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diff --git a/old/68231-0.txt b/old/68231-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 59b1381..0000000 --- a/old/68231-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,3770 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of The daily life of the Greeks and -Romans as illustrated in the classical collections, by Helen McClees - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: The daily life of the Greeks and Romans as illustrated in the - classical collections - -Author: Helen McClees - -Release Date: June 4, 2022 [eBook #68231] - -Language: English - -Produced by: Turgut Dincer and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team - at https://www.pgdp.net (This book was produced from images - made available by the HathiTrust Digital Library.) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE DAILY LIFE OF THE GREEKS -AND ROMANS AS ILLUSTRATED IN THE CLASSICAL COLLECTIONS *** - - - - - - -[Illustration: THE DAILY LIFE OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS] - - - - - THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM - OF ART - - THE DAILY LIFE OF THE - GREEKS AND ROMANS - - AS ILLUSTRATED IN - THE CLASSICAL COLLECTIONS - - BY - HELEN MCCLEES, PH. D. - - [Illustration] - - NEW YORK - MCMXXIV - - COPYRIGHT - BY THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM - OF ART, 1924 - - - - -CONTENTS - - - PAGE - - ILLUSTRATIONS vii - - INTRODUCTION xiii - - THE DAILY LIFE OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS - - I. RELIGION 3 - - II. THE DRAMA 13 - - III. HOUSES AND FURNITURE 19 - - IV. OCCUPATIONS OF WOMEN 32 - - V. CHILDREN AND EDUCATION 40 - - VI. DRESS AND TOILET 47 - - VII. AMUSEMENTS, MUSIC, AND DANCING 68 - - VIII. ARMS AND ARMOR 76 - - IX. ATHLETICS 89 - - X. RACES AND RIDING 98 - - XI. GLADIATORS 106 - - XII. TRADES AND CRAFTS 109 - - XIII. BURIAL-CUSTOMS 121 - - - - -ILLUSTRATIONS - - - PAGE - - COVER DESIGN: ADAPTATION OF WALL-PAINTING IN CUBICULUM FROM - BOSCOREALE. Eighth Room. - - VIGNETTE ON TITLE-PAGE: DEPARTURE OF A WARRIOR, FROM A - LEKYTHOS. Case G, Fifth Room. - - INTRODUCTION - - HEAD-BAND: DESIGN FROM A ROMAN TABLE IN THE CUBICULUM. - Eighth Room xv - - TAIL-PIECE: OSCILLUM. Case 1 xvii - - CHAPTER I - - HEAD-BAND: GENII SACRIFICING, FROM AN ARRETINE BOWL. Case - G, Eighth Room 3 - - 1. PRAYING YOUTH (?) 4 - - 2. MAN SALUTING A STATUE OF ATHENA 5 - - 3. MAN CARRYING A PIG TO BE SACRIFICED 3 - - 4. VOTIVE TABLE 6 - - 5. VOTIVE PLAQUE 6 - - 6. TERRACOTTA HERM 7 - - 7. WARRIORS MAKING A TREATY (?) 7 - - 8. CHARMS OF COLORED GLASS 7 - - 9. LAR 8 - - 10. ROMAN PRIEST 9 - - 11. CAMILLUS 10 - - 12. STATUE OF CYBELE ON ITS CAR 11 - - 13. SACRIFICIAL PROCESSION 11 - - 14. SISTRUM 12 - - CHAPTER II - - HEAD-BAND: PLAN OF THE THEATRE OF SEGESTA, REDRAWN FROM - LALOUX, L’ARCHITECTURE GRECQUE, p. 233, fig. 217 13 - - 15. TRAGIC MASK 14 - - 16. SLAVE IN OLD COMEDY 14 - - 17. THEATRE AT EPIDAURUS 15 - - 18. ACTOR OF MIMES 16 - - 19. ACTOR IN NEW COMEDY 17 - - 20. COMIC ACTOR AS HERAKLES 17 - - TAIL-PIECE: TERRACOTTA MASK OF A SATYR. Case 1 18 - - CHAPTER III - - HEAD-BAND: HOUSE OF SALLUST, REDRAWN FROM MAU-KELSEY, - POMPEII, PUBLISHED BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY, p. 287, - fig. 136 19 - - 21. ROMAN WALL-PAINTING 20 - - 22. CUBICULUM 21 - - 23. MOSAIC PICTURE 22 - - 24. OLD MAN SEATED ON A KLISMOS 23 - - 25. BRONZE CAULDRON 24 - - 26. GREEK TABLE-WARE OF PAINTED TERRACOTTA 25 - - 27. BRONZE PATERA 26 - - 28. BRONZE WINE-JUG 27 - - 29. BRONZE JUG 27 - - 30. BRONZE BEAKER 27 - - 31. BRONZE LADLE FOR WINE 28 - - 32. BRONZE WINE-STRAINER 28 - - 33. ROMAN SILVER CUP 29 - - 34. ROMAN SILVER SPOONS 29 - - 35. BRONZE CANDELABRUM 30 - - 36. BRONZE LAMP ON A STAND 31 - - TAIL-PIECE: CAMPANIAN PLATE FOR FISH. Case Q, Sixth Room 31 - - CHAPTER IV - - HEAD-BAND: WOMEN WORKING WOOL, FROM AN EPINETRON. Case 2 32 - - 37. WOMAN EMBROIDERING OR MAKING A NET 32 - - 38. ONOS OR EPINETRON 33 - - 39. WOMAN CARDING WOOL 33 - - 40. EMBROIDERED CLOTHING 34 - - 41. GREEK COUNTRY-WOMAN SPINNING 35 - - 42. BAKING BREAD IN A PRIMITIVE OVEN 36 - - 43. WOMEN WINNOWING AND GRINDING CORN 36 - - 44. WOMEN AT A WELL-HOUSE IN ATHENS 37 - - 45. MARRIAGE-VASE 38 - - TAIL-PIECE: WOMAN SPINNING, FROM A PYXIS. Case A, Fourth Room 39 - - CHAPTER V - - HEAD-BAND: BOYS GOING TO SCHOOL, FROM A KYLIX. Case 3 40 - - 46. GOLD BULLA 40 - - 47. OLD NURSE HOLDING A BABY 41 - - 48. TERRACOTTA FEEDING BOTTLE 41 - - 49. TOY HORSE ON WHEELS 42 - - 50. TOMB LEKYTHOS. CHILD DRAWING A CART 42 - - 51. GIRLS PLAYING BALL 43 - - 52. BOY ROLLING A HOOP 43 - - 53. WOMEN WHIPPING TOPS 44 - - 54. STYLUS 44 - - 55. EPHEDRISMOS GAME 45 - - 56. BOY WITH A WRITING TABLET 45 - - 57. INK-POT 46 - - TAIL-PIECE: JOINTED TERRACOTTA DOLL. Case 3 46 - - CHAPTER VI - - HEAD-BAND: FIBULA. Gold Room 47 - - 58. DIAGRAM OF DORIC CHITON, REPRODUCED FROM BRITISH MUSEUM, - A GUIDE TO THE EXHIBITION ILLUSTRATING GREEK AND ROMAN - LIFE, 2d edition, fig. 129 47 - - 59. AMAZONS IN MEN’S IONIC CHITONS, REPRODUCED FROM FURTWÄNGLER - UND REICHHOLD, GRIECHISCHE VASENMALEREI, I, pl. 82 48 - - 60. EARLY CHITONS 49 - - 61. WOMAN’S DORIC CHITON OF THE FIFTH CENTURY 50 - - 62. WOMAN IN IONIC CHITON 51 - - 63. DORIC CHITON WITHOUT GIRDLE 52 - - 64. TERRACOTTA STATUETTE. LADY IN HIMATION AND HAT 53 - - 65. TERRACOTTA STATUETTE. LADY IN HIMATION 53 - - 66. TERRACOTTA STATUETTE. MAN IN RIDING-CLOAK AND HAT 53 - - 67. MAN’S CHITON 54 - - 68. AKROPOLIS MAIDEN IN IONIC CHITON AND HIMATION 55 - - 69. GREEK SANDAL 56 - - 70. GREEK JEWELRY 57 - - 71. WOMEN’S COIFFURES, REPRODUCED FROM ABRAHAMS, GREEK - DRESS, fig. 45 58 - - 72. STRIGIL 59 - - 73. RAZOR 60 - - 74. ALABASTRON 60 - - 75. ARYBALLOS 61 - - 76. GLASS BOTTLE 61 - - 77. SILVER PYXIS 62 - - 78. TERRACOTTA PYXIS 62 - - 79. SPATULA 63 - - 80. DIPPING-ROD 63 - - 81. GREEK MIRROR ON A STAND 64 - - 82. ETRUSCAN MIRROR 65 - - 83. GREEK MIRROR AND COVER 65 - - TAIL-PIECE: DIONYSOS WEARING THE HIMATION, FROM A - KRATER. Case J, Fourth Room 67 - - CHAPTER VII - - HEAD-BAND: SYMPOSIUM, FROM A KRATER. Case X, Fourth Room 68 - - 84. SYMPOSIUM, REPRODUCED FROM FURTWÄNGLER UND REICHHOLD, I, - pl. 73. 69 - - 85. KOTTABOS-STAND 70 - - 86. GLASS ASTRAGALS 71 - - 87. GIRLS PLAYING WITH ASTRAGALS 71 - - 88. YOUTH WITH A LYRE 72 - - 89. GIRL DANCING AND PLAYING THE CASTANETS 72 - - 90. APOLLO WITH A KITHARA 73 - - 91. TERRACOTTA FIGURINE. WOMAN DANCING 74 - - 92. TERRACOTTA FIGURINE. WOMAN DANCING 75 - - TAIL-PIECE: GIRL DANCING, FROM A KYLIX. Case G, Fifth Room 75 - - CHAPTER VIII - - HEAD-BAND: COMBAT, FROM A KYLIX. Case K, Fourth Room 76 - - 93. GREEK FOOT-SOLDIER, REPRODUCED FROM DIE BRONZEN AUS - DODONA, pl. 11 76 - - 94. ITALIC HELMET 77 - - 95. ITALIC HELMET WITH METAL CREST 77 - - 96. CAP-SHAPED HELMET 77 - - 97. “JOCKEY-CAP” HELMET 77 - - 98. CORINTHIAN HELMET 77 - - 99. ITALIC ARMORED BELT 78 - - 100. PAIR OF GREAVES 78 - - 101. ITALIC CUIRASS 79 - - 102. GREEK CUIRASS OF THE FIFTH CENTURY 80 - - 103. WARRIOR CARRYING A SHIELD 81 - - 104. PERSIAN FIGHTING WITH A MACHAIRA 82 - - 105. JAVELIN-HEAD 83 - - 106. SPEAR-HEAD 83 - - 107. DAGGER-BLADE WITH HOOKED TANG 83 - - 108. LEAF-SHAPED DAGGER-BLADE 83 - - 109. BRONZE SWORD 83 - - 110. ARROW-HEADS 84 - - 111. AMAZON WITH BATTLE-AXE AND WICKER SHIELD 85 - - 112. LAMP. VICTORY WITH A TROPHY 87 - - TAIL-PIECE: ATTIC HELMET. Case 4 88 - - CHAPTER IX - - HEAD-BAND: PANKRATIASTS, FROM A SKYPHOS. Case 4 89 - - 113. JUMPER WITH HALTERES 90 - - 114. DISKOS-THROWER 91 - - 115. ATHLETE THROWING A JAVELIN 92 - - 116. WRESTLERS 92 - - 117. SCENE FROM THE PANKRATION 93 - - 118. PANATHENAIC AMPHORA 94 - - 119. YOUTH BINDING ON A FILLET 95 - - TAIL-PIECE: VOTIVE DISK, REDRAWN FROM JÜTHNER, DIE - ANTIKEN TURNGERÄTHE, p. 27, fig. 20 97 - - CHAPTER X - - HEAD-BAND: HORSEMEN, FROM A KRATER. Case X, Fourth Room 98 - - 120. BRONZE CHARIOT 99 - - 121. RACING CARS ON SYRACUSAN COINS 100 - - 122. LAMP. SCENE FROM THE CIRCUS 100 - - 123. PANATHENAIC AMPHORA. CHARIOT RACE 100 - - 124. BIT USED IN TRAINING HORSES 102 - - 125. HORSE’S MUZZLE 102 - - 126. YOUNG HORSEMAN 103 - - 127. BRONZE BIT 104 - - TAIL-PIECE: HORSEMAN, BRONZE STATUETTE. Case B, Third Room 105 - - CHAPTER XI - - HEAD-BAND: GLADIATORIAL COMBATS, FROM A GLASS CUP. Case 3 106 - - 128. SAMNITE GLADIATOR 107 - - 129. THRACIAN GLADIATOR 107 - - TAIL-PIECE: HOPLOMACHUS, FROM A TERRACOTTA LAMP. Case 5 108 - - CHAPTER XII - - HEAD-BAND: ROMAN STEELYARD. Case 1 109 - - 130. BRONZE FARMYARD GROUP 110 - - 131. GREEK FARMER PLOUGHING 111 - - 132. TERRACOTTA MODEL OF A CART 112 - - 133. TERRACOTTA FROM CYPRUS. DONKEY WITH PANNIERS 112 - - 134. DONKEYS CARRYING JARS IN PANNIERS, 1922 113 - - 135. KEY. EARLY TYPE 114 - - 136. LOCK-PLATE 114 - - 137. KEY. LATER TYPE 114 - - 138. WAR-VESSELS. VASE PAINTING 115 - - 139. TERRACOTTA BOAT 115 - - 140. GOLD-BEATER’S BLOCK 116 - - 141. UNFINISHED POTTERY CUP 117 - - 142. ANCIENT MOULD AND MODERN RELIEF 117 - - 143. DIKAST’S TICKET 118 - - 144. FORKED PROBE 119 - - 145. SPATULAE 119 - - TAIL-PIECE: TERRACOTTA GOAT. Case B2, Third Room 120 - - CHAPTER XIII - - HEAD-BAND: FUNERAL SCENE FROM A DIPYLON VASE. Case L, - Second Room 121 - - 146. MOURNERS AT A BIER. TERRACOTTA RELIEF 122 - - 147. POET ON HIS BIER (?). TERRACOTTA PLATE 122 - - 148. DIPYLON VASE 123 - - 149. ATHENIAN TOMB LEKYTHOI 124 - - 150. MARBLE LEKYTHOS 125 - - 151. ETRUSCAN FOCOLARE 126 - - 152. MONUMENT OF SOSTRATE 127 - - 153. ETRUSCAN URN FOR ASHES 128 - - 154. ETRUSCAN URN 129 - - 155. ETRUSCAN URN 129 - - 156. ROMAN GRAVE MONUMENT 130 - - TAIL-PIECE: AKROTERION, SCULPTURE GALLERY, No. 5A 131 - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - -INTRODUCTION - - -This handbook is intended to serve as a guide to those objects in the -Classical Collection which illustrate the daily life of the Greeks and -Romans. Some of these have been brought together as a special exhibition -in Cases 1 to 5 in the Fifth Room, while others which it has not been -possible to move are referred to in their respective positions. Many of -these antiquities are among the most valued possessions of the Museum, -while others are entirely lacking in artistic qualities and would -scarcely attract the visitor’s attention, yet placed in their proper -relations they are found to be full of unsuspected interest. - -Investigations of the sites of ancient cities, settlements, and burial -places, especially during the last fifty years, have brought to light -objects of the most varied kinds which allow us to know, as was never -before possible, the appearance and manner of life, the tools, utensils, -weapons, and toys of the Greeks and Romans. Any one who will take up -an old translation of an author such as the elder Pliny, Xenophon, or -Martial, and compare it with a modern version will see at once the -difference in this particular. The earlier translator was often at a loss -when confronted with allusions to every-day life and consequently either -did not express clearly the meaning of his original or even entirely -misrepresented it. But quite apart from a correct interpretation of the -works of ancient writers, the study of private antiquities enables us to -form a mental picture of these people and their surroundings, the actors -in the theatre, the citizens gathered in the assembly or at a religious -festival, the houses from which they came, and the work they left behind; -and as a result, to see the world with their eyes, to comprehend their -aims and actions, and to compare them more intelligently with our own. - -The greater part of these objects were not very valuable at the time they -were made; they were the ordinary possessions of ordinary persons. Yet -one sees on all sides evidence of the skill, careful workmanship, and -artistic feeling ungrudgingly spent in making simple, common articles -for every-day use. In our own time the situation is very different; to -the average person beauty and utility have little or no relation to each -other, and he consequently provides for his home useful and necessary -utensils which have no beauty, and so far as he is able adds “ornaments” -which have no utility and very frequently, it must be said, no real -beauty. Again, the period in which we are living has not produced any -definite style, either in architecture or in the arts and crafts, though -there has been much careful copying and adapting of earlier ideas; but -the products of Greek and Roman artists and craftsmen have “style,” -not as a result of striving for an effect, but because each workman -received the traditional schooling in his craft and, having practised -it with satisfaction in work well done, tried to add something to the -store of knowledge before handing it on to the next generation. Such -considerations alone would make the study of the every-day utensils of -classical times a valuable one in the present day. - -No attempt has been made in this handbook to treat the subject -exhaustively; it is intended merely to provide such explanation and -commentary as will be helpful toward an understanding of the antiquities. -In consequence the length of the sections has been determined by the -amount of material available and does not necessarily correspond to the -relative importance of the various subjects. - -[Illustration] - - - - -THE DAILY LIFE OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - -I - -RELIGION - -CASE 1 - - -The religion of the Greek and Roman peoples was composed of many -elements, and presents throughout their history a great variety of cults -and observances. Religious tenets were not defined, and no priestly -hierarchy attempted to coerce the people in their beliefs or actions. A -Greek or a Roman was not under the necessity of worshipping the gods, -though he might incur the anger of his fellow-citizens by outraging -their feelings. To the ordinary man or woman, however, the service of -the gods was a daily duty and each important event of human life had its -appropriate observance. The head of every family was its priest, and the -children his assistants in carrying out the worship of the divine beings -who guarded the house and fields and all the living creatures therein. -Similarly the great gods of the city were served by the priests and -priestesses appointed to represent the city, conceived of as one great -family. Each city had its recurring festivals, its rest days sacredly -kept, and its days of commemoration of the dead. - -Public worship in Greece and Italy consisted of prayers and hymns, and -of sacrifices offered both within the temples and shrines and in other -places, such as groves and springs, which were held to be sacred. The -temples were built and adorned with all possible care, and were the pride -of the community. An amphora (on the bottom of Case S in the Fourth Room) -decorated with a religious scene shows a common type of altar. It is -shaped rather like a pedestal with an architectural moulding and “horns” -on either side. A miniature terracotta shrine from Cyprus (on the right -side of the top shelf in Case 1), made for household use, gives us an -idea of the shape of the larger ones which held a statue at crossroads -and street corners. Incense, a frequent accompaniment of worship, was -burned in a covered vessel, often provided with a high stand, such as the -incense burner painted on a small oinochoë in Case G in the Fifth Room; -or a little altar was used for the purpose. An example from Cyprus, which -still shows traces of fire, stands on the top shelf of Case 1. A marble -lamp from a temple is in Case G in the Third Room. It was made to be set -in a support, probably a bronze tripod, and was filled with oil in which -a wick floated. - -[Illustration: FIG. 1. PRAYING YOUTH (?)] - -In prayer the worshipper looked upward and raised both hands. This -attitude is perhaps represented in a bronze statuette, probably a votive -offering, in Case D in the Fifth Room (fig. 1). A small wine-jug (Case 1, -middle shelf) is decorated with a scene no doubt very common in Athens; -before a statue of Athena raised on a low column stands a man saluting -the goddess by kissing his fingers and raising them toward her (fig. 2). -A bronze votive statuette in Case D in the Fourth Room is making the same -gesture. - -[Illustration: FIG. 2. MAN SALUTING A STATUE OF ATHENA] - -[Illustration: FIG. 3. MAN CARRYING A PIG TO BE SACRIFICED] - -[Illustration: FIG. 4. VOTIVE TABLE] - -[Illustration: FIG. 5. VOTIVE PLAQUE] - -The universal custom of offering to a divinity gifts in supplication -and thanksgiving has many interesting illustrations in the collection. -A remnant of the ancient religion of Crete is the die for moulding -miniature bronze axes in Case B in the First Room. The little bronze -figure of a man carrying a pig in Case C2 in the Third Room served as -a memorial of a burnt sacrifice (fig. 3). The terracotta warriors from -Cyprus (Case 1 and the wall-cases in the corridor), and the Italic -bronze warriors (Case 3 and Case J in the Third Room) were probably -thank-offerings for a victorious home-coming. The group of terracotta -figures holding one another’s hands gives a rude picture of a ring-dance -such as was performed in honor of Aphrodite in Cyprus (Case 1, top -shelf). The painted terracotta face above this shelf is an example of -the many little masks called “oscilla” which were hung by cords in -sanctuaries or on the branches of trees outside (see tail-piece, p. -xvii). They seem to have been a substitute for the worshipper when he was -obliged to be away about his daily occupation. Several other examples -will be found in wall-cases in the corridor. Fourteen miniature bronze -greaves in Case 4 were probably dedications, perhaps made by soldiers -after a battle. Food and drink were the simplest and commonest gifts, -but were often beyond the means of the worshipper. If this were true, he -gave a representation in some cheap material of the offering he wished -to make, thus expressing pressing his good-will. In Case 1 are three -little tables with articles of food in relief upon the surface. We see a -ham, a whole boar, some cakes, fruit, and various dishes of food (fig. -4). Near these tables is a little tray with several cakes represented in -relief upon it, a substitute for the cakes which were placed on tables -in the temples, like the shew-bread of the Hebrews. The group of vases -connected by a ring was used for offering small portions of liquid, -probably oil, wine, honey, or milk. Gratitude for the cure of disease was -often exhibited by dedicating a representation of the affected part. On -the top shelf at the left are terracotta plaques showing eyes, eyes and -mouth, and an ear (fig. 5). Other examples are in Cases 47 and 75 in the -Cesnola Collection. The manufacture and sale of such objects formed an -industry in ancient times, and the records of the temple of Asklepios at -Athens which are still preserved contain long lists of them. - -[Illustration: FIG. 6. TERRACOTTA HERM] - -[Illustration: FIG. 7. WARRIORS MAKING A TREATY (?)] - -[Illustration: FIG. 8. CHARMS OF COLORED GLASS] - -The ceremonies and sacrifices in temples were few compared to the -frequent occasions for private and family worship. No meal was eaten -without offering a portion of food and drink to the gods, and statuettes -and symbols of divinities were kept in various rooms of the house and -near the house-door. The rude bust of Hermes on a pillar (Case 1, middle -shelf) is of the same type as the much larger pillars which in Athens -were placed near house-doors, in schools, and in the market-place (fig. -6). It was the mutilation of these images which caused such consternation -immediately before the sailing of Nikias on the disastrous Sicilian -expedition in 415 B.C. - -[Illustration: FIG 9. LAR] - -An interesting terracotta relief in Case 4 represents two warriors -clasping hands (fig. 7). Perhaps it may be regarded as a votive offering -made to commemorate a treaty or an alliance, either of which with the -Greeks and also the Romans was an agreement made in the sight of the gods -and accompanied by sacrifices. Readers of the Anabasis will remember the -treaty made by the Greeks and the Persians after Cyrus’s death (II, ii, -8, 9), when the sword-blades and spear-heads were dipped in the blood of -the victims caught in a shield, and the leaders on both sides gave their -right hands as a pledge of fidelity. - -The superstitious and fearful aspect of ancient religion is represented -by the grotesque faces called apotropaia, “turners away,” which were -thought to avert misfortune. They were worn especially by children, and -large ones of various materials were often fastened up in workshops and -houses. A number of small examples in glass are in Case C in the Third -Room (fig. 8). - -Perhaps the first divinities we think of when we turn to the native -Roman religion are the Lares, the guardians of house and field. The Lar -was represented as a youth holding a horn of plenty and a patera, a -shallow bowl used in sacrificing (fig. 9). Two of these figures stood -side by side near the hearth in the principal room of the early Roman -house, but at a later period they were placed in a little shrine usually -adjoining the atrium. A statuette of rather careless workmanship stands -on the middle shelf in Case 1 and a much better example in Case J in the -Eighth Room. A fine statuette of the Imperial period represents a priest -with his toga drawn up over his head in preparation for sacrificing, in -accordance with the custom which Virgil mentions in the Aeneid: “Veil -thine hair with a purple garment for covering, that no hostile face at -thy divine worship may meet thee amid the holy fires and make void the -omens” (III, vv. 405ff. Mackail) (Case J in the Eighth Room, fig. 10). A -life-size statue of a camillus, a boy assistant at religious rites, is in -this room (fig. 11). The office of camillus was an honorable one bestowed -upon the young sons of distinguished families. - -[Illustration: FIG. 10. ROMAN PRIEST] - -We have several interesting objects related to special cults. A goddess -revered by both Greeks and Romans was Tyche or Fortuna. A small bronze -statuette (Seventh Room, Case H 2) represents the Fortune of Antioch -seated on a rock, crowned with turrets, and holding in her hand a sheaf -of grain. Fortuna had many temples in Rome, where she was worshipped -under different titles. The popular belief in her power is attested by -Caesar, who tells of the confidence felt by his men in him and in his -success because they believed him to be a favorite of Fortune. A rather -rude statuette of this divinity stands on the second shelf of Case 1. - -[Illustration: FIG. 11. CAMILLUS] - -The worship of the Egyptian goddess Isis gradually spread from Egypt into -Asia Minor and thence into Greece and Rome. The bronze sistrum or rattle -was used in her rites, and she is often represented holding it in her -hand (Case 1, fig. 14). - -An especially interesting memorial of an Eastern cult established in Rome -is the statuette of Cybele, the Mother of the Gods, on her processional -car drawn by lions (Case M in the Eighth Room, fig. 12). The worship of -Cybele, a very ancient one, was introduced into Rome during the Second -Punic War at a time of great danger and anxiety. Our statuette represents -not the goddess herself but her cult statue, and probably commemorates -one of the annual festivals at which the image on its car was taken to -the river Almo to receive a ritual bath. The god-companion of Cybele, -Attis, was not worshipped at Rome before the time of Claudius, though his -cult was diffused over many parts of the East. A little terracotta from -Cyprus shows him in Phrygian dress on a horse (Case 1). - -[Illustration: FIG. 12. STATUE OF CYBELE ON ITS CAR] - -[Illustration: FIG. 13. SACRIFICIAL PROCESSION] - -A glass relief (on the tray above the middle shelf) gives a realistic -picture of a Roman sacrifice (fig. 13); an ox is being led through the -portico of a temple by four men carrying knives and an axe. A priestess -walks before them with veiled head, holding a box containing incense, -meal, or other articles used at sacrifices. - -[Illustration: FIG. 14. SISTRUM] - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - -II - -THE DRAMA - -CASE 1 - - -Dramatic performances in Greece were a part of the worship of the -wine-god Dionysos, and in consequence attendance in the theatre at Athens -was a religious duty as well as a pleasure. The audience was composed -of the citizens, both men and women, and visitors from other states and -cities. In early times the playwright acted in his own play, but later -the profession of actor was distinct from that of poet. Women’s parts -were taken by men. - -Plays were performed by daylight in the open air, in theatres so -constructed that most of the audience was at a considerable distance from -the actors. These circumstances naturally had a great effect upon the -conventions of the theatre and the manner of acting, as effects must be -broad, characters must be typical rather than individual, and facial play -was impossible (fig. 17). Early in the history of the Greek drama masks -for the actors were introduced, and continued in use for both tragedy -and comedy. They were usually made of linen stiffened with clay and -painted, though cork and wood were also used. The pupils of the eyes were -perforated so that the actor could see, and the mouth was always open. In -Case 1 are two terracotta masks, possibly made for use, one of a satyr -(see tail-piece, p. 18), the other of a young woman, and two little masks -representing comic characters. In the same room above Case 4 is a large -tragic mask of marble (fig. 15). This fine piece of decorative work is -modeled after the masks worn by the heroes of the tragic stage. Above the -tragic mask rose a projection called onkos which increased the apparent -height of the wearer. For the same purpose a shoe with a very thick -sole, the kothornos, was worn; the height of onkos and kothornos varying -with the importance of the character. The dress of the tragic actor -corresponded in a general way with that of every-day life, but the chiton -was long, and the costumes were frequently bright in color and decorated -elaborately with woven or embroidered bands. - -[Illustration: FIG. 15. TRAGIC MASK] - -[Illustration: FIG. 16. SLAVE IN OLD COMEDY] - -[Illustration: FIG. 17. THEATRE AT EPIDAURUS] - -[Illustration: FIG. 18. ACTOR OF MIMES] - -A group of terracotta statuettes from Athens (Sixth Room, Case L) gives -a vivid picture of the actors of the Old Comedy, that of Aristophanes and -his contemporaries. By a convention of the stage, all comic actors, even -those who played young women’s parts, were grotesquely padded, and over -the padding male characters wore an elastic woolen covering much like -the modern jersey, which is represented by dots in the statuettes. The -man’s chiton was always ridiculously short. Women wore the long chiton -and himation. On examining these figures we see that they include certain -stock characters which were used over and over by playwrights. The figure -on the left hand in the lowest row represents an old man, probably -an irascible old father. His mask is made so as to present a kindly -expression on one side and an angry one on the other. The actor turned -to the audience the side which expressed his feelings at the moment. The -statuette at the left of the top row seems to be of the same general -type. The right-hand figure in the top row is Herakles (fig. 20); that -on the right hand of the lowest row is probably Odysseus, both favorite -comic characters. Another represents a slave who has stolen a purse and -has taken refuge at an altar upon which he sits weighing his pelf in both -hands (fig. 16). Besides these there are a young woman and a middle-aged -matron, an old nurse with a baby, and a street vendor with a basket. The -scheming slave, another stock character of ancient comedy, stands in a -thoughtful attitude at the left hand of the second row from the top. - -In the Seventh Room (Case H 2) is a bronze statuette of an actor in the -New Comedy (fig. 19). The ridiculous dress of the earlier period has been -discarded for a fringed himation, but the mask is still worn. This actor -seems to be declaiming a passage “full of sound and fury” accompanied by -sweeping gestures. - -[Illustration: FIG. 19. ACTOR IN NEW COMEDY] - -In the same case is a statuette of an actor of mimes or pantomimes, in -itself a masterpiece of the grotesque (fig. 18). These performances were -generally satires upon contemporary life, and were immensely popular in -Greece and Italy, being sometimes provided as entertainment for guests -after dinner. The actors did not wear masks and probably relied much upon -gestures and facial play for their effects. - -[Illustration: FIG. 20. COMIC ACTOR AS HERAKLES] - -In Rome as well as in Athens the drama was connected with religious -festivals and the funerals of the great, but it encountered much -opposition from the more old-fashioned moralists and was never so popular -as were grosser amusements. The actors were frequently slaves, though -citizens engaged in this profession in increasing numbers under the late -Republic and the Empire, but their occupation deprived them of certain -civil rights and affected their social standing; while at Athens parts in -both tragedies and comedies were taken by citizens, who lost nothing in -public estimation by so doing. This in itself shows the marked difference -in the Greek and Roman attitudes. Roman tragedy was closely modeled -upon the Athenian, and the plays of Menander and his contemporaries, -translated and adapted by Plautus and Terence, became Roman comedy, from -which the classic comedy of modern Europe is derived. More popular, -however, were the farces and pantomimes of various kinds, in which the -native influence was strong, the dialogue and gestures being largely -extemporaneous, thus affording an opportunity to a clever actor for -displaying all his skill. - -[Illustration] - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - -III - -HOUSES AND FURNITURE - -CASES 2 AND 5 - - -Though the Greek and the Roman house differed considerably in detail, in -a general way the two were similar. For Americans the simplest comparison -to make would be with the Spanish type of dwelling in California -and other parts of the Southwest, since all three have the common -characteristic of looking in, rather than out. The exterior presented -a blank wall, usually of brick, broken by a door and a few windows. An -open courtyard formed the center of the Greek house, and this manner of -building was borrowed by the Romans as their wealth increased and larger -and pleasanter houses were desired. The Roman house, which grew by the -addition of rooms to the original single-room hut, had a large opening in -the roof of the principal room or atrium, to provide light and allow the -smoke from the hearth to escape. Under the opening was a basin, called -impluvium, into which fell the rain-water from the roof. These features -were retained even after the atrium was used only as a reception room, -the household work and cooking being done in a separate kitchen. - -[Illustration: FIG. 21. ROMAN WALL-PAINTING] - -[Illustration: FIG. 22. CUBICULUM] - -Houses were usually built of sun-dried brick on a stone foundation. The -roofs were often flat and were sometimes covered with hardened mud, but -tile roofs were also common. Marble for columns and other decorative -features was introduced into Rome in the later part of the Republican -period and colored marbles were used freely by the rich Romans of the -Empire. Walls were covered with stucco, which was frequently painted. -There was no wall-paper, of course, and pictures were painted directly -on the walls. Fashions in decoration changed as they do at present, -though more slowly. The wall-paintings from a villa near Boscoreale, in -the Eighth Room, illustrate several types in use in Italy in the first -century A.D. The earliest style imitated columns, marble panels, or -other ornamental features employed in buildings. Arabesques and fanciful -combinations of foliage, birds, animals, and masks came into use -later. Mythological and genre scenes, as the lady with the kithara (fig. -21) and the group of a man and a woman seated side by side, required a -skilful painter and were naturally reserved for the principal rooms. -In the cubiculum (fig. 22) another style has been employed, in which -buildings, arches, porticoes, and gardens are combined in a way which, -while of course somewhat fanciful, still probably represents the general -appearance of the streets and houses of Pompeii and other cities of the -time. Stucco reliefs, of which there are several graceful examples in the -Museum, were used in Greek houses of the Hellenistic period as well as in -Italy. - -[Illustration: FIG. 23. MOSAIC PICTURE] - -Floors in early times were of hardened earth, paving stones, or plaster. -In the fifth century pebbles set in cement came into use in Greece, -and from this kind of floor mosaic, plain and patterned, was derived. -Pictures or decorative designs made of fine glass mosaic were also used -as wall decorations. Three examples are on the tops of Cases 1 and 2 -(fig. 23). - -[Illustration: FIG. 24. OLD MAN SEATED ON A KLISMOS] - -The Greek and Roman furniture which has come down to us is necessarily -small in amount and fragmentary because, like most modern furniture, -it was made of wood and consequently has been destroyed by damp. There -remain, however, some fairly complete pieces, and a considerable -number of metal fittings and casings, as well as some models and many -illustrations from vases. Among the objects from Cyprus in wall-cases -in the corridor are two bronze tripods, and three ornaments consisting -of goats’ feet and bulls’ heads from another. The bronze lions’ paws -were feet for a large chair or chest. We have also a little terracotta -chair with a diminutive figure in it and a three-legged table of the -kind used to set beside a dining-couch, both from Cyprus, as well as a -round table on three legs, of much later date (Case 2). Two lekythoi -in Case K in the Fourth Room, decorated with interior scenes, show -chairs of a very graceful and comfortable type, the Greek klismos, and -the same kind of chair is seen on the grave-monument of a lady in the -Sculpture Gallery (No. 4), and on a large amphora on a pedestal in the -Fifth Room (fig. 24). The lady playing a kithara in the wall-painting -in the Eighth Room is seated in a large armchair, the thronos. In Case -5 is a bronze casing of beautiful work for a piece of furniture, and in -Case 2 a bronze chair-leg and an ornament terminating in the head of a -young bullock. Two tripods and some bronze mountings from Cyprus will be -found in wall-cases in the corridor. In the cubiculum from Boscoreale is -a table of marble and bronze. The bronze rim which surrounds the marble -top is inlaid with silver and niello in a beautiful pattern of palmettes -and rosette ornaments. A couch, probably for dining (wrongly restored as -a seat), and a footstool stand in the corridor between the Eighth and -Ninth Rooms. Bedsteads, which were similar to this couch in shape, were -merely frames on which thongs were stretched, like the old-fashioned -corded beds, the interlaced leather bands acting as springs. The wooden -frames were frequently decorated with bronze fittings, and in the -Hellenistic and Roman periods inlay and mountings of silver, gold, ivory, -and tortoise-shell were employed for the rich. Couches and beds were -usually supplied with a raised head-rest, often finished with bronze -animal-heads, such as the mule-heads in Case A in the Seventh Room and -Case L in the Eighth Room. - -[Illustration: FIG. 25. BRONZE CAULDRON] - -[Illustration: FIG. 26. GREEK TABLE-WARE OF PAINTED TERRACOTTA] - -Clothing was kept in chests, which were well adapted to the large -pieces of cloth composing a costume. A good illustration of a chest -may be seen in Case W in the Fourth Room, on an amphora decorated with -a scene from the story of Danaë and Perseus, and in Case 2 there is a -miniature chest of white stone from which the cover has been lost. - -[Illustration: FIG. 27. BRONZE PATERA] - -Household utensils, since they were made of metal or pottery, exist in -considerable numbers. Cooking was usually done over an open fire, though -stoves of a simple type came into use in the Hellenistic and Roman -periods. The bronze cauldrons used for boiling (Case S in the Third Room -and wall-cases in-the corridor) were valued highly, and were offered -frequently as prizes in athletic contests (fig. 25). At the funeral games -of Patroklos (Iliad XXIII, vv. 267-268) Achilles gives a ‘bronze cauldron -untouched by fire’ as a prize for the chariot race, and records of later -contests prove that the custom was a common one. An amphora in Case Y -in the Fourth Room is decorated with the figure of a youth, evidently a -victor in the games, carrying away upon his shoulders a cauldron which -he has won. The metal hook in Case N in the Seventh Room was used for -drawing pieces of meat from the cauldron. Pails, finely made and -decorated, especially as to the handles and their attachments, probably -served some purpose at table, as, for example, to hold cold water or snow -in which a vessel of wine was placed to cool. - -[Illustration: FIG. 28. BRONZE WINE-JUG] - -[Illustration: FIG. 29. BRONZE JUG] - -[Illustration: FIG. 30. BRONZE BEAKER] - -[Illustration: FIG. 31. BRONZE LADLE FOR WINE] - -[Illustration: FIG. 32. BRONZE WINE-STRAINER] - -The pottery in the various rooms of the collection shows the kinds of -dishes in use in Greek and Italian houses. There are cups of different -shapes, pitchers and jugs for water, wine, and other liquids, kraters -(large bowls for mixing water and wine), plates for food, and lekythoi -(oil-cruets) (fig. 26). The modern china, that is, high-fired pottery -covered with a vitreous glaze, was not known, and glass did not become -common until the Imperial period. In the Eighth Room and the corridor -are many examples of the glass vessels of that time, some plain, others -with ornaments in relief, and still others of colored glass in patterns -of remarkable beauty (Cases N and O in the Eighth Room). Much of the -plain glass has become iridescent owing to exposure to damp in graves. -The pottery in museum collections is naturally the finer product of -the workshop; receptacles for storing and for kitchen use were of -undecorated clay and more carelessly made. In the Cesnola Collection on -the tops of Cases 58-63 are some of the tall jars, called pithoi by the -Greeks and dolia by the Romans, which were used for storing and exporting -wine, grain, and many other articles, taking the place of the casks, -barrels, and boxes, and the paper bags and cartons of modern times. The -pointed ends were driven into earthen floors. - -[Illustration: FIG. 33. ROMAN SILVER CUP] - -[Illustration: FIG. 34. ROMAN SILVER SPOONS] - -Another piece of table-ware which should be mentioned is a special plate -for fish, made in Italy, which had a depression in the center for holding -the sauce. These plates are decorated with interesting and surprisingly -accurate drawings of fish (Case Q in the Sixth Room, tail-piece, p. 31). - -In Case E in the Third Room is a bronze table service of Greek work from -an Etruscan tomb, and in Case O in the same room are bronze jars and -jugs of various fine shapes (figs. 27-30), and ladles for dipping wine -(fig. 31). In Case A in the Fourth Room is a wine-strainer (fig. 32). The -remarkably beautiful handles from vessels in these cases are a further -proof of the taste and care expended upon household utensils. Silver -table services were not common among the Greeks, but silver and even gold -dishes were used by wealthy Romans. In Case C in the Eighth Room are four -cups of Roman date (fig. 33) with a ladle and a little jug or cup with a -spout. - -Food was usually cut into convenient pieces in the kitchen and eaten with -the fingers, but spoons were used to a considerable extent by the Romans. -Several bronze spoons are exhibited in Case 5, and there are some silver -spoons of various shapes in the case with the silver cups in the Eighth -Room (fig. 34). - -The habit of rising and going to bed early which prevailed in Greece -and Italy is easily understood when we see the meagre arrangements for -lighting which they possessed. In the street torches were carried, and -they were also used in the house in early times. A bronze torch-holder -of the late sixth century from Cyprus in the corridor and a terracotta -example in Case 2 appear to have been made so that they could be set on a -table. The Romans and Etruscans made candles of pitch and also wax ones -very similar to our own, but the Greeks were not acquainted with them -until they were introduced by the Romans. The iron candelabrum in Case S -in the Third Room was designed to hold candles on the prickets around the -top. Lamps were commonly of terracotta or bronze. Olive oil was burnt in -them with a wick of flax, but at best the light must have been poor and -flickering. Candelabra were commonly made of wood, but handsomer ones -were of bronze. A fine Etruscan candelabrum stands in the Fifth Room. It -was probably furnished with hooks or other attachments for hanging lamps, -or with prickets for candles (fig. 35). A group of lamps of various -shapes is shown in Case 2 (fig. 36). - -[Illustration: FIG. 35. BRONZE CANDELABRUM] - -[Illustration: FIG. 36. BRONZE LAMP ON A STAND] - -[Illustration] - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - -IV - -OCCUPATIONS OF WOMEN - -CASES 2, 3, AND 5 - - -[Illustration: FIG. 37. WOMAN EMBROIDERING OR MAKING A NET] - -The home in ancient times, especially the country house, was a -manufactory on a small scale, like many American homes of a century ago. -Most of the clothing for the family was made there, and consequently the -mistress of the house must understand wool-working in every stage and -the making of linen cloth, and must also be able to teach and direct -the slave women. Wool was often bought in the raw state or even in the -fleece, which necessitated cleansing it, certainly a disagreeable task. -The Syracusan lady in the Fifteenth Idyll of Theokritos scolds because -her husband has bought five dirty fleeces of poor quality—“work upon -work” for her. For making the roves a pottery shield, called epinetron -or onos, was placed on the knee and the fibers rubbed over it. An -interesting example, decorated with drawings of women at work (see -head-band, p. 32), has the upper surface covered with a scale pattern -which furnished the slightly roughened surface necessary for making the -roves (Case 2, top shelf, fig. 38). The covering, however, was sometimes -dispensed with; a finely decorated toilet-box in Case A in the Fourth -Room has on one side a drawing of a woman carding over her bare knee -(fig. 39). This box also shows the next stage in the making of cloth, -the spinning, for which distaff and spindle were used (see tail-piece, -p. 39). A small weight, the spindle-whorl, usually of terracotta, was -attached to the thread below the spindle to increase the twisting motion. -An example is in Case 5. This primitive method of spinning is still in -use among the Greek country-folk, witness a photograph taken in 1922 -(fig. 41). - -[Illustration: FIG. 38. ONOS OR EPINETRON] - -[Illustration: FIG. 39. WOMAN CARDING WOOL] - -[Illustration: FIG. 40. EMBROIDERED CLOTHING] - -The loom used in Greece and Italy was upright, consisting of two posts -with a cross-bar. The threads of the warp, alternately long and short, -were held by terracotta weights tied to the lower ends. A loom-weight -from Crete is marked with the owner’s name, Kaleneika, wife or daughter -of Teriphos (Case 5). - -[Illustration: FIG. 41. GREEK COUNTRY-WOMAN SPINNING] - -Cloth was woven in the size desired for a particular garment, so that -no cutting was necessary and consequently there were no edges to hem. -Sewing was therefore restricted to seams, of which few were required, but -a great deal of time and skill could be devoted to embroidered ornament -upon fine garments. The earlier fashion, seen on black-figured vases, -was to cover the cloth with patterns, but later only borders were used, -or bands of figures. On an oinochoë of the fifth century, in Case C -in the Fifth Room, are two ladies perfuming clothes. The garments and -head-dresses they are wearing and the clothes they are folding are worked -with beautiful borders in the wave pattern and ornaments in the form -of conventionalized flowers (fig. 40). Besides providing fine apparel -for themselves and their families, women also expended their skill on -garments which they offered to the goddesses: the treasuries of Athena -and of Artemis at Athens contained chests full of many-colored robes -offered by worshippers (fig. 37). Naturally in the course of time various -industries sprang up which contributed manufactured products to the -household, but spinning and weaving continued to be domestic occupations, -at least to provide clothing for the slaves. Some conservative families -in Rome prided themselves upon wearing garments made at home; the Emperor -Augustus is said to have worn, except on special occasions, the handiwork -of the ladies of his family as an example of simplicity in a period of -general extravagance. - -[Illustration: FIG. 42. BAKING BREAD IN A PRIMITIVE OVEN] - -[Illustration: FIG. 43. WOMEN WINNOWING AND GRINDING CORN] - -The preparation of food likewise required the housewife’s direction, -though the master of the house, or in large establishments a trusted -steward, attended to the marketing. Two small terracottas from Cyprus on -the bottom of Case 3 illustrate the making of bread by very primitive -methods. In the first (fig. 43), the woman at the left is winnowing -grain with a sieve, which she holds, and a winnowing-fan shaped like -a shovel, which lies by her side. The other woman (whose head is -unfortunately missing) is grinding the corn on a saddle-quern; she draws -the upper millstone back and forth over the lower, which is provided with -side boards to prevent the meal from falling off—a hard day’s work, one -would say. The other terracotta represents a primitive method of baking -bread. A clay oven like a huge bowl was built up by hand in a convenient -place. The usual fuel, dried grasses, was placed in and around it and -after the oven became heated and the fire had died down, the housewife -set the flat loaves around the inside to bake (fig. 42). - -[Illustration: FIG. 44. WOMEN AT A WELL-HOUSE IN ATHENS] - -Another task often represented on vases is the drawing and carrying of -water. In many places the public well-houses were the principal source of -supply, as the piping of water into dwellings was unusual in Greece until -Roman times. A hydria in Case 2 shows a group of women carrying away -their jars on their heads from a public well-house (fig. 44). - -[Illustration: FIG. 45. MARRIAGE-VASE] - -In Athens, and probably more or less throughout the Greek world, a -woman’s life was rather monotonous. Ladies did not go out unattended, -and indeed were not expected to go out at all without good reason. A -wife did not receive her husband’s guests or take part in his social -life; but women were included in family gatherings such as weddings and -dinners after the birth of children, they made visits to women relatives -and friends, and shared in the frequent religious festivals, which at -Athens included the theatre. In the earlier vase paintings there are -comparatively few figures of women, and such as appear are usually -goddesses or accessory persons in mythical scenes; but with the gradual -change to subjects taken from every-day life in the later sixth and the -early fifth century, we begin to see women about their usual occupations, -or in groups talking with each other or with men. Much of the later -Athenian pottery is decorated with charming scenes from the life of -women, showing them with their children, at their toilet, busy with -embroidery, or playing with pets. The younger ones seem to have enjoyed -some games which we have relegated to childhood, such as spinning tops -(see fig. 53). On the marriage-vases we see the bride being dressed by -her friends and servants, or receiving presents on the day after the -wedding, the traditional occasion for the presentation of gifts. Two of -these vases are in Case B in the Fifth Room (fig. 45), and a perfume vase -in Case Q is decorated with a similar scene. The usual presents seem to -have been bands and ribbons for the hair, perfumes, jewelry, and pets, -especially birds. - -[Illustration] - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - -V - -CHILDREN AND EDUCATION - -CASES 2 AND 3 - - -Little babies were tightly bound in swaddling clothes soon after birth, -and the mother, in anxiety for her child’s safety, usually fastened an -amulet or charm of some kind around its neck to keep away unfriendly -spirits. The grotesque faces of colored glass previously mentioned (p. -8) may have served this purpose. Roman children wore the bulla, a case -of leather or gold, according to the means of the parents, containing a -charm. A large gold bulla of Etruscan workmanship is in a case at the -left side of the Gold Room (fig. 46). The baby became the charge of an -old and trusted slave-woman such as the kind old nurse represented in a -terracotta statuette on the middle shelf of Case 3. Another of the same -type is in Case K in the Sixth Room (fig. 47). The prettily decorated jug -with a spout is a feeding-bottle (fig. 48). - -[Illustration: FIG. 46. GOLD BULLA] - -[Illustration: FIG. 47. OLD NURSE HOLDING A BABY] - -[Illustration: FIG. 48. TERRACOTTA FEEDING-BOTTLE] - -Greek and Roman children played with toys much like those of the present -day, but they were simple and inexpensive. Rattles for babies were made -of terracotta with a few pebbles enclosed (Case 3, middle shelf). An -interesting toy for a small child is the terracotta horse from Cyprus -with large jars in its panniers such as those carried by real horses for -taking provisions to and from market (Case 2, top shelf, fig. 49). Carts -were favorite playthings; a small oinochoë in Case 3 shows a boy driving -two goats harnessed to a chariot, and on a white lekythos painted for -a child’s grave (Case F in the Fifth Room), a little boy is going to -Charon’s boat for his journey over the Styx, drawing his toy cart (fig. -50). Of course, Greek and Roman children kept house with their dolls, and -charming miniature vases were made for them, some for the doll’s table -and others for her toilet and wedding. These vases, which are decorated -with scenes of children at play, were given, it is thought, as presents -on a festival day called Choes, “Jugs.” A number of different types are -in Case G in the Fifth Room. - -[Illustration: FIG. 49. TOY HORSE ON WHEELS] - -Dolls were made of wax and clay. The two seated terracotta dolls without -joints in Case L in the Seventh Room were found in graves at Tarentum in -Southern Italy. Another made of bone has jointed arms and could easily be -dressed (Case 3, tail-piece, p. 46). These dolls were originally painted -in bright colors, which have been destroyed by time. - -[Illustration: FIG. 50. TOMB LEKYTHOS. CHILD DRAWING A CART] - -Rolling hoops, contrary to modern ideas, seems to have been a boys’ -sport. A boy with a hoop may be seen on a vase in Case J in the Fifth -Room (fig. 52). Mothers and nurses swung small children in swings, as -in the scene on a vase from Southern Italy (Case P, Sixth Room), and -older girls also enjoyed this pastime. As part of a game or perhaps as -forfeit, girls sometimes carried one another on their backs. A terracotta -statuette represents two girls playing ephedrismos, as this game was -called (Case 3, fig. 55). Young women and girls, as well as boys, played -with whipping-tops, as is shown on a lekythos on the same shelf (fig. -53), and on one side of a toilet-box two girls are playing a game -of ball with a wicket (fig. 51). Children also played hide-and-seek, -tug-of-war, and many games with beans, nuts, pebbles, small coins, and -the astragals described in the section on Amusements (pp. 68-69). - -[Illustration: FIG. 51. GIRLS PLAYING BALL] - -At about six years of age Greek boys were sent to school, while the girls -remained at home to learn from their mothers how to spin and weave, and -to read a little and keep accounts. Their education was of the simplest -kind and ceased very early. - -[Illustration: FIG. 52. BOY ROLLING A HOOP] - -[Illustration: FIG. 53. WOMEN WHIPPING TOPS] - -[Illustration: FIG. 54. STYLUS] - -The first school to which a boy went was that of the letter-teacher, -who taught reading, writing, and simple arithmetic. A kylix in Case 3 -(see head-band, p. 40) is decorated with figures of schoolboys, one of -whom holds a roll of manuscript, and another a writing tablet. These -tablets were thin pieces of wood covered with wax and fastened together -with cords (fig. 56). A pointed stylus (fig. 54) was used for writing, -the blunt end being turned around when it was necessary to erase by -smoothing the wax[1]. After three or four years in the letter-school -the boys went to the music teacher, who taught them to sing and to play -the lyre, and in connection with the music they learned many selections -from the great poets. Training in the palaistra or wrestling-school was -begun very early, and was usually continued until the boy was old enough -to be called into the military service of the state. These lessons will -be described in the section on athletics, as the sports of the palaistra -were in general the same as those of the men’s gymnasium. In addition to -the subjects already mentioned, many boys, during the fifth century and -later, studied geometry, rhetoric, and philosophy. - - [1] Several very interesting objects illustrating Greek writing - and writing-materials are exhibited in the case devoted to - learning in the Seventh Egyptian Room. They include a wooden - tablet covered with wax, several short letters on potsherds—a - cheap and common writing-material—and fragments of the Iliad - and the Odyssey on papyrus, the usual substance on which books - were written, dating from the third century B.C. The reed pens - in this case are of the kind employed for writing on papyrus. - -[Illustration: FIG. 55. EPHEDRISMOS GAME] - -[Illustration: FIG. 56. BOY WITH A WRITING TABLET] - -[Illustration: FIG. 57. INK-POT] - -In Italy, Greek ideas of education were generally adopted; boys learned -the Greek language and studied the Greek and Roman poets. A little -geography and history were taught, and arithmetic occupied much time, -for the Roman system of weights, measures, and coins was difficult and -inconvenient. Besides the schools for elementary subjects there were -special classes for the study of rhetoric and philosophy. The children -of rich or noble families were often educated at home by Greek tutors, -the girls and boys together, and among the humbler people they went to -the same school for a time. In general the education of girls was similar -to that of boys, so far as it went, and sometimes in wealthy families was -continued after marriage. Many ladies knew the Greek poets well and wrote -verses themselves. Music occupied much of their time and they learned to -dance for recreation and as a means of giving pleasure to their families -and friends. - -[Illustration] - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - -VI - -DRESS AND TOILET - -CASES 2, 3, AND 5 - - -[Illustration: FIG. 58. DIAGRAM OF DORIC CHITON] - -Greek dress, both for men and women, consisted of two portions, a garment -for the house and a wrap to be worn over it. Men, from the time of the -Homeric poems downwards, wore a “chiton,” rectangular in shape and -somewhat wider than the body, closed on the sides and across the top -except for openings left for the head and arms. A short woolen chiton -was the usual dress for soldiers, workmen, and poor persons, while the -nobles of the Homeric poems seem to have worn linen chitons reaching to -the feet. Over this a wrap, either rectangular or curved on one side, was -arranged in various ways. The earliest representations show men wearing a -wrap with one curved edge, and apparently doubled like a shawl. This type -of dress may be seen in vase paintings in the Third Room; for example, -the figure of Dionysos on a stamnos (No. GR 564 in Case R), and the same -god on a large amphora (No. 12.198.4) in that case. - -[Illustration: FIG. 59. AMAZONS IN MEN’S IONIC CHITONS] - -The earliest garment for women which we know of was a chiton of wool -without sewing. This was a large rectangular piece of cloth considerably -wider and longer than the body. It was folded through the middle -lengthwise, so that one side was closed and the other open. The top, -again, was generally folded over, this hanging portion being called -“apoptygma.” Long pins inserted with the points upwards, or fibulae (see -head-band, p. 47), were used to fasten the double edge on the shoulders, -and a girdle was usually worn to hold the edges of the open side in place -(fig. 58). If the chiton were still too long, part of the cloth was drawn -up through the girdle into a blouse called “kolpos.” The heavy woolen -chiton may be seen in the drawing of three nymphs on an amphora (No. GR -549) in Case K in the Third Room. From these early representations in -art, it seems that clothing for both men and women was at first rather -narrow and was often covered with woven or embroidered patterns (fig. 60). - -During the seventh and sixth centuries the rich and artistic Ionian -cities had a great influence on the customs of Greece, and from them the -ladies of Athens adopted the linen chiton, which was wider and was sewed -on the sides. The additional width was sometimes used to form sleeves by -catching the two pieces together at the top in three or four places, with -sewing, buttons, or small pins. Long sleeves sewn in were occasionally -worn, but were exceptional rather than customary, so that artists often -represent barbarians with sleeves to distinguish them from Greeks. -On a kotyle in Case C in the Fifth Room is a woman wearing a spotted -chiton with long, close-fitting sleeves. At this period men as well as -women at times wore the apoptygma and kolpos, but the man’s chiton was -generally short (fig. 59). On two kylikes on the bottom of Case L in the -Fourth Room (Nos. 12.231 and GR1120) women are represented in the linen -chiton (fig. 62). After the Persian Wars, as the result of the strong -reaction against Eastern fashions, men and women both adopted the woolen -Doric chiton again, and for men it remained the universal dress, being -now short and without apoptygma and kolpos. Still, the adoption of the -Doric chiton did not imply a violent change, for working people had worn -it continuously and it was the usual dress for young girls. Old men, -priests, charioteers, and officials on public occasions continued to -wear the long Ionic chiton, and both were in use by ladies at the same -period. It should be added that at this time the two types were often -worn together, the Ionic forming an undergarment with short sleeves, -and the Doric, a sleeveless gown. This costume is frequently seen on -grave-reliefs, but our only example is an engraving of a Maenad on a -bronze mirror in Case C in the Sixth Room. - -[Illustration: FIG. 60. EARLY CHITONS] - -[Illustration: FIG. 61. WOMAN’S DORIC CHITON OF THE V CENTURY] - -[Illustration: FIG. 62. WOMAN IN IONIC CHITON] - -The woman’s Doric chiton of this time may be seen in the statue of -Eirene, No. 15 in the Sculpture Gallery (fig. 61), and it is worn without -a girdle by the young girl on a gravestone (No. 21, fig. 63). Here the -open side shows plainly. A drawing of Zeus on a krater on the bottom -of Case O in the Fourth Room, and a young hunter on a krater on the -left side of the first shelf show the man’s chiton (fig. 67). The Ionic -chiton is illustrated by the statue of a goddess, No. 19 in the Sculpture -Gallery. Metal buttons to represent the sleeve fastenings were inserted -in the marble. - -[Illustration: FIG. 63. DORIC CHITON WITHOUT GIRDLE] - -[Illustration: FIG. 64. LADY IN HIMATION AND HAT] - -[Illustration: FIG. 65. LADY IN HIMATION] - -[Illustration: FIG. 66. MAN IN RIDING-CLOAK AND HAT] - -The usual outer wrap, called himation, was a large oblong, rectangular -piece of woolen cloth, and was practically the same for both sexes. In -the seventh and sixth centuries there were various ways of arranging it; -as a shawl, or as a scarf fastened on one shoulder. The archaic statue of -a woman, No. 2 in the Sculpture Gallery, wears it doubled and fastened -on one shoulder over an Ionic chiton of soft, crinkled linen (fig. 68). -Gradually a simpler and more beautiful arrangement was adopted; the -himation was laid across the back with one corner over the left shoulder, -then folded around the front of the body, passing either over or under -the right arm according to the wearer’s wish, and the end thrown over -the left shoulder, from which it hung down the back, kept in place by a -weight in the corner. On a krater (No. 16.72) on the bottom of Case J -in the Fourth Room, the god Dionysos is wearing the himation arranged -in this way (see tail-piece, p. 67), and the cast of the so-called -Lateran Sophokles (No. 775 in the Gallery of Casts) shows the himation -at its best. Ladies often drew it up over their heads like a veil. The -terracotta statuettes in the Sixth Room illustrate the variety of ways -in which the wrap could be draped (figs. 64, 65). Besides the himation -there were cloaks of more convenient dimensions for riding, hunting, -or traveling. These were variously named but were all unsewn pieces of -cloth, rectangular or curved on one side, and were usually pinned on -one shoulder. A terracotta (No. 06.1118) in Case G in the Sixth Room -represents a traveler in chiton and riding-cloak (fig. 66), and the same -cloak is worn by a warrior on the large amphora on a pedestal in the -Fifth Room (see fig. 103). - -[Illustration: FIG. 67. MAN’S CHITON] - -Head-coverings were worn only by travelers, riders, or working-men. A hat -with a wide brim, called “petasos,” was the usual traveler’s head-gear. -It was made in a variety of shapes, the brim being sometimes broader at -back and front, sometimes at the sides. Another form had a circular brim -which turned up. This may be seen on three terracotta statuettes (Case 2, -and Case G in the Sixth Room). A cap, called “pilos,” was worn by smiths, -sailors, and working-men in general. There is a man wearing a pilos -on a cup on the top shelf of Case S in the Fourth Room, and a warrior -with the same hat will be found on a small hydria on the first shelf of -Case Q in the Fifth Room. Some head-coverings which may be either caps -or small hats with rolled brims, are represented in several terracotta -statuettes of boys in Case G in the Sixth Room. Women wore the petasos -for traveling, and they also used a kind of sun-hat, called “tholia,” -with a pointed crown and broad brim, made of straw and fastened by a -ribbon. Several examples of this stiff and ungraceful hat may be seen on -terracotta statuettes in Case 2, and in Case G in the Sixth Room (see -fig. 64). - -[Illustration: FIG. 68. AKROPOLIS MAIDEN IN IONIC CHITON AND HIMATION] - -Shoes were of two principal types: sandals with straps, and high shoes or -boots for hunting and traveling. The Greeks valued finely made shoes, and -dandies sometimes invented new fashions which were called by their names, -as “Alkibiades shoes.” A terracotta foot from Cyprus wearing a sandal -and another painted black are on the middle shelf of Case 2. On a krater -in Case O in the Fourth Room Hermes wears high laced boots with a tongue -rising above the laces, and a stamnos on the bottom of Case E shows the -hunter Eos in boots. The bronze statuette of the philosopher Hermarchos -in the Seventh Room wears sandals which are worked out in detail (fig. -69), and an idea of the thickness of the soles may be gained from those -worn by the woman on a stele, No. 4 in the Sculpture Gallery. The number -and arrangement of the straps which held the sandal in place were various -and they were sometimes broad enough to form what was practically a shoe. -Boots were at times made with the leg-covering composed of leather bands -resembling modern puttees. Women wore sandals or low shoes. Black was the -usual color for foot-coverings, but gay colors were worn by women and -young men. The warm climate and custom permitted people often to dispense -with shoes in the house, and working-men went barefoot. - -[Illustration: FIG. 69. GREEK SANDAL] - -[Illustration: FIG. 70. GREEK JEWELRY] - -The hair was worn long by men until the fifth century, and the Spartans -and Athenian gentlemen who admired Spartan ways continued the fashion. -It was sometimes allowed to fall on the shoulders in curls or braids, -but was more frequently braided in two plaits and wound around the head, -or made into a sort of roll at the back and fastened by a gold pin. In -the sixth century men wore pointed beards without moustaches, but later -it became customary to shave the entire face, though short beards and -moustaches were worn by older men. A warrior arming, on an amphora on the -bottom of Case 4, has a pointed beard and long hair. His young squire, -who stands behind him, is beardless but his hair is long and curling. -The lyre-player on a large amphora on Pedestal R3 in the Third Room has -long hair in a knot at the back, held in place by a band. A somewhat -similar arrangement is seen in the bronze statuette of Apollo in Case -C2 in the same room. The fashion of plaited hair wound around the head -is illustrated by a terracotta relief of Phrixos on the ram’s back in -Case E in the Fourth Room. In the fifth century short hair was usual -for both young and old men; young men did not wear beards but older men -frequently wore short beards with moustaches. A moustache without a beard -was regarded as the mark of the barbarian. The marble heads of two young -men, Nos. 12 and 14 in the Sculpture Gallery, and the athlete’s head -on Pedestal H in the Sixth Room show the fashion for young men, and a -comparison of the vases and small bronzes in the Third Room with those -in the Fourth Room will make clear the gradual change of style from -elaboration to simplicity. - -[Illustration: FIG. 71. WOMEN’S COIFFURES] - -The styles of women’s hair-dressing can be best understood by looking -at the statues, vases, and terracottas in the collection. A variety of -ornamental kerchiefs was worn, especially a very pretty band called -sphendone, “sling,” from its shape (fig. 71). On the bottom of Case J in -the Fifth Room is a large stamnos decorated with groups of women dressed -in the Ionic and Doric chitons and wearing various kinds of head-dresses. -Many of the terracottas in the Sixth Room and the head of a young -goddess, No. 7 in the Sculpture Gallery, illustrate the “melon” coiffure -which became the mode in the fourth century. - -Fashions in dress were the same in general throughout the Greek world, -although of course there were local peculiarities. In Sparta boys and men -often wore only a small wrap without a chiton, and young men commonly -went barefoot. The women wore the Doric chiton. - -[Illustration: FIG. 72. STRIGIL] - -The jewelry in use included necklaces and bracelets, rings for the -ears and fingers, and pins for the hair and clothes. The Doric chiton -originally required two very large pins, which were inserted with the -points upwards, but they went out of use in the sixth century when the -Ionic chiton came into fashion and were not worn with the later Doric -chiton. The fibula or safety-pin was used throughout the Greek and Roman -world. A group of these pins of various types is exhibited in Case D in -the Second Room. The fibula illustrated in the head-band is in the Gold -Room. Greek jewelry of the fifth and fourth centuries was frequently of -great beauty. Precious stones were used but seldom until the Hellenistic -period, but the excellence of Greek workmanship has rarely been equalled -by other craftsmen. The Greek gentleman permitted himself only a handsome -ring which was useful as a seal, and the artistic value of these engraved -seal rings of gold or of gold set with a semi-precious stone has made -them favorites with collectors for many centuries. The rings and gems in -cases in the rooms of the Classical Wing, and the beautiful jewelry in -the Gold Room are proofs of the skill of Greek workmen and the fine taste -of their patrons (fig. 70). - -[Illustration: FIG. 73. RAZOR] - -[Illustration: FIG. 74. ALABASTRON] - -Roman dress was similar to that of Greece in its principal -characteristics. The clothing of women was the same as that of the Greek -lady of the Hellenistic age represented in the terracotta statuettes. The -Ionic chiton, made usually of wool instead of linen, and called stola, -was worn in the house, but the married woman’s stola had a wide piece -like a flounce sewn on at the bottom. For the street the himation, called -by the Romans palla, was worn over it. The Roman citizen wore a white -woolen tunic like the Greek chiton, but it was usually provided with -short sleeves. Senators, knights, and free-born children had this tunic -ornamented with purple stripes running from each shoulder to the bottom, -both front and back. In the statue of a camillus in the Eighth Room the -stripes were inlaid in silver, of which traces remain. Over this was worn -the toga, corresponding to the Greek himation and arranged in the same -general way. The toga, however, was usually larger than the himation and -was semicircular on the lower edge. For senators, knights, and children -it was ornamented with a broad purple stripe following the straight edge. -Shoes and sandals of various kinds were in use; a special kind of high -shoe called calceus was always worn with the toga, and the tunic, toga, -and calceus formed the regulation dress for citizens in public. The -toga, being a very heavy, cumbersome garment, was not worn for traveling -or active work, and for these purposes there were many small wraps and -longer cloaks of various shapes. - -[Illustration: FIG. 75. ARYBALLOS] - -[Illustration: FIG. 76. GLASS BOTTLE] - -Short hair was universally worn by men in Rome. Under the Republic -women’s hair was simply arranged, but throughout the Imperial period -a variety of styles prevailed at different times, most of which were -conspicuous for their bad taste and so elaborate that the desired effect -was produced by wearing wigs and wire supports. Some of the better styles -may be seen on the portraits in the Sculpture Gallery, and on the heads -of a girl and a woman on pedestals in the Eighth Room. During most of -their history the Romans did not wear beards or moustaches, but under the -Empire fashion fluctuated, following the style favored by the reigning -emperor. After the time of Trajan beards were usual. - -[Illustration: FIG. 77. SILVER PYXIS] - -[Illustration: FIG. 78. TERRACOTTA PYXIS] - -Roman ladies were fond of ornaments and wore a great many of them. Large -sums of money were expended on precious stones and on shoes and other -garments embroidered with pearls. During the Republican period the Roman -wore a gold ring as the badge of his citizenship, but in the Imperial -period, with the increase of luxurious bad taste, dandies sometimes -covered all the joints of their fingers with rings. - -Requisites for the toilet do not differ greatly from one period to -another, since the purposes for which they were intended remain -practically the same; so we find much that seems familiar among those -of the Greeks and Romans. Probably the oldest article in this group is -a razor with a crescent-shaped blade, made in Italy in the early Iron -Age. The shape seems to have been a common one (fig. 73). Tweezers, of -which an example is shown in Case 5, were used for removing superfluous -hair. An article of daily use in ancient times, though we have no modern -utensil to correspond with it, is the strigil or flesh-scraper (Case -5, fig. 72). It was used especially by athletes after exercise, to -remove the dust and sand of the wrestling-ground, so that the strigil, -oil-flask, and sponge became in Greece a kind of symbol for the athlete’s -life, which was, practically speaking, the life of all well-to-do young -men. On a gravestone, No. 7 in the Sculpture Gallery, the dead youth is -represented with a strigil in his hand, while his little slave holds his -towel and oil-flask. Both men and women used strigils in the bath for -scraping off the fuller’s earth or lye powder used as soap. A silver -strigil was included in the tomb furniture of an Etruscan lady which is -exhibited in Case F in the Sixth Room. There is an example in glass of -Roman date in Case 5. - -[Illustration: FIG. 79. SPATULA] - -[Illustration: FIG. 80. DIPPING-ROD] - -It was customary among the Greeks and Romans to rub the body with oil -after the bath. The small jar called aryballos (Case G in the Fifth -Room, fig. 75) and the taller alabastron (Case 2, and Case A in the -Fourth Room, fig. 74) were used for holding oil and perfumes for toilet -use. Some small glass toilet bottles in Case J in the Third Room are so -charming in shape and coloring as to make a modern woman envious (fig. -76). In the Gold Room are two crystal scent bottles from Cyprus, one of -which has a gold stopper. The toilet box or pyxis held ointment, rouge, -face or tooth powders, or small toilet articles or ornaments. These -charming boxes were made of metal, as the silver box in Case F in the -Sixth Room (fig. 77), or of painted terracotta. The latter are often -triumphs of the potter’s and vase painter’s art; for example, the white -pyxis in Case V in the Fourth Room (fig. 78) and the red-figured pyxis in -Case A in the same room, with its interesting drawings of women working -wool (compare fig. 39). Others of a variety of shapes and decoration will -be found in Cases C and G in the Fifth Room. - -[Illustration: FIG. 81. GREEK MIRROR ON A STAND] - -[Illustration: FIG. 82. ETRUSCAN MIRROR] - -[Illustration: FIG. 83. GREEK MIRROR AND COVER] - -The bronze boxes known as cistae are Etruscan. Some of those which have -been found in tombs are very large and are elegantly decorated with -engraved scenes. They seem to have been a kind of dressing-case, for -holding all of a lady’s toilet equipment. A small one was included in the -tomb furniture of an Etruscan woman which is shown in Case F in the Sixth -Room. - -Bronze spatulae were useful in a variety of ways for mixing and applying -the cosmetics which were employed so constantly by Greek and Roman ladies -(fig. 79). An instrument corresponding to our medicine droppers are the -dipping-rods of bronze or glass. They could be inserted into bottles or -jars to take out a small quantity of liquid. A disk about half way up the -rod kept it from slipping into the bottle (fig. 80). Examples of both -utensils will be found in Case 5. - -Ancient mirrors were as inferior to the modern in power to reflect as -they are superior in beauty. Disks of highly polished metal, usually -bronze, were employed for this purpose, for the process of making a -mirror by backing a sheet of glass is not older than the fourteenth -century. Sometimes the mirror consists of a simple disk, plain or -ornamented on one side with an engraving or a design in relief, or again -it is made in one piece with a long handle or with a short tang to be -inserted into a bone or ivory handle, or it is provided with a ring. -The disk is often protected with a cover which bears the principal -decoration. Etruscan mirrors most frequently have handles but no covers, -and are decorated with engraved scenes, usually taken from Greek -mythology (fig. 82). Greek mirrors are of two types: either a simple disk -without a handle, fitting into a cover, usually ornamented with a relief -(fig. 83), or a disk supported on a stand, often in the form of a human -figure (fig. 81). In Case A in the Fourth Room are two fine examples -of the latter, two stands from which the mirrors have been lost, and a -mirror with a cover decorated with a woman’s head in relief. Another -charming stand of Etruscan workmanship is in Case H in the Third Room. -In Case A in the Fifth Room are four very beautiful Greek mirrors of the -fourth century, and in Case C in the Sixth Room are examples of both -Greek and Etruscan types. A pretty terracotta statuette of a lady using -a mirror is in Case G in the same room; she is arranging her hair while -balancing her mirror on her knee. - -[Illustration] - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - -VII - -AMUSEMENTS, MUSIC, AND DANCING - -CASES 1, 3, AND 5 - - -As at the present time, festivities frequently centered around dining. In -Greece, many dinners were given by men to their friends, followed by the -symposium, at which the guests drank wine mixed with water, told jests, -sang, and often watched hired performers, such as jugglers, tumblers, -and dancers. A kylix in Case E in the Fourth Room is decorated with a -scene from a symposium (fig. 84). The special game for this occasion was -“kottabos,” which was played with the aid of a bronze contrivance like -a candelabrum, of which an example stands in the Fifth Room (fig. 85). -The players held their cups by one handle and tried to throw a small -quantity of liquid on the bronze disk at the top of the shaft, so that -it fell down with a ringing sound. The game was also played by throwing -the liquid into nutshells or small saucers floating in a krater full of -water, so as to make them sink. Many games of chance were known to the -Greeks and Romans. Perhaps the most popular were those played with the -knucklebones (astragaloi) of sheep and goats. They could be used like -dice, and also like “jacks,” being thrown up and caught on the back of -the hand. A toilet box on the middle shelf of Case 3 (fig. 87) shows -three women playing, one of whom has an astragal on the back of her hand. -The knob on the cover of the box is appropriately made in the same form. -Nine very small examples of glass are in Case 1 (fig. 86). The invention -of draughts was ascribed to Palamedes, one of the heroes of the Trojan -War, a story which at least proves that they were played in Greece in -very early times. Nuts and coins were also used as counters in various -games, and games of dice were played in various ways. Astragals could be -used as dice, and had the advantage of needing no marks, as the sides -were naturally different. - -[Illustration: FIG. 84. SYMPOSIUM] - -The musical instruments in use were the lyre and kithara and the flute, -with some other less common varieties of stringed instruments. The -kithara, the instrument of professional musicians, had a sounding-board -and hollow arms of wood. The strings extended from the “yoke,” a -cross-piece connecting the arms, to the sounding-board. The kithara -was usually played standing, and was hung by a band to the performer’s -shoulders. He played with both hands, using the plectron or “pick” in his -right. A rather rude terracotta from Cyprus in Case 1 represents a woman -with a kithara, a terracotta statuette of Eros with a kithara is in Case -K in the Seventh Room, and a wall-painting in the Eighth Room represents -a lady playing one (see fig. 21). Kithara players in festal costume at -the public games are represented on three vases in the collection (Case -K in the Third Room and Cases E and Y in the Fourth Room). Another -illustration is on an amphora on the bottom of Case P in the Fifth -Room, where Apollo, the god of music, stands before an altar holding -his favorite instrument (fig. 90). The best representation, however, is -the kithara held by a gold siren who forms the pendant of an earring -exhibited in the Gold Room. The details of construction are fully worked -out and the attachment of the strings can be clearly seen. Those used at -public festivals were often richly ornamented with carving and inlay of -semi-precious stones. - -[Illustration: FIG. 85. KOTTABOS-STAND] - -[Illustration: FIG. 86. GLASS ASTRAGALS] - -[Illustration: FIG. 87. GIRLS PLAYING WITH ASTRAGALS] - -The lyre was the usual instrument of the amateur. Boys learned to play -it at school, and gentlemen were expected to be able to accompany -themselves upon it at symposia. Its sounding-board was made of the shell -of a tortoise covered on one side with wood. The upright pieces, curved -outward and in again toward the top, were sometimes made of the horns -of animals. It had a yoke near the ends of the uprights, and a bridge -on the sounding-board. The strings, of sheep’s guts or sinews, varied -in number from three to eleven at different periods, but seven was the -usual number in the fifth century. The plectron was generally used in -playing both instruments. Several good illustrations of the lyre may be -seen in the Museum collection. A satyr with a lyre decorates an amphora -on the shelf in Case J in the Fourth Room. On the bottom of Case O is an -amphora showing Kephalos with a lyre (fig. 88), and on the shelf above a -boy singing to the lyre will be seen in the interior of a kylix. A man -holding a lyre, probably a guest at a symposium, decorates the inside -of a kylix in Case E. An interesting little bronze figure in Case C 2 -in the Third Room represents a musician in festival dress with the same -instrument. The statuette was probably a votive offering for success in a -contest. - -[Illustration: FIG. 88. YOUTH WITH A LYRE] - -[Illustration: FIG. 89. GIRL DANCING AND PLAYING THE CASTANETS] - -[Illustration: FIG. 90. APOLLO WITH A KITHARA] - -The ancient flute differed from the modern in being played at the end, -and in having a vibrating reed as a mouthpiece. The tone was shrill. -Flutes were always played in pairs, and a kind of bandage was often worn -by the player to support their weight. This can be seen on the psykter -in Case 4 and on a terracotta statuette from Cyprus in Case 1. Flute -music had a very wide use. It accompanied the voice in solo or chorus, -and the kithara at public contests; it was employed in the theatre at -Athens and at Rome, and was used to guide and accompany the exercises -of the palaistra. The flute furnished music for dancers, and in Rome it -was played at funerals. Meals were served and work such as the kneading -of bread in bakeries was done to its music. Flute-cases are often -represented in interior scenes in Greek vase paintings, as on the inside -of a kylix in Case O in the Fourth Room, showing a boy playing the lyre, -and on a lekythos in Case K in that room where a woman is playing the -same instrument. Another instrument was the syrinx or Pan’s pipe, made -of reeds arranged in graduated lengths, fastened together with cords and -wax. It was especially the shepherd’s companion in his long, solitary -days with his flocks. The little faun which forms the pendant of the -bracelet in Case K 2 in the Seventh Room is playing the syrinx. Cymbals -were used principally at religious ceremonies of an orgiastic type. There -are two pairs in the collection, one being marked with the owner’s name, -Kallisthenia (Case 5 and Case C 2 in the Sixth Room). Dancing formed a -part of worship in ancient times. The rude clay groups of men and women -dancing in a ring illustrate a feature of the worship of Aphrodite in -Cyprus (Case 1). In Greece boys were taught the exercises preliminary -to a dancer’s training as a part of their physical education, and the -many public festivals gave opportunity for large numbers to progress -further. Professional dancers, both boys and girls, were employed to -furnish entertainment at symposia. On a kylix on the bottom of Case L -in the Fourth Room is a girl dancing and playing the castanets, while a -young man looks on (fig. 89). Women of good family danced at home for -amusement, and at domestic festivals. The character of Greek dancing was -largely mimetic, the movements of the arms and the use of the drapery -being very important (see tail-piece, p. 75). The terracotta dancers in -Case L in the Seventh Room and another in Case 1 are good illustrations -of this (figs. 91-92). The Romans in early times practised religious -dancing. The processions of the Salii or priests of Mars, and of the -Arval Brothers are the best-known examples of such ritual performances. -Dancing as an amusement, however, they adopted from the Greeks in its -period of decadence, and consequently the sterner moralists opposed it. -Under the early Empire it nevertheless grew very fashionable. Girls and -women of noble family learned to dance as an accomplishment, and even men -of high rank danced, though at the cost of their dignity. Professional -dancers were greatly sought after and admired. - -[Illustration: FIG. 91. WOMAN DANCING] - -[Illustration: FIG. 92. WOMAN DANCING] - -Our representations of pet animals are all on articles of Greek -manufacture. An old gentleman walking with his sharp-nosed Melitean dog -decorates the interior of the kylix by Hegesiboulos in Case K in the -Fourth Room. Cocks and quails were kept for fighting by boys and young -men. Ganymede on an amphora in Case J in the Fifth Room carries his -cock on his arm (see fig. 52). Quails, cranes, small birds, and rabbits -were also household favorites. On the perfume vases in Cases Q and C in -the Fifth Room, quails, cranes, and a rabbit appear among the groups of -women. Cats were probably introduced from the East or from Egypt in the -late sixth or the early fifth century, but they were rare and seemed to -have been looked upon as curiosities rather than as pets. The goose was -perhaps the commonest pet and children are often represented playing with -one. Some small boys with two goats harnessed to a little chariot appear -on the oinochoë in Case Y in the Fourth Room. - -[Illustration] - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - -VIII - -ARMS AND ARMOR - -CASES 3, 4, AND 5 - - -The Greek soldier did not wear a full suit of armor such as that of -the medieval knight; the hoplite or fully armed infantryman wore only -a helmet, a cuirass, and greaves for protecting the shins. Such an -equipment may be seen in the statuette of a warrior of about 500 B.C. of -which the original was found at Dodona (top shelf of Case 3, fig. 93). -The Romans adopted this armor from the Greeks, with minor changes and -variations, but very little Roman armor has come down to our times, since -it was almost entirely of iron and has rusted away in the earth where it -was buried. - -[Illustration: FIG. 93. GREEK FOOT-SOLDIER] [Illustration: FIG. 94. -ITALIC HELMET] - -[Illustration: FIG. 95. ITALIC HELMET WITH METAL CREST] - -[Illustration: FIG. 96. CAP-SHAPED HELMET] - -[Illustration: FIG. 97. “JOCKEY-CAP” HELMET] - -[Illustration: FIG. 98. CORINTHIAN HELMET] - -[Illustration: FIG. 99. ITALIC ARMORED BELT] - -[Illustration: FIG. 100. PAIR OF GREAVES] - -The earliest Greek helmets were of the type called Corinthian because -Athena is represented in this helmet on the coins of Corinth. It formed -a complete covering for the head, having openings only for the eyes and -mouth. A nose-piece extends downward from the top. Holes for attaching a -leather or cloth lining may be seen along the edges of our three oldest -examples in Case H 2 in the Second Room. In the later helmets (Case J -in the Third Room and Case 4, fig. 98), the shape has improved and the -workmanship is finer. These helmets must have been worn over a cap, as -there are no holes for sewing in the lining. One example (No. 1530 in -Case J in the Third Room) has three small loops for attaching the crest, -which was generally made of horsehair. When not in battle the wearer -pushed the helmet back until the front rested on his forehead. - -[Illustration: FIG. 101. ITALIC CUIRASS] - -The Corinthian helmet had the great disadvantage of covering the ears -and its shape probably caused it to be easily displaced. An improved -form known as the Attic appears during the sixth century. This helmet, -of which No. 1535 in Case 4 is an early example, was lighter than the -Corinthian, fitted the head better, and had openings for the ears (see -tail-piece, p. 88). The cheek-pieces were often provided with hinges and -could be turned upwards and away from the face; on the large amphora -on a pedestal in the Fifth Room a young warrior is holding a beautiful -Attic helmet with cheek-pieces which seem to be hinged (see fig. 103). An -example with immovable cheek-pieces in the form of rams’ heads is in Case -C 2 in the Sixth Room. Both the Corinthian and the Attic helmet continued -in use at the same time, but the Attic type gradually superseded the -other. Two helmets (Case 4 and Case C 2 in the Sixth Room) shaped like -the pilos or felt cap worn by workmen show a Greek type of the fifth and -fourth centuries. One of them (No. 1541) has holes for attaching a crest -(fig. 96). The other helmets in the collection are Italic or Etruscan. An -Italian helmet reinforced by bands in relief (No. 1558 in Case N in the -Seventh Room) is of the same type as those in the British Museum which -were found on the battle-field of Cannae (figs. 94, 95, 97). - -[Illustration: FIG. 102. GREEK CUIRASS OF THE V CENTURY] - -[Illustration: FIG. 103. WARRIOR CARRYING A SHIELD] - -The earliest Greek cuirass consisted of two curved bronze plates laced -together at the sides. It reached to the waist and turned up around the -edges so as not to hurt the wearer. The Dodona statuette shows this -cuirass, and an Italic example in Case A in the Second Room belongs to -the same general type, though it is longer and the lower part is slightly -curved out to follow the line of the hips (fig. 101). This heavy and -uncomfortable piece of armor was superseded in Greece in the fifth -century by a cuirass made of leather or cloth upon which bronze scales -were sewn. It was provided with shoulder-straps and a cloth or leather -kilt reinforced with strips of metal hung below the corselet proper. A -warrior on a krater on the bottom of Case S in the Fourth Room shows this -type well (fig. 102). The earlier cuirass continued to be used in Italy, -but in an improved form; the bronze plates, being moulded to follow the -curves of the body, made a more comfortable as well as a beautiful piece -of armor. Two examples, one with the lower part broken away, are in -Case C 2 in the Sixth Room. In some parts of Italy a substitute for the -cuirass was found in the use of a breastplate made of leather on which -bronze disks were sewn. An armored belt accompanied the breastplate. On a -krater from South Italy in Case Q in the Sixth Room is a warrior wearing -such a belt, and an example is shown in Case 4. The small holes along the -edges are for sewing in a lining (fig. 99). - -Greaves were characteristic features of a Greek soldier’s equipment. The -pair of greaves in Case J in the Third Room will show how their shape and -elasticity caused them to stay in place on the leg (fig. 100). The greave -in Case 4 has holes along the edges for sewing in a lining. On the upper -part of a loutrophoros in Case J in the Fourth Room is a warrior wearing -greaves of which the lining can be seen in a ridge around the foot. - -[Illustration: FIG. 104. PERSIAN FIGHTING WITH A MACHAIRA] - -[Illustration: FIG. 105. JAVELIN-HEAD] - -[Illustration: FIG. 106. SPEAR-HEAD] - -[Illustration: FIG. 107. DAGGER-BLADE WITH HOOKED TANG] - -[Illustration: FIG. 108. LEAF-SHAPED DAGGER-BLADE] - -[Illustration: FIG. 109. BRONZE SWORD] - -[Illustration: FIG. 110. ARROW-HEADS] - -Shields were a necessary part of the defensive armor of ancient times, -but remains of them are very scanty. Scenes of arming and of combat, -however, are so frequent in Greek and Roman art that we are acquainted -with their general appearance. Greek shields were usually circular -or oval in shape, and made of wooden frames covered with hides and -reinforced with bronze. The rim and a large boss in the center were -the most essential metal parts, but the entire surface might be covered -with bronze, or plates of various forms arranged upon it. The large -bronze plates in Case 5 and in Case B in the Second Room seem to have -been parts of shields. When using the shield as a defense the warrior -thrust his left arm through the Loops in the inside, one of which was -close to the rim at the left and another usually near the center of the -shield; he held a third, which probably was stouter than the others, in -his hand. The loops on the rim are shown in a painting on the amphora -which stands on the pedestal in the Fifth Room, as well as the strap -extending from side to side by which it was suspended around the wearer’s -neck on the march (fig. 103). The Dodona warrior carries the so-called -Boeotian shield which has depressions in the middle of each side. Various -explanations are given of the origin of this form; a probable one is -that it results from stretching a hide over an oval frame on which the -top and bottom were fastened firmly while the sides were left free and -were naturally drawn in by the pull from both ends. Another possibility -is that the shield was cut out at the sides to provide peep-holes. Roman -shields were rectangular and curved around at the sides to protect the -wearer’s body. Only the boss and the rim were made of metal. The shield -of the Greek soldier bore the device of his state, as the Koppa of -Corinth, which was painted on the shields of her citizen-warriors; and -the Roman soldier carried the sign of his legion in the same fashion. -Interesting devices, frequently animals’ heads, were adopted like coats -of arms by Greek nobles, and many of these can be seen on vases of the -sixth century. An amphora on the bottom of Case 4 shows shields decorated -with the heads of a bull and a boar. - -[Illustration: FIG. 111. AMAZON WITH BATTLE-AXE AND WICKER SHIELD] - -The ancient warrior’s weapons were the dagger, sword, spear, javelin, -bow, and sling. The weapons in the Classical Collection cannot strictly -be called Greek or Roman because they were made at a remote period before -the Greek and Roman states came into existence, but they are interesting -in that they show the types from which later weapons were developed, and -often there is very little difference between the early types and their -descendants. The oldest cutting weapons are the bronze dagger-blades -from Cyprus, and those from Crete in Case D 2 in the First Room. They -were fitted into wooden or bone handles. A Cretan dagger-blade with an -engraved design still holds the three dowels which fastened the haft. The -tangs of the Cypriote blades are prolonged or hooked to prevent the blade -from loosening in its socket (figs. 107-108). Spear-heads also were at -first made to be inserted in the shaft, but later fitted over it. They -have a slit on one side of the socket, probably to give elasticity (figs. -105-106). The bronze butt-spikes were used to fix the spear in the ground -during halts. Examples of these weapons are in Case 4 and the wall-cases -in the corridor. - -The swords in the collection date from the Bronze or early Iron Age and -so are pre-classical. The fine bronze sword (Case 4, No. 1460) belongs -to an early Italian type (fig. 109), and the sword and sheath (No. 1461 -in Case A in the Second Room) is also Italian. An iron sword from Cyprus -(No. 1462 in the corridor) preserves the form of the bronze swords of the -late Mycenaean period, as the early iron-workers at first imitated the -shapes of bronze weapons. The pin in the shape of a sword illustrates the -type in use during the fifth century in Greece (Case 4). The machaira -which Xenophon often mentions had a curved blade and was especially -useful as a cutting weapon for cavalry. A good illustration of this shape -may be seen in a painting on an amphora in Case N in the Fourth Room -representing a Greek and a Persian fighting. The Persian holds a machaira -ready for the down-stroke (fig. 104). Roman swords were broad and flat. -They were designed for thrusting, and were carried by common soldiers and -officers. - -The foot-soldier wearing helmet, cuirass, and greaves, and armed with -sword, spear, and shield, that is, the familiar hoplite and legionary, -formed the most important part of the Greek and Roman armies. Cavalry -and light-armed infantry, however, who used the javelin, the bow, or the -sling, became gradually more prominent as their importance was perceived -in the wars with Eastern peoples and barbarous tribes. The use of the -bow and the sling was taught in the palaistra at Athens, as a practical -training for warfare, but ability in this direction was not rated very -highly. Certain nations were especially skilful with these weapons and -served as mercenaries to other states; both Xenophon and Caesar mention -the Cretan archers, and Caesar speaks of slingers from the Balearic Isles -who served under him in Gaul. The arrow-heads exhibited are Cypriote, -but No. 4786 is Hellenic in type (Case 4, fig. 110). - -Greek artists frequently represented the Amazons of legend in a dress -similar to that of the Persians of their own day, and from such paintings -on vases in the collection we find illustrations of various articles of -dress and of weapons mentioned by Xenophon. On a polychrome lekythos in -Case M in the Fourth Room is an Amazon shooting with a sling. Two spears -are stuck in the ground beside her. An oinochoë in Case K in the Fifth -Room shows three Amazons in their long trousers and tight-fitting sleeves -covered with a pattern. One of them carries a battle-axe and two hold -shields of plaited wicker-work, probably of the same sort as those which -furnished fuel to cook the Greek soldiers’ breakfast on the morning after -the battle of Cunaxa (Anabasis II, 1, 6) (fig. 111). Two large kraters -in the Fourth Room decorated with combats of Greeks and Amazons show -costumes and arms of the same type and a war chariot of the kind used by -the Greeks. - -[Illustration: FIG. 112. LAMP. VICTORY WITH A TROPHY] - -An interesting custom was that of setting up a trophy after a victory; a -tree-trunk to which a cross-piece had been fastened was arrayed in armor -taken from the battle-field, and remained standing there until destroyed -by time or taken by the enemy. A terracotta lamp from Cyprus in Case 5 -is decorated with a symbolic device representing Victory holding a trophy -at an altar between two Lares militares, the protecting deities of the -Roman state (fig. 112). - -[Illustration] - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - -IX - -ATHLETICS - -CASES 3 AND 4 - - -The strength, agility, and symmetry of the body were valued in the -highest degree by the Greeks, and with them physical training occupied a -much larger place than has been the case among other peoples. Athletics -were closely connected with religion, since contests were held as a part -of the funeral and memorial rites of heroes, and likewise of the worship -of the gods. They also had an important practical end; Greek armies were -always levies of citizens, and since there was no considerable length -of time during which the Greek states were at peace before the period -of Roman domination, the safety of the state depended to a great extent -upon the training of its citizens. Gymnastic games and exercises were -continued throughout the greater part of a man’s life, contributing to -good health and physical development no less than to recreation. - -This interest in athletics can be traced back to very early times in -the Boxer Vase from Crete dated in the sixteenth century B.C. (a -reproduction of this vase is in Case J in the First Room) and the scenes -of bull-leaping and the ivory leapers from Knossos (reproductions on the -south wall of the First Room and in Case H 2). The Homeric poems contain -many references to athletics, as the funeral games of Patroklos in the -Twenty-third Book of the Iliad, the games among the Phaeacians in which -Odysseus took part (Odyssey VII), and Odysseus’ encounter with the beggar -(Odyssey XVIII, vv. 15ff.); but at this time sports were unorganized -and no rules had as yet been devised for them. The seventh century was -especially the period of organization during which the great festivals -became fixed in time and in the number and kind of contests, and by 570 -B.C. the four great Panhellenic festivals—the Olympian, the Pythian, the -Isthmian, and the Nemean—were established. - -[Illustration: FIG. 113. JUMPER WITH HALTERES] - -[Illustration: FIG. 114. DISKOS-THROWER] - -There are a large number of vases, especially those of the late sixth and -early fifth centuries, ornamented with scenes from the wrestling-schools -and gymnasia. The place is indicated by the objects hung on the walls, -such as jumping-weights, a diskos, or an oil-flask and a strigil for -removing sand and oil. The trainer is usually present, represented -as a mature man, wearing a himation and carrying a forked rod. The -flute-player in a long, spotted robe often accompanies the exercises or -plays for the jumper. - -[Illustration: FIG. 115. ATHLETE THROWING A JAVELIN] - -[Illustration: FIG. 116. WRESTLERS] - -The principal athletic contests were foot-races of various distances, -including the torch-race, which corresponded to the modern relay race, -broad jumping, throwing the diskos and the javelin, wrestling, and -boxing. There were also the pentathlon (five contests), which consisted -of the jump, the foot-race, throwing the diskos and the javelin, and -wrestling; and the pankration, a combination of wrestling and boxing. - -[Illustration: FIG. 117. SCENE FROM THE PANKRATION] - -For jumping, weights called halteres were used; on the black-figured -lekythos on the middle shelf of Case 4 decorated with a scene of -athletes practising, two of the number hold halteres, the drawing being -sufficiently detailed to show the shape well. On the psykter and a vase -fragment on the same shelf are jumpers at the take-off (fig. 113), and a -boy preparing for a jump decorates the interior of a kylix on the lower -shelf in Case P in the Fifth Room. - -A foot-race is represented on one of the Panathenaic amphorai in the -Third Room (Case N), and the cast of a bronze statuette in Tübingen shows -a contestant in the race for hoplites (heavy-armed foot-soldiers), at the -starting-line (top shelf of Case 3). The shield which he carried on his -left arm has been broken away. - -Throwing the diskos was one of the oldest Greek sports. The object -was to throw it as far as possible, as in putting the shot. So many -representations of this sport have come down to us in statues, vase -paintings, coins, and gems, that it is possible to work out the -successive movements of the throw. The principle seems to have been -always the same, though individuals were allowed certain differences in -style. A bronze statuette in Case B in the Fourth Room (fig. 114) shows -one stance; the athlete is about to swing the diskos down from the left -to the right hand. The position preliminary to the swing downwards to the -side, the athlete now holding the diskos in both hands, may be seen on -the lekythos in Case 4; and one of the figures on the psykter is in the -same position. The well-known statue by Myron, of which a cast stands in -Gallery 22, shows the position just preliminary to the throw, an instant -before the diskos leaves the hand. - -[Illustration: FIG. 118. PANATHENAIC AMPHORA] - -The art of fighting in heavy armor, hoplomachy, was taught to Greek -boys by a special master as part of their athletic training. A most -interesting scene of this kind decorates the shoulder of a hydria of the -late sixth or early fifth century where two men armed with helmet and -shield are fencing with spears to the music of a flute-player (Case Y in -the Fourth Room). Plato alludes more than once to the attention given to -this branch of physical training in his day, and the prestige enjoyed by -teachers of the art. - -[Illustration: FIG. 119. YOUTH BINDING ON A FILLET] - -Throwing the javelin also had a practical value as preparation for -warfare and was one of the commonest sports of the palaistra. In the -pentathlon it was thrown for distance only, but there were competitions -in throwing at a target at the Panathenaea and, no doubt, on other -occasions. A thong, fastened near the center of gravity, and twisted -around the hardwood shaft, acted like the rifling of a gun in insuring -greater accuracy. One of the figures on the black-figured lekythos is -preparing to throw a javelin, and the artist has represented the thong -in such a way that the method of using it can easily be understood. The -thrower holds the shaft in his hand with the first and second fingers -inserted into loops in the end of the thong. As he throws, the thong -unwinds, giving the missile a whirling motion (fig. 115). - -The use of the bow and the sling, as has been said in the section on -Armor, was also taught in the palaistra at Athens. - -The pankration, a combination of wrestling and boxing, was one of the -most popular Greek sports. In it ground-wrestling and hitting were -allowed. Two scenes from the pankration are represented on a skyphos in -Case 4. On one side the winner has thrown his opponent backward and is -about to strike him, while the other holds up his hand, probably as a -signal of defeat (fig. 116). On the other side the combatants have their -hands covered with the thongs which served as boxing-gloves. The man on -the ground has thrown the other by a neck-hold (see head-band, p. 89). -There are two boxers in the group of athletes on a krater on the top -shelf of Case Q in the Fifth Room, and a boxing scene is represented on -one of the Panathenaic amphorai. - -The value of the prizes given for athletic skill varied greatly, from the -wreath of olive at Olympia and the parsley leaves of Nemea to articles of -considerable value and, in a few cases, even money. At the Panathenaea -the prizes were jars of oil in greater or less numbers, and the painted -vases known as Panathenaic amphorai. Probably only one of these was given -to a victor. They bear on one side a picture of the contest in which the -vase was won, and on the other, the figure of Athena with an inscription, -“From the games at Athens” (fig. 118). When the prize took the form of a -wreath, the victor first bound a fillet or band of wool around his head -and upon this the official in charge of the games placed the wreath. The -act of tying the fillet was often represented by Greek sculptors; the -most famous example is, of course, the Polykleitan statue known as the -Diadoumenos, of which a cast stands in Gallery 22. The beautiful bronze -statuette in Case D in the Sixth Room has the same motive (fig. 119), -and on the psykter in Case 4 a boy who holds in his hands the palms -signifying victory is being crowned by an official. - -[Illustration] - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - -X - -RACES AND RIDING - -CASE 5 - - -In the Homeric period cavalry was not employed in battle, but princes -and nobles drove about the field in chariots from which they descended -to fight. The bodies of these chariots were just large enough for the -warrior and his driver to stand side by side, since lightness and -quickness of movement were essential. The chariot in the Third Room -(fig. 120) is of the type in use among the Etruscans; the Greek type in -the earliest pictures which we have is more open and slightly different -in shape. An excellent representation of the Greek chariot may be seen -on a large amphora on Pedestal R 3 in the same room, and this drawing -also shows the light harness in use and the method of arranging it. -War-chariots were used on occasion for racing, as at the funeral games of -Patroklos in the Twenty-third Book of the Iliad; and at a later period, -when nobles no longer rode to battle and armies of citizens were the -rule in Greece, the chariot remained as a racing vehicle. The principal -feature of the Olympic games from the year 680 B.C. was the chariot race -for four horses, and a victory in this event brought much-coveted renown -to the owner of the horses and his city. The Greeks of Italy and Sicily -were devoted to this sport, their interest being reflected in their coin -types, of which the finest are the Syracusan (fig. 121). Some examples -will be found in the Ward Collection in the Gold Room. - -[Illustration: FIG. 120. BRONZE CHARIOT] - -[Illustration: FIG. 121. RACING CARS ON SYRACUSAN COINS] - -[Illustration: FIG. 122. LAMP. SCENE FROM THE CIRCUS] - -A very beautiful bronze statue found at Delphi, no doubt a dedication -after a victory, represents a young charioteer in the long white chiton -which was his traditional dress (Cast No. 462 in Gallery 22), and a -fragment of a relief from the Mausoleum (Cast No. 741 on the east wall -of Gallery 25) shows another with flying hair and garment as he strains -forward toward the goal. One of the Panathenaic amphorai in the Third -Room was a prize in a chariot race at Athens, as we know from the drawing -on one side (fig. 123). Another event in the games at Athens was a race -for two horses harnessed to a little cart in which the driver sat, but -this contest was never so important as the race for four horses. At other -games the chariot was the vehicle used for two horses as well as for -four. These sports were naturally very costly, and under the Roman rule -they gradually died out in Greece as races in the circus in Rome and -other Italian cities took their place. Chariot races were the earliest -of the free shows at Rome and were always the most popular, the great -attraction of the circus being not the speed of the race, but its danger. -Some clay lamps from Cyprus are decorated with reliefs of chariots and -horses, showing how the passion for racing spread over the Roman world -(Case 5, fig. 122). - -[Illustration: FIG. 123. PANATHENAIC AMPHORA CHARIOT RACE] - -[Illustration: FIG. 124. BIT USED IN TRAINING HORSES] - -[Illustration: FIG. 125. HORSE’S MUZZLE] - -Riding was the usual mode of travel in Greece, as it is still in many -parts of that mountainous country; and, while carts and carriages of -various kinds gradually came into service among the Romans, in Italy, -too, the horse was the commonest means of travel. But although the -Greeks and Romans were good horsemen, they were probably not the equals -of the best modern riders, owing to the fact that they had no saddles and -no stirrups. As a result of the absence of stirrups, able-bodied persons -mounted with the help of a spear or staff, while old men were handed up -by slaves. Women rode only upon a pillion, and probably not very often -in that way. The custom of nailing metal shoes upon the hoofs of horses -was not known, but shoes made of metal, leather, or rushes were adjusted -before passing over a specially bad road, and could later be removed -when no longer needed. Two bits are shown on the bottom of Case 4. One -is quite simple, consisting of two bars joined by a double link, which -probably belongs to the sixth century, though no doubt this type was in -use for a long period (fig. 127); the other, probably of the fifth or -fourth century, is very severe. Xenophon in his treatise on Horsemanship -(X, 6) describes this variety and explains its use in training horses -(fig. 124). Branding was practised even for valuable animals. On a small -amphora in Case C in the Fifth Room decorated with a picture of the -Sun in his chariot, one of the horses is branded with a sun surrounded -by rays. It was customary to muzzle horses when they were taken out -for exercise or for some other purpose without a bridle. Probably the -muzzles were usually made of leather, but bronze was employed on special -occasions or by the wealthy. Two bronze muzzles, one of a simple, the -other of a more elaborate form, are exhibited (Case 4, fig. 125). - -[Illustration: FIG. 126. YOUNG HORSEMAN] - -[Illustration: FIG. 127. BRONZE BIT] - -Greek boys received lessons in riding in the course of their athletic -training, which was, of course, a preliminary military training as well. -In Attica a troop of ephebes, young men in military service, patrolled -the borders as a mounted guard. The decoration on a krater in Case P in -the Fifth Room and a relief in Case A in the Sixth Room represent members -of this troop in their short cloaks fastened on the shoulder and their -broad-brimmed hats. The fine relief, No. 13 in the Sculpture Gallery, -also represents an ephebe (fig. 126) or one of the Diaskouri in this -guise. Hunting deer and boars from horseback was a favorite sport which -required skill in the rider, and riding-races of various types were a -feature of the games. One of the Panathenaic amphorai was a prize for a -horse-race at Athens, as the decoration shows. - -The bronze statuette of a horse at the head of the main staircase allows -us to see the type of animal bred in Greece, and is at the same time a -work of the greatest spirit and delicacy. - -[Illustration] - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - -XI - -GLADIATORS - -CASES 3 AND 5 - - -Combats of gladiators formed part of the funeral rites of the Etruscans, -and in Campania they were offered as entertainment to guests at feasts. -The Romans adopted the custom from their neighbors, the first public show -of gladiators taking place in 264 B.C. For six centuries they continued -to be a favorite amusement in Italy and the provinces, until Honorius -made them illegal in 404 A.D. The great popularity of the sport is proved -by the frequency with which it was represented on articles of common use, -such as vases, dishes, lamps, seal-rings, and in sculpture, mosaic, and -painting for the decoration of walls. - -In early times the combatants were prisoners of war who fought with -their own arms and equipment for the entertainment of their conquerors, -and later, when men were recruited in other ways, the arms of the early -enemies of Rome were in a great measure retained as belonging especially -to this sport. Gladiators received a careful training in schools kept -for the purpose. They were divided into several classes, according to -their weapons and manner of fighting, and were called by the name of the -peoples whose arms they had adopted. They usually fought in pairs, each -from a different class, though occasionally a number engaged in a mêlée. -The most important class was the Samnites, who wore a helmet, one greave, -a guard on the right arm, and fought with sword and shield. The lamps -from Cyprus in Case 5, Nos. 2639, 2642, 2643, are decorated with figures -of Samnites in relief (fig. 128). The Thracian was distinguished by a -dagger which was curved or bent at right angles. He wore two greaves with -leather coverings for the thighs, and an arm-guard, and carried a little -shield (lamp No. 2636, fig. 129). The hoplomachus seems to have been a -variety of Samnite who had a large shield, and was generally paired with -the Thracian (lamp No. 2637, see tail-piece, p. 108). Another class not -illustrated was the retiarius (net-thrower), equipped with a dagger, a -trident, and a large net in which he tried to envelop his adversary, the -secutor (follower), who was armed like a Samnite. - -[Illustration: FIG. 128. SAMNITE GLADIATOR] - -[Illustration: FIG. 129. THRACIAN GLADIATOR] - -A combat between a Samnite and a Thracian decorates one of the lamps (No. -2641). Another (No. 2647) shows a wounded Samnite on one knee. On a third -(No. 2644) a Thracian has brought his opponent to the ground, and by -holding up his thumb, seems to signify that he will spare him, or perhaps -asks permission of the spectators to do so. A fourth lamp (No. 2651) is -decorated with two swords and two pairs of greaves. Four gladiatorial -combats appear in relief upon a glass cup, made in Gaul in the second -century A.D., which is on the top shelf of Case 3 (see head-band, p. -106). The names of the combatants are placed over their heads, so we may -suppose that they represent actual gladiators who were famous in their -day. Gamus, a Samnite, stands over Merops, who is lying on the ground and -holding up his thumb to ask mercy from the spectators. Next come Calamus, -a Samnite, paired with Hermes, a Thracian, then another pair of Samnite -and Thracian, Tetraites and Prudes. The latter has lost his little -shield. In the fourth combat Spiculus is victorious over Columbus. - -[Illustration] - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - -XII - -TRADES AND CRAFTS - -CASES 1, 3, AND 5 - - -In this division is assembled a series of miscellaneous objects -illustrating trades and crafts, political life, agriculture, and other -occupations. - -The processes of agriculture and craftsmanship in Greece and Italy were -much like those of Europe and America a century ago, before mechanical -devices became common. Cultivation of grains, the olive, and the grape -has been practised in Aegean lands from prehistoric times. A bronze -farmyard group in Case 3 shows the animals and utensils most necessary -to a farmer, and though Roman, will serve as an illustration of Greek -life as well. The animals include two bulls, two cows, a pig and a sow, -a ram and a ewe (fig. 130). There are also two double yokes, a cart, and -a plough. The plough-tail has been lost, but a hole shows the place of -attachment. The remainder is in one piece, though the joints of the rude -wooden original are carefully represented, the pole which is fastened to -the yoke being attached to the share-beam by pegs and the share-beam -to the share by thongs or ropes. This primitive wooden plough is still -used in Greece today (fig. 131). The cart is merely a platform with a -front-board and tail-board, mounted on solid wheels. A terracotta cart -from Cyprus, though of the early Iron Age, is much like the Roman cart -(fig. 132). A small bronze sickle with indented edge from Cyprus belongs -to a type common in Minoan Crete (Case 5). The bronze shepherd’s crooks -in the same case recall the important place held by the care of sheep and -goats in ancient country life. A stone model of a sheep-fold in Case 40 -in the Cesnola Collection, containing sheep and a drinking-trough, was -intended as a votive offering, probably for increase of flocks. - -[Illustration: FIG. 130. BRONZE FARMYARD GROUP] - -[Illustration: FIG. 131. GREEK FARMER PLOUGHING] - -The cultivation of the vine and wine-making for domestic use were a -part of the yearly routine on the farms of Greece and Italy, while the -finer kinds of wine were a valuable article of commerce. The only object -in the collection which illustrates wine-making is an Arretine bowl in -Case G2 in the Eighth Room, decorated with figures of satyrs gathering -and treading grapes. The process of getting rural produce to market is -represented by two terracotta figures of donkeys with panniers whose -counterparts can be seen in Greece at the present day (figs. 133-134). -The conformation of Greece and Italy, and the numerous islands of the -Mediterranean compelled the inhabitants to accustom themselves to -seafaring from the earliest times. A vase painting and some clay boats -from Cyprus are valuable illustrations of the type of ship in use in -the sixth century. A black-figured krater of that date in Case 1 has -three long boats or war vessels painted inside the mouth. These vessels -were propelled by oars, as the method of fighting made speed essential -to them, though a sail was used when the wind was favorable. Two of the -ships have eleven oars on a side, and the third has nine. The steersman -sits in the stern with one or two steering paddles. The forecastle is -surmounted by a high stem-post, and between the stern and the forecastle -runs a railing or bulwark. The bow projects in the form of an animal’s -head, probably a fish or a boar, and a large eye is painted just above -the water-line. The edge of the krater has been injured so that the -sail has disappeared, but the single mast can be seen, as well as the -sheets and halyards. A ship of this kind regularly has a square sail and -halyards, brailing-ropes, braces, and sheets. Above the stern projects an -ornament rather like the tail of a bird. It was this that was taken by -the enemy as a trophy (fig. 138). The clay boats from Cyprus in the same -case are of a type frequently found in sixth-century graves in Amathus. -Two of them represent merchant vessels, as is shown by their breadth and -deep hulls. The largest has strakes along the water-line which held the -“under-girding” of ropes used to prevent the planks from springing in -stormy weather, and large cat-heads at the bows to receive the anchor. -The helmsman sits in the stern with his two steering-oars. Of the two -other boats the smallest is a row-boat, and the other has a deck and a -small deck-house (fig. 139). - -[Illustration: FIG. 132. TERRACOTTA MODEL OF A CART] - -[Illustration: FIG. 133. TERRACOTTA FROM CYPRUS. DONKEY WITH PANNIERS] - -A rude relief on a stone slab from Cyprus (Case 1) is a votive offering -for rescue from an accident in quarrying or mining. Above is Apollo -seated before an altar. Below, a man is hastening to help another who -is standing in front of a large mass of rock or earth. Between them a -pickaxe lies on the ground. Probably the relief represents a dangerous -fall of rock or earth. The inscription runs: “Diithemis dedicated it to -the god Apollo, in good fortune.” - -[Illustration: FIG. 134. DONKEYS CARRYING JARS IN PANNIERS, 1922] - -Very few wooden objects have survived from ancient times, but examples -of the tools used in making them and of metal fittings remain. The -axe-blades from Cyprus in Case 5 and in wall-cases in the corridor are -of almost pure copper. These blades were inserted in a haft or lashed to -a handle. In Case B in the First Room are four double axes from Crete -of the second millennium B.C., and in Case A in the Fifth Room another -of much later date. Handles were inserted between the two blades, as in -the modern hammer. The chisels, awl, nails, and hinges in Case 5 are -Cypriote. In Case B in the First Room are chisels and an awl, and in Case -D 2 several knives, from Crete. They are especially interesting in that -they are well preserved and of excellent workmanship. - -The keys exhibited in Case 5 (figs. 135 and 137) are of three types. The -earlier one is shown with the bolt to which it belongs. The key when -inserted into the bolt pushed upward with its teeth a series of pegs -which fitted into holes in the bolt and took their place. It could then -be used as a handle to pull the bolt backward. The second consists of a -plate provided with notches which lifted a series of tumblers and allowed -the bolt to be shot. The third key belongs to the type in use today, and -as such keys have been found in Pompeii, they must have been known before -79 A.D. The lock-plate is perhaps from a strong-box (fig. 136). - -[Illustration: FIG. 135. KEY EARLY TYPE] - -[Illustration: FIG. 136. LOCK-PLATE] - -[Illustration: FIG. 137. KEY LATER TYPE] - -Only the balance seems to have been known to the Greeks, but the Romans -made use of the steelyard also. The example shown in Case 1 does not -differ from those of modern times. The hooks and chains at the end of -the rod were used for suspending the articles to be weighed. Three other -hooks, of which two are preserved on movable rings, were for hanging the -steelyard. Each is attached to a different side. When the steelyard was -hung by the hook nearest to the graduated bar, articles up to twelve -pounds could be weighed by sliding the weights along the bar. The second -side of the bar weighs articles of from five pounds to twenty-two; the -third, articles of from twenty to fifty-eight pounds. The large weight is -made of lead covered with bronze, and weighs two pounds, while the small -weight is entirely of bronze and weighs one ounce (see head-band, p. 109.) - -[Illustration: FIG. 138. WAR-VESSELS. VASE PAINTING] - -[Illustration: FIG. 139. TERRACOTTA BOAT] - -There are a number of objects illustrating various industrial processes -in the collection. A fragment of a pottery cup of the red-figured -technique shows the stage at which the figure is outlined with a -broad band of black paint, in order to make a red silhouette, but the -background has not yet been filled in with black (fig. 141). Several -moulds for making terracotta reliefs are shown with modern impressions -made from them; they represent the lower part of a young man’s figure -(Case A in the Fifth Room, fig. 142), a grotesque of a man, a Medusa -head, and a number of symbols, perhaps for stamping sacred cakes. Another -mould, unfortunately fragmentary, is a chimaera or a goat, a fine and -spirited figure (Case B in the Seventh Room). In Cases C and G2 in the -Eighth Room are examples of Arretine ware, the most beautiful pottery -of ancient Italy. There are also ancient moulds with modern bowls made -from them. Several of the moulds are signed by the makers and by the -owner of the workshop. A small stone mould for casting gold ornaments -of the Late Minoan period is in Case B in the First Room. It has two -dies representing animals, one a bull and the other probably an ibex. -The gold-beater’s block in Case 5 was used for making small ornaments -when many of the same kind were needed. A thin sheet of metal was laid -on the die, covered with wax or lead, and then beaten into the die with -a hammer. There are twenty-two dies on this block belonging in style -to the Roman period. Some gold ornaments used for borders among the -Roman jewelry in the Gold Room were probably made in this way, but such -mechanical devices do not seem to have been employed in making Greek -jewelry of the best period (fig. 140). - -[Illustration: FIG. 140. GOLD-BEATER’S BLOCK] - -[Illustration: FIG. 141. UNFINISHED POTTERY CUP] - -[Illustration: FIG. 142. ANCIENT MOULD AND MODERN RELIEF] - -The earliest traders of the Mediterranean lands practised barter, and -in the Homeric poems we find cattle and bronze utensils frequently -mentioned as standards of value. In the later part of the eighth century -or the early part of the seventh, coinage originated in Asia Minor, the -earliest coins being merely rough lumps of metal with striations on the -reverse made by the roughened surface of a punch. In the process of -manufacture a flat blank of metal was placed red hot on a die, a punch -was then held upon the reverse of the blank, and struck with a hammer. -As no “collar” was employed, the metal of course spread at the edges, -making the coin only roughly circular. With the advance of art the coin -types received the attention of the best artists and craftsmen, and in -consequence the value of Greek coins, both as original works of art and -as historical documents, cannot be exaggerated. Roman coins, while not -often beautiful, are an important source of information relative to -political and economic conditions. These facts may be noted with regard -to the practical side of ancient coinage; Greek coins are not dated, they -will not stack, and marks of value are more often absent than present. -The earlier Roman coins resembled the Greek in these features, but, -later, marks of value were added and the date indicated. - -[Illustration: FIG. 143. DIKAST’S TICKET] - -A number of small bronze instruments in Case 5 may have been part of a -physician’s or pharmacist’s case. They include several probes, one being -double (fig. 144), spatulae (fig. 145), spoon-probes, and two scalpels or -bistouries. The spatulae were used for preparing and spreading ointments, -and also by painters in mixing colors. - -The dikast’s ticket gives us a glimpse of Greek city life. It is the -ticket of a juryman, Epikrates, entitling him to sit in the ninth court -at Athens, of which there were ten in all, and to draw three obols a day, -about ten cents, a “living wage,” however (fig. 143). - -The statuette of a negro boy in Case C in the Seventh Room is a reminder -of the important part taken by slave labor in ancient times. This was -much greater among the Romans than in Greece. Slaves were sometimes -captives taken in war, or their descendants, but were more frequently -acquired through trade. Their condition was much better in Greece than in -Rome. On the grave stele of a young man in the Sculpture Gallery (No. 7) -a little slave stands beside his master. - -[Illustration: FIG. 144. FORKED PROBE] - -[Illustration: FIG. 145. SPATULAE] - -These are, of course, domestic or personal servants, but slaves formed a -large part of the laboring class in Greece, and the proportion was still -greater in Rome in the later Republican period and under the Empire. They -worked on the farms, in the factories, and, most dangerous occupation of -all, in the mines and quarries, as well as in the workshops of skilled -artisans and as clerks and copyists in private and public offices. - -There are many proofs of the existence of an extended and active commerce -in the Mediterranean world, but none is more convincing than to note -the far-distant places in which Athenian pottery has been found. The -cities and tombs of Italy have furnished many of the most beautiful -specimens, but vases have been found in Asia Minor, Egypt, the islands of -the Aegean, and the Crimea. A specimen of ancient advertising appears on -three glass cups signed by the maker Ennion, a Sidonian (Case H in the -Eighth Room). One was found in Cyprus, a second near Venice, and a third -near Nazareth. Each bears the maker’s signature and the words, “Let the -buyer remember.” - -[Illustration] - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - -XIII - -BURIAL-CUSTOMS - - -GREECE. The inhabitants of Mycenae and other prehistoric sites did not -burn their dead, so far as we know, but buried them with the belongings -which they had used and valued in life. Members of rich or princely -families were often decked with gold ornaments and diadems, and the face -covered with a gold mask moulded to resemble the features. Reproductions -of some of the objects found in graves at Mycenae are in Case T in the -First Room, and in the center of the same room is a reproduction of a -stone sarcophagus from Hagia Triada in Crete, decorated with painted -scenes representing a funerary sacrifice. - -The people of the Homeric poems burned their dead and buried the ashes -beneath a mound. Both ways of disposing of the body continued in common -use in Greece, the choice resting with the family of the deceased. -Cremation was more costly than burial, and so was practised less -frequently by the poorer classes. At all periods both Greeks and Romans -attached great importance to the proper performance of funeral rites, as -they were believed to affect the happiness of the soul in the world of -the dead. - -[Illustration: FIG. 146. MOURNERS AT A BIER. TERRACOTTA RELIEF] - -[Illustration: FIG. 147. POET ON HIS BIER (?) TERRACOTTA PLATE] - -The body was prepared for burial by the women of the family, who anointed -it with oil and perfumes, and clothed it in the dress of common life, -usually of white. A wreath of flowers, or of laurel, olive, or ivy was -placed on the head, or in its stead a wreath of gold leaves. Before the -funeral the dead was laid on a couch in the central hall of the house, -with his feet toward the house door. His relatives and friends came to -pay their last respects, and the funeral dirge was sung. An interesting -terracotta relief from Attica on the north wall of the Second Room -represents such an occasion. The women standing by the bier are tearing -their hair as they raise their voices in the lament (fig. 146). The same -scene is frequent on certain kinds of Greek pottery, notably the great -Dipylon vases of the eighth century B.C., which were used as grave -monuments. There are two Dipylon vases in the Second Room in Cases G and -L (fig. 148). On the upper band of each is a scene showing a dead man on -a bier surrounded by his family (see head-band, p. 121). An interesting -plate in Case K in the same room is decorated with a scene which seems to -represent a poet on a funeral couch with a wreath about his head and his -lyre hanging on the wall above (fig. 147). - -[Illustration: FIG. 148. DIPYLON VASE] - -[Illustration: FIG. 149. ATHENIAN TOMB LEKYTHOI] - -The greatest number of funeral scenes are found on the white Athenian -lekythoi of the fifth century and later, which were made to be placed -about the bier, in the tomb, or around the monument. One of those in Case -L in the Fifth Room is painted in colors with a scene of mourners beside -a funeral couch, treated in a later style. Other typical scenes are the -farewell of the dead to his family as if for a long journey, and the care -of the tomb by surviving relatives. Most of the vases in Cases L and -F in the Fifth Room are decorated with variations of these two themes -(fig. 149). Early in the morning of the second or third day after death -the body was carried on the couch out of the city gates for burial or -cremation. The funeral procession is represented on the lower bands of -the Dipylon vases, or it may be that the horses and chariots are intended -to suggest the funeral games, which were celebrated in early times after -the death of a man of rank. - -[Illustration: FIG. 150. MARBLE LEKYTHOS] - -[Illustration: FIG. 151. ETRUSCAN FOCOLARE] - -The loutrophoros is a vase associated especially with the funeral -procession. These long-necked jars were used in the marriage ceremonies -to bring water for the ceremonial bath of the bridegroom and the bride; -and in the case of the death of a betrothed person, a loutrophoros was -carried in the funeral procession and set up on the grave. One of these -vases will be found in Case R in the Third Room. If the body was disposed -of by cremation the ashes were placed in a jar, usually of stone or -pottery. In Cases P, R, and T in the Seventh Room are a number of pottery -jars which were used to hold the ashes of Greeks who died at Alexandria. -Some of them are marked with the name of the deceased and the position -of the jar in the cemetery. It was usual to erect tombs along the roads -leading from the city gates, the sculptured tablets bordering the highway -on either side, interspersed with trees, and sometimes accompanied by -stone seats erected by families for the use of those members who came to -tend the graves. Greek grave monuments are frequently very beautiful, -and are characterized by fine taste and restraint in the expression of -feeling, as well as by the absence of painful or shocking suggestion. -There are a number of examples in the Sculpture Gallery. The marble -lekythos is an example of a common type of monument (fig. 150). Another -form is the lofty tablet with painted or sculptured akroterion (see -tail-piece, p. 131), such as Nos. 6 and 5A in the Sculpture Gallery -and the stele in the Third Room. Examples of tablets with sculptured -figures are Nos. 4, 7, 10, 30, and 59 in the Sculpture Gallery and the -stele of a young man in the Sixth Room. On these monuments the dead -is represented alone in a quiet pose, with some article or utensil -suggesting his favorite occupation or manner of life; or as taking leave -of his family (fig. 152). In Rooms 21, 22, and 23 in the Gallery of -Casts are reproductions of some of the most beautiful and best known of -the Greek grave stelai. Several painted stones from the cemetery near -Alexandria will be found in two cases in the Vestibule. The Cesnola -Collection contains a number of Cypriote grave monuments inscribed with -Greek formulas of farewell. These are in Cases 6 to 12, 14, and 15 in the -corridor. - -[Illustration: FIG. 152. MONUMENT OF SOSTRATE] - -[Illustration: FIG. 153. ETRUSCAN URN FOR ASHES] - -The custom, followed by the inhabitants of Greece and Italy for many -centuries, of placing in tombs articles used in daily life, has preserved -large numbers of objects which would otherwise have perished. The dead -was surrounded by the belongings he had valued; the warrior had his arms, -the woman her ornaments, mirror, and toilet boxes, and the child his -toys. An idea of the prevalence of the custom may be formed by looking -through the collection with this fact in mind. The greater part of the -Greek pottery now in existence was found in tombs, not only in Greece -but in Italy and in many other parts of the Mediterranean world. The -bronze chariot and the utensils in Case S in the Third Room were the tomb -furniture of an Etruscan noble. The beautiful bronze table service in -Case E in the same room, and the table service of black-glazed pottery -in Case G in the Seventh Room were also found in tombs. In Case F in -the Sixth Room are the toilet articles and utensils buried in the grave -of an Etruscan lady, the terracotta figurines in the Sixth and Seventh -Rooms were made to be placed in graves, and many separate objects in the -collection have been preserved in the same manner. - -ITALY. The earliest inhabitants of Italy did not practise cremation, -but this custom was introduced in prehistoric times, both cremation and -burial continuing in use contemporaneously. - -[Illustration: FIG. 154. ETRUSCAN URN] - -[Illustration: FIG. 155. ETRUSCAN URN] - -The Etruscans placed the ashes of the dead in jars with smaller vases -and ornaments and buried them in pits; or for the wealthy, tomb-chambers -were built and arranged to resemble rooms in the houses of the living, -the cinerary urns being set in niches, or the bodies being laid out on -biers. Their urns in the earlier periods were frequently made in a very -rude imitation of a human being with portrait head, and were often placed -in terracotta chairs. Two examples are in Case N in the Second Room (fig. -153). Curious trays of dishes, probably used for offerings to the dead -and known as “focolari,” are not uncommonly found in tombs. Examples -are in Cases R and Q in the Second Room (fig. 151). In later times -rectangular stone boxes, sculptured or painted, with a reclining figure -of the deceased on the cover, were used. There are several of these urns -in the Seventh Room, in Cases N and P and on Pedestals E and U (figs. -154-155). - -[Illustration: FIG. 156. ROMAN GRAVE MONUMENT] - -The Romans burned their dead, with some exceptions. A few of the ancient -families, notably the Cornelii, kept to the older fashion of burial, and -it was customary even when a body was cremated to take one small portion -of bone, called the “os resectum” from the ashes and bury it. The very -poor, slaves, and outcasts were buried in graves made to hold a number of -bodies, often with little care or respect. Roman funeral customs, so far -as we know them, were very similar to those of Greece. Glass urns were in -common use in the western part of the Roman world from the first to the -third century A.D. One still contains fragments of bone and ashes. Under -the Empire the custom of burial became frequent among the well-to-do, -as is evidenced by the large and costly stone sarcophagi of the period. -There are two Roman sarcophagi, Nos. 36 and 46 in the Sculpture Gallery, -and a large one from Tarsus in the Vestibule. The relief on the south -wall of the Sculpture Gallery representing the death of Meleager (No. -38A) once decorated a sarcophagus. These sculptured scenes are rarely -connected with death, but are usually mythical or fanciful. A grave -monument on the west wall of the Eighth Room, representing a young -man and his wife, is interesting in that this form of portrait relief -within a box-like frame is thought to have been derived from the wax -death-masks, “imagines,” enclosed in boxes, which adorned the hall of the -Roman noble (fig. 156). In the Sculpture Gallery is a stone cippus or -monument (No. 43), erected to a mother and her two sons, and decorated -with portraits in relief. - -[Illustration] - - - - -INDEX - - - A - - ACTORS, costume of tragic, 14; - in Old Comedy, 14, 16-17; - in New Comedy, 17; - of mimes, 17; - social status of, 17, 18 - - ALABASTRON, 64 - - ALTAR, 4 - - AMAZON, 87 - - AMULET, 8, 40 - - ANIMALS, domestic, 109, 110; - _see_ Pets - - APOPTYGMA, 48, 49-50 - - APOTROPAION, _see_ Amulet - - ARROW-HEAD, 87 - - ARYBALLOS, 63-64 - - ASTRAGALS, 43, 68 - - ATTIS, 11 - - AWL, 113 - - AXE, die for votive, 5; - battle-, 87, 113 - - - B - - BALL, game of, 42-43 - - BEARD, 56, 58, 62 - - BELT, armored, 81-82 - - BIT, horse’s, 102, 104 - - BOAT, 111-112 - - BOXING, 89, 92, 96 - - BOW, 86 - - BRANDING, 104 - - BREAD-MAKING, 36-37 - - BREASTPLATE, 81 - - BULLA, 40 - - BUTT-SPIKE, 85-86 - - - C - - CAKE, votive, 6 - - CAMILLUS, 9, 61 - - CANDELABRUM, 31 - - CANDLES, 30-31 - - CAP, 54-55 - - CARDING, 32, 33 - - CART, 109, 110; - toy, 41 - - CAULDRON, 26 - - CHAIR, 23, 24 - - CHARIOT, 98, 100-101, 128 - - CHARIOTEER, 100-101 - - CHEST, 24, 26 - - CHISEL, 113 - - CHITON, 47, 48, 49, 50 - - CIRCUS, 101 - - CISTA, 64, 66 - - COINS, 116-118 - - COLANDER, _see_ Wine-strainer - - COMMERCE, 119-120 - - COOKING, 26, 37 - - COUCH, 24 - - CUIRASS, 80-81 - - CUP, 28, 30; - unfinished, 115 - - CURES, offerings for, 6-7 - - CYBELE, 10-11 - - CYMBALS, 73 - - - D - - DAGGER-BLADES, 85 - - DANCING, 5-6, 73-74 - - DIE, for axes, 5; - _see_ Mould - - DIKAST, _see_ Juryman - - DIPPING-ROD, 66 - - DISKOS, 92, 93-94 - - DISTAFF, 33 - - DOLL, 42 - - - E - - EMBROIDERY, 34-35 - - EPHEDRISMOS, game of, 42 - - EPINETRON, 32-33 - - - F - - FEEDING-BOTTLE, 40 - - FIBULA, 48, 59 - - FISH-PLATE, 29 - - FLUTE, 72-73, 92, 94 - - FOCOLARE, 129-130 - - FORTUNA, 9-10 - - FURNITURE, 22-24, 25 - - - G - - GAME, 39, 42-43, 68 - - GLASS, relief, 11-12; - vessels, 28, 64, 108, 120 - - GRAVE-MONUMENTS, 122, 124, 126, 128, 131 - - GREAVES, miniature, 6, 82, 107, 108 - - GRINDING GRAIN, 37 - - - H - - HAIR, arrangement of, 56, 58-59, 61-62 - - HALTERES, _see_ Jumping-weights - - HAT, 54-55 - - HELMET, 76-80 - - HERMS, 7-8 - - HIMATION, 52, 54, 60 - - HOOK, for meat, 26 - - HOOP, 42 - - HOPLOMACHY, 94 - - HOPLOMACHUS GLADIATOR, 107 - - HORSE, toy, 41 - - - I - - INCENSE-BURNER, 4 - - ISIS, 10 - - - J - - JAVELIN, 86, 94, 96 - - JEWELRY, 59-60, 62 - - JUMP, 92, 93 - - JUMPING-WEIGHTS, 93 - - JURYMAN’S TICKET, 118 - - - K - - KEY, 113-114 - - KITHARA, 69-70; - in wall-painting, 24 - - KOLPOS, 48, 49-50 - - KOTTABOS, 68 - - - L - - LADLE, 30 - - LAMP, 4, 31, 87, 101, 107-108 - - LAR, 9, 87 - - LOOM, 34 - - LOOM-WEIGHT, 34 - - LOUTROPHOROS, 125 - - LYRE, 69, 70-72 - - - M - - MASK, actor’s, 14 - - MIRROR, 50, 66-67 - - MOSAIC, 22 - - MOULD, for relief, 115-116; - jeweler’s, 116; - _see_ Die - - MOUSTACHE, 56, 58 - - MUSIC, 45, 46 - - MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS, 24, 69-73 - - MUZZLE, horse’s, 104 - - - N - - NURSE, 40 - - - O - - ONKOS, 14 - - ONOS, 32-33 - - OSCILLUM, 6 - - OVEN, 37 - - - P - - PAIL, 26, 28 - - PALLA, 60 - - PANKRATION, 93, 96 - - PENTATHLON, 92 - - PETS, 41, 75 - - PHYSICIAN’S INSTRUMENTS, 118 - - PILOS, _see_ Cap - - PLOUGH, 109-110 - - POTTERY, 28-29, 119-120, 128 - - PRAYER, _see_ Worshipper - - PRIEST, Roman, 9 - - PRIZES, at games, 96-97 - - - Q - - QUARRYING or MINING (?), relief, 112 - - - R - - RACE, foot, 92, 93 - - RAZOR, 63 - - RIDING, 101-102, 104-105 - - RING-DANCE, 5-6 - - - S - - SACRIFICE, on glass relief, 11-12 - - SAFETY-PIN, _see_ Fibula - - SARCOPHAGUS, 130-131 - - SCHOOL, 43-46 - - SEWING, 34-35 - - SHEEPFOLD, votive, 110 - - SHIELD, 82, 84-85, 87, 107 - - SHOES, 55-56, 61; - for horses, 102; - of tragic actor, 14 - - SHRINE, miniature, 4 - - SICKLE, 110 - - SISTRUM, 10 - - SLAVE, 118-119 - - SLEEVES, 49-50, 60 - - SLING, 86-87 - - SPATULA, 66, 118 - - SPEAR-HEAD, 85 - - SPINDLE, 33-34 - - SPINDLE-WHORL, 34 - - SPINNING, 33, 34, 36 - - SPOON, 30 - - STEELYARD, 114-115 - - STOLA, 60 - - STRIGIL, 63 - - STRIPE, on tunic and toga, 60-61 - - STUCCO, 20; - reliefs, 22 - - STYLUS, 44 - - SWING, 42 - - SWORD, 86 - - SYMPOSIUM, 68 - - SYRINX, 73 - - - T - - TABLE, votive, 6, 24 - - TABLE-SERVICE, bronze, 29-30, 128 - - TOGA, 61 - - TOILET-BOX, 33, 42-43, 64 - - TOMB-FURNITURE, 63, 66, 128-129 - - TOP, whipping, 38-39, 42 - - TORCH-HOLDER, 30 - - TOYS, 41-43 - - TRAINER, 90, 92 - - TRIPOD, 24 - - TROPHY, 87 - - TWEEZERS, 63 - - TYCHE, 9 - - - V - - VASES, 28, 35, 37-38, 44, 47-48, 55, 63-64, 93, 94, 96, 101, 105, - 111, 125-126; - marriage, 39; - perfume, 39; - ring, 6; - toy, 41 - - VICTOR, 97 - - VOTIVE OFFERING, 4, 5, 6, 110, 112; - for treaty (?), 8 - - - W - - WALL-DECORATIONS, 20, 22 - - WEAVING, 34, 36 - - WELL-HOUSE, 37-38 - - WINE-MAKING, 110 - - WINE-STRAINER, 30 - - WINNOWING, 36-37 - - WOOL-WORKING, 32-34 - - WORSHIPPER, attitude of, 4; 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