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diff --git a/6817.txt b/6817.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..8648c7e --- /dev/null +++ b/6817.txt @@ -0,0 +1,896 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Chaitanya and the Vaishnava Poets of Bengal, by +John Beames + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most +other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions +whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of +the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at +www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have +to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. + +Title: Chaitanya and the Vaishnava Poets of Bengal + +Author: John Beames + +Posting Date: August 23, 2014 [EBook #6817] +Release Date: November, 2004 +First Posted: January 27, 2003 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CHAITANYA AND VAISHNAVA POETS *** + + + + +Produced by John B. Hare (sacred-texts.com), and Chetan +Jain (BharatLiterature). + + + + + + + + + + + +CHAITANYA AND THE VAISHNAVA POETS OF BENGAL + + + +THE +INDIAN ANTIQUARY, + + +A JOURNAL OF ORIENTAL RESEARCH + +IN + +ARCHAEOLOGY, HISTORY, LITERATURE, LANGUAGES, PHILOSOPHY, RELIGION, +FOLKLORE, &c., &c., &c. + + +EDITED BY + +JAS. BURGESS, M.R.A.S., F.R.G.S. + + +VOL. II.--1873 +[Bombay, Education Society's Press] +{Scanned and edited by Christopher M. Weimer, May 2002} + + + +CHAITANYA AND THE VAISHNAVA POETS OF BENGAL. + +STUDIES IN BENGALI POETRY OF THE FIFTEENTH AND SIXTEENTH CENTURIES. + +BY JOHN BEAMES, J.C.S., M.R.A.S. &c. + + +THE PADKALPATARU, or 'wish-granting tree of song,' may be considered as +the scriptures of the Vaish.nava sect in Bengal. In form it is a +collection of songs written by various poets in various ages, so +arranged as to exhibit a complete series of poems on the topics and +tenets which constitute the religious views of the sect. The book has +been put together in recent times, and takes the reader through the +preliminary consecration, invocations and introductory ceremonies, the +rise and progress of the mutual love of Radha and K.rish.na, and winds +up with the usual closing and valedictory hymns. + +Before beginning an analysis of this collection so remarkable from many +points of view, it will probably be of some assistance even to those +who have studied the history of Vaish.navism, if I state briefly the +leading points in the life of Chaitanya, and the principal features of +the religion which he developed, rather than actually founded. + +Bisambhar (Vishvambhara) Misr was the youngest son of Jagannath Misr, a +Brahman, native of the district of Sylhet in Eastern Bengal, who had +emigrated before the birth of his son to Nadiya (Nabadwipa), the +capital of Bengal. [Footnote: The facts which here follow are taken +from the "Chaitanyacharitamrita," a metrical life of Chaitanya, the +greater part of which was probably written by a contemporary of the +teacher himself. The style has unfortunately been much modernized, but +even so, the book is one of the oldest extant works in Bengali. My +esteemed friend Babu Jagadishnath Ray has kindly gone through the book, +a task for which I had not leisure, and marked some of the salient +points for me.] His mother was Sachi Debi, daughter of Nilambar +Chakravarti. She bore to Jagannath eight daughters who all died young; +her first-born child, however, was a son named Biswarup, who afterwards +under the name of Nityanand became the chief disciple of his more +famous brother. Bisambhar was born at Nadiya in the evening of the +_Purnima_ or day of the full moon of Phalgun 1407 Sakabda, +corresponding to the latter part of February or beginning of March A.D. +1486. It is noted that there was an eclipse of the moon on that day. +By the aid of these indications those who care to do so can find out +the exact day. [Footnote: There was an eclipse of the moon before +midnight Feb. 18, O.S. 1486.] The passages in the original are:-- + + + Sri K.rish.na the Visible became incarnate in Nabadwip, + For forty-eight years visibly he sported; + The exact (date) of his birth (is) Saka 1407, + In 1455 he returned to heaven. + + +And again-- + + + On the full moon of Phalgun at even was the lord's birth + At that time by divine provision there was an eclipse of the moon. + --_Ch._ I. xiii. 38. + + +In accordance with the usual Bengali superstition that if a man's real +name be known he may be bewitched or subject to the influence of the +evil eye, the real name given at birth is not made known at the time, +but another name is given by which the individual is usually called. +No one but the father and mother and priest know the real name. +Bisambhar's usual name in childhood was Nimai, and by this he was +generally known to his neighbours. + +In person, if the description of him in the Chaitanyacharitamrita (Bk. +I. iii.) is to be considered as historical, he was handsome, tall (six +feet), with long arms, in colour a light brown, with expressive eyes, a +sonorous voice, and very sweet and winning manners. He is frequently +called "Gaurang" or "Gaurchandra," _i.e._, the pale, or the pale +moon, in contrast to the Krishna of the Bhagvat who is represented as +very black. + +The name Chaitanya literally means 'soul, intellect,' but in the +special and technical sense in which the teacher himself adopted it, it +appears to mean perceptible, or appreciable by the senses. He took the +name Sri K.rish.na Chaitanya to intimate that he was himself an +incarnation of the god, in other words, K.rish.na made visible to the +senses of mankind. + +The Charitamrita being composed by one of his disciples, is written +throughout on this supposition. Chaitanya is always spoken of as an +incarnation of K.rish.na, and his brother Nityanand as a re-appearance +of Balaram. In order to keep up the resemblance to K.rish.na, the +Charitamrita treats us to a long series of stories about Chaitanya's +childish sports among the young Hindu women of the village. They are +not worth relating, and are probably purely fictitious; the Bengalis of +to-day must be very different from what their ancestors were, if such +pranks as are related in the Charitamrita were quietly permitted to go +on. Chaitanya, however, seems to have been eccentric even as a youth; +wonderful stories are told of his powers of intellect and memory, how, +for instance, he defeated in argument the most learned Pandits. A +great deal is said about his hallucinations and trances throughout his +life, and we may perhaps conclude that he was more or less insane at +all times, or rather he was one of those strange enthusiasts who wield +such deep and irresistible influence over the masses by virtue of that +very condition of mind which borders on madness. + +When he was about eighteen his father died, and he soon afterwards +married Lachhmi Debi, daughter of Balabhadra Acharjya, and entered on +the career of a _grihastha_ or householder, taking in pupils whom +he instructed in ordinary secular learning. He does not appear, +however, to have kept to this quiet life for long; he went off on a +wandering tour all over Eastern Bengal, begging and singing, and is +said to have collected a great deal of money and made a considerable +name for himself. On his return he found his first wife had died in +his absence, and he married again one Bishnupriya, concerning whom +nothing further is said. Soon after he went to Gaya to offer the usual +pi.n.da to the _manes_ of his ancestors. + +It was on his return from Gaya, when he was about 23 years of age, that +he began seriously to start his new creed. "It was now," writes Babu +Jagadishnath, "that he openly condemned the Hindu ritualistic system of +ceremonies as being a body without a soul, disowned the institution of +caste as being abhorrent to a loving god all whose creatures were one +in his eyes, preached the efficacy of adoration and love and extolled +the excellence and sanctity of _the_ name, and the uttering and +singing of _the_ name of god as infinitely superior to barren +system without faith." Chaitanya, however, as the Babu points out, was +not the originator of this theory, but appears to have borrowed it from +his neighbour Adwaita Acharjya, whose custom it was, after performing +his daily ritual, to go to the banks of the Ganges and call aloud for +the coming of the god who should substitute love and faith for mere +rites and ceremonies. This custom is still adhered to by Vaish.navas. +The Charitamrita veils the priority of Adwaita adroitly by stating that +it was he who by his austerities hastened the coming of K.rish.na in +the avatar of Chaitanya. + + + I praise that revered teacher Adwaita of wonderful actions, + By whose favour even the ignorant may perceive the (divinity) + personified. + --Ch. I. vi. + + +Thus in Sanskrit verses at the head of that chapter which sings the +virtues of Adwaita: by in the Bengali portion of the same chapter it is +asserted that Adwaita was himself an incarnation of a part of the +divinity, e.g.-- + + + The teacher Adwaita is a special portion of god. + + +And the author goes on to say that Adwaita was first the teacher then +the pupil of Chaitanya. The probability is that Adwaita, like the +majority of his countrymen, was more addicted to meditation than to +action. The idea which in his mind gave rise to nothing more than +indefinite longings when transfused into the earnest fiery nature of +Chaitanya, expanded into a faith which moved and led captive the souls +of thousands. + +His brother Nityanand was now assumed to be an incarnation of Balaram, +and took his place as second-in-command in consequence. The practice +of meeting for worship and to celebrate "Sankirtans" was now +instituted; the meetings took place in the house of a disciple Sribas, +and were quite private. The new religionists met with some opposition, +and a good deal of mockery. One night on leaving their rendezvous, +they found on the door-step red flowers and goats' blood, emblems of +the worship of Durga, and abominations in the eyes of a Vaish.nava. +These were put there by a Brahman named Gopal. Chaitanya cursed him +for his practical joke, and we are told that he became a leper in +consequence. The opposition was to a great extent, however, provoked +by the Vaish.navas, who seem to have been very eccentric and +extravagant in their conduct. Every thing that K.rish.na had done +Chaitanya must do too, thus we read of his dancing on the shoulders of +Murari Gupta, one of his adherents; and his followers, like himself, +had fits, foamed at the mouth, and went off into convulsions, much +after the fashion of some revivalists of modern times. The young +students at the Sanskrit schools in Nadiya naturally found all this +very amusing, and cracked jokes to their hearts' content on the crazy +enthusiasts. + +In January 1510, Chaitanya suddenly took it into his head to become a +Sanyasi or ascetic, and received initiation at the hands of Keshab +Bharati of Katwa. Some say he did this to gain respect and credit as a +religious preacher, others say it was done in consequence of a curse +laid on him by a Brahman whom he had offended. Be this as it may, his +craziness seems now to have reached its height. He wandered off from +his home, in the first instance, to Puri to see the shrine of +Jagannath. Thence for six years he roamed all over India preaching +Vaish.navism, and returned at last to Puri, where he passed the +remaining eighteen years of his life and where at length he died in the +48th year of his age in 1534 A.D. His Bengali followers visited him +for four months in every year and some of them always kept watch over +him, for he was now quite mad. He had starved and preached and sung +and raved himself quite out of his senses. On one occasion he imagined +that a post in his veranda was Radha, and embraced it so hard as nearly +to smash his nose, and to cover himself with blood from scraping all +the skin off his forehead; on another he walked into the sea in a fit +of abstraction, and was fished up half dead in a net by a fisherman. +His friends took it in turns to watch by his side all night lest he +should do himself some injury. + +The leading principle that underlies the whole of Chaitanya's system is +_Bhakti_ or devotion; and the principle is exemplified and +illustrated by the mutual loves of Radha and K.rish.na. In adopting +this illustration of his principle, Chaitanya followed the example of +the Bhagavad Gita and the Bhagavat Pura.na, and he was probably also +influenced in the sensual tone he gave to the whole by the poems of +Jayadeva. The Bhakta or devotee passes through five successive stages, +_Santa_ or resigned contemplation of the deity is the first, and +from it he passes into _Dasya_ or the practice of worship and +service, whence to _Sakhya_ or friendship, which warms into +_Batsalya_, filial affection, and lastly rises to _Madhurya_ +or earnest, all-engrossing love. + +Vaish.navism is singularly like Sufiism, the resemblance has often been +noticed, and need here only be briefly traced. [Footnote: Conf. Capt. +J. W. Graham's paper 'On Sufiism,' _Bombay Literary Soc. Trans._ +Vol. I. pp. 89 et seqq.; Rajendralala Mittra's valuable introduction to +the _Chaitanya Chandrodaya_ (Biblioth. Ind.), pp. ii-iv and xv; +also Jones' 'Mystical Poetry of the Persians and Hindus,' _Asiat. +Res._ Vol. III. pp. 165-207; and Leyden, 'On the Rosheniah Sect, +&c.,' _As. Res._ Vol. XI. pp. 363-428.--ED.] With the latter the +first degree is _nasut_ or 'humanity' in which man is subject to +the law _shara_, the second _tarikat_, 'the way' of +spiritualism, the third _'aruf_ or 'knowledge,' and the fourth +_hakikat_ or 'the truth.' Some writers give a longer series of +grades, thus--_talab,_ 'seeking after god;' _'ishk_, 'love;' +_m'arifat_, 'insight;' _istighnah_, 'satisfaction;' +_tauhid_, 'unity;' _hairat_, 'ecstacy;' and lastly +_fana_, 'absorption.' Dealing as it does with God and Man as two +factors of a problem, Vaish.navism necessarily ignores the distinctions +of caste, and Chaitanya was perfectly consistent in this respect, +admitting men of all castes, including Muhammadans, to his sect. Since +his time, however, that strange love of caste-distinctions, which seems +so ineradicable from the soil of India, has begun again to creep into +Vaish.navism, and will probably end by establishing its power as firmly +in this sect as in any other. + +Although the institution of love towards the divine nature, and the +doctrine that this love was reciprocated, were certainly a great +improvement on the morbid gloom of Siva-worship, the colourless +negativeness of Buddhism, and the childish intricacy of ceremonies +which formed the religion of the mass of ordinary Hindus, still we +cannot find much to admire in it. There seems to be something almost +contradictory in representing the highest and purest emotions of the +mind by images drawn from the lowest and most animal passions. + + + "Ut matrona meretrici dispar erit atque discolor." + + +So must also Vaish.navism differ from true religion, the flesh from the +spirit, the impure from the pure. The singing of hymns about Radha and +K.rish.na is much older than Chaitanya's age. Not to mention Jayadeva +and his beautiful, though sensual, Gitagovinda. [Footnote: It is many +years now since I read Gitagovinda as a text-book at college, but the +impression I still retain is that it was in many parts far too warm for +European tastes.] Bidyapati, the earliest of Bengali poets, and +Cha.n.di Das both preceded Chaitanya, and he himself is stated to have +been fond of singing their verses. There was therefore a considerable +mass of hymns ready to his hand, and his contemporaries and followers +added largely to the number; the poems of the _Padakalpataru_ in +consequence are of all ages from the fifteenth century downwards; +moreover, as Vaish.navism aspires to be a religion for the masses, the +aim of its supporters has always been to write in the vulgar tongue, a +fortunate circumstance which renders this vast body of literature +extremely valuable to the philologist, since it can be relied on as +representing the spoken language of its day more accurately than those +pretentious works whose authors despised everything but Sanskrit. + +The _Padakalpataru_, to keep up the metaphor of its name +throughout, is divided into 4 _sakhas_ or 'branches,' and each of +these into 8 or 10 _pallabas_ or smaller branches, 'boughs.' It +should be explained that the kirtans are celebrated with considerable +ceremony. There is first a consecration both of the performers and +instruments with flowers, incense, and sweetmeats. This is called the +_adhibas_. The principal performer then sings one song after +another, the others playing the drum and cymbals in time, and joining +in the chorus; as the performance goes on many of them get excited and +wildly frantic, and roll about on the ground. When the performance is +over the drum is respectfully sprinkled with _chandana_ or +sandalwood paste, and hung up. Several performances go on for days +till a whole Sakha has been sung through, and I believe it is always +customary to go through at least one Pallab at a sitting, however long +it may be. The Bengali Kirtan in fact resembles very much the Bhajans +and Kathas common in the Mara.tha country, and each poem in length, and +often in subject, is similar to the Abhangas of Tukaram and others in +that province. + +The first Pallab contains 27 hymns, of these 8 are by Gobind Das, 8 by +Baishnab Das, 3 by Brindaban Das, the rest by minor masters. Brindaban +Das and Parameshwar Das were contemporaries of Chaitanya, the others-- +including Gobind Das, who is perhaps the most voluminous writer of all +--are subsequent to him. Of the hymns themselves the first five are +invocations of Chaitanya and Nityanand, and one is in praise of the +ceremony of Kirtan. There is nothing very remarkable in any of them. +Number 5 may be taken as a specimen, as it is perhaps the best of the +batch. + + + "Nand's son, lover of the Gopis, lord of Radha, the playful Syam: + + +_Is_ he, Sachi's son, the Indra of Nadiya, the heart-charming +dwelling of gods and saints; victory to him who is love embodied to his +own beloved, hail! hail to him who is the joy of the existence of his +well-beloved! hail to the delight of the eyes of his comrades in Braj! +hail to the charm of the sight of the women of Nadiya! hail! hail to +Sridam, Sudam, Subal, and Arjun, [Footnote: Names of Chaitanya's +disciples.] bound by love to him whose form is as a new cloud! hail to +Ram and the rest, beautiful and dear companions! hail to the charmer, +the incomparable Gora (Chaitanya)! hail to the mighty younger brother +of Balaram! hail! hail to Nityanand (who is) joy (personified)! Hail to +him who destroys the fear of good men, the object of the hope of Gobind +Das!" + +I would call attention here, once for all, to what is one of the +principal charms of Vaish.nava hymns, the exquisitely musical rhythm +and cadence. They seem made to be sung, and trip off the tongue with a +lilt and grace which are irresistible. + +This hymn is interesting as shewing how completely Chaitanya is by his +followers invested with the attributes of, and identified with, +K.rish.na; it has no other special merits; nor anything specially +interesting from a philological point of view as it is nearly all +Sansk.rit. + +The next six are in praise of the sect itself, of Adwaita, and the +principal disciples. That on Adwaita by his contemporary Brindaban Das +gives a lively picture of the old Brahman, then follow seven in praise +of the Kirtanias or the old master-singers--Bidyapati, Jayadeva, +Cha.n.di Das; then four on K.rish.na and Radha, containing only a +succession of epithets linked together by jay! jay! + +The twenty-third begins the adhibas or consecration, and is curious +less for its language than for the description it gives of the +ceremonies practised. It is by the old masters Parameshwar and +Brindaban, with the concluding portion by a younger master Bansi. The +poem is in four parts and takes the form of a story how Chaitanya held +his feast. It runs thus:-- + + + 23. Atha sankirtanasya adhibasa. + + +"One day coming and smiling, sitting in Adwaita's house, spake the son +of Sachi, having Nityanand with him and Adwaita, sitting in enjoyment, +he planned a great festivity. Hearing this, smiling with joy, Sita +Thakurani coming spoke a sweet word: hearing that with joyful mind the +son of Sachi spoke somewhat in regard to arranging the festival. +'Listen, Thakurani Sita,[Footnote: Sita was the wife of Adwaita.] bring +the Baishnabs here; making pressing invitation to them: whoso can sing, +whoso can play, invite them separately, man by man.' Thus Gora Rai +speaking gave orders for an assembly: ' Invite the Baishnabs! Bring +out the cymbal and drum, set out full pots painted with aloes and +sandal-paste: plant plantains, hang on them garlands of flowers, for +the Kirtan place joyfully. With garlands, sandal, and betelnut, ghee, +honey, and curds consecrate the drum at evening-tide.' Hearing the +lord's word, in loving manner she made accordingly various offerings +with fragrant perfumes: all cried 'Hari, Hari!' thus they consecrate +the drum; Parameshwar Das floats in enjoyment." + +Of the remainder of the adhibas I give merely a paraphrase ommiting the +numerous repetitions. + +2. Having prepared the entertainment she invites them, "kindly visit +us, to you and Vaish.navas, this is my petition, come and see and +complete the feast;" thus entreating she brought the honoured guests, +they consecrate the feast. Joyfully the Vaish.navas came to the feast: +"to-morrow will be the joy of the great festivity, there will be the +enjoyment of the singing Sri K.rish.na's sports, all will be filled +with delight." The merits of the assembly of the devotees of Sri +K.rish.na Chaitanya singeth Brindaban Das. + +3. First set up the plantains, array the full pots, adorned with twigs +of the mango; the Brahman chants the Vedas, the women shout jay! jay! +and all cry Hari! Hari! Making the consecration with curds and +_ghi_, all display their joy; bringing in the Vaish.navas, giving +them garlands and sandal-paste, for the celebration of the Kirtan; joy +is in the hearts of all, hither come the Vaish.navas, to-morrow will be +Chaitanya's kirtan; the virtue of Sri K.rish.na Chaitanya's name, and +the indwelling of Sri Nityanand singeth Das Brindaban. [Footnote: The +poet's name is inverted to make a rhyme for Kirtan in the preceding +line.] + +4. Jay! jay! in Nawadwip; by Gorang's order Adwaita goes to prepare the +consecration of the drum. Bringing all the Vaish.navas with sound of +"Hari bol," he initiates the great feast. He himself giving garlands +and sandal-paste, converses with his beloved Vaish.navas, Gobind taking +the drum plays ta-ta-tum tum, Adwaita lightly clashes the cymbals. +Hari Das begins the song, Sribas keeps time, Gorang dances at the +kirtan celebration. On all sides the Vaish.navas crowding echo "Hari +bol," to-morrow will be the great feast. To-day consecrate the drum +and hang it up, joyfully saith Bansi sound victory! victory!! + +Having thus concluded the initiatory ceremonies in the lst Pallab, the +2nd Pallab begins the real "Kirtan." It contains 26 hymns by masters +who are mostly of comparatively recent date. Of the old masters Gobind +Das and Cha.n.di Das alone appear in this Pallab. We now commence the +long and minutely described series of emotions and flirtations (if so +lowly a word may be used) between Radha and K.rish.na, and this Pallab +and in fact the whole of the first Sakha is on that phase called +"purbaraga" or first symptoms of love. In No. 2, Cha.n.di Das +represents two of Radha's Sakhis, or girl-friends, whispering together +as they watch her from a distance (the punctuation {i.e. colon (:)} +refers to the caesura, not to the sense): + +"She stands outside the house, a hundred times restlessly she comes and +goes: depressed in mind, _with_ frequent sighs, she looks towards +the kadamba jungle. Why has Rai (Radhika) become thus? serious is her +error, she has no fear of men, where are her senses, or what god has +possessed her? Constantly restless, she does not cover herself with +the corner of her robe: she sits still for a while, then rises with a +start, her ornaments fall with a clang. Youthful in age, of royal +descent, and a chaste maiden to boot: what does she desire, (why) does +her longing increase? I cannot understand her motives: from her +conduct, this I conceive, she has raised her hand to the moon: +[Footnote: She has formed some extravagant desire.] Cha.n.di Das says +with respect she has fallen into the snare of the black one +(K.rish.na)." + +This poem vividly expresses the first symptoms of love dawning in the +girl's heart, and from a religious point of view the first awakenings +of consciousness of divine love in the soul. It is difficult for the +European mind, trained to draw a broad distinction between the love of +God and love for another human being, to enter into a state of feeling +in which the earthly and sensual is made a type of the heavenly and +spiritual, but a large-souled charity may be perhaps able to admit that +by this process, strange though it be to its own habits and +experiences, there may have been some improvement wrought in the inner +life of men brought up in other schools of thought; and my own +experience, now of fourteen years standing, enables me to say that +Vaish.navism does, in spite of, or perhaps in virtue of, its peculiar +_modus operandi_, work a change for the better on those who come +under its influence. + +Two more hymns on the same subject follow, and in No. 5 Radha herself +breaks silence. + +"In the kadamba grove what man is (that) standing? What sort of word +coming is this: the plough of whose meaning has penetrated startlingly +the path of hearing? With a hint of union, with its manner of +penetrating making one well-nigh mad: My mind is agitated, it cannot +be still, streams flow from my eyes: I know not what manner of man it +is who utters such words: I see him not, my heart is perturbed, I +cannot stay in the house: My soul rests not, it flutters to and fro in +hope of seeing him: When she sees him, she will find her soul, quoth +Urdbab Das." + +I have left myself no space to finish this Pallab, or to make remarks +on the peculiarities of the language, which in the older masters would +more properly be called old Maithila than Bengali. It is nearly +identical with the language still spoken in Tirhut, the ancient +Mithili, and in Munger and Bhagalpur, the ancient Magadha, than modern +Bengali. As the Aryan race grew and multiplied it naturally poured out +its surplus population in Bengal, and it is not only philologically +obvious that Bengali is nothing more than a further, and very modern +development of the extreme eastern dialect of Hindi. All these +considerations, however, I hope still further to develop at some future +time. + + + + + + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Chaitanya and the Vaishnava Poets of +Bengal, by John Beames + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CHAITANYA AND VAISHNAVA POETS *** + +***** This file should be named 6817.txt or 6817.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/6/8/1/6817/ + +Produced by John B. 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