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diff --git a/old/68145-h/68145-h.htm b/old/68145-h/68145-h.htm deleted file mode 100644 index dab09dc..0000000 --- a/old/68145-h/68145-h.htm +++ /dev/null @@ -1,1520 +0,0 @@ -<!DOCTYPE html> -<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> -<head> - <meta charset="UTF-8" /> - <title> - Use of Tobacco Among North American Indians, by Ralph Linton—A Project Gutenberg eBook - </title> - <link rel="icon" href="images/cover.jpg" type="image/x-cover" /> - <style> /* <![CDATA[ */ - - body { - margin-left: 10%; - margin-right: 10%; - } - .x-ebookmaker body { margin: 0; } - - h1, h2, h3, h4, h5, h6 { - text-align: center; - clear: both; - page-break-before: avoid; - } - - h2.nobreak { page-break-before: avoid; } - - p { - margin-top: .5em; - margin-bottom: .5em; - text-align: justify; - text-indent: 1em; - } - - .hang { - text-align: justify; - text-indent: -2em; - padding-left: 2em; - } - - div.titlepage { - text-align: center; - page-break-before: always; - page-break-after: always; - } - - div.titlepage p { - text-align: center; - text-indent: 0; - font-weight: bold; - line-height: 1.5; - margin-top: 3em; - } - - /* === Required for epub breaks === */ - div.chapter { - clear: both; - margin-top: 10%; - page-break-before: always; - } - - hr { width: 35%; margin: 1% 32.5%; clear: both; } - hr.chap { width: 65%; margin: 5% 17.5%; } - .x-ebookmaker hr.chap { - visibility: hidden; - page-break-before: always; - } - @media print { - hr.chap { - visibility: hidden; - page-break-before: always; - } - } - - /* === Fonts === */ - .xsmall { font-size: x-small; } - .small { font-size: small; } - .smaller { font-size: smaller } - .large { font-size: large; } - .smcap { font-variant: small-caps; } - .allsmcap { font-variant: small-caps; text-transform: lowercase; } - .bold { font-weight: bold; } - - /* === Alignment === */ - .mt2 { margin-top: 2%; } - .mt5 { margin-top: 5%; } - .mt20 { margin-top: 20%; } - .mb5 { margin-bottom: 5%; } - .mb20 { margin-bottom: 20%; } - .lh2 { line-height: 1.5em; } - .center { text-align: center; } - .right { text-align: right; margin-right: 2%; } - .fright, .x-ebookmaker .fright { float: right; } - - /* === Page #s === */ - .pagenum { - position: absolute; - right: 1%; - color: gray; - font-size: x-small; - text-align: right; - font-style: normal; - font-weight: normal; - font-variant: normal; - padding: 0 0.2em; - } - - /* === Bordered box === */ - .bt { border-top: 1px solid black; } - .bb { border-bottom: 1px solid black; } - - /* === Images === */ - img { - width: 100%; - height: auto; - } - - .figcenter { - margin: 3% auto; - text-align: center; - clear: both; - max-width: 100%; - page-break-inside: avoid; - } - - .caption { - margin-top: 1%; - margin-left: 5%; - margin-right: 5%; - font-size: small; - font-weight: bold; - clear: both; - } - - .illowp50 { width: 15em; } - .illowp63 { width: 63%; max-width: 47.25em; } - .illowp64 { width: 64%; max-width: 48em; } - .illowp100 { width: 100%; max-width: 75em; } - - /* === Abreviation: no underline, no color === */ - abbr { - border: none; - text-decoration: none; - } - - /* === Transcriber's notes === */ - ul.spaced li { padding-top: 1%; } - - .transnote { - background-color: #E6E6FA; - border: 1px solid black; - color: black; - font-size: smaller; - padding: 0.5em; - margin-bottom: 5em; - font-family: sans-serif; - } - - /* ]]> */ </style> -</head> - -<body> -<p style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Use of tobacco among North American Indians, by Ralph Linton</p> -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online -at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you -are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the -country where you are located before using this eBook. -</div> - -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: Use of tobacco among North American Indians</p> -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: Ralph Linton</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: May 21, 2022 [eBook #68145]</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</p> - <p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:left'>Produced by: Steve Mattern, Robert Tonsing and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive)</p> -<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK USE OF TOBACCO AMONG NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS ***</div> - <div class="titlepage bold"> - <h1>USE OF TOBACCO<br /> - <span class="smaller">AMONG<br /> - NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS</span></h1> - - <div class="lh2 mb20"><span class="small">BY</span><br /> - RALPH LINTON<br /> - <span class="smcap small">Assistant Curator of North American Ethnology</span></div> - - <div class="figcenter"> - <img class="illowp50" src="images/signet.jpg" alt="" /> - </div> - - <div class="smcap mt20 lh2">Anthropology<br /> - Leaflet 15</div> - - <div class="mt20">FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY<br /> - <span class="small">CHICAGO</span><br /> - <span class="xsmall">1924</span></div> - </div> - - <hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - <div class="figcenter" id="PLATE_I"> - <div class="caption">PLATE I.</div> - <img class="illowp100" src="images/frontis.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">PAWNEE PRIESTS MAKING A SMOKE OFFERING.</div> - </div> - - <hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - <div class="chapter bold"> - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_1">1</span> - <div class="smcap large center">Field Museum of Natural History</div> - <div class="center small">DEPARTMENT OF ANTHROPOLOGY<br /> - <span class="smcap small">Chicago, 1924</span></div> - - <div class="smcap small bt bb mt2">Leaflet<span class="fright">Number 15</span></div> - - <h2 class="nobreak">Use of Tobacco among North American Indians</h2> - </div> - - <p>Tobacco has been one of the most important gifts from the New World - to the Old. In spite of the attempts of various authors to prove its - Old World origin there can be no doubt that it was introduced into - both Europe and Africa from America. Most species of <i>Nicotiana</i> - are native to the New World, and there are only a few species which - are undoubtedly extra-American. The custom of smoking is also - characteristic of America. It was thoroughly established throughout - eastern North and South America at the time of the discovery; and - the early explorers, from Columbus on, speak of it as a strange and - novel practice which they often find it hard to describe. It played - an important part in many religious ceremonies, and the beliefs and - observances connected with it are in themselves proof of its antiquity. - Hundreds of pipes have been found in the pre-Columbian mounds and - village sites of the eastern United States and, although these remains - cannot be dated, some of them must be of considerable age. In the - southwestern United States the Basket Makers, an ancient people whose - remains are found below those of the prehistoric Cliff Dwellers, were - smoking pipes at a time which could not have been much later than the - beginning of our era.</p> - - <p>At the time of the discovery of America, tobacco was in use over the - greater part of the continent. It<span class="pagenum" id="Page_2">2</span> was not used in the sub-Arctic - regions of North America or in the extreme southern part of Southern - America. On the west coast of South America and in the Andean highlands - it was replaced by another narcotic, coca (<i>Erythroxylum coca</i>), - from which the modern drug cocaine is extracted. The coca leaves were - dried and chewed with powdered lime. Tobacco was smoked throughout most - of its range, but the tribes of the northwest coast of North America - mixed it with shell lime and made it into small pellets which were - allowed to dissolve in the mouth. The tribes of Washington, Oregon and - a great part of California used it in the same way, but also smoked it. - Along the eastern side of the Andean highlands in South America tobacco - was both smoked and chewed. The chewing tobacco was prepared like the - Andean coca, and the idea was probably borrowed from coca chewing.</p> - - <p>Although Europeans learned the custom of smoking from the Indians and - even copied the Indian smoking appliances rather closely, the modern - American custom of tobacco chewing may not be of Indian origin. None of - the North American Indians east of the Rocky Mountains chewed tobacco, - and the only point at which South American tobacco chewing reached the - Atlantic Coast was a small region in northern Colombia. Modern chewing - tobacco lacks the admixture of powdered lime, which was considered - necessary by all Indian tobacco chewers and seems to have been an - invention of the white frontiersmen. It is possible, however, that the - idea of tobacco chewing was carried to the English colonies by the - Spaniards, who may have learned it from the South American Indians.</p> - - <p>The North American Indians used at least nine species of - <i>Nicotiana</i>, most of which were cultivated. <i>Nicotiana - tabacum</i>, the species to which practically all the modern commercial - tobaccos belong, was grown <span class="pagenum" id="Page_3">3</span>throughout Mexico, the West Indies, - and in northern and eastern South America. It was unknown north of - Mexico until its introduction into Virginia by the English colonists. - <i>Nicotiana rustica</i>, a much hardier species with a yellow flower, - was grown by the Indians of the eastern United States and Canada as far - west as the great plains and as far north as agriculture was possible. - It was the first tobacco grown in Virginia for the European trade, but - was soon supplanted there by <i>N. tabacum</i>. Small patches of it are - still cultivated by some of the Central Algonquian tribes who use it in - their ceremonies. <i>N. attenuata</i> was used over a larger area than - any other species. It is found in its natural state in the southwestern - United States and southern plains, and as a cultivated plant extends - northward into western Canada and British Columbia. It was also - cultivated on the lower Colorado, but the typical Pueblo tribes do not - seem to have raised it. <i>N. multivalvis</i> was grown in Washington - and Oregon, as well as by the Crow, who lived on the western edge of - the plains. A related species (<i>N. quadrivalvis</i>) was grown by the - settled tribes along the Missouri river. Still another species (<i>N. - biglovii</i>) was used by the California tribes, and is known to have - been cultivated by the Hupa. The three last-named species are rather - closely related; it seems probable that <i>N. multivalvis</i> and <i>N. - quadrivalvis</i> were brought into the plains area from the west, - displacing <i>N. attenuata</i>.</p> - - <div class="figcenter" id="PLATE_II"> - <div class="caption">PLATE II.</div> - <img class="illowp63" src="images/i002.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">AMERICAN INDIAN TOBACCO PIPES.</div> - <p class="caption">1. BOWL OF BASKETMAKER PIPE. 2. BOWLS OF SOUTHWESTERN TUBULAR - PIPES. 3. SOUTHWESTERN TUBULAR PIPE, SANDSTONE. 4. CALIFORNIA CLAY - PIPE. 5. CALIFORNIA STEATITE PIPE. 6. PIPE WITH STEATITE BOWL AND WOODEN STEM, - AND PIPE CASE, CALIFORNIA.</p> - </div> - - <p>There is very little information available on the aboriginal methods of - tobacco culture in the eastern United States. Early writers say that it - was not grown with other crops, as it was believed to be injurious to - them, and was usually cultivated by men. Mr. Milford Chandler informs - me that the Cayuga, in New York State, had permanent tobacco beds in - which the plant was grown year after year. These beds were lightly - manured from time to time, but were not<span class="pagenum" id="Page_4">4</span> cultivated, and the plants - were left to propagate themselves. The leaves were gathered, but the - stems, with the seed pods, were left standing in the patch. The Seneca, - another tribe of the Iroquois confederacy, simply scattered the seeds - on the ground and had a religious prohibition against cultivating the - plant. Mr. Alanson Skinner informs me that the Kickapoo and Potawatomi - made large brush piles fifty or more feet long and ten or twelve feet - wide which they fired about the middle of June. When the ashes were - cold, the ground was hoed up, mixed with the ashes, and planted with - tobacco and pumpkins. The tobacco gardens were made in the woods, - remote from the villages, and were surrounded by brush fences. The - Sauk also planted their tobacco in the ashes of brush-fires, but - did not break the ground or cultivate the crop. In some cases they - simply threw a handful of seeds on the ground near the lodge. The - Kickapoo, Potawatomi and Sauk all gathered the leaves of the plant in - late August. They spread them on hides or blankets, and when they had - wilted, rolled them like tea-leaves. When dry, the leaves were crushed. - The reason assigned for the rolling was that leaves treated in this way - did not crush to fine powder like those that had been dried flat. Most - of the eastern tribes grew only enough tobacco for their own needs, - but one, the Tionontati, raised large quantities of it for export and, - on this account, were called Tobacco People (Nation de Petun) by the - French.</p> - - <p>The best published account of aboriginal tobacco-culture is that given - to G. L. Wilson by Buffalobird-woman, an old member of the Hidatsa - tribe. The Hidatsa raised a different species of tobacco from the - eastern Indians (<i>N. quadrivalvis</i>), and their methods were - somewhat different. She says, “The old men of the tribe who smoked each - had a tobacco garden planted not very far away from our corn-fields, - but<span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">5</span> never in the same plot with one. Tobacco gardens were planted - apart, because the tobacco plants have a strong smell which affects - the corn; if tobacco is planted near the corn, the growing corn-stalks - turn yellow, and the corn is not so good. Tobacco seed was planted at - the same time sunflower seed was planted (as early in April as the - soil could be worked). The owner took a hoe and made soft every foot - of the tobacco garden; and with a rake he made the loosened soil level - and smooth. He marked the ground with a stick into rows about eighteen - inches apart, and sowed the seed very thickly in the row. He covered - the newly sowed soil very lightly with earth which he raked with his - hand. When rain came and warmth, the seed sprouted. The plants came up - thickly so that they had to be thinned out. The owner of the garden - would weed out the weak plants, leaving only the stronger standing. The - earth about each plant was hilled up with a buffalo rib into a little - hill like a corn hill. A very old man, I remember, used a big buffalo - rib, sharpened on the edge, to work the soil and cultivate his tobacco. - He caught the rib by both ends with the edge downward; and stooping - over, he scraped the soil toward him, now and then raising the rib - up and loosening the earth with the point at one end. He knelt as he - worked.</p> - - <p>“Tobacco plants began to blossom about the middle of June; and picking - then began. Tobacco was gathered in two harvests. The first harvest - was these blossoms, which we reckoned the best part of the plant - for smoking. Blossoms were picked regularly every fourth day. If we - neglected to pick them until the fifth day, the blossoms would begin - to seed. Only the green part of the blossom was kept. When we fetched - the blossoms home to the lodge, my father would spread a dry hide on - the floor in front of his sacred objects and spread the blossoms on the - hide to dry.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">6</span> The smoke hole of the lodge, being rather large, would - let through quite a strong sunbeam, and the drying blossoms were kept - directly in the beam.</p> - - <p>“When the blossoms had quite dried, my father fetched them over near - the fireplace and took a piece of buffalo fat, thrust it on the end of - a stick and roasted it slowly over the coals. He touched it lightly - here and there to the piled up blossoms, so as to oil them slightly, - but not too much. Now and then he would gently stir the pile of - blossoms with a little stick, so that the whole mass might be oiled - equally. When my father wanted to smoke these dried blossoms, he - chopped them fine with a knife, a pipeful at a time. The blossoms were - always dried in the lodge: If dried without, the sun and air took away - their strength.</p> - - <p>“About harvest time, just before frost came, the rest of the plants - were gathered. He dried the plants in the lodge. For this he took - sticks, about fifteen inches long, and thrust them over the beam - between two of the exterior supporting posts, so that the sticks - pointed a little upwards. On each of these sticks he hung two or three - tobacco plants by thrusting the plants, root up, upon the stick, but - without tying them. When the tobacco plants were quite dry, the leaves - readily fell off. It was the stems that furnished most of the smoking. - They were treated like the blossoms, with buffalo fat. We did not treat - tobacco with buffalo fat except as needed for use, and to be put into - the tobacco pouch ready for smoking.</p> - - <p>“Before putting the tobacco away in the cache pit, my father was - careful to put aside seed for the next year’s planting. He gathered the - black seeds into a small bundle about as big as a baby’s fist, wrapping - them in a piece of soft skin which he tied with a string. He made two - or three of these bundles and tied them to the top of his bed, or to a - post nearby, where there was no danger of their being disturbed.”</p> - - <div class="figcenter" id="PLATE_III"> - <div class="caption">PLATE III.</div> - <img class="illowp64" src="images/i006.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">AMERICAN INDIAN TOBACCO PIPES.</div> - <p class="caption">1. PIPE OF ANTELOPE BONE, CHEYENNE. 2–3. STEATITE PIPES, JOHNSON - COUNTY, ILLINOIS. 4–5. LARGE STEATITE PIPES, SOUTHEASTERN UNITED - STATES.</p> - </div> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">7</span></p> - - <p>The Blackfoot and Crow, nomadic tribes of the western Plains who raised - no food crops, cultivated small patches of tobacco for ceremonial use. - The ground was cleared of weeds and grass, and the seed planted in - holes about two inches deep, made with a pointed stick. The gardens - were weeded from time to time, but do not seem to have been regularly - cultivated. In both tribes tobacco culture was attended by elaborate - ceremonies. Among the Crow it was in the hands of a society which - also played an important part in the social life of the tribe. The - right to plant tobacco was considered a special privilege which could - be obtained only through a revelation from some supernatural being - or through adoption by a person who had received such a revelation. - The adopted person could, in turn, adopt others. Any person might - receive such a revelation, and the society was composed of a number - of divisions or chapters which derived their right to plant from - different revelations and differed in their songs and in details of - their ceremonies. Within the chapter there were certain rights, such - as that of mixing seed before planting, which could only be acquired - by purchase. Both men and women were eligible to membership, and the - society held assemblages for dancing throughout the year.</p> - - <p>Some of the tribes west of the Rocky Mountains also cultivated tobacco, - although there is little information on their methods. On the Columbia - River and in northern California a stump or fallen log was burned, and - the tobacco seed scattered in the ashes.</p> - - <p>Most of the North American Indians mixed their tobacco with other herbs - before smoking it. Among the more northern tribes, especially those who - did not raise tobacco themselves, this was done partly through motives - of economy, but the mixture was also designed to improve the flavor, - as in our own commercial<span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">8</span> blends. The favorite smoke of the tribes of - the eastern United States and Canada was called kinnikinnick, from an - Algonquian word meaning “that which is mixed.” Each tribe had its own - formula for this mixture, but it usually consisted of tobacco, sumac - leaves, and the inner bark of a species of dogwood. The bark and leaves - of a number of other plants were sometimes added or substituted. A - little oil was usually added to the mixture to bind the dust, which - would otherwise irritate the smoker’s throat and clog the pipe. - Kinnikinnick was milder than pure tobacco, and was preferred by most - Indians and by many white hunters and settlers. The Pueblo Indians of - the Southwest smoked various mixtures of tobacco and herbs in their - religious ceremonies. The greatest care was used in compounding these - ceremonial mixtures, and the plants were valued largely according to - the distance from which they came. The California Indians diluted their - tobacco with manzanita leaves or mixed it with Jamestown weed, itself a - powerful narcotic. The choicest smoking mixture of the ancient Mexicans - was made from tobacco and the gum of the liquidambar tree.</p> - - <p>Three main methods of smoking were used by the American aborigines. - The natives of northern and central South America and the West - Indies were cigar smokers. The Central Americans and Mexicans were - predominantly cigarette smokers, although some of the ancient Mexicans - also used pipes. The North American Indians, with the exception of the - Pueblo tribes of the Southwest, were exclusively pipe-smokers. The - distribution of these three methods in America has strongly influenced - European smoking customs. The Mediterranean nations, who learned the - use of tobacco from cigar and cigarette using Indians, still prefer - to smoke it in these forms. The English, who came in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">9</span> contact with - the pipe-smoking Indians of the eastern United States are still - predominantly pipe-smokers. The custom of cigarette-smoking did not - become general in northern Europe and the United States until quite - recent times, and the vigorous opposition which it has met here seems - to be due quite as much to its novelty as to any proved injurious - effects.</p> - - <p>Aboriginal cigars were practically identical with those now in use and - were smoked in the same way.</p> - - <p>The aboriginal cigarette was made with a corn-husk wrapper and - contained much less tobacco than the modern commercial variety. - It is still in use throughout most of Mexico and Central America - and among the Pueblo Indians of the southwestern United States. - Archæological finds prove that the southwestern tribes smoked pipes - or reed cigarettes in ancient times, and the corn-husk cigarette may - have been introduced from Mexico during the early historic period. - In recent times the spread of the Peyote cult, which originated in - the southwestern Plains, has carried the corn-husk cigarette to many - northern tribes who were unfamiliar with it even a generation ago. The - Mexicans and Pueblo Indians also smoked reed cigarettes in ancient - times, and the Hopi form may be taken as typical. It consisted of a - small reed, not over two and a half inches long, packed with powdered - tobacco. A band of some fabric was usually bound around the reed, - leaving a flap hanging down by which it was held. Hundreds of the - charred butts of such cigarettes have been found in the prehistoric - ruins of the Southwest, but they are lacking in the lower archæological - levels, and the earliest inhabitants of the region were probably pipe - and not cigarette smokers.</p> - - <p>The Dakota say that they did not use pipes in ancient times, but smoked - their tobacco in a hole in the ground. A similar method was used by - the Cree<span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">10</span> as a makeshift. Hind says, “I asked the Indian what he - would do for a smoke until he had finished the new pipe. He arose and - walking to the edge of the swamp cut four reeds, and joined some pieces - together. After he had made a hole through the joints, he gently pushed - one extremity in a slanting direction into the earth, which he had - previously made firm by pressure with his foot. He then cut out a small - hole in the clay, above the extremity of the reed, and molding it with - his fingers, laughingly said: ‘Now give me tobacco, and I will show you - how to smoke it.’ He then filled the hole with a mixture of tobacco and - bearberry, placed a live coal on the top, and stretching himself at - full length on the ground, with his chin supported by both hands, he - took the reed between his lips and enjoyed a long smoke.”</p> - - <p>Indian pipes were of two main types,—straight pipes, in which the - tobacco cavity and stem were in the same plane, as in a modern cigar - holder, and elbow pipes, in which the bowl was inclined upward. The - straight pipe was known throughout practically the whole of America - north of Mexico, but was rare in the eastern United States. It was - used to the practical exclusion of all other forms in the southwestern - United States and on the Pacific coast. The elaborately decorated - smoking tubes of the Mexicans, mentioned by early Spanish writers, - may have been straight pipes, but many of them were probably cane - cigarettes. The elbow pipe was the dominant form in the eastern United - States and Great Plains, and also in eastern and southern South - America. It was used to a limited extent by the prehistoric Mexicans - and in southern California, and was not unknown in the Southwest. In - historic times it has come into use in British Columbia and Alaska, - regions in which tobacco was not originally smoked.</p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">11</span></p> - - <p>The earliest pipes which can be even approximately dated are those of - the Basket Makers, a people who lived in the southwestern United States - in ancient times. Their remains are found below those of the Cliff - Dwellers, and evidence along several lines indicates that they were - living in the region by the beginning of the Christian era and had been - absorbed or driven out by <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 1000. A number of their pipes - have been found. They are of the straight type and are usually quite - small, short, and heavy, with separate stems about two inches long - (<a href="#PLATE_II">Pl. II</a>, No. 1). The bowls are made of stone, unbaked clay, or, rarely, - wood; and the stems of wood or bird-bone. The stems are attached with - pitch. Many of these pipes are heavily caked, and they were probably - used for personal as well as ceremonial smoking. It is impossible - to tell whether the Basket Makers used tobacco in these pipes and - analyses of the cake have yielded only negative results. If they did - use tobacco, it was probably the wild native species (<i>Nicotiana - attenuata</i>).</p> - - <p>The Cliff Dwellers and ancient Pueblo tribes who succeeded the Basket - Makers used straight pipes of a somewhat different type. They were - usually longer and more slender than the Basket Maker pipes with - somewhat thinner walls. The smaller examples, which were probably - intended for personal use, seem to have had separate stems (<a href="#PLATE_II">Plate II</a>, - No. 2). Large tubular pipes, shaped like half a cigar, are also found, - but were probably used only in ceremonial smoking. They are made of - clay or soft stone and often show beautiful workmanship (<a href="#PLATE_II">Pl. II</a>, No. - 3). Roughly made clay pipes of this sort, popularly known as “cloud - blowers,” are still used by the Hopi in their ceremonies.</p> - - <p>The California Indians, with the exception of the Diegueño, also used - the straight pipe, and the form<span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">12</span> is probably as ancient there as in - the Southwest. There were various tribal and regional differences in - the shape and material. Wooden pipes without separate stems were of - nearly universal occurrence, and were probably the earliest form. In - some regions they were carved and inlaid with abalone shell. Pipes - of unbaked clay with wooden stems were used in a few localities (<a href="#PLATE_II">Pl. II</a>, - No. 4), but the finest California pipes were made of steatite - or soapstone (<a href="#PLATE_II">Pl. II</a>, No. 5). They were usually provided with short - mouthpieces of wood or bone. The Hupa of northern California used a - pipe with a small steatite bowl accurately fitted into a cavity in the - end of a long tapering wooden stem (<a href="#PLATE_II">Pl. II</a>, No. 6).</p> - - <p>Several of the tribes of the Great Plains used straight pipes in - ancient times. These pipes were made from the leg bone of an antelope - wrapped with sinew at the bowl end (<a href="#PLATE_III">Pl. III</a>, No. 1). In some cases the - whole pipe was covered with rawhide or membrane. The Arapaho say that - they used this form exclusively in early times, and the sacred pipe of - the tribe is straight with a black stone bowl and a long tubular wooden - stem. A pipe of the same form, but with a red stone bowl, was used by - the Cheyenne in their Sun Dance, and the Crow have made straight stone - pipe bowls until quite recent times (<a href="#PLATE_V">Pl. V</a>, No. 3).</p> - - <p>A number of straight pipes of stone and clay have been found in the - eastern United States, but there seems to be no record of their use - by the historic tribes. The examples shown (<a href="#PLATE_III">Pl. III</a>, Nos. 2–3) are - from Johnson County, Illinois. They are made from close-grained - greenish brown steatite, a material soft enough to be easily worked - with flint tools, but capable of taking a fine polish. The large size - and excellent finish of these pipes indicates that they were intended - for ceremonial rather than personal use. The bird pipe is eight and - a quarter inches long, with an<span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">13</span> internal bowl diameter of one and - a quarter inches, and is an unusually good example of aboriginal - sculpture. The eye sockets are roughly finished, and were probably - inlaid with some other material.</p> - - <p>Straight pipes are easier to make than elbow pipes, but have certain - disadvantages. They have to be directed upward in smoking to keep the - tobacco from falling out of the bowl, and the tobacco dust and juices - are drawn down into the stem with results familiar to all smokers. To - prevent this, many tribes are said to have put a pebble or pellet of - clay in the bottom of the bowl before filling it. Even a slight angle - between the bowl and stem is a great convenience to the smoker, and - this improvement once hit upon, perhaps through faulty workmanship, the - development of the elbow pipe was easy. Pipes from different parts of - North America show all degrees of bowl inclination from the straight - tube to a right angle, and there can be little doubt that the main - evolution of the elbow pipe was along this line. In the Mississippi - Valley and Great Plains there are, however, certain types of elbow pipe - which could hardly have been developed in this way. In these the bowl - rests upon a base which extends out for some distance in front of it. - From various archæological finds it seems probable that these types - were developed from pipes which had a corn-cob bowl pierced through the - base with a reed stem.</p> - - <p>North American elbow pipes have never been satisfactorily classified, - but about twenty types are distinguishable. Only the more important - of these can be mentioned here. Most of the types show a more or - less continuous geographical distribution, but there was no tribe or - region in which all the pipes were of the same type. The Chippewa - distinguished four types of pipe which were in simultaneous use among - them. These were—(1) Women’s pipes, which were<span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">14</span> small, with short - stems and little decoration. (2) Men’s pipes for ordinary smoking, - which were somewhat larger and better made than the women’s pipes, but - were also small. (3) Personal pipes of famous warriors, which were - larger than the ordinary pipes, with heavy decorated stems sometimes - as much as five feet long. (4) Chief’s pipes and ceremonial pipes, - which were large, with long stems like the warrior’s pipes, and were - elaborately decorated. Even the pipes for ordinary smoking were highly - valued and would often be carved and decorated in the owner’s spare - time. Stone for pipe-making, and even finished pipes, seem to have been - bartered from tribe to tribe in ancient times.</p> - - <p>The Indians made their pipes from many materials. Most of the - prehistoric pipes are of stone or clay, but early records prove that - wood, horn, and bone were also used by the tribes of the Atlantic Coast - at the time of their first contact with Europeans. Almost all the - pipes made of these perishable materials have been destroyed, but they - were probably of the same types as the stone and clay pipes from this - region. Clay pipes were in at least occasional use throughout the whole - of North America east of the Great Plains, but the finest examples - are found in the old Iroquois territory in New York State and Canada, - and in the southeastern United States. Stone pipes are found from the - Atlantic coast to the Rocky Mountains and seem to have been preferred - by all those tribes among whom pottery making was poorly developed.</p> - - <p>Large numbers of Iroquoian clay pipes have been found in old cemeteries - and village sites, and their form makes them easily distinguishable in - collections. They are made of fine hard-burned clay and have a graceful - trumpet shape, with rather long slender bowls and short stems (<a href="#PLATE_IV">Pl. IV</a>, - No. 3). The upper part of the bowl is often encircled by a band of - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">15</span>incised designs or modeled into a human face or bird’s head. They - were not provided with separate stems. </p> - - <div class="figcenter" id="PLATE_IV"> - <div class="caption">PLATE IV.</div> - <img class="illowp64" src="images/i014.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">AMERICAN INDIAN TOBACCO PIPES.</div> - <p class="caption">1. MONITOR PIPE, HOPEWELL MOUNDS, OHIO. 2. BIRD AND FISH PIPE, HOPEWELL - MOUNDS, OHIO. 3. IROQUOIS CLAY PIPE. 4. CATAWBA CLAY PIPES (MODERN). 5. MEXICAN - CLAY PIPES (TOLTEC?).</p> - </div> - - <p>Archæological finds on the Atlantic coast prove that the Indians of - that region also used small clay pipes, although the early visitors - only mention large pipes with excessively long stems. It seems probable - that the larger forms were semi-ceremonial, like the warrior’s and - chief’s pipes of the Chippewa, while the small pipes were used for - individual smoking. Many of these small pipes resemble rather closely - the early European trade pipes, and modern clay pipes and straight - briers, but the type is unquestionably pre-European. It was probably - the prototype from which modern European pipes were developed. Some of - the ancient pipes were made in one piece, while others were evidently - provided with separate stems, probably reeds. Identical forms were made - in stone in this region.</p> - - <p>In the southeastern United States short clay pipes with reed or - wooden stems seem to have been in common use. They were often rather - elaborately decorated, with modeled figures of birds, clay pellets, or - incised designs. This form of pipe is still in use among the Catawba, - although many of their pipes show the influence of European models (<a href="#PLATE_IV">Pl. IV</a>, - No. 4).</p> - - <p>Pottery pipes with flaring bowls and slender stems, sometimes as much - as eighteen inches long, are found in prehistoric Caddoan sites in - Arkansas. The stems are excessively fragile, and as these pipes are - usually found in the corners of graves, it seems probable that they - were made for mortuary use rather than actual smoking. They are clearly - imitations of a type which had a corn-cob bowl impaled on a reed stem.</p> - - <p>Stone pipes occur over a wider territory than pottery pipes and show - a greater diversity of form. There are some regions in which the same - shapes occur in both stone and pottery, but there are several<span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">16</span> types of - pipe which appear never to have been made of clay. Most of the stones - used in pipe-making were quite soft, but a few pipes of quartzite and - other hard rocks have been found. The material was carefully selected, - and was usually obtained from regular quarries. In the eastern United - States steatite, serpentine and slate were the stones most used. In the - upper Mississippi valley and Great Plains the favorite material was - catlinite, a fine-grained claystone soft enough to be easily worked - with stone tools, but firm enough to take a high polish. Deposits of - this material have been found in several states, and a local variety - was used by the Ohio Mound Builders. The most famous catlinite quarries - are in southeastern Minnesota and yield the highly prized red stone - from which so many Plains Indian pipes are made. Here the catlinite - occurs as a narrow layer, nowhere more than twenty inches thick, - between strata of compact quartzite five to eight feet thick. To reach - the catlinite it was necessary to break away the quartzite with stone - mauls or shatter it by building large fires upon it and then dashing - water on the heated stone. The old Indian workings extend for more than - a mile along the face of the deposit, and the quarry must have been in - use for several centuries. According to Indian traditions, the place - was visited by many different tribes, who considered it common property - and abstained from hostilities there. In historic times the Dakota - considered it exclusively their property, and part of it was set aside - for their use when they ceded their other lands in the vicinity. They - still visit it occasionally to obtain stone for their pipes. White men - have also worked the quarry, and in 1865 and 1866 over two thousand - pipes of this material were made by the Northwestern Fur Company for - their trade with the Indians.</p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">17</span></p> - - <p>The finest aboriginal pipes are unquestionably the so-called monitor - pipes found in the Ohio mounds. Many of these show such excellence - of design and execution that early investigators doubted whether - they could be the work of American Indians. They are made of soft - stone or of fire clay, which was carved like stone, but never of - pottery. The type is characterized by a long, broad, and very thin - base from the center of which the bowl rises vertically. The base may - be either flat or convex. The bowl is often made in the form of an - animal or bird, and some of these effigies show artistic ability of - a high order. Even when the style is impressionistic, the species is - usually unmistakable. The significance of these carvings can only be - conjectured, but so many species are shown that it seems probable that - they represent the personal guardians of the pipes’ owners. None of the - historic tribes used pipes of this type, and the finest examples are - unquestionably pre-Columbian. One of the pipes illustrated (<a href="#PLATE_IV">Pl. IV</a>, No. 1) - is of typical monitor form, but has the bowl incised with designs - representing bird’s heads. In the other (<a href="#PLATE_VI">Pl. IV</a>, No. 2) the shape has - been modified to suit the subject, a roseate spoonbill resting on the - back of some large water animal, probably a mud puppy (<i>Necturus - maculosus</i>).</p> - - <p>A number of large stone pipes have been found in the southeastern - United States (<a href="#PLATE_III">Pl. III</a>, Nos. 4–5). Some of these pipes weigh several - pounds and, as they are everywhere associated with smaller forms of - stone or clay, they were probably made for ceremonial use. They seem - to have been provided with long, thick wooden stems. These heavy pipes - are of several types, and are usually well made, but are inferior to - the monitor pipes in design and execution. In Georgia, Alabama, and - the lower Mississippi valley there is a very massive short type in - which the bowl and stem<span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">18</span> holes are conical and of nearly equal size - and depth. These biconical pipes are often made in the form of human - effigies or of highly conventionalized animals or birds.</p> - - <p>Early visitors to the north Atlantic Coast say that the Indians of - that region used heavy carved pipes with stems three to six feet long. - Large stone pipes are hardly ever found in this region, and even small - carved pipes are extremely rare. It seems probable that these early - forms either had quite small, plain bowls with heavy carved stems, or - were made of wood or other perishable material. Holm says that the - Pennsylvania Indians made their pipe bowls of horn, and several of the - Algonquian tribes have made a considerable use of carved wooden pipes - in historic times. Among many tribes the stems of ceremonial pipes were - elaborately decorated, and were considered more important than the - bowls.</p> - - <p>Plains Indian pipes are commoner in collections than those from any - other region. The Blackfoot preferred pipes of black stone, with - acorn-shaped bowls reminiscent of those in use among the Micmac and - other northeastern Algonquian tribes (<a href="#PLATE_V">Pl. V</a>, No. 4), but throughout - most of the Plains the favorite pipe was made of Minnesota catlinite, - and was of Sioux type (<a href="#PLATE_V">Pl. V</a>, Nos. 6–8). This type is common in museums - and private collections. It has a tubular bowl set vertically on a long - base which projects beyond the bowl as a pointed spur. This projecting - base is also found in the monitor pipes, and the two types may be - remotely related. Pipes of the Sioux type have been made in great - numbers by both whites and Indians, and many of those in collections - were probably manufactured by whites. Either early white traders, or - the tribes on the eastern edge of the Plains originated the practice of - inlaying the bowls and bases with lead. The pipe was cut to nearly its - final <span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">19</span>form, and a clay mold made. Deep grooves were then cut in the - stone to receive the lead, and the pipe was returned to the mold, and - the metal poured. The metal and stone were then rubbed down to a smooth - surface. Valuable pipes which had been broken were sometimes repaired - in this way.</p> - - <div class="figcenter" id="PLATE_V"> - <div class="caption">PLATE V.</div> - <img class="illowp100" src="images/i018.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">AMERICAN INDIAN TOBACCO PIPES.</div> - <p class="caption">1–2. PAWNEE SACRED PIPES. 3. CHEYENNE SUN-DANCE PIPE. 4. BLACKFOOT - PIPE. 5–7. CHEYENNE PIPES. 6–8. SIOUX PIPES. 9. PIPE TAMPER, SIOUX. - 10. PIPE BAG, SIOUX.</p> - </div> - - <p>All Plains Indian pipes, with the exception of the straight bone pipes - previously noted, were provided with long, heavy, wooden stems. Some - tribes preferred tubular, others flat stems. In ancient times most of - the long pipe stems were probably split lengthwise, the smoke passage - excavated, and the two halves glued together. Some of the northern - and western tribes used a solid tubular stem which they pierced by an - ingenious method. They selected a young ash shoot which had a small - pith cavity in the center and caught a wood-boring grub. They made a - hole in one end of the shoot and inserted the grub, closing the opening - behind it. The shoot was then hung over a fire, and the grub, following - the pith as the line of least resistance, drilled a hole through the - shaft from end to end. When it emerged, it was captured and returned - to the place where it had been found with appropriate thanks. Split - tubular stems are rather unsatisfactory, as the halves are liable to - warp and separate. The broad, flat pipe-stem was probably invented to - give a wider surface for the glue and hence a firmer joint. It reached - its highest development among the Dakota, and they seem to have been - the inventors of the “puzzle stem,” a broad, flat stem pierced with - designs so that the smoke passage had to make several turns between - the pipe-bowl and mouth-piece. Pipe stems were often decorated with - elaborate wrappings which helped to hold the halves together.</p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">20</span></p> - - <p>A peculiar form of pipe, which may be a variant of the Sioux type, is - found in a limited area in the upper Mississippi valley. These pipes - usually have bases with long projecting spurs, but the bowl is smaller - than the stem hole and very low. It is surrounded by a broad, thin disk - sometimes as much as three and a half inches across. Some of these - “disk pipes” suggest the shallow-bowled pipes of the Asiatics, but the - form is certainly prehistoric. Pipes of this type are rare, and were - probably made for ceremonial use. One of the sacred pipes of the Omaha - is of this sort.</p> - - <p>Although all the Mexican Indians were predominantly cigarette-smokers, - ancient clay pipes of elbow type have been found in the valley of - Mexico (<a href="#PLATE_IV">Pl. IV</a>, No. 5). They are not mentioned by any of the early - Spanish writers, but the specimens found are unquestionably of native - workmanship, and are probably prehistoric. The commonest form has a - bulb-shaped bowl and a rather thick stem flattened on the bottom, so - that the pipe will stand upright. The occurrence of elbow pipes in a - limited area, far from any other in which they were known, is difficult - to account for. Some of these pipes resemble forms in use in the - southeastern United States and lower Mississippi valley.</p> - - <p>Elbow pipes were also used on the Northwest Coast and in Alaska, but - they were introduced into these regions after the discovery of America. - The Alaskan Eskimo apparently learned the practice of smoking from the - natives of Siberia, and their pipes are of Asiatic type, with very - small bowls (<a href="#PLATE_VI">Pl. VI</a>, No. 1). Their best pipes are made from walrus - tusks, and are often elaborately etched. The tusk is usually split - lengthwise and the halves joined in such a way that they can be taken - apart to obtain the juice distilled in smoking. The juice was mixed - with fungus<span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">21</span> ashes for chewing or with the smoking tobacco. Poorly made - pipes of Eskimo form were used by the Athapascan tribes of interior - Alaska, who were taught to smoke by the Eskimo.</p> - - <p>The Indians of the Northwest Coast chewed tobacco in ancient times, but - did not smoke it. The more northern tribes may have adopted smoking - from Asia by way of the Eskimo, but their pipes show little resemblance - to the Asiatic forms, and they probably learned the practice from white - visitors. The natives of this region are expert carvers, and nearly all - their pipes are decorated with figures of men or totemic animals. Wood - is the favorite material (<a href="#PLATE_VI">Pl. VI</a>, No. 2), but bone and antler are also - used and some of the tribes make very elaborate pipes of black slate - (<a href="#PLATE_VI">Pl. VI</a>, No. 3). The slate pipes are much sought after by collectors, - and many of them seem to have been made for sale rather than use.</p> - - <p>Pipes are mentioned among the goods given to the Indians in some of - the earliest English land-purchases, and they were regularly carried - by the white traders with the Indians. An English pipe-maker, Robert - Cotton, came to Virginia in 1608. The earliest trade pipes were made - of clay and seem to have been patterned after the small pipes used - for personal smoking by the coast tribes. Those made in the various - European countries showed minor differences, but were all of nearly the - same form. The later trade pipes show an increasing diversity in shape - and decoration, but the whites apparently did not attempt to make the - larger ceremonial forms. The most important contribution on the part - of the whites to the Indian tobacco complex was the tomahawk pipe. - This implement had a pipe-bowl above and a blade below, and could be - used either as a pipe or as a weapon. We do not know when or where it - originated, but it<span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">22</span> apparently did not come into general use in the - English Colonies before 1750. All the European nations equipped their - Indian allies with tomahawk pipes, and a number of types are recognized - by collectors. The pipe-bowl was nearly always of acorn shape, like - the pipe used by the northeastern Algonquians, but the blade varied - considerably. In general, the English and early American tomahawks had - straight-edged hatchet-blades, and the French ones had diamond-shaped - blades, like spear-heads. Spanish tomahawks had flaring blades with - curved edges, like mediæval battle-axes. There were a number of white - tomahawk-makers whose work differed in minor details; and fine inlaid, - chased, or inscribed tomahawks were sometimes made for presentation to - important chiefs.</p> - - <p>An Indian warrior was rarely without his pipe and tobacco, and special - tobacco-bags were used by all the tribes east of the Rocky Mountains. - In early times, these bags were usually made from the skins of small - animals taken off whole. The Eastern Woodland tribes used a rather - small bag which was tied to the belt. The Plains tribes used a larger - bag, often made from a fawn skin, in which they carried both the pipe - and tobacco. In historic times the northern Plains Indians have used - long, flat rectangular bags decorated with beads or porcupine quills, - but this type apparently is not an ancient one (<a href="#PLATE_V">Pl. V</a>, No. 10). Several - of the Plains tribes also had special boards on which the tobacco was - cut up and elaborate pipe tampers (<a href="#PLATE_V">Pl. V</a>, No. 9). These accessories - were used mainly in ceremonial smoking. In Pawnee ceremonies the - pipe was always tamped with an arrow captured from the enemy. It was - forbidden to pack it with the fingers, as the gods might think that the - man who did so offered himself with the tobacco and take his life. The - tribes of the Northwest Coast crushed their tobacco<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">23</span> in mortars. These - were usually made from whale vertebrae, and were often elaborately - carved.</p> - - <p>Even if documentary evidence of the New World origin of tobacco were - lacking, its importance in the religious and ceremonial life of the - Indians would leave little doubt of the antiquity of its use among - them. Among all the tribes east of the Rocky Mountains tobacco was the - favorite offering to the supernatural powers, and among the Central - Algonquians no ceremony could take place without it. As a sacrifice - it might be burned as incense, cast into the air or on the ground, or - buried. There were sacred places at which every visitor left a tobacco - offering, and during storms it was thrown into lakes and rivers to - appease the under-water powers. Smoking was indulged in on all solemn - occasions, such as councils, and was a necessary part of most religious - ceremonies. In such ceremonial smoking the methods of picking up, - filling, and lighting the pipe were usually rigidly prescribed, and - the first smoke was offered to the spirits. The methods of passing and - holding the pipe were also prescribed and differed with the ceremony - and even with the personal taboos of the smokers. In the religious - ceremonies of the Hopi, the head chief was attended by an assistant - of nearly equal rank, who ceremonially lighted the pipe, and with - certain formalities and set words handed it to the chief, who blew the - smoke to the world quarters and over the altar as a preliminary to his - invocation.</p> - - <p>The so-called medicine-bundles, collections of sacred objects around - which the religious life of many of the Central Algonquians and - Plains Tribes centered, often contained pipes which were smoked in - the ceremonies attending the opening of the bundle (<a href="#PLATE_V">Pl. V</a>, Nos. 1–2). - In some cases the pipe itself seems to have been the most important - object, and the palladium of the Arapaho tribe is a straight pipe of - black stone.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">24</span> Among some of the eastern Siouan tribes each clan had its - sacred pipe which was used at namings and other clan ceremonies. The - stems of these pipes were covered with elaborate wrappings and other - ornaments which symbolized the various supernatural powers invoked in - the ceremonies, and the sanctity of the pipe lay in its stem rather - than its bowl.</p> - - <p>The calumet, so often mentioned in early American records, was not a - pipe, but an elaborately decorated shaft, pierced like a pipe stem, - to which a pipe bowl was not necessarily attached. The name itself - is not of Indian origin, but is a Norman-French word meaning a reed - or tube. J. N. B. Hewitt says, “From the meager descriptions of the - calumet and its uses it would seem that it has a ceremonially symbolic - history independent of that of the pipe; and that when the pipe became - an altar, by its employment for burning sacrificial tobacco to the - gods, convenience and convention united the already highly symbolic - calumet shafts and the sacrificial tobacco altar, the pipe bowl; - hence it became one of the most profoundly sacred objects known to - the Indians of northern America. As the colors and other adornments - of the shaft represent symbolically various dominant gods of the - Indian pantheon, it follows that the symbolism of the calumet and - pipe represented a veritable executive council of the gods. Moreover, - in some of the elaborate ceremonies in which it was necessary to - portray this symbolism the employment of two shafts became necessary, - because the one with its colors and accessory adornments represented - the procreative male power and his aid, and was denominated the male, - the fatherhood of nature; and the other with its colors and necessary - adornments represented the reproductive female power and her aid, and - was denominated the female, the motherhood of nature.</p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">25</span></p> - - <p>“The calumet was employed by ambassadors and travelers as a passport; - it was used in ceremonies designed to conciliate foreign and hostile - nations and to conclude lasting peace; to ratify the alliance of - friendly tribes; to secure favorable weather for journeys; to bring - needed rain; and to attest contracts and treaties which could not - be violated without incurring the wrath of the gods. The use of the - calumet was inculcated by religious precept and example. A chant and a - dance have become known as the chant and dance of the calumet; together - they were employed as an invocation to one or more of the gods. By - naming in the chant the souls of those against whom war must be waged, - such persons were doomed to die at the hands of the person so naming - them. The dance and chant were rather in honor of the calumet than with - the calumet.</p> - - <p>“The Omaha and cognate names for this dance and chant signify ‘to make - a sacred kinship,’ but not ‘to dance.’ This is a key to the esoteric - significance of the use of the calumet. The one for whom the dance - for the calumet was performed became thereby the adopted son of the - performer. One might ask another to dance the Calumet dance for him, or - one might offer to perform this dance for another, but in either case - the offer or invitation could be declined.</p> - - <p>“Charlevoix (1721) says that if the calumet is offered and accepted it - is the custom to smoke in the calumet, and the engagements contracted - are held sacred and inviolable, in just so far as such human things - are inviolable. The Indians profess that the violation of such an - engagement never escapes just punishment. In the heat of battle, if - an adversary offer the calumet to his opponent and he accept it, the - weapons on both sides are at once laid down; but to accept or to - refuse the offer of the calumet is optional.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">26</span> There are calumets for - various kinds of public engagements, and when such bargains are made an - exchange of calumets is usual, in this manner rendering the contract or - bargain sacred.</p> - - <p>“By smoking together in the calumet the contracting parties intend - to invoke the sun and the other gods as witnesses of the mutual - obligations assumed by the parties, and as a guaranty the one to the - other that they shall be fulfilled. This is accomplished by blowing the - smoke toward the sky, the four world quarters, and the earth, with a - suitable invocation.</p> - - <p>“There were calumets for commerce and trade and for other social and - political purposes; but the most important were those designed for war - and those for peace and brotherhood. It was vitally necessary, however, - that they should be distinguishable at once, lest through ignorance - and inattention one should become the victim of treachery. The Indians - in general chose not or dared not to violate openly the faith attested - by the calumet, and sought to deceive an intended victim by the use - of a false calumet of peace in an endeavor to make the victim in some - measure responsible for the consequences. On one occasion a band of - Sioux, seeking to destroy some Indians and their protectors, a French - officer and his men, presented, in the guise of friendship, twelve - calumets, apparently of peace; but the officer, who was versed in - such matters and whose suspicion was aroused by the number offered, - consulted an astute Indian attached to his force, who caused him to see - that among the twelve one of the calumet shafts was not matted with - hair like the others, and that on the shaft was graven the figure of a - viper, coiled around it. The officer was made to understand that this - was the sign of covert treachery, thus frustrating the intended Sioux - plot.”</p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">27</span></p> - - <p>The use of the calumet was almost universal in the Mississippi valley - and among the Plains tribes, but in the Ohio and St. Lawrence valleys - and southward its use is not so definitely shown. The symbolism and - ritual of the calumet reached its highest development among the Pawnee - and neighboring Siouan tribes and the concept probably originated in - this region.</p> - - <div class="right smcap">R. Linton.</div> - - <hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - <div class="chapter"> - <h3 class="nobreak" id="BIBLIOGRAPHICAL_REFERENCES">BIBLIOGRAPHICAL REFERENCES</h3> - </div> - - <p class="hang">Handbook of American Indians, Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin - 30. See headings:—Calumet, Pipes, Smoking, Tobacco.</p> - - <p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Hind</span>—The Canadian Red River, London, 1860.</p> - - <p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Lowie, R. H.</span>—The Tobacco Society of the Crow Indians. - Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History. - Vol. XXI, Pt. 2.</p> - - <p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Setchell, W. A.</span>—Aboriginal Tobaccos, American Anthropologist, - Vol. XXIII, No. 4, 1921.</p> - - <p class="hang mb5"><span class="smcap">Wilson, G. L.</span>—Agriculture of the Hidatsa Indians. University - of Minnesota, Studies in Social Science, No. 9.</p> - - <div class="figcenter" id="PLATE_VI"> - <div class="caption">PLATE VI.</div> - <img class="illowp100" src="images/i027.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">1. PIPE MADE FROM WALRUS TUSK, ESKIMO. 2. WOODEN PIPE, HAIDA. 3. PIPE - OF BLACK SLATE, HAIDA.</div> - </div> - - <div class="center mt20">PRINTED BY FIELD MUSEUM PRESS</div> - - <div class="transnote mt5"> - <div class="large center"><b>Transcriber’s Notes:</b></div> - <ul class="spaced small"> - <li>Blank pages have been removed.</li> - <li>Obvious typographical errors have been silently corrected.</li> - </ul> - </div> - -<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK USE OF TOBACCO AMONG NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS ***</div> -<div style='text-align:left'> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will -be renamed. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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