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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Chaitanya and the Vaishnava Poets of Bengal, by 
+John Beames
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
+other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
+whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
+the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
+www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
+to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
+
+Title: Chaitanya and the Vaishnava Poets of Bengal
+
+Author: John Beames
+
+Posting Date: August 23, 2014 [EBook #6817]
+Release Date: November, 2004
+First Posted: January 27, 2003
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CHAITANYA AND VAISHNAVA POETS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by John B. Hare (sacred-texts.com), and Chetan
+Jain (BharatLiterature).
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAITANYA AND THE VAISHNAVA POETS OF BENGAL
+
+
+
+THE
+INDIAN ANTIQUARY,
+
+
+A JOURNAL OF ORIENTAL RESEARCH
+
+IN
+
+ARCHÆOLOGY, HISTORY, LITERATURE, LANGUAGES, PHILOSOPHY, RELIGION,
+FOLKLORE, &c., &c., &c.
+
+
+EDITED BY
+
+JAS. BURGESS, M.R.A.S., F.R.G.S.
+
+
+VOL. II.--1873
+[Bombay, Education Society's Press]
+{Scanned and edited by Christopher M. Weimer, May 2002}
+
+
+
+CHAITANYA AND THE VAISHNAVA POETS OF BENGAL.
+
+STUDIES IN BENGALI POETRY OF THE FIFTEENTH AND SIXTEENTH CENTURIES.
+
+BY JOHN BEAMES, J.C.S., M.R.A.S. &c.
+
+
+THE PADKALPATARU, or 'wish-granting tree of song,' may be considered as
+the scriptures of the Vaish.nava sect in Bengal.  In form it is a
+collection of songs written by various poets in various ages, so
+arranged as to exhibit a complete series of poems on the topics and
+tenets which constitute the religious views of the sect.  The book has
+been put together in recent times, and takes the reader through the
+preliminary consecration, invocations and introductory ceremonies, the
+rise and progress of the mutual love of Râdhâ and K.rish.na, and winds
+up with the usual closing and valedictory hymns.
+
+Before beginning an analysis of this collection so remarkable from many
+points of view, it will probably be of some assistance even to those
+who have studied the history of Vaish.navism, if I state briefly the
+leading points in the life of Chaitanya, and the principal features of
+the religion which he developed, rather than actually founded.
+
+Bisambhar (Vishvambhara) Mišr was the youngest son of Jagannâth Mišr, a
+Brahman, native of the district of Sylhet in Eastern Bengal, who had
+emigrated before the birth of his son to Nadiya (Nabadwîpa), the
+capital of Bengal.  [Footnote: The facts which here follow are taken
+from the "Chaitanyacharitâmrita," a metrical life of Chaitanya, the
+greater part of which was probably written by a contemporary of the
+teacher himself.  The style has unfortunately been much modernized, but
+even so, the book is one of the oldest extant works in Bengali.  My
+esteemed friend Babu Jagadishnath Ray has kindly gone through the book,
+a task for which I had not leisure, and marked some of the salient
+points for me.]  His mother was Sachi Debi, daughter of Nilámbar
+Chakravarti.  She bore to Jagannâth eight daughters who all died young;
+her first-born child, however, was a son named Biswarúp, who afterwards
+under the name of Nityânand became the chief disciple of his more
+famous brother.  Bisambhar was born at Nadiya in the evening of the
+_Purnima_ or day of the full moon of Phâlgun 1407 Sakábda,
+corresponding to the latter part of February or beginning of March A.D.
+1486.  It is noted that there was an eclipse of the moon on that day.
+By the aid of these indications those who care to do so can find out
+the exact day.  [Footnote: There was an eclipse of the moon before
+midnight Feb. 18, O.S. 1486.]  The passages in the original are:--
+
+
+  Šrî K.rish.na the Visible became incarnate in Nabadwip,
+  For forty-eight years visibly he sported;
+  The exact (date) of his birth (is) Šaka 1407,
+  In 1455 he returned to heaven.
+
+
+And again--
+
+
+  On the full moon of Phâlgun at even was the lord's birth
+  At that time by divine provision there was an eclipse of the moon.
+    --_Ch._ I. xiii. 38.
+
+
+In accordance with the usual Bengali superstition that if a man's real
+name be known he may be bewitched or subject to the influence of the
+evil eye, the real name given at birth is not made known at the time,
+but another name is given by which the individual is usually called.
+No one but the father and mother and priest know the real name.
+Bisambhar's usual name in childhood was Nimâi, and by this he was
+generally known to his neighbours.
+
+In person, if the description of him in the Chaitanyacharitâmrita (Bk.
+I. iii.) is to be considered as historical, he was handsome, tall (six
+feet), with long arms, in colour a light brown, with expressive eyes, a
+sonorous voice, and very sweet and winning manners.  He is frequently
+called "Gaurang" or "Gaurchandra," _i.e._, the pale, or the pale
+moon, in contrast to the Krishna of the Bhagvat who is represented as
+very black.
+
+The name Chaitanya literally means 'soul, intellect,' but in the
+special and technical sense in which the teacher himself adopted it, it
+appears to mean perceptible, or appreciable by the senses.  He took the
+name Šrî K.rish.na Chaitanya to intimate that he was himself an
+incarnation of the god, in other words, K.rish.na made visible to the
+senses of mankind.
+
+The Charitâmrita being composed by one of his disciples, is written
+throughout on this supposition.  Chaitanya is always spoken of as an
+incarnation of K.rish.na, and his brother Nityânand as a re-appearance
+of Balarâm.  In order to keep up the resemblance to K.rish.na, the
+Charitâmrita treats us to a long series of stories about Chaitanya's
+childish sports among the young Hindu women of the village.  They are
+not worth relating, and are probably purely fictitious; the Bengalis of
+to-day must be very different from what their ancestors were, if such
+pranks as are related in the Charitâmrita were quietly permitted to go
+on.  Chaitanya, however, seems to have been eccentric even as a youth;
+wonderful stories are told of his powers of intellect and memory, how,
+for instance, he defeated in argument the most learned Pandits.  A
+great deal is said about his hallucinations and trances throughout his
+life, and we may perhaps conclude that he was more or less insane at
+all times, or rather he was one of those strange enthusiasts who wield
+such deep and irresistible influence over the masses by virtue of that
+very condition of mind which borders on madness.
+
+When he was about eighteen his father died, and he soon afterwards
+married Lachhmi Debi, daughter of Balabhadra Achârjya, and entered on
+the career of a _grihastha_ or householder, taking in pupils whom
+he instructed in ordinary secular learning.  He does not appear,
+however, to have kept to this quiet life for long; he went off on a
+wandering tour all over Eastern Bengal, begging and singing, and is
+said to have collected a great deal of money and made a considerable
+name for himself.  On his return he found his first wife had died in
+his absence, and he married again one Bishnupriyâ, concerning whom
+nothing further is said.  Soon after he went to Gayâ to offer the usual
+pi.n.da to the _manes_ of his ancestors.
+
+It was on his return from Gayâ, when he was about 23 years of age, that
+he began seriously to start his new creed.  "It was now," writes Babu
+Jagadishnath, "that he openly condemned the Hindu ritualistic system of
+ceremonies as being a body without a soul, disowned the institution of
+caste as being abhorrent to a loving god all whose creatures were one
+in his eyes, preached the efficacy of adoration and love and extolled
+the excellence and sanctity of _the_ name, and the uttering and
+singing of _the_ name of god as infinitely superior to barren
+system without faith."  Chaitanya, however, as the Babu points out, was
+not the originator of this theory, but appears to have borrowed it from
+his neighbour Adwaita Achârjya, whose custom it was, after performing
+his daily ritual, to go to the banks of the Ganges and call aloud for
+the coming of the god who should substitute love and faith for mere
+rites and ceremonies.  This custom is still adhered to by Vaish.navas.
+The Charitâmrita veils the priority of Adwaita adroitly by stating that
+it was he who by his austerities hastened the coming of K.rish.na in
+the avatar of Chaitanya.
+
+
+  I praise that revered teacher Adwaita of wonderful actions,
+  By whose favour even the ignorant may perceive the (divinity)
+    personified.
+    --Ch. I. vi.
+
+
+Thus in Sanskrit verses at the head of that chapter which sings the
+virtues of Adwaita: by in the Bengali portion of the same chapter it is
+asserted that Adwaita was himself an incarnation of a part of the
+divinity, e.g.--
+
+
+  The teacher Adwaita is a special portion of god.
+
+
+And the author goes on to say that Adwaita was first the teacher then
+the pupil of Chaitanya.  The probability is that Adwaita, like the
+majority of his countrymen, was more addicted to meditation than to
+action.  The idea which in his mind gave rise to nothing more than
+indefinite longings when transfused into the earnest fiery nature of
+Chaitanya, expanded into a faith which moved and led captive the souls
+of thousands.
+
+His brother Nityânand was now assumed to be an incarnation of Balarâm,
+and took his place as second-in-command in consequence.  The practice
+of meeting for worship and to celebrate "Sankîrtans" was now
+instituted; the meetings took place in the house of a disciple Sribâs,
+and were quite private.  The new religionists met with some opposition,
+and a good deal of mockery.  One night on leaving their rendezvous,
+they found on the door-step red flowers and goats' blood, emblems of
+the worship of Durgâ, and abominations in the eyes of a Vaish.nava.
+These were put there by a Brahman named Gopal.  Chaitanya cursed him
+for his practical joke, and we are told that he became a leper in
+consequence.  The opposition was to a great extent, however, provoked
+by the Vaish.navas, who seem to have been very eccentric and
+extravagant in their conduct.  Every thing that K.rish.na had done
+Chaitanya must do too, thus we read of his dancing on the shoulders of
+Murari Gupta, one of his adherents; and his followers, like himself,
+had fits, foamed at the mouth, and went off into convulsions, much
+after the fashion of some revivalists of modern times.  The young
+students at the Sanskrit schools in Nadiya naturally found all this
+very amusing, and cracked jokes to their hearts' content on the crazy
+enthusiasts.
+
+In January 1510, Chaitanya suddenly took it into his head to become a
+Sanyasi or ascetic, and received initiation at the hands of Keshab
+Bhârati of Katwa.  Some say he did this to gain respect and credit as a
+religious preacher, others say it was done in consequence of a curse
+laid on him by a Brahman whom he had offended.  Be this as it may, his
+craziness seems now to have reached its height.  He wandered off from
+his home, in the first instance, to Purî to see the shrine of
+Jagannâth.  Thence for six years he roamed all over India preaching
+Vaish.navism, and returned at last to Purî, where he passed the
+remaining eighteen years of his life and where at length he died in the
+48th year of his age in 1534 A.D.  His Bengali followers visited him
+for four months in every year and some of them always kept watch over
+him, for he was now quite mad.  He had starved and preached and sung
+and raved himself quite out of his senses.  On one occasion he imagined
+that a post in his veranda was Râdhâ, and embraced it so hard as nearly
+to smash his nose, and to cover himself with blood from scraping all
+the skin off his forehead; on another he walked into the sea in a fit
+of abstraction, and was fished up half dead in a net by a fisherman.
+His friends took it in turns to watch by his side all night lest he
+should do himself some injury.
+
+The leading principle that underlies the whole of Chaitanya's system is
+_Bhakti_ or devotion; and the principle is exemplified and
+illustrated by the mutual loves of Râdhâ and K.rish.na.  In adopting
+this illustration of his principle, Chaitanya followed the example of
+the Bhagavad Gîtâ and the Bhâgavat Purâ.na, and he was probably also
+influenced in the sensual tone he gave to the whole by the poems of
+Jayadeva.  The Bhakta or devotee passes through five successive stages,
+_Sânta_ or resigned contemplation of the deity is the first, and
+from it he passes into _Dâsya_ or the practice of worship and
+service, whence to _Sákhya_ or friendship, which warms into
+_Bâtsalya_, filial affection, and lastly rises to _Mádhurya_
+or earnest, all-engrossing love.
+
+Vaish.navism is singularly like Sufiism, the resemblance has often been
+noticed, and need here only be briefly traced.  [Footnote: Conf. Capt.
+J. W. Graham's paper 'On Sufiism,' _Bombay Literary Soc. Trans._
+Vol. I. pp. 89 et seqq.; Râjendralâla Mittra's valuable introduction to
+the _Chaitanya Chandrodaya_ (Biblioth. Ind.), pp. ii-iv and xv;
+also Jones' 'Mystical Poetry of the Persians and Hindus,' _Asiat.
+Res._ Vol. III. pp. 165-207; and Leyden, 'On the Rosheniah Sect,
+&c.,' _As. Res._ Vol. XI. pp. 363-428.--ED.]  With the latter the
+first degree is _nâsût_ or 'humanity' in which man is subject to
+the law _shara_, the second _tarîkat_, 'the way' of
+spiritualism, the third _´arûf_ or 'knowledge,' and the fourth
+_hakîkat_ or 'the truth.' Some writers give a longer series of
+grades, thus--_talab,_ 'seeking after god;' _´ishk_, 'love;'
+_m´arifat_, 'insight;' _istighnâh_, 'satisfaction;'
+_tauhîd_, 'unity;' _hairat_, 'ecstacy;' and lastly
+_fanâ_, 'absorption.'  Dealing as it does with God and Man as two
+factors of a problem, Vaish.navism necessarily ignores the distinctions
+of caste, and Chaitanya was perfectly consistent in this respect,
+admitting men of all castes, including Muhammadans, to his sect.  Since
+his time, however, that strange love of caste-distinctions, which seems
+so ineradicable from the soil of India, has begun again to creep into
+Vaish.navism, and will probably end by establishing its power as firmly
+in this sect as in any other.
+
+Although the institution of love towards the divine nature, and the
+doctrine that this love was reciprocated, were certainly a great
+improvement on the morbid gloom of Šiva-worship, the colourless
+negativeness of Buddhism, and the childish intricacy of ceremonies
+which formed the religion of the mass of ordinary Hindus, still we
+cannot find much to admire in it.  There seems to be something almost
+contradictory in representing the highest and purest emotions of the
+mind by images drawn from the lowest and most animal passions.
+
+
+  "Ut matrona meretrici dispar erit atque discolor."
+
+
+So must also Vaish.navism differ from true religion, the flesh from the
+spirit, the impure from the pure.  The singing of hymns about Râdhâ and
+K.rish.na is much older than Chaitanya's age.  Not to mention Jayadeva
+and his beautiful, though sensual, Gîtagovinda.  [Footnote: It is many
+years now since I read Gitagovinda as a text-book at college, but the
+impression I still retain is that it was in many parts far too warm for
+European tastes.]  Bidyapati, the earliest of Bengali poets, and
+Cha.n.di Dâs both preceded Chaitanya, and he himself is stated to have
+been fond of singing their verses.  There was therefore a considerable
+mass of hymns ready to his hand, and his contemporaries and followers
+added largely to the number; the poems of the _Padakalpataru_ in
+consequence are of all ages from the fifteenth century downwards;
+moreover, as Vaish.navism aspires to be a religion for the masses, the
+aim of its supporters has always been to write in the vulgar tongue, a
+fortunate circumstance which renders this vast body of literature
+extremely valuable to the philologist, since it can be relied on as
+representing the spoken language of its day more accurately than those
+pretentious works whose authors despised everything but Sanskrit.
+
+The _Padakalpataru_, to keep up the metaphor of its name
+throughout, is divided into 4 _šakhas_ or 'branches,' and each of
+these into 8 or 10 _pallabas_ or smaller branches, 'boughs.'  It
+should be explained that the kîrtans are celebrated with considerable
+ceremony.  There is first a consecration both of the performers and
+instruments with flowers, incense, and sweetmeats.  This is called the
+_adhibás_.  The principal performer then sings one song after
+another, the others playing the drum and cymbals in time, and joining
+in the chorus; as the performance goes on many of them get excited and
+wildly frantic, and roll about on the ground.  When the performance is
+over the drum is respectfully sprinkled with _chandana_ or
+sandalwood paste, and hung up.  Several performances go on for days
+till a whole Šakhâ has been sung through, and I believe it is always
+customary to go through at least one Pallab at a sitting, however long
+it may be.  The Bengali Kîrtan in fact resembles very much the Bhajans
+and Kathâs common in the Marâ.tha country, and each poem in length, and
+often in subject, is similar to the Abhangas of Tukarâm and others in
+that province.
+
+The first Pallab contains 27 hymns, of these 8 are by Gobind Dâs, 8 by
+Baishnab Dâs, 3 by Brindâban Dâs, the rest by minor masters.  Brindâban
+Dâs and Parameshwar Dâs were contemporaries of Chaitanya, the others--
+including Gobind Dâs, who is perhaps the most voluminous writer of all-
+-are subsequent to him.  Of the hymns themselves the first five are
+invocations of Chaitanya and Nityânand, and one is in praise of the
+ceremony of Kîrtan.  There is nothing very remarkable in any of them.
+Number 5 may be taken as a specimen, as it is perhaps the best of the
+batch.
+
+
+  "Nand's son, lover of the Gopîs, lord of Râdhâ, the playful Syâm:
+
+
+_Is_ he, Sachi's son, the Indra of Nadiya, the heart-charming
+dwelling of gods and saints; victory to him who is love embodied to his
+own beloved, hail! hail to him who is the joy of the existence of his
+well-beloved! hail to the delight of the eyes of his comrades in Braj!
+hail to the charm of the sight of the women of Nadiya! hail! hail to
+Sridam, Sudam, Subal, and Arjun, [Footnote: Names of Chaitanya's
+disciples.] bound by love to him whose form is as a new cloud! hail to
+Râm and the rest, beautiful and dear companions! hail to the charmer,
+the incomparable Gora (Chaitanya)! hail to the mighty younger brother
+of Balarâm! hail! hail to Nityânand (who is) joy (personified)! Hail to
+him who destroys the fear of good men, the object of the hope of Gobind
+Dâs!"
+
+I would call attention here, once for all, to what is one of the
+principal charms of Vaish.nava hymns, the exquisitely musical rhythm
+and cadence.  They seem made to be sung, and trip off the tongue with a
+lilt and grace which are irresistible.
+
+This hymn is interesting as shewing how completely Chaitanya is by his
+followers invested with the attributes of, and identified with,
+K.rîsh.na; it has no other special merits; nor anything specially
+interesting from a philological point of view as it is nearly all
+Sansk.rit.
+
+The next six are in praise of the sect itself, of Adwaita, and the
+principal disciples.  That on Adwaita by his contemporary Brindaban Dâs
+gives a lively picture of the old Brahman, then follow seven in praise
+of the Kîrtanias or the old master-singers--Bidyapati, Jayadeva,
+Cha.n.di Dâs; then four on K.rish.na and Râdhâ, containing only a
+succession of epithets linked together by jay! jay!
+
+The twenty-third begins the adhibâs or consecration, and is curious
+less for its language than for the description it gives of the
+ceremonies practised.  It is by the old masters Parameshwar and
+Brindaban, with the concluding portion by a younger master Bansi.  The
+poem is in four parts and takes the form of a story how Chaitanya held
+his feast.  It runs thus:--
+
+
+  23. Atha sankirtanasya adhibâsa.
+
+
+"One day coming and smiling, sitting in Adwaita's house, spake the son
+of Sachî, having Nityânand with him and Adwaita, sitting in enjoyment,
+he planned a great festivity.  Hearing this, smiling with joy, Sîtâ
+Thâkurânî coming spoke a sweet word: hearing that with joyful mind the
+son of Sachî spoke somewhat in regard to arranging the festival.
+'Listen, Thâkurânî Sîtâ,[Footnote: Sîta was the wife of Adwaita.] bring
+the Baishnabs here; making pressing invitation to them: whoso can sing,
+whoso can play, invite them separately, man by man.'  Thus Gora Rai
+speaking gave orders for an assembly: ' Invite the Baishnabs!  Bring
+out the cymbal and drum, set out full pots painted with aloes and
+sandal-paste: plant plantains, hang on them garlands of flowers, for
+the Kîrtan place joyfully.  With garlands, sandal, and betelnut, ghee,
+honey, and curds consecrate the drum at evening-tide.'  Hearing the
+lord's word, in loving manner she made accordingly various offerings
+with fragrant perfumes: all cried 'Hari, Hari!' thus they consecrate
+the drum; Parameshwar Dâs floats in enjoyment."
+
+Of the remainder of the adhibâs I give merely a paraphrase ommiting the
+numerous repetitions.
+
+2. Having prepared the entertainment she invites them, "kindly visit
+us, to you and Vaish.navas, this is my petition, come and see and
+complete the feast;" thus entreating she brought the honoured guests,
+they consecrate the feast.  Joyfully the Vaish.navas came to the feast:
+"to-morrow will be the joy of the great festivity, there will be the
+enjoyment of the singing Šrî K.rish.na's sports, all will be filled
+with delight."  The merits of the assembly of the devotees of Šrî
+K.rish.na Chaitanya singeth Brindaban Dâs.
+
+3. First set up the plantains, array the full pots, adorned with twigs
+of the mango; the Brahman chants the Vedas, the women shout jay! jay!
+and all cry Hari! Hari!  Making the consecration with curds and
+_ghi_, all display their joy; bringing in the Vaish.navas, giving
+them garlands and sandal-paste, for the celebration of the Kîrtan; joy
+is in the hearts of all, hither come the Vaish.navas, to-morrow will be
+Chaitanya's kîrtan; the virtue of Šrî K.rish.na Chaitanya's name, and
+the indwelling of Šrî Nityânand singeth Dâs Brindaban.  [Footnote: The
+poet's name is inverted to make a rhyme for Kîrtan in the preceding
+line.]
+
+4. Jay! jay! in Nawadwip; by Gorang's order Adwaita goes to prepare the
+consecration of the drum.  Bringing all the Vaish.navas with sound of
+"Hari bol," he initiates the great feast.  He himself giving garlands
+and sandal-paste, converses with his beloved Vaish.navas, Gobind taking
+the drum plays ta-ta-tum tum, Adwaita lightly clashes the cymbals.
+Hari Dâs begins the song, Sribâs keeps time, Gorang dances at the
+kîrtan celebration.  On all sides the Vaish.navas crowding echo "Hari
+bol," to-morrow will be the great feast.  To-day consecrate the drum
+and hang it up, joyfully saith Bansi sound victory! victory!!
+
+Having thus concluded the initiatory ceremonies in the lst Pallab, the
+2nd Pallab begins the real "Kîrtan."  It contains 26 hymns by masters
+who are mostly of comparatively recent date.  Of the old masters Gobind
+Dâs and Cha.n.di Dâs alone appear in this Pallab.  We now commence the
+long and minutely described series of emotions and flirtations (if so
+lowly a word may be used) between Râdhâ and K.rish.na, and this Pallab
+and in fact the whole of the first Sâkhâ is on that phase called
+"pûrbarâga" or first symptoms of love.  In No. 2, Cha.n.di Dâs
+represents two of Râdhâ's Sakhis, or girl-friends, whispering together
+as they watch her from a distance (the punctuation {i.e. colon (:)}
+refers to the cæsura, not to the sense):
+
+"She stands outside the house, a hundred times restlessly she comes and
+goes: depressed in mind, _with_ frequent sighs, she looks towards
+the kadamba jungle.  Why has Rai (Radhikâ) become thus? serious is her
+error, she has no fear of men, where are her senses, or what god has
+possessed her?  Constantly restless, she does not cover herself with
+the corner of her robe: she sits still for a while, then rises with a
+start, her ornaments fall with a clang.  Youthful in age, of royal
+descent, and a chaste maiden to boot: what does she desire, (why) does
+her longing increase?  I cannot understand her motives: from her
+conduct, this I conceive, she has raised her hand to the moon:
+[Footnote: She has formed some extravagant desire.]  Cha.n.di Dâs says
+with respect she has fallen into the snare of the black one
+(K.rish.na)."
+
+This poem vividly expresses the first symptoms of love dawning in the
+girl's heart, and from a religious point of view the first awakenings
+of consciousness of divine love in the soul.  It is difficult for the
+European mind, trained to draw a broad distinction between the love of
+God and love for another human being, to enter into a state of feeling
+in which the earthly and sensual is made a type of the heavenly and
+spiritual, but a large-souled charity may be perhaps able to admit that
+by this process, strange though it be to its own habits and
+experiences, there may have been some improvement wrought in the inner
+life of men brought up in other schools of thought; and my own
+experience, now of fourteen years standing, enables me to say that
+Vaish.navism does, in spite of, or perhaps in virtue of, its peculiar
+_modus operandi_, work a change for the better on those who come
+under its influence.
+
+Two more hymns on the same subject follow, and in No. 5 Râdhâ herself
+breaks silence.
+
+"In the kadamba grove what man is (that) standing?  What sort of word
+coming is this: the plough of whose meaning has penetrated startlingly
+the path of hearing?  With a hint of union, with its manner of
+penetrating making one well-nigh mad:  My mind is agitated, it cannot
+be still, streams flow from my eyes:  I know not what manner of man it
+is who utters such words:  I see him not, my heart is perturbed, I
+cannot stay in the house:  My soul rests not, it flutters to and fro in
+hope of seeing him:  When she sees him, she will find her soul, quoth
+Urdbab Dâs."
+
+I have left myself no space to finish this Pallab, or to make remarks
+on the peculiarities of the language, which in the older masters would
+more properly be called old Maithila than Bengali.  It is nearly
+identical with the language still spoken in Tirhut, the ancient
+Mithili, and in Munger and Bhâgalpur, the ancient Magadha, than modern
+Bengali.  As the Aryan race grew and multiplied it naturally poured out
+its surplus population in Bengal, and it is not only philologically
+obvious that Bengali is nothing more than a further, and very modern
+development of the extreme eastern dialect of Hindi.  All these
+considerations, however, I hope still further to develop at some future
+time.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Chaitanya and the Vaishnava Poets of
+Bengal, by John Beames
+
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Chaitanya and the Vaishnava Poets of Bengal, by 
+John Beames
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
+other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
+whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
+the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
+www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
+to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
+
+Title: Chaitanya and the Vaishnava Poets of Bengal
+
+Author: John Beames
+
+Posting Date: August 23, 2014 [EBook #6817]
+Release Date: November, 2004
+First Posted: January 27, 2003
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CHAITANYA AND VAISHNAVA POETS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by John B. Hare (sacred-texts.com), and Chetan
+Jain (BharatLiterature).
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAITANYA AND THE VAISHNAVA POETS OF BENGAL
+
+
+
+THE
+INDIAN ANTIQUARY,
+
+
+A JOURNAL OF ORIENTAL RESEARCH
+
+IN
+
+ARCHAEOLOGY, HISTORY, LITERATURE, LANGUAGES, PHILOSOPHY, RELIGION,
+FOLKLORE, &c., &c., &c.
+
+
+EDITED BY
+
+JAS. BURGESS, M.R.A.S., F.R.G.S.
+
+
+VOL. II.--1873
+[Bombay, Education Society's Press]
+{Scanned and edited by Christopher M. Weimer, May 2002}
+
+
+
+CHAITANYA AND THE VAISHNAVA POETS OF BENGAL.
+
+STUDIES IN BENGALI POETRY OF THE FIFTEENTH AND SIXTEENTH CENTURIES.
+
+BY JOHN BEAMES, J.C.S., M.R.A.S. &c.
+
+
+THE PADKALPATARU, or 'wish-granting tree of song,' may be considered as
+the scriptures of the Vaish.nava sect in Bengal.  In form it is a
+collection of songs written by various poets in various ages, so
+arranged as to exhibit a complete series of poems on the topics and
+tenets which constitute the religious views of the sect.  The book has
+been put together in recent times, and takes the reader through the
+preliminary consecration, invocations and introductory ceremonies, the
+rise and progress of the mutual love of Radha and K.rish.na, and winds
+up with the usual closing and valedictory hymns.
+
+Before beginning an analysis of this collection so remarkable from many
+points of view, it will probably be of some assistance even to those
+who have studied the history of Vaish.navism, if I state briefly the
+leading points in the life of Chaitanya, and the principal features of
+the religion which he developed, rather than actually founded.
+
+Bisambhar (Vishvambhara) Misr was the youngest son of Jagannath Misr, a
+Brahman, native of the district of Sylhet in Eastern Bengal, who had
+emigrated before the birth of his son to Nadiya (Nabadwipa), the
+capital of Bengal.  [Footnote: The facts which here follow are taken
+from the "Chaitanyacharitamrita," a metrical life of Chaitanya, the
+greater part of which was probably written by a contemporary of the
+teacher himself.  The style has unfortunately been much modernized, but
+even so, the book is one of the oldest extant works in Bengali.  My
+esteemed friend Babu Jagadishnath Ray has kindly gone through the book,
+a task for which I had not leisure, and marked some of the salient
+points for me.]  His mother was Sachi Debi, daughter of Nilambar
+Chakravarti.  She bore to Jagannath eight daughters who all died young;
+her first-born child, however, was a son named Biswarup, who afterwards
+under the name of Nityanand became the chief disciple of his more
+famous brother.  Bisambhar was born at Nadiya in the evening of the
+_Purnima_ or day of the full moon of Phalgun 1407 Sakabda,
+corresponding to the latter part of February or beginning of March A.D.
+1486.  It is noted that there was an eclipse of the moon on that day.
+By the aid of these indications those who care to do so can find out
+the exact day.  [Footnote: There was an eclipse of the moon before
+midnight Feb. 18, O.S. 1486.]  The passages in the original are:--
+
+
+  Sri K.rish.na the Visible became incarnate in Nabadwip,
+  For forty-eight years visibly he sported;
+  The exact (date) of his birth (is) Saka 1407,
+  In 1455 he returned to heaven.
+
+
+And again--
+
+
+  On the full moon of Phalgun at even was the lord's birth
+  At that time by divine provision there was an eclipse of the moon.
+    --_Ch._ I. xiii. 38.
+
+
+In accordance with the usual Bengali superstition that if a man's real
+name be known he may be bewitched or subject to the influence of the
+evil eye, the real name given at birth is not made known at the time,
+but another name is given by which the individual is usually called.
+No one but the father and mother and priest know the real name.
+Bisambhar's usual name in childhood was Nimai, and by this he was
+generally known to his neighbours.
+
+In person, if the description of him in the Chaitanyacharitamrita (Bk.
+I. iii.) is to be considered as historical, he was handsome, tall (six
+feet), with long arms, in colour a light brown, with expressive eyes, a
+sonorous voice, and very sweet and winning manners.  He is frequently
+called "Gaurang" or "Gaurchandra," _i.e._, the pale, or the pale
+moon, in contrast to the Krishna of the Bhagvat who is represented as
+very black.
+
+The name Chaitanya literally means 'soul, intellect,' but in the
+special and technical sense in which the teacher himself adopted it, it
+appears to mean perceptible, or appreciable by the senses.  He took the
+name Sri K.rish.na Chaitanya to intimate that he was himself an
+incarnation of the god, in other words, K.rish.na made visible to the
+senses of mankind.
+
+The Charitamrita being composed by one of his disciples, is written
+throughout on this supposition.  Chaitanya is always spoken of as an
+incarnation of K.rish.na, and his brother Nityanand as a re-appearance
+of Balaram.  In order to keep up the resemblance to K.rish.na, the
+Charitamrita treats us to a long series of stories about Chaitanya's
+childish sports among the young Hindu women of the village.  They are
+not worth relating, and are probably purely fictitious; the Bengalis of
+to-day must be very different from what their ancestors were, if such
+pranks as are related in the Charitamrita were quietly permitted to go
+on.  Chaitanya, however, seems to have been eccentric even as a youth;
+wonderful stories are told of his powers of intellect and memory, how,
+for instance, he defeated in argument the most learned Pandits.  A
+great deal is said about his hallucinations and trances throughout his
+life, and we may perhaps conclude that he was more or less insane at
+all times, or rather he was one of those strange enthusiasts who wield
+such deep and irresistible influence over the masses by virtue of that
+very condition of mind which borders on madness.
+
+When he was about eighteen his father died, and he soon afterwards
+married Lachhmi Debi, daughter of Balabhadra Acharjya, and entered on
+the career of a _grihastha_ or householder, taking in pupils whom
+he instructed in ordinary secular learning.  He does not appear,
+however, to have kept to this quiet life for long; he went off on a
+wandering tour all over Eastern Bengal, begging and singing, and is
+said to have collected a great deal of money and made a considerable
+name for himself.  On his return he found his first wife had died in
+his absence, and he married again one Bishnupriya, concerning whom
+nothing further is said.  Soon after he went to Gaya to offer the usual
+pi.n.da to the _manes_ of his ancestors.
+
+It was on his return from Gaya, when he was about 23 years of age, that
+he began seriously to start his new creed.  "It was now," writes Babu
+Jagadishnath, "that he openly condemned the Hindu ritualistic system of
+ceremonies as being a body without a soul, disowned the institution of
+caste as being abhorrent to a loving god all whose creatures were one
+in his eyes, preached the efficacy of adoration and love and extolled
+the excellence and sanctity of _the_ name, and the uttering and
+singing of _the_ name of god as infinitely superior to barren
+system without faith."  Chaitanya, however, as the Babu points out, was
+not the originator of this theory, but appears to have borrowed it from
+his neighbour Adwaita Acharjya, whose custom it was, after performing
+his daily ritual, to go to the banks of the Ganges and call aloud for
+the coming of the god who should substitute love and faith for mere
+rites and ceremonies.  This custom is still adhered to by Vaish.navas.
+The Charitamrita veils the priority of Adwaita adroitly by stating that
+it was he who by his austerities hastened the coming of K.rish.na in
+the avatar of Chaitanya.
+
+
+  I praise that revered teacher Adwaita of wonderful actions,
+  By whose favour even the ignorant may perceive the (divinity)
+    personified.
+    --Ch. I. vi.
+
+
+Thus in Sanskrit verses at the head of that chapter which sings the
+virtues of Adwaita: by in the Bengali portion of the same chapter it is
+asserted that Adwaita was himself an incarnation of a part of the
+divinity, e.g.--
+
+
+  The teacher Adwaita is a special portion of god.
+
+
+And the author goes on to say that Adwaita was first the teacher then
+the pupil of Chaitanya.  The probability is that Adwaita, like the
+majority of his countrymen, was more addicted to meditation than to
+action.  The idea which in his mind gave rise to nothing more than
+indefinite longings when transfused into the earnest fiery nature of
+Chaitanya, expanded into a faith which moved and led captive the souls
+of thousands.
+
+His brother Nityanand was now assumed to be an incarnation of Balaram,
+and took his place as second-in-command in consequence.  The practice
+of meeting for worship and to celebrate "Sankirtans" was now
+instituted; the meetings took place in the house of a disciple Sribas,
+and were quite private.  The new religionists met with some opposition,
+and a good deal of mockery.  One night on leaving their rendezvous,
+they found on the door-step red flowers and goats' blood, emblems of
+the worship of Durga, and abominations in the eyes of a Vaish.nava.
+These were put there by a Brahman named Gopal.  Chaitanya cursed him
+for his practical joke, and we are told that he became a leper in
+consequence.  The opposition was to a great extent, however, provoked
+by the Vaish.navas, who seem to have been very eccentric and
+extravagant in their conduct.  Every thing that K.rish.na had done
+Chaitanya must do too, thus we read of his dancing on the shoulders of
+Murari Gupta, one of his adherents; and his followers, like himself,
+had fits, foamed at the mouth, and went off into convulsions, much
+after the fashion of some revivalists of modern times.  The young
+students at the Sanskrit schools in Nadiya naturally found all this
+very amusing, and cracked jokes to their hearts' content on the crazy
+enthusiasts.
+
+In January 1510, Chaitanya suddenly took it into his head to become a
+Sanyasi or ascetic, and received initiation at the hands of Keshab
+Bharati of Katwa.  Some say he did this to gain respect and credit as a
+religious preacher, others say it was done in consequence of a curse
+laid on him by a Brahman whom he had offended.  Be this as it may, his
+craziness seems now to have reached its height.  He wandered off from
+his home, in the first instance, to Puri to see the shrine of
+Jagannath.  Thence for six years he roamed all over India preaching
+Vaish.navism, and returned at last to Puri, where he passed the
+remaining eighteen years of his life and where at length he died in the
+48th year of his age in 1534 A.D.  His Bengali followers visited him
+for four months in every year and some of them always kept watch over
+him, for he was now quite mad.  He had starved and preached and sung
+and raved himself quite out of his senses.  On one occasion he imagined
+that a post in his veranda was Radha, and embraced it so hard as nearly
+to smash his nose, and to cover himself with blood from scraping all
+the skin off his forehead; on another he walked into the sea in a fit
+of abstraction, and was fished up half dead in a net by a fisherman.
+His friends took it in turns to watch by his side all night lest he
+should do himself some injury.
+
+The leading principle that underlies the whole of Chaitanya's system is
+_Bhakti_ or devotion; and the principle is exemplified and
+illustrated by the mutual loves of Radha and K.rish.na.  In adopting
+this illustration of his principle, Chaitanya followed the example of
+the Bhagavad Gita and the Bhagavat Pura.na, and he was probably also
+influenced in the sensual tone he gave to the whole by the poems of
+Jayadeva.  The Bhakta or devotee passes through five successive stages,
+_Santa_ or resigned contemplation of the deity is the first, and
+from it he passes into _Dasya_ or the practice of worship and
+service, whence to _Sakhya_ or friendship, which warms into
+_Batsalya_, filial affection, and lastly rises to _Madhurya_
+or earnest, all-engrossing love.
+
+Vaish.navism is singularly like Sufiism, the resemblance has often been
+noticed, and need here only be briefly traced.  [Footnote: Conf. Capt.
+J. W. Graham's paper 'On Sufiism,' _Bombay Literary Soc. Trans._
+Vol. I. pp. 89 et seqq.; Rajendralala Mittra's valuable introduction to
+the _Chaitanya Chandrodaya_ (Biblioth. Ind.), pp. ii-iv and xv;
+also Jones' 'Mystical Poetry of the Persians and Hindus,' _Asiat.
+Res._ Vol. III. pp. 165-207; and Leyden, 'On the Rosheniah Sect,
+&c.,' _As. Res._ Vol. XI. pp. 363-428.--ED.]  With the latter the
+first degree is _nasut_ or 'humanity' in which man is subject to
+the law _shara_, the second _tarikat_, 'the way' of
+spiritualism, the third _'aruf_ or 'knowledge,' and the fourth
+_hakikat_ or 'the truth.' Some writers give a longer series of
+grades, thus--_talab,_ 'seeking after god;' _'ishk_, 'love;'
+_m'arifat_, 'insight;' _istighnah_, 'satisfaction;'
+_tauhid_, 'unity;' _hairat_, 'ecstacy;' and lastly
+_fana_, 'absorption.'  Dealing as it does with God and Man as two
+factors of a problem, Vaish.navism necessarily ignores the distinctions
+of caste, and Chaitanya was perfectly consistent in this respect,
+admitting men of all castes, including Muhammadans, to his sect.  Since
+his time, however, that strange love of caste-distinctions, which seems
+so ineradicable from the soil of India, has begun again to creep into
+Vaish.navism, and will probably end by establishing its power as firmly
+in this sect as in any other.
+
+Although the institution of love towards the divine nature, and the
+doctrine that this love was reciprocated, were certainly a great
+improvement on the morbid gloom of Siva-worship, the colourless
+negativeness of Buddhism, and the childish intricacy of ceremonies
+which formed the religion of the mass of ordinary Hindus, still we
+cannot find much to admire in it.  There seems to be something almost
+contradictory in representing the highest and purest emotions of the
+mind by images drawn from the lowest and most animal passions.
+
+
+  "Ut matrona meretrici dispar erit atque discolor."
+
+
+So must also Vaish.navism differ from true religion, the flesh from the
+spirit, the impure from the pure.  The singing of hymns about Radha and
+K.rish.na is much older than Chaitanya's age.  Not to mention Jayadeva
+and his beautiful, though sensual, Gitagovinda.  [Footnote: It is many
+years now since I read Gitagovinda as a text-book at college, but the
+impression I still retain is that it was in many parts far too warm for
+European tastes.]  Bidyapati, the earliest of Bengali poets, and
+Cha.n.di Das both preceded Chaitanya, and he himself is stated to have
+been fond of singing their verses.  There was therefore a considerable
+mass of hymns ready to his hand, and his contemporaries and followers
+added largely to the number; the poems of the _Padakalpataru_ in
+consequence are of all ages from the fifteenth century downwards;
+moreover, as Vaish.navism aspires to be a religion for the masses, the
+aim of its supporters has always been to write in the vulgar tongue, a
+fortunate circumstance which renders this vast body of literature
+extremely valuable to the philologist, since it can be relied on as
+representing the spoken language of its day more accurately than those
+pretentious works whose authors despised everything but Sanskrit.
+
+The _Padakalpataru_, to keep up the metaphor of its name
+throughout, is divided into 4 _sakhas_ or 'branches,' and each of
+these into 8 or 10 _pallabas_ or smaller branches, 'boughs.'  It
+should be explained that the kirtans are celebrated with considerable
+ceremony.  There is first a consecration both of the performers and
+instruments with flowers, incense, and sweetmeats.  This is called the
+_adhibas_.  The principal performer then sings one song after
+another, the others playing the drum and cymbals in time, and joining
+in the chorus; as the performance goes on many of them get excited and
+wildly frantic, and roll about on the ground.  When the performance is
+over the drum is respectfully sprinkled with _chandana_ or
+sandalwood paste, and hung up.  Several performances go on for days
+till a whole Sakha has been sung through, and I believe it is always
+customary to go through at least one Pallab at a sitting, however long
+it may be.  The Bengali Kirtan in fact resembles very much the Bhajans
+and Kathas common in the Mara.tha country, and each poem in length, and
+often in subject, is similar to the Abhangas of Tukaram and others in
+that province.
+
+The first Pallab contains 27 hymns, of these 8 are by Gobind Das, 8 by
+Baishnab Das, 3 by Brindaban Das, the rest by minor masters.  Brindaban
+Das and Parameshwar Das were contemporaries of Chaitanya, the others--
+including Gobind Das, who is perhaps the most voluminous writer of all
+--are subsequent to him.  Of the hymns themselves the first five are
+invocations of Chaitanya and Nityanand, and one is in praise of the
+ceremony of Kirtan.  There is nothing very remarkable in any of them.
+Number 5 may be taken as a specimen, as it is perhaps the best of the
+batch.
+
+
+  "Nand's son, lover of the Gopis, lord of Radha, the playful Syam:
+
+
+_Is_ he, Sachi's son, the Indra of Nadiya, the heart-charming
+dwelling of gods and saints; victory to him who is love embodied to his
+own beloved, hail! hail to him who is the joy of the existence of his
+well-beloved! hail to the delight of the eyes of his comrades in Braj!
+hail to the charm of the sight of the women of Nadiya! hail! hail to
+Sridam, Sudam, Subal, and Arjun, [Footnote: Names of Chaitanya's
+disciples.] bound by love to him whose form is as a new cloud! hail to
+Ram and the rest, beautiful and dear companions! hail to the charmer,
+the incomparable Gora (Chaitanya)! hail to the mighty younger brother
+of Balaram! hail! hail to Nityanand (who is) joy (personified)! Hail to
+him who destroys the fear of good men, the object of the hope of Gobind
+Das!"
+
+I would call attention here, once for all, to what is one of the
+principal charms of Vaish.nava hymns, the exquisitely musical rhythm
+and cadence.  They seem made to be sung, and trip off the tongue with a
+lilt and grace which are irresistible.
+
+This hymn is interesting as shewing how completely Chaitanya is by his
+followers invested with the attributes of, and identified with,
+K.rish.na; it has no other special merits; nor anything specially
+interesting from a philological point of view as it is nearly all
+Sansk.rit.
+
+The next six are in praise of the sect itself, of Adwaita, and the
+principal disciples.  That on Adwaita by his contemporary Brindaban Das
+gives a lively picture of the old Brahman, then follow seven in praise
+of the Kirtanias or the old master-singers--Bidyapati, Jayadeva,
+Cha.n.di Das; then four on K.rish.na and Radha, containing only a
+succession of epithets linked together by jay! jay!
+
+The twenty-third begins the adhibas or consecration, and is curious
+less for its language than for the description it gives of the
+ceremonies practised.  It is by the old masters Parameshwar and
+Brindaban, with the concluding portion by a younger master Bansi.  The
+poem is in four parts and takes the form of a story how Chaitanya held
+his feast.  It runs thus:--
+
+
+  23. Atha sankirtanasya adhibasa.
+
+
+"One day coming and smiling, sitting in Adwaita's house, spake the son
+of Sachi, having Nityanand with him and Adwaita, sitting in enjoyment,
+he planned a great festivity.  Hearing this, smiling with joy, Sita
+Thakurani coming spoke a sweet word: hearing that with joyful mind the
+son of Sachi spoke somewhat in regard to arranging the festival.
+'Listen, Thakurani Sita,[Footnote: Sita was the wife of Adwaita.] bring
+the Baishnabs here; making pressing invitation to them: whoso can sing,
+whoso can play, invite them separately, man by man.'  Thus Gora Rai
+speaking gave orders for an assembly: ' Invite the Baishnabs!  Bring
+out the cymbal and drum, set out full pots painted with aloes and
+sandal-paste: plant plantains, hang on them garlands of flowers, for
+the Kirtan place joyfully.  With garlands, sandal, and betelnut, ghee,
+honey, and curds consecrate the drum at evening-tide.'  Hearing the
+lord's word, in loving manner she made accordingly various offerings
+with fragrant perfumes: all cried 'Hari, Hari!' thus they consecrate
+the drum; Parameshwar Das floats in enjoyment."
+
+Of the remainder of the adhibas I give merely a paraphrase ommiting the
+numerous repetitions.
+
+2. Having prepared the entertainment she invites them, "kindly visit
+us, to you and Vaish.navas, this is my petition, come and see and
+complete the feast;" thus entreating she brought the honoured guests,
+they consecrate the feast.  Joyfully the Vaish.navas came to the feast:
+"to-morrow will be the joy of the great festivity, there will be the
+enjoyment of the singing Sri K.rish.na's sports, all will be filled
+with delight."  The merits of the assembly of the devotees of Sri
+K.rish.na Chaitanya singeth Brindaban Das.
+
+3. First set up the plantains, array the full pots, adorned with twigs
+of the mango; the Brahman chants the Vedas, the women shout jay! jay!
+and all cry Hari! Hari!  Making the consecration with curds and
+_ghi_, all display their joy; bringing in the Vaish.navas, giving
+them garlands and sandal-paste, for the celebration of the Kirtan; joy
+is in the hearts of all, hither come the Vaish.navas, to-morrow will be
+Chaitanya's kirtan; the virtue of Sri K.rish.na Chaitanya's name, and
+the indwelling of Sri Nityanand singeth Das Brindaban.  [Footnote: The
+poet's name is inverted to make a rhyme for Kirtan in the preceding
+line.]
+
+4. Jay! jay! in Nawadwip; by Gorang's order Adwaita goes to prepare the
+consecration of the drum.  Bringing all the Vaish.navas with sound of
+"Hari bol," he initiates the great feast.  He himself giving garlands
+and sandal-paste, converses with his beloved Vaish.navas, Gobind taking
+the drum plays ta-ta-tum tum, Adwaita lightly clashes the cymbals.
+Hari Das begins the song, Sribas keeps time, Gorang dances at the
+kirtan celebration.  On all sides the Vaish.navas crowding echo "Hari
+bol," to-morrow will be the great feast.  To-day consecrate the drum
+and hang it up, joyfully saith Bansi sound victory! victory!!
+
+Having thus concluded the initiatory ceremonies in the lst Pallab, the
+2nd Pallab begins the real "Kirtan."  It contains 26 hymns by masters
+who are mostly of comparatively recent date.  Of the old masters Gobind
+Das and Cha.n.di Das alone appear in this Pallab.  We now commence the
+long and minutely described series of emotions and flirtations (if so
+lowly a word may be used) between Radha and K.rish.na, and this Pallab
+and in fact the whole of the first Sakha is on that phase called
+"purbaraga" or first symptoms of love.  In No. 2, Cha.n.di Das
+represents two of Radha's Sakhis, or girl-friends, whispering together
+as they watch her from a distance (the punctuation {i.e. colon (:)}
+refers to the caesura, not to the sense):
+
+"She stands outside the house, a hundred times restlessly she comes and
+goes: depressed in mind, _with_ frequent sighs, she looks towards
+the kadamba jungle.  Why has Rai (Radhika) become thus? serious is her
+error, she has no fear of men, where are her senses, or what god has
+possessed her?  Constantly restless, she does not cover herself with
+the corner of her robe: she sits still for a while, then rises with a
+start, her ornaments fall with a clang.  Youthful in age, of royal
+descent, and a chaste maiden to boot: what does she desire, (why) does
+her longing increase?  I cannot understand her motives: from her
+conduct, this I conceive, she has raised her hand to the moon:
+[Footnote: She has formed some extravagant desire.]  Cha.n.di Das says
+with respect she has fallen into the snare of the black one
+(K.rish.na)."
+
+This poem vividly expresses the first symptoms of love dawning in the
+girl's heart, and from a religious point of view the first awakenings
+of consciousness of divine love in the soul.  It is difficult for the
+European mind, trained to draw a broad distinction between the love of
+God and love for another human being, to enter into a state of feeling
+in which the earthly and sensual is made a type of the heavenly and
+spiritual, but a large-souled charity may be perhaps able to admit that
+by this process, strange though it be to its own habits and
+experiences, there may have been some improvement wrought in the inner
+life of men brought up in other schools of thought; and my own
+experience, now of fourteen years standing, enables me to say that
+Vaish.navism does, in spite of, or perhaps in virtue of, its peculiar
+_modus operandi_, work a change for the better on those who come
+under its influence.
+
+Two more hymns on the same subject follow, and in No. 5 Radha herself
+breaks silence.
+
+"In the kadamba grove what man is (that) standing?  What sort of word
+coming is this: the plough of whose meaning has penetrated startlingly
+the path of hearing?  With a hint of union, with its manner of
+penetrating making one well-nigh mad:  My mind is agitated, it cannot
+be still, streams flow from my eyes:  I know not what manner of man it
+is who utters such words:  I see him not, my heart is perturbed, I
+cannot stay in the house:  My soul rests not, it flutters to and fro in
+hope of seeing him:  When she sees him, she will find her soul, quoth
+Urdbab Das."
+
+I have left myself no space to finish this Pallab, or to make remarks
+on the peculiarities of the language, which in the older masters would
+more properly be called old Maithila than Bengali.  It is nearly
+identical with the language still spoken in Tirhut, the ancient
+Mithili, and in Munger and Bhagalpur, the ancient Magadha, than modern
+Bengali.  As the Aryan race grew and multiplied it naturally poured out
+its surplus population in Bengal, and it is not only philologically
+obvious that Bengali is nothing more than a further, and very modern
+development of the extreme eastern dialect of Hindi.  All these
+considerations, however, I hope still further to develop at some future
+time.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Chaitanya and the Vaishnava Poets of
+Bengal, by John Beames
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Chaitanya and the Vaishnava Poets of Bengal
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+Title: Chaitanya and the Vaishnava Poets of Bengal
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+
+CHAITANYA AND THE VAISHNAVA POETS OF BENGAL
+
+
+
+THE
+INDIAN ANTIQUARY,
+
+
+A JOURNAL OF ORIENTAL RESEARCH
+
+IN
+
+ARCHAEOLOGY, HISTORY, LITERATURE, LANGUAGES, PHILOSOPHY, RELIGION,
+FOLKLORE, &c., &c., &c.
+
+
+EDITED BY
+
+JAS. BURGESS, M.R.A.S., F.R.G.S.
+
+
+VOL. II.--1873
+[Bombay, Education Society's Press]
+{Scanned and edited by Christopher M. Weimer, May 2002}
+
+
+
+CHAITANYA AND THE VAISHNAVA POETS OF BENGAL.
+
+STUDIES IN BENGALI POETRY OF THE FIFTEENTH AND SIXTEENTH CENTURIES.
+
+BY JOHN BEAMES, J.C.S., M.R.A.S. &c.
+
+
+THE PADKALPATARU, or 'wish-granting tree of song,' may be considered as
+the scriptures of the Vaish.nava sect in Bengal.  In form it is a
+collection of songs written by various poets in various ages, so
+arranged as to exhibit a complete series of poems on the topics and
+tenets which constitute the religious views of the sect.  The book has
+been put together in recent times, and takes the reader through the
+preliminary consecration, invocations and introductory ceremonies, the
+rise and progress of the mutual love of Radha and K.rish.na, and winds
+up with the usual closing and valedictory hymns.
+
+Before beginning an analysis of this collection so remarkable from many
+points of view, it will probably be of some assistance even to those
+who have studied the history of Vaish.navism, if I state briefly the
+leading points in the life of Chaitanya, and the principal features of
+the religion which he developed, rather than actually founded.
+
+Bisambhar (Vishvambhara) Misr was the youngest son of Jagannath Misr, a
+Brahman, native of the district of Sylhet in Eastern Bengal, who had
+emigrated before the birth of his son to Nadiya (Nabadwipa), the
+capital of Bengal.  [Footnote: The facts which here follow are taken
+from the "Chaitanyacharitamrita," a metrical life of Chaitanya, the
+greater part of which was probably written by a contemporary of the
+teacher himself.  The style has unfortunately been much modernized, but
+even so, the book is one of the oldest extant works in Bengali.  My
+esteemed friend Babu Jagadishnath Ray has kindly gone through the book,
+a task for which I had not leisure, and marked some of the salient
+points for me.]  His mother was Sachi Debi, daughter of Nilambar
+Chakravarti.  She bore to Jagannath eight daughters who all died young;
+her first-born child, however, was a son named Biswarup, who afterwards
+under the name of Nityanand became the chief disciple of his more
+famous brother.  Bisambhar was born at Nadiya in the evening of the
+_Purnima_ or day of the full moon of Phalgun 1407 Sakabda,
+corresponding to the latter part of February or beginning of March A.D.
+1486.  It is noted that there was an eclipse of the moon on that day.
+By the aid of these indications those who care to do so can find out
+the exact day.  [Footnote: There was an eclipse of the moon before
+midnight Feb. 18, O.S. 1486.]  The passages in the original are:--
+
+
+  Sri K.rish.na the Visible became incarnate in Nabadwip,
+  For forty-eight years visibly he sported;
+  The exact (date) of his birth (is) Saka 1407,
+  In 1455 he returned to heaven.
+
+
+And again--
+
+
+  On the full moon of Phalgun at even was the lord's birth
+  At that time by divine provision there was an eclipse of the moon.
+    --_Ch._ I. xiii. 38.
+
+
+In accordance with the usual Bengali superstition that if a man's real
+name be known he may be bewitched or subject to the influence of the
+evil eye, the real name given at birth is not made known at the time,
+but another name is given by which the individual is usually called.
+No one but the father and mother and priest know the real name.
+Bisambhar's usual name in childhood was Nimai, and by this he was
+generally known to his neighbours.
+
+In person, if the description of him in the Chaitanyacharitamrita (Bk.
+I. iii.) is to be considered as historical, he was handsome, tall (six
+feet), with long arms, in colour a light brown, with expressive eyes, a
+sonorous voice, and very sweet and winning manners.  He is frequently
+called "Gaurang" or "Gaurchandra," _i.e._, the pale, or the pale
+moon, in contrast to the Krishna of the Bhagvat who is represented as
+very black.
+
+The name Chaitanya literally means 'soul, intellect,' but in the
+special and technical sense in which the teacher himself adopted it, it
+appears to mean perceptible, or appreciable by the senses.  He took the
+name Sri K.rish.na Chaitanya to intimate that he was himself an
+incarnation of the god, in other words, K.rish.na made visible to the
+senses of mankind.
+
+The Charitamrita being composed by one of his disciples, is written
+throughout on this supposition.  Chaitanya is always spoken of as an
+incarnation of K.rish.na, and his brother Nityanand as a re-appearance
+of Balaram.  In order to keep up the resemblance to K.rish.na, the
+Charitamrita treats us to a long series of stories about Chaitanya's
+childish sports among the young Hindu women of the village.  They are
+not worth relating, and are probably purely fictitious; the Bengalis of
+to-day must be very different from what their ancestors were, if such
+pranks as are related in the Charitamrita were quietly permitted to go
+on.  Chaitanya, however, seems to have been eccentric even as a youth;
+wonderful stories are told of his powers of intellect and memory, how,
+for instance, he defeated in argument the most learned Pandits.  A
+great deal is said about his hallucinations and trances throughout his
+life, and we may perhaps conclude that he was more or less insane at
+all times, or rather he was one of those strange enthusiasts who wield
+such deep and irresistible influence over the masses by virtue of that
+very condition of mind which borders on madness.
+
+When he was about eighteen his father died, and he soon afterwards
+married Lachhmi Debi, daughter of Balabhadra Acharjya, and entered on
+the career of a _grihastha_ or householder, taking in pupils whom
+he instructed in ordinary secular learning.  He does not appear,
+however, to have kept to this quiet life for long; he went off on a
+wandering tour all over Eastern Bengal, begging and singing, and is
+said to have collected a great deal of money and made a considerable
+name for himself.  On his return he found his first wife had died in
+his absence, and he married again one Bishnupriya, concerning whom
+nothing further is said.  Soon after he went to Gaya to offer the usual
+pi.n.da to the _manes_ of his ancestors.
+
+It was on his return from Gaya, when he was about 23 years of age, that
+he began seriously to start his new creed.  "It was now," writes Babu
+Jagadishnath, "that he openly condemned the Hindu ritualistic system of
+ceremonies as being a body without a soul, disowned the institution of
+caste as being abhorrent to a loving god all whose creatures were one
+in his eyes, preached the efficacy of adoration and love and extolled
+the excellence and sanctity of _the_ name, and the uttering and
+singing of _the_ name of god as infinitely superior to barren
+system without faith."  Chaitanya, however, as the Babu points out, was
+not the originator of this theory, but appears to have borrowed it from
+his neighbour Adwaita Acharjya, whose custom it was, after performing
+his daily ritual, to go to the banks of the Ganges and call aloud for
+the coming of the god who should substitute love and faith for mere
+rites and ceremonies.  This custom is still adhered to by Vaish.navas.
+The Charitamrita veils the priority of Adwaita adroitly by stating that
+it was he who by his austerities hastened the coming of K.rish.na in
+the avatar of Chaitanya.
+
+
+  I praise that revered teacher Adwaita of wonderful actions,
+  By whose favour even the ignorant may perceive the (divinity)
+    personified.
+    --Ch. I. vi.
+
+
+Thus in Sanskrit verses at the head of that chapter which sings the
+virtues of Adwaita: by in the Bengali portion of the same chapter it is
+asserted that Adwaita was himself an incarnation of a part of the
+divinity, e.g.--
+
+
+  The teacher Adwaita is a special portion of god.
+
+
+And the author goes on to say that Adwaita was first the teacher then
+the pupil of Chaitanya.  The probability is that Adwaita, like the
+majority of his countrymen, was more addicted to meditation than to
+action.  The idea which in his mind gave rise to nothing more than
+indefinite longings when transfused into the earnest fiery nature of
+Chaitanya, expanded into a faith which moved and led captive the souls
+of thousands.
+
+His brother Nityanand was now assumed to be an incarnation of Balaram,
+and took his place as second-in-command in consequence.  The practice
+of meeting for worship and to celebrate "Sankirtans" was now
+instituted; the meetings took place in the house of a disciple Sribas,
+and were quite private.  The new religionists met with some opposition,
+and a good deal of mockery.  One night on leaving their rendezvous,
+they found on the door-step red flowers and goats' blood, emblems of
+the worship of Durga, and abominations in the eyes of a Vaish.nava.
+These were put there by a Brahman named Gopal.  Chaitanya cursed him
+for his practical joke, and we are told that he became a leper in
+consequence.  The opposition was to a great extent, however, provoked
+by the Vaish.navas, who seem to have been very eccentric and
+extravagant in their conduct.  Every thing that K.rish.na had done
+Chaitanya must do too, thus we read of his dancing on the shoulders of
+Murari Gupta, one of his adherents; and his followers, like himself,
+had fits, foamed at the mouth, and went off into convulsions, much
+after the fashion of some revivalists of modern times.  The young
+students at the Sanskrit schools in Nadiya naturally found all this
+very amusing, and cracked jokes to their hearts' content on the crazy
+enthusiasts.
+
+In January 1510, Chaitanya suddenly took it into his head to become a
+Sanyasi or ascetic, and received initiation at the hands of Keshab
+Bharati of Katwa.  Some say he did this to gain respect and credit as a
+religious preacher, others say it was done in consequence of a curse
+laid on him by a Brahman whom he had offended.  Be this as it may, his
+craziness seems now to have reached its height.  He wandered off from
+his home, in the first instance, to Puri to see the shrine of
+Jagannath.  Thence for six years he roamed all over India preaching
+Vaish.navism, and returned at last to Puri, where he passed the
+remaining eighteen years of his life and where at length he died in the
+48th year of his age in 1534 A.D.  His Bengali followers visited him
+for four months in every year and some of them always kept watch over
+him, for he was now quite mad.  He had starved and preached and sung
+and raved himself quite out of his senses.  On one occasion he imagined
+that a post in his veranda was Radha, and embraced it so hard as nearly
+to smash his nose, and to cover himself with blood from scraping all
+the skin off his forehead; on another he walked into the sea in a fit
+of abstraction, and was fished up half dead in a net by a fisherman.
+His friends took it in turns to watch by his side all night lest he
+should do himself some injury.
+
+The leading principle that underlies the whole of Chaitanya's system is
+_Bhakti_ or devotion; and the principle is exemplified and
+illustrated by the mutual loves of Radha and K.rish.na.  In adopting
+this illustration of his principle, Chaitanya followed the example of
+the Bhagavad Gita and the Bhagavat Pura.na, and he was probably also
+influenced in the sensual tone he gave to the whole by the poems of
+Jayadeva.  The Bhakta or devotee passes through five successive stages,
+_Santa_ or resigned contemplation of the deity is the first, and
+from it he passes into _Dasya_ or the practice of worship and
+service, whence to _Sakhya_ or friendship, which warms into
+_Batsalya_, filial affection, and lastly rises to _Madhurya_
+or earnest, all-engrossing love.
+
+Vaish.navism is singularly like Sufiism, the resemblance has often been
+noticed, and need here only be briefly traced.  [Footnote: Conf. Capt.
+J. W. Graham's paper 'On Sufiism,' _Bombay Literary Soc. Trans._
+Vol. I. pp. 89 et seqq.; Rajendralala Mittra's valuable introduction to
+the _Chaitanya Chandrodaya_ (Biblioth. Ind.), pp. ii-iv and xv;
+also Jones' 'Mystical Poetry of the Persians and Hindus,' _Asiat.
+Res._ Vol. III. pp. 165-207; and Leyden, 'On the Rosheniah Sect,
+&c.,' _As. Res._ Vol. XI. pp. 363-428.--ED.]  With the latter the
+first degree is _nasut_ or 'humanity' in which man is subject to
+the law _shara_, the second _tarikat_, 'the way' of
+spiritualism, the third _'aruf_ or 'knowledge,' and the fourth
+_hakikat_ or 'the truth.' Some writers give a longer series of
+grades, thus--_talab,_ 'seeking after god;' _'ishk_, 'love;'
+_m'arifat_, 'insight;' _istighnah_, 'satisfaction;'
+_tauhid_, 'unity;' _hairat_, 'ecstacy;' and lastly
+_fana_, 'absorption.'  Dealing as it does with God and Man as two
+factors of a problem, Vaish.navism necessarily ignores the distinctions
+of caste, and Chaitanya was perfectly consistent in this respect,
+admitting men of all castes, including Muhammadans, to his sect.  Since
+his time, however, that strange love of caste-distinctions, which seems
+so ineradicable from the soil of India, has begun again to creep into
+Vaish.navism, and will probably end by establishing its power as firmly
+in this sect as in any other.
+
+Although the institution of love towards the divine nature, and the
+doctrine that this love was reciprocated, were certainly a great
+improvement on the morbid gloom of Siva-worship, the colourless
+negativeness of Buddhism, and the childish intricacy of ceremonies
+which formed the religion of the mass of ordinary Hindus, still we
+cannot find much to admire in it.  There seems to be something almost
+contradictory in representing the highest and purest emotions of the
+mind by images drawn from the lowest and most animal passions.
+
+
+  "Ut matrona meretrici dispar erit atque discolor."
+
+
+So must also Vaish.navism differ from true religion, the flesh from the
+spirit, the impure from the pure.  The singing of hymns about Radha and
+K.rish.na is much older than Chaitanya's age.  Not to mention Jayadeva
+and his beautiful, though sensual, Gitagovinda.  [Footnote: It is many
+years now since I read Gitagovinda as a text-book at college, but the
+impression I still retain is that it was in many parts far too warm for
+European tastes.]  Bidyapati, the earliest of Bengali poets, and
+Cha.n.di Das both preceded Chaitanya, and he himself is stated to have
+been fond of singing their verses.  There was therefore a considerable
+mass of hymns ready to his hand, and his contemporaries and followers
+added largely to the number; the poems of the _Padakalpataru_ in
+consequence are of all ages from the fifteenth century downwards;
+moreover, as Vaish.navism aspires to be a religion for the masses, the
+aim of its supporters has always been to write in the vulgar tongue, a
+fortunate circumstance which renders this vast body of literature
+extremely valuable to the philologist, since it can be relied on as
+representing the spoken language of its day more accurately than those
+pretentious works whose authors despised everything but Sanskrit.
+
+The _Padakalpataru_, to keep up the metaphor of its name
+throughout, is divided into 4 _sakhas_ or 'branches,' and each of
+these into 8 or 10 _pallabas_ or smaller branches, 'boughs.'  It
+should be explained that the kirtans are celebrated with considerable
+ceremony.  There is first a consecration both of the performers and
+instruments with flowers, incense, and sweetmeats.  This is called the
+_adhibas_.  The principal performer then sings one song after
+another, the others playing the drum and cymbals in time, and joining
+in the chorus; as the performance goes on many of them get excited and
+wildly frantic, and roll about on the ground.  When the performance is
+over the drum is respectfully sprinkled with _chandana_ or
+sandalwood paste, and hung up.  Several performances go on for days
+till a whole Sakha has been sung through, and I believe it is always
+customary to go through at least one Pallab at a sitting, however long
+it may be.  The Bengali Kirtan in fact resembles very much the Bhajans
+and Kathas common in the Mara.tha country, and each poem in length, and
+often in subject, is similar to the Abhangas of Tukaram and others in
+that province.
+
+The first Pallab contains 27 hymns, of these 8 are by Gobind Das, 8 by
+Baishnab Das, 3 by Brindaban Das, the rest by minor masters.  Brindaban
+Das and Parameshwar Das were contemporaries of Chaitanya, the others--
+including Gobind Das, who is perhaps the most voluminous writer of all
+--are subsequent to him.  Of the hymns themselves the first five are
+invocations of Chaitanya and Nityanand, and one is in praise of the
+ceremony of Kirtan.  There is nothing very remarkable in any of them.
+Number 5 may be taken as a specimen, as it is perhaps the best of the
+batch.
+
+
+  "Nand's son, lover of the Gopis, lord of Radha, the playful Syam:
+
+
+_Is_ he, Sachi's son, the Indra of Nadiya, the heart-charming
+dwelling of gods and saints; victory to him who is love embodied to his
+own beloved, hail! hail to him who is the joy of the existence of his
+well-beloved! hail to the delight of the eyes of his comrades in Braj!
+hail to the charm of the sight of the women of Nadiya! hail! hail to
+Sridam, Sudam, Subal, and Arjun, [Footnote: Names of Chaitanya's
+disciples.] bound by love to him whose form is as a new cloud! hail to
+Ram and the rest, beautiful and dear companions! hail to the charmer,
+the incomparable Gora (Chaitanya)! hail to the mighty younger brother
+of Balaram! hail! hail to Nityanand (who is) joy (personified)! Hail to
+him who destroys the fear of good men, the object of the hope of Gobind
+Das!"
+
+I would call attention here, once for all, to what is one of the
+principal charms of Vaish.nava hymns, the exquisitely musical rhythm
+and cadence.  They seem made to be sung, and trip off the tongue with a
+lilt and grace which are irresistible.
+
+This hymn is interesting as shewing how completely Chaitanya is by his
+followers invested with the attributes of, and identified with,
+K.rish.na; it has no other special merits; nor anything specially
+interesting from a philological point of view as it is nearly all
+Sansk.rit.
+
+The next six are in praise of the sect itself, of Adwaita, and the
+principal disciples.  That on Adwaita by his contemporary Brindaban Das
+gives a lively picture of the old Brahman, then follow seven in praise
+of the Kirtanias or the old master-singers--Bidyapati, Jayadeva,
+Cha.n.di Das; then four on K.rish.na and Radha, containing only a
+succession of epithets linked together by jay! jay!
+
+The twenty-third begins the adhibas or consecration, and is curious
+less for its language than for the description it gives of the
+ceremonies practised.  It is by the old masters Parameshwar and
+Brindaban, with the concluding portion by a younger master Bansi.  The
+poem is in four parts and takes the form of a story how Chaitanya held
+his feast.  It runs thus:--
+
+
+  23. Atha sankirtanasya adhibasa.
+
+
+"One day coming and smiling, sitting in Adwaita's house, spake the son
+of Sachi, having Nityanand with him and Adwaita, sitting in enjoyment,
+he planned a great festivity.  Hearing this, smiling with joy, Sita
+Thakurani coming spoke a sweet word: hearing that with joyful mind the
+son of Sachi spoke somewhat in regard to arranging the festival.
+'Listen, Thakurani Sita,[Footnote: Sita was the wife of Adwaita.] bring
+the Baishnabs here; making pressing invitation to them: whoso can sing,
+whoso can play, invite them separately, man by man.'  Thus Gora Rai
+speaking gave orders for an assembly: ' Invite the Baishnabs!  Bring
+out the cymbal and drum, set out full pots painted with aloes and
+sandal-paste: plant plantains, hang on them garlands of flowers, for
+the Kirtan place joyfully.  With garlands, sandal, and betelnut, ghee,
+honey, and curds consecrate the drum at evening-tide.'  Hearing the
+lord's word, in loving manner she made accordingly various offerings
+with fragrant perfumes: all cried 'Hari, Hari!' thus they consecrate
+the drum; Parameshwar Das floats in enjoyment."
+
+Of the remainder of the adhibas I give merely a paraphrase ommiting the
+numerous repetitions.
+
+2. Having prepared the entertainment she invites them, "kindly visit
+us, to you and Vaish.navas, this is my petition, come and see and
+complete the feast;" thus entreating she brought the honoured guests,
+they consecrate the feast.  Joyfully the Vaish.navas came to the feast:
+"to-morrow will be the joy of the great festivity, there will be the
+enjoyment of the singing Sri K.rish.na's sports, all will be filled
+with delight."  The merits of the assembly of the devotees of Sri
+K.rish.na Chaitanya singeth Brindaban Das.
+
+3. First set up the plantains, array the full pots, adorned with twigs
+of the mango; the Brahman chants the Vedas, the women shout jay! jay!
+and all cry Hari! Hari!  Making the consecration with curds and
+_ghi_, all display their joy; bringing in the Vaish.navas, giving
+them garlands and sandal-paste, for the celebration of the Kirtan; joy
+is in the hearts of all, hither come the Vaish.navas, to-morrow will be
+Chaitanya's kirtan; the virtue of Sri K.rish.na Chaitanya's name, and
+the indwelling of Sri Nityanand singeth Das Brindaban.  [Footnote: The
+poet's name is inverted to make a rhyme for Kirtan in the preceding
+line.]
+
+4. Jay! jay! in Nawadwip; by Gorang's order Adwaita goes to prepare the
+consecration of the drum.  Bringing all the Vaish.navas with sound of
+"Hari bol," he initiates the great feast.  He himself giving garlands
+and sandal-paste, converses with his beloved Vaish.navas, Gobind taking
+the drum plays ta-ta-tum tum, Adwaita lightly clashes the cymbals.
+Hari Das begins the song, Sribas keeps time, Gorang dances at the
+kirtan celebration.  On all sides the Vaish.navas crowding echo "Hari
+bol," to-morrow will be the great feast.  To-day consecrate the drum
+and hang it up, joyfully saith Bansi sound victory! victory!!
+
+Having thus concluded the initiatory ceremonies in the lst Pallab, the
+2nd Pallab begins the real "Kirtan."  It contains 26 hymns by masters
+who are mostly of comparatively recent date.  Of the old masters Gobind
+Das and Cha.n.di Das alone appear in this Pallab.  We now commence the
+long and minutely described series of emotions and flirtations (if so
+lowly a word may be used) between Radha and K.rish.na, and this Pallab
+and in fact the whole of the first Sakha is on that phase called
+"purbaraga" or first symptoms of love.  In No. 2, Cha.n.di Das
+represents two of Radha's Sakhis, or girl-friends, whispering together
+as they watch her from a distance (the punctuation {i.e. colon (:)}
+refers to the caesura, not to the sense):
+
+"She stands outside the house, a hundred times restlessly she comes and
+goes: depressed in mind, _with_ frequent sighs, she looks towards
+the kadamba jungle.  Why has Rai (Radhika) become thus? serious is her
+error, she has no fear of men, where are her senses, or what god has
+possessed her?  Constantly restless, she does not cover herself with
+the corner of her robe: she sits still for a while, then rises with a
+start, her ornaments fall with a clang.  Youthful in age, of royal
+descent, and a chaste maiden to boot: what does she desire, (why) does
+her longing increase?  I cannot understand her motives: from her
+conduct, this I conceive, she has raised her hand to the moon:
+[Footnote: She has formed some extravagant desire.]  Cha.n.di Das says
+with respect she has fallen into the snare of the black one
+(K.rish.na)."
+
+This poem vividly expresses the first symptoms of love dawning in the
+girl's heart, and from a religious point of view the first awakenings
+of consciousness of divine love in the soul.  It is difficult for the
+European mind, trained to draw a broad distinction between the love of
+God and love for another human being, to enter into a state of feeling
+in which the earthly and sensual is made a type of the heavenly and
+spiritual, but a large-souled charity may be perhaps able to admit that
+by this process, strange though it be to its own habits and
+experiences, there may have been some improvement wrought in the inner
+life of men brought up in other schools of thought; and my own
+experience, now of fourteen years standing, enables me to say that
+Vaish.navism does, in spite of, or perhaps in virtue of, its peculiar
+_modus operandi_, work a change for the better on those who come
+under its influence.
+
+Two more hymns on the same subject follow, and in No. 5 Radha herself
+breaks silence.
+
+"In the kadamba grove what man is (that) standing?  What sort of word
+coming is this: the plough of whose meaning has penetrated startlingly
+the path of hearing?  With a hint of union, with its manner of
+penetrating making one well-nigh mad:  My mind is agitated, it cannot
+be still, streams flow from my eyes:  I know not what manner of man it
+is who utters such words:  I see him not, my heart is perturbed, I
+cannot stay in the house:  My soul rests not, it flutters to and fro in
+hope of seeing him:  When she sees him, she will find her soul, quoth
+Urdbab Das."
+
+I have left myself no space to finish this Pallab, or to make remarks
+on the peculiarities of the language, which in the older masters would
+more properly be called old Maithila than Bengali.  It is nearly
+identical with the language still spoken in Tirhut, the ancient
+Mithili, and in Munger and Bhagalpur, the ancient Magadha, than modern
+Bengali.  As the Aryan race grew and multiplied it naturally poured out
+its surplus population in Bengal, and it is not only philologically
+obvious that Bengali is nothing more than a further, and very modern
+development of the extreme eastern dialect of Hindi.  All these
+considerations, however, I hope still further to develop at some future
+time.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Chaitanya and the Vaishnava Poets of
+Bengal, by John Beames
+
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Chaitanya and the Vaishnava Poets of Bengal
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+Title: Chaitanya and the Vaishnava Poets of Bengal
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+Author: John Beames
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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CHAITANYA AND THE VAISHNAVA POETS ***
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+
+CHAITANYA AND THE VAISHNAVA POETS OF BENGAL
+
+
+
+THE
+INDIAN ANTIQUARY,
+
+
+A JOURNAL OF ORIENTAL RESEARCH
+
+IN
+
+ARCHÆOLOGY, HISTORY, LITERATURE, LANGUAGES, PHILOSOPHY, RELIGION,
+FOLKLORE, &c., &c., &c.
+
+
+EDITED BY
+
+JAS. BURGESS, M.R.A.S., F.R.G.S.
+
+
+VOL. II.--1873
+[Bombay, Education Society's Press]
+{Scanned and edited by Christopher M. Weimer, May 2002}
+
+
+
+CHAITANYA AND THE VAISHNAVA POETS OF BENGAL.
+
+STUDIES IN BENGALI POETRY OF THE FIFTEENTH AND SIXTEENTH CENTURIES.
+
+BY JOHN BEAMES, J.C.S., M.R.A.S. &c.
+
+
+THE PADKALPATARU, or 'wish-granting tree of song,' may be considered as
+the scriptures of the Vaish.nava sect in Bengal.  In form it is a
+collection of songs written by various poets in various ages, so
+arranged as to exhibit a complete series of poems on the topics and
+tenets which constitute the religious views of the sect.  The book has
+been put together in recent times, and takes the reader through the
+preliminary consecration, invocations and introductory ceremonies, the
+rise and progress of the mutual love of Râdhâ and K.rish.na, and winds
+up with the usual closing and valedictory hymns.
+
+Before beginning an analysis of this collection so remarkable from many
+points of view, it will probably be of some assistance even to those
+who have studied the history of Vaish.navism, if I state briefly the
+leading points in the life of Chaitanya, and the principal features of
+the religion which he developed, rather than actually founded.
+
+Bisambhar (Vishvambhara) Mišr was the youngest son of Jagannâth Mišr, a
+Brahman, native of the district of Sylhet in Eastern Bengal, who had
+emigrated before the birth of his son to Nadiya (Nabadwîpa), the
+capital of Bengal.  [Footnote: The facts which here follow are taken
+from the "Chaitanyacharitâmrita," a metrical life of Chaitanya, the
+greater part of which was probably written by a contemporary of the
+teacher himself.  The style has unfortunately been much modernized, but
+even so, the book is one of the oldest extant works in Bengali.  My
+esteemed friend Babu Jagadishnath Ray has kindly gone through the book,
+a task for which I had not leisure, and marked some of the salient
+points for me.]  His mother was Sachi Debi, daughter of Nilámbar
+Chakravarti.  She bore to Jagannâth eight daughters who all died young;
+her first-born child, however, was a son named Biswarúp, who afterwards
+under the name of Nityânand became the chief disciple of his more
+famous brother.  Bisambhar was born at Nadiya in the evening of the
+_Purnima_ or day of the full moon of Phâlgun 1407 Sakábda,
+corresponding to the latter part of February or beginning of March A.D.
+1486.  It is noted that there was an eclipse of the moon on that day.
+By the aid of these indications those who care to do so can find out
+the exact day.  [Footnote: There was an eclipse of the moon before
+midnight Feb. 18, O.S. 1486.]  The passages in the original are:--
+
+
+  Šrî K.rish.na the Visible became incarnate in Nabadwip,
+  For forty-eight years visibly he sported;
+  The exact (date) of his birth (is) Šaka 1407,
+  In 1455 he returned to heaven.
+
+
+And again--
+
+
+  On the full moon of Phâlgun at even was the lord's birth
+  At that time by divine provision there was an eclipse of the moon.
+    --_Ch._ I. xiii. 38.
+
+
+In accordance with the usual Bengali superstition that if a man's real
+name be known he may be bewitched or subject to the influence of the
+evil eye, the real name given at birth is not made known at the time,
+but another name is given by which the individual is usually called.
+No one but the father and mother and priest know the real name.
+Bisambhar's usual name in childhood was Nimâi, and by this he was
+generally known to his neighbours.
+
+In person, if the description of him in the Chaitanyacharitâmrita (Bk.
+I. iii.) is to be considered as historical, he was handsome, tall (six
+feet), with long arms, in colour a light brown, with expressive eyes, a
+sonorous voice, and very sweet and winning manners.  He is frequently
+called "Gaurang" or "Gaurchandra," _i.e._, the pale, or the pale
+moon, in contrast to the Krishna of the Bhagvat who is represented as
+very black.
+
+The name Chaitanya literally means 'soul, intellect,' but in the
+special and technical sense in which the teacher himself adopted it, it
+appears to mean perceptible, or appreciable by the senses.  He took the
+name Šrî K.rish.na Chaitanya to intimate that he was himself an
+incarnation of the god, in other words, K.rish.na made visible to the
+senses of mankind.
+
+The Charitâmrita being composed by one of his disciples, is written
+throughout on this supposition.  Chaitanya is always spoken of as an
+incarnation of K.rish.na, and his brother Nityânand as a re-appearance
+of Balarâm.  In order to keep up the resemblance to K.rish.na, the
+Charitâmrita treats us to a long series of stories about Chaitanya's
+childish sports among the young Hindu women of the village.  They are
+not worth relating, and are probably purely fictitious; the Bengalis of
+to-day must be very different from what their ancestors were, if such
+pranks as are related in the Charitâmrita were quietly permitted to go
+on.  Chaitanya, however, seems to have been eccentric even as a youth;
+wonderful stories are told of his powers of intellect and memory, how,
+for instance, he defeated in argument the most learned Pandits.  A
+great deal is said about his hallucinations and trances throughout his
+life, and we may perhaps conclude that he was more or less insane at
+all times, or rather he was one of those strange enthusiasts who wield
+such deep and irresistible influence over the masses by virtue of that
+very condition of mind which borders on madness.
+
+When he was about eighteen his father died, and he soon afterwards
+married Lachhmi Debi, daughter of Balabhadra Achârjya, and entered on
+the career of a _grihastha_ or householder, taking in pupils whom
+he instructed in ordinary secular learning.  He does not appear,
+however, to have kept to this quiet life for long; he went off on a
+wandering tour all over Eastern Bengal, begging and singing, and is
+said to have collected a great deal of money and made a considerable
+name for himself.  On his return he found his first wife had died in
+his absence, and he married again one Bishnupriyâ, concerning whom
+nothing further is said.  Soon after he went to Gayâ to offer the usual
+pi.n.da to the _manes_ of his ancestors.
+
+It was on his return from Gayâ, when he was about 23 years of age, that
+he began seriously to start his new creed.  "It was now," writes Babu
+Jagadishnath, "that he openly condemned the Hindu ritualistic system of
+ceremonies as being a body without a soul, disowned the institution of
+caste as being abhorrent to a loving god all whose creatures were one
+in his eyes, preached the efficacy of adoration and love and extolled
+the excellence and sanctity of _the_ name, and the uttering and
+singing of _the_ name of god as infinitely superior to barren
+system without faith."  Chaitanya, however, as the Babu points out, was
+not the originator of this theory, but appears to have borrowed it from
+his neighbour Adwaita Achârjya, whose custom it was, after performing
+his daily ritual, to go to the banks of the Ganges and call aloud for
+the coming of the god who should substitute love and faith for mere
+rites and ceremonies.  This custom is still adhered to by Vaish.navas.
+The Charitâmrita veils the priority of Adwaita adroitly by stating that
+it was he who by his austerities hastened the coming of K.rish.na in
+the avatar of Chaitanya.
+
+
+  I praise that revered teacher Adwaita of wonderful actions,
+  By whose favour even the ignorant may perceive the (divinity)
+    personified.
+    --Ch. I. vi.
+
+
+Thus in Sanskrit verses at the head of that chapter which sings the
+virtues of Adwaita: by in the Bengali portion of the same chapter it is
+asserted that Adwaita was himself an incarnation of a part of the
+divinity, e.g.--
+
+
+  The teacher Adwaita is a special portion of god.
+
+
+And the author goes on to say that Adwaita was first the teacher then
+the pupil of Chaitanya.  The probability is that Adwaita, like the
+majority of his countrymen, was more addicted to meditation than to
+action.  The idea which in his mind gave rise to nothing more than
+indefinite longings when transfused into the earnest fiery nature of
+Chaitanya, expanded into a faith which moved and led captive the souls
+of thousands.
+
+His brother Nityânand was now assumed to be an incarnation of Balarâm,
+and took his place as second-in-command in consequence.  The practice
+of meeting for worship and to celebrate "Sankîrtans" was now
+instituted; the meetings took place in the house of a disciple Sribâs,
+and were quite private.  The new religionists met with some opposition,
+and a good deal of mockery.  One night on leaving their rendezvous,
+they found on the door-step red flowers and goats' blood, emblems of
+the worship of Durgâ, and abominations in the eyes of a Vaish.nava.
+These were put there by a Brahman named Gopal.  Chaitanya cursed him
+for his practical joke, and we are told that he became a leper in
+consequence.  The opposition was to a great extent, however, provoked
+by the Vaish.navas, who seem to have been very eccentric and
+extravagant in their conduct.  Every thing that K.rish.na had done
+Chaitanya must do too, thus we read of his dancing on the shoulders of
+Murari Gupta, one of his adherents; and his followers, like himself,
+had fits, foamed at the mouth, and went off into convulsions, much
+after the fashion of some revivalists of modern times.  The young
+students at the Sanskrit schools in Nadiya naturally found all this
+very amusing, and cracked jokes to their hearts' content on the crazy
+enthusiasts.
+
+In January 1510, Chaitanya suddenly took it into his head to become a
+Sanyasi or ascetic, and received initiation at the hands of Keshab
+Bhârati of Katwa.  Some say he did this to gain respect and credit as a
+religious preacher, others say it was done in consequence of a curse
+laid on him by a Brahman whom he had offended.  Be this as it may, his
+craziness seems now to have reached its height.  He wandered off from
+his home, in the first instance, to Purî to see the shrine of
+Jagannâth.  Thence for six years he roamed all over India preaching
+Vaish.navism, and returned at last to Purî, where he passed the
+remaining eighteen years of his life and where at length he died in the
+48th year of his age in 1534 A.D.  His Bengali followers visited him
+for four months in every year and some of them always kept watch over
+him, for he was now quite mad.  He had starved and preached and sung
+and raved himself quite out of his senses.  On one occasion he imagined
+that a post in his veranda was Râdhâ, and embraced it so hard as nearly
+to smash his nose, and to cover himself with blood from scraping all
+the skin off his forehead; on another he walked into the sea in a fit
+of abstraction, and was fished up half dead in a net by a fisherman.
+His friends took it in turns to watch by his side all night lest he
+should do himself some injury.
+
+The leading principle that underlies the whole of Chaitanya's system is
+_Bhakti_ or devotion; and the principle is exemplified and
+illustrated by the mutual loves of Râdhâ and K.rish.na.  In adopting
+this illustration of his principle, Chaitanya followed the example of
+the Bhagavad Gîtâ and the Bhâgavat Purâ.na, and he was probably also
+influenced in the sensual tone he gave to the whole by the poems of
+Jayadeva.  The Bhakta or devotee passes through five successive stages,
+_Sânta_ or resigned contemplation of the deity is the first, and
+from it he passes into _Dâsya_ or the practice of worship and
+service, whence to _Sákhya_ or friendship, which warms into
+_Bâtsalya_, filial affection, and lastly rises to _Mádhurya_
+or earnest, all-engrossing love.
+
+Vaish.navism is singularly like Sufiism, the resemblance has often been
+noticed, and need here only be briefly traced.  [Footnote: Conf. Capt.
+J. W. Graham's paper 'On Sufiism,' _Bombay Literary Soc. Trans._
+Vol. I. pp. 89 et seqq.; Râjendralâla Mittra's valuable introduction to
+the _Chaitanya Chandrodaya_ (Biblioth. Ind.), pp. ii-iv and xv;
+also Jones' 'Mystical Poetry of the Persians and Hindus,' _Asiat.
+Res._ Vol. III. pp. 165-207; and Leyden, 'On the Rosheniah Sect,
+&c.,' _As. Res._ Vol. XI. pp. 363-428.--ED.]  With the latter the
+first degree is _nâsût_ or 'humanity' in which man is subject to
+the law _shara_, the second _tarîkat_, 'the way' of
+spiritualism, the third _´arûf_ or 'knowledge,' and the fourth
+_hakîkat_ or 'the truth.' Some writers give a longer series of
+grades, thus--_talab,_ 'seeking after god;' _´ishk_, 'love;'
+_m´arifat_, 'insight;' _istighnâh_, 'satisfaction;'
+_tauhîd_, 'unity;' _hairat_, 'ecstacy;' and lastly
+_fanâ_, 'absorption.'  Dealing as it does with God and Man as two
+factors of a problem, Vaish.navism necessarily ignores the distinctions
+of caste, and Chaitanya was perfectly consistent in this respect,
+admitting men of all castes, including Muhammadans, to his sect.  Since
+his time, however, that strange love of caste-distinctions, which seems
+so ineradicable from the soil of India, has begun again to creep into
+Vaish.navism, and will probably end by establishing its power as firmly
+in this sect as in any other.
+
+Although the institution of love towards the divine nature, and the
+doctrine that this love was reciprocated, were certainly a great
+improvement on the morbid gloom of Šiva-worship, the colourless
+negativeness of Buddhism, and the childish intricacy of ceremonies
+which formed the religion of the mass of ordinary Hindus, still we
+cannot find much to admire in it.  There seems to be something almost
+contradictory in representing the highest and purest emotions of the
+mind by images drawn from the lowest and most animal passions.
+
+
+  "Ut matrona meretrici dispar erit atque discolor."
+
+
+So must also Vaish.navism differ from true religion, the flesh from the
+spirit, the impure from the pure.  The singing of hymns about Râdhâ and
+K.rish.na is much older than Chaitanya's age.  Not to mention Jayadeva
+and his beautiful, though sensual, Gîtagovinda.  [Footnote: It is many
+years now since I read Gitagovinda as a text-book at college, but the
+impression I still retain is that it was in many parts far too warm for
+European tastes.]  Bidyapati, the earliest of Bengali poets, and
+Cha.n.di Dâs both preceded Chaitanya, and he himself is stated to have
+been fond of singing their verses.  There was therefore a considerable
+mass of hymns ready to his hand, and his contemporaries and followers
+added largely to the number; the poems of the _Padakalpataru_ in
+consequence are of all ages from the fifteenth century downwards;
+moreover, as Vaish.navism aspires to be a religion for the masses, the
+aim of its supporters has always been to write in the vulgar tongue, a
+fortunate circumstance which renders this vast body of literature
+extremely valuable to the philologist, since it can be relied on as
+representing the spoken language of its day more accurately than those
+pretentious works whose authors despised everything but Sanskrit.
+
+The _Padakalpataru_, to keep up the metaphor of its name
+throughout, is divided into 4 _šakhas_ or 'branches,' and each of
+these into 8 or 10 _pallabas_ or smaller branches, 'boughs.'  It
+should be explained that the kîrtans are celebrated with considerable
+ceremony.  There is first a consecration both of the performers and
+instruments with flowers, incense, and sweetmeats.  This is called the
+_adhibás_.  The principal performer then sings one song after
+another, the others playing the drum and cymbals in time, and joining
+in the chorus; as the performance goes on many of them get excited and
+wildly frantic, and roll about on the ground.  When the performance is
+over the drum is respectfully sprinkled with _chandana_ or
+sandalwood paste, and hung up.  Several performances go on for days
+till a whole Šakhâ has been sung through, and I believe it is always
+customary to go through at least one Pallab at a sitting, however long
+it may be.  The Bengali Kîrtan in fact resembles very much the Bhajans
+and Kathâs common in the Marâ.tha country, and each poem in length, and
+often in subject, is similar to the Abhangas of Tukarâm and others in
+that province.
+
+The first Pallab contains 27 hymns, of these 8 are by Gobind Dâs, 8 by
+Baishnab Dâs, 3 by Brindâban Dâs, the rest by minor masters.  Brindâban
+Dâs and Parameshwar Dâs were contemporaries of Chaitanya, the others--
+including Gobind Dâs, who is perhaps the most voluminous writer of all-
+-are subsequent to him.  Of the hymns themselves the first five are
+invocations of Chaitanya and Nityânand, and one is in praise of the
+ceremony of Kîrtan.  There is nothing very remarkable in any of them.
+Number 5 may be taken as a specimen, as it is perhaps the best of the
+batch.
+
+
+  "Nand's son, lover of the Gopîs, lord of Râdhâ, the playful Syâm:
+
+
+_Is_ he, Sachi's son, the Indra of Nadiya, the heart-charming
+dwelling of gods and saints; victory to him who is love embodied to his
+own beloved, hail! hail to him who is the joy of the existence of his
+well-beloved! hail to the delight of the eyes of his comrades in Braj!
+hail to the charm of the sight of the women of Nadiya! hail! hail to
+Sridam, Sudam, Subal, and Arjun, [Footnote: Names of Chaitanya's
+disciples.] bound by love to him whose form is as a new cloud! hail to
+Râm and the rest, beautiful and dear companions! hail to the charmer,
+the incomparable Gora (Chaitanya)! hail to the mighty younger brother
+of Balarâm! hail! hail to Nityânand (who is) joy (personified)! Hail to
+him who destroys the fear of good men, the object of the hope of Gobind
+Dâs!"
+
+I would call attention here, once for all, to what is one of the
+principal charms of Vaish.nava hymns, the exquisitely musical rhythm
+and cadence.  They seem made to be sung, and trip off the tongue with a
+lilt and grace which are irresistible.
+
+This hymn is interesting as shewing how completely Chaitanya is by his
+followers invested with the attributes of, and identified with,
+K.rîsh.na; it has no other special merits; nor anything specially
+interesting from a philological point of view as it is nearly all
+Sansk.rit.
+
+The next six are in praise of the sect itself, of Adwaita, and the
+principal disciples.  That on Adwaita by his contemporary Brindaban Dâs
+gives a lively picture of the old Brahman, then follow seven in praise
+of the Kîrtanias or the old master-singers--Bidyapati, Jayadeva,
+Cha.n.di Dâs; then four on K.rish.na and Râdhâ, containing only a
+succession of epithets linked together by jay! jay!
+
+The twenty-third begins the adhibâs or consecration, and is curious
+less for its language than for the description it gives of the
+ceremonies practised.  It is by the old masters Parameshwar and
+Brindaban, with the concluding portion by a younger master Bansi.  The
+poem is in four parts and takes the form of a story how Chaitanya held
+his feast.  It runs thus:--
+
+
+  23. Atha sankirtanasya adhibâsa.
+
+
+"One day coming and smiling, sitting in Adwaita's house, spake the son
+of Sachî, having Nityânand with him and Adwaita, sitting in enjoyment,
+he planned a great festivity.  Hearing this, smiling with joy, Sîtâ
+Thâkurânî coming spoke a sweet word: hearing that with joyful mind the
+son of Sachî spoke somewhat in regard to arranging the festival.
+'Listen, Thâkurânî Sîtâ,[Footnote: Sîta was the wife of Adwaita.] bring
+the Baishnabs here; making pressing invitation to them: whoso can sing,
+whoso can play, invite them separately, man by man.'  Thus Gora Rai
+speaking gave orders for an assembly: ' Invite the Baishnabs!  Bring
+out the cymbal and drum, set out full pots painted with aloes and
+sandal-paste: plant plantains, hang on them garlands of flowers, for
+the Kîrtan place joyfully.  With garlands, sandal, and betelnut, ghee,
+honey, and curds consecrate the drum at evening-tide.'  Hearing the
+lord's word, in loving manner she made accordingly various offerings
+with fragrant perfumes: all cried 'Hari, Hari!' thus they consecrate
+the drum; Parameshwar Dâs floats in enjoyment."
+
+Of the remainder of the adhibâs I give merely a paraphrase ommiting the
+numerous repetitions.
+
+2. Having prepared the entertainment she invites them, "kindly visit
+us, to you and Vaish.navas, this is my petition, come and see and
+complete the feast;" thus entreating she brought the honoured guests,
+they consecrate the feast.  Joyfully the Vaish.navas came to the feast:
+"to-morrow will be the joy of the great festivity, there will be the
+enjoyment of the singing Šrî K.rish.na's sports, all will be filled
+with delight."  The merits of the assembly of the devotees of Šrî
+K.rish.na Chaitanya singeth Brindaban Dâs.
+
+3. First set up the plantains, array the full pots, adorned with twigs
+of the mango; the Brahman chants the Vedas, the women shout jay! jay!
+and all cry Hari! Hari!  Making the consecration with curds and
+_ghi_, all display their joy; bringing in the Vaish.navas, giving
+them garlands and sandal-paste, for the celebration of the Kîrtan; joy
+is in the hearts of all, hither come the Vaish.navas, to-morrow will be
+Chaitanya's kîrtan; the virtue of Šrî K.rish.na Chaitanya's name, and
+the indwelling of Šrî Nityânand singeth Dâs Brindaban.  [Footnote: The
+poet's name is inverted to make a rhyme for Kîrtan in the preceding
+line.]
+
+4. Jay! jay! in Nawadwip; by Gorang's order Adwaita goes to prepare the
+consecration of the drum.  Bringing all the Vaish.navas with sound of
+"Hari bol," he initiates the great feast.  He himself giving garlands
+and sandal-paste, converses with his beloved Vaish.navas, Gobind taking
+the drum plays ta-ta-tum tum, Adwaita lightly clashes the cymbals.
+Hari Dâs begins the song, Sribâs keeps time, Gorang dances at the
+kîrtan celebration.  On all sides the Vaish.navas crowding echo "Hari
+bol," to-morrow will be the great feast.  To-day consecrate the drum
+and hang it up, joyfully saith Bansi sound victory! victory!!
+
+Having thus concluded the initiatory ceremonies in the lst Pallab, the
+2nd Pallab begins the real "Kîrtan."  It contains 26 hymns by masters
+who are mostly of comparatively recent date.  Of the old masters Gobind
+Dâs and Cha.n.di Dâs alone appear in this Pallab.  We now commence the
+long and minutely described series of emotions and flirtations (if so
+lowly a word may be used) between Râdhâ and K.rish.na, and this Pallab
+and in fact the whole of the first Sâkhâ is on that phase called
+"pûrbarâga" or first symptoms of love.  In No. 2, Cha.n.di Dâs
+represents two of Râdhâ's Sakhis, or girl-friends, whispering together
+as they watch her from a distance (the punctuation {i.e. colon (:)}
+refers to the cæsura, not to the sense):
+
+"She stands outside the house, a hundred times restlessly she comes and
+goes: depressed in mind, _with_ frequent sighs, she looks towards
+the kadamba jungle.  Why has Rai (Radhikâ) become thus? serious is her
+error, she has no fear of men, where are her senses, or what god has
+possessed her?  Constantly restless, she does not cover herself with
+the corner of her robe: she sits still for a while, then rises with a
+start, her ornaments fall with a clang.  Youthful in age, of royal
+descent, and a chaste maiden to boot: what does she desire, (why) does
+her longing increase?  I cannot understand her motives: from her
+conduct, this I conceive, she has raised her hand to the moon:
+[Footnote: She has formed some extravagant desire.]  Cha.n.di Dâs says
+with respect she has fallen into the snare of the black one
+(K.rish.na)."
+
+This poem vividly expresses the first symptoms of love dawning in the
+girl's heart, and from a religious point of view the first awakenings
+of consciousness of divine love in the soul.  It is difficult for the
+European mind, trained to draw a broad distinction between the love of
+God and love for another human being, to enter into a state of feeling
+in which the earthly and sensual is made a type of the heavenly and
+spiritual, but a large-souled charity may be perhaps able to admit that
+by this process, strange though it be to its own habits and
+experiences, there may have been some improvement wrought in the inner
+life of men brought up in other schools of thought; and my own
+experience, now of fourteen years standing, enables me to say that
+Vaish.navism does, in spite of, or perhaps in virtue of, its peculiar
+_modus operandi_, work a change for the better on those who come
+under its influence.
+
+Two more hymns on the same subject follow, and in No. 5 Râdhâ herself
+breaks silence.
+
+"In the kadamba grove what man is (that) standing?  What sort of word
+coming is this: the plough of whose meaning has penetrated startlingly
+the path of hearing?  With a hint of union, with its manner of
+penetrating making one well-nigh mad:  My mind is agitated, it cannot
+be still, streams flow from my eyes:  I know not what manner of man it
+is who utters such words:  I see him not, my heart is perturbed, I
+cannot stay in the house:  My soul rests not, it flutters to and fro in
+hope of seeing him:  When she sees him, she will find her soul, quoth
+Urdbab Dâs."
+
+I have left myself no space to finish this Pallab, or to make remarks
+on the peculiarities of the language, which in the older masters would
+more properly be called old Maithila than Bengali.  It is nearly
+identical with the language still spoken in Tirhut, the ancient
+Mithili, and in Munger and Bhâgalpur, the ancient Magadha, than modern
+Bengali.  As the Aryan race grew and multiplied it naturally poured out
+its surplus population in Bengal, and it is not only philologically
+obvious that Bengali is nothing more than a further, and very modern
+development of the extreme eastern dialect of Hindi.  All these
+considerations, however, I hope still further to develop at some future
+time.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Chaitanya and the Vaishnava Poets of
+Bengal, by John Beames
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CHAITANYA AND THE VAISHNAVA POETS ***
+
+This file should be named chvsp10u.txt or chvsp10u.zip
+Corrected EDITIONS of our eBooks get a new NUMBER, chvsp11u.txt
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+Originally scanned at sacred-texts.com by John B. Hare.
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