. - -Si desideretur excessus regressûs nodi supra progressum in integrâ -nodi revolutione, sequenti ratione investigabitur. Jungantur equinoctia -diametro EA, in quam demittatur perpendiculum GK, et sumpto arcu -G_h_ quem describit nodus eclipticus G quo tempore nodus equatorius -N describit arcum N_n_, ducatur _hc_ perpendicularis in GK. Per hanc -propositionem est G_g_. N_n_∷ ((_pu_ - _qs_) ⁄ _s_). 1, sive, quia -est 1. _u_ ∷ G_h_. G_c_, fit G_g_. N_n_∷ ((_p_ × G_c_) ⁄ _s_) - _q_ × -G_h_. G_h_; adeoque summa omnium G_g_ erit ad summam omnium N_n_, hoc -est, motus nodi ecliptici in integrâ sui revolutione erit ad motum nodi -æquatorii eodem tempore factum, ut summa omnium in circulo quantitatum -((_p_ × G_c_) ⁄ _s_) - _q_ × G_h_ ad summam totidem arcuum G_h_, hoc -est, ut - _q_ ad 1. Signum autem--denotat motum fieri in antecedentia -sive regressum nodi excedere ejusdem progressum. Unde cum motus nodi -æquatorii N fit 11´´ ½ vel 15´´ quo tempore nodus eclipticus describit -19° 20´ ½, motus ille nodi æquatorii tempore nodi ecliptici periodico -evadit 11´´ ½ × (360° ⁄ 19° 20´ ½) = 3´ 34´´ vel 15´´ × (360° ⁄ 19° 20´ -½) = 4´ 39´´; quo pacto prodit motus nodi ecliptici præfatus æqualis -_q_ × 3´ 34´´ vel _q_ × 4´ 39´´, proindeque _est radius ad cosinum -obliquitatis eclipticæ ut_ 3´ 34´´ _vel_ 4´ 39´´ _ad motum quæsitum_, -nempe 3´ 16´´, existente ¹⁄₂₂₉ differentiâ axium terræ, vel 4´ 16´´ eâ -existente ¹⁄₁₇₇: atque hic est excessus regressûs nodi supra progressum -in integrâ nodi revolutione vi prædictâ genitus. Excessu igitur hoc -minuatur motus nodi lunaris periodicus 360°, et remanebit motus ille -quem generat vis solis. - - -PROPOSITIO IV. - -PROBLEMA. - -_Variationem inclinationis orbis lunaris ad planum eclipticæ ex figurâ -terræ spheroidicâ ortam determinare._ - -Esto ANH (_Fig._ 6.) æquator, AG ecliptica, et A punctum æquinoctii -autumnalis: fit NGRM orbis lunæ secans eclipticam in G et æquatorem in -N, in quo sumantur arcus NL, GR, æquales quadrantibus circuli. Jam -si nodus æquatorius N per temporis particulam vi prædictâ transferri -intelligatur in _n_, et per punctum L describatur circulus _n_L_r_, -exhibebit hic situm orbis lunæ post tempus elapsum, et si in eumdem -demittantur perpendicula N_m_ et R_r_, posterius R_r_ designabit -variationem inclinationis orbitæ lunaris ad eclipticam eodem tempore -genitam. Est autem N_n_: N_m_∷ 1: _m_, itemque N_m_: R_r_∷ 1: sin. LR; -sed ob NL = GR, est NG = LR; unde conjunctis rationibus est N_n_: R_r_∷ -1: _m_ × sin. NG; ex quo patet variationem inclinationis momentaneam -esse proportionalem sinui distantiæ nodi lunaris ecliptici à nodo -æquatorio. Ad diametrum NM demittatur perpendiculum GK, et existente -G_h_ decremento arcûs NG facto quo tempore nodus æquatorius N describit -arcum N_n_, agatur _hk_ parallela ipsi GK, eritque 1: GK sive sin. -NG∷ G_h_. K_k_; proindeque jam erit N_n_: R_r_∷ G_h_: _m_ × K_k_, -adeoque summa omnium variationum R_r_, quo tempore nodus eclipticus -G descripsit arcum MG, genitarum erit ad summam totidem motuum N_n_, -hoc est, ad motum nodi æquatorii N eodem tempore factum, ut summa -omnium K_k_ ducta in _m_, ad summam totidem arcuum G_h_, id est, ut -_m_ × MK ad MG. Sit NH motus nodi N tempore revolutionis nodi G ab uno -equinoctio ad alterum, eritque variatio inclinationis eodem tempore -genita, hoc est, variatio tota æqualis ((2_m_ × NH) ⁄ MGN). Unde cùm NH -⁄ MGN exprimat rationem motûs nodi æquatorii ad motum nodi ecliptici, -prodit theorema sequens: _Est motus nodi lunaris ecliptici ad motum -nodi æquatorii, ut sinus duplicatus inclinationis mediocris orbitæ -lunaris ad æquatorem, ad sinum variationis totius inclinationis ejusdem -orbitæ ad eclipticam._ - -In hoc computo inclinationem mediocrem orbis lunaris ad æquatorem, -nempe 23° 28´ ½, usurpo, cum in revolutione nodi tantum ex unâ -parte augetur, quantum ex alterâ minuitur, et omnes minutias hîc -expendere supervacaneum foret. Motus autem nodi lunaris ecliptici -est ad motum nodi lunaris æquatorii ut 19° 20´ ½ ad 11´´ ½ vel 15´´, -sive ut 6055 vel 4642 ad 1, unde per theorema supra traditum prodit -variatio inclinationis tota æqualis 27´´ vel 35´´, prout differentia -axium terræ statuitur ¹⁄₂₂₉ vel ¹⁄₁₇₇. Hac igitur quantitate augetur -inclinatio orbis lunaris ad eclipticam in transitu nodi ascendentis -lunæ ab æquinoctio vernali ad autumnale, et tantumdem minuitur in -alterâ medietate revolutionis nodi. In loco quolibet G inter æquinoctia -variatio inclinationis est ad variationem totam ut sinus versus arcûs -MG ad diametrum, ut patet; sive differentia inter semissem variationis -totius et variationem quæsitam est ad ipsam semissem variationis totius -ut cosinus arcûs MG ad radium, hoc est, ut _u_ - (_qsvv_ ⁄ _p_) ad 1. -_Q. E. I._ - - -PROPOSITIO V. - -PROBLEMA. - -_Motum apsidum in orbe satellitis quamproximé circulari, quatenùs ex -figurâ planetæ primarii sphæroidicâ oritur, investigare._ - -Per propositionem primam vis perturbatrix, quâ trahitur satelles -ad centrum planetæ primarii, est ad satellitis gravitatem in ipsum -primarium, ut (3_bc_ ⁄ 5_l_²) - (9_kkbc_ ⁄ 5_l_⁴) ad 1, sive, quia -per Prop. 2. est (_k ⁄ l_) = _m_ × SH (_Fig._ 4.) ponendo scilicet -_m_ pro sinu inclinationis orbitæ satellitis ad æquatorem primarii, -et scribendo _y_ pro SH, ut (3_bc_ ⁄ 5_l_²) × (1 - 3_m_²_y_²) ad 1; -et summa harum virium in totâ circumferentiâ cujus radius est 1, est -ad gravitatem satellitis toties sumptam ut (3_bc_ ⁄ 5_l_²) × (1 - -(3_m_² ⁄ 2)) ad 1. Vis igitur mediocris, quæ uniformiter agere in -satellitem supponi potest, dum revolutionem suam in orbitâ propemodùm -circulari absolvit, est ad ejus gravitatem in primarium ut (3_bc_ ⁄ -5_l_²) × (1 - (3_m_² ⁄ 2)) ad 1; atque hac vi movebuntur apsides, si -nulla habeatur ratio vis alterius quæ orbis radio est perpendicularis -et per medietatem revolutionis satellitis in unum sensum tendit, per -alteram medietatem in contrarium. Jam quia ex demonstratis in hac et -primâ propositione sequitur gravitatem satellitis circa planetam, cujus -figura est sphærois oblata, revolventis in distantiâ _l_ generaliter -esse ad ejusdem gravitatem in majori distantiâ L, ut (1 ⁄ _l_²) + (B ⁄ -_l_⁴) × (1 - (3_m_² ⁄ 2)) ad (1 ⁄ L²) + (B ⁄ L⁴) × (1 - (3_m_² ⁄ 2)), -existente B quantitate datâ exigui valoris, sive ut (1 ⁄ _l_²) ad (1 -⁄ L²) - (B ⁄ _l_²L²) × (1 - (3_m_² ⁄ 2)) + (B ⁄ L⁴) × (1 - (3_m_² ⁄ -2)) quamproximé, ideò gravitas satellitis diminuitur in majori quam -duplicatâ ratione distantiæ auctæ quoties _m_ minor est quantitate -√⅔ id est, ubi inclinatio orbitæ satellitis ad planetæ æquatorem non -attingit 54° 44´; diminuitur autem in minori ratione, quoties est _m_ -major quàm √⅔, id est, ubi illa inclinatio superat 54° 44´; adeoque -in priore casu progrediuntur apsides orbis satellitis, in posteriori -regrediuntur. Quantitas autem hujus progressûs vel regressûs sic -innotescet. - -Per exemplum tertium prop. 45 lib. 1. _Princ. Math. Newt._ si vi -centripetæ, quæ est ut 1 ⁄ _l_², addatur vis altera ut _e ⁄ l_⁴, hoc -est, quæ sit ad vim centripetam 1 ⁄ _l_² ut _e ⁄ l_² ad 1, angulus -revolutionis ab apside unâ ad eamdem erit 360° √((1 + _e_) ⁄ (1 - -_e_)) vel 360° ⁄ (1 - _e_) quamproximé, existente _e_ quantitate valdé -minutâ. Porrò cum sit motus satellitis in orbitâ suâ revolventis ad -motum apsidis ut 360° ⁄ (1 - _e_) ad 360° ⁄ (1 - _e_) - 360°, hoc est, -ut 1 ad _e_, erit motus apsidis tempore revolutionis satellitis ad -fidera æqualis 360° × _e_, et hic motus apsidis erit ad ejusdem motum -tempore alio quovis dato ut tempus periodicum satellitis ad tempus -datum. Est autem in hac nostrâ propositione _e_ = (3_bc_ ⁄ 5_l_²) × (1 -- (3_m_² ⁄ 2)); unde datur motus apsidum quæsitus. _Q. E. I._ - - -COROLL. - -Si ad lunam referatur hæc determinatio, habebuntur _b_ = 1, _l_ = 60, -_m_ = sinui anguli 23° 28´ ½, et si fuerit _c_ = ¹⁄₂₂₉, erit _e_ = -¹⁄₁₈₀₃₂₀₃, atque motus apogæi lunæ spatio centum annorum æqualis 16´ -proximé in consequentia; si fuerit _c_ = ¹⁄₁₇₇, erit _e_ = ¹⁄₁₃₉₃₇₄₂, -et motus apogæi æqualis 20´, 7. Hac igitur quantitate minuendus est -motus medius apogæi lunæ prout observationibus determinatur, ut -habeatur motus ille quem generat vis solis. - -Pro quarto autem Jovis satellite, erunt _b_ = 1, _l_ = 25,299, _c_ = -¹⁄₁₃, _m_ = sinui anguli 3°, _e_ = ¹⁄₁₃₉₂₄,₇; hincque motus apsidis -spatio unius anni solaris prodit 33´, 95 vel ferè 34´ in consequentia, -qui tempore annorum decem fit 5° 40´. Insuper autem notandum est vi -solis perturbari motum satellitis simili modo quo perturbatur motus -lunæ; ideoque, quoniam vis solis, quâ perturbatur motus lunæ est ad -lunæ gravitatem in terram in duplicatâ ratione temporis periodici lunæ -circa terram ad tempus periodicum terræ circa solem, hoc est, ut 1 ad -178,725; pariter vis solis, qua perturbatur motus satellitis Jovialis, -est ad ipsius satellitis gravitatem in Jovem in duplicatâ ratione -temporum periodicorum satellitis circa Jovem et Jovis circa solem, hoc -est, ut 1 ad 67394,6: vires igitur, quibus perturbantur motus lunæ -et satellitis, sunt ad se invicem, relativé ad eorum gravitates in -planetas suos primarios ut ¹⁄₁₇₈,₇₂₅ ad ¹⁄₆₇₃₉₄,₆ sive ut 37,708 ad -1. Unde cum viribus similibus proportionales sunt motus his viribus -dato tempore geniti, si vis prior vel ejusdem vis pars quælibet -motum apsidis generat æqualem 40° 40´ ½ in orbe lunari annuatìm, vis -posterior vel ejusdem pars similis et proportionalis motum apsidis -eodem tempore generabit æqualem 6´ ½ in orbe satellitis, atque decem -annorum spatio 1° 5´ in consequentia. Addatur 1° 5´ ad 5° 40´, et motus -apsidum totus in orbe satellitis extimi Jovialis ex duabus prædictis -causis oriundus spatio decem annorum erit 6° 45´ in consequentia. -Observationibus Astronomicis collegit Ill. _Bradleius_ hunc motum -tempore prædicto esse quasi 6°; differentia illa qualiscumque 45´ inter -motum observatum et computatum actionibus satellitum interiorum debebit -ascribi. - - -SCHOLIUM. - -Ex præcedentibus colligere licet motuum lunarium inæqualitates originem -suam omnem non ducere ex vi solis, sed earum partem aliquam deberi -actioni Telluris quatenùs induitur figurâ sphæroidicâ. Sufficiat hîc -illarum computasse valorem, et legem, quâ generantur, demonstrasse: -utrum autem hujusmodi correctiones tales sint ut tabulis Astronomicis -inscribi mereantur, dijudicent Astronomi. - -Item manifestum est præter inæqualitates eas, quæ in motibus satellitum -Jovialium ex vi solis et actionibus satellitum in se invicem nascuntur, -oriri alias ex figurâ Jovis sphæroidicâ ita notabiles ut Observationes -Astronomicas continuò afficere debeant. - - -_De Variatione motûs Terræ diurni._ - -Si terra globus esset omninò sphæricus quicumque foret revolutionis -axis, manente eâdem in globo motûs quantitate, eadem maneret rotationis -velocitas: secùs autem est, ubi ob vires solis et lunæ terra induit -formam sphæroidis oblongæ per aquarum ascensum. Hîc enim non considero -figuram telluris oblatam ob materiæ in æquatore redundantiam, sed -sphæricam suppono nisi quatenùs per aquarum elevationem et depressionem -in sphæroidicam mutatur. Jam verò in sphæroide hujusmodi, quamvis eadem -maneat motûs quantitas, mutatâ inclinatione axis transversi ad axem -revolutionis, mutabitur revolutionis velocitas, uti satis manifestum -est: cùm autem axis transversus transit semper per solem vel lunam, -singulis momentis mutabit situm suum respectu axis revolutionis ob -motum quo hi duo planetæ recedunt ab æquatore terrestri et ad eum -vicissìm accedunt. - - -PROBLEMA. - -_Variationem motûs terræ diurni ex prædictâ causâ oriundam investigare._ - -Exhibeat sphærois oblonga ADC_d_ (_Fig._ 7.) terram fluidam, cujus -centrum T, AC axis transversus jungens centra terræ et solis vel lunæ, -D_d_ axis minor, EO diameter æquatoris, et XZ axis motûs diurni. Centro -T et radio TD describatur circulus BD_d_ secans axem transversum -AC in B, et agatur BK perpendicularis in TE: tum ex quovis circuli -puncto P ductâ PM ad axem XZ normali quæ secet TA in H, sit P_pr_ -circumferentia circuli quam punctum P rotatione suâ diurnâ describit, -ad cujus quodvis punctum _p_ ducatur T_p_ et producatur donec occurrat -superficiei sphæroidis in _q_; deinde demissâ _p_G perpendiculari -in PM, et GF perpendiculari in TA, si per puncta A_q_C transire -intelligatur ellipsis ellipsi ADC similis et æqualis, erit ex naturâ -curvæ, quia sphærois nostra parùm admodùm differt à sphærâ, _pq_ = AB -× ((TF)² ⁄ (TP)²) quamproximé. Jam designet U velocitatem particulæ in -terræ æquatore revolventis motu diurno circum axem XZ ad distantiam -semidiametri TP, eritque ((U × PM) ⁄ TP) velocitas particulæ P circulum -P_pr_ describentis, et cum sit TF =(((GM - HM) × TK) ⁄ TP) + TH, erit -motus totius lineolæ _pq_ æqualis _pq_ × ((U × PM) ⁄ TP) = ((U × AB × -PM) ⁄ (TP)³) × (((GM - HM) × (TK)²) ⁄ TP) + TH, adeoque summa horum -motuum in circuitu circuli P_pr_, hoc est, motus superficiei inter -circulum P_pr_ et sphæroidem in directione T_p_ contentæ, æquabitur -circumferentiæ hujus circuli ductæ in ((U × AB × PM) ⁄ (TP)³) × (((TK)² -× (PM)²) ⁄ 2(TP)²) + ((TK)² × (HM)²) ⁄ (TP)²) - ((2TK × HM × TH) ⁄ TP) -+ (TH)²) sive quia est HM. TM ∷ TK. BK, et TH. HM∷ TP. TK, scribendo -D pro circumferentiâ circuli BD_d_, æquabitur ille motus quantitati -((U × AB × D) ⁄ 2(TP)⁶) × ((TK)² × (PM)⁴ + 2(BK)² × (TM)² × (PM)²). -Deinde horum motuum summa in toto circuitu globi collecta, hoc est, -motus totius materiæ globo BD_d_ incumbentis prodibit æqualis ((U × -AB × DD) ⁄ 32) x ((3(TP)² - (BK)²) ⁄ (TP)²). Ubi planeta in plano -æquatoris consistit, fit BK = 0, et motus prædictus æqualis ((U × 3AB -× DD) ⁄ 32). Motus autem globi QPR circa eumdem axem est (uti facilé -demonstratur) ((U × TP × DD) ⁄ 16), adeoque motus terræ totius fit ((U -× TP × DD) ⁄ 16) + ((U × AB × DD) ⁄ 32) × ((3(TP)² - (BK)²) ⁄ (TP)²), -qui cum idem semper manere debeat, denotet V velocitatem in superficie -æquatoris terrestris ubi planeta versatur in plano æquatoris, eritque -((U × TP × DD) ⁄ 16) + ((U × 3AB × DD) ⁄ 32) = ((U × TP × DD) ⁄ 16) -+ ((U × AB × DD) ⁄ 32) × ((3(TP)² - (BK)²) ⁄ (TP)²); unde scribendo -1 pro TP quatenùs est radius ad sinum BK anguli BTK, habetur V. U∷ -TP + (3AB ⁄ 2) - ((AB × (BK)²) ⁄ 2). TP + (3AB ⁄ 2), indeque, quia -minima est altitudo AB respectu semidiametri TP, U - V. V∷ AB × (BK)². -2TP, et U - V = V × ((AB × (BK)²) ⁄ 2TP): pro V autem patet scribi -posse velocitatem angularem terræ mediocrem quia ab eâ differt quam -minimé et ducitur in quantitatem perexiguam ((AB × (BK)²) ⁄ 2TP), et -quia tempora revolutionum terræ circa centrum suum sint reciprocé ut -motus angulares U, V, fiet differentia revolutionum terræ ubi planeta -æquatorem tenet et ubi ab æquatore distat angulo BTK, æqualis 23ʰ 56´ -× (AB × (BK)²) ⁄ 2TP. Quoniam igitur est acceleratio horaria ad motum -terræ horarium mediocrem circa centrum suum ut AB × (BK)² ad 2 TP sive -(quia est sinus _p_ inclinationis eclipticæ ad æquatorem ad radium 1 -ut sinus BK ad sinum distantiæ planetæ ab æquinoctio, quem sinum dico -K) ut AB × _p_² × K² ad 2 TP; adeoque acceleratio horaria rotationis -terræ crescit in ratione duplicatâ sinûs distantiæ planetæ à puncto -æquinoctii, et summa omnium illarum accelerationum, quo tempore transit -planeta ab æquinoctio ad solstitium, est ad summam totidem motuum -horariorum mediocrium, hoc est, acceleratio tota eo tempore genita est -ad tempus illud ut summa quantitatum omnium AB × _p_² × K² in circuli -quadrante ad summam totidem 2TP, id est, quia summa omnium K² in -circuli quadrante dimidium est summæ totidem quadratorum radii, ut AB × -_p_² ad 4 TP. Quamobrèm, si denotet P quartam partem temporis planetæ -periodici circa terram, erit acceleratio tota motûs terræ circum axem -suum in transitu planetæ ab æquinoctio ad solstitium genita æqualis -(AB × P × _p_²) ⁄ 4TP, atque eadem erit retardatio in transitu planetæ -à solstitio ad æquinoctium. Unde sponte nascitur hoc Theorema: _Est -quadratum diametri ad quadratum sinûs obliquitatis eclipticæ ut quarta -pars temporis periodici solis vel lunæ ad tempus aliud_; deinde, _est -semidiameter terræ ad differentiam semiaxium ut tempus mox inventum ad -accelerationem quæsitam_. - -Ascensus aquæ AB vi solis debitus est duorum pedum circiter, -existente semidiametro terræ mediocri TP = 19615800, unde prodit per -theorema acceleratio terræ circa centrum suum gyrantis facta quo -tempore incedit sol ab æquinoctio ad solstitium, æqualis 1´´´ 55ⁱᵛ -in partibus temporis; et si vi lunæ ascendunt aquæ ad altitudinem -octo pedum, acceleratio revolutionis terræ inde orta, quo tempore -luna transit ab æquatore ad declinationem suam maximam, erit 34ⁱᵛ: et -summa harum accelerationum, quæ obtinet ubi hi duo planetæ in punctis -solstitialibus versantur, cum non superet duo minuta tertia temporis -cum semisse sive 37 minuta tertia gradûs, vix observabilis erit. _Q. E. -I._ - -Cùm igitur tantilla fit hujusmodi variatio in hypothesi sphæricitatis -terræ; qualis evaderet, terrâ existente sphæroide oblatâ, frustrà quis -inquireret. - - - - -CXI. _Some Observations on the History of the_ Norfolk _Boy. By_ J. -Wall, _M. D. In a Letter to the Rev._ Charles Lyttelton, _LL.D. Dean -of_ Exeter. - -[Read Dec. 14, 1758.] - -SIR, - -THE history of the Norfolk Boy, which, you inform me, has been -communicated to the Royal Society, seems to deserve a place in the -memoirs of that illustrious body, as well on account of its utility, as -its singularity. - -The symptoms in this case most evidently arose from worms in the -intestines; which often occasion unaccountable complaints, and -frequently elude the most powerful medicines, as they did in the -instance before us, till at last they were dislodged by the enormous -quantity of oil-paint, which the poor boy devoured; and the cause being -thus removed, all the effects ceased. - -At first sight it appears wonderful, that this immense quantity of -white lead did not prove fatal; and that it was not so, could be owing -to nothing but the oil, by which it was enveloped, and its contact and -immediate action on the coats of the intestines thereby prevented. But -the oil did not only obviate the dangerous effects of this mixture, but -appears, to me at least, to have been the chief cause of the success, -with which it was happily attended. I speak this with some restriction, -because the lead, as its stypticity was thus covered, might, by its -weight, assist in removing the verminous filth, especially as the -bowels were made slippery by the oil. - -Oil has long been observed to be noxious to insects of all kinds, so -that not only those, which survive after being cut into several pieces, -but those also, which live long with very little air, and those, which -revive by warmth after submersion in water, die irrecoverably, if they -are immerged in, or covered with oil. Rhedi and Malpighi have made many -experiments to this purpose; and account for the event very rationally -from the oil stopping up all the air-vessels, which in these animalcula -are very numerous, and distributed almost over their whole bodies. - -On this account oil has been recommended as a vermifuge both by Andry -and Hoffmann, though I believe it has been seldom used in practice in -that intention; or at least has not been given in quantities sufficient -to answer it. Indeed Hoffmann[222] himself seems not to lay much -stress on it as an anthelmintic, recommending it only as serving -to line the inside of the intestines, and to relax spasms in them; -and therefore as a proper preparative to be given before any acrid -purgatives are ventured on. - -The medicines commonly prescribed, and most depended on, are either -of a virulent and drastic nature, or such as are supposed to be able -to destroy those animals by some mechanical qualities _e. g._ to cut, -tear, or otherwise affect their tender bodies, and yet not have force -enough to lacerate or injure the stomach or intestines. Of the former -kind are the leaves and juice of helleboraster, the bark of the Indian -cabbage-tree, coloquintida, resin of jalap, glass of antimony, and -the like; the effects of which are commonly violent and dangerous, -and sometimes fatal. Of the latter class are crude mercury, and the -milder preparations of that mineral, aloes and other bitters, tin -filings, neutral salts, and vitriolic acids. Every one conversant in -practice too well knows, how often these medicines are administred -ineffectually. When I had therefore attentively considered the history -of the Norfolk Boy, I determined to try the efficacy of oil in such -cases, as it seemed capable of producing great effects, and yet could -not be attended with any hazard or danger. - -The first person, to whom it was given, with this view, was ---- -----, a patient of our Infirmary, who was judged to have worms, but -had taken several approved medicines for a considerable time without -success. In a consultation with the other physicians, the following -form was prescribed. - - ℞. _Ol. Oliv. lb.ss. Sp. vol. aromat. ʒij M. cap. Cochl. iii. mane et - H. S._ - -The volatile spirit was added here to make the oil saponaceous, and -by that means more easily miscible with the juices in the stomach and -_primæ viæ_. This medicine answered our expectations, and in a few days -brought away several worms. - ----- Lacy, a poor boy of the parish of Feckenham in this county, aged -13 years, was, as I was informed, about three or four years ago seized -with convulsive fits, which gradually deprived him of his senses, and -reduced him to a state of idiocy. He had taken several anthelmintics -and purgatives, particularly the _Pulv. Cornachin._ but never had -voided any worms, though all the symptoms seemed plainly to shew, that -they were the cause of his disorder. As he greedily swallowed any -thing, which was offered him, without distinction, I at first ordered -him a mixture of linseed oil ℥vij _Tinct. sacr._ ℥j: of which he took -four large spoonfuls night and morning. He persisted in the use of this -one whole week without at all nauseating it, towards the latter end of -which time he voided one round worm of a great length. He now began -to shew much aversion to the medicine; on which account the _Tinctur. -sacr._ was omitted, and he was ordered to take the oil alone in the -same quantities. This he continued to do a fortnight longer, during -which time he voided 60 more worms, and in a great measure recovered -the use of his reason[223]. This account I had from the Apothecary, -who, by my directions, supplied him with the medicines. - -Soon after this I ordered the same medicine to be given to Elizabeth -Abell, a poor girl in the same neighbourhood, reduced by epileptic fits -to such a state of idiocy, as to eat her own excrements. It caused her -to void several worms, but she did not recover her senses. - -Since this time I have given the oil to several persons with good -success, and therefore I cannot but recommend a further tryal of it; -since it is a remedy, which may be used with safety in almost any -quantity; a character, which very few of the anthelmintic medicines -deserve. - -It is probable, that some oils are more destructive to worms than -others. Andry (_Traité de la Generation des Vers, cap. 8_) prefers -nut oil, and tells us, that a human worm, voided alive, being put -into that oil, died instantly; whereas another worm, voided at the -same time, lived several hours in oil of sweet almonds, though in a -languishing state. This difference he afterwards (_Cap. 9_) endeavours -to account for, by supposing, that the oil of almonds is more porous, -and consequently less able to preclude the entrance of air into the -worms. And indeed there is some reason to conclude, that oils, which -dry in the open air, such as nut and linseed oils, are of a closer -texture, less mixed with water, and consequently more anthelmintic, -than those oils, which freeze by cold, and will not dry in the open -air;[224] such as those from olives or almonds. Andry tells us, that at -Milan the mothers have a custom to give their children once or twice -a week toasts dipt in nut oil, with a little wine, to kill the worms: -and I know a lady in the country, who gives the poor children in her -neighbourhood the same oil with great success. - -I would recommend this remedy to be used in as large doses as the -stomach will well bear: to which purpose it may be adviseable to join -it either with aromatics, bitters, or essential oils, such as the -case may require. Andry orders the oil to be taken fasting, assigning -this for a reason, that the stomach being then most empty, it more -readily embraces and stifles the worms. During this course it will be -necessary, at proper intervals, to give rhubarb, mercurial or aloetic -medicines. - -I cannot close this paper without observing, that, from the history -of the Norfolk Boy, we may learn, in similar cases, where the head is -not idiopathic, never to despair absolutely of a cure, notwithstanding -the disease has been of very long standing. For in this boy, though -the oppression in the brain and nerves had continued many years, and -had been so violent, as to deprive him not only of his intellectual -faculties, but almost all his sensations; yet were not the organs much -impaired thereby, but he recovered all his senses again, as soon as -the irritation and spasms in the intestines, which first caused all -these terrible symptoms, were removed. The same thing in a less degree -was observable in the Feckenham Boy, mentioned before; and we have had -two remarkable instances of the same kind at the Worcester Infirmary; -where a boy and his sister, of the name of Moyses, received a perfect -cure, and recovered the entire use of their senses, after having been -rendered idiots (though not in so high a degree as the Norfolk Boy) for -more than two years, by epileptic fits proceeding from worms. - - J. Wall. - -Worcester Dec. 7, 1748. - - _P. S._ As the following history has some analogy with the subject we - are now upon, I beg leave to subjoin it by way of postscript. - - A young girl of the name of Lowbridge, at Ledbury, in - Herefordshire, nine years old, had been long troubled with a gnawing - pain at the stomach, which growing gradually more violent, I was at - last called to her. About a quarter of an hour before I reached the - house, she was seized with a violent vomiting, whereby she brought - up an amazing number of living animals supposed, to be upwards of - a thousand, together with a vast quantity of clear viscid phlegm. - In shape they exactly resembled millepedes, except that some of - them, being examined by a magnifying glass, appeared to have a - small filament, which arose from the middle of the belly, and might - probably have served to fix them to their nidus. They were of - different sizes, from that of the largest millepede, to some, that - were scarce perceptible; so that they appeared to have been generated - at different times, and grown in the stomach. As the child was - suddenly seized with this effort to vomit, she discharged her stomach - on the floor of the parlour where she was sitting. The millepedes, - they told me, were at first very lively, and crept briskly different - ways; but they did not live long in the open air. They were lying in - the slime when I came to her, so that I could not be imposed on as to - the verity of the fact. After this evacuation, the child’s stomach - grew perfectly easy, and continued so. - - - - -CXII. _Observations upon the_ Corona Solis Marina Americana; _The_ -American Sea-Sun-Crown. _By_ John Andrew Peyssonel, _M.D. F.R.S. -Translated from the_ French. - -[Read Dec. 14, 1758.] - -I Shall call this insect by this name, because of the resemblance it -bears to the flower called _Corona Solis_; since it is, like this, open -and spread. - -This insect adheres to the rocks by its basis, which is flat and round; -and tho’ this roundness is sometimes mis-shapen, it is only occasioned -by the inequalities of the rocks, to which it sticks. Its diameter is -about two or three inches, bearing, from the center, certain rays, -like white nerves, upon a moist flesh, of a livid violet colour. -These rays or nerves pass from the centre to the circumference; they, -too, consist of a soft fleshy substance, which resembles bowels or -intestines; the whole length of which is covered with glandulous bodies -of a dirty grey colour; and all these glands filled up the middle of -the fish, making the flowrets, or petals, that form the disk of the -flowers. There is an infinite number of these glands attached to those -filets or nerves, all very distinct from one another: these filets are -well ranged when viewed downwards; but the upper part is covered by -these glands, which are placed in a confused manner. These filets pass -to the circumference, forming an edge full of rugosities, which leaves -the body of the animal full of flaws. These hard bodies, upon which -it lives, are not always permanent in the same place, but capable of -changing their places from this edge or circumference; like a skin or -texture of fibres or flesh, such as the body of the sea snail I have -already described; of the same thickness, of a greenish colour, and -sometimes of a greenish spotted grey, without shell, bone, or stay. The -body or muscular fleshy skin raises itself up perpendicularly to three -inches; rounds itself at the top, when it is touched; but it leaves -a hole like a sphincter, formed by the reunion of the fleshy body, -which enlarges itself again. The base opens to the whole extent of the -bottom, makes a reversed prepuce, and immediately brings to view three -rows of _papillæ_, which are of a conical figure, of one or two lines -long, resembling the glands under the tongues of oxen, and which may -here be compared to the demi-flowers or radiated flowers of the _Corona -Solis_. - -After this threefold ray of conical pointed _papillæ_, there appears a -body of a livid violet colour; I took it for a particular substance -or body; but having examined it, I observed it was only a pellicle, -or membrane, that covered a part of the _papillæ_ I mentioned. This -membrane has sixteen separations, which form kinds of purses, and yet -leave, in the center of the animal, an empty space, wherein several -glands are brought in view. I do not know, whether, in the natural -state, these membranes do not retire to the circumference, in order to -discover the glands within, which they usually hide, and which fill -up all the middle of the crown; but when the fleshy body is gone up -again, it covers all the interior parts, closes them in, and preserves -them from the touch of any extraneous body. I cannot tell how these -fishes live, or what is their mechanism; for I could not distinguish -either a mouth, or any _viscera_, nor any other organ serving to their -nourishment. - -[Illustration: _Philos. Trans. Vol. L._ TAB. XXXIV. _p. 845_. - -Lepades Pedatæ. - - 1. _Lepas nuda carnosa aurita_ - 1 a. _Ejusdem pars superior interna_ - 1 b _Foramen auris internum_ - 1 c _Currhi_ (1.d) _Proboscis et_ (1.c) _Os_ - 1 f _Dens terratus quorum octo sunt_ - 1 g. _Idem per. Microscopium visus_ - 1 h. _Scapus longitudinatiter dessectus_ - 2 _Scalpellum Norwegicum Keratophytium_ - 2 a. _Idem per. Microscopium visum_ - 3 _Scalpellum ex mare Britannico_ - 4. _Cornu copia Poussepieda Gallorum_ - 5. _Concha Anatifera vulgaris_ - 6. _Concha Anatifera prolifera_ - A. _Animal Lepadis sen Triton Linnæi_ - -Barnicles _with Stems_. - - 1. _Naked fleshy Barnicle with Ears_ - 1 a. _The inside of the upper part of the same_ - 1 b. _The internal opening of the Ear_ - 1 c. _The Plumes_ (e. d) _trunck_ (e. e) _and mouth_ - 1 f. _A saw edg’d tooth of which there are 8_ - 1 g. _The same magnified_ - 1 h. _The Stem cut in two lengthways_ - 2. _The Norway Seafan Penknife._ - 2 a. _The same magnified._ - 3. _The British Channel Penknife._ - 4. _The Horn of plenty or French Poussepieds_ - 5. _The common Duckbearing Barnicle_ - 6. _The branch’d Duckbearing Barnicle_ - A. _Animal of the Barnicle or Linnaeus’s Triton_ - -Lepades Sessiles Balani dictæ. - - 7. _Pediculus Ceti_ (7.a). _Idem reversus_ - 8. _Calyciformis Orientalis_ - 9. _Tintinabuliformis._ - 10. _Tulipiformis ex Corallio rubro_ - 11. _Fistulosa conica_ (11.a) _eadem reversa_ - 12. _Verrum Testudinaria_ (12.a) _eadem reversa_ - 13. _Verrum Canesti Americani_ (13.a) _eisdem statere_ - 14. _Lapensis ore obliquo_ (14.a) _cum opserastis cornutis_ - 15. _Subovatis crassa ore minore_ - 16. _Cornulacensis conicas ore minores_ - 17. _Anglica vulgaris ore patulo_ - 18. _Aretica Patelliformis_ - 19. _Calceolus_ (19.a) _Idem. hierophylis involutus_ - 20. _Diadema Persarum_ - -Barnicles _adhering by the base of these Shells_. - - 7. _The Whales. Louse_ (7.a) _The underside_ - 8. _The East India cup shap’d Barnicle_ - 9. _The Bell shap’d Barnicle_ - 10. _The Red Coral Tulip Barnicle_ - 11. _The pipy conical Barnicle_ (11.a) _The underside_ - 12. _The Tortoise Wart_ (12. a) _The underside_ - 13. _The American Crabs Wart_ (13.a) _The same sideways_ - 14. _The Cape sidemouth Barnicle_ (14.a) _with_ oblique edge - 15. _The Eggshap’d thick Barnicle with a small mouth_ - 16. _The Cornish cone Barnicle with a small_ edge - 17. _The common English Barnicle with a_ wide mouth - 18. _The Greenland Limpet shap’d Barnicle_ - 19. _The Slipper_ (19.a) _The same cover’d with hierophylis_ - 20. _The Persian Crown_] - - - - -CXIII. _An Account of several rare Species of Barnacles. In a Letter to -Mr._ Isaac Romilly, _F.R.S. from_ John Ellis, _Esq; F.R.S._ - -[Read Dec. 21, 1758.] - - London, Dec. 21. 1758. - -Dear Sir, - -THOSE rare and very extraordinary new species of Barnacles, which you -have lately received from abroad, are so different from any of the -common species, that I have seen, that I was resolved to inquire into -the nature of an animal, which, like a Proteus, appears in so many -different shapes or coverings in different parts of the world. For this -end I have consulted that excellent collection in the British Museum, -and some others in the cabinets of my curious friends. - -In this inquiry I met with some very rare ones, which have not yet -been described, as you will observe in the annexed plate [_See_ TAB. -XXXIV.], where I have given exact drawings of yours, as well as the -other species of this genus. - -This marine animal is called, by writers on natural history, Balanus, -and Concha Anatifera: but the celebrated Professor at Upsal, Dr. -Linnæus, calls the internal active part, or fish, the Animal Triton, -and the covering or testaceous habitation Lepas, which he says is a -multivalved shell, composed of unequal valves. The Animal Triton he -describes, as having an oblong body, a mouth with a tongue in it, -twisted about in a spiral manner; sixteen tentacula or claws: six of -the hinder ones on each side, he says, are cheliferous. - -This account differing from that given by the ingenious Mr. Turberville -Needham, F.R.S. in his Microscopical Essays, I shall give the character -of this animal, as it appeared to me from the many observations I made -on it, while alive in salt water; and these I compared not only with -many dried specimens of other varieties, but likewise with some of -yours, that were preserved in spirits; and I found that the parts of -the animal agree in all the species. - -The experiments, that I made, were on the common English Barnacle, -which is very frequently met with, at this time of the year, on oysters -and other shell-fish. The microscope, that I made use of to observe -it, was Mr. Cuff’s aquatic one; where the animal, when taken out of the -shell, may be put into the watch-glass with salt water, or spread on -the round glass plate on the stage of the microscope, and kept moist -with a hair pencil and salt water during the time of observation: this -will keep the claws and proboscis alive and in motion for many hours -together. - -This animal has 24 claws, or cirrhi (_See Fig._ A), which are disposed -in the following manner: the 12 longest stand erect, arising from the -back part of the animal: they are all joined in pairs near the bottom, -and inserted in one common base. These appear like so many yellow -curled feathers: they are clear, horny, and articulated. Every joint is -furnished with two rows of hairs on the concave side. The animal, in -order to catch its prey, is continually extending and contracting these -arched hairy claws, which serve it for a net. - -The 12 smallest claws are placed next to these, six on each side: these -are divided into pairs; that is, two claws to one stem, like the chelæ -or claws of the crab. These are more pliable, and fuller of hairs, than -the others, and seem to do the office of hands for the animal. - -The whole number of claws lessen in size gradually each way, from the -tallest in the back, to the last but one of each side in the front; -which last two are of the middle size. - -The proboscis, or trunk, rises from the middle of the base of the -larger claws, and is longer than any of them: this the animal moves -about in any direction with great agility: it is of a tubular figure, -transparent, composed of rings lessening gradually to the extremity, -where it is surrounded with a circle of small bristles, which likewise -are moveable at the will of the animal. These, with other small hairs -on the trunk, disappear when it dies. - -Along the inside of this transparent proboscis the spiral dark-coloured -tongue appears very plain: this the animal contracts and extends at -pleasure. - -The mouth appears like that of a contracted purse, and is placed -in front, between the fore claws. In the folds of this membraneous -substance are six or eight horny laminæ or teeth standing erect, each -having a tendon proper to direct its motion. Some of these teeth are -serrated, others have tufts of sharp hairs instead of indentations on -the convex side, that point down into the mouth; so that no animalcule -that becomes their prey can escape back. - -Under the mouth lie the stomach, intestines, and the tendons by which -they adhere to the shell. - -This then is the general character of the animal of the whole genus, -whether with stems or without. - -I shall now give you a short description of the several kinds I have -met with, besides those of your own, and shall divide them into two -kinds; those that have stems, and those that adhere by their shelly -bases. - -The first and most remarkable of those that have stems is the Barnacle, -_Fig._ 1. This differs from the Lepas of Linnæus in not having a -testaceous, only a cartilaginous or fleshy covering. On the top of it -are two erect tubular figures like ears: these have a communication -with the internal parts of the animal (_See Fig. 1. b_). These inner -parts agree with the general character already given. The stem, which -is here dissected, was full of a soft spongy yellow substance, which -appeared, when magnified, to consist of regular oval figures, connected -together by many small fibres, and no doubt are the spawn of the animal. - -This extraordinary animal (of which there were seven together) was -found sticking to the Whale Barnacle (_See fig._ 1. & 7.), by Mr. Smith -of Stavenger in Norway, who cut both kinds together off a whale’s -lip, that was thrown upon that coast last year, 1757, and immediately -immersed them in spirits of wine; by which means we have been able more -exactly to describe them. - -I have called this animal the Naked Fleshy Barnacle with Ears; but it -appears to claim the name of Triton rather than Lepas, according to -Linnæus, as having no shelly habitation. - -_Fig._ 2. is the next animal of this class: this is not yet described. -I found several of them sticking to the Warted Norway Sea Fan, which -Dr. Pantoppidan, the Bishop of North Bergen, sent you: from its -appearance, I have called it the Norway Sea Fan Penknife. The stem -of this is covered with little testaceous scales. The upper part of -the animal is inclosed in thirteen distinct shells, six on each side, -besides the hinge-shell at the back, which is common to both sides: -these are connected together by a membrane that lines the whole inside. -One of these is magnified a little at fig. 2. _a_, in order to express -the figure and situation of each shell the better. - -_Fig._ 3. is taken from D’Argentville’s _Lithologie, Pl. 30. fig._ -H, who says it is found in the British channel sticking to sea -plants; and that these shells consist of five pieces. This, from its -appearance, I have called the British Channel Penknife, to distinguish -it from the other. - -_Fig._ 4. is a species of Barnacle called Poussepieds by the French, -and described by Rondeletius as commonly found adhering to rocks on -the coast of Brittany. He says the people there boil and eat the stem, -which is first of a mouse-colour, and afterwards becomes red like our -prawns. There are many heads, that arise out of one stem, each of which -consists of two shells, in which are the same parts of the animal as in -the other species. This I have called the Cornucopia Barnacle. Some of -the shells of this Barnacle were drawn from a specimen in the British -Museum. This Lepas is the Mitella of Linnæus. - -_Fig._ 5. and 6. are the Barnacles called Conchæ Anatiferæ: these are -the sorts so well known to sailors, and formerly supposed to produce a -large species of duck called a Barnacle. These consist of five shells. -The tube, that supports one of these kinds, branches out like some -species of corallines, bearing a shelled animal at the end of each -branch. They are generally found adhering to pieces of wood in the sea, -and most ships have some of them sticking to their bottoms. Those of -the southern and warmer climates are generally of a larger kind than -those of the colder and more northern climates. - -The next division of these animals is, those that adhere by the base of -their shells, having no stems. - -Here I must observe, that the bottoms of the several species of this -division conform in shape to the substances they adhere to, or grasp -them in such a peculiar manner, as to render their situation secure -from the violence of the element they live in. Another provision of -nature for the security of these animals are the four opercula, which, -upon their retreating into the great shell, they can draw to so close -after them, as to secure themselves from outward danger. - -_Fig._ 7. represents the Whale Barnacle, called Pediculus Ceti, just -as it was cut off the whale’s lip, with the seven naked Barnacles with -ears, already described. _Fig._ 7.a is the bottom of the shell. This -has the appearance of the gills of a mushroom. All the spaces between -these laminæ were filled with the blubber of the whale: by this means -they adhere to the gristly skin of the fish. The narrow cavities -between the branched laminæ are the places where the ligaments or -tendons, that move the opercula, are inserted. - -_Fig._ 8. is the Cup Barnacle, taken off an East India ship from -Sumatra. The testaceous flat bottom of this was marked with the seams -and lines of the sheathing, and with the rust of the nails. In one of -these shells the animal is represented protruding his claws thro’ the -opercula. - -_Fig._ 9. is called the Bell-shaped Barnacle. This was taken off the -bottom of a ship from Jamaica, and had its flat testaceous base marked -as the former. - -_Fig._ 10. This represents part of a most elegant specimen in the -curious collection of Dr. John Fothergill. It is called the Tulip -Barnacle, and very properly, as well from the shape of its shell, as -the beautiful stripes of red mixt with white. It adheres to a piece -of the true red coral, and was fished up near Leghorn, on the coast -of Italy. It is not improbable, but that these groups of Barnacles, -growing at the same time with the animals that formed the red coral, -may have received an addition to their fine red colour from the coral. - -_Fig._ 11. is a group of Barnacles of a conical form, composed of -purplish tubes like small quills. _Fig._ 11.a represents one of the -same, with a view of its base, from the collection of Mr. Peter -Collinson, F.R.S. This was brought from the East Indies. The insides of -these shells have the appearance of the spongy parts of bones. - -_Fig._ 12. is called the Tortoise-wart Barnacle, being often found upon -that animal. This shell is of a plano-convex shape, and looks like -polished ivory. The divisions between the valves represent a star with -six points. If these shells are put into soap lees, they will in a few -hours separate into six pieces or valves, each shelly valve having -two ears, like the scallop-shell: so that this species has its valves -connected by membranes, instead of testaceous sutures, as most of the -others have. _Fig. 12. a_ represents the under part of the same shell. - -_Fig._ 13. This shell is marked with six rays like a star, as the -former; but is much deeper in proportion to its diameter. Several -of this kind were found sticking to a crab, that was lately brought -from the island of Nevis; from whence I have called it the American -Crabs-wart. - -_Fig._ 14. is called the Side-mouth Barnacle. This was found on -the southern coast of Africa, near the Cape of Good Hope, where it -adheres to a particular species of striated purple muscle. _Fig._ 14.a -represents two of the opercula of this Barnacle remarkably horned. The -shell of this is very thin; but its obliquity may probably be owing to -its situation. - -_Fig._ 15. This egg-shaped Barnacle with a small mouth is found in -clusters sticking to the Buccinum tribe of shells in the West Indies. - -_Fig._ 16. is the Cornish Barnacle, shaped like a cone, and with a -small mouth. This is described and figured by the Revᵈ. Mr. William -Borlase, F.R.S. in his Natural History of Cornwall, lately published. - -_Fig._ 17. This is the common English Barnacle, that is found in such -plenty upon all rocks and shells round this island. From the animal of -this, examined in the microscope, I have taken the character of the -fish of the Barnacle genus. - -_Fig._ 18. This I have called the Limpet-shaped Barnacle, from its -likeness to some species of that shell. I am indebted to our late -worthy member, Mr. Arthur Pond, for this shell, who assured me it -was brought to him from Greenland. It was, with several more, found -sticking to a very large species of muscle. - -_Fig._ 19.a. This Sea-Fan, with the Barnacles inclosed in it, was -brought from Gibraltar. I have called it the Slipper Barnacle, from its -shape. _See Fig._ 19. These shell-fish adhere, while they are young, to -the slender branches, which are produced by the animals that compose -this species of Sea-fan; and as the next succession of young animals of -this sea-fan creep up its sides, to increase the bulk and extension of -these first-formed ramifications, they inclose the shells all round, -leaving only their mouths or apertures open, for the Barnacles to -procure their food. But it frequently happens, that the animals of the -Sea-fans destroy these Barnacles, by overrunning and involving them in -the very center of their stems. These small Barnacles, interspersed -here and there on the branches, have been taken for fruit or berries -by some gentlemen, who look upon the internal or horny part of the -Sea-fans to be vegetables. - -_Fig._ 20. is a very curious Barnacle, taken from an elegant specimen -in the British Museum; which, from its figure, I have called the -Persian Crown. - - -I shall now add some further observations on the nature of these -animals. - -Upon opening the shells of many of the common English Barnacles (_Fig._ -1.) while they were alive, I found the lower part of the shell, which -contained a cavity equal to two thirds of the whole, full of spawn; -so that the Barnacles, which adhere by the base of their shells, as -well as those that are supported by fleshy tubes, are propagated by -eggs, which they send forth in inconceivable numbers; as appears by the -clusters of young shells, which we find adhering not only to the parent -animals, but to all hard substances near them. - -The bottom shell of these animals, as well as their upper shells, vary -in form according to their situation, which occasions some difficulty -in determining their several species with exactness. The form of the -base shell of our common English Barnacle, is the flat radiated figure -represented adhering to a scallop shell in the front of a group of them -at _Fig._ 17. The Barnacles at _Fig._ 8. 9. 14. 15. and 20. have the -same kind of base. - -I have very lately observed a singular kind of flat Balanus, on a white -Mandrepora coral from the coast of Italy, in the possession of Mr. -Mendez D’Acosta, F.R.S. whose base appears sunk into the coral, and of -the form of an inverted cone, bending a little to one side. The inward -surface of this conical base shell appears curiously striated with -tubular radii, which terminate on the surface of the coral, to receive -the extremities of the six valves, that compose the upper shell. This -peculiar form of the base seems owing to the animals of the coral and -of the Barnacle growing up together, the latter keeping possession of -its proper space, while the former grew close about it. - -The bottom shell of the Barnacle like a Limpet, at _Fig._ 18. -increases from a small point by many thin shelly margins, which -exactly correspond to the indentations which we observe on the base -of the outward shell; so that it appears not unlike the drawing of a -fortification in miniature. - -I am, - - Dear Sir, - Your most affectionate Friend, - John Ellis. - - _P. S._ The Rev. Mr. William Borlase is now of opinion, that the - Cornish Barnacle at _Fig._ 16. which he has described in his History - of Cornwall, is rather a Limpet or Patella. - - - - -CXIV. _A further Account of the poisonous Effects of the_ Oenanthe -Aquatica Succo viroso crocante _of_ Lobel, _or_ Hemlock Dropwort, _by_ -W. Watson, _M.D. F.R.S._ - -_To the_ ROYAL SOCIETY. - -[Read Dec. 21, 1758.] - -Gentlemen, - -IN the month of June 1746. I communicated to you some observations -concerning the _Oenanthe aquatica Succo viroso crocante_ of Lobel, -in relation to its poisonous effects upon some French prisoners -at Pembroke. These observations were afterwards published in the -_Philosophical Transactions_[225], with an accurate representation of -the plant itself, from an original drawing by that compleat artist Mr. -Ehret. This at that time I thought the more necessary, as it was of no -small importance to the public, to be well acquainted with a plant, -the effects of which, when taken into our bodies, were so much to be -dreaded. This account of mine, as well as the representation of the -plant, were republished from the Transactions into the periodical works -of that time; from whence a more extensive knowlege of and acquaintance -with this plant might have been hoped for. A late instance however has -evinced, that these endeavours have not had their full effect, as the -plant in question is not yet sufficiently known, and attended to. - -John Midlane, a cabinet-maker of Havant in Hampshire, aged about 58, -and of a gross habit of body, was advised to make use of the water -parsnep, as a remedy for a severe scorbutic disorder, which he had long -been troubled with; and for which he had taken a variety of medicines. -Instead of the water parsnep, which he purposed to take, there were -gathered for him some roots of the _oenanthe_ above mentioned; a large -one of which was pounded in a mortar, and the juice thereof squeezed -through a linen cloth, and amounted to about five spoonfuls. This was -suffered to stand all night, and the next morning (Mar. 31. 1758.), at -about half an hour past five, he drank the whole quantity, except the -sediment. - -In about an hour and half after he had taken this juice, he walked -about the town upon some business; and a little before seven, upon -his return home, about an hundred yards from his own house, he first -complained that he was ill; and having walked about thirty yards -further, was so bad as to go into a neighbour’s house to rest himself. -He was soon led from thence to his own house by two men, and told them, -that he was affected as though he had lost the use of his limbs. When -he was placed in his chair, he complained greatly of pain all over -him; but particularly in his head. His stomach was immediately after -affected, and he had great reachings to vomit. At the second attempt he -threw up about half a pint of a clear watry liquor; at the first and -third attempt he discharged scarce any thing. He was then seized with a -great propensity to go to stool, which went off in about three minutes. -After this, he with the greatest difficulty was conducted upstairs -to bed, where he pulled off part of his cloaths himself. When he was -put to bed, he was attacked with very severe convulsions, which in -about a quarter of an hour deprived him of his senses; and continued, -with a few intermissions, till he died, a little before nine o’clock; -which was about three hours and half after the juice had been taken. -A profuse sweat accompanied the whole of these symptoms: he foamed -considerably at the mouth, and his belly swelled greatly. He purged -very much soon after he was dead, but not before. - -As this poor man had taken this dose before his family were up, no -one could imagine from whence his disorder arose; and consequently -the apothecary, who was called to him, was able to form a judgment -of his case only from the symptoms; as on his coming he found his -patient senseless, and who had not, while his mind was undisturbed, -told any one the probable cause of his complaints. He took from him -however about ten ounces of blood, and endeavoured to get some _vinum -ipecacuanhæ_ into his mouth: but his jaws were closed so fast, not -above a spoonful passed, and that by the accident of his mouth opening -of itself. - -The symptoms, with which the person above-mentioned was attacked, were -much the same as those which were observed in the French prisoners, who -were poisoned by the same root at Pembroke. In both instances occurred -those severe muscular spasms, which kept the under jaw so close to the -upper, that, while the spasm continued, scarce any force could separate -them. In both instances likewise a considerable time passed before -the persons, who had eaten of this root, though they had taken enough -of it to destroy them, perceived themselves disordered by it. - -[Illustration: _Philos. Trans. Vol. L._ TAB. XXXV. _p. 859_. - -_J. Mynde sc._] - -I am obliged for this communication to Richard Warner, Esq; of -Woodford, a gentleman of great merit, whose zeal for the promotion of -useful knowlege I have many times experienced. - -The expediency of laying before you observations of this sort, which -may tend, by making people careful of what they take, to the saving the -lives of many, makes no apology necessary for so doing. I am, with all -possible regard, - - Gentlemen, - Your most obedient humble Servant, - W. Watson. - -Lincoln’s-Inn-Fields, 20 Dec. 1758. - - - - -CXV. _Extract of a Letter to_ John Eaton Dodsworth, _Esq; from Dr._ -George Forbes _of_ Bermuda, _relating to the_ Patella, _or_ Limpet -Fish, _found there_. - - 2 April, 1758. - -[Read Dec. 21, 1758.] - -AS a curiosity for your esteemed friend Mr. Theobald, the Captain -will deliver you two fishes, intirely singular here, and never before -observed amongst us. The one is of the shell kind, and changed its -figure so often, that it was difficult to make a drawing. However I -got a young man to take it in two different positions, and have sent -the drawings with the fish. _See_ TAB. XXXV. - -The small one may be called the sea-batt; and in some sort resembles -that species of animals when it is swimming. - - -_Additional Remark by_ Charles Morton, _M.D. F.R.S._ - -The Patella, or Limpet Fish, whose generic characters, as enumerated -by Bishop Wilkins, are, that it is an exanguious testaceous animal, -not turbinated; an univalve, or having but one shell; being unmoved; -sticking fast to rocks or other things; the convexity of whose shell -doth somewhat resemble a short obtuse-angled cone, having no hole on -the top. - - - - -CXVI. _A Discourse on the_ Cinnamon, Cassia, _or_ Canella. _By_ Taylor -White, _Esquire, F.R.S._ - -[Read Dec. 21, 1758.] - -THE Cinnamon, Cassia, or Canella, are shrubs of no great height: they -grow in Ceylon, Malabar, Java, Sumatra, and other places in the East -Indies; as I think, in the island of St. Thomas, and on the coast of -Coromandel. - -They are described by Mr. Ray, in his _History of Plants_, vol. ii. f. -1559. under the title _de Arboribus Pruniferis_. - -[Illustration: _Philos. Trans. Vol. L._ TAB. XXXVI. _p. 860_. - -_J. Mynde. sc._] - -Linnæus, in his _Species Plantarum_, places them under the title -_Enneandria Monogynia_, by the name Laurus. - -The leaf, flower, and fruit, of this plant, are particularly described -by Mr. Ray. - -The leaf is smooth and shining; has one large vein running thro’ the -midst, and a remarkable one on each side; the middle one generally -running near the length of the leaf. - -The leaves differ in shape, some being more acute, others more oval or -obtuse. - -The flowers grow in an umbel, somewhat like the Laurus Tinus; but they -are small, consisting of one petal, of a tubular form at the bottom, -and divided at the top into six segments in the form of a star. - -The flowers are succeeded by berries growing out of a capsula, like -acorns in shape; which berries contain a shining seed. - -The description of Mr. Ray of the flower, in his description of the -Cinnamon of Malabar, is extremely accurate; as is also the figure in -the _Hortus Malabaricus_, Nº. 54. and the description, fol. 107. under -the name Carua. I shall therefore refer to those. - -I shall not trouble you with the question debated by Mr. Ray, whether -the Cinnamon and Cassia of the ancients were, or were not, the same -with those so called by the moderns? whether the Cinnamon of the -ancients was the twigs of the tree bearing cloves, or any plant now -unknown to us? Mr. Ray has largely treated on this subject; and to him -I refer such as are curious to be informed on this subject. - -But as the Cinnamon and Cassia of the ancients are said to have been -used as perfumes, and to make perfumed ointments, I think they must -have differed from ours, whose smell is not very fragrant, nor is -emitted to any great distance. - -The matter of the present inquiry is, whether the Cinnamon of Ceylon -is the same sort of plant with that growing in Malabar, Sumatra, _&c._ -differing only by the soil or climate, in which it grows, which is the -opinion of Garcias; or from the culture or manner of curing the plant, -as I am inclined to believe; or whether it is really a different genus -or species of plant, as many people believe, and some botanical writers -seem to indicate. - -I shall endeavour to explain this matter by producing, 1st, The -descriptions of the most celebrated authors: - -2dly, By producing the most accurate figures of the plants of Sumatra -and Ceylon: [_See Tab._ xxxvi.] - -3dly, By shewing the specimen of the leaves and branches brought from -Sumatra. - -I have no specimen from Ceylon; but have carefully examined the -specimens kept in the British Museum, with the assistance of Dr. Maty -and Mr. Empson, and compared them with the specimens I have from -Sumatra; from whence I traced exactly the figures brought herewith: -which specimens are undoubtedly brought from Ceylon, and were the -collections of Boerhaave, Courteen, Plukenet, and Petiver. - -But, previous to this inquiry, I would premise, that the writers, who -give the description of the Cinnamon of Ceylon, were probably not -acquainted with that of Malabar at the time of their publishing their -works. - -Mr. Ray also, who so accurately describes the flower of the Cinnamon -of Malabar, seems not so well acquainted with its fruit; and probably -had then never seen the specimens of the Cinnamon from Ceylon; for his -description is plainly borrowed from others, and not his own. Tho’ I -have reason to think he afterwards saw the specimens of Mr. Courteen, -and was convinced, that the plants were the same. - -In his description of the Cinnamon of Ceylon, he supposes differences -in the manner of veining the leaf, which are not found in the leaves -themselves. He supposes, that the Cinnamon of Ceylon differs from -that of Malabar by its berries growing in cups like acorns; which -is apparently the same in both, as may be seen in its figure in the -_Hortus Malabaricus_. - -The other differences taken notice of by the botanic writers are as -follow: - -In the _Flora Zeylanica_, p. 545. and in the _Materia Medica_, 190. the -Cinnamon of Ceylon is called _Laurus foliis trinerviis ovato-oblongis -nervis unientibus_: which description is adhered to in the _Hortus -Cliffordiensis_, p. 154. under the name _Laurus foliis oblongo-ovatis -nitidis planis_. And Burman, in his _Flora Zeylanica_, 62. T. 27. calls -it _Cinamomum foliis latis ovatis_. Whereas the Cassia of Sumatra is -distinguished by these writers: that in _Flora Zeyl._ 146. and in -_Materia Medica_, 191. is called _Laurus foliis trinerviis lanceolatis -nervis supra basin unitis_: and Burman, _Zeylan._ 63. T. 28. calls it -_Cinamomum perpetuo florens folio tenuiore acuto_. - -The distinction therefore, which these writers would make us believe -there is between these plants, consists in the leaves of the one being -oval, the other sharp-pointed; and that the nerves are limited at the -bottom in the Cinnamon, but not so in the Cassia: for as to the _semper -florens_, mentioned by Burman, that must undoubtedly be common to both. - -Now as to the different shape of the leaves, we know how often this -happens by seminal varieties, and from the age of plants, as in the -leaves of holly and ivy; and that even the shapes of leaves vary -greatly on the very same plant, and sometimes on the same branch; as in -the ash, and many other plants, the leaves of the young shoots are more -oval than those on the old boughs, which are generally more pointed. -But this variety is much more frequent in the plants of warm countries. -In the sassafras, part of the leaves generally near the bottom of the -plant are plain, whilst the other leaves are divided into three lobes -or segments. I have observed great difference also in the leaves of -almost every one of the American oaks. - -In the Virginian cedar, the berries of the same plant produce some -plants with juniper leaves, and others with leaves like the savin; and -some plants with both leaves growing on the same plant. - -I must observe that Burman has, in his figures of the two plants before -mentioned, made them extremely different. In that of Ceylon he has made -all the leaves oval; and, to make the difference greater, has drawn the -rudiments of the berries; to which he has added the flower, or part of -it, at the top of the style or rudiment of the fruit: and in that of -Malabar he has drawn the flower growing in the umbel. - -On these drawings I must observe, that his drawing of the Cinnamon of -Ceylon agrees with no one specimen in the British Museum; and scarcely -is one leaf to be found of the shape, which he gives. - -The first figure, which I shall produce, is a drawing which I procured -from the ingenious Mr. Ehret in the year 1754: which, as I am informed -by Mr. Empson, was from a specimen, given to Mr. Ehret by him in that -year, of the Cinnamon of Ceylon. _See Fig._ 1. - -This agrees in every thing with the drawing of the Cinnamon of Malabar -in the _Hort. Malab._ fig. 54. fol. 107. and there called Carua; except -that it wants the fruit: but that defect is supplied by Mr. Ray’s -description of the Cinnamon of Ceylon above mentioned. _See fig. of the -fruit, Fig._ 2. - -In the figure in the _Hort. Malabar._ it may be observed, that the -nerves do not go quite to the bottom of the leaf. But this is merely -accidental, as will appear by the leaves of the same plant brought from -Sumatra, which I shall produce; in which, part of the leaves have veins -going quite to the bottom, and united there, and the others not so. -_See Fig._ 3. - -The next drawing I shall produce contains that of the leaves of the -Cinnamon plant, from specimens in the British Museum. - - _Fig._ 4. A specimen, with the flower, from the collection of - Mr. Courteen, who lived long in Ceylon. These leaves were more - pointed, but were broke at the end. - - _Fig._ 5. A whole leaf, with its point, in the same collection, - growing on a branch, on which are the rudiments of the fruit. - - _Fig._ 6. A leaf in Plukenet’s specimens. - - _Fig._ 7. Another leaf of the same collection, and of the same - plant. - - _Fig._ 8. A leaf of a large specimen from Boerhaave’s collection. - - _Fig._ 9. Another leaf on the same branch. - - _Fig._ 10. A specimen from Petiver’s collection. The points of the - leaves are broken off. - - _Fig._ 11. The flower of the first specimen. - - _Fig._ 12. In the rudiment of the seed before formed, in the state - given in Burman’s first drawing. - - _Note_, It is to be observed also, that the specimens of the - Cinnamon of Ceylon are probably of cultivated plants. - -From all these specimens it plainly appears, that the distinction of -_foliis ovatis & lanceolatis_ does not appear well founded. - -But were it otherwise, and that the leaves of the plants differed, it -would by no means be a proof of any material difference in the nature -or quality of the plants; as is well known to persons conversant in -natural history. - -Before I leave this subject of the description of the plant, it may -be proper to mention, that Bauhin calls the one of these plants -_Cinnamomum_ or _Canella Malabarica & Javanensis_, and the other -_Cinnamomum Canella Zeylanica_, Bauhin. _pinax_ 408 and 409; but -neither from these names, nor from his description, can any conclusive -argument be formed: and that Herman, in his _Hort. Lugd. Batav._ 129. -t. 1655. calls this Cinnamon of Ceylon _Cassia Cinnamonia_. - -If any conjecture can arise from hence, it may be, that the Cinnamon of -Ceylon was formerly, as well as that of Sumatra and Malabar, called -Cassia; but that the Dutch writers, being acquainted with the excellent -qualities, which the ancients ascribed to their Cinnamon, chose to -add the name Cinnamon to that of Cassia: and in process of time they -have found the name of Cinnamon more profitable than that of Cassia, -by which we chuse to call our Canella, to our national loss of many -thousands a year. - -Having now given an account of the figure of these plants, and in what -respect they are said herein to differ; I shall proceed to consider the -pretended differences in the Canella itself; which are supposed not -to be in form only, but substantial and material; and are generally -understood to be so by persons supposed to be acquainted with the -subject. - -Mr. Ray states this matter fully in his _Hist. Plant._ vol. ii. p. -1560. in these words: _Officinæ nostræ Cassiam ligneam a Cinnamomo seu -Canella distinctam faciunt, Cassiam Cinnamomo crassiorem plerumque -esse, colore rubicundiorem, substantiâ duriorem, solidiorem & -compactiorem, gustu magis glutinoso, odore quidem & sapore Cinnamomum -aptius referre, tamen Cinnamomo imbecilliorum & minus vegetam esse, ex -accurata observatione Tho. Johnson._ - -From these reasons Mr. Ray draws a conclusion (I must own not very -instructive), that the Cinnamon of Ceylon is Cinnamon; and the Cinnamon -of Malabar, &c. is the Cassia of the shops. - -From the specimens I shall now produce, it will most plainly appear, -that these differences are merely accidents arising from the age of the -Canella, the part of the tree from whence it is gathered, and from the -manner of cultivating and curing it. - -In the _Philosoph. Transact._ Nº. 278. p. 1099. in Mr. Strachan’s -account of Ceylon, which is abridged by Eames and Martyn, vol. ii. p. -183. he says, that there are two sorts of Cinnamon-trees, of which the -tree, which is esteemed the best, has a leaf much larger and thicker -than the other; but otherwise no difference is to be perceived. - - _Note_, Here is no mention of the _folio ovato_. - -I remember, in an account given some years ago to the Royal Society, -three or four sorts were mentioned; and it was said the best sort was -cut every three or four years. - -This superiority I then guessed (as well as the difference of leaves -mentioned by Mr. Strachan) to arise from the cutting the tree down -every three or four years; which occasioned it to produce strong and -vigorous shoots, thicker and larger leaves, as well as greater quantity -of bark, and of a superior quality. - -A large shoot or sucker of this plant was produced in the year 1750. or -51. by my worthy friend Dr. William Watson, together with an account -of the Cinnamon-tree; which is published in the _Philosoph. Transact._ -vol. xlvii. p. 301. This shoot was a plain proof to me, that the -Cinnamon was frequently cut down, and that this shoot arose from the -root of a plant so cut; for it was of the size of a walking-cane; and -no shrub could have produced such a shoot, unless a strong plant cut -down. - -This method of treating this plant accounts for the mistake of Garcias, -mentioned by Mr. Ray; _viz. Quæ Garcias habet de duplice hujus arboris -cortice ad modum suberis, nobis suspecta sunt, quæque de deliberatione -semel triennio facta; non enim puto renascitur cortex semel detractus._ - -This shews, that the bark was gathered every three years: but Mr. Ray -was not acquainted, that the plant was cut down, in order to take off -the bark, once in three years. - -In the account above mentioned to be given to the Society by Dr. -Watson, no descriptions are given either of the plants of Ceylon, or -Malabar; but he quotes Burman, who says, that he had nine different -sorts of Cinnamon from Ceylon, of which that, which is the best, is -brought to us, and called by the name _Rasse Coronde_. - -What the differences between these sorts were, does not appear; whether -in leaf or bark, or manner of culture. And I must observe, that in -all the specimens in the British Museum I could observe no difference -of species. But this is to be understood, that every sort coming from -Ceylon is, by the Dutch and by the shops, called Cinnamon; and that of -our own growth is by them always called Cassia. The reason is obvious. - -The specimens, which I now produce, of the Canella or bark of the -Cinnamon of Sumatra, I procured in the year 1755. from Mr. Tho. Combes, -a gentleman then in the service of the East India Company in Sumatra, -by means of a friend. - -I was then attempting to form a society for the carrying on a General -Natural History, to try proper experiments, and to employ proper -painters and engravers suitable to the importance of the subject; and -therefore attempted to establish a correspondence in those parts, whose -productions are as yet little known to the public. - -I mention this design, because it would not be possible else to explain -what Mr. Combes means by the word _Society_, which he so often mentions -in his letter; of which I shall produce an extract, so far as it -relates to the present inquiry. - -It seemed to me very improbable (as the same plants are generally found -in the same latitude and soil), that the spices now in the possession -of the Dutch should grow only in that small tract of land, which is in -their possession. And I had many credible informations, that, whatever -they may pretend to the contrary, this is only a pretence. - -I therefore desired to obtain the best information of the nature and -culture of the plants producing spices, as well as of many other -things, which are foreign from this inquiry. - -I desired to know, how the spices were dried and cured; and that -different specimens might be sent me of the plants, their seed, flower, -leaf, and bark, and properly cured and prepared. - -This produced the answer I lay before you herewith, together with the -specimens now produced. - -You see hereby, that the Dutch dry their Cinnamon in sand; probably to -take away that viscosity, which is complained of in the Cassia. - -And you will observe also, that the specimen produced dried and cured -is also as free from any viscosity, as the Cinnamon of Ceylon: That it -agrees also with the Cinnamon in every other quality, and in colour; -and that none of the distinctions mentioned by Mr. Ray can be found -herein; but that they may arise from the part of the tree, from whence -the bark was taken; the inner bark of the large wood being red, as you -see by the other specimen produced. And the common Cassia taken from -the larger branches, and not cured, has the viscosity complained of -in some degree, tho’ much less than it had four years since, when I -received it. - -Mr. Ray says, that one is weaker in taste, as he supposes, than the -other. That may be so from its manner of drying, or keeping of it. -Dried in large quantities, and by a stronger heat, it will probably be -stronger, than if it is dried in a lesser quantity, and slower. - -As for the viscosity, the glutinous part is found in every plant in -some degree, as well as in every animal. It preserves the parts from -moisture; but will be consumed by heat or time; and it will be a -preservative to the plant, till it is destroyed; which was the reason, -as I suppose, that Mr. Ray mentions Cassia to have kept good thirty -years, the viscosity not having been destroyed by drying. - -I suppose the reason, which the Dutch have to dry it, is to make it -sooner fit for the market, and possibly fitter for distillation. - -You will see from Mr. Combes’s letters and specimens, that he thinks -there may be two sorts of Cassia or Cinnamon in Sumatra: possibly there -may be the same difference in Ceylon; but, if so, I suspect them both -to be only seminal varieties, and that their virtues are the same. - -Mr. Barlow, some time since a Surgeon in the service of the India -company, made a considerable quantity of oil of the Cassia of Sumatra, -which was very little, if any thing, inferior to that drawn from -Cinnamon; and it was sold to great profit. - -If these plants are really the same, or if they are of equal goodness, -supposing there was a small difference in the form of the leaf, it -might be well worth the attention of the East India company to try to -cultivate these plants in the manner they do in Ceylon; that is, to -make plantations in a proper soil; and to have regard to the proper -distance from the sea of the place, where they try the experiment: for -some plants require to be near the sea, and others far from it, in -Sumatra; which is the case of the Mango, and Mangosteen; the one of -which must be near the sea, the other at a distance from it. - -I think the plants should be suffered to grow strong, to be six or -seven years old, and then cut every three years, the bark peel’d off -and dried in hot sand, and packed close and kept dry. This I take to be -all necessary to be done, to try, if our Cinnamon will not produce as -good a price as that of the Dutch. - -Perhaps the plants need not stand so long before cut; for the -vegetation of plants in hot countries is very great. - -There are many other most valuable vegetables in Sumatra, which might -be made staple commodities, as sagoe, camphire, several sorts of -ginger, rice, and many other, which are foreign to the present inquiry. - -But it may not be amiss to recommend it to the traders to Sumatra to -bring some quantity of the twig-bark of the true Cassia, well cured; -and also to the company, to have a chemist at Sumatra, to extract -carefully the oil of Cassia; which is best, and in greatest quantities, -produced from the bark of the body, and of the larger branches of -the tree: and also that the company would procure an exemption of -all customs or duties on Cassia, or on the oil of Cassia, for some -time: and also that the college of physicians in their dispensatory -would direct Cassia or Cinnamon of Malabar or Sumatra to be used, -instead of the Cinnamon of Ceylon; and that the same should be used by -apothecaries and distillers, and in all simple and compound waters, in -which Cinnamon is used. - - -_Extract of a Letter from Mr._ THOMAS COMBES, _dated_ Fort Marlborough, -5 Jan. 1755. - -IN regard to the first article of your paper, now before me, which is -the inquiry desired to be made concerning the spices, I am of opinion, -that the true Cinnamon grows no-where but on the island of Ceylon, -unless Cassia be allowed to be the same tree, which I am inclined to -think. - -Nº. 9. contains seeds of the Cassia or wild Cinnamon-tree. As for the -seeds of the true Cinnamon-tree, I believe they are very difficult to -be got; for as the Dutch are the sole masters of this spice, and get -a good deal of money by it, I fancy, according to their usual custom, -they have very well guarded against the transplantation of it. I hope -however, that these seeds will not be unacceptable to the society, as -Cassia itself is of some value; and as I am very doubtful, whether this -tree is not the same with the true Cinnamon, being of opinion, that the -difference observed in them arises from the different method of curing -their barks, or from the taking the bark from different parts of the -tree, or at different seasons, or of different ages, or perhaps all -these. - -I have made inquiry concerning this from some very intelligent persons, -and found them to be of opinion, that the Cassia and Cinnamon-tree -were of the same genus. I have inquired further concerning the method -of curing it at Ceylon; but as this is done by the natives, the Dutch -are not very well acquainted with it; nor could I obtain any good -account of it, different people giving me different relations. Some -said, it was the inner bark, some the middle, and some the outer; tho’ -of the young branches, they seemed in general to agree, that it was -gathered at a certain season of the year, and that one part of the cure -was burying it in sand for some time. This may be tried with Cassia, -and may perhaps take away that viscosity or glutinous quality observed -by chewing it, and which is the principal mark for distinguishing it -from Cinnamon. As to their chemical oils, I have heard many people say, -that they are not distinguishable otherwise, than that from Cinnamon -is generally better, or, as it may be called, stronger, than that from -Cassia; and accordingly bears a better price. But the Dutch company’s -chemist at Batavia, if I may give him this title, informed me, that -they are essentially different, and plainly distinguishable. But I -must confess myself very doubtful of the knowlege or veracity of this -chemist, and strongly suspect, that they are no otherwise different -than in goodness, as many other oils drawn from the same subject are. - -I observe the price of Cassia is greatly risen in England within these -two or three years; but whether this be owing to an increase in the -consumption, or a decrease in the importation of this commodity, I -cannot say. - -The Dutch government of Batavia has this year, in some new regulations -of their trade, prohibited to all persons the dealing in any of the -fine quilled sort of Cassia, and declared the same to be contraband, -and reserved for their company only; and put it upon the same footing -as their Cinnamon. - -What reasons induced them to this, I am yet a stranger to; but it makes -me suspect, that the rise of this commodity in Europe is owing to some -other cause than a deficiency in the importation thereof. Perhaps some -discovery has been made rendering Cassia equal to Cinnamon. - -In Persia, I think, they make not so great a difference between them -as elsewhere; and I myself, for want of Cinnamon here for some months -past, made use of the fine quilled Cassia; and the difference I observe -between them I imagine to arise rather from the greenness and want of -dryness in the Cassia, than any thing else, or perhaps from the method -of curing it: for if there happens to be a little too much Cassia put -into my chocolate (and other things I use in it), a little bitterish -taste arises, something like what we meet with in most barks; tho’ I do -not remember to have observed this of Cinnamon: but as to its boiling -to a jelly, as Quincy mentions, I find no such thing, and think it -bears boiling as well as Cinnamon. Nor do I think its distilled water -more subject to an empyreuma than that of Cinnamon. - -I have inquired of the country people here, who bring it us, and they -tell me the finest sort is the inner bark of the small branches; and -indeed that it is the inner bark, I think, is evident in Cinnamon as -well as Cassia; no outer bark of the youngest branches of any tree -having, in my opinion, that smooth surface observable in both these -barks. - -I once thought, that it was better to take the bark from the body of -the tree than from the branches, imagining that the bark from the trunk -or body of all trees must in general be stronger, let its natural -taste be what it will, than from its branches. This I find to be so -in Cassia; and I have been informed, that the large ligneous pieces -of Cassia have afforded rather more oil in distillation than the fine -quilled sort, their weight being equal; but upon trial I could not make -the bark from the trunk curl or roll up, as it ought to do, owing, as I -suppose, to my unskilfulness, or to rigidity, or the natural position -of its fibres; for the bark of the younger branches curled of itself, -wanting hardly any other assistance than the sun. - -I have already observed, that Cassia is found in chewing to have a -viscidness, which Cinnamon has not. I have endeavoured to remove this -in a little I send you, marked B: pray let me know, if it answers; and -be assured, it was taken from the younger branches of the tree, of -which I send you the seeds. - -I send you also, marked C, some of the bark taken from the same tree; -as also some of the leaves, marked D. - -I have sent you also a little of the bark of the trunk of a tree, -which, tho’ called Cassia, seems not to be so, marked E; and also the -leaves of the same tree, marked F. - - -END _of the_ FIFTIETH VOLUME. - - - - - AN - INDEX - TO THE - FIFTIETH VOLUME - OF THE - PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS, - For the YEARS 1757 and 1758. - - -A - -_AIR_, Remarks on the heat of it in July 1757, by Dr. J. Huxham; with -some additional ones by Dr. W. Watson, page 428. - ----- ---- on its different temperature at Edystone from that observed -at Plymouth, between July 7 and 14, 1757, p. 488. - -_Akenside_, Mark, M. D. his observations on the origin and use of the -lymphatic vessels in animals, p. 322. - -_Alga Marina latifolia_, observations on it, p. 631. - -_Allegator_, the fossil bones of one, found on the sea-shore near -Whitby, p. 688. - -_America_, North, account of an earthquake felt in it Nov. 18. 1755. p. -1. - -_American_ Sea Sun-Crown, observations on it, p. 843. - -_Antiquities_, accounts of the late discoveries of some at Herculaneum, -p. 49. 88. 619. - -_Aneurism_, remarkable case of one in the principal artery of the -thigh, p. 363. - -_Apple_, the Manchenille, singular observations upon it, p. 772. - -_Arderon_, Mr. William, abstract of a letter on giving magnetism and -polarity to brass, p. 774. - -_Assize_, the Black, at Oxford, account of it, p. 699. - - -B - -_Baker_, Mr. Henry, his account of the Opuntia, or Prickly Pear, and of -the Indigo plant, in colouring the juices of living animals, p. 296. - ----- ---- ---- ---- of the Sea Polypus, p. 777. - -_Bark_, remarkable case of its efficacy in a mortification, p. 379. - ----- ---- ---- ---- ---- in the delirium of a fever, p. 609. - -_Barnacles_, an account of several rare species, p. 845. - -_Baster_, Job. observationes de corallinis, iisque insidentibus -Polypis, aliisque animalculis marinis, p. 258. - -_Bladder_, human urinary, four rough stones extracted from it by the -lateral method of cutting for the stone, p. 579. - -_Blisters_, remarkable effects of them in lessening the quickness of -the pulse in coughs attended with infarction of the lungs, p. 569. - -_Bones_, some fossil ones of an allegator, found on the sea-shore near -Whitby, p. 688. - -_Borlase_, Rev. Mr. Wm. his account of some trees discovered -under-ground on the sea-shore at Mount’s-Bay in Cornwall, p. 51. - ----- ---- ---- ---- ---- of an earthquake in the west parts of -Cornwall, July 15. 1757, p. 499. - -_Bradley_, James, D. D. his observations on the comet of Sept. and Oct. -1757, p. 408. - -_Brakenridge_, Rev. Wm. D. D. his answer to the Rev. Mr. Forster’s -letter concerning the numbers and increase of the people of England, p. -465. - -_Brass_, abstract of a letter on giving magnetism and polarity to it, -p. 774. - -_Bridges_, concerning the fall of water under them, p. 492. - -_Brydone_, Mr. Patrick, his account of a paralytic patient cured by -electricity, p. 392. - -_Burrow_, James, Esq; his account of an earthquake felt at Linfield in -Surrey, and at Edenbridge in Kent, Jan. 24. 1758, p. 614. - - -C - -_Carlsbad_ mineral waters, account of them, p. 25. - ----- ---- ---- their lithontriptic virtue, with lime-water and soap, p. -386. - -_Case_ of Lord Horace Walpole; being a sequel to that in Phil. Trans. -vol. xlvii. p. 43 and 47,--p. 205. - -_Cassia_, or _Canella_, a discourse on it, by Taylor White, Esq.; p. -860. - -_Cavendish_, Lord Charles, his description of some thermometers for -particular uses, p. 300. - -_Chapman_, Capt. Wm. his account of a method of distilling fresh water -from sea-water by wood-ashes, p. 635. - ----- ---- ---- ---- ---- of the fossil bones of an allegator found on -the sea-shore near Whitby in Yorkshire, p. 688. - -_Characters_, Phœnician Numeral, antiently used at Sidon, dissertation -upon them, p. 791. - -_Charts_ and Maps, a short dissertation on them, p. 563. - -_Chevalier_, Joan. observatio eclipsis lunæ die 27 Martii 1755, -Olissipone habita, p. 374. - ----- ---- ---- ---- ---- die 30 Julii 1757, Olissipone habita, p. 769. - ----- ---- observationes eclipsium satellitum Jovis, Olissipone habitæ, -p. 377. - ----- ----, &c. observationes eclipsium satellitum Jovis, anno 1757, -Olissipone habitæ, p. 378. - ----- ---- et Theodor. de Almeida, observationes eclipsis lunæ die 4 -Feb. ann. 1757, Olissipone habitæ, p. 376. - -_Cinnamon_, a discourse on it, by Taylor White, Esq; p. 860. - -_Coin_, a Parthian, with a Greek and Parthian legend, some remarks on -it, p. 175. - -_Collet_, John, M. D. his letter concerning the peat-pit near Newbury -in Berkshire, p. 109. - -_Comet_, observations on that of Sept. and Oct. 1757, made at the Royal -Observatory, p. 408. - ----- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- made at the Hague, p. 438. - -_Convulsive Fits_, case of a boy troubled with them, cured by the -discharge of worms, p. 518. - -_Convulsions_, some extraordinary effects arising from them, p. 743. - -_Coral_, Red, a very singular kind from the Indies, p. 159. - -_Corallinis_ de, iisque insidentibus polypis, aliisque animalculis -marinis observationes, p. 258. - -_Cornwall_, account of an earthquake in the west parts of it, July 15, -1757, p. 499. - -_Corona_ Solis Marina Americana, observations on it, p. 843. - - -D - -_Da Costa_, Emanuel Mendez, his account of the impressions of plants on -the slates of coals, p. 228. - -_Darwin_, Erasmus, M.D. his remarks on the opinion of Henry Eles, Esq; -concerning the ascent of vapour, p. 240. - -_Delirium_, of a fever, an extraordinary case of the efficacy of the -bark in one, p. 609. - -_Diseases_, effects of electricity in the cure of some particular ones, -p. 695. - -_Dodson_ and Mountaine, tables of the variation of the magnetic needle -by them, adapted to every 5 degrees of lat. and long. in the more -frequented oceans, p. 329. - -_Dollond_, Mr. John, his account of some experiments concerning the -different refrangibility of light, p. 733. - -_Dust_, Black, an extraordinary shower, which fell in the island of -Zetland, Oct. 20. 1755, p. 297. - - -E - -_Earthquake_, account of one in the island of Sumatra, in the East -Indies, Nov. and Dec. 1756, p. 491. - ----- ---- ---- ---- in the west parts of Cornwall, July 15, 1757, p. -499. - ----- ---- ---- ---- at Lingfield in Surrey, and Edenbridge in Kent, -Jan. 24, 1758, p. 614. - ----- ---- ---- ---- at Herculaneum, p. 619. - ----- ---- ---- ---- in New England, and the neighbouring parts of -America, Nov. 18, 1755, p. 1. - ----- ---- observations upon a very particular tho’ slight one, p. 645. - -_Eclipsis_ lunaris facta Matriti, a P. Joanne Wendlingen, die 30 Julii, -1757, p. 640. - ----- lunæ observatio, die 30 Julii, 1757, Olissipone habita, p. 769. - ----- ---- ---- ---- die 27 Martii, 1755, Olissipone habita, p. 374. - ----- ---- ---- ---- die 4 Februarii, 1757, Olissipone habita, p. 376. - -_Eclipsium_ satellitum Jovis observationes, Olissipone habitæ, anno -1757, p. 378. - ----- ---- ---- ---- observationes, Olissipone habitæ, p. 377. - -_Edystone_, remarks on the different temperature of the air there from -that observed at Plymouth, between July 7 and 14, 1757, p. 488. - -_Edenbridge_, account of an earthquake felt there, Jan. 24. 1758, p. -614. - -_Edwards_, Mr. Geo. his observations on an evening, or rather -nocturnal, solar Iris, p. 293. - ----- ---- ---- ---- account of a new-discovered species of snipe, or -tringa, p. 255. - -_Eles_, Henry, Esq; remarks on his opinion concerning the ascent of -vapour, p. 240. - -_Electricity_, the effects of it in paralytic cases, p. 481. - ----- further account of its effects in curing some diseases, p. 695. - ----- its virtue in the cure of a palsey, p. 392. - -_Ellis_, Mr. John, his account of a red coral from the East Indies, of -a very singular kind, p. 189. - ----- ---- ---- remarks on Dr. Job. Baster’s observationes de -corallinis, &c. p. 280. - ----- ---- ---- answer to the remarks upon his letter to Philip Carteret -Webb, Esq; p. 441. - ----- ---- ---- account of several rare species of Barnacles, p. 845. - -----, Henry, Esq; his account of the heat of the weather in Georgia, p. -754. - -_Equator_, Terrestrial, resolution of a general proposition for -determining the horary alteration of the position of it, p. 416. - -_Eye_, diseased, an extraordinary case of one, p. 747. - - -F - -_Fauquier_, Francis, Esq; his account of an extraordinary storm of hail -in Virginia, p. 746. - -_Fire-Engine_, further experiments for increasing the quantity of steam -in it, p. 370. - ----- ---- attempt to improve the manner of working ventilators by the -help of it, p. 727. - -_Fitz-Gerald_, Keane, Esq; his further experiments for increasing the -quantity of steam in a fire-engine, p. 370. - ----- ---- ---- experiments on applying Dr. Hales’s method of distilling -salt water to the steam-engine, p. 53. - ----- ---- ---- concerning an attempt to improve the manner of working -ventilators by the assistance of the fire-engine, p. 727. - -_Flexor_ tendon, an account of one torn out in its whole extent, -together with the first joint of the thumb, p. 617. - -_Forbes_, Dr. George, his letter concerning the Patella, or -Limpet-Fish, found at Bermuda, p. 859. - -_Forster_, Rev. Mr. Richard, his extract of the register of the parish -of Great Shefford, with observations, p. 356. - ----- ---- ---- ---- his letter concerning the number of the people of -England, p. 457. - -_Fruits_, fossil, and other bodies, account of some found in the island -of Shepey, p. 396. - - -G - -_Gaze_, Mr. John, his account of a boy cured of convulsive fits by the -discharge of worms, p. 521. - -_Gall-stones_, two extraordinary cases relating to them, p. 543. - -_Gaubil_, F. his description of the plan of Peking, p. 704. - -_Georgia_, account of the heat of the weather there, p. 754. - -_Glass_, in windows, dissertation on the antiquity of it, p. 601. - -_Gravity_, Specific, of living men, essay towards ascertaining it, p. -30. - -_Grindall_, Mr. Richard, his account of the efficacy of the bark in a -mortification, p. 379. - -_Guadaloupe_, Isle of, account of a visitation of the leprous persons -there, p. 38. - - -H - -_Hague_, state of thermometer there, Jan. 9, 1757, p. 148. - ----- observations there on the comet in Sept. and Oct. 1757, p. 483. - -_Hail_, an extraordinary storm in Virginia, p. 746. - -_Herculaneum_, accounts of the late discoveries of antiquities made -there, p. 49, 88, 619. - -_Heat_ of the air, July 1757, remarks on it by Dr. Huxham and Dr. -Watson, p. 428. - ----- of the weather, account of that in July 1757, by Dr. Huxham, p. -523. - ----- of the weather in Georgia, account of it, p. 754. - -_Hemlock Dropwort_, further account of its poisonous effects, p. 556. - -_Himsel de_, Nicholai, M. D. de rariori quadam specie, in Suecia -reperta, tractatus, p. 692. - -_Home_, Robert, Surgeon, his account of the flexor tendon torn out in -its whole extent, and the first joint of the thumb torn off, p. 617. - -_Horned Cattle_, the usefulness of inoculation to prevent the -contagious distemper among them, p. 528. - -_Huxham_, John, M. D. his remarks on the heat of the air, July 1757, p. -428. - ----- ---- ---- ---- ---- on the extraordinary heat of the weather in -July 1757, p. 523. - - -I - -_Jenty_, Nicholas, his account of a man, whose intestines, &c. all -cohered, and who after death fell under his inspection, p. 550. - -_Ileum_, the gut, cut thro’ by a knife, instance of the successful -treatment of it, p. 35. - -_Indigo_ plant, effects of it, and of the opuntia, or prickly pear, in -colouring the juices of living animals, p. 296. - -_Inoculation_, its usefulness on horned cattle, to prevent the -contagious distemper among them, p. 528. - -_Intestines_, remarkable case of the cohesions of all of them in a man, -p. 550. - -_Johnstone_, James, M. D. his account of two extraordinary cases of -gall-stones, p. 543. - -_Iris_, solar, observations on an evening, or rather nocturnal one, p. -293. - - -K - -_Klinkenberg_, Mr. D. his observations upon the comet in Sept. and Oct. -1757, p. 483. - - -L - -_Lacteals_, experiment to prove that salt of steel does not enter them, -p. 594. - -_Lanreath_, effects of a storm of thunder and lightning there, June 27, -1756, p. 104. - -_Layard_, Daniel Peter, M. D. his account of an extraordinary case of a -diseased eye, p. 747. - ----- Daniel Peter, M. D. his discourse on the usefulness of inoculating -the horned cattle, p. 528. - -_Leprous_ persons in the isle of Guadaloupe, account of a visitation of -them, p. 38. - -_Lestwithiel_, in Cornwall, effects of lightning upon the church and -steeple there, p. 198. - -_Lewis_, William, M. B. his experimental examination of Platina, Paper -V. and VI. p. 148, 156. - -_Lichen_, memoir concerning it, p. 652. - -_Light_, some experiments concerning its different refrangibility, p. -733. - -_Lightning_, its effects upon the church and steeple of Lestwithiel in -Cornwall, p. 198. - -_Limax_ non cochleata, observations on it, p. 585. - -_Lime-water_, its lithontriptic virtue, p. 386. - -_Limpet-Fish_, found at Bermuda, account of it, p. 859. - -_Linnæus_, his account of the faculty called Vigiliæ Florum, with an -enumeration of several plants subject to that law, p. 506. - -_Lingfield_, in Surry, account of an earthquake felt there, Jan. 24, -1758, p. 614. - -_Looe_, effects of a storm of thunder and lightning there, June 27, -1756, p. 104. - - -M - -_Maps_, Geographical, the best form of them, p. 553. - ----- and Charts, a short dissertation on them, p. 563. - -_Magnetism_, and Polarity, given to brass, p. 774. - -_Malverne_ waters, their good effects, p. 23. - -_Memoir_, an historical one on the genus of plants called Lichen, -Usnea, Coralloides, and Lichenoides, p. 652. - -_Men_, living, essay towards ascertaining their specific gravity, p. 30. - -_Milles_, Jeremiah, D. D. letters to him, with accounts of the effects -of thunder and lightning at Looe and Lanreath, June 27, 1756, p. 104. - ----- ---- ---- his account of the Carlsbad mineral waters in Bohemia, -p. 25. - -_Miller_, Mr. Philip, concerning the effects of a storm at Wigton in -Cumberland, p. 194. - ----- ---- ---- his remarks on a letter of Mr. John Ellis to P. C. Webb, -Esq; printed in Phil. Trans. vol. xlix. part ii. p. 806.--p. 430. - -_Mitchell_, Sir Andrew, his account of an extraordinary shower of black -dust, that fell in the Island of Zetland, Oct. 20, 1755, p. 297. - -_Mixtures_, effervescent, strange effects of some, p. 19. - -_Moffat_, in Annandale, a new medicinal well lately discovered there, -p. 117. - -_Mortification_, remarkable efficacy of the bark in one, p. 379. - -_Mount’s-Bay_, account of some trees discovered underground on the -shore there, p. 51. - -_Mounsey_, James, M. D. his account of the strange effects of some -effervescent mixtures, p. 19. - -_Mountaine_ and Dodson, tables of the variation of the magnetic needle -by them, adapted to every five degrees of lat. and long. in the more -frequented oceans, p. 329. - ----- Wm. his dissertation on maps and charts, p. 563. - -_Murdoch_, Patrick, his description of the best form of geographical -maps, p. 553. - ----- ---- his trigonometry abridged, p. 538. - -_Munckley_, Nich. M. D. his account of the extraordinary efficacy of -the bark in the delirium of a fever, p. 609. - - -N - -_Needle_, magnetic, its variation, p. 329. - -_New England_, account of an earthquake felt there, Nov. 18, 1755. p. 1. - -_Newbury_, in Berkshire, account of the peat-pit near it, p. 109. - -_Nightshade_, deadly, botanical and medical history of it, p. 62. - -_Nixon_, Rev. John, A. M. his account of some of the antiquities -discovered at Herculaneum, &c. p. 88. - ----- ---- ---- ---- his account of the temple of Serapis at Pozzuoli in -Naples, p. 166. - ----- ---- ---- ---- his dissertation on the antiquity of glass in -windows, p. 601. - -_Norfolk_ Boy, observations on the case of one, who was cured of -convulsive fits by the discharge of worms, p. 836. - -_Number_ of the people of England, observations on it, p. 356, 457, 465. - - -O - -_Observationes_ anatomico-medicæ de monstro bicorporeo virgineo, p. 311. - -_Oenanthe_ aquatica succo viroso crocante of Lobel, farther account of -its poisonous effects, p. 856. - -_Oil_, its efficacy, taken as a vermifuge, p. 837. - -_Operation_, an extraordinary one performed in the dock-yard at -Portsmouth, p. 288. - -_Opuntia_, or prickly pear, effects of it, and of the Indigo plant, in -colouring the juices of living animals, p. 296. - -_Orthoceratitis_, de rariori quadam specie, in Suecia reperta, -tractatus, p. 692. - -_Oram_, Rev. Richard, his account of a boy cured of convulsive fits by -the discharge of worms, p. 518. - -_Oxford_, account of the black assize there, p. 699. - - -P - -_Paderni_, Camillo, his account of the late discoveries at Herculaneum, -p. 49. - ----- ---- ---- ---- of an earthquake at Herculaneum, and of some late -discoveries there, p. 619. - -_Palsey_, instance of the cure of it by electricity, p. 392. - -_Pantheon_, at Rome, account of the alterations making in it, p. 115. - -_Parsons_, James, M. D. his account of some extraordinary tumours upon -the head of a man in St. Bartholomew’s Hospital, p. 350. - ----- ---- ---- his account of fossil fruits, and other bodies, found in -the island of Shepey, p. 396. - -_Paralytic_ cases, the effects of electricity in them, p. 481. - -_Patella_, or Limpet-Fish, found at Bermuda, account of it, p. 859. - -_Peyssonel_, John Andrew, M. D. his account of a visitation of the -leprous persons in the isle of Guadaloupe, p. 38. - ----- ---- ---- ---- his observations on the worms that form sponges, p. -590. - ----- ---- ---- ---- observations on the Limax non cochleata purpur -ferens, p. 585. - ----- ---- ---- ---- observations on the Alga marina latifolia, p. 631. - ----- ---- ---- ---- observations on a slight but very particular -earthquake, p. 645. - ----- ---- ---- ---- observations on the Manchenille apple, p. 772. - ----- ---- ---- ---- observations on the Corona Solis Marina Americana, -or American Sea-Sun-Crown, p. 843. - -_Peat-pit_, account of one near Newbury in Berkshire, p. 109. - -_People_ of England, concerning the number of them, p. 457. - ----- ---- ---- an answer to Mr. Forster’s letter, concerning their -number and increase, 465. - -_Peking_, a description of the plan of it, p. 704. - -_Perry_, Mr. his letter to Dr. Stukeley, concerning the Earthquake at -Sumatra in Nov. and Dec. 1756, p. 491. - -_Phœnician_ numeral characters anciently used at Sidon, dissertation on -them, p. 791. - -_Plants_, impressions of them on the slates of coals, p. 228. - ----- catalogue of the fifty from Chelsea Garden, for 1756, p. 236. - ----- observations on the sleep of them, p. 506. - ----- catalogue of the fifty from Chelsea Garden, for 1757, p. 648. - -_Platina_, experimental examination of it, Paper V. and VI. p. 148, 156. - -_Platt_, Mr. Joshua, his account of the fossil thigh-bone of an animal -dug up at Stonesfield, near Woodstock, p. 524. - -_Polarity_ and Magnetism, communicated to brass, p. 774. - -_Polypus_, Sea, account of it, p. 777. - -_Pozzuoli_, account of the temple of Serapis there, p. 166. - -_Postscript_ to Dr. Whytt’s observations on Lord Walpole’s case, p. 385. - -_Pringle_, John, M. D. on the virtues of soap in dissolving the stone, -p. 221. - ----- ---- ---- ---- his account of the effects of electricity in -paralytic cases, p. 481. - -_Problems_, isoperimetrical, a further attempt to facilitate the -solution of them, p. 623. - -_Pulteney_, M. Richard, his botanical and medical history of the -Solanum Lethale, p. 62. - ----- ---- ---- his observations on the sleep of plants, p. 506. - -_Pulse_, quickness of it in coughs, attended with infarction of the -lungs, lessened by blisters, p. 569. - - -R - -_Register_, Parish, extract of that in Great Shefford in Berkshire, -with observations, p. 356. - -_Remarks_ on Dr. Job Baster’s Observationes de corallinis, &c. p. 280. - -_Robertson_, Mr. John, his essay towards ascertaining the specific -gravity of living men, p. 30. - ----- ---- ---- ---- account of an extraordinary operation performed in -Portsmouth dock-yard, p. 288. - ----- ---- ---- ---- ---- of the fall of water under bridges, p. 492. - - -S - -_Salt-water_, experiments on applying Dr. Hales’s method of distilling -it to the steam-engine, p. 53. - -_Satellite_, concerning the irregularities in the motion of one, -arising from the spheroidical figure of its primary planet, p. 807. - -_Sea-water_, method of making it fresh with wood-ashes, p. 635. - -_Sea Alga_ with broad leaves, observations on it, p. 631. - -_Series_, invention of a general method for determining the sum of -every 2d, 3d, 4th, 5th, &c. term of one, taken in order, p. 757. - -_Serapis_, Temple of, at Pozzuoli, account of it, p. 166. - -_Shepey_ Island, account of fossil fruits, and other bodies, found -there, p. 396. - -_Short_, James, M. A. his account of some experiments concerning the -different refrangibility of light by Mr. John Dollond, p. 733. - -_Shefford_, Great, extract of the parish register there, with -observations, p. 356. - -_Simpson_, Mr. Tho. his resolution of a general proposition for -determining the horary alteration of the terrestrial equator, &c. p. -416. - ----- ---- ---- ---- further attempt to facilitate the resolution of -isoperimetrical problems, p. 623. - ----- ---- ---- ---- invention of a general method for determining the -sum of every 2d, 3d, 4th, or 5th, &c. term of a series, taken in order, -p. 757. - -_Skeleton_ of an animal, description of a fossil one found in the alum -rock near Whitby, p. 786. - -_Slates_ of Coals, account of the impressions of plants on some, p. 228. - -_Sleep_ of plants, observations on it, p. 506. - -_Smeaton_, Mr. John, concerning the effects of lightning upon the -church and steeple of Lestwithiel in Cornwall, p. 198. - ----- ---- ---- his remarks on the different temperature of the air at -Edystone, from that observed at Plymouth, between July 7th and 14th, -1757, p. 488. - -_Snail_, the naked, producing purple, observations on it, p. 585. - -_Snipe_, or Tringa, a new-discovered species of it, p. 255. - -_Solanum_ Lethale, Bella-Donna, or Deadly Nightshade, brief botanical -and medical history of it, p. 62. - -_Soap_, its virtues in dissolving the stone, p. 221, 386. - -_Sponges_, formed by worms, new observations on them, p. 590. - -_Steam-Engine_, experiments on applying Dr. Hales’s method of -distilling salt-water to it, p. 53. - -_Steam_, farther experiments for increasing the quantity of it in a -fire-engine, p. 570. - -_Stone_, the virtues of soap in dissolving it, p. 221. - -_Stones_, remarkable instance of four rough ones discovered in an human -urinary bladder, extracted by the lateral method of cutting for the -stone, p. 579. - -_Storm_, effects of one at Wigton in Cumberland, p. 194. - ----- ---- ---- ---- at Looe and Lanreath, p. 104. - -_Stonesfield_, account of the fossil thigh-bone of an animal dug up -there, p. 524. - -_Sumatra_, Island of, account of an earthquake felt there in Nov. and -Dec. 1756, p. 491. - -_Swinton_, the Rev. John, his remarks on a Parthian coin with a Greek -and Parthian legend, never before published, p. 175. - ----- ---- ---- ---- ---- dissertation upon the Phœnician numeral -characters antiently used at Sidon, p. 791. - - -T - -_Tables_ of the variation of the magnetic needle, a sett, which exhibit -the result of upwards of fifty thousand observations, adapted to every -five degrees of lat. and long. in the more frequented oceans, p. 329. - -_Tendon_, Flexor, one torn out in its whole extent, and the first joint -of the thumb torn off, p. 617. - -_Thermometer_, state of it at the Hague, Jan. 9, 1757. p. 148. - -_Thermometers_, description of some for particular uses, p. 300. - -_Thigh-bone_ of a large animal, a fossil one dug up at Stonesfield, -near Woodstock, in Oxfordshire, p. 524. - -_Thunder_ and Lightning, the effects of them in the parishes of Looe -and Lanreath, June 27th, 1756, p. 104. - -_Torkos_, Just. Joan. observationes anatomico-medicæ de monstro -bicorporeo virgineo, p. 311. - -_Travers_, Mr. Peter, his successful treatment of the gut ileum cut -thro’ by a knife, p. 35. - -_Trees_, some discovered under-ground on the shore at Mount’s-Bay in -Cornwall, p. 51. - -_Trembley_, Mr. Abraham, extract of a letter from him on several -curious subjects of natural history, p. 58. - ----- ---- ---- his state of the thermometer at the Hague, Jan. 9, 1757, -p. 148. - -_Trigonometry_, abridgement of it, p. 538. - -_Tumours_, some extraordinary ones upon the head of a man in St. -Bartholomew’s-Hospital, p. 350. - -_Tringa_, or Snipe, account of a new-discovered species, p. 255. - - -V - -_Vapour_, remarks on the opinion of Henry Eles, Esq; concerning the -ascent of it, p. 240. - -_Ventilators_, attempt to improve the manner of working them by the -help of a fire-engine, p. 727. - -_Vessels_, lymphatic, of animals, observations on their origin and use, -p. 322. - -_Vigiliæ florum_, account of that faculty, p. 506. - -_Virginia_, remarkable storm of hail there, p. 746. - - -W - -_Wall_, John, M.D. concerning the good effects of Malverne waters, p. -23. - ----- ---- ---- his observations on the case of the Norfolk Boy cured of -convulsions by the discharge of worms, p. 836. - -_Walmesley_, Mr. Charles, his letter on the irregular motions of a -satellite, p. 807. - -_Walker_, Mr. John, his account of a new medicinal well lately -discovered at Moffat in Annandale, p. 117. - -_Walpole_, Lord Horace, sequel to his account of his own case (Phil. -Trans. vol. xlvii. p. 43 & 472.) p. 205. - -_Ward_, John, LL.D. letter communicated by him, with an account of the -alterations making in the Pantheon at Rome, p. 115. - ----- ---- ---- his account of the black assize at Oxford, p. 699. - -_Warner_, Jos. Surgeon, his account of a remarkable case of an -aneurism, &c. p. 363. - ----- ---- ---- ---- instance of four rough stones extracted from the -urinary bladder of a man, by the lateral method of cutting for the -stone, p. 579. - -_Water_, account of its fall under bridges, p. 492. - ----- fresh, method of procuring it from salt water with wood-ashes, p. -635. - -_Waters_, the Carlsbad mineral, account of them, p. 25. - ----- ---- ---- ---- their lithontriptic virtue with lime-water and -soap, p. 386. - ----- Malverne, the good effects of them, p. 23. - ----- medicinal, at Moffat in Annandale, account of them, p. 117. -Various experiments on them, p. 121. - -_Watson_, William, M. D. memoir concerning a genus of plants called -Lichen, &c. p. 652. - ----- ---- ---- his account of some extraordinary effects arising from -convulsions, p. 743. - ----- ---- ---- his further account of the poisonous effects of the -Oenanthe aquatica succo viroso crocanthe of Lobel, or Hemlock Dropwort, -p. 856. - -_Well_, medicinal, a new one discovered near Moffat in Annandale, p. -117. - -_Weather_, extraordinary heat of it in July 1757, p. 523. - ----- ---- ---- ---- ---- in Georgia, p. 754. - -_Wendlingen_, P. Joan. observatio eclipsis lunaris facta Matriti, die -30 Julii 1757, p. 640. - -_White_, Taylor, Esq; his discourse on the Cinamon, Cassia, or Canella, -p. 860. - -_Whytt_, Robert, M. D. his account of the lithontriptic virtue of the -Carlsbad waters, lime-water and soap, p. 386. - ----- ---- ---- concerning the remarkable effects of blisters in -lessening the quickness of the pulse in coughs attended with infarction -of the lungs, p. 569. - -_Wigton_, in Cumberland, effects of a storm there, p. 194. - -_Winthrop_, Mr. Professor, concerning an earthquake felt in New -England, and the neighbouring parts of America, Nov. 18, 1755, p. 1. - -_Windows_, dissertation on the antiquity of glass in them, p. 601. - -_Wright_, Edward, M.D. his account of an experiment, whereby it appears -that salt of steel does not enter the lacteals, p. 594. - -_Wood-ashes_, their use in distilling fresh water from sea-water, p. -635. - -_Wooller_, Mr. his description of the fossil skeleton of an animal -found in the alum rock near Whitby, p. 786. - -_Worms_, account of a boy cured of convulsive fits by the discharge of -some, p. 518. Other cases of the like nature, p. 839. - ----- that form sponges, new observations on them, p. 590. - - -Z - -_Zetland_, island of, account of an extraordinary shower of black dust -which fell there, Oct. 20, 1755, p. 297. - - - - -ERRATA. - -_P._ 769. _l._ 3. _read_ the order of - -_P._ 791. _l._ 6. _for_ Oxon, _with a comma, read_ Oxon. _with a -full-point_. - -_P._ 792. _l._ 5. _of the quotations, for_ Froel. _read_ Frœl. - -_In the Contents to Part_ I. _of this Vol. Page_ 5. _l._ 21. _for_ 115. -_read_ 117. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[1] Manna lies about 50 miles to the southward of Marlborough. - -[2] The island of Sumatra is between 7 and 800 miles long from north to -south. - -[3] Cumberland-house is a new well-built house for the governor of the -place. - -[4] _N. B. Both these are contiguous to the fort._ - -[5] Laye house or factory is about 30 miles to the northward of -Marlborough, and Manna house or factory fifty miles to the southward. - -[6] The sugar-plantation is five or six miles from Marlborough. - -[7] The _qualloe_ is the country word for a river’s mouth. - -[8] Poblo Point lies about three leagues to the southward of -Marlborough. - -[9] _Doosoons_ are villages. - -[10] Letter from William Veale, Esq; - -[11] Letter from John Trehawk, Esq; - -[12] A timber support of the deads. - -[13] Loose rubbish and broken stones of the mine. - -[14] Mr. J. Nantcarrow. - -[15] Trifolium quoque inhorrescere et folia contra tempestatem -subrigere certum est. Hist. Nat. lib. xviii. cap. 35. - -[16] Flor. Lappon. p. 222. - -[17] Prosp. Alpin. de plantis Ægypti, cap. 10. - -[18] It is not improbable, that a considerable portion of whiting might -be used instead of pure white lead, which is frequently done: and this -supposition is favoured by the mixture’s not proving fatal to the boy, -as such a quantity of white lead in all probability would. - -[19] What Lhwyd calls _ostreum minus falcatum_, Nº. 451. - -[20] Memoires de l’Acad. des Sciences, anno 1748. p. 326. - -[21] Ibid. p. 338. - -[22] Ibid. p. 337. - -[23] See my Essay on the contagious Distemper, p. 70. - -[24] Pag. 143 and 338. - -[25] Essay on the Plague. - -[26] See Logarith. Canon. deser. _Edinb._ 1614. p. 48. - -[27] _Senex_ drew several of that form. - -[28] See the Preface to the small Berlin Atlas. - -[29] This constant logarithm contains the reduction of the diff. of -longitude to parts of radius unity, and to _Briggs_’s Modulus. - -[30] See _Cotesii_ Logometr. prop. 6. - -[31] Physiological Essays, p. 69. - -[32] Physiological Essays, p. 69. - -[33] Dr. Pringle’s Observations on the Diseases of the Army, part iii. -chap. 2. - -[34] Vincentius Menghinus _de Ferrearum particularum progressu in -Sanguinem. Comment. Acad. Bonon._ T. II. P. 2. pag. 475. - -[35] Phil. Transact. by Lowthorpe, vol. iii. p. 102. edit. 1749. the -same by Jones, vol. v. p. 259. - -[36] Vol. I. art. xii. p. 364. - -[37] In a paper read Feb. 24. 1757. See Art. xiii. p. 88. - -[38] _Porticuum, in quibus spatiari consueverat (Domitianus) parietes -phengite lapide distinxit, e cujus splendore per imagines quicquid a -tergo fieret, provideret._ Sueton. Domit. c. 14. - -[39] Plin. Nat. Hist. lib. xxxvi. c. 26. §. 66. - -[40] Pliny mentions a kind of glass or jet called _obsidianum_: ---_nigerrimi coloris, aliquando et translucidi, crassiore visu, atque -in speculis parietum pro imagine umbras reddente_. Nat. Hist. lib. -xxxvi. c. 26. §. 67. - -And that the practice of staining glass was known in his time, appears -from what he says concerning the _obsidianum_ mentioned above:--_Fit et -genere tincturæ--totum rubens vitrum, atque non translucidum_. Ibid. - -[41] Panciroll. Rer. Mem. p. 288. - -[42] These glass balls had sometimes water within them: _Cùm additâ -aquâ vitreæ pilæ sole adverso in tantum excandescant, ut vestes -exurant_. Plin. lib. xxxvi. c. 22. §. 45. - -_Invenio medicos, quæ sunt urenda corporum, non alitèr utilius id fieri -putare, quam crystallinâ pilâ adversis positâ solis radiis._ Plin. Nat. -Hist. lib. xxxvii. c. 6. §. 10. - -[43] Vid. Mons. Renaudot Memoires de l’Acad. des Inscript. tom. I. - -[44] Vid. infra, not. 11. - -[45] _Theatrum Scauri_----_scena ei triplex in altitudinem_ CCCLX -_columnarum_.----_Ima pars scenæ e marmore fuit_: media e vitro: _summa -e tabulis inauratis_. Nat. Hist. lib. xxxvi. c. 15. - -[46] A. V. 678. Hard. not. Plin. lib. xxxvi. c. 8. - -[47] _Agrippa in thermis, quas Romæ fecit, figlinum opus encausto -pinxit, in reliquis albaria adornavit: non dubiè_ vitreas facturus -cameras, si prius inventum id fuisset, _aut a parietibus scenæ--Scauri -pervenisset in cameras_. Lib. xxxvi. c. 25. §. 64. - -[48] Seneca, exposing the luxury of the Romans with regard to their -baths, says, _Pauper sibi videtur ac sordidus, nisi parietes magnis ac -pretiosis orbibus refulserint--nisi_ vitro absconditur camera.--Ep. 86. - -[49] Plin. Nat. Hist. lib. xxxvi. c. 22. §. 45. - -[50] Nat. Hist. lib. xxxvi. c. 22. §. 45. - -[51] Vid. Salmasius in a passage to be produced hereafter. - -[52] Hist. de l’Acad. des Inscrip. tom. I. - -[53] Montfauc. Antiq. vol. III. part i. lib. iii. c. 4. Lipsius in loc. -_&c._ - -[54] _Quædam nostrâ demum prodiisse memoriâ scimus; ut speculariorum -usum, perlucente testâ, clarum transmittentium lumen._ Sen. ep. 90. - -[55] _Quod fenestris obducebatur ad translucendum, ac lucem -admittendam_ specular _vetens Latini vocârunt. Idque ex speculari -lapide, quí est_ φεγγιτης, _aut_ ex vitro _fiebat, aut aliâ translucidâ -materiâ. Nam_ specular dictum, non quod ex speculari lapide _factum -esset, sed quod visum transmitteret, ac per id_ speculari _liceret_. -Salm. Exerc. Plin. in Solin. tom. II. p. 771. - -[56] Villa’s of the Anc. illustrated, p. iv. - -[57] One of Pliny’s cautions for preserving apples is--_Austros -specularibus arcere_. Nat. Hist. lib. xv. c. 16. - -Martial further informs us, that the Romans used to screen their -orchards of choice fruit-trees with _specularia_. Lib. viii. epig. 14. - -[58] I suppose he means that of Fortuna Seia. Lib. xxxvi. c. 22. - -[59] Salmasius, speaking of the custom of adorning chambers with glass, -says--_Quod proximè ætatem suam incepisse fieri narrat Plinius. Quum M. -Scaurus_----Ex. Plin. tom. II. p. 854. - -I do not find this expresly asserted by Pliny: but it might have been -so in fact. This fashion indeed was not begun till after Agrippa had -built his _thermæ_: but if we suppose that to have been even as late as -his third consulship, _viz. ante Christ._ 27. (_Helvicus_), when he -erected the Pantheon (or at least its portico), near adjoining to those -_thermæ_, there would have been sufficient room, from that period to -the birth of Pliny (_viz. anno Christi_ 24), for the introduction of -this usage. - -[60] Plin. Ep. V. I. 111. - -[61] Plin. Nat. Hist. lib. xxxvi. c. 26. §. 66. - -[62] Vid. supra. - -[63] Anno Christi 80. - -[64] In order to justify my placing the testimony of this Father so -high, I would observe, that St. Jerome (_De Scriptor. Eccles._) says, -that Lactantius--_Extremâ senectute magister Cæsaris Crispi filii -Constantini in Gallia fuit_. He must probably have exercised this -charge between _anno Christi_ 309, when Constantine began to reign, -and 320. If he was then of a great age, he might have composed the -treatise, out of which this authority is produced, and which was one -of the earliest of his works, that are extant (_Vid. Sparkii præf. ad -Lactant._), 40 years before, _viz._ about _anno Christi_ 280; which -brings us up to 200 years after the overthrow of Herculaneum, as above. - -[65] Lib. i. c. 20. See this subject largely discussed in Bodæus à -Stapel Comment. in Theoph. p. 156. et seq. - -[66] Opera omnia à C. B. edit. 1598. p. 64. - -[67] _Usnea vulgaris loris longis implexis_ Hist. Musc. p. 56. _Lichen -plicatus_ Lin. Sp. Pl. 1154. _Muscus arboreus: Usnea_ Officin. C. B. -Raii Syn. III. p. 64. - -[68] _Usnea barbata loris tenuibus fibrosis_ Hist. Musc. p. 63. _Lichen -barbatus_ Lin. Sp. Pl. 1155. _Quercus excrementum villosum_ C. B. p. -422. Bauhine took this to be the true _Usnea Arabum_. - -[69] _Usnea ceratoides candicans glabra et odorata_ Hist. Musc. p. 71. -_Muscus arboreus candicans et odorifer_ Camelli Raii Hist. III. Append. -p. 3. - -[70] Civil and Natural History of Jamaica, p. 80. - -[71] Hist. Plant. I. par. ii. p. 88. - -[72] Flor. Lap. p. 342. Ɛ. Flor. Suec. Ed. II. p. 416. - -[73] Flor. Lap. p. 348. - -[74] Hist. Plant. I. p. 115. - -[75] _Usnea jubata nigricans._ Dillen. Hist. Musc. p. 64. _Lichen -jubatus_ Lin. Sp. Pl. 1155. _Muscus corallinis saxatilis fæniculaceus_, -Rock-hair. Raii Syn. III. p. 65. n. 7. - -[76] _Usnea capillacea et nodosa_ Dillen. Hist. Musc. 60. _Muscus -arboreus nodosus_ C. B. p. 361. Raii Syn. III. p. 65. n. 4. - -[77] Raii Hist. Pl. III. p. 28. - -[78] Natural History of Norway, p. 148. - -[79] _Usnea capillacea citrina frutriculi specie._ Hist. Musc. p. 73. -_Muscus aureus tenuissimus_ Merret. Pin. p. 79. Raii syn. p. 65. nº. 8. - -[80] Flor. Suec. Ed. II. p. 427. - -[81] Hist. Plant. III. P. ii. lib. 9. p. 273. - -[82] _Usnea dichotoma compressa segmentis capillaceis teretibus._ Hist. -Musc. 72. _Muscus arboreus aurantiacus flaminibus tenuissimis_ Pluk. -Alm. p. 254. Raii Hist. III. 28. - -[83] _Coralloides corniculis longioribus et rarioribus._ Dillen. Hist. -Musc. p. 103. _Muscus corniculatus_ Ger. p. 1372. Park. 1308. Raii -Hist. I. p. 112. III. p. 28. _Lichenoides tubulosum cinereum minus -crustaceum minusque ramosum_ Raii Syn. 3. p. 67. - -[84] _Coralloides montanum fruticuli specie ubique candicans_ Hist. -Musc. p. 107. _Lichen rangiferinus_ Lin. Sp. Pl. 1153. _Muscus -corallinus._ Tab. Ger. em. - -[85] Flor. Lappon. p. 332. - -[86] Enum. Stirp. Helv. p. 69. Nº. 38. - -[87] The Novaccolæ are a people originally sprung from the Finlanders: -they fixed themselves in Lapland not long since, and traffick with the -old inhabitants. - -[88] _Coralloides crispum et botryforme Alpinum_ Hist. Musc. p. 114. -_Lichen paschalis_ Lin. Sp. Pl. _Lichenoides non tubulum cinereum -ramosum totum crustaceum_ Raii Syn. III. 66. N. 11. This moss is not -common in England. Dr. Dillenius found it upon some of the mountains in -Wales. It is found in many places on Charley-forest, Leicestershire. - -[89] Flor. Lappon. Nº. 489. - -[90] _Coralloides corniculatum fasciculare tinctorium fuci teretis -facie_ Dillen. Hist. Musc. p. 120. _Cladonia tophacea_ Hill. Hist. -Pl. p. 93. _Fucus capillaris tinctorius_ Raii Hist. I. p. 74. _Lichen -(Rocelia) fruticulosus solidus aphyllus subramosus tuberculis alternis_ -Lin. Sp. Pl. 1154. - -[91] L’Art de la Teinture des lains et des Etoffes de lain; Paris 1750, -p. 543. - -[92] Raii Hist. Plant. I. p. 74. - -[93] Nova Plant. Gener. p. 78. - -[94] _Coralloides schyphiforme tuberculis fuscis_ Hist. Musc. 79. -_Lichenoides tubulosum pyxidatum cinereum._ Raii Syn. III. p. 68. -_Pyxidium margine leviter serrato._ Hill. Hist. Plant. p. 94. - -[95] Willis Pharm. Rational. sect. I. cap. 6. _de tussi puerorum -convulsiva_. - -[96] De Aëre et Morbis epidemicis, p. 76, 77. vol. I. - -[97] Lowthorp’s Abridgment, vol. II. p. 660. - -[98] _Lichenoides tartareum tinctorium candidum tuberculis atris._ -Hist. Musc. p. 128. - -[99] _Lichen (calcareus) leprosus candidus tuberculis atris_ Spec. -Plant. 1140. - -[100] _Lichenoides leprosum tinctorium scutellis lapidum Caneri figura_ -Hist. Musc. 130. _Lichenoides crustaceum et leprosum scutellare -cinereum._ Raii Syn. p. 70. - -[101] Tournefort’s Voyage to the Levant, Eng. edit. Lond. 1741. in 8º, -vol. I. p. 248. - -[102] _Lichenoides tartareum farinaceum scutellarum umbone fusco._ -Hist. Musc. 132. _Placodium bracteis majusculis limbo albo cinctis_ -Hill. Hist. Pl. p. 97. - -[103] Flor. Suec. Ed. II. p. 407. - -[104] _Lichenoides crustaceum et leprosum acetabulis majoribus luteis -limbis argenteis_ Raii Syn. p. 71. N. 46. Hist. Musc. p. 132. - -[105] _Vide_ Œconom. Natur. in Amœn. Acad. vol. II. p. 17. - -[106] _Lichenoides vulgatissimum cinereo-glaucum lacunosum et cirrosum_ -Hist. Musc. p. 88. _Lichenoides crusta foliosa superne cinereo-glauca, -inferne nigra et cirrosa scutellis nigricantibus._ R. Syn. p. 72. - -[107] _Lichenoides saxatile tinctorium foliis pilosis purpureis_ Raii -Syn. p 74. Nº. 70. Hist. Musc. p. 185. _Lichen petræus purpureus -Derbiensis_ Park. Theat. p. 1315. _Lichen omphalodes_ Lin. Spec. Pl. -1143. - -[108] Park. Theat. Botan. p. 1315. - -[109] Raii Hist. Plant. p. 116. - -[110] Flor. Lappon. p. 343. V. - -[111] Otherwise called _arnotto_. - -[112] _Lichenoides vulgare sinuosum foliis et scutellis luteis._ Hist. -Musc. p. 180. _Lichenoides crusta foliosa scutellata flavescens._ Raii -Syn. p. 72. Nº. 59. - -[113] Flor. Suec. Ed. II. p. 416. Nº. 1093. - -[114] Linnæus has intitled this moss _Lichen (stygius) imbricatus, -folio is palmatis incurvis atris_. Fl. Suec. I. 949. Spec. Plant. 1143. -Fl. Suec. II. Nº. 1079. - -[115] _Lichenoides coralliforme rostratum et canaliculatum._ -Hist. Musc. 170. _Lichenoides arboreum ramosum angustioribus -cinereo-virescentibus ramulis._ Raii Syn. 75. _Lichen calicaris_ Lin. -Spec. Plant. 1146. - -[116] _Lichenoides fuciforme tinctorium corniculis longioribus et -acutioribus._ Hist. Musc. 168. _Platysma corniculatum._ Hill Hist. -Plant. 90. _Lichen fuciformis_ Lin. Sp. Pl. 1147. - -[117] _Lichenoides digitatum cinereum lactucæ foliis sinuosis_ Dillen. -Hist. Musc. 200. _Platysma sinuosum scutellis ovato-rotundis_ Hill -Hist. Pl. 89. _Lichen caninus_ Lin. Sp. Pl. 1149. - -[118] See Lowthorp’s Abridgment, vol. III. p. 284. - -[119] Dr. Van Swieten. See Comment. in Boerh. Aphor. §. 1147. - -[120] Mechanical Account of Poisons, ed. 4th, p. 156. - -[121] _Lichenoides pulmonium reticulatum vulgare marginibus peltiferis_ -Dill. Hist. Musc. 212. _Lichenoides peltatum arboreum maximum._ Raii -Syn. p. 76. _Musc. pulmonarius_ C. B. - -[122] Dillen. Hist. Musc. p. 213. - -[123] _Lichenoides digitatum læte virens verrucis nigris notatum._ -Ibid. p. 207. - -[124] Boerhaav. Aphorism. §. 982. - -[125] Vol. II, p. 69. _De Tœnia._ - -[126] _Musca apiformis, tota fusca, cauda obtusa, ex ejula caudata in -latrinis degente orta._ Raii Hist. Insect, p. 272. - -[127] Faun. Suecica, Nº. 1084. - -[128] See two cases nearly of this kind observed by Dr. Lister. -Lowthorp’s Abridgment, vol. III. p. 135. - -[129] _Lichenoides rigidum eryngii folia referens_ Dillen. Hist. Musc. -p. 209. Raii Syn. p. 77. _Lichen foliis oblongis laciniatis marginibus -conniventibus ciliaribus._ Flor. Lappon. Hall. Helv. 75. _Lichen -(islandicus) foliaceus adscendens laciniatus marginibus elevatis -ciliaribus_ Lin. Flor. Suec. I. 959. II. 1085. Mat. Med. Nº. 493. Spec. -Plant. 1145. - -[130] Raii Hist. Plant. p. 114. - -[131] Flor. Lappon. Nº. 445. - -[132] Horrebow’s Natural History of Iceland, p. 36. - -[133] For the first account, see part first, p. 392. - -[134] Sic in regist. et postea haud semel. - -[135] Sic in regist. - -[136] Sic in regist. - -[137] Sic in regist. - -[138] Sic in regist. - -[139] Sic in regist. - -[140] Page 285. edit. Lugd. Batav. 1625. - -[141] Page 681. edit. London, 1631. - -[142] Wood Hist. et Antiqu. Universit. Oxon. lib. i. p. 295. and Athen. -Oxon. vol. I. col. 237. - -[143] Hist. & Antiquit. Universit. Oxon. ubi supra. - -[144] Page 290, 2d edit. - -[145] When the emperor goes out or comes into the palace, this bell is -rung. - -[146] In these two houses are Jesuits of other nations. They are stiled -Portuguese, because these houses and churches depend on the mission of -the Jesuits founded by the king of Portugal. - -[147] There are beaten there the five watches of the night. The sound -is heard thro’ the whole city. - -[148] _Yong lo_, emperor of the last dynasty _Ming_, built these two -towers. - -[149] The tribunals of the ministers and grand masters of the emperor’s -house are in the inclosure _Tse kin_. - -[150] The feet are different in China; but 1800 feet always make a -_ly_. According to the measure of the foot the _ly_ will be greater or -less. - -[151] This power is called in China the dynasty _Leao_. - -[152] There is extant, in the Chinese and Tartar _Mantcheou_ languages, -an history of the dynasty of _Ki tan_. - -[153] Of which dynasty there is extant a very curious history. - -[154] Book I. Part ii. Prop. 3. Experiment 8. of his Optics. - -[155] If α, β, γ, δ, _&c._ be supposed to represent the co-sines of the -angles 360° ⁄ _n_, 2 × 360° ⁄ _n_, 3 × 360° ⁄ _n_, _&c._ (the radius -being unity); then the roots of the equation _zⁿ_ - 1 = 0 (expressing -the several values of _p_, _q_, _r_, _s_, _&c._) will be truly defined -by 1, α + √(αα - 1), α - √(αα - 1), β + √(ββ - 1), β - √(ββ - 1), _&c._ -The demonstration of this will be given farther on. - -[156] Because -_ẋ_ ⁄ √(1 - _xx_) and -_Ẋ_ ⁄ √(1 - _XX_) are known to -express the fluxions of the circular arcs whose co-sines are _x_ and -_X_, it is evident, if those arcs be supposed in any constant ratio of -1 to _n_, that _nẋ_ ⁄ √(1 - _xx_) = _Ẋ_ ⁄ √(1 - _XX_), and consequently -that _nẋ_ ⁄ √(_xx_ - 1) (= _nẋ_ ⁄ (√-1 × √(1 - _xx_)) = _Ẋ_ ⁄ (√-1 × -√(1 - _XX_)) = _Ẋ_ ⁄ √(_XX_ - 1). From whence, by taking the fluents, -_n_ × Log. (_x_ + √(_xx_ - 1)) (or Log. (_x_ + √(_xx_ - 1))_ⁿ_) = Log. -_X_ + √(_XX_ - 1); and consequently (_x_ + √(_xx_ - 1))_ⁿ_ = _X_ + -√(_XX_ - 1): whence also, seeing _x_ - √(_xx_ - 1) is the reciprocal -of _x_ + √(_xx_ - 1), and _X_ - √(_XX_ - 1) of _X_ + √(_XX_ - 1), it -is likewise evident, that (_x_ - √(_xx_ - 1))_ⁿ_ = _X_ - √(_XX_ - 1). -Hence, not only the truth of the above assumption, but what has been -advanced in relation to the roots of the equation _zⁿ_ - 1 = 0, will -appear manifest. For if _x_ ± √(_xx_ - 1) be put = _z_, then will _zⁿ_ -(= (_x_ ± √(_xx_ - 1))_ⁿ_) = _X_ ± √(_XX_ - 1): where, assuming _X_ -= 1 = co-s. 0 = co-s. 360° = co-s. 2 × 360° = co-s. 3 × 360°, _&c._ -the equation will become _zⁿ_ = 1, or _zⁿ_ - 1 = 0; and the different -values of _x_, in the expression (_x_ ± √(_xx_ - 1)) for the root _z_, -will consequently be the co-sines of the arcs, 0 ⁄ _n_, 360° ⁄ _n_, (2 -× 360°) ⁄ _n_, _&c._ these arcs being the corresponding _submultiples_ -of those above, answering to the co-sine _X_ (= 1).----In the same -manner, if _X_ be taken = -1 = co-s. 180° = co-s. 3 × 180° = co-s. 5 × -180°, _&c._ then will _zⁿ_ = -1, or _zⁿ_ + 1 = 0; and the values of _x_ -will, in this case, be the co-sines of 180° ⁄ _n_, 3 × (180° ⁄ _n_), 5 -× (180° ⁄ _n_), _&c._ - -[157] _Avellana purgatrix_; in French, _medicinier_. - -[158] This refers to Mr. Baker’s having supposed, that old iron and old -brass may be mixt sometimes, and melted down together. - -[159] Vide Wilkins’s real Character, p. 131. Bellon. aquat. p. 330. - -[160] Some of the Pour-contrel kind have but one row of suckers on the -arms: such an one I have seen, whose arms were thirty inches long. - -[161] Of this I gave an account some years ago, in my attempt towards a -Natural History of the Polype, chap. v. - -[162] See Plate xxxi. Fig. 1. - -[163] _De Num. quibusd. Sam. et Phœn. &c. Dissert._ p. 56-59. & Tab. -II. Oxon. 1750. - -[164] _Marm. Palmyren. a Cl._ Dawk. _edit._ pass. - -[165] Vid. Hadr. Reland. _Palæst. Illustrat._ p. 1014. Traject. -Batavor. 1714. Erasm. Frœl. ad _Annal. Compendiar. Reg. & Rer. Syr._ -Tab. VIII. &c. Viennæ, 1754. - -[166] _De Antiq. Hebræor. et Græcor. Lit. Libel._ Joan. Baptist. -Biancon. p. 31, 32. Bononiæ, 1748. - -[167] 1. Maccab. i. 10. - -[168] Hadr. Reland. _De Num. Vet. Hebr._ pass. Trajecti ad _Rhenum_, -1709. - -[169] See Plate xxxi. Fig. 2. - -[170] Honor. Arigon. _Num. Phœnic._ Tab. I. Num. 3, 6. Tarvisii, 1745. - -[171] Nicol. Haym Roman. _Del Tesor. Britan._ Vol. i. p. 106. In -Londra, 1719. - -[172] See Plate xxxi. Fig. 3. - -[173] See Plate xxxi. Fig. 3. - -[174] See Plate xxxi. Fig. 3. - -[175] See the Phœnician Numerals in Plate xxxii. - -[176] _Philosoph. Transact._ Vol. xlviii. Par. ii. p. 726. - -[177] _De Num. quibusd. Sam. et Phœn. &c. Dissert._ p. 59-61. & Tab. -II. Oxon. 1750. - -[178] See Plate xxxi. Fig. 4. - -[179] Haym, ubi sup. p. 107. - -[180] See Plate xxxi. Fig. 5. - -[181] See Plate xxxi. Fig. 5. - -[182] Honor. Arigon. _Num. Phœnic._ Tab. I, II. Tarvisii, 1745. - -[183] Id. ibid. Tab. I. N. 5. - -[184] See Plate xxxi. Fig. 6. - -[185] See p. 793, 794. - -[186] See plate xxxi. Fig. 7. - -[187] See Plate xxxi. Fig. 8. - -[188] _Recherches Curieuses des Monoyes de France &c. Par_ Claude -Bouterouë, p. 33. A Paris, 1666. - -[189] See Plate xxxi. Fig. 9. - -[190] Honor. Arigon. ubi sup. Tab. I. Num. 2. - -[191] Claud. Bouterouë, ubi sup. p. 24. - -[192] See Plate xxxi. Fig. 9. - -[193] See Plate xxxi. Fig. 9. - -[194] _Mémoires de Litterature, tirés des Registres &c._ Tom. xxiv. p. -64. A Paris, 1756. - -[195] The whole note, here referred to, in the original runs thus. -“J’avois lû ce Mémoire à l’Académie en 1749, je le communiquai dans le -même temps à un étranger qui se trouvoit alors à Paris, & qui ayant -passé tout de suite en Angleterre, fit part à un docteur d’Oxford -de l’explication que j’avois donnée de la médaille de Jonathan. Ce -dernier _m’a fait l’honneur de l’adopter_ dans une savante Dissertation -imprimée a Oxford en 1750, à la suite d’une autre Dissertation sur -deux inscriptions Phéniciennes.” _Mémoires de Litterature, tirés des -Registres de l’Académie Royale des Inscriptions & Belles-Lettres, &c._ -Tom. xxiv. p. 60. A Paris, 1756. - -For the better understanding of this note, it will be proper to -observe, that the stranger therein mentioned was M. Brucker, Professor -of History in the University of Basil; with whom I contracted an -acquaintance when at Oxford, towards the close of March 1750. This -gentleman then informed me, that M. l’Abbé Barthelemy communicated -to him draughts of three Samaritan coins of Jonathan, prince and -high-priest of the Jews. He added, that one of these exhibited -the words ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΑΛΕΞΑΝΔΡΟΥ; which, according to him, M. l’Abbé -Barthelemy interpreted of Alexander the Great, taking the piece -to have been twice struck. This M. Brucker afterwards in a great -measure confirmed, by a letter he wrote to me at Oxford; which I -published intire in 1750, and endeavoured to prove, that the foregoing -inscription was to be understood of Alexander I. king of Syria, and not -of Alexander the Great. The Samaritan inscription, which M. Brucker -only just touched upon, as is manifest from his letter, I likewise -attempted to explain; producing proper vouchers, in support of what I -advanced. Thus stands the fact, which seems to have given some offence -to M. l’Abbé, stated in the most concise manner possible; and from it, -thus stated, as I apprehend, are naturally deducible the following -observations. - -1. As I differed in opinion from M. l’Abbé, with regard to the words -ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΑΛΕΞΑΝΔΡΟΥ, as well as in several other respects, and -supported by indisputable authorities what I in all points advanced, -without receiving from any person whatsoever the least information -relative thereto; it very evidently appears, that I did not _adopt_ M. -l’Abbé’s explication of the coin in question. - -2. By publishing M. Brucker’s letter, which I have still by me, -intire, I both did him justice, and clearly acknowledged M. l’Abbé to -have first discovered the medals it treats of to belong to Jonathan, -prince and high-priest of the Jews; and therefore have by no means -endeavoured, as he would insinuate, to rob him of the glory of such a -discovery. - -3. As M. l’Abbé in effect owns himself to have seen my dissertation, -and has (if M. Brucker rightly informed me) since the reading of -his memoir, substituted my notion, relating to the words, ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ -ΑΛΕΞΑΝΔΡΟΥ, in the room of his own; some people may perhaps imagine, -that I have at least as much reason to recriminate on this occasion, -as he had to charge me with the _adoption_ of his explication. Nay, -as he expresly acquaints the public, that M. Brucker imparted to -me the very interpretation of the coin he (M. l’Abbé) had before -communicated to him, and as this interpretation most evidently makes -it to have been first struck in the reign of Alexander the Great; -every unprejudiced person, unacquainted with the elevated genius and -extensive erudition of M. l’Abbé, will be strongly induced to believe, -that there would be no great injustice in a recrimination. But far -be it from me to retort the accusation upon M. l’Abbé. His uncommon -learning, his singular modesty, his strict honour, his utter contempt -of vanity and ostentation in every shape, so conspicuous to all the -world, must set him infinitely above the reach of such an imputation. -However, notwithstanding the superior merit and exalted abilities of -M. l’Abbé, notwithstanding the known aversion of the French writers -to the practice here hinted at, and their most generous and candid -treatment hitherto of those belonging to the British nation, it will -perhaps hereafter be thought expedient, by the ACADEMY OF INSCRIPTIONS -AND BELLES LETTRES, not frequently to suffer an interval of seven years -to elapse, between the reading and publication of their memoirs. For -by such unaccountable delays, if often repeated, a handle may possibly -be given to many of the _haughty islanders_ of reflecting upon, or at -least entertaining unfavourable sentiments of, some of the members of -that illustrious body. - -See _De Num. quibusd. Sam. & Phœn. &c. Dissert._ p. 61-72. Oxon. 1750. - -[196] F. Henric. Nor. Veronens. _An. et Epoch. Syromaced. &c._ p. -414-424. Lipsiæ, 1696. - -[197] Erasm. Frœl. _Annal. Compend. Reg. et Rer. Syr._ p. 113. Viennæ, -1754. - -[198] Joan. Harduin. _Op. Select._ p. 155, 156. Amst. 1709. Joan. -Foy-Vaillant Bellovac. _Numismat. Ær. Imperator. &c. Par. Alt._ p. 97. -Parisiis, 1695. - -[199] Iidem ibid. & alib. - -[200] F. Henr. Nor. Veronens. ubi sup. - -[201] Diod. Sic. lib. xix. Plutarch. in _Demetr._ Appian. in _Syriac_. - -[202] F. Henr. Nor. Veronens. ubi sup. - -[203] Erasm. Frœl. ubi sup. p. 39. Joan. Foy-Vaill. _Seleucidar, -Imper._ p. 1-150. Lutet. Parisior. 1681. - -[204] Joan. Foy-Vaill. Erasm. Frœl. Nicol. Haym Roman. &c. - -[205] See above, p. 793, 794. - -[206] Erasm. Frœl. ubi sup. p. 101. - -[207] 1. Maccab. i. 10. - -[208] See Plate xxxi. - -[209] See Plate xxxii. - -[210] It may not however be amiss to remark, that most of the forms of -the Phœnician centenary and decimal numeral characters rather resemble -the correspondent Palmyrene numerals of Gruter than those of Mr. -Dawkins; as will be obvious to every one, who shall think proper to -compare all those different characters one with another. _Philosoph. -Transact._ Vol. xlviii. Par. ii. p. 721, 741. - -[211] See Plate xxxi. Fig. 5. & Arigon. Tab. II. Num. 11. - -[212] See above, p. 791, 792. - -[213] Nicol. Haym Roman. ubi sup. p. 100. Erasm. Frœl. ubi sup. p. 111. -Tab. XV. - -[214] Joan. Foy-Vaill. ubi sup. p. 238. Erasm. Frœl. ubi sup. p. 57. -Tab. VII. Num. 1. - -[215] Nicol. Haym Roman. ubi sup. p. 101. Erasm. Frœl. ubi sup. p. 111. - -[216] Nicol. Haym Roman. ubi sup. p. 105, 106. - -[217] Joan. Foy-Vaill. ubi sup. p. 200. Erasm. Frœl. ubi sup. p. 63. -Tab. VIII. Num. 30. - -[218] Hadr. Reland. _Palæst. Illustrat._ p. 1014. - -[219] Nicol. Haym Roman. ubi sup. p. 100, 101. - -[220] Joan. Foy-Vaill. ubi sup. p. 375, 378. Haym, ubi sup. p. 100. -Erasm. Frœl. ubi sup. p. 111. Tab. XV. - -[221] Gul. Bevereg. _Institut. Chronologic._ p. 278-331. Eond. 1721. - -[222] Oleosis magna tribuitur efficacia, quæ maxime experimento -Fr. Rhedi videtur confirmata, dum muscas et alia insecta variis -liquoribus immersa in vivis permansisse refert, exceptis aliis oleo -perunctis et infusis, quæ invicem mortua vitam non receperunt, licet -radiis solaribus fuerint exposita. Equidem libenter concedo hæc omnia -veritati esse consona, atque etiam oleosa, ut ol. oliv. rapar. et -amygd. dulc. non sine fructu adhiberi: sed scire licet minime illa -eo unquam scopo posse offerri, ut vermes enecent, quia admodum magna -oleorum copia requireretur, si immediatè vermes per totum intestinorum -volumen dispersos deberent extinguere. Multo magis oleosa in gravibus -a lumbricis symptomatibus ideo censerem utilia, quia sensibiles -intestinorum tunicas spasmo constrictas relaxant, et mucilagine quasi -obliniunt atque defendunt, ut postea acriora quaædam et purgantia -remedia magis secure et sine læsione exhiberi possint. Ita ego sæpius -mirabili cum effectu ad vermes enecandos et symptomata lenienda ol. -amygd. d. ad aliquot cochlearia, imo ℥j vel ℥ij circa lecti introitum -vel summo mane pueris præscripsi sumendum, subjungendo aliquot horas -post pilulas ex extracto panchymagogo Crollii, resina jalappæ, et -mercurio dulci paratas. - - _Hoffmann. Supplement. ad Med. Systemat. de Infant. Morb. cap. 10. de - Vermibus._ - -[223] I have since been informed, that the boy’s parents being -extremely poor, the medicines were left off as soon as he began to -recover; and that, upon their disuse for some time, he was again -attacked with the same fits as before. - -[224] All oils dry more readily after they have been boiled; by which -the superfluous aqueous parts are carried off. Drying oils are also -made by the addition of such substances, as absorb humidities. - -[225] See Phil. Trans. Nº. 480. p. 227. - - - - -Corrections - -Contents - - CVI. A Discourse on the Cinnamon - CXVI. A Discourse on the Cinnamon - -p. 593 - - the sea, nor to any other accident whatesover, - the sea, nor to any other accident whatsoever, - -p. 616 - - and also heard a noise, like the distant dicharge of a cannon: - and also heard a noise, like the distant discharge of a cannon: - -p. 618 - - that the whole weight of his body was supended by it, - that the whole weight of his body was suspended by it, - -p. 681 - - by almost all the the botanic writers - by almost all the botanic writers - -Index - - _Vapour_, remarks on the opinion of Henry Eeles, Esq; concerning the - ascent of it, p. 240. - - _Vapour_, remarks on the opinion of Henry Eles, Esq; concerning the - ascent of it, p. 240. - -p. 712 - - are pretty spacious inclosures, each of which has it number. - are pretty spacious inclosures, each of which has its number. - -p. 730 - - When it moves upwards, the click _b_ fixed to the frame, stops the - larger rocket C, - - When it moves upwards, the click _b_ fixed to the frame, stops the - larger rochet C, - -p. 735 - - which would not be affected by the different refrangibilty of light; - which would not be affected by the different refrangibility of light; - -p. 741 - - Having thus got rid of the principal cause of the imperfection of - refracting telelescopes - - Having thus got rid of the principal cause of the imperfection of - refracting telescopes - -p. 759 - - and the _same cofficients_ with the original series - and the _same coefficients_ with the original series - -p. 766 - - the measures of the angles expressed by (360° ⁄ _n_) × _m_, 2 × (360 - ⁄ _n_) × _m_, 3 × (360 ⁄ _n_) × _m_, &c. - - the measures of the angles expressed by (360° ⁄ _n_) × _m_, 2 × (360° - ⁄ _n_) × _m_, 3 × (360° ⁄ _n_) × _m_, &c. - -p. 768 - - The soluion of this case, in a manner a little different, - The solution of this case, in a manner a little different, - -p. 773 - - We see by this, that the effects of the poison of the Manchinelle are - different - - We see by this, that the effects of the poison of the Manchenille are - different - -p. 842 - - I beg leave to subjoin it by way of postcript. - I beg leave to subjoin it by way of postscript. - -p. 846 - - coverings in different parts of the the world. - coverings in different parts of the world. - -Index - - _Vapour_, remarks on the opinion of Henry Eeles, Esq; concerning the - ascent of it, p. 240. - - _Vapour_, remarks on the opinion of Henry Eles, Esq; concerning the - ascent of it, p. 240. - - -Errata - -p. 497 - -Also (2_a_)²: _vv_∷ _a_: _vv_ ⁄ 4_a_ - -should be - -Also (2_a_)²: _vv_∷ _a_: (25b ⁄ 21c)² × _vv_ ⁄ 4_a_ - -p. 542 - -sin. (AC + AM) ⁄ 2 × sin. (AC - AM) ⁄ 2 = ((_b_ + _d_) × (_b_ - _d_) =) -(sin. ½ AC + sin. ½ AM) × (sin. ½ AC - sin. ½ AM). - -should be - -sin. (AC + AM) ⁄ 2 × sin. (AC - AM) ⁄ 2 = ((_b_ + _d_) × (_b_ - _d_)) = -(sin. ½ AC + sin. ½ AM) × (sin. ½ AC - sin. ½ AM). - -p. 830 - -hincque motus apsidis spatio unius anni solaris prodit 33´, 95 vel ferè -34´ in consequentia, qui tempore - -should be - -hincque motus apsidis spatio unius anni solaris prodit 33´, 95’’ vel -ferè 34´ in consequentia, qui tempore - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PHILOSOPHICAL -TRANSACTIONS, *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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