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If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: The Farmstead - The making of the rural home and the lay-out of the farm (5th - edition) - -Author: Isaac Phillips Roberts - -Release Date: June 5, 2022 [eBook #68243] - -Language: English - -Produced by: Charlene Taylor, Harry Lamé and the Online Distributed - Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was - produced from images generously made available by The - Internet Archive/American Libraries.) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE FARMSTEAD *** - - - - Transcriber’s Notes - - Text printed in italics has been transcribed between _underscores_, - bold face text between =equal signs=, and blackletter text between - ~tildes~. Small capitals have been replaced with ALL CAPITALS. - - More Transcriber’s Notes may be found at the end of this e-text. - - - - - ~The Rural Science Series~ - EDITED BY L. H. BAILEY - - THE FARMSTEAD - - -[Illustration] - - - THE FARMSTEAD - - _THE MAKING OF THE RURAL HOME AND - THE LAY-OUT OF THE FARM_ - - BY - - ISAAC PHILLIPS ROBERTS - - Director of the College of Agriculture and Professor of Agriculture in - Cornell University; author of “The Fertility of the Land” - - _FIFTH EDITION_ - - ~New York~ - THE MACMILLAN COMPANY - LONDON: MACMILLAN & CO., LTD. - 1910 - - _All rights reserved_ - - - - - COPYRIGHT, 1900 - BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY - - Set up and electrotyped January, 1900 - Reprinted August, 1902; January, 1905; - August, 1907; June, 1910 - - ~Mount Pleasant Press~ - J. Horace McFarland Company - Harrisburg, Pennsylvania - - - - -CONTENTS - - - CHAPTER PAGES - - I. RURAL HOMES 1-11 - - II. THE FARM AS A SOURCE OF INCOME 12-42 - - III. EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITY ON THE FARM 43-53 - - IV. SELECTION AND PURCHASE OF FARMS 54-64 - - V. THE RELATION OF THE FARMER TO THE LAWYER (_By Hon. - DeForest VanVleet_) 65-73 - - VI. LOCATING THE HOUSE 74-86 - - VII. PLANNING RURAL BUILDINGS 87-131 - - VIII. BUILDING THE HOUSE--GENERAL LAY-OUT 132-157 - Building the Foundations 138 - Wooden Houses--The Frame 142 - - IX. BUILDING THE HOUSE, CONCLUDED--OUTSIDE COVERING, - PAINTING 158-180 - Veneered Houses 168 - Old Houses 170 - Painting the House 173 - - X. INSIDE FINISH, HEATING, AND VENTILATION 181-192 - Heating and Ventilation 190 - - XI. HOUSE FURNISHING AND DECORATION (_By Professor Mary - Roberts Smith_) 193-203 - - XII. CLEANLINESS AND SANITATION--WATER SUPPLY AND SEWAGE - (_By Professor Mary Roberts Smith_) 204-223 - Water Supply and Sewage 217 - - XIII. HOUSEHOLD ADMINISTRATION, ECONOMY, AND COMFORT (_By - Professor Mary Roberts Smith_) 224-236 - - XIV. THE HOME YARD (_By Professor L. H. Bailey_) 237-248 - - XV. A DISCUSSION OF BARNS 249-265 - Location 255 - Planning the Barn 259 - Water Supply 261 - - XVI. BUILDING THE BARN--THE BASEMENT 266-287 - Excavation 268 - Walls 271 - Floors 277 - Stalls 280 - Mangers and Ties 285 - - XVII. BUILDING THE BARN--THE SUPERSTRUCTURE 288-297 - - XVIII. REMODELING OLD BARNS 298-305 - - XIX. OUTBUILDINGS AND ACCESSORIES 306-320 - Poultry Houses 306 - Piggeries 311 - The Silo 316 - - XX. LIGHTNING PROTECTION (_By H. H. Norris, M.E._) 321-335 - Metal Roofs 324 - Protecting Wooden Roofs 326 - - XXI. THE FIELDS 336-345 - Fences 336 - Orchards 340 - Farm Garden 341 - - INDEX 346 - - - - -THE FARMSTEAD - - - - -CHAPTER I - -_RURAL HOMES_ - - -Man is made partly by heredity, partly by environment; both may be -controlled and modified to a far greater extent than is generally -supposed. In speaking of farm life, its disadvantages are frequently -emphasized, while its possible advantages as an environment for the -development of the finest quality of human nature are as often ignored -or overlooked. - -Nature, with her ever-varying form and color, beauty and symmetry, is -forgotten in the city; the shady forest, the meadow brook, the waving -fields, are unknown. There, instead, is incessant noise, the clang and -clash of trade, towering and ugly buildings, skies darkened by the smoke -of factories, children who never saw a tree or played elsewhere than -upon a hard and filthy pavement; and worst of all is the -nerve-destroying haste and unequal competition, wearing out body and -soul. In rural life, however tame and lonely, the home is not merely a -few square feet hedged in by brick walls, but the whole wide -countryside: the barns, the fields, the woods, the orchards, the animals -wild and domesticated, the outlook over hill and valley--these all -constitute the farmer’s home. - -The manufacturer locates his factory in some by-street or suburb where -land is cheap, and as far as possible from the residence part of the -city; his home is far removed from these unsightly surroundings. But the -farmer must live within a few hundred feet of his barns and -outbuildings, and if these be ugly and dirty, the beauty and comfort of -the home are sadly marred. If the farmer, then, has the whole landscape -as a background for his home, he must on the other hand modify his -immediate surroundings so as to overcome their almost inevitable -unsightliness. - -Besides the ever-present beauties of nature, country life has certain -other advantages over the city: it is the place to develop the strong -health-physique. The luxury of rich and populous communities tends to -produce puny and enervated citizens; the excessive toil, bad air, -limited space and scant food of the poor tend to degrade and destroy -body and soul; but the comfortable simplicity, space, air, sunlight and -abundant food of the open country give opportunity for the finest -development of the human animal. It is true that even on the farm there -are sometimes overwork and privation; but, at the worst, these cannot be -so severe as in cities so long as the sun shines, the wind blows, and -green things grow for the worker out of doors. Here the child may be -born right and nourished by pure food and air. It is surrounded by -animals whose life and motion become an incentive to action, and who -become its companions without danger of moral contamination. The lamb, -the calf, the colt, are far safer playmates than the city urchin -precociously wise in evil ways. - -Professor Amos G. Warner says that “children reared in institutions are -much below par because they lack the power of initiative.” The farm -child has an incessant, varied and unconscious training of the eye, the -hand, and the mind. While he is developing strength, symmetry, courage, -the mental is being coördinated with the physical. The hand is made to -obey the will, while the fact that the handicraft is made useful lends -charm and delight to the work. The city child must try to learn, by a -course of manual training in some public school, what the country child -picks up unconsciously in the natural process of play and work. - -After half a century, I look back to one of the happiest moments of my -life, when I presented my mother with a dove-tailed wooden flower box, -painted bright red. That flower box first taught me how to make wood -take the form desired. While the flower box has long since rotted, the -board-runner sled smashed, the water wheel broken, and the boat lies -rotten in the bottom of the lake, the time spent upon them was not -thrown away, for they gave me the inspiration and power to “boss” wood, -and this power has served me well in many an emergency. - -As knowledge begins to dominate the hand and train it to change the form -and character of things, certain physical laws are discovered. If the -sail is made too large or the boat too narrow, a cold bath is the -result. If the sled runners are too short and rough, the school-mate -arrives at the bottom of the hill first. No schoolmaster was needed, for -when one of these natural laws was broken or ignored, the penalty -followed quickly and with full force. So, in a thousand ways, the youth -is taught respect for the laws which govern matter. All this leads the -youth on the farm, if full play and direction are given, to investigate -everything in sight, to discover that there are other than physical -laws. The higher laws puzzle him greatly, give him much concern, lead -to doubts, for they are too abstract and too far-reaching for his -youthful comprehension. The physical laws have been found by experience -to be ever true and stable, and the youth cannot but believe that moral -and spiritual laws are equally so. This is the sheet anchor which holds -him to belief in them, however imperfectly he may understand them. He is -anxious to investigate, even to experiment along these lines, but is -disappointed because the results cannot be set down in pounds or feet or -units of energy. If here on the farm the mental and physical have been -kept healthy and active, the moral and spiritual will develop as -naturally as the fruit from the blossom. The development of spiritual -fruit to high perfection is slow, because the power to think and reason -correctly and abstractly comes only with age, experience and mental -development. - -But the greatest advantage of country life lies in the opportunity for -the promotion of healthy family relations. Parents naturally find their -chief happiness in the education and development of their children; and -in time the children stimulate the parents. The sharing of common labors -from babyhood up, the working together for common interests and -ambition, which farm life especially entails, produce the most -wholesome family relations. The most valuable part of any person’s -education is really in the home. To “help father and mother” becomes the -keynote of a child’s life, and unselfish, willing service is the first -and last and best lesson of morality and religion. The pride in honest -and capable ancestors, the natural and wholesome ambition for the future -of the children, fill up a measure of contentment difficult to find -elsewhere. In such a family there need be nothing to conceal; life takes -on dignity in place of affectation, honesty instead of sham; it has -simplicity, pure affections, fidelity. Artificial sex distinctions -disappear; men and women may do that which is needful and human, the -woman in the field, the man in the house, if desirable, sharing their -common, healthful activities. - -All this is very well, some will say, but how shall such a home be -maintained on the income of the farm? “Farming doesn’t pay.” This -statement is unverified, and, carrying on its face, as it does, a little -truth, is misleading. Does farming pay? Does anything pay? What is pay? -All depends upon how you value the currency in which the pay is -received. Is “wisdom better than rubies?” Are the sayings of the wisest -and best of men true? “Give me neither riches nor poverty. Get wisdom, -get understanding. Take fast hold of instruction.” - -A modern thinker, Professor L. H. Bailey, in the report of the Secretary -of the Connecticut Board of Agriculture, 1898, puts it in this wise: -“But there is another cause of apprehension which I ought to mention, -perhaps founded upon the probable tendencies of our sociological and -economic conditions, especially as they apply to rural communities. -There is a tendency towards a division of estates as population -increases, and the profits of farming are often so small that educated -tastes, it is thought, cannot be satisfied on the farm. There are those -who believe that because of these two facts we are ourselves drifting -towards an American peasantry. Let us take the second proposition -first,--that the profits of farming are so small that educated tastes -cannot be satisfied and gratified on the farm. Now I grant this to be -true if the measure of the satisfaction of an educated taste is money; -but I deny it most strenuously if the satisfaction of an educated taste -lies in a purer and better life. We must make this distinction very deep -and broad, for it is a fundamental one. I believe we have made a mistake -in teaching agriculture, during the last few years, by putting the -emphasis on the money we make out of it. I do not believe that people -are to become wealthy on the farm, as a few do in manufacturing; I -should not hold out that hope to men. There are certain men here and -there who have great executive ability, who see the strategic points and -take advantage of them, who can make a success of farming the same as -they would at the making of shoes, or harnesses, or buttons, or anything -else. But as a general thing, the farmer should be taught that the farm -is not the place to become wealthy. I do not believe it is. Certainly I -should not go on the farm with that idea in view. But if I wanted to -live a happy life, if I wanted to have at my command independence and -the comforts of living, I do not know where I could better find them -than on the farm; for those very things which appeal to an educated -taste are the things which the farmer does not have to buy,--they are -the things which are his already.” - -The wealthy few of the cities give voice to the thought that the farming -classes in the United States are always on the verge of poverty, yet in -the last century they have rescued from barbarism and solitude nearly -all of the arable land of the two billion acres of which the United -States are composed. More than four million five hundred thousand farm -homes have been planted, valued at more than thirteen billion dollars. -Much hue and cry has been raised of late about farm mortgages. If the -facts were known, it is more than probable that the farmers, as a -whole, have assets in mortgages, promissory notes and savings banks -amply sufficient to liquidate all such outstanding obligations. Added to -the real estate, the farmers own implements and machines valued at five -hundred millions of dollars, and their live stock, upon ten thousand -hills, numbers one hundred and seventy-five millions, valued at more -than two billions of dollars, while the annual value of the farm -products is between two and three billions of dollars. It should be -remembered that these values are nominal, the true value being in most -cases more than double these amounts. The farmers are not now in danger -of becoming paupers. From the farms come more than half of the college -students. At the present time it is probable that the income of the -farmers exceeds three billion dollars annually. When it is considered -that there is little or no direct outgo for rent of house, and that -nearly three-fourths of the food is produced at home, and that these -items are seldom taken into account in the statistics of income, it -appears that the farmer’s real income is much larger than is usually -estimated in money. In other words, a five hundred dollar net income on -the farm, under the conditions which now prevail, provides for a more -comfortable living than does a thousand dollars in the city. - -But these results of the labors of the farmer as set forth in figures, -tell but half the story, for nothing is said in these census reports of -an empire redeemed, of the thousands upon thousands of miles of road -constructed, of rivers spanned, of the school house by every roadside, -or of the church spires which mark the progress of agriculture and -civilization in countryside, in village and in hamlet. The census report -does not give the number or value of the great men and noble women which -the rural homes have produced, though they are the most valuable product -of the farms. It says nothing about the perennial rural springs from -which flow, in a never-ending stream, statesmen, divines, missionaries, -teachers, students and business men. Although more than half of these -life-giving energies of the nation and civilization come directly from -the rural homes, the census report gives no clue by which the value of -these, the nation’s wealth and power, can be ascertained. - -Looking over all the trades and professions which are followed by -civilized and barbarous peoples, none give opportunity for rearing the -family under so nearly ideal conditions as does the profession of -agriculture: none furnish such good conditions for rearing children and -for developing them into strong, natural and useful men and women. Here, -then, on these broad acres of America, under the flag which we love, we -are to help transform the rude surroundings of the pioneer and the -slovenly homes of the careless into pure and beautiful nurseries of -American citizenship. Having shown, in part, what a rural life has to -offer to those who are trained to appreciate the beauties of nature and -to obey her laws, and having shown that the average farmer always has an -assured though modest income, and that the better farmers have an ample -income for maintaining improved rural homes, the further discussion of -how they may be made to minister to the natural longings for broader and -more refined lives may be taken up. - - - - -CHAPTER II - -_THE FARM AS A SOURCE OF INCOME_ - - -If it cannot be shown that the profession of agriculture offers as good -opportunities for securing, with a fair degree of certainty, what all -should prize,--a beautiful and comfortable home and a modest -surplus,--then this little volume will be for the most part useless and -uncalled for, as the following chapters presuppose an income sufficient -for maintaining a home, and for gratifying, in part at least, the -simple, educated tastes of the better class of American farmers. - -In “The Fertility of the Land” I attempted to set forth some fundamental -principles which, if followed, should result in such increased incomes -as to justify the present book. A comfortable home must be secured from -the products of field and stable, with a reasonable expenditure of -physical energy, or farming in its highest sense is a failure. In -addition, farming must give fair opportunity for training and educating -families, and for making provision for old age and unforeseen -contingencies. - -In the previous chapter the annual income of the farmer has been set -forth, and, approximately, the accumulated earnings of the rural -population. Unfortunately, we are so short-sighted that the present--the -dollar--blunts the appreciation of the higher and more enduring values -which spring from well conducted farms. This being so, of necessity much -stress must be laid on immediate benefits which flow from a well ordered -farm life. While it is not proposed to write here of the details of farm -management along the lines of greatest financial results, yet something -must be said, at least in general, about the methods most likely to -produce the necessary competence. - -A fairly liberal income and financial reserve give, or should give, some -leisure. Leisure gives opportunity for study and recreation, without -which life becomes one ever-revolving round of work, and results in -producing an automatic animal. If this is to be avoided, far-reaching -plans must be laid, energy directed into its most efficient channels, -and time and resources economized. All this implies training and -education directed, primarily, along the lines which broaden and -ennoble, and those of the occupation to be followed. - -For centuries, the higher education has been in the direction of the -humanities, while education along technical and non-professional lines, -until recently, has been conspicuous by its absence. Prior to the -present century, what provision was made for coördinating the hands and -intellects of the industrial classes? None at all. Is it any wonder, -then, that the farmer and mechanic, until recently, received but meager -rewards for their efforts? - -All this is now changed. Already the industrial classes are enabled to -secure far more of the necessaries and luxuries of life for a given -period of work than could their ancestors. In every state and territory -one or more colleges have been equipped and endowed to teach, among -other things, “such branches of learning as are related to agriculture -and the mechanic arts, ... _in order to promote the liberal and -practical education of the industrial classes in the several pursuits -and professions of life_.” In addition to this provision, Congress gives -to each state and territory $15,000 annually for conducting experiments -and investigations in agriculture. In 1890 the Federal government -supplemented the benefactions of 1862 by appropriating annually $15,000 -to each of the Land Grant colleges; this sum has now been increased and -finally fixed at $25,000, for the purpose of strengthening the -departments of agriculture and mechanic arts. Most, if not all, of the -states have made additional appropriations for agriculture, in some -cases very liberal ones. At first, there was a strong prejudice against -these colleges devoted to the improvement of the industries and those -engaged in them, but this has nearly disappeared. - -A broader view of education now prevails than formerly. The modern -colleges and universities think it not undignified to offer other than -four year courses of study preceded by difficult entrance requirements. -Many courses of from six weeks to one or two years are now open to those -who prize knowledge above a diploma. Most of these courses are given at -such seasons of the year as best suit the pupils. In America all doors -which lead to knowledge have at last been opened, and all earnest -students may enter and find teachers awaiting them. The effect of the -recent changes in college courses has been most marked and beneficial. -Many of the colleges have, as far as possible, adopted the words of the -founder of Cornell University: “I would found an institution where any -person can find instruction in any study.” - -The following data show the incomes of the United States Land Grant -colleges for the year ending June 30, 1897. The table is condensed from -one recently published by the United States Department of Agriculture: - - _Income of the U. S. Land Grant Colleges for the Year Ending June 30, - 1897_ - - ============================+===========+===========+=============+ - |Interest on| Interest | U. S. Appro-| - STATES AND TERRITORIES | Land Grant| on Other | priations, | - | of 1862 | Funds | Act of 1890 | - ----------------------------+-----------+-----------+-------------+ - Alabama (Auburn) | $20,280.00| ...| $12,012.00| - Alabama (Normal) | ...| ...| 9,988.00| - Arkansas (Fayetteville) | 10,400.00| ...| 16,000.00| - Arkansas (Pine Bluff) | ...| ...| 6,000.00| - California (Berkeley) | 43,619.33| ...| 22,000.00| - Colorado (Fort Collins) | 3,238.99|$109,997.18| 22,000.00| - Connecticut (Storrs) | 6,750.00| ...| 22,000.00| - Delaware (Newark) | 4,980.00| ...| 17,600.00| - Delaware (Dover) | ...| ...| 4,400.00| - Florida (Lake City) | 9,107.00| ...| 11,000.00| - Florida (Tallahassee) | ...| ...| 11,000.00| - Georgia (Athens) | 16,954.00| ...| 14,666.66| - Georgia (College) | ...| ...| 6,333.00| - Idaho (Moscow) | ...| ...| 22,000.00| - Illinois (Champlain) | 23,241.10| 500.00| 22,000.00| - Indiana (Lafayette) | 17,000.00| 3,830.48| 22,000.00| - Iowa (Ames) | 47,729.75| ...| 23,000.00| - Kansas (Manhattan) | 50,689.50| ...| 22,000.00| - Kentucky (Lexington) | ...| ...| 18,810.00| - Kentucky (Frankfort) | ...| ...| 3,190.00| - Louisiana (Baton Rouge) | ...| ...| ...| - Louisiana (New Orleans) | ...| ...| 11,346.00| - Maine (Orono) | 5,915.00| 4,000.00| 22,000.00| - Maryland (College Park) | 6,142.30| ...| 22,000.00| - Massachusetts (Amherst) | 7,300.00| 3,820.23| 14,666.66| - Massachusetts (Boston) | 5,896.00| 35,000.00| 7,666.67| - Michigan (Agricultural | | | | - College) | 39,009.66| 386.34| 22,000.00| - Minnesota (St. Anthony Park)| 27,410.55| 21,856.00| 23,000.00| - Mississippi (Agricult’l | | | | - College) | 5,914.50| ...| 10,217.08| - Mississippi (West Side) | 6,814.50| ...| 11,000.00| - Missouri (Columbia) | 16,100.00| 6,469.58| 20,804.02| - Missouri (Rolla) | 4,025.00| 6,469.58| 5,201.00| - Missouri (Jefferson City) | ...| ...| 1,195.98| - Montana (Bozeman) | ...| ...| 22,000.00| - Nebraska (Lincoln) | ...| ...| 22,000.00| - Nevada (Reno) | 4,464.89| 1,803.55| 22,000.00| - New Hampshire (Durham) | 4,800.00| 3,880.50| 23,000.00| - New Jersey (New Brunswick) | 6,644.00| ...| 22,000.00| - New Mexico (Mesilla Park) | ...| ...| 22,000.00| - New York (Ithaca) | 34,428.80| 314,407.51| 22,000.00| - North Carolina (West | | | | - Raleigh) | ...| ...| ...| - North Carolina (Greensboro) | ...| ...| ...| - North Dakota (Agri. College)| ...| 392.96| 22,000.00| - Ohio (Wooster) | 31,450.58| 1,511.63| 22,000.00| - Oklahoma (Stillwater) | ...| ...| 22,000.00| - Oregon (Corvallis) | 7,164.68| ...| 22,000.00| - Pennsylvania (State College)| 25,637.43| 5,382.57| 22,000.00| - Rhode Island (Kingston) | 1,500.00| 1,000.00| 22,000.00| - South Carolina (Clemson | | | | - College) | 5,754.00| 3,512.36| 11,000.00| - South Carolina (Orangeburg) | 5,000.00| ...| 11,000.00| - South Dakota (Brookings) | ...| ...| 22,000.00| - Tennessee (Knoxville) | 23,760.00| 1,650.00| 22,000.00| - Texas (College Station) | 14,280.00| ...| 16,500.00| - Texas (Prairieview) | ...| ...| 5,500.00| - Utah (Logan) | ...| ...| 22,000.00| - Vermont (Burlington) | 8,130.00| 1,500.00| 22,000,00| - Virginia (Blacksburg) | 20,658.72| ...| 14,666.67| - Virginia (Hampton) | 10,329.36| 30,264.61| 7,333.33| - Washington (Pullman) | ...| ...| 22,000.00| - West Virginia (Morgantown) | 5,223.00| 1,485.00| 17,000.00| - West Virginia (Farm) | ...| ...| 5,000.00| - Wisconsin (Madison) | 12,250.00| 14,000.00| 23,000.00| - Wyoming (Laramie) | ...| ...| 22,000.00| - ----------------------------+-----------+-----------+-------------+ - Total |$609,992.64|$574,120.08|$1,009,097.07| - ============================+===========+===========+=============+ - - ============================+=============+=============+============= - | State | ...| - STATES AND TERRITORIES | Appropria- | Miscellane- | - | tions | ous | Total - ----------------------------+-------------+-------------+------------- - Alabama (Auburn) | $8,746.83| $2,821.20| $43,860.03 - Alabama (Normal) | 4,000.00| 16,898.44| 30,886.44 - Arkansas (Fayetteville) | 26,911.00| 1,200.00| 54,611.00 - Arkansas (Pine Bluff) | ...| 418.25| 6,418.25 - California (Berkeley) | 133,415.46| 12,180.48| 311,212.45 - Colorado (Fort Collins) | 38,892.01| ...| 64,131.00 - Connecticut (Storrs) | 26,800.00| ...| 55,550.00 - Delaware (Newark) | ...| 1,620.74| 24,200.74 - Delaware (Dover) | 4,000.00| ...| 8,400.00 - Florida (Lake City) | 5,000.00| 1,896.88| 27,003.00 - Florida (Tallahassee) | 4,000.00| ...| 15,000.00 - Georgia (Athens) | 29,000.00| 1,600.00| 62,220.66 - Georgia (College) | ...| ...| 6,333.00 - Idaho (Moscow) | 6,000.00| 339.80| 28,839.80 - Illinois (Champlain) | 121,214.93| 41,305.09| 211,591.60 - Indiana (Lafayette) | 58,562.96| 29,552.35| 127,115.31 - Iowa (Ames) | 37,232.10| 49,397.49| 157,359.34 - Kansas (Manhattan) | 16,557.70| 9,323.88| 98,571.08 - Kentucky (Lexington) | 32,429.32| 6,680.61| 57,819.93 - Kentucky (Frankfort) | 5,000.00| 76.00| 8,266.00 - Louisiana (Baton Rouge) | ...| ...| ... - Louisiana (New Orleans) | 9,000.00| 439.46| 20,785.46 - Maine (Orono) | 20,000.00| 20,001.13| 71,916.13 - Maryland (College Park) | 9,000.00| 18,000.00| 55,142.30 - Massachusetts (Amherst) | 15,000.00| 1,920.00| 42,706.89 - Massachusetts (Boston) | 25,000.00| 253,076.23| 318,638.90 - Michigan (Agricultural | | | - College) | 10,000.00| 12,825.62| 84,221.62 - Minnesota (St. Anthony Park)| 174,332.59| 74,496.48| 321,095.62 - Mississippi (Agricult’l | | | - College) | 22,500.00| 14,597.96| 53,227.54 - Mississippi (West Side) | 7,000.00| ...| 24,814.50 - Missouri (Columbia) | 3,762.34| 5,022.73| 52,158.67 - Missouri (Rolla) | 5,476.65| 2,192.16| 23,364.39 - Missouri (Jefferson City) | ...| ...| 1,195.98 - Montana (Bozeman) | 2,500.10| 2,439.57| 26,939.57 - Nebraska (Lincoln) | 123,572.50| 7,801.53| 153,374.03 - Nevada (Reno) | 16,250.00| 327.35| 44,845.79 - New Hampshire (Durham) | 5,500.00| 1,148.00| 40,328.50 - New Jersey (New Brunswick) | ...| 21,170.37| 49,814.37 - New Mexico (Mesilla Park) | 19,792.01| 875.70| 42,667.71 - New York (Ithaca) | 25,000.00| 191,660.07| 587,496.38 - North Carolina (West | | | - Raleigh) | ...| ...| ... - North Carolina (Greensboro) | 12,500.00| 157.92| 12,657.92 - North Dakota (Agri. College)| 27,000.00| 3,446.62| 52,839.58 - Ohio (Wooster) | 118,906.53| 175,140.39| 349,009.13 - Oklahoma (Stillwater) | 500.00| 3,391.00| 25,591.00 - Oregon (Corvallis) | 1,854.79| 1,342.37| 32,361.84 - Pennsylvania (State College)| 45,000.00| 8,340.27| 106,360.27 - Rhode Island (Kingston) | 10,000.00| 6,000.00| 40,500.00 - South Carolina (Clemson | | | - College) | 54,053.29| 700.00| 75,019.65 - South Carolina (Orangeburg) | 13,000.00| 1.00| 29,001.00 - South Dakota (Brookings) | 5,900.00| 8,038.12| 35,938.12 - Tennessee (Knoxville) | 1,674.00| 7,271.89| 56,355.89 - Texas (College Station) | 22,500.00| 9,361.39| 62,641.39 - Texas (Prairieview) | 15,700.00| 10,836.78| 32,036.78 - Utah (Logan) | 22,000.00| 5,811.83| 49,811.83 - Vermont (Burlington) | 6,000.00| 16,603.09| 54,233.09 - Virginia (Blacksburg) | 15,750.00| 12,352.48| 63,427.87 - Virginia (Hampton) | ...| 109,110.46| 157,037.76 - Washington (Pullman) | 29,000.00| ...| 51,000.00 - West Virginia (Morgantown) | 38,060.00| 10,315.13| 72,083.13 - West Virginia (Farm) | 14,500.00| 600.00| 20,100.00 - Wisconsin (Madison) | 285,000.00| 47,000.00| 381,250.00 - Wyoming (Laramie) | 7,425.00| 775.59| 30,200.59 - ----------------------------+-------------+-------------+------------- - Total |$1,821,072.01|$1,239,902.90|$5,203,580.82 - ============================+=============+=============+============= - -It has been thought strange that the farmers did not more quickly see -and appreciate the valuable opportunities offered to their children. But -why should they at once appreciate and value the princely provisions -which were being made for them? With no opportunity for education along -the lines of their profession, following a more or less despised -calling, from being the butt and jest of those who had had educational -advantages from time immemorial, how could they at once understand the -value and far-reaching effects of the new order of things? Then, too, -these liberal provisions were made somewhat in advance of the times. The -pioneer must first redeem the land from the wilderness, fight the -physical battles and endure the hardships of a new country. As soon as -these primitive conditions passed away, the farmers made an effort to -bring their profession up to a high intellectual plane and make it a -delightful and honorable calling. The evolution from the primitive to -the complex, from the age of toil to the age of thought, from excessive -muscular effort to a more intelligent direction of energy, from the -narrow and prejudiced to the broad and liberal, from the coarse and ugly -to the refined and beautiful, is proceeding rapidly, and is in part -realized. What happier task than to give direction and help, sympathy -and encouragement to these new-born desires! The part which the youths -on the farm are taking in this evolution leads naturally to a higher -intellectual plane, and hence to a more rational understanding and -fuller comprehension of what the rural home should be. This desire to -gratify the love for the true and beautiful, which has been growing up -by reason of the better education, leads directly to the securing of an -income sufficiently large to gratify the more refined and newly acquired -tastes. - -Taking the rural population as we find it, with added wants and new -aspirations, and with a somewhat better understanding of the value of a -more extended culture, it will be seen that a more rational system of -agriculture, a more economic expenditure of energy, and a clearer -comprehension of the highest and most economical use of money must be -secured if the objects sought are attained. To secure the results -desired, it must be shown how a competence can be secured without -excessive toil, how the results of work may be put to the best uses, and -lastly, but not least, it must be shown what is really valuable, what -real, what substantial, what polite, what beautiful, what worthy of -intelligent Americans. On the other hand, vulgar display must be shown -to be vulgar, shoddy must be unmasked, the effect of aping the -uncultured rich set forth, and that which is unreal and that which goes -for naught but vanity displayed under their true colors,--that -comparisons may be made, and that truer conceptions of life, its duties -and obligations, may be secured. - -How may a competence be obtained? Briefly, by securing a knowledge of -the laws which govern the business or undertaking entered into, and by -conducting the business or undertaking in obedience to the modes of -action or laws which apply to the specific case in hand. What are some -of the dominant laws which should govern the farmer and farm practices? -The farmer should specialize along those lines for which his taste and -training, in part at least, fit him. To be more specific: A farmer will -show you his potato patch with pride, but not a word will be said about -his work animals and their offspring, which look like Barnum’s woolly -horse. Then the first principle of agriculture is, follow up successes. -In this case, the man has land and skill in potato culture which should -lead him directly to success. Why not each year increase the output of -potatoes, and let some horseman breed the horses? I have no ear or taste -for music; why should I spend time in thrumming a piano and in making -the life of my neighbors miserable? I love a bird and am interested in -all its ways, its beauty and its life. Why not study the birds, and let -them make the music? - -Much of life’s energy is spent in trying to adjust square pegs to round -holes and round pegs to square holes, and life may be spent before the -adjustment is complete. Modern civilization tends to specialization. Men -vary as widely as do the stars. There is a place for everyone and some -one to fill the place, if this great mass of unlike units can only be -sorted and fitted into the complex problem of civilization. - -The first question, and the question which should be repeated often is, -What am I good for; what branch or branches of agriculture will give me -the greatest pleasure and profit? Having answered this question, pursue -the work through all discouragements to a successful issue. It is -possible you have no capacity for farm life, and, since you cannot buy a -capacity, better go directly to town and there fit yourself into your -environment. I have known men to toil many years on a farm, and near the -close of life to be driven to town by the sheriff. There they made not -only a living, but secured a modest competence in conducting some little -one-horse business, the profits or losses of which could be counted up -every night. The farm, with all its complexities, with its profits and -losses a year or five years in the future, was too large and -far-reaching for their narrow understandings. All are not so fortunate. -Some remind us of the Quaker’s dog which he sold to his friend and -recommended as a good coon dog. The dog proved to be a failure and was -returned to the seller, who said, “I am much surprised. Thee believes -that nothing was created in vain, does thee not, Ephraim?” “Most -certainly I believe that the Creator made all things for some beneficent -purpose.” “I, too, believe this, and I had tried that dog for everything -else under the heavens but coons, so I was certain he must be a good -coon dog.” - -A competency is always in sight in this country for those who do well -those things which are suited to their tastes and training. A competence -may be secured by following those branches of farming which require the -minimum of labor and the maximum of skill and training. My friend of -Westfield, Mr. G. Schoenfeld, from Germany, has six acres of land, a -part of which is covered with glass. He did that terrible thing,--ran in -debt for the full purchase price of the land. It and the valuable -improvements upon it are now paid for. His modest home is valued at -$6,000. While paying for it a large family has been raised and educated, -the eldest boy entering Annapolis Naval Academy with a high standing. It -is possible that this son will one day be acknowledged as the -intellectual and social equal of the aristocracy of Germany should he -ever visit the fatherland of his parents. But why this long account of a -not infrequent occurrence? To show how it was done: This German, though -untrained, succeeded from the first in producing superior carnations. He -followed up his successes, and sold the product of brains instead of the -fertility of his little farm. Mr. Schoenfeld sold in Buffalo during one -year--October 1, 1896, to September 30, 1897--carnations (80,946 -flowers) for the net sum, over commissions, of $719.08. The amount of -plant-food removed by the 80,946 carnations was as follows: - - Nitrogen Phosphoric acid Potash - 5 lbs. 4 ozs. 2 lbs. 3 ozs. 10 lbs. 8 ozs. (valued at $1.32) - -The table below shows the amount of plant-food removed by 856 bushels of -wheat, being the amount which, at 84 cents per bushel (the average price -of wheat for the last ten years in central New York), would bring -$719.08, the amount received for the carnations. - - Nitrogen Phosphoric acid Potash - 904 lbs. 437 lbs. 298 lbs. (valued at $158.34) - -In addition, 20,000 flowers used in making flower displays for -weddings, and the like, were sold at retail, by the dozen, for -$450.80. The net returns for flowers sold during the fiscal year ending -September 30, 1897, amounted to $1,169.88. The expenses, including -taxes, insurance and 10 per cent on the capital, were $790.67. This -includes the cost of raising 12,000 plants, about 6,000 of which netted -$263.24. In round numbers, then, the net income from the one leading -industry--flowers--after paying 10 per cent on invested capital, coal, -commission and workmen’s bills, was $642.45, with an additional -prospective income from the 6,000 plants which remained unsold. - -When I last visited this gentleman, he informed me that he had all the -land he wanted. Since that time he has purchased eight acres adjoining, -has made some improvements upon the land, and now values it at $2,000. -He stated incidentally that the reason he made his purchase was that the -land was in the market, and he wanted control of it that he might choose -his neighbor. The land, he says, is now in the market, although it paid -9 per cent, clear of all expenses, on a valuation of $2,000. The -question is often discussed as to how much land is necessary to secure a -competence. Here we find that six acres suffices. A large family has -been fed chiefly from the products of the orchards, vineyard and garden, -and the children are receiving a practical and, in some cases, a -liberal education. All this has been accomplished because the man -quickly learned the value of scientific agriculture and was wise enough -to follow up his successes. - -Not only follow up success, but learn to do the difficult things; there -will always be a throng seeking to do the easy things,--things which -require the maximum of muscle and the minimum of brains. Why do such -multitudes seek this hard, easy work? Because they will not consent to -endure the toil, shall I say, of acquiring the power to think deeply, -accurately and effectively. Some of our sympathy is thrown away upon -these muscular workers. Their desires are few, their wants simple, their -appetites good, and their sleep peaceful. Let us show them the way to a -higher life, open the doors to those who choose to enter, and fret not -because all will not enter in. - - “Some are and must be greater than the rest, - More rich, more wise; but who infers from hence - That such are happier, shocks all common sense.” - -The man who fells the trees in the woods may receive 15 cents per hour; -the man who controls the carriage of the great sawmill and decides on -the instant what shape and dimensions the lumber shall take may receive -25 cents per hour for simply moving a little lever; a third man causes -a piece of the wood to take on the forms of beauty for the great -staircase, and may receive 50 cents per hour; the fourth furnishes the -design for this beautiful staircase, and may receive $1 an hour. The man -who does the so-called “hard” work receives the least pay. Why? Because -it is the least difficult. This difference of remuneration holds good on -the farm. Mushrooms sell for 50 cents per pound; maize for one-half cent -per pound. Why? Because anybody, even a squaw, can raise maize, but only -a specially skilled gardener can succeed in mushroom culture. Hothouse -lambs bring from $6 to $10 when two months old; a poorly bred sheep at -two years of age may bring from $2 to $4. Why? The breeding and feeding -of the one is easy; of the other difficult. - -In 1897 the raising of potatoes was difficult. The blights, the bugs and -the beetles were present in full force. Good potatoes in the middle and -eastern states rose to 65 cents per bushel wholesale. The man who -watched and fought intelligently secured 300 bushels per acre and a -ready market; the careless man and the man who should have been raising -horses or chickens secured 30 bushels per acre and a slow market. Why? -Because unusual difficulties were present, and the man who was able to -cope with them drew the prize of $195 per acre for his potatoes. This -successful potato raiser the previous year secured more than 300 bushels -per acre, and sold them for 25 cents per bushel, but even at this low -price they brought more than $75 per acre. If from 200 to 300 per cent -profit can be secured and the limit of profit not reached by raising one -of the most common products of the farm, what possibilities loom up for -securing a competence from those products which require greater skill -and knowledge than the raising of potatoes? - -Consider the crops which are supposed to give promise of securing little -or no profits at the present low prices, as wheat, maize, hay and oats. -One man, on land naturally below the average, has secured during the -last fifteen years an average of nearly 35 bushels of wheat, and in a -few cases 40 bushels per acre. The average yield for the whole United -States in 1889 was a shade less than 14 bushels per acre. During the -same year the average yield of oats was 28.57 bushels per acre, and hay, -including such other crops as are used for forage, averaged 1.26 tons -per acre. Good farmers secure 40 to 50 bushels of oats, and 2 to 2¹⁄₂ -tons of hay, and in propitious years 50 to 60 bushels of oats and 3 tons -of hay per acre. (Compare Figs. 1 and 2.) These latter yields always -show large profits and lead to a competency, while the average yield -usually gives no profit. If the average yield gives only a bare -subsistence, what must be the condition of those who secure much less -than the average? If one man raises 35 bushels of wheat, five other men -must each raise 10 bushels to secure an average yield of 14 bushels per -acre. Some entire states--as, for instance, Mississippi, North Carolina -and Tennessee,--have an average of 6, 6 and 9 bushels, respectively, per -acre. What is the remedy? Stop raising wheat, and raise something better -adapted to soil and climate, or go to town and sell peanuts. Some of -these men who utterly fail to comprehend the laws of wheat culture may -be good “coon dogs,” after all. - -[Illustration: Fig. 1. Thirty-five-bushel wheat field (Cornell -University).] - -[Illustration: Fig. 2. Eight-bushel wheat field, on a farm adjoining -that shown in Fig. 1.] - -It will be said that if the yield per acre be doubled, the market will -be so flooded that no one will receive profits. This is the old -scarecrow. No farmer can control the prices of his product. The law of -supply and demand is inexorable. What he may do is to improve quality, -diminish cost, reduce area, find the best market and the products most -sought, and increase the production from a given area. If he raises the -yield from 20 to 35 bushels, while the yield of his neighbor remains at -10 bushels and prices remain low, we shall soon see a fine illustration -of “the survival of the fittest.” The 35 bushels will yield a fair -remuneration for the work expended in production when prices are at the -lowest. When they are high the profits are 200 to 300 per cent. Wheat, -for the last ten years, has averaged 84 cents per bushel in June in -central New York. Allow $3 for the straw of the lower yield, and if the -wheat was sold at the average price, the total income per acre would be -$11.40. For the straw of the larger yield allow $6, which, added to the -wheat at the average price, would give a gross income per acre of -$35.40. - -The cost of raising and marketing an acre of wheat, including $5 for -rental of land and $2 for fertilizers, may be set down at from $15 to -$20 in New York. If the most successful compels the less successful -farmer to stop raising wheat at a loss, what will the latter do with his -land? Better give it away than lose by farming it. Better abandon the -farm and go to town and set up a second-hand clothing store. There is -always at least a small profit in that business. - -In central New York a large herd of dairy cows was tested, and the owner -of the herd was informed that about one-fourth of his cows were quite -profitable, one-half paid their board bill and a little more, and -one-fourth were kept at a considerable loss. He was advised to dispose -of the unprofitable cows. His answer was, “But what will I do for cows?” - -Then, to secure a competence, the crops and the land which uniformly -produce loss must be abandoned. How it worries the city penny-a-liner -and how it rejoices the successful farmer to see land thrown out of -cultivation--“abandoned.” To me nothing is so encouraging in agriculture -as this lately acquired knowledge which reveals the fact that vast areas -have been cleared and brought under cultivation which should have been -left undisturbed, except to harvest the mature trees and protect the -young plants from ravages of fire and cattle. As the blackberry bushes, -year by year, creep down the steep hillsides and over the rock-covered -fields, one rejoices at the pioneer work these modest, hardy, tap-rooted -plants are accomplishing. How wisely and well they fit the soil for a -higher and more noble class of plants, and how surely in time they cover -the shame and nakedness of mother earth! - -The rural population has made many serious mistakes, toiling to reclaim -land which was not worth reclaiming, not worthy of an intelligent -farmer. But how could they know better? Not one college of forestry in -all this great land up to 1898, and as yet but one in its infancy! Until -the last generation not a single school of agriculture, scarcely a book -obtainable which might give direct help to the rural American boy and -girl! Therefore, the farmer should not be blamed for the wasteful and -unscientific treatment of forest and field. All this leads to the -conclusion that to secure a competence, lands of high and varied -agricultural capabilities, lands worthy of an intelligent American, -should be selected upon which to build and maintain rural homes. - -Quantity of farm products we have in abundance; better quality is what -is wanted, since quality may improve prices and widen markets. To assist -in securing a competence some specialization is advisable. Sometimes -this has been carried so far as to work serious disaster. Many farms in -western New York have been almost exclusively devoted to the raising of -grapes, which, when abundant or moderately so, sold at ruinous prices. -It is noticed that where only an eighth or a fourth of the farm was -devoted to vines, the yield was not only proportionately larger but the -quality better than where nearly all the land was used as a vineyard. -Wherever diversified agriculture was carried on to a limited extent and -plantations were restricted, the low price of grapes made no serious -inroads on the income. Where all the land was given up to grapes, work -was intermittent, the farmer being overtasked at one season of the year -and idle at another. The demoralizing effect on the farmers and their -families of this army of unrestrained youths and loungers of the city, -which, for a brief period, swarms in the districts devoted to -specialized crops, as grapes, berries and hops, is marked. - -The baleful result of raising a single or few products in extended -districts may be seen in California and the great wheat districts of the -northwest. In such localities there is little or no true home life, with -its duties and restraints; men and boys are herded together like cattle, -sleep where they may, and subsist as best they can. The work is hard, -and from sun to sun for two or three months, when it abruptly ceases, -and the workmen are left to find employment as best they may, or adopt -the life and habits of the professional tramp. It is difficult to name -anything more demoralizing to men, and especially to boys, than -intermittent labor; and the higher the wages paid and the shorter the -period of service, the more demoralizing the effect. If there were no -other reason for practicing a somewhat diversified agriculture, the -welfare of the workman and his family should form a sufficient one. -Happily, many large and demoralizing wheat ranches are being divided -into small farms, upon which are being reared the roof-tree, children, -fruits and flowers. - -To secure a competence, no more activities should be entered into than -can be prosecuted with vigor and at a profit. On the other hand, too few -activities tend to stagnation and degeneration. Mental power, like many -other things, increases with legitimate use and diminishes with disuse. -The farmer who simply raises and sells maize is often poor in pocket and -deficient in understanding. The college graduate who attempts but a few -easy things seldom becomes a ripe scholar. - -To secure a competence, the petty outgoes should be met by weekly -receipts from petty products. I have known so many farmers to succeed by -specializing moderately along one or two lines, while holding on to -diversified agriculture, in part at least, that I am tempted to give a -single illustration as a sample of thousands which have come under my -notice. - -A Scotchman and his family of four little children landed in northern -Indiana with three to four hundred dollars; to this was added as much -more by day labor. A farm of about one hundred and fifty acres was -purchased, one hundred acres of which were adapted to wheat, corn and -clover. Thirty acres were marshy pasture land; the balance, timber. -Wheat was selected as the great income crop, which was supplemented by -the sale of one to three horses yearly. The butter from a dozen cows, -the chickens, ducks, and their eggs, were taken to the city once each -week. The result was that at the end of the year there were no debts of -subsistence to be paid. This left all the money received for the wheat -and horses to be applied towards liquidating the mortgage. In a few -years a large, comfortable house was built. This was followed by the -purchase of another farm, and still another, until each child was -provided with a home and facilities for securing a modest income. This -shrewd Scotchman succeeded because he neglected neither little nor great -things. - -With what pride the writer, in 1863, deposited $1,700 in bank, the -product of a single wool crop!--and the little farm of one hundred and -twenty acres was not all devoted to wool-raising. If a young man can -secure a loving, helpful wife, four good cows and enough land to produce -feed for them, with room left for an ample garden, a berry patch and a -small orchard, he may consider himself rich, and if he be able and -intelligent he will soon have a competence. - -The farmer, of necessity, goes to the city or village once each week for -supplies which cannot well be produced on the farm. He should return, if -possible, with more money than he had when he left home. It is not the -big mortgage which was given for part of the purchase price of the farm -which should make him unhappy, but the steadily increasing little -charges accumulating on the tradesmen’s ledgers until this “honest” -farmer dreads to meet a score of his town acquaintances. - -The farmer who, from his well-painted covered democrat wagon, sells the -product of his skill and labor looks to me quite as dignified as does -the merchant who sells nails and codfish, turpentine and bobbins, patent -medicines and jews’-harps, none of which represents his own skill or -labor. - -Farming will never be carried on in America by trusts or syndicates. A -combine can run fifty nail factories or breweries, but not fifty farms, -at a profit, because farming is too difficult, requires too close -supervision and frequent change of details and combinations, and new -plans to meet the ever-changing conditions of climate and soil. The -conditions which surround agriculture in America put a quietus forever -on “bonanza farming,” and tend to the rearing of ideal homes and the -accumulation of modest incomes. Mining-farming on virgin, fertile, -unobstructed areas can be successfully prosecuted only for a time. - -“The Red river valley native soils contain from .35 to .40 of nitrogen, -while the soils which have been under cultivation (in wheat) for twelve -to fifteen years contain from .2 to .3 of a per cent.”[1] Another -important point: When humus is taken out of the native soil as above, -only .02 of a per cent of the phosphoric acid is soluble by ordinary -chemical methods, while in the native soil three or four times as much -phosphoric acid is soluble and is associated with the humus. Allowing -that an acre of soil one foot deep weighs 1,800 tons, the native soil -would contain from 12,600 to 14,400 pounds of nitrogen per acre, while -the cultivated soil would contain from 7,200 to 10,800 pounds per acre. -If the average amount of nitrogen in native soils (13,500 pounds per -acre), and the average in the soil after it had been cropped twelve to -fifteen years (9,000 pounds per acre), are compared, it will be seen -that the soil has lost 4,500 pounds of nitrogen per acre, or more than -one-third (probably one-half) of the nitrogen which could well be made -available, and this in less than a quarter of a century. - - [1] Henry Snyder, Bulls. 30, 44, Minn. Exp. Sta. See “Fertility of the - Land,” p. 256. - -Fifteen crops of wheat of 25 bushels per acre require 433 pounds of -nitrogen, or one-tenth of the amount which the soil lost during the -years of cropping. This soil, under “bonanza farming,” has lost outright -nitrogen sufficient for 155 crops, each requiring as much nitrogen as -does a crop of 25 bushels of wheat per acre. When the amount wasted on a -single acre is multiplied by the acres of the vast, fertile wheat plains -of the west, where “bonanza farming” is carried on, the loss of nitrogen -to our country is seen to be so great as to appal the thoughtful man who -looks forward to the generations who will want this element in the not -distant future. Happily, this “bonanza farming” has its own cure. When -mining-farming reduces the yield so that profits vanish, then these -great farms will be cut up into modest-sized ones, true homes will rise, -intermittent labor and the tramp harvest-hand will disappear, and the -last and only condition which tends to produce an uninstructed peasant -class will cease to exist. - -The other great “bonanza” industry which still remains and which affects -agriculture, and the land directly, is lumbering. This, like “bonanza” -wheat farming, may be classed as a mining industry, carried on at the -surface instead of in the bowels of the earth. Without rational -direction, restraint or control, this agricultural mining goes on until -the sources from which the profits are drawn are so depleted as to be no -longer profitable. There is no home or competency for the farm boys in -the lumber camp or on the great wheat farm. Here the rule is to -take all and return nothing. After the ax and the binder, comes the -fire to complete the wanton destruction. The shade-giving and -moisture-conserving brush, stubble and straw, and all living plants, are -destroyed, and nothing but the mineral matter, unmixed with surface -humus, remains. A blackened waste, devoid of animal or vegetable life, -is left behind. No homes can be reared here, no competence secured until -nature, assisted by man in the coming years, slowly restores the -covering and productivity of the soil. This unwise treatment of the land -must soon come to an end; then the hardy home-builder will have -opportunity to repair, by more rational methods, some of the wanton and -unnecessary waste. - -Is it too much to hope that before the close of another decade every -state and territory will have a school of forestry, and that all -national forest domains will have been brought under rational -supervision and control? The future home-builders will need them, and -the present owners of homes have a right to a share of the benefits -which flow from intelligently managed forest preserves. It is not enough -to show that intelligent farming is highly remunerative at the present -time; provision must be made by which the children and the children’s -children, for all generations, may have opportunity for securing a -competence from rural pursuits. - -Can a competence and a comfortable home be secured by the renter? If -not, why not? Shall the farmer put his little capital into a home and -run in debt for supplies and necessary equipment; or had he better rent, -and start even? This depends to a large extent upon the individual. A -successful country life does not depend upon owning the land in fee -simple. Here is a picture of what may be called “a country gentleman” -(Fig. 3). He, his father and his grandfather, all have been renters of -the same farm. He has a competence and an assured income. This hue and -cry about renting has no terrors for those who have been renters and -have found that this is often the most satisfactory way to start when -capital is limited. The merchant of limited means invariably rents the -building in which he does business, because it is safer and usually more -economical to rent than to purchase the business block. - -[Illustration: Fig. 3. A farmer and a renter.] - -In an old city of 12,000 inhabitants, it was found that 84 per cent of -the business was carried on in rented rooms. The trouble in renting -farms in the United States lies chiefly in the fact that there are no -well digested laws or old customs which help to guide the renter and -rentee. A few simple laws would provide for adjusting the value of -betterments removed from or put upon the farm at any time. Long leases, -with inducements to long occupancy, would give the rentee a permanent -occupier. The renter has quite as good a chance of finally securing a -home in fee simple as has the man who purchases and mortgages heavily. -The possession of a valuable farm and an assured income, especially in a -new country, is often most surely and easily secured by renting for a -series of years. Good farming pays liberal profits even on rented land. -If there is failure, it is the man and not the occupation which causes -it. The fault will not be “in the moon,” but in ourselves if we fail or -become underlings. - - - - -CHAPTER III - -_EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITY ON THE FARM_ - - -More and more we are coming to believe that the rural district schools -offer but few opportunities for educating the farmers’ children. Various -schemes have been recommended for providing better and more convenient -educational facilities. One proposition is first to improve the -principal highways. This, it is thought, will make it possible to run -’buses or carriages twice daily to transport the children to and from -some centrally located graded school. Such schemes are usually proposed -by some one who has seldom seen a country school-house and who is -totally unacquainted with the conditions which prevail in rural -communities. - -Admitting, for the sake of comparison, that teacher and pupil in the -country are not so far advanced in book-lore as they are in the city, -how does it happen that the country youths are able to maintain -themselves on an educational level with the pupils of the graded schools -when they meet them in the academy and college? Is it not quite possible -that the wide opportunities enjoyed by the country youth for becoming -acquainted with natural objects of use and beauty are a full offset, so -far as training is concerned, for the more systematic instruction given -in the city schools? - -I can but look with some degree of solicitude on the effect on -civilization and on the home, of palatial hotels, and great school -buildings, filled with heterogeneous masses of children, in which love, -solicitude and sacrifices, each for all, have little opportunity for -growth and development. The family seems to be the sacred unit of -civilization and morality. A full and sufficient reason must be given -for massing men, much more children, in a single great structure, -thereby destroying the quiet and breaking the sacred ties of the home. -What good reasons can be offered for massing children between the ages -of six and twelve in an uncomfortable school-room? Children do not -study; they learn little except when they read the lesson in the -immediate presence of the teacher who is able to amplify and explain the -lesson in hand. Sending these little ones to school is a relic of the -primeval days, when, by reason of large families, lack of training and -excessive toil of the parents, there was no other way but to make -nursery maids of the school-teachers. - -I have a vivid recollection of those early days when I was crowded into -a 16 × 20 school-house, with two score other bounding, mischievous -urchins, all seated on the hard side of unbacked, long-legged slab -benches, which left our bare legs, for which the flies had a liking, to -dangle between heaven and earth. True, all this has now been improved, -and good and appropriate seats are usually provided, but this only -ameliorates the conditions; it does not cure them. If the parents who -have lost something of their first love for their children, or who are -too lazy or careless or ignorant to teach them, will go to these -patent-seated school-rooms and sit for five mortal hours on one of these -hard, wooden, uncushioned seats, they will no longer place their tender -children in these modernized stocks. You who no longer have the hot -blood and restless nervous energy of youth make long faces and complain -bitterly from your well cushioned pew, if the over-earnest pastor -prolongs his sermon ten minutes beyond the customary time. It may be -said that many, nevertheless, secured a primary education under these -unfavorable conditions. But I did not; I received it at my mother’s knee -in the old kitchen, some of it before daylight. About all I got in that -old school-house were kicks and cuffs from boys who were older and -stronger than I, and round shoulders from sitting through many weary -hours on backless benches, and blistered hands in punishment for my -unrestrained interest in things in general, and in my school-mates in -particular. - -But what has all this to do with the opportunities which a farm life -gives for education? It is to emphasize the need of more home training, -more personal attention by the parents, and a more natural and rational -education of those whom it has been our responsibility to bring into -existence, and upon whose shoulders will rest the weal or woe of our -country. In these rural homes, children should be reared and educated -until they have reached the point beyond which their parents or the -older children cannot carry them. The child, when only two or three -years old, begins to learn handicraft, performs some little helpful act -for another; it is being taught to work. As it becomes more mature it is -to do useful things; but who thinks of keeping the child of eight to ten -years of age at continuous work for five or six hours daily? Why not -carry on the child’s mental education along these natural lines in the -same manner as it receives its primary technical education? - -I am almost persuaded that the farmers’ children would be better off if -the old red school-house on the dusty, treeless four corners was -abandoned, and the responsibility for the education of the children up -to twelve or fourteen years of age was thrown upon the parents. As it -is, the parents who have received a fairly good primary education become -rusty and illiterate simply from non-use of the education which they had -when they left the schools. If the unexcelled opportunities which rural -life offers for securing a primary education were only utilized, there -would be fewer country youths hating even the sight of that red -school-house which has received such honorable mention. It has been -glorified in every Fourth of July oration, but it still remains not only -unevolutionized but even degenerated. - -If you ever imagined that the best provision has been made for teaching -the little ones, spend a day in one of these school-houses. Take some -book with you that is as abstract and useless to you as the children -believe their books to be to them, and make the attempt to memorize a -single page, or essay to write a composition on “The Immortality of the -Soul,” or on “The Wisdom of Annexing the South Sea Islands.” Meantime, -classes are reciting in falsetto voices; the teacher is giving many -admonitions and making dire threats; a festive bumblebee has found its -way through the open window and makes as much commotion among the timid -girls as a mouse at a tea-party. Now a dog barks, and the boys know -that Bowser has safely treed a squirrel. Before you have had time to -collect your thoughts a lusty farm boy, perched on a creaking wain, -whooping loudly to his team, goes rattling by. Stay a week and finish -your composition, and see how fast your children are securing disjointed -fractions of an education. A half-hour of continuous, quiet, intensified -study at home is worth more than a day in many a school-room where -little muddy driblets of knowledge are being doled out to the children. - -You may say that you have no time to teach children. Business is too -pressing, and you are already overworked. You should have thought of -that sooner, and been wholly selfish and saved the money and time you -spent to persuade that beautiful maiden to join you and help perform the -duties and functions of life. - -You will certainly agree that home education is the best, the ideal -education. For a child, an hour or two of study and recreation a day, an -equal time employed in useful work, and the rest of the day spent in -picking up fun and facts, both of which may be found in abundance on the -old farm, is the natural way to secure a broad primary foundation, upon -which to rest a liberal education. - -After the child has reached the age of ten or twelve and has had careful -home training, what provision can be made for continuing its education -during the next four to six years? Two or more districts might be joined -to form one, for graded school purposes. On every farm is, or should be, -a spare horse and a light wagon; a few dollars would provide a stable -near the school building. Such an arrangement would permit the children -to drive to and from the central school, although the distance might be -two or three miles. All this means that the children will be around the -family fireside in the evening instead of on the street, as is too -frequently the case when they are sent to the village or city school and -remain during the week. All this keeps the boys and girls in sympathy -and healthful touch with home life and their parents, until character -has been strengthened by age and knowledge. Here, in these country and -village graded schools, the home life, with its restraints and duties, -is preserved. Only the mentally strong or the courageous and aspiring -will seek the halls of higher learning, from which, if they tend to go -astray or neglect their work, they are quickly returned to the bosom of -their families. If the central graded school is impracticable in some -cases, then a few families might join and employ a private instructor; -this would be far cheaper and more satisfactory than to send the -children away from home. - -It is not so much lack of facilities as a lack of an appreciation of the -true value of an education which debars the country youth from securing -even a wholesome and logical primary education. The value of an -education for citizenship must be placed first, and its value as a -money-making power second. Now the first question that is usually asked -is, Will an education help to secure a position or to make money? The -question, Will an education help to a nobler citizenship? is not even -thought of. We shall have no evolution in rural training until the -parents secure a clearer conception of the true value of an education. - -Evolution along educational lines has already begun, and it is not -difficult to see many beneficial effects of the changed methods. M. -Demolins’ recent book has this to say: “‘It is useless to deny the -superiority of the Anglo-Saxons. We may be vexed by this superiority, -but the fact remains, despite our vexation.’... Considering the -superiority conclusively proved, the author proceeds to search for the -cause of this superiority. He finds the secret of this irresistible -power of the Anglo-Saxon world in the education of its youth, in the -direction given to studies, to the spirit which reigns in the school. -The English and the people of the United States have perceived that the -needs of the time require that youth should be trained to become -practical, energetic men, and not public functionaries or pure men of -letters, who know life only from what they learn in books. M. Demolins -has personally studied with care some prominent English schools. In -these he found the school buildings, not as in France, immense -structures with the aspect of a barrack or a prison, but the pupils were -distributed among cottages, in which efforts were made to give the place -the appearance of a home. They were not surrounded by high walls, but -there was an abundance of air and light and space and verdure. In place -of the odious refectories of the French colleges, the dining-room was -like that of a family, and the professors and director of the school, -with his wife and daughters, sat at table with the pupils.”[2] - - [2] Editorial, “Literary Digest,” July 2, 1898. - -Here is seen the beginning of better methods in primary education. In -the rural districts of America, this system needs but little -modification to fit it to the rural home. All else must yield to the -inborn rights of the children. If that Brussels carpet which adorns the -dark and unused parlor must be pulled up and some of the worst pictures -relegated to the garret, in order that provision for a school-room for -the children of the family or for those of the immediate neighborhood -may be made, then pull it up. Receive the visitor in the sitting-room -or on the veranda, and let the neighborly chat be where there is “air, -and light, and space, and verdure.” - -Reduce the above picture of an English school to suit environment, and -we have the family as a unit; the mother and her companion as teachers; -and we shall have not only the appearance of home, but a true home, -where duty commands and love obeys. This is no far-fetched picture; it -is one drawn from many observed instances of these farm home schools. -The youths on the farm have a right to a liberal education if they -desire it; they own the earth, and why should they not have the best it -affords if they make good use of what the earth and all that therein is -has to offer. - -When we come to the higher education, there are good and sufficient -reasons why pupils should be massed. At the college, expensive and rare -appliances, great laboratories and museums, ample and expensive -libraries, and distinguished and able teachers, must be provided. Then, -too, the pupils of the college have arrived at that period of maturity -which gives them a fair degree of self-restraint and discretion. - -Connected, as I have been for more than a quarter of a century, with -college life, I have had many opportunities to observe the freshness, -vigor and purity of many of the country lads and lasses who come -directly from the healthy, solid home instruction of their parents. - -I am well aware that this chapter will not revolutionize rural primary -education. I do not want it to do so. Revolution destroys; evolution -builds. But if these brief words of one who received until near manhood -the thoughtful, loving home training of a mother, who said, “I received -a better education than my parents did, and, come what will, I determine -that my children shall have better opportunities for securing an -education than I had,” shall persuade some that the farm home is the -natural, the appointed place for training children until they have -passed the critical mental and physical period of life, I shall be -content. - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -_SELECTION AND PURCHASE OF FARMS_ - - -In selecting a farm, many things should be considered. One purchaser may -lay stress on the quality or productivity of the land, another on its -location as to market, another as to the outlook or scenery, and another -as to the society in the immediate locality. Some would be unhappy if -far removed from city or town, while others delight in many broad acres -far removed from the busy crowd. All these different phases of the -subject, with many others, should be considered before the purchase is -made. It is seldom that a farm can be secured which fulfils all -desirable conditions; therefore, such choice should be made as will most -fully meet the desires and tastes of the purchaser. - -Some farms are purchased with little or no thought of their producing a -livelihood, while others are selected largely for the purpose of -securing profits in their cultivation, and others are bought because -they are expected to furnish safe and profitable investments. It is -evident that no specific or even general rule can be formulated which -will be applicable to all purchasers, since tastes, training, needs and -desires of the purchaser vary widely; nevertheless, a discussion of the -subject may be profitable. Those who secure their income and profits by -agriculture alone should lay stress on four things; viz., healthfulness, -environment, quality of land, and water supply. - -Without health, life often becomes a burden; therefore, climatic -conditions, soil and surroundings, so far as they relate to physical and -mental vigor, should be considered first. But health and vigor are not -all, for if the moral, intellectual and social conditions of the people -in the neighborhood are undesirable, the children may take the road -which leads towards semi-barbarism. This road is open to all, in city -and country, but parents should avoid thrusting their children into it. -Church, and social congenial and God-fearing associates should be -accessible to the growing family. Children are and must be active, -physically and mentally, if they are to grow straight; and if provisions -are not made for directing their energies into proper channels, they are -likely to find improper ones. Wherever the farmer sows not a full -abundance of good seeds, weeds are certain to spring up. The farm must -provide a fair and liberal income, because want brings lack of true -pride, breeds carelessness, even hatred of others, filches self-respect -and courage. Therefore, if profits are desired, good land, land of wide -agricultural capabilities, should be selected. The greater variety of -crops the land is capable of producing and the more varieties the farmer -raises, provided he does not exceed his mental and executive -capabilities, the better will be his education and training. - -Frequently the purchaser has too little means, and feels that he must -secure cheap lands, which too often are situated far from the railway -markets and centers of activity. In such a case, he places himself -outside the activities of the towns, which are extremely helpful to him -if he be wise enough to choose the good and refuse the evil which they -offer. Of course, much depends on the good sense of the parents and the -inheritance and training of the children as to how much they will imbibe -of that which is good and how much they will refuse of that which is -evil. Children cannot be placed entirely beyond evil influences, but -they can be prevented from becoming too familiar with them. - - “Vice is a monster of so frightful mien, - As, to be hated, needs but to be seen; - Yet seen too oft, familiar with her face, - We first endure, then pity, then embrace.” - -Already something has been said with regard to an abundant supply of -water, but it may not be out of place to emphasize the necessity of -securing healthful water for household purposes. Modern science has -revealed the fact that a large number of diseases are introduced into -the system by means of drinking water (see Chapter XII). All drinking -water may be boiled; it may be said that it should be, for in too many -cases water that appears limpid and pure, drawn from sources which have -every appearance of being uncontaminated, is not only dangerous but -sometimes deadly. Careful physicians recommend that all water be -filtered, but so many of the filters are imperfect and are so badly -neglected that there is no certainty that filtered water is entirely -safe; therefore, it may be said that the only safe way is to boil all -drinking water. As the streams and soil become more and more -contaminated by unsanitary conditions, it is only in rare cases that -safe water can be secured naturally. When wells or streams become low, -or when streams are quickly flushed by heavy rains, invariably there is -danger that the water which they contain may be impure. Care should be -taken to provide an abundance of water, and that used for household -purposes should be treated in such manner as will make it entirely -healthful. - -Having discussed the subject from four leading standpoints, those of -less importance may be taken up. It is usually not wise to purchase a -farm, however well it may fulfil the requirements of healthfulness, -desirable environment and productivity, if the lands by which it is -surrounded are poor, since man, in one respect, is like the tree toad, -which partakes largely of the color of the thing to which it adheres. -The French have a proverb which runs in this wise: “Tell me where you -live, and I will tell you your name.” Translated into modern thought, it -would read: “Tell me your environment, and I will tell you your -character.” - -Beauty of natural scenery may not be entirely ignored, although utility, -the dollar, must be kept prominently in view. One can afford to -economize in the living expenses in many ways not dreamed of by those -who load the farm table with a superabundance of good things, if it be -necessary to do so, to secure beautiful surroundings. It may be only a -question of choice between a moderate subsistence and a reposeful -environment, or an overloaded table with uninspiring surroundings. -Natural as well as artificial beauty and pleasurable environment have -their values. A certain lot on one street sells for $1,000, another one -on the same street for $500. They are both within easy reach of the -business center, on the same street-car line, of the same size, and have -the same elevation. Why the difference in price? Because of environment. -A seat in the dress circle at the theater costs a dollar, one in the -peanut gallery ten cents. The play can be seen as well with a glass in -the cheap seat as in the more expensive one. Then environment has value, -as well as land and buildings. - -The value of the farm may be greatly modified by the improvements upon -it. It is well to ask, Is the house well located? May it not have to be -virtually rebuilt before it is at all satisfactory? Will it be necessary -to move and repair barns before they are at all suited to their -purposes? The improvements may be too extended for the needs of the -purchaser. Some farms are overloaded with buildings (Fig. 4); some have -badly arranged, unsightly buildings, too good to destroy and too ugly -and unhandy for either economy or pleasure. Farm buildings are not a -direct source of income and are expensive to keep in repair; therefore, -there would better be a slight deficiency of them than an ill arranged -surplus. All other permanent improvements, such as orchards, -plantations, fences, and the like, should be carefully considered. A -good bearing orchard of only a few acres may serve to furnish enough -profit each year to liquidate taxes and interest charges. The orchard -may be cheaper at $500 per acre than the balance of the farm is at $75 -per acre, or it may be only an incumbrance of good land. Is the farm -naturally or artificially drained? If not, will $35 per acre have to be -spent in thorough draining before the land is really satisfactory? If -not drained, will it bring constant disappointment? Fences, lanes and -the necessity for them, the amount and location of inferior land as -pasture land, the kind of weeds about the farm, as well as the amount, -kind and location of timber, should be considered. - -[Illustration: Fig. 4. Too many buildings for eighty acres of land.] - -Land devoted to market-gardening should be near the market town where -the perishable products are to be sold. Vegetables should reach the -market early in their season in a fresh and presentable condition and -cheaply, if satisfactory profits are desired. Then land which can be -tilled early (warm or sandy land), though it may contain a comparatively -small amount of natural plant-food, will be more satisfactory than rich, -cold land situated farther from the market. An acre of poor, sandy land -near the market may be worth, to the gardener, three or four times as -much as an acre of the more distant fertile upland. - -Near the town, manures, which are so necessary to force many -market-garden products, can be procured cheaply and in abundance. The -added distance of even one or two miles from the switch or shipping -station may have an important effect on profits. Land situated far from -market may well be devoted to stock-raising and such other products as -may be marketed infrequently or at leisure. As yet, agricultural methods -in America are so new that they have not adjusted themselves to the -growing cities, nor have specialized crops found their appropriate -localities. Too often are seen truck farms located half a score of -miles from the city, and the meat-producing farms within sight of it. As -the country becomes older, the varied activities in agriculture will fit -themselves into their appropriate localities, as they have already done -in many parts of Europe. The dairyman of the Channel islands has long -since learned that the piebald cattle of the poulders are not suited to -his wants, and the boer of the lowland knows that the meek-eyed, -thin-skinned Jersey is not best adapted to his cold, windy country and -wet pastures. - -Cost of tillage should be considered when valuing land. When produced on -friable land, crops may be secured at much less cost than on tenacious -clay. On the other hand, while sandy soils are the most easily -cultivated, they are ever demanding more plant-food, and hence are not -well adapted to grass or general agriculture, as the expense of keeping -them productive is usually so great as to preclude profits. - -Except in special cases, as in truck farming, it is cheaper to purchase -natural plant-food in the soil than artificial fertility. One acre of -land may have potential plant-food sufficient under superior tillage for -one hundred crops, while another unaided will yield but half as many, -and yet the two pieces of land are often priced at the same figure. In -other words, land of high productive power is usually cheaper than land -of low productive power. A good farm may be cheaper at $50 per acre than -a poor one as a gift. - -Last, but not least, is the road to the farm. Every free-born American -demands a public highway in front of his house; if farms are small there -must then be a highway about every mile, or, at most, every two miles. -This leads to cutting up the country into enlarged checkerboards, to a -multiplication of highways so great that none of them can be kept -passably good without overtaxing the land which adjoins them. On account -of the contour of the land over which they pass, some roads are -extremely difficult and are well described by the man who, when asked -how far it was from a certain town to another one, answered: “Thirty -miles, and it’s up hill both ways.” As I write this I look out upon a -washed clay road which stretches up and on towards the horizon for six -weary miles, so steep that the team must maintain a walk for the whole -distance in ascending or descending. What is land worth at the other end -of this road, as compared with that which lies six miles away in the -other direction, along a smooth, level pike? Every grown farm boy should -have a good horse and a good road upon which to drive, if he be worthy -of such a noble animal as the horse. When he starts for himself let him -locate on a good road. There are always enough persons who are not -thankful for advice, especially if it be in a book, who are looking for -cheap land at the end of the hilly road. - -Many farms are purchased by young men just starting out in life before -judgment has been developed by experience, while men of mature years -take in the whole problem, or rather series of problems, easily and at -once. The novice would do well to make a list of the topics enumerated -above, and add to them such others as appeal to his tastes or conditions -and then study them, one at a time; in fact, there is nothing left for -the young man to do but to make out a score-card upon which he records -his judgment in numbers as he investigates each phase of the difficult -problem of selecting a farm. - - - - -CHAPTER V - -_THE RELATION OF THE FARMER TO THE LAWYER_ - - -Doubtless more than one reader will be astonished, perhaps even -horrified, to think that the writer should seriously suggest that there -ought to be any relation whatever between the farmer and the lawyer. - -It has come to be generally believed by many farmers that lawyers are at -best a necessary evil, which it is well to avoid if possible; but, -strange as it may appear, this very feeling is responsible for much of -the litigation, with its attendant loss and sometimes ruin, in which too -many farmers have been engaged. It is not the purpose of this short -chapter to treat of the subject of law, or to try to lay down any rules -to be blindly followed in legal matters. An old and learned lawyer, who -had all his life been engaged in a country practice, once told me that -the most prolific sources of litigation were alleged text-books of law, -bearing such alluring and seductive titles as “Every Man his own -Lawyer,” or “The Farmer’s own Law Book.” - -Several years ago, a wealthy manufacturer of the state of New York sent -a bright son to a law school, to help prepare him for a business career. -At the end of his course the proud father was present at commencement, -and, in the course of conversation with his son, said: “Well, John, I -suppose you have learned a great deal.” John answered, “I have learned -one thing which I think is of value; and that is, if any legal matter -comes up in the course of my business, to consult the very best lawyer I -can find.” That young man had really learned something worth far more -than the cost of his course in the college of law. - -There is, perhaps, no other of the so-called learned professions which -is so exacting and which requires more devotion and study for its -mastery. Some of the brightest men in this country have devoted a -lifetime to the study and practice of law, only to have just entered its -broad field as they have been compelled to lay down their work. How -futile, then, would be the attempt to make every man his own lawyer! The -real purpose of this chapter is to open the eyes of the farmer to the -necessity of a closer relationship between himself and the lawyer,--the -family lawyer, if you please, having his confidence to the same extent -as that of the family doctor. - -Most farmers desire a comfortable and a beautiful home, and it is to aid -such that this book is written. Such a farmer would doubtless consult a -builder or an architect as to the foundation, walls, plan and materials -of the home to be constructed, and he would act wisely; but how many -would think so far as to consult a lawyer as to the very foundation upon -which his home and his future happy occupancy of it rest: the title to -the farm. Too many times he is satisfied with the services of the -village solons,--the shoemaker who is a notary public, the justice of -the peace, or the pettifogger who daily overrules the supreme court or -the court of appeals. Years after he has purchased his farm, he finds, -perhaps, that some man has given a deed whose wife has not signed, and -upon the death of the woman’s husband our farmer friend is confronted -with a law suit; and he finds that this wife, who did not sign the deed, -is entitled to dower in his farm, the use of one-third of its value at -the time her husband gave the deed, for life. Such cases are frequent, -and might easily be prevented by submitting an abstract of the title to -a lawyer at a cost of $5 or less. The flaw in the title may be a -mortgage or judgment, or a failure of all the heirs of a deceased -person, somewhere along the chain of title, to join in the deed; all of -which might be overlooked by the ordinary business man, and yet be -readily detected by a lawyer. - -Some day the farmer may be annoyed by the encroachment of a neighbor -upon his farm, and, when in the midst of a litigation, find that the -description of his farm is so defective that there is no relief. I have -in my possession a deed of a valuable farm containing this description: -“Beginning on the ---- road at the south end of a pile of four-foot -wood; running thence westwardly to a black cherry tree, thence northerly -to a stake, thence easterly to a pine stump in the center of the road, -and thence southerly to the place of beginning, containing 100 acres, -more or less.” For fifty years this description has been copied, a score -of times, by the various justices of the peace and notaries public of -the neighboring hamlet, but fortunately, however, it has never devolved -upon the owners to establish the boundaries of that farm. The first -lawyer who got hold of this particular deed insisted upon such a -description as would be tangible and certain. Not many years ago a -mortgage on a valuable farm in Tompkins county, N. Y., was foreclosed, -and during the foreclosure it was discovered that this mortgage covered -about fifty acres of Cayuga lake, and what had been supposed to be a -valuable mortgage was depreciated one-half by reason of the neglect and -incompetence of the country conveyancer. - -So, too, there are questions as to line fences, water courses, rights of -way, encroachment upon the highway, and an innumerable train of -threatening evils, continually arising, any one of which, if neglected -or referred to the many wiseacres common to every community, may lead to -costly litigation, or even to the loss of the farm itself. A bit of -counsel at the right time, which is when the matter first appears, will -prevent, at trifling cost, all the attendant evils of a law suit. - -Such instances are very common in the experience of every lawyer who -enjoys even a moderate country practice; and it is an alarming fact that -perhaps fifty per cent of the titles to all the farms, especially in the -older states, have flaws more or less serious, any one of which is a -microbe of trouble, liable to assert itself when least expected. This -being so, the general and inflexible rule should ever prevail, never to -take a deed of property without an abstract of title which has been -examined by a competent attorney. The so-called maxims of law, often -repeated and distorted, especially in farming communities, are extremely -dangerous to follow. They may have some foundation in fact, but as -almost all rules of law have their exceptions, and as no one not versed -in the law is competent to pass upon them, they should never be blindly -followed by a layman. - -To illustrate this point: Not long ago a prosperous farmer, relying upon -the oft-repeated assertion that twenty years of peaceable possession -gave title, became involved in a lawsuit with the town over a fence -which had been built in the highway adjacent to his farm. He was an -astonished man when the lawyer whom he consulted told him that -possession for a thousand years of the land claimed would not give him -title as against the public. - -It seems almost incredible that a farmer, who will drive his horse for -miles to have him shod by an expert, or who will summon a veterinarian -to treat a sick cow, will be satisfied to consult what someone has -brightly termed a necessity lawyer,--because necessity knows no -law,--upon matters affecting his farm, his home, or his competence, -rather than the experienced lawyer. The cow might be replaced for forty -or fifty dollars if a mistake was made, but the farm, the competence, -have cost a lifetime of labor. - -Perhaps the most striking example of neglect on the part of the farmer -is in regard to the disposal of the fruits of his life-work. It is true -that anybody can draw a will, and yet the fact that men and women allow -anybody to draw their wills is productive of more fat fees than arise -from any other source. Not long ago an acquaintance, who did not realize -the truth of the old adage that “a little knowledge is a dangerous -thing,” drew his own will, and, being childless, sought to leave his -property to his wife, who had been the partner of his labors in a long -life of toil. The law of the state of New York requires two witnesses to -a will. He procured only one, and upon his death the property, which -husband and wife had with so much toil secured, was for the most part -scattered among distant relatives, almost strangers, because he was -afraid of lawyers and their fees. - -In all the varied business which a farmer will meet,--the giving of -notes, mortgages, etc., or, better, the taking of mortgages, bills of -sale, and promissory notes,--it is well to remember that different -conditions of fact make necessary different interpretations of the law, -and that it is usually unsafe to follow a neighborhood precedent. -Oftentimes you may be called upon to transact business where it is not -convenient to consult a lawyer. In such cases, and in all transactions -of any magnitude or possible importance, all talk, or the essence of it, -should be reduced to writing. Then it cannot get away or be distorted -or forgotten, and is in good shape to submit, at the first opportunity, -to your lawyer, who, if an error has been made, can, while the matter is -fresh, more easily correct it. Remember that a contract is simply a -meeting of the minds of the contracting parties, and the best drawn -contract possible is one that states, in language simple and concise, -what each means as expressed by word of mouth. - -Most of the litigation so much feared by the farmer is due to the farmer -himself and his neglect to seek an ounce of preventive. It is true that -there are rascally lawyers; so, too, there are dishonest men in every -trade, occupation or profession, but they are generally easily located. - -If this chapter shall lead the farmer to feel that his business is -farming, that “a jack-at-all-trades is master of none,” and that the -law, justly interpreted and enforced by those who know it thoroughly and -well, is to be the foundation of his success, the guarantee of his home -through life, and the channel of its proper disposal after death, then -it has not been written in vain. Remember that the province of the true -lawyer is to keep his client out of trouble, rather than to get him out -of trouble. An honest lawyer, of whom, thank Heaven, there are very -many, notwithstanding the popular prejudice of those who have suffered -from litigation, will always try to steer you clear of litigation and -loss. - -In conclusion, then, always consult a lawyer in matters affecting your -farm or property. The average fees of a lifetime will not exceed fifty -dollars, and oftentimes valuable advice will be given free. Select one -in whom you have confidence, and stick to him. Become his friend, and -let the relation be one of mutual confidence. Do not neglect to ask him -a question because you fear he will think you dumb; he probably knows -less about farming than you do about law. He will need your advice and -influence in minor matters as much as you need his. Call on him when you -are in town, and he will be glad to see you. Very often he will answer -your question gratis. When he charges you what may seem a large fee, -remember that you are paying for skilled labor, and that you are -entitled to expend as much for the possible welfare and happiness of -your family as you expend upon the choice stock in your stables. -Farmers, more than any other class of men, perhaps, are prone to neglect -legal matters, or place them in incompetent hands. - - - - -CHAPTER VI - -_LOCATING THE HOUSE_ - - -Since more than three-fourths of the life of the farmer and his family -are spent in sight of home, more than one-half of life in the house, and -more than one-fourth in bed, the house, the place where they live, -should receive most careful attention. Having secured sufficient land to -maintain a home, and having made certain that these lands are productive -and profitable, a problem is presented in locating and building the -house which demands a high degree of intelligence, long, painstaking -study, and a good understanding of what constitutes fitness, beauty and -durability. - -Life in the country gives one the idea of repose, of strength and -breadth, of largeness, of solidity and durability, of healthy, -symmetrical, solid development. Things which are evanescent, unreal, -shoddy; things which are simply for show or vulgar display; things which -have the appearance of aping that which may be appropriate under -different conditions, but are totally out of place in rural life, must -be avoided if utility, natural beauty and comfort, economy and repose -are to be secured. - -The pioneer in the wooded districts built the home in some sequestered -nook or valley at the base of the hill or table land, where the spring -or the stream issued from the wood-covered heights. The rural house of -the pioneer allowed free circulation of the frosty air; the problem of -ventilation they solved without knowing it. Unwittingly they adopted the -correct principle; viz., ventilation by many small, gentle streams of -air instead of by a few large openings, which create dangerous drafts. -It must be admitted that our forefathers overdid the ventilation in most -cases, and rheumatism and chilblains were the result; but the principle -was correct. - -Now the spring has dried up, the water from the deforested hills comes -rushing to the lowlands until the streams overflow their banks, and -these and other changed conditions indicate that the future farmsteads -should be erected on higher land, on the slopes of the hills. From the -one extreme we have gone, in some cases, to the other, and the home has -been built on the very apex of some lofty hill. Such locations may be -well adapted for summer residences, where little or no farming is -carried on, but are not suitable for the farm home. - -Now that the house is constructed by more skilled workmen than -formerly, and out of better material, there is little need of locating -the home in the sheltered nook, except possibly in the extreme north, or -on plains subject to tornadoes. The object in locating the house on -somewhat elevated lands is fourfold. First, air drainage. In deep, -crooked, narrow valleys the air is pocketed, especially at night, and -the damp, cold air settles in the lowest land as certainly as water -finds the low-lying pool. In these pockets between the hills, frosts -come early and remain late. - -While traveling in western North Carolina in the late summer and fall, I -could not but observe how every little break in the hillside and every -narrow valley was filled at sunrise, to the crest of the adjoining hill, -with a dense fog. Slowly the sun, as it approached the zenith, -dissipated the fog, but the narrow valleys were often free from fog for -only a few hours each day. Here the home might be situated well up the -mountain side, as shown at the right in Fig. 5. - -[Illustration: Fig. 5. A house in the bottom of the valley and one on -the mountain side.] - -In a little pocket about twenty feet deep, formed by hills, with a road -embankment at its mouth, fruits failed, although they flourished on the -adjoining land, where there was good air drainage (Fig. 6). If fruits do -not thrive on these undrained areas, the natural conclusion is that the -children will not. It is found that the upper stories of city buildings -are healthier than the lower ones, and that the ground floor is the most -unhealthy of all. This is the only objection to a one-story house. On -the level prairies little opportunity is offered for locating the house -above the level of the surrounding country. Fortunately, many of the -prairies are undulating, and furnish most beautiful locations for -country homes. Much may be done, even in the level country, to overcome -the disadvantages of the site by placing the cellar of the house only -two or three feet in the ground and grading up to within a short -distance of the top of the wall. A pool or two, or a miniature lake near -the barns, and skilful planting of trees will lend a diversity and charm -well worth the attention and time given to them. - -[Illustration: Fig. 6. A frosty pocket.] - -A pool may be made by scooping a place in hard earth or by damming a -stream (Fig. 7). If no water is allowed to flow over the dam and it is -raised some two feet above the overflows, it will serve every purpose as -well as an expensive grout or stone structure. It will be noticed in the -picture that provision has been made by digging shallow ditches on the -right and left for carrying off the surplus water when the miniature -lake is full. In constructing the dam, a trench two feet wide, at right -angles to the stream, should be dug to the depth of one foot, or until -solid ground, unmixed with vegetable matter, is reached. Fill the trench -with clayey earth which is free from humus, which will prevent the dam -from leaking at the bottom where it meets the natural soil. The stream -which feeds the lake or pond should be small, and need not be perennial -if the dam is raised as high as it should be. If the water is dammed -back to the depth of twelve to fourteen feet, and the banks of the pond -are rather steep (A, Fig. 7), a cool, useful miniature lake will be -formed, and not an unsightly marsh, during the dry months of summer. - -[Illustration: Fig. 7. A useful pond.] - -Dryish, gravelly soil and subsoil is to be much preferred as a site for -a house to clayey or dark, damp soil which contains much humus. If the -ideal soil cannot be secured, then thorough drainage should be provided. -In locating on a gentle declivity, there is a constant tendency for -water to penetrate the wall next the hillside or to pass under the wall -and appear in the bottom of the cellar. Unless this can certainly be -prevented, another location had better be selected. - -The house should be situated on somewhat elevated ground, to promote -both surface and house drainage. If it is the purpose to introduce into -the house more water than has been furnished heretofore, then full -provision should be made for carrying all waste water and fecal matter -to a safe distance from the house, and to do this beyond a peradventure, -sufficient fall must be secured to give permanency to the work and an -unobstructed outlet. - -One of the objections urged against a country home is that it is “too -quiet,” too much shut up from the outside world. This, in part, is true. -It detracts much from the enjoyment and beauty of the country home if -vision is shut in to a few acres just about the house. The American -farmer is not content to live under the conditions which delight the -Transvaal Dutch farmer, so isolated that he cannot see the smoke from -his neighbor’s chimney nor hear the bark of his neighbor’s dog. - -When visiting the home of the Hon. Edwin Morgan, I found that he was -having three large trees cut down. It seemed to the uninstructed like -vandalism. When asked the reason for sacrificing these noble trees, -nourished and tended for half a century, he answered: “I have many more -trees, but I have but one lake--Cayuga--and I must have vistas through -which I can watch the white sail, the crested waves, the ever-changing -colors of the water as the winds open vistas in the fleecy clouds. I -love the trees not less, but the soft reflection of the moonbeams on the -rippling wave more, and so the trees must give way.” - -The outlook from the vine-covered veranda should be broad and extended. -If possible, the hill and dale, the stream and wood, neighbors’ houses -nestled in plantations of trees and shrubs, all should be in sight. As -life advances, I see more and more clearly the effect of that noble -lake, its now boisterous now placid surface of the rippling water which -laved the stony beach. I see its effect on that “tow-headed” lad who at -one time breasted the waves, at another sat dreamily casting pebbles -into the clear expanse, wondering what life had in store, what the -great unknown world offered for the nut-brown, high-tempered, crude -country boy. Then plant the country home where nature in her happiest -moods has showered her richest gifts! - -But beauty loses much of its charm where healthy vigor gives not the -power to appreciate and enjoy it. So the house should be located on a -healthy eminence. But it is not easy to find a location which shall -combine convenience, beauty, air and water drainage, and healthfulness -all in the highest degree. In the case of the farmer, convenience as to -carrying on the various operations of the farm and healthfulness are -paramount. Drainage may be artificially improved, vistas opened, -miniature lakes constructed, and surroundings made more beautiful. The -farm and its equipment is the workshop, and must be convenient in all -its appointments, or much energy is spent for naught; health must be -maintained at the highest, or work may become but toil and drudgery. - -In locating a house, its relation to the size of the farm, its -productiveness and agricultural capabilities should be considered. In -locating the site, two places should be carefully avoided: First, at the -end of a long lane in the middle of the farm. It may be said that the -buildings form the natural nucleus in and around which the work -centers, and therefore they should be placed near the middle of the -estate. But the work carried on in the fields forms but a small part of -the farmer’s activities. He must ever, in these modern times, be in -touch with the school, the church, the post office, the railway, the -market, and his neighbors. When an infrequent call is made at the end of -this long lane, the children appear like frightened deer as they seek -shelter in the shrubbery or behind the corner of a building, and the -more the inherited timidity and reserve, the wilder they appear. - -The other location to be avoided is within a few feet of the highway. -Such locations are only admissible in the city, where land sells by the -square foot. What fortunes are sometimes spent in the city to secure -some amplitude of space between the dusty, noisy street and the -residence! What dignity and repose an ample, well kept house-yard gives -to even a plain, modest house! The effect of the mistake of locating the -house too close to the highway is often accentuated by locating the -barns on the other side and immediately upon the highway, and in front -of the house. The location of the house, as to the highway, should be -governed, in part, by the size and productive power of the farm. If -ample acres and means are available, then the grounds should be ample; -if limited, the grounds should be made to correspond. - -In moderate-sized holdings, a clear space of from 100 to 200 feet -between the house and the highway, and width equal to or exceeding the -length, will give room for a few shade trees and an ample grass plat. -The site should be either suited to the house or the house to the site. -Therefore, the character of the proposed house and the site should be -considered at the same time. One location may be suited to a one-story, -another to a two-story house. No location is suited to a -story-and-a-half house. - -It may be said that on most farms the house is already located, and has -grouped around it plantations and barns. In many cases it would be -inexpedient to change the site of the house, as this would necessitate -many changes of outbuildings and other permanent improvements. But if a -careful inspection is made of farmsteads, it will appear that many of -the houses are in need of repairs and additions, and that the cost of -making them would be but slightly increased if either the house or the -outbuildings were removed to a more desirable site. In the great -majority of cases, the old barns should be gathered together into one -structure, or into two at most, and adapted to the needs of modern -agriculture (as will be explained in a subsequent chapter). All changes -presuppose well matured plans and long and careful study of problems -which will have to be solved if the location of the house or barn is -changed. - -The scope, and particularly the cost, of the changes should be known -approximately before the execution of the plan begins. “For which of -you, intending to build a tower, sitteth not down and counteth the cost, -whether he have sufficient to finish it? Lest haply after he hath laid -the foundation, and is not able to finish it, all that behold it begin -to mock him, saying, this man began to build and was not able to -finish.” Far better live in the old house, with its inconveniences, and -get the greatest possible happiness out of the ancient structure, than -to build a new one and cover it with shining paints of many colors and a -mortgage which sticks longer than the paints. - -Some of these old farm houses embody many beautiful and reposeful -characteristics, are well located, and need only slight modifications to -make them fit the site as nicely as a bird fits its nest. If thought can -be awakened as to the possibilities of these neglected homes and some -information imparted as to their treatment, or, in other words, if the -eyes and understanding can be trained to take in the fundamental -principles of beauty, dignity, fitness, and repose, we shall soon see -fewer architectural monstrosities. That there are not more is a wonder. -What lad or lass has ever had the slightest instruction by teacher in -rural or city school along the lines of fitness, beauty, and -healthfulness of sites for country homes? The few youths who reach the -institutions of higher learning are scarcely better off. Some of these -are taught to see the beauties and wonders of nature through a -microscope, and, in rare cases, one may be taught to observe the lines -of symmetry and form as exhibited in a poor plaster cast of some -mythological Roman warrior; but as for any instruction which leads -directly to a broad understanding or keen appreciation of nature in her -broader, happier, and grander aspects, it is painfully conspicuous by -its absence. So, is it any wonder that the farmer is deficient in -appreciation of the fitness and beauty of the tree-clad, gently rolling -plateau for a home site, when the “liberally” educated fail to see the -innumerable beauty-spots which cover the face of nature? - - - - -CHAPTER VII - -_PLANNING RURAL BUILDINGS_ - - -The farm house is not what is called, a “paying investment.” It is not a -direct source of income; neither can the other rural buildings be said -to produce a direct income. Generally speaking, the farm house can -fulfil but four purposes if properly planned and well constructed: the -house may serve to keep the family warm in cold weather, cool in hot -weather, dry in wet weather, and to gratify a love for the beautiful. -Since the farm house as a paying investment is usually a failure, if it -does not supply the wants of the household and fulfil its object, it -becomes a failure indeed. The first great mistake which the prosperous -farmer usually makes is to invest too much money in expensive, hastily -planned buildings. The house should be built to serve its inmates; too -often the inmates become the servants of the house. A farmer’s wife -cannot well afford to devote one room in the overcrowded house to the -storage of expensive, useless upholstery and bric-a-brac, nor time to -keep them presentable and in order. - -The debt incurred for a part of the purchase price of the farm forbids -the employment of help to keep in order this home museum of things -useful and beautiful, and things useless and ugly. If plainness, -durability, and natural beauty in parlor, sitting-room and chamber would -only become fashionable, what a burden would be removed from the -shoulders of housewives, both in country and city! The time is at hand -when health and intelligence should count for more among American women -than show and the possession of a miniature upholstery shop. The -furnishings of the rooms should minister to the comfort of their owner, -and not tend to make life burdensome. - -Not infrequently farmers of energy and ability become possessed of more -than a competence near the close of life. Having lived in somewhat -restricted circumstances, they think to make the close of life more -comfortable and luxurious. So, notwithstanding the fact that most of the -children have left the paternal roof, they set about building a large -house, tear down or remodel, and add to the outbuildings; and at the -close of life they leave the possessions encumbered and a farm -overloaded with buildings as an inheritance to a child unable, by reason -of youth and inexperience, to secure a competence sufficient to live and -keep up repairs. - -A beautiful farm of 180 acres, in central New York, is provided with the -following buildings: - -[Illustration: Fig. 8. - -The buildings on a 180-acre farm.] - - A house, part 2-, and part 1¹⁄₂-story, 110 feet long. - - A horse barn, 30 by 80 feet. - - A grain barn, 40 by 80 feet. - - A straw shed, 20 by 30 feet. - - A machinery and husking barn, 20 by 80 feet. - - A hay barn, 16 by 30 feet. - - A cart shed and chicken house, 20 by 24 feet. - - A piggery, 20 by 24 feet. - - A corn crib, 12 by 18 feet. - - A carriage house, 24 by 32 feet. - -[Illustration: Fig. 9. The farm house that is too big for the farm.] - -Some of this lay-out is shown in Figures 8, 9, and 10. These buildings -could not have cost less than $15,000. A fair valuation of the farm at -the present time would be $14,000 to $16,000. The family which now -occupies the house consists of man and wife, one child, and two regular -employes, one of whom has his own home. The father overloaded the farm -with buildings, his son is struggling to keep them in repair, and the -wife labors to keep unused rooms presentable. These buildings might well -serve for a section of land and a family of twenty. - -[Illustration: Fig. 10. Scattered farm buildings.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 11. A cosy farm house.] - -Another house not far from this one was built nearly a century ago (Fig. -11). If the upper story was a full instead of a half-story, it would -fulfil all the demands of a house, except possibly beauty. It stands on -a rather steep front slope, which stops abruptly on the shore of one of -our beautiful inland lakes (Fig. 12). By reason of the steep incline at -the front of the house, a tall building would be far less beautiful than -this lean-to, severely plain structure. This simple old house has a -restful, almost beautiful appearance when viewed in conjunction with the -trees, the steep, sloping lawn, and the broad, placid lake. The shaded -veranda gives the idea of social repose far more than does the formal, -stiff, restricted one shown in Fig. 9, which has scarcely room for two -easy chairs, and is so constructed that no grateful shade is secured. -Woe be to the man who destroys this restful old house and substitutes -for it a lofty, narrow-waisted one adorned with peaks and spires, bay -windows and a filigree cornice! - -[Illustration: Fig. 12. The lake view in front of the house.] - -Before ground is broken for the foundation, carefully considered plans -suited to the site, the size and productiveness of the farm, and the -probable income, should have been made. It may be said that the size of -the house should be governed by the size, or the probable size, of the -family. But “it is better to dwell in the corner of the house-top than -in a wide house” with insufficient means to maintain it. The general -plans should be outlined at least a year before a new building or -extensive enlargement of the old is begun. The houses which are to be -built in the future should be planned with a view to greater economy, -convenience, beauty, and durability. There is now little excuse for -erecting poor, uncomfortable, inconvenient houses on the farm. True, the -rural population is handicapped, for few city architects have made any -study of the plain rural house, and fewer have paid any attention -whatever to farm barn construction. Even if architects had given -attention to the needs of the rural population, the farmer would feel -that he could hardly afford to pay $100 to $200 for the plans of a house -costing $1,000 to $2,000, exclusive of the labor which the owner, his -men and teams were able to perform upon it. The task of planning a -country house is too great for the country carpenter; he cannot even -interpret plans correctly; his range of observation and training have -been too limited. Then, who is to plan the house? Why, the farmer and -his family, and it will take at least two years of study and observation -of other houses and their modern conveniences before intelligent, crude -plans and instructions are ready to be placed in the hands of the -draughtsman. - -[Illustration: Fig. 13. A house of seven gables.] - -Few persons are original; therefore, if the little conveniences which -help to lighten work and make life more pleasurable are to find a place -in the house, they must be seen in other houses. All men have more ideas -than any one man; therefore, the range of study should be wide, that -whatever is suitable to the conditions may be adopted. After having -built many farm houses and barns, and having made a long and most -careful study of them, I estimate that from 30 to 40 per cent of the -cost of farm buildings is useless, and sometimes worse than thrown -away. - -A small farm house on a modest-sized farm is shown in Fig. 13. The site -is beautiful, and is worthy of a house better fitted to the situation, -the farm, and the farmer. The illustration shows seven gables, and the -house, therefore, might serve as a model for a work of fiction; but the -left-hand side of the house is like unto the right-hand side, so it will -not do for fiction, for if the truth must be told, there are eleven -gables and twenty-two valleys on this house. - -[Illustration: Fig. 14. Filigree work is expensive, and does not look -well on a farm house.] - -The vine-covered veranda is most beautiful, and looks cool and -comfortable, but there are too many vines, and, with the exception of a -few days in summer at midday, the air under this veranda would be damp -and uncomfortable. It is far better to secure shade by means of awnings -and a few tall, well trimmed shade trees, which preclude dampness and -permit air drainage, than to overburden the veranda with vines. The -covering of this veranda is an unprotected floor, and extends along the -front and well around both sides. Notice the too expensive balustrade -and frequent fancy posts, an enlarged section of which is shown in Fig. -14. All of this expensive wooden material is exposed to our -ever-changeful, paint-destroying climate. The tinsmith, the painter, and -the carpenter will reap a rich harvest if the external part of this -house is kept in order. It seems hardly necessary to call attention to -the chambers, which, of necessity, must be of such a character as to -preclude comfort, beauty and repose. - -[Illustration: Fig. 15. Ground plan of a house which is out of character -on a farm.] - -A house built after the ground plan, Fig. 15, might make a not -unpleasing picture in the landscape, but it would not be appropriate for -the farm, and would be unnecessarily expensive in construction and -maintenance. It would be difficult to heat, on account of the great -surface exposure due to the broken outlines and numerous corners, which -are seldom air-tight. The style might not be altogether inappropriate -for a cheap seaside cottage. - -[Illustration: Fig. 16. A good model for a farm house, having strong -lines and much character.] - -A rear view of a somewhat larger house is given (Fig. 16). It would not -cause the passerby to stop and stare. It may be compared to a well, -appropriately, and simply dressed lady, while the other is a reminder of -the over-dressed, furbelowed damsel, who attracts the prolonged stare -and the thoughtless comments of every sidewalk idler. Here are seen -repose, beauty, elements of durability, and freedom from expensive -ornamentation and repairs. - -A back view of this house has been shown purposely to emphasize the fact -that the rear side of a house may be made nearly as beautiful as the -front side. It would be improved both in looks and convenience if a -partially enclosed porch were placed over the door and two of the -windows. - -[Illustration: Fig. 17. Ground plan of the house shown in Figs. 16 and -19.] - -The planning of a house is not difficult if wants are clearly defined -and the principles of economy, dignity, durability and repose, as -applied to the exterior of the house, are fairly well understood. If the -site is ample, and it always is in the country, you have but to draw a -rectangle, the length of which is one-third to one-fourth longer than -its breadth. Fig. 17 is a ground plan of the house shown in Fig. 16. - -The farm house shown in Fig. 18 is located thirty feet from a dusty, -muddy, much-traveled public highway. Opposite to it, and immediately on -the road, are located the ill-kept farm buildings. How the aromas of the -stables and kitchen are to be kept each on its respective side of the -road is a question difficult to solve. Here, as in so many cases, the -wife showed better training and more commendable pride in her -surroundings and her workshop than the husband. She may coax him some -day to set a few trees, which may serve in part to hide his workshop on -the other side. There are many things about this farm house which are -commendable, and the only wonder is that so few mistakes were made in -planning it. Farmers’ wives must have a sort of natural intuition; how -else can the fewness of their mistakes be explained, for they have -seldom received the slightest instruction along the lines of -house-building. True, the tower on the corner is expensive and -inappropriate, but if the house had an appropriate setting of trees and -shrubs it might be beautiful. - -[Illustration: Fig. 18. The house is too fancy. The small projections -make it look weak. The view is not attractive.] - -The farm house should have one large bed-room on the first floor, a well -appointed kitchen and living room. When the size, number, and -arrangement of the other rooms are fixed, the lines which bound the -outside of the rooms will not, of necessity, always coincide with the -rectangular lines. On one side the house may extend slightly over, on -another fall short of the lines which bound the rectangle. Does the -rectangle embody fitness and beauty? If the manufactured things by which -we are surrounded are noted, it will be seen how many of them are -rectangular. The book, the sheet of paper, the pamphlet, the photograph, -the picture frame on the wall, the rug on the floor, the writing case, -the chiffonier, the trunk, and thousands of objects of use and beauty -naturally take the rectangular form: then why not the house? Man -constructs along the lines of acute, obtuse, and right angles unless -there are specific reasons for adopting curves, while nature’s modes -adhere closely to circular and curved outlines. - -A front view of a substantial, appropriate house fronting to the west is -shown in Fig. 19. It is the house of which a rear view is shown in Fig. -16. The wide, projecting eaves, the simple roof over the second-story -windows, and the plain veranda, all protect the windows from storm and -the glaring afternoon sun. The eave-trough near the edge of the roof -serves to relieve the plainness of the projecting roof, which really has -no cornice. The side and ends of some of the rafters are seen, and no -attempt has been made to box them in. The treatment is dignified, -plain, inexpensive, and suitable,--therefore it is beautiful. The -planting at the left is too thick for any but a dry climate. A lofty elm -tree would serve better for shading the veranda in the late afternoon, -and permit of better air drainage. The trees shown are deciduous, and -therefore cannot form an ideal winter windbreak. If they were evergreens -they would be entirely too close to the house. The mournful sighing of -evergreen trees in the bleak November winds does not promote -cheerfulness. - -[Illustration: Fig. 19. A dignified, restful, economical house.] - -Four college buildings are shown in Figs. 20, 21, 23, and 24. School -buildings can hardly be said to be a part of the farm lay-out, but they -will serve quite as well as farm buildings to educate the taste and to -train the eye and the judgment. The reader will see at once which two of -these buildings are most dignified and pleasing. - -[Illustration: Fig. 20. University building,--gray stone and tile roof.] - -In the schools, the people of the rural districts have had no -instruction which would lead them to carefully observe and compare -buildings of any kind; and hence, with but rare exceptions, they are -ill-qualified to make an intelligent study of them. They are totally -unprepared to grasp the fundamental principles which should govern the -erection of structures on the farm, and totally ignorant of the -principles to be observed when large public buildings are planned and -erected. Fortunately or unfortunately, some farmers will be called upon -to judge of the plans for school and other public buildings. The plans -for a president’s house and an expensive college building were submitted -to a board of thirteen trustees of a flourishing agricultural college. -Ten of these trustees were farmers of more than local reputation. I -forbear giving illustrations of the results: suffice it to say, that -happily the house fell down before it was roofed in. - -[Illustration: Fig. 21. University building,--red brick and slate roof.] - -A school building for the higher education should be light and airy; but -light does not enter a building freely through narrow windows placed in -thick stone or brick walls. Fig. 22 shows the effect of narrow and wide -windows in the lighting of a building. Observe the shadow cast by the -wall between the two narrow windows. The sun is directly in front of the -windows for but a small part of the day. Usually it enters at a more or -less acute angle, in which case a window three feet wide may be more -than twice as efficient in lighting a room as one two feet wide, and a -four-foot window three or four times as efficient as one half its width. - -[Illustration: Fig. 22. Showing the greater proportionate amount of -light admitted by one broad window, as compared with two narrow ones of -equal combined opening.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 23. University laboratories,--red brick and slate -roof.] - -Figs. 20, 21, 23, and 24 serve to illustrate some of the fundamental -principles which should be observed in constructing expensive public -buildings, and they may also serve for comparison, and for educating -the eye and the judgment. The knowledge acquired in a study of these -buildings may be useful in the planning and erection of rural homes, for -in some respects all buildings should be alike. The farmer seldom has -opportunity to contrast and study large detached buildings in which -beauty, dignity, durability, and, above all, utility, are combined, and -he seldom plans and erects more than one homestead; therefore, many -buildings should be observed, the desirable and undesirable features -noted and discussed thoroughly before the erection of a new structure, -however simple it may be, is begun. It requires no little knowledge to -construct in the best manner even a modern chicken house. - -[Illustration: Fig. 24. University building,--gray stone and slate -roof.] - -The consideration of these four school buildings, so different in -character, may not be dismissed at once. They are introduced for the -purpose of arousing interest and for giving opportunity to study the -principles of external construction. The true principles once mastered, -their application to rural homes will not be difficult. If Fig. 20 be -studied carefully, it will be noticed that the lines are dignified, -restful and even beautiful, although the building is constructed on -straight lines, with little attempt at ornamentation. This building is -sometimes taken for an art gallery, and so it is, for in it is taught -the fine art of butter making. Its strong tile roof, ample projection of -eaves, and freedom from peaks and valleys give assurance that this -building, barring accidents, will stand for centuries with slight -repair, and be more beautiful as time tones down and softens the colors. - -The building shown in Fig. 21 satisfies neither eye nor judgment. It is -a noble building as to size and material, but are not the twenty -miniature peaks out of place? It does not have the appearance of a -restful school building, but of a mammoth seaside hotel. The many little -gables might have been combined into a few large, noble ones, which -would have given abundant light and lent dignity and charm to this well -built structure. If we now transfer our thought from the large buildings -to the brick dwelling house (Fig. 25), we find the same strong lines, -the same dignity, and the same durability of roof structure, with a -little added ornamentation, as are found in some school buildings. It -should have been two-story instead of a story and a half, and the -veranda might well have been more ample. This house, too, like the large -stone structure (Fig. 20) is restful and satisfying. One instinctively -sees that the cost of maintenance of this durable structure will be -comparatively little. If this house be compared with the one shown in -Fig. 26, it will be easily seen how much more appropriate and beautiful -it is. One is built of cream brick and roofed with soft-colored tile; -the other is roofed with poor shingles, has a cheap hemlock frame, and -is sided with wood, which is covered with gaudy, ready mixed earth -paints, which may fade out before the bill for them is paid. - -[Illustration: Fig. 25. A simple and attractive little dwelling house.] - -Some day a genius will set forth for the farmer, in simple language and -illustrations, the fundamental principles which should be followed in -the building of rural homes. When that time comes the present children -will then be mature and will have been so energized by nature-study -work, which is now being introduced so extensively in the schools, as to -be able to appreciate and profit by such literature. - -[Illustration: Fig. 26. Another type of dwelling house.] - -Some of the tree-embowered farm houses have such a restful look and -often embody such true lines of beauty that it seems almost sacrilegious -to change them. On the other hand, some of them are so ill adapted to -farm life, so unhandy and uncomfortable, that radical changes should be -made. After the farmer has prospered, he naturally has a desire to build -a new house or to transform the old one, not only to secure needed -conveniences, but that greater beauty and a more luxurious home may be -secured. It is difficult for him to find adequate help to solve the -problem if he keeps the cost within reasonable limits. He may know where -to begin; he seldom knows where he will end. Usually the first thought -should be to preserve the old home, or the greater part of it. The -architect is almost certain to advise demolition and the erection of a -new house, asserting that the new structure will be no more expensive -than the remodeling of the old, which may or may not be true. But he -does not always know what is best, as he is usually unfamiliar with the -farmers’ needs and traditions. Sacred associations usually cluster round -the old farm house; every room and door and window may be associated -with some epoch in life’s history. Through yonder door came the happy -bride a half century ago; in yonder room the children were born;--every -nook and corner has some tale to tell, some happy association. We cross -oceans and mountains to view the birthplaces and homes (which happily -sometimes are preserved and held sacred) of a Burns and a Shakespeare. -Then is it not well to preserve the farm houses, where possibly are the -birthplaces of many “Cromwells guiltless of their country’s blood.” - -The first thought, then, should be to save and improve the old house, -not to destroy it. But most of these farm houses are either too low or -too high: that is, they are neither one- nor two-storied, but a story -and a half. A two-story wing may often be placed either at the front or -side, and may serve to give dignity to the house; or a lower room or -two, a few comfortable chambers, and an entrance hall or vestibule may -be added. Such addition would make it possible to remove the low, -flat-roofed, leaky kitchen to more appropriate quarters. The formerly -unused parlor might be transformed into a living-room, the former -living-room into a dining-room, and the old dining-room into a kitchen. -The details by which this evolution is made must, of necessity, be -worked out by those who are to occupy the house. That home is enjoyed -best which is planned by those who have to pay the bills; therefore, I -shall not go into detail of arrangement. My object will have been -accomplished if I succeed in creating a greater respect and love for the -houses of our ancestors, and shall have stayed the hand of the -iconoclast. Any one can destroy, but few can create. - -So reasoned the college graduate on his return to the old homestead. The -old house (Fig. 27) was improved by making slight additions and some -minor changes. Even the green window blinds and the white siding were -not disturbed, only brightened by the use of old-fashioned, -unadulterated paints. The major effort was along the line of improving -the live stock and making the acres more productive, soon resulting in -surplus funds, which were used to erect the large and commodious barn. -Simultaneously with the barn came the icehouse, and the windmill for -pumping water. The observant passer-by instinctively knows that here are -all the outward indications of morality, intelligence, and a rational -and progressive system of agriculture. If the family be judged by what -is seen in this picture of the farm above ground, the conclusion must be -reached that here is a true home. - -How different the impression is when we look through the open roadside -gate in the next picture (Fig. 28)! Lack of intelligent purpose and of -neatness and thrift is written upon every structure, and is especially -shown by the want of any logical plan in the arrangement of the numerous -small structures. The house, which stands just to the right of the -beautiful tree, is modern in many respects, but the front is supported -by numerous Grecian columns nearly twenty feet long, as inappropriate -and as useless for a farm-house as is a coon’s tail on a lady’s hat. - -[Illustration: Fig. 27. The old homestead.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 28. Lack of intelligent purpose.] - -Instinctively we judge people at first sight, and largely by the clothes -they wear and the manner of wearing them. So we judge, and often very -accurately, of families by the houses which shelter them and the objects -which surround them. One can easily tell much of the character of a man -by the style and tip of his hat. What noble deeds, what lofty -aspirations in this day and age of plenty and opportunity, should we -expect to have birth and fruition in the house shown in illustration -Fig. 29! This building is not located in the country, but in the suburbs -of a small, prosperous inland city. Unfortunately, this village is -unlike many beautiful country villages and small cities in western New -York in which there are no poor people. What a depressing effect this -building must have on the well bred country lad who passes it weekly on -his journey to and from the post office! - -But how easy to go from one extreme to the other! Too many farm houses -stand alone, unrelieved by noble trees or by modest planting of -appropriate shrubbery, looking in the distance at the setting sun like -lofty, whitewashed sepulchres. On the other hand, the house may be made -dark and damp by over-planting. The house shown in Fig. 30 is a -comfortable, fairly attractive stone structure, but is made gloomy and -damp by the superabundance of evergreen and deciduous trees which fill -all the space, barely thirty feet, between the house and the highway. - -[Illustration: Fig. 29. Environment often makes the man.] - -The church, as well as the farm house, is or should be the home of the -farmer; but the church, like the individual, may become proud, in which -case the old meeting-house is demolished and replaced by a modern new -one, which may serve for a time to stimulate laggards and appear to -take the place of changed purposes in life. But the debt saddled on the -congregation tends to drive the church-goers to the rear seats and -eventually out of doors. I have sometimes thought that a country church -could not well be too small. Man is a gregarious animal, and does not -enjoy church-going when the seats are but partially occupied. - -[Illustration: Fig. 30. Buried in trees. The opposite extreme from Fig. -26.] - -The plain, substantial stone church shown in Fig. 31 is located in a -sparsely settled district on the windy prairies of Kansas. It is -certainly most appropriate and fits its environment; all it lacks to -make it beautiful is a suitable setting of trees and shrubbery. It would -then serve as a reminder of “God’s first temple not made with hands,” -and not of one made with a jig-saw. - -[Illustration: Fig. 31. A plain, substantial stone church.] - -“It is a plain, rugged, austere structure, like the men who built it, -and any proposal to modernize it would be received with disfavor; for it -means more to the people than merely a church building--it is a sacred -possession that is a part of their life,” and it is an appropriate -monument to the sturdy religious character of the pioneers who stood in -the forefront as a wall guarding human rights and liberties in those -stormy days of the past. The country church should be as truly a part of -the farm structure as are the house and barn, located on land held in -fee simple. - -[Illustration: Fig. 32. Where horses are kept.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 33. Where boys and girls are taught.] - -The school-house also, as well as the church, should form a part of the -farm above ground. We sometimes build parlors for the pictures, and -palaces for the horses and cattle, and neglect the school-house. A city -of 12,000 inhabitants in central New York has many expensive stables, -some of them works of art. The barn shown in Fig. 32 is not more than -half a mile from the school-house shown in Fig. 33. The beautiful stable -might serve as a well appointed dwelling house by making a few minor -changes. While such buildings are being constructed, the country -school-house, the pride of the American, is left to fall into decay; or, -if rebuilt, it is located too often on a little scrap of land which may -be almost worthless, as though land in America were the most precious of -all our inheritance. This school-house is designed to provide -accommodations for both farm and city children living in the suburbs. -The school-house has not a tree for shade nor a shrub to admire, -situated on the commons among weeds and rocks, provided with one -dilapidated outhouse unscreened by fence or tree or vine or shrub, while -the stable is surrounded with rare trees and shrubs artistically -arranged and a smoothly shaven lawn. Are horses and cattle worth more -than boys and girls? - -To leave the reader to infer that all school-houses are like the one -shown would be misleading. A more pleasing illustration is presented in -Fig. 34. Here the meeting-house, the school-house, and a bit of the farm -are shown in juxtaposition, as they were found at the meeting of the -roads in a shady grove. Since moral character should be the foundation -upon which to symmetrically build intelligence and industry, the church -may be treated first. While taking the photograph, I was struck by the -inexpensive character of the meeting-house. The outside covering was of -plain, matched, vertical boards, but they were kept well painted and -therefore looked neat, and the seats were entirely comfortable. I judge -that here true, practical religion finds a congenial home, for a long -line of comfortable sheds were being built to house the horses during -the hours of devotion. Then, too, the sheds will serve a doubly humane -purpose, for where the pupils live long distances from the school the -horse driven in the morning will have comfortable quarters until the -school closes in the evening. A public water-trough near by, kept full -from a spring, gave evidence that this little church and the -school-house were potent factors in promoting civilization. To the right -is seen a lad plowing. Here, then, in this picture is represented the -three great corner-stones of civilization upon which to build a -symmetrical, beautiful superstructure. To build on either one alone is -to insure disappointment; when life is grounded on all three the result -is practical religion and intelligence eventuating in a better -understanding of the complex soil and the interrelations of nature’s -modes of action. It means steady and effective employment, the -abandonment of nomadic life, and in lieu thereof a permanent home and an -abundant supply of the necessaries and comforts of life. The Bible, the -school book, and the plow should all be engraven and intertwined in our -modern civilization. - -[Illustration: Fig. 34. School house and church at the corners.] - -So far the general characteristics, fitness, durability and beauty of -the country farm house have been discussed and illustrated, together -with such public buildings as are directly related to rural life. But -having discussed the size, best proportions, and most suitable materials -for the house, and having put them into visible form, the building may -be made hideous and unnecessarily expensive by careless or ignorant -treatment of external details. - -[Illustration: Fig. 35. The sway-back house.] - -Most of the farmers who now occupy the country west of the Alleghanies -came from the east and brought with them a varied assortment of styles -of architecture inherited from the many European countries from which -they or their ancestors came. These people, though of limited means, had -pride and tenacity of purpose, and they could not easily change to the -plain and appropriate exterior treatment of the farm house. This -inheritance and persistence, as shown in the farm houses of the middle -states, is fitly illustrated by the expensive and heavy return cornice, -the massive columns, and the complicated and ornate entablatures which -are supposed to adorn an otherwise plain house. - -[Illustration: Fig. 36. The expensive box cornice.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 37. - -A plain and durable cornice.] - -I have said that there is no place for the story-and-a-half house. Here -is shown (Fig. 35) the results of two serious mistakes; viz., an effort -to build a cheap frame of such a form that it is almost impossible to -tie the building together, with the result that the roof is in danger of -collapsing; and the attempt to beautify this cheap structure by -over-heavy, complicated cornices. An enlarged detailed drawing of a -typical return cornice is shown in Fig. 36. On the right is shown a -cross-section outline of the members of the cornice. There are ten of -them. The mouldings are now “stuck” by machinery, but these were made by -hand, and 10 and 8 were formed of two pieces each, making twelve -members in all. The infinite pains and labor in preparing the material -and placing it cannot be realized except by a carpenter who has spent -weeks and months in sawing out, in planing and “sticking,” and mitering -such an elaborate system of useless ornamentation. Compare this with the -cornice, or rather projection, of a house (Fig. 19) which cost $6,000. -Fig. 36 shows a projecting eave of scarcely one foot. The next -illustration (Fig. 37) shows one of nearly two feet. The latter is far -superior to the former in that it is quite as beautiful, is inexpensive, -and protects the external paint and woodwork far more than does the -former. The piece at the top of the rafter serves to cover the -projecting cornice, and as a roof-board as well, and gives opportunity -to place the eave trough well outside, which prevents damage to the -house should it ever leak. The frieze board is simple and serves its -purpose well. It has taken a long time to learn that a wooden roof which -is at least one-third pitch is far more durable than the flat roof shown -in Fig. 38. Here the return cornice is carried across the entire end of -the house, and the gable is ceiled with plain matched boards, both -likely to leak and to rapidly become paintless. - -Many veranda and porch floors and outside doors have no roof over them, -or other protection. This is poor economy. It would be better to reduce -the cornice to the fewest possible members, if it were necessary to do -so, in order to secure means to roof the veranda, which, unprotected, -decays rapidly. Or the money expended on the cornice, which results in -neither use nor beauty, might well suffice for the building of an -additional room, or to provide many conveniences, such as hot and cold -water, storm sash, and window screens. - -[Illustration: Fig. 38. The old-time gable end cornice.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 39. Framework of a ship.] - -When the farmer reached the fertile, treeless prairies he was compelled -to economize in lumber. Some genius soon discovered that the best and -most scientific method of constructing the frame of a house was along -the lines of ship construction (Fig. 39): that is, ribs, joined to a -sill or sills, encircling the entire structure and placed at equal -distances apart. Two keels or sills joined together by joists, straight -ribs--joists--instead of curved ones, a roof instead of a deck, and the -balloon frame (Fig. 40)--the best of all frames when properly -constructed,--was invented. Unwittingly the ship construction, slightly -modified, was adopted. In this frame the westerner departed radically -from the style of his ancestors, but he could not be satisfied with a -plain oversail projection. He could not afford the heavy box cornice. -Having succeeded so well on the frame, he set about inventing a new -style of decoration for the projecting eaves, but the cornice was not a -success. The decorations shown in Figs. 41 and 42 serve to make hideous -many a cheap dry-goods-box house, which blisters and cracks in the hot -prairie winds. These houses sometimes receive no paint or one coat, or -at most two, and in a few years, what with storm and sun, mischievous -boys and wind cracks, this ginger-bread, dog-eared cornice, made of inch -lumber by the use of scroll saw, looks as dilapidated as a college boy -after a cane-rush. - -[Illustration: Fig. 40. The balloon frame.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 42. The jig-saw cornice.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 41. - -Too elaborate and short-lived.] - -The thought of permanent beauty, as well as economy and usefulness, -should enter into the plans of a house. But what is beauty? I am well -aware that many of my readers will not agree with me, for - - “The standard of beauty ofttimes it doth vary: - Two pretty girls are Eliza and Mary.” - -They may be very unlike, yet both beautiful. From the farmer’s -standpoint it may be said that the chief characteristics of beauty are -fitness, naturalness and simplicity. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII - -_BUILDING THE HOUSE--GENERAL LAY-OUT_ - - -The reader will understand that no attempt is made to treat this subject -in detail nor strictly from the architect’s viewpoint. A casual -observation will make it self-evident that the structures on farms have -received little attention as to beauty of form, economy of construction, -or adaptation of means to ends. Like many others, I have noted all this -and have made a somewhat careful study of the causes which usually have -produced this want of harmony, durability, adaptability and economy in -the construction of rural homesteads. - -The many illustrations of detail are designed to emphasize underlying -principles. Principles are always the same: details may be varied to -suit conditions. While the numerous illustrations are meant to explain -the details, it is believed that they will also give help to a large -part of the rural population who have had little opportunity to secure -any adequate instruction in the art and science of home building. - -Usually the cellar would better be extended under the entire house, -although it is neither wise nor healthy to store large quantities of -material in it which, if not cared for, may decay and vitiate the air in -the rooms above. If the cellar be properly constructed there is no -objection to storing family supplies of fruit and vegetables for the -winter in this partly underground room. Large quantities of vegetables -held for future sale should not find storage in the house cellar. Now -that the floors of houses are made tight, often double with paper -between, and carpets or rugs to cover them, the cold no longer enters -the cellar through the floor. The cellar wall may therefore extend -upwards on three sides, well above ground, that opportunity may be given -for the introduction of light and air. With only single-glazed cellar -windows, no building paper, and floors and boarding of unseasoned -lumber, the pioneer was compelled to place the cellar well under ground, -or bank the walls with manure if the winter’s supply of vegetables was -to be made secure. - -[Illustration: Fig. 43. Cellar under the upright only.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 44. Cellar under the entire house.] - -A common form of the foundation for farm houses is shown in Fig. 43--a -main structure, reinforced by a wing which, in most cases, has no cellar -under it. Fig. 44 shows the cellar under the whole structure. If the -walls of the unexcavated wing are placed 3¹⁄₂ feet below ground, as they -should be in a cold climate, and extend 2 feet above ground, it will -take more stone to construct the foundation walls of the house with a -cellar under only a part than when it extends under the entire -structure. The stone saved by leaving out the wall between the two -sections of the house will more than suffice for building the walls of -the wing to their full height. In the latter case, it would cost -slightly more for excavation than in the former. Since cellars, when -appropriately used, are in some respects the most useful and cheapest -rooms in the structure, there is no economy in not placing them under -the entire house. A cellar may be divided by 4-inch brick walls into -various rooms, corresponding in shape to those above, thereby securing -for the partitions in the superstructure, separate compartments, in -order that the vegetables, fruit, milk, and furnace may be separate one -from the other. - -[Illustration: Fig. 45. A footing course under the cellar wall.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 46. Showing a layer of material to stop vermin.] - -To prevent rats from entering the cellar under the walls, either one of -two methods may be adopted. A footing-course projecting beyond the -outside of the wall arrests the rodents, for having dug down to it they -have not sufficient intelligence to dig around the footing-course (Fig. -45). Or the desired result may be accomplished by placing a thin layer -of refuse broken glass against the outside of the wall two to three feet -from the surface of the ground (Fig. 46). Cellars would be much improved -if they had higher ceilings. At least 7 feet should be allowed between -the cellar floor and the under side of the overhead joists. All cellars -should have concrete floors and plastered ceilings, for both warmth and -cleanliness. In an extremely rigorous climate, the upper angle of the -wall should be lathed and plastered as shown in Fig. 47. - -[Illustration: Fig. 47. Protecting the cellar from frost by plastering -across the upper corners.] - -If the front cellar wall and the greater part of the side walls extend 2 -to 3 feet above the earth, a good sized window (which may be single- or -double-glazed) can be secured. The rear walls should extend not more -than one foot above ground. If the earth slopes rearward, then grade up -to the wall until not more than two steps will be necessary to reach the -kitchen floor; it is easier to climb a gentle ascent than steps. The -front steps are used but a comparatively few times, while the rear ones -are used many times, so it matters little if the front of the house is -several steps above grade. - -It makes a visitor unhappy to know that the busy housewife must descend -three steps, walk forty feet and ascend two steps to reach the well -platform, then reverse the journey, to secure the drink of cold water -desired (Fig. 48). The illustration in Fig. 49 shows how the farmer -solved the difficulty by building an elevated plank walk from the -kitchen to the well. Fig. 50 shows how he might have solved it in -another way. - -[Illustration: Fig. 48. The daily route to the well.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 49. A short-cut to the well.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 50. An elevated earth walk to the well.] - -The hillside wall may be kept dry and the cellar free from water by -drainage or by backing the wall with loose rubble stone, or by both -(Fig. 51). - -[Illustration: Fig. 51. - -A rubble stone backing and a drain at the bottom.] - - -BUILDING THE FOUNDATIONS - -The walls should be placed below the frost line and have fairly broad -bases, standing on naturally or artificially drained earth. Perhaps no -part of the house structure receives so little attention as do the -foundation walls; therefore, I shall enter somewhat into the details of -construction. Bricks which have been recently burned and those which do -not contain considerable quantities of moisture should be thoroughly wet -before they are placed in the wall. If the mortar sets too quickly by -reason of the dryness of the bricks, a strong wall cannot be secured, -however good the mortar may be in which they are laid. - -The foundation walls for most houses, however, are made of stones laid -in mortar composed of lime or cement, or a mixture of the two, and sand. -A large proportion of all the sand used for foundation work is markedly -inferior, and the mortar is usually very imperfectly mixed. If water -lime is used with the sand it is frequently old, and if old, inferior. -Even the cements deteriorate somewhat with age, and the common stone -lime is often used after it is partially or entirely air-slaked. If the -binding material be inferior and the sand have quantities of fine earth -or vegetable matter mixed with it, it will be seen how impossible it is -to secure a strong and binding mortar. Even if fresh lime and sharp sand -are used, in accordance with the usual specifications in building -contracts, the mortar bond may still be weak by reason of careless or -imperfect mixing. All mortar, even that used for laying stones and -bricks, should be mixed until a lime film surrounds every particle of -sand. Plastering the outside of the wall below the grade line and -pointing the wall above cannot make a firm, good wall out of one which -has been carelessly laid or one bedded in inferior mortar. - -Chimneys may provide for one or more flues. Better draft is likely to be -secured when separate flues are provided for each stove or heater than -when one flue serves for two or more stoves. The diagram, Fig. 52, -shows three flues in one stack or chimney. One is for the furnace, -another for the fireplace, and another for the laundry stove. - -[Illustration: Fig. 52. Three flues in the chimney, one of them leading -from a fire-place.] - -All chimneys should have broad footing courses, which should rest on -solid earth to prevent settling. They should not be supported by means -of brackets (Fig. 53) or on the tops of small cupboards attached to the -wall. Chimney walls of only 4-inch thickness are not safe; if they be -double, or 8 inches thick, the number of bricks required are increased -by more than 100 per cent, and the cost of the foundation is also -increased. The heavy walls are objectionable by reason of added weight -and cost, and because of the room they occupy. The introduction of -fire-clay chimney lining makes it possible to construct safe chimneys -with 4-inch walls. Then, too, the lining costs rather less than the -extra course of brick, and the completed flue is smooth and of uniform -dimensions on the inside. - -[Illustration: Fig. 53. - -Chimney standing on a bracket.] - -The openings made in the frame for the chimney are often too small, in -which case the chimney is likely to be “hung” on either the joists or -rafters. There should be a clear space between the woodwork and chimney. -If the opening in the frame is too small, the mason will be tempted to -clip the brick where the chimney passes by the wood and then restore the -chimney to its full size when the obstruction is passed. This results in -hanging the chimney on some member of the frame. Should the foundation -settle, the wall may part and sparks may then easily reach the dry wood -in the room or at the roof of the house. - -It is believed that the farmer, after reading these lines, may secure a -good wall and one which fulfils the specifications, if he watches the -work carefully as it progresses. If he does, he will have a much better -wall than the average. Since the material and the kind of work desired -vary so widely, it is not wise to lay down any fast rule for the -proportions of the binding material and sand which may be used. It may -be said, however, that the proportions vary from 1 of lime or cement to -2 of sand, to 1 of the former and 6 of the latter. - - -WOODEN HOUSES--THE FRAME - -Almost any variety of wood will suffice for the frame of the house, -provided it does not twist and spring out of shape too much before or -after it is put into the building. Since the sills are to be placed on -solid, continuous walls, they need not be large. The only objection to -box and small sills is that they may allow too easy access of air and -rodents from the walls of the rooms to the cellar, and vice versa, -unless the spaces above the sills and between the studding are bricked -in as high as the top of the first tier of joists. A rough floor laid -before the upright studding is placed is shown in Fig. 54. This first -floor should be laid diagonally, for the one which is laid immediately -upon it should not be placed either parallel or at right angles to the -boards of the first floor, or parallel with the joists. A little -reflection will reveal the reasons for all this. - -[Illustration: Fig. 54. The rough floor laid before the studding is -erected.] - -Joists should be bridged. Fig. 55 shows the more common method of -bridging. The joists may be 2 × 8 in small, inexpensive houses, and 2 × -10 or 2 × 12 in large ones, bridged once in a 12-foot span, twice in a -16-, and three times in an 18- or 20-foot span. The bridging is of the -utmost importance and should never be omitted, as it serves to -strengthen the floor joints and prevents the disagreeable trembling of -the floors so annoying in many of the older houses. - -[Illustration: Fig. 55. Bridging the joists.] - -The studding for a balloon frame is either 2 × 4, 2 × 5 or 2 × 6, and -the length desired. The 2 × 4 studding are too light for an ample -two-story house, and they do not give enough thickness of wall for the -most desirable window- and door-jambs. The doors are not held firmly in -place, and when they are closed quickly by the wind or by children, the -plastering is injured. Studding 5 inches broad, fortified by outside -diagonal boarding (Fig. 56), gives the ideal conditions unless the house -is unusually large, in which case the studding should be 6 inches broad. -The diagonal boarding costs a trifle more in material and labor than the -horizontal, but it is so much superior that the extra expense may well -be incurred. Every board forms a double brace, one where nailed to the -studding and one where the siding or “clap boards” are nailed to the -rough boards and the studs. Nothing has yet been discovered which is so -satisfactory, and which gives such strength and protection to the frame -as does this preliminary diagonal boarding, covered with paper. When -completed it forms a wall open enough to prevent dry rot and tight -enough to prevent the entrance of wind. - -[Illustration: Fig. 56. A wall strengthened by diagonal sheathing.] - -The second-story joists rest on stringers or light girders 1 × 5 inches, -as shown in Fig. 57. If the girder is set flush with the inside of the -stud, A, the laths must lie directly upon the face of the girt. This -gives no room for the mortar to form clinches behind the lath. This -5-inch girder swells when the mortar is put on and shrinks when it -dries, which may result in a crack in the wall in the angle near A. -Since, by reason of faulty construction, there are no clinches behind -the lath, the plastering becomes loosened, and this is likely to be the -beginning of serious trouble. If the girder is let in so that its face -is not flush with the inside of the stud and then furrowed out with -small pieces of lath, the effects of the shrinking of the girder will be -obviated and room will be left for clinches behind the lath. - -[Illustration: Fig. 57. Second-story joist.] - -In windy, cold climates, where lumber is at all abundant, a second -boarding may be placed inside, covered with paper and furrowed out with -a single thickness of lath to allow, as in the former case, the -formation of clinches. There is no objection to boarding horizontally on -the inside, if the outside has been boarded diagonally. The term “rough -boarding” has been used, but it should be said that the boarding which -forms the first covering, sometimes called sheathing, should be brought -to uniform thickness and matched or rabbeted. - -Wherever greater strength of wall is desired than can be formed by a -single 2 × 5 studding, as at the corners, or by a single 2 × 10 joist, -as where partitions are to be placed, it is better to spike two or more -pieces together than to have pieces sawed of the dimensions desired. -These made-up pieces or timbers are stronger than solid pieces of the -same character and dimensions, since the continuity of the cross-grain -of the wood is broken in the made-up pieces. In the construction of -large bridges the timbers, where exposed to the weather, are made up of -smaller timbers, since they are then not only stronger but more durable -and less subject to dry rot than if they are solid (Fig. 58). - -[Illustration: Fig. 58. Construction of a large bridge.] - -Plates are made up of material 2 inches thick and as broad as the -studding is wide, doubled, with joints mismatched. This most valuable -principle of building up timbers of several thin pieces is a somewhat -recent practice. Where very large timbers are required, as in trussed or -self-supporting roofs, the timbers of which are not exposed to view, -they are frequently made up of boards 1 inch thick and as broad as the -vertical dimensions desired. This method is sometimes used in -constructing timbers for both houses and barns (Fig. 59). - -Roofs of houses are, of necessity, extremely variable, as the house is -not planned to suit the roof, but the roof to suit the house. Flat metal -roofs of all kinds should be avoided, as far as possible, on the farm -house, however well they may be adapted to buildings in the city. Metal -roofs are not objectionable in themselves, but only when they are laid -flat on farm houses. - -[Illustration: Fig. 59. A made-up plate, constructed of boards.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 60. Showing the principle of construction of Fig. -59.] - -The pitch of roofs, like their shape, is also variable. Nothing below -one-third pitch should be used except for special conditions. In Fig. -38, page 127, is an illustration of the common pitch of roofs in fashion -fifty years ago. Some roofs were even flatter than the one shown. The -fashion now is to construct house roofs with nearly or quite half pitch. -While steep roofs are desirable if made of wood, there is some danger -that the change from the nearly flat roof to the steep one will be -carried too far (see Fig. 13, page 95). Various pitches of roofs are -shown in Fig. 61. Steep roofs do not require as strong rafters, thrust -less upon the plates, are more durable, and are less likely to leak than -flat roofs. - -[Illustration: Fig. 61. Pitches of roofs.--¹⁄₂, ¹⁄₃, ¹⁄₄, ¹⁄₈.] - -Since roofs are of various pitches, they require rafters of various -lengths and bevels. Farmers and many carpenters have much difficulty in -getting the length and bevels of both rafters and braces. Most -carpenters’ squares have so-called brace rules stamped upon their -tongues.[3] These give the length of the brace for the shorter and more -common runs,[4] but they do not give the angles of the ends of the -brace. Then, too, the length is given in inches and hundredths of -inches, and carpenters’ squares are not divided into hundredths, so this -complicated brace-rule is as useful as a steam whistle on an ox-cart. - - [3] The short end of the square. - - [4] The perpendicular and horizontal distances covered by the brace. - -The methods by which the length and bevels of any member of a frame -which departs from any other member at an angle are so easily understood -that the wonder is that all are not familiar with them. For a simple -illustration, let it be supposed that rafters for a building 18 feet -broad, with one-third pitch, are to be laid out (Fig. 62). The rafter, -R, takes the form of a brace. The run is 9 feet horizontally or half the -width of the building, and 6 feet perpendicularly. If the square be laid -upon the stick designed for the rafter, as 6 is to 9, one side of the -square will give the shorter and the other the longer angle or bevel -(Fig. 63). If the square is laid on 12 times at 9 and 6 inches, it will -give the length of the rafter, for 12 times 9 is 108, half the width of -the building, and 12 times 6 is 72, the height of the peak above the -plates. If the square is laid on 18 × 12 inches, the proportion is -preserved, and hence the angles; the square would only have to be laid -on six times. - -[Illustration: Fig. 62. Laying out a roof.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 63. Laying out a rafter.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 64. Laying out a timber.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 65. A brace.] - -Consider a building 20 feet broad and 6 inches above one-third pitch. -The half of 20 feet equals 10 feet, or 120 inches. Seven feet 2 inches -(86 inches) is the height of the peak above the plate. It is quickly -seen that this problem, like the other, can be solved in more than one -way. If the long end of the square is laid on at 20 inches and the short -end at 14¹⁄₃ inches, and this is repeated six times, both the bevels and -the length will be secured (Fig. 64), for 6 multiplied by 20 equals 120 -inches, half the width of the building, and 6 multiplied by 14¹⁄₃ equals -86 inches, the height of the peak. Or the long end of the square might -be laid on at 24 and the short end at 15¹⁄₅ five times, but squares are -not marked in fifths of inches, hence the previous method would be -best.[5] The same results would be reached by laying the square on at 15 -and 10³⁄₄ inches; eight steps would then be required instead of six. The -longer and fewer the steps within the limits of the square, the better. - - [5] Since the square is laid on, see Figs. 61, 62, in the same manner - as for cutting a stair; each one of these spaces is called a “step.” - -If it is desired to cut a brace 3 × 4 feet run, 3 steps, using the -lengths 12 and 16, will give both the length of the brace and the bevels -(Fig. 65). Take a rafter which has a projection requiring a notch to be -cut in the lower side, and the same rule will apply. The line A, Fig. -66, is horizontal and the face of the plate is perpendicular; therefore, -the line B must be at right angles to A. The only thing now to be -determined is how deep the notch shall be, for it is evident that if the -line A represents the long end of the square and B the short end of the -square, the notch will fit the plate. - -[Illustration: Fig. 66. Adjusting to the plate.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 67. The rafter.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 68. The rafter trimmed on the outer end.] - -That part of the rafter which extends over the building may be reduced -in size, but usually it is well to leave it entire (as in Fig. 67) if -the house is large. If the lower end of the rafter should appear too -heavy, it may be treated as in Fig. 68. The bevels at the ends of the -rafters are the same as at A and B (Fig. 66). - -The outlines of a story-and-a-half house, which form is most undesirable -for various reasons, are shown in Fig. 69. The chambers cannot be well -lighted or aired. The outlines of the room interfere with the placing -of furniture, and such chambers are far more uncomfortable in warm -weather than are those in two-story houses. It will be seen that the -collar-beam, C, must be placed so far above the foot of the rafters in -order to get a fair height of ceiling, that it has little binding power, -and that the building cannot be tied together at the plates in the -center, since the tie would interfere with the door in the cross wall. -It will also be seen that the second-story joists are so far below the -plates that their power to hold the building together is small. Many of -the one-and-a-half-story houses have “sway-backed” peaks because of -this faulty construction. (See Fig. 35, page 124, broken-back house.) If -story-and-a-half houses must be built, then they should be covered by -roofs having at least one-half pitch, in which case the collar-beams -could be placed relatively lower and the thrust on the plates would be -very much diminished by the steeper roof (Fig. 70). One-, two-, three- -or more storied houses are easily and certainly prevented from spreading -since one tier of joists always coincides with the foot of the rafters, -to which they can be securely fastened. Fortunately, the -story-and-a-half house is less constructed than formerly. - -[Illustration: Fig. 69. Outline of a story-and-a-half house.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 70. Half pitch and an efficient collar-beam.] - - - - -CHAPTER IX - -_BUILDING THE HOUSE, CONCLUDED.--OUTSIDE COVERING, PAINTING_ - - -That part of the house which of necessity must be exposed to the -buffetings of snow and rain, wind and sun, should be considered more -carefully than any other part except the foundation. If economy demands, -the doors, floors, bath rooms, and wardrobes may be of plain and -inexpensive material, for later they may be replaced when means justify -additional expenditure; but if the outside covering be faulty, the house -is a partial failure from the beginning. - -The first principle to be observed is to place all projections intended -to serve as water-tables at somewhat acute angles, for if placed at -nearly right angles with the sides of the house, rains accompanied by -heavy winds will certainly reach the framework. The water-tables which -crown the top of the base-board are more exposed than those which are -higher up, and therefore should be steep and rabbeted to prevent the -water from reaching the sills. The too usual method is shown in Fig. 71. -An enlarged view of a better style of water-table is shown in Fig. 72. - -[Illustration: Fig. 71. A faulty water-table.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 72. A good water-table.] - -Outside window frame sills which have insufficient pitch tend to become -water-soaked, and not infrequently the lower member of the window itself -rots by reason of the water which drives in and remains under the sill -of the window for considerable periods of time. Figs. 73 and 74 show -perfect and faulty methods of construction. - -[Illustration: Fig. 73. Perfect construction of window sill.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 74. - -Faulty construction.] - -The siding of a house for various reasons would better be put on -horizontally, although material put on this way, unless it is kept well -painted, is not so durable as when placed vertically. The horizontal -covering is more beautiful, lends itself better to the numerous -openings, and gives better protection from cold and wind than does the -vertical covering. If the building is not to be painted, then the -covering would better be placed vertically. Nearly all wooden houses are -covered with either thin lap-siding or inch siding, prepared in various -ways and known by various names. The inch or novelty siding was first -introduced in the West, and costs but little more than the lap-siding, -because, being thicker, it can be made of somewhat inferior lumber. The -novelty or rabbeted covering gives greater strength to the building and -is much more quickly and cheaply put on. It may be said that this style -of covering is extremely faulty if placed on the building in the usual -way, namely, before the doors and windows and corner boards are in -position. If the same method of placing the material be practiced as in -placing the lap-siding, then the objections to this class of siding -disappear to a certain extent. The diagram, Fig. 75, shows the novelty, -or drop, or O G siding (A), the rabbeted (B) and lap-siding (C). It will -readily be seen that if a drop (A) or rabbeted (B) siding be put on -before the window frames are placed, as is the usual custom, an opening -(x) is left under the facing of the window frame which extends through -to the studding. This permits the rain, in a driving storm, to pass -horizontally along this opening to the studding and then downward along -the framework of the building. Many instances could be cited in which -these openings have had to be filled by triangular blocks of wood or -putty, and even then the water was not entirely excluded. - -[Illustration: Fig. 75. - -Forms of siding.] - -This method of covering houses or even barns with this new kind of -siding is usually disappointing and wasteful of material. All that is -gained is a little more facility and cheapness in placing the covering. -If it is put on, as it should be, after the window and door frames are -set, it is more difficult and more expensive to place than lap-siding. - -No way of covering a wooden house has been found superior to the -one-half inch lap-siding with joints tight enough at the frames and -corners, in conjunction with the paint, to make water-tight joints. The -lap should not be less than one inch, and the nails should be so placed -that in case of considerable shrinkage in the siding the inside will -give or even check, instead of the outside (z). If made as at y, the -outside will check. This implies that the nails are to be driven rather -more than one-half inch above the edge of the siding. The nails which -hold the outer covering should either be set and puttied, or the heads -should be left even with or slightly above the surface of the wood, that -the paint may cover all parts of the nail head. If the nails are driven -too far in the heads are not fully covered and protected by the paint, -in which case they will rust and present an unsightly appearance. - -Some one has said that if a woman’s feet, hands, and head are well and -appropriately clothed, the balance of the dress may be plain and simple, -and yet she will have an elegant appearance. So, if a house has a good -foundation and a suitable and well-placed roof, the balance of the -outside may be extremely plain and yet it will be beautiful. Some of our -modern houses rest on unpointed, poorly constructed, and narrow -foundations, are bedecked with peaks, pigeon lofts, and dog-eared -cornices, and remind one of the suspenderless, barefooted darky crowned -with a cast-off silk hat. - -If the foundation is too small and shabbily built, no amount of paint -and cornice can relieve the house from a look of shabby gentility. A few -brown or cream-colored stones or bricks, when placed on the outside of -the foundation where it shows above ground, will give dignity, beauty -and a substantial look to the whole house. It may do for it what a -nickel does for one’s shoes. - -The roof of the farm house, and for that matter of all other houses, -should, in the trying climate of America, have an ample projection. An -abbreviated cornice may be admissible if the building is constructed of -stone which is of sufficient density to resist the American tooth of -time. Fig. 76 shows a section of an abbreviated and a well extended -cornice. The house which has this short-cut cornice stands within a few -hundred feet of the one with the wide projecting eaves. During the past -twenty years it has been necessary to paint the former twice as often -as the latter. - -[Illustration: Fig. 76. - -Deep and narrow cornices.] - -The roof covering would better be of slate or tiles, for the time has -passed for building temporary, make-shift houses, though they might have -served their purpose well in a new and rapidly developing country. With -rare exceptions, the houses to be built in the future should be -permanently located, well built, and of durable material. The slates -which compose a roof should be not more than 8 inches wide and should -not be put on roofs of less than one-third pitch, since they are only -double-lapped and do not lie as closely, one upon the other, as do -shingles, which are laid triple-lapped. Slate and tile roofs are -comparatively heavy, and hence require stronger roof structures than -shingles. - -The roof boarding for slate roofs should be matched--tongued and -grooved--and covered with paper to prevent cold and draughts of air from -passing into the attic. Since slates, on account of their somewhat rough -surfaces, do not lie closely together, the wind is likely to pass -through the cracks in the roof, if there are any, and carry snow and -rain into the upper part of the house; therefore the roof covering -immediately under the slates should be virtually air-tight. The roof -boards for a shingle roof should be narrow and laid with openings of -from 1¹⁄₂ to 2 inches between the boards. Rain and snow seldom drive up -and through the shingle roof, and since wooden roofs are more likely to -rot out than to wear out, the more perfectly the shingles are dried out -after a storm the better. The narrow roof boards and the spaces between -them allow the shingles to dry quickly, and therefore are better than -matched boards. - -The short, or common, shingle of commerce is 16 inches long, ³⁄₈- to -¹⁄₂-inch thick at one end, and ¹⁄₈ of an inch at the other, and is -computed at 4 inches wide. A bunch of shingles contains one fourth of a -thousand. It should have 25 double courses and the band should be 20 -inches long. Not infrequently there is a course or two wanting, or the -bands are an inch or so short. Having this data, one can easily -determine if the bunch is of legal size. A little cheating is not -uncommonly done by placing the shingles in the bunch loosely. This can -be detected by examining the bunches at the thick ends of the shingles. - -Theoretically, 1,000 shingles should cover 10 feet square, or 100 square -feet, known in carpentry as “a square,” if the shingles are laid 4 -inches to the weather. Since shingles are usually laid 4¹⁄₂ to 5 inches -to the weather, 1,000 shingles should cover about 120 square feet. -Two-thirds of the lower part of the roof may be laid 4¹⁄₂ inches, and -the upper third 4³⁄₄ or 5 inches to the weather, if the roof is not -flat. - -If shingles are treated with lime water or diluted gas tar, or be -painted as they are laid, the life of the roof may be prolonged. The -painting of roofs with tar or common earth or mineral paints, after they -are laid, does little or no good in preserving them. Sometimes painting -is resorted to to make the roof harmonize with the color of the sides of -the building. - -Neither extremely narrow nor extremely wide shingles are desirable. -Those from 3 to 6 inches wide, when carefully laid, are satisfactory. -Each shingle should receive but two nails; one is usually enough, and -these should be placed about ³⁄₄ of an inch from the edges, and about 1 -inch above the point where the butts of the next course will come. When -the courses above are laid upon the shingle having but one nail, two or -three other nails, which are driven in the courses above, will serve to -help hold it in position. The joints of shingle roofs should be double -broken: that is, the joints in the shingles of one course should not -coincide with the joints of the first or second course below. Consult -Fig. 77. - -[Illustration: Fig. 77. The laying of shingles.] - -If two nails be driven in the sides of an unseasoned shingle, when it -shrinks it is likely to split in the middle; and in laying a roof the -joint immediately above the course under consideration is likely to come -at or near the middle of the shingle, which splits by reason of the -shrinking. The case is still worse when three nails are put in a -shingle, for then it is almost certain to split in the middle and -immediately in line with the joint in the course above. - -Unscientific placing of shingles and insufficient mixing of mortar -results in an unsatisfactory house, both inside and outside, however -good the materials may be. - -[Illustration: Fig. 78. A veneered wall.] - - -VENEERED HOUSES - -A most excellent way to secure a warm, durable house, and one that will -require the minimum of care-taking, is to first construct a 4-inch wall -after the balloon pattern, as has been previously described. To this -frame, sheathing surfaced on one side is attached. The 4-inch brick wall -is securely fastened to the wooden structure by means of 30-penny -spikes, one at each studding, which are driven in at the top of every -seven courses of brick. (See Fig. 78.) A wooden house may also be -veneered with stone, the veneering being held in place by means of metal -anchors attached to the boarding. - -The foundation needs to be a little stronger than for the wooden house, -and must be provided with a stone water-table for receiving the -veneering. - -In a veneered house, all the lightness and dryness of a wooden house are -secured on the inside and on the outside all the durability and solidity -of a brick or stone house. When the veneering is of hard-burned, -cream-colored or neutrally tinted brick or brown stone, the effect is -extremely pleasing. The first cost of such a house is somewhat more than -an all-wood house, but its greater durability and freedom from constant -repairs makes it no more expensive in the end. When one builds such a -house and covers it with a steep slate roof, he feels that he has -builded for many coming generations. - -It is not necessary to speak in detail of stone and brick houses, since -such structures are quite expensive, and their construction should -always be placed in the hands of experts. It may be well, however, to -discuss them generally. The cost of building brick houses is nearly -twice as great as those of wood; stone houses cost more than brick -houses. The foundations of brick or stone structures must be broad and -placed deep in the ground, to sustain the great weight placed upon them. -However much pains has been taken, the walls of the superstructure often -crack by reason of the unequal settling of the foundation or by unequal -strain on the walls, due to the window and door openings. Once the walls -are cracked they become unsightly, and cannot well be restored without -being rebuilt. Unless the windows are extra large the house will not be -well lighted because of the thick walls. (See Fig. 24, p. 108.) The -walls do not heat and cool as quickly as do wooden walls, hence brick -and especially stone houses are likely to be damp, since the warm air of -the rooms tends to part with its moisture when it comes in contact with -the relatively cool walls. This tendency of the walls to condense -moisture may be obviated by studding and plastering them on the inside, -but all this adds to the expense. Until building material becomes much -less expensive than it now is, the farmer would better build either a -wooden or veneered house. - -[Illustration: Fig. 79. Re-siding an old wall.] - - -OLD HOUSES - -Houses which were built some time ago and before building paper and -better methods of construction were in vogue, are usually too cold and -often extremely unsatisfactory. The outside covering may be warped and -cracked and too often paintless. Where these conditions prevail the -house may be re-sided without removing the old covering. The window -frames, corner boards, and like members which receive the siding are -built out by placing bands around the frames and on the corner boards of -sufficient thickness to receive the new second siding. Strong building -paper is then placed over the old siding, and strips one inch thick and -two inches broad are nailed immediately upon it and over the several -studs of the old frame. (Fig. 79.) The house is now ready to receive new -siding. If paper be laid on the floors and a well seasoned second floor -be laid upon it, they will be greatly improved at slight cost. - -[Illustration: Fig. 80. Faulty gutter or eave trough.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 81. Well constructed gutter.] - -Eave troughs should be placed outside the perpendicular line of the -walls to prevent water from entering the house should the troughs leak -or overflow from being filled with ice. Eave troughs are frequently made -of tin which is too narrow, in which case, especially on flat roofs, the -water will back up under the shingles and run over that part of the -gutter which lies hidden in the roof. The elevation of the front edge of -the gutter should be at least 2 inches below the extreme upper edge of -the tin of which the gutter is made. (Compare Figs. 80 and 81.) Gutters -placed at the end of the rafters are usually not as durable as those -placed on the roof, but if carefully put up so that they will keep their -position they serve their purpose well and may be made to give -additional beauty to the eaves of the roof. The conductors which lead -the water from the gutters to the ground should be made large and of -corrugated material, that expansion may be provided for should they -become filled with ice. - -What has been said about using too narrow tin for gutters is doubly -applicable to the valleys. Open valleys are better than closed. All tin -used for gutters or valleys should be painted on both sides before it is -placed upon the roof, and all used about the outside of the building -should be kept well painted, as it is more economical to paint often -than to mend leaks. - - -PAINTING THE HOUSE - -After much solicitude and money have been expended on the construction -of the house, it is poor economy to let it suffer for want of paint. Not -infrequently the house is planned so large, or so much is spent on its -erection that means are not at hand for fully protecting the outside -with suitable paints. - -As to the colors of paints or their combinations, little can be said, -since tastes and conditions are extremely variable. A farm house should -have its own distinctive features, and its own personality, and while it -may be similar to many other houses it should not be a duplicate of any -other one. - -In manufacturing towns long rows of houses are built, each one the exact -duplicate of all the others in shape, dimensions, and color. The effect -is abominable. This illustration of exact imitation only goes to show -how necessary it is to have diversity of style in the houses themselves -and variation in the colors of the paints if the maximum beauty of the -home and adaptation to landscape and site are secured. In painting the -farm house beauty should not be ignored, but beauty may not be -compatible with durability and necessary economy. The farm home may and -should be placed in such beautiful environment that the paint which -covers it sinks into comparative insignificance as compared to the -painting of the city house; therefore the elements of economy and -durability play as important parts in the painting of farm houses as -does beauty. Even a great, plain, two-story white farm house with green -window-blinds can be made to look beautiful and home-like if it has a -suitable setting of noble trees. - -If the outside covering of the house is placed some time before it -receives its first coat of paint, the wood tends to check and usually -becomes too dry for applying it. If exposed for some days to the direct -rays of the sun before painting, so much of the oil of the paint will -be taken up by the wood that there will not be enough left to bind the -mineral matter of the paint to the wood. This is especially the case -where an attempt is made to complete the painting by the application of -but two coats, in which case, the first or prime coat must contain -relatively much mineral material and little oil, and must be spread -thickly if the surfaces are to be well covered by the two coats. Not -infrequently, the outside woodwork is swollen and somewhat displaced by -rains before the roof is in place. Even after it has dried out the ideal -conditions are not secured. The roof should be placed as soon as the -siding is completed, or if possible before. The carpenter should put on -the first, or prime, coat as fast as the house is sided; that is, the -woodwork which has been placed from one scaffold or stage should be -painted from the scaffold before the one above is constructed. The -corner boards, window sash, and frame should receive one coat of paint -before they leave the shop. The prime coat may be of yellow ochre mixed -with some white lead, since the after painting with the desired color -will cover the yellow if two coats be applied. Good yellow ochre is a -most durable paint when properly mixed and spread, although it may be -said that the more white lead used in the prime coat the better. Yellow -ochre should contain a large per cent of iron; when ochres are composed -largely of colored clay they are inferior. The paint for the first coat -should, in any case, be thin, since the oil which it contains plays an -important part. This first coat tends, or should tend, to fill the wood -with oil so that the oil in the after coat will mostly remain with the -paint, and not leave it and pass into the wood, thereby destroying its -binding force. Too much stress can hardly be laid on the necessity of -rubbing the first coat into the wood by vigorous use of the brush. To -realize the value of this principle one has but to visit a first-class -carriage manufactory and observe the methods which are in use to prepare -a carriage body for its final coat of dark paint and varnish. In too -many cases the first coat of paint is mixed too thickly and is not -pressed into the pores of the wood as it should be, in which case the -paint may either peel or rub off in a few years. The country boy dressed -in his best black suit often has a reminder of this if he chances to -lean against the outside of the old country church while “waiting for -meeting to take up.” - -All outside painting, with the exception of the first coat, should be -done, as far as possible, in cool weather. Early spring and late fall, -when flies and dust are not present, are the best. If the house is -built in the summer, the second coat may be put on in the fall and the -third coat the following spring. The paint of the second coat may be a -little thicker than that of the first, and that of the third a little -thicker than the second. If the best job is desired the paint for all -three coats should be mixed thinner than is customary, in which case a -fourth coat will be required the following fall. The house will now have -a polish similar to the well painted carriage body, and, like it, will -resist moisture and remain good for a long time. If a building is to be -painted at all it would better be painted at the beginning and be kept -well painted, as it is the more economical in the end. Better curtail -the size of the house than to build it so large that the outside -covering must be neglected. - -The oil used in paints is usually derived from the vegetable oil found -in flax or linseed. Although many other kinds of oils have been tried, -nothing has been discovered which can take the place, in paints, of -linseed oil. This is most remarkable, for there are many vegetable oils -which are very similar to this one. Linseed oil is expensive as compared -with several other kinds, hence many attempts have been made to find an -oil equally as good for painting; so far as I am able to learn, none -have been discovered. Linseed oil in paints, when dried, forms a hard, -tough, gluey coating which serves to bind firmly the particles of paint -together, and to the wood, and to exclude water as no other oil does; -hence if any other oil is mixed with the linseed oil, it is said to be -adulterated. At the present time linseed oil is adulterated in some -cases, and it is believed that this adulteration is the chief cause of -the lack of durability in many of the ready-mixed paints. If linseed oil -be mixed with other oils which are wanting in its valuable -characteristic, it is certain that such oils will not bind the particles -of paint together as they should be bound. - -At present the only protection is to purchase guaranteed pure oil of -dealers who are reliable beyond peradventure. Outside painting should be -done with unboiled oil unless, on account of the weather, boiled oil -must be used to hasten drying. In extreme cases a drier (litharge) is -used. The drying process should not be rapid in outside painting, as -slow drying promotes durability. - -The substances mixed with the oil to form paints are extremely variable -in composition and color. Some are good, and are usually relatively high -priced. Others are inferior and relatively low priced. Now that so many -brands of ready-mixed paints of many tints are in common use, it is -impracticable to analyze all of them and determine their quality so that -the inferior may be distinguished from the superior. There appears to be -but two ways out of this serious dilemma: use the best brands of the -ready-mixed paints and await results, or purchase pure white lead and -zinc paints and pure oil, and tint to suit tastes and conditions. -Heretofore, to do this successfully has required much skill and -patience, especially if the house was to be painted in many colors. - -Paints are now so universally adulterated that I deem it my duty to call -attention to a company which virtually guarantees the material sold. The -National Lead Company makes white paints of pure white lead and pure -linseed oil. It also manufactures pure tinting colors, at least the -company so advertise, and without doubt would be liable for damages -should the paints prove to be adulterated. Sample tint cards are -furnished and directions given as to the quantity and kind of tinting -material to be mixed with the white paint to give the desired color. All -this greatly simplifies painting, and if these paints are pure, as -represented, the farmer will have no difficulty in securing pure paint -of any tint desired. - -The farmer who desires a beautifully painted house, and simplicity, may -well restrict the colors of the paints he uses to two, being careful -that they are in harmony, one with the other, and with the character of -the house and its surroundings. - -The following figures show the composition of some common paints (No. 1 -was analyzed at the Cornell Exp. Sta., the others at the Iowa Station): - -I. The paint known as white lead, when pure, is a basic carbonate of -lead mixed in oil. A sample showed-- - - White lead 93.62% - Oil and undetermined 6.38% - - There was no evidence of adulteration. - -II. White lead-- - - White lead 41.12% - Barium sulfate 30.29% - Zinc oxide 28.59% - - Adulterated with barium sulfate and zinc oxide. Barium sulfate is very - heavy; in fact, in nature it is known as heavy spar. - -III. Venetian red, dry-- - - Ferric oxide 24.12% - Calcium carbonate } 66.36% - Calcium sulfate } - Undetermined 9.52% - - Adulterated with calcium carbonate and calcium sulfate. Venetian red - is ferric oxide, or a natural red oxide of iron. Calcium carbonate is - chalk or limestone, and calcium sulfate is plaster. - -IV. Venetian red in oil-- - - Ferric oxide 12.82% - Calcium sulfate 3.54% - Barium sulfate 63.98% - Oil and undetermined 19.66% - -------- - 100.00% - - Adulterated with barium sulfate and calcium sulfate. - - - - -CHAPTER X - -_INSIDE FINISH, HEATING, AND VENTILATION_ - - -As a rule, houses are built too quickly. The frame timbers are only -partly seasoned when placed; the rains which fall before the house is -roofed-in and the dampness caused by plastering all conspire to swell -and make damp all portions of the wooden parts of the structure. -Formerly, the casings of doors and windows and the floors were placed -before the rooms were plastered; the better practice of plastering on -“grounds”[6] and placing the woodwork after the mortar is dry is now -observed by the builders of all good houses. In most cases even these -improved methods of construction do not result in securing what is -wanted--tight floors and doors and casings which will not shrink and -warp out of shape. Nearly all of this trouble may be traced to two -principal causes: the lumber which constitutes the inside finish may not -be thoroughly seasoned, or the house may be so damp that the finish -swells after it is placed. In either case, when the house becomes -thoroughly dried out by artificial heat or otherwise, unsightly and -dirt-holding cracks will appear. When expensive hard wood polished -floors are laid, pains is taken to provide against shrinkage by -kiln-drying the floor boards and by laying them where the air and sun -unite to take up extraneous moisture in the rooms and in the floor -boards used. - - [6] Narrow strips of sufficient thickness to receive the lath and - plaster, placed on the frame and other places where needed. - -Comparatively few persons can afford hard wood floors, but this fact -does not preclude having floors without wide cracks, which serve to -retain dangerous and filthy material. There is no reason why tight -floors may not be made of hard pine or other suitable material, provided -a little extra pains be taken in their construction. - -The laying of the floors should be the last carpenter work done in the -new house. All this implies that a rough, cheap floor has been laid when -the frame was constructed. The rough, diagonally laid sub-floor will -cost something extra, but it results in so many benefits that it should -never be dispensed with. - -[Illustration: Fig. 82. - -A plain base board.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 83. - -A complex base board.] - -Windows and door frames must have inside casings, and baseboards, -kitchen wainscoting and picture moldings cannot well be dispensed with. -All these should be of the simplest and plainest construction. Fig. 82 -shows a cross section of a plain baseboard, and Fig. 83 one of complex -construction. Two styles of facings are shown in Fig. 84. The one style -forms lodging places for dirt; the other reduces dust catching to the -minimum. I notice that some of the newer passenger coaches, though most -elegant, are built with smooth inside finish. With the exception of the -window sills there are no lodging places for dust and cinders. The -old-fashioned doors with thin panels, and numerous moldings have been -discarded, and those as plain and uniform in thickness as a pane of -window glass, substituted for them. The picture molding, as shown in -Fig. 85, may serve to support the picture and catch dirt as well. The -other illustration (Fig. 86) shows one which may serve quite as well for -the purpose desired without forming a dust shelf. If the window sashes -are made with plain bevels and not molded, and all other window -fixtures, as stops and the like, are constructed in the same way, the -labor of keeping the house clean will be greatly reduced. - -[Illustration: Fig. 84. - -Two styles of facing.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 85. - -The common but faulty picture moulding.] - -The wainscoting and the ceilings, if they are made of wood, should be -constructed of wide boards, the cracks being covered with beveled -battens. The old-fashioned, beaded, narrow ceiling material is not only -difficult to keep tinted or varnished, but almost forbids cleanliness. - -[Illustration: Fig. 86. - -A sanitary picture molding.] - -Most stairs are too steep; some are little better than ladders and more -dangerous. The risers in the main stairway should not exceed 6¹⁄₂ -inches, nor the steps be less than 12 inches wide. The back stair may -have 7 to 7¹⁄₂ inches risers, and 10- to 11-inch steps. The best and -most beautiful stair has one or more broad landings. The spiral or -“corkscrew” stair is worst of all. The effort to economize space by -cramping the stair is almost universal. The difference between a cramped -stair and an ample one may not amount to more than 12 square feet of -space, equivalent to the top of a small table. True, the children may go -up an easy stair two steps at a time, but when their hair whitens they -will bless the man who knew the difference between an easy, dignified -stair and a step-ladder. Diminish the size of a room, add a foot to the -width of the house, do anything rather than cramp the stairway. - -As far as possible paint should be kept off the inside woodwork. There -are but few varieties of wood which may not be made smooth; and by the -use of hard oil, which is really oil and varnish mixed together, all -woodwork becomes beautiful and can be easily cleaned. It appears almost -sacrilegious to cover the fine grain of our native woods with cheap, -adulterated paint. If some of the woods, such as ash, oak and chestnut, -be sawed “on the quarter” and properly finished, they become more -elegant and are in better taste than any of the imported high-priced -woods. The farm house should be plain, substantial, and durable, and in -many cases there is sufficient wealth to make it elegant and even -refined by decorating the walls with a few fine pictures and providing -useful books. We judge people somewhat by the furnishings of the rooms -in which they live, and by their appreciation of things which are really -beautiful and useful. - -The comfort and elegance of the rooms depend quite as much on the -plastered walls as on their wooden finish. Few things are more annoying -than poor walls, which may fall at any time upon the furniture and rugs, -and may even endanger the lives of the little ones. With quick-lime and -sand and an honest and efficient workman, a good, durable wall may be -secured; provided, however, that the joists and studding are strong -enough to prevent vibration when the floors are walked upon or the doors -are closed quickly. - -In plastering, the green-coat finish should not be adopted, since poorer -walls will inevitably be the result than by the scratch-coat method. To -the new settler on the prairies living in a covered wagon, the time -consumed in building a house was important; therefore the second coat of -plaster was put on a few hours after the first. The pressure required to -spread, level, and smooth the second coat often disturbed the clinches -formed by the first coat. The bond of these mortar clinches being broken -or disturbed, the wall was made weak. It is well known that if the bond -between the lath and mortar is once broken after the mortar sets, it -never reunites. The only safe way to place a wall when the common mortar -is used is by the scratch-coat method. This consists in allowing the -first coat to become fully dry, having, however, scratched the surface -of the plaster slightly soon after it is put on. When it is perfectly -dry the second coat is placed, and when this is dry, a third (skim) coat -may be added, which should be but little thicker than whitewash. This -leaves the wall smooth and nearly white. However, many walls are now -finished on the second coat which is left level but rough, and may be -tinted by mixing coloring material with the mortar. The quality of the -wall depends largely upon the mixing of the mortar and the amount of -firm troweling which it receives. The fewer interstices between the -particles of sand the better. Firm, persistent troweling tends to reduce -interstices, and hence to make the wall firm and strong. Plastered walls -are much strengthened by being painted, and wherever such painting is -appropriate, as in the bathroom, wardrobe, and kitchen, they should -receive two coats of light cream color or other warm-colored paint. - -A new mixture, cement and hair, or wood-fiber, has been put on the -market, and is likely to be used extensively, for when properly used a -stronger, harder, and more durable wall is secured than by using the -ordinary stone lime and sand mortar. This cement is sold under a variety -of names, and is usually known by the builders under the generic name, -adamant or adamant plaster. It is put up in barrel packages, and sells -in central New York from $2 to $2.50 per barrel, wholesale. It is mixed -in small quantities immediately before using, in the proportion of one -of cement to two of sharp sand. One barrel suffices for thirty square -yards of two-coat work, three-fourth-inch grounds being used; -seven-eighth-inch grounds are required for three-coat work. As mortar -made of this material sets quickly, the laths should be thoroughly wet -before the mortar is applied, and the rooms should be closed while the -work is progressing, or the mortar will harden too rapidly. Not only -plastering mortar, but that used for other purposes which depends on -cement for its binding force, should not be allowed to dry out rapidly. - -One serious objection is urged against walls made of cement mortar,--it -being said that they are so resonant as to be annoying. To overcome this -objection the walls of one public building were covered with burlap and -painted. Notwithstanding the objections raised against cement plastered -walls, they are likely to come into common use, since they are so -superior in hardness and durability to the old style wall. - -Ordinarily, a full year should be allotted for building the house, and -it should not be occupied until it has become thoroughly dried out. -Perhaps this hint of the unsanitary condition of a damp house may be -sufficient for the American. In Germany the law requires that a new -house must have been completed a full half year before it may be -occupied. - - -HEATING AND VENTILATION - -In the future as in the past, most farm houses, without doubt, will be -heated by stoves. However, some farmers will desire either an air, -water, or steam heater. Air heaters are dangerous, because if the valves -are not properly managed, the pipes may become superheated and may set -the building on fire. They carry fine dust into the rooms, and the heat -cannot be evenly distributed when the house is exposed to the full force -of the wind, as it usually is in the country. The system of heating by -means of hot water has many objections when used in the farm house. The -water in the pipes is likely to freeze at night in the unused rooms if -it is cut off; if it is left on, all the rooms must be heated, which is -frequently not desirable. Then, too, heat cannot be secured as quickly -in the morning as desired, and in case of too much heat, the rooms cool -slowly unless doors or windows are opened. The first cost of placing a -steam heating plant is expensive, but once in place it is most -satisfactory. Wherever steam power can be used to advantage in the -dairy, the steam plant might well be placed in one end of the summer -kitchen or in the wood house, where it may be separated from the balance -of the room by a partition. There is no more danger of fire from a -boiler than from a stove. The one plant which furnishes steam and hot -water for various purposes, such as churning, sawing wood, and pumping -water, need not be more expensive if it also is made to serve for -heating the house. - -A simple contrivance now in common use,--when several buildings are -heated from a central station,--serves to govern the amount and pressure -of steam introduced into the building. The farm steam plant should be -situated, when possible, below the level of the radiators on the first -floor, that the warm water from the condensed steam may be used again in -the boiler instead of cold water. In the long run, this system would -heat the house more cheaply than stoves, require less care-taking, and -be cleaner and more satisfactory in every way. - -Much has been written about ventilation; and too often the systems -applicable to ventilating large, overcrowded rooms and public halls have -been applied to dwellings. However complex and difficult the ventilation -of large buildings may be, the ventilation of a room in a dwelling is -simple. If there are two or more windows in a room, ideal ventilation -can be secured by raising the lower and lowering the upper sash as much -as desired. By this method three streams of air are allowed to enter or -leave the room, as there will be openings at the top, bottom and middle -of the windows. The impure air is largely found at the top of the room -and at the bottom. If, then, the warmer and lighter air is allowed to -escape at the top, the colder air will rush in at the bottom, which will -result in keeping it moving as water moves when the inflow is at or near -the bottom of a vessel and the outflow near the top. Whenever only one -window can be secured in the sleeping room, large transoms should be -placed over the doors into the hall. While this method does not -ventilate as well as the other, it serves to keep the air pure in the -chamber. When there are many rooms situated on one hall, the hall should -be ventilated by means of windows at its end, or at the top of the -house. Many farm houses are over-ventilated in winter, the cold air -entering the loose casements until the wash water expands and breaks the -pitcher. In such cases storm sashes are a necessity, and are more -economical than feather beds or coal in preserving a living -temperature. - - - - -CHAPTER XI - -_HOUSE FURNISHING AND DECORATION_ - - -House furnishings do not exist for themselves, but as a background for -the people who live among them. Just as the trees, rocks, fields and -animals have for their setting the green earth and the blue sky, and as -pictures have a background, a middle distance and a foreground, so human -beings have their setting. If the setting be more striking or more -elegant than the people for whom it exists, they are made uncomfortable -and overshadowed by it; if meaner and uglier than they, the people are -belittled by it. How many houses there are whose furnishings are much -more attractive than their inhabitants! A woman of superficial education -and trivial character has the distinction of having the most beautiful -library in her state; rows on rows of the best books, in beautiful -bindings, in a room of the most artistic design, and nobody to read -them. The contrast between the woman and her environment is pitiful. - -The house and its contents should be an outgrowth of the tastes, habits -and occupation of its owners. Farm life in its best aspect is a synonym -for breadth, generosity, simplicity, cleanliness, abundance of sunlight, -fresh air and good food, the beauty of nature, freedom from stiff -formality--these are the things which the city dweller envies the -farmer. The equipment of the house should express this breadth, beauty, -and freedom of life. It follows from this that many pieces of furniture -and some kinds of decoration which are offered in the shops are quite -out of place in a country house. Imitation is, therefore, a dangerous -principle, for it is likely to lead to the choice and purchase of -articles which, however suitable for some other family and pretty in -themselves, are wholly inappropriate in the case of the purchaser. - -There are three main considerations which should always be taken into -account in house-furnishing: health, suitability, and beauty. The order -of these is often reversed to the permanent injury of the housewife. The -first law of hygiene is that nothing can be suitable which is not -wholesome for those who are to use it; the first law of decorative art -is that nothing is beautiful which is not wholly suitable. If these -principles should be applied to the furnishing of country houses, they -would taboo dark, thick window draperies, nearly all bric-a-brac, heavy -upholstered furniture, parlor tea-tables filled with delicate (and -generally dusty) china, and many other things which have been copied -from the unwholesome and perhaps necessary customs of city life. - -Taste is a matter of cultivation, as much as efficiency or honesty; the -habitual application of its fundamental principles in one’s own -household, and the seeing of beautiful things elsewhere, are the chief -means of its development. Man obtained his first conception of beauty -from the form and color which he saw in the world about him, and we have -only to apply the principles which are there apparent, in order to -develop good taste. Nature provides an immense and comparatively neutral -background; Nature always makes curves, never angles; Nature blends the -most sharply contrasting colors together in the butterfly’s wing, in the -poppies in a meadow, and in the feathers of the robin’s breast. The -greater part of the world is in soft colors, browns and grays, dull -greens and dull blues; the brilliant yellows, reds, pinks, purples and -blues are always in very small quantities against this very large, -neutral background. Since the furnishings of a house are the setting of -the people, none of them should be more conspicuous than the people. -Whatever brilliant color there is must be in relatively small -quantities against a soft background. Nothing either in form or color -should “stick out.” - -If the general principles just laid down be applied to the details of -house furnishing, we shall find that many matters must be changed. Since -the housewife must usually do her own work with very little or, at most, -inadequate help, everything should be planned to save her strength. If -we remember, also, that the first effort of good housekeeping is to keep -dirt out of the house, and the second to get it out at once, it will -appear that carpets are unsanitary. It has already been shown that good -floors are now to be had easily and cheaply. If properly painted or -finished with oil and wax, they form the best foundation for tasteful -and cleanly housekeeping. Carpets not only keep the dirt in the house, -but they involve that annual bugbear, house-cleaning. Even when the -floors are old and poor, the space around the edge of a rug may be -puttied and painted so as to look very well when the rug is put down. By -rugs, I do not mean several little rugs, like oases in the slippery -surface, or at the doorways to trip the unwary, but a good, -generous-sized rug which just escapes the edges of the heavier furniture -around the sides of the room; which is substantial enough not to roll -up, and which is yet small enough to be carried in and out by one -person. If the woodwork and pictures be wiped with a damp cloth, the -windows washed, the floor dusted, and the rug beaten out of doors, now -and then, no such terrible upheaval as house-cleaning usually implies, -is necessary. Rugs may be had ready-made of ingrain, Japanese cotton, -and jute, Brussels, and more expensive materials, but should always be -heavy enough to lie flat without fastening and large enough to cover the -entire portion of the floor which is to be walked upon. The uncovered -space should usually not be wider than one and one-half feet. - -All furniture that is not actually built into or fastened to the wall -and floors should be easily movable and easily cleaned. This at once -precludes the purchase of heavy, upholstered chairs and large sofas. -Wicker and rattan furniture, though not so artistic and costly as -antique wood, is very light, and with good removable hair cushions, may -be made quite as comfortable and far more cleanly than upholstered plush -and damask. The cushions may be beaten at the same time as the rugs, and -the dust thus taken out of the house. White enameled bedsteads and -washstands are rapidly superseding the heavy wooden ones. It is a -curious fact that although the persons of a family are of various sizes -and ages, chairs are still bought by the half dozen, without reference -to the people who are to sit upon them. Even in such minor matters as -chairs and tea-cups, some account should be taken of individuality. - -If all furniture be selected with these simple principles in mind, i. -e., hygienic cleanliness, the minimum of labor for the housewife, and -the comfort of those who are to use it, there remains only one other way -in which to go astray: it may still be superlatively and positively -ugly; or it may be comfortable, sanitary, easily moved, and yet be -merely negatively ugly; or it may be made decorative by its graceful -form, the color of its covering, or the carving upon it. The first -principle of artistic decoration is that it must be wholly subordinated -to the use of the object which it adorns. For instance, windows are for -two purposes: to light the house and for seeing out. If a window opens -on a barnyard or some unpleasant prospect, you may put up a sash curtain -of light silk or muslin. Thus you obtain light but no view. But if you -wish to see out of the window, sash curtains are absurd. In the ordinary -private house, elaborate and heavy window curtains are out of place, -both for sanitary and artistic reasons. Whenever cleanliness is a prime -object, drapery should be movable and washable. Silk and velvet -draperies are only to be tolerated where there is a retinue of maids to -keep them clean. - -The facility and cheapness of mill-work and lathe-work in wood has -vitiated the taste of Americans to a terrible degree. Nearly all -ready-made furniture is grooved, machine-carved, and ornamented in a way -to violate not only the principles of beauty, but of strength and -cleanliness as well. Ornament that does not _mean anything_ is not -merely commonplace but ugly. There are four chairs of different -patterns, and costing from $1.50 to $15, in the room where I sit; all of -them have legs. Now, legs are intended as a support, yet all these are -grooved and beaded and hollowed out in spots, so that twice as much -material as is necessary has been used to insure support. The -ornamentation is not pretty, the hollows are inevitably full of dust, -and they mean absolutely nothing to anybody who sees them. On the front -crosspiece of one large chair is glued a design of leaves in oak, by way -of ornament. If these had been carved out upon a beautiful strip of wood -by the hand of a cunning workman, they would at least have meant a man’s -thought and skill. As they are, they suggest merely a machine and a glue -pot, and thousands of others as hideous as they. Contrast with this -gingerbread furniture the plain, substantial colonial chairs and tables -and sideboards, made of beautiful wood, almost without ornamentation, -with shapely, slender, and strong legs and softly polished by hand. -Cheapness and quantity have been secured by machinery at the expense of -beauty and strength. - -If the principle thus illustrated be true, then it follows that patterns -of any sort, whether in carpets, wall paper, china, or drapery, must be -very carefully used that they may not be more conspicuous than that -which they decorate. The floor and the wall are the basis both of -color-scheme and decoration. They are the background of the people who -are to live there; they should, therefore, be rather inconspicuous, soft -and indefinite in effect, and as becoming as possible to the human -figures. If the climate be sunny and the room well lighted, the walls -and floor may be dark and rich in effect; if the climate be uncertain -and often cloudy, or the room badly lighted, the effect should be light -and gay. Color is the chief means of producing this result: the walls -and floors of living rooms should be of soft, neutral brown, yellow, -red, green, or warm gray tints. Blue, though very lovely when carefully -used, is cold in effect, and seldom satisfactory for living rooms, while -the blue grays are positively chilling. Yellow in paler or richer -shades, depending on the lighting of the room, is uniformly cheerful -and satisfying; next to it rank the various terra cotta shades. Neither -rug nor wall-covering should have large, striking designs; if having -pattern at all, it should rather be of an indefinite, wandering design -like the Japanese jute rugs, or of small inconspicuous conventional -design, such as may be found in the best Brussels carpet. - -If the floors, however, be poor and old they may be covered very -inexpensively with thick, strong building paper which comes in beautiful -tints and the rug may be laid on top of this; or with denim on top of -newspapers, which is only a little more expensive, and which may be had -in a variety of beautiful shades; or, best of all, with matting on top -of paper. Matting is especially desirable because the dust sifts through -below, and does not rise easily when swept. But the money spent to cover -up a poor floor would often serve to lay a good new one, and this should -be done whenever possible. For kitchen and, in some cases, for a dining -room floor as well, nothing is so satisfactory as linoleum. It is -impervious, warm, soft to the foot, easily kept in order by an -occasional coat of oil, and to be had in agreeable patterns. It may also -be used like denim, building paper, and matting, to cover up bad floors, -and as a basis for the rug; while more expensive, it is also much more -satisfactory than anything except a good hardwood floor. There is often -far too great contrast between the furnishings of the living room and -the parlor; between the “spare room” and the family bedrooms. The money -spent in elegance which is shut up in a room rarely used would serve to -add much to the comfort of the whole family. The guest will enjoy the -hospitality offered all the more if not treated too ceremoniously. - -The furnishing of the living room should always include several easy -chairs, a good lounge, a place for books and magazines, and a thoroughly -good reading lamp. If it can be afforded, a small room off the sitting -room for writing and study is very desirable. It should contain book -shelves, a large writing table or desk, and a good lamp. But if the -extra room cannot be had, the desk and book shelves may be placed in the -parlor. There should certainly be some place where the children may -study or any member of the family may read and write uninterrupted. It -is as irksome to write without proper appliances as to bathe without -proper facilities. - -The furniture and decorations of bedrooms can scarcely be too simple; -the walls may be lighter and gayer than those of living rooms. Blue and -white or pale green and white may be used as color-schemes for very -sunny bedrooms, yellow or pink and white for less sunny ones. One or two -single, white, enamelled iron bedsteads, a washstand, a bureau or a -chest of drawers with glass above, two or three low, light chairs, and a -table or desk at which one may write, is an ample furnishing, if there -be a good closet or wardrobe. The rug need be only large enough to cover -the space in front of the bed, bureau, and stand, if the floor be well -matched and painted or oiled. A bedroom should give the impression of -spotlessness and comfort; everything should be washable or cleanable; -unless used also as a sitting room, it should not have a superfluous -article in it. Mats, bric-a-brac, even many pictures, are quite out of -place. - -Since cost, styles and tastes differ so widely in different localities, -no detailed directions can or should be given that will be generally -applicable. If the principles illustrated in this chapter be correct, -they will serve to guide and to develop the taste of many different -kinds of persons. - - - - -CHAPTER XII - -_CLEANLINESS AND SANITATION--WATER SUPPLY AND SEWAGE_ - - -Filth and disease have gone hand in hand from the beginning of the -world; but only during the last quarter-century have we known the true -cause of infection, and why it is so closely associated with dirt. The -danger of uncleanliness lies in the existence of certain microscopic -organisms belonging to the vegetable kingdom, known popularly as -microbes or germs, but more properly as bacteria. Bacteria, like the -plants with which we are more familiar, thrive in moisture and moderate -heat, but differ from them in many respects. Some of the more striking -differences are structure and method of reproduction, many of them -possessing the faculty of growing without sunlight. Bacteria are -composed of minute masses of vegetable matter which vary from one -ten-thousandth to one-thirty thousandth of an inch in length, and they -reproduce by simple division. This process of multiplication may occur -as often as once in half an hour; thus immense numbers may develop in a -very short time. Under conditions unfavorable for growth, some species -may form within their interior dense masses which are called spores. -These resemble the seeds of higher plants in their function of -distributing the species and in preserving life through intervals of -time unfavorable for continuous multiplication. - -Bacteria may be classified in several ways, but for the discussion of -cleanliness and sanitation, the simplest division is into the harmless -and the injurious. The harmless forms live mostly on dead organic -matter, causing nitrification, fermentation, and putrefaction; they -break down the more complex organic compounds into simpler ones, so that -they can be used again as food for plants. Familiar examples of this are -seen in the decay of meat and vegetables. This class is more numerous, -much hardier than the other, and comprises an overwhelmingly large -proportion of the bacteria in nature. - -Bacteria are found almost constantly in water, in soil, and in air. -Consequently they are present in all our food, except that which has -been heated to kill them. Certain bacteria are normal inhabitants of the -mouth, throat and intestines, while others find suitable conditions for -growth on the skin and in the accumulation of substances excreted in the -perspiration. - -Owing to the short time which has been devoted to the study of bacteria -and their functions, closer attention has been paid to the harmful or -pathogenic bacteria because of their relation to human health. This -one-sided study of bacteriology has blinded us to the beneficent action -of many bacteria, and has caused us much unnecessary fear of their -presence in food. - -The harmful bacteria cause disease either indirectly through poisons -which they excrete in food products, or directly by poisons or toxins -which they form when living within the body. Although harmless bacteria -are everywhere present, the pathogenic or harmful varieties are -ordinarily much less numerous. It should be understood, however, that -many of the so-called harmless bacteria are the cause of certain -decompositions of vegetable and animal matter with the formation of -substances which are detrimental to health. This is illustrated by the -occasional cases of meat, fish, and oyster poisoning. The pathogenic -bacteria, such as those of tuberculosis, typhoid fever, diphtheria, and -the like, constitute, as has been already stated, a small number of -species. These are disseminated through various channels, such as the -milk and the water supply, and by persons directly. When they are -introduced into dirty and unwholesome homes, they find in the filth -suitable conditions for their multiplication, with the usual -consequence of causing more or less disease in the family. The human -body possesses more or less power of resistance to bacteria, but if -these natural forces cannot overcome their invasion, they in turn will -be successful and produce disease. - -Once infected with disease-producing bacteria, a house should be -renovated from attic to cellar, and subjected to the action of agents -possessing the power of destroying the pathogenic organisms. Numerous -means are employed to kill bacteria, among them being the use of -disinfectants in the form of liquids or gases, and the application of -heat. The list of chemical disinfectants is long, but owing to their -cost, a relatively small number are available for the disinfection of -houses. The use of carbolic acid, copperas, whitewash, and the fumes of -burning sulfur are familiar disinfectants used for this purpose. Among -the disinfectants which can be applied directly to wounds, to prevent -suppuration, are weak solutions of corrosive sublimate and of carbolic -acid. - -The greater number of bacteria, pathogenic or harmless, which do not -form spores, are destroyed by a temperature of 155 degrees Fahrenheit -for twenty minutes. Very few resist the boiling point; thus water may be -made safe by boiling, and milk by Pasteurizing at 155 degrees for -twenty minutes. Cold merely checks the growth of bacteria, but, -ordinarily, does not destroy them. Sunlight and fresh air are especially -unfavorable to them; therefore the house should be sunny, and beds, -bedrooms and living rooms thoroughly aired. If there be no organic -matter to serve as nutriment for them, they cannot multiply; therefore -the body, the clothing, and the dwelling should be kept as clean as -possible. For this reason the first test of good sanitation is the -immediate removal of all waste matter from the house, and the first -preventive of disease is personal cleanliness. - -In Chapter VI suggestions have been made concerning the site, location, -and drainage of the farm house. The kind, number, and convenience of the -sanitary appliances, such as hot water boilers, closets, lavatories, and -baths, are chiefly dependent upon the water-supply. If there be an -abundance from a town water-main, or from a windmill or house-tank which -will give some pressure, the problem of plumbing is comparatively easy; -but if there be no such supply, it becomes far more difficult. A good -water supply _in the house_ is of the first importance; therefore, for -several reasons, plumbing conveniences lessen the work of the housewife -by half, they encourage the practice of that virtue which is “next to -godliness,” and if properly arranged they do away with many sanitary -dangers. Personal cleanliness is irksome enough with every convenience -for washing and bathing. When there is no convenience except a wash -basin and a quart or two of hot water, habitual cleanliness is -practically impossible. In this respect town and city life have an -immense advantage over rural life. A woman who had moved from town to -country for the sake of her husband’s health, was asked how she liked -it: she said, “It is delightful, but I sometimes think I cannot endure -it on account of this nasty privy and no bath-room.” Cleanliness of the -skin is hygienically far more important than cleanliness of clothing. In -athletics and gymnastics, the bath following the exercise is considered -an essential part of their hygienic value; how much more necessary, -then, is opportunity for frequent bathing, where the family, both in and -out of doors, do daily manual labor which causes much perspiration, and -which is often very dirty! The recent movement in cities to provide -public bath-houses for the poor in tenements should not outstrip the -farmer’s effort to obtain equally good facilities. - -If there be a sufficient water supply available, there should be in -every house a hot water boiler of at least twenty gallons capacity, -attached to the kitchen range, to supply hot water for laundry work and -bathing; a kitchen sink and a bath-tub, each with hot and cold water -faucets and waste pipe to sewer or cesspool; and a water-closet. These -are the essentials; but, if possible, a stationary wash stand and two -laundry tubs, with hot and cold water pipes, should also be provided. In -the farm house it will save expense and many steps for the housewife, -and will encourage frequent use, if all these be located on the first -floor; the boiler in a cupboard in the wall of the kitchen, which may be -shut in summer and opened in winter; the sink in the kitchen, or if -preferred, in a pantry between the dining room and kitchen; the -bath-room and stationary washstand in a room either opening out of the -kitchen or out of the family bedroom, or out of a rear passage; the -water-closet should be in some well ventilated space, on an outside -wall, where the noise of the fixture will be as little heard as -possible. It should have an outside as well as an inside entrance. It is -customary to place the closet in the bath-room, but this often -interferes with the general use of the washstand and bath-tub by the -family, and should be avoided. The nearer all plumbing fixtures are to -each other, the less expensive they are to put in; therefore in -planning the first floor, this point should receive special -consideration. - -Certain general principles apply to all plumbing, and may serve to test -the various kinds of fixtures offered for sale. All foul and effete -matter should be immediately and completely removed from the house; any -back current of foul air into the house should be prevented, and any -communication between the sewer or the cesspool and the water supply -should be made impossible. Fixtures should be as simple in construction -as possible and easily accessible. Pipes were formerly enclosed in the -walls, but in the finest new buildings in cities, are now placed -altogether in sight, and painted the color of the walls, or of the -woodwork. The sewer pipe, on reaching the level of the ground, should -pass directly out of the house, and should never be carried along under -the first floor of the house. In the southern states and on the Pacific -coast, pipes may run on the outside of the house, thus fulfilling -ideally the principle that waste matter should be removed from the house -as soon as possible. A few years ago there was much controversy over the -placing of vent pipes in traps and in branches. Gerhard and the older -sanitarians advise a complicated and elaborate use of them, but Putnam -and the more recent authorities consider thorough ventilation of the -soil pipe at top and bottom quite sufficient. The material of fixtures -should be good (not extravagant), and the workmanship should be of the -very best. The efficiency of any sanitary convenience depends almost as -much upon the care with which it is put in as upon its material and -style. But of all the principles of sanitary plumbing, probably the most -important is frequent and thorough flushing, if possible with hot water. -Any fixture will become foul and dangerous if there is not water enough -and under sufficient force to scour it out thoroughly. - -Having laid down certain principles which apply to plumbing fixtures -generally, we may now consider these fixtures more in detail. Pipes -should be rather heavy. Waste pipes are generally too large, and -therefore do not scour well; they need be only three to four inches in -diameter for one or more closets in an ordinary house, and from one to -one and a-half inches for washbowls, sinks, and tubs; they should always -be of uniform size, i. e., “full-bore” throughout. Soil pipes should -never run level, but as nearly as possible at a uniform slope of not -less than one foot in fifty. - -The kitchen sink may be of white porcelain, enameled iron, painted iron, -or granite ware, any of which materials are serviceable and desirable; -or of wood, lined with lead, zinc, copper or slate, all of which are -more or less undesirable, because after some use, the water and filth is -apt to get in between the wood and its covering, or because they are not -durable. The sink should have as little woodwork about it as possible, -since wood is porous and, therefore, collects filth. It should be set -open on brackets, and not over a dark, moist, dirt-collecting, -back-breaking closet. Flushing is especially important in the case of -the kitchen sink because of the grease. The best plumbing provides a -grease-trap outside the house, which may be easily cleaned; but whether -outside or immediately beneath the sink, the trap should have a -screw-plug, so that it may be frequently cleaned. It follows that the -kitchen waste pipe should not be too large, should have a good incline, -and if possible no abrupt curves, so that cooling grease in the water -may not harden on the sides of the pipe and finally fill it up. The use -of a cheap wire screen garbage basket in the sink will prevent the small -particles of waste from passing down the pipe. - -Bath-tubs of white earthenware or “porcelain” are the most expensive, -the most durable and very heavy; of white enameled iron, are less -expensive and heavy, durable if carefully used, impervious and cleanly; -those of copper, tinned and planished, dent easily and the tinning -wears off, but are fairly durable and still less expensive; those of -wood-fiber are not very common, but are impervious, light and cleanly. - -The stationary washstand bowl and top are usually of marble; the outlet -of the bowl should not be smaller than the wastepipe; the trap should be -near the bowl, and have a screw plug, so that obstructions may be easily -removed. - -There is an immense variety of water-closets; those should be especially -avoided which have moveable machinery in connection with the bowl, such -as the pan, valve, and plunger closets. Some of these are very -inexpensive, but they are objectionable, either because they rust and -accumulate filth, or because they get out of order easily. The forms of -closets without movable machinery in connection with the bowl, that is, -in which the machinery is connected with the flushing cistern, such as -the hopper, the siphon-jet, and the washout closets, are to be -preferred. Any washout or hopper closet bought from a responsible firm -is likely to give satisfaction, if thoroughly flushed and kept in order. - -Stationary laundry tubs are of less importance than these other plumbing -fixtures, since there are several excellent washing machines the use of -which does away with the necessity for them. If one must choose between -the two, the washing machine will be most useful; but if one wishes to -have laundry tubs also, they come in porcelain, soapstone, granite, and -wood, the latter being the least desirable. - -If the water supply be limited, as when a tank is supplied by pumping -from a cistern, the hot water boiler, the bath-tub, and the stationary -washstand may be arranged almost as easily as when there is an abundance -of water; but it may be necessary to substitute the dry-closet for the -water-closet. - -When no tank supply is available, and all water must be carried from a -cistern or from the well in the yard, the cost of plumbing is very small -and the discomfort very great. Warm water must be supplied chiefly from -a reservoir at the back of the range, thus making frequent bathing very -inconvenient, even if a regular bath-tub be provided. If, however, a -cesspool be built in the yard, the kitchen sink, the slop-hopper, the -bath-tub, and the laundry tub may have waste pipes to it. Such waste -pipes save just half the work, for the water has to be carried only to -the fixture, not away from it again. It thus seems worth while to have -the fixtures, even though they serve only half their purpose. A -slop-hopper with pipe to the cesspool, on the same level and near the -kitchen, for waste wash water, etc., from the chambers, saves many -steps, and is far more sanitary than throwing slops on the ground -outside the house or carrying them to the outhouse. - -The chief problem is the outhouse, or privy vault. There is no more -disgusting or unsanitary feature of rural life than this ill-smelling, -dirty hole in the ground, from which the filth permeates the surrounding -soil, and may contaminate the water supply. Much discomfort and some -digestive ills arise from the necessity--especially for women--of going -a considerable distance in cold weather and at night, to such places. -The closet should, therefore, be as near the house as is compatible with -decency, and should be reached by a covered walkway. If properly built -and regularly disinfected and cleaned, it need be neither disgusting nor -unsanitary. The wooden house should never be papered nor carpeted, but -should be painted or whitewashed yearly and kept scrupulously clean. The -habitual use of ashes or dry earth in the receptacle and an occasional -application of some disinfectant, such as copperas or chloride of lime, -is necessary. If drawers are used in the privy, they may be hauled out -frequently by horse; and with the liberal use of road dust, no offense -arises. The writer knows a country house in which dry-earth closets are -under the house-roof, and yet there is no unpleasantness. Since the well -is so easily contaminated by the seeping through the soil of manure and -human waste matter, it is of the utmost importance that the privy vault -should be below the source of water supply and as far as possible from -it. In the following pages the details of construction of the privy -vault are given, the relative location of it, and the water supply. - -Plumbing fixtures, like all other mechanical contrivances, to be -efficient, require to be kept in perfect order. Frequent, thorough -flushing with hot water whenever possible, and disinfection of the -closet and the sink, are especially desirable. If all fixtures be set -“open” and all pipes in sight, any leakage may be easily detected and -remedied. If the pipes be painted with white lead, the defect will be -discovered by the discoloration of the paint. - - -WATER SUPPLY AND SEWAGE - -Water in abundance for the domestic animals should be provided by means -of artificial pools or lakes, situated on land higher than the barns, -but if they must be placed below the level of the buildings, aermotors -or windmills may be easily made to elevate it to any reasonable height. -It is difficult to explain why more miniature lakes, in which to store -water for all except culinary purposes, are not constructed. In Fig. 7 -it is shown how easily these pools may be made without expensive stone -dams, and after the fashion of those constructed in many of the southern -states. - -Wells, in many places, must be deep, and then often furnish but a meager -supply of water, while cisterns large enough to supply all wants are -expensive. In addition to artificial lakes, wells, and cisterns, there -are often streams, or best of all, springs, to be drawn upon. In any -case, a full and continuous supply of water should be provided before -buildings are constructed if annoyance, loss, and unnecessary labor are -to be obviated and the best sanitary conditions secured in the house. -Unless the water is brought into the house under a constant pressure, -one or more storage tanks should be provided. They should be placed at -such elevations as will secure at least some pressure on the first floor -above the cellar. The storage tank may have a capacity of from one to -five barrels, and may be constructed of rough or planed two-inch planks -and lined with galvanized iron, if the water is to be used for culinary -purposes; if not, it may be lined with lead. The tank, which may be of -any shape desired, may be placed on supports near the ceiling of the -bath-room, or the room which contains the commode, or at one end in the -upper part of the clothes-press; provided, however, that the discharge -pipe is made so large that under no contingencies will the tank -overflow. If the house is fairly large and the cistern capacious, -sufficient water may be pumped into the tank from the cistern in a few -minutes to supply all wants for the day. From the tank it will flow by -gravity into the hot water boiler and to all other points desired which -are not above the tank. If water be raised by means of an aermotor, a -storage tank will still be necessary, as the wind may fail to operate -the motor for an entire day. By whatever means water is secured, the -supply should be ample at all times. Springs and wells in the middle and -northern states, and cisterns in the southern states will, in most -cases, serve to supply the potable water needed, but these are too often -inadequate to supply the large demand for water made by the animals, and -the extra demand for water in the house made by cleaner and more -sanitary methods of living. - -In using water in the household, it becomes mixed with a great variety -of organic substances which pollute it, and which tend to putrefaction -and decay. As these various organic substances break down, numerous -compounds are produced, many of which endanger not only health but life -itself; it is therefore evident that all soiled water should be removed -from the house immediately and by the shortest practical route. But what -to do with the polluted water after it has been removed from the rooms, -becomes one of the most difficult problems of modern civilization. The -first thought is to empty this sewage into streams and lakes; but those -living on the streams and in the cities must secure their water-supply -from these sources. It is evident, then, that the streams should not be -polluted. The next thought is to distribute the sewage over the land, -but this method is usually an expensive one, and seldom can enough sandy -land be secured to absorb and filter the vast quantities of sewage which -modern conditions make necessary. - -On the farm the same difficulties are presented, and the problem to be -solved differs in degree rather than in kind. If dry-earth closets are -used on the farm, there is still the kitchen and laundry sewage to be -provided for. While disposing of this, provision may also be made for -the night-soil, thus obviating two systems of removing waste from the -house. However, the earth-closet will reduce the amount of liquid sewage -and increase the temptation to discharge it into the streams which, -above all things, should be avoided. If porous or sandy lands can be -found within reasonable distance of the dwelling, and yet not too near -to it to endanger health or pollute the water supply, a cesspool may be -constructed. A hole some ten feet in circumference and ten to twelve -feet deep, dug in the earth, walled with stone without mortar, may serve -for catching and filtering the sewage. On top of the wall, which should -not reach the surface of the ground by about two feet, lay two pieces of -railroad iron, and on these place large flat stones, covering all with -dirt, providing, however, for ventilation by means of a 4-inch iron -pipe, which should be long enough to reach a little above the surface of -the ground when all is completed. - -[Illustration: Fig. 87. Plan of a cesspool.] - -If the soil is not as porous as is desired, lay several tile or stone -drains at a depth of three to five feet, and extend them from the -cesspool some distance out into the field or grounds beyond. (Fig. 87.) -These drains should have free outlets, and the longer they are the -better. At the outlet of the drains plant willows or some other -water-loving, fast-growing trees. These will take up and utilize vast -quantities of liquid and decomposed solids, and if the household is of -only ordinary size no nuisance will result. - -If water is limited and the dry-earth closet must be adopted, then the -cesspool for the kitchen and laundry liquids need not be made so large -as described, but may be built in the same manner. The dry-earth closet -may be built as follows: Construct a privy of suitable size, 5 to 20 -feet from the most convenient rear door, and connect it by a covered -walk to the house. The small building should be placed not less than two -feet above the ground, on a good, tight wall, which should extend under -three sides of the building, the other side to be furnished with a -hinged door. Secure a large, iron-top, dump wheelbarrow, which may serve -to hold all fœcal matter. This may be emptied weekly or monthly into a -nearby trench, previously prepared. A few shovelfuls of earth thrown -upon the excreta will effectually arrest any offensive odors which might -otherwise arise. Before the ground freezes in the fall dig a trench of -sufficient length to contain the fœcal matter during the winter. In cold -weather the barrow may be inverted over the trench, and by the -application of a few quarts of hot water to the iron bottom the frozen -material will be released. When the ground thaws, the accumulated -matter may be covered. While the material is frozen there will be no -danger from it. It should be said that this trench would better be dug -near a row of trees or other strong-growing perennial plants. These will -quickly take up the products of the night-soil which might, in rare -cases, tend to contaminate the soil-water. If but little of the -night-soil be deposited in one place, the earth and plants--two most -efficient disinfectants--may be trusted to preserve good sanitary -conditions. However, pains should be taken to discover if, by any -possible means, the sewage may find its way into the well. An -intelligent inspection of the soil, the stratification of it and the -rocks, will reveal the direction which the soil-water takes; but if the -cesspool and the drains are placed some distance from the dwelling, no -contamination will take place under any circumstances, since the amount -of sewage is so small and the power of plants and soil to take up the -dangerous products of sewage is so great. - - - - -CHAPTER XIII - -_HOUSEHOLD ADMINISTRATION, ECONOMY, AND COMFORT_ - - -In colonial times, before so many of the household operations were -transferred to shops and manufactories, women were producers almost as -much as men; but in modern times women are more and more concerned with -how money shall be spent. The woman is still a producer when she cooks -an egg, mends a garment, or sweeps a room; but the question of how much -or how little can be had out of the family income has become relatively -more and more her concern. In Europe, far more than in the United -States, attention is given by the women to the economical expenditure of -the family resources. A provincial French girl is trained from her -childhood for household duties. She assists her mother not only in order -to learn the finer arts of housewifery, but especially the judicious -expenditure of money. The French husband leaves the apportionment of the -family income almost wholly to his wife’s discretion. - -There can be no doubt that the prosperity of the family depends quite as -much on the wise use of the income as upon the size of that income. The -first essential of good household management is that the housewife -should know definitely how much there is to spend. Nothing is more -productive of marital discontent than the habit which many husbands have -of doling out money to the wife at irregular times and in indefinite -amounts. It destroys the wife’s self-respect, it places her in a -degraded position before her children, and it removes all incentive to -thrift. It not infrequently supplies a powerful motive for deceit. If -the wife is inexperienced, unwise, or extravagant in the use of money, -so much the more reason why the husband should patiently and firmly -teach her how to spend, both for her own sake and that of the family -welfare. An arrangement by which the wife controls the expenditure of a -certain portion of the income is very easy whenever the man receives a -salary or regular daily wages. A regular income tends to develop thrift -and to teach people to avoid debt; but there is always a tendency to -live up to the limit of it, and the margin for saving and for extra -pleasures is always small. Salaried people seldom get deeply in debt, -but they as seldom become very rich. - -On the other hand, whenever the family income is irregular, as from -farming and most other kinds of business, the problem of household -financiering is much more difficult and requires both greater -self-control and better judgment. It is usually possible for such -families to determine upon a definite minimum amount which may be -counted upon for ordinary living expenses. The margin above this may -vary widely, but if the scale of living be habitually adjusted to come -within the minimum income, there will be no terror of debt. The -expenditure of the surplus, when it comes, becomes a unique and -unexpected pleasure. Whatever the plan adopted for distributing the -family income, the wife should have at her command and should be -expected to live within, a definite share of the income. - -After the minimum expenses of the family have been determined, the next -most important question is how and when they shall be paid out. Cash -payments are much to be preferred. They have two advantages: whoever -pays cash asks no favor of the tradesman, and commands the best quality -at a given price. The tradesman who lends money by allowing the payment -of bills to be postponed, must pay for his goods and must have interest -on the money necessary to carry on a credit business. He must -necessarily, therefore, reimburse himself by charging a higher price, -or by giving a poorer article. It should never be forgotten that credit -costs something. The cash customer is always considered a good customer, -and can always have the first choice of the market, and favors if any -are desired. Whenever monthly or quarterly bills are run, the debtor is -apt to acquire a most dangerous habit--the habit of spending now, to pay -at some future time. The more remote the time, the more dangerous the -habit. It is evident that the oftener bills are paid, the less -likelihood there is of mistakes and deceit. If bills must be run, it -should never be for longer than a month, and prompt payment of them is a -solemn obligation. The article should be done without rather than the -seller asked to wait for his money. Whatever plan the housewife adopts -will be conditioned by the customs of the locality in which she lives -and by the habits of the local tradesman. - -Women waste much time and energy in buying things one by one; they spend -in this way, too, much more than they realize, and then they wonder -where the money has gone. China, linen, and the stock of clothing -necessary for changes of season, should be bought by the set, or -quantity, marked and prepared for use at regular intervals. Women buy a -collar or two, a pair of stockings, a bit of ribbon, a bread plate, a -few glasses, etc., and then are surprised that they seem to have very -little for the money. Unless the housewife be really poor, or unless the -money be doled out to her irregularly, it will invariably pay to buy in -quantity things which are not perishable, and which the household wears -out and, therefore, habitually needs. Handkerchiefs, stockings, -underclothing, china, drinking glasses, cost less by the dozen and -half-dozen than by the piece. Lamp chimneys are continually broken, -toilet paper and soap used up, yet very few housekeepers realize that -they waste both time and energy, beside suffering inconvenience, when -they buy these one at a time. Buying piecemeal is demoralizing, as well -as wasteful, because it is unsystematic. Successful housekeeping -involves attention to numberless details; if by periodic instead of -incessant attention some of these can be disposed of in the mass, there -will be immense saving of energy. - -Many housekeepers will object to this, either because it involves the -immediate expenditure of a larger sum of money for one class of -articles, or because, not having more wholesome social and intellectual -interests, they find recreation in wandering from store to store, or -counter to counter, pricing much and buying little; or because they love -to find “a bargain.” The instinct to get something “cheap,” that is, to -get something for nothing, or, more properly, to get more than we pay -for, lies very deep in human nature. Because women have usually lived -from hand to mouth, without foresight, it has perhaps been exaggerated -in them. There are the bargain-hunters, and there are the -bargain-scorners; both are doubtless equally illogical. When an article -is phenomenally cheap, it is so, usually, either because too many of its -kind are on the market, or because the seller is sacrificing a normal -profit to draw general custom, or because the people who have produced -it have done so at less than a decent living wage, or because it is -going or gone out of fashion. Good buyers are rightfully suspicious of -bargains. No one should be willing to buy or use articles which have -been produced at starvation wages under wretched sanitary conditions. It -is never good economy to buy things which are gone out of fashion unless -one is quite _satisfied to be out of fashion_. If the article offered on -the bargain counter be of good quality, and in staple use in the -household, it is often well worth buying. Flannels, linens, sometimes -woolen dress goods of inconspicuous patterns, may be bought at the end -of the season much cheaper than at the beginning, and are a good -investment if one has money to spare and is sure what is going to be -needed by the family. Over against the money saved in securing a -bargain, must always be reckoned the time and energy used in finding it, -and the risks that its quality may prove inferior, or that it may be -unsuitable when finally used. If a woman has nothing better to do with -her time and strength than to hunt bargains, there is nothing further to -be said; but if she has, it is usually more economical and more -satisfactory to buy the articles needed for definite use at a reliable -place and at a fair price. - -All the suggestions that have been made imply accurate knowledge on the -part of the housekeeper. A thoroughly trained housekeeper of long -experience may possibly keep all the household detail in hand without -keeping books of account, but it is absolutely impossible for the -inexperienced or unsystematic housekeeper to do so. The mental training -involved in keeping an accurate account of family income and expenditure -is as valuable as a course in mathematics. For her own self-discipline, -as well as for the better distribution of the family income, every -housekeeper should keep an itemized account. Until she can balance her -account accurately at the end of every month she has not learned the a b -c of thorough housekeeping. After having learned to do this easily, she -may, perhaps, allow herself a very small margin for those “sundries” -which have not been put down, and which would waste valuable time to -hunt out. Every housewife knows by experience that it is not the regular -meat and grocery bills that eat up the income; if adequate care is taken -of them, they can be reduced to a definite scale and kept there; but it -is the incidentals. A system of accurate accounts will speedily show how -many of these are extravagant or unnecessary. Book-keeping is a bugbear -to most women, chiefly because the system which they undertake is too -complicated. The simplest form is the best. Any blank book may be used; -put down on the right hand side everything bought; on the left side all -money received; at the end of the week or month the total sum of the -right-hand column plus the money still on hand should equal the total of -the left-hand column. If it does not, some item has been omitted or not -accurately entered. It is better in the beginning to balance the account -at least once a week, for then inaccuracies can be more easily traced. -The secret of success is to put down at the time of the transaction what -has been received and spent. When the account has been balanced, a -second step is much more interesting. In another book or in the back of -the day-book, if it be large enough, open several accounts on separate -pages, as follows: groceries, meats, fuel, clothing, subscriptions and -charities, incidentals, etc. Copy each item from the day-book into its -proper account; at the end of a month or year, by adding up these -separate accounts, the housewife can tell exactly what proportion of the -income has been spent for each class. Mr. Lawes, the famous English -agriculturist, when traveling in America, was able to quote accurately -the cost of the various items of expenditure in his own house. - -Economy is a relative, not an absolute thing. Economy of money is often -wastefulness of life, yet extravagance, on the other hand, is a serious -cause of human degeneration. With the exception of poor management, poor -service is probably the most wasteful factor of all in the household, -yet there are conditions in which poor service is certainly less -wasteful of the family resources, than none at all. The end of -housekeeping is the health, comfort, and serenity of the family. The two -main factors in producing this result are the family income and the -mother’s strength and energy. Saving, however desirable, is merely an -incidental end. The mother’s intelligence, therefore, if she be in -command of her fair share of the income, must be used to save not only -money but her own resources. The lack of nutritious, palatable food and -of nursing in illness, the lack of service when the mother is weakened -by labor and child-bearing, is sometimes economy with most disastrous -results. Health and serenity are worth more to the family than houses -and a bank account. A good education given to an intelligent child is -worth ten times its cost saved up for him to inherit in middle life. - -Every device, therefore, which saves the housewife’s energy is a true -economy. A clothes-washing machine, a cabinet table, a slop-hopper for -kitchen and chamber waste-liquids, are all obtainable and of special -value in saving labor. In planning the kitchen, economy of steps in -reaching water and fuel should be considered. China should be kept -either in wall cupboards opening on one side into the dining-room, on -the other into the kitchen, or in a pantry between dining-room and -kitchen. Kitchen utensils need no longer be of black, heavy, ugly iron, -but of granite ware, nickel plate, and aluminum; they may be placed in -shelves close to the range, or hung along the wall beside it. A dumb -waiter or hand elevator, from kitchen to cellar, saves much going up and -down stairs. The height of sinks and work-tables should be adapted to -that of the woman who works over them. A tall stool--a clerk’s stool--in -the kitchen allows the housewife to sit while doing some kinds of work. -Distances between sink, range, dishes, and store-room, should be as -short as possible, while the ventilation and lighting of the kitchen -should be particularly good. Every step up and down from kitchen to -shed, or kitchen to cellar, is an extra drain on the overtaxed woman. -Small, cheap contrivances, such as dish-mops, iron dish-cloths, -pan-scrapers, small scrubbing-brushes, wire screen garbage-pans, and -many others, lighten the work and make it possible for the housewife to -be more dainty in her personal appearance. - -In no respect does farm life differ more from city life than in the kind -of food provided and the method of serving it. The farmer’s table is -loaded down with a great abundance and variety of food, all placed on -the table at once, and often rich and indigestible. The city table has -half as much, both in variety and quantity, served daintily in courses. -The city housewife provides variety from meal to meal, seldom repeating -any dish, except the staple ones, more than once or twice a week; the -rural housewife puts a large variety of the same things on the table at -every meal. Abundance of well cooked, appetizing food there should be, -but variety from meal to meal, and from day to day, is far preferable to -excessive variety at any one meal. Not only is it better for the -digestion to eat of a very few kinds of food at one meal; but, since -novelty stimulates appetite, any particular dish will be more appetizing -if not served too frequently. The farmer’s family, while very economical -in the expenditure of money, is often very wasteful of food. Vegetables, -fruit, chickens, pork raised on the farm, seem to cost no money, but -they cost much vital energy, which is quite as valuable. The value of -milk, butter, and eggs is recognized, because it is customary to sell -them in town; but the cost in the labor of those who raise and those who -prepare food, is often overlooked. The farmer’s table is thus not only -overloaded, but really extravagant. Here, again, quality is more -desirable than variety; simplicity should accompany abundance. - -Since rural life involves a certain degree of isolation, the family must -keep in touch with the world chiefly through literature. Even at the -sacrifice of some of the rich variety of food on the table or of new -clothes, books and papers should be provided. The local newspaper is apt -to contain little beside local gossip; it should be supplemented with an -agricultural paper and a family journal, a housekeeping magazine, a -children’s magazine, if there be children, and other general magazines -if they can be afforded. But better than the general magazines, would be -the gradual purchase of the standard works of history, travel, poetry, -and fiction. A musical instrument, a small library, and interesting -games will do more than admonition to keep young people at home. -Children naturally want a good time; if it is not provided for them at -home they will go to other and perhaps less desirable places to get it. - -With the increase of appliances, and with the added social and -intellectual demands, country as well as city life is becoming more -complicated and exacting. The housewife, whose physical strength is -scarcely equal to the demands of housekeeping and child-bearing, must -develop her intelligence and whet her judgment. She must find easier and -wiser ways of doing the necessary drudgery, and make brains do an -increasing part of the labor formerly accomplished by muscle. - - - - -CHAPTER XIV - -_THE HOME YARD_ - - -The yard, as well as the house, should be planned. It should be -convenient, neat, handsome, restful. It will need planting with trees, -shrubs, herbs and grass; but these things should not be scattered -promiscuously over the place, for then they mean nothing. Every plant -should have some relation to the general plan or design of the place. - -The first thing to consider in the making of a fit setting for the house -is to lay out the plan or design; the last thing is to select the -particular kinds of plants to be used. The place should be a picture. It -should be one thing, not many things. If the design is correct and the -planting is well done, all parts will be in harmony and the place will -appeal to one as a whole. If the bushes and trees are scattered -promiscuously over the yard, then there is no central idea and the -attention is fixed upon the details rather than upon the place. Figs. 88 -and 89 illustrate these contrasts. - -The one central thought or idea in home grounds is the house. -Therefore, make the house emphatic. Let it stand out boldly, as in Fig. -89. Keep the center of the place open. Do not clutter it with trees, -flower beds and other distracting things. - -[Illustration: Fig. 88. The common or nursery type of planting.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 89. The proper or pictorial type of planting.] - -If the house is to be made emphatic, give it a flanking. Plant trees or -bushes, or both, on the sides. Back it up, also, with trees. If it sets -in front of a natural wood or an orchard, the effect is better. If the -country is bare and bald behind it, plant tall trees there. - -[Illustration: Fig. 90. A modest and direct driveway.] - -Make as few walks and drives as possible. They are always unsightly and -expensive. Let them lead to their destination by the most direct curves. -Do not make them crooked; for crooked walks and drives are expensive. -Gentle curves are more retired and modest than awkward and laborious -ones. Fig. 90 shows a good, easy curve. If possible, place the walk or -drive at the side, rather than in the center: avoid cutting up the lawn. - -Most of the planting should be in masses. Plants present a bolder front -when standing together. A group is one thing; scattered shrubs are many -things, and they divert and distract the attention. By massing, one -secures endless combinations of light and shade, of color, and of form. -Against the mass-planting, flowers show off best; they have a -background, as a picture has when it hangs on a wall. One canna or -geranium standing just in front of heavy foliage makes more show than do -a dozen plants when standing in the middle of the lawn; it is more -easily cared for, and it does not spoil the lawn. A flower bed in the -middle of the sward spoils a lawn, as a spot soils the table-cloth. -Flowers at the side, or joined to the other planting, are a part of the -picture; in the middle of the lawn they are only a spot of color and -mean nothing except that the grower did not know where to put them. - -[Illustration: Fig. 91. A good house; but the home is only half built.] - -Take these suggestions to heart. Consider which you like the better, -Fig. 91 or 92. Consider, also, how Fig. 92 would look if plants were -scattered all over the yard. - -[Illustration: Fig. 92. A house and a home.] - -Plants are difficult to grow in little holes in the sod. The grass -takes the moisture. They are always in the way. The yard in Fig. 92 can -be mown with a field mower. The bushes take care of themselves. If one -dies, it matters little: others fill the gaps. If pigweeds come up -amongst them, little or no harm is done. They add to the variety of -foliage effect. One does not feel that he must stop his cultivating or -sheep-shearing to dig them out. In the fall, the leaves blow off the -open lawn and are held in the bushes; there they make an ideal mulch, -and they need not be removed in the spring. In front of this shrubbery -a space two or three feet wide may be left for flowers. Here sow and -plant with a free hand. Have sufficient poppies and hollyhocks and pinks -and lilies and petunias to supply every member of the family and every -neighbor. Against the background they glow like coals or lie as soft as -the snow. - -Fill in the corners of the place. Round off the angularities. Throw a -mass of herbage into the corner by the steps (Fig. 93): then you will -not need to saw off the grass with a butcher knife. Plant a vine and -some low plants along the foundations. - -[Illustration: Fig. 93. The corner by the steps.] - -When these main or fundamental things are considered, then some of the -incidental things may be considered. If you are fond of some particular -plant, as the hydrangea, plant it in some prominent place in front of -the shrub border. You may want a tree to shade a window or a porch: -plant it. You may want a pile of odd stones and relics: put them in the -back yard, or at the side, where you may enjoy them unmolested. You may -have any kind of plant you want, only put it in the right place. - -Have an eye to the views. Build your house with reference to them, if -you can. Do not plant so as to hide the good ones. Plant heavily in the -direction of offensive views. Plant so as to obscure the barnyard; or -else move the barnyard back of the barn, or clean it up. Leave the front -of the barn open: you want to see it from the house. - - -HOW TO DO THE WORK - -The lawn, then, is the first consideration. It is the canvas on which we -are to paint a picture of home and comfort. In many cases the yard is -already level or well graded and has a good sod, and it is not necessary -to plow and re-seed. It should be said that the sod on old lawns can be -renewed without plowing it up. In the bare or thin places, scratch up -the ground with an iron-toothed rake, apply a little fertilizer, and sow -more seed. Weedy lawns are those in which the sod is poor. It may be -necessary to pull out the weeds; but after they are out the land should -be quickly covered with sod or they will come in again. Annual weeds, -as pigweeds and ragweed, can usually be crowded out by merely securing a -heavier sod. A little clover seed will often be a good addition, for it -supplies nitrogen and has an excellent mechanical effect on the soil. - -The ideal time to prepare the land is in the fall, before the heavy -rains come. Then sow in the fall, and again in early spring on a late -snow. However, the work may be done in the spring, but the danger is -that it will be put off so long that the young grass will not become -established before the dry, hot weather comes. - -The best lawn grass for New York is June-grass, or blue-grass. Seedsmen -know it as _Poa pratensis_. It weighs but 14 pounds to the bushel. Not -less than three bushels should be sown to the acre. We want many very -small stems of grass, not a few large ones; for we are making a lawn, -not a meadow. - -Do not sow grain with the grass seed. The June-grass grows slowly at -first, however, and therefore it is a good plan to sow timothy with it, -at the rate of two or three quarts to the acre. The timothy comes up -quickly and makes a green; and the June-grass will crowd it out in a -year or two. If the land is hard and inclined to be too dry, some kind -of clover will greatly assist the June-grass. Red clover is too large -and coarse for the lawn. Crimson clover is excellent, for it is an -annual, and it does not become unsightly in the lawn. White clover is -perhaps best, since it not only helps the grass but looks well in the -sod. One or two pounds of seed is generally sufficient for an acre. - -At first the weeds will come up. Do not pull them. Mow the lawn as soon -as there is any growth large enough to mow. Of course, the lawn-mower is -best, but one can have a good place without it. Perhaps a hand -lawn-mower (one with large wheels and not less than 16-inch cut) can be -used to keep the sward close just about the house; then the field-mower -may be used now and then for the remainder. Here is another advantage, -as I have said, of the open-centered yard which I have recommended; it -is easily mown. It would be a fussy matter to mow a yard planted after -the fashion of Fig. 88; but one like Fig. 89 is easily managed. - -The borders should be planted thickly. Plow up the strip. Never plant -these trees and bushes in holes cut in the sod. Scatter the bushes and -trees promiscuously in the narrow border. In home grounds, it is easy to -run through these borders occasionally with a cultivator, for the first -year or two. Make the edges of the border irregular. Plant the lowest -bushes on the inner edge toward the house. - -For all such things as lilacs, mock oranges, Japan quinces, and bushes -that are found along the roadsides, two or three feet apart is about -right. Some will die anyway. Cut them back one-half when they are -planted. They will look thin and stiff for two or three years; but after -that they will crowd the spaces full, lop over on the sod, and make a -billow of green. Prepare the land well, plant carefully, and let the -bushes alone. - -We now come to the details,--the particular kinds of plants to use. One -great principle will simplify the matter: the main planting should be -for foliage effects. That is, think first of giving the place a heavy -border-mass. Flowers are mere decorations. - -Select those trees and shrubs which are the commonest, because they are -cheapest, hardiest and most likely to grow. There is no farm so poor -that enough plants cannot be secured, without money, for the home yard. -You will find the plants in the woods, in old yards, along the fences. -It is little matter if no one knows their names. What is handsomer than -a tangled fence-row? - -Scatter in a few trees along the fence and about the buildings, -particularly if the place is large and bare. Maples, basswood, elms, -ashes, buttonwood, pepperidge, oaks, beeches, birches, hickories, -poplars, a few trees of pine or spruce or hemlock,--any of these are -excellent. If the country is bleak, a rather heavy planting of -evergreens about the border, in the place of so much shrubbery, is -excellent. - -For shrubs, use the common things to be found in the woods and swales, -together with roots, which can be had in every old yard. Willows, -osiers, witch-hazel, dogwood, wild roses, thorn apples, haws, elders, -sumac, wild honeysuckles,--these and others can be found in abundance. -From old yards can be secured snowballs, spireas, lilacs, forsythias, -mock oranges, roses, snowberries, barberries, flowering currants, -honeysuckles, and the like. - -Vines can be used to excellent purpose on the outbuildings or on the -porches. The common wild Virginia creeper is the most serviceable. On -brick or stone houses the Boston ivy or Japanese ampelopsis may be used, -unless the location is very bleak. This is not hardy in the northern -parts of the country. Honeysuckles, clematis and bitter-sweet are also -attractive. Bowers are always interesting to children; and actinidia and -akebia (to be had at nurseries) are best for this purpose. - -If a regular flower garden is wanted, place at the side or rear of the -place, where a liberal piece of land can be devoted to it. - -Into these native shrub borders, throw some color from nursery-grown -bushes if you choose. Mix in spireas, weigelas, roses--anything you -like. A rare or strange plant may be introduced now and then, if there -is any money with which to buy such things. Plant it at some conspicuous -point just in front of the border, where it will show off well, be out -of the way, and have some relation to the rest of the planting. Two or -three purple-leaved or variegated-leaved bushes will add much spirit and -verve to the place; but too many of them make the place look fussy and -overdone. You can have a botanic garden of your own, even though you do -not know the name of a single plant; and your home will be a picture at -the same time. - - - - -CHAPTER XV - -_A DISCUSSION OF BARNS_ - - -Modern agriculture requires large and commodious barns and other -structures to house the crops, the animals, tools, and implements. -Especially is this true when mixed farming is conducted in an -intensified and economical way. In early days one or, at most, two low -barns of 30 by 40 feet were supposed to supply all shelter -accommodations required for a farm of one hundred acres. At the present -time, on the same farms, may often be seen a barn 60 by 80 feet and -double the height of the old structures, with a wing one-half of the -capacity of the main barn to which it is attached, this single structure -providing more than six times the cubic space of two of the old barns. -One sizable farm in Tompkins county, New York, had, for many years, a -single barn 30 by 40 feet with 14-foot posts. It now has a barn which -provides more than fifteen times the room of the old one, and yet it is -scarcely large enough to house the animals and crops of this modest -farm. - -Naturally, the questions arise, are these large structures necessary, -and what changes in agriculture have taken place to create a need for -such mammoth structures? They are necessarily expensive, and too often -dwarf and belittle the house when placed near it. - -Modern advanced farmers secure nearly or quite double the average yield -of crops of their grandfathers. This is an indisputable fact, -notwithstanding the hue and cry about the decadence of the rural -population. The facts are that some are farming much better than the -older generations and some much worse. Much of the good land is -producing more bountifully than ever before, and some of the poorer -lands have been so badly managed, and have become so depleted in their -productive power as to be nearly worthless, and should be thrown out of -cultivation and left to recuperate until unborn generations require -them. More live stock is kept now than formerly. The number of milch -cows, horses, and mules in the United States increased more than 50 per -cent between 1870 and 1890, and other cattle increased during the same -period 150 per cent. Notwithstanding this fact, the live stock on many -farms has been greatly diminished. - -Then, too, progressive farmers believe it to be economy to provide -shelter for animals and crops, manures and implements. The old custom -of stacking the hay and grain, of allowing the farm animals to toughen -in the winter’s blast in field and barnyard, and the manures to leach -and bleach under the eaves of the building has, in part, been abandoned -and better methods substituted. These new methods require better, -larger, and more commodious farm barns. The modern and humane thought -is, to make all of the animals as comfortable, according to their needs -and conditions, as is their owner in his well appointed house, and to -protect everything that is worth protecting from the storms. - -There are two fairly distinct methods of constructing farm buildings: -the concentrated and the distributive. The one aims to provide the room -needed by one or two large structures; the other by means of many -detached small buildings, each, where practicable, devoted to a special -purpose. The last method was the outgrowth of the conditions which -usually prevailed in a new country. First came the rude house and the -log stable. The stable was followed by the modest barn, usually of the -regulation size, 30 by 40 feet, with 12-, 14-, or, in rare cases, -16-foot posts. As the arable land increased another barn was built, then -a shed, then a wagon-house; followed by a corn-crib, a chicken-house, a -pig-pen, and later a sheep-barn, cow-barn, a hay-barn, all the room in -the first and second barns being by this time required for grain. -Outside the grain districts the buildings were modified to suit -conditions, but the practice of constructing many small structures was -not changed. - -The buildings were erected without any comprehensive plan as to the -farmstead as a whole. This necessitated many fences, gates, yards, and a -maze of muddy byways in which the dock and other weeds, discarded -implements, and the flotsam and jetsam of the farm found opportunity to -grow or to rot. Do what one might, the farmstead could never be made to -look neat and tidy. Not infrequently, twelve to fifteen separate -structures may be seen on a farm of eighty acres. The farmers who own -these structures are not to be criticised too severely. They inherited -the method of building and often the buildings, and no one, so far, has -deigned to give them help by treating such plebeian subjects as the -improvement of unsightly stys, stables, sheds, and barns. - -If the concentrated method be adopted, in case of fire all is swept -away; if the distributive, some of the buildings may be saved. There are -so many things to be gained, however, by adopting the concentrated -method that construction would better be along this line and then trust -to the insurance company to make good the losses by fire, should any -occur. Compare Figs. 114, 119. - -Farm laborers receive fully double the wages, except in harvest time, -which they did fifty years ago; therefore, the barns should be planned -with the view of economizing labor. This can best be secured by rearing -a single structure, rather than several, for it is evident that if the -live stock, tools, implements and provender be placed in juxtaposition, -economy in performing the work about the buildings will be secured. -However, it is often convenient to have a separate building open on one -side for storing farm wagons and heavy implements and tools. - -Grain, hay and stover are all unloaded most economically by means of -slings and hay fork, operated by horse-power, but the unloading by -horse-power implies high barns, with mows measurably unobstructed by -timbers. Economy of space also implies deep mows, since a mow twenty -feet deep holds more than two mows ten feet deep. High, large buildings -require far less outside boarding and roof than small, low, detached -buildings which contain, together, the same storage capacity. Economy in -construction and maintenance, convenience of temporarily sheltering and -removing manures, ease of carrying on work in the building, and beauty, -all indicate the wisdom of adopting the concentrated method in the -construction of farm barns. - -Efforts have been made to economize in barn construction by adopting the -octagon form. This form secures a greater enclosed area for a given -surface covering than the square or rectangular form. But all of the -angles in the frame are more expensive to make than are right angles. It -requires more labor and time to saw off a timber at an angle of 35 -degrees than at right angles. True, this form lends itself to a roof -structure free from obstructing timbers, but, on the other hand, it does -not give opportunity for the placing of convenient tracks for elevating -the provender. So far the pros and cons may be said to balance. It is -only when the attempt is made to divide the octagon structure into -stables and rooms, compartments and mows, that its inconvenient shape is -fully realized. Everything is out of square. The divisions form obtuse -and acute angles, or arcs of a circle, almost without number. All this -implies extra expense in the internal construction and usually a great -waste of space. The illustrations of these barns have a certain charm -difficult to resist, but some of the most intelligent farmers who have -made a study of the octagon barn and have used it, decide that -rectangular barns are much to be preferred. Some who have built octagon -barns speak well of them, but this might naturally be expected. A woman -generally speaks well of her husband after she has secured him, however -faulty he may be. - - -LOCATION - -The location of the proposed structure should be considered with the -most painstaking care before entering upon the construction of a new -building or the remodeling of an old one. Too often a single idea -dominates the location. Some thirty years since I decided to erect a -large basement barn. The house, a modest, comfortable structure, was -located at a suitable distance from the highway, on a gentle slope. To -utilize the highway for driving the animals to and from pasture, and to -save the use of the fourth of an acre of land and the building of some -twenty rods of fence, the barn was located nearer the highway than the -house. This necessitated locating the barnyard between the highway and -the barn. I never discovered this foolish mistake till years afterwards, -when age and study had improved my judgment and opportunity had been -given for wide observation and comparison. Now when I revisit the farm -it is all too plain as to where the barn should have been located. -This large barn made the house appear much smaller than before, and from -one approach the farm had the appearance of being untenanted, as the -barn hid the house. It is humiliating, but how could I have known better -at that time of life, with ideas of barn building inherited and with -neither book nor teacher to guide me? - -[Illustration: Fig. 94. Too many barn roofs, and too near the house.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 95. How these barns may be moved and concentrated.] - -The barn should be located far enough from the house to prevent the -aromas of the stables and kitchen from mingling, and at such a distance -as not to seriously endanger either one, if the other should be -destroyed by fire. If possible, the barn should be on lower ground than -the house, that no wash or seepage from it may tend toward the house, -and for other sanitary reasons. The lower level will assist to make the -barns inconspicuous. One hundred feet is the minimum distance which -should intervene between these inflammable and expensive structures, -except in a very cold climate, where the house and the barn may be -connected by a covered way. See Figs. 94 and 95. This way need not be -expensive, and should be so constructed that it can be pulled down in a -few minutes in case of fire. It need not be high, and the roof might -pitch but one way and be composed, in part at least, of glass. If the -entire roof was of glass one side of the covered walk might well be -used in the spring for growing early vegetables. If the manure be -properly cared for at the far end of the barn, good sanitary conditions -would be preserved. - -The refuse of the stables, if left exposed at the barns in the summer, -forms breeding ground for flies, which reach the house if it be near. -The substitution of electric street cars, for horse cars which -necessitated numerous stables, has noticeably diminished flies in the -cities. There should be room between the house and barn for a score or -more of large trees, which may serve, in part, to screen each building -from the other in case of fire, to shade the walk between the two -buildings, and, in part, the barn itself. No tree is better adapted for -this purpose than the white elm. The open barnyard should, wherever -possible, be discarded, for it tends to increase the wasting of manures -and the cost of getting them to the field; to the multiplication of -fences and flies, and to unnecessary exposure of animals. Why not -substitute paddocks or small fields of a few acres for the wasteful, -expensive barnyard? If the animals need exercise they should take it at -suitable times in closely-sodded fields, or covered yards, rather than -in confined barnyards filled with a mixture of straw, mud and manure. A -few acres near the barn might be surrounded with a woven wire fence, -which would serve admirably for an exercising yard. The sod on this -small area might become seriously injured in a year or two, but the -field would be enriched by the droppings of the animals. The field in -such case could be plowed and the wire used to enclose another paddock. -But it will be many years before the open barnyard can be, or will be, -entirely abandoned. What may, and should be done immediately, is to -place it at the rear, instead of at the front of the barn, and to cease -using it for baptizing manures, and as a storage area for miscellaneous -odds and ends. If some change is not made, the farm boy may find a -chamber window from which a more restful and inspiring view may be -secured than from the one through which he now views daily the evidences -of thriftlessness and waste. - - -PLANNING THE BARN - -Make a good study of many barns at short range; note what features are -good, what faulty, what useless; by this means much will have been -learned and many mistakes will be avoided. Decide approximately the -capacity which will be required. First, draw a rectangular diagram of -the barn, then proceed to the proposed location and take a seat; make a -most careful study of the approach, the incline of the land, note where -fences and gates will be necessary, where and how the water is to be -introduced--in fact, take in the whole problem of the environment of the -proposed structure. Then imagine that you see the barn, and that you -have just arrived from town some stormy night with your wife and baby; -in imagination help them out of the carriage. Imagine you have a span of -young, restless horses which you have driven to get them used to city -ways before selling them. That will make you think of a platform onto -which the family may step from the carriage while you are holding the -colts. Consider how many big doors you will have to open before the -colts are made comfortable for the night. Are the democrat wagon and the -colts to be kept on the same floor, or one up-stairs and the other down? -Or is the carriage in one building situated four rods from the horses? -How many gates and doors have you opened and closed since you arrived? -Think it all over, and then go to the house and talk it over with your -wife, for some day she may drive to town, and on her return find that -both you and the farm hands are in the field, and that there is no one -to help her put the team away. After imagination has pictured the -conditions which are likely to prevail, then begin to cautiously modify -the rectangular diagram; surround it with dotted lines, which may -represent roads, fences, gates, lanes, and adjunct buildings. Then take -a rest; lay the sketch away for a time; study barns in the neighborhood; -council with the wife again, for she may have to go to the barn often. -After a year of faithful and intelligent planning you may be able to -place a well digested rough sketch of the proposed structure in the -hands of a draughtsman. - - -WATER SUPPLY - -It would seem to be unnecessary to repeat the axiom, “No water, no plant -or animal life,” but so many buildings, both public and private, are -located and constructed before the problem of supplying an ample, -perennial supply of potable water is solved, that it seems necessary to -briefly treat this subject. - -Several public institutions with which I have been familiar have erected -expensive structures before supplying water for them. Three and -sometimes five separate attempts were made to furnish water for the use -of the plant, none of which were entirely successful. - -The amount of water needed and the conditions under which it must be -secured are so variable that few specific directions can be given. One -simple, certain and cheap way of securing water for the barn is usually -neglected. In some sections of the South, by reason of peculiar -geological formations, the practice of constructing pools or storage -reservoirs has become common. A slight depression or draw or swale is -selected and dammed by using the earth from the bottom of the proposed -pool and from the higher land adjoining. No stone or wood is necessary -to support the dam. The only precaution necessary is to have a broad -base (see Fig. 7), and to provide sufficiently large outflows or -spillways, one on either end of the dam, that the pool may never rise -higher than within two feet from the top of the dam. The surface soil, -if it contains much vegetable matter, should be scraped off a strip -three to four feet wide and as long as the dam, and the depression -filled with earth--clay is best--that contains little or no organic -matter. If the bottom of the dam where it meets the normal earth is -constructed with sods, or other material which will decay, in time the -water will find its way through the porous earth. - -The pools of the South, to which reference has been made, sometimes have -an extreme depth of 12 to 15 feet, and may cover a fraction of an acre -or several acres. I have known one of these pools to furnish water for -a hundred head of cattle during a long continued drought. It is -difficult to explain why more pools, lakes and fish ponds are not -constructed. Possibly the reasons are that there is a prejudice against -them, and well there may be, since they are usually so shallow that the -water becomes impure, and since it is not generally realized that a -substantial dam can be erected by the use of earth alone. If it is -thought advisable not to allow the animals to go to the pool, it may be -fenced, since it is not expensive to lay a pipe in the dam, when it is -being constructed, on a level with the bottom of the pool, the outer end -of the pipe being furnished with a ball and cock to regulate the flow of -water into the trough. - -Usually it is not advisable to build cisterns for storing water for barn -use, since they are too expensive if built as large as needed. A cow -requires from forty to eighty pounds of water daily in the summer. If -sixty pounds be taken as the average, it will be seen that it would -require a cistern of three hundred and fifty barrels capacity to supply -a herd of fifty animals for one month. In some cases the water of a -stream or well may be so highly charged with the products of magnesian -limestone as to produce goitre, in which case soft water should be -supplied for the horses. - -Streams or springs are often available for summer, but they seldom -supply ideal water conditions in winter. Young animals, and especially -cows in milk, should not be required to drink water at a low temperature -or be forced to travel long distances for it in cold weather. The only -really satisfactory method of supplying the domestic animals with water -is to bring it into the barn, and if the water in the pipes is not under -pressure, a small storage tank may be placed in a mow and surrounded by -straw. Such storage tank may be built, if small, out of rough 2-inch -plank, spiked together, or, if large, of 2- by 4-inch scantling, spiked -flatwise one upon the other; in both cases the tank is lined with -galvanized iron. All barns provided with steam boilers should also be -provided with a few small steam pipes leading to the water boxes, that -the drinking water of the animals may be raised in winter to 98° Fahr. - -Animals do not relish lukewarm water in the winter, but they really -enjoy hot water. The economy and safety of using hot drinking water will -justify the expense of providing it. This is especially true in the -winter dairy and when horses have severe winter work. An overheated, -tired horse may drink all the hot water he desires without danger. Water -taken into the stomach at 40° Fahr. must absorb heat enough from the -system to raise it to about 99°. To do this food must be burned, as -literally as coal is burned in the boiler to heat water. It requires -more units of heat to raise a pound of water one degree in temperature -than any other substance except two or three of the gases. - -There are now so many styles of really good air motors or wind mills, -that water from wells may be pumped at a minimum cost into storage -tanks. There is no longer any excuse for pumping water by hand for any -considerable number of animals, nor for compelling them to seek water in -cold weather at some distant stream. As has been said, there are many -ways of securing a supply of water for the barn. The details of -accomplishing the results desired are many, but the result should always -be the same: an abundant supply of water within the barn under more or -less pressure. If this is not secured the plans of a barn, as a whole, -are unsatisfactory. - - - - -CHAPTER XVI - -_BUILDING THE BARN--THE BASEMENT_ - - -Squaring the foundation site is a simple operation, yet few are able to -perform it, and it is seldom that a surveyor is at hand. Buildings are -so generally placed with their fronts parallel to the highway or the -private way, that the road may be assumed to be the base line. Four -stakes set in the middle of the road, as shown in Fig. 96, establish the -base line, from which is measured the distance from the road at which it -is desired to place the building. The stakes A and B should be placed -farther apart than the width of the front of the building; they are -connected by a line which is parallel to the road and forms the -permanent base line. Next the stakes C and D are placed, and also -connected by a line. With a 10-foot pole, six feet are measured off on -either line, beginning at the intersection of the lines, and eight feet -on the other line. If the line C to D is at right angles to the line AB, -the 10-foot measure will just reach from 6 to 8, since 6 multiplied by -6, plus 8 multiplied by 8, equals 100, and the square root of 100 is -10. Should the 10-foot measure be longer than from 6 to 8, the stake D -is moved to the left until the pole reaches from 6 to 8; if the measure -is too short to reach from 6 to 8, the stake is moved to the right. All -of these measurements should be gone over two or three times, as in -moving the stake the lines may stretch or shrink. Either a pin or a -pencil mark may be used to indicate the measurements on the lines at 6 -and 8. - -[Illustration: Fig. 96. Locating the barn.] - -If the building is to be 26 feet deep, that distance is measured on the -line CD and the same distance from the line AB. Stakes are then driven -and a line drawn from E to F, and in like manner a line is drawn from G -to H. The work is verified by squaring the last angle as in the first -case. The eight dots represent stakes driven in even with the surface -of the ground, at just 10 feet from the corners. Since it will be -necessary to remove the lines before the horse scraper can be used in -excavating, and as the construction stakes at the corners will be -disturbed, the short stakes become necessary that the lines may be -restored as the work proceeds and the excavation kept square and true. -It will be seen that a line drawn from A to B will restore the base -line, and in like manner the other lines may be quickly reproduced. It -will be necessary, too, to restore these lines before the foundation -wall is begun. By “plumbing” downward from the restored lines, other -lines may be placed in the bottom of the excavation, which will be -duplicates of those first drawn. - -[Illustration: Fig. 97. The original incline or slope is too steep.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 98. The original slope is not steep enough.] - - -EXCAVATION - -Barns are now usually built with a basement story. This implies that the -building is to be placed on more or less sloping ground, in which case -the removal of some earth will be necessary. The basement story should -extend well above ground, to economize construction and to secure dry -walls and floors. It is a great mistake to place animals in cellars. The -dotted line in Fig. 97 shows an incline rather too steep; and in Fig. -98 one that is not steep enough. It is better to place the barn where -wanted, even if the incline has to be changed, than to place it in an -unhandy position that the best slope may be secured. It is not difficult -to construct a basement barn on level or nearly level land. In the -latter case, all of the basement walls may be of wood, since provision -can be made for a driveway to the second floor by means of a retaining -wall built some ten or twelve feet from the barn; the space between the -wall and the barn may be bridged (Fig. 99). Cast-off steel or iron rails -form durable and excellent sleepers for such a bridge, the plank being -kept in place by spiking two-inch pieces, one on either end on top of -the bridge plank. In case no retaining wall is built, and the earth lies -immediately against the basement wall (Fig. 100), dampness may be -largely prevented from reaching the stable and the animals by building a -second wall across the side or end of the barn, inclosing a space or -room for roots immediately under the driveway. The floor over this -root-cellar should be deafened to prevent frost entering from above -(Fig. 101). The second wall will remain comparatively dry, since no -damp earth rests against it. This location of the root-cellar makes it -convenient for unloading the roots through trap doors in the floor, -which are kept partly open for a time after the roots have been put in, -to prevent them from heating. - -[Illustration: Fig. 99. Bridge into the barn.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 100. An embankment entrance, with retaining walls -holding the corners.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 101. Deafening or packing the floor, to keep out -cold.] - - -WALLS - -The foundation walls for barns need not necessarily extend below frost, -if the earth is as dry as it should be; for a slight settling of the -building does not result in injury, as in the plastered house. All that -is necessary is to make the walls broad and strong and to have them well -drained. - -[Illustration: Fig. 102. Good and faulty construction in a wall.] - -Masons understand the necessity of bonding stone walls, and know how to -perform the work; but too often they are careless, and therefore need to -be supervised. In Fig. 102, a well bonded wall is shown at the left end, -and one imperfectly bonded at the other. If the wall should chance to -pull endwise a crack would appear to the right of the dotted line, since -in the seven layers shown there is but one stone, A, that has sufficient -contact to bond the two stones upon which it rests. The wall should also -have its face and back side tied together or bonded, or it may split -apart near the middle. Two walls, one of which is properly bonded, the -other is not, are shown in Fig. 103. One layer only of stone can be -shown in the diagram, but it will readily be seen that if the course -which is placed on the one shown is laid like it,--that is, if the -faulty bonding near the back side be continued for several courses--the -wall will pull apart. The small, narrow stones have been placed at the -back side of the wall, and the good stones in the front of the wall; -this is all very well, but some long stones should reach from the back -side of the wall to near the face, if the bond is made good. No stone -should reach entirely through the wall, since in cold weather the frost -will follow through such stones from face to rear. - -[Illustration: Fig. 103. Poorly and properly bonded.] - -There is no economy in using mortar which is poorly mixed or that which -contains too much sand and too little lime or cement. If the lime or -cement, that is, the binding material, does not come into immediate -contact with every particle of sand, then the mortar will be weak. If -not enough of the cement or lime is used, the bond will also be weak. -For stone walls _not more_ than four parts of sand to one of cement or -lime should be used. If the sand be sharp and clean a much stronger -mortar is secured than when it is composed in part of rotten sand mixed -with vegetable matter. If the materials are good and they are mixed in -the right proportion, still good mortar will not be secured unless they -be _thoroughly mixed_. The best masons use the least mortar, while poor -masons are wasteful of it. - -The prices given below are not applicable to the whole United States, -but they may serve to decide the relative proportions of sand and lime -which should be used, and the kind of lime which can be used most -economically. Water lime retails at about eighty cents per barrel, and -three parts of sand and one of lime, if the latter is fresh, should make -a strong mortar. Water lime deteriorates rapidly with age, while the -higher priced cements deteriorate quite slowly. Stone lime should be -fresh and in no case air-slaked. It costs about one dollar a barrel and -may be mixed three of sand to one of lime. Rosendale cement costs about -$1.25 per barrel, and may be mixed four to one. Portland cement costs -about $3 per barrel, and if used instead of the cheaper materials named -above, may be mixed five to one. It should always be used for pointing -walls and in the construction of cemented floors, in which case it -should be mixed two or three to one. All this presupposes that the -mortar is so thoroughly mixed that a lime film will surround every -particle of sand. - -The cement and water lime is mixed with the sand before it is wet, and -this dry mixing should be most thorough, as the strength of the mortar -is largely dependent on the uniform incorporation of the cement with the -sand. This mixing can be much more perfectly done when the material is -dry than after it is wet. Other precautions are necessary. The mortar -should contain the minimum of water which will permit it to work freely, -and when the mortar is used it should be solidified, that is, pushed -together by means of a trowel or by the material which is laid upon it. -In case of cement or grout floors, the material should be pounded -thoroughly. The object of all this is to compel each particle of sand to -firmly touch other particles. The tendency to “water-log” mortar, to -save labor in spreading it, is too common. - -If, from any cause, the basement walls must be largely of stone, the -tendency for them to gather moisture may be somewhat overcome by -plastering them with cement mortar, or studding may be placed against -the walls upon which unmatched boards may be nailed (Fig. 104). The warm -air of the stable cannot then reach the relatively cold walls, and -little condensation will appear on the boards, since they are always -more nearly the temperature of the stable than are the stone. - -Wooden basement walls are preferable in all ways to those constructed of -stone, grout or brick, wherever the earth does not rest against them. -An excellent method of constructing the walls of the basement story is -shown in a section of the first story, Fig. 104. The studding should be -2 × 6 inches, with short pieces of 2 × 4 placed edgewise between them to -serve as outside nailing girts. - -[Illustration: Fig. 104. Lining the basement wall.] - -A broad, steep water-table is placed just above the upper end of the -studding to receive the boarding above the basement and to improve the -outside appearance of the building. After the outside boarding of the -basement and the window frames are placed, the inside of the wall is -boarded horizontally with unmatched seasoned lumber, and as the boards -are being put on, the hollow wall space is filled with short straw or -straw and chaff. This construction has proved to be the most -satisfactory of any tried. The wall is cheap, durable, dry, excludes -the cold, and still allows a little fresh air to enter the stables -gradually. Objection has been made to this construction on the ground -that it harbors mice and rats. After having used buildings with walls of -this character for a quarter of a century, I must say that the objection -is not well taken. - - -FLOORS - -The floor of the first story should be partly of wood and partly of -cement or of brick. - -All voidings of the animals should be removed from the stable at least -once a day. Allowing the manure to drop through gratings, with the view -of letting it remain there more than one day, is decidedly wrong, and -any arrangement which does not admit of the thorough cleaning and airing -of the stable daily is objectionable. Nor is the practice of washing out -the stables economical, since it necessitates great waste of manure or -too great expense in caring for and removing the diluted excreta. If the -floors and stable be well cleaned with shovel and broom, and dusted with -gypsum, dry earth, sawdust, or chaffy material, good sanitary conditions -will be secured easily and cheaply. While the stables are being cleaned -and treated they should also be aired. The animals meantime should be -allowed to stretch their limbs, by which it is not meant that they -should be hooking one another around a muddy barnyard, or running foot -races up and down the lane. On the one hand, it may be all well enough -for those who sell animals at fabulous prices and have long bank -accounts, to procure water-proof blankets for them, and to accompany -them on their regular daily “constitutional.” The other extreme is where -the animals are fastened by the head or neck by contrivances not always -comfortable, and left standing for six months without being removed from -their stall. Is there not a happy medium between these two extremes? - -[Illustration: - - Top left rooms: 4′ × 10′ and 10′ × 11′. - Midway width: 10′. - Over-all width: 32′. - Bottom left room: 10′ × 11′. - Width of stalls: 3′ 6″. - Over-all length: 80′. - Room central bottom: 3′ × 6′. - -Fig. 105. Basement cattle stable. At the right is a -cross-section of the stable, showing the convex cement midway.] - -Animals are more comfortable on a wooden floor than on one built of -either brick, cement, or asphalt. Notwithstanding this, most of the -floor of the basement should be constructed of more durable material -than wood. If the animals are kept fully bedded, as they usually are -not, then it would be best to discard wooden floors entirely. Fig. 105 -shows a basement floor designed for cattle. The part where the animals -stand is of wood, the balance of hard or pavement brick set edgewise on -a bed of sand. The cement or grout floor may be substituted for the -brick if desired. If the cracks between the bricks in the floor are -filled with thin cement mortar, the floor becomes water-tight, though -this is not necessary except in the gutters. The ground underneath the -wooden floor should be leveled and pounded, and covered with a thin -layer of salt to preserve the wood. The plank which forms the side of -the drip should be of oak or some other durable wood. The 2 × 4 pieces -to which the floor is nailed when first built, need not be replaced when -they rot, since the dirt underneath will be smooth and hard. The large -nails which fasten the floor to the oak piece at the rear and the -mangers combined will suffice to keep the floor plank in place; the only -object in placing the nailing pieces at first is to facilitate -construction. The plank of the floor should be of some uniform standard -width, as 8, 10, or 12 inches wide, that repairs may be made quickly -when the floor gives way. - - -STALLS - -When a dairy of some size is kept, the cows may be arranged in double -rows. Fifty cows could be crowded into a barn 80 × 32 feet. But fifty -cows of 800 pounds each weigh 40,000 pounds; and if the stable is ten -feet from the top of the lower floor to the bottom of the upper floor, -it would contain only 25,600 cubic feet of air space. This is -manifestly too little, as 1 cubic foot of air space should be allowed -for each pound of live animal. Many stables, in fact most stables, -provide but one-half of a cubic foot of air space for each pound of live -animal kept in them; in such case it is impossible to keep the air -approximately pure or the stable decently sweet. To realize what this -means, suppose a bedchamber be constructed for a man weighing 160 -pounds. If one foot of air space be provided for each pound of live -weight, the chamber might be built 4 feet wide, 7 feet long and 6 feet -high. This would give 168 cubic feet of air space. If the bedchamber be -made proportionally as large as are most cow stables, its dimensions -would be 3 feet wide, 6¹⁄₂ feet long and 4¹⁄₂ feet high. To insure good -air in such a sleeping room one side of it would have to be knocked out. - -[Illustration: Fig. 106. A swing window for stable.] - -If one or two box-stalls and one feed-bin are provided in an 80 × -32-foot barn, with 12-foot ceilings (Fig. 105), and room for a hallway, -3 feet wide, be left at one end of the building, it will then -accommodate thirty-nine animals. Each one would have 800 cubic feet of -air space, the required amount. The first story of most cow stables is -about seven feet. It is seen how easily the stable may be overcrowded. A -high story gives opportunity for long windows and for placing them well -up from the floor, and for good ventilation. If the ceiling is to be -reduced in height, which it well may be, the building should be -proportionately longer. - -A section of a part of the inside of the wall with swing windows is -shown in Fig. 106. The windows should be of one sash and hung near the -middle, as shown, by means of a piece of iron ³⁄₈ of an inch in diameter -and 4 inches long. A hole for the reception of the iron, and of the same -size, is made through the window sash and extends into the jambs of the -frame about one inch. A button on the side of the jamb is used to hold -the window partly open when required. This allows cool air to pass in at -the bottom and the warm, vitiated air to pass out at the top in small, -broken streams. It will be noticed that in case of a storm no rain or -strong current of air can reach the stable. Usually too few and too -small windows are provided, through which the manure from the stables is -not unfrequently thrown. - -Some additional ventilators should be provided; these may consist of -wooden tubes extending from the ceiling through the roof, so constructed -that the foul air may enter them. They need not be numerous or large, as -the windows when slightly open form excellent ventilators. Two things -should be kept prominently in view in ventilation: first, no strong -draughts of air, or, as a distinguished professor puts it, “great gobs -of raw air,” should be introduced; second, ventilators should ventilate -both at the ceiling and the floor, as in these two places will be found -the most impure air. Ample air space is most economically secured by -high ceilings, rather than by horizontal enlargement. The air can be -kept reasonably pure by the introduction, at several points near the -lower floor, of small volumes of slowly moving fresh air. - -Two stairs should lead from the basement to the second floor in all -large barns to economize time; the openings in the upper floor had best -be provided with flap doors, which can be left open in muggy, warm -weather to assist ventilation, or closed in cold weather to economize -warmth. - -Many varieties of stanchion for confining cattle in stalls are in use, -some really good, but mostly defective in one or more respects. It would -take too much space to describe all of the various contrivances and to -illustrate them and to call attention to their good and objectionable -points. Some confine the animals too closely, others give too much -freedom and allow them to become soiled; some are too expensive, and -some are not durable. I shall describe but one kind of fastening and -manger which, after trying numerous patent arrangements, has been found -to be excellent. It is quite possible that there are better ones. The -one thing which has been learned about stanchions by experimentation and -observation is that they may be so complicated and handy as to be -unhandy. - -The size and character of the “drip,” the comfort and cleanliness of the -animals, the ease of fastening and unfastening, the noise or quiet of -the stable, and the effect on the animals, should all be considered. -While using one stanchion, the animals became wild and made frantic -efforts to pull their heads out when the attendant approached to -unfasten them. As soon as another fastening was introduced they became -docile. With one stanchion they would lie down more frequently than with -another. With one kind of manger the animals are tempted to hook one -another, and in reaching for food would fall upon their knees and -injure themselves. Most of the contrivances were not easily adjustable, -so that when the size, or rather length, of the animals varied the -standing room was either too short or too long. Some had posts to -sustain the stanchions; these intercepted the light and prevented an -unobstructed survey of the animal. They gave the stables a forbidding, -dark, prison-like appearance. - -The individual stalls should be, for smallish animals, 3 feet 6 inches -from center to center, and 3 feet 8 inches for larger animals. The -partitions between the animals need extend only far enough backward and -upward to prevent them from reaching each other with their horns. When -dishorning is practiced the partitions may be lower than when it is not. - - -MANGERS AND TIES - -The cross section of a floor and the skeleton of a bracket upon which -the mangers are built are shown in Fig. 107. The mangers of cattle -stables should be easily movable. This can be accomplished in the -following way: Construct one more bracket than the number of stalls -required in the line of mangers. Place one of the brackets at the end -and one intermediate between every pair of stalls; fasten them lightly -to the floor with nails, which should be removed when the mangers are -completed. Fig. 107 also shows the cross section of the brackets, with -bottom, front, and back side of the manger placed. - -[Illustration: Fig. 107. The building of a manger.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 108. Newton cattle tie.] - -The Newton cattle tie (Fig. 108), though rather expensive, has proved -most satisfactory. It is made of one piece of round, durable wood, as -ash, about 1¹⁄₄ inches in diameter and bent at the corners, and is -furnished with a flat ring which encircles the bow at the middle, to -which is attached a swivel; to this is fastened a rope to encircle the -animal’s neck, the rope being furnished with suitable fastenings at the -ends. The bows are attached to the divisions on a level or a little -above the animal’s throat when standing; when lying down the bow rests -on top of the manger, which is about 1¹⁄₂ feet lower than the ends of -the bow. It will be seen that since the bow describes an arc of a circle -in passing downward, it tends to pull the animal towards the manger when -it lies down, and hence away from the soiled drip. - -In midsummer window curtains, drawn during milking time, serve to quiet -the flies and the cows, as does also a light spraying of the animals -with kerosene before they are turned out in the morning. A blanket -tacked over the entrance door to the cow stable will brush most of the -flies off the cattle as they enter. - - - - -CHAPTER XVII - -_BUILDING THE BARN--THE SUPERSTRUCTURE_ - - -The kind of superstructure best to be adopted for the barn depends on -many conditions. The balloon construction may be used for small barns, -but large ones naturally require large timbers or many small ones, hence -the old style of frame-work, with some modification, is usually adopted. -In modern barn buildings the main timbers are reduced in size, more and -lighter braces are used in lieu of the large mortised and pinned braces. -They are cut with smooth, angled ends and spiked to posts and beams. A -brace of 2 × 4 inches is inexpensive, and allows of following the old -rule of placing a brace in every angle made by the principal timbers. - -Another modification should be adopted: the joists, so far as possible, -should rest on sills and beams and not be gained into them. It is unwise -and unscientific to cut gains for the reception of the ends of the -joists at considerable expense, since such gains weaken both joists and -sills. In most cases the joists may be placed on top of the sills, -thereby obviating the necessity of framing, while preserving the -strength of sill and joist entire. When it is desirable, as it often is -in small structures, to have the top of the sill or beam coincide with -the tops of the joists, it is cheaper and better to use a rather light -timber and fortify it by nailing upon it 2 × 4-inch studding (Fig. 109), -thereby avoiding the necessity of cutting gains, while giving additional -strength to the timber which supports the joists. - -[Illustration: Fig. 109. Laying the joist.] - -The joists in barns should be bridged as in houses. That part of the -barn floor which is above the root-cellar should be deafened, as shown -in Fig. 101. Cleats nailed on the sides of the joists serve to support -the short boards which carry the deafening material. The 2-inch space -between the false and the true floor is filled with mortar composed of -about five or six parts of sand to one of lime or cement. If all of the -floor driven upon above the basement is deafened, it will deaden sound -and promote warmth in the lower story. - -While the balloon frame has been almost universally adopted in the -construction of houses, it is only recently that large barn frames have -been successfully constructed on the same general principles. The plank -frame has now been so modified and improved that it serves well for the -largest farm building. All of the frame timbers are sawed two inches -thick and of variable widths, as required. Instead of uniting the -timbers by means of mortise and tenon, they are fastened with wire -spikes. This new method secures as strong a frame as the old, and saves -from 30 to 40 per cent of material, while the plank frame is more easily -and cheaply erected than the large timbered frame is. The 2-inch frame -material can be so placed as to direction and position that it will -secure the maximum of strength with the minimum of lumber. - -[Illustration: Fig. 110. Barn frame.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 111. Cross-section of the frame.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 112. Built-up post.] - -The illustration (Fig. 110) shows one end of a 67 × 97-ft. barn, posts -18 ft. long, recently erected at the Pennsylvania Agricultural College. -A cross-section at one side of the driving floor is also shown (Fig. -111). A cross-section of a built-up post is seen in Fig. 112. It will be -seen that the building is firmly tied together, the roof fully -supported, and that no timbers obstruct the unloading of provender by -horse power. This new method of constructing large frames is so little -known and the principles involved are so valuable that I append a foot -note at the risk of being misunderstood.[7] Since long, large timbers -have become expensive, it is probable that the plank frame will become -as common in the near future, in barn building, as the balloon frame is -in house building. - - [7] Shawver Bros., Bellefontaine, Ohio, furnish models and bills of - material for plank barns at a low cost. - -It is frequently convenient to place horses or other animals on the -second floor above other animals, or above a covered yard, in which case -a tight floor may be made as follows (Fig. 113): Lay an unmatched, rough -inch floor; upon this place strong, tarred building-paper, with joints -well lapped. Saw and prepare the 2-inch planks which are to form the -floors. For every four hundred square feet of floor, procure one barrel -of hard Trinidad asphalt and three gallons of gas tar. A large iron -kettle may be used for heating and mixing the material, which should be -in the proportion of about one to ten. With an ax remove the barrel, and -chop off and place in the kettle pieces of asphalt until it is not much -more than one-half full, then add the due proportion of gas tar. The -kettle should be placed in a rude arch and at a little distance from the -building. By means of a slow fire heat the material. When all is ready, -dip the hot mixture into a galvanized iron pail and pour it in a small -stream on the paper, spreading to the width of the plank intended to be -laid, by means of a shingle or paddle. Lay the plank in the hot -material, being careful that when it is spiked down the hot asphalt does -not fly up into the face. Then proceed to lay other planks in like -manner. Finally pour some of the material into the cracks if there -should be any.[8] - - [8] A floor laid, as described, seventeen years ago, is still in good - repair. - -[Illustration: Fig. 113. Making a barn floor.] - -Should the floor become worn in time and need repairing, even up the -surface by spreading thin cement mortar upon it, and upon this lay a -second plank floor. The cement mortar will assist in making the floor -water-tight and in preventing dry rot. Barn floors which have become -much worn from driving over them may be treated in like manner. Where it -seems advisable to place cows on the second floor, and over a manure -cellar, the following plan may be adopted: A tight floor, as in the -former case, is built with drips as shown; a small hole is placed -between each pair of stalls, through which the voidings of the animals -may be dropped into the story below, the floor of which is concreted. -The objection might be raised that the manure underneath the animals -would be objectionable; but since the floor of the stable described is -tight when the openings in the drip are closed, and the story below is -well lighted and ventilated, the objection does not hold good. - -As far as possible, horses should stand with their heads away from the -windows, as draughts of air and glaring sunlight are trying to their -eyes. A few box stalls are convenient, and assist in providing the two -cubic feet of air space which should be allowed for each pound of live -weight in the horse barn. The stable should be so situated that the -fumes of ammonia arising from it cannot reach the harness and carriages, -if they are highly polished and expensive. The horse stable may often be -placed on the second floor of the wing, as it brings it on a level with -the main driving floor and near to where the wagons are likely to be -kept. The story beneath the horses makes an acceptable covered yard. An -office, which may be warmed, and a repair room should be provided in one -corner of the barn or in a small detached building near to it. - -If the farm is ample, and large amounts of hay and grain are to be -stored, instead of building a wagon house, the main barn might be -extended twenty feet, more or less, in length. This additional room may -be used for carriages and light harness in part, and in part for the -storage of grain, meal, and the like. The space underneath this room -would serve to enlarge the cow stable. The place for washing carriages -might also be located on the lower floor, where it would serve for -storing the milk wagon as well, and the space above it could be devoted -to storing hay and the like. Barn windows should have small panes of -glass, as the cross bars of the windows serve not only to hold the glass -but as fenders also. Since the glass in barn windows is likely to be -broken, the cost of repairs is reduced to a minimum if the panes are -small. - -A cupola, if it is large and well proportioned, may add beauty to the -barn and serve to ventilate the mows, thereby making them cooler for the -workmen than they otherwise would be. It may also give opportunity for -lighting the mows and the floors, thereby avoiding the necessity of -windows at the side of the mows, where they are likely to be broken and -where they are covered as soon as the barn is partly filled. - -Hay and grain contain 20 to 25 per cent of moisture when stored, and -hence tend to become warm. The hot, moist air, due to this heating, -ascends to the roof or cupola and forms an easier passage to the earth -for electrical discharges than the normal air of the building does. -Thunder storms prevail largely about the time barns are filled, hence -they should be provided with good lightning rods, that an easier and -safer way may be provided for the discharges than by the ascending warm, -moist air of the building. (See lightning rods, Chap. XX.) - -Barns not more than sixty feet wide may be covered by self-supporting -roofs. The curb or gambrel form is the best. If the gables are clipped, -the cost will not be materially increased, while the structure will be -much improved in looks. Barns should have strong, wide, projecting -roofs; a few extra rows of shingles at the eaves will serve to protect -the outside covering and the framework, and will improve the looks of -the structure. Should it be decided to paint the barn, an ample -projection will greatly reduce the expense of keeping the paint -presentable. Financially speaking, it does not pay to paint the barn -unless the boarding is placed horizontally. The boarding of many -unpainted barns is still in a good state of preservation, although they -were built more than three-fourths of a century ago, and had roofs -projecting but a few inches over sides and ends. Protected by a roof -projection of one to two feet, rough, vertical barn boards may last for -one to two hundred years without paint. It may be said, then, that -properly constructed barns are painted to improve their looks and not to -preserve them. When the barns are well removed from the house and -virtually hidden by trees, they may be left unpainted, but where they -are conspicuous they should be painted, that the barn may not mar the -beauty of the home. The oxide of iron, which usually has a red or -reddish tinge, mixed with pure oil, forms a most desirable and -satisfactory barn paint. (See Painting the House, Chap. IX.) - - - - -CHAPTER XVIII - -_REMODELING OLD BARNS_ - - -It is more difficult to remodel old barns than to build new ones. If the -attempt be made to unite several of the detached buildings with the view -of making them into one symmetrical structure, much study will be -required. The frames of the old buildings are so strong and durable that -they should not be thrown aside as useless until it is certain that to -utilize them would be more expensive than to tear them down and erect -others of new material. Those massive oak sills and posts and poplar -swing-beams have for me a meaning and charm which is lacking in the -light plank and balloon frame constructed of knotty, wind-shaken hemlock -or some other cheap wood. It needs no argument to prove that the -numerous detached rural buildings so often seen on the farm should be -remodeled; but how? To illustrate, let the buildings shown in Fig. 114, -which is from a photograph, be taken. Move the four largest buildings to -some suitable site without taking the frames down, and out of the -timbers of the other structures build a basement story. It will take -just one-half as much material to board the new structure as the four -old ones, plus that required to fill the gaps where the old structures -do not join (see plan, Fig. 115). These openings, eight and twelve feet, -are all so short that the frames may be made continuous by means of -light pieces of material, which will serve for nailing girts. When the -old buildings have been united, some of the inside posts may be in -inconvenient positions. If so, trusses appropriately placed in the mow -story will permit the removal of the obstructing post, as shown in Figs. -116 and 117. - -[Illustration: Fig. 114. The scattered buildings on a farm. The profit -of the farm is absorbed in doing the chores.] - -If a steep curb roof, which may be self-supporting (Fig. 118), be -adopted, the remodeled structure (Fig. 119) will have more than three -times the available space that the four old structures had. It is -probable that there would be nearly enough dimension stuff in the seven -other small structures to construct the basement story. - -[Illustration: Fig. 115. Plan for condensing the buildings shown in Fig. -114.] - -But it may chance that no basement story is wanted. If so, the building -might be arranged as before, or two more of the small structures might -be united to the four larger ones which it was proposed to use in the -former case. The barn would then present a rather low appearance; but if -the peaks of the curb roof were properly treated, that is, clipped (Fig. -120), the structure would not be void of beauty. The rebuilt structure, -in any case, should be placed on continuous walls, not on stone piers. -If the posts of the old structures are of unequal length, the wall which -supports those having the shorter posts may be built higher than for -those having the longer posts, provided, however, there is not too great -a difference in the length of the posts of the several small structures. -If there are four or more feet difference, it would then be best to -splice the short posts. - -[Illustration: Fig. 116. Trussing where a post is removed.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 117. A trussed frame, where a post is removed.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 118. Old style of roof below, and new style curb -roof above.] - -The first story in most of the old barns is entirely too low. This may -be remedied by building the outside supporting walls of the proposed -remodeled building two to three feet above the level of the ground. This -will add as much to the lower story as the wall is above the ground, -less the room required for placing the basement floor. If treated in -this manner the old inside sills, sleepers, and joists should be removed -and the inside post supported on stone or brick piers. All this will -give opportunity to construct the basement floors on the ground, or near -to it, and of such shape and material as the new plans call for. In -this case the floor might well be made of grout, since lumber is -expensive, and an effort should be made to build permanent and durable -structures. If stable floors are placed well up from the ground and have -numerous cracks between the planks, they are extremely uncomfortable for -the animals. They are, perhaps, the most uncomfortable of all floors, as -the air finds access to the stable through the floor, and it is nearly -impossible to keep such stables comfortable in cold weather. Such -construction of floors is also wasteful of manures, tends to produce -“scratches” and other foot and leg diseases in horses, and is unsanitary -and altogether undesirable. - -[Illustration: Fig. 119. This shows the farmstead in Fig. 114, after the -barns are gathered in.] - -Finally, it may be said that when these separate structures are treated -in this inexpensive manner without added basement, the available -capacity of the building would be double that of the old ones, the time -of performing the work in the barns would be greatly diminished, and -the discomfort of both man and beast would be ameliorated. For the sake -of the farm boy and for the animal which he cares for, to say nothing of -economy, beauty and neatness, may I not ask those who have these -scattered, unhandy, uncomfortable barns, to study well the illustrations -given, which show the old and the new arrangement? - -[Illustration: Fig. 120. Treatment of the gable.] - -The accompanying illustration (Fig. 121) of English farm buildings may -be of interest, though this style of barn and the arrangement would not -be suitable in America, with its rigorous climate and expensive farm -labor. - -[Illustration: Fig. 121. English farmsteading plan.] - - - - -CHAPTER XIX - -_OUTBUILDINGS AND ACCESSORIES_ - - -There are various farm buildings which are better when more or less -detached from the main barn; and some of these may now be mentioned. - -[Illustration: Fig. 122. A poultry establishment sufficient for 150 -hens.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 123. A moveable coop.] - - -POULTRY HOUSES - -Until recently comparatively few persons have been financially -successful in the poultry business when large numbers of fowls were kept -in close quarters, as the many abandoned dilapidated yard fences and -buildings testify. The reason for such failures was due, usually, to -allowing too many fowls to run in one flock. It takes a genius to see -and note the conditions of each individual animal once daily in a flock -of several hundred birds. Break the flock up into several small ones, -each of uniform size and character, and the individual fowl may then be -more easily noted. A single diseased bird, if not removed, may serve to -inoculate a whole flock with some contagious disease. If the flock -contains but twenty to thirty individuals, the chance of discovering a -drooping bird is greatly increased. This indicates that the poultry -house or houses should be easily divided into rather small compartments. -Poultry houses usually are about 12 feet wide and not more than 30 to 40 -feet long. If more room is wanted than one house furnishes, another -structure should be erected some little distance from any other one. -This will give better opportunity to arrange for large runs or yards -than does one long, continuous building. I have yet to see a large -poultry establishment furnished with yards as large as they should be, -and I have seen but few yards which were properly or fully shaded. The -runs should be large and relatively narrow, and set to fruit trees. The -plum is best, and may be set the usual distance apart. The trees should -be sprayed and cared for as in well kept orchards, since the fruit may -chance to be more profitable than the poultry. For the health of the -fowls and the welfare of the trees, clean culture of the runs should be -adopted. In the case of poultry buildings, the distributive method of -construction should be adopted rather than the concentrated one. If the -undertaking is begun with a well matured plan, these several small -structures may not be unsightly when viewed as a whole. An illustration -is given of a modest poultry plant large enough for 150 hens and 500 -chicks, provided, however, that most of the chicks are sold when from -three to six months old (Fig. 122). These structures are built on grout -foundation walls to exclude vermin and moisture. The floors are of wood, -the sills and plates 2 × 4 inches. The boarding is vertical and double, -with paper between the two boardings. The outside boards are planed and -battened; the roof boards, which are laid close together, are covered -with paper and then shingled. The windows provide for light and, in -part, for ventilation. These structures are dry on the inside, and the -temperature, though not always above the freezing point in cold -weather, is comfortable. The buildings might be reduced in number or in -size, except the brooder house, and yet provide for the same number of -birds, if movable coops for the smaller chickens were provided. The -illustration (Fig. 123) shows a durable, light, movable coop large -enough for twenty half pound chicks. The coop was designed for use on -the lawn. It is inexpensive, and protects the chicks from all their -ordinary enemies, both day and night. It weighs but 75 pounds, and can -be moved easily by a child by means of a strap attached to one end. When -used on the lawn, the coop should be moved and cleaned at least once -daily, as fresh pasture for the chicks is thereby provided, injury to -the grass prevented, the lawn being benefited by the excrements. The -coop shown is 4 × 8 feet and 20 inches high, unfloored except the -covered section, which has a tight floor, and roosts and suitable -wooden and screen doors. A brood of chicks in such a coop would form -superior facilities for nature-study work. - -[Illustration: Fig. 124. A large portable coop.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 125. Bracing the corners of the frame.] - -When poultry-raising is carried on on a large scale, the movable coops -might be built 12 × 6 or 16 × 8 feet (Fig. 124), the latter the largest -size which is easily movable without the aid of a horse. The corners of -the sills should be mitered and held together by triangular pieces (Fig. -125). These coops will be found to be entirely satisfactory when used in -a pasture or grass paddock near the chicken house. While experimenting -with them, it was found that the birds did better when as many as thirty -or more chicks were assigned to each large coop than when kept in the -large, grassless runs. - -The following bill of particulars may be of assistance in the -construction of a lawn chicken-coop: - - Sills 1 × 4 inches. - Posts 2 × 2 inches, 20 inches long. - Braces 1 × 1 inch. - Plates 1 × 2 inches. - -The covered part of the coop is made of ³⁄₈-inch matched and beaded -hard pine; the floor of any light wood ¹⁄₂-inch or ³⁄₄-inch, matched, -but not beaded. - - -PIGGERIES - -[Illustration: Fig. 126. Temporary shelter for a brood sow.] - -A piggery of any considerable size is the most difficult to plan of all -farm structures. One of two methods may be adopted in the East with -fairly satisfactory results. If there are woods and some pasture land -adjoining or near to the barns, cheap separate pens (Fig. 126), one for -each brood animal, may be built near the border of the wood or on the -edge of it. There need be little more than a slanting roof, with the -triangular corners at the ends boarded to keep out the wind. The earth -forms a most comfortable bed if kept dry and covered thinly with leaves -or straw. Of course, these pens are not suitable for brood animals -farrowing during the winter months. Where but one litter of pigs is -raised annually, there is little difficulty; if two litters a year be -desired, the first one should be farrowed in April or May, and the other -in September or October. In either case these cheap detached pens may be -not only satisfactory, but they will serve to fit into a system of -pig-raising which may be carried on at the minimum of labor and expense -and supplementary foods. By means of a tank or barrel mounted on wheels -the animals may be fed, either once or twice daily, in large troughs -placed in the pasture. This system presupposes ample areas of grass and -woodland, which should furnish not only a healthful run for the animals -but much food for them. - -Usually the mistake is made of confining pigs in small pens, which may -or may not have attached to them small yards or runs. These are always -devoid of grass, and offensively dusty and filthy a part of the year, -and an impassable mud hole at other times. Wherever circumstances will -permit, there should be allotted to each brood animal and her offspring -one-fourth acre of land. Two small fields might be provided, one of -which would serve for pasture ground for all the animals, while the -other would be used for raising crops for soiling the pigs or for other -purposes. When the lot became fertilized from the droppings of the -animals and the grass injured, it should be plowed, cropped and seeded, -the animals being pastured meantime in the other field. - -[Illustration: Fig. 127. Pig pens. At the left is shown a vertical -section, with the roof over the rear. Yard on the right.] - -Cheap but somewhat more elaborate pens are shown in Fig. 127. These may -be built in detached pairs, or several pens may be placed in -juxtaposition. Each pen, including the small outside yard and feeding -floor, both unroofed, is 16 × 16 feet. The part roofed is 8 × 8 feet. -After the pigs have attained some size, all doors are opened and the -entire herd may be grazed in one field. - -[Illustration: Fig. 128. A more elaborate piggery.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 129. Elevation of the house shown in Fig. 128.] - -A better but more expensive piggery, Figs. 128 and 129, shows five pens, -though the plan lends itself to a greater or lesser number. The area -devoted to each bed is 8 × 8 feet. The driveway, which also serves for -temporary storage of manures, is 8 feet wide and extends lengthwise -through the building. The floor of the driveway should be about one foot -lower than the feeding and sleeping floors at the middle, and should be -paved or asphalted. (See cross section, Fig. 129.) The feeding floor -upon which the troughs rest may be 4 or 5 feet long, and should descend -towards the driving floor. Ordinary gates are hung to the posts which -serve, with the boarding, to separate the pens. These gates are fastened -at the other end of the posts which separate the feeding compartments. -When so fastened each brood animal has a bedroom 8 × 8, a receptacle for -manure 8 × 8, and a feeding floor 4 × 8 feet. This arrangement -presupposes that most of the foods will be fed in the troughs. If, when -the animals are first placed in the pens, the paved portion of the -floor be soiled with dirt and water, the excreta thereafter will be -deposited by the animals on this floor and not in the bedroom. The pig -is really a cleanly animal if it is given a few timely sensible hints. -When it is desired to remove the manure the gates are all swung to the -right or left, as most convenient, and they then serve to fasten all of -the animals in the bed compartments, and the driveway is left -unobstructed. One of the outside openings to the driveway should also be -provided with a gate to swing in, as well as an ordinary door to swing -out. These pens may all be thrown open in the summer when it is desired -to pasture the herd. - -The illustration shows a small wing attached which may serve many useful -purposes. A matched upper floor and abundant light and ventilation -should be provided. The roof story may be used for housing some corn in -the ear and straw for bedding. In cold weather the upper floor should -have some straw left on it to promote warmth in the pens below. - -The object in discussing these three styles of piggeries has been to -emphasize cleanliness, economy of labor in caring for the animals, the -comfort of the animals, prevention of wanton waste of manure, and -economy in the production of healthy swine in piggeries so arranged that -the animals may be conveniently grazed during the summer, and kept -reasonably clean and comfortable in winter. - - -THE SILO - -The Egyptians, the Romans, and the American Indians all stored grain in -pits or silos which were air-tight, or as nearly so as large rude -structures could be made. The custom of using silos for storing grain in -Spain and France never became common, though several attempts were made -to preserve large quantities of grain for several years, that the -overproduction of one year might be kept until there were deficient -harvests. - -The subject of ensilaging green “roughage” material attracted attention -in the United States soon after 1870. As early as 1875, Doctor Manly -Miles, then connected with the Illinois Industrial University, was -fairly successful in preserving the green tops of broom corn in an -earthen silo. Interest in the subject of preserving green material in -silos was widely aroused in America by the appearance of a book on -ensilage, translated in 1878-9. The book was published in France in -1877, by M. Auguste Goffart. - -When the practice of ensilaging green material for feeding animals was -first introduced into the United States there was much discussion as to -the construction of silos. Many advocated building them of stones, -brick, or grout, though some were built of wood. As a rule, they were -built either square or in the form of a parallelogram, in a few cases -octagonal. Experience soon showed that the silage was preserved better -in the wooden silo than in those constructed of other material. For this -reason, and because the wooden silo is most cheaply constructed, wood is -now in universal use for building them. - -At first heavy frames were erected which were covered with two, three, -and even four thicknesses of boards. Sometimes building paper was placed -between the inner and outer boards. The octagon and the round silo soon -supplanted those having square corners. As built, too often the walls -could not be or were not fully ventilated. The thick walls remained more -or less damp throughout the entire year or, if dried out when empty, -lack of ventilation superinduced dry rot. Cases were not infrequent -where silos were found to be practically useless without rebuilding in -four or five years. Where everything was at its best, the frequent -shrinking and swelling of the wood resulted finally in so destroying its -elasticity that it did not return to its normal size when the silo was -refilled. Since there was no means of tightening these silos the air -soon entered them freely, which resulted in serious loss of fodder. By -reason of the costliness and defects of stone and grout silos, and the -failure in many cases of square-cornered wooden ones to preserve the -material satisfactorily, and because of their perishable nature, much -attention has been given to the shape and material of silos. - -[Illustration: Fig. 130. The stave silo.] - -From all the evidence attainable, the conclusion is reached that the -round, tall, stave silo is best. It is simple in construction, -inexpensive as compared with most other kinds, and reasonably durable. -The fact that it dries out fully during the summer, thereby destroying -all germs of decay, coupled with the other fact that at any time it can -be made tight by means of the hoops which serve to hold the staves in -place, makes the round, stave silo par excellent. The staves should be -two inches thick and from four to six inches wide, bevelled to suit the -size of the structure. The hoops are usually of round galvanized iron -one-half inch in diameter. They are placed about three feet apart, the -spaces between the hoops being wider near the top than they are near the -bottom. The hoops are made in sections of variable lengths; the ends of -each section are furnished with lugs, that the hoop may be shortened and -the silo tightened with ease. The illustration (Fig. 130) shows an -emergency silo built of rough green hemlock plank unbevelled, hooped -with “American woven wire fence.” It is 24 feet high, 12 feet in -diameter, cost $35, and has a nominal capacity of 50 tons. A flat board -roof serves to keep out the snow and most of the rain. It is placed in -the open to test its durability. It has been in use one year, and so far -it is entirely satisfactory, though the staves would be better if they -had been beveled. - -How long will this inexpensive silo last? That remains to be determined. -Judging from other silos of similar construction which were erected -several years ago, I judge it will last 15 or 20 years with slight -repairs. When left thus exposed, will the silage freeze during the -winter? In extremely cold weather in central New York, when the -thermometer drops to 10° or 15° below zero, the material at the top will -freeze. If straw be spread over the silage to the depth of a few inches, -it will prevent the escape of heat and freezing. A portion of the straw -covering is thrown back out of the way, the silage wanted removed, and -the covering returned. Such precaution is only necessary during a few of -the coldest days. - - - - -CHAPTER XX - -_PROTECTION FROM LIGHTNING_ - - -A flash of lightning is one of the most feared of nature’s -manifestations of power; and yet by the use of proper precautions its -ability to injure persons and property can be lessened greatly. -Speculations as to the nature of lightning were vague until Benjamin -Franklin boldly sent a kite into the teeth of a storm and tapped the -accumulated electricity in the cloud to charge one of his storage jars. -He connected the cloud with his jar by a wire made of a material which -he knew would conduct the electrical charge, and at the same time he -took the precaution not to hold the end of this wire himself. He -introduced between the end of the wire and his hand a piece of silk -cord, which is a non-conductor of electricity. Had he taken hold of the -end of the wire, the charge would have passed through him with probably -fatal results. - -What is lightning? One naturally inquires for the reason of this storage -of electrical energy in the clouds. The explanation is not -forthcoming--at least there is none which is entirely satisfactory--but -the facts are well known. The mass of water-vapor which forms the clouds -becomes electrically charged just as a rubber comb does when rubbed on -the hair on a dry day, or as an ebonite ruler does when rubbed on a -cat-skin. Perhaps by contact with the air, which is in motion, the -particles of water become charged, and by the union of multitudes of -these the clouds are charged to a tremendous pressure. Lightning can be -produced artificially on a small scale by means of electric machines, -and the results of study of these artificial discharges have been to -show the following facts: The air is not a conductor of electricity, but -when the electrical pressure between two points becomes sufficiently -great the electric charge jumps suddenly between the two points at which -the pressure exists. It punctures a hole for itself through the air. -Lightning is the result. This discharge is very violent, and it is -accompanied by a strong smell of ozone, which is only very strong -oxygen. If one were to examine the points of the electric machine -between which the discharge took place, they might be found either hot -or cold, depending upon their size and the material of which they were -made. Some materials offer more resistance to the passage of the -electric charge than others, and when a considerable resistance is -offered, heat is produced in appreciable amounts at the places at which -the resistance is met. The application of this principle will be seen -when the effects of real lightning are considered. - -In Figs. 131, 132, and 133 are shown lightning flashes taken by Mr. W. -N. Jennings.[9] These flashes are so soon over that without the aid of -the sensitive photographic plate it would be impossible to study them. -It will be noticed that the path of the charge is not straight, but -quite irregular; this path being that in which there is the least -resistance to the passage of the electricity. One strange phenomenon -which is brought out clearly in the pictures is that the discharge very -frequently divides into several branches. This is because it finds easy -paths in several directions and divides into smaller discharges, thus -finally disappearing. - - [9] These three pictures are drawn, by permission, from photographic - illustrations by Mr. Jennings in Journal of the Franklin Institute, - vol. 133 (1892). - -[Illustration: Fig. 131. Horizontal discharge of lightning.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 132. - -Meandering discharge.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 133. Tree-form discharge.] - -_Protection from lightning._--Having noticed briefly something of the -nature of lightning, the next point to be considered is its control, so -that the dangerous effects of a sudden discharge may be avoided. It has -long been known that by repeating Franklin’s experiment and connecting -the clouds with the earth, dangerous flashes of lightning can be avoided -to some extent; and this fact has given rise to much swindling on the -part of the “lightning-rod man,” who has frequently imposed on the -people through their fear of the results of lightning bolts. Any person -of average intelligence, with the knowledge of a few simple principles, -can put up a rod himself for the protection of his barn or dwelling at a -very reasonable expense. - - -METAL ROOFS - -It has been noticed that metal roofs protect buildings even when no -lightning rods are used, especially if there are tin or iron water -pipes running to the ground. Even steam and gas pipes are good if -connected with the roof. Tin and copper roofs are not so common in the -country as in the city, and this is one of the many reasons why city -houses are less frequently struck by lightning than country ones. Copper -roofs are not used now as they once were on account of the great -expense; but from the electrical standpoint they are an excellent -protection to a house in a thunder storm. The writer has noticed in a -room in a city house, in which steam heat is used, that the lightning -will come in and down on the steam pipes without doing any harm. If one -will go into a telegraph station during a storm he will frequently -notice the discharges of lightning which take place through devices -provided for the purpose, and this without the least fire risk. This is -an illustration of the fact that, if properly provided for, the -dangerous element can be largely eliminated from a lightning discharge. - - -PROTECTING WOODEN ROOFS - -If a metal roof is out of the question, the protection of the wooden -roof must be provided for. Very little attention has been paid in this -country to the proper erection and maintenance of lightning rods. It is -not sufficient to put up a point in an out-of-the-way place, and with a -careless ground connection, and then expect immunity from lightning. The -lightning rod will protect a wooden-roofed building if it is properly -installed; and in order that this simple but important piece of -apparatus be thoroughly understood it will now be considered in detail. - -In the first place, it should be noted that there are two forms of -electric discharge or lightning which are provided for in equipping a -building with lightning protection: the brush discharge and the -disruptive discharge. The brush-form is so named because the fine -streamers of sparks which are emitted have somewhat the appearance of a -brush. This discharge is harmless, and one of the important functions of -the bunch of points on the upper end of the lightning rod is to quietly -take from the surrounding atmosphere the electricity there generated, -and thus prevent its accumulation to a dangerous extent. Very high -towers, such as steel windmills, high trees, and steeples do the -community a good service in this respect. But sometimes the discharges -cannot be dissipated through the brush form, but reach a high pressure, -and exhibit themselves with great violence, producing the booming and -crackling noise of thunder. This is the second form; and although the -points may be useful in this case too, yet if they are too far apart the -discharge may not seek them, but may take a shorter path through the -moist hay from which the hot, damp air is rising to the roof and forming -another lightning conductor. Protection from this can be partly provided -by the use of several points, not over forty feet apart; but in cases in -which lightning is very violent and frequent, the conductor should be -run all around the edges of the roof, and in several places to the -ground. - -An experiment made by a noted electrician some years ago will illustrate -this point: A frame was made of iron wire in the shape of a barn, the -wire representing the edges of the walls and roof. The frame was -connected to the ground, or “grounded,” as the electricians say, and -then artificial lightning was allowed to play upon it from a distance of -a foot or more above. This gave a model about in proportion to the real -barn and actual lightning. All the discharge followed the wire frame, -and did not ignite a dummy of gun-cotton which was placed inside. The -instant that the metal barn frame was removed the dummy was struck and -burned violently. One can draw his own conclusions from an experiment of -this sort. - -[Illustration: Fig. 134. Proper adjustment of lightning rods on a barn.] - -A barn properly fitted with lightning rods is shown in Fig. 134. The -location of the points is such that there is not more than forty feet -between two adjacent ones. The rod projects about six feet above the -roof, and these projections are all connected by means of rod of the -same form as the vertical conductors. Sharp turns are avoided in -erecting the conductor, for an electric discharge would prefer to go -straight through the air rather than turn a corner. - -It will now be necessary to go into some practical details of the -construction of lightning rods, and the suggestions that will be made -have been included here because good points or rods may not always be -readily obtainable. Their manufacture is easy and can be performed with -the limited facilities of a small village. If the raw materials have to -be bought at a distance, this can be easily done by correspondence. - -Parts of the system: The equipment will consist of three parts--the -conductor and its support, the points, and the ground connection. - -[Illustration: Fig. 135. - -Supporting a rod.] - -The conductor, or so-called “rod,” first demands attention. All metals -conduct electricity to some extent, but certain ones are very much -better than others. For example, lead, platinum, brass, and iron are -poor conductors, which is equivalent to saying that they heat up readily -on the passage of an electric current. On the other hand, silver, -copper, and aluminum are good conductors. In making a lightning rod, the -best all-round conductor should be used, when cost and conductivity are -the basis for the selection. As an example, take the metals iron, -copper, and aluminum for comparison. Iron is cheapest in price per -pound, but its electrical conductivity is small, while copper, though -more expensive, has so much more conductivity that to get rid of a -certain charge of electricity requires much less of it. So with -aluminum, which has slightly less conductivity and which costs more than -copper, but which is so light that a rod having the same conducting -ability when made of this metal actually costs less than one made of -copper, and the price of aluminum is constantly lessening, while that of -copper cannot fall much on account of the limited supply. To compare -actual figures, call the conductivity of copper 100, then that of steel -or iron will be about 18, and that of aluminum about 60. As to relative -weights, copper weighs about 550 pounds per cubic foot, iron or steel -480, and aluminum 160. As the prices of these materials are constantly -varying, it would be impossible to say at this time what the relative -costs would be at any other time; but it can be said that on the score -of cost there is little choice among them. For a number of reasons aside -from cost, copper is at present the best material, and these reasons -are: That it is smaller than the others for a given conducting ability, -and thus is more sightly; that it is easier to support on account of -this small size, and that it can be readily soldered to the ground -plate, which will be considered later. - -In addition to the material of the lightning rod, its form is a matter -of considerable importance. The cable forms have been used extensively -and successfully, but the ribbon or flat form is better on account of -the smaller cost, and because there is a greater area exposed for the -dissipation of the heat generated by the lightning in passing from the -points to the ground. A rectangular section of three-quarters by -one-eighth of an inch is recommended. - -In supporting the conductor from the wall or roof, it should be -separated or “insulated” from these surfaces. There is a slight chance -that the lightning might leave the conductor if the building were wet. A -more important reason for the use of the insulator is that the heat -which is generated on the surface of the rod when a heavy discharge -occurs will not be able, if supported away from the wall, to heat up any -inflammable material near it. Fig. 135 shows a method of support in -which one of the standard insulators used in running electric light and -other wires is employed. These insulators, which are made of porcelain -and iron, can be screwed into the wood or into a plug driven into the -joints between the stones very readily. The insulator shown is -manufactured by the General Electric Company, of Schenectady, New York, -and similar ones are made by other manufacturers of electrical -materials. - -[Illustration: Fig. 136. Efficient points for a lightning rod.] - -In order to attract the discharge, the rods must project some distance -above the roof, about 6 feet being the proper height. This projection -must be supported, and there are two ways to do this. The first is to -screw or nail a piece of timber to the side of the building, projecting -about 5 feet above the roof. Two insulators on this will provide the -necessary support for the rod. As this might be considered unsightly in -some places, a neater but more expensive method is to use a piece of -³⁄₄-inch copper, brass or iron rod for the upper 9 or 10 feet of the -rod. This can be easily joined and soldered to the copper ribbon and is -strong enough to support itself in any wind. A brace from the vertical -to the horizontal rod will provide additional support if desired, and -will give a more substantial appearance. At the point at which the -horizontal rod passes through a timber support, in case such plan is -used, a hole 1¹⁄₂ inches should be bored in the timber to avoid any risk -of its being burned. In joining the horizontal to the vertical rod, the -former should be bent up at right angles for an inch, and the surfaces -should then be well cleaned and soldered. - -The points for attracting the discharge should be made very carefully, -and with a view to accommodating the brush discharge particularly. As a -rule, the more points in the bunch at the head of the rod the better -will the brush discharge be attracted; and for the same reason these -points should be sharp and bright. These facts have been determined by -experiment, from which it has been learned that the discharge is quieter -and at a lower pressure from sharp, bright terminals than from others. -Aluminum wire fulfils the requirements for the points better than any -other metal of reasonable cost. Unfortunately this metal is difficult to -solder, but if the directions here given are carefully followed there -will be no difficulty in producing a good bunch. - -The sketch (Fig. 136) shows the general construction. In the end of a -block of copper of the dimensions shown, drill a hole ⁵⁄₈ of an inch in -diameter and 1 inch deep. Cut off a number of pieces of aluminum wire, -of about ¹⁄₁₆ of an inch in diameter, about 4 inches long. This wire -can be obtained from the Pittsburg Reduction Company, of Pittsburg, -Pennsylvania. These wires must then be filed to sharp points on one end, -the opposite ends being roughened with coarse sandpaper. Push as many of -the wires into the hole in the block as it will hold and bend the points -back so as to form a brush. Now heat some solder in a ladle and pour in -around the lower ends of the aluminum wires, having first taken the -precaution to heat the copper block so that the solder will flow well. -The conductor rod is then soldered into a slot filed in the lower end of -the block, and the bunch of points is complete. - -The ground connection is the most important part of the whole equipment. -With poor ground connections, the rods become a menace to a building -rather than a protection. Examples could be cited where buildings were -actually struck and destroyed, even though “apparently properly rodded.” -In one case the wire entered but two inches into dry soil, while in -another the lower end was buried in concrete. It is absolutely essential -that the lower end of the rod be connected with moist earth in some way, -as this is the only method which will insure safety. If there are water -pipes in the building, they should be attached to the rod in the -basement in addition to the main ground connection. - -As the charge is to be dissipated in the earth, it will be necessary to -expose a considerable area of metal under ground. If a spring is near, -the rod should be run to the vicinity of the spring and there soldered -to the ground plate, which should be below the level of the surface of -the spring. Moist soil is the only kind which will conduct electricity, -hence the insistence on a moist place for the terminal of the rod. In -case the plate must be planted some distance from water, either it must -go quite deep or it may be placed in a barrel of charcoal or coke buried -under the surface. These materials will hold whatever water they -receive, and it is a simple matter to wet the soil above such a terminal -from time to time. The plate itself should be of copper and of an area -of at least 25 square feet, including both sides. An old copper boiler, -flattened out, makes a cheap and effective ground plate. - -There is no doubt that many buildings have been saved from destruction -by means of properly installed lightning rods, and it is plain that they -are not difficult nor expensive to install. - - - - -CHAPTER XXI - -_THE FIELDS_ - - -While it is the primary object of this book to discuss the lay-out of -buildings and their accessories, it would be incomplete if something -were not said of the general plan of the fields themselves. - - -FENCES - -Some ten years since, someone estimated that for every dollar’s worth of -live stock kept in New York another dollar was expended in fences to -restrain it. It is probable that this estimate is below rather than -above the facts. Be this as it may, the first cost of fences and their -maintenance is a serious draft on the resources of the farmer. - -[Illustration: Fig. 137. The old-time fence system on the right; the -present condition on the left.] - -In the pioneer days, when even the best of fencing material was so -abundant that it was burned to clear the land, there was great -temptation to split the tender logs into great rails and construct -fences with them. Each winter a few acres of land were cleared and each -year’s clearing was surrounded by a great ten-rail fence, which served -to discourage some of the larger wild animals from destroying the crops. -It is easily seen why our ancestors in the wooded districts fenced the -farm into small fields. In some cases the surface stones were so -numerous on the land that the larger ones had to be removed to make way -for the plow. Naturally they were used for constructing fences, for the -most economical way to get rid of these too numerous stones was to make -fences of them. The haul was short and the fences could be increased in -width and height until storage room was provided for all the rocks which -the farmer cared to remove. So here, too, the temptation was great to -fence the farm into small fields. The following diagrams show the fields -and the fences as they were on the old homestead, and also as they are -at the present time (Fig. 137). - -Changed agricultural conditions imply fewer fences and the adoption, in -part at least, of the soiling system. Then, too, the introduction of the -horn-fly makes a radical change imperative in the summering of the -dairy. This worst of all dairy pests robs the cow of flesh and the owner -of profit. - -Now that the silo is an assured success, except under rare conditions, -soiling, or the partial soiling system, should be adopted on many -farms, especially in the dairy districts. The object should be to -provide a continuous and full supply of food, and comfortable conditions -for the animals at all times. In May and June the pastures are succulent -and the grasses usually abundant, and the annoying flies are not -present. When the animals are first turned out on the pastures the -nights may be too cold and damp for comfort, in which case they may be -stabled and fed a small supplemental ration; in fact, cows in milk -should always receive some dry, concentrated food for the first few -weeks after they are turned out to grass. Often the early grass is -over-succulent and deficient in food constituents to such an extent that -the cows cannot eat enough to sustain life and produce the most -profitable quantities of milk. When the pastures begin to fail, the -flies appear and the days are hot, manifestly the animals will be most -comfortable in the stables in the day time and in the pastures at night. -This system will permit of reducing the pastures nearly one-half, and -the removal of all fences except those which surround the permanent -pasture land. If it is desired occasionally to pasture a part of the -unenclosed land, a light woven wire fence, which can be easily erected -and removed, may be constructed. All changes in the present system of -summering animals should be towards smaller areas of pasture-land, fewer -fences, more comfortable conditions for animals, economy of effort, and -control of food-supplies for the animals at all seasons of the year. - -In most of the states the laws require each farmer to restrain his own -animals without the aid of the neighbors; hence the road-fence, often -the most unsightly and ill kept of all the fences, may be discarded. How -many of the inside fences would best be removed depends upon -circumstances; but certain it is that a more rational system of -restraining and feeding cattle will be adopted than the one now almost -universally in use. We cannot destroy the hornfly; we can remove the -useless fences and house the animals in stables from which the -pestiferous flesh- and milk-reducing flies are excluded. - - -ORCHARDS - -In some fruit districts the farmers are cutting down their orchards, -saying that they cannot afford to bother with them, and that -fruit-raising must be carried on in a large way by specialists to be -profitable. This is tantamount to saying that they are not intelligent -and enterprising enough to manage six or eight acres of orchard -successfully, while their neighbor is competent to care for ten times -that acreage. The man who owns the smaller orchard should, other things -being equal, secure a relatively larger profit than the owner of the -large orchard, since he will be able to give it more personal attention. -The man who overcomes the difficulties of fruit-raising is constantly -adding to his education and power, while the man who is appalled with -the difficulties of orcharding, and falls back on rye, buckwheat and -oats as money-crops, sinks in intelligence and loses courage. The -orchard, when intelligently cared for, seldom fails to give much larger -profits than a like area devoted to the cereals. As a rule, the most -difficult crop to raise or the most difficult business is the one which -brings the most liberal reward after the difficulties have been -surmounted. - -When convenient, the orchard might well be set to the north or west of -the buildings, in most sections of the United States, but not so close -to them as to prevent a good air passage between it and the dwelling. -Low-headed fruit trees should not be set in the house yard or near to -it. The trees in most orchards are set too close together, and even when -set appropriate distances apart it will be found to be unprofitable, in -the long run, to grow two crops on the same land at the same time, as -wheat or oats and apples. Specific directions for the care and -management of orchards can now be found in well written books and -bulletins; therefore there is no occasion for treating orchards in -detail here. Suffice it to say that the farmer without an abundance of -fruits in their season is like the lad with empty pockets outside the -circus tent: lots of fruit and fun, ready to be enjoyed by those who -have made thoughtful provision for the gratification of desires which -always come, sooner or later. Every farmer should grow most of the -fruits suited to his soil and climate,--enough to eat and to sell and to -give to the worthy poor. - - -FARM GARDEN - -The farm garden should be ample and contain not only enough vegetable -and small fruits for the use of the family, but a surplus to sell or to -give away. The farmer used to large areas is reluctant to undertake -anything so small as he imagines the garden to be; hence, too often he -plows it and leaves the planting and cultivation of it to the “women -folks.” If he knew how to manage a garden he would find that the -half-acre of land devoted to small fruits and vegetables could be made -the most profitable and pleasurable part of the farm. Higher -remuneration is received for the time spent in harvesting the products -of a large, well kept garden, than in harvesting the cereals or milking -the cows. It must be said, however, that there are good reasons for the -farmer’s distaste for gardening, for the gardens, as usually laid out, -necessitate the maximum of hand-culture and the minimum of -horse-culture. The result of such gardens is a minimum of products -secured by maximum of effort, and a resultant surplus of weeds. - -[Illustration: Fig. 138. Plan of a home garden.] - -The garden should be about four times as long as it is broad, unfenced -when possible, near to the house, and should be, in miniature, a farm -with the cereals, grasses, and large fruits left out (Fig. 138). The -side farthest from the dwelling should be devoted to the perennial -plants, such as grapes, currants and other bush-fruits. Everything -should be planted in straight rows, with spaces sufficiently wide -between the rows to admit of horse-hoe culture. The grapes and -blackberries might occupy one row, the raspberries and currants a second -row, rhubarb, asparagus and like plants a third row. The spaces between -these various fruits should be eight feet, as it is poor economy to so -crowd vines and bushes as to force them to struggle the year through for -plant-food and moisture. A rod or two of land, more or less, virtually -amounts to nothing on the farm; crowding the plants is only admissible -in the city or village. Here the plants may receive unusual care, and -often may be irrigated at fruiting time from the city hydrant. The rows -of ordinary vegetables may be thirty inches apart, except in case of -such plants as onions, lettuce, and early beets. These small, -slow-growing esculents should be planted in double rows. Starting from -the last row of potatoes a thirty inch space is measured off, a row of -lettuce planted, and then one foot from this a row of beets or onions; -then leave a space thirty inches wide and again plant double rows, if -more of the small esculents are wanted. The larger spaces may be -cultivated by horse-hoe and the smaller spaces by hand-hoe. The entire -garden which is to be planted in the spring should be kept fertile and -plowed early in the spring, leaving that part of it which is not -designed for immediate planting unharrowed. It may be necessary to -replow. It certainly will be necessary to cultivate several times that -part of the garden which is used for late-growing crops, such as cabbage -and celery. As a rule, the farmer cannot afford to attempt to raise two -crops on the same land the same year, since labor is everything and the -use of land nothing; therefore, better prepare the ground by two or -three plowings for the late crops, than to attempt to raise them on land -which has parted with much of its readily available plant-food in -producing the early crop. Then, too, land which has produced one crop is -likely to be deficient in moisture, while land that has been plowed two -or three times during the summer and kept well harrowed will be moist -and contain an abundance of readily available plant-food. Early in the -spring, when the land is cold and often too moist, it is best to leave -the soil rough for a time if it is not to be planted immediately, that -it may become somewhat dry and warm. As a rule, the garden should not be -fenced, but the chickens should be restrained by fences a part of the -time; at other times they may have free access to the garden, where they -are often very beneficial in reducing the insect enemies. - - - - -INDEX - - - Abandoned lands, significance of, 31. - - Agricultural statistics, 8; what they do not show, 10. - - Agriculturists, what they have done, 8. - - Air space required in cow stables, 281. - - Anglo-Saxon, cause of superiority, 50. - - Animal, necessity of exercise for, 278; voidings, how cared for in - stables, 277. - - Asphalt for stable floors, 292. - - - Bailey, Professor L. H., quoted, 7. - - Bailey, chap. xiv, 237. - - Balloon frames, 129. - - Barns, 288; basement, location of, 268; building the basement, 266; - connected by covered way to house, 257; discussion of, 249; distance - to locate from house, 257; economy in construction, 253; excavations - for, 268; high large ones preferable, 253; location of, 255; - octagonal, discussion of, 254; planning, 259; size required, 249; - water supply for, 261; why large ones are required, 250. - - Barnyards, open ones objectionable, 258; paddocks are preferable to, - 259. - - Basement barns, bridging for, 269; location of, 268; on level ground, - 269; floors, how to construct, 277; walls, how to prevent dampness on, - 275; wood preferable to stone, 275. - - Beauty and utility should be combined, 107. - - Bonanza farming, cause of decline, 36-38. - - Brick used in stable floors, 278. - - Building the barn, chap. xvii, 288; framing, 289; horse stables, 294; - lightning rods on barns, 296; painting the barn, 296; plank frames, - 290; protecting the root-cellar, 289; repairing old barn floors, 293; - roof of barns, 296; stable floors, 292; windows, 295. - - - Cattle, stanchions for, 284. - - Cement, Portland, cost and mixing of, 274; proportion of, to sand in - mortar, 273. - - Changes in houses, considerations, 85. - - Children, city and country compared, 3. - - Cisterns as a source of water supply, 263. - - Cleanliness, and sanitation, water supply and sewage, chap. xii, 204; - bacteria, harmful and beneficial, 204-206; bath room, 210; bath tubs, - 213; cess pools, 220; closets, 210; disinfectants, 207; dry-earth - closets, 222; kitchen sink, 212; laundry, 214; outhouses, 216; - personal cleanliness, 209; pipes, 212; sewage, 219; water closets, - 214; water supply, 217. - - College buildings and what they illustrate, 104. - - Colleges. Land Grant, aim of, 14; endowment, 14; data of incomes, 15. - - Competence, how obtained, 20. - - Concentration of barns, 84. - - Counsel at the right time, 69. - - Country churches, 119. - - Country life, what it stands for, 74; what things have no place in it, - 74. - - Country school houses, 119-122. - - Cows, air space required for, 280, 281; mangers for, section of, 286. - - Crops, good and poor, 27; specialized, baleful results of, 33. - - - Dams for artificial pools, how to construct, 262. - - Decorations inside, 193. - - Deeds and abstracts, 67. - - Demolins, M., quoted, 50. - - - Economy, 224. - - Educating the eye and judgment, 107. - - Education, by contact with nature, 4; higher, concentration necessary, - 52; higher, in the past, 13; industrial, 14. - - Evolution of high wages, 25. - - External construction, principles of, 108. - - - Farm buildings, concentrated and distributive, 251; concentrated - system preferable, 252; examples of mistakes, 89. - - Farm laborers, wages received by, 253. - - Farmers’ contribution to economic status of the United States, 9. - - Farms, selection of--climatic conditions, 55; cheap lands, 56; water - supply, 57. - - Farms overloaded with buildings, 88. - - “Farming doesn’t pay,” 6. - - Fences, 336. - - Fields, the, chap. xxi, 336. - - Filigree work, not for farm houses, 96. - - First impressions, 116. - - Floors, basement, how to construct, 277; cows to stand upon, 280; - stable, wooden ones preferable, 278. - - Foundations for buildings, how squared, 266. - - Foundation walls, properly and improperly bonded, 272. - - Frost pockets, 76. - - Furnishing, 193. - - - Garden, farm, 341; planting the, 342. - - Gingerbread cornices, 130. - - Ground floor unhealthy, 77. - - Gypsum, use of in stables, 277. - - - Heating, 190. - - Home education suggestions, 48. - - Home, old (should be preserved), 112; suggestions for improvement of, - 113. - - Home training, 46. - - Homestead, improving the old, 114. - - Horn-fly, reference to, 337. - - House, building the, chap. viii, 132; brick and stone houses, 169; - chimneys--flue linings, 140, openings for, 141; excluding vermin from - the, 135; foundations, building the, 138; mortar for foundations, 139; - protecting from frost, 136; the cellar, 133, 134; Wooden houses--the - frame, 142; bridging the joists, 143; cutting braces and rafters, 150; - diagonal boarding, 144; girders for second-story joists, 145; made-up - timbers, 146; old houses, 170; roofs--kinds of, 147, pitch of, 149; - studding, size of, 143; the story-and-a-half, 155. - - House furnishing and decoration, chap. xi, 193; carpets vs. rugs, 196; - decorations, 200; draperies, 198; general principles, 193-196. - - House, location of, 74; extremes, 75; on elevated lands, 76, 80, 82. - - House of pioneer, where located, 75. - - House, old farm, an example of a good, 90-91. - - House sites--old and new, 84. - - House sites to be avoided, 82; near middle of estate, 83; and highway, - 83. - - House with many gables, 96. - - Houses, exposed and overshaded, 117, 118; planning, 94; studying other - models, 95; useless cost of, 95. - - Houses, farm, not a direct source of income, 87; mistakes in building, - 87; what they are for, 87. - - Houses, old farm, 85. - - Houses, veneered, 168. - - Household administration, economy and comfort, chap. xiii, 224; a - definite income, 225; bargain-hunting, 229; cash vs. credit, 286; - economy of health, 232; keeping accounts, 230; reading matter, 235; - systematic buying, 227; the farmer’s diet, 234; the wife’s share, 225. - - - Improvements on the farm, 59. - - Inappropriate styles of architecture, 124. - - Inside finish, heating and ventilation, chap. x, 181; baseboards, 183; - facings, 186; finish, hard oil, 186; floors, 182; patent mortars, 188; - plastered walls, 186-188; picture moulding, 184; stairs, 185; - wainscoting, 185; Heating--steam recommended, 191; systems of, - compared, 190; Ventilation, 191. - - - Land for market-gardening, 61. - - Lands, cheap, 56. - - Lawns, 243. - - Lawyer and the farmer, 73. - - Lawyer, province of the true, 72. - - Lawyers, 65. - - Level country, disadvantages of location in, overcome, 78. - - Leisure and study, 13. - - Light and air, 106. - - Lightning, artificial, 322; brush discharge, 326; discharges, 323; - disruptive discharge, 326; protection from, 324; protection from by - metal roofs, 324; protection from by steam and gas pipes, 325; - protecting wooden roofs from, 326. - - Lightning protection, chap. xx, 321. - - Lightning rods, 328-336; insulation of, 331; joints for, 333; the - conductor, 329; the ground connection, 334. - - Lime, proportion of, to sand in mortar, 273. - - Lime, stone, retail price of per bbl., 274; water, retail price of per - bbl., 274. - - Lumbering, effect of, 38. - - - Manger for cows, cross-section of, 286; how constructed, 285. - - Market-gardening, land for, 61. - - Mistakes in locating, 100. - - Mortar, amount of water to use in mixing, 275; how to mix, 273. - - - Nature study, 111. - - Newton cattle tie illustrated and described, 286. - - Norris, H. H., chap. xx, 321. - - - Occupation, selection of, 21. - - Old barns, remodeling, 298. - - Orchards, 340; care of, 341. - - Outbuildings and accessories, chap. xix, 306; piggeries, 311; portable - coops, 309; poultry houses, 306; the silo, 316. - - Outside covering, painting, chap. ix, 158; cornices, 164; painting the - house, 173; adulterated paints, 179; analyses of paints, 180; oils for - painting, 177; roofs--construction of, 165; shingles, 165; shingling, - 167; siding--novelty and lap, 160; the projections, 158, 164; the - water-table, 158; valleys, 173. - - - Parents as teachers, 45. - - Piggeries, 311. - - Plain cornices, 126. - - Plan, ground, not adapted to country, 98; adapted to country, 99, 101. - - Plant-food, natural cheaper than artificial, 62. - - Pools in level country, 78. - - Pools in the South, how constructed, 262. - - Poultry Houses, 306. - - - Quality in farm products, 32. - - - Red River valley soil, nitrogen in, 37. - - Remodeling old barns, chap. xviii, 298; combining several old frames, - 299; form of roof, 302; trussing to eliminate posts, 301. - - Remuneration in agriculture, 7. - - Renter and renting discussed, 40. - - Road to farm, 63. - - Road fences, may be discarded, 339. - - Root cellar, location of in barn, 270. - - Rosendale cement, proportion to mix, 274. - - Rural life; advantages and disadvantages, 2; greatest advantage of, 5. - - Rural population, wants and aspirations, 19. - - - Sanitation, 204. - - Scenery, natural, its value, 58. - - Schoenfeld, Mr. G., an intensive agriculturist, 22; his crops and - their value, 23. - - School, district, sketch of a day in, 47. - - School children, effects of massing, 44. - - Schools, rural, 43. - - Sewage, 204. - - Shadows cast by walls, 106. - - Ship construction of houses, 128. - - Silos, 316. - - Silo, reference to use of, 337. - - Smith, Mrs. M. R., chap. xi, 193; chap. xii, 204; chap. xiii, 224. - - Soil and subsoil for house location, 80. - - Soiling system, referred to, 337, 338. - - Stable floors, 292; wooden ones preferable, 278; drip in, how - constructed, 280; how to secure sanitary conditions in, 277; - stanchions for cattle, 284. - - Stalls for cows, how constructed, 285. - - Stock on the farms in U. S. in 1870 and 1890, 250. - - - Tillage, cost of, considered in land value, 62. - - Types of dwelling houses, 109. - - - VanVleet, D.F., chap. v, 65. - - Ventilation, 191; principles of, 283; secured by swing windows, 282. - - Ventilators for stables, how constructed, 282. - - Veranda--a poor example, 96; outlook from, 81; shading, 103. - - Vistas and views brought into the landscape, 81. - - - Warner, Prof. Amos G., quoted, 3. - - Walls, stone, how to bond, 272. - - Water for animals, temperature best in winter, 264. - - Water supply and sewage, 204. - - Water supply, artificial pools for, 262; for animals, should be in - barn, 264; for buildings, 261; springs and streams, 264. - - Water, cold, effect upon the animal, 265; lime, retail price of per - bbl., 274. - - Wells, 71. - - Wheat, production and cost of, 30. - - Windows, swing, how constructed in stables, 282. - - Writing, matters of importance should be in, 71. - - - Yard (the house yard), chap. xiv, 237; driveways and walks, 239; - flowers, 247; planting, scattered and in groups, 339; the lawn, 243; - vines and creepers, 247. - - - - -CYCLOPEDIA OF AMERICAN HORTICULTURE - - -By L. H. BAILEY - -Of Cornell University, assisted by WILHELM MILLER, and many Expert -Cultivators and Botanists - - FOUR VOLUMES--OVER 2800 ORIGINAL ENGRAVINGS--CLOTH--OCTAVO--$20 NET - PER SET--HALF MOROCCO, $32 NET PER SET - - -This great work comprises directions for the cultivation of -horticultural crops and original descriptions of all the species of -fruits, vegetables, flowers and ornamental plants known to be in the -market in the United States and Canada. “It has the unique distinction -of presenting for the first time, in a carefully arranged and perfectly -accessible form, the best knowledge of the best specialists in America -upon gardening, fruit-growing, vegetable culture, forestry, and the -like, as well as exact botanical information.... The contributors are -eminent cultivators or specialists, and the arrangement is very -systematic, clear and convenient for ready reference.” - - “We have here a work which every ambitious gardener will wish to place - on his shelf beside his Nicholson and his Loudon, and for such users - of it a too advanced nomenclature would have been confusing to the - last degree. With the safe names here given there is little liability - to serious perplexity. There is a growing impatience with much of the - controversy concerning revision of names of organisms, whether of - plants or animals. Those investigators who are busied with the - ecological aspects of organisms, and also those who are chiefly - concerned with the application of plants to the arts of agriculture, - horticulture, and so on, care for the names of organisms under - examination only so far as these aid in recognition and - identification. To introduce unnecessary confusion is a serious - blunder. Professor Bailey has avoided the risk of confusion. In short, - in range, treatment and editing, the Cyclopedia appears to be - emphatically useful:... a work worthy of ranking by the side of the - Century Dictionary.”--_The Nation._ - -This work is sold only by subscription, and terms and further -information may be had of the publishers. - -THE MACMILLAN COMPANY - - 64-66 Fifth Avenue NEW YORK - - - - -BOOKS ON AGRICULTURE - - -=On Selection of Land, etc.= - - Thomas F. Hunt’s How to Choose a Farm $1 75 net - E. W. Hilgard’s Soils: Their Formation, and Relations - to Climate and Plant Growth 4 00 net - Isaac P. Roberts’ The Farmstead 1 50 net - - -=On Tillage, Crops, etc.= - - F. H. King’s The Soil 1 50 net - Isaac P. Roberts’ The Fertility of the Land 1 50 net - Elwood Mead’s Irrigation Institutions 1 25 net - F. H. King’s Irrigation and Drainage 1 50 net - Wm. E. Smythe’s The Conquest of Arid America 1 50 net - Edward B. Voorhees’ Fertilizers 1 25 net - Edward B. 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Roberts’ The Farmer’s Business Handbook 1 25 net - George T. Fairchild’s Rural Wealth and Welfare 1 25 net - S. E. Sparling’s Business Organization 1 25 net - In the Citizen’s Library. Includes a chapter on Farming. - Kate V. St. Maur’s A Self-Supporting Home 1 75 net - Kate V. St. Maur’s The Earth’s Bounty 1 75 net - - -=On Everything Agricultural= - - L. H. Bailey’s Cyclopedia of American Agriculture: - Vol. I. Farms, Climates, and Soils. - Vol. II. Farm Crops. - Vol. III. Farm Animals. - Vol. IV. The Farm and the Community. - Price of sets: Cloth, $20 net; half-morocco, $32 net. - -_For further information as to any of the above, address the publishers_ - -THE MACMILLAN COMPANY - - 64-66 Fifth Avenue NEW YORK - - - - -LESSONS WITH PLANTS - -Suggestions for Seeing and Interpreting Some of the Common Forms of -Vegetation - - -By L. H. BAILEY - -With delineations from nature by W. S. HOLDSWORTH, of the Agricultural -College of Michigan - -SEVENTH EDITION--491 PAGES--446 ILLUSTRATIONS--12MO--CLOTH--$1.10 NET - -There are two ways of looking at nature. The _old way_, which you have -found so unsatisfactory, was to classify everything--to consider leaves, -roots, and whole plants as formal herbarium specimens, forgetting that -each had its own story of growth and development, struggle and success, -to tell. Nothing stifles a natural love for plants more effectually than -that old way. - -The new way is to watch the life of every growing thing, to look upon -each plant as a living creature, whose life is a story as fascinating as -the story of any favorite hero. “Lessons with Plants” is a book of -stories, or rather, a book of plays, for we can see each chapter acted -out if we take the trouble to _look_ at the actors. - - “I have spent some time in most delightful examination of it, and the - longer I look, the better I like it. I find it not only full of - interest, but eminently suggestive. I know of no book which begins to - do so much to open the eyes of the student--whether pupil or - teacher--to the wealth of meaning contained in simple plant forms. - Above all else, it seems to be full of suggestions that help one to - learn the language of plants, so they may talk to him.”--DARWIN L. - BARDWELL, _Superintendent of Schools, Binghamton_. - - “It is an admirable book, and cannot fail both to awaken interest in - the subject, and to serve as a helpful and reliable guide to young - students of plant life. It will, I think, fill an important place in - secondary schools, and comes at an opportune time, when helps of this - kind are needed and eagerly sought.”--Professor V. M. SPALDING, - _University of Michigan_. - - -FIRST LESSONS WITH PLANTS - -An Abridgement of the above - -117 PAGES--116 ILLUSTRATIONS--40 CENTS NET - -THE MACMILLAN COMPANY - - 64-66 Fifth Avenue NEW YORK - - - - -BOTANY - -An Elementary Text for Schools - - -By L. H. BAILEY - -TWELFTH EDITION--431 PAGES--500 ILLUSTRATIONS--$1.10 NET - -“This book is made for the pupil: ‘Lessons With Plants’ was made to -supplement the work of the teacher.” This is the opening sentence of the -preface, showing that the book is a companion to “Lessons With Plants,” -which has now become a standard teacher’s book. The present book is the -handsomest elementary botanical text-book yet made. The illustrations -illustrate. They are artistic. The old formal and unnatural Botany is -being rapidly outgrown. The book disparages mere laboratory work of the -old kind: the pupil is taught to see things as they grow and behave. The -pupil who goes through this book will understand the meaning of the -plants which he sees day by day. It is a revolt from the dry-as-dust -teaching of botany. It cares little for science for science’s sake, but -its point of view is nature-study in its best sense. The book is divided -into four parts, any or all of which may be used in the school: the -plant itself; the plant in its environment; histology, or the minute -structure of plants; the kinds of plants (with a key, and descriptions -of 300 common species). The introduction contains advice to teachers. - - “An exceedingly attractive text-book.”--_Educational Review._ - - “It is a school book of the modern methods.”--_The Dial._ - - “It would be hard to find a better manual for schools or for - individual use.”--_The Outlook._ - -THE MACMILLAN COMPANY - - 64-66 Fifth Avenue NEW YORK - - - - -_FOR THE STUDENT OF AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY_ - - -By HARRY SNYDER, B.S. - -Professor of Agricultural Chemistry, University of Minnesota, and -Chemist of the Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station - -The Chemistry of Plant and Animal Life - - Illustrated. Cloth. 12mo. 406 pages. $1.25; by mail, $1.35. - - “The language is, as it should be, plain and simple, free from all - needless technicality, and the story thus told is of absorbing - interest to every one, man or woman, boy or girl, who takes an - intelligent interest in farm life.”--_The New England Farmer._ - - “Although the book is highly technical, it is put in popular form and - made comprehensible from the standpoint of the farmer; it deals - largely with those questions which arise in his experience, and will - prove an invaluable aid in countless directions.”--_The Farmer’s - Voice._ - -Dairy Chemistry - - Illustrated. 190 pages. $1 net; by mail, $1.10. - - “The book is a valuable one which any dairy farmer, or, indeed, any - one handling stock, may read with profit.”--_Rural New Yorker._ - -Soils and Fertilizers - - Third Edition. Illustrated. $1.25 net; by mail, $1.38. - - A book which presents in a concise form the principles of soil - fertility and discusses all of the topics relating to soils as - outlined by the Committee on Methods of Teaching Agriculture. It - contains 350 pages, with illustrations, and treats of a great variety - of subjects, such as Physical Properties of Soils; Geological - Formation, etc.; Nitrogen of the Soil and Air; Farm Manures; - Commercial Fertilizers, several chapters; Rotation of Crops; - Preparation of Soil for Crops, etc. - -THE MACMILLAN COMPANY - - 64-66 Fifth Avenue NEW YORK - - - - -_NEW BOOKS FOR THE FARM LIBRARY_ - - -MR. BOLTON HALL’S - -Three Acres and Liberty - -The author discusses the possibilities of an acre; where to find idle -land; how to select it, clear and cultivate it; the results to be -expected; what an acre may produce; methods, tools, equipment, capital, -hotbeds and greenhouses; other uses of land; flowers; poultry and novel -live stock; and nearly every other imaginable topic of intensive farming -in clear, definite statements which are easily verified. It is a -practical book from cover to cover. - - Cloth. Illustrated. $1.75 net, by mail, $1.88. - - -By ALLEN FRENCH - -A Book of Vegetables and Garden Herbs - -A Practical Handbook and Planting Table for the Home Garden - -This book gives complete directions for growing all vegetables -cultivable in the climate of the northern United States. Besides a -description of each plant, its habit, value, and use, the book contains -detailed cultural directions, covering the soil, planting distances, -times for sowing, thinning and transplanting, fertilizing, picking, -winter protection, renewal, storage, and management of diseases and -pests. - - Cloth. 12mo. Illustrated. $1.75 net, by mail, $1.88. - - -By KATE V. ST. MAUR - -A Self-supporting Home - - “Each chapter is the detailed account of all the work necessary for - one month--in the vegetable garden, among the small fruits, with the - fowls, guineas, rabbits, cavies, and in every branch of husbandry to - be met with on the small farm.”--_Louisville Courier-Journal._ - - Cloth. 12mo. Fully illustrated from photographs. - $1.75 net, by mail, $1.88. - - -By W. S. HARWOOD - -The New Earth - -A Recital of the Triumphs of Modern Agriculture in America. Mr. Harwood -shows in a very entertaining way the remarkable progress which has been -made during the past two generations along all the lines which have -their focal point in the earth. - - Cloth. 12mo. Illustrated. $1.75 net, by mail, 1.88. - -THE MACMILLAN COMPANY - - 64-66 Fifth Avenue NEW YORK - - - - -CYCLOPEDIA OF AMERICAN AGRICULTURE - - -Edited by L. H. BAILEY - -Of Cornell University, Editor of “Cyclopedia of American Horticulture,” -Author of “Plant Breeding,” “Principles of Agriculture,” etc. - - WITH 100 FULL-PAGE PLATES AND MORE THAN 2,000 ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE - TEXT--FOUR VOLUMES--THE SET: CLOTH, $20 NET--HALF-MOROCCO, $32 - NET--CARRIAGE EXTRA - - -Volume I--Farms - -The Agricultural Regions--The Projecting of a Farm--The Soil -Environment--The Atmosphere Environment. - - -Volume II--Crops - -The Plant and Its Relations--The Manufacture of Crop Products--North -American Field Crops. - - -Volume III--Animals - -The Animal and Its Relations--The Manufacture of Animal Products--North -American Farm Animals. - - -Volume IV--The Farm and the Community - -Economics--Social Questions--Organizations--History--Literature, etc. - - “Indispensable to public and reference libraries ... readily - comprehensible to any person of average education.”--_The Nation._ - - “The completest existing thesaurus of up-to-date facts and opinions on - modern agricultural methods. It is safe to say that many years must - pass before it can be surpassed in comprehensiveness, accuracy, - practical value, and mechanical excellence. It ought to be in every - library in the country.”--_Record Herald, Chicago._ - -Published by - -THE MACMILLAN COMPANY - - 64-66 Fifth Avenue NEW YORK - - - - - Transcriber’s Notes - - - The language used in this e-book is that used in the source document; - inconsistent, unusual and archaic spelling, hyphenation and - capitalisation have been retained, except as mentioned under Changes - below. - - Depending in the hard- and software used and their settings, not all - elements may display as intended. Some of the larger elements are best - viewed in a wide window or on a wide screen. - - Page 152, Footnote [5]: the reference should be to Figs. 63 and 64. - - - Changes: - - Illustrations have been moved outside text paragraphs. 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padding: .5em;} - .tnbot h2 - {font-size: 1em;} - .tnbot .illotext - {padding: 0 .25em;} - .tnbot p - {text-indent: -1em; margin-left: 1em;} - .tnbox - {border: dashed thin; margin: 1em 20%; padding: 1em;} - ul.index - {list-style: none; margin: .5em 0;} - ul.index li - {text-align: justify; padding-left: 1em; text-indent: -1em;} - ul.index li.startletter - {margin-top: .75em;} - - </style> - </head> -<body> -<p style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Farmstead, by Isaac Phillips Roberts</p> -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online -at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you -are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the -country where you are located before using this eBook. -</div> - -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: The Farmstead</p> -<p style='display:block; margin-left:2em; text-indent:0; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:1em;'>The making of the rural home and the lay-out of the farm (5th edition)</p> -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: Isaac Phillips Roberts</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: June 5, 2022 [eBook #68243]</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</p> - <p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:left'>Produced by: Charlene Taylor, Harry Lamé and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.)</p> -<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE FARMSTEAD ***</div> - -<div class="tnbox"> -<p class="center">Please see the <a href="#TN">Trascriber’s Notes</a> at the end of this text.</p> -</div> - -<div class="cover x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="container w25em"> -<img src="images/cover.jpg" alt="Cover" /> -</div> - -</div><!--cover--> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="series"> - -<p class="center"><span class="oldtype fsize110"><b>The Rural Science Series</b></span><br /> -<span class="smcap fsize90">Edited by L. H. Bailey</span></p> - -</div><!--series--> - -<p class="center highline8 fsize150">THE FARMSTEAD</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="container logo"> -<img src="images/illo002.png" alt="MacMillan logo" /> -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<h1><span class="fsize250">THE FARMSTEAD<br /> -<span class="highline8"> </span></span><br /> -<i><span class="gesp1">THE MAKING OF THE RURAL HOME AND<br /> -THE LAY-OUT OF THE FARM</span></i></h1> - -<p class="center blankbefore4 highline2 fsize80">BY</p> - -<p class="center highline2 fsize110">ISAAC PHILLIPS ROBERTS</p> - -<p class="center fsize80">Director of the College of Agriculture and Professor of Agriculture in<br /> -Cornell University; author of “The Fertility of the Land”</p> - -<p class="center highline8 fsize90 gesp1"><i>FIFTH EDITION</i></p> - -<p class="center blankbefore4 highline2"><span class="oldtype"><b>New York</b></span><br /> -THE MACMILLAN COMPANY<br /> -LONDON: MACMILLAN & CO., <span class="smcap">Ltd.</span><br /> -1910<br /> -<span class="highline2 fsize80"><i>All rights reserved</i></span></p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<p class="center fsize80 blankbefore8 highline2"><span class="smcap">Copyright</span>, 1900<br /> -<span class="smcap">By</span> THE MACMILLAN COMPANY<br /></p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<p class="center fsize70">Set up and electrotyped January, 1900<br /> -Reprinted August, 1902; January, 1905;<br /> -August, 1907; June, 1910<br /></p> - -<div class="printer"> - -<p class="center fsize80"><span class="oldtype fsize110 gesp2"><b>Mount Pleasant Press</b></span><br /> -J. Horace McFarland Company<br /> -Harrisburg, Pennsylvania</p> - -</div><!--printer--> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Pagev">[v]</span></p> - -<h2 class="frontmatter">CONTENTS</h2> - -<table class="toc"> - -<tr> -<th colspan="2" class="left fsize80">CHAPTER</th> -<th class="right">PAGES</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chapno">I.</td> -<td class="chapname"><span class="smcap">Rural Homes</span></td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page1">1-11</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chapno high">II.</td> -<td class="chapname high"><span class="smcap">The Farm as a Source of Income</span></td> -<td class="pagno high"><a href="#Page12">12-42</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chapno high">III.</td> -<td class="chapname high"><span class="smcap">Educational Opportunity on the Farm</span></td> -<td class="pagno high"><a href="#Page43">43-53</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chapno high">IV.</td> -<td class="chapname high"><span class="smcap">Selection and Purchase of Farms</span></td> -<td class="pagno high"><a href="#Page54">54-64</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chapno high">V.</td> -<td class="chapname high"><span class="smcap">The Relation of the Farmer to the Lawyer</span> -<span class="righttext">(<i>By Hon. DeForest VanVleet</i>)</span></td> -<td class="pagno high"><a href="#Page65">65-73</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chapno high">VI.</td> -<td class="chapname high"><span class="smcap">Locating the House</span></td> -<td class="pagno high"><a href="#Page74">74-86</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chapno high">VII.</td> -<td class="chapname high"><span class="smcap">Planning Rural Buildings</span></td> -<td class="pagno high"><a href="#Page87">87-131</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td rowspan="3" class="chapno high">VIII.</td> -<td class="chapname high"><span class="smcap">Building the House—General Lay-out</span></td> -<td class="pagno high"><a href="#Page132">132-157</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chapname sub">Building the Foundations</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page138">138</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chapname sub">Wooden Houses—The Frame</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page142">142</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td rowspan="4" class="chapno high">IX.</td> -<td class="chapname high"><span class="smcap">Building the House, Concluded—Outside Covering, Painting</span></td> -<td class="pagno high"><a href="#Page158">158-180</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chapname sub">Veneered Houses</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page168">168</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chapname sub">Old Houses</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page170">170</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chapname sub">Painting the House</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page173">173</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td rowspan="2" class="chapno high">X.</td> -<td class="chapname high"><span class="smcap">Inside Finish, Heating, and Ventilation</span></td> -<td class="pagno high"><a href="#Page181">181-192</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chapname sub">Heating and Ventilation</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page190">190</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chapno high">XI.</td> -<td class="chapname high"><span class="smcap">House Furnishing and Decoration</span> -<span class="righttext">(<i>By Professor Mary Roberts Smith</i>)</span></td> -<td class="pagno high"><a href="#Page193">193-203</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td rowspan="2" class="chapno high">XII.</td> -<td class="chapname high"><span class="smcap">Cleanliness and Sanitation—Water Supply and -Sewage</span> <span class="righttext">(<i>By Professor Mary Roberts Smith</i>)</span></td> -<td class="pagno high"><a href="#Page204">204-223</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chapname sub">Water Supply and Sewage</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page217">217</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chapno high">XIII.</td> -<td class="chapname high"><span class="smcap">Household Administration, Economy, and Comfort</span> -<span class="righttext">(<i>By Professor Mary Roberts Smith</i>)</span><span class="pagenum" id="Pagevi">[vi]</span></td> -<td class="pagno high"><a href="#Page224">224-236</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chapno high">XIV.</td> -<td class="chapname high"><span class="smcap">The Home Yard</span> -<span class="righttext">(<i>By Professor L. H. Bailey</i>)</span></td> -<td class="pagno high"><a href="#Page237">237-248</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td rowspan="4" class="chapno high">XV.</td> -<td class="chapname high"><span class="smcap">A Discussion of Barns</span></td> -<td class="pagno high"><a href="#Page249">249-265</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chapname sub">Location</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page255">255</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chapname sub">Planning the Barn</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page259">259</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chapname sub">Water Supply</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page261">261</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td rowspan="6" class="chapno high">XVI.</td> -<td class="chapname high"><span class="smcap">Building the Barn—The Basement</span></td> -<td class="pagno high"><a href="#Page266">266-287</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chapname sub">Excavation</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page268">268</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chapname sub">Walls</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page271">271</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chapname sub">Floors</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page277">277</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chapname sub">Stalls</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page280">280</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chapname sub">Mangers and Ties</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page285">285</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chapno high">XVII.</td> -<td class="chapname high"><span class="smcap">Building the Barn—The Superstructure</span></td> -<td class="pagno high"><a href="#Page288">288-297</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chapno high">XVIII.</td> -<td class="chapname high"><span class="smcap">Remodeling Old Barns</span></td> -<td class="pagno high"><a href="#Page298">298-305</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td rowspan="4" class="chapno high">XIX.</td> -<td class="chapname high"><span class="smcap">Outbuildings and Accessories</span></td> -<td class="pagno high"><a href="#Page306">306-320</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chapname sub">Poultry Houses</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page306">306</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chapname sub">Piggeries</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page311">311</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chapname sub">The Silo</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page316">316</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td rowspan="3" class="chapno high">XX.</td> -<td class="chapname high"><span class="smcap">Lightning Protection</span> -<span class="righttext">(<i>By H. H. Norris, M.E.</i>)</span></td> -<td class="pagno high"><a href="#Page321">321-335</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chapname sub">Metal Roofs</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page324">324</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chapname sub">Protecting Wooden Roofs</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page326">326</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td rowspan="4" class="chapno high">XXI.</td> -<td class="chapname high"><span class="smcap">The Fields</span></td> -<td class="pagno high"><a href="#Page336">336-345</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chapname sub">Fences</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page336">336</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chapname sub">Orchards</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page340">340</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chapname sub">Farm Garden</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page341">341</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="chapname high"><span class="smcap">Index</span></td> -<td class="pagno high"><a href="#Page346">346</a></td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<p class="center highline8 fsize150">THE FARMSTEAD</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page1">[1]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER I<br /> -<span class="chapname"><i>RURAL HOMES</i></span></h2> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p>Man is made partly by heredity, partly by -environment; both may be controlled and modified -to a far greater extent than is generally -supposed. In speaking of farm life, its disadvantages -are frequently emphasized, while its -possible advantages as an environment for the -development of the finest quality of human -nature are as often ignored or overlooked.</p> - -<p>Nature, with her ever-varying form and color, -beauty and symmetry, is forgotten in the city; -the shady forest, the meadow brook, the waving -fields, are unknown. There, instead, is incessant -noise, the clang and clash of trade, towering -and ugly buildings, skies darkened by the smoke -of factories, children who never saw a tree or -played elsewhere than upon a hard and filthy -pavement; and worst of all is the nerve-destroying -haste and unequal competition, wearing out<span class="pagenum" id="Page2">[2]</span> -body and soul. In rural life, however tame and -lonely, the home is not merely a few square -feet hedged in by brick walls, but the whole -wide countryside: the barns, the fields, the -woods, the orchards, the animals wild and domesticated, -the outlook over hill and valley—these -all constitute the farmer’s home.</p> - -<p>The manufacturer locates his factory in some -by-street or suburb where land is cheap, and -as far as possible from the residence part of the -city; his home is far removed from these unsightly -surroundings. But the farmer must live -within a few hundred feet of his barns and outbuildings, -and if these be ugly and dirty, the -beauty and comfort of the home are sadly -marred. If the farmer, then, has the whole -landscape as a background for his home, he -must on the other hand modify his immediate -surroundings so as to overcome their almost inevitable -unsightliness.</p> - -<p>Besides the ever-present beauties of nature, -country life has certain other advantages over -the city: it is the place to develop the strong -health-physique. The luxury of rich and populous -communities tends to produce puny and -enervated citizens; the excessive toil, bad air, -limited space and scant food of the poor tend -to degrade and destroy body and soul; but the -comfortable simplicity, space, air, sunlight and<span class="pagenum" id="Page3">[3]</span> -abundant food of the open country give opportunity -for the finest development of the human -animal. It is true that even on the farm there -are sometimes overwork and privation; but, at -the worst, these cannot be so severe as in cities -so long as the sun shines, the wind blows, -and green things grow for the worker out -of doors. Here the child may be born right -and nourished by pure food and air. It is -surrounded by animals whose life and motion -become an incentive to action, and who become -its companions without danger of moral contamination. -The lamb, the calf, the colt, are far -safer playmates than the city urchin precociously -wise in evil ways.</p> - -<p>Professor Amos G. Warner says that “children -reared in institutions are much below par -because they lack the power of initiative.” The -farm child has an incessant, varied and unconscious -training of the eye, the hand, and the -mind. While he is developing strength, symmetry, -courage, the mental is being coördinated -with the physical. The hand is made to obey -the will, while the fact that the handicraft is -made useful lends charm and delight to the -work. The city child must try to learn, by a -course of manual training in some public school, -what the country child picks up unconsciously -in the natural process of play and work.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page4">[4]</span></p> - -<p>After half a century, I look back to one of -the happiest moments of my life, when I presented -my mother with a dove-tailed wooden -flower box, painted bright red. That flower box -first taught me how to make wood take the -form desired. While the flower box has long -since rotted, the board-runner sled smashed, the -water wheel broken, and the boat lies rotten in -the bottom of the lake, the time spent upon -them was not thrown away, for they gave me -the inspiration and power to “boss” wood, and -this power has served me well in many an -emergency.</p> - -<p>As knowledge begins to dominate the hand -and train it to change the form and character -of things, certain physical laws are discovered. -If the sail is made too large or the boat too -narrow, a cold bath is the result. If the sled -runners are too short and rough, the school-mate -arrives at the bottom of the hill first. No -schoolmaster was needed, for when one of these -natural laws was broken or ignored, the penalty -followed quickly and with full force. So, in a -thousand ways, the youth is taught respect for -the laws which govern matter. All this leads -the youth on the farm, if full play and direction -are given, to investigate everything in sight, -to discover that there are other than physical -laws. The higher laws puzzle him greatly,<span class="pagenum" id="Page5">[5]</span> -give him much concern, lead to doubts, for -they are too abstract and too far-reaching for -his youthful comprehension. The physical laws -have been found by experience to be ever true -and stable, and the youth cannot but believe -that moral and spiritual laws are equally so. -This is the sheet anchor which holds him to -belief in them, however imperfectly he may -understand them. He is anxious to investigate, -even to experiment along these lines, but is -disappointed because the results cannot be set -down in pounds or feet or units of energy. If -here on the farm the mental and physical have -been kept healthy and active, the moral and -spiritual will develop as naturally as the fruit -from the blossom. The development of spiritual -fruit to high perfection is slow, because the -power to think and reason correctly and abstractly -comes only with age, experience and -mental development.</p> - -<p>But the greatest advantage of country life -lies in the opportunity for the promotion of -healthy family relations. Parents naturally find -their chief happiness in the education and development -of their children; and in time the children -stimulate the parents. The sharing of common -labors from babyhood up, the working together -for common interests and ambition, which farm -life especially entails, produce the most wholesome<span class="pagenum" id="Page6">[6]</span> -family relations. The most valuable part -of any person’s education is really in the home. -To “help father and mother” becomes the keynote -of a child’s life, and unselfish, willing service -is the first and last and best lesson of -morality and religion. The pride in honest and -capable ancestors, the natural and wholesome -ambition for the future of the children, fill up -a measure of contentment difficult to find elsewhere. -In such a family there need be nothing -to conceal; life takes on dignity in place of -affectation, honesty instead of sham; it has simplicity, -pure affections, fidelity. Artificial sex -distinctions disappear; men and women may do -that which is needful and human, the woman in -the field, the man in the house, if desirable, -sharing their common, healthful activities.</p> - -<p>All this is very well, some will say, but how -shall such a home be maintained on the income -of the farm? “Farming doesn’t pay.” This statement -is unverified, and, carrying on its face, as -it does, a little truth, is misleading. Does farming -pay? Does anything pay? What is pay? -All depends upon how you value the currency -in which the pay is received. Is “wisdom better -than rubies?” Are the sayings of the wisest -and best of men true? “Give me neither riches -nor poverty. Get wisdom, get understanding. -Take fast hold of instruction.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page7">[7]</span></p> - -<p>A modern thinker, Professor L. H. Bailey, -in the report of the Secretary of the Connecticut -Board of Agriculture, 1898, puts it in this wise: -“But there is another cause of apprehension -which I ought to mention, perhaps founded upon -the probable tendencies of our sociological and -economic conditions, especially as they apply to -rural communities. There is a tendency towards -a division of estates as population increases, and -the profits of farming are often so small that -educated tastes, it is thought, cannot be satisfied -on the farm. There are those who believe -that because of these two facts we are ourselves -drifting towards an American peasantry. Let -us take the second proposition first,—that the -profits of farming are so small that educated -tastes cannot be satisfied and gratified on the -farm. Now I grant this to be true if the -measure of the satisfaction of an educated taste -is money; but I deny it most strenuously if the -satisfaction of an educated taste lies in a purer -and better life. We must make this distinction -very deep and broad, for it is a fundamental one. -I believe we have made a mistake in teaching -agriculture, during the last few years, by putting -the emphasis on the money we make out -of it. I do not believe that people are to become -wealthy on the farm, as a few do in manufacturing; -I should not hold out that hope to men.<span class="pagenum" id="Page8">[8]</span> -There are certain men here and there who have -great executive ability, who see the strategic -points and take advantage of them, who can -make a success of farming the same as they -would at the making of shoes, or harnesses, or -buttons, or anything else. But as a general -thing, the farmer should be taught that the -farm is not the place to become wealthy. I do -not believe it is. Certainly I should not go on -the farm with that idea in view. But if I -wanted to live a happy life, if I wanted to have -at my command independence and the comforts -of living, I do not know where I could better -find them than on the farm; for those very -things which appeal to an educated taste are -the things which the farmer does not have to -buy,—they are the things which are his already.”</p> - -<p>The wealthy few of the cities give voice to -the thought that the farming classes in the -United States are always on the verge of poverty, -yet in the last century they have rescued -from barbarism and solitude nearly all of the -arable land of the two billion acres of which -the United States are composed. More than -four million five hundred thousand farm homes -have been planted, valued at more than thirteen -billion dollars. Much hue and cry has been -raised of late about farm mortgages. If the -facts were known, it is more than probable that<span class="pagenum" id="Page9">[9]</span> -the farmers, as a whole, have assets in mortgages, -promissory notes and savings banks amply -sufficient to liquidate all such outstanding obligations. -Added to the real estate, the farmers -own implements and machines valued at five -hundred millions of dollars, and their live stock, -upon ten thousand hills, numbers one hundred -and seventy-five millions, valued at more than -two billions of dollars, while the annual value -of the farm products is between two and three -billions of dollars. It should be remembered -that these values are nominal, the true value -being in most cases more than double these -amounts. The farmers are not now in danger -of becoming paupers. From the farms come -more than half of the college students. At the -present time it is probable that the income of -the farmers exceeds three billion dollars annually. -When it is considered that there is little -or no direct outgo for rent of house, and that -nearly three-fourths of the food is produced at -home, and that these items are seldom taken into -account in the statistics of income, it appears -that the farmer’s real income is much larger -than is usually estimated in money. In other -words, a five hundred dollar net income on the -farm, under the conditions which now prevail, -provides for a more comfortable living than -does a thousand dollars in the city.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page10">[10]</span></p> - -<p>But these results of the labors of the farmer -as set forth in figures, tell but half the story, -for nothing is said in these census reports of -an empire redeemed, of the thousands upon -thousands of miles of road constructed, of rivers -spanned, of the school house by every roadside, -or of the church spires which mark the progress -of agriculture and civilization in countryside, in -village and in hamlet. The census report does -not give the number or value of the great men -and noble women which the rural homes have -produced, though they are the most valuable -product of the farms. It says nothing about -the perennial rural springs from which flow, in -a never-ending stream, statesmen, divines, missionaries, -teachers, students and business men. -Although more than half of these life-giving -energies of the nation and civilization come -directly from the rural homes, the census report -gives no clue by which the value of these, the -nation’s wealth and power, can be ascertained.</p> - -<p>Looking over all the trades and professions -which are followed by civilized and barbarous -peoples, none give opportunity for rearing -the family under so nearly ideal conditions -as does the profession of agriculture: none -furnish such good conditions for rearing children -and for developing them into strong, natural -and useful men and women. Here, then, on<span class="pagenum" id="Page11">[11]</span> -these broad acres of America, under the flag -which we love, we are to help transform the -rude surroundings of the pioneer and the slovenly -homes of the careless into pure and beautiful -nurseries of American citizenship. Having -shown, in part, what a rural life has to offer to -those who are trained to appreciate the beauties -of nature and to obey her laws, and having -shown that the average farmer always has an -assured though modest income, and that the -better farmers have an ample income for maintaining -improved rural homes, the further discussion -of how they may be made to minister -to the natural longings for broader and more -refined lives may be taken up.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page12">[12]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER II<br /> -<span class="chapname"><i>THE FARM AS A SOURCE OF INCOME</i></span></h2> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p>If it cannot be shown that the profession of -agriculture offers as good opportunities for securing, -with a fair degree of certainty, what all -should prize,—a beautiful and comfortable home -and a modest surplus,—then this little volume -will be for the most part useless and uncalled -for, as the following chapters presuppose -an income sufficient for maintaining a -home, and for gratifying, in part at least, the -simple, educated tastes of the better class of -American farmers.</p> - -<p>In “The Fertility of the Land” I attempted -to set forth some fundamental principles which, -if followed, should result in such increased incomes -as to justify the present book. A comfortable -home must be secured from the products -of field and stable, with a reasonable expenditure -of physical energy, or farming in its highest -sense is a failure. In addition, farming must -give fair opportunity for training and educating -families, and for making provision for old age -and unforeseen contingencies.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page13">[13]</span></p> - -<p>In the previous chapter the annual income -of the farmer has been set forth, and, approximately, -the accumulated earnings of the rural -population. Unfortunately, we are so short-sighted -that the present—the dollar—blunts the -appreciation of the higher and more enduring -values which spring from well conducted farms. -This being so, of necessity much stress must -be laid on immediate benefits which flow from a -well ordered farm life. While it is not proposed -to write here of the details of farm management -along the lines of greatest financial results, -yet something must be said, at least in -general, about the methods most likely to produce -the necessary competence.</p> - -<p>A fairly liberal income and financial reserve -give, or should give, some leisure. Leisure gives -opportunity for study and recreation, without -which life becomes one ever-revolving round of -work, and results in producing an automatic -animal. If this is to be avoided, far-reaching -plans must be laid, energy directed into its -most efficient channels, and time and resources -economized. All this implies training and education -directed, primarily, along the lines which -broaden and ennoble, and those of the occupation -to be followed.</p> - -<p>For centuries, the higher education has been -in the direction of the humanities, while educa<span class="pagenum" id="Page14">[14]</span>tion -along technical and non-professional lines, -until recently, has been conspicuous by its absence. -Prior to the present century, what -provision was made for coördinating the hands -and intellects of the industrial classes? None -at all. Is it any wonder, then, that the farmer -and mechanic, until recently, received but meager -rewards for their efforts?</p> - -<p>All this is now changed. Already the industrial -classes are enabled to secure far more of -the necessaries and luxuries of life for a given -period of work than could their ancestors. In -every state and territory one or more colleges -have been equipped and endowed to teach, among -other things, “such branches of learning as are -related to agriculture and the mechanic arts, -... <i>in order to promote the liberal and -practical education of the industrial classes in -the several pursuits and professions of life</i>.” -In addition to this provision, Congress gives to -each state and territory $15,000 annually for -conducting experiments and investigations in -agriculture. In 1890 the Federal government -supplemented the benefactions of 1862 by appropriating -annually $15,000 to each of the -Land Grant colleges; this sum has now been -increased and finally fixed at $25,000, for the -purpose of strengthening the departments of -agriculture and mechanic arts. Most, if not<span class="pagenum" id="Page15">[15]</span> -all, of the states have made additional appropriations -for agriculture, in some cases very -liberal ones. At first, there was a strong prejudice -against these colleges devoted to the improvement -of the industries and those engaged -in them, but this has nearly disappeared.</p> - -<p>A broader view of education now prevails than -formerly. The modern colleges and universities -think it not undignified to offer other than four -year courses of study preceded by difficult entrance -requirements. Many courses of from six -weeks to one or two years are now open to those -who prize knowledge above a diploma. Most of -these courses are given at such seasons of the -year as best suit the pupils. In America all -doors which lead to knowledge have at last been -opened, and all earnest students may enter and -find teachers awaiting them. The effect of the -recent changes in college courses has been most -marked and beneficial. Many of the colleges -have, as far as possible, adopted the words of -the founder of Cornell University: “I would -found an institution where any person can find -instruction in any study.”</p> - -<p>The following data show the incomes of the -United States Land Grant colleges for the year -ending June 30, 1897. The table is condensed -from one recently published by the United States -Department of Agriculture:</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page16">[16]</span></p> - -<p class="tabhead"><i>Income of the U. S. Land Grant Colleges for the Year Ending June 30, 1897</i></p> - -<table class="colleges"> - -<tr class="btd bb"> -<th class="br"><span class="smcap">States<br />and<br />Territories</span></th> -<th class="br">Interest<br />on<br />Land Grant<br />of 1862</th> -<th class="br">Interest<br />on<br />Other<br />Funds</th> -<th class="br">U. S.<br />Appropri-<br />ations,<br />Act<br />of 1890 </th> -<th class="br">State<br />Appropri-<br />ations </th> -<th class="br">Miscella-<br />neous </th> -<th>Total</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="name">Alabama (Auburn)</td> -<td class="amount br">$20,280.00</td> -<td class="amount br">...</td> -<td class="amount br">$12,012.00</td> -<td class="amount br">$8,746.83</td> -<td class="amount br">$2,821.20</td> -<td class="amount">$43,860.03</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="name">Alabama (Normal)</td> -<td class="amount br">...</td> -<td class="amount br">...</td> -<td class="amount br">9,988.00</td> -<td class="amount br">4,000.00</td> -<td class="amount br">16,898.44</td> -<td class="amount">30,886.44</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="name">Arkansas (Fayetteville)</td> -<td class="amount br">10,400.00</td> -<td class="amount br">...</td> -<td class="amount br">16,000.00</td> -<td class="amount br">26,911.00</td> -<td class="amount br">1,200.00</td> -<td class="amount">54,611.00</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="name">Arkansas (Pine Bluff)</td> -<td class="amount br">...</td> -<td class="amount br">...</td> -<td class="amount br">6,000.00</td> -<td class="amount br">...</td> -<td class="amount br">418.25</td> -<td class="amount">6,418.25</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="name">California (Berkeley)</td> -<td class="amount br">43,619.33</td> -<td class="amount br">...</td> -<td class="amount br">22,000.00</td> -<td class="amount br">133,415.46</td> -<td class="amount br">12,180.48</td> -<td class="amount">311,212.45</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="name">Colorado (Fort Collins)</td> -<td class="amount br">3,238.99</td> -<td class="amount br">$109,997.18</td> -<td class="amount br">22,000.00</td> -<td class="amount br">38,892.01</td> -<td class="amount br">...</td> -<td class="amount">64,131.00</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="name">Connecticut (Storrs)</td> -<td class="amount br">6,750.00</td> -<td class="amount br">...</td> -<td class="amount br">22,000.00</td> -<td class="amount br">26,800.00</td> -<td class="amount br">...</td> -<td class="amount">55,550.00</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="name">Delaware (Newark)</td> -<td class="amount br">4,980.00</td> -<td class="amount br">...</td> -<td class="amount br">17,600.00</td> -<td class="amount br">...</td> -<td class="amount br">1,620.74</td> -<td class="amount">24,200.74</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="name">Delaware (Dover)</td> -<td class="amount br">...</td> -<td class="amount br">...</td> -<td class="amount br">4,400.00</td> -<td class="amount br">4,000.00</td> -<td class="amount br">...</td> -<td class="amount">8,400.00</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="name">Florida (Lake City)</td> -<td class="amount br">9,107.00</td> -<td class="amount br">...</td> -<td class="amount br">11,000.00</td> -<td class="amount br">5,000.00</td> -<td class="amount br">1,896.88</td> -<td class="amount">27,003.00</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="name">Florida (Tallahassee)</td> -<td class="amount br">...</td> -<td class="amount br">...</td> -<td class="amount br">11,000.00</td> -<td class="amount br">4,000.00</td> -<td class="amount br">...</td> -<td class="amount">15,000.00</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="name">Georgia (Athens)</td> -<td class="amount br">16,954.00</td> -<td class="amount br">...</td> -<td class="amount br">14,666.66</td> -<td class="amount br">29,000.00</td> -<td class="amount br">1,600.00</td> -<td class="amount">62,220.66</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="name">Georgia (College)</td> -<td class="amount br">...</td> -<td class="amount br">...</td> -<td class="amount br">6,333.00</td> -<td class="amount br">...</td> -<td class="amount br">...</td> -<td class="amount">6,333.00</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="name">Idaho (Moscow)</td> -<td class="amount br">...</td> -<td class="amount br">...</td> -<td class="amount br">22,000.00</td> -<td class="amount br">6,000.00</td> -<td class="amount br">339.80</td> -<td class="amount">28,839.80</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="name">Illinois (Champlain)</td> -<td class="amount br">23,241.10</td> -<td class="amount br">500.00</td> -<td class="amount br">22,000.00</td> -<td class="amount br">121,214.93</td> -<td class="amount br">41,305.09</td> -<td class="amount">211,591.60</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="name">Indiana (Lafayette)</td> -<td class="amount br">17,000.00</td> -<td class="amount br">3,830.48</td> -<td class="amount br">22,000.00</td> -<td class="amount br">58,562.96</td> -<td class="amount br">29,552.35</td> -<td class="amount">127,115.31</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="name">Iowa (Ames)</td> -<td class="amount br">47,729.75</td> -<td class="amount br">...</td> -<td class="amount br">23,000.00</td> -<td class="amount br">37,232.10</td> -<td class="amount br">49,397.49</td> -<td class="amount">157,359.34</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="name">Kansas (Manhattan)</td> -<td class="amount br">50,689.50</td> -<td class="amount br">...</td> -<td class="amount br">22,000.00</td> -<td class="amount br">16,557.70</td> -<td class="amount br">9,323.88</td> -<td class="amount">98,571.08</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="name">Kentucky (Lexington)</td> -<td class="amount br">...</td> -<td class="amount br">...</td> -<td class="amount br">18,810.00</td> -<td class="amount br">32,429.32</td> -<td class="amount br">6,680.61</td> -<td class="amount">57,819.93</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="name">Kentucky (Frankfort)</td> -<td class="amount br">...</td> -<td class="amount br">...</td> -<td class="amount br">3,190.00</td> -<td class="amount br">5,000.00</td> -<td class="amount br">76.00</td> -<td class="amount">8,266.00</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="name">Louisiana (Baton Rouge)</td> -<td class="amount br">...</td> -<td class="amount br">...</td> -<td class="amount br">...</td> -<td class="amount br">...</td> -<td class="amount br">...</td> -<td class="amount">...</td> -</tr> - -<tr> - -<td class="name">Louisiana (New Orleans)</td> -<td class="amount br">...</td> -<td class="amount br">...</td> -<td class="amount br">11,346.00</td> -<td class="amount br">9,000.00</td> -<td class="amount br">439.46</td> -<td class="amount">20,785.46</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="name">Maine (Orono)</td> -<td class="amount br">5,915.00</td> -<td class="amount br">4,000.00</td> -<td class="amount br">22,000.00</td> -<td class="amount br">20,000.00</td> -<td class="amount br">20,001.13</td> -<td class="amount">71,916.13</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="name">Maryland (College Park)</td> -<td class="amount br">6,142.30</td> -<td class="amount br">...</td> -<td class="amount br">22,000.00</td> -<td class="amount br">9,000.00</td> -<td class="amount br">18,000.00</td> -<td class="amount">55,142.30</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="name">Massachusetts (Amherst)</td> -<td class="amount br">7,300.00</td> -<td class="amount br">3,820.23</td> -<td class="amount br">14,666.66</td> -<td class="amount br">15,000.00</td> -<td class="amount br">1,920.00</td> -<td class="amount">42,706.89</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="name">Massachusetts (Boston)</td> -<td class="amount br">5,896.00</td> -<td class="amount br">35,000.00</td> -<td class="amount br">7,666.67</td> -<td class="amount br">25,000.00</td> -<td class="amount br">253,076.23</td> -<td class="amount">318,638.90</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="name">Michigan (Agricultural College)</td> -<td class="amount br">39,009.66</td> -<td class="amount br">386.34</td> -<td class="amount br">22,000.00</td> -<td class="amount br">10,000.00</td> -<td class="amount br">12,825.62</td> -<td class="amount">84,221.62</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="name">Minnesota (St. Anthony Park)</td> -<td class="amount br">27,410.55</td> -<td class="amount br">21,856.00</td> -<td class="amount br">23,000.00</td> -<td class="amount br">174,332.59</td> -<td class="amount br">74,496.48</td> -<td class="amount">321,095.62</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="name">Mississippi (Agricult’l College)</td> -<td class="amount br">5,914.50</td> -<td class="amount br">...</td> -<td class="amount br">10,217.08</td> -<td class="amount br">22,500.00</td> -<td class="amount br">14,597.96</td> -<td class="amount">53,227.54</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="name">Mississippi (West Side)<span class="pagenum" id="Page17">[17]</span></td> -<td class="amount br">6,814.50</td> -<td class="amount br">...</td> -<td class="amount br">11,000.00</td> -<td class="amount br">7,000.00</td> -<td class="amount br">...</td> -<td class="amount">24,814.50</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="name">Missouri (Columbia)</td> -<td class="amount br">16,100.00</td> -<td class="amount br">6,469.58</td> -<td class="amount br">20,804.02</td> -<td class="amount br">3,762.34</td> -<td class="amount br">5,022.73</td> -<td class="amount">52,158.67</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="name">Missouri (Rolla)</td> -<td class="amount br">4,025.00</td> -<td class="amount br">6,469.58</td> -<td class="amount br">5,201.00</td> -<td class="amount br">5,476.65</td> -<td class="amount br">2,192.16</td> -<td class="amount">23,364.39</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="name">Missouri (Jefferson City)</td> -<td class="amount br">...</td> -<td class="amount br">...</td> -<td class="amount br">1,195.98</td> -<td class="amount br">...</td> -<td class="amount br">...</td> -<td class="amount">1,195.98</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="name">Montana (Bozeman)</td> -<td class="amount br">...</td> -<td class="amount br">...</td> -<td class="amount br">22,000.00</td> -<td class="amount br">2,500.10</td> -<td class="amount br">2,439.57</td> -<td class="amount">26,939.57</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="name">Nebraska (Lincoln)</td> -<td class="amount br">...</td> -<td class="amount br">...</td> -<td class="amount br">22,000.00</td> -<td class="amount br">123,572.50</td> -<td class="amount br">7,801.53</td> -<td class="amount">153,374.03</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="name">Nevada (Reno)</td> -<td class="amount br">4,464.89</td> -<td class="amount br">1,803.55</td> -<td class="amount br">22,000.00</td> -<td class="amount br">16,250.00</td> -<td class="amount br">327.35</td> -<td class="amount">44,845.79</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="name">New Hampshire (Durham)</td> -<td class="amount br">4,800.00</td> -<td class="amount br">3,880.50</td> -<td class="amount br">23,000.00</td> -<td class="amount br">5,500.00</td> -<td class="amount br">1,148.00</td> -<td class="amount">40,328.50</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="name">New Jersey (New Brunswick)</td> -<td class="amount br">6,644.00</td> -<td class="amount br">...</td> -<td class="amount br">22,000.00</td> -<td class="amount br">...</td> -<td class="amount br">21,170.37</td> -<td class="amount">49,814.37</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="name">New Mexico (Mesilla Park)</td> -<td class="amount br">...</td> -<td class="amount br">...</td> -<td class="amount br">22,000.00</td> -<td class="amount br">19,792.01</td> -<td class="amount br">875.70</td> -<td class="amount">42,667.71</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="name">New York (Ithaca)</td> -<td class="amount br">34,428.80</td> -<td class="amount br">314,407.51</td> -<td class="amount br">22,000.00</td> -<td class="amount br">25,000.00</td> -<td class="amount br">191,660.07</td> -<td class="amount">587,496.38</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="name">North Carolina (West Raleigh)</td> -<td class="amount br">...</td> -<td class="amount br">...</td> -<td class="amount br">...</td> -<td class="amount br">...</td> -<td class="amount br">...</td> -<td class="amount">...</td> -</tr> - -<tr> - -<td class="name">North Carolina (Greensboro)</td> -<td class="amount br">...</td> -<td class="amount br">...</td> -<td class="amount br">...</td> -<td class="amount br">12,500.00</td> -<td class="amount br">157.92</td> -<td class="amount">12,657.92</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="name">North Dakota (Agri. College)</td> -<td class="amount br">...</td> -<td class="amount br">392.96</td> -<td class="amount br">22,000.00</td> -<td class="amount br">27,000.00</td> -<td class="amount br">3,446.62</td> -<td class="amount">52,839.58</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="name">Ohio (Wooster)</td> -<td class="amount br">31,450.58</td> -<td class="amount br">1,511.63</td> -<td class="amount br">22,000.00</td> -<td class="amount br">118,906.53</td> -<td class="amount br">175,140.39</td> -<td class="amount">349,009.13</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="name">Oklahoma (Stillwater)</td> -<td class="amount br">...</td> -<td class="amount br">...</td> -<td class="amount br">22,000.00</td> -<td class="amount br">500.00</td> -<td class="amount br">3,391.00</td> -<td class="amount">25,591.00</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="name">Oregon (Corvallis)</td> -<td class="amount br">7,164.68</td> -<td class="amount br">...</td> -<td class="amount br">22,000.00</td> -<td class="amount br">1,854.79</td> -<td class="amount br">1,342.37</td> -<td class="amount">32,361.84</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="name">Pennsylvania (State College)</td> -<td class="amount br">25,637.43</td> -<td class="amount br">5,382.57</td> -<td class="amount br">22,000.00</td> -<td class="amount br">45,000.00</td> -<td class="amount br">8,340.27</td> -<td class="amount">106,360.27</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="name">Rhode Island (Kingston)</td> -<td class="amount br">1,500.00</td> -<td class="amount br">1,000.00</td> -<td class="amount br">22,000.00</td> -<td class="amount br">10,000.00</td> -<td class="amount br">6,000.00</td> -<td class="amount">40,500.00</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="name">South Carolina (Clemson College)</td> -<td class="amount br">5,754.00</td> -<td class="amount br">3,512.36</td> -<td class="amount br">11,000.00</td> -<td class="amount br">54,053.29</td> -<td class="amount br">700.00</td> -<td class="amount">75,019.65</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="name">South Carolina (Orangeburg)</td> -<td class="amount br">5,000.00</td> -<td class="amount br">...</td> -<td class="amount br">11,000.00</td> -<td class="amount br">13,000.00</td> -<td class="amount br">1.00</td> -<td class="amount">29,001.00</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="name">South Dakota (Brookings)</td> -<td class="amount br">...</td> -<td class="amount br">...</td> -<td class="amount br">22,000.00</td> -<td class="amount br">5,900.00</td> -<td class="amount br">8,038.12</td> -<td class="amount">35,938.12</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="name">Tennessee (Knoxville)</td> -<td class="amount br">23,760.00</td> -<td class="amount br">1,650.00</td> -<td class="amount br">22,000.00</td> -<td class="amount br">1,674.00</td> -<td class="amount br">7,271.89</td> -<td class="amount">56,355.89</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="name">Texas (College Station)</td> -<td class="amount br">14,280.00</td> -<td class="amount br">...</td> -<td class="amount br">16,500.00</td> -<td class="amount br">22,500.00</td> -<td class="amount br">9,361.39</td> -<td class="amount">62,641.39</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="name">Texas (Prairieview)</td> -<td class="amount br">...</td> -<td class="amount br">...</td> -<td class="amount br">5,500.00</td> -<td class="amount br">15,700.00</td> -<td class="amount br">10,836.78</td> -<td class="amount">32,036.78</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="name">Utah (Logan)</td> -<td class="amount br">...</td> -<td class="amount br">...</td> -<td class="amount br">22,000.00</td> -<td class="amount br">22,000.00</td> -<td class="amount br">5,811.83</td> -<td class="amount">49,811.83</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="name">Vermont (Burlington)</td> -<td class="amount br">8,130.00</td> -<td class="amount br">1,500.00</td> -<td class="amount br">22,000,00</td> -<td class="amount br">6,000.00</td> -<td class="amount br">16,603.09</td> -<td class="amount">54,233.09</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="name">Virginia (Blacksburg)</td> -<td class="amount br">20,658.72</td> -<td class="amount br">...</td> -<td class="amount br">14,666.67</td> -<td class="amount br">15,750.00</td> -<td class="amount br">12,352.48</td> -<td class="amount">63,427.87</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="name">Virginia (Hampton)</td> -<td class="amount br">10,329.36</td> -<td class="amount br">30,264.61</td> -<td class="amount br">7,333.33</td> -<td class="amount br">...</td> -<td class="amount br">109,110.46</td> -<td class="amount">157,037.76</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="name">Washington (Pullman)</td> -<td class="amount br">...</td> -<td class="amount br">...</td> -<td class="amount br">22,000.00</td> -<td class="amount br">29,000.00</td> -<td class="amount br">...</td> -<td class="amount">51,000.00</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="name">West Virginia (Morgantown)</td> -<td class="amount br">5,223.00</td> -<td class="amount br">1,485.00</td> -<td class="amount br">17,000.00</td> -<td class="amount br">38,060.00</td> -<td class="amount br">10,315.13</td> -<td class="amount">72,083.13</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="name">West Virginia (Farm)</td> -<td class="amount br">...</td> -<td class="amount br">...</td> -<td class="amount br">5,000.00</td> -<td class="amount br">14,500.00</td> -<td class="amount br">600.00</td> -<td class="amount">20,100.00</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="name">Wisconsin (Madison)</td> -<td class="amount br">12,250.00</td> -<td class="amount br">14,000.00</td> -<td class="amount br">23,000.00</td> -<td class="amount br">285,000.00</td> -<td class="amount br">47,000.00</td> -<td class="amount">381,250.00</td> -</tr> - -<tr class="bb"> -<td class="name">Wyoming (Laramie)</td> -<td class="amount br">...</td> -<td class="amount br">...</td> -<td class="amount br">22,000.00</td> -<td class="amount br">7,425.00</td> -<td class="amount br">775.59</td> -<td class="amount">30,200.59</td> -</tr> - -<tr class="bbd"> -<td class="name"><span class="padl4">Total</span></td> -<td class="amount br">$609,992.64</td> -<td class="amount br">$574,120.08</td> -<td class="amount br">$1,009,097.07</td> -<td class="amount br">$1,821,072.01</td> -<td class="amount br">$1,239,902.90</td> -<td class="amount">$5,203,580.82</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page18">[18]</span></p> - -<p>It has been thought strange that the farmers -did not more quickly see and appreciate the -valuable opportunities offered to their children. -But why should they at once appreciate and -value the princely provisions which were being -made for them? With no opportunity for education -along the lines of their profession, following -a more or less despised calling, from being -the butt and jest of those who had had educational -advantages from time immemorial, how -could they at once understand the value and -far-reaching effects of the new order of things? -Then, too, these liberal provisions were made -somewhat in advance of the times. The pioneer -must first redeem the land from the wilderness, -fight the physical battles and endure the hardships -of a new country. As soon as these -primitive conditions passed away, the farmers -made an effort to bring their profession up to -a high intellectual plane and make it a delightful -and honorable calling. The evolution from -the primitive to the complex, from the age of -toil to the age of thought, from excessive muscular -effort to a more intelligent direction of -energy, from the narrow and prejudiced to the -broad and liberal, from the coarse and ugly to -the refined and beautiful, is proceeding rapidly, -and is in part realized. What happier task than -to give direction and help, sympathy and encouragement<span class="pagenum" id="Page19">[19]</span> -to these new-born desires! The -part which the youths on the farm are taking in -this evolution leads naturally to a higher intellectual -plane, and hence to a more rational -understanding and fuller comprehension of what -the rural home should be. This desire to -gratify the love for the true and beautiful, which -has been growing up by reason of the better -education, leads directly to the securing of an -income sufficiently large to gratify the more refined -and newly acquired tastes.</p> - -<p>Taking the rural population as we find it, -with added wants and new aspirations, and with -a somewhat better understanding of the value of -a more extended culture, it will be seen that a -more rational system of agriculture, a more -economic expenditure of energy, and a clearer -comprehension of the highest and most economical -use of money must be secured if the objects -sought are attained. To secure the results desired, -it must be shown how a competence can -be secured without excessive toil, how the -results of work may be put to the best uses, -and lastly, but not least, it must be shown what -is really valuable, what real, what substantial, -what polite, what beautiful, what worthy of intelligent -Americans. On the other hand, vulgar -display must be shown to be vulgar, shoddy -must be unmasked, the effect of aping the uncultured<span class="pagenum" id="Page20">[20]</span> -rich set forth, and that which is unreal -and that which goes for naught but vanity displayed -under their true colors,—that comparisons -may be made, and that truer conceptions of -life, its duties and obligations, may be secured.</p> - -<p>How may a competence be obtained? Briefly, -by securing a knowledge of the laws which -govern the business or undertaking entered into, -and by conducting the business or undertaking -in obedience to the modes of action or laws -which apply to the specific case in hand. What -are some of the dominant laws which should -govern the farmer and farm practices? The -farmer should specialize along those lines for -which his taste and training, in part at least, fit -him. To be more specific: A farmer will show -you his potato patch with pride, but not a word -will be said about his work animals and their -offspring, which look like Barnum’s woolly horse. -Then the first principle of agriculture is, follow -up successes. In this case, the man has land -and skill in potato culture which should lead -him directly to success. Why not each year increase -the output of potatoes, and let some -horseman breed the horses? I have no ear or -taste for music; why should I spend time in -thrumming a piano and in making the life of -my neighbors miserable? I love a bird and am -interested in all its ways, its beauty and its life.<span class="pagenum" id="Page21">[21]</span> -Why not study the birds, and let them make -the music?</p> - -<p>Much of life’s energy is spent in trying to -adjust square pegs to round holes and round -pegs to square holes, and life may be spent before -the adjustment is complete. Modern civilization -tends to specialization. Men vary as -widely as do the stars. There is a place for -everyone and some one to fill the place, if this -great mass of unlike units can only be sorted and -fitted into the complex problem of civilization.</p> - -<p>The first question, and the question which -should be repeated often is, What am I good for; -what branch or branches of agriculture will give -me the greatest pleasure and profit? Having -answered this question, pursue the work through -all discouragements to a successful issue. It -is possible you have no capacity for farm life, -and, since you cannot buy a capacity, better go -directly to town and there fit yourself into your -environment. I have known men to toil many -years on a farm, and near the close of life to -be driven to town by the sheriff. There they -made not only a living, but secured a modest -competence in conducting some little one-horse -business, the profits or losses of which could be -counted up every night. The farm, with all its -complexities, with its profits and losses a year -or five years in the future, was too large and<span class="pagenum" id="Page22">[22]</span> -far-reaching for their narrow understandings. -All are not so fortunate. Some remind us of -the Quaker’s dog which he sold to his friend -and recommended as a good coon dog. The -dog proved to be a failure and was returned to -the seller, who said, “I am much surprised. -Thee believes that nothing was created in vain, -does thee not, Ephraim?” “Most certainly I -believe that the Creator made all things for -some beneficent purpose.” “I, too, believe this, -and I had tried that dog for everything else -under the heavens but coons, so I was certain -he must be a good coon dog.”</p> - -<p>A competency is always in sight in this -country for those who do well those things -which are suited to their tastes and training. A -competence may be secured by following those -branches of farming which require the minimum -of labor and the maximum of skill and training. -My friend of Westfield, Mr. G. Schoenfeld, -from Germany, has six acres of land, a part of -which is covered with glass. He did that terrible -thing,—ran in debt for the full purchase -price of the land. It and the valuable improvements -upon it are now paid for. His modest -home is valued at $6,000. While paying for it -a large family has been raised and educated, the -eldest boy entering Annapolis Naval Academy -with a high standing. It is possible that this<span class="pagenum" id="Page23">[23]</span> -son will one day be acknowledged as the intellectual -and social equal of the aristocracy of -Germany should he ever visit the fatherland of -his parents. But why this long account of a -not infrequent occurrence? To show how it was -done: This German, though untrained, succeeded -from the first in producing superior -carnations. He followed up his successes, and -sold the product of brains instead of the fertility -of his little farm. Mr. Schoenfeld sold in Buffalo -during one year—October 1, 1896, to September -30, 1897—carnations (80,946 flowers) -for the net sum, over commissions, of $719.08. -The amount of plant-food removed by the 80,946 -carnations was as follows:</p> - -<table class="basic"> - -<tr> -<th>Nitrogen</th> -<th>Phosphoric acid</th> -<th>Potash</th> -<th> </th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td>5 lbs. 4 ozs.</td> -<td>2 lbs. 3 ozs.</td> -<td>10 lbs. 8 ozs.</td> -<td>(valued at $1.32)</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>The table below shows the amount of plant-food -removed by 856 bushels of wheat, being -the amount which, at 84 cents per bushel (the -average price of wheat for the last ten years -in central New York), would bring $719.08, the -amount received for the carnations.</p> - -<table class="basic"> - -<tr> -<th>Nitrogen</th> -<th>Phosphoric acid</th> -<th>Potash</th> -<th> </th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td>904 lbs.</td> -<td>437 lbs.</td> -<td>298 lbs.</td> -<td>(valued at $158.34)</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>In addition, 20,000 flowers used in making -flower displays for weddings, and the like, were<span class="pagenum" id="Page24">[24]</span> -sold at retail, by the dozen, for $450.80. The -net returns for flowers sold during the fiscal -year ending September 30, 1897, amounted to -$1,169.88. The expenses, including taxes, insurance -and 10 per cent on the capital, were -$790.67. This includes the cost of raising -12,000 plants, about 6,000 of which netted -$263.24. In round numbers, then, the net income -from the one leading industry—flowers—after -paying 10 per cent on invested capital, -coal, commission and workmen’s bills, was -$642.45, with an additional prospective income -from the 6,000 plants which remained unsold.</p> - -<p>When I last visited this gentleman, he informed -me that he had all the land he wanted. -Since that time he has purchased eight acres -adjoining, has made some improvements upon -the land, and now values it at $2,000. He -stated incidentally that the reason he made his -purchase was that the land was in the market, -and he wanted control of it that he might -choose his neighbor. The land, he says, is now -in the market, although it paid 9 per cent, clear -of all expenses, on a valuation of $2,000. The -question is often discussed as to how much land -is necessary to secure a competence. Here we -find that six acres suffices. A large family has -been fed chiefly from the products of the orchards, -vineyard and garden, and the children<span class="pagenum" id="Page25">[25]</span> -are receiving a practical and, in some cases, -a liberal education. All this has been accomplished -because the man quickly learned the -value of scientific agriculture and was wise -enough to follow up his successes.</p> - -<p>Not only follow up success, but learn to do -the difficult things; there will always be a -throng seeking to do the easy things,—things -which require the maximum of muscle and the -minimum of brains. Why do such multitudes -seek this hard, easy work? Because they will -not consent to endure the toil, shall I say, of -acquiring the power to think deeply, accurately -and effectively. Some of our sympathy is -thrown away upon these muscular workers. -Their desires are few, their wants simple, their -appetites good, and their sleep peaceful. Let us -show them the way to a higher life, open the -doors to those who choose to enter, and fret not -because all will not enter in.</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> - -<div class="poetry"> - -<div class="stanza"> -<span class="verse indent-1">“Some are and must be greater than the rest,<br /></span> -<span class="verse indent0">More rich, more wise; but who infers from hence<br /></span> -<span class="verse indent0">That such are happier, shocks all common sense.”<br /></span> -</div> - -</div><!--poetry--> - -</div><!--poetry-container--> - -<p>The man who fells the trees in the woods -may receive 15 cents per hour; the man who -controls the carriage of the great sawmill and -decides on the instant what shape and dimensions -the lumber shall take may receive 25 cents<span class="pagenum" id="Page26">[26]</span> -per hour for simply moving a little lever; a -third man causes a piece of the wood to take -on the forms of beauty for the great staircase, -and may receive 50 cents per hour; the fourth -furnishes the design for this beautiful staircase, -and may receive $1 an hour. The man who -does the so-called “hard” work receives the -least pay. Why? Because it is the least difficult. -This difference of remuneration holds -good on the farm. Mushrooms sell for 50 cents -per pound; maize for one-half cent per pound. -Why? Because anybody, even a squaw, can -raise maize, but only a specially skilled gardener -can succeed in mushroom culture. Hothouse -lambs bring from $6 to $10 when two -months old; a poorly bred sheep at two years -of age may bring from $2 to $4. Why? The -breeding and feeding of the one is easy; of the -other difficult.</p> - -<p>In 1897 the raising of potatoes was difficult. -The blights, the bugs and the beetles were present -in full force. Good potatoes in the middle -and eastern states rose to 65 cents per bushel -wholesale. The man who watched and fought -intelligently secured 300 bushels per acre and a -ready market; the careless man and the man -who should have been raising horses or chickens -secured 30 bushels per acre and a slow market. -Why? Because unusual difficulties were present,<span class="pagenum" id="Page27">[27]</span> -and the man who was able to cope with -them drew the prize of $195 per acre for his -potatoes. This successful potato raiser the previous -year secured more than 300 bushels per -acre, and sold them for 25 cents per bushel, -but even at this low price they brought more -than $75 per acre. If from 200 to 300 per cent -profit can be secured and the limit of profit not -reached by raising one of the most common -products of the farm, what possibilities loom up -for securing a competence from those products -which require greater skill and knowledge than -the raising of potatoes?</p> - -<p>Consider the crops which are supposed to -give promise of securing little or no profits at -the present low prices, as wheat, maize, hay and -oats. One man, on land naturally below the -average, has secured during the last fifteen years -an average of nearly 35 bushels of wheat, and -in a few cases 40 bushels per acre. The average -yield for the whole United States in 1889 was a -shade less than 14 bushels per acre. During the -same year the average yield of oats was 28.57 -bushels per acre, and hay, including such other -crops as are used for forage, averaged 1.26 tons -per acre. Good farmers secure 40 to 50 bushels -of oats, and 2 to 2¹⁄₂ tons of hay, and in propitious -years 50 to 60 bushels of oats and 3 tons -of hay per acre. (Compare <a href="#Fig1">Figs. 1</a> and <a href="#Fig2">2</a>.) These<span class="pagenum" id="Page28">[28]</span> -latter yields always show large profits and lead -to a competency, while the average yield usually -gives no profit. If the average yield gives only -a bare subsistence, what must be the condition -of those who secure much less than the average? -If one man raises 35 bushels of wheat, five -other men must each raise 10 bushels to secure -an average yield of 14 bushels per acre. Some -entire states—as, for instance, Mississippi, North -Carolina and Tennessee,—have an average of -6, 6 and 9 bushels, respectively, per acre. What -is the remedy? Stop raising wheat, and raise -something better adapted to soil and climate, or<span class="pagenum" id="Page29">[29]</span> -go to town and sell peanuts. Some of these men -who utterly fail to comprehend the laws of wheat -culture may be good “coon dogs,” after all.</p> - -<div class="container w40em" id="Fig1"> - -<img src="images/illo036.jpg" class="bordered" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 1. Thirty-five-bushel wheat field (Cornell University).</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<div class="container w40em" id="Fig2"> - -<img src="images/illo037.jpg" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 2. Eight-bushel wheat field, on a farm adjoining that shown in <a href="#Fig1">Fig. 1</a>.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>It will be said that if the yield per acre be -doubled, the market will be so flooded that no one -will receive profits. This is the old scarecrow. -No farmer can control the prices of his product. -The law of supply and demand is inexorable. -What he may do is to improve quality, diminish -cost, reduce area, find the best market -and the products most sought, and increase the<span class="pagenum" id="Page30">[30]</span> -production from a given area. If he raises the -yield from 20 to 35 bushels, while the yield of -his neighbor remains at 10 bushels and prices -remain low, we shall soon see a fine illustration -of “the survival of the fittest.” The 35 bushels -will yield a fair remuneration for the work -expended in production when prices are at the -lowest. When they are high the profits are 200 -to 300 per cent. Wheat, for the last ten years, -has averaged 84 cents per bushel in June in -central New York. Allow $3 for the straw of -the lower yield, and if the wheat was sold at -the average price, the total income per acre -would be $11.40. For the straw of the larger -yield allow $6, which, added to the wheat at the -average price, would give a gross income per -acre of $35.40.</p> - -<p>The cost of raising and marketing an acre of -wheat, including $5 for rental of land and $2 -for fertilizers, may be set down at from $15 to -$20 in New York. If the most successful compels -the less successful farmer to stop raising -wheat at a loss, what will the latter do with his -land? Better give it away than lose by farming -it. Better abandon the farm and go to town and -set up a second-hand clothing store. There is -always at least a small profit in that business.</p> - -<p>In central New York a large herd of dairy -cows was tested, and the owner of the herd<span class="pagenum" id="Page31">[31]</span> -was informed that about one-fourth of his cows -were quite profitable, one-half paid their board -bill and a little more, and one-fourth were kept -at a considerable loss. He was advised to dispose -of the unprofitable cows. His answer was, -“But what will I do for cows?”</p> - -<p>Then, to secure a competence, the crops and -the land which uniformly produce loss must be -abandoned. How it worries the city penny-a-liner -and how it rejoices the successful farmer to -see land thrown out of cultivation—“abandoned.” -To me nothing is so encouraging in agriculture -as this lately acquired knowledge which reveals -the fact that vast areas have been cleared and -brought under cultivation which should have -been left undisturbed, except to harvest the mature -trees and protect the young plants from -ravages of fire and cattle. As the blackberry -bushes, year by year, creep down the steep -hillsides and over the rock-covered fields, one -rejoices at the pioneer work these modest, -hardy, tap-rooted plants are accomplishing. -How wisely and well they fit the soil for a -higher and more noble class of plants, and how -surely in time they cover the shame and nakedness -of mother earth!</p> - -<p>The rural population has made many serious -mistakes, toiling to reclaim land which was not -worth reclaiming, not worthy of an intelligent<span class="pagenum" id="Page32">[32]</span> -farmer. But how could they know better? Not -one college of forestry in all this great land -up to 1898, and as yet but one in its infancy! -Until the last generation not a single school of -agriculture, scarcely a book obtainable which -might give direct help to the rural American -boy and girl! Therefore, the farmer should not -be blamed for the wasteful and unscientific -treatment of forest and field. All this leads to -the conclusion that to secure a competence, -lands of high and varied agricultural capabilities, -lands worthy of an intelligent American, -should be selected upon which to build and -maintain rural homes.</p> - -<p>Quantity of farm products we have in abundance; -better quality is what is wanted, since -quality may improve prices and widen markets. -To assist in securing a competence some specialization -is advisable. Sometimes this has -been carried so far as to work serious disaster. -Many farms in western New York have been -almost exclusively devoted to the raising of -grapes, which, when abundant or moderately so, -sold at ruinous prices. It is noticed that where -only an eighth or a fourth of the farm was -devoted to vines, the yield was not only proportionately -larger but the quality better than -where nearly all the land was used as a vineyard. -Wherever diversified agriculture was carried<span class="pagenum" id="Page33">[33]</span> -on to a limited extent and plantations were -restricted, the low price of grapes made no serious -inroads on the income. Where all the land -was given up to grapes, work was intermittent, -the farmer being overtasked at one season of -the year and idle at another. The demoralizing -effect on the farmers and their families of this -army of unrestrained youths and loungers of -the city, which, for a brief period, swarms in -the districts devoted to specialized crops, as -grapes, berries and hops, is marked.</p> - -<p>The baleful result of raising a single or few -products in extended districts may be seen in -California and the great wheat districts of the -northwest. In such localities there is little or no -true home life, with its duties and restraints; -men and boys are herded together like cattle, -sleep where they may, and subsist as best they -can. The work is hard, and from sun to sun for -two or three months, when it abruptly ceases, -and the workmen are left to find employment as -best they may, or adopt the life and habits of -the professional tramp. It is difficult to name -anything more demoralizing to men, and especially -to boys, than intermittent labor; and the -higher the wages paid and the shorter the period -of service, the more demoralizing the effect. If -there were no other reason for practicing a somewhat -diversified agriculture, the welfare of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page34">[34]</span> -workman and his family should form a sufficient -one. Happily, many large and demoralizing -wheat ranches are being divided into small -farms, upon which are being reared the roof-tree, -children, fruits and flowers.</p> - -<p>To secure a competence, no more activities -should be entered into than can be prosecuted -with vigor and at a profit. On the other hand, -too few activities tend to stagnation and degeneration. -Mental power, like many other things, -increases with legitimate use and diminishes with -disuse. The farmer who simply raises and sells -maize is often poor in pocket and deficient in -understanding. The college graduate who attempts -but a few easy things seldom becomes a -ripe scholar.</p> - -<p>To secure a competence, the petty outgoes -should be met by weekly receipts from petty -products. I have known so many farmers to -succeed by specializing moderately along one or -two lines, while holding on to diversified agriculture, -in part at least, that I am tempted to give -a single illustration as a sample of thousands -which have come under my notice.</p> - -<p>A Scotchman and his family of four little -children landed in northern Indiana with three -to four hundred dollars; to this was added as -much more by day labor. A farm of about one -hundred and fifty acres was purchased, one hundred<span class="pagenum" id="Page35">[35]</span> -acres of which were adapted to wheat, corn -and clover. Thirty acres were marshy pasture -land; the balance, timber. Wheat was selected -as the great income crop, which was supplemented -by the sale of one to three horses -yearly. The butter from a dozen cows, the -chickens, ducks, and their eggs, were taken to -the city once each week. The result was that -at the end of the year there were no debts of -subsistence to be paid. This left all the money -received for the wheat and horses to be applied -towards liquidating the mortgage. In a few -years a large, comfortable house was built. This -was followed by the purchase of another farm, -and still another, until each child was provided -with a home and facilities for securing a modest -income. This shrewd Scotchman succeeded -because he neglected neither little nor great -things.</p> - -<p>With what pride the writer, in 1863, deposited -$1,700 in bank, the product of a single wool -crop!—and the little farm of one hundred and -twenty acres was not all devoted to wool-raising. -If a young man can secure a loving, helpful -wife, four good cows and enough land to produce -feed for them, with room left for an ample -garden, a berry patch and a small orchard, he -may consider himself rich, and if he be able -and intelligent he will soon have a competence.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page36">[36]</span></p> - -<p>The farmer, of necessity, goes to the city or -village once each week for supplies which cannot -well be produced on the farm. He should return, -if possible, with more money than he had -when he left home. It is not the big mortgage -which was given for part of the purchase price -of the farm which should make him unhappy, -but the steadily increasing little charges accumulating -on the tradesmen’s ledgers until this -“honest” farmer dreads to meet a score of his -town acquaintances.</p> - -<p>The farmer who, from his well-painted covered -democrat wagon, sells the product of his -skill and labor looks to me quite as dignified as -does the merchant who sells nails and codfish, -turpentine and bobbins, patent medicines and -jews’-harps, none of which represents his own -skill or labor.</p> - -<p>Farming will never be carried on in America -by trusts or syndicates. A combine can run -fifty nail factories or breweries, but not fifty -farms, at a profit, because farming is too difficult, -requires too close supervision and frequent -change of details and combinations, and new -plans to meet the ever-changing conditions of -climate and soil. The conditions which surround -agriculture in America put a quietus forever -on “bonanza farming,” and tend to the -rearing of ideal homes and the accumulation of<span class="pagenum" id="Page37">[37]</span> -modest incomes. Mining-farming on virgin, fertile, -unobstructed areas can be successfully -prosecuted only for a time.</p> - -<p>“The Red river valley native soils contain -from .35 to .40 of nitrogen, while the soils -which have been under cultivation (in wheat) -for twelve to fifteen years contain from .2 to -.3 of a per cent.”<a id="FNanchor_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> Another important point: -When humus is taken out of the native soil -as above, only .02 of a per cent of the phosphoric -acid is soluble by ordinary chemical -methods, while in the native soil three or four -times as much phosphoric acid is soluble and is -associated with the humus. Allowing that an -acre of soil one foot deep weighs 1,800 tons, -the native soil would contain from 12,600 to -14,400 pounds of nitrogen per acre, while the -cultivated soil would contain from 7,200 to -10,800 pounds per acre. If the average amount -of nitrogen in native soils (13,500 pounds per -acre), and the average in the soil after it had -been cropped twelve to fifteen years (9,000 -pounds per acre), are compared, it will be -seen that the soil has lost 4,500 pounds of -nitrogen per acre, or more than one-third (probably -one-half) of the nitrogen which could well -be made available, and this in less than a quarter -of a century.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> -Henry Snyder, Bulls. 30, 44, Minn. Exp. Sta. See “Fertility of the Land,” p. 256.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page38">[38]</span></p> - -<p>Fifteen crops of wheat of 25 bushels per -acre require 433 pounds of nitrogen, or one-tenth -of the amount which the soil lost during -the years of cropping. This soil, under “bonanza -farming,” has lost outright nitrogen sufficient -for 155 crops, each requiring as much -nitrogen as does a crop of 25 bushels of -wheat per acre. When the amount wasted on -a single acre is multiplied by the acres of the -vast, fertile wheat plains of the west, where -“bonanza farming” is carried on, the loss of -nitrogen to our country is seen to be so great -as to appal the thoughtful man who looks forward -to the generations who will want this -element in the not distant future. Happily, -this “bonanza farming” has its own cure. -When mining-farming reduces the yield so that -profits vanish, then these great farms will be -cut up into modest-sized ones, true homes will -rise, intermittent labor and the tramp harvest-hand -will disappear, and the last and only condition -which tends to produce an uninstructed -peasant class will cease to exist.</p> - -<p>The other great “bonanza” industry which -still remains and which affects agriculture, and -the land directly, is lumbering. This, like “bonanza” -wheat farming, may be classed as a mining -industry, carried on at the surface instead -of in the bowels of the earth. Without rational<span class="pagenum" id="Page39">[39]</span> -direction, restraint or control, this agricultural -mining goes on until the sources from which -the profits are drawn are so depleted as to -be no longer profitable. There is no home or -competency for the farm boys in the lumber -camp or on the great wheat farm. Here the -rule is to take all and return nothing. After -the ax and the binder, comes the fire to complete -the wanton destruction. The shade-giving -and moisture-conserving brush, stubble and -straw, and all living plants, are destroyed, and -nothing but the mineral matter, unmixed with -surface humus, remains. A blackened waste, -devoid of animal or vegetable life, is left behind. -No homes can be reared here, no competence -secured until nature, assisted by man -in the coming years, slowly restores the covering -and productivity of the soil. This unwise -treatment of the land must soon come to an -end; then the hardy home-builder will have opportunity -to repair, by more rational methods, -some of the wanton and unnecessary waste.</p> - -<p>Is it too much to hope that before the close -of another decade every state and territory will -have a school of forestry, and that all national -forest domains will have been brought under -rational supervision and control? The future -home-builders will need them, and the present -owners of homes have a right to a share of<span class="pagenum" id="Page40">[40]</span> -the benefits which flow from intelligently managed -forest preserves. It is not enough to -show that intelligent farming is highly remunerative -at the present time; provision must -be made by which the children and the children’s -children, for all generations, may have -opportunity for securing a competence from -rural pursuits.</p> - -<p>Can a competence and a comfortable home -be secured by the renter? If not, why not? -Shall the farmer put his little capital into a -home and run in debt for supplies and necessary -equipment; or had he better rent, and -start even? This depends to a large extent -upon the individual. A successful country life -does not depend upon owning the land in fee -simple. Here is a picture of what may be -called “a country gentleman” (<a href="#Fig3">Fig. 3</a>). He, -his father and his grandfather, all have been -renters of the same farm. He has a competence -and an assured income. This hue and -cry about renting has no terrors for those who -have been renters and have found that this is -often the most satisfactory way to start when -capital is limited. The merchant of limited -means invariably rents the building in which -he does business, because it is safer and usually -more economical to rent than to purchase -the business block.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page41">[41]</span></p> - -<div class="container w25em" id="Fig3"> - -<img src="images/illo049.jpg" class="bordered" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 3. A farmer and a renter.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>In an old city of 12,000 inhabitants, it was -found that 84 per cent of the business was carried -on in rented rooms. The trouble in renting -farms in the United States lies chiefly in -the fact that there are no well digested laws -or old customs which help to guide the renter -and rentee. A few simple laws would provide for -adjusting the value of betterments removed from<span class="pagenum" id="Page42">[42]</span> -or put upon the farm at any time. Long leases, -with inducements to long occupancy, would give -the rentee a permanent occupier. The renter -has quite as good a chance of finally securing -a home in fee simple as has the man who purchases -and mortgages heavily. The possession -of a valuable farm and an assured income, especially -in a new country, is often most surely -and easily secured by renting for a series of -years. Good farming pays liberal profits even -on rented land. If there is failure, it is the -man and not the occupation which causes it. -The fault will not be “in the moon,” but in -ourselves if we fail or become underlings.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page43">[43]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER III<br /> -<span class="chapname"><i>EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITY ON THE FARM</i></span></h2> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p>More and more we are coming to believe -that the rural district schools offer but few opportunities -for educating the farmers’ children. -Various schemes have been recommended for -providing better and more convenient educational -facilities. One proposition is first to -improve the principal highways. This, it is -thought, will make it possible to run ’buses or -carriages twice daily to transport the children to -and from some centrally located graded school. -Such schemes are usually proposed by some one -who has seldom seen a country school-house and -who is totally unacquainted with the conditions -which prevail in rural communities.</p> - -<p>Admitting, for the sake of comparison, that -teacher and pupil in the country are not so far -advanced in book-lore as they are in the city, -how does it happen that the country youths are -able to maintain themselves on an educational -level with the pupils of the graded schools when -they meet them in the academy and college? Is -it not quite possible that the wide opportunities<span class="pagenum" id="Page44">[44]</span> -enjoyed by the country youth for becoming -acquainted with natural objects of use and -beauty are a full offset, so far as training is concerned, -for the more systematic instruction given -in the city schools?</p> - -<p>I can but look with some degree of solicitude -on the effect on civilization and on the home, of -palatial hotels, and great school buildings, filled -with heterogeneous masses of children, in which -love, solicitude and sacrifices, each for all, have -little opportunity for growth and development. -The family seems to be the sacred unit of civilization -and morality. A full and sufficient reason -must be given for massing men, much more -children, in a single great structure, thereby -destroying the quiet and breaking the sacred -ties of the home. What good reasons can be -offered for massing children between the ages of -six and twelve in an uncomfortable school-room? -Children do not study; they learn little -except when they read the lesson in the immediate -presence of the teacher who is able to -amplify and explain the lesson in hand. Sending -these little ones to school is a relic of the -primeval days, when, by reason of large families, -lack of training and excessive toil of the -parents, there was no other way but to make -nursery maids of the school-teachers.</p> - -<p>I have a vivid recollection of those early<span class="pagenum" id="Page45">[45]</span> -days when I was crowded into a 16 × 20 school-house, -with two score other bounding, mischievous -urchins, all seated on the hard side of unbacked, -long-legged slab benches, which left our -bare legs, for which the flies had a liking, to -dangle between heaven and earth. True, all -this has now been improved, and good and appropriate -seats are usually provided, but this -only ameliorates the conditions; it does not cure -them. If the parents who have lost something -of their first love for their children, or who are -too lazy or careless or ignorant to teach them, -will go to these patent-seated school-rooms and -sit for five mortal hours on one of these hard, -wooden, uncushioned seats, they will no longer -place their tender children in these modernized -stocks. You who no longer have the hot blood -and restless nervous energy of youth make long -faces and complain bitterly from your well -cushioned pew, if the over-earnest pastor prolongs -his sermon ten minutes beyond the customary -time. It may be said that many, nevertheless, -secured a primary education under these -unfavorable conditions. But I did not; I received -it at my mother’s knee in the old -kitchen, some of it before daylight. About all I -got in that old school-house were kicks and cuffs -from boys who were older and stronger than I, -and round shoulders from sitting through many<span class="pagenum" id="Page46">[46]</span> -weary hours on backless benches, and blistered -hands in punishment for my unrestrained interest -in things in general, and in my school-mates -in particular.</p> - -<p>But what has all this to do with the opportunities -which a farm life gives for education? -It is to emphasize the need of more home training, -more personal attention by the parents, and -a more natural and rational education of those -whom it has been our responsibility to bring -into existence, and upon whose shoulders will -rest the weal or woe of our country. In these -rural homes, children should be reared and educated -until they have reached the point beyond -which their parents or the older children cannot -carry them. The child, when only two or three -years old, begins to learn handicraft, performs -some little helpful act for another; it is being -taught to work. As it becomes more mature it is -to do useful things; but who thinks of keeping -the child of eight to ten years of age at continuous -work for five or six hours daily? Why -not carry on the child’s mental education along -these natural lines in the same manner as it -receives its primary technical education?</p> - -<p>I am almost persuaded that the farmers’ -children would be better off if the old red -school-house on the dusty, treeless four corners -was abandoned, and the responsibility for the<span class="pagenum" id="Page47">[47]</span> -education of the children up to twelve or fourteen -years of age was thrown upon the parents. -As it is, the parents who have received a fairly -good primary education become rusty and illiterate -simply from non-use of the education -which they had when they left the schools. If -the unexcelled opportunities which rural life -offers for securing a primary education were only -utilized, there would be fewer country youths -hating even the sight of that red school-house -which has received such honorable mention. It -has been glorified in every Fourth of July oration, -but it still remains not only unevolutionized -but even degenerated.</p> - -<p>If you ever imagined that the best provision -has been made for teaching the little ones, -spend a day in one of these school-houses. -Take some book with you that is as abstract -and useless to you as the children believe their -books to be to them, and make the attempt to -memorize a single page, or essay to write a -composition on “The Immortality of the Soul,” -or on “The Wisdom of Annexing the South Sea -Islands.” Meantime, classes are reciting in falsetto -voices; the teacher is giving many admonitions -and making dire threats; a festive bumblebee -has found its way through the open window -and makes as much commotion among the -timid girls as a mouse at a tea-party. Now a<span class="pagenum" id="Page48">[48]</span> -dog barks, and the boys know that Bowser has -safely treed a squirrel. Before you have had -time to collect your thoughts a lusty farm boy, -perched on a creaking wain, whooping loudly to -his team, goes rattling by. Stay a week and -finish your composition, and see how fast your -children are securing disjointed fractions of an -education. A half-hour of continuous, quiet, intensified -study at home is worth more than a day -in many a school-room where little muddy driblets -of knowledge are being doled out to the children.</p> - -<p>You may say that you have no time to teach -children. Business is too pressing, and you are -already overworked. You should have thought -of that sooner, and been wholly selfish and saved -the money and time you spent to persuade that -beautiful maiden to join you and help perform -the duties and functions of life.</p> - -<p>You will certainly agree that home education -is the best, the ideal education. For a child, an -hour or two of study and recreation a day, an -equal time employed in useful work, and the -rest of the day spent in picking up fun and -facts, both of which may be found in abundance -on the old farm, is the natural way to secure a -broad primary foundation, upon which to rest a -liberal education.</p> - -<p>After the child has reached the age of ten -or twelve and has had careful home training,<span class="pagenum" id="Page49">[49]</span> -what provision can be made for continuing its -education during the next four to six years? -Two or more districts might be joined to form -one, for graded school purposes. On every farm -is, or should be, a spare horse and a light -wagon; a few dollars would provide a stable -near the school building. Such an arrangement -would permit the children to drive to and from -the central school, although the distance might -be two or three miles. All this means that the -children will be around the family fireside in the -evening instead of on the street, as is too frequently -the case when they are sent to the village -or city school and remain during the week. -All this keeps the boys and girls in sympathy -and healthful touch with home life and their -parents, until character has been strengthened -by age and knowledge. Here, in these country -and village graded schools, the home life, with -its restraints and duties, is preserved. Only the -mentally strong or the courageous and aspiring -will seek the halls of higher learning, from -which, if they tend to go astray or neglect their -work, they are quickly returned to the bosom of -their families. If the central graded school is -impracticable in some cases, then a few families -might join and employ a private instructor; this -would be far cheaper and more satisfactory than -to send the children away from home.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page50">[50]</span></p> - -<p>It is not so much lack of facilities as a lack -of an appreciation of the true value of an education -which debars the country youth from -securing even a wholesome and logical primary -education. The value of an education for citizenship -must be placed first, and its value as a -money-making power second. Now the first -question that is usually asked is, Will an education -help to secure a position or to make -money? The question, Will an education help -to a nobler citizenship? is not even thought of. -We shall have no evolution in rural training -until the parents secure a clearer conception of -the true value of an education.</p> - -<p>Evolution along educational lines has already -begun, and it is not difficult to see many beneficial -effects of the changed methods. M. -Demolins’ recent book has this to say: “‘It is -useless to deny the superiority of the Anglo-Saxons. -We may be vexed by this superiority, -but the fact remains, despite our vexation.’... -Considering the superiority conclusively -proved, the author proceeds to search -for the cause of this superiority. He finds the secret -of this irresistible power of the Anglo-Saxon -world in the education of its youth, in the direction -given to studies, to the spirit which reigns in -the school. The English and the people of the -United States have perceived that the needs of<span class="pagenum" id="Page51">[51]</span> -the time require that youth should be trained to -become practical, energetic men, and not public -functionaries or pure men of letters, who know -life only from what they learn in books. M. Demolins -has personally studied with care some -prominent English schools. In these he found the -school buildings, not as in France, immense structures -with the aspect of a barrack or a prison, but -the pupils were distributed among cottages, in -which efforts were made to give the place the appearance -of a home. They were not surrounded by -high walls, but there was an abundance of air and -light and space and verdure. In place of the -odious refectories of the French colleges, the dining-room -was like that of a family, and the professors -and director of the school, with his wife and -daughters, sat at table with the pupils.”<a id="FNanchor_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> -Editorial, “Literary Digest,” July 2, 1898.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<p>Here is seen the beginning of better methods -in primary education. In the rural districts of -America, this system needs but little modification -to fit it to the rural home. All else must -yield to the inborn rights of the children. If -that Brussels carpet which adorns the dark and -unused parlor must be pulled up and some of -the worst pictures relegated to the garret, in -order that provision for a school-room for the -children of the family or for those of the immediate -neighborhood may be made, then pull<span class="pagenum" id="Page52">[52]</span> -it up. Receive the visitor in the sitting-room or -on the veranda, and let the neighborly chat be -where there is “air, and light, and space, and -verdure.”</p> - -<p>Reduce the above picture of an English school -to suit environment, and we have the family as -a unit; the mother and her companion as teachers; -and we shall have not only the appearance -of home, but a true home, where duty commands -and love obeys. This is no far-fetched -picture; it is one drawn from many observed -instances of these farm home schools. The -youths on the farm have a right to a liberal -education if they desire it; they own the earth, -and why should they not have the best it -affords if they make good use of what the earth -and all that therein is has to offer.</p> - -<p>When we come to the higher education, there -are good and sufficient reasons why pupils -should be massed. At the college, expensive and -rare appliances, great laboratories and museums, -ample and expensive libraries, and distinguished -and able teachers, must be provided. -Then, too, the pupils of the college have arrived -at that period of maturity which gives them a -fair degree of self-restraint and discretion.</p> - -<p>Connected, as I have been for more than a -quarter of a century, with college life, I have -had many opportunities to observe the freshness,<span class="pagenum" id="Page53">[53]</span> -vigor and purity of many of the country -lads and lasses who come directly from the -healthy, solid home instruction of their parents.</p> - -<p>I am well aware that this chapter will not -revolutionize rural primary education. I do not -want it to do so. Revolution destroys; evolution -builds. But if these brief words of one who -received until near manhood the thoughtful, -loving home training of a mother, who said, -“I received a better education than my parents -did, and, come what will, I determine that my -children shall have better opportunities for securing -an education than I had,” shall persuade -some that the farm home is the natural, the -appointed place for training children until they -have passed the critical mental and physical -period of life, I shall be content.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page54">[54]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER IV<br /> -<span class="chapname"><i>SELECTION AND PURCHASE OF FARMS</i></span></h2> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p>In selecting a farm, many things should be -considered. One purchaser may lay stress on -the quality or productivity of the land, another -on its location as to market, another as -to the outlook or scenery, and another as to -the society in the immediate locality. Some -would be unhappy if far removed from city or -town, while others delight in many broad acres -far removed from the busy crowd. All these -different phases of the subject, with many -others, should be considered before the purchase -is made. It is seldom that a farm can -be secured which fulfils all desirable conditions; -therefore, such choice should be made as -will most fully meet the desires and tastes of -the purchaser.</p> - -<p>Some farms are purchased with little or no -thought of their producing a livelihood, while -others are selected largely for the purpose of -securing profits in their cultivation, and others -are bought because they are expected to furnish -safe and profitable investments. It is evident<span class="pagenum" id="Page55">[55]</span> -that no specific or even general rule can be -formulated which will be applicable to all purchasers, -since tastes, training, needs and desires -of the purchaser vary widely; nevertheless, a -discussion of the subject may be profitable. -Those who secure their income and profits by -agriculture alone should lay stress on four -things; viz., healthfulness, environment, quality -of land, and water supply.</p> - -<p>Without health, life often becomes a burden; -therefore, climatic conditions, soil and surroundings, -so far as they relate to physical and -mental vigor, should be considered first. But -health and vigor are not all, for if the moral, -intellectual and social conditions of the people -in the neighborhood are undesirable, the children -may take the road which leads towards -semi-barbarism. This road is open to all, in -city and country, but parents should avoid -thrusting their children into it. Church, and social -congenial and God-fearing associates should -be accessible to the growing family. Children are -and must be active, physically and mentally, if -they are to grow straight; and if provisions are -not made for directing their energies into proper -channels, they are likely to find improper ones. -Wherever the farmer sows not a full abundance -of good seeds, weeds are certain to spring up. -The farm must provide a fair and liberal income,<span class="pagenum" id="Page56">[56]</span> -because want brings lack of true pride, -breeds carelessness, even hatred of others, filches -self-respect and courage. Therefore, if profits -are desired, good land, land of wide agricultural -capabilities, should be selected. The greater -variety of crops the land is capable of producing -and the more varieties the farmer raises, -provided he does not exceed his mental and -executive capabilities, the better will be his -education and training.</p> - -<p>Frequently the purchaser has too little means, -and feels that he must secure cheap lands, -which too often are situated far from the railway -markets and centers of activity. In such a -case, he places himself outside the activities of -the towns, which are extremely helpful to him if -he be wise enough to choose the good and refuse -the evil which they offer. Of course, much -depends on the good sense of the parents and -the inheritance and training of the children as -to how much they will imbibe of that which is -good and how much they will refuse of that -which is evil. Children cannot be placed entirely -beyond evil influences, but they can be prevented -from becoming too familiar with them.</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> - -<div class="poetry"> - -<div class="stanza"> -<span class="verse indent-1">“Vice is a monster of so frightful mien,<br /></span> -<span class="verse indent0">As, to be hated, needs but to be seen;<br /></span> -<span class="verse indent0">Yet seen too oft, familiar with her face,<br /></span> -<span class="verse indent0">We first endure, then pity, then embrace.”<br /></span> -</div> - -</div><!--poetry--> - -</div><!--poetry-container--> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page57">[57]</span></p> - -<p>Already something has been said with regard -to an abundant supply of water, but it may not -be out of place to emphasize the necessity of securing -healthful water for household purposes. -Modern science has revealed the fact that a -large number of diseases are introduced into the -system by means of drinking water (see <a href="#Page204">Chapter -XII</a>). All drinking water may be boiled; it may -be said that it should be, for in too many cases -water that appears limpid and pure, drawn from -sources which have every appearance of being -uncontaminated, is not only dangerous but -sometimes deadly. Careful physicians recommend -that all water be filtered, but so many of -the filters are imperfect and are so badly -neglected that there is no certainty that filtered -water is entirely safe; therefore, it may be said -that the only safe way is to boil all drinking -water. As the streams and soil become more -and more contaminated by unsanitary conditions, -it is only in rare cases that safe water -can be secured naturally. When wells or -streams become low, or when streams are -quickly flushed by heavy rains, invariably there -is danger that the water which they contain -may be impure. Care should be taken to provide -an abundance of water, and that used for -household purposes should be treated in such -manner as will make it entirely healthful.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page58">[58]</span></p> - -<p>Having discussed the subject from four leading -standpoints, those of less importance may -be taken up. It is usually not wise to purchase -a farm, however well it may fulfil the requirements -of healthfulness, desirable environment -and productivity, if the lands by which it is -surrounded are poor, since man, in one respect, -is like the tree toad, which partakes largely of -the color of the thing to which it adheres. The -French have a proverb which runs in this wise: -“Tell me where you live, and I will tell you -your name.” Translated into modern thought, it -would read: “Tell me your environment, and I -will tell you your character.”</p> - -<p>Beauty of natural scenery may not be entirely -ignored, although utility, the dollar, must be -kept prominently in view. One can afford to -economize in the living expenses in many ways -not dreamed of by those who load the farm -table with a superabundance of good things, if -it be necessary to do so, to secure beautiful -surroundings. It may be only a question of -choice between a moderate subsistence and a -reposeful environment, or an overloaded table -with uninspiring surroundings. Natural as well -as artificial beauty and pleasurable environment -have their values. A certain lot on one street -sells for $1,000, another one on the same street -for $500. They are both within easy reach of<span class="pagenum" id="Page59">[59]</span> -the business center, on the same street-car line, -of the same size, and have the same elevation. -Why the difference in price? Because of environment. -A seat in the dress circle at the -theater costs a dollar, one in the peanut gallery -ten cents. The play can be seen as well with -a glass in the cheap seat as in the more expensive -one. Then environment has value, as -well as land and buildings.</p> - -<p>The value of the farm may be greatly modified -by the improvements upon it. It is well to -ask, Is the house well located? May it not -have to be virtually rebuilt before it is at all -satisfactory? Will it be necessary to move and -repair barns before they are at all suited to -their purposes? The improvements may be too -extended for the needs of the purchaser. Some -farms are overloaded with buildings (<a href="#Fig4">Fig. 4</a>); -some have badly arranged, unsightly buildings, -too good to destroy and too ugly and unhandy -for either economy or pleasure. Farm buildings -are not a direct source of income and are expensive -to keep in repair; therefore, there would -better be a slight deficiency of them than an -ill arranged surplus. All other permanent improvements, -such as orchards, plantations, fences, -and the like, should be carefully considered. A -good bearing orchard of only a few acres may -serve to furnish enough profit each year to liquidate<span class="pagenum" id="Page60">[60]</span> -taxes and interest charges. The orchard -may be cheaper at $500 per acre than the balance -of the farm is at $75 per acre, or it may -be only an incumbrance of good land. Is the -farm naturally or artificially drained? If not, -will $35 per acre have to be spent in thorough -draining before the land is really satisfactory? -If not drained, will it bring constant disappointment? -Fences, lanes and the necessity for them, -the amount and location of inferior land as pasture -land, the kind of weeds about the farm, as<span class="pagenum" id="Page61">[61]</span> -well as the amount, kind and location of timber, -should be considered.</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig4"> - -<img src="images/illo068.jpg" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 4. Too many buildings for eighty acres of land.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>Land devoted to market-gardening should be -near the market town where the perishable products -are to be sold. Vegetables should reach -the market early in their season in a fresh and -presentable condition and cheaply, if satisfactory -profits are desired. Then land which can be -tilled early (warm or sandy land), though it -may contain a comparatively small amount of -natural plant-food, will be more satisfactory -than rich, cold land situated farther from the -market. An acre of poor, sandy land near the -market may be worth, to the gardener, three or -four times as much as an acre of the more distant -fertile upland.</p> - -<p>Near the town, manures, which are so necessary -to force many market-garden products, can -be procured cheaply and in abundance. The -added distance of even one or two miles from -the switch or shipping station may have an important -effect on profits. Land situated far -from market may well be devoted to stock-raising -and such other products as may be -marketed infrequently or at leisure. As yet, -agricultural methods in America are so new that -they have not adjusted themselves to the growing -cities, nor have specialized crops found their -appropriate localities. Too often are seen truck<span class="pagenum" id="Page62">[62]</span> -farms located half a score of miles from the -city, and the meat-producing farms within sight -of it. As the country becomes older, the varied -activities in agriculture will fit themselves into -their appropriate localities, as they have already -done in many parts of Europe. The dairyman -of the Channel islands has long since learned -that the piebald cattle of the poulders are not -suited to his wants, and the boer of the lowland -knows that the meek-eyed, thin-skinned -Jersey is not best adapted to his cold, windy -country and wet pastures.</p> - -<p>Cost of tillage should be considered when -valuing land. When produced on friable land, -crops may be secured at much less cost than -on tenacious clay. On the other hand, while -sandy soils are the most easily cultivated, they -are ever demanding more plant-food, and hence -are not well adapted to grass or general agriculture, -as the expense of keeping them productive -is usually so great as to preclude profits.</p> - -<p>Except in special cases, as in truck farming, -it is cheaper to purchase natural plant-food -in the soil than artificial fertility. One acre of -land may have potential plant-food sufficient -under superior tillage for one hundred crops, -while another unaided will yield but half as -many, and yet the two pieces of land are often -priced at the same figure. In other words, land<span class="pagenum" id="Page63">[63]</span> -of high productive power is usually cheaper -than land of low productive power. A good -farm may be cheaper at $50 per acre than a -poor one as a gift.</p> - -<p>Last, but not least, is the road to the -farm. Every free-born American demands a -public highway in front of his house; if -farms are small there must then be a highway -about every mile, or, at most, every two miles. -This leads to cutting up the country into enlarged -checkerboards, to a multiplication of -highways so great that none of them can be -kept passably good without overtaxing the land -which adjoins them. On account of the contour -of the land over which they pass, some -roads are extremely difficult and are well described -by the man who, when asked how far -it was from a certain town to another one, -answered: “Thirty miles, and it’s up hill both -ways.” As I write this I look out upon a -washed clay road which stretches up and on -towards the horizon for six weary miles, so steep -that the team must maintain a walk for the -whole distance in ascending or descending. What -is land worth at the other end of this road, as -compared with that which lies six miles away -in the other direction, along a smooth, level -pike? Every grown farm boy should have a -good horse and a good road upon which to<span class="pagenum" id="Page64">[64]</span> -drive, if he be worthy of such a noble animal -as the horse. When he starts for himself let -him locate on a good road. There are always -enough persons who are not thankful for advice, -especially if it be in a book, who are looking -for cheap land at the end of the hilly road.</p> - -<p>Many farms are purchased by young men -just starting out in life before judgment has -been developed by experience, while men of -mature years take in the whole problem, or -rather series of problems, easily and at once. -The novice would do well to make a list of -the topics enumerated above, and add to them -such others as appeal to his tastes or conditions -and then study them, one at a time; in -fact, there is nothing left for the young man -to do but to make out a score-card upon which -he records his judgment in numbers as he investigates -each phase of the difficult problem -of selecting a farm.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page65">[65]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER V<br /> -<span class="chapname"><i>THE RELATION OF THE FARMER TO THE LAWYER</i></span></h2> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p>Doubtless more than one reader will be astonished, -perhaps even horrified, to think that -the writer should seriously suggest that there -ought to be any relation whatever between the -farmer and the lawyer.</p> - -<p>It has come to be generally believed by many -farmers that lawyers are at best a necessary -evil, which it is well to avoid if possible; but, -strange as it may appear, this very feeling is -responsible for much of the litigation, with its -attendant loss and sometimes ruin, in which too -many farmers have been engaged. It is not the -purpose of this short chapter to treat of the -subject of law, or to try to lay down any rules -to be blindly followed in legal matters. An -old and learned lawyer, who had all his life -been engaged in a country practice, once told -me that the most prolific sources of litigation -were alleged text-books of law, bearing such -alluring and seductive titles as “Every Man -his own Lawyer,” or “The Farmer’s own Law -Book.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page66">[66]</span></p> - -<p>Several years ago, a wealthy manufacturer -of the state of New York sent a bright son -to a law school, to help prepare him for a -business career. At the end of his course -the proud father was present at commencement, -and, in the course of conversation with -his son, said: “Well, John, I suppose you -have learned a great deal.” John answered, -“I have learned one thing which I think is of -value; and that is, if any legal matter comes -up in the course of my business, to consult the -very best lawyer I can find.” That young man -had really learned something worth far more than -the cost of his course in the college of law.</p> - -<p>There is, perhaps, no other of the so-called -learned professions which is so exacting and -which requires more devotion and study for its -mastery. Some of the brightest men in this -country have devoted a lifetime to the study -and practice of law, only to have just entered -its broad field as they have been compelled to -lay down their work. How futile, then, would -be the attempt to make every man his own -lawyer! The real purpose of this chapter is -to open the eyes of the farmer to the necessity -of a closer relationship between himself and the -lawyer,—the family lawyer, if you please, having -his confidence to the same extent as that -of the family doctor.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page67">[67]</span></p> - -<p>Most farmers desire a comfortable and a -beautiful home, and it is to aid such that this -book is written. Such a farmer would doubtless -consult a builder or an architect as to the -foundation, walls, plan and materials of the -home to be constructed, and he would act -wisely; but how many would think so far as -to consult a lawyer as to the very foundation -upon which his home and his future happy -occupancy of it rest: the title to the farm. -Too many times he is satisfied with the services -of the village solons,—the shoemaker who is a -notary public, the justice of the peace, or -the pettifogger who daily overrules the supreme -court or the court of appeals. Years after he -has purchased his farm, he finds, perhaps, that -some man has given a deed whose wife has not -signed, and upon the death of the woman’s -husband our farmer friend is confronted with -a law suit; and he finds that this wife, who did -not sign the deed, is entitled to dower in his -farm, the use of one-third of its value at the -time her husband gave the deed, for life. Such -cases are frequent, and might easily be prevented -by submitting an abstract of the title to -a lawyer at a cost of $5 or less. The flaw in -the title may be a mortgage or judgment, or a -failure of all the heirs of a deceased person, -somewhere along the chain of title, to join in<span class="pagenum" id="Page68">[68]</span> -the deed; all of which might be overlooked by -the ordinary business man, and yet be readily -detected by a lawyer.</p> - -<p>Some day the farmer may be annoyed by -the encroachment of a neighbor upon his farm, -and, when in the midst of a litigation, find that -the description of his farm is so defective that -there is no relief. I have in my possession a -deed of a valuable farm containing this description: -“Beginning on the —— road at the -south end of a pile of four-foot wood; running -thence westwardly to a black cherry tree, -thence northerly to a stake, thence easterly to -a pine stump in the center of the road, and -thence southerly to the place of beginning, containing -100 acres, more or less.” For fifty -years this description has been copied, a score -of times, by the various justices of the peace -and notaries public of the neighboring hamlet, -but fortunately, however, it has never devolved -upon the owners to establish the boundaries of -that farm. The first lawyer who got hold of -this particular deed insisted upon such a description -as would be tangible and certain. -Not many years ago a mortgage on a valuable -farm in Tompkins county, N. Y., was foreclosed, -and during the foreclosure it was discovered -that this mortgage covered about fifty -acres of Cayuga lake, and what had been supposed<span class="pagenum" id="Page69">[69]</span> -to be a valuable mortgage was depreciated -one-half by reason of the neglect and -incompetence of the country conveyancer.</p> - -<p>So, too, there are questions as to line fences, -water courses, rights of way, encroachment -upon the highway, and an innumerable train of -threatening evils, continually arising, any one -of which, if neglected or referred to the many -wiseacres common to every community, may lead -to costly litigation, or even to the loss of the -farm itself. A bit of counsel at the right time, -which is when the matter first appears, will prevent, -at trifling cost, all the attendant evils of a -law suit.</p> - -<p>Such instances are very common in the experience -of every lawyer who enjoys even a -moderate country practice; and it is an alarming -fact that perhaps fifty per cent of the titles -to all the farms, especially in the older states, -have flaws more or less serious, any one of -which is a microbe of trouble, liable to assert -itself when least expected. This being so, the -general and inflexible rule should ever prevail, -never to take a deed of property without an -abstract of title which has been examined by a -competent attorney. The so-called maxims of -law, often repeated and distorted, especially in -farming communities, are extremely dangerous -to follow. They may have some foundation in<span class="pagenum" id="Page70">[70]</span> -fact, but as almost all rules of law have their -exceptions, and as no one not versed in the law -is competent to pass upon them, they should -never be blindly followed by a layman.</p> - -<p>To illustrate this point: Not long ago a -prosperous farmer, relying upon the oft-repeated -assertion that twenty years of peaceable possession -gave title, became involved in a lawsuit -with the town over a fence which had been -built in the highway adjacent to his farm. He -was an astonished man when the lawyer whom -he consulted told him that possession for a -thousand years of the land claimed would not -give him title as against the public.</p> - -<p>It seems almost incredible that a farmer, who -will drive his horse for miles to have him shod -by an expert, or who will summon a veterinarian -to treat a sick cow, will be satisfied to -consult what someone has brightly termed a -necessity lawyer,—because necessity knows no -law,—upon matters affecting his farm, his home, -or his competence, rather than the experienced -lawyer. The cow might be replaced for forty -or fifty dollars if a mistake was made, but the -farm, the competence, have cost a lifetime of -labor.</p> - -<p>Perhaps the most striking example of neglect -on the part of the farmer is in regard to the -disposal of the fruits of his life-work. It is<span class="pagenum" id="Page71">[71]</span> -true that anybody can draw a will, and yet the -fact that men and women allow anybody to -draw their wills is productive of more fat fees -than arise from any other source. Not long -ago an acquaintance, who did not realize the -truth of the old adage that “a little knowledge -is a dangerous thing,” drew his own will, and, -being childless, sought to leave his property to -his wife, who had been the partner of his labors -in a long life of toil. The law of the state of -New York requires two witnesses to a will. He -procured only one, and upon his death the -property, which husband and wife had with so -much toil secured, was for the most part scattered -among distant relatives, almost strangers, -because he was afraid of lawyers and their fees.</p> - -<p>In all the varied business which a farmer will -meet,—the giving of notes, mortgages, etc., or, -better, the taking of mortgages, bills of sale, -and promissory notes,—it is well to remember -that different conditions of fact make necessary -different interpretations of the law, and that it is -usually unsafe to follow a neighborhood precedent. -Oftentimes you may be called upon to -transact business where it is not convenient to -consult a lawyer. In such cases, and in all -transactions of any magnitude or possible importance, -all talk, or the essence of it, should -be reduced to writing. Then it cannot get away<span class="pagenum" id="Page72">[72]</span> -or be distorted or forgotten, and is in good -shape to submit, at the first opportunity, to -your lawyer, who, if an error has been made, -can, while the matter is fresh, more easily correct -it. Remember that a contract is simply a -meeting of the minds of the contracting parties, -and the best drawn contract possible is one that -states, in language simple and concise, what -each means as expressed by word of mouth.</p> - -<p>Most of the litigation so much feared by the -farmer is due to the farmer himself and his -neglect to seek an ounce of preventive. It is -true that there are rascally lawyers; so, too, -there are dishonest men in every trade, occupation -or profession, but they are generally easily -located.</p> - -<p>If this chapter shall lead the farmer to feel -that his business is farming, that “a jack-at-all-trades -is master of none,” and that the law, -justly interpreted and enforced by those who -know it thoroughly and well, is to be the -foundation of his success, the guarantee of -his home through life, and the channel of its -proper disposal after death, then it has not been -written in vain. Remember that the province of -the true lawyer is to keep his client out of -trouble, rather than to get him out of trouble. -An honest lawyer, of whom, thank Heaven, -there are very many, notwithstanding the popular<span class="pagenum" id="Page73">[73]</span> -prejudice of those who have suffered from -litigation, will always try to steer you clear of -litigation and loss.</p> - -<p>In conclusion, then, always consult a lawyer -in matters affecting your farm or property. The -average fees of a lifetime will not exceed fifty -dollars, and oftentimes valuable advice will be -given free. Select one in whom you have confidence, -and stick to him. Become his friend, -and let the relation be one of mutual confidence. -Do not neglect to ask him a question -because you fear he will think you dumb; he -probably knows less about farming than you -do about law. He will need your advice and -influence in minor matters as much as you need -his. Call on him when you are in town, and -he will be glad to see you. Very often he will -answer your question gratis. When he charges -you what may seem a large fee, remember that -you are paying for skilled labor, and that you -are entitled to expend as much for the possible -welfare and happiness of your family as you -expend upon the choice stock in your stables. -Farmers, more than any other class of men, -perhaps, are prone to neglect legal matters, or -place them in incompetent hands.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page74">[74]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER VI<br /> -<span class="chapname"><i>LOCATING THE HOUSE</i></span></h2> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p>Since more than three-fourths of the life of -the farmer and his family are spent in sight of -home, more than one-half of life in the house, -and more than one-fourth in bed, the house, the -place where they live, should receive most careful -attention. Having secured sufficient land to -maintain a home, and having made certain that -these lands are productive and profitable, a -problem is presented in locating and building -the house which demands a high degree of intelligence, -long, painstaking study, and a good -understanding of what constitutes fitness, beauty -and durability.</p> - -<p>Life in the country gives one the idea of repose, -of strength and breadth, of largeness, of -solidity and durability, of healthy, symmetrical, -solid development. Things which are evanescent, -unreal, shoddy; things which are simply -for show or vulgar display; things which have -the appearance of aping that which may be -appropriate under different conditions, but are -totally out of place in rural life, must be<span class="pagenum" id="Page75">[75]</span> -avoided if utility, natural beauty and comfort, -economy and repose are to be secured.</p> - -<p>The pioneer in the wooded districts built the -home in some sequestered nook or valley at the -base of the hill or table land, where the spring -or the stream issued from the wood-covered -heights. The rural house of the pioneer allowed -free circulation of the frosty air; the problem -of ventilation they solved without knowing it. -Unwittingly they adopted the correct principle; -viz., ventilation by many small, gentle streams -of air instead of by a few large openings, which -create dangerous drafts. It must be admitted -that our forefathers overdid the ventilation in -most cases, and rheumatism and chilblains were -the result; but the principle was correct.</p> - -<p>Now the spring has dried up, the water from -the deforested hills comes rushing to the lowlands -until the streams overflow their banks, -and these and other changed conditions indicate -that the future farmsteads should be erected on -higher land, on the slopes of the hills. From -the one extreme we have gone, in some cases, -to the other, and the home has been built on -the very apex of some lofty hill. Such locations -may be well adapted for summer residences, -where little or no farming is carried on, but are -not suitable for the farm home.</p> - -<p>Now that the house is constructed by more<span class="pagenum" id="Page76">[76]</span> -skilled workmen than formerly, and out of better -material, there is little need of locating the -home in the sheltered nook, except possibly in -the extreme north, or on plains subject to tornadoes. -The object in locating the house on -somewhat elevated lands is fourfold. First, air -drainage. In deep, crooked, narrow valleys the -air is pocketed, especially at night, and the -damp, cold air settles in the lowest land as certainly -as water finds the low-lying pool. In -these pockets between the hills, frosts come -early and remain late.</p> - -<p>While traveling in western North Carolina in -the late summer and fall, I could not but observe -how every little break in the hillside and every -narrow valley was filled at sunrise, to the crest -of the adjoining hill, with a dense fog. Slowly -the sun, as it approached the zenith, dissipated -the fog, but the narrow valleys were often free -from fog for only a few hours each day. Here -the home might be situated well up the mountain -side, as shown at the right in <a href="#Fig5">Fig. 5</a>.</p> - -<div class="container w40em" id="Fig5"> - -<img src="images/illo085.jpg" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 5. A house in the bottom of the valley and one on the mountain side.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>In a little pocket about twenty feet deep, -formed by hills, with a road embankment at its -mouth, fruits failed, although they flourished on -the adjoining land, where there was good air -drainage (<a href="#Fig6">Fig. 6</a>). If fruits do not thrive on -these undrained areas, the natural conclusion -is that the children will not. It is found<span class="pagenum" id="Page77">[77]</span> -that the upper stories of city buildings are -healthier than the lower ones, and that the -ground floor is the most unhealthy of all. This -is the only objection to a one-story house. On -the level prairies little opportunity is offered for -locating the house above the level of the surrounding -country. Fortunately, many of the -prairies are undulating, and furnish most beautiful -locations for country homes. Much may be<span class="pagenum" id="Page78">[78]</span> -done, even in the level country, to overcome -the disadvantages of the site by placing the -cellar of the house only two or three feet in -the ground and grading up to within a short -distance of the top of the wall. A pool or -two, or a miniature lake near the barns, and -skilful planting of trees will lend a diversity -and charm well worth the attention and time -given to them.</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig6"> - -<img src="images/illo086.jpg" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 6. A frosty pocket.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>A pool may be made by scooping a place in -hard earth or by damming a stream (<a href="#Fig7">Fig. 7</a>). -If no water is allowed to flow over the dam and -it is raised some two feet above the overflows, -it will serve every purpose as well as an expensive -grout or stone structure. It will be noticed -in the picture that provision has been made by<span class="pagenum" id="Page79">[79]</span> -digging shallow ditches on the right and left for -carrying off the surplus water when the miniature -lake is full. In constructing the dam, a -trench two feet wide, at right angles to the -stream, should be dug to the depth of one foot, -or until solid ground, unmixed with vegetable -matter, is reached. Fill the trench with clayey -earth which is free from humus, which will prevent -the dam from leaking at the bottom where -it meets the natural soil. The stream which -feeds the lake or pond should be small, and -need not be perennial if the dam is raised as -high as it should be. If the water is dammed -back to the depth of twelve to fourteen feet, -and the banks of the pond are rather steep -(A, <a href="#Fig7">Fig. 7</a>), a cool, useful miniature lake will<span class="pagenum" id="Page80">[80]</span> -be formed, and not an unsightly marsh, during -the dry months of summer.</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig7"> - -<img src="images/illo087.jpg" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 7. A useful pond.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>Dryish, gravelly soil and subsoil is to be -much preferred as a site for a house to clayey -or dark, damp soil which contains much humus. -If the ideal soil cannot be secured, then thorough -drainage should be provided. In locating on a -gentle declivity, there is a constant tendency for -water to penetrate the wall next the hillside or -to pass under the wall and appear in the bottom -of the cellar. Unless this can certainly be prevented, -another location had better be selected.</p> - -<p>The house should be situated on somewhat -elevated ground, to promote both surface and -house drainage. If it is the purpose to introduce -into the house more water than has been -furnished heretofore, then full provision should -be made for carrying all waste water and fecal -matter to a safe distance from the house, and to -do this beyond a peradventure, sufficient fall -must be secured to give permanency to the work -and an unobstructed outlet.</p> - -<p>One of the objections urged against a country -home is that it is “too quiet,” too much shut -up from the outside world. This, in part, is -true. It detracts much from the enjoyment and -beauty of the country home if vision is shut in -to a few acres just about the house. The American -farmer is not content to live under the<span class="pagenum" id="Page81">[81]</span> -conditions which delight the Transvaal Dutch -farmer, so isolated that he cannot see the smoke -from his neighbor’s chimney nor hear the bark -of his neighbor’s dog.</p> - -<p>When visiting the home of the Hon. Edwin -Morgan, I found that he was having three large -trees cut down. It seemed to the uninstructed -like vandalism. When asked the reason for sacrificing -these noble trees, nourished and tended -for half a century, he answered: “I have many -more trees, but I have but one lake—Cayuga—and -I must have vistas through which I can -watch the white sail, the crested waves, the ever-changing -colors of the water as the winds open -vistas in the fleecy clouds. I love the trees not -less, but the soft reflection of the moonbeams -on the rippling wave more, and so the trees -must give way.”</p> - -<p>The outlook from the vine-covered veranda -should be broad and extended. If possible, the -hill and dale, the stream and wood, neighbors’ -houses nestled in plantations of trees and -shrubs, all should be in sight. As life advances, -I see more and more clearly the effect of that -noble lake, its now boisterous now placid surface -of the rippling water which laved the stony -beach. I see its effect on that “tow-headed” lad -who at one time breasted the waves, at another -sat dreamily casting pebbles into the clear expanse,<span class="pagenum" id="Page82">[82]</span> -wondering what life had in store, what -the great unknown world offered for the nut-brown, -high-tempered, crude country boy. Then -plant the country home where nature in her -happiest moods has showered her richest gifts!</p> - -<p>But beauty loses much of its charm where -healthy vigor gives not the power to appreciate -and enjoy it. So the house should be located -on a healthy eminence. But it is not easy to -find a location which shall combine convenience, -beauty, air and water drainage, and healthfulness -all in the highest degree. In the case of the -farmer, convenience as to carrying on the various -operations of the farm and healthfulness -are paramount. Drainage may be artificially -improved, vistas opened, miniature lakes constructed, -and surroundings made more beautiful. -The farm and its equipment is the workshop, -and must be convenient in all its appointments, -or much energy is spent for naught; health -must be maintained at the highest, or work -may become but toil and drudgery.</p> - -<p>In locating a house, its relation to the size -of the farm, its productiveness and agricultural -capabilities should be considered. In locating -the site, two places should be carefully avoided: -First, at the end of a long lane in the middle -of the farm. It may be said that the buildings -form the natural nucleus in and around which<span class="pagenum" id="Page83">[83]</span> -the work centers, and therefore they should be -placed near the middle of the estate. But the -work carried on in the fields forms but a small -part of the farmer’s activities. He must -ever, in these modern times, be in touch with -the school, the church, the post office, the railway, -the market, and his neighbors. When an -infrequent call is made at the end of this long -lane, the children appear like frightened deer as -they seek shelter in the shrubbery or behind the -corner of a building, and the more the inherited -timidity and reserve, the wilder they -appear.</p> - -<p>The other location to be avoided is within a -few feet of the highway. Such locations are -only admissible in the city, where land sells by -the square foot. What fortunes are sometimes -spent in the city to secure some amplitude of -space between the dusty, noisy street and the -residence! What dignity and repose an ample, -well kept house-yard gives to even a plain, -modest house! The effect of the mistake of -locating the house too close to the highway is -often accentuated by locating the barns on the -other side and immediately upon the highway, -and in front of the house. The location of the -house, as to the highway, should be governed, -in part, by the size and productive power of the -farm. If ample acres and means are available,<span class="pagenum" id="Page84">[84]</span> -then the grounds should be ample; if limited, -the grounds should be made to correspond.</p> - -<p>In moderate-sized holdings, a clear space of -from 100 to 200 feet between the house and the -highway, and width equal to or exceeding the -length, will give room for a few shade trees and -an ample grass plat. The site should be either -suited to the house or the house to the site. -Therefore, the character of the proposed house -and the site should be considered at the same -time. One location may be suited to a one-story, -another to a two-story house. No location -is suited to a story-and-a-half house.</p> - -<p>It may be said that on most farms the house -is already located, and has grouped around it -plantations and barns. In many cases it would -be inexpedient to change the site of the house, -as this would necessitate many changes of outbuildings -and other permanent improvements. -But if a careful inspection is made of farmsteads, -it will appear that many of the houses -are in need of repairs and additions, and that -the cost of making them would be but slightly -increased if either the house or the outbuildings -were removed to a more desirable site. In the -great majority of cases, the old barns should be -gathered together into one structure, or into two -at most, and adapted to the needs of modern -agriculture (as will be explained in a subsequent<span class="pagenum" id="Page85">[85]</span> -chapter). All changes presuppose well -matured plans and long and careful study of -problems which will have to be solved if the -location of the house or barn is changed.</p> - -<p>The scope, and particularly the cost, of the -changes should be known approximately before -the execution of the plan begins. “For which -of you, intending to build a tower, sitteth not -down and counteth the cost, whether he have -sufficient to finish it? Lest haply after he hath -laid the foundation, and is not able to finish it, -all that behold it begin to mock him, saying, -this man began to build and was not able to -finish.” Far better live in the old house, with -its inconveniences, and get the greatest possible -happiness out of the ancient structure, than to -build a new one and cover it with shining paints -of many colors and a mortgage which sticks -longer than the paints.</p> - -<p>Some of these old farm houses embody many -beautiful and reposeful characteristics, are well -located, and need only slight modifications to -make them fit the site as nicely as a bird fits -its nest. If thought can be awakened as to -the possibilities of these neglected homes and -some information imparted as to their treatment, -or, in other words, if the eyes and understanding -can be trained to take in the fundamental -principles of beauty, dignity, fitness, and repose,<span class="pagenum" id="Page86">[86]</span> -we shall soon see fewer architectural monstrosities. -That there are not more is a wonder. -What lad or lass has ever had the slightest -instruction by teacher in rural or city school -along the lines of fitness, beauty, and healthfulness -of sites for country homes? The few -youths who reach the institutions of higher -learning are scarcely better off. Some of these -are taught to see the beauties and wonders of -nature through a microscope, and, in rare -cases, one may be taught to observe the lines -of symmetry and form as exhibited in a poor -plaster cast of some mythological Roman warrior; -but as for any instruction which leads -directly to a broad understanding or keen appreciation -of nature in her broader, happier, and -grander aspects, it is painfully conspicuous by -its absence. So, is it any wonder that the -farmer is deficient in appreciation of the fitness -and beauty of the tree-clad, gently rolling -plateau for a home site, when the “liberally” -educated fail to see the innumerable beauty-spots -which cover the face of nature?</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page87">[87]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER VII<br /> -<span class="chapname"><i>PLANNING RURAL BUILDINGS</i></span></h2> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p>The farm house is not what is called, a -“paying investment.” It is not a direct source -of income; neither can the other rural buildings -be said to produce a direct income. Generally -speaking, the farm house can fulfil but -four purposes if properly planned and well constructed: -the house may serve to keep the -family warm in cold weather, cool in hot -weather, dry in wet weather, and to gratify a -love for the beautiful. Since the farm house as -a paying investment is usually a failure, if it -does not supply the wants of the household and -fulfil its object, it becomes a failure indeed. -The first great mistake which the prosperous -farmer usually makes is to invest too much -money in expensive, hastily planned buildings. -The house should be built to serve its inmates; too -often the inmates become the servants of the house. -A farmer’s wife cannot well afford to devote one -room in the overcrowded house to the storage of -expensive, useless upholstery and bric-a-brac, -nor time to keep them presentable and in order.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page88">[88]</span></p> - -<p>The debt incurred for a part of the purchase -price of the farm forbids the employment of -help to keep in order this home museum of -things useful and beautiful, and things useless -and ugly. If plainness, durability, and natural -beauty in parlor, sitting-room and chamber -would only become fashionable, what a burden -would be removed from the shoulders of housewives, -both in country and city! The time is -at hand when health and intelligence should -count for more among American women than -show and the possession of a miniature upholstery -shop. The furnishings of the rooms should -minister to the comfort of their owner, and not -tend to make life burdensome.</p> - -<p>Not infrequently farmers of energy and -ability become possessed of more than a competence -near the close of life. Having lived in -somewhat restricted circumstances, they think -to make the close of life more comfortable and -luxurious. So, notwithstanding the fact that -most of the children have left the paternal roof, -they set about building a large house, tear down -or remodel, and add to the outbuildings; and at -the close of life they leave the possessions encumbered -and a farm overloaded with buildings -as an inheritance to a child unable, by reason -of youth and inexperience, to secure a competence -sufficient to live and keep up repairs.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page89">[89]</span></p> - -<p>A beautiful farm of 180 acres, in central -New York, is provided with the following buildings:</p> - -<div class="container w40em" id="Fig8"> - -<img src="images/illo097.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 8. -The buildings on a -180-acre farm.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<div class="centerblock"> - -<p class="noindent">A house, part 2-, and part 1¹⁄₂-story, 110 feet long.<br /> -A horse barn, 30 by 80 feet.<br /> -A grain barn, 40 by 80 feet.<br /> -A straw shed, 20 by 30 feet.<br /> -A machinery and husking barn, 20 by 80 feet.<br /> -A hay barn, 16 by 30 feet.<br /> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page90">[90]</span> -A cart shed and chicken house, 20 by 24 feet.<br /> -A piggery, 20 by 24 feet.<br /> -A corn crib, 12 by 18 feet.<br /> -A carriage house, 24 by 32 feet.</p> - -</div><!--centerblock--> - -<div class="container" id="Fig9"> - -<img src="images/illo098.jpg" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 9. The farm house that is too big for the farm.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>Some of this lay-out is shown in <a href="#Fig8">Figures 8</a>, -<a href="#Fig9">9</a>, and <a href="#Fig10">10</a>. These buildings could not have cost -less than $15,000. A fair valuation of the farm -at the present time would be $14,000 to $16,000. -The family which now occupies the house consists -of man and wife, one child, and two -regular employes, one of whom has his own<span class="pagenum" id="Page91">[91]</span> -home. The father overloaded the farm with -buildings, his son is struggling to keep them in -repair, and the wife labors to keep unused rooms -presentable. These buildings might well serve -for a section of land and a family of twenty.</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig10"> - -<img src="images/illo099.jpg" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 10. Scattered farm buildings.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<div class="container" id="Fig11"> - -<img src="images/illo100.jpg" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 11. A cosy farm house.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>Another house not far from this one was -built nearly a century ago (<a href="#Fig11">Fig. 11</a>). If the -upper story was a full instead of a half-story, -it would fulfil all the demands of a house, except -possibly beauty. It stands on a rather -steep front slope, which stops abruptly on the -shore of one of our beautiful inland lakes <span class="pagenum" id="Page92">[92]</span>(<a href="#Fig12">Fig. -12</a>). By reason of the steep incline at the front -of the house, a tall building would be far less -beautiful than this lean-to, severely plain structure. -This simple old house has a restful, -almost beautiful appearance when viewed in -conjunction with the trees, the steep, sloping -lawn, and the broad, placid lake. The shaded -veranda gives the idea of social repose far more -than does the formal, stiff, restricted one shown -in <a href="#Fig9">Fig. 9</a>, which has scarcely room for two easy -chairs, and is so constructed that no grateful<span class="pagenum" id="Page93">[93]</span> -shade is secured. Woe be to the man who destroys -this restful old house and substitutes for -it a lofty, narrow-waisted one adorned with peaks -and spires, bay windows and a filigree cornice!</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig12"> - -<img src="images/illo101.jpg" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 12. The lake view in front of the house.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>Before ground is broken for the foundation, -carefully considered plans suited to the site, the -size and productiveness of the farm, and the -probable income, should have been made. It -may be said that the size of the house should -be governed by the size, or the probable size, -of the family. But “it is better to dwell in<span class="pagenum" id="Page94">[94]</span> -the corner of the house-top than in a wide -house” with insufficient means to maintain it. -The general plans should be outlined at least -a year before a new building or extensive enlargement -of the old is begun. The houses -which are to be built in the future should be -planned with a view to greater economy, convenience, -beauty, and durability. There is now -little excuse for erecting poor, uncomfortable, -inconvenient houses on the farm. True, the -rural population is handicapped, for few city -architects have made any study of the plain -rural house, and fewer have paid any attention -whatever to farm barn construction. Even -if architects had given attention to the needs of -the rural population, the farmer would feel -that he could hardly afford to pay $100 to -$200 for the plans of a house costing $1,000 -to $2,000, exclusive of the labor which the -owner, his men and teams were able to perform -upon it. The task of planning a country -house is too great for the country carpenter; -he cannot even interpret plans correctly; his -range of observation and training have been -too limited. Then, who is to plan the house? -Why, the farmer and his family, and it will -take at least two years of study and observation -of other houses and their modern conveniences -before intelligent, crude plans and<span class="pagenum" id="Page95">[95]</span> -instructions are ready to be placed in the hands -of the draughtsman.</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig13"> - -<img src="images/illo103.jpg" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 13. A house of seven gables.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>Few persons are original; therefore, if the -little conveniences which help to lighten work -and make life more pleasurable are to find a -place in the house, they must be seen in other -houses. All men have more ideas than any one -man; therefore, the range of study should be -wide, that whatever is suitable to the conditions -may be adopted. After having built many -farm houses and barns, and having made a -long and most careful study of them, I estimate -that from 30 to 40 per cent of the cost -of farm buildings is useless, and sometimes -worse than thrown away.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page96">[96]</span></p> - -<p>A small farm house on a modest-sized farm -is shown in <a href="#Fig13">Fig. 13</a>. The site is beautiful, and -is worthy of a house better fitted to the situation, -the farm, and the farmer. The illustration -shows seven gables, and the house, therefore, -might serve as a model for a work of fiction; -but the left-hand side of the house is like unto -the right-hand side, so it will not do for fiction, -for if the truth must be told, there are eleven -gables and twenty-two valleys on this house.</p> - -<div class="container w25em" id="Fig14"> - -<img src="images/illo104.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 14. Filigree work is expensive, and -does not look well on a farm house.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>The vine-covered veranda is most beautiful, -and looks cool and comfortable, but there are -too many vines, and, with the exception of a -few days in summer at midday, the air under -this veranda would be -damp and uncomfortable. -It is far better -to secure shade by -means of awnings and -a few tall, well trimmed -shade trees, which -preclude dampness and -permit air drainage, -than to overburden the -veranda with vines. -The covering of this veranda is an unprotected -floor, and extends along the front and well -around both sides. Notice the too expensive -balustrade and frequent fancy posts, an enlarged<span class="pagenum" id="Page97">[97]</span> -section of which is shown in <a href="#Fig14">Fig. 14</a>. All of -this expensive wooden material is exposed to -our ever-changeful, paint-destroying climate. -The tinsmith, the painter, and the carpenter -will reap a rich harvest if the external part<span class="pagenum" id="Page98">[98]</span> -of this house is kept in order. It seems hardly -necessary to call attention to the chambers, -which, of necessity, must be of such a character -as to preclude comfort, beauty and repose.</p> - -<div class="container w35em" id="Fig15"> - -<img src="images/illo105.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 15. Ground plan of a house which is out of character on a farm.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>A house built after the ground plan, <a href="#Fig15">Fig. -15</a>, might make a not unpleasing picture in -the landscape, but it would not be appropriate -for the farm, and would be unnecessarily expensive -in construction and maintenance. It -would be difficult to heat, on account of the -great surface exposure due to the broken outlines -and numerous corners, which are seldom -air-tight. The style might not be altogether -inappropriate for a cheap seaside cottage.</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig16"> - -<img src="images/illo106.jpg" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 16. A good model for a farm house, having strong lines and much character.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page99">[99]</span></p> - -<p>A rear view of a somewhat larger house is -given (<a href="#Fig16">Fig. 16</a>). It would not cause the passerby -to stop and stare. It may be compared -to a well, appropriately, and simply dressed lady, -while the other is a reminder of the over-dressed, -furbelowed damsel, who attracts the prolonged -stare and the thoughtless comments of every -sidewalk idler. Here are seen repose, beauty,<span class="pagenum" id="Page100">[100]</span> -elements of durability, and freedom from expensive -ornamentation and repairs.</p> - -<p>A back view of this house has been shown -purposely to emphasize the fact that the rear -side of a house may be made nearly as beautiful -as the front side. It would be improved both -in looks and convenience if a partially enclosed -porch were placed over the door and two of the -windows.</p> - -<div class="container w35em" id="Fig17"> - -<img src="images/illo107.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 17. Ground plan of the house shown in <a href="#Fig16">Figs. 16</a> and <a href="#Fig19">19</a>.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>The planning of a house is not difficult if -wants are clearly defined and the principles of -economy, dignity, durability and repose, as applied -to the exterior of the house, are fairly -well understood. If the site is ample, and it -always is in the country, you have but to draw -a rectangle, the length of which is one-third to -one-fourth longer than its breadth. <a href="#Fig17">Fig. 17</a> is a -ground plan of the house shown in <a href="#Fig16">Fig. 16</a>.</p> - -<p>The farm house shown in <a href="#Fig18">Fig. 18</a> is located -thirty feet from a dusty, muddy, much-traveled -public highway. Opposite to it, and immediately -on the road, are located the ill-kept farm buildings. -How the aromas of the stables and kitchen -are to be kept each on its respective side of -the road is a question difficult to solve. Here, -as in so many cases, the wife showed better -training and more commendable pride in her -surroundings and her workshop than the husband. -She may coax him some day to set a<span class="pagenum" id="Page101">[101]</span> -few trees, which may serve -in part to hide his workshop -on the other side. -There are many things -about this farm house -which are commendable, -and the only wonder is -that so few mistakes were -made in planning it. -Farmers’ wives must have -a sort of natural intuition; -how else can the fewness -of their mistakes be explained, -for they have seldom -received the slightest -instruction along the lines -of house-building. True, -the tower on the corner is -expensive and inappropriate, -but if the house had -an appropriate setting of -trees and shrubs it might -be beautiful.</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig18"> - -<img src="images/illo109.jpg" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 18. The house is too fancy. The small projections make it look weak. The view is not attractive.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>The farm house should -have one large bed-room -on the first floor, a well -appointed kitchen and living -room. When the size, -number, and arrangement of the other rooms are<span class="pagenum" id="Page102">[102]</span> -fixed, the lines which bound the outside of the -rooms will not, of necessity, always coincide with -the rectangular lines. On one side the house may -extend slightly over, on another fall short of -the lines which bound the rectangle. Does the -rectangle embody fitness and beauty? If the -manufactured things by which we are surrounded -are noted, it will be seen how many of them -are rectangular. The book, the sheet of paper, -the pamphlet, the photograph, the picture frame -on the wall, the rug on the floor, the writing -case, the chiffonier, the trunk, and thousands of -objects of use and beauty naturally take the -rectangular form: then why not the house? -Man constructs along the lines of acute, obtuse, -and right angles unless there are specific reasons -for adopting curves, while nature’s modes adhere -closely to circular and curved outlines.</p> - -<p>A front view of a substantial, appropriate -house fronting to the west is shown in <a href="#Fig19">Fig. 19</a>. -It is the house of which a rear view is shown -in <a href="#Fig16">Fig. 16</a>. The wide, projecting eaves, the -simple roof over the second-story windows, and -the plain veranda, all protect the windows from -storm and the glaring afternoon sun. The eave-trough -near the edge of the roof serves to relieve -the plainness of the projecting roof, which really -has no cornice. The side and ends of some of -the rafters are seen, and no attempt has been<span class="pagenum" id="Page103">[103]</span> -made to box them in. The treatment is dignified, -plain, inexpensive, and suitable,—therefore -it is beautiful. The planting at the left is -too thick for any but a dry climate. A lofty -elm tree would serve better for shading the veranda -in the late afternoon, and permit of better -air drainage. The trees shown are deciduous, -and therefore cannot form an ideal winter windbreak. -If they were evergreens they would be -entirely too close to the house. The mournful -sighing of evergreen trees in the bleak November -winds does not promote cheerfulness.</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig19"> - -<img src="images/illo111.jpg" class="bordered" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 19. A dignified, restful, economical house.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page104">[104]</span></p> - -<p>Four college buildings are shown in <a href="#Fig20">Figs. 20</a>, -<a href="#Fig21">21</a>, <a href="#Fig23">23</a>, and <a href="#Fig24">24</a>. School buildings can hardly be -said to be a part of the farm lay-out, but they -will serve quite as well as farm buildings to -educate the taste and to train the eye and the -judgment. The reader will see at once which -two of these buildings are most dignified and -pleasing.</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig20"> - -<img src="images/illo112.jpg" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 20. University building,—gray stone and tile roof.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>In the schools, the people of the rural districts -have had no instruction which would lead -them to carefully observe and compare buildings -of any kind; and hence, with but rare exceptions, -they are ill-qualified to make an intelligent -study of them. They are totally unprepared to -grasp the fundamental principles which should<span class="pagenum" id="Page105">[105]</span> -govern the erection of structures on the farm, -and totally ignorant of the principles to be observed -when large public buildings are planned -and erected. Fortunately or unfortunately, some -farmers will be called upon to judge of the -plans for school and other public buildings. -The plans for a president’s house and an expensive -college building were submitted to a -board of thirteen trustees of a flourishing agricultural -college. Ten of these trustees were -farmers of more than local reputation. I forbear -giving illustrations of the results: suffice -it to say, that happily the house fell down -before it was roofed in.</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig21"> - -<img src="images/illo113.jpg" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 21. University building,—red brick and slate roof.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>A school building for the higher education -should be light and airy; but light does not<span class="pagenum" id="Page106">[106]</span> -enter a building freely through narrow windows -placed in thick stone or brick walls. <a href="#Fig22">Fig. 22</a> -shows the effect of narrow and wide windows -in the lighting of a building. Observe the -shadow cast by the wall between the two narrow -windows. The sun is directly in front of -the windows for but a small part of the day. -Usually it enters at a more or less acute angle, -in which case a window three feet wide may -be more than twice as efficient in lighting a -room as one two feet wide, and a four-foot -window three or four times as efficient as one -half its width.</p> - -<div class="container w30em" id="Fig22"> - -<img src="images/illo114.jpg" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 22. Showing the greater proportionate amount of light admitted by one broad -window, as compared with two narrow ones of equal combined opening.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<div class="container" id="Fig23"> - -<img src="images/illo115.jpg" class="bordered" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 23. University laboratories,—red brick and slate roof.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><a href="#Fig20">Figs. 20</a>, <a href="#Fig21">21</a>, <a href="#Fig23">23</a>, and <a href="#Fig24">24</a> serve to illustrate -some of the fundamental principles which should -be observed in constructing expensive public -buildings, and they may also serve for comparison,<span class="pagenum" id="Page107">[107]</span> -and for educating the eye and the judgment. -The knowledge acquired in a study of -these buildings may be useful in the planning -and erection of rural homes, for in some respects -all buildings should be alike. The farmer -seldom has opportunity to contrast and study -large detached buildings in which beauty, dignity, -durability, and, above all, utility, are combined, -and he seldom plans and erects more -than one homestead; therefore, many buildings -should be observed, the desirable and undesirable -features noted and discussed thoroughly -before the erection of a new structure, however<span class="pagenum" id="Page108">[108]</span> -simple it may be, is begun. It requires no -little knowledge to construct in the best manner -even a modern chicken house.</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig24"> - -<img src="images/illo116.jpg" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 24. University building,—gray stone and slate roof.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>The consideration of these four school buildings, -so different in character, may not be dismissed -at once. They are introduced for the -purpose of arousing interest and for giving -opportunity to study the principles of external -construction. The true principles once mastered, -their application to rural homes will not be difficult. -If <a href="#Fig20">Fig. 20</a> be studied carefully, it will be -noticed that the lines are dignified, restful and -even beautiful, although the building is constructed<span class="pagenum" id="Page109">[109]</span> -on straight lines, with little attempt -at ornamentation. This building is sometimes -taken for an art gallery, and so it is, for in -it is taught the fine art of butter making. Its -strong tile roof, ample projection of eaves, and -freedom from peaks and valleys give assurance -that this building, barring accidents, will stand -for centuries with slight repair, and be more -beautiful as time tones down and softens the -colors.</p> - -<p>The building shown in <a href="#Fig21">Fig. 21</a> satisfies -neither eye nor judgment. It is a noble building -as to size and material, but are not the -twenty miniature peaks out of place? It does -not have the appearance of a restful school -building, but of a mammoth seaside hotel. The -many little gables might have been combined -into a few large, noble ones, which would have -given abundant light and lent dignity and -charm to this well built structure. If we now -transfer our thought from the large buildings -to the brick dwelling house (<a href="#Fig25">Fig. 25</a>), we find -the same strong lines, the same dignity, and -the same durability of roof structure, with a -little added ornamentation, as are found in some -school buildings. It should have been two-story -instead of a story and a half, and the veranda -might well have been more ample. This house, -too, like the large stone structure (<a href="#Fig20">Fig. 20</a>) is<span class="pagenum" id="Page110">[110]</span> -restful and satisfying. One instinctively sees -that the cost of maintenance of this durable -structure will be comparatively little. If this -house be compared with the one shown in <a href="#Fig26">Fig. -26</a>, it will be easily seen how much more appropriate -and beautiful it is. One is built of -cream brick and roofed with soft-colored tile; -the other is roofed with poor shingles, has a -cheap hemlock frame, and is sided with wood, -which is covered with gaudy, ready mixed earth -paints, which may fade out before the bill for -them is paid.</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig25"> - -<img src="images/illo118.jpg" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 25. A simple and attractive little dwelling house.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>Some day a genius will set forth for the<span class="pagenum" id="Page111">[111]</span> -farmer, in simple language and illustrations, -the fundamental principles which should be followed -in the building of rural homes. When -that time comes the present children will then -be mature and will have been so energized by -nature-study work, which is now being introduced -so extensively in the schools, as to be -able to appreciate and profit by such literature.</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig26"> - -<img src="images/illo119.jpg" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 26. Another type of dwelling house.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>Some of the tree-embowered farm houses -have such a restful look and often embody -such true lines of beauty that it seems almost -sacrilegious to change them. On the other -hand, some of them are so ill adapted to<span class="pagenum" id="Page112">[112]</span> -farm life, so unhandy and uncomfortable, that -radical changes should be made. After the -farmer has prospered, he naturally has a desire -to build a new house or to transform the old -one, not only to secure needed conveniences, -but that greater beauty and a more luxurious -home may be secured. It is difficult for him -to find adequate help to solve the problem if -he keeps the cost within reasonable limits. He -may know where to begin; he seldom knows -where he will end. Usually the first thought -should be to preserve the old home, or the -greater part of it. The architect is almost -certain to advise demolition and the erection -of a new house, asserting that the new structure -will be no more expensive than the remodeling -of the old, which may or may not -be true. But he does not always know what -is best, as he is usually unfamiliar with the -farmers’ needs and traditions. Sacred associations -usually cluster round the old farm house; -every room and door and window may be associated -with some epoch in life’s history. Through -yonder door came the happy bride a half century -ago; in yonder room the children were -born;—every nook and corner has some tale -to tell, some happy association. We cross -oceans and mountains to view the birthplaces -and homes (which happily sometimes are preserved<span class="pagenum" id="Page113">[113]</span> -and held sacred) of a Burns and a -Shakespeare. Then is it not well to preserve -the farm houses, where possibly are the birthplaces -of many “Cromwells guiltless of their -country’s blood.”</p> - -<p>The first thought, then, should be to save -and improve the old house, not to destroy it. -But most of these farm houses are either too -low or too high: that is, they are neither one- nor -two-storied, but a story and a half. A -two-story wing may often be placed either at -the front or side, and may serve to give dignity -to the house; or a lower room or two, a few -comfortable chambers, and an entrance hall or -vestibule may be added. Such addition would -make it possible to remove the low, flat-roofed, -leaky kitchen to more appropriate quarters. -The formerly unused parlor might be transformed -into a living-room, the former living-room -into a dining-room, and the old dining-room -into a kitchen. The details by which -this evolution is made must, of necessity, be -worked out by those who are to occupy the -house. That home is enjoyed best which is -planned by those who have to pay the bills; -therefore, I shall not go into detail of arrangement. -My object will have been accomplished -if I succeed in creating a greater respect and -love for the houses of our ancestors, and shall<span class="pagenum" id="Page114">[114]</span> -have stayed the hand of the iconoclast. Any -one can destroy, but few can create.</p> - -<p>So reasoned the college graduate on his return -to the old homestead. The old house (<a href="#Fig27">Fig. -27</a>) was improved by making slight additions -and some minor changes. Even the green window -blinds and the white siding were not disturbed, -only brightened by the use of old-fashioned, -unadulterated paints. The major -effort was along the line of improving the live -stock and making the acres more productive, -soon resulting in surplus funds, which were -used to erect the large and commodious barn. -Simultaneously with the barn came the icehouse, -and the windmill for pumping water. -The observant passer-by instinctively knows that -here are all the outward indications of morality, -intelligence, and a rational and progressive system -of agriculture. If the family be judged by -what is seen in this picture of the farm above -ground, the conclusion must be reached that -here is a true home.</p> - -<p>How different the impression is when we look -through the open roadside gate in the next -picture (<a href="#Fig28">Fig. 28</a>)! Lack of intelligent purpose -and of neatness and thrift is written upon every -structure, and is especially shown by the want -of any logical plan in the arrangement of the -numerous small structures. The house, which -stands just to the right of the beautiful tree, is -modern in many respects, but the front is supported -by numerous Grecian columns nearly -twenty feet long, as inappropriate and as useless -for a farm-house as is a coon’s tail on a -lady’s hat.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page115">[115]</span></p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig27"> - -<img src="images/illo123a.jpg" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 27. The old homestead.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<div class="container" id="Fig28"> - -<img src="images/illo123b.jpg" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 28. Lack of intelligent purpose.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page116">[116]</span></p> - -<p>Instinctively we judge people at first sight, -and largely by the clothes they wear and the -manner of wearing them. So we judge, and -often very accurately, of families by the houses -which shelter them and the objects which surround -them. One can easily tell much of the -character of a man by the style and tip of his -hat. What noble deeds, what lofty aspirations -in this day and age of plenty and opportunity, -should we expect to have birth and fruition in -the house shown in illustration <a href="#Fig29">Fig. 29</a>! This -building is not located in the country, but in -the suburbs of a small, prosperous inland -city. Unfortunately, this village is unlike many -beautiful country villages and small cities in -western New York in which there are no poor -people. What a depressing effect this building -must have on the well bred country lad who -passes it weekly on his journey to and from the -post office!</p> - -<p>But how easy to go from one extreme to the -other! Too many farm houses stand alone, -unrelieved by noble trees or by modest planting<span class="pagenum" id="Page117">[117]</span> -of appropriate shrubbery, looking in the -distance at the setting sun like lofty, whitewashed -sepulchres. On the other hand, the -house may be made dark and damp by over-planting. -The house shown in <a href="#Fig30">Fig. 30</a> is a -comfortable, fairly attractive stone structure, but -is made gloomy and damp by the superabundance -of evergreen and deciduous trees which -fill all the space, barely thirty feet, between the -house and the highway.</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig29"> - -<img src="images/illo125.jpg" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 29. Environment often makes the man.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>The church, as well as the farm house, is or -should be the home of the farmer; but the -church, like the individual, may become proud, -in which case the old meeting-house is demolished -and replaced by a modern new one,<span class="pagenum" id="Page118">[118]</span> -which may serve for a time to stimulate laggards -and appear to take the place of changed -purposes in life. But the debt saddled on the -congregation tends to drive the church-goers to -the rear seats and eventually out of doors. I -have sometimes thought that a country church -could not well be too small. Man is a gregarious -animal, and does not enjoy church-going -when the seats are but partially occupied.</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig30"> - -<img src="images/illo126.jpg" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 30. Buried in trees. The opposite extreme from <a href="#Fig26">Fig. 26</a>.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>The plain, substantial stone church shown in -<a href="#Fig31">Fig. 31</a> is located in a sparsely settled district -on the windy prairies of Kansas. It is certainly -most appropriate and fits its environment; all -it lacks to make it beautiful is a suitable setting -of trees and shrubbery. It would then serve as<span class="pagenum" id="Page119">[119]</span> -a reminder of “God’s first temple not made -with hands,” and not of one made with a -jig-saw.</p> - -<div class="container w40em" id="Fig31"> - -<img src="images/illo127.jpg" class="bordered" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 31. A plain, substantial stone church.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>“It is a plain, rugged, austere structure, like -the men who built it, and any proposal to modernize -it would be received with disfavor; for -it means more to the people than merely a -church building—it is a sacred possession that -is a part of their life,” and it is an appropriate -monument to the sturdy religious character of -the pioneers who stood in the forefront as a -wall guarding human rights and liberties in -those stormy -days of the past. -The country -church should -be as truly a -part of the farm -structure as are -the house and -barn, located on -land held in fee -simple.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page120">[120]</span></p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig32"> - -<img src="images/illo128a.jpg" class="bordered" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 32. Where horses are kept.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<div class="container" id="Fig33"> - -<img src="images/illo128b.jpg" class="bordered" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 33. Where boys and girls are taught.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page121">[121]</span></p> - -<p>The school-house -also, as well as the church, should form -a part of the farm above ground. We sometimes -build parlors for the pictures, and palaces -for the horses and cattle, and neglect -the school-house. A city of 12,000 inhabitants -in central New York has many expensive -stables, some of them works of art. The -barn shown in <a href="#Fig32">Fig. 32</a> is not more than half -a mile from the school-house shown in <a href="#Fig33">Fig. -33</a>. The beautiful stable might serve as a -well appointed dwelling house by making a few -minor changes. While such buildings are being -constructed, the country school-house, the pride -of the American, is left to fall into decay; -or, if rebuilt, it is located too often on a little -scrap of land which may be almost worthless, -as though land in America were the most -precious of all our inheritance. This school-house -is designed to provide accommodations -for both farm and city children living in the -suburbs. The school-house has not a tree for -shade nor a shrub to admire, situated on the -commons among weeds and rocks, provided with -one dilapidated outhouse unscreened by fence or -tree or vine or shrub, while the stable is surrounded -with rare trees and shrubs artistically -arranged and a smoothly shaven lawn. Are -horses and cattle worth more than boys and -girls?</p> - -<p>To leave the reader to infer that all school-houses -are like the one shown would be -misleading. A more pleasing illustration is -presented in <a href="#Fig34">Fig. 34</a>. Here the meeting-house, -the school-house, and a bit of the farm are<span class="pagenum" id="Page122">[122]</span> -shown in juxtaposition, as they were found at -the meeting of the roads in a shady grove. -Since moral character should be the foundation -upon which to symmetrically build intelligence -and industry, the church may be treated first. -While taking the photograph, I was struck by -the inexpensive character of the meeting-house. -The outside covering was of plain, matched, -vertical boards, but they were kept well painted -and therefore looked neat, and the seats were -entirely comfortable. I judge that here true, -practical religion finds a congenial home, for a -long line of comfortable sheds were being built -to house the horses during the hours of devotion. -Then, too, the sheds will serve a doubly -humane purpose, for where the pupils live long -distances from the school the horse driven in -the morning will have comfortable quarters until -the school closes in the evening. A public -water-trough near by, kept full from a spring, -gave evidence that this little church and the -school-house were potent factors in promoting -civilization. To the right is seen a lad plowing. -Here, then, in this picture is represented -the three great corner-stones of civilization upon -which to build a symmetrical, beautiful superstructure. -To build on either one alone is to -insure disappointment; when life is grounded -on all three the result is practical religion and<span class="pagenum" id="Page123">[123]</span> -intelligence eventuating in a better understanding -of the complex soil and the interrelations of -nature’s modes of action. It means steady and -effective employment, the abandonment of nomadic -life, and in lieu thereof a permanent -home and an abundant supply of the necessaries -and comforts of life. The Bible, the -school book, and the plow should all be engraven -and intertwined in our modern civilization.</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig34"> - -<img src="images/illo131.jpg" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 34. School house and church at the corners.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>So far the general characteristics, fitness, -durability and beauty of the country farm house -have been discussed and illustrated, together -with such public buildings as are directly related -to rural life. But having discussed the -size, best proportions, and most suitable materials -for the house, and having put them into<span class="pagenum" id="Page124">[124]</span> -visible form, the building may be made hideous -and unnecessarily expensive by careless or ignorant -treatment of external details.</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig35"> - -<img src="images/illo132.jpg" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 35. The sway-back house.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>Most of the farmers who now occupy the -country west of the Alleghanies came from the -east and brought with them a varied assortment -of styles of architecture inherited from the -many European countries from which they or -their ancestors came. These people, though of -limited means, had pride and tenacity of purpose, -and they could not easily change to the -plain and appropriate exterior treatment of the -farm house. This inheritance and persistence, as -shown in the farm houses of the middle states, -is fitly illustrated by the expensive and heavy -return cornice, the massive columns, and the -complicated and ornate entablatures which are -supposed to adorn an otherwise plain house.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page125">[125]</span></p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig36"> - -<img src="images/illo133.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 36. The expensive box cornice.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<div class="container left w20em" id="Fig37"> - -<img src="images/illo134.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 37. A plain and durable cornice.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>I have said that there is no place for the -story-and-a-half house. Here is shown (<a href="#Fig35">Fig. -35</a>) the results of two serious mistakes; viz., -an effort to build a cheap frame of such a form -that it is almost impossible to tie the building -together, with the result that the roof is in -danger of collapsing; and the attempt to -beautify this cheap structure by over-heavy, -complicated cornices. An enlarged detailed drawing -of a typical return cornice is shown in <a href="#Fig36">Fig. -36</a>. On the right is shown a cross-section outline -of the members of the cornice. There are -ten of them. The mouldings are now “stuck” -by machinery, but these were made by hand, -and 10 and 8 were formed of two pieces<span class="pagenum" id="Page126">[126]</span> -each, making twelve members in all. The infinite -pains and labor in preparing the material -and placing it cannot be realized -except by a carpenter who has spent -weeks and months in sawing out, -in planing and “sticking,” -and mitering such an elaborate -system of useless ornamentation. -Compare this -with the cornice, or rather -projection, of a house (<a href="#Fig19">Fig. -19</a>) which cost $6,000. <a href="#Fig36">Fig. -36</a> shows a projecting eave of scarcely one foot. -The next illustration (<a href="#Fig37">Fig. 37</a>) shows one of -nearly two feet. The latter is far superior to -the former in that it is quite as beautiful, is -inexpensive, and protects the external paint -and woodwork far more than does the former. -The piece at the top of the rafter serves to -cover the projecting cornice, and as a roof-board -as well, and gives opportunity to place -the eave trough well outside, which prevents -damage to the house should it ever leak. -The frieze board is simple and serves its purpose -well. It has taken a long time to learn -that a wooden roof which is at least one-third -pitch is far more durable than the flat roof -shown in <a href="#Fig38">Fig. 38</a>. Here the return cornice is -carried across the entire end of the house, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page127">[127]</span> -the gable is ceiled with plain matched boards, -both likely to leak and to rapidly become -paintless.</p> - -<p>Many veranda and porch floors and outside -doors have no roof over them, or other protection. -This is poor economy. It would be better -to reduce the cornice to the fewest possible -members, if it were necessary to do so, in order -to secure means to roof the veranda, which, unprotected, -decays rapidly. Or the money expended -on the cornice, which results in neither -use nor beauty, might well suffice for the -building of an additional room, or to provide -many conveniences, such as hot and cold water, -storm sash, and window screens.</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig38"> - -<img src="images/illo135.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 38. The old-time gable end cornice.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page128">[128]</span></p> - -<div class="container w40em" id="Fig39"> - -<img src="images/illo136.jpg" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 39. Framework of a ship.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>When the farmer reached the fertile, treeless -prairies he was compelled to economize in -lumber. Some genius soon discovered that the -best and most scientific method of constructing -the frame of a house was along the lines of ship -construction (<a href="#Fig39">Fig. 39</a>): that is, ribs, joined to -a sill or sills, encircling the entire structure -and placed at equal distances apart. Two -keels or sills joined together by joists, straight -ribs—joists—instead of curved ones, a roof -instead of a deck, and the balloon frame (<a href="#Fig40">Fig. -40</a>)—the best of all frames when properly -constructed,—was invented. Unwittingly the -ship construction, slightly modified, was adopted. -In this frame the westerner departed radically -from the style of his ancestors, but he could -not be satisfied with a plain oversail projection.<span class="pagenum" id="Page129">[129]</span> -He could not afford the heavy box cornice. -Having succeeded so well on the frame, he set -about inventing a new style of decoration for -the projecting eaves, but the cornice was not a -success. The decorations shown in <a href="#Fig41">Figs. 41</a> -and <a href="#Fig42">42</a> serve to make hideous many a cheap -dry-goods-box house, which blisters and cracks<span class="pagenum" id="Page130">[130]</span> -in the hot prairie winds. These houses sometimes -receive no paint or one coat, or at most -two, and in a few years, what with storm and -sun, mischievous boys and wind cracks, this -ginger-bread, dog-eared cornice, made of inch -lumber by the use of scroll saw, looks as -dilapidated as a college boy after a cane-rush.</p> - -<div class="container w35em" id="Fig40"> - -<img src="images/illo137.jpg" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 40. The balloon frame.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<div class="container w35em" id="Fig41"> -<a id="Fig42"></a> - -<img src="images/illo138.jpg" alt="" /> - -<div class="split5050"> - -<div class="left5050"> -<p class="caption">Fig. 42.<br />The jig-saw cornice.</p> -</div> - -<div class="right5050"> -<p class="caption">Fig. 41.<br /> -Too elaborate -and -short-lived.</p> -</div> - -<p class="thinline allclear"> </p> - -</div><!--split5050--> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>The thought of permanent beauty, as well as<span class="pagenum" id="Page131">[131]</span> -economy and usefulness, should enter into the -plans of a house. But what is beauty? I am -well aware that many of my readers will not -agree with me, for</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> - -<div class="poetry"> - -<div class="stanza"> -<span class="verse indent-1">“The standard of beauty ofttimes it doth vary:<br /></span> -<span class="verse indent0">Two pretty girls are Eliza and Mary.”<br /></span> -</div> - -</div><!--poetry--> - -</div><!--poetry-container--> - -<p>They may be very unlike, yet both beautiful. -From the farmer’s standpoint it may be said -that the chief characteristics of beauty are fitness, -naturalness and simplicity.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page132">[132]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER VIII<br /> -<span class="chapname"><i>BUILDING THE HOUSE—GENERAL LAY-OUT</i></span></h2> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p>The reader will understand that no attempt -is made to treat this subject in detail nor -strictly from the architect’s viewpoint. A casual -observation will make it self-evident that -the structures on farms have received little attention -as to beauty of form, economy of construction, -or adaptation of means to ends. -Like many others, I have noted all this and -have made a somewhat careful study of the -causes which usually have produced this want -of harmony, durability, adaptability and economy -in the construction of rural homesteads.</p> - -<p>The many illustrations of detail are designed -to emphasize underlying principles. Principles -are always the same: details may be varied to -suit conditions. While the numerous illustrations -are meant to explain the details, it is -believed that they will also give help to a large -part of the rural population who have had little -opportunity to secure any adequate instruction -in the art and science of home building.</p> - -<p>Usually the cellar would better be extended<span class="pagenum" id="Page133">[133]</span> -under the entire house, although it is neither -wise nor healthy to store large quantities of material -in it which, -if not cared for, -may decay and -vitiate the air in -the rooms above. -If the cellar be -properly constructed -there is -no objection to -storing family -supplies of fruit -and vegetables for the winter in this partly underground -room. Large quantities of vegetables -held for future sale should not find storage in the -house cellar. Now that the floors of houses are -made tight, often double with paper between, -and carpets or rugs to cover them, the cold -no longer enters the cellar through the floor. -The cellar wall may therefore extend upwards on -three sides, well above ground, that opportunity -may be given for the introduction of light and -air. With only single-glazed cellar windows, no -building paper, and floors and boarding of unseasoned -lumber, the pioneer was compelled to -place the cellar well under ground, or bank the -walls with manure if the winter’s supply of vegetables -was to be made secure.</p> - -<div class="split5050"> - -<div class="left5050"> - -<div class="container" id="Fig43"> - -<img src="images/illo141.jpg" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 43. Cellar under -the upright only.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -</div><!--left5050--> - -<div class="right5050"> - -<div class="container" id="Fig44"> - -<img src="images/illo142.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 44. Cellar under -the entire house.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -</div><!--right5050--> - -<p class="thinline allclear"> </p> - -</div><!--split5050--> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page134">[134]</span></p> - -<p>A common form of the foundation for farm -houses is shown in <a href="#Fig43">Fig. 43</a>—a main structure, -reinforced by a wing which, in most cases, has -no cellar under it. <a href="#Fig44">Fig. 44</a> shows the cellar -under the whole structure. If the walls of the -unexcavated wing are placed 3¹⁄₂ feet below -ground, as they should be in a cold climate, and -extend 2 feet above ground, it will take more -stone to construct -the foundation -walls of the house -with a cellar under -only a part -than when it extends -under the -entire structure. -The stone saved -by leaving out the -wall between the -two sections of the house will more than -suffice for building the walls of the wing to -their full height. In the latter case, it would -cost slightly more for excavation than in the -former. Since cellars, when appropriately used, -are in some respects the most useful and -cheapest rooms in the structure, there is no -economy in not placing them under the entire -house. A cellar may be divided by 4-inch -brick walls into various rooms, corresponding in<span class="pagenum" id="Page135">[135]</span> -shape to those above, thereby securing -for the partitions in the superstructure, -separate compartments, in order -that the vegetables, fruit, milk, -and furnace may be separate -one from the other.</p> - -<div class="container w35em" id="Fig45"> -<a id="Fig46"></a> - -<img src="images/illo143.jpg" alt="" /> - -<div class="split5050"> - -<div class="left5050"> -<p class="caption">Fig. 45. A footing course -under the cellar wall.</p> -</div> - -<div class="right5050"> -<p class="caption">Fig. 46. Showing a layer of -material to stop vermin.</p> -</div> - -</div><!--split5050--> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p class="allclear">To prevent rats from entering -the cellar under the walls, -either one of two methods may -be adopted. A footing-course -projecting beyond the outside of -the wall arrests -the rodents, -for -having dug -down to it -they have -not sufficient -intelligence to dig around -the footing-course (<a href="#Fig45">Fig. 45</a>). -Or the desired result may -be accomplished by placing -a thin layer of refuse broken -glass against the outside of -the wall two to three feet -from the surface of the -ground (<a href="#Fig46">Fig. 46</a>). Cellars -would be much improved if they had higher -ceilings. At least 7 feet should be allowed<span class="pagenum" id="Page136">[136]</span> -between the cellar floor and the under side of -the overhead joists. All cellars should have -concrete floors and plastered ceilings, for both -warmth and cleanliness. In an extremely rigorous -climate, the upper angle of the wall should -be lathed and plastered as shown in <a href="#Fig47">Fig. 47</a>.</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig47"> - -<img src="images/illo144.jpg" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 47. Protecting the cellar from frost by plastering across -the upper corners.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>If the front cellar wall and the greater part -of the side walls extend 2 to 3 feet above -the earth, a good sized window (which may be -single- or double-glazed) can be secured. The -rear walls should extend not more than one -foot above ground. If the earth slopes rearward, -then grade up to the wall until not more -than two steps will be necessary to reach the -kitchen floor; it is easier to climb a gentle ascent -than steps. The front steps are used but<span class="pagenum" id="Page137">[137]</span> -a comparatively few times, while the rear ones -are used many times, so it matters little if the -front of the house is several steps above grade.</p> - -<p>It makes a visitor unhappy to know that the -busy housewife must descend three steps, walk -forty feet and ascend two steps to reach the -well platform, then reverse the journey, to -secure the drink of cold water desired (<a href="#Fig48">Fig. 48</a>). -The illustration in <a href="#Fig49">Fig. 49</a> shows how the farmer -solved the difficulty by building an elevated -plank walk from the kitchen to the well. <a href="#Fig50">Fig. -50</a> shows how he might have solved it in -another way.</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig48"> -<a id="Fig49"></a><a id="Fig50"></a> - -<img src="images/illo145.jpg" alt="" /> - -<div class="centerblock"> - -<p class="caption left">Fig. 48. The daily route to the well.<br /> -Fig. 49. A short-cut to the well.<br /> -Fig. 50. An elevated earth walk to the well.</p> - -</div><!--centerblock--> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>The hillside wall may be kept dry and the<span class="pagenum" id="Page138">[138]</span> -cellar free from water by drainage or by backing -the wall with loose rubble stone, or by -both (<a href="#Fig51">Fig. 51</a>).</p> - -<div class="container w50pc left" id="Fig51"> - -<img src="images/illo146.jpg" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 51. A rubble -stone backing -and a drain -at the bottom.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<h3 class="nobreak">BUILDING THE FOUNDATIONS</h3> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p>The walls should be placed below the frost -line and have fairly broad -bases, standing on naturally or -artificially -drained -earth. Perhaps -no -part of the -house structure receives -so little attention -as do the -foundation walls; therefore, -I shall enter somewhat -into the details -of construction. Bricks which have been recently -burned and those which do not contain considerable -quantities of moisture should be thoroughly -wet before they are placed in the wall. -If the mortar sets too quickly by reason of the -dryness of the bricks, a strong wall cannot be -secured, however good the mortar may be in -which they are laid.</p> - -<p>The foundation walls for most houses, however,<span class="pagenum" id="Page139">[139]</span> -are made of stones laid in mortar composed -of lime or cement, or a mixture of the -two, and sand. A large proportion of all the -sand used for foundation work is markedly -inferior, and the mortar is usually very imperfectly -mixed. If water lime is used with the -sand it is frequently old, and if old, inferior. -Even the cements deteriorate somewhat with -age, and the common stone lime is often used -after it is partially or entirely air-slaked. If -the binding material be inferior and the sand -have quantities of fine earth or vegetable matter -mixed with it, it will be seen how impossible it -is to secure a strong and binding mortar. Even -if fresh lime and sharp sand are used, in accordance -with the usual specifications in building -contracts, the mortar bond may still be weak by -reason of careless or imperfect mixing. All -mortar, even that used for laying stones and -bricks, should be mixed until a lime film surrounds -every particle of sand. Plastering the -outside of the wall below the grade line and -pointing the wall above cannot make a firm, -good wall out of one which has been carelessly -laid or one bedded in inferior mortar.</p> - -<p>Chimneys may provide for one or more flues. -Better draft is likely to be secured when separate -flues are provided for each stove or heater -than when one flue serves for two or more<span class="pagenum" id="Page140">[140]</span> -stoves. The diagram, <a href="#Fig52">Fig. 52</a>, shows three flues -in one stack or chimney. One is for the furnace, -another for the fireplace, and another for the -laundry stove.</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig52"> - -<img src="images/illo148.jpg" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 52. Three flues in the chimney, one of them leading from a fire-place.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>All chimneys should have broad footing -courses, which should rest on solid earth to -prevent settling. They should not be supported -by means of brackets (<a href="#Fig53">Fig. 53</a>) or on the tops -of small cupboards attached to the wall. Chimney -walls of only 4-inch thickness are not safe; -if they be double, or 8 inches thick, the number -of bricks required are increased by more than -100 per cent, and the cost of the foundation is -also increased. The heavy walls are objectionable -by reason of added weight and cost, and -because of the room they occupy. The introduction -of fire-clay chimney lining makes it possible -to construct safe chimneys with 4-inch -walls. Then, too, the lining costs rather less<span class="pagenum" id="Page141">[141]</span> -than the extra course of brick, and the completed -flue is smooth and of uniform dimensions -on the inside.</p> - -<div class="container w15em" id="Fig53"> - -<img src="images/illo149.jpg" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 53. Chimney standing -on a bracket.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>The openings made in -the frame for the chimney -are often too small, -in which case the chimney -is likely to be “hung” -on either the joists or -rafters. There should be -a clear space between the -woodwork and chimney. -If the opening in the -frame is too small, the -mason will be tempted to -clip the brick where the -chimney passes by the -wood and then restore the -chimney to its full size -when the obstruction is -passed. This results in -hanging the chimney on -some member of the -frame. Should the foundation -settle, the wall may part and sparks may -then easily reach the dry wood in the room or -at the roof of the house.</p> - -<p>It is believed that the farmer, after reading -these lines, may secure a good wall and one<span class="pagenum" id="Page142">[142]</span> -which fulfils the specifications, if he watches the -work carefully as it progresses. If he does, he -will have a much better wall than the average. -Since the material and the kind of work desired -vary so widely, it is not wise to lay down any -fast rule for the proportions of the binding -material and sand which may be used. It may -be said, however, that the proportions vary from -1 of lime or cement to 2 of sand, to 1 of the -former and 6 of the latter.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<h3 class="nobreak">WOODEN HOUSES—THE FRAME</h3> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p>Almost any variety of wood will suffice for -the frame of the house, provided it does not -twist and spring out of shape too much before -or after it is put into the building. Since the -sills are to be placed on solid, continuous walls, -they need not be large. The only objection to -box and small sills is that they may allow too -easy access of air and rodents from the walls of -the rooms to the cellar, and vice versa, unless -the spaces above the sills and between the studding -are bricked in as high as the top of the -first tier of joists. A rough floor laid before the -upright studding is placed is shown in <a href="#Fig54">Fig. 54</a>. -This first floor should be laid diagonally, for the -one which is laid immediately upon it should -not be placed either parallel or at right angles<span class="pagenum" id="Page143">[143]</span> -to the boards of the first floor, or parallel with -the joists. A little reflection will reveal the -reasons for all this.</p> - -<div class="container w30em" id="Fig54"> - -<img src="images/illo151.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 54. The rough floor laid before the studding is erected.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>Joists should be bridged. <a href="#Fig55">Fig. 55</a> shows the -more common method of bridging. The joists -may be 2 × 8 in small, inexpensive houses, and -2 × 10 or 2 × 12 in large ones, bridged once in a -12-foot span, twice in a 16-, and three times in -an 18- or 20-foot span. The bridging is of the -utmost importance and should never be omitted, -as it serves to strengthen the floor joints and -prevents the disagreeable trembling of the floors -so annoying in many of the older houses.</p> - -<div class="container w25em" id="Fig55"> - -<img src="images/illo152.jpg" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 55. Bridging the joists.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>The studding for a balloon frame is either<span class="pagenum" id="Page144">[144]</span> -2 × 4, 2 × 5 or 2 × 6, and the length desired. The -2 × 4 studding are too light for an ample two-story -house, and they -do not give enough -thickness of wall for -the most desirable -window- and door-jambs. -The doors are -not held firmly in -place, and when they are closed quickly by the -wind or by children, the plastering is injured. -Studding 5 inches broad, fortified by outside -diagonal boarding (<a href="#Fig56">Fig. 56</a>), gives the ideal -conditions unless the house is unusually large, -in which case the studding should be 6 inches -broad. The diagonal boarding costs a trifle -more in material and labor than the horizontal, -but it is so much superior that the extra expense -may well be incurred. Every board forms -a double brace, one where nailed to the studding -and one where the siding or “clap boards” -are nailed to the rough boards and the studs. -Nothing has yet been discovered which is so -satisfactory, and which gives such strength and -protection to the frame as does this preliminary -diagonal boarding, covered with paper. When -completed it forms a wall open enough to prevent -dry rot and tight enough to prevent the -entrance of wind.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page145">[145]</span></p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig56"> - -<img src="images/illo153.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 56. A wall strengthened by diagonal sheathing.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>The second-story joists rest on stringers or -light girders 1 × 5 inches, as shown in <a href="#Fig57">Fig. 57</a>. -If the girder is set flush with the inside of the -stud, A, the laths must lie directly upon the -face of the girt. This gives no room for the -mortar to form clinches behind the lath. This -5-inch girder swells when the mortar is put on -and shrinks when it dries, which may result in -a crack in the wall in the angle near A. Since, -by reason of faulty construction, there are no -clinches behind the lath, the plastering becomes -loosened, and this is likely to be the beginning -of serious trouble. If the girder is let in so -that its face is not flush with the inside of the -stud and then furrowed out with small pieces of -lath, the effects of the shrinking of the girder -will be obviated and room will be left for -clinches behind the lath.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page146">[146]</span></p> - -<div class="container w25em" id="Fig57"> - -<img src="images/illo154.jpg" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 57. Second-story joist.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>In windy, cold climates, where lumber is at -all abundant, a second boarding may be placed -inside, covered with paper and furrowed out -with a single thickness of lath to allow, as in -the former case, -the formation of -clinches. There -is no objection -to boarding horizontally -on the -inside, if the outside -has been -boarded diagonally. -The term “rough boarding” has -been used, but it should be said that the -boarding which forms the first covering, -sometimes called sheathing, should be -brought to uniform thickness and matched -or rabbeted.</p> - -<p>Wherever greater strength of wall is -desired than can be formed by a single 2 × 5 -studding, as at the corners, or by a single 2 × 10 -joist, as where partitions are to be placed, it is -better to spike two or more pieces together than -to have pieces sawed of the dimensions desired. -These made-up pieces or timbers are stronger -than solid pieces of the same character and dimensions, -since the continuity of the cross-grain -of the wood is broken in the made-up pieces.<span class="pagenum" id="Page147">[147]</span> -In the construction of large bridges the timbers, -where exposed to the weather, are made up of -smaller timbers, since they are then not only -stronger but more durable and less subject to -dry rot than if they are solid (<a href="#Fig58">Fig. 58</a>).</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig58"> - -<img src="images/illo155.jpg" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 58. Construction of a large bridge.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>Plates are made up of material 2 inches -thick and as broad as the studding is wide, -doubled, with joints mismatched. This most -valuable principle of building up timbers of several -thin pieces is a somewhat recent practice. -Where very large timbers are required, as in -trussed or self-supporting roofs, the timbers of -which are not exposed to view, they are frequently -made up of boards 1 inch thick and as -broad as the vertical dimensions desired. This -method is sometimes used in constructing -timbers for both houses and barns (<a href="#Fig59">Fig. 59</a>).</p> - -<p>Roofs of houses are, of necessity, extremely -variable, as the house is not planned to suit the -roof, but the roof to suit the house. Flat metal -roofs of all kinds should be avoided, as far as -possible, on the farm house, however well they -may be adapted to buildings in the -city. Metal roofs are not objectionable -in themselves, but only -when they are laid flat on farm -houses.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page148">[148]</span></p> - -<div class="container w40em" id="Fig59"> - -<img src="images/illo156a.jpg" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 59. A made-up plate, constructed -of boards.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<div class="container w40em" id="Fig60"> - -<img src="images/illo156b.jpg" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 60. Showing the principle of construction -of <a href="#Fig59">Fig. 59</a>.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page149">[149]</span></p> - -<p>The pitch of roofs, like their -shape, is also variable. Nothing -below one-third pitch should be -used except for special conditions. -In <a href="#Fig38">Fig. 38</a>, page 127, is an illustration -of the common pitch of -roofs in fashion fifty years ago. -Some roofs were even flatter than -the one shown. The fashion now -is to construct house roofs with -nearly or quite half pitch. While -steep roofs are desirable if made -of wood, there is some danger -that the change from the nearly -flat roof to the steep one will be -carried too far (see <a href="#Fig13">Fig. 13</a>, page -95). Various pitches of roofs are -shown in <a href="#Fig61">Fig. 61</a>. Steep roofs do -not require as strong rafters, -thrust less upon the plates, are -more durable, and are less likely -to leak than flat roofs.</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig61"> - -<img src="images/illo157.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 61. Pitches of roofs.—¹⁄₂, ¹⁄₃, ¹⁄₄, ¹⁄₈.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>Since roofs are of various pitches,<span class="pagenum" id="Page150">[150]</span> -they require rafters of various lengths and bevels. -Farmers and many carpenters have much difficulty -in getting the length and bevels of both rafters -and braces. Most carpenters’ squares have so-called -brace rules stamped upon their tongues.<a id="FNanchor_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> -These give the length of the brace for the -shorter and more common runs,<a id="FNanchor_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> but they do -not give the angles of the ends of the brace. -Then, too, the length is given in inches and hundredths -of inches, and carpenters’ squares are -not divided into hundredths, so this complicated -brace-rule is as useful as a steam whistle on an -ox-cart.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> -The short end of the square.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> -The perpendicular and horizontal distances covered by the brace.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<p>The methods by which the length and bevels -of any member of a frame which departs from -any other member at an angle are so easily -understood that the wonder is that all are not -familiar with them. For a simple illustration, -let it be supposed that rafters for a building -18 feet broad, with one-third pitch, are to be -laid out (<a href="#Fig62">Fig. 62</a>). The rafter, R, takes the -form of a brace. The run is 9 feet horizontally -or half the width of the building, and 6 -feet perpendicularly. If the square be laid upon -the stick designed for the rafter, as 6 is to 9, -one side of the square will give the shorter and -the other the longer angle or bevel (<a href="#Fig63">Fig. 63</a>). -If the square is laid on 12 times at 9 and 6 -inches, it will give the length of the rafter, for -12 times 9 is 108, half the width of the building, -and 12 times 6 is 72, the height of the -peak above the plates. If the square is laid on -18 × 12 inches, the proportion is preserved, and -hence the angles; the square would only have -to be laid on six times.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page151">[151]</span></p> - -<div class="container w40em" id="Fig62"> -<a id="Fig63"></a><a id="Fig64"></a> - -<img src="images/illo159.png" alt="" /> - -<div class="centerblock"> - -<p class="noindent">Fig. 62. Laying out a roof.<br /> -Fig. 63. Laying out a rafter.<br /> -Fig. 64. Laying out a timber.</p> - -</div><!--centerblock--> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page152">[152]</span></p> - -<div class="container w10em right" id="Fig65"> - -<img src="images/illo161a.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 65. -A brace.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>Consider a building 20 feet broad and 6 inches -above one-third pitch. The half of 20 feet -equals 10 feet, or 120 inches. Seven feet 2 -inches (86 inches) is the height of the peak -above the plate. It is quickly seen that this -problem, like the other, can be solved in more -than one way. If the long end of the square is -laid on at 20 inches and the short end at 14¹⁄₃ -inches, and this is repeated six times, both the -bevels and the length will be secured (<a href="#Fig64">Fig. 64</a>), -for 6 multiplied by 20 equals 120 inches, half -the width of the building, and 6 multiplied by -14¹⁄₃ equals 86 inches, the height of the peak. -Or the long end of the square might be laid on -at 24 and the short end at 15¹⁄₅ five times, but -squares are not marked in fifths of inches, hence -the previous method would be best.<a id="FNanchor_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> The same -results would be reached by laying the square -on at 15 and 10³⁄₄ inches; eight steps would -then be required instead of six. The longer and -fewer the steps within the limits of the square, -the better.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> -Since the square is laid on, see <a href="#Fig61">Figs. 61</a>, <a href="#Fig62">62</a>, in the same manner as for -cutting a stair; each one of these spaces is called a “step.”</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page153">[153]</span></p> - -<p>If it is desired to cut a brace 3 × 4 feet run, -3 steps, using the lengths 12 and 16, will give -both the length of the brace and the bevels -(<a href="#Fig65">Fig. 65</a>). Take a rafter which has a projection -requiring a notch to be cut in the lower -side, and the same rule will apply. The line -A, <a href="#Fig66">Fig. 66</a>, is horizontal and the face of the -plate is perpendicular; therefore, the line B -must be at right angles to A. The only -thing now to be determined is how deep the -notch shall be, for it is evident that if the -line A represents the long end of the square -and B the short end of the square, the notch -will fit the plate.</p> - -<div class="container w25em" id="Fig66"> -<a id="Fig67"></a><a id="Fig68"></a> - -<img src="images/illo161b.png" alt="" /> - -<div class="centerblock"> - -<p class="caption left">Fig. 66. Adjusting to the -plate.<br /> -Fig. 67. The rafter.<br /> -Fig. 68. The rafter trimmed on the outer end.</p> - -</div><!--centerblock--> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page154">[154]</span></p> - -<p>That part of the rafter which extends over -the building may be reduced in size, but usually -it is well to leave it entire (as in <a href="#Fig67">Fig. -67</a>) if the house is large. If the lower end of -the rafter should appear too heavy, it may be -treated as in <a href="#Fig68">Fig. 68</a>. The bevels at the ends -of the rafters are the same as at A and B -(<a href="#Fig66">Fig. 66</a>).</p> - -<p>The outlines of a story-and-a-half house, -which form is most undesirable for various -reasons, are shown in <a href="#Fig69">Fig. 69</a>. The chambers -cannot be well lighted or aired. The outlines<span class="pagenum" id="Page155">[155]</span> -of the room interfere with the placing of furniture, -and such chambers are far more uncomfortable -in warm weather than are those in two-story -houses. It will be seen that the collar-beam, -C, must be placed so far above the foot -of the rafters in order to get a fair height of ceiling, -that it has little binding power, and that the -building cannot be tied together at the plates -in the center, since the tie would interfere with -the door in the cross wall. It will also be seen -that the second-story joists are so far below the -plates that their power to hold the building -together is small. Many of the one-and-a-half-story<span class="pagenum" id="Page156">[156]</span> -houses have “sway-backed” peaks because -of this faulty construction. (See <a href="#Fig35">Fig. 35</a>, page -124, broken-back house.) If story-and-a-half -houses must be built, then they should be covered -by roofs having at least one-half pitch, in -which case the collar-beams could be placed -relatively lower and the thrust on the plates -would be very much diminished by the steeper<span class="pagenum" id="Page157">[157]</span> -roof (<a href="#Fig70">Fig. 70</a>). One-, two-, three- or more storied -houses are easily and certainly prevented from -spreading since one tier of joists always coincides -with the foot of the rafters, to which -they can be securely fastened. Fortunately, the -story-and-a-half house is less constructed than -formerly.</p> - -<div class="container w35em" id="Fig69"> - -<img src="images/illo163.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 69. Outline of a story-and-a-half house.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<div class="container w35em" id="Fig70"> - -<img src="images/illo164.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 70. Half pitch and an efficient collar-beam.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page158">[158]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER IX<br /> -<span class="chapname"><i>BUILDING THE HOUSE, CONCLUDED.—OUTSIDE -COVERING, PAINTING</i></span></h2> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p>That part of the house which of necessity -must be exposed to the buffetings of snow and -rain, wind and sun, should be considered more -carefully than any other part except the foundation. -If economy demands, the doors, floors, -bath rooms, and wardrobes may be of plain and -inexpensive material, for later they may be replaced -when means justify additional expenditure; -but if the outside covering be faulty, the -house is a partial failure from the beginning.</p> - -<p>The first principle to be observed is to place -all projections intended to serve as water-tables -at somewhat acute angles, for if placed at -nearly right angles with the sides of the house, -rains accompanied by heavy winds will certainly -reach the framework. The water-tables which -crown the top of the base-board are more exposed -than those which are higher up, and -therefore should be steep and rabbeted to prevent -the water from reaching the sills. The too -usual method is shown in <a href="#Fig71">Fig. 71</a>. An enlarged<span class="pagenum" id="Page159">[159]</span> -view of a better style of water-table is shown -in <a href="#Fig72">Fig. 72</a>.</p> - -<div class="container w35em" id="Fig71"> -<a id="Fig72"></a> - -<img src="images/illo167.png" alt="" /> - -<div class="split3367"> - -<div class="left3367"> -<p class="caption">Fig. 71. A faulty -water-table.</p> -</div> - -<div class="right3367"> -<p class="caption">Fig. 72. A good water-table.</p> -</div> - -</div><!--split--> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p class="allclear">Outside window frame sills which have insufficient -pitch tend to become water-soaked, -and not infrequently the lower -member of the window itself rots by reason -of the water which drives in and -remains under the sill of the window for -considerable periods of time. <a href="#Fig73">Figs. 73</a> -and <a href="#Fig74">74</a> show perfect and faulty methods -of construction.</p> - -<div class="container w40em" id="Fig73"> -<a id="Fig74"></a> - -<img src="images/illo168.jpg" alt="" /> - -<div class="split5050"> - -<div class="left5050"> -<p class="caption">Fig. 73.<br />Perfect construction -of window sill.</p> -</div> - -<div class="right5050"> -<p class="caption">Fig. 74.<br />Faulty construction.</p> -</div> - -</div><!--split5050--> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p class="allclear">The siding of a house for -various reasons would better be -put on horizontally, although -material put on this way, unless -it is kept well painted, is not so durable -as when placed vertically. The -horizontal covering is more -beautiful, lends itself better -to the numerous openings, and -gives better protection from -cold and wind than does the -vertical covering. If the building -is not to be painted, then -the covering would better be -placed vertically. Nearly all -wooden houses are covered with either thin lap-siding -or inch siding, prepared in various ways -and known by various names. The inch or<span class="pagenum" id="Page160">[160]</span> -novelty siding was first introduced in the West, -and costs but little more than the lap-siding, -because, being thicker, it can be made of somewhat -inferior lumber. The novelty or rabbeted -covering gives greater strength to the building -and is much more quickly and cheaply put on. -It may be said that this style of covering is -extremely faulty if placed on the building in the -usual way, namely, before the doors and -windows and corner boards are in position. If -the same method of placing the material be -practiced as in placing the lap-siding, then the<span class="pagenum" id="Page161">[161]</span> -objections to this class of siding disappear to -a certain extent. The diagram, <a href="#Fig75">Fig. 75</a>, shows -the novelty, or drop, or O G siding (A), the -rabbeted (B) and lap-siding -(C). It will readily be seen -that if a drop (A) or rabbeted -(B) siding be put on -before the window frames -are placed, as is the usual -custom, an opening (x) is -left under the facing of the -window frame which extends -through to the studding. -This permits the -rain, in a driving storm, -to pass horizontally along -this opening to the studding -and then downward -along the framework of the -building. Many instances -could be cited in which -these openings have had -to be filled by triangular -blocks of wood or putty, and even then the -water was not entirely excluded.</p> - -<div class="container w20em" id="Fig75"> - -<img src="images/illo169.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 75. Forms of siding.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>This method of covering houses or even barns -with this new kind of siding is usually disappointing -and wasteful of material. All that is -gained is a little more facility and cheapness in<span class="pagenum" id="Page162">[162]</span> -placing the covering. If it is put on, as it -should be, after the window and door frames -are set, it is more difficult and more expensive -to place than lap-siding.</p> - -<p>No way of covering a wooden house has -been found superior to the one-half inch lap-siding -with joints tight enough at the frames -and corners, in conjunction with the paint, to -make water-tight joints. The lap should not -be less than one inch, and the nails should be -so placed that in case of considerable shrinkage -in the siding the inside will give or even check, -instead of the outside (z). If made as at y, -the outside will check. This implies that the -nails are to be driven rather more than one-half -inch above the edge of the siding. The -nails which hold the outer covering should -either be set and puttied, or the heads should -be left even with or slightly above the surface -of the wood, that the paint may cover all parts -of the nail head. If the nails are driven too -far in the heads are not fully covered and protected -by the paint, in which case they will rust -and present an unsightly appearance.</p> - -<p>Some one has said that if a woman’s feet, -hands, and head are well and appropriately -clothed, the balance of the dress may be plain -and simple, and yet she will have an elegant -appearance. So, if a house has a good foundation<span class="pagenum" id="Page163">[163]</span> -and a suitable and well-placed roof, the -balance of the outside may be extremely plain -and yet it will be beautiful. Some of our -modern houses rest on unpointed, poorly constructed, -and narrow foundations, are bedecked -with peaks, pigeon lofts, and dog-eared cornices, -and remind one of the suspenderless, -barefooted darky crowned with a cast-off silk -hat.</p> - -<p>If the foundation is too small and shabbily -built, no amount of paint and cornice can relieve -the house from a look of shabby gentility. -A few brown or cream-colored stones or bricks, -when placed on the outside of the foundation -where it shows above ground, will give dignity, -beauty and a substantial look to the whole -house. It may do for it what a nickel does for -one’s shoes.</p> - -<p>The roof of the farm house, and for that -matter of all other houses, should, in the trying -climate of America, have an ample projection. -An abbreviated cornice may be admissible if the -building is constructed of stone which is of sufficient -density to resist the American tooth of -time. <a href="#Fig76">Fig. 76</a> shows a section of an abbreviated -and a well extended cornice. The house -which has this short-cut cornice stands within a -few hundred feet of the one with the wide projecting -eaves. During the past twenty years it<span class="pagenum" id="Page164">[164]</span> -has been necessary to paint the former twice as -often as the latter.</p> - -<div class="container w30em" id="Fig76"> - -<img src="images/illo172.jpg" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 76. Deep and narrow cornices.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>The roof covering would better be of slate or -tiles, for the time has passed for building temporary, -make-shift houses, though -they might have served their purpose -well in a new and rapidly -developing country. With -rare exceptions, the houses -to be built in the future -should be permanently -located, -well built, -and of durable -material. The -slates which -compose a roof -should be not -more than 8 -inches wide and -should not be -put on roofs of -less than one-third pitch, since they are only -double-lapped and do not lie as closely, one -upon the other, as do shingles, which are laid -triple-lapped. Slate and tile roofs are comparatively -heavy, and hence require stronger roof -structures than shingles.</p> - -<p>The roof boarding for slate roofs should be<span class="pagenum" id="Page165">[165]</span> -matched—tongued and grooved—and covered -with paper to prevent cold and draughts of air -from passing into the attic. Since slates, on -account of their somewhat rough surfaces, do -not lie closely together, the wind is likely to -pass through the cracks in the roof, if there are -any, and carry snow and rain into the upper -part of the house; therefore the roof covering -immediately under the slates should be virtually -air-tight. The roof boards for a shingle roof -should be narrow and laid with openings of -from 1¹⁄₂ to 2 inches between the boards. Rain -and snow seldom drive up and through the -shingle roof, and since wooden roofs are more -likely to rot out than to wear out, the more perfectly -the shingles are dried out after a storm -the better. The narrow roof boards and the -spaces between them allow the shingles to dry -quickly, and therefore are better than matched -boards.</p> - -<p>The short, or common, shingle of commerce -is 16 inches long, ³⁄₈- to ¹⁄₂-inch thick at one -end, and ¹⁄₈ of an inch at the other, and is -computed at 4 inches wide. A bunch of shingles -contains one fourth of a thousand. It -should have 25 double courses and the band -should be 20 inches long. Not infrequently -there is a course or two wanting, or the bands -are an inch or so short. Having this data, one<span class="pagenum" id="Page166">[166]</span> -can easily determine if the bunch is of legal -size. A little cheating is not uncommonly done -by placing the shingles in the bunch loosely. -This can be detected by examining the bunches -at the thick ends of the shingles.</p> - -<p>Theoretically, 1,000 shingles should cover 10 -feet square, or 100 square feet, known in carpentry -as “a square,” if the shingles are laid 4 -inches to the weather. Since shingles are usually -laid 4¹⁄₂ to 5 inches to the weather, 1,000 -shingles should cover about 120 square feet. -Two-thirds of the lower part of the roof may -be laid 4¹⁄₂ inches, and the upper third 4³⁄₄ or -5 inches to the weather, if the roof is not flat.</p> - -<p>If shingles are treated with lime water or diluted -gas tar, or be painted as they are laid, -the life of the roof may be prolonged. The -painting of roofs with tar or common earth or -mineral paints, after they are laid, does little or -no good in preserving them. Sometimes painting -is resorted to to make the roof harmonize -with the color of the sides of the building.</p> - -<p>Neither extremely narrow nor extremely wide -shingles are desirable. Those from 3 to 6 -inches wide, when carefully laid, are satisfactory. -Each shingle should receive but two nails; one -is usually enough, and these should be placed -about ³⁄₄ of an inch from the edges, and about -1 inch above the point where the butts of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page167">[167]</span> -next course will come. When the courses above -are laid upon the shingle having but one nail, -two or three other nails, which are driven in -the courses above, will serve to help hold it in -position. The joints of shingle roofs should be -double broken: that is, the joints in the shingles -of one course should not coincide with the joints -of the first or second course below. Consult -<a href="#Fig77">Fig. 77</a>.</p> - -<div class="container w40em" id="Fig77"> - -<img src="images/illo175.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 77. The laying of shingles.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>If two nails be driven in the sides of an unseasoned -shingle, when it shrinks it is likely to -split in the middle; and in laying a roof the -joint immediately above the course under consideration -is likely to come at or near the middle<span class="pagenum" id="Page168">[168]</span> -of the shingle, which splits by reason of the -shrinking. The case is still worse when three -nails are put in a shingle, for then it is almost -certain to split in the middle -and immediately in line with -the joint in the course above.</p> - -<p>Unscientific placing of -shingles and insufficient mixing -of mortar results in an -unsatisfactory house, both inside -and outside, however good -the materials may be.</p> - -<div class="container w20em" id="Fig78"> - -<img src="images/illo176.jpg" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 78. A veneered -wall.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<h3 class="nobreak">VENEERED HOUSES</h3> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p>A most excellent way to -secure a warm, durable house, -and one that will require -the minimum -of care-taking, is to -first construct a 4-inch -wall after the -balloon pattern, as -has been previously -<a href="#Page128">described</a>. To this -frame, sheathing surfaced on one side is attached. -The 4-inch brick wall is securely fastened to the -wooden structure by means of 30-penny spikes, -one at each studding, which are driven in at -the top of every seven courses of brick. (See<span class="pagenum" id="Page169">[169]</span> -<a href="#Fig78">Fig. 78</a>.) A wooden house may also be veneered -with stone, the veneering being held in place by -means of metal anchors attached to the boarding.</p> - -<p>The foundation needs to be a little stronger -than for the wooden house, and must be provided -with a stone water-table for receiving the -veneering.</p> - -<p>In a veneered house, all the lightness and -dryness of a wooden house are secured on the -inside and on the outside all the durability and -solidity of a brick or stone house. When the -veneering is of hard-burned, cream-colored or -neutrally tinted brick or brown stone, the effect -is extremely pleasing. The first cost of such a -house is somewhat more than an all-wood house, -but its greater durability and freedom from constant -repairs makes it no more expensive in the -end. When one builds such a house and covers -it with a steep slate roof, he feels that he has -builded for many coming generations.</p> - -<p>It is not necessary to speak in detail of stone -and brick houses, since such structures are quite -expensive, and their construction should always -be placed in the hands of experts. It may be -well, however, to discuss them generally. The -cost of building brick houses is nearly twice as -great as those of wood; stone houses cost more -than brick houses. The foundations of brick<span class="pagenum" id="Page170">[170]</span> -or stone structures must be broad and placed -deep in the ground, to sustain the great weight -placed upon them. However much pains has -been taken, the walls of the superstructure often -crack by reason of the unequal settling of the -foundation or by unequal strain on the walls, -due to the window and door openings. Once -the walls are cracked they become unsightly, and -cannot well be restored without being rebuilt. -Unless the windows are extra large the house -will not be well lighted because of the thick -walls. (See <a href="#Fig24">Fig. 24</a>, p. 108.) The walls do not -heat and cool as quickly as do wooden walls, -hence brick and especially stone houses are likely -to be damp, since the warm air of the rooms -tends to part with its moisture when it comes in -contact with the relatively cool walls. This tendency -of the walls to condense moisture may -be obviated by studding and plastering them on -the inside, but all this adds to the expense. -Until building material becomes much less expensive -than it now is, the farmer would better -build either a wooden or veneered house.</p> - -<div class="container w40em" id="Fig79"> - -<img src="images/illo179.jpg" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 79. Re-siding an old wall.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<h3 class="nobreak">OLD HOUSES</h3> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p>Houses which were built some time ago and -before building paper and better methods of construction -were in vogue, are usually too cold<span class="pagenum" id="Page171">[171]</span> -and often extremely unsatisfactory. The outside -covering may be warped and cracked and -too often paintless. Where these conditions -prevail the house may be re-sided without removing -the old covering. The window frames, -corner boards, and like members which receive -the siding are built out by placing bands around -the frames and on the corner boards of sufficient -thickness to receive the new second siding. -Strong building paper is then placed over the -old siding, and strips one inch thick and two -inches broad are nailed immediately upon it and -over the several studs of the old frame. (<a href="#Fig79">Fig. -79</a>.) The house is now ready to receive new -siding. If paper be laid on the floors and a well<span class="pagenum" id="Page172">[172]</span> -seasoned second floor be laid upon it, they will -be greatly improved at slight cost.</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig80"> -<a id="Fig81"></a> - -<img src="images/illo180.png" alt="" /> - -<div class="split5050"> - -<div class="left5050"> -<p class="caption">Fig. 80. Faulty gutter or eave trough.</p> -</div> - -<div class="right5050"> -<p class="caption">Fig. 81. Well constructed gutter.</p> -</div> - -</div><!--split5050--> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p class="allclear">Eave troughs should be placed outside the -perpendicular line of the walls to prevent water -from entering the house should the troughs -leak or overflow from being filled with ice. -Eave troughs are frequently made of tin which -is too narrow, in which case, especially on flat -roofs, the water will back up under the shingles -and run over that part of the gutter which lies -hidden in the roof. The elevation of the front -edge of the gutter should be at least 2 inches -below the extreme upper edge of the tin of -which the gutter is made. (Compare <a href="#Fig80">Figs. 80</a> -and <a href="#Fig81">81</a>.) Gutters placed at the end of the -rafters are usually not as durable as those -placed on the roof, but if carefully put up so -that they will keep their position they serve<span class="pagenum" id="Page173">[173]</span> -their purpose well and may be made to give -additional beauty to the eaves of the roof. The -conductors which lead the water from the gutters -to the ground should be made large and of -corrugated material, that expansion may be provided -for should they become filled with ice.</p> - -<p>What has been said about using too narrow -tin for gutters is doubly applicable to the valleys. -Open valleys are better than closed. All -tin used for gutters or valleys should be painted -on both sides before it is placed upon the roof, -and all used about the outside of the building -should be kept well painted, as it is more economical -to paint often than to mend leaks.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<h3 class="nobreak">PAINTING THE HOUSE</h3> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p>After much solicitude and money have been -expended on the construction of the house, it is -poor economy to let it suffer for want of paint. -Not infrequently the house is planned so large, -or so much is spent on its erection that means -are not at hand for fully protecting the outside -with suitable paints.</p> - -<p>As to the colors of paints or their combinations, -little can be said, since tastes and conditions -are extremely variable. A farm house -should have its own distinctive features, and its -own personality, and while it may be similar to<span class="pagenum" id="Page174">[174]</span> -many other houses it should not be a duplicate -of any other one.</p> - -<p>In manufacturing towns long rows of houses -are built, each one the exact duplicate of all the -others in shape, dimensions, and color. The -effect is abominable. This illustration of exact -imitation only goes to show how necessary it is -to have diversity of style in the houses themselves -and variation in the colors of the paints -if the maximum beauty of the home and adaptation -to landscape and site are secured. In -painting the farm house beauty should not be -ignored, but beauty may not be compatible with -durability and necessary economy. The farm -home may and should be placed in such beautiful -environment that the paint which covers it -sinks into comparative insignificance as compared -to the painting of the city house; therefore -the elements of economy and durability play -as important parts in the painting of farm -houses as does beauty. Even a great, plain, -two-story white farm house with green window-blinds -can be made to look beautiful and home-like -if it has a suitable setting of noble trees.</p> - -<p>If the outside covering of the house is placed -some time before it receives its first coat of -paint, the wood tends to check and usually becomes -too dry for applying it. If exposed for -some days to the direct rays of the sun before<span class="pagenum" id="Page175">[175]</span> -painting, so much of the oil of the paint will be -taken up by the wood that there will not be -enough left to bind the mineral matter of the -paint to the wood. This is especially the case -where an attempt is made to complete the painting -by the application of but two coats, in which -case, the first or prime coat must contain relatively -much mineral material and little oil, and -must be spread thickly if the surfaces are to be -well covered by the two coats. Not infrequently, -the outside woodwork is swollen and somewhat -displaced by rains before the roof is in place. -Even after it has dried out the ideal conditions -are not secured. The roof should be placed as -soon as the siding is completed, or if possible -before. The carpenter should put on the first, -or prime, coat as fast as the house is sided; -that is, the woodwork which has been placed -from one scaffold or stage should be painted -from the scaffold before the one above is constructed. -The corner boards, window sash, and -frame should receive one coat of paint before -they leave the shop. The prime coat may be of -yellow ochre mixed with some white lead, since -the after painting with the desired color will -cover the yellow if two coats be applied. Good -yellow ochre is a most durable paint when properly -mixed and spread, although it may be said -that the more white lead used in the prime coat<span class="pagenum" id="Page176">[176]</span> -the better. Yellow ochre should contain a large -per cent of iron; when ochres are composed -largely of colored clay they are inferior. The -paint for the first coat should, in any case, be -thin, since the oil which it contains plays an important -part. This first coat tends, or should -tend, to fill the wood with oil so that the oil in -the after coat will mostly remain with the paint, -and not leave it and pass into the wood, thereby -destroying its binding force. Too much stress -can hardly be laid on the necessity of rubbing -the first coat into the wood by vigorous use of -the brush. To realize the value of this principle -one has but to visit a first-class carriage manufactory -and observe the methods which are in -use to prepare a carriage body for its final coat -of dark paint and varnish. In too many cases -the first coat of paint is mixed too thickly and -is not pressed into the pores of the wood as it -should be, in which case the paint may either -peel or rub off in a few years. The country boy -dressed in his best black suit often has a -reminder of this if he chances to lean against -the outside of the old country church while -“waiting for meeting to take up.”</p> - -<p>All outside painting, with the exception of -the first coat, should be done, as far as possible, -in cool weather. Early spring and late fall, -when flies and dust are not present, are the<span class="pagenum" id="Page177">[177]</span> -best. If the house is built in the summer, the -second coat may be put on in the fall and the -third coat the following spring. The paint of -the second coat may be a little thicker than that -of the first, and that of the third a little thicker -than the second. If the best job is desired the -paint for all three coats should be mixed thinner -than is customary, in which case a fourth -coat will be required the following fall. The -house will now have a polish similar to the well -painted carriage body, and, like it, will resist -moisture and remain good for a long time. If -a building is to be painted at all it would better -be painted at the beginning and be kept well -painted, as it is the more economical in the -end. Better curtail the size of the house than -to build it so large that the outside covering -must be neglected.</p> - -<p>The oil used in paints is usually derived from -the vegetable oil found in flax or linseed. Although -many other kinds of oils have been -tried, nothing has been discovered which can -take the place, in paints, of linseed oil. This -is most remarkable, for there are many vegetable -oils which are very similar to this one. -Linseed oil is expensive as compared with several -other kinds, hence many attempts have been -made to find an oil equally as good for painting; -so far as I am able to learn, none have<span class="pagenum" id="Page178">[178]</span> -been discovered. Linseed oil in paints, when -dried, forms a hard, tough, gluey coating which -serves to bind firmly the particles of paint -together, and to the wood, and to exclude water -as no other oil does; hence if any other oil is -mixed with the linseed oil, it is said to be adulterated. -At the present time linseed oil is adulterated -in some cases, and it is believed that -this adulteration is the chief cause of the lack -of durability in many of the ready-mixed paints. -If linseed oil be mixed with other oils which are -wanting in its valuable characteristic, it is certain -that such oils will not bind the particles of -paint together as they should be bound.</p> - -<p>At present the only protection is to purchase -guaranteed pure oil of dealers who are reliable -beyond peradventure. Outside painting should -be done with unboiled oil unless, on account of -the weather, boiled oil must be used to hasten -drying. In extreme cases a drier (litharge) is -used. The drying process should not be rapid -in outside painting, as slow drying promotes -durability.</p> - -<p>The substances mixed with the oil to form -paints are extremely variable in composition and -color. Some are good, and are usually relatively -high priced. Others are inferior and relatively -low priced. Now that so many brands of ready-mixed -paints of many tints are in common use,<span class="pagenum" id="Page179">[179]</span> -it is impracticable to analyze all of them and -determine their quality so that the inferior may -be distinguished from the superior. There appears -to be but two ways out of this serious -dilemma: use the best brands of the ready-mixed -paints and await results, or purchase pure white -lead and zinc paints and pure oil, and tint to -suit tastes and conditions. Heretofore, to do -this successfully has required much skill and -patience, especially if the house was to be -painted in many colors.</p> - -<p>Paints are now so universally adulterated -that I deem it my duty to call attention to a -company which virtually guarantees the material -sold. The National Lead Company makes white -paints of pure white lead and pure linseed oil. -It also manufactures pure tinting colors, at least -the company so advertise, and without doubt -would be liable for damages should the paints -prove to be adulterated. Sample tint cards are -furnished and directions given as to the quantity -and kind of tinting material to be mixed with -the white paint to give the desired color. All -this greatly simplifies painting, and if these -paints are pure, as represented, the farmer will -have no difficulty in securing pure paint of any -tint desired.</p> - -<p>The farmer who desires a beautifully painted -house, and simplicity, may well restrict the<span class="pagenum" id="Page180">[180]</span> -colors of the paints he uses to two, being careful -that they are in harmony, one with the -other, and with the character of the house and -its surroundings.</p> - -<p>The following figures show the composition of -some common paints (No. 1 was analyzed at the -Cornell Exp. Sta., the others at the Iowa Station):</p> - -<p>I. The paint known as white lead, when pure, -is a basic carbonate of lead mixed in oil. A -sample showed—</p> - -<table class="paint"> - -<tr> -<td class="pigment">White lead</td> -<td class="amount">93.62%</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="pigment">Oil and undetermined</td> -<td class="amount">6.38%</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p class="paintremark">There was no evidence of adulteration.</p> - -<p>II. White lead—</p> - -<table class="paint"> - -<tr> -<td class="pigment">White lead</td> -<td class="amount">41.12%</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="pigment">Barium sulfate</td> -<td class="amount">30.29%</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="pigment">Zinc oxide</td> -<td class="amount">28.59%</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p class="paintremark">Adulterated with barium sulfate and zinc oxide. Barium sulfate -is very heavy; in fact, in nature it is known as heavy spar.</p> - -<p>III. Venetian red, dry—</p> - -<table class="paint"> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="pigment">Ferric oxide</td> -<td class="amount">24.12%</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="pigment">Calcium carbonate</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="brace bt br bb"> </td> -<td rowspan="2" class="brace">-</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="amount mid">66.36%</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="pigment">Calcium sulfate</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="pigment">Undetermined</td> -<td class="amount">9.52%</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p class="paintremark">Adulterated with calcium carbonate and calcium sulfate. Venetian -red is ferric oxide, or a natural red oxide of iron. Calcium -carbonate is chalk or limestone, and calcium sulfate is plaster.</p> - -<p>IV. Venetian red in oil—</p> - -<table class="paint"> - -<tr> -<td class="pigment">Ferric oxide</td> -<td class="amount">12.82%</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="pigment">Calcium sulfate</td> -<td class="amount">3.54%</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="pigment">Barium sulfate</td> -<td class="amount">63.98%</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="pigment">Oil and undetermined</td> -<td class="amount">19.66%</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="amount"><span class="bt">100.00%</span></td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p class="paintremark">Adulterated with barium sulfate and calcium sulfate.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page181">[181]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER X<br /> -<span class="chapname"><i>INSIDE FINISH, HEATING, AND VENTILATION</i></span></h2> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p>As a rule, houses are built too quickly. -The frame timbers are only partly seasoned -when placed; the rains which fall before the -house is roofed-in and the dampness caused by -plastering all conspire to swell and make damp -all portions of the wooden parts of the structure. -Formerly, the casings of doors and -windows and the floors were placed before the -rooms were plastered; the better practice of -plastering on “grounds”<a id="FNanchor_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> and placing the woodwork -after the mortar is dry is now observed -by the builders of all good houses. In most -cases even these improved methods of construction -do not result in securing what is -wanted—tight floors and doors and casings -which will not shrink and warp out of shape. -Nearly all of this trouble may be traced to -two principal causes: the lumber which constitutes -the inside finish may not be thoroughly -seasoned, or the house may be so damp that the<span class="pagenum" id="Page182">[182]</span> -finish swells after it is placed. In either case, -when the house becomes thoroughly dried out -by artificial heat or otherwise, unsightly and -dirt-holding cracks will appear. When expensive -hard wood polished floors are laid, pains -is taken to provide against shrinkage by -kiln-drying the floor boards and by laying -them where the air and sun unite to take up -extraneous moisture in the rooms and in the -floor boards used.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> -Narrow strips of sufficient thickness to receive the lath and plaster, -placed on the frame and other places where needed.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<p>Comparatively few persons can afford hard -wood floors, but this fact does not preclude -having floors without wide cracks, which serve -to retain dangerous and filthy material. There -is no reason why tight floors may not be made -of hard pine or other suitable material, provided -a little extra pains be taken in their construction.</p> - -<p>The laying of the floors should be the last -carpenter work done in the new house. All -this implies that a rough, cheap floor has been -laid when the frame was constructed. The -rough, diagonally laid sub-floor will cost something -extra, but it results in so many benefits -that it should never be dispensed with.</p> - -<div class="container w30em" id="Fig82"> -<a id="Fig83"></a> - -<img src="images/illo191.jpg" alt="" /> - -<div class="split5050"> - -<div class="left5050"> -<p class="caption">Fig. 82. A plain base board.</p> -</div> - -<div class="right5050"> -<p class="caption">Fig. 83. A complex base board.</p> -</div> - -</div><!--split--> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p class="allclear">Windows and door frames must have inside -casings, and baseboards, kitchen wainscoting and -picture moldings cannot well be dispensed -with. All these should be of the simplest and<span class="pagenum" id="Page183">[183]</span> -plainest construction. <a href="#Fig82">Fig. 82</a> shows a cross -section of a plain baseboard, and <a href="#Fig83">Fig. 83</a> one -of complex construction. Two styles of facings -are shown in <a href="#Fig84">Fig. -84</a>. The one style forms -lodging places for dirt; -the other reduces dust catching to the minimum. -I notice that some of the newer passenger -coaches, though most elegant, are built -with smooth inside finish. With the exception<span class="pagenum" id="Page184">[184]</span> -of the window sills there are no lodging -places for dust and cinders. The old-fashioned -doors with thin panels, and numerous -moldings have been discarded, and those -as plain and uniform in thickness as a pane -of window glass, substituted for them. The -picture molding, as shown in <a href="#Fig85">Fig. 85</a>, may -serve to support the picture and catch dirt as -well. The other illustration (<a href="#Fig86">Fig. 86</a>) shows one -which may serve quite as well for the purpose -desired without forming a dust shelf. If -the window sashes are made with plain bevels -and not molded, and all other window fixtures, -as stops and the like, are constructed in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page185">[185]</span> -same way, the labor of keeping the house clean -will be greatly reduced.</p> - -<div class="container w30em" id="Fig84"> - -<img src="images/illo192.jpg" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 84. Two styles of facing.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<div class="container w08em left" id="Fig85"> - -<img src="images/illo193a.jpg" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption long">Fig. 85. The common -but faulty -picture -moulding.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>The wainscoting and the ceilings, -if they are made of wood, should be -constructed of wide boards, the cracks -being covered with beveled battens. -The old-fashioned, beaded, narrow ceiling -material is not only difficult to keep -tinted or varnished, but almost forbids -cleanliness.</p> - -<div class="container w08em right" id="Fig86"> - -<img src="images/illo193b.jpg" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 86. A sanitary -picture -molding.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>Most stairs are too steep; some -are little better than ladders and more dangerous. -The risers in the main stairway should not -exceed 6¹⁄₂ inches, nor the steps be less than -12 inches wide. The back stair may have 7 to -7¹⁄₂ inches risers, and 10- to 11-inch steps. -The best and most beautiful stair has -one or more broad landings. The -spiral or “corkscrew” stair is worst -of all. The effort to economize space -by cramping the stair is almost universal. -The difference between a cramped -stair and an ample one may not -amount to more than 12 square feet of -space, equivalent to the top of a small -table. True, the children may go up an easy -stair two steps at a time, but when their hair -whitens they will bless the man who knew the -difference between an easy, dignified stair and<span class="pagenum" id="Page186">[186]</span> -a step-ladder. Diminish the size of a room, -add a foot to the width of the house, do -anything rather than cramp the stairway.</p> - -<p>As far as possible paint should be kept off -the inside woodwork. There are but few varieties -of wood which may not be made smooth; and -by the use of hard oil, which is really oil and -varnish mixed together, all woodwork becomes -beautiful and can be easily cleaned. It appears -almost sacrilegious to cover the fine grain of our -native woods with cheap, adulterated paint. If -some of the woods, such as ash, oak and chestnut, -be sawed “on the quarter” and properly -finished, they become more elegant and are in -better taste than any of the imported high-priced -woods. The farm house should be plain, substantial, -and durable, and in many cases there is -sufficient wealth to make it elegant and even -refined by decorating the walls with a few fine -pictures and providing useful books. We judge -people somewhat by the furnishings of the -rooms in which they live, and by their appreciation -of things which are really beautiful and -useful.</p> - -<p>The comfort and elegance of the rooms -depend quite as much on the plastered walls -as on their wooden finish. Few things are -more annoying than poor walls, which may fall -at any time upon the furniture and rugs, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page187">[187]</span> -may even endanger the lives of the little ones. -With quick-lime and sand and an honest and -efficient workman, a good, durable wall may be -secured; provided, however, that the joists and -studding are strong enough to prevent vibration -when the floors are walked upon or the -doors are closed quickly.</p> - -<p>In plastering, the green-coat finish should not -be adopted, since poorer walls will inevitably be -the result than by the scratch-coat method. To -the new settler on the prairies living in a covered -wagon, the time consumed in building a -house was important; therefore the second coat -of plaster was put on a few hours after the -first. The pressure required to spread, level, -and smooth the second coat often disturbed the -clinches formed by the first coat. The bond of -these mortar clinches being broken or disturbed, -the wall was made weak. It is well known that -if the bond between the lath and mortar is once -broken after the mortar sets, it never reunites. -The only safe way to place a wall when the -common mortar is used is by the scratch-coat -method. This consists in allowing the first coat -to become fully dry, having, however, scratched -the surface of the plaster slightly soon after it -is put on. When it is perfectly dry the second -coat is placed, and when this is dry, a third -(skim) coat may be added, which should be<span class="pagenum" id="Page188">[188]</span> -but little thicker than whitewash. This leaves -the wall smooth and nearly white. However, -many walls are now finished on the second coat -which is left level but rough, and may be tinted -by mixing coloring material with the mortar. -The quality of the wall depends largely upon the -mixing of the mortar and the amount of firm -troweling which it receives. The fewer interstices -between the particles of sand the better. Firm, -persistent troweling tends to reduce interstices, -and hence to make the wall firm and strong. -Plastered walls are much strengthened by being -painted, and wherever such painting is appropriate, -as in the bathroom, wardrobe, and kitchen, -they should receive two coats of light cream -color or other warm-colored paint.</p> - -<p>A new mixture, cement and hair, or wood-fiber, -has been put on the market, and is likely -to be used extensively, for when properly used a -stronger, harder, and more durable wall is secured -than by using the ordinary stone lime and -sand mortar. This cement is sold under a variety -of names, and is usually known by the -builders under the generic name, adamant or -adamant plaster. It is put up in barrel packages, -and sells in central New York from $2 to -$2.50 per barrel, wholesale. It is mixed in -small quantities immediately before using, in the -proportion of one of cement to two of sharp<span class="pagenum" id="Page189">[189]</span> -sand. One barrel suffices for thirty square -yards of two-coat work, three-fourth-inch -grounds being used; seven-eighth-inch grounds -are required for three-coat work. As mortar -made of this material sets quickly, the laths -should be thoroughly wet before the mortar is -applied, and the rooms should be closed while -the work is progressing, or the mortar will -harden too rapidly. Not only plastering mortar, -but that used for other purposes which depends -on cement for its binding force, should not be -allowed to dry out rapidly.</p> - -<p>One serious objection is urged against walls -made of cement mortar,—it being said that -they are so resonant as to be annoying. To -overcome this objection the walls of one public -building were covered with burlap and painted. -Notwithstanding the objections raised against -cement plastered walls, they are likely to come -into common use, since they are so superior in -hardness and durability to the old style wall.</p> - -<p>Ordinarily, a full year should be allotted for -building the house, and it should not be occupied -until it has become thoroughly dried out. -Perhaps this hint of the unsanitary condition of -a damp house may be sufficient for the American. -In Germany the law requires that a new -house must have been completed a full half year -before it may be occupied.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page190">[190]</span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<h3 class="nobreak">HEATING AND VENTILATION</h3> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p>In the future as in the past, most farm -houses, without doubt, will be heated by stoves. -However, some farmers will desire either an air, -water, or steam heater. Air heaters are dangerous, -because if the valves are not properly managed, -the pipes may become superheated and may -set the building on fire. They carry fine dust -into the rooms, and the heat cannot be evenly -distributed when the house is exposed to the full -force of the wind, as it usually is in the country. -The system of heating by means of hot water -has many objections when used in the farm -house. The water in the pipes is likely to freeze -at night in the unused rooms if it is cut off; if -it is left on, all the rooms must be heated, -which is frequently not desirable. Then, too, -heat cannot be secured as quickly in the morning -as desired, and in case of too much heat, -the rooms cool slowly unless doors or windows -are opened. The first cost of placing a steam -heating plant is expensive, but once in place it -is most satisfactory. Wherever steam power -can be used to advantage in the dairy, the steam -plant might well be placed in one end of the -summer kitchen or in the wood house, where it -may be separated from the balance of the room -by a partition. There is no more danger of<span class="pagenum" id="Page191">[191]</span> -fire from a boiler than from a stove. The one -plant which furnishes steam and hot water for -various purposes, such as churning, sawing wood, -and pumping water, need not be more expensive -if it also is made to serve for heating the -house.</p> - -<p>A simple contrivance now in common use,—when -several buildings are heated from a central -station,—serves to govern the amount and -pressure of steam introduced into the building. -The farm steam plant should be situated, when -possible, below the level of the radiators on the -first floor, that the warm water from the condensed -steam may be used again in the boiler -instead of cold water. In the long run, this -system would heat the house more cheaply than -stoves, require less care-taking, and be cleaner -and more satisfactory in every way.</p> - -<p>Much has been written about ventilation; and -too often the systems applicable to ventilating -large, overcrowded rooms and public halls have -been applied to dwellings. However complex -and difficult the ventilation of large buildings -may be, the ventilation of a room in a dwelling -is simple. If there are two or more windows in -a room, ideal ventilation can be secured by raising -the lower and lowering the upper sash as -much as desired. By this method three streams -of air are allowed to enter or leave the room, as<span class="pagenum" id="Page192">[192]</span> -there will be openings at the top, bottom and -middle of the windows. The impure air is -largely found at the top of the room and at the -bottom. If, then, the warmer and lighter air is -allowed to escape at the top, the colder air will -rush in at the bottom, which will result in keeping -it moving as water moves when the inflow -is at or near the bottom of a vessel and the -outflow near the top. Whenever only one window -can be secured in the sleeping room, large -transoms should be placed over the doors into -the hall. While this method does not ventilate -as well as the other, it serves to keep the air -pure in the chamber. When there are many -rooms situated on one hall, the hall should be -ventilated by means of windows at its end, or at -the top of the house. Many farm houses are -over-ventilated in winter, the cold air entering -the loose casements until the wash water expands -and breaks the pitcher. In such cases -storm sashes are a necessity, and are more economical -than feather beds or coal in preserving -a living temperature.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page193">[193]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER XI<br /> -<span class="chapname"><i>HOUSE FURNISHING AND DECORATION</i></span></h2> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p>House furnishings do not exist for themselves, -but as a background for the people -who live among them. Just as the trees, -rocks, fields and animals have for their setting -the green earth and the blue sky, and -as pictures have a background, a middle distance -and a foreground, so human beings have -their setting. If the setting be more striking -or more elegant than the people for whom -it exists, they are made uncomfortable and -overshadowed by it; if meaner and uglier than -they, the people are belittled by it. How many -houses there are whose furnishings are much -more attractive than their inhabitants! A -woman of superficial education and trivial -character has the distinction of having the -most beautiful library in her state; rows on -rows of the best books, in beautiful bindings, in -a room of the most artistic design, and nobody -to read them. The contrast between the woman -and her environment is pitiful.</p> - -<p>The house and its contents should be an outgrowth<span class="pagenum" id="Page194">[194]</span> -of the tastes, habits and occupation of -its owners. Farm life in its best aspect is a -synonym for breadth, generosity, simplicity, -cleanliness, abundance of sunlight, fresh air and -good food, the beauty of nature, freedom from -stiff formality—these are the things which the -city dweller envies the farmer. The equipment -of the house should express this breadth, beauty, -and freedom of life. It follows from this that -many pieces of furniture and some kinds of -decoration which are offered in the shops are -quite out of place in a country house. Imitation -is, therefore, a dangerous principle, for it is likely -to lead to the choice and purchase of articles -which, however suitable for some other family -and pretty in themselves, are wholly inappropriate -in the case of the purchaser.</p> - -<p>There are three main considerations which -should always be taken into account in house-furnishing: -health, suitability, and beauty. The -order of these is often reversed to the permanent -injury of the housewife. The first law of -hygiene is that nothing can be suitable which is -not wholesome for those who are to use it; the -first law of decorative art is that nothing is -beautiful which is not wholly suitable. If these -principles should be applied to the furnishing of -country houses, they would taboo dark, thick -window draperies, nearly all bric-a-brac, heavy<span class="pagenum" id="Page195">[195]</span> -upholstered furniture, parlor tea-tables filled -with delicate (and generally dusty) china, and -many other things which have been copied from -the unwholesome and perhaps necessary customs -of city life.</p> - -<p>Taste is a matter of cultivation, as much as -efficiency or honesty; the habitual application of -its fundamental principles in one’s own household, -and the seeing of beautiful things elsewhere, -are the chief means of its development. -Man obtained his first conception of beauty from -the form and color which he saw in the world -about him, and we have only to apply the principles -which are there apparent, in order to develop -good taste. Nature provides an immense -and comparatively neutral background; Nature -always makes curves, never angles; Nature -blends the most sharply contrasting colors together -in the butterfly’s wing, in the poppies in -a meadow, and in the feathers of the robin’s -breast. The greater part of the world is in soft -colors, browns and grays, dull greens and dull -blues; the brilliant yellows, reds, pinks, purples -and blues are always in very small quantities -against this very large, neutral background. -Since the furnishings of a house are the setting -of the people, none of them should be more -conspicuous than the people. Whatever brilliant -color there is must be in relatively small quantities<span class="pagenum" id="Page196">[196]</span> -against a soft background. Nothing either -in form or color should “stick out.”</p> - -<p>If the general principles just laid down be -applied to the details of house furnishing, we -shall find that many matters must be changed. -Since the housewife must usually do her own -work with very little or, at most, inadequate -help, everything should be planned to save her -strength. If we remember, also, that the first -effort of good housekeeping is to keep dirt out -of the house, and the second to get it out at -once, it will appear that carpets are unsanitary. -It has already been shown that good floors -are now to be had easily and cheaply. If properly -painted or finished with oil and wax, they -form the best foundation for tasteful and cleanly -housekeeping. Carpets not only keep the dirt -in the house, but they involve that annual bugbear, -house-cleaning. Even when the floors are -old and poor, the space around the edge of a rug -may be puttied and painted so as to look very -well when the rug is put down. By rugs, I do -not mean several little rugs, like oases in the -slippery surface, or at the doorways to trip the -unwary, but a good, generous-sized rug which -just escapes the edges of the heavier furniture -around the sides of the room; which is substantial -enough not to roll up, and which is yet -small enough to be carried in and out by one<span class="pagenum" id="Page197">[197]</span> -person. If the woodwork and pictures be wiped -with a damp cloth, the windows washed, the -floor dusted, and the rug beaten out of doors, -now and then, no such terrible upheaval as -house-cleaning usually implies, is necessary. -Rugs may be had ready-made of ingrain, Japanese -cotton, and jute, Brussels, and more expensive -materials, but should always be heavy -enough to lie flat without fastening and large -enough to cover the entire portion of the floor -which is to be walked upon. The uncovered -space should usually not be wider than one and -one-half feet.</p> - -<p>All furniture that is not actually built into -or fastened to the wall and floors should be -easily movable and easily cleaned. This at -once precludes the purchase of heavy, upholstered -chairs and large sofas. Wicker and -rattan furniture, though not so artistic and -costly as antique wood, is very light, and with -good removable hair cushions, may be made -quite as comfortable and far more cleanly than -upholstered plush and damask. The cushions -may be beaten at the same time as the rugs, and -the dust thus taken out of the house. White -enameled bedsteads and washstands are rapidly -superseding the heavy wooden ones. It is a -curious fact that although the persons of a -family are of various sizes and ages, chairs are<span class="pagenum" id="Page198">[198]</span> -still bought by the half dozen, without reference -to the people who are to sit upon them. Even -in such minor matters as chairs and tea-cups, -some account should be taken of individuality.</p> - -<p>If all furniture be selected with these simple -principles in mind, i. e., hygienic cleanliness, the -minimum of labor for the housewife, and the comfort -of those who are to use it, there remains -only one other way in which to go astray: it -may still be superlatively and positively ugly; or -it may be comfortable, sanitary, easily moved, -and yet be merely negatively ugly; or it may be -made decorative by its graceful form, the color -of its covering, or the carving upon it. The -first principle of artistic decoration is that it -must be wholly subordinated to the use of the -object which it adorns. For instance, windows -are for two purposes: to light the house and for -seeing out. If a window opens on a barnyard -or some unpleasant prospect, you may put up a -sash curtain of light silk or muslin. Thus you -obtain light but no view. But if you wish to -see out of the window, sash curtains are absurd. -In the ordinary private house, elaborate and -heavy window curtains are out of place, both for -sanitary and artistic reasons. Whenever cleanliness -is a prime object, drapery should be -movable and washable. Silk and velvet draperies<span class="pagenum" id="Page199">[199]</span> -are only to be tolerated where there is a -retinue of maids to keep them clean.</p> - -<p>The facility and cheapness of mill-work and -lathe-work in wood has vitiated the taste of -Americans to a terrible degree. Nearly all ready-made -furniture is grooved, machine-carved, -and ornamented in a way to violate not only -the principles of beauty, but of strength and -cleanliness as well. Ornament that does not -<i>mean anything</i> is not merely commonplace but -ugly. There are four chairs of different patterns, -and costing from $1.50 to $15, in the room -where I sit; all of them have legs. Now, legs are -intended as a support, yet all these are grooved -and beaded and hollowed out in spots, so that -twice as much material as is necessary has been -used to insure support. The ornamentation is -not pretty, the hollows are inevitably full of -dust, and they mean absolutely nothing to anybody -who sees them. On the front crosspiece of -one large chair is glued a design of leaves in -oak, by way of ornament. If these had been -carved out upon a beautiful strip of wood by the -hand of a cunning workman, they would at least -have meant a man’s thought and skill. As they -are, they suggest merely a machine and a glue -pot, and thousands of others as hideous as they. -Contrast with this gingerbread furniture the -plain, substantial colonial chairs and tables and<span class="pagenum" id="Page200">[200]</span> -sideboards, made of beautiful wood, almost -without ornamentation, with shapely, slender, -and strong legs and softly polished by hand. -Cheapness and quantity have been secured -by machinery at the expense of beauty and -strength.</p> - -<p>If the principle thus illustrated be true, then -it follows that patterns of any sort, whether in -carpets, wall paper, china, or drapery, must be -very carefully used that they may not be more -conspicuous than that which they decorate. The -floor and the wall are the basis both of color-scheme -and decoration. They are the background -of the people who are to live there; -they should, therefore, be rather inconspicuous, -soft and indefinite in effect, and as becoming -as possible to the human figures. If the climate -be sunny and the room well lighted, the walls -and floor may be dark and rich in effect; if the -climate be uncertain and often cloudy, or the -room badly lighted, the effect should be light -and gay. Color is the chief means of producing -this result: the walls and floors of living rooms -should be of soft, neutral brown, yellow, red, -green, or warm gray tints. Blue, though very -lovely when carefully used, is cold in effect, and -seldom satisfactory for living rooms, while the -blue grays are positively chilling. Yellow in -paler or richer shades, depending on the lighting<span class="pagenum" id="Page201">[201]</span> -of the room, is uniformly cheerful and satisfying; -next to it rank the various terra cotta -shades. Neither rug nor wall-covering should -have large, striking designs; if having pattern -at all, it should rather be of an indefinite, -wandering design like the Japanese jute rugs, -or of small inconspicuous conventional design, -such as may be found in the best Brussels -carpet.</p> - -<p>If the floors, however, be poor and old they -may be covered very inexpensively with thick, -strong building paper which comes in beautiful -tints and the rug may be laid on top of this; or -with denim on top of newspapers, which is only -a little more expensive, and which may be had -in a variety of beautiful shades; or, best of all, -with matting on top of paper. Matting is -especially desirable because the dust sifts -through below, and does not rise easily when -swept. But the money spent to cover up a poor -floor would often serve to lay a good new one, -and this should be done whenever possible. -For kitchen and, in some cases, for a dining -room floor as well, nothing is so satisfactory as -linoleum. It is impervious, warm, soft to the -foot, easily kept in order by an occasional coat -of oil, and to be had in agreeable patterns. It -may also be used like denim, building paper, -and matting, to cover up bad floors, and as a<span class="pagenum" id="Page202">[202]</span> -basis for the rug; while more expensive, it is -also much more satisfactory than anything except -a good hardwood floor. There is often -far too great contrast between the furnishings -of the living room and the parlor; between the -“spare room” and the family bedrooms. The -money spent in elegance which is shut up in a -room rarely used would serve to add much to -the comfort of the whole family. The guest will -enjoy the hospitality offered all the more if not -treated too ceremoniously.</p> - -<p>The furnishing of the living room should always -include several easy chairs, a good lounge, -a place for books and magazines, and a thoroughly -good reading lamp. If it can be afforded, -a small room off the sitting room for -writing and study is very desirable. It should -contain book shelves, a large writing table or -desk, and a good lamp. But if the extra room -cannot be had, the desk and book shelves may -be placed in the parlor. There should certainly -be some place where the children may study or -any member of the family may read and write -uninterrupted. It is as irksome to write without -proper appliances as to bathe without proper -facilities.</p> - -<p>The furniture and decorations of bedrooms -can scarcely be too simple; the walls may be -lighter and gayer than those of living rooms.<span class="pagenum" id="Page203">[203]</span> -Blue and white or pale green and white may be -used as color-schemes for very sunny bedrooms, -yellow or pink and white for less sunny ones. -One or two single, white, enamelled iron bedsteads, -a washstand, a bureau or a chest of -drawers with glass above, two or three low, light -chairs, and a table or desk at which one may -write, is an ample furnishing, if there be a good -closet or wardrobe. The rug need be only large -enough to cover the space in front of the bed, -bureau, and stand, if the floor be well matched -and painted or oiled. A bedroom should give -the impression of spotlessness and comfort; -everything should be washable or cleanable; unless -used also as a sitting room, it should not -have a superfluous article in it. Mats, bric-a-brac, -even many pictures, are quite out of -place.</p> - -<p>Since cost, styles and tastes differ so widely -in different localities, no detailed directions can -or should be given that will be generally applicable. -If the principles illustrated in this chapter -be correct, they will serve to guide and to -develop the taste of many different kinds of -persons.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page204">[204]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER XII<br /> -<span class="chapname"><i>CLEANLINESS AND SANITATION—WATER SUPPLY -AND SEWAGE</i></span></h2> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p>Filth and disease have gone hand in hand -from the beginning of the world; but only during -the last quarter-century have we known the -true cause of infection, and why it is so closely -associated with dirt. The danger of uncleanliness -lies in the existence of certain microscopic -organisms belonging to the vegetable kingdom, -known popularly as microbes or germs, but more -properly as bacteria. Bacteria, like the plants -with which we are more familiar, thrive in moisture -and moderate heat, but differ from them in -many respects. Some of the more striking -differences are structure and method of reproduction, -many of them possessing the faculty of -growing without sunlight. Bacteria are composed -of minute masses of vegetable matter -which vary from one ten-thousandth to one-thirty -thousandth of an inch in length, and they -reproduce by simple division. This process of -multiplication may occur as often as once in -half an hour; thus immense numbers may develop<span class="pagenum" id="Page205">[205]</span> -in a very short time. Under conditions -unfavorable for growth, some species may form -within their interior dense masses which are called -spores. These resemble the seeds of higher -plants in their function of distributing the species -and in preserving life through intervals of -time unfavorable for continuous multiplication.</p> - -<p>Bacteria may be classified in several ways, -but for the discussion of cleanliness and sanitation, -the simplest division is into the harmless -and the injurious. The harmless forms live -mostly on dead organic matter, causing nitrification, -fermentation, and putrefaction; they -break down the more complex organic compounds -into simpler ones, so that they can be -used again as food for plants. Familiar examples -of this are seen in the decay of meat -and vegetables. This class is more numerous, -much hardier than the other, and comprises an -overwhelmingly large proportion of the bacteria -in nature.</p> - -<p>Bacteria are found almost constantly in water, -in soil, and in air. Consequently they are present -in all our food, except that which has been -heated to kill them. Certain bacteria are normal -inhabitants of the mouth, throat and intestines, -while others find suitable conditions for -growth on the skin and in the accumulation of -substances excreted in the perspiration.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page206">[206]</span></p> - -<p>Owing to the short time which has been devoted -to the study of bacteria and their functions, -closer attention has been paid to the -harmful or pathogenic bacteria because of their -relation to human health. This one-sided study -of bacteriology has blinded us to the beneficent -action of many bacteria, and has caused us much -unnecessary fear of their presence in food.</p> - -<p>The harmful bacteria cause disease either indirectly -through poisons which they excrete in -food products, or directly by poisons or toxins -which they form when living within the body. -Although harmless bacteria are everywhere present, -the pathogenic or harmful varieties are -ordinarily much less numerous. It should be -understood, however, that many of the so-called -harmless bacteria are the cause of certain decompositions -of vegetable and animal matter -with the formation of substances which are -detrimental to health. This is illustrated by the -occasional cases of meat, fish, and oyster poisoning. -The pathogenic bacteria, such as those -of tuberculosis, typhoid fever, diphtheria, and -the like, constitute, as has been already stated, -a small number of species. These are disseminated -through various channels, such as the milk -and the water supply, and by persons directly. -When they are introduced into dirty and unwholesome -homes, they find in the filth suitable<span class="pagenum" id="Page207">[207]</span> -conditions for their multiplication, with the -usual consequence of causing more or less disease -in the family. The human body possesses -more or less power of resistance to bacteria, but -if these natural forces cannot overcome their -invasion, they in turn will be successful and -produce disease.</p> - -<p>Once infected with disease-producing bacteria, -a house should be renovated from attic to cellar, -and subjected to the action of agents possessing -the power of destroying the pathogenic organisms. -Numerous means are employed to kill -bacteria, among them being the use of disinfectants -in the form of liquids or gases, and the -application of heat. The list of chemical disinfectants -is long, but owing to their cost, a relatively -small number are available for the disinfection -of houses. The use of carbolic acid, -copperas, whitewash, and the fumes of burning -sulfur are familiar disinfectants used for this -purpose. Among the disinfectants which can be -applied directly to wounds, to prevent suppuration, -are weak solutions of corrosive sublimate -and of carbolic acid.</p> - -<p>The greater number of bacteria, pathogenic -or harmless, which do not form spores, are destroyed -by a temperature of 155 degrees Fahrenheit -for twenty minutes. Very few resist the -boiling point; thus water may be made safe by<span class="pagenum" id="Page208">[208]</span> -boiling, and milk by Pasteurizing at 155 degrees -for twenty minutes. Cold merely checks the -growth of bacteria, but, ordinarily, does not destroy -them. Sunlight and fresh air are especially -unfavorable to them; therefore the house -should be sunny, and beds, bedrooms and living -rooms thoroughly aired. If there be no organic -matter to serve as nutriment for them, they cannot -multiply; therefore the body, the clothing, -and the dwelling should be kept as clean as -possible. For this reason the first test of good -sanitation is the immediate removal of all waste -matter from the house, and the first preventive -of disease is personal cleanliness.</p> - -<p>In <a href="#Page74">Chapter VI</a> suggestions have been made -concerning the site, location, and drainage of -the farm house. The kind, number, and convenience -of the sanitary appliances, such as hot -water boilers, closets, lavatories, and baths, are -chiefly dependent upon the water-supply. If -there be an abundance from a town water-main, -or from a windmill or house-tank which will -give some pressure, the problem of plumbing is -comparatively easy; but if there be no such -supply, it becomes far more difficult. A good -water supply <i>in the house</i> is of the first importance; -therefore, for several reasons, plumbing -conveniences lessen the work of the housewife -by half, they encourage the practice of that<span class="pagenum" id="Page209">[209]</span> -virtue which is “next to godliness,” and if -properly arranged they do away with many sanitary -dangers. Personal cleanliness is irksome -enough with every convenience for washing and -bathing. When there is no convenience except -a wash basin and a quart or two of hot water, -habitual cleanliness is practically impossible. -In this respect town and city life have an immense -advantage over rural life. A woman who -had moved from town to country for the sake -of her husband’s health, was asked how she -liked it: she said, “It is delightful, but I sometimes -think I cannot endure it on account of -this nasty privy and no bath-room.” Cleanliness -of the skin is hygienically far more important -than cleanliness of clothing. In athletics -and gymnastics, the bath following the -exercise is considered an essential part of their -hygienic value; how much more necessary, then, -is opportunity for frequent bathing, where the -family, both in and out of doors, do daily -manual labor which causes much perspiration, -and which is often very dirty! The recent -movement in cities to provide public bath-houses -for the poor in tenements should not outstrip -the farmer’s effort to obtain equally good -facilities.</p> - -<p>If there be a sufficient water supply available, -there should be in every house a hot water<span class="pagenum" id="Page210">[210]</span> -boiler of at least twenty gallons capacity, attached -to the kitchen range, to supply hot water -for laundry work and bathing; a kitchen sink -and a bath-tub, each with hot and cold water -faucets and waste pipe to sewer or cesspool; -and a water-closet. These are the essentials; -but, if possible, a stationary wash stand and two -laundry tubs, with hot and cold water pipes, -should also be provided. In the farm house it -will save expense and many steps for the housewife, -and will encourage frequent use, if all -these be located on the first floor; the boiler in -a cupboard in the wall of the kitchen, which -may be shut in summer and opened in winter; -the sink in the kitchen, or if preferred, in a -pantry between the dining room and kitchen; -the bath-room and stationary washstand in a -room either opening out of the kitchen or out -of the family bedroom, or out of a rear passage; -the water-closet should be in some well -ventilated space, on an outside wall, where the -noise of the fixture will be as little heard as -possible. It should have an outside as well as -an inside entrance. It is customary to place -the closet in the bath-room, but this often interferes -with the general use of the washstand -and bath-tub by the family, and should be -avoided. The nearer all plumbing fixtures are -to each other, the less expensive they are to<span class="pagenum" id="Page211">[211]</span> -put in; therefore in planning the first floor, this -point should receive special consideration.</p> - -<p>Certain general principles apply to all plumbing, -and may serve to test the various kinds of -fixtures offered for sale. All foul and effete -matter should be immediately and completely -removed from the house; any back current of -foul air into the house should be prevented, and -any communication between the sewer or the -cesspool and the water supply should be made -impossible. Fixtures should be as simple in -construction as possible and easily accessible. -Pipes were formerly enclosed in the walls, but -in the finest new buildings in cities, are now -placed altogether in sight, and painted the color -of the walls, or of the woodwork. The sewer -pipe, on reaching the level of the ground, should -pass directly out of the house, and should never -be carried along under the first floor of the -house. In the southern states and on the -Pacific coast, pipes may run on the outside of -the house, thus fulfilling ideally the principle -that waste matter should be removed from the -house as soon as possible. A few years ago -there was much controversy over the placing -of vent pipes in traps and in branches. Gerhard -and the older sanitarians advise a complicated -and elaborate use of them, but Putnam -and the more recent authorities consider thorough<span class="pagenum" id="Page212">[212]</span> -ventilation of the soil pipe at top and -bottom quite sufficient. The material of fixtures -should be good (not extravagant), and the -workmanship should be of the very best. The -efficiency of any sanitary convenience depends -almost as much upon the care with which it is -put in as upon its material and style. But of -all the principles of sanitary plumbing, probably -the most important is frequent and thorough -flushing, if possible with hot water. Any fixture -will become foul and dangerous if there is -not water enough and under sufficient force to -scour it out thoroughly.</p> - -<p>Having laid down certain principles which -apply to plumbing fixtures generally, we may -now consider these fixtures more in detail. -Pipes should be rather heavy. Waste pipes are -generally too large, and therefore do not scour -well; they need be only three to four inches in -diameter for one or more closets in an ordinary -house, and from one to one and a-half inches -for washbowls, sinks, and tubs; they should -always be of uniform size, i. e., “full-bore” -throughout. Soil pipes should never run level, -but as nearly as possible at a uniform slope of -not less than one foot in fifty.</p> - -<p>The kitchen sink may be of white porcelain, -enameled iron, painted iron, or granite ware, any -of which materials are serviceable and desirable;<span class="pagenum" id="Page213">[213]</span> -or of wood, lined with lead, zinc, copper -or slate, all of which are more or less undesirable, -because after some use, the water and -filth is apt to get in between the wood and its -covering, or because they are not durable. The -sink should have as little woodwork about it as -possible, since wood is porous and, therefore, -collects filth. It should be set open on brackets, -and not over a dark, moist, dirt-collecting, -back-breaking closet. Flushing is especially important -in the case of the kitchen sink because -of the grease. The best plumbing provides a -grease-trap outside the house, which may be -easily cleaned; but whether outside or immediately -beneath the sink, the trap should have a -screw-plug, so that it may be frequently cleaned. -It follows that the kitchen waste pipe should not -be too large, should have a good incline, and if -possible no abrupt curves, so that cooling grease -in the water may not harden on the sides of the -pipe and finally fill it up. The use of a cheap -wire screen garbage basket in the sink will prevent -the small particles of waste from passing -down the pipe.</p> - -<p>Bath-tubs of white earthenware or “porcelain” -are the most expensive, the most durable -and very heavy; of white enameled iron, -are less expensive and heavy, durable if carefully -used, impervious and cleanly; those of<span class="pagenum" id="Page214">[214]</span> -copper, tinned and planished, dent easily and -the tinning wears off, but are fairly durable and -still less expensive; those of wood-fiber are not -very common, but are impervious, light and -cleanly.</p> - -<p>The stationary washstand bowl and top are -usually of marble; the outlet of the bowl -should not be smaller than the wastepipe; the -trap should be near the bowl, and have a screw -plug, so that obstructions may be easily removed.</p> - -<p>There is an immense variety of water-closets; -those should be especially avoided which have -moveable machinery in connection with the -bowl, such as the pan, valve, and plunger -closets. Some of these are very inexpensive, -but they are objectionable, either because they -rust and accumulate filth, or because they get -out of order easily. The forms of closets without -movable machinery in connection with the -bowl, that is, in which the machinery is connected -with the flushing cistern, such as the -hopper, the siphon-jet, and the washout closets, -are to be preferred. Any washout or hopper -closet bought from a responsible firm is likely -to give satisfaction, if thoroughly flushed and -kept in order.</p> - -<p>Stationary laundry tubs are of less importance -than these other plumbing fixtures, since -there are several excellent washing machines the<span class="pagenum" id="Page215">[215]</span> -use of which does away with the necessity for -them. If one must choose between the two, the -washing machine will be most useful; but if one -wishes to have laundry tubs also, they come in -porcelain, soapstone, granite, and wood, the -latter being the least desirable.</p> - -<p>If the water supply be limited, as when a -tank is supplied by pumping from a cistern, -the hot water boiler, the bath-tub, and the -stationary washstand may be arranged almost -as easily as when there is an abundance of -water; but it may be necessary to substitute the -dry-closet for the water-closet.</p> - -<p>When no tank supply is available, and all -water must be carried from a cistern or from -the well in the yard, the cost of plumbing is -very small and the discomfort very great. Warm -water must be supplied chiefly from a reservoir -at the back of the range, thus making frequent -bathing very inconvenient, even if a regular -bath-tub be provided. If, however, a cesspool be -built in the yard, the kitchen sink, the slop-hopper, -the bath-tub, and the laundry tub may -have waste pipes to it. Such waste pipes save -just half the work, for the water has to be carried -only to the fixture, not away from it again. -It thus seems worth while to have the fixtures, -even though they serve only half their purpose. -A slop-hopper with pipe to the cesspool, on the<span class="pagenum" id="Page216">[216]</span> -same level and near the kitchen, for waste wash -water, etc., from the chambers, saves many steps, -and is far more sanitary than throwing slops on -the ground outside the house or carrying them -to the outhouse.</p> - -<p>The chief problem is the outhouse, or privy -vault. There is no more disgusting or unsanitary -feature of rural life than this ill-smelling, -dirty hole in the ground, from which the filth -permeates the surrounding soil, and may contaminate -the water supply. Much discomfort -and some digestive ills arise from the necessity—especially -for women—of going a considerable -distance in cold weather and at night, to -such places. The closet should, therefore, be as -near the house as is compatible with decency, -and should be reached by a covered walkway. -If properly built and regularly disinfected and -cleaned, it need be neither disgusting nor unsanitary. -The wooden house should never be -papered nor carpeted, but should be painted or -whitewashed yearly and kept scrupulously clean. -The habitual use of ashes or dry earth in the -receptacle and an occasional application of some -disinfectant, such as copperas or chloride of -lime, is necessary. If drawers are used in the -privy, they may be hauled out frequently by -horse; and with the liberal use of road dust, no -offense arises. The writer knows a country<span class="pagenum" id="Page217">[217]</span> -house in which dry-earth closets are under the -house-roof, and yet there is no unpleasantness. -Since the well is so easily contaminated by the -seeping through the soil of manure and human -waste matter, it is of the utmost importance that -the privy vault should be below the source of -water supply and as far as possible from it. In -the following pages the details of construction of -the privy vault are given, the relative location -of it, and the water supply.</p> - -<p>Plumbing fixtures, like all other mechanical -contrivances, to be efficient, require to be kept -in perfect order. Frequent, thorough flushing -with hot water whenever possible, and disinfection -of the closet and the sink, are especially -desirable. If all fixtures be set “open” and all -pipes in sight, any leakage may be easily detected -and remedied. If the pipes be painted -with white lead, the defect will be discovered by -the discoloration of the paint.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<h3 class="nobreak">WATER SUPPLY AND SEWAGE</h3> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p>Water in abundance for the domestic animals -should be provided by means of artificial pools -or lakes, situated on land higher than the barns, -but if they must be placed below the level of the -buildings, aermotors or windmills may be easily -made to elevate it to any reasonable height. It<span class="pagenum" id="Page218">[218]</span> -is difficult to explain why more miniature lakes, -in which to store water for all except culinary -purposes, are not constructed. In <a href="#Fig7">Fig. 7</a> it is -shown how easily these pools may be made -without expensive stone dams, and after the -fashion of those constructed in many of the -southern states.</p> - -<p>Wells, in many places, must be deep, and -then often furnish but a meager supply of water, -while cisterns large enough to supply all wants -are expensive. In addition to artificial lakes, -wells, and cisterns, there are often streams, or -best of all, springs, to be drawn upon. In any -case, a full and continuous supply of water -should be provided before buildings are constructed -if annoyance, loss, and unnecessary labor -are to be obviated and the best sanitary conditions -secured in the house. Unless the water -is brought into the house under a constant pressure, -one or more storage tanks should be provided. -They should be placed at such elevations -as will secure at least some pressure on the first -floor above the cellar. The storage tank may -have a capacity of from one to five barrels, and -may be constructed of rough or planed two-inch -planks and lined with galvanized iron, if the -water is to be used for culinary purposes; if not, -it may be lined with lead. The tank, which may -be of any shape desired, may be placed on supports<span class="pagenum" id="Page219">[219]</span> -near the ceiling of the bath-room, or the -room which contains the commode, or at one -end in the upper part of the clothes-press; provided, -however, that the discharge pipe is made -so large that under no contingencies will the -tank overflow. If the house is fairly large and -the cistern capacious, sufficient water may be -pumped into the tank from the cistern in a few -minutes to supply all wants for the day. From -the tank it will flow by gravity into the hot -water boiler and to all other points desired -which are not above the tank. If water be -raised by means of an aermotor, a storage tank -will still be necessary, as the wind may fail to -operate the motor for an entire day. By whatever -means water is secured, the supply should -be ample at all times. Springs and wells in the -middle and northern states, and cisterns in the -southern states will, in most cases, serve to supply -the potable water needed, but these are too -often inadequate to supply the large demand -for water made by the animals, and the extra -demand for water in the house made by cleaner -and more sanitary methods of living.</p> - -<p>In using water in the household, it becomes -mixed with a great variety of organic substances -which pollute it, and which tend to putrefaction -and decay. As these various organic substances -break down, numerous compounds are produced,<span class="pagenum" id="Page220">[220]</span> -many of which endanger not only health but life -itself; it is therefore evident that all soiled water -should be removed from the house immediately -and by the shortest practical route. But what to -do with the polluted water after it has been removed -from the rooms, becomes one of the most -difficult problems of modern civilization. The -first thought is to empty this sewage into streams -and lakes; but those living on the streams and -in the cities must secure their water-supply from -these sources. It is evident, then, that the -streams should not be polluted. The next -thought is to distribute the sewage over the -land, but this method is usually an expensive -one, and seldom can enough sandy land be secured -to absorb and filter the vast quantities of -sewage which modern conditions make necessary.</p> - -<p>On the farm the same difficulties are presented, -and the problem to be solved differs in -degree rather than in kind. If dry-earth closets -are used on the farm, there is still the kitchen -and laundry sewage to be provided for. While -disposing of this, provision may also be made -for the night-soil, thus obviating two systems of -removing waste from the house. However, the -earth-closet will reduce the amount of liquid -sewage and increase the temptation to discharge -it into the streams which, above all things, -should be avoided. If porous or sandy lands can<span class="pagenum" id="Page221">[221]</span> -be found within reasonable distance of the dwelling, -and yet not too near to it to endanger -health or pollute the water supply, a cesspool -may be constructed. A hole some ten feet in -circumference and ten to twelve feet deep, dug -in the earth, walled with stone without mortar, -may serve for catching and filtering the sewage. -On top of the wall, which should not reach the -surface of the ground by about two feet, lay two -pieces of railroad iron, and on these place large -flat stones, covering all with dirt, providing, -however, for ventilation by -means of a 4-inch iron -pipe, which should be long -enough to reach a little -above the surface of the -ground when all is completed.</p> - -<div class="container w25em" id="Fig87"> - -<img src="images/illo229.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 87. Plan of a cesspool.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>If the soil is not as porous -as is desired, lay several -tile or stone drains at -a depth of three to five feet, -and extend them from the -cesspool some distance out -into the field or grounds -beyond. (<a href="#Fig87">Fig. 87</a>.) These -drains should have free outlets, and the longer -they are the better. At the outlet of the drains -plant willows or some other water-loving, fast-growing<span class="pagenum" id="Page222">[222]</span> -trees. These will take up and utilize -vast quantities of liquid and decomposed solids, -and if the household is of only ordinary size -no nuisance will result.</p> - -<p>If water is limited and the dry-earth closet -must be adopted, then the cesspool for the -kitchen and laundry liquids need not be made so -large as described, but may be built in the same -manner. The dry-earth closet may be built as -follows: Construct a privy of suitable size, 5 to -20 feet from the most convenient rear door, and -connect it by a covered walk to the house. The -small building should be placed not less than -two feet above the ground, on a good, tight wall, -which should extend under three sides of the -building, the other side to be furnished with a -hinged door. Secure a large, iron-top, dump -wheelbarrow, which may serve to hold all fœcal -matter. This may be emptied weekly or monthly -into a nearby trench, previously prepared. A -few shovelfuls of earth thrown upon the excreta -will effectually arrest any offensive odors -which might otherwise arise. Before the ground -freezes in the fall dig a trench of sufficient -length to contain the fœcal matter during the -winter. In cold weather the barrow may be -inverted over the trench, and by the application -of a few quarts of hot water to the iron bottom -the frozen material will be released. When the<span class="pagenum" id="Page223">[223]</span> -ground thaws, the accumulated matter may be -covered. While the material is frozen there will -be no danger from it. It should be said that -this trench would better be dug near a row of -trees or other strong-growing perennial plants. -These will quickly take up the products of the -night-soil which might, in rare cases, tend to -contaminate the soil-water. If but little of the -night-soil be deposited in one place, the earth -and plants—two most efficient disinfectants—may -be trusted to preserve good sanitary conditions. -However, pains should be taken to discover if, -by any possible means, the sewage may find -its way into the well. An intelligent inspection -of the soil, the stratification of it and the rocks, -will reveal the direction which the soil-water -takes; but if the cesspool and the drains are -placed some distance from the dwelling, no contamination -will take place under any circumstances, -since the amount of sewage is so small -and the power of plants and soil to take up the -dangerous products of sewage is so great.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page224">[224]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER XIII<br /> -<span class="chapname"><i>HOUSEHOLD ADMINISTRATION, ECONOMY, AND -COMFORT</i></span></h2> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p>In colonial times, before so many of the -household operations were transferred to shops -and manufactories, women were producers almost -as much as men; but in modern times -women are more and more concerned with how -money shall be spent. The woman is still a -producer when she cooks an egg, mends a garment, -or sweeps a room; but the question of -how much or how little can be had out of the -family income has become relatively more and -more her concern. In Europe, far more than in -the United States, attention is given by the -women to the economical expenditure of the -family resources. A provincial French girl is -trained from her childhood for household duties. -She assists her mother not only in order to -learn the finer arts of housewifery, but especially -the judicious expenditure of money. The -French husband leaves the apportionment of the -family income almost wholly to his wife’s discretion.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page225">[225]</span></p> - -<p>There can be no doubt that the prosperity of -the family depends quite as much on the wise -use of the income as upon the size of that income. -The first essential of good household -management is that the housewife should know -definitely how much there is to spend. Nothing -is more productive of marital discontent than -the habit which many husbands have of doling -out money to the wife at irregular times and in -indefinite amounts. It destroys the wife’s self-respect, -it places her in a degraded position -before her children, and it removes all incentive -to thrift. It not infrequently supplies a powerful -motive for deceit. If the wife is inexperienced, -unwise, or extravagant in the use of -money, so much the more reason why the husband -should patiently and firmly teach her how -to spend, both for her own sake and that of the -family welfare. An arrangement by which the -wife controls the expenditure of a certain portion -of the income is very easy whenever the -man receives a salary or regular daily wages. -A regular income tends to develop thrift and to -teach people to avoid debt; but there is always -a tendency to live up to the limit of it, and the -margin for saving and for extra pleasures is always -small. Salaried people seldom get deeply -in debt, but they as seldom become very rich.</p> - -<p>On the other hand, whenever the family income<span class="pagenum" id="Page226">[226]</span> -is irregular, as from farming and most -other kinds of business, the problem of household -financiering is much more difficult and requires -both greater self-control and better judgment. -It is usually possible for such families -to determine upon a definite minimum amount -which may be counted upon for ordinary living -expenses. The margin above this may vary -widely, but if the scale of living be habitually -adjusted to come within the minimum income, -there will be no terror of debt. The expenditure -of the surplus, when it comes, becomes a -unique and unexpected pleasure. Whatever the -plan adopted for distributing the family income, -the wife should have at her command and -should be expected to live within, a definite -share of the income.</p> - -<p>After the minimum expenses of the family -have been determined, the next most important -question is how and when they shall be paid -out. Cash payments are much to be preferred. -They have two advantages: whoever pays cash -asks no favor of the tradesman, and commands -the best quality at a given price. The tradesman -who lends money by allowing the payment -of bills to be postponed, must pay for his goods -and must have interest on the money necessary -to carry on a credit business. He must necessarily, -therefore, reimburse himself by charging<span class="pagenum" id="Page227">[227]</span> -a higher price, or by giving a poorer article. -It should never be forgotten that credit costs -something. The cash customer is always considered -a good customer, and can always have -the first choice of the market, and favors if any -are desired. Whenever monthly or quarterly -bills are run, the debtor is apt to acquire a -most dangerous habit—the habit of spending -now, to pay at some future time. The more -remote the time, the more dangerous the habit. -It is evident that the oftener bills are paid, the -less likelihood there is of mistakes and deceit. -If bills must be run, it should never be for -longer than a month, and prompt payment of -them is a solemn obligation. The article should -be done without rather than the seller asked -to wait for his money. Whatever plan the -housewife adopts will be conditioned by the -customs of the locality in which she lives and -by the habits of the local tradesman.</p> - -<p>Women waste much time and energy in buying -things one by one; they spend in this way, -too, much more than they realize, and then they -wonder where the money has gone. China, -linen, and the stock of clothing necessary for -changes of season, should be bought by the set, -or quantity, marked and prepared for use at -regular intervals. Women buy a collar or two, -a pair of stockings, a bit of ribbon, a bread<span class="pagenum" id="Page228">[228]</span> -plate, a few glasses, etc., and then are surprised -that they seem to have very little for the -money. Unless the housewife be really poor, or -unless the money be doled out to her irregularly, -it will invariably pay to buy in quantity -things which are not perishable, and which the -household wears out and, therefore, habitually -needs. Handkerchiefs, stockings, underclothing, -china, drinking glasses, cost less by the dozen -and half-dozen than by the piece. Lamp chimneys -are continually broken, toilet paper and -soap used up, yet very few housekeepers realize -that they waste both time and energy, beside -suffering inconvenience, when they buy these -one at a time. Buying piecemeal is demoralizing, -as well as wasteful, because it is unsystematic. -Successful housekeeping involves attention -to numberless details; if by periodic instead -of incessant attention some of these can be -disposed of in the mass, there will be immense -saving of energy.</p> - -<p>Many housekeepers will object to this, either -because it involves the immediate expenditure -of a larger sum of money for one class of articles, -or because, not having more wholesome -social and intellectual interests, they find recreation -in wandering from store to store, or counter -to counter, pricing much and buying little; or -because they love to find “a bargain.” The instinct<span class="pagenum" id="Page229">[229]</span> -to get something “cheap,” that is, to get -something for nothing, or, more properly, to get -more than we pay for, lies very deep in human -nature. Because women have usually lived from -hand to mouth, without foresight, it has perhaps -been exaggerated in them. There are the -bargain-hunters, and there are the bargain-scorners; -both are doubtless equally illogical. -When an article is phenomenally cheap, it is so, -usually, either because too many of its kind are -on the market, or because the seller is sacrificing -a normal profit to draw general custom, -or because the people who have produced it -have done so at less than a decent living wage, -or because it is going or gone out of fashion. -Good buyers are rightfully suspicious of bargains. -No one should be willing to buy or use -articles which have been produced at starvation -wages under wretched sanitary conditions. It -is never good economy to buy things which are -gone out of fashion unless one is quite <i>satisfied -to be out of fashion</i>. If the article offered on -the bargain counter be of good quality, and in -staple use in the household, it is often well -worth buying. Flannels, linens, sometimes -woolen dress goods of inconspicuous patterns, -may be bought at the end of the season much -cheaper than at the beginning, and are a good -investment if one has money to spare and is<span class="pagenum" id="Page230">[230]</span> -sure what is going to be needed by the family. -Over against the money saved in securing a bargain, -must always be reckoned the time and -energy used in finding it, and the risks that its -quality may prove inferior, or that it may be -unsuitable when finally used. If a woman has -nothing better to do with her time and strength -than to hunt bargains, there is nothing further -to be said; but if she has, it is usually more -economical and more satisfactory to buy the -articles needed for definite use at a reliable -place and at a fair price.</p> - -<p>All the suggestions that have been made -imply accurate knowledge on the part of the -housekeeper. A thoroughly trained housekeeper -of long experience may possibly keep all the -household detail in hand without keeping books -of account, but it is absolutely impossible for -the inexperienced or unsystematic housekeeper -to do so. The mental training involved in keeping -an accurate account of family income and -expenditure is as valuable as a course in mathematics. -For her own self-discipline, as well as -for the better distribution of the family income, -every housekeeper should keep an itemized account. -Until she can balance her account accurately -at the end of every month she has not -learned the a b c of thorough housekeeping. -After having learned to do this easily, she may,<span class="pagenum" id="Page231">[231]</span> -perhaps, allow herself a very small margin for -those “sundries” which have not been put down, -and which would waste valuable time to hunt -out. Every housewife knows by experience that -it is not the regular meat and grocery bills that -eat up the income; if adequate care is taken of -them, they can be reduced to a definite scale -and kept there; but it is the incidentals. A system -of accurate accounts will speedily show how -many of these are extravagant or unnecessary. -Book-keeping is a bugbear to most women, -chiefly because the system which they undertake -is too complicated. The simplest form is the -best. Any blank book may be used; put down -on the right hand side everything bought; on -the left side all money received; at the end of -the week or month the total sum of the right-hand -column plus the money still on hand -should equal the total of the left-hand column. -If it does not, some item has been omitted or -not accurately entered. It is better in the beginning -to balance the account at least once a -week, for then inaccuracies can be more easily -traced. The secret of success is to put down at -the time of the transaction what has been received -and spent. When the account has been -balanced, a second step is much more interesting. -In another book or in the back of the -day-book, if it be large enough, open several<span class="pagenum" id="Page232">[232]</span> -accounts on separate pages, as follows: groceries, -meats, fuel, clothing, subscriptions and -charities, incidentals, etc. Copy each item from -the day-book into its proper account; at the -end of a month or year, by adding up these separate -accounts, the housewife can tell exactly -what proportion of the income has been spent -for each class. Mr. Lawes, the famous English -agriculturist, when traveling in America, was -able to quote accurately the cost of the various -items of expenditure in his own house.</p> - -<p>Economy is a relative, not an absolute thing. -Economy of money is often wastefulness of -life, yet extravagance, on the other hand, is a -serious cause of human degeneration. With the -exception of poor management, poor service is -probably the most wasteful factor of all in the -household, yet there are conditions in which -poor service is certainly less wasteful of the -family resources, than none at all. The end of -housekeeping is the health, comfort, and -serenity of the family. The two main factors -in producing this result are the family income -and the mother’s strength and energy. Saving, -however desirable, is merely an incidental end. -The mother’s intelligence, therefore, if she be -in command of her fair share of the income, -must be used to save not only money but her -own resources. The lack of nutritious, palatable<span class="pagenum" id="Page233">[233]</span> -food and of nursing in illness, the lack of service -when the mother is weakened by labor and -child-bearing, is sometimes economy with most -disastrous results. Health and serenity are worth -more to the family than houses and a bank account. -A good education given to an intelligent -child is worth ten times its cost saved up -for him to inherit in middle life.</p> - -<p>Every device, therefore, which saves the housewife’s -energy is a true economy. A clothes-washing -machine, a cabinet table, a slop-hopper -for kitchen and chamber waste-liquids, are all -obtainable and of special value in saving labor. -In planning the kitchen, economy of steps in -reaching water and fuel should be considered. -China should be kept either in wall cupboards -opening on one side into the dining-room, on -the other into the kitchen, or in a pantry between -dining-room and kitchen. Kitchen utensils -need no longer be of black, heavy, ugly -iron, but of granite ware, nickel plate, and -aluminum; they may be placed in shelves close -to the range, or hung along the wall beside it. -A dumb waiter or hand elevator, from kitchen to -cellar, saves much going up and down stairs. -The height of sinks and work-tables should be -adapted to that of the woman who works over -them. A tall stool—a clerk’s stool—in the -kitchen allows the housewife to sit while doing<span class="pagenum" id="Page234">[234]</span> -some kinds of work. Distances between sink, -range, dishes, and store-room, should be as -short as possible, while the ventilation and lighting -of the kitchen should be particularly good. -Every step up and down from kitchen to shed, -or kitchen to cellar, is an extra drain on the -overtaxed woman. Small, cheap contrivances, -such as dish-mops, iron dish-cloths, pan-scrapers, -small scrubbing-brushes, wire screen -garbage-pans, and many others, lighten the work -and make it possible for the housewife to be -more dainty in her personal appearance.</p> - -<p>In no respect does farm life differ more from -city life than in the kind of food provided and -the method of serving it. The farmer’s table is -loaded down with a great abundance and variety -of food, all placed on the table at once, and -often rich and indigestible. The city table has -half as much, both in variety and quantity, -served daintily in courses. The city housewife -provides variety from meal to meal, seldom repeating -any dish, except the staple ones, more -than once or twice a week; the rural housewife -puts a large variety of the same things on the -table at every meal. Abundance of well cooked, -appetizing food there should be, but variety -from meal to meal, and from day to day, is far -preferable to excessive variety at any one meal. -Not only is it better for the digestion to eat of<span class="pagenum" id="Page235">[235]</span> -a very few kinds of food at one meal; but, since -novelty stimulates appetite, any particular dish -will be more appetizing if not served too frequently. -The farmer’s family, while very economical -in the expenditure of money, is often -very wasteful of food. Vegetables, fruit, -chickens, pork raised on the farm, seem to cost -no money, but they cost much vital energy, which -is quite as valuable. The value of milk, butter, -and eggs is recognized, because it is customary -to sell them in town; but the cost in the labor -of those who raise and those who prepare food, -is often overlooked. The farmer’s table is thus -not only overloaded, but really extravagant. -Here, again, quality is more desirable than variety; -simplicity should accompany abundance.</p> - -<p>Since rural life involves a certain degree of -isolation, the family must keep in touch with -the world chiefly through literature. Even at -the sacrifice of some of the rich variety of food -on the table or of new clothes, books and papers -should be provided. The local newspaper is apt -to contain little beside local gossip; it should be -supplemented with an agricultural paper and a -family journal, a housekeeping magazine, a children’s -magazine, if there be children, and other -general magazines if they can be afforded. But -better than the general magazines, would be the -gradual purchase of the standard works of history,<span class="pagenum" id="Page236">[236]</span> -travel, poetry, and fiction. A musical instrument, -a small library, and interesting games -will do more than admonition to keep young -people at home. Children naturally want a good -time; if it is not provided for them at home -they will go to other and perhaps less desirable -places to get it.</p> - -<p>With the increase of appliances, and with the -added social and intellectual demands, country -as well as city life is becoming more complicated -and exacting. The housewife, whose physical -strength is scarcely equal to the demands of -housekeeping and child-bearing, must develop -her intelligence and whet her judgment. She -must find easier and wiser ways of doing the -necessary drudgery, and make brains do an increasing -part of the labor formerly accomplished -by muscle.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page237">[237]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER XIV<br /> -<span class="chapname"><i>THE HOME YARD</i></span></h2> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p>The yard, as well as the house, should be -planned. It should be convenient, neat, handsome, -restful. It will need planting with trees, -shrubs, herbs and grass; but these things -should not be scattered promiscuously over the -place, for then they mean nothing. Every plant -should have some relation to the general plan -or design of the place.</p> - -<p>The first thing to consider in the making of -a fit setting for the house is to lay out the plan -or design; the last thing is to select the particular -kinds of plants to be used. The place -should be a picture. It should be one thing, -not many things. If the design is correct and -the planting is well done, all parts will be in -harmony and the place will appeal to one as a -whole. If the bushes and trees are scattered -promiscuously over the yard, then there is no -central idea and the attention is fixed upon the -details rather than upon the place. <a href="#Fig88">Figs. 88</a> -and <a href="#Fig89">89</a> illustrate these contrasts.</p> - -<p>The one central thought or idea in home<span class="pagenum" id="Page238">[238]</span> -grounds is the house. Therefore, make the -house emphatic. Let it stand out boldly, as in -<a href="#Fig89">Fig. 89</a>. Keep the center of the place open. -Do not clutter it with trees, flower beds and -other distracting things.</p> - -<div class="container w40em" id="Fig88"> - -<img src="images/illo246a.jpg" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 88. The common or nursery type of planting.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<div class="container w40em" id="Fig89"> - -<img src="images/illo246b.jpg" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 89. The proper or pictorial type of planting.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page239">[239]</span></p> - -<p>If the house is to be made emphatic, give it -a flanking. Plant trees or bushes, or both, on -the sides. Back it up, also, with trees. If it -sets in front of a -natural wood or an -orchard, the effect -is better. If the -country is bare and bald behind -it, plant tall trees there.</p> - -<div class="container w20em" id="Fig90"> - -<img src="images/illo247.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 90. -A modest -and direct -driveway.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>Make as few walks and -drives as possible. They are -always unsightly and expensive. -Let them lead to their destination -by the most direct curves. Do not -make them crooked; for crooked -walks and drives are expensive. Gentle curves -are more retired and modest than awkward -and laborious ones. <a href="#Fig90">Fig. 90</a> shows a good, easy -curve. If possible, place the walk or drive at -the side, rather than in the center: avoid cutting -up the lawn.</p> - -<p>Most of the planting should be in masses. -Plants present a bolder front when standing -together. A group is one thing; scattered -shrubs are many things, and they divert and -distract the attention. By massing, one secures -endless combinations of light and shade, of -color, and of form. Against the mass-planting, -flowers show off best; they have a background,<span class="pagenum" id="Page240">[240]</span> -as a picture has when it hangs on a wall. One -canna or geranium standing just in front of -heavy foliage makes more show than do a dozen -plants when standing in the middle of the lawn; -it is more easily cared for, and it does not -spoil the lawn. A flower bed in the middle of -the sward spoils a lawn, as a spot soils the -table-cloth. Flowers at the side, or joined to -the other planting, are a part of the picture; -in the middle of the lawn they are only a spot -of color and mean nothing except that the -grower did not know where to put them.</p> - -<div class="container w40em" id="Fig91"> - -<img src="images/illo248.jpg" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 91. A good house; but the home is only half built.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>Take these suggestions to heart. Consider -which you like the better, <a href="#Fig91">Fig. 91</a> or <a href="#Fig92">92</a>. Consider, -also, how <a href="#Fig92">Fig. 92</a> would look if plants were -scattered all over the yard.</p> - -<div class="container w40em" id="Fig92"> - -<img src="images/illo249.jpg" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 92. A house and a home.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>Plants are difficult to grow in little holes in<span class="pagenum" id="Page241">[241]</span> -the sod. The grass takes the moisture. They -are always in the way. The yard in <a href="#Fig92">Fig. 92</a> can -be mown with a field mower. The bushes take -care of themselves. If one dies, it matters -little: others fill the gaps. If pigweeds come up -amongst them, little or no harm is done. They -add to the variety of foliage effect. One does -not feel that he must stop his cultivating or -sheep-shearing to dig them out. In the fall, -the leaves blow off the open lawn and are held -in the bushes; there they make an ideal mulch, -and they need not be removed in the spring. In<span class="pagenum" id="Page242">[242]</span> -front of this shrubbery a space two or three feet -wide may be left for flowers. Here sow and -plant with a free hand. Have sufficient poppies -and hollyhocks and pinks and lilies and petunias -to supply every member of the family and every -neighbor. Against the background they glow -like coals or lie as soft as the snow.</p> - -<p>Fill in the corners of the place. Round off -the angularities. Throw a mass of herbage into -the corner by the steps (<a href="#Fig93">Fig. 93</a>): -then you will not need to saw off -the grass with a butcher knife. -Plant a vine and some low plants -along the foundations.</p> - -<div class="container w25em" id="Fig93"> - -<img src="images/illo242.jpg" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 93. The corner by the steps.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>When these main or fundamental -things are -considered, then -some of the incidental -things may -be considered. If -you are fond of -some particular -plant, as the hydrangea, -plant it in -some prominent -place in front of -the shrub border. -You may want a -tree to shade a<span class="pagenum" id="Page243">[243]</span> -window or a porch: plant it. You may want -a pile of odd stones and relics: put them in the -back yard, or at the side, where you may enjoy -them unmolested. You may have any kind of -plant you want, only put it in the right place.</p> - -<p>Have an eye to the views. Build your house -with reference to them, if you can. Do not -plant so as to hide the good ones. Plant heavily -in the direction of offensive views. Plant so as -to obscure the barnyard; or else move the barnyard -back of the barn, or clean it up. Leave -the front of the barn open: you want to see it -from the house.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<h3 class="nobreak">HOW TO DO THE WORK</h3> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p>The lawn, then, is the first consideration. It -is the canvas on which we are to paint a picture -of home and comfort. In many cases the yard -is already level or well graded and has a good -sod, and it is not necessary to plow and re-seed. -It should be said that the sod on old lawns -can be renewed without plowing it up. In the -bare or thin places, scratch up the ground with -an iron-toothed rake, apply a little fertilizer, and -sow more seed. Weedy lawns are those in which -the sod is poor. It may be necessary to pull -out the weeds; but after they are out the land -should be quickly covered with sod or they will<span class="pagenum" id="Page244">[244]</span> -come in again. Annual weeds, as pigweeds and -ragweed, can usually be crowded out by merely -securing a heavier sod. A little clover seed will -often be a good addition, for it supplies nitrogen -and has an excellent mechanical effect on -the soil.</p> - -<p>The ideal time to prepare the land is in the -fall, before the heavy rains come. Then sow in -the fall, and again in early spring on a late -snow. However, the work may be done in the -spring, but the danger is that it will be put off -so long that the young grass will not become -established before the dry, hot weather comes.</p> - -<p>The best lawn grass for New York is June-grass, -or blue-grass. Seedsmen know it as <i>Poa -pratensis</i>. It weighs but 14 pounds to the -bushel. Not less than three bushels should be -sown to the acre. We want many very small -stems of grass, not a few large ones; for we -are making a lawn, not a meadow.</p> - -<p>Do not sow grain with the grass seed. The -June-grass grows slowly at first, however, and -therefore it is a good plan to sow timothy with -it, at the rate of two or three quarts to the -acre. The timothy comes up quickly and makes -a green; and the June-grass will crowd it out in -a year or two. If the land is hard and inclined -to be too dry, some kind of clover will greatly -assist the June-grass. Red clover is too large<span class="pagenum" id="Page245">[245]</span> -and coarse for the lawn. Crimson clover is -excellent, for it is an annual, and it does not -become unsightly in the lawn. White clover is -perhaps best, since it not only helps the grass -but looks well in the sod. One or two pounds -of seed is generally sufficient for an acre.</p> - -<p>At first the weeds will come up. Do not pull -them. Mow the lawn as soon as there is any -growth large enough to mow. Of course, the -lawn-mower is best, but one can have a good -place without it. Perhaps a hand lawn-mower -(one with large wheels and not less than 16-inch -cut) can be used to keep the sward close just -about the house; then the field-mower may be -used now and then for the remainder. Here is -another advantage, as I have said, of the open-centered -yard which I have recommended; it is -easily mown. It would be a fussy matter to -mow a yard planted after the fashion of <a href="#Fig88">Fig. 88</a>; -but one like <a href="#Fig89">Fig. 89</a> is easily managed.</p> - -<p>The borders should be planted thickly. Plow -up the strip. Never plant these trees and -bushes in holes cut in the sod. Scatter the -bushes and trees promiscuously in the narrow -border. In home grounds, it is easy to run -through these borders occasionally with a cultivator, -for the first year or two. Make the edges -of the border irregular. Plant the lowest bushes -on the inner edge toward the house.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page246">[246]</span></p> - -<p>For all such things as lilacs, mock oranges, -Japan quinces, and bushes that are found along -the roadsides, two or three feet apart is about -right. Some will die anyway. Cut them back -one-half when they are planted. They will -look thin and stiff for two or three years; but -after that they will crowd the spaces full, lop -over on the sod, and make a billow of green. -Prepare the land well, plant carefully, and let -the bushes alone.</p> - -<p>We now come to the details,—the particular -kinds of plants to use. One great principle will -simplify the matter: the main planting should -be for foliage effects. That is, think first of -giving the place a heavy border-mass. Flowers -are mere decorations.</p> - -<p>Select those trees and shrubs which are the -commonest, because they are cheapest, hardiest -and most likely to grow. There is no farm -so poor that enough plants cannot be secured, -without money, for the home yard. You will -find the plants in the woods, in old yards, along -the fences. It is little matter if no one knows -their names. What is handsomer than a tangled -fence-row?</p> - -<p>Scatter in a few trees along the fence and -about the buildings, particularly if the place is -large and bare. Maples, basswood, elms, ashes, -buttonwood, pepperidge, oaks, beeches, birches,<span class="pagenum" id="Page247">[247]</span> -hickories, poplars, a few trees of pine or spruce -or hemlock,—any of these are excellent. If the -country is bleak, a rather heavy planting of -evergreens about the border, in the place of so -much shrubbery, is excellent.</p> - -<p>For shrubs, use the common things to be -found in the woods and swales, together with -roots, which can be had in every old yard. -Willows, osiers, witch-hazel, dogwood, wild -roses, thorn apples, haws, elders, sumac, wild -honeysuckles,—these and others can be found -in abundance. From old yards can be secured -snowballs, spireas, lilacs, forsythias, mock -oranges, roses, snowberries, barberries, flowering -currants, honeysuckles, and the like.</p> - -<p>Vines can be used to excellent purpose on -the outbuildings or on the porches. The common -wild Virginia creeper is the most serviceable. -On brick or stone houses the Boston ivy -or Japanese ampelopsis may be used, unless the -location is very bleak. This is not hardy in -the northern parts of the country. Honeysuckles, -clematis and bitter-sweet are also attractive. -Bowers are always interesting to children; -and actinidia and akebia (to be had at -nurseries) are best for this purpose.</p> - -<p>If a regular flower garden is wanted, place -at the side or rear of the place, where a liberal -piece of land can be devoted to it.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page248">[248]</span></p> - -<p>Into these native shrub borders, throw some -color from nursery-grown bushes if you choose. -Mix in spireas, weigelas, roses—anything you -like. A rare or strange plant may be introduced -now and then, if there is any money with -which to buy such things. Plant it at some -conspicuous point just in front of the border, -where it will show off well, be out of the way, -and have some relation to the rest of the planting. -Two or three purple-leaved or variegated-leaved -bushes will add much spirit and verve to -the place; but too many of them make the -place look fussy and overdone. You can have -a botanic garden of your own, even though you -do not know the name of a single plant; and -your home will be a picture at the same time.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page249">[249]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER XV<br /> -<span class="chapname"><i>A DISCUSSION OF BARNS</i></span></h2> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p>Modern agriculture requires large and commodious -barns and other structures to house the -crops, the animals, tools, and implements. -Especially is this true when mixed farming is -conducted in an intensified and economical way. -In early days one or, at most, two low barns -of 30 by 40 feet were supposed to supply all -shelter accommodations required for a farm of -one hundred acres. At the present time, on the -same farms, may often be seen a barn 60 by 80 -feet and double the height of the old structures, -with a wing one-half of the capacity of -the main barn to which it is attached, this -single structure providing more than six times -the cubic space of two of the old barns. One -sizable farm in Tompkins county, New York, -had, for many years, a single barn 30 by 40 -feet with 14-foot posts. It now has a barn -which provides more than fifteen times the room -of the old one, and yet it is scarcely large -enough to house the animals and crops of this -modest farm.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page250">[250]</span></p> - -<p>Naturally, the questions arise, are these large -structures necessary, and what changes in agriculture -have taken place to create a need for -such mammoth structures? They are necessarily -expensive, and too often dwarf and belittle -the house when placed near it.</p> - -<p>Modern advanced farmers secure nearly or -quite double the average yield of crops of their -grandfathers. This is an indisputable fact, notwithstanding -the hue and cry about the decadence -of the rural population. The facts are -that some are farming much better than the -older generations and some much worse. Much -of the good land is producing more bountifully -than ever before, and some of the poorer lands -have been so badly managed, and have become -so depleted in their productive power as to be -nearly worthless, and should be thrown out of -cultivation and left to recuperate until unborn -generations require them. More live stock is -kept now than formerly. The number of milch -cows, horses, and mules in the United States increased -more than 50 per cent between 1870 and -1890, and other cattle increased during the -same period 150 per cent. Notwithstanding this -fact, the live stock on many farms has been -greatly diminished.</p> - -<p>Then, too, progressive farmers believe it to -be economy to provide shelter for animals and<span class="pagenum" id="Page251">[251]</span> -crops, manures and implements. The old custom -of stacking the hay and grain, of allowing -the farm animals to toughen in the winter’s -blast in field and barnyard, and the manures to -leach and bleach under the eaves of the building -has, in part, been abandoned and better -methods substituted. These new methods require -better, larger, and more commodious farm -barns. The modern and humane thought is, to -make all of the animals as comfortable, according -to their needs and conditions, as is their -owner in his well appointed house, and to protect -everything that is worth protecting from the -storms.</p> - -<p>There are two fairly distinct methods of constructing -farm buildings: the concentrated and -the distributive. The one aims to provide the -room needed by one or two large structures; -the other by means of many detached small -buildings, each, where practicable, devoted to a -special purpose. The last method was the outgrowth -of the conditions which usually prevailed -in a new country. First came the rude house -and the log stable. The stable was followed by -the modest barn, usually of the regulation size, -30 by 40 feet, with 12-, 14-, or, in rare cases, -16-foot posts. As the arable land increased -another barn was built, then a shed, then a -wagon-house; followed by a corn-crib, a chicken-house,<span class="pagenum" id="Page252">[252]</span> -a pig-pen, and later a sheep-barn, cow-barn, -a hay-barn, all the room in the first and -second barns being by this time required for -grain. Outside the grain districts the buildings -were modified to suit conditions, but the practice -of constructing many small structures was -not changed.</p> - -<p>The buildings were erected without any comprehensive -plan as to the farmstead as a whole. -This necessitated many fences, gates, yards, and -a maze of muddy byways in which the dock -and other weeds, discarded implements, and the -flotsam and jetsam of the farm found opportunity -to grow or to rot. Do what one might, -the farmstead could never be made to look neat -and tidy. Not infrequently, twelve to fifteen -separate structures may be seen on a farm of -eighty acres. The farmers who own these structures -are not to be criticised too severely. They -inherited the method of building and often the -buildings, and no one, so far, has deigned to -give them help by treating such plebeian subjects -as the improvement of unsightly stys, -stables, sheds, and barns.</p> - -<p>If the concentrated method be adopted, in -case of fire all is swept away; if the distributive, -some of the buildings may be saved. -There are so many things to be gained, however, -by adopting the concentrated method that<span class="pagenum" id="Page253">[253]</span> -construction would better be along this line and -then trust to the insurance company to make -good the losses by fire, should any occur. Compare -<a href="#Fig114">Figs. 114</a>, <a href="#Fig119">119</a>.</p> - -<p>Farm laborers receive fully double the wages, -except in harvest time, which they did fifty -years ago; therefore, the barns should be planned -with the view of economizing labor. This can -best be secured by rearing a single structure, -rather than several, for it is evident that if the -live stock, tools, implements and provender be -placed in juxtaposition, economy in performing -the work about the buildings will be secured. -However, it is often convenient to have a separate -building open on one side for storing farm -wagons and heavy implements and tools.</p> - -<p>Grain, hay and stover are all unloaded most -economically by means of slings and hay fork, -operated by horse-power, but the unloading by -horse-power implies high barns, with mows -measurably unobstructed by timbers. Economy -of space also implies deep mows, since a mow -twenty feet deep holds more than two mows ten -feet deep. High, large buildings require far -less outside boarding and roof than small, low, -detached buildings which contain, together, the -same storage capacity. Economy in construction -and maintenance, convenience of temporarily -sheltering and removing manures, ease of<span class="pagenum" id="Page254">[254]</span> -carrying on work in the building, and beauty, -all indicate the wisdom of adopting the concentrated -method in the construction of farm -barns.</p> - -<p>Efforts have been made to economize in barn -construction by adopting the octagon form. This -form secures a greater enclosed area for a given -surface covering than the square or rectangular -form. But all of the angles in the frame are -more expensive to make than are right angles. -It requires more labor and time to saw off a timber -at an angle of 35 degrees than at right -angles. True, this form lends itself to a roof -structure free from obstructing timbers, but, on -the other hand, it does not give opportunity for -the placing of convenient tracks for elevating -the provender. So far the pros and cons may -be said to balance. It is only when the attempt -is made to divide the octagon structure into -stables and rooms, compartments and mows, -that its inconvenient shape is fully realized. -Everything is out of square. The divisions form -obtuse and acute angles, or arcs of a circle, -almost without number. All this implies extra -expense in the internal construction and usually -a great waste of space. The illustrations of -these barns have a certain charm difficult -to resist, but some of the most intelligent -farmers who have made a study of the octagon<span class="pagenum" id="Page255">[255]</span> -barn and have used it, decide that rectangular -barns are much to be preferred. Some -who have built octagon barns speak well of -them, but this might naturally be expected. A -woman generally speaks well of her husband -after she has secured him, however faulty he -may be.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<h3 class="nobreak">LOCATION</h3> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p>The location of the proposed structure should -be considered with the most painstaking care -before entering upon the construction of a new -building or the remodeling of an old one. Too -often a single idea dominates the location. Some -thirty years since I decided to erect a large -basement barn. The house, a modest, comfortable -structure, was located at a suitable distance -from the highway, on a gentle slope. To -utilize the highway for driving the animals to -and from pasture, and to save the use of the -fourth of an acre of land and the building of -some twenty rods of fence, the barn was located -nearer the highway than the house. This necessitated -locating the barnyard between the highway -and the barn. I never discovered this foolish -mistake till years afterwards, when age and -study had improved my judgment and opportunity -had been given for wide observation and -comparison. Now when I revisit the farm it -is<span class="pagenum" id="Page256">[256-<br />257]<a id="Page257"></a></span> -all too plain as to where the barn should have -been located. This large barn made the house -appear much smaller than before, and from one -approach the farm had the appearance of being -untenanted, as the barn hid the house. It is -humiliating, but how could I have known better -at that time of life, with ideas of barn building -inherited and with neither book nor teacher to -guide me?</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig94"> - -<img src="images/illo264a.jpg" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 94. Too many barn roofs, and too near the house.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<div class="container" id="Fig95"> - -<img src="images/illo264b.jpg" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 95. How these barns may be moved and concentrated.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>The barn should be located far enough from -the house to prevent the aromas of the stables -and kitchen from mingling, and at such a distance -as not to seriously endanger either one, if -the other should be destroyed by fire. If possible, -the barn should be on lower ground than -the house, that no wash or seepage from it may -tend toward the house, and for other sanitary -reasons. The lower level will assist to make the -barns inconspicuous. One hundred feet is the -minimum distance which should intervene between -these inflammable and expensive structures, -except in a very cold climate, where the house -and the barn may be connected by a covered -way. See <a href="#Fig94">Figs. 94</a> and <a href="#Fig95">95</a>. This way need not -be expensive, and should be so constructed that -it can be pulled down in a few minutes in case -of fire. It need not be high, and the roof might -pitch but one way and be composed, in part at -least, of glass. If the entire roof was of glass<span class="pagenum" id="Page258">[258]</span> -one side of the covered walk might well be used -in the spring for growing early vegetables. If -the manure be properly cared for at the far end -of the barn, good sanitary conditions would be -preserved.</p> - -<p>The refuse of the stables, if left exposed at -the barns in the summer, forms breeding -ground for flies, which reach the house if it be -near. The substitution of electric street cars, for -horse cars which necessitated numerous stables, -has noticeably diminished flies in the cities. -There should be room between the house and -barn for a score or more of large trees, which -may serve, in part, to screen each building from -the other in case of fire, to shade the walk between -the two buildings, and, in part, the barn -itself. No tree is better adapted for this purpose -than the white elm. The open barnyard -should, wherever possible, be discarded, for it -tends to increase the wasting of manures and -the cost of getting them to the field; to the -multiplication of fences and flies, and to unnecessary -exposure of animals. Why not substitute -paddocks or small fields of a few acres for the -wasteful, expensive barnyard? If the animals -need exercise they should take it at suitable -times in closely-sodded fields, or covered yards, -rather than in confined barnyards filled with a -mixture of straw, mud and manure. A few<span class="pagenum" id="Page259">[259]</span> -acres near the barn might be surrounded with a -woven wire fence, which would serve admirably -for an exercising yard. The sod on this small -area might become seriously injured in a year or -two, but the field would be enriched by the droppings -of the animals. The field in such case -could be plowed and the wire used to enclose -another paddock. But it will be many years before -the open barnyard can be, or will be, entirely -abandoned. What may, and should be -done immediately, is to place it at the rear, -instead of at the front of the barn, and to cease -using it for baptizing manures, and as a storage -area for miscellaneous odds and ends. If some -change is not made, the farm boy may find a -chamber window from which a more restful and -inspiring view may be secured than from the -one through which he now views daily the evidences -of thriftlessness and waste.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<h3 class="nobreak">PLANNING THE BARN</h3> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p>Make a good study of many barns at short -range; note what features are good, what -faulty, what useless; by this means much will -have been learned and many mistakes will be -avoided. Decide approximately the capacity -which will be required. First, draw a rectangular -diagram of the barn, then proceed to<span class="pagenum" id="Page260">[260]</span> -the proposed location and take a seat; make -a most careful study of the approach, the incline -of the land, note where fences and gates -will be necessary, where and how the water is -to be introduced—in fact, take in the whole problem -of the environment of the proposed structure. -Then imagine that you see the barn, and -that you have just arrived from town some -stormy night with your wife and baby; in imagination -help them out of the carriage. Imagine -you have a span of young, restless horses -which you have driven to get them used to city -ways before selling them. That will make you -think of a platform onto which the family may -step from the carriage while you are holding the -colts. Consider how many big doors you will -have to open before the colts are made comfortable -for the night. Are the democrat wagon and -the colts to be kept on the same floor, or one -up-stairs and the other down? Or is the carriage -in one building situated four rods from -the horses? How many gates and doors have -you opened and closed since you arrived? -Think it all over, and then go to the house and -talk it over with your wife, for some day she -may drive to town, and on her return find that -both you and the farm hands are in the field, -and that there is no one to help her put the -team away. After imagination has pictured the<span class="pagenum" id="Page261">[261]</span> -conditions which are likely to prevail, then -begin to cautiously modify the rectangular diagram; -surround it with dotted lines, which may -represent roads, fences, gates, lanes, and adjunct -buildings. Then take a rest; lay the -sketch away for a time; study barns in the -neighborhood; council with the wife again, for -she may have to go to the barn often. After a -year of faithful and intelligent planning you may -be able to place a well digested rough sketch -of the proposed structure in the hands of a -draughtsman.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<h3 class="nobreak">WATER SUPPLY</h3> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p>It would seem to be unnecessary to repeat -the axiom, “No water, no plant or animal life,” -but so many buildings, both public and private, -are located and constructed before the problem -of supplying an ample, perennial supply of potable -water is solved, that it seems necessary to -briefly treat this subject.</p> - -<p>Several public institutions with which I have -been familiar have erected expensive structures -before supplying water for them. Three and -sometimes five separate attempts were made to -furnish water for the use of the plant, none of -which were entirely successful.</p> - -<p>The amount of water needed and the conditions -under which it must be secured are so<span class="pagenum" id="Page262">[262]</span> -variable that few specific directions can be -given. One simple, certain and cheap way of -securing water for the barn is usually neglected. -In some sections of the South, by reason of -peculiar geological formations, the practice of -constructing pools or storage reservoirs has become -common. A slight depression or draw or -swale is selected and dammed by using the earth -from the bottom of the proposed pool and from -the higher land adjoining. No stone or wood -is necessary to support the dam. The only precaution -necessary is to have a broad base (see -<a href="#Fig7">Fig. 7</a>), and to provide sufficiently large outflows -or spillways, one on either end of the dam, that -the pool may never rise higher than within two -feet from the top of the dam. The surface soil, -if it contains much vegetable matter, should be -scraped off a strip three to four feet wide and -as long as the dam, and the depression filled -with earth—clay is best—that contains little or -no organic matter. If the bottom of the dam -where it meets the normal earth is constructed -with sods, or other material which will decay, -in time the water will find its way through the -porous earth.</p> - -<p>The pools of the South, to which reference -has been made, sometimes have an extreme -depth of 12 to 15 feet, and may cover a fraction -of an acre or several acres. I have known one<span class="pagenum" id="Page263">[263]</span> -of these pools to furnish water for a hundred -head of cattle during a long continued drought. -It is difficult to explain why more pools, lakes -and fish ponds are not constructed. Possibly -the reasons are that there is a prejudice against -them, and well there may be, since they are -usually so shallow that the water becomes impure, -and since it is not generally realized that -a substantial dam can be erected by the use of -earth alone. If it is thought advisable not to -allow the animals to go to the pool, it may be -fenced, since it is not expensive to lay a pipe -in the dam, when it is being constructed, on a -level with the bottom of the pool, the outer end of -the pipe being furnished with a ball and cock -to regulate the flow of water into the trough.</p> - -<p>Usually it is not advisable to build cisterns -for storing water for barn use, since they are too -expensive if built as large as needed. A cow requires -from forty to eighty pounds of water daily -in the summer. If sixty pounds be taken as the -average, it will be seen that it would require a -cistern of three hundred and fifty barrels capacity -to supply a herd of fifty animals for -one month. In some cases the water of a stream -or well may be so highly charged with the products -of magnesian limestone as to produce -goitre, in which case soft water should be supplied -for the horses.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page264">[264]</span></p> - -<p>Streams or springs are often available for -summer, but they seldom supply ideal water -conditions in winter. Young animals, and especially -cows in milk, should not be required to -drink water at a low temperature or be forced -to travel long distances for it in cold weather. -The only really satisfactory method of supplying -the domestic animals with water is to bring it -into the barn, and if the water in the pipes is -not under pressure, a small storage tank may be -placed in a mow and surrounded by straw. -Such storage tank may be built, if small, out of -rough 2-inch plank, spiked together, or, if -large, of 2- by 4-inch scantling, spiked flatwise -one upon the other; in both cases the tank is -lined with galvanized iron. All barns provided -with steam boilers should also be provided with -a few small steam pipes leading to the water -boxes, that the drinking water of the animals -may be raised in winter to 98° Fahr.</p> - -<p>Animals do not relish lukewarm water in the -winter, but they really enjoy hot water. The -economy and safety of using hot drinking water -will justify the expense of providing it. This is -especially true in the winter dairy and when -horses have severe winter work. An overheated, -tired horse may drink all the hot water he desires -without danger. Water taken into the -stomach at 40° Fahr. must absorb heat enough<span class="pagenum" id="Page265">[265]</span> -from the system to raise it to about 99°. To -do this food must be burned, as literally as -coal is burned in the boiler to heat water. -It requires more units of heat to raise a pound -of water one degree in temperature than any -other substance except two or three of the gases.</p> - -<p>There are now so many styles of really good -air motors or wind mills, that water from wells -may be pumped at a minimum cost into storage -tanks. There is no longer any excuse for pumping -water by hand for any considerable number -of animals, nor for compelling them to seek -water in cold weather at some distant stream. -As has been said, there are many ways of securing -a supply of water for the barn. The details -of accomplishing the results desired are -many, but the result should always be the same: -an abundant supply of water within the barn -under more or less pressure. If this is not secured -the plans of a barn, as a whole, are unsatisfactory.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page266">[266]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER XVI<br /> -<span class="chapname"><i>BUILDING THE BARN—THE BASEMENT</i></span></h2> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p>Squaring the foundation site is a simple -operation, yet few are able to perform it, and -it is seldom that a surveyor is at hand. Buildings -are so generally placed with their fronts -parallel to the highway or the private way, that -the road may be assumed to be the base line. -Four stakes set in the middle of the road, -as shown in <a href="#Fig96">Fig. 96</a>, establish the base line, -from which is measured the distance from the -road at which it is desired to place the building. -The stakes A and B should be placed farther -apart than the width of the front of the building; -they are connected by a line which is parallel -to the road and forms the permanent base -line. Next the stakes C and D are placed, and -also connected by a line. With a 10-foot pole, -six feet are measured off on either line, beginning -at the intersection of the lines, and eight -feet on the other line. If the line C to D is at -right angles to the line AB, the 10-foot measure -will just reach from 6 to 8, since 6 multiplied -by 6, plus 8 multiplied by 8, equals 100,<span class="pagenum" id="Page267">[267]</span> -and the square root of 100 is 10. Should the -10-foot measure be longer than from 6 to 8, -the stake D is moved to the left until the pole -reaches from 6 to 8; if the measure is too short -to reach from 6 to 8, the stake is moved to the -right. All of these measurements should be -gone over two or three times, as in moving the -stake the lines may stretch or shrink. Either a -pin or a pencil mark may be used to indicate -the measurements on the lines at 6 and 8.</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig96"> - -<img src="images/illo275.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 96. Locating the barn.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>If the building is to be 26 feet deep, that -distance is measured on the line CD and the -same distance from the line AB. Stakes are -then driven and a line drawn from E to F, and -in like manner a line is drawn from G to H. -The work is verified by squaring the last angle -as in the first case. The eight dots represent<span class="pagenum" id="Page268">[268]</span> -stakes driven in even with the surface of the -ground, at just 10 feet from the corners. Since -it will be necessary to remove the lines before -the horse scraper can be used in excavating, -and as the construction stakes at the corners -will be disturbed, the short stakes become -necessary that the lines may be restored as the -work proceeds and the excavation kept square -and true. It will be seen that a line drawn -from A to B will restore the base line, and in -like manner the other lines may be quickly -reproduced. It will be necessary, too, to restore -these lines before the foundation wall is begun. -By “plumbing” downward from the restored -lines, other lines may be placed in the bottom -of the excavation, which will be duplicates of -those first drawn.</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig97"> - -<img src="images/illo277a.jpg" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 97. The original incline or slope is too steep.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<div class="container" id="Fig98"> - -<img src="images/illo277b.jpg" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 98. The original slope is not steep enough.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<h3 class="nobreak">EXCAVATION</h3> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p>Barns are now usually built with a basement -story. This implies that the building is to be -placed on more or less sloping ground, in which -case the removal of some earth will be necessary. -The basement story should extend well -above ground, to economize construction and to -secure dry walls and floors. It is a great mistake -to place animals in cellars. The dotted -line in <a href="#Fig97">Fig. 97</a> shows an incline rather too<span class="pagenum" id="Page269">[269]</span> -steep; and in <a href="#Fig98">Fig. 98</a> one that is not steep -enough. It is better to place the barn where -wanted, even if the incline has to be changed, -than to place it in an unhandy position that -the best slope may be secured. It is not difficult -to construct a basement barn on level or -nearly level land. In the latter case, all of the -basement walls may be of wood, since provision -can be made for a driveway to the second floor -by means of a retaining wall built some ten or -twelve feet from the barn; the space between -the wall and the barn may be bridged (<a href="#Fig99">Fig. -99</a>). Cast-off steel or iron rails form durable -and excellent sleepers for such a bridge, the<span class="pagenum" id="Page270">[270]</span> -plank being kept in place by spiking two-inch -pieces, one on either end on top of the bridge -plank. In case no -retaining wall is -built, and the earth -lies immediately -against the basement -wall (<a href="#Fig100">Fig. 100</a>), dampness -may be largely -prevented from -reaching the stable -and the animals by building a second wall across -the side or end of the barn, inclosing a space -or room for roots immediately under the driveway. -The floor over this root-cellar should be -deafened to prevent frost entering from above -(<a href="#Fig101">Fig. 101</a>). The second wall will remain comparatively<span class="pagenum" id="Page271">[271]</span> -dry, since no damp earth rests against -it. This location of the root-cellar makes it convenient -for unloading the roots through trap -doors in the floor, which are kept partly open -for a time after the roots have been put in, -to prevent them from heating.</p> - -<div class="container w30em" id="Fig99"> - -<img src="images/illo278a.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 99. Bridge into the barn.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<div class="container w40em" id="Fig100"> - -<img src="images/illo278b.jpg" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 100. An embankment entrance, with retaining walls holding -the corners.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<div class="container w40em" id="Fig101"> - -<img src="images/illo279.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 101. Deafening or packing the floor, to keep out cold.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<h3 class="nobreak">WALLS</h3> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p>The foundation walls for barns need not -necessarily extend below frost, if the earth is as -dry as it should be; for a slight settling of the -building does not result in injury, as in the -plastered house. All that is necessary is to -make the walls broad and strong and to have -them well drained.</p> - -<div class="container w25em" id="Fig102"> - -<img src="images/illo280.jpg" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 102. -Good and faulty construction in a wall.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>Masons understand the necessity of bonding -stone walls, and know how to perform the -work; but too often they are careless, and therefore -need to be supervised. In <a href="#Fig102">Fig. 102</a>, a well -bonded wall is shown at the left end, and one -imperfectly bonded at the other. If the wall<span class="pagenum" id="Page272">[272]</span> -should chance to pull endwise a crack would -appear to the right of the dotted line, since in -the seven layers shown there is but one stone, -A, that has sufficient -contact to -bond the two -stones upon which -it rests. The wall -should also have -its face and back -side tied together -or bonded, or it -may split apart -near the middle. -Two walls, one of -which is properly -bonded, the other -is not, are shown -in <a href="#Fig103">Fig. 103</a>. One -layer only of stone -can be shown in the diagram, but it will readily -be seen that if the course which is placed on the -one shown is laid like it,—that is, if the faulty -bonding near the back side be continued for -several courses—the wall will pull apart. The -small, narrow stones have been placed at the -back side of the wall, and the good stones in -the front of the wall; this is all very well, -but some long stones should reach from the<span class="pagenum" id="Page273">[273]</span> -back side of the wall to near the face, if the -bond is made good. No stone should reach -entirely through the wall, since in cold weather -the frost will follow through such stones from -face to rear.</p> - -<div class="container w20em" id="Fig103"> - -<img src="images/illo281.jpg" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 103. -Poorly and properly bonded.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>There is no economy in using mortar which -is poorly mixed or that which contains too -much sand and too little lime or cement. If -the lime or cement, that -is, the binding material, -does not come into -immediate contact with -every particle of sand, -then the mortar will be -weak. If not enough of -the cement or lime is -used, the bond will also -be weak. For stone -walls <i>not more</i> than four -parts of sand to one of -cement or lime should -be used. If the sand be -sharp and clean a much -stronger mortar is secured -than when it is -composed in part of rotten sand mixed with vegetable -matter. If the materials are good and they -are mixed in the right proportion, still good mortar -will not be secured unless they be <i>thoroughly<span class="pagenum" id="Page274">[274]</span> -mixed</i>. The best masons use the least mortar, -while poor masons are wasteful of it.</p> - -<p>The prices given below are not applicable -to the whole United States, but they may serve -to decide the relative proportions of sand and -lime which should be used, and the kind of -lime which can be used most economically. -Water lime retails at about eighty cents per -barrel, and three parts of sand and one of lime, -if the latter is fresh, should make a strong -mortar. Water lime deteriorates rapidly with -age, while the higher priced cements deteriorate -quite slowly. Stone lime should be fresh and -in no case air-slaked. It costs about one -dollar a barrel and may be mixed three of -sand to one of lime. Rosendale cement costs -about $1.25 per barrel, and may be mixed four -to one. Portland cement costs about $3 per -barrel, and if used instead of the cheaper -materials named above, may be mixed five to -one. It should always be used for pointing -walls and in the construction of cemented -floors, in which case it should be mixed two -or three to one. All this presupposes that -the mortar is so thoroughly mixed that a lime -film will surround every particle of sand.</p> - -<p>The cement and water lime is mixed with -the sand before it is wet, and this dry mixing -should be most thorough, as the strength of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page275">[275]</span> -mortar is largely dependent on the uniform -incorporation of the cement with the sand. -This mixing can be much more perfectly done -when the material is dry than after it is wet. -Other precautions are necessary. The mortar -should contain the minimum of water which -will permit it to work freely, and when the -mortar is used it should be solidified, that is, -pushed together by means of a trowel or by -the material which is laid upon it. In case of -cement or grout floors, the material should be -pounded thoroughly. The object of all this is -to compel each particle of sand to firmly touch -other particles. The tendency to “water-log” -mortar, to save labor in spreading it, is too -common.</p> - -<p>If, from any cause, the basement walls must -be largely of stone, the tendency for them to -gather moisture may be somewhat overcome by -plastering them with cement mortar, or studding -may be placed against the walls upon which -unmatched boards may be nailed (<a href="#Fig104">Fig. 104</a>). -The warm air of the stable cannot then reach -the relatively cold walls, and little condensation -will appear on the boards, since they are always -more nearly the temperature of the stable than -are the stone.</p> - -<p>Wooden basement walls are preferable in all -ways to those constructed of stone, grout or<span class="pagenum" id="Page276">[276]</span> -brick, wherever the earth does not rest against -them. An excellent method of constructing the -walls of the basement story is shown in a -section of the first story, <a href="#Fig104">Fig. 104</a>. The studding -should be 2 × 6 inches, with short pieces of -2 × 4 placed edgewise between them to serve as -outside nailing girts.</p> - -<div class="container w40em" id="Fig104"> - -<img src="images/illo284.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 104. Lining the basement wall.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>A broad, steep water-table is placed just -above the upper end of the studding to receive -the boarding above the basement and to improve -the outside appearance of the building. -After the outside boarding of the basement and -the window frames are placed, the inside of the -wall is boarded horizontally with unmatched seasoned -lumber, and as the boards are being put on, -the hollow wall space is filled with short straw -or straw and chaff. This construction has proved -to be the most satisfactory of any tried. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page277">[277]</span> -wall is cheap, durable, dry, excludes the cold, -and still allows a little fresh air to enter the -stables gradually. Objection has been made to -this construction on the ground that it harbors -mice and rats. After having used buildings -with walls of this character for a quarter of a -century, I must say that the objection is not -well taken.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<h3 class="nobreak">FLOORS</h3> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p>The floor of the first story should be partly -of wood and partly of cement or of brick.</p> - -<p>All voidings of the animals should be -removed from the stable at least once a day. -Allowing the manure to drop through gratings, -with the view of letting it remain there more -than one day, is decidedly wrong, and any arrangement -which does not admit of the thorough -cleaning and airing of the stable daily is objectionable. -Nor is the practice of washing out -the stables economical, since it necessitates great -waste of manure or too great expense in caring -for and removing the diluted excreta. If the -floors and stable be well cleaned with shovel and -broom, and dusted with gypsum, dry earth, sawdust, -or chaffy material, good sanitary conditions -will be secured easily and cheaply. While the -stables are being cleaned and treated they should -<span class="pagenum" id="Page278">[278-<br/>279]</span><a id="Page279"></a> -also be aired. The animals meantime should be -allowed to stretch their limbs, by which it is -not meant that they should be hooking one -another around a muddy barnyard, or running -foot races up and down the lane. On the one -hand, it may be all well enough for those who -sell animals at fabulous prices and have long -bank accounts, to procure water-proof blankets -for them, and to accompany them on their regular -daily “constitutional.” The other extreme is -where the animals are fastened by the head or -neck by contrivances not always comfortable, -and left standing for six months without being -removed from their stall. Is there not a happy -medium between these two extremes?</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig105"> - -<img src="images/illo286.png" alt="" /> - -<div class="illotext w20em"> - -<div class="centerblock"> - -<p class="noindent">Top left rooms: 4′ × 10′ and 10′ × 11′.<br /> -Midway width: 10′.<br /> -Over-all width: 32′.<br /> -Bottom left room: 10′ × 11′.<br /> -Width of stalls: 3′ 6″.<br /> -Over-all length: 80′.<br /> -Room central bottom: 3′ × 6′.</p> - -</div><!--centerblock--> - -</div><!--illotext--> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 105. Basement cattle stable.<br /> -At the right is a cross-section of the stable, showing the convex cement midway.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>Animals are more comfortable on a wooden -floor than on one built of either brick, cement, -or asphalt. Notwithstanding this, most of the -floor of the basement should be constructed of -more durable material than wood. If the animals -are kept fully bedded, as they usually are -not, then it would be best to discard wooden -floors entirely. <a href="#Fig105">Fig. 105</a> shows a basement floor -designed for cattle. The part where the animals -stand is of wood, the balance of hard or -pavement brick set edgewise on a bed of sand. -The cement or grout floor may be substituted -for the brick if desired. If the cracks between -the bricks in the floor are filled with thin<span class="pagenum" id="Page280">[280]</span> -cement mortar, the floor becomes water-tight, -though this is not necessary except in the -gutters. The ground underneath the wooden -floor should be leveled and pounded, and -covered with a thin layer of salt to preserve -the wood. The plank which forms the side of -the drip should be of oak or some other -durable wood. The 2 × 4 pieces to which the -floor is nailed when first built, need not be -replaced when they rot, since the dirt underneath -will be smooth and hard. The large nails -which fasten the floor to the oak piece at the -rear and the mangers combined will suffice to -keep the floor plank in place; the only object -in placing the nailing pieces at first is to -facilitate construction. The plank of the floor -should be of some uniform standard width, as -8, 10, or 12 inches wide, that repairs may be -made quickly when the floor gives way.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<h3 class="nobreak">STALLS</h3> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p>When a dairy of some size is kept, the cows -may be arranged in double rows. Fifty cows -could be crowded into a barn 80 × 32 feet. But -fifty cows of 800 pounds each weigh 40,000 -pounds; and if the stable is ten feet from the -top of the lower floor to the bottom of the -upper floor, it would contain only 25,600 cubic<span class="pagenum" id="Page281">[281]</span> -feet of air space. This is manifestly too little, -as 1 cubic foot of air space should be allowed -for each pound of live animal. Many stables, -in fact most stables, provide but one-half of a -cubic foot of air space for each pound of live -animal kept in them; in such case it is impossible -to keep the air approximately pure or -the stable decently sweet. To realize what this -means, suppose a bedchamber be constructed -for a man weighing 160 pounds. If one foot -of air space be provided for each pound of -live weight, the chamber might be built 4 feet -wide, 7 feet long and 6 feet high. This would -give 168 cubic feet of air space. If the bedchamber -be made proportionally as large as -are most cow stables, its dimensions would be -3 feet wide, 6¹⁄₂ feet long and 4¹⁄₂ feet high. -To insure good air in such a sleeping room -one side of it would have to be knocked out.</p> - -<div class="container w15em right" id="Fig106"> - -<img src="images/illo291.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 106. A swing window for stable.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>If one or two box-stalls and one feed-bin are -provided in an 80 × 32-foot barn, with 12-foot -ceilings (<a href="#Fig105">Fig. 105</a>), and room for a hallway, -3 feet wide, be left at one end of the building, -it will then accommodate thirty-nine animals. -Each one would have 800 cubic feet of air -space, the required amount. The first story of -most cow stables is about seven feet. It is -seen how easily the stable may be overcrowded. -A high story gives opportunity for long windows<span class="pagenum" id="Page282">[282]</span> -and for placing them well up from the floor, -and for good ventilation. If the ceiling is to -be reduced in height, which it well may be, -the building should be proportionately longer.</p> - -<p>A section of a part of the inside of the wall -with swing windows is shown in <a href="#Fig106">Fig. 106</a>. The -windows should be of one sash and hung near -the middle, as shown, by means of a piece of -iron ³⁄₈ of an inch in diameter and 4 inches -long. A hole for the reception of the iron, and -of the same size, is made through the window -sash and extends into the jambs of the frame -about one inch. A button on the side of the -jamb is used to hold the window partly open -when required. This allows cool air to pass -in at the bottom and the warm, vitiated air to -pass out at the top in small, broken streams. -It will be noticed that in case of a storm no -rain or strong current of air can reach the -stable. Usually too few and too small windows -are provided, through which the manure from -the stables is not unfrequently thrown.</p> - -<p>Some additional ventilators should be provided; -these may consist of wooden tubes -extending from the ceiling through the roof, -so constructed that the foul air may enter -them. They need not be numerous or large, -as the windows when slightly open form excellent -ventilators. Two things should be kept<span class="pagenum" id="Page283">[283]</span> -prominently in view in ventilation: first, no -strong draughts of air, or, as a distinguished -professor puts it, “great gobs of raw air,” should -be introduced; second, ventilators should -ventilate both at the ceiling and the floor, -as in these two places will be found the -most impure air. Ample air space is most -economically secured by -high ceilings, rather -than by horizontal enlargement. -The air can -be kept reasonably pure -by the introduction, at -several points near the -lower floor, of small -volumes of slowly moving -fresh air.</p> - -<p>Two stairs should -lead from the basement -to the second floor in -all large barns to -economize time; the -openings in the upper -floor had best be provided -with flap doors, -which can be left open in muggy, warm weather -to assist ventilation, or closed in cold weather -to economize warmth.</p> - -<p>Many varieties of stanchion for confining cattle<span class="pagenum" id="Page284">[284]</span> -in stalls are in use, some really good, but -mostly defective in one or more respects. It -would take too much space to describe all of -the various contrivances and to illustrate them -and to call attention to their good and objectionable -points. Some confine the animals too -closely, others give too much freedom and allow -them to become soiled; some are too expensive, -and some are not durable. I shall describe but -one kind of fastening and manger which, after -trying numerous patent arrangements, has been -found to be excellent. It is quite possible that -there are better ones. The one thing which -has been learned about stanchions by experimentation -and observation is that they may -be so complicated and handy as to be unhandy.</p> - -<p>The size and character of the “drip,” the -comfort and cleanliness of the animals, the ease -of fastening and unfastening, the noise or quiet -of the stable, and the effect on the animals, -should all be considered. While using one -stanchion, the animals became wild and made -frantic efforts to pull their heads out when the -attendant approached to unfasten them. As -soon as another fastening was introduced they -became docile. With one stanchion they would -lie down more frequently than with another. -With one kind of manger the animals are -tempted to hook one another, and in reaching<span class="pagenum" id="Page285">[285]</span> -for food would fall upon their knees and injure -themselves. Most of the contrivances were not -easily adjustable, so that when the size, or -rather length, of the animals varied the standing -room was either too short or too long. -Some had posts to sustain the stanchions; these -intercepted the light and prevented an unobstructed -survey of the animal. They gave the -stables a forbidding, dark, prison-like appearance.</p> - -<p>The individual stalls should be, for smallish -animals, 3 feet 6 inches from center to center, -and 3 feet 8 inches for larger animals. The -partitions between the animals need extend only -far enough backward and upward to prevent -them from reaching each other with their horns. -When dishorning is practiced the partitions -may be lower than when it is not.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<h3 class="nobreak">MANGERS AND TIES</h3> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p>The cross section of a floor and the skeleton -of a bracket upon which the mangers are built -are shown in <a href="#Fig107">Fig. 107</a>. The mangers of cattle -stables should be easily movable. This can be -accomplished in the following way: Construct -one more bracket than the number of stalls -required in the line of mangers. Place one -of the brackets at the end and one intermediate -between every pair of stalls; fasten<span class="pagenum" id="Page286">[286]</span> -them lightly to the floor with nails, which -should be removed when the mangers are completed. -<a href="#Fig107">Fig. 107</a> also shows the cross section -of the brackets, with bottom, front, and back -side of the manger placed.</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig107"> - -<img src="images/illo294a.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 107. The building of a manger.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<div class="container w25em" id="Fig108"> - -<img src="images/illo294b.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 108. -Newton cattle tie.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>The Newton cattle tie (<a href="#Fig108">Fig. 108</a>), though -rather expensive, has proved most satisfactory. -It is made of one piece of round, durable -wood, as ash, about 1¹⁄₄ inches in diameter and -bent at the corners, and is furnished with a -flat ring which encircles the bow -at the middle, to which is attached -a swivel; to this is -fastened a rope to encircle the -animal’s neck, the rope being -furnished with suitable fastenings -at the ends. The bows -are attached to the divisions on a level or a -little above the animal’s throat when standing;<span class="pagenum" id="Page287">[287]</span> -when lying down the bow rests on top of the -manger, which is about 1¹⁄₂ feet lower than the -ends of the bow. It will be seen that since -the bow describes an arc of a circle in passing -downward, it tends to pull the animal towards -the manger when it lies down, and hence away -from the soiled drip.</p> - -<p>In midsummer window curtains, drawn -during milking time, serve to quiet the flies -and the cows, as does also a light spraying of -the animals with kerosene before they are -turned out in the morning. A blanket tacked -over the entrance door to the cow stable will -brush most of the flies off the cattle as they -enter.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page288">[288]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER XVII<br /> -<span class="chapname"><i>BUILDING THE BARN—THE SUPERSTRUCTURE</i></span></h2> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p>The kind of superstructure best to be -adopted for the barn depends on many conditions. -The balloon construction may be used -for small barns, but large ones naturally require -large timbers or many small ones, hence the -old style of frame-work, with some modification, -is usually adopted. In modern barn -buildings the main timbers are reduced in -size, more and lighter braces are used in lieu -of the large mortised and pinned braces. They -are cut with smooth, angled ends and spiked to -posts and beams. A brace of 2 × 4 inches is -inexpensive, and allows of following the old -rule of placing a brace in every angle made -by the principal timbers.</p> - -<p>Another modification should be adopted: the -joists, so far as possible, should rest on sills -and beams and not be gained into them. It is -unwise and unscientific to cut gains for the -reception of the ends of the joists at considerable -expense, since such gains weaken both -joists and sills. In most cases the joists may<span class="pagenum" id="Page289">[289]</span> -be placed on top of the sills, thereby obviating -the necessity of framing, while preserving the -strength of sill and joist entire. When it is -desirable, as it often is in small structures, to -have the top of the sill or beam coincide with -the tops of the joists, it is -cheaper and better to use a -rather light timber and fortify -it by nailing upon it -2 × 4-inch studding (<a href="#Fig109">Fig. -109</a>), thereby avoiding the necessity of cutting -gains, while giving additional strength to the -timber which supports the joists.</p> - -<div class="container w25em" id="Fig109"> - -<img src="images/illo297.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 109. Laying the joist.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>The joists in barns should be bridged as in -houses. That part of the barn floor which is -above the root-cellar should be deafened, as -shown in <a href="#Fig101">Fig. 101</a>. Cleats nailed on the sides -of the joists serve to support the short boards -which carry the deafening material. The 2-inch -space between the false and the true floor is -filled with mortar composed of about five or -six parts of sand to one of lime or cement. -If all of the floor driven upon above the basement -is deafened, it will deaden sound and -promote warmth in the lower story.</p> - -<p>While the balloon frame has been almost -universally adopted in the construction of houses, -it is only recently that large barn frames have -been successfully constructed on the same general<span class="pagenum" id="Page290">[290]</span> -principles. The plank frame has now been -so modified and improved that it serves well -for the largest farm building. All of the frame -timbers are sawed two inches thick and of variable -widths, as required. Instead of uniting the -timbers by means of mortise and tenon, they -are fastened with wire spikes. This new -method secures as strong a frame as the old, -and saves from 30 to 40 per cent of material, -while the plank frame is more easily and -cheaply erected than the large timbered frame -is. The 2-inch frame material can be so -placed as to direction and position that it will -secure the maximum of strength with the minimum -of lumber.</p> - -<div class="split5050"> - -<div class="left5050"> - -<div class="container" id="Fig110"> - -<img src="images/illo298.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 110. Barn frame.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -</div><!--left5050--> - -<div class="right5050"> - -<div class="container" id="Fig111"> - -<img src="images/illo299.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 111. Cross-section of the frame.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -</div><!--right5050--> - -<p class="thinline allclear"> </p> - -</div><!--split5050--> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page291">[291]</span></p> - -<div class="container w10em right" id="Fig112"> - -<img src="images/illo300.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 112. -Built-up post.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>The illustration (<a href="#Fig110">Fig. 110</a>) shows one end of -a 67 × 97-ft. barn, posts 18 ft. long, recently -erected at the Pennsylvania Agricultural College. -A cross-section at one side of the driving floor -is also shown (<a href="#Fig111">Fig. 111</a>). A cross-section of a -built-up post is seen in <a href="#Fig112">Fig. 112</a>. It will be -seen that the building is firmly tied together, -the roof fully supported, and that no timbers -obstruct the unloading of provender by horse -power. This new method of constructing large -frames is so little known and the principles -involved are so valuable that I append a foot -note at the risk of being misunderstood.<a id="FNanchor_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> -Since long, large timbers have become expensive,<span class="pagenum" id="Page292">[292]</span> -it is probable that the plank frame will become -as common in the near future, in barn building, -as the balloon frame is in house building.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> -Shawver Bros., Bellefontaine, Ohio, furnish models and bills of material for -plank barns at a low cost.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<p>It is frequently convenient to place -horses or other animals on the second -floor above other animals, or above a -covered yard, in which case a tight -floor may be made as follows (<a href="#Fig113">Fig. -113</a>): Lay an unmatched, rough inch -floor; upon this place strong, tarred building-paper, -with joints well lapped. Saw and -prepare the 2-inch planks which are to form -the floors. For every four hundred square feet -of floor, procure one barrel of hard Trinidad -asphalt and three gallons of gas tar. A large -iron kettle may be used for heating and mixing -the material, which should be in the proportion -of about one to ten. With an ax remove the -barrel, and chop off and place in the kettle -pieces of asphalt until it is not much more -than one-half full, then add the due proportion -of gas tar. The kettle should be placed -in a rude arch and at a little distance from -the building. By means of a slow fire heat -the material. When all is ready, dip the hot -mixture into a galvanized iron pail and pour -it in a small stream on the paper, spreading -to the width of the plank intended to be laid, -by means of a shingle or paddle. Lay the<span class="pagenum" id="Page293">[293]</span> -plank in the hot material, being careful that -when it is spiked down the hot asphalt does -not fly up into the face. Then proceed to lay -other planks in like manner. Finally pour -some of the material into the cracks if there -should be any.<a id="FNanchor_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> -A floor laid, as described, seventeen years ago, is still in good repair.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<div class="container" id="Fig113"> - -<img src="images/illo301.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 113. Making a barn floor.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>Should the floor become worn in time and -need repairing, even up the surface by spreading -thin cement mortar upon it, and upon this -lay a second plank floor. The cement mortar -will assist in making the floor water-tight and -in preventing dry rot. Barn floors which have -become much worn from driving over them may -be treated in like manner. Where it seems -advisable to place cows on the second floor, and -over a manure cellar, the following plan may be -adopted: A tight floor, as in the former case, is -built with drips as shown; a small hole is<span class="pagenum" id="Page294">[294]</span> -placed between each pair of stalls, through which -the voidings of the animals may be dropped into -the story below, the floor of which is concreted. -The objection might be raised that the manure -underneath the animals would be objectionable; -but since the floor of the stable described is -tight when the openings in the drip are closed, -and the story below is well lighted and ventilated, -the objection does not hold good.</p> - -<p>As far as possible, horses should stand with -their heads away from the windows, as draughts -of air and glaring sunlight are trying to their -eyes. A few box stalls are convenient, and -assist in providing the two cubic feet of air -space which should be allowed for each pound -of live weight in the horse barn. The stable -should be so situated that the fumes of ammonia -arising from it cannot reach the harness -and carriages, if they are highly polished and -expensive. The horse stable may often be -placed on the second floor of the wing, as it -brings it on a level with the main driving floor -and near to where the wagons are likely to be -kept. The story beneath the horses makes an -acceptable covered yard. An office, which may -be warmed, and a repair room should be provided -in one corner of the barn or in a small -detached building near to it.</p> - -<p>If the farm is ample, and large amounts of<span class="pagenum" id="Page295">[295]</span> -hay and grain are to be stored, instead of building -a wagon house, the main barn might be -extended twenty feet, more or less, in length. -This additional room may be used for carriages -and light harness in part, and in part for the -storage of grain, meal, and the like. The space -underneath this room would serve to enlarge the -cow stable. The place for washing carriages -might also be located on the lower floor, where -it would serve for storing the milk wagon as -well, and the space above it could be devoted to -storing hay and the like. Barn windows should -have small panes of glass, as the cross bars of -the windows serve not only to hold the glass but -as fenders also. Since the glass in barn windows -is likely to be broken, the cost of repairs -is reduced to a minimum if the panes are small.</p> - -<p>A cupola, if it is large and well proportioned, -may add beauty to the barn and serve to ventilate -the mows, thereby making them cooler for -the workmen than they otherwise would be. It -may also give opportunity for lighting the mows -and the floors, thereby avoiding the necessity of -windows at the side of the mows, where they are -likely to be broken and where they are covered -as soon as the barn is partly filled.</p> - -<p>Hay and grain contain 20 to 25 per cent -of moisture when stored, and hence tend to -become warm. The hot, moist air, due to<span class="pagenum" id="Page296">[296]</span> -this heating, ascends to the roof or cupola -and forms an easier passage to the earth for -electrical discharges than the normal air of the -building does. Thunder storms prevail largely -about the time barns are filled, hence they -should be provided with good lightning rods, that -an easier and safer way may be provided for the -discharges than by the ascending warm, moist -air of the building. (See lightning rods, <a href="#Page321">Chap. -XX</a>.)</p> - -<p>Barns not more than sixty feet wide may be -covered by self-supporting roofs. The curb or -gambrel form is the best. If the gables are -clipped, the cost will not be materially increased, -while the structure will be much improved in -looks. Barns should have strong, wide, projecting -roofs; a few extra rows of shingles at -the eaves will serve to protect the outside covering -and the framework, and will improve the -looks of the structure. Should it be decided to -paint the barn, an ample projection will greatly -reduce the expense of keeping the paint presentable. -Financially speaking, it does not pay to -paint the barn unless the boarding is placed -horizontally. The boarding of many unpainted -barns is still in a good state of preservation, -although they were built more than three-fourths -of a century ago, and had roofs projecting -but a few inches over sides and ends. Protected<span class="pagenum" id="Page297">[297]</span> -by a roof projection of one to two feet, -rough, vertical barn boards may last for one to -two hundred years without paint. It may be -said, then, that properly constructed barns are -painted to improve their looks and not to preserve -them. When the barns are well removed -from the house and virtually hidden by trees, -they may be left unpainted, but where they are -conspicuous they should be painted, that the -barn may not mar the beauty of the home. -The oxide of iron, which usually has a red or -reddish tinge, mixed with pure oil, forms a most -desirable and satisfactory barn paint. (See -Painting the House, <a href="#Page158">Chap. IX</a>.)</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page298">[298]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER XVIII<br /> -<span class="chapname"><i>REMODELING OLD BARNS</i></span></h2> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p>It is more difficult to remodel old barns -than to build new ones. If the attempt be -made to unite several of the detached buildings -with the view of making them into one symmetrical -structure, much study will be required. -The frames of the old buildings are so strong -and durable that they should not be thrown -aside as useless until it is certain that to -utilize them would be more expensive than to -tear them down and erect others of new -material. Those massive oak sills and posts -and poplar swing-beams have for me a -meaning and charm which is lacking in the -light plank and balloon frame constructed of -knotty, wind-shaken hemlock or some other<span class="pagenum" id="Page299">[299]</span> -cheap wood. It needs no argument to prove -that the numerous detached rural buildings so -often seen on the farm should be remodeled; -but how? To illustrate, let the buildings shown -in <a href="#Fig114">Fig. 114</a>, which is from a photograph, be -taken. Move the four largest buildings to -some suitable site without taking the frames -down, and out of the timbers of the other -structures build a basement story. It will take -just one-half as much material to board the -new structure as the four old ones, plus that -required to fill the gaps where the old structures -do not join (see plan, <a href="#Fig115">Fig. 115</a>). These -openings, eight and twelve feet, are all so -short that the frames may be made continuous -by means of light pieces of material, which will -serve for nailing girts. When the old buildings -have been united, some of the inside posts -may be in inconvenient positions. If so, trusses -appropriately placed in the mow story will permit -the removal of the obstructing post, as -shown in <a href="#Fig116">Figs. 116</a> and <a href="#Fig117">117</a>.</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig114"> - -<img src="images/illo3067.jpg" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 114. The scattered buildings on a farm. The profit of the farm is absorbed in doing the chores.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>If a steep curb roof, which may be self-supporting<span class="pagenum" id="Page300">[300]</span> -(<a href="#Fig118">Fig. 118</a>), be adopted, the remodeled -structure (<a href="#Fig119">Fig. 119</a>) will have more than -three times the available space that the four -old structures had. It is probable that there -would be nearly enough dimension stuff in the -seven other small structures to construct the -basement story.</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig115"> - -<img src="images/illo308.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 115. Plan for condensing the buildings shown in <a href="#Fig114">Fig. 114</a>.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>But it may chance that no basement story -is wanted. If so, the building might be arranged -as before, or two more of the small structures -might be united to the four larger ones which -it was proposed to use in the former case. The -barn would then present a rather low appearance; -but if the peaks of the curb roof were -properly treated, that is, clipped (<a href="#Fig120">Fig. 120</a>),<span class="pagenum" id="Page301">[301]</span> -the structure would not be void of beauty. -The rebuilt structure, in any case, should be -placed on continuous walls, not on stone piers. -If the posts of the old structures are of unequal -length, the wall which supports those having -the shorter posts may be built higher than for -those having the longer posts, provided, however, -there is not too great a difference in the -length of the posts of the several small -structures. If there are four or more feet -difference, it would then be best to splice the -short posts.</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig116"> -<a id="Fig117"></a> - -<img src="images/illo30910.png" alt="" /> - -<div class="split6040"> - -<div class="left6040"> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 116. Trussing where a post is removed.</p> - -</div><!--left6040--> - -<div class="right6040"> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 117. -A trussed frame, where a post is removed.</p> - -</div><!--right6040--> - -</div><!--split6040--> - -</div><!--container--> - -<div class="container w30em allclear" id="Fig118"> - -<img src="images/illo310.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 118. Old style of roof below, -and new style curb roof above.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page302">[302]</span></p> - -<p>The first story -in most of the old -barns is entirely -too low. This may -be remedied by -building the outside -supporting -walls of the proposed -remodeled -building two to -three feet above -the level of the -ground. This will -add as much to -the lower story as -the wall is above -the ground, less the room required for placing -the basement floor. If -treated in this manner the -old inside sills, sleepers, -and joists should be removed -and the inside post supported -on stone or brick -piers. All this will give -opportunity to construct the -basement floors on the -ground, or near to it, -and of such shape and -material as the new plans<span class="pagenum" id="Page303">[303]</span> -call for. In this case the floor -might well be made of grout, -since lumber is expensive, and an -effort should be made to build -permanent and durable structures. -If stable floors are placed well -up from the ground and have -numerous cracks between the -planks, they are extremely uncomfortable -for the animals. -They are, perhaps, the most uncomfortable -of all floors, as the -air finds access to the stable -through the floor, and it is nearly -impossible to keep such stables -comfortable in cold weather. Such -construction of floors is also -wasteful of manures, tends to -produce “scratches” and other -foot and leg diseases in horses, -and is unsanitary and altogether -undesirable.</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig119"> - -<img src="images/illo311.jpg" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 119. This shows the farmstead in <a href="#Fig114">Fig. 114</a>, after the barns are gathered in.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>Finally, it may be said that -when these separate structures are -treated in this inexpensive manner -without added basement, the -available capacity of the building -would be double that of the old -ones, the time of performing the<span class="pagenum" id="Page304">[304]</span> -work in the barns would be greatly diminished, -and the discomfort of both man and beast would -be ameliorated. For the sake of the farm boy -and for the animal which he cares for, to say -nothing of economy, beauty and neatness, may -I not ask those who have these scattered, unhandy, -uncomfortable barns, to study well the -illustrations given, which show the old and the -new arrangement?</p> - -<div class="container w40em" id="Fig120"> - -<img src="images/illo312.jpg" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 120. Treatment of the gable.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>The accompanying illustration (<a href="#Fig121">Fig. 121</a>) of<span class="pagenum" id="Page305">[305]</span> -English farm buildings may be of interest, -though this style of barn and the arrangement -would not be suitable in America, with its -rigorous climate and expensive farm labor.</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig121"> - -<img src="images/illo313.jpg" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 121. English farmsteading plan.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page306">[306]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER XIX<br /> -<span class="chapname"><i>OUTBUILDINGS AND ACCESSORIES</i></span></h2> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p>There are various farm buildings which are -better when more or less detached from the -main barn; and some of these may now be -mentioned.</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig122"> - -<img src="images/illo315.jpg" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 122. A poultry establishment sufficient for 150 hens.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<div class="container w40em" id="Fig123"> - -<img src="images/illo316.jpg" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 123. A moveable coop.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<h3 class="nobreak">POULTRY HOUSES</h3> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p>Until recently comparatively few persons -have been financially successful in the poultry -business when large numbers of fowls were kept -in close quarters, as the many abandoned dilapidated -yard fences and buildings testify. The -reason for such failures was due, usually, to -allowing too many fowls to run in one flock. -It takes a genius to see and note the conditions -of each individual animal once daily in a flock -of several hundred birds. Break the flock up -into several small ones, each of uniform size -and character, and the individual fowl may -then be more easily noted. A single diseased -bird, if not removed, may serve to inoculate a -whole flock with some contagious disease. If -the flock contains but twenty to thirty individuals,<span class="pagenum" id="Page307">[307]</span> -the chance of discovering a drooping -bird is greatly increased. This indicates -that the poultry house or houses should be -easily divided into rather small compartments. -Poultry houses usually are about 12 feet wide -and not more than 30 to 40 feet long. If more -room is wanted than one house furnishes, another -structure should be erected some little distance -from any other one. This will give better -opportunity to arrange for large runs or yards -than does one long, continuous building. I have -yet to see a large poultry establishment furnished -with yards as large as they should be, and I -have seen but few yards which were properly -or fully shaded. The runs should be large and -relatively narrow, and set to fruit trees. The -plum is best, and may be set the usual distance -apart. The trees should be sprayed and cared<span class="pagenum" id="Page308">[308]</span> -for as in well kept orchards, since the fruit may -chance to be more profitable than the poultry. -For the health of the fowls and the welfare of -the trees, clean culture of the runs should be -adopted. In the case of poultry buildings, the -distributive method of construction should be -adopted rather than the concentrated one. If -the undertaking is begun with a well matured -plan, these several small structures may not be -unsightly when viewed as a whole. An illustration -is given of a modest poultry plant large -enough for 150 hens and 500 chicks, provided, -however, that most of the chicks are -sold when from three to six months old (<a href="#Fig122">Fig. -122</a>). These structures are built on grout foundation -walls to exclude vermin and moisture. -The floors are of wood, the sills and plates 2 × 4 -inches. The boarding is vertical and double, -with paper between -the two boardings. -The outside boards -are planed and battened; -the roof -boards, which are -laid close together, are covered with paper and -then shingled. The windows provide for light -and, in part, for ventilation. These structures -are dry on the inside, and the temperature, -though not always above the freezing point in<span class="pagenum" id="Page309">[309]</span> -cold weather, is comfortable. The buildings -might be reduced in number or in size, except -the brooder house, and yet provide for the same -number of birds, if movable coops for the smaller -chickens were provided. The illustration (<a href="#Fig123">Fig. -123</a>) shows a durable, light, movable coop large -enough for twenty half pound chicks. The coop -was designed for use on the lawn. It is inexpensive, -and protects the chicks from all their -ordinary enemies, both day and night. It weighs -but 75 pounds, and can be moved easily by a -child by means of a strap attached to one end. -When used on the lawn, the coop should be -moved and cleaned at least once daily, as fresh -pasture for the chicks is thereby provided, injury -to the grass prevented, the lawn being benefited -by the excrements. The coop shown is 4 × 8 feet -and 20 inches high, unfloored except the covered<span class="pagenum" id="Page310">[310]</span> -section, which has a tight floor, and roosts and -suitable wooden and screen doors. A brood of -chicks in such a coop would form superior -facilities for nature-study work.</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig124"> - -<img src="images/illo317.jpg" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 124. A large portable coop.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<div class="container w20em" id="Fig125"> - -<img src="images/illo318.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 125. -Bracing the corners -of the frame.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>When poultry-raising is carried on on a large -scale, the movable coops might be built 12 × 6 -or 16 × 8 feet (<a href="#Fig124">Fig. 124</a>), the latter the largest -size which is easily movable without the aid of -a horse. The corners of -the sills should be mitered -and held together by triangular -pieces (<a href="#Fig125">Fig. 125</a>). -These coops will be found -to be entirely satisfactory -when used in a pasture or -grass paddock near the -chicken house. While experimenting -with them, it was found that the -birds did better when as many as thirty or more -chicks were assigned to each large coop than -when kept in the large, grassless runs.</p> - -<p>The following bill of particulars may be of -assistance in the construction of a lawn chicken-coop:</p> - -<div class="centerblock"> - -<p class="noindent blankbefore75 blankafter75">Sills 1 × 4 inches.<br /> -Posts 2 × 2 inches, 20 inches long.<br /> -Braces 1 × 1 inch.<br /> -Plates 1 × 2 inches.</p> - -</div><!--centerblock--> - -<p>The covered part of the coop is made of<span class="pagenum" id="Page311">[311]</span> -³⁄₈-inch matched and beaded hard pine; the -floor of any light wood ¹⁄₂-inch or ³⁄₄-inch, -matched, but not beaded.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<h3 class="nobreak">PIGGERIES</h3> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<div class="container" id="Fig126"> - -<img src="images/illo319.jpg" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 126. Temporary shelter for a brood sow.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>A piggery of any considerable size is the -most difficult to plan of all farm structures. -One of two methods may be adopted in the -East with fairly satisfactory results. If there -are woods and some pasture land adjoining or -near to the barns, cheap separate pens (<a href="#Fig126">Fig. -126</a>), one for each brood animal, may be built -near the border of the wood or on the edge -of it. There need be little more than a slanting -roof, with the triangular corners at the ends -boarded to keep out the wind. The earth -forms a most comfortable bed if kept dry and -covered thinly with leaves or straw. Of course, -these pens are not suitable for brood animals<span class="pagenum" id="Page312">[312]</span> -farrowing during the winter months. Where -but one litter of pigs is raised annually, there -is little difficulty; if two litters a year be -desired, the first one should be farrowed in -April or May, and the other in September or -October. In either case these cheap detached -pens may be not only satisfactory, but they will -serve to fit into a system of pig-raising which -may be carried on at the minimum of labor -and expense and supplementary foods. By -means of a tank or barrel mounted on wheels -the animals may be fed, either once or twice -daily, in large troughs placed in the pasture. -This system presupposes ample areas of grass -and woodland, which should furnish not only -a healthful run for the animals but much food -for them.</p> - -<p>Usually the mistake is made of confining -pigs in small pens, which may or may not have -attached to them small yards or runs. These -are always devoid of grass, and offensively -dusty and filthy a part of the year, and an -impassable mud hole at other times. Wherever -circumstances will permit, there should be allotted -to each brood animal and her offspring -one-fourth acre of land. Two small fields might -be provided, one of which would serve for pasture -ground for all the animals, while the other -would be used for raising crops for soiling<span class="pagenum" id="Page313">[313]</span> -the pigs or for other purposes. When the lot -became fertilized from the droppings of the -animals and the grass injured, it should be -plowed, cropped and seeded, the animals being -pastured meantime in the other field.</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig127"> - -<img src="images/illo321.jpg" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 127. Pig pens. At the left is shown a vertical section, with the roof -over the rear. Yard on the right.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>Cheap but somewhat more elaborate pens -are shown in <a href="#Fig127">Fig. 127</a>. These may be built -in detached pairs, or several pens may be -placed in juxtaposition. Each pen, including -the small outside yard and feeding floor, both -unroofed, is 16 × 16 feet. The part roofed is -8 × 8 feet. After the pigs have attained some -size, all doors are opened and the entire herd -may be grazed in one field.</p> - -<div class="container w30em" id="Fig128"> - -<img src="images/illo322.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 128. A more elaborate piggery.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<div class="container w40em" id="Fig129"> - -<img src="images/illo323.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 129. Elevation of the house shown in <a href="#Fig128">Fig. 128</a>.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>A better but more expensive piggery, <a href="#Fig128">Figs. -128</a> and <a href="#Fig129">129</a>, shows five pens, though the plan -lends itself to a greater or lesser number. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page314">[314]</span> -area devoted to each bed is 8 × 8 feet. The -driveway, which also serves for temporary -storage of manures, is 8 feet wide and extends -lengthwise through the -building. The floor of -the driveway should be -about one foot lower -than the feeding -and sleeping -floors at the middle, -and should -be paved or asphalted. -(See -cross section, -<a href="#Fig129">Fig. 129</a>.) The -feeding floor upon which -the troughs rest may be -4 or 5 feet long, and -should descend towards -the driving floor. Ordinary gates are hung to -the posts which serve, with the boarding, to -separate the pens. These gates are fastened at -the other end of the posts which separate the -feeding compartments. When so fastened each -brood animal has a bedroom 8 × 8, a receptacle -for manure 8 × 8, and a feeding floor 4 × 8 feet. -This arrangement presupposes that most of the -foods will be fed in the troughs. If, when the -animals are first placed in the pens, the paved<span class="pagenum" id="Page315">[315]</span> -portion of the floor be soiled with dirt and water, -the excreta thereafter will be deposited by the -animals on this floor and not in the bedroom. -The pig is really a cleanly animal if it is given -a few timely sensible hints. When it is desired -to remove the manure the gates are all swung -to the right or left, as most convenient, and -they then serve to fasten all of the animals in -the bed compartments, and the driveway is left -unobstructed. One of the outside openings to -the driveway should also be provided with a -gate to swing in, as well as an ordinary door to -swing out. These pens may all be thrown open -in the summer when it is desired to pasture -the herd.</p> - -<p>The illustration shows a small wing attached -which may serve many useful purposes. A -matched upper floor and abundant light and -ventilation should be provided. The roof story<span class="pagenum" id="Page316">[316]</span> -may be used for housing some corn in the ear -and straw for bedding. In cold weather the -upper floor should have some straw left on it to -promote warmth in the pens below.</p> - -<p>The object in discussing these three styles of -piggeries has been to emphasize cleanliness, -economy of labor in caring for the animals, the -comfort of the animals, prevention of wanton -waste of manure, and economy in the production -of healthy swine in piggeries so arranged -that the animals may be conveniently grazed -during the summer, and kept reasonably clean -and comfortable in winter.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<h3 class="nobreak">THE SILO</h3> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p>The Egyptians, the Romans, and the American -Indians all stored grain in pits or silos -which were air-tight, or as nearly so as large -rude structures could be made. The custom of -using silos for storing grain in Spain and France -never became common, though several attempts -were made to preserve large quantities of grain -for several years, that the overproduction of one -year might be kept until there were deficient -harvests.</p> - -<p>The subject of ensilaging green “roughage” -material attracted attention in the United States -soon after 1870. As early as 1875, Doctor<span class="pagenum" id="Page317">[317]</span> -Manly Miles, then connected with the Illinois -Industrial University, was fairly successful in -preserving the green tops of broom corn in an -earthen silo. Interest in the subject of preserving -green material in silos was widely aroused -in America by the appearance of a book on -ensilage, translated in 1878-9. The book was -published in France in 1877, by M. Auguste -Goffart.</p> - -<p>When the practice of ensilaging green material -for feeding animals was first introduced -into the United States there was much discussion -as to the construction of silos. Many -advocated building them of stones, brick, or -grout, though some were built of wood. As a -rule, they were built either square or in the -form of a parallelogram, in a few cases octagonal. -Experience soon showed that the silage -was preserved better in the wooden silo than in -those constructed of other material. For this -reason, and because the wooden silo is most -cheaply constructed, wood is now in universal -use for building them.</p> - -<p>At first heavy frames were erected which -were covered with two, three, and even four -thicknesses of boards. Sometimes building -paper was placed between the inner and outer -boards. The octagon and the round silo soon -supplanted those having square corners. As<span class="pagenum" id="Page318">[318]</span> -built, too often the walls could not be or were -not fully ventilated. The thick walls remained -more or less damp throughout the entire year or, -if dried out when empty, lack of ventilation -superinduced dry rot. Cases were not infrequent -where silos were found to be practically useless -without rebuilding in four or five years. Where -everything was at its best, the frequent shrinking -and swelling of the wood resulted finally in -so destroying its elasticity that it did not return -to its normal size when the silo was refilled. -Since there was no means of tightening these -silos the air soon entered them freely, which -resulted in serious loss of fodder. By reason of -the costliness and defects of stone and grout -silos, and the failure in many cases of square-cornered -wooden ones to preserve the material -satisfactorily, and because of their perishable -nature, much attention has been given to the -shape and material of silos.</p> - -<div class="container w30em" id="Fig130"> - -<img src="images/illo327.jpg" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 130. The stave silo.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>From all the evidence attainable, the conclusion -is reached that the round, tall, stave silo is -best. It is simple in construction, inexpensive -as compared with most other kinds, and reasonably -durable. The fact that it dries out fully -during the summer, thereby destroying all germs -of decay, coupled with the other fact that at any -time it can be made tight by means of the -hoops which serve to hold the staves in place,<span class="pagenum" id="Page319">[319]</span> -makes the round, stave silo par excellent. The -staves should be two inches thick and from four -to six inches wide, bevelled to suit the size of -the structure. The hoops are usually of round -galvanized iron one-half inch in diameter. -They are placed about three feet apart, the -spaces between the hoops being wider near the -top than they are near the bottom. The hoops -are made in sections of variable lengths; the<span class="pagenum" id="Page320">[320]</span> -ends of each section are furnished with lugs, -that the hoop may be shortened and the silo -tightened with ease. The illustration (<a href="#Fig130">Fig. 130</a>) -shows an emergency silo built of rough green -hemlock plank unbevelled, hooped with “American -woven wire fence.” It is 24 feet high, 12 -feet in diameter, cost $35, and has a nominal -capacity of 50 tons. A flat board roof serves -to keep out the snow and most of the rain. It -is placed in the open to test its durability. It -has been in use one year, and so far it is -entirely satisfactory, though the staves would be -better if they had been beveled.</p> - -<p>How long will this inexpensive silo last? -That remains to be determined. Judging from -other silos of similar construction which were -erected several years ago, I judge it will last 15 -or 20 years with slight repairs. When left thus -exposed, will the silage freeze during the winter? -In extremely cold weather in central New York, -when the thermometer drops to 10° or 15° below -zero, the material at the top will freeze. If -straw be spread over the silage to the depth of -a few inches, it will prevent the escape of heat -and freezing. A portion of the straw covering -is thrown back out of the way, the silage wanted -removed, and the covering returned. Such precaution -is only necessary during a few of the -coldest days.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page321">[321]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER XX<br /> -<span class="chapname"><i>PROTECTION FROM LIGHTNING</i></span></h2> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p>A flash of lightning is one of the most -feared of nature’s manifestations of power; -and yet by the use of proper precautions its -ability to injure persons and property can be -lessened greatly. Speculations as to the nature -of lightning were vague until Benjamin Franklin -boldly sent a kite into the teeth of a storm -and tapped the accumulated electricity in the -cloud to charge one of his storage jars. He -connected the cloud with his jar by a wire -made of a material which he knew would -conduct the electrical charge, and at the same -time he took the precaution not to hold the -end of this wire himself. He introduced between -the end of the wire and his hand a -piece of silk cord, which is a non-conductor of -electricity. Had he taken hold of the end of -the wire, the charge would have passed through -him with probably fatal results.</p> - -<p>What is lightning? One naturally inquires -for the reason of this storage of electrical -energy in the clouds. The explanation is not<span class="pagenum" id="Page322">[322]</span> -forthcoming—at least there is none which is -entirely satisfactory—but the facts are well -known. The mass of water-vapor which forms -the clouds becomes electrically charged just as a -rubber comb does when rubbed on the hair on -a dry day, or as an ebonite ruler does when -rubbed on a cat-skin. Perhaps by contact with -the air, which is in motion, the particles of -water become charged, and by the union of -multitudes of these the clouds are charged to a -tremendous pressure. Lightning can be produced -artificially on a small scale by means of -electric machines, and the results of study of -these artificial discharges have been to show the -following facts: The air is not a conductor -of electricity, but when the electrical pressure -between two points becomes sufficiently -great the electric charge jumps suddenly between -the two points at which the pressure -exists. It punctures a hole for itself through -the air. Lightning is the result. This discharge -is very violent, and it is accompanied -by a strong smell of ozone, which is only very -strong oxygen. If one were to examine the -points of the electric machine between which -the discharge took place, they might be found -either hot or cold, depending upon their size -and the material of which they were made. -Some materials offer more resistance to the<span class="pagenum" id="Page323">[323]</span> -passage of the electric charge than others, and -when a considerable resistance is offered, heat -is produced in appreciable amounts at the -places at which the resistance is met. The -application of this principle will be seen when -the effects of real lightning are considered.</p> - -<p>In <a href="#Fig131">Figs. 131</a>, <a href="#Fig132">132</a>, and <a href="#Fig133">133</a> are shown lightning -flashes taken by Mr. W. N. Jennings.<a id="FNanchor_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> -These flashes are so soon over that without -the aid of the sensitive photographic plate it -would be impossible to study them. It will -be noticed that the path of the charge is not -straight, but quite irregular; this path being -that in which there is the least resistance to -the passage of the electricity. One strange -phenomenon which is brought out clearly in the -pictures is that the discharge very frequently<span class="pagenum" id="Page324">[324]</span> -divides into several branches. This is because -it finds easy paths in several directions and -divides into smaller discharges, thus finally -disappearing.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> -These three pictures are drawn, by permission, from photographic illustrations -by Mr. Jennings in Journal of the Franklin Institute, vol. 133 (1892).</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<div class="container w30em" id="Fig131"> - -<img src="images/illo331.jpg" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 131. Horizontal discharge of lightning.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<div class="container w20em" id="Fig132"> - -<img src="images/illo332.jpg" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 132. Meandering discharge.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="container w20em" id="Fig133"> - -<img src="images/illo333.jpg" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 133. Tree-form discharge.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><i>Protection from lightning.</i>—Having -noticed briefly -something of the nature of -lightning, the next point to -be considered is its control, -so that the dangerous effects -of a sudden discharge may -be avoided. It has long -been known that by repeating -Franklin’s experiment -and connecting the clouds -with the earth, dangerous -flashes of lightning can be avoided to some -extent; and this fact has given rise to much -swindling on the part of the “lightning-rod -man,” who has frequently imposed on the people -through their fear of the results of lightning -bolts. Any person of average intelligence, with -the knowledge of a few simple principles, can -put up a rod himself for the protection of his -barn or dwelling at a very reasonable expense.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<h3 class="nobreak">METAL ROOFS</h3> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p>It has been noticed that metal roofs protect -buildings even when no lightning rods are used,<span class="pagenum" id="Page325">[325]</span> -especially if there are tin or iron water pipes -running to the ground. Even steam and gas -pipes are good if connected with the roof. -Tin and copper roofs are not so common in -the country as in the city, and this is one of -the many reasons why city houses are less -frequently struck by lightning than country -ones. Copper roofs are not used now as they -once were on account of the great expense; -but from the electrical standpoint they are an -excellent protection to a house in a thunder -storm. The writer has -noticed in a room in a -city house, in which -steam heat is used, that -the lightning will come -in and down on the -steam pipes without -doing any harm. If -one will go into a telegraph -station during a -storm he will frequently -notice the discharges of -lightning which take -place through devices -provided for the purpose, -and this without the least fire risk. -This is an illustration of the fact that, if -properly provided for, the dangerous element<span class="pagenum" id="Page326">[326]</span> -can be largely eliminated from a lightning discharge.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<h3 class="nobreak">PROTECTING WOODEN ROOFS</h3> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p>If a metal roof is out of the question, the -protection of the wooden roof must be provided -for. Very little attention has been paid in -this country to the proper erection and maintenance -of lightning rods. It is not sufficient -to put up a point in an out-of-the-way place, -and with a careless ground connection, and then -expect immunity from lightning. The lightning -rod will protect a wooden-roofed building if it -is properly installed; and in order that this -simple but important piece of apparatus be -thoroughly understood it will now be considered -in detail.</p> - -<p>In the first place, it should be noted that -there are two forms of electric discharge or -lightning which are provided for in equipping a -building with lightning protection: the brush -discharge and the disruptive discharge. The -brush-form is so named because the fine -streamers of sparks which are emitted have -somewhat the appearance of a brush. This discharge -is harmless, and one of the important -functions of the bunch of points on the upper -end of the lightning rod is to quietly take from -the surrounding atmosphere the electricity there<span class="pagenum" id="Page327">[327]</span> -generated, and thus prevent its accumulation to -a dangerous extent. Very high towers, such as -steel windmills, high trees, and steeples do the -community a good service in this respect. But -sometimes the discharges cannot be dissipated -through the brush form, but reach a high pressure, -and exhibit themselves with great violence, -producing the booming and crackling noise of -thunder. This is the second form; and although -the points may be useful in this case too, yet if -they are too far apart the discharge may not -seek them, but may take a shorter path through -the moist hay from which the hot, damp air is -rising to the roof and forming another lightning -conductor. Protection from this can be partly -provided by the use of several points, not over -forty feet apart; but in cases in which lightning -is very violent and frequent, the conductor -should be run all around the edges of the roof, -and in several places to the ground.</p> - -<p>An experiment made by a noted electrician -some years ago will illustrate this point: A -frame was made of iron wire in the shape of a -barn, the wire representing the edges of the -walls and roof. The frame was connected to -the ground, or “grounded,” as the electricians say, -and then artificial lightning was allowed to play -upon it from a distance of a foot or more above. -This gave a model about in proportion to the<span class="pagenum" id="Page328">[328]</span> -real barn and actual lightning. All the discharge -followed the wire frame, and did not -ignite a dummy of gun-cotton which was placed -inside. The instant that the metal barn frame -was removed the dummy was struck and burned -violently. One can draw his own conclusions -from an experiment of this sort.</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig134"> - -<img src="images/illo337.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 134. Proper adjustment of lightning rods on a barn.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>A barn properly fitted with lightning rods is -shown in <a href="#Fig134">Fig. 134</a>. The location of the points -is such that there is not more than forty feet -between two adjacent ones. The rod projects -about six feet above the roof, and these projections -are all connected by means of rod of the -same form as the vertical conductors. Sharp -turns are avoided in erecting the conductor, for -an electric discharge would prefer to go straight -through the air rather than turn a corner.</p> - -<p>It will now be necessary to go into some -practical details of the construction of lightning -rods, and the suggestions that will be made -have been included here because good points or -rods may not always be readily obtainable. -Their manufacture is easy and can be performed -with the limited facilities of a small village. If -the raw materials have to be bought at a distance, -this can be easily done by correspondence.</p> - -<p>Parts of the system: The equipment will consist -of three parts—the conductor and its support, -the points, and the ground connection.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page329">[329]</span></p> - -<div class="container w10em left" id="Fig135"> - -<img src="images/illo339.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 135. Supporting a rod.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>The conductor, or so-called “rod,” first demands -attention. All metals conduct electricity -to some extent, but certain ones are very much -better than others. For example, lead, platinum, -brass, and iron are poor conductors, which -is equivalent to saying that they heat up readily -on the passage of an electric current. On the -other hand, silver, copper, and aluminum are -good conductors. In making a lightning rod, -the best all-round conductor should be used, -when cost and conductivity are the basis for the -selection. As an example, take the metals iron, -copper, and aluminum for comparison. Iron is -cheapest in price per pound, but its electrical -conductivity is small, while copper, though more<span class="pagenum" id="Page330">[330]</span> -expensive, has so much more conductivity that -to get rid of a certain charge of electricity -requires much less of it. So with aluminum, -which has slightly less conductivity and which -costs more than copper, but which is so light -that a rod having the same conducting ability -when made of this metal actually costs less than -one made of copper, and the price of aluminum -is constantly lessening, while that of copper cannot -fall much on account of the limited supply. -To compare actual figures, call the conductivity -of copper 100, then that of steel or iron will be -about 18, and that of aluminum about 60. As -to relative weights, copper weighs about 550 -pounds per cubic foot, iron or steel 480, and -aluminum 160. As the prices of these materials -are constantly varying, it would be impossible -to say at this time what the relative -costs would be at any other time; but it can be -said that on the score of cost there is little -choice among them. For a number of reasons -aside from cost, copper is at present the best -material, and these reasons are: That it is -smaller than the others for a given conducting -ability, and thus is more sightly; that it is -easier to support on account of this small size, -and that it can be readily soldered to the -ground plate, which will be considered later.</p> - -<p>In addition to the material of the lightning<span class="pagenum" id="Page331">[331]</span> -rod, its form is a matter of considerable importance. -The cable forms have been used -extensively and successfully, but the ribbon or -flat form is better on account of the smaller cost, -and because there is a greater area exposed for -the dissipation of the heat generated by the -lightning in passing from the points to the -ground. A rectangular section of three-quarters -by one-eighth of an inch is recommended.</p> - -<p>In supporting the conductor from the wall or -roof, it should be separated or “insulated” -from these surfaces. There -is a slight chance that the lightning -might leave the conductor if the building -were wet. A more important -reason for the use of the insulator -is that the heat which is generated -on the surface of the rod when a -heavy discharge occurs will not be -able, if supported away from the -wall, to heat up any inflammable material -near it. <a href="#Fig135">Fig. 135</a> shows a -method of support in which one of -the standard insulators used in running -electric light and other wires is -employed. These insulators, which -are made of porcelain and iron, can be -screwed into the wood or into a plug driven -into the joints between the stones very readily.<span class="pagenum" id="Page332">[332]</span> -The insulator shown is manufactured by the -General Electric Company, of Schenectady, New -York, and similar ones are made by other manufacturers -of electrical materials.</p> - -<div class="container w10em right" id="Fig136"> - -<img src="images/illo341.jpg" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 136. Efficient points -for a lightning rod.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>In order to attract the discharge, the rods -must project some distance above the roof, -about 6 feet being the proper height. This -projection must be supported, and there are two -ways to do this. The first is to screw or nail -a piece of timber to the side of the building, -projecting about 5 feet above the roof. Two -insulators on this will provide the necessary -support for the rod. As this might be considered -unsightly in some places, a neater but -more expensive method is to use a piece of -³⁄₄-inch copper, brass or iron rod for the upper -9 or 10 feet of the rod. This can be easily joined -and soldered to the copper ribbon and is strong -enough to support itself in any wind. A brace -from the vertical to the horizontal rod will provide -additional support if desired, and will give -a more substantial appearance. At the point at -which the horizontal rod passes through a timber -support, in case such plan is used, a hole -1¹⁄₂ inches should be bored in the timber to avoid -any risk of its being burned. In joining the -horizontal to the vertical rod, the former should -be bent up at right angles for an inch, and the -surfaces should then be well cleaned and soldered.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page333">[333]</span></p> - -<p>The points for attracting the discharge -should be made very carefully, and with a view -to accommodating the brush discharge particularly. -As a rule, the more -points in the bunch at the head -of the rod the better will the -brush discharge be attracted; -and for the same reason these -points should be sharp and -bright. These facts have been -determined by experiment, from -which it has been learned that -the discharge is quieter and at -a lower pressure from sharp, -bright terminals than from others. -Aluminum wire fulfils the requirements -for the points better -than any other metal of reasonable -cost. Unfortunately this -metal is difficult to solder, but -if the directions here given are -carefully followed there will be -no difficulty in producing a good -bunch.</p> - -<p>The sketch (<a href="#Fig136">Fig. 136</a>) shows the general construction. -In the end of a block of copper of -the dimensions shown, drill a hole ⁵⁄₈ of an inch -in diameter and 1 inch deep. Cut off a number -of pieces of aluminum wire, of about ¹⁄₁₆ of an<span class="pagenum" id="Page334">[334]</span> -inch in diameter, about 4 inches long. This -wire can be obtained from the Pittsburg Reduction -Company, of Pittsburg, Pennsylvania. -These wires must then be filed to sharp points -on one end, the opposite ends being roughened -with coarse sandpaper. Push as many of the -wires into the hole in the block as it will hold -and bend the points back so as to form a -brush. Now heat some solder in a ladle and -pour in around the lower ends of the aluminum -wires, having first taken the precaution to heat -the copper block so that the solder will flow -well. The conductor rod is then soldered into -a slot filed in the lower end of the block, and -the bunch of points is complete.</p> - -<p>The ground connection is the most important -part of the whole equipment. With poor ground -connections, the rods become a menace to a -building rather than a protection. Examples -could be cited where buildings were actually -struck and destroyed, even though “apparently -properly rodded.” In one case the wire entered -but two inches into dry soil, while in -another the lower end was buried in concrete. -It is absolutely essential that the lower end -of the rod be connected with moist earth in -some way, as this is the only method which -will insure safety. If there are water pipes -in the building, they should be attached to the<span class="pagenum" id="Page335">[335]</span> -rod in the basement in addition to the main -ground connection.</p> - -<p>As the charge is to be dissipated in the earth, -it will be necessary to expose a considerable -area of metal under ground. If a spring is -near, the rod should be run to the vicinity -of the spring and there soldered to the ground -plate, which should be below the level of the -surface of the spring. Moist soil is the only -kind which will conduct electricity, hence the -insistence on a moist place for the terminal of -the rod. In case the plate must be planted -some distance from water, either it must go -quite deep or it may be placed in a barrel of -charcoal or coke buried under the surface. -These materials will hold whatever water they -receive, and it is a simple matter to wet the -soil above such a terminal from time to time. -The plate itself should be of copper and of an -area of at least 25 square feet, including both -sides. An old copper boiler, flattened out, makes -a cheap and effective ground plate.</p> - -<p>There is no doubt that many buildings have -been saved from destruction by means of properly -installed lightning rods, and it is plain -that they are not difficult nor expensive to -install.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page336">[336]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER XXI<br /> -<span class="chapname"><i>THE FIELDS</i></span></h2> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p>While it is the primary object of this book -to discuss the lay-out of buildings and their -accessories, it would be incomplete if something -were not said of the general plan of the -fields themselves.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<h3 class="nobreak">FENCES</h3> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p>Some ten years since, someone estimated that -for every dollar’s worth of live stock kept in -New York another dollar was expended in fences -to restrain it. It is probable that this estimate -is below rather than above the facts. Be -this as it may, the first cost of fences and their -maintenance is a serious draft on the resources -of the farmer.</p> - -<div class="container w20em left" id="Fig137"> - -<img src="images/illo346.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 137. The old-time fence system -on the right; the present condition -on the left.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>In the pioneer days, when even the best of -fencing material was so abundant that it was -burned to clear the land, there was great temptation -to split the tender logs into great rails -and construct fences with them. Each winter -a few acres of land were cleared and each year’s -clearing was surrounded by a great ten-rail fence,<span class="pagenum" id="Page337">[337]</span> -which served to discourage some of the larger -wild animals from destroying the crops. It is -easily seen why our ancestors in the wooded districts -fenced the farm into small fields. In some -cases the surface stones were so numerous on -the land that the larger ones had to be removed -to make way for the plow. Naturally -they were used for constructing fences, for the -most economical way to get rid of these too -numerous stones was to make fences of them. -The haul was short and the fences could be -increased in width and height until storage -room was provided for all the rocks which the -farmer cared to remove. So here, too, the -temptation was great to fence the farm into -small fields. The following diagrams show the -fields and the fences as they were on the old -homestead, and also as they are at the present -time (<a href="#Fig137">Fig. 137</a>).</p> - -<p>Changed agricultural conditions imply fewer -fences and the adoption, in part at least, of the -soiling system. Then, too, the introduction of -the horn-fly makes a radical change imperative -in the summering of the dairy. This worst of -all dairy pests robs the cow of flesh and the -owner of profit.</p> - -<p>Now that the silo is an assured success, -except under rare conditions, soiling, or the -partial soiling system, should be adopted on<span class="pagenum" id="Page338">[338]</span> -many farms, especially in the dairy districts. -The object should be to provide a continuous -and full supply of food, and comfortable conditions -for the animals -at all times. In May -and June the pastures -are succulent and the -grasses usually abundant, -and the annoying -flies are not present. -When the animals are -first turned out on the -pastures the nights may -be too cold and damp -for comfort, in which -case they may be stabled -and fed a small -supplemental ration; in -fact, cows in milk should -always receive some -dry, concentrated food -for the first few weeks -after they are turned -out to grass. Often -the early grass is over-succulent and deficient in -food constituents to such an extent that the -cows cannot eat enough to sustain life and produce -the most profitable quantities of milk. -When the pastures begin to fail, the flies appear<span class="pagenum" id="Page339">[339]</span> -and the days are hot, manifestly the animals -will be most comfortable in the stables in the -day time and in the pastures at night. This -system will permit of reducing the pastures -nearly one-half, and the removal of all fences -except those which surround the permanent -pasture land. If it is desired occasionally to -pasture a part of the unenclosed land, a -light woven wire fence, which can be easily -erected and removed, may be constructed. All -changes in the present system of summering -animals should be towards smaller areas of -pasture-land, fewer fences, more comfortable -conditions for animals, economy of effort, and -control of food-supplies for the animals at all -seasons of the year.</p> - -<p>In most of the states the laws require each -farmer to restrain his own animals without the -aid of the neighbors; hence the road-fence, often -the most unsightly and ill kept of all the fences, -may be discarded. How many of the inside -fences would best be removed depends upon -circumstances; but certain it is that a more -rational system of restraining and feeding cattle -will be adopted than the one now almost universally -in use. We cannot destroy the hornfly; -we can remove the useless fences and house the -animals in stables from which the pestiferous -flesh- and milk-reducing flies are excluded.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page340">[340]</span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<h3 class="nobreak">ORCHARDS</h3> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p>In some fruit districts the farmers are cutting -down their orchards, saying that they cannot -afford to bother with them, and that fruit-raising -must be carried on in a large way by -specialists to be profitable. This is tantamount -to saying that they are not intelligent and -enterprising enough to manage six or eight -acres of orchard successfully, while their neighbor -is competent to care for ten times that -acreage. The man who owns the smaller orchard -should, other things being equal, secure a -relatively larger profit than the owner of the -large orchard, since he will be able to give -it more personal attention. The man who overcomes -the difficulties of fruit-raising is constantly -adding to his education and power, -while the man who is appalled with the difficulties -of orcharding, and falls back on rye, -buckwheat and oats as money-crops, sinks in -intelligence and loses courage. The orchard, -when intelligently cared for, seldom fails to give -much larger profits than a like area devoted -to the cereals. As a rule, the most difficult -crop to raise or the most difficult business is -the one which brings the most liberal reward -after the difficulties have been surmounted.</p> - -<p>When convenient, the orchard might well be<span class="pagenum" id="Page341">[341]</span> -set to the north or west of the buildings, in -most sections of the United States, but not so -close to them as to prevent a good air passage -between it and the dwelling. Low-headed fruit -trees should not be set in the house yard or -near to it. The trees in most orchards are set -too close together, and even when set appropriate -distances apart it will be found to be -unprofitable, in the long run, to grow two crops -on the same land at the same time, as wheat or -oats and apples. Specific directions for the care -and management of orchards can now be found -in well written books and bulletins; therefore -there is no occasion for treating orchards in -detail here. Suffice it to say that the farmer -without an abundance of fruits in their season -is like the lad with empty pockets outside the -circus tent: lots of fruit and fun, ready to be -enjoyed by those who have made thoughtful provision -for the gratification of desires which always -come, sooner or later. Every farmer should -grow most of the fruits suited to his soil and -climate,—enough to eat and to sell and to give -to the worthy poor.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<h3 class="nobreak">FARM GARDEN</h3> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p>The farm garden should be ample and contain -not only enough vegetable and small fruits -for the use of the family, but a surplus to sell<span class="pagenum" id="Page342">[342]</span> -or to give away. The farmer used to large -areas is reluctant to undertake anything so -small as he imagines the garden to be; hence, -too often he plows it and leaves the planting -and cultivation of it to the “women folks.” If -he knew how to manage a garden he would find -that the half-acre of land devoted to small -fruits and vegetables could be made the most -profitable and pleasurable part of the farm. -Higher remuneration is received for the time -spent in harvesting the products of a large, -well kept garden, than in harvesting the cereals -or milking the cows. It must be said, however, -that there are good reasons for the -farmer’s distaste for gardening, for the gardens, -as usually laid out, necessitate the maximum -of hand-culture and the minimum of horse-culture. -The result of such gardens is a minimum -of products secured by maximum of effort, and -a resultant surplus of weeds.</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig138"> - -<img src="images/illo351.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 138. Plan of a home garden.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>The garden should be about four times as -long as it is broad, unfenced when possible, -near to the house, and should be, in miniature, -a farm with the cereals, grasses, and -large fruits left out (<a href="#Fig138">Fig. 138</a>). The side -farthest from the dwelling should be devoted to -the perennial plants, such as grapes, currants -and other bush-fruits. Everything should be -planted in straight rows, with spaces sufficiently<span class="pagenum" id="Page343">[343]</span> -wide between the rows to admit of horse-hoe -culture. The grapes and blackberries might -occupy one row, the raspberries and currants -a second row, rhubarb, asparagus and like -plants a third row. The spaces between these -various fruits should be eight feet, as it is poor -economy to so crowd vines and bushes as to -force them to struggle the year through for -plant-food and moisture. A rod or two of land, -more or less, virtually amounts to nothing on -the farm; crowding the plants is only admissible -in the city or village. Here the plants -may receive unusual care, and often may be -irrigated at fruiting time from the city hydrant. -The rows of ordinary vegetables may be thirty -inches apart, except in case of such plants as -onions, lettuce, and early beets. These small, -slow-growing esculents should be planted in -double rows. Starting from the last row of -potatoes a thirty inch space is measured off, -a row of lettuce planted, and then one foot from<span class="pagenum" id="Page344">[344]</span> -this a row of beets or onions; then leave a -space thirty inches wide and again plant double -rows, if more of the small esculents are wanted. -The larger spaces may be cultivated by horse-hoe -and the smaller spaces by hand-hoe. The -entire garden which is to be planted in the -spring should be kept fertile and plowed early -in the spring, leaving that part of it which is -not designed for immediate planting unharrowed. -It may be necessary to replow. It certainly -will be necessary to cultivate several times -that part of the garden which is used for -late-growing crops, such as cabbage and -celery. As a rule, the farmer cannot afford -to attempt to raise two crops on the same land -the same year, since labor is everything and -the use of land nothing; therefore, better prepare -the ground by two or three plowings for -the late crops, than to attempt to raise them -on land which has parted with much of its -readily available plant-food in producing the -early crop. Then, too, land which has produced -one crop is likely to be deficient in moisture, -while land that has been plowed two or three -times during the summer and kept well harrowed -will be moist and contain an abundance -of readily available plant-food. Early in the -spring, when the land is cold and often too -moist, it is best to leave the soil rough for a<span class="pagenum" id="Page345">[345]</span> -time if it is not to be planted immediately, -that it may become somewhat dry and warm. -As a rule, the garden should not be fenced, -but the chickens should be restrained by fences -a part of the time; at other times they -may have free access to the garden, where they -are often very beneficial in reducing the insect -enemies.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page346">[346-<br />347]</span><a id="Page347"></a></p> - -<h2>INDEX</h2> - -</div><!--chapter--> - - -<ul class="index"> - -<li>Abandoned lands, significance of, <a href="#Page31">31</a>.</li> - -<li>Agricultural statistics, <a href="#Page8">8</a>; -what they do not show, <a href="#Page10">10</a>.</li> - -<li>Agriculturists, what they have done, <a href="#Page8">8</a>.</li> - -<li>Air space required in cow stables, <a href="#Page281">281</a>.</li> - -<li>Anglo-Saxon, cause of superiority, <a href="#Page50">50</a>.</li> - -<li>Animal, necessity of exercise for, <a href="#Page278">278</a>; -voidings, how cared for in stables, <a href="#Page277">277</a>.</li> - -<li>Asphalt for stable floors, <a href="#Page292">292</a>.</li> - -<li class="startletter">Bailey, Professor L. H., quoted, <a href="#Page7">7</a>.</li> - -<li>Bailey, chap. xiv, <a href="#Page237">237</a>.</li> - -<li>Balloon frames, <a href="#Page129">129</a>.</li> - -<li>Barns, <a href="#Page288">288</a>; -basement, location of, <a href="#Page268">268</a>; -building the basement, <a href="#Page266">266</a>; -connected by covered way to house, <a href="#Page257">257</a>; -discussion of, <a href="#Page249">249</a>; -distance to locate from house, <a href="#Page257">257</a>; -economy in construction, <a href="#Page253">253</a>; -excavations for, <a href="#Page268">268</a>; -high large ones preferable, <a href="#Page253">253</a>; -location of, <a href="#Page255">255</a>; -octagonal, discussion of, <a href="#Page254">254</a>; -planning, <a href="#Page259">259</a>; -size required, <a href="#Page249">249</a>; -water supply for, <a href="#Page261">261</a>; -why large ones are required, <a href="#Page250">250</a>.</li> - -<li>Barnyards, open ones objectionable, <a href="#Page258">258</a>; -paddocks are preferable to, <a href="#Page259">259</a>.</li> - -<li>Basement barns, bridging for, <a href="#Page269">269</a>; -location of, <a href="#Page268">268</a>; -on level ground, <a href="#Page269">269</a>; -floors, how to construct, <a href="#Page277">277</a>; -walls, how to prevent dampness on, <a href="#Page275">275</a>; -wood preferable to stone, <a href="#Page275">275</a>.</li> - -<li>Beauty and utility should be combined, <a href="#Page107">107</a>.</li> - -<li>Bonanza farming, cause of decline, <a href="#Page36">36-38</a>.</li> - -<li>Brick used in stable floors, <a href="#Page278">278</a>.</li> - -<li>Building the barn, chap. xvii, <a href="#Page288">288</a>; -framing, <a href="#Page289">289</a>; -horse stables, <a href="#Page294">294</a>; -lightning rods on barns, <a href="#Page296">296</a>; -painting the barn, <a href="#Page296">296</a>; -plank frames, <a href="#Page290">290</a>; -protecting the root-cellar, <a href="#Page289">289</a>; -repairing old barn floors, <a href="#Page293">293</a>; -roof of barns, <a href="#Page296">296</a>; -stable floors, <a href="#Page292">292</a>; -windows, <a href="#Page295">295</a>.</li> - -<li class="startletter">Cattle, stanchions for, <a href="#Page284">284</a>.</li> - -<li>Cement, Portland, cost and mixing of, <a href="#Page274">274</a>; -proportion of, to sand in mortar, <a href="#Page273">273</a>.</li> - -<li>Changes in houses, considerations, <a href="#Page85">85</a>.</li> - -<li>Children, city and country compared, <a href="#Page3">3</a>.</li> - -<li>Cisterns as a source of water supply, <a href="#Page263">263</a>.</li> - -<li>Cleanliness, and sanitation, water supply and sewage, chap. xii, <a href="#Page204">204</a>; -bacteria, harmful and beneficial, <a href="#Page204">204-206</a>; -bath room, <a href="#Page210">210</a>; -bath tubs, <a href="#Page213">213</a>; -cess pools, <a href="#Page220">220</a>; -closets, <a href="#Page210">210</a>; -disinfectants, <a href="#Page207">207</a>; -dry-earth closets, <a href="#Page222">222</a>; -kitchen sink, <a href="#Page212">212</a>; -laundry, <a href="#Page214">214</a>; -outhouses, <a href="#Page216">216</a>; -personal cleanliness, <a href="#Page209">209</a>; -pipes, <a href="#Page212">212</a>; -sewage, <a href="#Page219">219</a>; -water closets, <a href="#Page214">214</a>; -water supply, <a href="#Page217">217</a>.</li> - -<li>College buildings and what they illustrate, <a href="#Page104">104</a>.</li> - -<li>Colleges. Land Grant, aim of, <a href="#Page14">14</a>; -endowment, <a href="#Page14">14</a>; -data of incomes, <a href="#Page15">15</a>.</li> - -<li>Competence, how obtained, <a href="#Page20">20</a>.</li> - -<li>Concentration of barns, <a href="#Page84">84</a>.</li> - -<li>Counsel at the right time, <a href="#Page69">69</a>.</li> - -<li>Country churches, <a href="#Page119">119</a>.</li> - -<li>Country life, what it stands for, <a href="#Page74">74</a>; -what things have no place in it, <a href="#Page74">74</a>.</li> - -<li>Country school houses, <a href="#Page119">119-122</a>.</li> - -<li>Cows, air space required for, <a href="#Page280">280</a>, <a href="#Page281">281</a>; -mangers for, section of, <a href="#Page286">286</a>.</li> - -<li>Crops, good and poor<span class="pagenum" id="Page348">[348]</span>, <a href="#Page27">27</a>; -specialized, baleful results of, <a href="#Page33">33</a>.</li> - -<li class="startletter">Dams for artificial pools, how to construct, <a href="#Page262">262</a>.</li> - -<li>Decorations inside, <a href="#Page193">193</a>.</li> - -<li>Deeds and abstracts, <a href="#Page67">67</a>.</li> - -<li>Demolins, M., quoted, <a href="#Page50">50</a>.</li> - -<li class="startletter">Economy, <a href="#Page224">224</a>.</li> - -<li>Educating the eye and judgment, <a href="#Page107">107</a>.</li> - -<li>Education, by contact with nature, <a href="#Page4">4</a>; -higher, concentration necessary, <a href="#Page52">52</a>; -higher, in the past, <a href="#Page13">13</a>; -industrial, <a href="#Page14">14</a>.</li> - -<li>Evolution of high wages, <a href="#Page25">25</a>.</li> - -<li>External construction, principles of, <a href="#Page108">108</a>.</li> - -<li class="startletter">Farm buildings, concentrated and distributive, <a href="#Page251">251</a>; -concentrated system preferable, <a href="#Page252">252</a>; -examples of mistakes, <a href="#Page89">89</a>.</li> - -<li>Farm laborers, wages received by, <a href="#Page253">253</a>.</li> - -<li>Farmers’ contribution to economic status of the United States, <a href="#Page9">9</a>.</li> - -<li>Farms, selection of—climatic conditions, <a href="#Page55">55</a>; -cheap lands, <a href="#Page56">56</a>; -water supply, <a href="#Page57">57</a>.</li> - -<li>Farms overloaded with buildings, <a href="#Page88">88</a>.</li> - -<li>“Farming doesn’t pay,” <a href="#Page6">6</a>.</li> - -<li>Fences, <a href="#Page336">336</a>.</li> - -<li>Fields, the, chap. xxi, <a href="#Page336">336</a>.</li> - -<li>Filigree work, not for farm houses, <a href="#Page96">96</a>.</li> - -<li>First impressions, <a href="#Page116">116</a>.</li> - -<li>Floors, basement, how to construct, <a href="#Page277">277</a>; -cows to stand upon, <a href="#Page280">280</a>; -stable, wooden ones preferable, <a href="#Page278">278</a>.</li> - -<li>Foundations for buildings, how squared, <a href="#Page266">266</a>.</li> - -<li>Foundation walls, properly and improperly bonded, <a href="#Page272">272</a>.</li> - -<li>Frost pockets, <a href="#Page76">76</a>.</li> - -<li>Furnishing, <a href="#Page193">193</a>.</li> - -<li class="startletter">Garden, farm, <a href="#Page341">341</a>; -planting the, <a href="#Page342">342</a>.</li> - -<li>Gingerbread cornices, <a href="#Page130">130</a>.</li> - -<li>Ground floor unhealthy, <a href="#Page77">77</a>.</li> - -<li>Gypsum, use of in stables, <a href="#Page277">277</a>.</li> - -<li class="startletter">Heating, <a href="#Page190">190</a>.</li> - -<li>Home education suggestions, <a href="#Page48">48</a>.</li> - -<li>Home, old (should be preserved), <a href="#Page112">112</a>; -suggestions for improvement of, <a href="#Page113">113</a>.</li> - -<li>Home training, <a href="#Page46">46</a>.</li> - -<li>Homestead, improving the old, <a href="#Page114">114</a>.</li> - -<li>Horn-fly, reference to, <a href="#Page337">337</a>.</li> - -<li>House, building the, chap. viii, <a href="#Page132">132</a>; -brick and stone houses, <a href="#Page169">169</a>; -chimneys—flue linings, <a href="#Page140">140</a>, -openings for, <a href="#Page141">141</a>; -excluding vermin from the, <a href="#Page135">135</a>; -foundations, building the, <a href="#Page138">138</a>; -mortar for foundations, <a href="#Page139">139</a>; -protecting from frost, <a href="#Page136">136</a>; -the cellar, <a href="#Page133">133</a>, <a href="#Page134">134</a>; -Wooden houses—the frame, <a href="#Page142">142</a>; -bridging the joists, <a href="#Page143">143</a>; -cutting braces and rafters, <a href="#Page150">150</a>; -diagonal boarding, <a href="#Page144">144</a>; -girders for second-story joists, <a href="#Page145">145</a>; -made-up timbers, <a href="#Page146">146</a>; -old houses, <a href="#Page170">170</a>; -roofs—kinds of, <a href="#Page147">147</a>, -pitch of, <a href="#Page149">149</a>; -studding, size of, <a href="#Page143">143</a>; -the story-and-a-half, <a href="#Page155">155</a>.</li> - -<li>House furnishing and decoration, chap. xi, <a href="#Page193">193</a>; -carpets vs. rugs, <a href="#Page196">196</a>; -decorations, <a href="#Page200">200</a>; -draperies, <a href="#Page198">198</a>; -general principles, <a href="#Page193">193-196</a>.</li> - -<li>House, location of, <a href="#Page74">74</a>; -extremes, <a href="#Page75">75</a>; -on elevated lands, <a href="#Page76">76</a>, <a href="#Page80">80</a>, <a href="#Page82">82</a>.</li> - -<li>House of pioneer, where located, <a href="#Page75">75</a>.</li> - -<li>House, old farm, an example of a good, <a href="#Page90">90-91</a>.</li> - -<li>House sites—old and new, <a href="#Page84">84</a>.</li> - -<li>House sites to be avoided, <a href="#Page82">82</a>; -near middle of estate, <a href="#Page83">83</a>; -and highway, <a href="#Page83">83</a>.</li> - -<li>House with many gables, <a href="#Page96">96</a>.</li> - -<li>Houses, exposed and overshaded, <a href="#Page117">117</a>, <a href="#Page118">118</a>; -planning, <a href="#Page94">94</a>; -studying other models, <a href="#Page95">95</a>; -useless cost of, <a href="#Page95">95</a>.</li> - -<li>Houses, farm, not a direct source of income, <a href="#Page87">87</a>; -mistakes in building, <a href="#Page87">87</a>; -what they are for, <a href="#Page87">87</a>.</li> - -<li>Houses, old farm, <a href="#Page85">85</a>.</li> - -<li>Houses, veneered, <a href="#Page168">168</a>.</li> - -<li>Household administration, economy and comfort, chap. xiii<span class="pagenum" id="Page349">[349]</span>, -<a href="#Page224">224</a>; -a definite income, <a href="#Page225">225</a>; -bargain-hunting, <a href="#Page229">229</a>; -cash vs. credit, <a href="#Page286">286</a>; -economy of health, <a href="#Page232">232</a>; -keeping accounts, <a href="#Page230">230</a>; -reading matter, <a href="#Page235">235</a>; -systematic buying, <a href="#Page227">227</a>; -the farmer’s diet, <a href="#Page234">234</a>; -the wife’s share, <a href="#Page225">225</a>.</li> - -<li class="startletter">Improvements on the farm, <a href="#Page59">59</a>.</li> - -<li>Inappropriate styles of architecture, <a href="#Page124">124</a>.</li> - -<li>Inside finish, heating and ventilation, chap. x, <a href="#Page181">181</a>; -baseboards, <a href="#Page183">183</a>; -facings, <a href="#Page186">186</a>; -finish, hard oil, <a href="#Page186">186</a>; -floors, <a href="#Page182">182</a>; -patent mortars, <a href="#Page188">188</a>; -plastered walls, <a href="#Page186">186-188</a>; -picture moulding, <a href="#Page184">184</a>; -stairs, <a href="#Page185">185</a>; -wainscoting, <a href="#Page185">185</a>; -Heating—steam recommended, <a href="#Page191">191</a>; -systems of, compared, <a href="#Page190">190</a>; -Ventilation, <a href="#Page191">191</a>.</li> - -<li class="startletter">Land for market-gardening, <a href="#Page61">61</a>.</li> - -<li>Lands, cheap, <a href="#Page56">56</a>.</li> - -<li>Lawns, <a href="#Page243">243</a>.</li> - -<li>Lawyer and the farmer, <a href="#Page73">73</a>.</li> - -<li>Lawyer, province of the true, <a href="#Page72">72</a>.</li> - -<li>Lawyers, <a href="#Page65">65</a>.</li> - -<li>Level country, disadvantages of location in, overcome, <a href="#Page78">78</a>.</li> - -<li>Leisure and study, <a href="#Page13">13</a>.</li> - -<li>Light and air, <a href="#Page106">106</a>.</li> - -<li>Lightning, artificial, <a href="#Page322">322</a>; -brush discharge, <a href="#Page326">326</a>; -discharges, <a href="#Page323">323</a>; -disruptive discharge, <a href="#Page326">326</a>; -protection from, <a href="#Page324">324</a>; -protection from by metal roofs, <a href="#Page324">324</a>; -protection from by steam and gas pipes, <a href="#Page325">325</a>; -protecting wooden roofs from, <a href="#Page326">326</a>.</li> - -<li>Lightning protection, chap. xx, <a href="#Page321">321</a>.</li> - -<li>Lightning rods, <a href="#Page328">328-336</a>; -insulation of, <a href="#Page331">331</a>; -joints for, <a href="#Page333">333</a>; -the conductor, <a href="#Page329">329</a>; -the ground connection, <a href="#Page334">334</a>.</li> - -<li>Lime, proportion of, to sand in mortar, <a href="#Page273">273</a>.</li> - -<li>Lime, stone, retail price of per bbl., <a href="#Page274">274</a>; -water, retail price of per bbl., <a href="#Page274">274</a>.</li> - -<li>Lumbering, effect of, <a href="#Page38">38</a>.</li> - -<li class="startletter">Manger for cows, cross-section of, <a href="#Page286">286</a>; -how constructed, <a href="#Page285">285</a>.</li> - -<li>Market-gardening, land for, <a href="#Page61">61</a>.</li> - -<li>Mistakes in locating, <a href="#Page100">100</a>.</li> - -<li>Mortar, amount of water to use in mixing, <a href="#Page275">275</a>; -how to mix, <a href="#Page273">273</a>.</li> - -<li class="startletter">Nature study, <a href="#Page111">111</a>.</li> - -<li>Newton cattle tie illustrated and described, <a href="#Page286">286</a>.</li> - -<li>Norris, H. H., chap. xx, <a href="#Page321">321</a>.</li> - -<li class="startletter">Occupation, selection of, <a href="#Page21">21</a>.</li> - -<li>Old barns, remodeling, <a href="#Page298">298</a>.</li> - -<li>Orchards, <a href="#Page340">340</a>; care of, <a href="#Page341">341</a>.</li> - -<li>Outbuildings and accessories, chap. xix, <a href="#Page306">306</a>; -piggeries, <a href="#Page311">311</a>; -portable coops, <a href="#Page309">309</a>; -poultry houses, <a href="#Page306">306</a>; -the silo, <a href="#Page316">316</a>.</li> - -<li>Outside covering, painting, chap. ix, <a href="#Page158">158</a>; -cornices, <a href="#Page164">164</a>; -painting the house, <a href="#Page173">173</a>; -adulterated paints, <a href="#Page179">179</a>; -analyses of paints, <a href="#Page180">180</a>; -oils for painting, <a href="#Page177">177</a>; -roofs—construction of, <a href="#Page165">165</a>; -shingles, <a href="#Page165">165</a>; -shingling, <a href="#Page167">167</a>; -siding—novelty and lap, <a href="#Page160">160</a>; -the projections, <a href="#Page158">158</a>, <a href="#Page164">164</a>; -the water-table, <a href="#Page158">158</a>; -valleys, <a href="#Page173">173</a>.</li> - -<li class="startletter">Parents as teachers, <a href="#Page45">45</a>.</li> - -<li>Piggeries, <a href="#Page311">311</a>.</li> - -<li>Plain cornices, <a href="#Page126">126</a>.</li> - -<li>Plan, ground, not adapted to country, <a href="#Page98">98</a>; -adapted to country, <a href="#Page99">99</a>, <a href="#Page101">101</a>.</li> - -<li>Plant-food, natural cheaper than artificial, <a href="#Page62">62</a>.</li> - -<li>Pools in level country, <a href="#Page78">78</a>.</li> - -<li>Pools in the South, how constructed, <a href="#Page262">262</a>.</li> - -<li>Poultry Houses, <a href="#Page306">306</a>.</li> - -<li class="startletter">Quality in farm products, <a href="#Page32">32</a>.</li> - -<li class="startletter">Red River valley soil, nitrogen in, <a href="#Page37">37</a>.</li> - -<li>Remodeling old barns, chap. xviii, <a href="#Page298">298</a>; -combining several old frames, <a href="#Page299">299</a>; -form of roof, <a href="#Page302">302</a>; -trussing to eliminate posts, <a href="#Page301">301</a>.</li> - -<li>Remuneration in agriculture<span class="pagenum" id="Page350">[350]</span>, <a href="#Page7">7</a>.</li> - -<li>Renter and renting discussed, <a href="#Page40">40</a>.</li> - -<li>Road to farm, <a href="#Page63">63</a>.</li> - -<li>Road fences, may be discarded, <a href="#Page339">339</a>.</li> - -<li>Root cellar, location of in barn, <a href="#Page270">270</a>.</li> - -<li>Rosendale cement, proportion to mix, <a href="#Page274">274</a>.</li> - -<li>Rural life; -advantages and disadvantages, <a href="#Page2">2</a>; -greatest advantage of, <a href="#Page5">5</a>.</li> - -<li>Rural population, wants and aspirations, <a href="#Page19">19</a>.</li> - -<li class="startletter">Sanitation, <a href="#Page204">204</a>.</li> - -<li>Scenery, natural, its value, <a href="#Page58">58</a>.</li> - -<li>Schoenfeld, Mr. G., an intensive agriculturist, <a href="#Page22">22</a>; -his crops and their value, <a href="#Page23">23</a>.</li> - -<li>School, district, sketch of a day in, <a href="#Page47">47</a>.</li> - -<li>School children, effects of massing, <a href="#Page44">44</a>.</li> - -<li>Schools, rural, <a href="#Page43">43</a>.</li> - -<li>Sewage, <a href="#Page204">204</a>.</li> - -<li>Shadows cast by walls, <a href="#Page106">106</a>.</li> - -<li>Ship construction of houses, <a href="#Page128">128</a>.</li> - -<li>Silos, <a href="#Page316">316</a>.</li> - -<li>Silo, reference to use of, <a href="#Page337">337</a>.</li> - -<li>Smith, Mrs. M. R., chap. xi, <a href="#Page193">193</a>; chap. xii, <a href="#Page204">204</a>; chap. xiii, -<a href="#Page224">224</a>.</li> - -<li>Soil and subsoil for house location, <a href="#Page80">80</a>.</li> - -<li>Soiling system, referred to, <a href="#Page337">337</a>, <a href="#Page338">338</a>.</li> - -<li>Stable floors, <a href="#Page292">292</a>; -wooden ones preferable, <a href="#Page278">278</a>; -drip in, how constructed, <a href="#Page280">280</a>; -how to secure sanitary conditions in, <a href="#Page277">277</a>; -stanchions for cattle, <a href="#Page284">284</a>.</li> - -<li>Stalls for cows, how constructed, <a href="#Page285">285</a>.</li> - -<li>Stock on the farms in U. S. in 1870 and 1890, <a href="#Page250">250</a>.</li> - -<li class="startletter">Tillage, cost of, considered in land value, <a href="#Page62">62</a>.</li> - -<li>Types of dwelling houses, <a href="#Page109">109</a>.</li> - -<li class="startletter">VanVleet, D.F., chap. v, <a href="#Page65">65</a>.</li> - -<li>Ventilation, <a href="#Page191">191</a>; -principles of, <a href="#Page283">283</a>; -secured by swing windows, <a href="#Page282">282</a>.</li> - -<li>Ventilators for stables, how constructed, <a href="#Page282">282</a>.</li> - -<li>Veranda—a poor example, <a href="#Page96">96</a>; -outlook from, <a href="#Page81">81</a>; -shading, <a href="#Page103">103</a>.</li> - -<li>Vistas and views brought into the landscape, <a href="#Page81">81</a>.</li> - -<li class="startletter">Warner, Prof. Amos G., quoted, <a href="#Page3">3</a>.</li> - -<li>Walls, stone, how to bond, <a href="#Page272">272</a>.</li> - -<li>Water for animals, temperature best in winter, <a href="#Page264">264</a>.</li> - -<li>Water supply and sewage, <a href="#Page204">204</a>.</li> - -<li>Water supply, artificial pools for, <a href="#Page262">262</a>; -for animals, should be in barn, <a href="#Page264">264</a>; -for buildings, <a href="#Page261">261</a>; -springs and streams, <a href="#Page264">264</a>.</li> - -<li>Water, cold, effect upon the animal, <a href="#Page265">265</a>; -lime, retail price of per bbl., <a href="#Page274">274</a>.</li> - -<li>Wells, <a href="#Page71">71</a>.</li> - -<li>Wheat, production and cost of, <a href="#Page30">30</a>.</li> - -<li>Windows, swing, how constructed in stables, <a href="#Page282">282</a>.</li> - -<li>Writing, matters of importance should be in, <a href="#Page71">71</a>.</li> - -<li class="startletter">Yard (the house yard), chap. xiv, <a href="#Page237">237</a>; -driveways and walks, <a href="#Page239">239</a>; -flowers, <a href="#Page247">247</a>; -planting, scattered and in groups, <a href="#Page339">339</a>; -the lawn, <a href="#Page243">243</a>; -vines and creepers, <a href="#Page247">247</a>.</li> - -</ul> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="adverts"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<h2 class="book1">CYCLOPEDIA OF AMERICAN -HORTICULTURE</h2> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p class="center blankbefore75"><b>By L. H. BAILEY</b></p> - -<p class="center fsize90 blankbefore75 blankafter75"><b>Of Cornell University, assisted by WILHELM MILLER, and many Expert -Cultivators and Botanists</b></p> - -<div class="container w25em"> - -<p class="noindent fsize90"><b>FOUR VOLUMES—OVER 2800 ORIGINAL ENGRAVINGS—CLOTH—OCTAVO—$20 -NET PER -SET—HALF MOROCCO, $32 NET PER SET</b></p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>This great work comprises directions for the cultivation -of horticultural crops and original descriptions of -all the species of fruits, vegetables, flowers and ornamental -plants known to be in the market in the United -States and Canada. “It has the unique distinction of -presenting for the first time, in a carefully arranged -and perfectly accessible form, the best knowledge of the -best specialists in America upon gardening, fruit-growing, -vegetable culture, forestry, and the like, as well as -exact botanical information.... The contributors -are eminent cultivators or specialists, and the arrangement -is very systematic, clear and convenient for ready -reference.”</p> - -<p class="bookreview1">“We have here a work which every ambitious gardener will wish to place -on his shelf beside his Nicholson and his Loudon, and for such users of it a too -advanced nomenclature would have been confusing to the last degree. With the -safe names here given there is little liability to serious perplexity. There is a -growing impatience with much of the controversy concerning revision of names -of organisms, whether of plants or animals. Those investigators who are busied -with the ecological aspects of organisms, and also those who are chiefly concerned -with the application of plants to the arts of agriculture, horticulture, and so on, -care for the names of organisms under examination only so far as these aid in -recognition and identification. To introduce unnecessary confusion is a serious -blunder. Professor Bailey has avoided the risk of confusion. In short, in range, -treatment and editing, the Cyclopedia appears to be emphatically useful:... a -work worthy of ranking by the side of the Century Dictionary.”—<i>The Nation.</i></p> - -<p><b>This work is sold only by subscription, and terms and further -information may be had of the publishers.</b></p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<p class="center highline15 fsize150"><b>THE MACMILLAN COMPANY</b></p> - -<p class="center fsize110"><b>64-66 Fifth Avenue<span class="padl6 padr6"> </span>NEW YORK</b></p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<h2 class="book1">BOOKS ON AGRICULTURE</h2> - -<h3 class="left"><b>On Selection of Land, etc.</b></h3> - -<table class="agribook"> - -<tr> -<td class="book">Thomas F. Hunt’s How to Choose a Farm</td> -<td class="price">$1 75 net</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="book">E. W. 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Taylor’s Agricultural Economics</td> -<td class="price">1 25 net</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="book">I. P. Roberts’ The Farmer’s Business Handbook</td> -<td class="price">1 25 net</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="book">George T. Fairchild’s Rural Wealth and Welfare</td> -<td class="price">1 25 net</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="book">S. E. Sparling’s Business Organization</td> -<td class="price">1 25 net</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="book"><span class="padl4 fsize80">In the Citizen’s Library. Includes a chapter on Farming.</span></td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="book">Kate V. St. Maur’s A Self-Supporting Home</td> -<td class="price">1 75 net</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="book">Kate V. St. Maur’s The Earth’s Bounty</td> -<td class="price">1 75 net</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<h3 class="left"><b>On Everything Agricultural</b></h3> - -<table class="agribook"> - -<tr> -<td class="book">L. H. Bailey’s Cyclopedia of American Agriculture:</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="book"><span class="padl2">Vol. I. Farms, Climates, and Soils.</span></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="book"><span class="padl2">Vol. II. Farm Crops.</span></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="book"><span class="padl2">Vol. III. Farm Animals.</span></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="book"><span class="padl2">Vol. IV. The Farm and the Community.</span></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="book"><span class="padl4">Price of sets: Cloth, $20 net; half-morocco, $32 net.</span></td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<p class="center"><i>For further information as to any of the above,<br /> -address the publishers</i></p> - -<p class="center highline15 fsize150"><b>THE MACMILLAN COMPANY</b></p> - -<p class="center fsize110"><b>64-66 Fifth Avenue<span class="padl6 padr6"> </span>NEW YORK</b></p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<h2 class="book1">LESSONS WITH PLANTS<br /> -<span class="fsize80"><b>Suggestions for Seeing and Interpreting Some of the -Common Forms of Vegetation</b></span></h2> - -<p class="center highline15"><b>By L. H. BAILEY</b></p> - -<p class="center fsize90 blankbefore75 blankafter75"><b>With delineations from nature by W. S. HOLDSWORTH, of the -Agricultural College of Michigan</b></p> - -<p class="center fsize90"><b>SEVENTH EDITION—491 PAGES—446 ILLUSTRATIONS—12MO—CLOTH—$1.10 -NET</b></p> - -<p class="blankbefore75">There are two ways of looking at nature. The <i>old -way</i>, which you have found so unsatisfactory, was to -classify everything—to consider leaves, roots, and whole -plants as formal herbarium specimens, forgetting that -each had its own story of growth and development, -struggle and success, to tell. Nothing stifles a natural -love for plants more effectually than that old way.</p> - -<p>The new way is to watch the life of every growing -thing, to look upon each plant as a living creature, -whose life is a story as fascinating as the story of any -favorite hero. “Lessons with Plants” is a book of -stories, or rather, a book of plays, for we can see each -chapter acted out if we take the trouble to <i>look</i> at the -actors.</p> - -<p class="bookreview1">“I have spent some time in most delightful examination of it, and the longer -I look, the better I like it. I find it not only full of interest, but eminently suggestive. -I know of no book which begins to do so much to open the eyes of the -student—whether pupil or teacher—to the wealth of meaning contained in simple -plant forms. Above all else, it seems to be full of suggestions that help one to -learn the language of plants, so they may talk to him.”—<span class="smcap">Darwin L. Bardwell</span>, -<i>Superintendent of Schools, Binghamton</i>.</p> - -<p class="bookreview1">“It is an admirable book, and cannot fail both to awaken interest in the subject, -and to serve as a helpful and reliable guide to young students of plant life. -It will, I think, fill an important place in secondary schools, and comes at an opportune -time, when helps of this kind are needed and eagerly sought.”—Professor -<span class="smcap">V. M. Spalding</span>, <i>University of Michigan</i>.</p> - -<p class="center highline15 blankbefore75"><b><span class="fsize125">FIRST LESSONS WITH PLANTS</span><br /> -An Abridgement of the above<br /> -117 PAGES—116 ILLUSTRATIONS—40 CENTS NET</b></p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<p class="center highline15 fsize150"><b>THE MACMILLAN COMPANY</b></p> - -<p class="center fsize110"><b>64-66 Fifth Avenue<span class="padl6 padr6"> </span>NEW YORK</b></p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<h2 class="book1">BOTANY<br /> -<span class="fsize80">An Elementary Text for Schools</span></h2> - -<p class="center highline15"><b>By L. H. BAILEY</b></p> - -<p class="center fsize90 blankbefore75 blankafter75"><b>TWELFTH EDITION—431 PAGES—500 -ILLUSTRATIONS—$1.10 NET</b></p> - -<p class="blankbefore75">“This book is made for the pupil: ‘Lessons With -Plants’ was made to supplement the work of the -teacher.” This is the opening sentence of the preface, -showing that the book is a companion to “Lessons -With Plants,” which has now become a standard -teacher’s book. The present book is the handsomest -elementary botanical text-book yet made. The illustrations -illustrate. They are artistic. The old formal and -unnatural Botany is being rapidly outgrown. The book -disparages mere laboratory work of the old kind: the -pupil is taught to see things as they grow and behave. -The pupil who goes through this book will understand -the meaning of the plants which he sees day by day. It -is a revolt from the dry-as-dust teaching of botany. It -cares little for science for science’s sake, but its point -of view is nature-study in its best sense. The book is -divided into four parts, any or all of which may be used -in the school: the plant itself; the plant in its environment; -histology, or the minute structure of plants; the -kinds of plants (with a key, and descriptions of 300 -common species). The introduction contains advice to -teachers.</p> - -<p class="bookreview1">“An exceedingly attractive text-book.”—<i>Educational Review.</i></p> - -<p class="bookreview1">“It is a school book of the modern methods.”—<i>The Dial.</i></p> - -<p class="bookreview1">“It would be hard to find a better manual for schools or for individual use.”—<i>The Outlook.</i></p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<p class="center highline15 fsize150"><b>THE MACMILLAN COMPANY</b></p> - -<p class="center fsize110"><b>64-66 Fifth Avenue<span class="padl6 padr6"> </span>NEW YORK</b></p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<h2 class="book2"><i>FOR THE STUDENT OF AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY</i></h2> - -<p class="center highline2"><b>By HARRY SNYDER, B.S.</b></p> - -<p class="center fsize90 blankbefore75">Professor of Agricultural Chemistry, University of Minnesota, and Chemist -of the Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station</p> - -<h3 class="left group2">The Chemistry of Plant and Animal Life</h3> - -<p class="right fsize90"><b>Illustrated. Cloth. 12mo. 406 pages. $1.25; by mail, $1.35.</b></p> - -<p class="bookreview1">“The language is, as it should be, plain and simple, free from all needless -technicality, and the story thus told is of absorbing interest to every one, -man or woman, boy or girl, who takes an intelligent interest in farm life.”—<i>The -New England Farmer.</i></p> - -<p class="bookreview1">“Although the book is highly technical, it is put in popular form and made -comprehensible from the standpoint of the farmer; it deals largely with -those questions which arise in his experience, and will prove an invaluable -aid in countless directions.”—<i>The Farmer’s Voice.</i></p> - -<h3 class="left group2">Dairy Chemistry</h3> - -<p class="right fsize90"><b>Illustrated. 190 pages. $1 net; by mail, $1.10.</b></p> - -<p class="bookreview1">“The book is a valuable one which any dairy farmer, or, indeed, any one -handling stock, may read with profit.”—<i>Rural New Yorker.</i></p> - -<h3 class="left group2">Soils and Fertilizers</h3> - -<p class="right fsize90"><b>Third Edition. Illustrated. $1.25 net; by mail, $1.38.</b></p> - -<p class="bookreview1">A book which presents in a concise form the principles of soil fertility -and discusses all of the topics relating to soils as outlined by -the Committee on Methods of Teaching Agriculture. It contains -350 pages, with illustrations, and treats of a great variety of subjects, -such as Physical Properties of Soils; Geological Formation, -etc.; Nitrogen of the Soil and Air; Farm Manures; Commercial -Fertilizers, several chapters; Rotation of Crops; Preparation of -Soil for Crops, etc.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<p class="center highline15 fsize150"><b>THE MACMILLAN COMPANY</b></p> - -<p class="center fsize110"><b>64-66 Fifth Avenue<span class="padl6 padr6"> </span>NEW YORK</b></p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<h2 class="book2"><i>NEW BOOKS FOR THE FARM LIBRARY</i></h2> - -<p class="center highline2">MR. BOLTON HALL’S</p> - -<h3 class="left group2">Three Acres and Liberty</h3> - -<p>The author discusses the possibilities of an acre; where to find -idle land; how to select it, clear and cultivate it; the results -to be expected; what an acre may produce; methods, tools, -equipment, capital, hotbeds and greenhouses; other uses of -land; flowers; poultry and novel live stock; and nearly every -other imaginable topic of intensive farming in clear, definite -statements which are easily verified. It is a practical book -from cover to cover.</p> - -<p class="right"><b>Cloth. Illustrated. $1.75 net, by mail, $1.88.</b></p> - -<p class="center blankbefore75">By ALLEN FRENCH</p> - -<h3 class="left group2">A Book of Vegetables and Garden Herbs</h3> - -<p>A Practical Handbook and Planting Table for the Home Garden</p> - -<p>This book gives complete directions for growing all vegetables -cultivable in the climate of the northern United States. -Besides a description of each plant, its habit, value, and use, -the book contains detailed cultural directions, covering the -soil, planting distances, times for sowing, thinning and transplanting, -fertilizing, picking, winter protection, renewal, -storage, and management of diseases and pests.</p> - -<p class="right"><b>Cloth. 12mo. Illustrated. $1.75 net, by mail, $1.88.</b></p> - -<p class="center blankbefore75">By KATE V. ST. MAUR</p> - -<h3 class="left group2">A Self-supporting Home</h3> - -<p class="fsize90">“Each chapter is the detailed account of all the work necessary for one -month—in the vegetable garden, among the small fruits, with the fowls, -guineas, rabbits, cavies, and in every branch of husbandry to be met with on -the small farm.”—<i>Louisville Courier-Journal.</i></p> - -<p class="right"><b>Cloth. 12mo. Fully illustrated from photographs.<br /> -$1.75 net, by mail, $1.88.</b></p> - -<p class="center blankbefore75">By W. S. HARWOOD</p> - -<h3 class="left group2">The New Earth</h3> - -<p>A Recital of the Triumphs of Modern Agriculture in America. -Mr. Harwood shows in a very entertaining way the remarkable -progress which has been made during the past two generations -along all the lines which have their focal point in -the earth.</p> - -<p class="right"><b>Cloth. 12mo. Illustrated. $1.75 net, by mail, 1.88.</b></p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<p class="center highline15 fsize150"><b>THE MACMILLAN COMPANY</b></p> - -<p class="center fsize110"><b>64-66 Fifth Avenue<span class="padl6 padr6"> </span>NEW YORK</b></p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<h2 class="book1">CYCLOPEDIA OF AMERICAN -AGRICULTURE</h2> - -<p class="center highline2">Edited by L. H. BAILEY</p> - -<p class="center fsize90 blankbefore75 blankafter75">Of Cornell University, Editor of “Cyclopedia of American Horticulture,” -Author of “Plant Breeding,” “Principles of Agriculture,” etc.</p> - -<div class="container w35em"> - -<p class="noindent">WITH 100 FULL-PAGE PLATES AND MORE THAN 2,000 ILLUSTRATIONS -IN THE TEXT—FOUR VOLUMES—THE SET: -CLOTH, $20 NET—HALF-MOROCCO, $32 NET—CARRIAGE EXTRA</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<h3 class="left group2">Volume I—Farms</h3> - -<p>The Agricultural Regions—The Projecting of a Farm—The Soil -Environment—The Atmosphere Environment.</p> - -<h3 class="left group2">Volume II—Crops</h3> - -<p>The Plant and Its Relations—The Manufacture of Crop Products—North -American Field Crops.</p> - -<h3 class="left group2">Volume III—Animals</h3> - -<p>The Animal and Its Relations—The Manufacture of Animal Products—North -American Farm Animals.</p> - -<h3 class="left group2">Volume IV—The Farm and the Community</h3> - -<p>Economics—Social Questions—Organizations—History—Literature, -etc.</p> - -<p class="bookreview1">“Indispensable to public and reference libraries ... readily comprehensible -to any person of average education.”—<i>The Nation.</i></p> - -<p class="bookreview1">“The completest existing thesaurus of up-to-date facts and opinions on -modern agricultural methods. It is safe to say that many years must pass -before it can be surpassed in comprehensiveness, accuracy, practical value, -and mechanical excellence. It ought to be in every library in the country.”—<i>Record -Herald, Chicago.</i></p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<p class="center highline15">Published by</p> - -<p class="center highline15 fsize150"><b>THE MACMILLAN COMPANY</b></p> - -<p class="center fsize110"><b>64-66 Fifth Avenue<span class="padl6 padr6"> </span>NEW YORK</b></p> - -</div><!--adverts--> - -<hr class="full" /> - -<div class="tnbot" id="TN"> - -<h2>Transcriber’s Notes</h2> - -<p>The language used in this e-book is that used in the source document; inconsistent, unusual and archaic spelling, -hyphenation and capitalisation have been retained, except as mentioned under Changes below.</p> - -<p>Depending in the hard- and software used and their settings, not all elements may display as intended. Some of the -larger elements are best viewed in a wide window or on a wide screen.</p> - -<p>Page 152, Footnote [5]: the reference should be to Figs. 63 and 64.</p> - -<p class="blankbefore75">Changes:</p> - -<p>Illustrations have been moved outside text paragraphs. 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