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+The Project Gutenberg eBook of Model Aeroplanes and Their Engines, by
+George Cavanagh
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
+most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
+whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
+of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
+www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you
+will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before
+using this eBook.
+
+Title: Model Aeroplanes and Their Engines
+       A Practical Book for Beginners
+
+Author: George Cavanagh
+
+Release Date: April 16, 2022 [eBook #67852]
+
+Language: English
+
+Produced by: Brian Coe, Quentin Campbell and the Online Distributed
+             Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+             produced from images generously made available by the
+             Library of Congress)
+
+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MODEL AEROPLANES AND THEIR
+ENGINES ***
+
+
+                          Transcriber’s Note
+
+In the following transcription italic text is denoted by _underscores_.
+Small capitals in the original publication have been transcribed as ALL
+CAPITALS.
+
+See end of this document for details of corrections and other changes.
+
+               ————————————— Start of Book —————————————
+
+
+              [Illustration: Waid Carl’s model in flight.
+
+             Courtesy Edward P. Warner, Concord Model Club]
+
+
+
+
+                           MODEL AEROPLANES
+                           AND THEIR ENGINES
+
+
+                   _A Practical Book for Beginners_
+
+
+                                  BY
+                          GEORGE A. CAVANAGH
+                       MODEL EDITOR “AERIAL AGE”
+
+
+                              DRAWINGS BY
+                           HARRY G. SCHULTZ
+              PRESIDENT THE AERO-SCIENCE CLUB OF AMERICA
+
+
+                        WITH AN INTRODUCTION BY
+                            HENRY WOODHOUSE
+                       Managing Editor “Flying”
+                 Governor of the Aero Club of America
+
+
+                               NEW YORK
+                        MOFFAT, YARD & COMPANY
+                                 1917
+
+
+
+
+                          COPYRIGHT, 1916, BY
+                       MOFFAT, YARD AND COMPANY
+                               NEW YORK
+                                 ————
+                         _All rights reserved_
+
+                        Reprinted August, 1917
+
+
+
+
+                                  TO
+                               M. T. H.
+
+
+
+
+                             INTRODUCTION
+
+
+History tells us—what some of us luckier ones heard the Wright Brothers
+themselves tell—that the Wrights’ active work in aëronautics was a
+result of the interest aroused by a toy helicopter presented to them by
+the Reverend Bishop Milton Wright, their father.
+
+Tremendous developments have taken place in aëronautics and aircraft
+are fast developing in size, speed, and range of action. They have
+revolutionized warfare, and seem to be destined to become a most
+important factor in the reconstruction that will follow the war.
+
+The greater the development the truer the fact that model aëroplanes
+may be instrumental in bringing to aëronautics men who may make
+valuable contributions to aëronautics. As a matter of fact, there are
+already in active life, contributing their share to the development of
+aëronautics, young men who only a few years ago competed for prizes
+which the writer offered for model competition.
+
+The young men who are now flying models will live in the new age—and
+they have much to give and much to receive from it.
+
+Through the tremendous strides forward of aëronautics there are
+wonderful possibilities for the employment of ingenuity, genius
+and skill, and business opportunities, as great as have ever been
+created by progress in important lines of human endeavor. Problems
+of engineering as huge as were solved by master builders; juridical
+and legal questions to be decided as stupendously difficult as any
+Gladstone would wish them; possibilities for the development of
+international relations greater than were ever conceived; problems
+of transportation to be solved by the application of aircraft,
+as wonderful as any economist could wish; opportunities to gain
+distinction splendid enough to satisfy the most ambitious person.
+
+                                                 HENRY WOODHOUSE.
+
+  New York, June 5th, 1916.
+
+
+
+
+                           LIST OF CONTENTS
+
+
+                                                                 PAGE
+    INTRODUCTION                                                   ix
+
+    HISTORY OF MODEL AVIATION                                       1
+
+    CONSTRUCTION                                                    8
+      Propellers—Wings—Frame—Assembling—Launching—
+      Chassis—Pontoons—Launching an R. O. G. or Model
+      Hydroaëroplane.
+
+    WORLD RECORD MODELS                                            52
+      Lauder Distance and Duration Model—Hittle Tractor
+      Hydro—La Tour Flying Boat—Cook No. 42 Model—Rudy Funk
+      Duration Model—Alson H. Wheeler Twin Pusher Biplane.
+
+    A MODEL WARPLANE                                               83
+
+    A SIMPLE COMPRESSED AIR ENGINE                              85–93
+
+    COMPRESSED AIR DRIVEN MODELS                               94–102
+      The Dart Compressed Air Driven Model—The McMahon
+      Compressed Air Driven Monoplane—The McMahon
+      Compressed Air Driven Biplane.
+
+    COMPRESSED AIR ENGINES                                    103–109
+      Wise Compressed Air Engine—Schober-Funk Three Cylinder
+      Engine—The Schober Four Cylinder Opposed Engine.
+
+    GASOLINE ENGINES                                           110–117
+      Jopson—Midget Aëro Gasoline Engine.
+
+    STEAM POWER PLANTS                                        118–122
+      H. H. Groves Steam Power Plants—G. Harris’s Steam
+      Engine—Professor Langley’s Steam Engine—French
+      Experiments with Steam Power Plants.
+
+    CARBONIC GAS ENGINE                                       123–124
+
+    THE FORMATION OF MODEL CLUBS                              125–138
+
+    WORLD’S MODEL FLYING RECORDS                              139–141
+
+    DICTIONARY OF AËRONAUTICAL TERMS                          142–152
+
+
+
+
+                         LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+                                                                 PAGE
+    Model Aëroplane in Flight                          _Frontispiece_
+
+    First Model Aëroplane Exhibition                         Opp.   4
+
+    Propellers (Diagram 1)                                          9
+
+    How to cut propellers (Diagram 2)                              11
+
+    Designs for propellers (Diagram 3)                             14
+
+    Designs for propellers (Diagram 4)                             17
+
+    Wing construction (Diagram 5)                                  20
+
+    Members of the Aëro Science Club                         Opp.  22
+
+    Members of the Milwaukee and Illinois Model Aëro
+      Clubs                                                  Opp.  22
+
+    Frame construction (Diagram 6)                                 25
+
+    Model Assembly (Diagram 7)                                     30
+
+    C. W. Meyer and Wm. Hodgins exhibiting early type
+      models                                                 Opp.  32
+
+    Henry Criscouli with five foot model                     Opp.  32
+
+    Schultz hydroaëroplane                                   Opp.  32
+
+    Rubber winder (Diagram 8)                                      35
+
+    Chassis construction (Diagram 9)                               38
+
+    Pontoon construction (Diagram 10)                              43
+
+    Obst flying boat Opp.                                          44
+
+    McLaughlin twin tractor hydroaëroplane                   Opp.  44
+
+    Louis Bamberger hydro about to leave water               Opp.  44
+
+    E. B. Eiring and Kennith Sedgwick Milwaukee Club How
+    to launch R. O. G. model                                 Opp.  48
+
+    Waid Carl, Concord Model Club Launching R. O. G.
+      model                                                  Opp.  48
+
+    Wallace A Lauder model (Diagram 11)                            54
+
+    Lauder distance and duration model                       Opp.  56
+
+    Lauder R. O. G. model                                    Opp.  56
+
+    Lindsay Hittle world record hydroaëroplane (Diagram 12)
+                                                                   61
+
+    La Tour Flying Boat (Diagram 13)                               66
+
+    Ellis Cook R. O. G. model (Diagram 14)                         73
+
+    Funk duration model (Diagram 15)                               78
+
+    Rudy Funk speed model                                    Opp.  80
+
+    McMahon and Schober compressed air driven models         Opp.  80
+
+    Alson H. Wheeler twin pusher biplane                     Opp.  82
+
+    C. V. Obst tractor                                       Opp.  82
+
+    Model Warplane                                                 84
+
+    Simple compressed air engine (Diagram 16)                      87
+
+    Schober compressed air driven monoplane                  Opp.  90
+
+    Schober compressed air driven biplane                    Opp.  90
+
+    Dart compressed air driven model                               95
+
+    John McMahon and compressed air driven monoplane         Opp.  98
+
+    Frank Schober preparing model for flight                 Opp.  98
+
+    John McMahon pusher biplane (Diagram 17)                      102
+
+    Wise compressed air engine                               Opp. 104
+
+    Schober-Funk three-cylinder rotary engine                Opp. 105
+
+    Schober four cylinder engine (Diagram 18)                     107
+
+    Jopson gasoline engine                                   Opp. 110
+
+    Sectional view of Jopson engine (Diagram 19)                  112
+
+    Power curve of Jopson engine (Diagram 20)                     115
+
+    Midget gasoline engine                                   Opp. 116
+
+    English steam power plant                                Opp. 120
+
+    V. E. Johnson steam driven hydroaëroplane                Opp. 120
+
+    English compressed air driven biplane                    Opp. 122
+
+    Tractor hydroaëroplane fitted with steam power plant     Opp. 122
+
+    English compressed air engine fitted with simple
+      speedometer                                            Opp. 122
+
+    The Rompel six-cylinder carbonic gas engine              Opp. 124
+
+
+
+
+                           MODEL AËROPLANES
+
+                       HISTORY OF MODEL AVIATION
+
+
+Model aëroplaning, as a sport, was first introduced in America during
+the year of 1907. It was then that the first model aëroplane club in
+America was formed by Miss E. L. Todd, with the assistance of Mr.
+Edward Durant, now Director of the Aëro Science Club of America.
+Prior to this the model aëroplane was considered an instrument of
+experimentation or, when built to resemble a full sized machine,
+was used for exhibition purposes. Noted scientists, men such as
+Maxim, Langley, Eiffel and others, depended largely on models to
+bring about the desired results during their experiments. Before the
+Wright Brothers brought forth and launched the first heavier than air
+machine their experiments, to a great extent, were confined to model
+aëroplanes. There is little doubt but that a large majority of aviators
+engaged in flying machines in different parts of the world were at one
+time in their career interested in the construction and flying of model
+aircraft, and from which no doubt they obtained their initial knowledge
+of the aëroplane, in so far as the same principles and laws apply to
+any aëroplane, regardless of its size.
+
+The first model aëroplane club went under the name of the New York
+Model Aëro Club and during its existence a great many of its contests
+were carried on in armories. The reason for this was because of the
+fact that the greater number of the models prevalent at that time
+were built along the lines of full sized machines, and their manner
+of construction was such as to interfere with the flying efficiency
+of the model. Streamline construction was something unknown to model
+constructors in those days and, in consequence, crudely constructed
+and heavy models were very often evidenced, and, as a result, flights
+of over one hundred feet were very seldom made. At about the same time
+model enthusiasts in both England and France were actively engaged
+in constructing and flying models, but the type of model used was of
+a different design from those flown by the American modelists and
+as a result of this innovation many of the early records were held
+abroad. The type of model flown by the English modelists resembled in
+appearance the letter “A”, hence the term “A” type.
+
+It was not long after the introduction of this type of model in America
+that model aëroplaning as a sport began to assume an aspect of great
+interest. Models were constructed along simpler lines and with a
+greater tendency toward doing away with all unnecessary parts, thus
+increasing the flying qualities of the models. Flights of greater
+distance and duration were the objects sought and, in their efforts to
+achieve them new records were made at most every contest, until flights
+of from 500 to 1000 feet were common occurrences. By the use of the A
+type model and the single stick model which made its appearance shortly
+after the A type model, American modelists succeeded in breaking most
+of the world records for this type of model which is now termed by
+English modelists “flying sticks.”
+
+[Illustration: First model aëroplane exhibition held at Boston, 1910]
+
+One by one model aëroplane clubs were formed in different parts of the
+country until to-day there are in existence about twenty-five clubs
+and all with memberships of from two to eight times that of the first
+model aëro club. The work which was started by the New York Model Aëro
+Club is now being carried on by the Aëro Science Club of America and
+its affiliated clubs. The interest in model flying grew to such an
+extent that during the year of 1915 the Aëro Club of America decided
+to hold the First National Model Aëroplane Competition for the purpose
+of offering to the young men of America an opportunity of becoming
+acquainted with this new sport and its advantages. The results of
+this competition were beyond expectation. Models were made capable
+of flying distances and with durations that, to the early flyers,
+seemed impossible. In the hand launched contests models were flown for
+distances ranging from 2000 to 2500 feet, the winning flight being
+3537 feet, and it might also be said that the contestant who flew this
+model, with a model of the same design established a duration record
+of 195 seconds. As this goes to press, information is received that
+the World’s Record for distance for hand launched models has been
+broken by Thomas Hall, of Chicago, Ill., an Illinois Model Aëro Club
+member, with a flight of 5337 feet. Another interesting result of the
+competition was the establishing of a world hydroaëroplane record by
+a member of the Illinois Model Aëro Club with a model of the tractor
+type, a four-bladed propeller being used in connection with the model.
+The flying boat which is a late advent to the field of model flying
+also proved a record breaker in this competition, having remained in
+the air after rising from the surface of the water, for a duration of
+43 seconds. This model was flown by a member of the Pacific Northwest
+Model Aëro Club of Seattle, Washington. The establishing of these
+records clearly indicates the advantage of scientific designing and
+construction and careful handling.
+
+So satisfactory have been the results of the First National Model
+Aëroplane Competition that the Aëro Club of America has made
+arrangements for holding the Second National Model Aëroplane
+Competition during the year 1916. But in the announcement of the Second
+National Competition the Aëro Club of America has made provision for
+the holding of contests for mechanically driven models, in view of
+the interest which is being shown by model flyers in the construction
+of models more closely resembling large machines to be driven by
+compressed air, steam and gasoline power plants. This is the outcome
+of a desire on the part of model constructors to substitute for what
+is now commonly known as the “flying stick,” models more closely
+resembling large machines, which models can be more satisfactorily
+flown by the use of compressed air, steam or gasoline power plants. As
+in the early days, the best flights made by models using compressed air
+and steam have been made by English flyers, the duration of the flights
+ranging anywhere from 25 to 50 seconds.
+
+Whether or not the American flyers will repeat history and achieve
+greater results with this type of model motive power is something that
+can only be determined in the future. But in any event the scientific
+mechanically driven model will, without doubt, assume an important
+position in the field of model aviation.
+
+
+
+
+                             CONSTRUCTION
+
+
+                              PROPELLERS
+
+Propellers may be cut from various kinds of wood, but the most
+suitable, from every standpoint, is white pine. The advantage of using
+this wood lies in the fact that the propellers may be cut more rapidly
+and when cut are lighter than those made from most other kinds of wood.
+When coated with the proper kind of varnish they are sufficiently
+strong for ordinary flying. Wood selected for propellers should be free
+from knots, holes and other imperfections and it is very desirable that
+it should be of perfectly straight grain.
+
+A piece of such clear white pine 8″ long, 1″ wide and ³⁄₄″ thick should
+be selected and on one side marked TOP. A tracing of the propeller
+similar in design to Figure 1, should be laid on this piece of wood and
+an imprint of the propeller design drawn on the TOP side.
+
+[Illustration: Diagram 1]
+
+To find the center of the block two lines should be drawn from the
+opposite corners, their point of meeting being approximately in the
+center—near enough for all practical purposes to insure greater
+accuracy. Similar lines should be drawn from the corners on the BOTTOM
+side of the block of wood. A hole ³⁄₃₂ of an inch in diameter should
+be bored through the center thus obtained, through which the propeller
+shaft will be inserted when the propeller is finished. The two sections
+of the propeller blades drawn in diagrammatical form on the TOP of the
+block, should be marked respectively BLADE 1 and BLADE 2, as shown in
+diagram 1. The block is then ready for the commencement of the actual
+cutting. In cutting out the propeller, BLADE 1 should be held in the
+left hand and the knife in the other, with the blade of the knife on
+the straight edge of BLADE 1. The cutting should be carried out very
+carefully with attention constantly paid to Fig. 2, and should be
+stopped when the line shown in Fig. 2 has been reached. The semi-blade
+should then be sandpapered until a small curve is obtained by which the
+propeller will be enabled to grip the air.
+
+[Illustration: Diagram 2]
+
+To cut BLADE 2, BLADE 1 should be held in the left hand and BLADE 2 cut
+until the line shown in Fig. 3 is reached, after which the sandpapering
+process is carried out in the same manner as in the case of BLADE 1.
+During all of the foregoing operations it must be clearly borne in
+mind that the TOP of the blank propeller must always face upward,
+and the cutting should always be done on the STRAIGHT lines. Should
+the straight edge be cut on one edge of the blank propeller and the
+curved edge on the other, it would result in the blades of the finished
+propeller having a tendency to push in opposite directions and in
+consequence no propulsion of the model would be possible.
+
+Attention should next be turned to the back of the propeller blank on
+which the manner of cutting is exactly like that suggested for the top
+side, with the exception that instead of cutting along the STRAIGHT
+lines, the cutting is done along the CURVED lines. In this part of
+the work great care is to be exercised for by the time the necessary
+cutting has been done on the back of the propeller the entire structure
+is very fragile and one excessive stroke of the knife may result in
+destroying the entire propeller blade. By constantly holding the wood
+to the light it is possible to determine with a reasonable degree of
+accuracy the evenness of thickness. To complete the BOTTOM side of the
+propeller the blade should be sandpapered as was the top.
+
+The method of cutting the second propeller is exactly that used in
+cutting the first propeller, only that the diagram shown in Fig. 4
+should be used. This will result in two propellers being made that will
+revolve in opposite directions in order to produce even and balanced
+propulsion. If both propellers revolved in the same direction the
+effect would be to overturn the model.
+
+[Illustration: Diagram 3]
+
+In diagram 1 the propellers are shown with the straight edge as the
+entering or cutting edge of the blade. Some of the model builders
+prefer the curved edge as the cutting edge (diagram 2). It is
+significant that Mr. Frank Schober, a well known model constructor,
+tested both designs on his compressed air driven model, and while
+both propellers were the same in weight, diameter and pitch, the one
+having the straight edge as the cutting edge was found one-third more
+efficient.
+
+When the propellers have been given a light coat of shellac they should
+be laid aside until the assembling of the complete model.
+
+By following the foregoing instructions a simple and effective set of
+propellers will be produced. But in order to vary the experimental
+practice of the constructor various other diagrams, Nos. 3 and 4,
+illustrating suitable designs, are provided and can be made by applying
+the above general theory and using the diagrams herewith.
+
+
+                                 WINGS
+
+One of the most important considerations in the construction of a model
+is the making of the wings. To obtain the greatest efficiency the
+wings must be carefully designed, with due attention to whether the
+model is being constructed for speed, duration or climbing ability.
+Attention should be given to streamline construction; that is, the
+parts of the wing should be so assembled that the completed wing would
+offer the least possible resistance to the air, if the best results are
+to be obtained.
+
+For the main wing three strips of spruce, each 30″ in length, two of
+them being ³⁄₁₆″ × ¹⁄₄″ and the third ³⁄₁₆″ × ¹⁄₁₆″ are required. To
+make them thoroughly streamline all edges should be carefully rounded
+off and all surfaces should be smooth. A strip of bamboo at least 20″
+long, ¹⁄₂″ wide, ¹⁄₈″ thick, should be cut into pieces, each piece to
+be 5 in. long. To secure the necessary curve, ¹⁄₂″ depth, the pieces
+of bamboo should be held in steam and slowly bent in a manner closely
+resembling the skids of an ordinary bobsled. When the curvature has
+been obtained, care should be exercised in cutting each piece into four
+longitudinal strips, from which twelve should be selected to be used as
+ribs, each to be ¹⁄₈″ wide. The bending of the bamboo preliminary to
+making the ribs is done in order to secure uniformity of curvature.
+
+[Illustration: Diagram 4]
+
+When this has been done the ribs are ready for fastening to the
+sticks—entering and trailing edges—and each must be attached an equal
+distance apart. In order that the ribs may be evenly spaced it is
+necessary to put a mark every 3″ on the larger stick or entering edge
+of the wing, and also on the flat stick or trailing edge. The main beam
+which is of the same dimensions as the entering edge is afterwards
+fastened across the center of the wing, and does not necessarily need
+to be thus marked, as it is fastened to the ribs after the ribs have
+been attached to the entering and trailing edges of the wing frame.
+By holding the ribs one at a time so that the curved edge rests upon
+the entering edge where the mark indicates, as shown in diagram 5,
+they should be fastened thereon by means of thread and glue. The rear
+end of the rib must be fastened to the trailing edge where the mark
+indicates, also by thread and glue.
+
+After all ribs have been thus securely fastened to both edges of the
+frame the third stick, or main beam, should be attached to the frame
+on the underside, the fastening being made at the highest point of
+the curve of each rib. This main beam prevents the wing covering from
+drawing in the end ribs and adds very materially to the strength of
+the entire wing structure. To cover the wings fiber paper may be used
+and is a suitable material, but the best results, from a standpoint of
+flying efficiency and long service, are obtained by the use of China
+silk.
+
+The frame of the forward wing or elevator is made in the same manner
+as is the main wing, but it is only 12″ in span by 4″ in chord, and is
+constructed without the use of a main beam. This wing has only five
+ribs which are made in the same manner as those for the rear wing, and
+each is placed a distance of 3″ apart.
+
+[Illustration: Diagram 5]
+
+A piece of silk measuring 2″ longer and 2″ wider than each of the wing
+frames should be used in covering the wings, and this can be held in
+position by the use of pins prior to the actual sewing. The extra inch
+of silk on all sides of the frame is placed around the under side of
+the frame—in order that it can be made thoroughly taut when the silk
+has been sewn close to the edges of the frame. After the silk has been
+sewn close to the edges the pins may be removed and the surplus silk
+that hangs from the under side of the frame may be cut off. To make
+this silk airproof it should be coated with a thin coat of shellac or
+varnish and the wings should be thoroughly dry before being used. This
+coating, in addition to airproofing, will assist in making the covering
+perfectly taut, and also in making the wing ready for service when the
+entire model is ready to be assembled.
+
+
+                                 FRAME
+
+As all other parts of the model are attached to the frame in addition
+to its having to stand the strain of the tightly wound rubber strands
+which serve as the motive power for the model, it must be made strong.
+It is therefore necessary to exercise care and judgment in making
+certain that the different units that make up the frame are rightly
+proportioned and are of the proper material. Just as in the large sized
+aëroplanes there are many types of bodies, so there are many different
+types of frames in use in model construction, but the standard, and for
+all practical purposes the best frame, resembles the letter A in shape,
+hence the name A type. The lightness of the frame depends entirely on
+the materials used and the manner in which it is constructed.
+
+Some model flyers use but a single stick for the frame, but generally
+the A type frame is preferred for the reason that it is more durable,
+the wings can be more securely attached to it, and that it is possible
+of developing very much better results.
+
+[Illustration: Members of the Aëro Science Club]
+
+[Illustration: Members of the Milwaukee and Illinois Model Aëro Clubs]
+
+To construct such an A type frame 2 main sticks to serve as frame side
+members are necessary and are made from spruce. Each member should be
+36″ in length, ³⁄₈″ in depth by ¹⁄₄″ in width. By rounding the edges
+and smoothing the various surfaces with sandpaper streamline effect
+will be secured and will add to the efficiency of the machine as well
+as to its appearance. When the side members are placed in A formation
+the extremity of the sticks at which they meet should be so tapered
+in the inner sides that when they meet and are permanently fastened
+the result will be a continuance of the general streamline effect. The
+permanent fastening of the frame side members at the point of the A
+may be accomplished by using either strong fish glue or better, a good
+waterproof glue and then have the jointure reinforced by securing a
+piece of ³⁄₃₂″ steel wire 3″ in length and placing the center of it
+at the point of the A, afterwards bending the wire along either outer
+edge of the frame side members, putting as much pressure on the wire as
+the strength of the structure will permit; after this the reinforced
+jointure should have thread wound around it to insure even greater
+strength. About ¹⁄₂″ of the wire on each side of the point should be
+left clear and afterwards turned into a loop as shown in diagram 6, for
+the purpose of attaching the hooks that hold the rubber strands. To
+hold the side members apart at the rear end and for a propeller brace,
+a piece of bamboo 10″ long, ¹⁄₈″ thick by ¹⁄₂″ in width is required
+and this should be fastened to the extreme rear ends of the frame side
+members, allowing the propeller brace to protrude on either side 1¹⁄₂″
+as illustrated. To put the propeller brace in position a slot ¹⁄₂″ deep
+by ¹⁄₈″ wide should be cut into the rear ends of the frame side members
+for the reception of the propeller brace. After the brace has been
+placed in position the outer edge should come flush with the rear ends
+of the side members. To hold the brace in place thread and glue should
+be used in the same manner as described for the point of the frame
+side members. Between the point of the frame and the propeller brace
+two bamboo pieces, one 9″ long and another 2¹⁄₃″ long, should be used
+as braces for the general strengthening of the structure. The longest
+piece should be secured across the top of the frame about 9″ from the
+rear and the shorter piece about 9″ from the point.
+
+[Illustration: Diagram 6]
+
+When these two braces are in position the next matter that calls for
+the attention of the constructor is the matter of getting into position
+at the two outer extremities of the propeller brace bearings for the
+propellers. For this purpose two pieces of ³⁄₃₂nd inch brass tubing,
+each ³⁄₄th of an inch long, should be used, and should be fastened to
+the underside of the propeller brace, at each extremity of that brace,
+by the use of thread and glue. Sometimes greater efficiency is secured
+by putting these pieces of bronze tubing about ¹⁄₄″ from the end. Some
+model constructors make a very neat jointure here by soldering the
+piece of tubing to a strip of thin brass, which is bent over the end
+of the propeller brace and bound and glued thereon. In fastening the
+bronze tubing to the propeller brace it should be so adjusted that it
+will run parallel to the side members of the frame and will therefore
+offer the least possible resistance to the shaft of the propeller when
+the rubber strands have been attached.
+
+When the frame has been completed a coat of shellac should be applied
+to the entire structure to render it damp-proof.
+
+
+                              ASSEMBLING
+
+The proper assembling of the parts of the model is as essential to good
+results as is the designing and making. Parts, although properly made,
+if improperly placed in relation to each other will very often lead to
+trouble. Therefore very great care must be exercised in the assembling
+process.
+
+When all the parts have been prepared and are ready to be assembled
+the first thing that should be done is to mount the propellers in
+position. This must be done very carefully on account of the fact
+that the propeller shafts are easily bent and if bent the result is
+considerable trouble, for such a bend in the propeller shaft will
+cause the propeller to revolve irregularly with a consequent loss of
+thrust. Before inserting the propeller shafts in the tubing 4 washers
+each ¹⁄₄″ in diameter should be cut from hard metal, and a hole large
+enough for the propeller shaft to pass through should be bored in the
+center of each washer. The metal washers should be passed over the
+straight ends of the shafts which extend from the rear of the tubing,
+after they have been inserted in the tubing, and in this manner the
+cutting into the hubs of the propellers which would follow is avoided.
+The propellers are now to be mounted and this is accomplished by
+allowing the ends of the shafts, which extend out from the rear of
+the tubing, to pass through the hole in the hub of each propeller. In
+mounting the propellers it is absolutely necessary to have the straight
+edge of the propellers to face the point or front end of the model. The
+propeller shown in Fig. 4 of diagram 1, should be mounted on the left
+side of the frame to revolve to the left, while the propeller shown in
+Fig. 1 should be mounted on the right side of the frame to revolve to
+the right. When the propellers have thus been mounted the one-half inch
+of shafting which extends out from the hubs of the propellers should be
+bent over to grip the propeller hub and thereby prevent the shaft from
+slipping during the unwinding of the rubber strands. For the reception
+of the rubber strands to provide motive power a hook must be formed in
+each shaft and this can be done by holding securely that portion of the
+shaft which extends toward the point of the model, while the end is
+being formed into a hook as illustrated in diagram 7.
+
+[Illustration: Diagram 7]
+
+Eighty-four feet of ¹⁄₈th″ flat rubber is necessary to propel the
+model. This should be strung on each side from the hooks (see diagram)
+at the front part of the model to the propeller shafts at the rear
+of the model. In this way 14 strands of rubber will be evenly strung
+on each side of the frame. To facilitate the winding of the rubbers
+two double hooks made of ³⁄₃₂″ steel wire to resemble the letter S,
+as shown in diagram 7, should be made. One end of this S hook should
+be caught on the frame hook, while the other end is attached to the
+strands of rubber, and to prevent the possible cutting of the strands a
+piece of rubber tubing is used to cover over all wire hooks that come
+in contact with the rubber strands providing propelling power.
+
+The wings are mounted on the top side of the frame members by means
+of rubber bands and in placing them upon the frame it should be noted
+that the entering edge of each wing must face the point or front of
+the model. The wings must be so adjusted on the frame that they result
+in perfect side balance which means that there is an even amount of
+surface on either side of the model. To secure a longitudinal balance
+it will be found that the entering edge of the main wing should be
+placed approximately 8″ from the propeller brace or rear of the model,
+and the entering edge of the small wing or elevator approximately 6″
+from the point. But it is only by test flying that a true balance
+of the entire model can be obtained. To give the necessary power of
+elevation (or lifting ability) to make the model rise, a small block of
+wood about 1″ long by ¹⁄₄″ square must be placed between the entering
+edge of the small wing and the frame of the model.
+
+After the wings have been thus adjusted and a short test flight made to
+perfect the flying and elevating ability of the model, and this test
+flight has been satisfactory, the model is ready for launching under
+its full motive power.
+
+
+                               LAUNCHING
+
+In the preliminary trials of a model close attention must be paid to
+the few structural adjustments that will be found to be necessary
+and which if not properly and quickly remedied will result in the
+prevention of good flights or even in possible wrecking of the model.
+Careful designing and construction are necessary but it is equally as
+important that the model should be properly handled when it is complete
+and ready for flying.
+
+[Illustration: Charles W. Meyers and William Hodgins exhibiting models
+of early design.]
+
+[Illustration: Henry Criscouli and his five foot model. This model may
+be disassembled and packed conveniently in small package.]
+
+[Illustration: Harry G. Schultz hydroaëroplane.]
+
+The approximate idea of the balance of a model can be secured by
+launching it gently into the air. If the model dives down point first
+it indicates that the main wing should be moved a little toward the
+front. If it rises abruptly the main wing should be moved slightly
+toward the rear. In this way by moving the wing forward or rearward
+until the model glides away gracefully and lands flat upon the ground,
+proper adjustment of the balance can be effected. If when launching
+from the hand the model should curve to the left the main wing should
+be moved slightly to the left of the frame members. And if the curve
+is to the right the main wing should be moved in that direction. This
+process can be continued until the model flies in the course desired.
+
+The winding of the rubber strands to get the necessary propelling power
+is an important detail. The model should be firmly held by some one
+at the rear with the thumb on either side member, pressing down on
+the jointure and with the four fingers of each hand gripping the under
+side of the frame members, and in this way holding the model steady
+and until the rubber strands have been sufficiently wound. With the
+hands in this position the propellers, of course, cannot and should
+not revolve. The hooks attached to the rubber strands at the point or
+front of the model should be detached from the side members and affixed
+to the hooks of the winder. A winder may be made from an ordinary egg
+beater as is shown in diagram 8. When the hooks attached to the rubber
+strands at the point of the model have been affixed to the winder the
+rubbers should be stretched four times their ordinary length (good
+rubber being capable of being stretched seven times its length) and
+the winding commenced, the person winding slowly moving in towards the
+model as the strands are wound. If the ratio of the winder is 5 to 1,
+that is if the rubber is twisted five times to every revolution of the
+main wheel of the winder, 100 turns of the winder will be sufficient
+for the first trial. This propelling power can be increased as the
+trials proceed. When the winding has been accomplished the rubber hooks
+should be detached from the winder hooks and attached to the hooks at
+the front of the side members as shown in the diagram.
+
+[Illustration: Diagram 8]
+
+In preparation for launching, the model should be held above the head,
+one hand holding it at the center of the frame, the other in the center
+of the propeller brace in such a way as to prevent the propellers
+from revolving. When the model is cast into the air if it is properly
+adjusted it will fly straight ahead.
+
+A precaution which is sometimes worthy of attention before the
+launching of the model under its full power is to test out the
+propellers to find out whether or not they are properly mounted and
+whether they revolve evenly and easily. To do this the rubber strands
+may be given a few turns, enough to revolve the propellers for a brief
+period, while the machine is held stationary. If the shafts have been
+properly inserted in the hubs of the propellers and have not been
+bent during the winding of the rubbers, the propellers will revolve
+evenly and readily. If the propellers revolve unsteadily it indicates
+that there is a bend in the propeller shafts or the propellers have
+not been properly balanced. If the trouble is a bend in the shaft, it
+must be removed before the model is launched on actual flight. If the
+propeller does not revolve freely the application of some lubrication
+(such as vaseline) to the shaft will eliminate this trouble. With these
+adjustments made satisfactorily, the model can be launched with the
+anticipation of good flying.
+
+
+                                CHASSIS
+
+The preceding instructions and discussions have dealt with different
+parts of a simple model to be used as a hand-launched type of model.
+The experience which will come as the result of flying this type of
+model for a period will undoubtedly tend toward a desire on the part of
+the constructor to make his model more nearly represent a large sized
+aëroplane and will make him want to have his model rise from the ground
+under its own power. Such a model is known as an R. O. G. type, that
+is, rises off the ground.
+
+[Illustration: Diagram 9]
+
+To meet this desire all that it is necessary to do is to make a
+chassis, or carriage, which can be secured to the frame of the model,
+and with extra power added, will result in a practical R. O. G. model.
+In constructing such a chassis or carriage it is necessary to bear
+in mind that it must be made sufficiently strong to withstand the
+shock and stress which it will be called upon to stand when the model
+descends to the ground.
+
+For the main struts of the chassis two pieces of bamboo each 9″ in
+length are needed and these should be bent over 1″ on one end as shown
+in the diagram, that they may be fastened to the under side of the
+frame members, one on either side, at a point on that member 12″ from
+the front. Two similar pieces of bamboo, each piece about 7″ in length,
+are required to act as braces between the frame members and the main
+chassis struts. Each end of each of the braces should be bent over in
+the same direction and in the same manner as that described for the
+main strut so that the fastening to the main frame member and the main
+chassis strut may be accomplished. Steam may be used in bending the
+ends of the pieces of bamboo. To make the landing chassis sufficiently
+stable to withstand landing shocks a piece of bamboo 9″ should be
+fastened from either side of the main chassis struts at the point where
+the chassis brace on either side meets with main strut. The ends of
+this cross brace should be bent in similar fashion to the other braces
+to enable its being fastened easily and securely.
+
+Two small wheels constitute the running gear for the front part of
+the chassis, for which two pieces of ¹⁄₁₆″ steel wire each 2¹⁄₄″ long
+are required. These small wires are fastened to the bottom ends of
+the main struts, and to accomplish this the wire should be bent in
+the center at right angles; one leg of the angle is attached to the
+bottom end of the main strut as shown in the diagram. Disks for wheels
+may be cut from a bottle cork which should be ³⁄₄″ in diameter by
+approximately ¹⁄₄″ in thickness. The edges should be rounded off to
+prevent chipping. Before mounting the wheels on the axles which have
+been provided by the wires attached to the bottom of the main struts,
+a piece of bronze tubing ³⁄₃₂″ inside diameter and ³⁄₁₆″ long should
+be inserted in the center of each disk. To secure the least possible
+resistance on the revolutions of the wheels, there should be placed on
+the wire axles pieces of bronze tubing similar in diameter and ¹⁄₈″ in
+length on either side of the wheel (see illustration). When the wheel
+is thus placed in position with the pieces of bronze tubing on either
+side about ¹⁄₄″ of the axle wire will extend from the outward end of
+the outside piece of tubing. This should be bent over the tubing to
+prevent its falling off and at the same time hold the wheel securely in
+position.
+
+For the rear skid a piece of bamboo 6″ long is used, one end of which
+is curved as in a hockey stick so that it will glide smoothly over
+the ground. The other end of the rear skid should be bent over about
+¹⁄₂″ so that it can be securely fastened to the propeller braces,
+as illustrated in the diagram. Two 7″ pieces of bamboo are required
+to act as braces for the rear skid. Both ends of each brace strut
+are bent over ¹⁄₂″ in the same direction, one end of each strut is
+securely fastened to a side member 3″ from the rear and the other end
+of each strut is fastened to the rear skid, at their point of meeting
+as shown in diagram 9, the method of attaching being the same as in
+the case of the forward portion of the chassis. All joining should be
+accomplished by first gluing the braces and then binding with thread.
+When completed, the rear skid should glide along the ground in bobsled
+fashion, thus preventing the propellers from hitting the ground.
+
+[Illustration: Diagram 10]
+
+In making such a chassis or carriage the endeavor should be made to
+use, as near as possible, the same weight of material on either side of
+the model so as little interference as possible will be made with the
+general balance of the model in flight.
+
+
+                               PONTOONS
+
+Having satisfactorily developed the hand launched model and the
+model rising off the ground under its own propulsion the constructor
+will next turn his mind to the question of having his model rise
+under its own power from the surface of the water in the fashion of
+passenger-carrying hydros and flying boats. This will be accomplished
+by the use of pontoons attached to a specially designed chassis.
+
+[Illustration: C. V. Obst World record flying boat]
+
+[Illustration: Twin tractor Hydroaëroplane designed and constructed by
+George F. McLaughlin]
+
+[Illustration: Louis Bamberger’s hydro about to leave surface of water]
+
+Three pontoons are necessary and these should be made as light as
+possible. Each pontoon should be made 6″ long, 1″ deep toward the
+forward part, by ³⁄₄″ at the rear and 2″ wide. The side members of
+each pontoon are made from pieces of thin white pine wood ¹⁄₃₂nd of an
+inch thick, slightly curved up at the front and sloped down toward the
+rear. Small niches should be made on the top and bottom sides of the
+pontoons into which the cross braces are inserted and glued. Further
+reference to diagram 10 will show that at the extreme forward end of
+the sides a cut is made large enough to receive a flat piece of spruce
+¹⁄₁₆″ wide. Another cut of the same dimensions is made at the extreme
+rear end. Still further cuts are made on the top and bottom sides of
+the pontoons, the forward cuts measuring 1¹⁄₂″ from the front and the
+rear cuts 1¹⁄₂″ from the rear, to join the sides of the pontoons as
+illustrated in diagram 10. Six pieces of ¹⁄₁₆″ flat spruce are required
+for the rear pontoon, the ends of which are held in position by glue.
+For the forward pontoon only 4 braces are required in so far as the
+ends of the two main brace spars of the forward part of chassis are
+inserted in the cuts on the top sides of the pontoon. These brace spars
+measure 10 inches in length and are made from bamboo ¹⁄₈th inch in
+diameter, which necessitates enlargement of the cuts on the top sides
+of the forward pontoons so that the extreme ends of the spars can be
+inserted in the cuts in the place of the braces. To complete the rear
+pontoon and prepare it for covering, three strips of ¹⁄₈″ bamboo are
+required for struts. Two of these strips should measure 9″ in length
+and should be attached to the front of the pontoon on the inner side
+as shown in diagram 10. Thread and glue should be used in attaching
+the ends of the strips to the pontoon. To enable fastening to the
+frame the upper ends of the bamboo strips should be bent over about
+¹⁄₂″. The third strip should measure 8″ in length and is attached to
+the upper and lower braces toward the front of the pontoon as shown
+in the diagram. It is necessary that this strip be secured in the
+approximate center of the pontoon to insure a good balance. For the
+purpose of securing the upper end of the third strut to the center of
+the propeller brace a piece of wire 1¹⁄₂″ long should be secured to the
+upper end of the strut and looped as shown in diagram 10. The three
+pontoons should now be covered with fiber paper and it is necessary to
+exercise care to avoid punctures. For the purpose of coating the fiber
+paper to render it waterproof, a satisfactory solution can be made by
+mixing banana oil with celluloid until it has attained the desired
+thickness, after which it should be applied to the covering of the
+pontoons with a soft brush.
+
+For the main strut of the forward portion of the chassis two pieces of
+¹⁄₈″ bamboo, each 11″ in length, are required and these should be bent
+over 1″ on one end as shown in the diagram, that they may be fastened
+to the under side of the frame members, one on either side at a point
+on that member 11″ from the front. Two similar pieces of bamboo, each
+piece 8″ in length, are required to act as braces between the frame
+members and the main chassis struts. Each end of the braces should
+be bent over in the same direction and in the same manner as that
+described for the main struts so that the fastening to the main frame
+member and the main chassis struts may be accomplished. Steam or an
+alcohol lamp may be used in bending the ends of the pieces of bamboo.
+To make the chassis sufficiently stable a piece of bamboo 7¹⁄₂″ should
+be fastened from either side of the main chassis struts at the point
+where the chassis brace on either side meets with the main strut. The
+ends of this cross brace should be bent in similar fashion to the other
+braces to enable its being fastened easily and permanently.
+
+For the accommodation of the pontoons two strips of flat steel wire,
+each 4″ in length, should be attached to the ends of the main struts,
+about one inch from the bottom, the farthest ends should be bent to
+grip the second spar which joins the pontoons. Note diagram 10.
+
+To further strengthen the chassis a strip of flat steel wire
+sufficiently long enough should be bent so that ¹⁄₂″ of the central
+portion can be securely fastened to the center of the cross brace as
+shown in diagram 10. The two outer ends should be bent down and are
+fastened to the wires which are attached to the bottom ends of the
+struts. This method of attaching the forward pontoons enables the
+constructor to adjust them to any desired angle and also detach them
+when not in use.
+
+A model hydroaëroplane is one of the most interesting types of models
+and if properly taken care of will afford the constructor many pleasant
+moments.
+
+[Illustration: Erwin B. Eiring about to release R. O. G. Model. (Note
+manner of holding propellers.) Kennith Sedgwick, tractor record holder
+Milwaukee Model Club. Courtesy Gilbert Counsell.]
+
+[Illustration: Waid Carl releasing R. O. G. Model. Courtesy Edward P.
+Warner.]
+
+
+                    LAUNCHING AN R. O. G. OR MODEL
+                            HYDROAËROPLANE
+
+Although the method of determining the balance of an R. O. G. or a
+model hydroaëroplane is exactly the same as that of a hand launched
+model, the manner of launching is somewhat different. Instead of
+holding the model one hand in the center of the frame and the other at
+the rear as in the case of the hand launched model, in launching an R.
+O. G. or hydro, the model should be rested upon the ground or water,
+as the case may be, with both hands holding tightly to the propellers.
+Then when about to let the model go release both propellers instantly.
+If the model has sufficient power and it has been properly adjusted
+it will glide over the surface of the ground or water for a short
+distance, then rise into the air. Should the model fail to rise into
+the air additional strands of rubber should be added, after which it
+should be rewound and a second attempt made.
+
+Should the model fail to respond after the addition of extra rubber,
+the indications are that something requires further adjustment. Perhaps
+the pontoons need further elevation if the model is a hydro, or if
+it be an R. O. G. model the forward wing may require an increase of
+elevation. In any event the model should be carefully examined and
+adjustments made where necessary, after which the model should be
+tested for balance and elevation. If satisfied with the behavior of the
+model after test flights have been made, another attempt should be made
+to launch the model from the ground or water.
+
+On no account try to fly the model in the house, or see, supposing the
+model is of the R. O. G. type, if it will rise from the dining room
+floor. This advice may seem unnecessary, but it is not so, for there
+has been quite a number of instances in which the above has been done,
+nearly always with disastrous results, not always to the model, more
+often to something of much greater value. The smashing of windows has
+often resulted from such attempts, but generally speaking pictures
+are the worst sufferers. It is equally unwise to attempt to fly the
+model in a garden in which there are numerous obstructions, such as
+trees and so forth. A wrecked model is very often the result of such
+experimenting. The safest way to determine the flying ability of any
+model is to take it out in an open field where its flight is less apt
+to be interrupted.
+
+
+
+
+                          WORLD RECORD MODELS
+
+
+                        THE LAUDER DISTANCE AND
+                             DURATION MODEL
+
+After many months of experimentation Mr. Wallace A. Lauder succeeded in
+producing a model that proved to be one of his most successful models.
+But a few years ago flights of 1000 feet with a duration of 60 seconds
+were considered remarkable. But so rapid has been the development of
+the rubber strand driven model that to-day it is hardly considered
+worth while to measure a flight of 1000 feet, especially in contests
+where models fly over 2500 feet or 3537 feet which was the distance
+flown by Mr. Lauder’s model during one of the contests of the National
+Model Aëroplane competition of 1915. Mr. Lauder’s model on several
+occasions made flights of over 3500 feet with a duration in each event
+of over 195 seconds. It is therefore to be remembered that this model
+is both a distance and duration model, both qualities being seldom
+found in one model.
+
+Reference to the accompanying drawing will give a clear idea of the
+constructional details.
+
+The frame or fuselage consists of two side members 40″ in length, of
+straight grained spruce. At the center each member is of approximately
+circular cross section, and is ¹⁄₄″ in diameter. The members taper to
+about ³⁄₁₆″ at the ends, the circular cross section being maintained
+throughout. The frame is braced by a strip of bamboo of streamline
+form, extending from one side member to the other, 18″ from the apex of
+the frame. The ends of this frame are bent to run parallel to the side
+members of the frame where they are secured by binding with silk thread
+and gluing. Piano wire hooks are also secured to the side members of
+the frame adjacent the ends of the cross brace, and from these hooks
+extend wires of steel (No. 2 music wire) which run diagonally to the
+rear brace or propeller spar where they are secured.
+
+[Illustration: Diagram 11]
+
+The frame is braced further by an upwardly arched strip of bamboo, as
+shown in diagram 11, this strip being 2¹⁄₂″ in height. At the top of
+this brace are two bronze strips of No. 32 gauge brass, one above the
+other, one on top of the brace and the other below.
+
+Adjacent the ends of these strips of metal are perforations through
+which pass bracing wires, one of which wires runs to the front of
+the frame where a hook is mounted for its reception, and the other
+two wires extend to the rear of the frame where they are secured
+to the propeller brace. The propeller brace consists of a strip of
+streamlined spruce 11³⁄₄″ in length, the propellers being at an angle,
+thus clearance is allowed ¹⁄₄″ wide at the center, tapering to ³⁄₁₆″
+at the ends. The ends of the propeller brace extend out one inch from
+the side members of the frame, to allow room for the rubber strands to
+be used as motive power. In order to avoid slotting the ends of the
+side members of the frame so that the propeller brace can be secured
+therein, thin strips of bamboo are secured above and below the end of
+each side member, by binding with silk thread and gluing, the space
+between these bamboo strips being utilized for the brace which is
+securely bound and glued therein. The propeller bearings consist of
+strips of very thin bronze (No. 32 gauge), about ³⁄₁₆″ in width, bent
+over ⁵⁄₈″ strips of German silver tubing, the tubing being soldered to
+the bronze strips and the propeller brace, which fits between the upper
+and lower portions of the bronze strips, is securely bound and glued
+thereto.
+
+The propellers are cut from solid blocks of pine, and are 12″ in
+diameter. The blade, at its widest portion, measures 1³⁄₈″. The blades
+are cut very thin, and in order to save weight, they are not shellacked
+or painted.
+
+The propeller shafts are of piano wire (No. 20 size) to fit the tubing
+used in the bearings, pass through the propellers and are bent over
+on the outer side to prevent turning. A few small bronze washers are
+interposed between the propellers and the outer ends of the tubing to
+minimize friction when the propellers are revolving. Twelve strands of
+rubber are used for each propeller, the rubber being ¹⁄₈″ flat.
+
+[Illustration: Wallace A. Lauder distance and duration model]
+
+[Illustration: Wallace A. Lauder R. O. G. Model]
+
+The wings are both double surfaced, and are of the swept back type. The
+span of the main wing is 28¹⁄₂″, with a chord of 6¹⁄₂″. The elevator
+has a span of 15″ with a chord of 4³⁄₄″. The main wing has eleven
+double ribs, these ribs being built up on mean beams of spruce ¹⁄₁₆″ ×
+³⁄₁₆″, the front beam being placed 1¹⁄₄″ from the entering edge, and
+the second beam being 2″ back from the front beam. The entering and
+trailing edges are formed from a single strip of thin split bamboo, all
+the joints being made by binding with thin silk and gluing.
+
+The elevator is constructed in like manner, except that it only has
+seven ribs, and the measurements are as above set forth. Both planes
+are covered with goldbeater’s skin, sometimes known as “Zephyr” skin,
+which is first glued in place and then steamed, which tightens the same
+on the plane, and given a coat of preparation used for this purpose.
+
+
+                        THE HITTLE WORLD RECORD
+                                 MODEL
+
+                (SINGLE TRACTOR MONOPLANE, 116 seconds
+                      DURATION RISING FROM WATER)
+
+The Hittle World record model hydroaëroplane, designed and constructed
+by Mr. Lindsay Hittle of the Illinois Model Aëro Club, is perhaps
+one of the most interesting types of models yet produced. The
+establishing of this record illustrates the value of careful designing
+and construction and offers to the beginner an example which might
+be followed if good results are sought. In having broken the world’s
+model hydroaëroplane record with a tractor type model Mr. Hittle
+accomplished a feat of twofold importance. First, in having advanced
+the possibilities of the tractor model, and, second, in illustrating
+the value of scientific construction. The previous record for this
+type of model has been but 29 seconds, just one-fourth of the duration
+made by Mr. Hittle’s model.
+
+Mr. Hittle’s model shows many new and original features not hitherto
+combined on any one model. Note diagram 12. The model is of extremely
+light weight, weighing complete but 1.75 ounces. The floats and their
+attachments have been so designed as to offer the least possible wind
+resistance. In fact every possible method was utilized in order to cut
+down weight and resistance on every part of the model. As a result of
+this doing away with resistance an excellent gliding ratio of 8³⁄₄ to 1
+has been obtained.
+
+For the motor base of the model a single stick of white pine ⁵⁄₆″
+deep and 45″ in length is used. On the front end the bearing for the
+propeller is bound with silk thread and a waterproof glue of the
+constructor’s own composition being used to hold it secure. For the
+bearing a small light weight forging somewhat in the shape of the
+letter “L” is used, this being made streamline. At the rear end of
+the engine base is attached a piano wire hook for the rubber. The
+stabilizer consisting of a segment of a circle measuring 12″ × 8″ is
+attached to the under side of the engine base. The rudder measuring
+3¹⁄₂″ × 3¹⁄₂″ is attached to the stabilizer at the rear of the engine
+base.
+
+The wing is built up of two beams of white pine with ribs and tips of
+bamboo and has an area of 215 square inches.
+
+The wing which has a total span of 43″ and a chord of 5¹⁄₈″ is built up
+of two beams of white pine with ribs and tips of bamboo and has a total
+area of 215 square inches. The wing is given a small dihedral and the
+wing tips are slightly upturned at the rear.
+
+The trailing edge is longer than the entering edge the ribs being
+placed somewhat oblique in order to secure an even spacing. The wing is
+attached to the frame by two small bamboo clips which hold it rigidly
+and permit easy adjustment and is set at an angle of about 4 degrees
+with the line of thrust.
+
+[Illustration: Diagram 12]
+
+Both the floats which take practically the whole weight of the machine
+are situated directly under the wing just far enough behind the center
+of gravity to prevent the model from tipping backward. These floats
+are attached to the engine base by means of streamlined bamboo struts.
+Bamboo is also used in the construction of the float frames. A single
+float of triangular sections is situated just behind the propeller. The
+entire weight of the floats and their attachments is but .23 ounces.
+
+The propeller which consists of four blades is built up of two
+propellers joined together at the hubs and securely glued, the
+completed propeller having a diameter of 10″ with a theoretical pitch
+of 14″. The blades are fairly narrow, tapering almost to a point at the
+tips. The propeller is driven by five strands of ³⁄₁₆th″ strip rubber
+at about 760 r.p.m. when the model is in flight. At the time when
+the model made its record flight of 116 seconds the rubber was given
+1500 turns which is not the maximum number of turns. At other times
+the model has flown satisfactorily with less turns of the rubber.
+While in the air the model flies very slow and stable notwithstanding
+its light weight and large surface. On three occasions the model has
+made durations of approximately 90 seconds which rather dispenses the
+possibility of its being termed a freak.
+
+
+                        THE LA TOUR FLYING BOAT
+
+One of the most notable results of the National Model Aëroplane
+Competition of 1915 was the establishing of a new world’s record for
+flying boats. Considering that the model flying boat is a difficult
+type of model to construct and fly, the establishing of this new world
+record of 43 seconds is remarkable. Credit for this performance is
+due Mr. Robert La Tour of the Pacific Northwest Model Aëro Club, who
+designed, constructed and flew the model flying boat which is herewith
+described and illustrated. Diagram 13.
+
+The frame is made of laminated spruce 40″ in length, made of two strips
+glued together. They are ³⁄₈″ × ¹⁄₈″ at the center tapering to ³⁄₁₆″ ×
+¹⁄₈″ at the ends. The cross braces are of split bamboo and are fastened
+to the frame side members by bringing them to a wedge at the ends and
+then inserting them into slots in the sides of the frame side members
+and are finally drilled and bound to the latter. The rear brace is
+of streamlined spruce ¹⁄₄″ × ¹⁄₈″; this butts against the frame side
+members and is bound to them. The propeller accommodations are made of
+brass.
+
+The propellers are 10″ in diameter with a 19″ pitch. These are carved
+from a block of Alaska cedar 1¹⁄₄″ wide by ³⁄₄″ thick. Of course the
+propellers may also be made from white pine. To turn the propellers 15
+strands of ¹⁄₈″ flat rubber are used.
+
+Bamboo about ¹⁄₁₆″ square is used to obtain the outline of the wings.
+The main wing has a span of 33″ with a chord of 5¹⁄₂″. Split bamboo
+is used for the making of the 9 ribs. The wing spar or brace is of
+spruce ³⁄₁₆″ × ¹⁄₈″ and is fastened below the ribs as illustrated in
+diagram 13. The elevator is constructed in like manner but has a span
+of only 17″ × 4³⁄₄″ and has only 5 ribs. A block ³⁄₄″ high is used for
+elevation. Both wings have a camber of ¹⁄₂″ and are covered on the
+upper side with silk doped with a special varnish and a few coats of
+white shellac.
+
+[Illustration: Diagram 13]
+
+The boat is 20″ long, 3″ in width and shaped as shown. The slip is
+¹⁄₂″ deep and is located 7″ from the bow. The rear end is brought down
+steeply to avoid the drag of the water on this point when the boat is
+leaving the surface of the water. Spruce ³⁄₆₄ths of an inch thick is
+used for the making of the sides, but the cross bracing is of slightly
+heavier material, there being six braces used throughout. The rear
+brace is much heavier in order to withstand the pull of the covering
+and to receive the ends of the wire connections. The outriggers or
+balancing pontoons are constructed of the same material as that of the
+boat and are held together by a spruce beam 18″ long, ¹⁄₂″ wide by
+³⁄₁₆″ thick, streamlined. This beam is fastened to the boat by means
+of three brads to permit changing if necessary. The lower edges of the
+outriggers should clear the water about ¹⁄₈″ before the steps on the
+boat leave the water. The boat and outriggers are covered with silk,
+shrunk with a special solution and then coated several times with white
+shellac. It is a good plan to shellac the interior walls of the boat
+and pontoons before covering to prevent them from losing their form by
+becoming soft from the influence of water in the case of a puncture.
+
+The boat is connected to the frame at its front by two steel wires,
+their ends being inserted into the cross members of the boat, and then
+brought up along the sides, crossed and then bound to the frame. A
+similar pair of connecting wires are used to connect the rear end of
+the boat to the rear end of the frame. A U-shaped wire is bound to the
+outrigger beam and frame. A single diagonal strip of bamboo is also
+fastened to the outrigger beam with a brad, its upper end being bound
+to the cross bracing of the frame, making a very solid connection.
+
+Under ideal weather conditions this model will fly on 12 strands of
+rubber with the possibility of a better duration than has been made.
+But, however, with 15 strands the model will rise at every attempt.
+More rubber, however, causes the bow of the boat to nose under and to
+accommodate this increase of power the boat should be lengthened.
+
+
+                         THE COOK NO. 42 WORLD
+                             RECORD MODEL
+
+                 (TWIN PROPELLER HYDROAËROPLANE, 100.6
+                      SECONDS RISING FROM WATER)
+
+During the National Model Aëroplane Competition of 1915 held under
+the auspices of the Aëro Club of America, a number of new world
+records were established, one of which was for twin propeller
+hydroaëroplanes. The credit for this record is due Mr. Ellis C. Cook
+of the Illinois Model Aëro Club, who succeeded in getting his model
+hydroaëroplane—which by the way is a rather difficult type of model to
+operate—to rise from the water and remain in the air for a duration
+of 100.6 seconds. This model is of the common A frame design with the
+floats or pontoons arranged in the familiar fashion, two forward and
+one aft. The model is fairly light, weighing, when complete, 3.33
+ounces, ¹⁄₂ ounce of which is made up in rubber strands for motive
+power. Diagram 14.
+
+The frame is made of two sticks of white pine for side members, each
+member measuring 38¹⁄₄″ in length, ⁵⁄₁₆″ in depth, by ¹⁄₈″ in width.
+These are cut to taper toward the ends where they are only ¹⁄₈″ in
+width by ³⁄₁₆″ in depth in the front and rear respectively. Three “X”
+strips of streamlined bamboo measuring ³⁄₁₆″ in width by ³⁄₆₄ths of an
+inch in depth, are used for bracing the frame between the front and
+rear and are arranged as shown in diagram 14. The propeller bearings
+are of small streamlined forgings of light weight, and are bound to the
+rear end of each side member first by gluing, then binding around with
+thread. The front hook is made of No. 16 piano wire and is bound to the
+frame as shown in diagram 14. The chassis which holds the floats or
+pontoons is made of ³⁄₃₂″ bamboo bent to shape and bound to the frame
+members. By the use of rubber strands the floats are attached to the
+chassis; the forward ones being attached so that angle may be adjusted.
+
+The main wing has a span of 36″ and a chord of 5″ and is constructed of
+two white pine beams each 39″ long, with bamboo wing tips. The ribs,
+seven in number, are also made of bamboo and are spaced along the edges
+of the wing at a distance of 4¹⁄₂″ apart. The “elevator” or front wing
+has a span of 14″ and a chord of 3¹⁄₄″, the framework of which is made
+entirely of bamboo. The entering edge of this wing is given a slightly
+greater dihedral so that the angle of incidence at the tips is greater
+than at the center. By this method the added incidence in the front
+wing is obtained. By the use of rubber bands both wings are attached to
+the frame.
+
+[Illustration: Diagram 14]
+
+The two forward floats are spaced eight inches apart and are of the
+stepped type, the step being 3¹⁄₂″ from the front and has a depth of
+¹⁄₈″. These two floats are separated by two bamboo strips as shown
+in the diagram, which are tied to the rounded portion of the under
+carriage by small rubber bands. By the sliding of these strips back
+and forth the necessary angle of the floats may be obtained to suit
+conditions. The floats are built up with two thin pieces of white pine
+for sides, separated by small pieces of wood about one-half the size
+of a match in cross section. Chiffon veiling which is used for the
+covering of the wings, is also used for the covering of the floats,
+after which it is covered with a special preparation to render both the
+wings and the floats air and water-tight.
+
+The two ten-inch propellers with which the model is fitted have a
+theoretical pitch of twelve and one-half inches. The propellers are
+carved from blanks one-half inch thick, the blades of the completed
+propellers having a maximum width of one inch at a radius of three
+inches. The propeller shafts are made from No. 16 piano wire and have
+small washers for bearings. Each propeller is driven by three strands
+of ¹⁄₄″ strip elastic. The rubber is given 1700 to 1750 turns and
+revolves the propellers at 1150–1200 r.p.m., when the model is in
+flight.
+
+The model usually runs over the surface of the water for a distance of
+from two to three feet before it rises, after which it climbs at a very
+steep angle to the necessary altitude. The model seems, when in flight,
+to be slightly overpowered but this is misleading. The rubbers usually
+unwind in from 85 to 90 seconds. On four out of six flights this model
+has made a duration of between 98 and 100 seconds which is rather
+unusual for a model of this type.
+
+
+                     THE RUDY FUNK DURATION MODEL
+
+Of the many different types of duration models that have made their
+appearance during the year of 1915 perhaps the model described
+herewith, constructed and flown by Mr. Rudolph Funk, of the Aëro
+Science Club, was one of the most successful. Unlike most models the
+propellers of this model are bent and not cut. This model made its
+appearance during the latter part of 1915, on several occasions having
+flown for over 100 seconds duration. Diagram 15.
+
+While retaining the important characteristics of his standard model,
+slight changes have been made. Instead of the usual wire for the
+construction of the frame of the wings, bamboo is used in its place for
+lightness and strength. The wing frames are single surfaced, China
+silk being used for covering. The “dope” which is used to render the
+silk airtight is made by dissolving celluloid in banana oil. This in
+turn is applied to the silk with a soft brush.
+
+The camber of the main wing is ³⁄₄″ at the center, with a slight
+reduction towards the negative tips; it also has a dihedral angle of 2
+degrees. The main beam, which is secured to the under side of the frame
+for rigidness, is of spruce 1″ by ⁵⁄₆₄″, tapering to ³⁄₄″ × ⁵⁄₆₄″.
+The ribs for the main wing and small wing or “elevator” are cut from
+solid pieces of bamboo ³⁄₁₆″ thick by ¹⁄₄″ wide. These pieces of bamboo
+are first bent to the proper camber and are then cut into strips each
+¹⁄₁₆″ wide. The ribs are next tapered to a V at the bottom, toward the
+trailing edge, as shown in diagram 15, and also toward the entering
+edge. To accommodate the entering and trailing edges of the frame, each
+rib is slit slightly at both ends. Both edges of the frame are then
+inserted in the slots at the ends of the ribs and bound around with
+silk thread.
+
+[Illustration: Diagram 15]
+
+The frame is composed of two sticks of silver spruce 38″ in length,
+⁵⁄₁₆″ × ³⁄₁₆″, tapering to ¹⁄₄″ × ⁵⁄₃₂″, held apart by a streamline
+bamboo cross brace in the center. An additional brace of bamboo is
+securely fastened across the frame toward the front. The propeller
+brace consists of a streamline-cut piece of bamboo 12¹⁄₂″ in length
+by ³⁄₈″ in width at the center, tapering to ¹⁄₄″ toward the ends. The
+propeller brace is inserted in slots cut in the rear ends of the frame
+members, then bound and glued.
+
+The propellers are bent from birch veneer, the bending being done
+over an alcohol flame as illustrated in diagram 15. But first of all
+the blades are cut to shape, sandpapered and finished before they are
+bent. As shown in the drawing a slot is filed in the hub of each blade
+to enable the propeller shaft to pass through when both have been
+glued together. The blades are then glued and bound together, first by
+placing a piece of wire in the slots to insure their being centered and
+also to prevent their being filled with glue. After this has been done
+each propeller is given three coats of the same dope as is used on the
+wings.
+
+The propeller bearings are turned out of ¹⁄₃₂″ bronze tubing, the
+length of each bearing being ¹⁄₂″. Steel washers are slipped over the
+propeller shaft, between the bearing and propeller to insure smooth
+running. The propeller shafts are made from steel hatpins which are
+heated at both ends, one end of which is bent into a loop to receive
+the rubber strands, the other end being bent around the hub of the
+propeller to prevent the shaft from slipping during the unwinding of
+the rubbers. Two strips of brass, each ¹⁄₄″ × 2″, are bent around the
+one-half inch bearing and soldered. The brass strips are then glued and
+bound onto the ends of the propeller brace as shown in diagram 15.
+
+[Illustration: Rudy Funk speed model]
+
+[Illustration: Schober compressed air driven monoplane. McMahon
+compressed air driven tractor (right)]
+
+
+                THE ALSON H. WHEELER WORLD RECORD MODEL
+
+                (TWIN PUSHER BIPLANE 143 SEC. DURATION
+                        RISING FROM THE GROUND)
+
+Since the beginning of model flying very little attention has been
+paid to the model biplane. Practically all records are held by
+model aëroplanes of the monoplane type. With this fact in view, the
+record established by Mr. Wheeler with his Twin Pusher Biplane is
+extraordinary, in so far as it surpasses many of the monoplane records.
+This model is a very slow flyer, and has excellent gliding ability. At
+the time when this model flew and broke the world’s record, the greater
+portion of the flight consisted of a beautiful glide of 86 seconds’
+duration, after the power gave out, making it possible for the model to
+remain in the air for a duration of 143 seconds.
+
+The frame consists of two I-beams, each 48″ in length, running
+parallel, and spaced by cross pieces, each piece 11¹⁄₂″ long. The
+bearing blocks used made it possible for the propellers to clear by
+one-half inch. Two 12″ expanding pitch racing propellers are used and
+these are mounted on ball bearing shafts. The main upper plane has a
+span of 34″ with a chord of 5″, the lower plane being 26″ by 5″. The
+elevator consists of two planes, each measuring 14″ by 5″. Cork wheels
+are used, each being one inch in diameter. For motive power one-eighth
+inch flat rubber is used, this being coated with glycerine to prevent
+sticking.
+
+[Illustration: Alson H. Wheeler twin pusher Biplane]
+
+[Illustration: C. V. Obst tractor model]
+
+
+
+
+                           A MODEL WARPLANE
+
+
+The model shown in the accompanying photograph was constructed by
+Master R. O’Neill, of Montreal, Canada. The machine was designed
+after one of the leading warplanes now in active service abroad and
+in carrying out the entire features he did not fail to include the
+identification marks which are of utmost importance in the war zone.
+
+The dimensions of the model are as follows: Length of fuselage, 23″;
+span of top wing, 33″; span of lower wing, 29″, both having a chord of
+7″. Motive power is derived from two ¹⁄₈ inch square elastic strands
+which operate a multiple gear to which is attached a 10″ propeller.
+
+In coloring the model a dull aluminum was selected. Complete the model
+weighs 12 ounces. Perhaps the most interesting feature of the model
+is the ability to change it to a monoplane by the removal of the
+upper wing after which the lower wing is raised to the sockets in the
+fuselage which were especially arranged for that particular purpose.
+
+[Illustration: Model warplane]
+
+
+
+
+                    A SIMPLE COMPRESSED AIR ENGINE
+
+
+During the past few years model flyers in America have shown a tendency
+toward the adoption of compressed air engines for use in connection
+with model aëroplanes. Hitherto, England has been the home of the
+compressed air engine, where a great deal of experimenting has been
+carried on, to a considerable degree of success. Flights of over 40
+seconds have been made with models in which compressed air power plants
+were used. But, however, the desire on the part of a large majority of
+model flyers in America to build scientific models, that is, models
+more closely resembling large machines, has made it necessary to find a
+more suitable means of propulsion; rubber strands being unsatisfactory
+for such purposes. Many different types of compressed air engines have
+made their appearance during the past few years, among which the two
+cylinder opposed type is very favorably looked upon, because it is
+perhaps one of the easiest to construct.
+
+To make a simple two cylinder opposed compressed air power plant, as
+illustrated in Figure 1 of diagram 16, it is not necessary that the
+builder be in possession of a machine shop. A file, drill, small gas
+blow torch and a small vise comprise the principal tools for the making
+of the engine.
+
+The first things needed in the making of this engine are cylinders.
+For the making of the cylinders two fishing rod ferrules, known as
+female ferrules, are required. And for the heads of the cylinders, two
+male ferrules are required. Such ferrules can be secured at most any
+sporting goods store. The female ferrules should be filed down to a
+length of 2″, cut down on one side a distance of ³⁄₄ of the diameter,
+then cut in from the end as shown in Figure 7. When this has been done
+the two male ferrules should be cut off a distance of ¹⁄₈″ from the top
+as shown in Figure 7-a, to serve as heads for the cylinders.
+
+[Illustration: Diagram 16]
+
+A hole ¹⁄₈″ in diameter should be drilled in the center of each head
+so as to enable the connecting of the intake pipes. By the use of soft
+wire solder the heads should be soldered into the ends of the cylinders
+as shown in Figure 1-d.
+
+The pistons should now be made; for this purpose two additional male
+ferrules are required. These should be made to operate freely within
+the cylinders by twisting them in a rag which has been saturated with
+oil and upon which has been shaken fine powdered emery. When they have
+been made to operate freely they should be cut down one-half inch
+from the closed end as shown in Figure 5-a. For the connecting rods,
+2 pieces of brass tubing, each ¹⁄₈″ in diameter by 1¹⁄₄″ long, are
+required, and, as illustrated in Figure 6, should be flattened out at
+either end and through each end a hole ³⁄₃₂″ in diameter should be
+drilled. For the connecting of the piston rods to the pistons, studs
+are required, and these should be cut from a piece of brass rod ¹⁄₄″ in
+diameter by ¹⁄₂″ in length. As two studs are necessary, one for each
+piston, this piece should be cut in half, after which each piece should
+be filed in at one end deep enough to receive the end of the connecting
+rod. Before soldering the studs to the heads of the pistons, however,
+the connecting rods should be joined to the studs by the use of a steel
+pin which is passed through the stud and connecting rod, after which
+the ends of the pin are flattened, to keep it in position as shown in
+Figure 5-a.
+
+For the outside valve mechanism and also to serve in the capacity as a
+bearing for the crankshaft, a piece of brass tubing ¹⁄₄″ in diameter by
+1¹⁄₂″ long is required. Into this should be drilled three holes, each
+¹⁄₈″ in diameter, and each ¹⁄₂″ apart as shown in Figure 4. Next, for
+the valve shaft and also propeller accommodation, secure a piece of
+³⁄₁₆″ drill rod 2″ long. On the left hand side of the valve shaft, as
+shown in Figure 3, a cut ¹⁄₃₂″ deep by ¹⁄₂″ in length is made 1″ from
+the end. Another cut of the same dimensions is made on the right side
+only; this cut is made at a distance of ³⁄₈″ from the stud end.
+
+As shown in Figure 1-f, the crank throw consists of a flat piece of
+steel, ³⁄₃₂″ thick, ³⁄₈″ in length by ¹⁄₄″ in width. At each end of the
+crank throw a hole ³⁄₁₆″ in diameter should be drilled, the holes to
+be one-half inch apart. Into one hole a piece of steel drill rod ³⁄₃₂″
+in diameter by ¹⁄₄″ long is soldered, to which the connecting rods are
+mounted, as shown in Figure 1-f. Into the other hole the stud end of
+the crank throw is soldered.
+
+[Illustration: Schober pusher type compressed air driven monoplane]
+
+[Illustration: Schober compressed air driven biplane]
+
+Before making the tank it is most desirable to assemble the parts of
+the engine, and this may be done by first fitting the pistons into the
+cylinders as shown in Figure 1-b, after which the cylinders should be
+lapped one over the other and soldered as shown in Figure 1-a. When
+this has been done a hole one-fourth of an inch in diameter should be
+drilled half way between the ends of the cylinders, and into this hole
+should be soldered one end of the valve casing shown in Figure 4. For
+the inlet pipes as shown in Figure 1-c secure two pieces of ¹⁄₈″ brass
+tubing and after heating until soft, bend both to a shape similar
+to that shown in Figure 1-c. When this has been done solder one end to
+the end of the cylinder and the other in the second hole of the valve
+shaft casing. The valve shaft should now be inserted in the valve shaft
+casing and the connecting rods sprung onto the crank throw as shown
+in Figure 1-d. To loosen up the parts of the engine which have just
+been assembled it should be filled with oil and by tightly holding the
+crankshaft in the jaws of a drill the engine can be worked for a few
+minutes.
+
+The tank is made from a sheet of brass or copper foil 15″ long by
+¹⁄₁₀₀₀″ thick. This is made in the form of a cylinder, the edges of
+which are soldered together as shown in Figure 2. Sometimes this seam
+is riveted every one-half inch to increase its strength, but in most
+cases solder is all that is required to hold the edges together. For
+the caps, or ends, the tops of two small oil cans are used, each can
+measuring 2¹⁄₂″ in diameter. To complete the caps two discs of metal
+should be soldered over the ends of the cans where formerly the spouts
+were inserted, the bottoms of the cans having been removed. The bottom
+edges of the cans should be soldered to the ends of the tank as shown
+in Figure 2. Into one end of the completed tank a hole large enough
+to receive an ordinary bicycle air valve should be drilled. Figure 2.
+Another hole is drilled into the other end of the tank, into which is
+soldered a small gas cock to act as a valve. Figure 2. This should be
+filed down where necessary, to eliminate unnecessary weight. To connect
+the tank with the engine, a piece of ¹⁄₈″ brass tubing 3″ long is
+required, the ends of which are soldered into the holes in the valve
+shaft casing nearest the cylinders, as shown in Figure 1-ee. As shown
+in Figure 1-ee, a hole ¹⁄₈″ in diameter is drilled in one side of this
+piece, but not through, in the end nearest the tank. Another piece of
+brass tubing ¹⁄₈″ in diameter is required to connect the tank with
+the engine, one end of which is soldered to the cock in the tank, the
+other in the hole in the pipe which leads from the engine to the tank,
+illustrated in Figure 1-ee, thus completing the engine.
+
+In conclusion it is suggested that the builder exercise careful
+judgment in both the making and assembling of the different parts
+of the engine in order to avoid unnecessary trouble and secure
+satisfactory results. After having constructed an engine as has just
+been described, the constructor may find it to his desire to construct
+a different type of engine for experimental purposes. The constructor
+therefore may find the descriptions of satisfactory compressed air
+engines in the following paragraphs of suggestive value.
+
+
+
+
+                     COMPRESSED AIR DRIVEN MODELS
+
+
+The development of the compressed air engine has given an added impetus
+to model making, necessitating more scientific experimenting and
+developing the art of model flying along lines of greater value to
+those who may eventually take up the work of building our future air
+fleets.
+
+
+                 THE DART COMPRESSED AIR DRIVEN MODEL
+
+In the accompanying illustration is shown a model aëroplane of
+monoplane type driven by a three-cylinder rotary engine which was
+constructed by Edward Willard Dart of South Norwalk, Connecticut.
+
+The engine was constructed after several months of patient labor.
+Careful judgment was exercised in the drafting of the plane and
+likewise in the assembling of the engine for it is absolutely
+essential that all parts be properly fitted as to enable the engine to
+run smoothly. In designing the wings every detail was taken into
+consideration to insure good flying.
+
+[Illustration: Model by Edward Willard Dart]
+
+The main wing has a spread of 58″ and 7″ in chord. The elevator
+measures 23″ in spread and 6″ in chord. In the construction of both
+wings bamboo ribs are used, the frames being covered over with China
+silk and coated with celluloid solution. The main wing is made in two
+sections to facilitate quick adjustment to the fuselage.
+
+
+              THE MCMAHON COMPRESSED AIR DRIVEN MONOPLANE
+
+One of the latest developments in the field of model flying is the
+McMahon compressed air driven monoplane. This model was built to be
+used as either a tractor or pusher, but in view of its ability to
+balance more easily as a pusher most of the experiments have been
+carried out on this machine as a pusher. The machine in itself is
+simple and inexpensive to construct, the chief portion of the expense
+being involved in the making of the engine. By using the machine as a
+pusher a great deal of protection is afforded both the propeller and
+engine, and this protection helps to avoid damaging the propeller or
+engine, which would mean an additional expenditure for repairs, thus
+minimizing the cost of flying the model.
+
+The frame has been made to accommodate both the tank and engine, and
+this is done by using two 30″ strips of spruce, each ¹⁄₄″ wide by ³⁄₈″
+deep, laid side by side, a distance of three inches apart, up to within
+10″ of the front, as shown in the accompanying photograph. No braces
+are used on the frame, as the tank, when securely fastened between the
+frame, acts in that capacity.
+
+The wings are made in two sections, each section measuring 24″ in span
+by 8″ in chord, consisting of two main spars, ³⁄₁₆″ in diameter, one
+for the entering edge and one for the trailing edge. To these edges, at
+a distance of three inches apart, are attached bamboo ribs, 18 in all,
+each measuring 8″ in length by ¹⁄₈″ in width by ¹⁄₁₆″ thick. The wings
+are round at the tips, and have a camber of approximately one-half
+inch, but they are not set at an angle of incidence. Light China silk
+is used for covering and after being glued over the top of the wing
+frame is given two coats of dope to shrink and fill the pores of the
+fabric. A good “dope” for the purpose can be made from celluloid
+dissolved in banana oil. The wing sections are attached to the frame
+and braced by light wire. The forward wing or “elevator” is made in the
+same manner as the main wing, but should measure only 18″ × 3″. Instead
+of being made in two sections as the main wing, the forward wing is
+made in one piece.
+
+The chassis is made by forming two V struts from strong steel wire
+sufficiently large enough so that when they are attached to the frame
+of the model the forward part will be 9″ above the ground. One V strut
+is securely fastened to either side of the frame, at a distance of 8″
+from the front. A 7″ axle is fastened to the ends of these struts. On
+the axle are mounted two light wheels, each about 2″ in diameter. The
+chassis is braced by light piano wire.
+
+The rear skid is made in the same manner as the forward skid, only
+that the ends of the struts are brought together and a wheel 1 inch in
+diameter is mounted at the bottom ends by means of a short axle. The
+struts are not more than 7¹⁄₂″ long, thus allowing a slight angle to
+the machine when it is resting upon the ground.
+
+[Illustration: John McMahon and his compressed air driven monoplane]
+
+[Illustration: Frank Schober preparing his model for flight. Gauge to
+determine pressure of air may be seen in photograph]
+
+The machine complete does not weigh over 7 ounces. The power plant
+used in connection with this model is of the two cylinder opposed
+engine type, with tank such as has just been described in the foregoing
+chapter.
+
+The tank is mounted in the frame by drilling a ¹⁄₁₆″ hole through
+either end of the tank, through which a drill rod of this diameter can
+be inserted. About ³⁄₄ths of the drill rod should extend out on each
+side of the tank, to permit the fastening of the tank to the frame
+side members. This method of mounting the tank serves two purposes to
+a satisfactory degree. First, it permits secure fastening; second, as
+the rods are passed through the side and cap of the tank they help
+materially in preventing the caps from being blown off in the event of
+excessive pressure.
+
+
+               THE MCMAHON COMPRESSED AIR DRIVEN BIPLANE
+
+In the McMahon model we find a very satisfactory type of compressed
+air driven model. On several occasions this model has made flights of
+over 200 feet with a duration of between 10 and 15 seconds, and the
+indications are that by the use of a more powerful engine the model can
+be made to fly a greater distance, with a corresponding increase of
+duration. The engine used in connection with the model is of the two
+cylinder opposed type, such as described in the foregoing paragraphs.
+The tank, however, is somewhat different in design from that just
+described, it having been made of 28 gauge sheet bronze, riveted every
+one-half inch. The two long bolts that hold the steel caps on either
+end of the tank also serve as attachments for the spars that hold the
+tank to the engine bed, as shown in diagram 17. The tank has been
+satisfactorily charged to a pressure of 200 lbs. per square inch, but
+only a pressure of 150 lbs. is necessary to operate the engine. The
+tank measures 10″ in length by 3″ in diameter and weighs 7 ounces.
+
+The wings of this machine are single surfaced and covered with fiber
+paper. The top wing measures 42″ in span by 6″ in chord. The lower
+wing is 24″ by 6″. The wings have a total surface of 396 square inches
+and are built up of two ³⁄₁₆″ dowel sticks, flattened to streamline
+shape. Only two sets of uprights separate the wings, thus adding to the
+streamline appearance of the machine.
+
+Both tail and rudder are double surfaced and are built entirely of
+bamboo for lightness, the tail being made in the form of a half circle
+measuring 12″ by 8″. Steel wire is used on the construction of the
+landing chassis, the chassis being so designed as to render it capable
+of withstanding the most violent shock that it may possibly receive
+in landing. The propeller used in connection with the model is 14″ in
+diameter and has an approximate pitch of 18″.
+
+[Illustration: Diagram 17]
+
+
+
+
+                        COMPRESSED AIR ENGINES
+
+
+                    THE WISE COMPRESSED AIR ENGINE
+
+Although of peculiar construction, the Wise rotary compressed air
+engine offers a very interesting design from a viewpoint of ingenuity.
+This engine embodies a number of novel features not hitherto employed
+in the construction of compressed air engines, and in view of the fact
+that the majority of compressed air engines are made on the principle
+of the opposed type, this engine suggests many possibilities for the
+rotary type engine.
+
+The engine consists of five cylinders and weighs four ounces, including
+the propeller and mounting frame. On a pressure of 15 lbs. the engine
+will revolve at a speed of 1000 r.p.m. The connecting rods are fastened
+to the crankshaft by means of segments and are held by two rings,
+making it possible to remove any one piston without disturbing the
+others. This is done by simply removing a nut and one ring. The crank
+case is made from seamless brass tubing, into which the cylinders are
+brazed. The valve cage and cylinder heads are also turned separately
+and brazed. One ring only is used in connection with the pistons. The
+cylinders have a bore of ¹¹⁄₃₂″, with a piston stroke of ⁷⁄₁₆″. In
+view of the fact that pull rods show a greater tendency to overcome
+centrifugal force, they are used instead of push rods to operate the
+valves. The crankshaft has but one post, which is uncovered in turn by
+each inlet pipe as the engine revolves. The “overhang” method is used
+to mount this engine to the model. With the exception of the valve
+springs, the entire engine, including the mounting frame and tank, is
+made of brass.
+
+[Illustration: Wise five cylinder rotary compressed air engine]
+
+
+                THE SCHOBER-FUNK COMPRESSED AIR ENGINE
+
+Two of the most enthusiastic advocates of the compressed air engine
+for use in model aëroplanes are Messrs. Frank Schober and Rudolph
+Funk, both members of the Aëro Science Club. For a number of months
+both these gentlemen have experimented with compressed air engines of
+various designs, until they finally produced what is perhaps one of
+the most satisfactory rotary engines now in use, from a standpoint of
+simplicity and results.
+
+[Illustration: Schober-Funk three cylinder rotary engine]
+
+As can be seen from the accompanying illustration, this little
+engine is remarkably simple in appearance. The engine complete, with
+equipment, weighs at the most but 14 ounces. The cylinders, three in
+all, are stamped from brass shells for strength and lightness. The
+pistons are made from ebony fiber. The cylinders have a bore of ⁵⁄₈″,
+with a piston stroke of ¹⁄₂″. The crank case is built up from a small
+piece of brass tubing and is drilled out for lightness. The crankshaft
+is hollow, and is supported at the rear by a special bearing which
+acts as a rotary valve, admitting the intake through the crankshaft
+and permitting the exhaust to escape through a specially constructed
+bearing.
+
+The tank is constructed of 30 gauge sheet bronze, wire wound, and
+fitted at the ends with spun brass caps. The actual weight of the
+engine alone is 2¹⁄₂ ounces, the tank and fittings weighing 11¹⁄₂
+ounces, making the total weight of the complete power plant 14 ounces.
+
+
+               THE SCHOBER FOUR CYLINDER OPPOSED ENGINE
+
+Another interesting type of compressed air engine that has been
+developed in America is the Schober four cylinder opposed engine.
+While this engine is different in appearance from most compressed air
+engines, it has been made to work satisfactorily and is consistent with
+the same high class construction that is displayed in most all of Mr.
+Schober’s engines. The accompanying diagram 18 illustrates the method
+of operation of the four cylinder engine.
+
+[Illustration: Diagram 18]
+
+The crank case is constructed from four pieces of 24 gauge spring
+brass, substantially connected in the form of a rectangle, the top and
+bottom being left open. The front and rear walls have flanges which
+engage the inside of the side walls and are secured thereto by four
+small screws on each side, thereby making it an easy matter to take the
+crank case apart.
+
+The four cylinders are made from drawn brass shells and have a bore of
+¹⁄₂″ and stroke of ¹⁄₂″. The pistons are made of solid red fiber. The
+two-throw crankshaft is built up of steel with brass webs. The bearings
+are of steel. The valves, being overhead, are driven by a gear mounted
+at the end of the crankshaft, the gear driving the valve shaft by means
+of a gear on that shaft, with which the crankshaft gear meshes. The
+valve arrangement, as shown in diagram 18, consists of four recesses
+cut into the valve shaft, two of which allow the air to pass from the
+inlet pipes, which lead into the valve chamber at the center of same,
+to two of the cylinders at once, while the other two recesses allow the
+exhaust to pass from openings in the sides of the valve chamber.
+
+The cylinders are secured to the side plates of the crank case so
+that when those side plates are removed, the cylinders are removed with
+them. The pipes are detachable at their centers; small pipes running to
+the heads of the cylinders extending into the larger pipes which run
+to the valve chamber. This arrangement is shown in the end view of the
+engine. A 17″ propeller is used in connection with this engine.
+
+
+
+
+                           GASOLINE ENGINES
+
+
+                  THE JOPSON 1 H. P. GASOLINE ENGINE
+                         FOR MODEL AËROPLANES
+
+During the past few years several attempts have been made, both in this
+country and abroad, to produce a reliable gasoline engine for model
+aëroplane work, but mostly without any degree of success. The reason
+for this inability, no doubt, is due to the scarcity of small working
+parts sufficiently light and at the same time reliable. The engine
+described herewith, designed by Mr. W. G. Jopson, a member of the
+Manchester Aëro Club, England, is one of the few that have been made to
+work satisfactorily.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+[Illustration: The interesting horizontal-opposed Jopson gasoline
+engine for model aëroplanes. The top photograph shows the half-speed
+shaft and the arrangement of the valve mechanism. This engine is
+air cooled, develops 1 h.p. at 1,500 r.p.m., and weighs 7¹⁄₂ lbs.,
+including gasoline tank and propeller. The bottom view shows the engine
+with propeller _in situ_. Courtesy _Flight_.]
+
+As the accompanying diagrams 19 and 20 and photograph show, the engine
+is of the four-cycle, horizontal opposed type, having two cast-iron
+cylinders of 1¹⁄₄″ bore and 1³⁄₈″ stroke. Each cylinder is cast in
+one piece, and as the engine is air cooled, they are cast with
+radiating fins. One h.p. is developed at 1500 r.p.m. The total weight
+of the engine, gasoline tank and propeller is 7¹⁄₂ lbs. In preparing
+the design of this engine, the designs of similar full-sized aëro
+engines were followed as far as possible. The pistons are similar to
+those used on large aëro engines and are fitted with two rings; the
+crankshaft is turned out of two inch special bar steel, and is carried
+in two phosphor-bronze bearings. There is no special feature about the
+connecting rods, these being of the standard type, but very strong and
+light. To enable the two cylinders to be exactly opposite one another,
+the connecting-rods are offset in the pistons and are connected to
+the latter by gudgeonpins. The aluminum crank case is extremely
+simple, being cylindrical and vertically divided. The inlet valves are
+automatic, the exhaust valves being mechanically operated; the camshaft
+is driven from the main shaft by two-to-one gearing.
+
+[Illustration: Diagram 19
+
+  Sectional elevation of the 1 h.p. Jopson gasoline engine for
+  models. The disposition of the gasoline tank and wick carburettor
+  is particularly noteworthy. It will be seen that metal journals are
+  provided for the crankshaft, which is turned out of 2-inch bar steel.
+  Courtesy _Flight_.]
+
+To assist the exhaust, and also the cooling, small holes are drilled
+round the cylinder in such a position that when the piston is at the
+inner end of its stroke, these holes are uncovered, thus permitting
+the hot exhaust to escape, and so relieve the amount passing through
+the exhaust valves. The commutator is also driven off the camshaft, as
+shown in the drawing. No distributor is fitted to the commutator, as
+small ones are somewhat troublesome and very light coils are obtainable
+at a reasonable price.
+
+The gasoline tank is made of copper in streamline form, and is usually
+fitted to the back of the crankcase, thus reducing the head resistance,
+but if desired it can be fitted in any other position. The action of
+the carburetor can be easily seen from the drawings; it is of the
+surface type and much simpler, lighter and quite as efficient as the
+spray type. Specially light and simple spark plugs are used, that give
+very little trouble. The propeller used in connection with this engine
+is somewhat out of the ordinary, having been specially designed for
+this engine, and patented. The propeller is made entirely of aluminum
+and has a variable pitch, this being easily obtainable, as the blades
+are graduated so that any desired pitch, within certain limits, may be
+given at once. The results of a series of tests on a 30 inch propeller
+are shown on the accompanying chart, and from it the thrust as certain
+speeds with a certain pitch can be obtained. Taking the engine running
+at 1540 r.p.m. with a pitch of 15″, the thrust comes out at 9¹⁄₂ lbs.,
+or more than the weight of the engine and accessories.
+
+[Illustration: Diagram 20
+
+  Diagram of results obtained from tests of the 1 h.p. Jopson model
+  gasoline engine, showing the thrust in pounds at varying speeds with
+  propellers of different pitch. Courtesy _Flight_.]
+
+
+                    THE MIDGET AËRO GASOLINE ENGINE
+
+Although numerous model constructors in America are experimenting with
+model gasoline engines, the Midget Gasoline Engine, the product of
+the Aëro Engine Company, Boston, Massachusetts, is perhaps the most
+satisfactory up to the present time. An engine of this type was used by
+Mr. P. C. McCutchen of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, in his 8 foot Voisin
+Type Biplane Model, for which he claims a number of satisfactory
+flights.
+
+The engine is made from the best iron, steel, aluminum and bronze and
+the complete weight including a special carburetor, spark plug and
+spark coil is 2¹⁄₂ lbs. From the top of the cylinder head to the bottom
+of the crank case the engine measures 7″. It is possible to obtain from
+this engine various speeds from 400 to 2700 r.p.m., at which speed it
+develops ¹⁄₂ h.p. The propeller used in connection with this engine
+measures 18″ in diameter and has a 13″ pitch.
+
+[Illustration: The Midget ¹⁄₂ H. P. gasoline engine]
+
+It might be of interest to know that one of the parties responsible
+for the development of this engine is Mr. H. W. Aitken, a former model
+maker and who is now connected with one of the largest aëro engine
+manufacturing companies in America.
+
+
+
+
+                          STEAM POWER PLANTS
+
+
+Aside from the compressed air engine there is the steam driven
+engine which has been used abroad to considerable degree of success.
+Owing to the difficulty in constructing and operating a steam driven
+engine, very few model flyers in America have devoted any attention
+to the development of this engine as a means of propulsion for model
+aëroplanes. But irrespective of the limitations of the steam engine
+a great deal of experimentation has been carried on in England, and
+without doubt it will soon be experimented with in America.
+
+
+                    H. H. GROVES STEAM POWER PLANTS
+
+Perhaps one of the most successful steam power plants to have been
+designed since the development of the Langley steam driven model, is
+the Groves type of steam power plant, designed by Mr. H. H. Groves, of
+England. On one occasion several flights were made with a model driven
+by a small steam engine of the Groves type weighing 3 lbs. The model
+proved itself capable of rising from the ground under its own power and
+when launched it flew a distance of 450 feet. This is not a long flight
+when compared with the flight made by Prof. Langley’s steam driven
+model on November 28, 1896, of three-quarters of a mile in 1 minute and
+45 seconds, but the size of the models and also that Mr. Groves’ model
+only made a duration of 30 seconds, must be considered. The model was
+loaded 12 ounces to the square foot and had a soaring velocity of some
+20 m.p.h. The total weight of the power plant was 1¹⁄₂ lbs. Propeller
+thrust 10 to 12 ounces. The total weight of the model was 48 ounces.
+The type of steam plant used in connection with this model was of the
+flash boiler, pressure fed type, with benzoline for fuel.
+
+Mr. Groves has done considerable experimenting with the steam driven
+type power plant. Many of the designs used in the construction of
+steam plants for models are taken from his designs. A Groves steam
+power plant is employed in one of Mr. V. E. Johnson’s (Model Editor
+of _Flight_) model hydroaëroplanes, the first power-driven, or
+“mechanically driven” model hydroaëroplane (so far as can be learned)
+to rise from the surface of the water under its own power. This model
+has a total weight of 3 lbs. 4 ounces.
+
+
+                       G. HARRIS’S STEAM ENGINE
+
+Another advocate of the steam driven type model is Mr. G. Harris, also
+of England. Several good flights were made by Mr. Harris with his
+pusher type monoplane equipped with a steam driven engine. As a result
+of his experiments he concluded that mushroom valves with a lift of
+¹⁄₆₄ part of an inch were best, used in connection with the pump, and
+at least 12 feet of steel tubing should be used for boiler coils. The
+first power plant constructed by Mr. Harris contained a boiler coil 8
+feet long, but after he had replaced this coil with one 12 feet long,
+irrespective of the fact that the extra length of tube weighed a couple
+of ounces, the thrust was increased by nearly a half pound.
+
+[Illustration: An English steam power plant for model aëroplanes.
+Courtesy _Flight_.]
+
+[Illustration: Model hydroaëroplane owned by V. E. Johnson, Model
+Editor of _Flight_, England, equipped with an H. H. Groves steam power
+plant. This model is the first power driven—as far as can be learned—to
+rise from the surface of the water under its own power. Courtesy
+_Flight_.]
+
+The principal parts used in Mr. Harris’s steam power plant was an
+engine of the H. H. Groves type, twin cylinder, ⁷⁄₈″ bore with a piston
+stroke of ¹⁄₂″. The boiler was made from 12″ of ³⁄₁₆″ × 20″ G. steel
+tubing, weighing 10.5 ounces. The blow lamp consisted of a steel tube,
+⁵⁄₃₂″ × 22″ G. wound round a carbide carrier for a nozzle. The tank was
+made of brass ⁵⁄₁₀₀₀″ thick. The pump, ⁷⁄₃₂″ bore, stroke variable to
+¹⁄₂″, fitted with two non-return valves (mushroom type) and was geared
+down from the engine 4.5 to 1.
+
+
+                   PROFESSOR LANGLEY’S STEAM ENGINE
+
+The Langley steam driven model, of which so much has been said, and
+which on one occasion flew a distance of one-half mile in 90 seconds,
+had a total weight of 30 lbs., the engine and generating plant
+constituting one-quarter of this weight. The weight of the complete
+plant worked out to 7 lbs. per h.p. The engine developed from 1 to 1¹⁄₂
+h.p. A flash type boiler was used, with a steam pressure of from 150
+to 200 lbs., the coils having been made of copper. A modified naphtha
+blow-torch, such as is used by plumbers, was used to eject a blast or
+flame about 2000 Fahrenheit through the center of this coil. A pump was
+used for circulation purposes. With the best mechanical assistance that
+could be obtained at that date, it took Professor Langley one year to
+construct the model.
+
+
+              FRENCH EXPERIMENTS WITH STEAM POWER PLANTS
+
+About ten months after Langley’s results, some experiments were carried
+out by the French at Carquenez, near Toulon. The model used for the
+experiments weighed in total 70 lbs., the engine developing more than
+1 h.p. As in the Langley case, twin propellers were used, but instead
+of being mounted side by side, they were mounted one in front and the
+other behind. The result of these experiments compared very poorly with
+Langley’s. A flight of only 462 feet was made, with a duration of a few
+seconds. The maximum velocity is stated to have been 40 m.p.h. The span
+of this model was a little more than 6 meters, or about 19 feet, with a
+surface of more than 8 square meters, or about 80 square feet.
+
+[Illustration: An English hydroaëroplane of tractor design equipped
+with steam power plant. Courtesy _Flight_.]
+
+[Illustration: On the left an English 10 oz. Compressed air driven
+biplane. On the right, the engine shown fitted with a simple speedometer
+for experimental purposes. Courtesy _Flight_.]
+
+
+
+
+                          CARBONIC GAS ENGINE
+
+
+The six-cylinder carbonic gas engine described herewith is the product
+of Mr. Henry Rompel, Kansas City, Missouri.
+
+This is perhaps one of the most interesting of its kind to have been
+developed during 1916, and its appearance in the model aëroplane field
+adds weight to the claim that mechanical engines will soon replace the
+rubber strand as motive power for model aëroplanes.
+
+Mr. Rompel’s engine is of rotary, carbonic gas type, having six
+cylinders, a bore of ⁵⁄₈″ and a stroke of ³⁄₄″.
+
+The intake is derived through a rotary valve which also acts as a crank
+shaft bearing, thereby saving weight.
+
+The exhaust is accomplished by mechanically operated valves situated in
+the heads of the cylinders being opened by the aid of rocker arms and
+push rods, which gain their timing from a cam placed on the crankshaft.
+
+To save weight in construction the crankshaft, connecting rods, pistons
+and cylinders were made of telescopic tubing with a side wall of one
+thirty-second of an inch or less in thickness.
+
+The engine has a swing of 5¹⁄₂″ over all, weighs a little less than 8
+ounces complete, and is operated on 1,500 pounds pressure (carbonic
+gas) and at a speed of 3,500 to 3,700 r.p.m. will develop about 1 horse
+power. While spinning a 17″ propeller with a pitch of 20 inches it will
+deliver a thrust of 21 ounces, and has a duration of 40 seconds. Two
+hundred and fifty-six pieces were embodied in its construction.
+
+[Illustration: The Rompel six-cylinder carbonic gas engine]
+
+
+
+
+                     THE FORMATION OF MODEL CLUBS
+
+
+To form a model aëroplane club at least six interested persons are
+necessary. As soon as a place in which to hold meetings has been
+decided upon the club should proceed to elect a director whose duty
+should be to manage the affairs of the club. One of the first things
+to be considered is the name under which the club will operate; the
+custom is usually to adopt the name of the town or city in which the
+club is located, viz.: Concord Model Aëro Club, Concord, Massachusetts,
+although it is the privilege of the majority of the members to choose
+a name such as they might feel will best benefit the purpose for which
+the club was organized. As in the case of the Aëro Science Club of
+America, this club was formed for the purpose of stimulating interest
+in model aëronautics and to help those who might become interested
+therein, not only in New York City but throughout the entire United
+States.
+
+When the matter of name and place has been settled the club should
+decide upon the course it is to follow, first by electing OFFICERS and
+second by preparing a CONSTITUTION AND BY-LAWS. In the case of clubs
+whose membership does not comprise more than six members, it does not
+seem desirable to have more than one officer, namely, a DIRECTOR, who
+might perform the duties of a president, treasurer and secretary until
+the club has reached a larger membership. In this way the members are
+enabled to concentrate upon the construction and flying of models
+and to engage in such other activities as to carry out the purpose
+for which the club was organized. However, the foregoing is merely a
+suggestion on the part of the writer, who by the way is a member of
+the Aëro Science Club of America and formerly acted in the capacity of
+secretary to that club.
+
+Clubs whose membership totals more than twelve, however, should proceed
+to elect a President, Treasurer and Secretary, all of whom must receive
+a vote of at least two-thirds of the membership. With clubs of this
+size a director is not needed as the affairs of the club are usually
+entrusted with the governing officers, the President, Treasurer and
+Secretary. In as much as the constitution and by-laws are an important
+factor in the affairs of any model club, the governing officers,
+before mentioned, should hold a private meeting at the earliest
+moment whereat to frame a constitution and set of by-laws embodying
+the purposes and policy of the club. When the proposed constitution
+and by-laws are completed they should be presented to the members for
+approval after which a copy should be given to every member.
+
+The following is a specimen of constitution and by-laws that might be
+used by any person or persons desiring to form a Model Aëro Club:
+
+
+                  CONSTITUTION AND BY-LAWS OF A MODEL
+                            AËROPLANE CLUB
+
+ARTICLE 1. NAME. The name of this club will be known as The ..........
+Model Aëro Club.
+
+PURPOSE. The object of this club shall be to study and increase the
+interest in the science of aëronautics in every way possible and to
+realize this object, shall construct and fly model aëroplanes, gliders
+and man carrying machines.
+
+FURTHER, Contests shall be held for model aëroplanes and prizes awarded
+to the winners thereof. And as a further step in the advancement of
+this art, meetings, lectures, discussions, debates and exhibitions will
+be held.
+
+ARTICLE 2. MEMBERSHIP. Any person may become a member of this club
+provided his application receives the unanimous approval of the
+majority of members, or is passed upon by the membership committee.
+A member may resign his membership by written communication to the
+secretary who shall present it to the membership committee to be passed
+upon.
+
+ARTICLE 3. OFFICERS. The officers of this organization shall be a
+President, Vice-president, Secretary and Treasurer and a board of
+governors to consist of said officers. The president and vice-president
+shall constitute the executive committee of the board of governors,
+with full powers to act for them in the affairs of the club. The
+election of officers shall take place at the first meeting held during
+the month of .......... of each year and shall hold office for one
+year. In the event of a vacancy in the office of the President the
+Vice-president or next highest officer present shall preside. Any
+other vacancy shall be filled by an officer temporarily appointed by
+the President. The President shall preside at all meetings of the
+club and of the board of governors, and shall perform such other
+duties as usually pertain to that office. The President shall have
+full authority to appoint committees or boards as may be necessary to
+further the interests of the club.
+
+The Secretary shall keep a record of all meetings of the club, board of
+governors and committees and shall use the seal of the club as may be
+directed by the executive committee. Further, he shall issue notices
+to officers and members of all special meetings and perform such other
+duties as may be assigned him by the constitution, by the club or by
+the board of governors.
+
+The Treasurer shall have charge of the funds of the club, receive
+all moneys, fees, dues, etc.; pay all bills approved by the board of
+governors, and preserve all proper vouchers for such disbursements.
+
+
+                          RULES FOR CONTESTS
+
+We now come to the matter of contests. As there are many different
+types of models so must there be rules to correspond to avoid
+misunderstandings, and until the club has reached the stage where
+it may decide upon a particular set of rules under which its members
+should participate perhaps the following set of rules, applicable to
+contests for hand launched models, can be adopted. In so far as there
+are different rules for different contests, namely, hand launched, R.
+O. G. and R. O. W. and mechanical driven, the following rules are used
+only in connection with contests for hand launched models; rules for
+other contests follow:
+
+
+                                 RULES
+
+A contest to be official must have at least five contestants.
+
+Each contestant must abide by the rules of the contest and decision of
+the judges.
+
+Each contestant must register his name, age, and address before the
+event.
+
+Each contestant must enter and fly models made by himself only.
+
+Trials to start from a given point indicated by the starter of the
+trials, and distance to be measured in a straight line from the
+starting point to where the model first touches the ground, regardless
+of the curves or circles it may have made. Each contestant must have
+his models marked with his name and number of his models (1, 2, 3,
+etc.), and each model will be entitled to three official trials.
+Contestant has the privilege of changing the planes and propellers as
+he may see fit, everything to be of his own construction, but only
+three frames can be used in any contest. If in the opinion of the board
+of judges there are too many entries to give each one nine flights in
+the length of time fixed, the judges have the power to change that part
+of rule No. 6 to the following:
+
+“Six flights or less, as circumstances may require, will be allowed to
+each contestant, which can be made with one model or any one of three
+entered; all of his own construction; due notice must be given to each
+contestant of the change.”
+
+No trial is considered as official unless the model flies over 100 feet
+from the starting point. (The qualifying distance can be changed by
+agreement between the club and the starter provided the entrants are
+notified.) Should the rubber become detached from the model, or the
+propeller drop off during the trial, the trial is counted as official,
+provided the model has covered the qualifying distance. No matter what
+may happen to the model after it has covered the qualifying distance
+the flight is official. Contests should cover a period of three hours,
+unless otherwise agreed.
+
+No contestant shall use the model of another contestant, although the
+former may have made it himself.
+
+The officials should be: a starter, measurer, judge and scorer; also
+three or four guards to keep starting point and course clear. The first
+three officials shall, as board of judges, decide all questions and
+disputes. A space 25 feet square (with stakes and ropes) should be
+measured off for officials and contestants, together with an assistant
+for each contestant. All others must be kept out by the guards and a
+space kept clear (at least 25 feet) in front of the starting point, so
+a contestant will not be impeded in making his trial.
+
+Each official should wear a badge, ribbon or arm band designating his
+office, and must be upheld in his duties.
+
+
+                               HANDICAPS
+
+At the discretion of the club there may be imposed a handicap for club
+events as follows: A contestant in order to win must exceed his last
+record with which he won a prize.
+
+
+                    COMBINATION AND DURATION EVENTS
+
+First, second and third records to count. Lowest number of points to
+win. For example:
+
+  A may have 1st in distance and 2nd in duration, 3 total points.
+
+  B may have 3rd in distance and 1st in duration, 4 total points.
+
+  C may have 2nd in distance and 3rd in duration, 5 total points.
+
+Accordingly A wins.
+
+
+                           R. O. G. CONTESTS
+
+                       (Rising from the Ground)
+
+Models to be set on the ground and allowed to start off without any
+effort on the part of the contestant. Models should rise from the
+ground before reaching a predetermined mark, no flight to be considered
+unless it does so. Contestant may start at any length back from the
+mark, but the distance is to be measured only from the mark.
+
+
+                  MECHANICALLY DRIVEN MODEL CONTESTS
+
+For duration, or distance, contests for mechanically driven models
+might be held under the same ruling that applies to R. O. G. models.
+But owing to the many types of engines used in mechanically driven
+models, definite rules for the holding of such a contest must be left
+to the discretion of the club or contestants.
+
+
+                          EVENTS OPEN TO ALL
+
+These events are open to all, with no handicaps to be imposed on either
+club members or others.
+
+
+                INTER-CLUB MODEL AËROPLANE TOURNAMENTS
+
+             (Prizes to be determined by contesting clubs)
+
+The tournament to consist of five events as follows:
+
+  Duration: Models launched from hand.
+
+  Distance: Models launched from hand.
+
+  Duration: Models launched from ground. R. O. G.
+
+  Distance: Models launched from ground. R. O. G.
+
+  Duration: Models launched from water. R. O. W.
+
+Dates for inter-club contest should be arranged for at least three
+weeks prior to date of first contest, to allow ample time for the
+construction of special models and elimination trials.
+
+In event of inclement weather the contest to take place the week
+following (each contest following to be set one week ahead), or at any
+time that may be determined by a committee appointed by the contesting
+clubs.
+
+Each competing club must be represented by a team of three contestants
+and one non-competitor, who will act as judge in conjunction with the
+judges from the other clubs, and a manager selected by the judges who
+will supervise over the entire tournament and issue calls for meetings.
+(Substitutes should also be selected for any possible vacancy.)
+
+Meetings of the judges of the competing clubs should be held at some
+designated place, at which time dates and general details shall be
+arranged, and between events there should be a meeting called, for
+general discussion regarding the recent event, receive protests and
+suggestions and to announce officially the result of the contest.
+
+The manager shall have control of the various events, assisted by the
+judges and they shall decide all disputes that may arise, and act as
+scorers and timers, as well.
+
+Each flyer will be allowed but one model and shall be entitled to three
+official flights, but he shall be permitted to make any repairs or
+replace any broken parts. No contestant shall be privileged to fly a
+model not of his own construction. Each event shall close when all the
+contestants have made three official flights, or when three hours’ time
+has elapsed.
+
+
+
+
+                     WORLD’S MODEL FLYING RECORDS
+
+
+                  (TWIN PROPELLER PUSHER TYPE MODELS)
+
+                               MONOPLANE
+
+    Year 1917. Ward Pease (America), rise off ground, distance
+        3364 feet.
+
+    Year 1916. Thomas Hall (America), hand launched, distance
+        5537 feet.
+
+    Year 1917. Donovan Lathrop (America), hand launched,
+        duration 5 minutes.
+
+    Year 1917. Emil Laird (America), 18 inch type model,
+        distance 750 feet.
+
+    Year 1915. Wallace A. Lauder (America), hand launched,
+        distance 3537 feet.
+
+    Year 1915. Wallace A. Lauder (America), hand launched,
+        duration 195 seconds.
+
+    Year 1914. Fred Watkins (America), rise off ground,
+        distance 1761 feet.
+
+    Year 1914. J. E. Louch (England), rise off ground, duration
+        169 seconds.
+
+    Year 1915. E. C. Cook (America), rise off water, duration
+        100 seconds.
+
+
+                     (TWIN PROPELLER TRACTOR TYPE)
+
+                               MONOPLANE
+
+    Year 1913. Harry Herzog (America), rise off water, duration
+        28 seconds.
+
+
+                     (TWIN PROPELLER PUSHER TYPE)
+
+                                BIPLANE
+
+    Year 1915. A. H. Wheeler (America), rise off ground,
+        duration 143 seconds.
+
+
+                    (SINGLE PROPELLER PUSHER TYPE)
+
+                               MONOPLANE
+
+    Year 1914. J. E. Louch (England), hand launched, duration
+        95 seconds.
+
+    Year 1914. W. E. Evans (England), rise from ground,
+        distance 870 feet.
+
+    Year 1914. J. E. Louch (England), rise from ground,
+        duration 68 seconds.
+
+    Year 1914. L. H. Slatter (England), rise from water,
+        duration 35 seconds.
+
+
+                    (SINGLE PROPELLER TRACTOR TYPE)
+
+                               MONOPLANE
+
+    Year 1915. D. Lathrop (America), hand launched, distance
+        1039 feet.
+
+    Year 1915. D. Lathrop (America), hand launched, duration
+        240 seconds.
+
+    Year 1914. C. D. Dutton (England), rise from ground,
+        distance 570 feet.
+
+    Year 1914. J. E. Louch (England), rise from ground,
+        duration 94 seconds.
+
+    Year 1915. L. Hittle (America), rise from water, duration
+        116 seconds.
+
+
+                    (SINGLE PROPELLER TRACTOR TYPE)
+
+                                BIPLANE
+
+    Year 1915. Laird Hall (American), rise from ground,
+        duration 76 seconds.
+
+
+                          (FLYING BOAT TYPE)
+
+                               MONOPLANE
+
+    Year 1915. Robert La Tour (America), rise from water,
+        duration 43 seconds.
+
+
+                          (FLYING BOAT TYPE)
+
+                                BIPLANE
+
+    Year 1914. C. V. Obst (America), rise from water, duration
+        27 seconds.
+
+
+                       (MECHANICAL DRIVEN MODEL)
+
+    Year 1914. D. Stanger (England), rise from ground, duration
+        51 seconds.
+
+            (All British records are quoted from _Flight_)
+
+
+
+
+                   DICTIONARY OF AËRONAUTICAL TERMS
+
+
+                                   A
+
+  AËRODROME—A tract of land selected for flying purposes.
+
+  AËRODYNAMICS—The science of Aviation, literally the study of the
+      influence of air in motion.
+
+  AËROFOIL—A flat or flexed plane which lends support to an
+      aëroplane.
+
+  AËRONAUT—One engaged in navigating the air.
+
+  AËRONAUTICS—The science of navigating the air.
+
+  AËROPLANE—A heavier than air machine supported by one or more
+      fixed wings or planes.
+
+  AËROSTATICS—The science of aërostation, or of buoyancy caused by
+      displacement, ballooning.
+
+  AËROSTATION—The science of lighter than air or gas-borne machines.
+
+  AILERON—The outer edge or tip of a wing, usually adjustable, used
+      to balance or stabilize.
+
+  AIRSHIP—Commonly used to denote both heavier and lighter than air
+      machines; correctly a dirigible balloon.
+
+  ANGLE OF INCIDENCE—The angle of the wing with the line of travel.
+
+  AREA—In the case of wings, the extent of surface measured on
+      both the upper and lower sides. An area of one square foot
+      comprises the actual surface of two square feet.
+
+  ASPECT RATIO—The proportion of the chord to the span of a wing.
+      For example if the wing has a span of 30 inches and a chord
+      of 6 inches the
+                                span
+      aspect ratio will be 5 or —————
+                                chord.
+
+  AUTOMATIC STABILITY—Stability secured by fins, the angle of the
+      wings and similar devices.
+
+  AVIATOR—One engaged in Aviation.
+
+  AVIATION—The science of heavier than air machines.
+
+  ANGLE OF BLADE—The angle of the blade of a propeller to the axis
+      of the shaft.
+
+
+                                   B
+
+  BALANCER—A plane or other part intended for lateral equilibrium.
+
+  BEARING BLOCK—Used in connection with the mounting of propellers
+      on model aëroplanes. Made from wood and metal.
+
+  BRACE—Strip of bamboo or other material used to join together the
+      frame side members. Also used in joining other parts of a
+      model.
+
+  BIPLANE—An aëroplane or model aëroplane with two wings superposed.
+
+  BODY—The main framework supporting the wing or wings and the
+      machinery.
+
+  BANKING—The lateral tilting of an aëroplane when taking a turn.
+
+
+                                   C
+
+  CAMBER—The rise of the curved contour of an arched surface above
+      the Chord Line.
+
+  CENTER OF GRAVITY—The point at which the aëroplane balances.
+
+  CENTER OF PRESSURE—The imaginary line beneath the wing at which
+      the pressure balances.
+
+  CHASSIS (CARRIAGE)—The part on which the main body of an
+      aëroplane or model aëroplane is supported on land or water.
+
+  CHORD—The distance between the entering and trailing edges of a
+      wing.
+
+
+                                   D
+
+  DECK—The main surface of a biplane or multiplane.
+
+  DIRECTIONAL CONTROL—The ability to determine the direction of the
+      flight of an aëroplane.
+
+  DIRIGIBLE—A balloon driven by power.
+
+  DOPE—A coating for wings.
+
+  DOWN WIND—With the wind.
+
+  DRIFT—The resistance of the wing to the forward movement.
+
+  DIHEDRAL ANGLE—The inclination of the wings to each other usually
+      bent up from the center in the form of a flat V.
+
+
+                                   E
+
+  ELEVATOR—The plane or wing intended to control the vertical
+      flight of the machine.
+
+  ENGINE—A contrivance for generating driving power.
+
+  ENGINE BASE—Main stick used for frame of single stick model.
+
+  ENGINEER—One who controls the power, driving the machinery.
+
+  ENTERING EDGE _or_ LEADING EDGE—Front edge or edge of the surface
+      upon which the air impinges.
+
+  EQUILIBRATOR—A plane or other contrivance which makes for
+      stability.
+
+
+                                   F
+
+  FIN—A fixed vertical plane.
+
+  FLEXED—A wing is said to be flexed when it curves upward forming
+      an arc of a circle.
+
+  FLYING STICK—Name applied to ordinary A type and single stick
+      models.
+
+  FLYING MACHINE—Literally a form of lighter than air craft; a
+      gas-borne airship.
+
+  FLYING BOAT—A hull or large float used in connection with an
+      aëroplane to enable its rising from and alighting upon the
+      surface of the water.
+
+  FRAME—A single or double stick structure to which all parts of
+      a model are attached. Three or more sticks are sometimes
+      employed in the construction of a frame. However, the usual
+      number is two, joined together in the form of letter “A.”
+
+  FRAME HOOKS—The looped ends of a piece of wire attached to the
+      point of the frame to accommodate the S hooks attached to the
+      rubber strands.
+
+  FRAME SIDE MEMBERS—Two main sticks of an A type frame.
+
+  FUSELAGE—The body or framework of an aëroplane.
+
+
+                                   G
+
+  GLIDER—An aëroplane without motive power.
+
+  GUY—A brace, usually a wire or cord used for tuning up the
+      aëroplane.
+
+  GROSS WEIGHT—The weight of the aircraft, comprising fuel,
+      lubricating oils and the pilot.
+
+  GYROSCOPE—A rotating mechanism for maintaining equilibrium.
+
+  GAP—The vertical distance between the superposed wings.
+
+
+                                   H
+
+  HANGAR—A shed for housing an aëroplane.
+
+  HARBOR—A shelter for aircraft.
+
+  HEAVIER THAN AIR—A machine weighing more than the air it
+      displaces.
+
+  HELICOPTER—A flying machine in which propellers are utilized to
+      give a lifting effect by their own direct action on the air.
+      In aviation the term implies that the screw exerts a direct
+      lift.
+
+  HELMSMAN—One in charge of the steering device.
+
+  HYDROAËROPLANE—An aëroplane with pontoons to enable its rising
+      from the surface of the water. Known as hydro in model
+      circles.
+
+
+                                   K
+
+  KEEL—A vertical plane or planes arranged longitudinally either
+      above or below the body for the purpose of giving stability.
+
+
+                                   L
+
+  LATERAL STABILITY—Stability which prevents side motion.
+
+  LOADING—The gross weight divided by the supporting area measured
+      in square feet.
+
+  LONGITUDINAL STABILITY—Stability which prevents fore and aft
+      motion or pitching.
+
+  LONGERONS—Main members of the fuselage. Sometimes called
+      longitudinals.
+
+
+                                   M
+
+  MAST—A perpendicular stick holding the stays or struts which keep
+      the wings rigid.
+
+  MODEL AËROPLANE—A scale reproduction of a man-carrying machine.
+
+  MECHANICAL POWER—A model driven by means other than rubber
+      strands such as compressed air, steam, gasoline, spring,
+      electricity and so forth is termed a mechanical driven model.
+      The power used is termed mechanical power.
+
+  MOTIVE POWER—In connection with model aëroplanes a number of
+      rubber strands evenly strung from the propeller shaft to the
+      frame hooks which while unwinding furnish the necessary power
+      to propel the model.
+
+  MAIN BEAM—In connection with model aëroplanes a long stick which
+      is secured to the under side of the wing frame at the highest
+      point in the curve of the ribs adding materially to the
+      rigidity of the wing.
+
+  MONOPLANE—An aëroplane or heavier than air machine supported by a
+      single main wing which may be formed of two wings extending
+      from a central body.
+
+  MULTIPLANE—An aëroplane with more than four wings superposed.
+
+
+                                   N
+
+  NACELLE—The car of a dirigible balloon, literally a cradle. Also
+      applied to short body used in connection with aëroplanes for
+      the accommodation of the pilot and engine.
+
+  NET WEIGHT—Complete weight of the machine without pilot, fuel or
+      oil.
+
+
+                                   O
+
+  ORNITHOPTER—A flapping wing machine which has arched wings like
+      those of a bird.
+
+  ORTHOGONAL—A flight maintained by flapping wings.
+
+  OUTRIGGERS—Members which extend forward or rearward from the main
+      planes for the purpose of supporting the elevator or tail
+      planes of an aëroplane.
+
+
+                                   P
+
+  PLANE—A surface or wing, either plain or flexed, employed to
+      support or control an aëroplane.
+
+  PILOT—One directing an aëroplane in flight.
+
+  PITCH—Theoretical distance covered by a propeller in making one
+      revolution.
+
+  PROPELLER—The screw used for driving an aëroplane.
+
+  PROPELLER BEARINGS—Pieces of bronze tubing or strips of metal
+      formed to the shape of the letter “L” used to mount
+      propellers. Also made from blocks of wood.
+
+  PROPELLER BLANK—A block of wood cut to the design of a propeller.
+
+  PROPELLER SPAR(S)—The heavy stick or sticks upon which the
+      bearing or bearings of a single or twin propeller model are
+      mounted.
+
+  PROPELLER SHAFT—A piece of wire which is run through the hub of
+      the propeller and tubing in mounting the propeller.
+
+  PYLON—Correctly, a structure housing a falling weight used for
+      starting an aëroplane, commonly a turning point in aëroplane
+      flights.
+
+  PUSHER—An aëroplane with the propeller or propellers situated in
+      back of the main supporting surfaces.
+
+
+                                   Q
+
+  QUADRUPLANE—An aëroplane with four wings superposed.
+
+
+                                   R
+
+  RUDDER—A plane or group of planes used to steer an aëroplane.
+
+  RUNNER—Strip beneath an aëroplane used for a skid.
+
+  RUNNING GEAR _or_ LANDING GEAR—That portion of the chassis
+      consisting of the axle, wheels and shock absorber.
+
+  RIB—Curved brace fastened to the entering and trailing edges of a
+      wing.
+
+
+                                   S
+
+  SCALE MODEL—A miniature aëroplane exactly reproducing the
+      proportions of an original.
+
+  SPAR—A mast strut or brace.
+
+  SIDE SLIP—The tendency of an aëroplane to slide or slip sideways
+      when too steep banking is attempted.
+
+  STABILITY—The power to maintain an even keel in flight.
+
+  STARTING PLATFORM—A runway to enable an aëroplane to leave the
+      ground.
+
+  SURFACE FRICTION—Resistance offered by planes or wings.
+
+  SLIP—The difference between the distance actually traveled by a
+      propeller and that measured by the pitch.
+
+  SOARING FLIGHT—A gliding movement without apparent effort.
+
+  SUSTAINING SURFACE—Extent of the wings or planes which lend
+      support to an aëroplane.
+
+  SPAN (SPREAD)—The dimension of a surface across the air stream.
+
+  STREAMLINE—Exposing as little surface as possible to offer
+      resistance to air.
+
+  SKIDS—In connection with model aëroplanes, steel wires or strips
+      of bamboo allowed to extend below the frame to protect the
+      model in landing and to permit its rising off the ground or
+      ice.
+
+  S OR MOTOR HOOKS—A piece of wire bent in a double hook to
+      resemble the letter “S.” One end to be attached to the frame
+      hook, the other serving as accommodation for the rubber
+      strands.
+
+
+                                   T
+
+  TAIL—The plane or planes, both horizontal and vertical, carried
+      behind the main planes.
+
+  TANDEM—An arrangement of two planes one behind the other.
+
+  THRUST—The power exerted by the propeller of an aëroplane.
+
+  TENSION—The power exerted by twisted strands of rubber in
+      unwinding.
+
+  TRACTOR—An aëroplane with the propeller situated before the main
+      supporting surfaces.
+
+  TRIPLANE—An aëroplane with three wings superposed.
+
+  TRAILING EDGE—The rear edge of a surface.
+
+  TORQUE—The twisting force of a propeller tending to overturn or
+      swerve an aëroplane sideways.
+
+
+                                   U
+
+  UP WIND—Against the wind.
+
+
+                                   W
+
+  WAKE—The churned or disturbed air in the track of a moving
+      aëroplane.
+
+  WASH—The movement of the air radiating from the sides of an
+      aëroplane in flight.
+
+  WINGS—Planes or supporting surfaces, commonly a pair of wings
+      extending out from a central body.
+
+  WINDER—An apparatus used for winding two sets of rubber strands
+      at the same time in opposite directions or one at a time.
+      Very often made from an egg beater or hand drill.
+
+  WARPING—The springing of a wing out of its normal shape, thereby
+      creating a temporary difference in the extremities of the
+      wing which enables the wind to heel the machine back again
+      into balance.
+
+
+                             ABREVIATIONS
+
+  H. P.     Horse Power.
+  R. P. M.  Revolutions per minute.
+  H. L.     Hand launched.
+  R. O. G.  Rise off ground model.
+  R. O. W.  Rise off water model.
+  M. P. H.  Miles per hour.
+
+
+                                THE END
+
+
+                ————————————— End of Book —————————————
+
+
+
+
+                    Transcriber’s Note (continued)
+
+Errors in punctuation have been corrected. Inconsistencies in spelling,
+grammar, capitalisation, and hyphenation are as they appear in the
+original publication except where noted below:
+
+  Page 16 – “bob-sled″” changed to “bobsled″” (an ordinary bobsled)
+
+  Page 53 – “approximately cross section” changed to “approximately
+            circular cross section”
+
+  Page 55 – “run” changed to “runs” (one of which wires runs to)
+
+  Page 83 – “ten″” changed to “10″” (10″ propeller)
+
+  Page 105 – “five cylinder” changed to “three cylinder” (Schober-Funk
+             three cylinder rotary engine) [This change was made to
+             the illustration caption on this page and also to the
+             entry in the List of Illustrations that points to it.]
+
+  Page 106 – “diagram 17” changed to “diagram 18” (The accompanying
+             diagram 18 illustrates)
+
+  Page 108 – “crank-shaft” changed to “crankshaft” (The two-throw
+             crankshaft)
+
+  Page 111 – “cam-shaft” changed to “camshaft” (provided for the
+             camshaft)
+
+  Page 112 – “crank-shaft” changed to “crankshaft” (the crankshaft
+             is driven)
+
+  Page 113 – “stream-line” changed to “streamline” (streamline form)
+
+  Page 116 – “Bi-plane” changed to “Biplane” (Type Biplane Model)
+
+The prefix of AËRO/Aëro/aëro as in ‘aëroplane’, etc., is used
+throughout the body text of the original publication with a few
+exceptions. These latter have been changed for consistency in this
+transcription. The unaccented prefix AERO/Aero/aero is now only used
+in title page text.
+
+Incorrect entries in the Table of Contents have had their text and/or
+page references changed so that they agree with the text and location
+of the parts of the original publication to which they refer.
+
+Entries in the DICTIONARY OF AËRONAUTICAL TERMS which are not in
+the correct alphabetical order have been left as they appear in the
+original publication. Some minor typographical errors and spelling
+mistakes have been corrected without further note.
+
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MODEL AEROPLANES AND THEIR
+ENGINES ***
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+<p style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Model Aeroplanes and Their Engines, by George Cavanagh</p>
+<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
+most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
+whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
+of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online
+at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you
+are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the
+country where you are located before using this eBook.
+</div>
+
+<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: Model Aeroplanes and Their Engines</p>
+<p style='display:block; margin-left:2em; text-indent:0; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:1em;'>A Practical Book for Beginners</p>
+<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: George Cavanagh</p>
+<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: April 16, 2022 [eBook #67852]</p>
+<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</p>
+  <p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:left'>Produced by: Brian Coe, Quentin Campbell and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by the Library of Congress)</p>
+<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MODEL AEROPLANES AND THEIR ENGINES ***</div>
+
+
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+<div class="transnote chapter p4">
+<a id="top"></a>
+<p class="noindent center TN-style-1 bold">Transcriber’s Note</p>
+
+<p class="TN-style-1">The photographic images in the original
+publication are generally of poor quality and there is little that
+can be done to enhance them. The hand-drawn construction diagrams
+are clearer although some descriptive text may be too small to read.
+However the reader can click on any photographic image or diagram
+to see a larger version. This is particularly helpful when reading
+descriptive text and looking at fine detail in the construction
+diagrams.</p>
+
+<hr class="r10" />
+
+<p class="TN-style-1">The cover image was restored by Thiers
+Halliwell from elements of the original publication and is placed in
+the public domain.</p>
+
+<hr class="r10" />
+
+<p class="TN-style-1">See <a class="underline" href="#TN">end
+of this document</a> for details of corrections and other changes.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
+
+<div class="chapter p4 b4">
+<p class="noindent center bold"><span style="font-size: 170%;">MODEL AEROPLANES</span><br />
+<span style="font-size: 115%;">AND THEIR ENGINES</span></p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
+
+<div class="click-any-illo-transnote x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<p class="noindent center TN-style-1 bold">Click on any image to see a larger version.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="chapter"></div>
+<div class="figcenter illowe20 mt2 mb2" style="max-width: 65.5em;" id="frontispiece">
+  <a rel="nofollow" href="images/frontispiece_grayscale.jpg">
+    <img class="w100" src="images/frontispiece_grayscale.jpg" alt="" />
+  </a>
+  <div class="caption">
+    <p class="noindent center small">Waid Carl’s model in flight.<br />
+<span style="font-size: x-small;">Courtesy Edward P. Warner, Concord Model Club</span></p>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<h1 class="nobreak" id="MODEL_AEROPLANES">MODEL AEROPLANES<br />
+<span style="font-size: 60%;">AND THEIR ENGINES</span></h1>
+</div>
+
+<p class="noindent center large p2"><i>A Practical Book for Beginners</i></p>
+
+<p class="noindent center small p2">BY</p>
+<p class="noindent center x-large">GEORGE A. CAVANAGH</p>
+<p class="noindent center small smcap">Model Editor “Aerial Age”</p>
+
+<p class="noindent center small p4">DRAWINGS BY</p>
+<p class="noindent center large">HARRY G. SCHULTZ</p>
+<p class="noindent center small">PRESIDENT THE AERO-SCIENCE CLUB OF AMERICA</p>
+
+<p class="noindent center small p4">WITH AN INTRODUCTION BY</p>
+<p class="noindent center large">HENRY WOODHOUSE</p>
+<p class="noindent center small">Managing Editor “Flying”<br />
+Governor of the Aero Club of America</p>
+
+<p class="noindent center large p4 b2">NEW YORK<br />
+MOFFAT, YARD &amp; COMPANY<br />
+1917</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
+
+<div class="chapter p4 b4">
+<p class="noindent center small p2">
+<span class="smcap">Copyright, 1916, By</span><br />
+MOFFAT, YARD AND COMPANY<br />
+NEW YORK</p>
+<hr class="r2p5" />
+<p class="noindent center x-small"><i>All rights reserved</i><br />
+<br />
+Reprinted August, 1917</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
+
+<div class="chapter p4 b4">
+<p class="noindent center">TO</p>
+<p class="noindent center">M. T. H.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="INTRODUCTION">INTRODUCTION</h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">History</span> tells us—what some of us luckier
+ones heard the Wright Brothers themselves
+tell—that the Wrights’ active work in aëronautics
+was a result of the interest aroused by
+a toy helicopter presented to them by the Reverend
+Bishop Milton Wright, their father.</p>
+
+<p>Tremendous developments have taken place
+in aëronautics and aircraft are fast developing
+in size, speed, and range of action. They
+have revolutionized warfare, and seem to be
+destined to become a most important factor in
+the reconstruction that will follow the war.</p>
+
+<p>The greater the development the truer the
+fact that model aëroplanes may be instrumental
+in bringing to aëronautics men who
+may make valuable contributions to aëronautics.
+As a matter of fact, there are already
+in active life, contributing their share to the
+development of aëronautics, young men who
+only a few years ago competed for prizes
+which the writer offered for model competition.</p>
+
+<p>The young men who are now flying models
+will live in the new age—and they have much
+to give and much to receive from it.</p>
+
+<p>Through the tremendous strides forward of
+aëronautics there are wonderful possibilities
+for the employment of ingenuity, genius and
+skill, and business opportunities, as great as
+have ever been created by progress in important
+lines of human endeavor. Problems of
+engineering as huge as were solved by master
+builders; juridical and legal questions to be
+decided as stupendously difficult as any Gladstone
+would wish them; possibilities for the
+development of international relations greater
+than were ever conceived; problems of transportation
+to be solved by the application of
+aircraft, as wonderful as any economist could
+wish; opportunities to gain distinction splendid
+enough to satisfy the most ambitious
+person.</p>
+
+<p class="right" style="margin-right: 1em;">
+<span class="smcap">Henry Woodhouse.</span></p>
+
+<p class="b2">New York, June 5th, 1916.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="TOC">LIST OF CONTENTS</h2>
+</div>
+
+<table class="toc b2" style="font-size: 80%">
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl">&#160;</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><span style="font-size: 60%; margin-left: 4em;">PAGE</span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Introduction</span></td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#INTRODUCTION">ix</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">History of Model Aviation</span></td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Construction</span></td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_8">8</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl"><p class="toc" style="margin-left: 1em;">Propellers—Wings—Frame—Assembling—Launching—Chassis—Pontoons—Launching
+        an R.&#160;O.&#160;G. or Model Hydroaëroplane.</p></td>
+    <td class="tdr">&#160;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">World Record Models</span></td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_52">52</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl"><p class="toc" style="margin-left: 1em;">Lauder Distance and Duration Model—Hittle Tractor
+        Hydro—La Tour Flying Boat—Cook No. 42 Model—Rudy Funk
+        Duration Model—Alson H. Wheeler Twin Pusher Biplane.</p></td>
+    <td class="tdr">&#160;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">A Model Warplane</span></td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_83">83</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">A Simple Compressed Air Engine</span></td>
+    <td class="tdr"><span class="no-wrap"><a href="#Page_85">85–93</a></span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Compressed Air Driven Models</span></td>
+    <td class="tdr"><span class="no-wrap"><a href="#Page_94">94–102</a></span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl"><p class="toc" style="margin-left: 1em;">The Dart Compressed Air Driven Model—The
+        McMahon Compressed Air Driven Monoplane—The
+        McMahon Compressed Air Driven Biplane.</p></td>
+    <td class="tdr">&#160;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Compressed Air Engines</span></td>
+    <td class="tdr"><span class="no-wrap"><a href="#Page_103">103–109</a></span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl"><p class="toc" style="margin-left: 1em;">Wise Compressed Air Engine—Schober-Funk Three Cylinder
+        Engine—The Schober Four Cylinder Opposed
+        Engine.</p></td>
+    <td class="tdr">&#160;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Gasoline Engines</span></td>
+    <td class="tdr"><span class="no-wrap"><a href="#Page_110">110–117</a></span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl"><p class="toc" style="margin-left: 1em;">Jopson—Midget Aëro Gasoline Engine.</p></td>
+    <td class="tdr">&#160;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Steam Power Plants</span></td>
+    <td class="tdr"><span class="no-wrap"><a href="#Page_118">118–122</a></span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl"><p class="toc" style="margin-left: 1em;">H. H. Groves Steam Power Plants—G. Harris’s
+        Steam Engine—Professor Langley’s Steam Engine—French
+        Experiments with Steam Power Plants.</p></td>
+    <td class="tdr">&#160;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Carbonic Gas Engine</span></td>
+    <td class="tdr"><span class="no-wrap"><a href="#Page_123">123–124</a></span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">The Formation of Model Clubs</span></td>
+    <td class="tdr"><span class="no-wrap"><a href="#Page_125">125–138</a></span></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">World’s Model Flying Records</span></td>
+    <td class="tdr"><span class="no-wrap"><a href="#Page_139">139–141</a></span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Dictionary of Aëronautical Terms</span></td>
+    <td class="tdr"><span class="no-wrap"><a href="#Page_142">142–152</a></span></td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="LOI">LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h2>
+</div>
+
+<table class="loi b2" style="font-size: 80%">
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl"><p class="loi">&#160;</p></td>
+    <td class="tdr">&#160;</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><span style="font-size: 60%">PAGE</span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl"><p class="loi">Model Aëroplane in Flight</p></td>
+    <td class="tdr">&#160;</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#frontispiece"><i>Frontispiece</i></a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl"><p class="loi">First Model Aëroplane Exhibition</p></td>
+    <td class="tdr">Opp.</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_4">4</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl"><p class="loi">Propellers (Diagram 1)</p></td>
+    <td class="tdr">&#160;</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_9">9</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl"><p class="loi">How to cut propellers (Diagram 2)</p></td>
+    <td class="tdr">&#160;</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_11">11</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl"><p class="loi">Designs for propellers (Diagram 3)</p></td>
+    <td class="tdr">&#160;</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_14">14</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl"><p class="loi">Designs for propellers (Diagram 4)</p></td>
+    <td class="tdr">&#160;</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_17">17</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl"><p class="loi">Wing construction (Diagram 5)</p></td>
+    <td class="tdr">&#160;</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_20">20</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl"><p class="loi">Members of the Aëro Science Club</p></td>
+    <td class="tdr">Opp.</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_22">22</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl"><p class="loi">Members of the Milwaukee and Illinois Model Aëro Clubs</p></td>
+    <td class="tdr">Opp.</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_22">22</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl"><p class="loi">Frame construction (Diagram 6)</p></td>
+    <td class="tdr">&#160;</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_25">25</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl"><p class="loi">Model Assembly (Diagram 7)</p></td>
+    <td class="tdr">&#160;</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_30">30</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl"><p class="loi">C. W. Meyer and Wm. Hodgins exhibiting early type models</p></td>
+    <td class="tdr">Opp.</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl"><p class="loi">Henry Criscouli with five foot model</p></td>
+    <td class="tdr">Opp.</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl"><p class="loi">Schultz hydroaëroplane</p></td>
+    <td class="tdr">Opp.</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl"><p class="loi">Rubber winder (Diagram 8)</p></td>
+    <td class="tdr">&#160;</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_35">35</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl"><p class="loi">Chassis construction (Diagram 9)</p></td>
+    <td class="tdr">&#160;</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_38">38</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl"><p class="loi">Pontoon construction (Diagram 10)</p></td>
+    <td class="tdr">&#160;</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_38">43</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl"><p class="loi">Obst flying boat</p></td>
+    <td class="tdr">Opp.</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_44">44</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl"><p class="loi">McLaughlin twin tractor hydroaëroplane</p></td>
+    <td class="tdr">Opp.</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_44">44</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl"><p class="loi">Louis Bamberger hydro about to leave water</p></td>
+    <td class="tdr">Opp.</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_44">44</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl"><p class="loi">E. B. Eiring and Kennith Sedgwick Milwaukee Club How to launch R. O. G. model</p></td>
+    <td class="tdr">Opp.</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_48">48</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl"><p class="loi">Waid Carl, Concord Model Club Launching R. O. G. model</p></td>
+    <td class="tdr">Opp.</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_48">48</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl"><p class="loi">Wallace A Lauder model (Diagram 11)</p></td>
+    <td class="tdr">&#160;</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_54">54</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl"><p class="loi">Lauder distance and duration model</p></td>
+    <td class="tdr">Opp.</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_56">56</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl"><p class="loi">Lauder R. O. G. model</p></td>
+    <td class="tdr">Opp.</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_56">56</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl"><p class="loi">Lindsay Hittle world record hydroaëroplane (Diagram 12)</p></td>
+    <td class="tdr">&#160;</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_61">61</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl"><p class="loi">La Tour Flying Boat (Diagram 13)</p></td>
+    <td class="tdr">&#160;</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_66">66</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl"><p class="loi">Ellis Cook R. O. G. model (Diagram 14)</p></td>
+    <td class="tdr">&#160;</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl"><p class="loi">Funk duration model (Diagram 15)</p></td>
+    <td class="tdr">&#160;</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_78">78</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl"><p class="loi">Rudy Funk speed model</p></td>
+    <td class="tdr">Opp.</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_80">80</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl"><p class="loi">McMahon and Schober compressed air driven models</p></td>
+    <td class="tdr">Opp.</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_80">80</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl"><p class="loi">Alson H. Wheeler twin pusher biplane</p></td>
+    <td class="tdr">Opp.</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_82">82</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl"><p class="loi">C. V. Obst tractor</p></td>
+    <td class="tdr">Opp.</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_82">82</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl"><p class="loi">Model Warplane</p></td>
+    <td class="tdr">&#160;</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_84">84</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl"><p class="loi">Simple compressed air engine (Diagram 16)</p></td>
+    <td class="tdr">&#160;</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_87">87</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl"><p class="loi">Schober compressed air driven monoplane</p></td>
+    <td class="tdr">Opp.</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_90">90</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl"><p class="loi">Schober compressed air driven biplane</p></td>
+    <td class="tdr">Opp.</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_90">90</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl"><p class="loi">Dart compressed air driven model</p></td>
+    <td class="tdr">&#160;</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_95">95</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl"><p class="loi">John McMahon and compressed air driven monoplane</p></td>
+    <td class="tdr">Opp.</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_98">98</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl"><p class="loi">Frank Schober preparing model for flight</p></td>
+    <td class="tdr">Opp.</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_98">98</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl"><p class="loi">John McMahon pusher biplane (Diagram 17)</p></td>
+    <td class="tdr">&#160;</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_102">102</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl"><p class="loi">Wise compressed air engine</p></td>
+    <td class="tdr">Opp.</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_104">104</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl"><p class="loi">Schober-Funk three-cylinder rotary engine</p></td>
+    <td class="tdr">Opp.</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_105">105</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl"><p class="loi">Schober four cylinder engine (Diagram 18)</p></td>
+    <td class="tdr">&#160;</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_107">107</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl"><p class="loi">Jopson gasoline engine</p></td>
+    <td class="tdr">Opp.</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_110">110</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl"><p class="loi">Sectional view of Jopson engine (Diagram 19)</p></td>
+    <td class="tdr">&#160;</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_112">112</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl"><p class="loi">Power curve of Jopson engine (Diagram 20)</p></td>
+    <td class="tdr">&#160;</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_115">115</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl"><p class="loi">Midget gasoline engine</p></td>
+    <td class="tdr">Opp.</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_116">116</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl"><p class="loi">English steam power plant</p></td>
+    <td class="tdr">Opp.</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_120">120</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl"><p class="loi">V. E. Johnson steam driven hydroaëroplane</p></td>
+    <td class="tdr">Opp.</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_120">120</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl"><p class="loi">English compressed air driven biplane</p></td>
+    <td class="tdr">Opp.</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_122">122</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl"><p class="loi">Tractor hydroaëroplane fitted with steam power plant</p></td>
+    <td class="tdr">Opp.</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_122">122</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl"><p class="loi">English compressed air engine fitted with simple speedometer</p></td>
+    <td class="tdr">Opp.</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_122">122</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl"><p class="loi">The Rompel six-cylinder carbonic gas engine</p></td>
+    <td class="tdr">Opp.</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_124">124</a></td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1">[1]</span></p>
+
+<p class="noindent center bold p2 b2" style="font-size: 200%;">MODEL AËROPLANES</p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="HISTORY_OF_MODEL_AVIATION">HISTORY OF MODEL AVIATION</h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Model</span> aëroplaning, as a sport, was first introduced
+in America during the year of 1907.
+It was then that the first model aëroplane club
+in America was formed by Miss E. L. Todd,
+with the assistance of Mr. Edward Durant,
+now Director of the Aëro Science Club of
+America. Prior to this the model aëroplane
+was considered an instrument of experimentation
+or, when built to resemble a full sized
+machine, was used for exhibition purposes.
+Noted scientists, men such as Maxim, Langley,
+Eiffel and others, depended largely on models
+to bring about the desired results during their
+experiments. Before the Wright Brothers
+brought forth and launched the first heavier
+than air machine their experiments, to a great<span class="pagenum" id="Page_2">[2]</span>
+extent, were confined to model aëroplanes.
+There is little doubt but that a large majority
+of aviators engaged in flying machines in different
+parts of the world were at one time in
+their career interested in the construction and
+flying of model aircraft, and from which no
+doubt they obtained their initial knowledge of
+the aëroplane, in so far as the same principles
+and laws apply to any aëroplane, regardless of
+its size.</p>
+
+<p>The first model aëroplane club went under
+the name of the New York Model Aëro Club
+and during its existence a great many of its
+contests were carried on in armories. The
+reason for this was because of the fact that the
+greater number of the models prevalent at that
+time were built along the lines of full sized
+machines, and their manner of construction
+was such as to interfere with the flying efficiency
+of the model. Streamline construction
+was something unknown to model constructors
+in those days and, in consequence, crudely constructed
+and heavy models were very often evidenced,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_3">[3]</span>
+and, as a result, flights of over one
+hundred feet were very seldom made. At about
+the same time model enthusiasts in both England
+and France were actively engaged in constructing
+and flying models, but the type of
+model used was of a different design from those
+flown by the American modelists and as a result
+of this innovation many of the early records
+were held abroad. The type of model
+flown by the English modelists resembled in appearance
+the letter “A”, hence the term “A” type.</p>
+
+<p>It was not long after the introduction of this
+type of model in America that model aëroplaning
+as a sport began to assume an aspect of
+great interest. Models were constructed along
+simpler lines and with a greater tendency
+toward doing away with all unnecessary parts,
+thus increasing the flying qualities of the
+models. Flights of greater distance and duration
+were the objects sought and, in their efforts
+to achieve them new records were made at most
+every contest, until flights of from 500 to 1000<span class="pagenum" id="Page_4">[4]</span>
+feet were common occurrences. By the use of
+the A type model and the single stick model
+which made its appearance shortly after the A
+type model, American modelists succeeded in
+breaking most of the world records for this
+type of model which is now termed by English
+modelists “flying sticks.”</p>
+
+<div class="chapter"></div>
+<div class="figcenter illowe35 mt2 mb2" style="max-width: 65.5em;" id="004">
+  <a rel="nofollow" href="images/i_b_004_fp_grayscale.jpg">
+    <img class="w100" src="images/i_b_004_fp_grayscale.jpg" alt="" />
+  </a>
+  <div class="caption">
+    <p class="noindent center small">First model aëroplane exhibition held at Boston, 1910</p>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="chapter"></div>
+<p>One by one model aëroplane clubs were
+formed in different parts of the country until
+to-day there are in existence about twenty-five
+clubs and all with memberships of from two to
+eight times that of the first model aëro club.
+The work which was started by the New York
+Model Aëro Club is now being carried on by the
+Aëro Science Club of America and its affiliated
+clubs. The interest in model flying grew to
+such an extent that during the year of 1915 the
+Aëro Club of America decided to hold the First
+National Model Aëroplane Competition for the
+purpose of offering to the young men of America
+an opportunity of becoming acquainted
+with this new sport and its advantages. The
+results of this competition were beyond expectation.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">[5]</span>
+Models were made capable of flying
+distances and with durations that, to the
+early flyers, seemed impossible. In the hand
+launched contests models were flown for distances
+ranging from 2000 to 2500 feet, the winning
+flight being 3537 feet, and it might also
+be said that the contestant who flew this model,
+with a model of the same design established a
+duration record of 195 seconds. As this goes
+to press, information is received that the
+World’s Record for distance for hand launched
+models has been broken by Thomas Hall, of
+Chicago, Ill., an Illinois Model Aëro Club member,
+with a flight of 5337 feet. Another interesting
+result of the competition was the establishing
+of a world hydroaëroplane record by
+a member of the Illinois Model Aëro Club with
+a model of the tractor type, a four-bladed propeller
+being used in connection with the model.
+The flying boat which is a late advent to the
+field of model flying also proved a record
+breaker in this competition, having remained in
+the air after rising from the surface of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">[6]</span>
+water, for a duration of 43 seconds. This
+model was flown by a member of the Pacific
+Northwest Model Aëro Club of Seattle, Washington.
+The establishing of these records
+clearly indicates the advantage of scientific designing
+and construction and careful handling.</p>
+
+<p>So satisfactory have been the results of the
+First National Model Aëroplane Competition
+that the Aëro Club of America has made arrangements
+for holding the Second National
+Model Aëroplane Competition during the
+year 1916. But in the announcement of the
+Second National Competition the Aëro Club of
+America has made provision for the holding of
+contests for mechanically driven models, in
+view of the interest which is being shown by
+model flyers in the construction of models
+more closely resembling large machines to be
+driven by compressed air, steam and gasoline
+power plants. This is the outcome of a desire
+on the part of model constructors to substitute
+for what is now commonly known as the “flying
+stick,” models more closely resembling large<span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">[7]</span>
+machines, which models can be more satisfactorily
+flown by the use of compressed air, steam
+or gasoline power plants. As in the early days,
+the best flights made by models using compressed
+air and steam have been made by English
+flyers, the duration of the flights ranging
+anywhere from 25 to 50 seconds.</p>
+
+<p>Whether or not the American flyers will repeat
+history and achieve greater results with
+this type of model motive power is something
+that can only be determined in the future. But
+in any event the scientific mechanically driven
+model will, without doubt, assume an important
+position in the field of model aviation.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">[8]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CONSTRUCTION">CONSTRUCTION</h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<h3>PROPELLERS</h3>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Propellers</span> may be cut from various kinds
+of wood, but the most suitable, from every
+standpoint, is white pine. The advantage of
+using this wood lies in the fact that the propellers
+may be cut more rapidly and when cut are
+lighter than those made from most other kinds
+of wood. When coated with the proper kind
+of varnish they are sufficiently strong for ordinary
+flying. Wood selected for propellers
+should be free from knots, holes and other imperfections
+and it is very desirable that it
+should be of perfectly straight grain.</p>
+
+<p>A piece of such clear white pine 8″ long, 1″
+wide and ³⁄₄″ thick should be selected and on
+one side marked <span class="smcap">Top</span>. A tracing of the propeller
+similar in design to <a href="#009">Figure 1</a>, should be
+laid on this piece of wood and an imprint of the
+propeller design drawn on the <span class="smcap">Top</span> side.</p>
+
+<div class="chapter"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">[9]</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe35 mt2 mb2" style="max-width: 65.5em;" id="009">
+  <a rel="nofollow" href="images/i_b_009_rotated.jpg">
+    <img class="w100" src="images/i_b_009_rotated.jpg" alt="" />
+  </a>
+  <div class="caption">
+    <p class="noindent center small">Diagram 1</p>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="chapter"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">[10]</span></p>
+
+<p>To find the center of the block two lines should be
+drawn from the opposite corners, their point of
+meeting being approximately in the center—near
+enough for all practical purposes to insure
+greater accuracy. Similar lines should be
+drawn from the corners on the <span class="smcap">Bottom</span> side of
+the block of wood. A hole ³⁄₃₂ of an inch in
+diameter should be bored through the center
+thus obtained, through which the propeller
+shaft will be inserted when the propeller is
+finished. The two sections of the propeller
+blades drawn in diagrammatical form on the
+<span class="smcap">Top</span> of the block, should be marked respectively
+<span class="smcap">Blade 1</span> and <span class="smcap">Blade 2</span>, as shown in
+<a href="#009">diagram 1</a>. The block is then ready for the
+commencement of the actual cutting. In cutting
+out the propeller, <span class="smcap">Blade 1</span> should be held in
+the left hand and the knife in the other, with
+the blade of the knife on the straight edge of
+<span class="smcap">Blade 1</span>. The cutting should be carried out
+very carefully with attention constantly paid to
+<a href="#009">Fig. 2</a>, and should be stopped when the line
+shown in <a href="#009">Fig. 2</a> has been reached. The semi-blade
+should then be sandpapered until a small
+curve is obtained by which the propeller will be
+enabled to grip the air.</p>
+
+<div class="chapter"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">[11]</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe25 mt2 mb2" style="max-width: 65.5em;" id="011">
+  <a rel="nofollow" href="images/i_b_011.jpg">
+    <img class="w100" src="images/i_b_011.jpg" alt="" />
+  </a>
+  <div class="caption">
+    <p class="noindent center small">Diagram 2</p>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="chapter"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">[12]</span></p>
+
+<p>To cut <span class="smcap">Blade 2</span>, <span class="smcap">Blade 1</span> should be held in
+the left hand and <span class="smcap">Blade 2</span> cut until the line
+shown in <a href="#009">Fig. 3</a> is reached, after which the
+sandpapering process is carried out in the same
+manner as in the case of <span class="smcap">Blade 1</span>. During all
+of the foregoing operations it must be clearly
+borne in mind that the <span class="smcap">Top</span> of the blank propeller
+must always face upward, and the cutting
+should always be done on the <span class="smcap">Straight</span> lines.
+Should the straight edge be cut on one edge of
+the blank propeller and the curved edge on the
+other, it would result in the blades of the
+finished propeller having a tendency to push in
+opposite directions and in consequence no propulsion
+of the model would be possible.</p>
+
+<p>Attention should next be turned to the back
+of the propeller blank on which the manner of
+cutting is exactly like that suggested for the top
+side, with the exception that instead of cutting
+along the <span class="smcap">Straight</span> lines, the cutting is done<span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">[13]</span>
+along the <span class="smcap">Curved</span> lines. In this part of the
+work great care is to be exercised for by the
+time the necessary cutting has been done on the
+back of the propeller the entire structure is very
+fragile and one excessive stroke of the knife
+may result in destroying the entire propeller
+blade. By constantly holding the wood to the
+light it is possible to determine with a reasonable
+degree of accuracy the evenness of thickness.
+To complete the <span class="smcap">Bottom</span> side of the propeller
+the blade should be sandpapered as was
+the top.</p>
+
+<p>The method of cutting the second propeller
+is exactly that used in cutting the first propeller,
+only that the diagram shown in <a href="#009">Fig. 4</a> should be
+used. This will result in two propellers being
+made that will revolve in opposite directions in
+order to produce even and balanced propulsion.
+If both propellers revolved in the same direction
+the effect would be to overturn the model.</p>
+
+<div class="chapter"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">[14]</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe25 mt2 mb2" style="max-width: 65.5em;" id="014">
+  <a rel="nofollow" href="images/i_b_014.jpg">
+    <img class="w100" src="images/i_b_014.jpg" alt="" />
+  </a>
+  <div class="caption">
+    <p class="noindent center small">Diagram 3</p>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="chapter"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">[15]</span></p>
+
+<p>In <a href="#009">diagram 1</a> the propellers are shown with
+the straight edge as the entering or cutting
+edge of the blade. Some of the model builders
+prefer the curved edge as the cutting edge
+(<a href="#011">diagram 2</a>). It is significant that Mr. Frank
+Schober, a well known model constructor,
+tested both designs on his compressed air
+driven model, and while both propellers were
+the same in weight, diameter and pitch, the
+one having the straight edge as the cutting
+edge was found one-third more efficient.</p>
+
+<p>When the propellers have been given a light
+coat of shellac they should be laid aside until
+the assembling of the complete model.</p>
+
+<p>By following the foregoing instructions a
+simple and effective set of propellers will be
+produced. But in order to vary the experimental
+practice of the constructor various other
+diagrams, <a href="#014">Nos. 3</a> and <a href="#017">4</a>, illustrating suitable
+designs, are provided and can be made by applying
+the above general theory and using the
+diagrams herewith.</p>
+
+
+<h3>WINGS</h3>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">One</span> of the most important considerations in
+the construction of a model is the making of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">[16]</span>
+wings. To obtain the greatest efficiency the
+wings must be carefully designed, with due attention
+to whether the model is being constructed
+for speed, duration or climbing ability.
+Attention should be given to streamline construction;
+that is, the parts of the wing should
+be so assembled that the completed wing would
+offer the least possible resistance to the air, if
+the best results are to be obtained.</p>
+
+<p>For the main wing three strips of spruce,
+each 30″ in length, two of them being ³⁄₁₆″ ×
+¹⁄₄″ and the third ³⁄₁₆″ × ¹⁄₁₆″ are required.
+To make them thoroughly streamline all edges
+should be carefully rounded off and all surfaces
+should be smooth. A strip of bamboo at least
+20″ long, ¹⁄₂″ wide, ¹⁄₈″ thick, should be cut
+into pieces, each piece to be 5 in. long. To
+secure the necessary curve, ¹⁄₂″ depth, the
+pieces of bamboo should be held in steam and
+slowly bent in a manner closely resembling the
+skids of an ordinary bobsled. When the
+curvature has been obtained, care should be
+exercised in cutting each piece into four longitudinal
+strips, from which twelve should be
+selected to be used as ribs, each to be ¹⁄₈″
+wide. The bending of the bamboo preliminary
+to making the ribs is done in order to secure uniformity
+of curvature.</p>
+
+<div class="chapter"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">[17]</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe25 mt2 mb2" style="max-width: 65.5em;" id="017">
+  <a rel="nofollow" href="images/i_b_017.jpg">
+    <img class="w100" src="images/i_b_017.jpg" alt="" />
+  </a>
+  <div class="caption">
+    <p class="noindent center small">Diagram 4</p>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="chapter"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">[18]</span></p>
+
+<p>When this has been done the ribs are ready
+for fastening to the sticks—entering and trailing
+edges—and each must be attached an equal
+distance apart. In order that the ribs may be
+evenly spaced it is necessary to put a mark
+every 3″ on the larger stick or entering edge
+of the wing, and also on the flat stick or trailing
+edge. The main beam which is of the same
+dimensions as the entering edge is afterwards
+fastened across the center of the wing, and does
+not necessarily need to be thus marked, as it is
+fastened to the ribs after the ribs have been
+attached to the entering and trailing edges of
+the wing frame. By holding the ribs one at a
+time so that the curved edge rests upon the entering
+edge where the mark indicates, as shown
+in <a href="#020">diagram 5</a>, they should be fastened thereon
+by means of thread and glue. The rear end of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">[19]</span>
+the rib must be fastened to the trailing edge
+where the mark indicates, also by thread and
+glue.</p>
+
+<p>After all ribs have been thus securely fastened
+to both edges of the frame the third stick,
+or main beam, should be attached to the frame
+on the underside, the fastening being made at
+the highest point of the curve of each rib. This
+main beam prevents the wing covering from
+drawing in the end ribs and adds very materially
+to the strength of the entire wing structure.
+To cover the wings fiber paper may be
+used and is a suitable material, but the best results,
+from a standpoint of flying efficiency and
+long service, are obtained by the use of China
+silk.</p>
+
+<p>The frame of the forward wing or elevator
+is made in the same manner as is the main wing,
+but it is only 12″ in span by 4″ in chord, and
+is constructed without the use of a main
+beam. This wing has only five ribs which are
+made in the same manner as those for the rear
+wing, and each is placed a distance of 3″ apart.</p>
+
+<div class="chapter"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">[20]</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe35 mt2 mb2" style="max-width: 65.5em;" id="020">
+  <a rel="nofollow" href="images/i_b_020_rotated.jpg">
+    <img class="w100" src="images/i_b_020_rotated.jpg" alt="" />
+  </a>
+  <div class="caption">
+    <p class="noindent center small">Diagram 5</p>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="chapter"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">[21]</span></p>
+
+<p>A piece of silk measuring 2″ longer and 2″
+wider than each of the wing frames should
+be used in covering the wings, and this can be
+held in position by the use of pins prior to the
+actual sewing. The extra inch of silk on all
+sides of the frame is placed around the under
+side of the frame—in order that it can be made
+thoroughly taut when the silk has been sewn
+close to the edges of the frame. After the silk
+has been sewn close to the edges the pins may be
+removed and the surplus silk that hangs from
+the under side of the frame may be cut off. To
+make this silk airproof it should be coated with
+a thin coat of shellac or varnish and the wings
+should be thoroughly dry before being used.
+This coating, in addition to airproofing, will assist
+in making the covering perfectly taut, and
+also in making the wing ready for service when
+the entire model is ready to be assembled.</p>
+
+
+<h3>FRAME</h3>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">As</span> all other parts of the model are attached
+to the frame in addition to its having to stand<span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">[22]</span>
+the strain of the tightly wound rubber strands
+which serve as the motive power for the model,
+it must be made strong. It is therefore necessary
+to exercise care and judgment in making
+certain that the different units that make up the
+frame are rightly proportioned and are of the
+proper material. Just as in the large sized
+aëroplanes there are many types of bodies, so
+there are many different types of frames in use
+in model construction, but the standard, and
+for all practical purposes the best frame, resembles
+the letter A in shape, hence the name
+A type. The lightness of the frame depends
+entirely on the materials used and the manner
+in which it is constructed.</p>
+
+<p>Some model flyers use but a single stick for
+the frame, but generally the A type frame is
+preferred for the reason that it is more durable,
+the wings can be more securely attached to it,
+and that it is possible of developing very much
+better results.</p>
+
+<div class="chapter"></div>
+<div class="figcenter illowe35 mt2 mb2" style="max-width: 65.5em;" id="022A">
+  <a rel="nofollow" href="images/i_b_022a_fp.jpg">
+    <img class="w100" src="images/i_b_022a_fp.jpg" alt="" />
+  </a>
+  <div class="caption">
+    <p class="noindent center small">Members of the Aëro Science Club</p>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe35 mt2 mb2" style="max-width: 65.5em;" id="022B">
+  <a rel="nofollow" href="images/i_b_022b_fp.jpg">
+    <img class="w100" src="images/i_b_022b_fp.jpg" alt="" />
+  </a>
+  <div class="caption">
+    <p class="noindent center small">Members of the Milwaukee and Illinois Model Aëro Clubs</p>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="chapter"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">[23]</span></p>
+
+<p>To construct such an A type frame 2 main
+sticks to serve as frame side members are necessary
+and are made from spruce. Each member
+should be 36″ in length, ³⁄₈″ in depth by ¹⁄₄″ in
+width. By rounding the edges and smoothing
+the various surfaces with sandpaper streamline
+effect will be secured and will add to the efficiency
+of the machine as well as to its appearance.
+When the side members are placed in A
+formation the extremity of the sticks at which
+they meet should be so tapered in the inner
+sides that when they meet and are permanently
+fastened the result will be a continuance of the
+general streamline effect. The permanent
+fastening of the frame side members at the
+point of the A may be accomplished by using
+either strong fish glue or better, a good waterproof
+glue and then have the jointure reinforced
+by securing a piece of ³⁄₃₂″ steel wire 3″
+in length and placing the center of it at the
+point of the A, afterwards bending the wire
+along either outer edge of the frame side members,
+putting as much pressure on the wire as
+the strength of the structure will permit; after
+this the reinforced jointure should have thread<span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">[24]</span>
+wound around it to insure even greater
+strength. About ¹⁄₂″ of the wire on each side
+of the point should be left clear and afterwards
+turned into a loop as shown in <a href="#025">diagram 6</a>, for
+the purpose of attaching the hooks that hold
+the rubber strands. To hold the side members
+apart at the rear end and for a propeller brace,
+a piece of bamboo 10″ long, ¹⁄₈″ thick by ¹⁄₂″
+in width is required and this should be fastened
+to the extreme rear ends of the frame side members,
+allowing the propeller brace to protrude
+on either side 1¹⁄₂″ as illustrated. To put the
+propeller brace in position a slot ¹⁄₂″ deep by
+¹⁄₈″ wide should be cut into the rear ends of the
+frame side members for the reception of the
+propeller brace. After the brace has been
+placed in position the outer edge should come
+flush with the rear ends of the side members.
+To hold the brace in place thread and glue
+should be used in the same manner as described
+for the point of the frame side members. Between
+the point of the frame and the propeller
+brace two bamboo pieces, one 9″ long and another
+2¹⁄₃″ long, should be used as braces for
+the general strengthening of the structure.
+The longest piece should be secured across the
+top of the frame about 9″ from the rear and
+the shorter piece about 9″ from the point.</p>
+
+<div class="chapter"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">[25]</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe35 mt2 mb2" style="max-width: 65.5em;" id="025">
+  <a rel="nofollow" href="images/i_b_025_rotated.jpg">
+    <img class="w100" src="images/i_b_025_rotated.jpg" alt="" />
+  </a>
+  <div class="caption">
+    <p class="noindent center small">Diagram 6</p>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="chapter"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">[26]</span></p>
+
+<p>When these two braces are in position the
+next matter that calls for the attention of the
+constructor is the matter of getting into position
+at the two outer extremities of the propeller
+brace bearings for the propellers. For
+this purpose two pieces of ³⁄₃₂nd inch brass
+tubing, each ³⁄₄th of an inch long, should
+be used, and should be fastened to the underside
+of the propeller brace, at each extremity of
+that brace, by the use of thread and glue.
+Sometimes greater efficiency is secured by putting
+these pieces of bronze tubing about ¹⁄₄″
+from the end. Some model constructors make
+a very neat jointure here by soldering the piece
+of tubing to a strip of thin brass, which is bent
+over the end of the propeller brace and bound
+and glued thereon. In fastening the bronze
+tubing to the propeller brace it should be so<span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">[27]</span>
+adjusted that it will run parallel to the side
+members of the frame and will therefore offer
+the least possible resistance to the shaft of the
+propeller when the rubber strands have been
+attached.</p>
+
+<p>When the frame has been completed a coat
+of shellac should be applied to the entire structure
+to render it damp-proof.</p>
+
+
+<h3>ASSEMBLING</h3>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> proper assembling of the parts of the
+model is as essential to good results as is the
+designing and making. Parts, although properly
+made, if improperly placed in relation to
+each other will very often lead to trouble.
+Therefore very great care must be exercised in
+the assembling process.</p>
+
+<p>When all the parts have been prepared and
+are ready to be assembled the first thing that
+should be done is to mount the propellers in
+position. This must be done very carefully on
+account of the fact that the propeller shafts
+are easily bent and if bent the result is considerable<span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">[28]</span>
+trouble, for such a bend in the propeller
+shaft will cause the propeller to revolve irregularly
+with a consequent loss of thrust. Before
+inserting the propeller shafts in the tubing 4
+washers each ¹⁄₄″ in diameter should be cut
+from hard metal, and a hole large enough for
+the propeller shaft to pass through should be
+bored in the center of each washer. The metal
+washers should be passed over the straight ends
+of the shafts which extend from the rear of
+the tubing, after they have been inserted in the
+tubing, and in this manner the cutting into the
+hubs of the propellers which would follow is
+avoided. The propellers are now to be
+mounted and this is accomplished by allowing
+the ends of the shafts, which extend out from
+the rear of the tubing, to pass through the hole
+in the hub of each propeller. In mounting the
+propellers it is absolutely necessary to have the
+straight edge of the propellers to face the point
+or front end of the model. The propeller
+shown in <a href="#009">Fig. 4 of diagram 1</a>, should be
+mounted on the left side of the frame to revolve<span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">[29]</span>
+to the left, while the propeller shown in <a href="#009">Fig. 1</a>
+should be mounted on the right side of the
+frame to revolve to the right. When the propellers
+have thus been mounted the one-half
+inch of shafting which extends out from the
+hubs of the propellers should be bent over to
+grip the propeller hub and thereby prevent the
+shaft from slipping during the unwinding of
+the rubber strands. For the reception of the
+rubber strands to provide motive power a hook
+must be formed in each shaft and this can be
+done by holding securely that portion of the
+shaft which extends toward the point of the
+model, while the end is being formed into a
+hook as illustrated in <a href="#030">diagram 7</a>.</p>
+
+<div class="chapter"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">[30]</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe35 mt2 mb2" style="max-width: 65.5em;" id="030">
+  <a rel="nofollow" href="images/i_b_030_rotated.jpg">
+    <img class="w100" src="images/i_b_030_rotated.jpg" alt="" />
+  </a>
+  <div class="caption">
+    <p class="noindent center small">Diagram 7</p>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="chapter"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">[31]</span></p>
+
+<p>Eighty-four feet of ¹⁄₈th″ flat rubber is
+necessary to propel the model. This should be
+strung on each side from the hooks (<a href="#030">see diagram</a>)
+at the front part of the model to the propeller
+shafts at the rear of the model. In this
+way 14 strands of rubber will be evenly strung
+on each side of the frame. To facilitate the
+winding of the rubbers two double hooks made
+of ³⁄₃₂″ steel wire to resemble the letter S,
+as shown in <a href="#030">diagram 7</a>, should be made. One
+end of this S hook should be caught on the
+frame hook, while the other end is attached to
+the strands of rubber, and to prevent the possible
+cutting of the strands a piece of rubber
+tubing is used to cover over all wire hooks that
+come in contact with the rubber strands providing
+propelling power.</p>
+
+<p>The wings are mounted on the top side of the
+frame members by means of rubber bands and
+in placing them upon the frame it should be
+noted that the entering edge of each wing must
+face the point or front of the model. The
+wings must be so adjusted on the frame that
+they result in perfect side balance which means
+that there is an even amount of surface on
+either side of the model. To secure a longitudinal
+balance it will be found that the entering
+edge of the main wing should be placed
+approximately 8″ from the propeller brace or
+rear of the model, and the entering edge of the
+small wing or elevator approximately 6″ from<span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">[32]</span>
+the point. But it is only by test flying that a
+true balance of the entire model can be obtained.
+To give the necessary power of elevation
+(or lifting ability) to make the model rise, a
+small block of wood about 1″ long by ¹⁄₄″
+square must be placed between the entering
+edge of the small wing and the frame of the
+model.</p>
+
+<p>After the wings have been thus adjusted and
+a short test flight made to perfect the flying and
+elevating ability of the model, and this test
+flight has been satisfactory, the model is ready
+for launching under its full motive power.</p>
+
+
+<h3>LAUNCHING</h3>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">In</span> the preliminary trials of a model close attention
+must be paid to the few structural adjustments
+that will be found to be necessary
+and which if not properly and quickly remedied
+will result in the prevention of good flights or
+even in possible wrecking of the model. Careful
+designing and construction are necessary
+but it is equally as important that the model
+should be properly handled when it is complete
+and ready for flying.</p>
+
+<div class="chapter"></div>
+<div class="figcenter illowe25 mt2 mb2" style="max-width: 65.5em;" id="032A">
+  <a rel="nofollow" href="images/i_b_032a_fp.jpg">
+    <img class="w100" src="images/i_b_032a_fp.jpg" alt="" />
+  </a>
+  <div class="caption">
+    <p class="noindent center small">Charles W. Meyers and
+       William Hodgins exhibiting models of early design.</p>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe25 mt2 mb2" style="max-width: 65.5em;" id="032B">
+  <a rel="nofollow" href="images/i_b_032b_fp.jpg">
+    <img class="w100" src="images/i_b_032b_fp.jpg" alt="" />
+  </a>
+  <div class="caption">
+    <p class="noindent center small">Henry Criscouli and his five
+       foot model. This model may be disassembled and
+       packed conveniently in small package.</p>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe35 mt2 mb2" style="max-width: 65.5em;" id="032C">
+  <a rel="nofollow" href="images/i_b_032c_fp.jpg">
+    <img class="w100" src="images/i_b_032c_fp.jpg" alt="" />
+  </a>
+  <div class="caption">
+    <p class="noindent center small">Harry G. Schultz hydroaëroplane.</p>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="chapter"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">[33]</span></p>
+
+<p>The approximate idea of the balance of a
+model can be secured by launching it gently into
+the air. If the model dives down point first it
+indicates that the main wing should be moved
+a little toward the front. If it rises abruptly
+the main wing should be moved slightly toward
+the rear. In this way by moving the wing forward
+or rearward until the model glides away
+gracefully and lands flat upon the ground,
+proper adjustment of the balance can be effected.
+If when launching from the hand the
+model should curve to the left the main wing
+should be moved slightly to the left of the frame
+members. And if the curve is to the right the
+main wing should be moved in that direction.
+This process can be continued until the model
+flies in the course desired.</p>
+
+<p>The winding of the rubber strands to get the
+necessary propelling power is an important detail.
+The model should be firmly held by some
+one at the rear with the thumb on either side<span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">[34]</span>
+member, pressing down on the jointure and
+with the four fingers of each hand gripping the
+under side of the frame members, and in this
+way holding the model steady and until the
+rubber strands have been sufficiently wound.
+With the hands in this position the propellers,
+of course, cannot and should not revolve. The
+hooks attached to the rubber strands at the
+point or front of the model should be detached
+from the side members and affixed to the hooks
+of the winder. A winder may be made from
+an ordinary egg beater as is shown in <a href="#035">diagram 8</a>.
+When the hooks attached to the rubber
+strands at the point of the model have been
+affixed to the winder the rubbers should be
+stretched four times their ordinary length
+(good rubber being capable of being stretched
+seven times its length) and the winding commenced,
+the person winding slowly moving in
+towards the model as the strands are wound.
+If the ratio of the winder is 5 to 1, that is if the
+rubber is twisted five times to every revolution
+of the main wheel of the winder, 100 turns of
+the winder will be sufficient for the first trial.
+This propelling power can be increased as the
+trials proceed. When the winding has been
+accomplished the rubber hooks should be detached
+from the winder hooks and attached to
+the hooks at the front of the side members as
+shown in the <a href="#030">diagram</a>.</p>
+
+<div class="chapter"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">[35]</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe25 mt2 mb2" style="max-width: 65.5em;" id="035">
+  <a rel="nofollow" href="images/i_b_035.jpg">
+    <img class="w100" src="images/i_b_035.jpg" alt="" />
+  </a>
+  <div class="caption">
+    <p class="noindent center small">Diagram 8</p>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="chapter"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">[36]</span></p>
+
+<p>In preparation for launching, the model
+should be held above the head, one hand holding
+it at the center of the frame, the other in the
+center of the propeller brace in such a way as
+to prevent the propellers from revolving.
+When the model is cast into the air if it is properly
+adjusted it will fly straight ahead.</p>
+
+<p>A precaution which is sometimes worthy of
+attention before the launching of the model
+under its full power is to test out the propellers
+to find out whether or not they are properly
+mounted and whether they revolve evenly and
+easily. To do this the rubber strands may be
+given a few turns, enough to revolve the propellers
+for a brief period, while the machine is
+held stationary. If the shafts have been properly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">[37]</span>
+inserted in the hubs of the propellers and
+have not been bent during the winding of the
+rubbers, the propellers will revolve evenly and
+readily. If the propellers revolve unsteadily it
+indicates that there is a bend in the propeller
+shafts or the propellers have not been properly
+balanced. If the trouble is a bend in the shaft,
+it must be removed before the model is
+launched on actual flight. If the propeller
+does not revolve freely the application of some
+lubrication (such as vaseline) to the shaft
+will eliminate this trouble. With these adjustments
+made satisfactorily, the model can be
+launched with the anticipation of good flying.</p>
+
+
+<h3>CHASSIS</h3>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> preceding instructions and discussions
+have dealt with different parts of a simple
+model to be used as a hand-launched type of
+model. The experience which will come as the
+result of flying this type of model for a period
+will undoubtedly tend toward a desire on the
+part of the constructor to make his model more
+nearly represent a large sized aëroplane and
+will make him want to have his model rise from
+the ground under its own power. Such a
+model is known as an R. O. G. type, that is,
+rises off the ground.</p>
+
+<div class="chapter"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">[38]</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe35 mt2 mb2" style="max-width: 65.5em;" id="038">
+  <a rel="nofollow" href="images/i_b_038_rotated.jpg">
+    <img class="w100" src="images/i_b_038_rotated.jpg" alt="" />
+  </a>
+  <div class="caption">
+    <p class="noindent center small">Diagram 9</p>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="chapter"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">[39]</span></p>
+
+<p>To meet this desire all
+that it is necessary to do is to make a chassis,
+or carriage, which can be secured to the frame
+of the model, and with extra power added, will
+result in a practical R. O. G. model. In constructing
+such a chassis or carriage it is necessary
+to bear in mind that it must be made sufficiently
+strong to withstand the shock and stress
+which it will be called upon to stand when the
+model descends to the ground.</p>
+
+<p>For the main struts of the chassis two pieces
+of bamboo each 9″ in length are needed and
+these should be bent over 1″ on one end as
+shown in the <a href="#038">diagram</a>, that they may be fastened
+to the under side of the frame members,
+one on either side, at a point on that member
+12″ from the front. Two similar pieces of
+bamboo, each piece about 7″ in length, are required
+to act as braces between the frame members<span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">[40]</span>
+and the main chassis struts. Each end of
+each of the braces should be bent over in the
+same direction and in the same manner as that
+described for the main strut so that the fastening
+to the main frame member and the main
+chassis strut may be accomplished. Steam
+may be used in bending the ends of the pieces
+of bamboo. To make the landing chassis sufficiently
+stable to withstand landing shocks a
+piece of bamboo 9″ should be fastened from
+either side of the main chassis struts at the
+point where the chassis brace on either side
+meets with main strut. The ends of this cross
+brace should be bent in similar fashion to the
+other braces to enable its being fastened easily
+and securely.</p>
+
+<p>Two small wheels constitute the running gear
+for the front part of the chassis, for which two
+pieces of ¹⁄₁₆″ steel wire each 2¹⁄₄″ long
+are required. These small wires are fastened
+to the bottom ends of the main struts, and to
+accomplish this the wire should be bent in the
+center at right angles; one leg of the angle is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">[41]</span>
+attached to the bottom end of the main strut as
+shown in the <a href="#038">diagram</a>. Disks for wheels may
+be cut from a bottle cork which should be ³⁄₄″
+in diameter by approximately ¹⁄₄″ in thickness.
+The edges should be rounded off to prevent
+chipping. Before mounting the wheels on the
+axles which have been provided by the wires attached
+to the bottom of the main struts, a piece
+of bronze tubing ³⁄₃₂″ inside diameter and
+³⁄₁₆″ long should be inserted in the center of
+each disk. To secure the least possible resistance
+on the revolutions of the wheels, there
+should be placed on the wire axles pieces of
+bronze tubing similar in diameter and ¹⁄₈″ in
+length on either side of the wheel (<a href="#038">see illustration</a>).
+When the wheel is thus placed in position
+with the pieces of bronze tubing on either
+side about ¹⁄₄″ of the axle wire will extend from
+the outward end of the outside piece of tubing.
+This should be bent over the tubing to prevent
+its falling off and at the same time hold the
+wheel securely in position.</p>
+
+<p>For the rear skid a piece of bamboo 6″ long<span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">[42]</span>
+is used, one end of which is curved as in a
+hockey stick so that it will glide smoothly over
+the ground. The other end of the rear skid
+should be bent over about ¹⁄₂″ so that it can be
+securely fastened to the propeller braces, as illustrated
+in the <a href="#038">diagram</a>. Two 7″ pieces of
+bamboo are required to act as braces for the
+rear skid. Both ends of each brace strut are
+bent over ¹⁄₂″ in the same direction, one end of
+each strut is securely fastened to a side member
+3″ from the rear and the other end of each
+strut is fastened to the rear skid, at their point
+of meeting as shown in <a href="#038">diagram 9</a>, the method
+of attaching being the same as in the case
+of the forward portion of the chassis. All
+joining should be accomplished by first gluing
+the braces and then binding with thread.
+When completed, the rear skid should glide
+along the ground in bobsled fashion, thus preventing
+the propellers from hitting the ground.</p>
+
+<div class="chapter"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">[43]</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe25 mt2 mb2" style="max-width: 65.5em;" id="043">
+  <a rel="nofollow" href="images/i_b_043.jpg">
+    <img class="w100" src="images/i_b_043.jpg" alt="" />
+  </a>
+  <div class="caption">
+    <p class="noindent center small">Diagram 10</p>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="chapter"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">[44]</span></p>
+
+<p>In making such a chassis or carriage the endeavor
+should be made to use, as near as possible,
+the same weight of material on either side
+of the model so as little interference as possible
+will be made with the general balance of the
+model in flight.</p>
+
+
+<h3>PONTOONS</h3>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Having</span> satisfactorily developed the hand
+launched model and the model rising off the
+ground under its own propulsion the constructor
+will next turn his mind to the question of
+having his model rise under its own power from
+the surface of the water in the fashion of passenger-carrying
+hydros and flying boats. This
+will be accomplished by the use of pontoons attached
+to a specially designed chassis.</p>
+
+<div class="chapter"></div>
+<div class="figcenter illowe25 mt2 mb2" style="max-width: 65.5em;" id="044A">
+  <a rel="nofollow" href="images/i_b_044a_fp.jpg">
+    <img class="w100" src="images/i_b_044a_fp.jpg" alt="" />
+  </a>
+  <div class="caption">
+    <p class="noindent center small">C. V. Obst World record flying boat</p>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe25 mt2 mb2" style="max-width: 65.5em;" id="044B">
+  <a rel="nofollow" href="images/i_b_044b_fp.jpg">
+    <img class="w100" src="images/i_b_044b_fp.jpg" alt="" />
+  </a>
+  <div class="caption">
+    <p class="noindent center small">Twin tractor Hydroaëroplane
+       designed and constructed by<br />George F. McLaughlin</p>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe25 mt2 mb2" style="max-width: 65.5em;" id="044C">
+  <a rel="nofollow" href="images/i_b_044c_fp.jpg">
+    <img class="w100" src="images/i_b_044c_fp.jpg" alt="" />
+  </a>
+  <div class="caption">
+    <p class="noindent center small">Louis Bamberger’s hydro about to
+       leave surface of water</p>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="chapter"></div>
+<p>Three pontoons are necessary and these
+should be made as light as possible. Each pontoon
+should be made 6″ long, 1″ deep toward
+the forward part, by ³⁄₄″ at the rear and 2″
+wide. The side members of each pontoon are
+made from pieces of thin white pine wood
+¹⁄₃₂nd of an inch thick, slightly curved up at
+the front and sloped down toward the rear.
+Small niches should be made on the top and bottom
+sides of the pontoons into which the cross<span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">[45]</span>
+braces are inserted and glued. Further reference
+to <a href="#043">diagram 10</a> will show that at the extreme
+forward end of the sides a cut is made
+large enough to receive a flat piece of spruce
+¹⁄₁₆″ wide. Another cut of the same dimensions
+is made at the extreme rear end. Still
+further cuts are made on the top and bottom
+sides of the pontoons, the forward cuts measuring
+1¹⁄₂″ from the front and the rear cuts
+1¹⁄₂″ from the rear, to join the sides of the pontoons
+as illustrated in <a href="#043">diagram 10</a>. Six pieces
+of ¹⁄₁₆″ flat spruce are required for the rear
+pontoon, the ends of which are held in position
+by glue. For the forward pontoon only 4
+braces are required in so far as the ends of the
+two main brace spars of the forward part of
+chassis are inserted in the cuts on the top sides
+of the pontoon. These brace spars measure 10
+inches in length and are made from bamboo
+¹⁄₈th inch in diameter, which necessitates enlargement
+of the cuts on the top sides of the
+forward pontoons so that the extreme ends of
+the spars can be inserted in the cuts in the place<span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">[46]</span>
+of the braces. To complete the rear pontoon
+and prepare it for covering, three strips of
+¹⁄₈″ bamboo are required for struts. Two of
+these strips should measure 9″ in length and
+should be attached to the front of the pontoon
+on the inner side as shown in <a href="#043">diagram 10</a>.
+Thread and glue should be used in attaching
+the ends of the strips to the pontoon. To enable
+fastening to the frame the upper ends of
+the bamboo strips should be bent over about
+¹⁄₂″. The third strip should measure 8″ in
+length and is attached to the upper and lower
+braces toward the front of the pontoon as
+shown in the <a href="#043">diagram</a>. It is necessary that
+this strip be secured in the approximate center
+of the pontoon to insure a good balance. For
+the purpose of securing the upper end of the
+third strut to the center of the propeller brace
+a piece of wire 1¹⁄₂″ long should be secured to
+the upper end of the strut and looped as shown
+in <a href="#043">diagram 10</a>. The three pontoons should
+now be covered with fiber paper and it is necessary
+to exercise care to avoid punctures. For<span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">[47]</span>
+the purpose of coating the fiber paper to render
+it waterproof, a satisfactory solution can be
+made by mixing banana oil with celluloid until
+it has attained the desired thickness, after
+which it should be applied to the covering of
+the pontoons with a soft brush.</p>
+
+<p>For the main strut of the forward portion of
+the chassis two pieces of ¹⁄₈″ bamboo, each
+11″ in length, are required and these should
+be bent over 1″ on one end as shown in the
+<a href="#043">diagram</a>, that they may be fastened to the under
+side of the frame members, one on either
+side at a point on that member 11″ from the
+front. Two similar pieces of bamboo, each
+piece 8″ in length, are required to act as braces
+between the frame members and the main
+chassis struts. Each end of the braces should
+be bent over in the same direction and in the
+same manner as that described for the main
+struts so that the fastening to the main frame
+member and the main chassis struts may be
+accomplished. Steam or an alcohol lamp may
+be used in bending the ends of the pieces of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">[48]</span>
+bamboo. To make the chassis sufficiently
+stable a piece of bamboo 7¹⁄₂″ should be fastened
+from either side of the main chassis struts
+at the point where the chassis brace on either
+side meets with the main strut. The ends of
+this cross brace should be bent in similar fashion
+to the other braces to enable its being
+fastened easily and permanently.</p>
+
+<p>For the accommodation of the pontoons two
+strips of flat steel wire, each 4″ in length,
+should be attached to the ends of the main
+struts, about one inch from the bottom, the
+farthest ends should be bent to grip the second
+spar which joins the pontoons. Note <a href="#043">diagram 10</a>.</p>
+
+<p>To further strengthen the chassis a strip of
+flat steel wire sufficiently long enough should be
+bent so that ¹⁄₂″ of the central portion can be
+securely fastened to the center of the cross
+brace as shown in <a href="#043">diagram 10</a>. The two
+outer ends should be bent down and are fastened
+to the wires which are attached to the bottom
+ends of the struts. This method of attaching
+the forward pontoons enables the constructor
+to adjust them to any desired angle
+and also detach them when not in use.</p>
+
+<p>A model hydroaëroplane is one of the most
+interesting types of models and if properly
+taken care of will afford the constructor many
+pleasant moments.</p>
+
+<div class="chapter"></div>
+<div class="figcenter illowe25 mt2 mb2" style="max-width: 65.5em;" id="048A">
+  <a rel="nofollow" href="images/i_b_048a_fp.jpg">
+    <img class="w100" src="images/i_b_048a_fp.jpg" alt="" />
+  </a>
+  <div class="caption">
+    <p class="noindent center small">Erwin B. Eiring about to release R. O. G. Model. (Note
+       manner of holding propellers.) Kennith Sedgwick, tractor
+       record holder Milwaukee Model Club. Courtesy Gilbert
+       Counsell.</p>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe25 mt2 mb2" style="max-width: 65.5em;" id="048B">
+  <a rel="nofollow" href="images/i_b_048b_fp.jpg">
+    <img class="w100" src="images/i_b_048b_fp.jpg" alt="" />
+  </a>
+  <div class="caption">
+    <p class="noindent center small">Waid Carl releasing R. O. G. Model. Courtesy Edward
+       P. Warner.</p>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="chapter"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">[49]</span></p>
+
+<h3>LAUNCHING AN R. O. G. OR MODEL HYDROAËROPLANE</h3>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Although</span> the method of determining the balance
+of an R. O. G. or a model hydroaëroplane
+is exactly the same as that of a hand launched
+model, the manner of launching is somewhat
+different. Instead of holding the model one
+hand in the center of the frame and the other at
+the rear as in the case of the hand launched
+model, in launching an R. O. G. or hydro, the
+model should be rested upon the ground or
+water, as the case may be, with both hands
+holding tightly to the propellers. Then when
+about to let the model go release both propellers
+instantly. If the model has sufficient power<span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">[50]</span>
+and it has been properly adjusted it will glide
+over the surface of the ground or water for a
+short distance, then rise into the air. Should
+the model fail to rise into the air additional
+strands of rubber should be added, after which
+it should be rewound and a second attempt
+made.</p>
+
+<p>Should the model fail to respond after the addition
+of extra rubber, the indications are that
+something requires further adjustment. Perhaps
+the pontoons need further elevation if the
+model is a hydro, or if it be an R. O. G. model
+the forward wing may require an increase of
+elevation. In any event the model should be
+carefully examined and adjustments made
+where necessary, after which the model should
+be tested for balance and elevation. If satisfied
+with the behavior of the model after test
+flights have been made, another attempt should
+be made to launch the model from the ground
+or water.</p>
+
+<p>On no account try to fly the model in the
+house, or see, supposing the model is of the R.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">[51]</span>
+O. G. type, if it will rise from the dining room
+floor. This advice may seem unnecessary, but
+it is not so, for there has been quite a number
+of instances in which the above has been done,
+nearly always with disastrous results, not always
+to the model, more often to something of
+much greater value. The smashing of windows
+has often resulted from such attempts,
+but generally speaking pictures are the worst
+sufferers. It is equally unwise to attempt to
+fly the model in a garden in which there are
+numerous obstructions, such as trees and so
+forth. A wrecked model is very often the result
+of such experimenting. The safest way to
+determine the flying ability of any model is to
+take it out in an open field where its flight is
+less apt to be interrupted.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">[52]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="WORLD_RECORD_MODELS">WORLD RECORD MODELS</h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<h3>THE LAUDER DISTANCE AND DURATION MODEL</h3>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">After</span> many months of experimentation Mr.
+Wallace A. Lauder succeeded in producing a
+model that proved to be one of his most successful
+models. But a few years ago flights
+of 1000 feet with a duration of 60 seconds were
+considered remarkable. But so rapid has been
+the development of the rubber strand driven
+model that to-day it is hardly considered worth
+while to measure a flight of 1000 feet, especially
+in contests where models fly over 2500
+feet or 3537 feet which was the distance flown
+by Mr. Lauder’s model during one of the contests
+of the National Model Aëroplane competition
+of 1915. Mr. Lauder’s model on several
+occasions made flights of over 3500 feet with a
+duration in each event of over 195 seconds. It
+is therefore to be remembered that this model<span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">[53]</span>
+is both a distance and duration model, both
+qualities being seldom found in one model.</p>
+
+<p>Reference to the accompanying <a href="#054">drawing</a>
+will give a clear idea of the constructional details.</p>
+
+<p>The frame or fuselage consists of two side
+members 40″ in length, of straight grained
+spruce. At the center each member is of approximately
+circular cross section, and is ¹⁄₄″ in diameter.
+The members taper to about ³⁄₁₆″ at
+the ends, the circular cross section being maintained
+throughout. The frame is braced by a
+strip of bamboo of streamline form, extending
+from one side member to the other, 18″ from
+the apex of the frame. The ends of this frame
+are bent to run parallel to the side members of
+the frame where they are secured by binding
+with silk thread and gluing. Piano wire hooks
+are also secured to the side members of the
+frame adjacent the ends of the cross brace, and
+from these hooks extend wires of steel (No. 2
+music wire) which run diagonally to the rear
+brace or propeller spar where they are secured.</p>
+
+<div class="chapter"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">[54]</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe25 mt2 mb2" style="max-width: 65.5em;" id="054">
+  <a rel="nofollow" href="images/i_b_054.jpg">
+    <img class="w100" src="images/i_b_054.jpg" alt="" />
+  </a>
+  <div class="caption">
+    <p class="noindent center small">Diagram 11</p>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="chapter"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">[55]</span></p>
+
+<p>The frame is braced further by an upwardly
+arched strip of bamboo, as shown in <a href="#054">diagram 11</a>,
+this strip being 2¹⁄₂″ in height. At the top
+of this brace are two bronze strips of No. 32
+gauge brass, one above the other, one on top of
+the brace and the other below.</p>
+
+<p>Adjacent the ends of these strips of metal are
+perforations through which pass bracing wires,
+one of which wires runs to the front of the
+frame where a hook is mounted for its reception,
+and the other two wires extend to the rear
+of the frame where they are secured to the propeller
+brace. The propeller brace consists of
+a strip of streamlined spruce 11³⁄₄″ in length,
+the propellers being at an angle, thus clearance
+is allowed ¹⁄₄″ wide at the center, tapering to
+³⁄₁₆″ at the ends. The ends of the propeller
+brace extend out one inch from the side members
+of the frame, to allow room for the rubber
+strands to be used as motive power. In order
+to avoid slotting the ends of the side members
+of the frame so that the propeller brace can be
+secured therein, thin strips of bamboo are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">[56]</span>
+secured above and below the end of each side
+member, by binding with silk thread and gluing,
+the space between these bamboo strips being
+utilized for the brace which is securely
+bound and glued therein. The propeller bearings
+consist of strips of very thin bronze (No.
+32 gauge), about ³⁄₁₆″ in width, bent over
+⁵⁄₈″ strips of German silver tubing, the tubing
+being soldered to the bronze strips and the
+propeller brace, which fits between the upper
+and lower portions of the bronze strips, is
+securely bound and glued thereto.</p>
+
+<p>The propellers are cut from solid blocks of
+pine, and are 12″ in diameter. The blade, at
+its widest portion, measures 1³⁄₈″. The blades
+are cut very thin, and in order to save weight,
+they are not shellacked or painted.</p>
+
+<p>The propeller shafts are of piano wire (No.
+20 size) to fit the tubing used in the bearings,
+pass through the propellers and are bent over
+on the outer side to prevent turning. A few
+small bronze washers are interposed between
+the propellers and the outer ends of the tubing
+to minimize friction when the propellers are revolving.
+Twelve strands of rubber are used
+for each propeller, the rubber being ¹⁄₈″ flat.</p>
+
+<div class="chapter"></div>
+<div class="figcenter illowe25 mt2 mb2" style="max-width: 65.5em;" id="056A">
+  <a rel="nofollow" href="images/i_b_056a_fp.jpg">
+    <img class="w100" src="images/i_b_056a_fp.jpg" alt="" />
+  </a>
+  <div class="caption">
+    <p class="noindent center small">Wallace A. Lauder distance and duration model</p>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe25 mt2 mb2" style="max-width: 65.5em;" id="056B">
+  <a rel="nofollow" href="images/i_b_056b_fp.jpg">
+    <img class="w100" src="images/i_b_056b_fp.jpg" alt="" />
+  </a>
+  <div class="caption">
+    <p class="noindent center small">Wallace A. Lauder R. O. G. Model</p>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="chapter"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">[57]</span></p>
+
+<p>The wings are both double surfaced, and are
+of the swept back type. The span of the main
+wing is 28¹⁄₂″, with a chord of 6¹⁄₂″. The elevator
+has a span of 15″ with a chord of 4³⁄₄″.
+The main wing has eleven double ribs, these
+ribs being built up on mean beams of spruce
+¹⁄₁₆″ × ³⁄₁₆″, the front beam being placed 1¹⁄₄″
+from the entering edge, and the second beam
+being 2″ back from the front beam. The entering
+and trailing edges are formed from a single
+strip of thin split bamboo, all the joints being
+made by binding with thin silk and gluing.</p>
+
+<p>The elevator is constructed in like manner,
+except that it only has seven ribs, and the measurements
+are as above set forth. Both planes
+are covered with goldbeater’s skin, sometimes
+known as “Zephyr” skin, which is first glued in
+place and then steamed, which tightens the
+same on the plane, and given a coat of preparation
+used for this purpose.</p>
+
+<div class="chapter"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">[58]</span></p>
+
+
+<h3>THE HITTLE WORLD RECORD MODEL</h3>
+
+<p class="noindent center small">(SINGLE TRACTOR MONOPLANE, 116 seconds
+DURATION RISING FROM WATER)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> Hittle World record model hydroaëroplane,
+designed and constructed by Mr. Lindsay
+Hittle of the Illinois Model Aëro Club, is perhaps
+one of the most interesting types of models
+yet produced. The establishing of this record
+illustrates the value of careful designing and
+construction and offers to the beginner an example
+which might be followed if good results
+are sought. In having broken the world’s
+model hydroaëroplane record with a tractor
+type model Mr. Hittle accomplished a feat of
+twofold importance. First, in having advanced
+the possibilities of the tractor model,
+and, second, in illustrating the value of scientific
+construction. The previous record for<span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">[59]</span>
+this type of model has been but 29 seconds, just
+one-fourth of the duration made by Mr. Hittle’s
+model.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Hittle’s model shows many new and
+original features not hitherto combined on any
+one model. Note <a href="#061">diagram 12</a>. The model is
+of extremely light weight, weighing complete
+but 1.75 ounces. The floats and their attachments
+have been so designed as to offer the
+least possible wind resistance. In fact every
+possible method was utilized in order to cut
+down weight and resistance on every part of
+the model. As a result of this doing away with
+resistance an excellent gliding ratio of 8³⁄₄ to 1
+has been obtained.</p>
+
+<p>For the motor base of the model a single stick
+of white pine ⁵⁄₆″ deep and 45″ in length is used.
+On the front end the bearing for the propeller
+is bound with silk thread and a waterproof glue
+of the constructor’s own composition being
+used to hold it secure. For the bearing a small
+light weight forging somewhat in the shape of
+the letter “L” is used, this being made streamline.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">[60]</span>
+At the rear end of the engine base is attached
+a piano wire hook for the rubber. The
+stabilizer consisting of a segment of a circle
+measuring 12″ × 8″ is attached to the under
+side of the engine base. The rudder measuring
+3¹⁄₂″ × 3¹⁄₂″ is attached to the stabilizer at
+the rear of the engine base.</p>
+
+<p>The wing is built up of two beams of white
+pine with ribs and tips of bamboo and has an
+area of 215 square inches.</p>
+
+<p>The wing which has a total span of 43″ and
+a chord of 5¹⁄₈″ is built up of two beams of
+white pine with ribs and tips of bamboo and
+has a total area of 215 square inches. The
+wing is given a small dihedral and the wing tips
+are slightly upturned at the rear.</p>
+
+<p>The trailing edge is longer than the entering
+edge the ribs being placed somewhat oblique in
+order to secure an even spacing. The wing is
+attached to the frame by two small bamboo
+clips which hold it rigidly and permit easy adjustment
+and is set at an angle of about 4
+degrees with the line of thrust.</p>
+
+<div class="chapter"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">[61]</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe25 mt2 mb2" style="max-width: 65.5em;" id="061">
+  <a rel="nofollow" href="images/i_b_061.jpg">
+    <img class="w100" src="images/i_b_061.jpg" alt="" />
+  </a>
+  <div class="caption">
+    <p class="noindent center small">Diagram 12</p>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="chapter"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">[62]</span></p>
+
+<p>Both the floats which take practically the whole weight
+of the machine are situated directly under the
+wing just far enough behind the center of
+gravity to prevent the model from tipping backward.
+These floats are attached to the engine
+base by means of streamlined bamboo struts.
+Bamboo is also used in the construction of the
+float frames. A single float of triangular sections
+is situated just behind the propeller. The
+entire weight of the floats and their attachments
+is but .23 ounces.</p>
+
+<p>The propeller which consists of four blades
+is built up of two propellers joined together at
+the hubs and securely glued, the completed propeller
+having a diameter of 10″ with a theoretical
+pitch of 14″. The blades are fairly narrow,
+tapering almost to a point at the tips.
+The propeller is driven by five strands of ³⁄₁₆th″
+strip rubber at about 760 r.p.m. when the
+model is in flight. At the time when the model
+made its record flight of 116 seconds the rubber
+was given 1500 turns which is not the maximum
+number of turns. At other times the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">[63]</span>
+model has flown satisfactorily with less turns
+of the rubber. While in the air the model flies
+very slow and stable notwithstanding its light
+weight and large surface. On three occasions
+the model has made durations of approximately
+90 seconds which rather dispenses the possibility
+of its being termed a freak.</p>
+
+<div class="chapter"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">[64]</span></p>
+
+
+<h3>THE LA TOUR FLYING BOAT</h3>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">One</span> of the most notable results of the National
+Model Aëroplane Competition of 1915
+was the establishing of a new world’s record
+for flying boats. Considering that the model
+flying boat is a difficult type of model to construct
+and fly, the establishing of this new
+world record of 43 seconds is remarkable.
+Credit for this performance is due Mr. Robert
+La Tour of the Pacific Northwest Model Aëro
+Club, who designed, constructed and flew the
+model flying boat which is herewith described
+and illustrated. <a href="#066">Diagram 13</a>.</p>
+
+<p>The frame is made of laminated spruce 40″
+in length, made of two strips glued together.
+They are ³⁄₈″ × ¹⁄₈″ at the center tapering to
+³⁄₁₆″ × ¹⁄₈″ at the ends. The cross braces are of
+split bamboo and are fastened to the frame side
+members by bringing them to a wedge at the
+ends and then inserting them into slots in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">[65]</span>
+sides of the frame side members and are finally
+drilled and bound to the latter. The rear brace
+is of streamlined spruce ¹⁄₄″ × ¹⁄₈″; this butts
+against the frame side members and is bound
+to them. The propeller accommodations are
+made of brass.</p>
+
+<p>The propellers are 10″ in diameter with a 19″
+pitch. These are carved from a block of
+Alaska cedar 1¹⁄₄″ wide by ³⁄₄″ thick. Of
+course the propellers may also be made from
+white pine. To turn the propellers 15 strands
+of ¹⁄₈″ flat rubber are used.</p>
+
+<p>Bamboo about ¹⁄₁₆″ square is used to obtain
+the outline of the wings. The main wing has
+a span of 33″ with a chord of 5¹⁄₂″. Split bamboo
+is used for the making of the 9 ribs. The
+wing spar or brace is of spruce ³⁄₁₆″ × ¹⁄₈″ and is
+fastened below the ribs as illustrated in <a href="#066">diagram 13</a>.
+The elevator is constructed in like
+manner but has a span of only 17″ × 4³⁄₄″ and
+has only 5 ribs. A block ³⁄₄″ high is used for
+elevation. Both wings have a camber of ¹⁄₂″
+and are covered on the upper side with silk
+doped with a special varnish and a few coats of
+white shellac.</p>
+
+<div class="chapter"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">[66]</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe25 mt2 mb2" style="max-width: 65.5em;" id="066">
+  <a rel="nofollow" href="images/i_b_066.jpg">
+    <img class="w100" src="images/i_b_066.jpg" alt="" />
+  </a>
+  <div class="caption">
+    <p class="noindent center small">Diagram 13</p>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="chapter"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">[67]</span></p>
+
+<p>The boat is 20″ long, 3″ in width and shaped
+as shown. The slip is ¹⁄₂″ deep and is located
+7″ from the bow. The rear end is brought
+down steeply to avoid the drag of the water on
+this point when the boat is leaving the surface
+of the water. Spruce ³⁄₆₄ths of an inch thick is
+used for the making of the sides, but the cross
+bracing is of slightly heavier material, there being
+six braces used throughout. The rear
+brace is much heavier in order to withstand the
+pull of the covering and to receive the ends of
+the wire connections. The outriggers or balancing
+pontoons are constructed of the same
+material as that of the boat and are held together
+by a spruce beam 18″ long, ¹⁄₂″ wide by
+³⁄₁₆″ thick, streamlined. This beam is fastened
+to the boat by means of three brads to permit
+changing if necessary. The lower edges of the
+outriggers should clear the water about ¹⁄₈″ before
+the steps on the boat leave the water. The
+boat and outriggers are covered with silk,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">[68]</span>
+shrunk with a special solution and then coated
+several times with white shellac. It is a good
+plan to shellac the interior walls of the boat and
+pontoons before covering to prevent them from
+losing their form by becoming soft from the
+influence of water in the case of a puncture.</p>
+
+<p>The boat is connected to the frame at its
+front by two steel wires, their ends being inserted
+into the cross members of the boat, and
+then brought up along the sides, crossed and
+then bound to the frame. A similar pair of
+connecting wires are used to connect the rear
+end of the boat to the rear end of the frame.
+A U-shaped wire is bound to the outrigger
+beam and frame. A single diagonal strip of
+bamboo is also fastened to the outrigger beam
+with a brad, its upper end being bound to the
+cross bracing of the frame, making a very solid
+connection.</p>
+
+<p>Under ideal weather conditions this model
+will fly on 12 strands of rubber with the possibility
+of a better duration than has been made.
+But, however, with 15 strands the model will<span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">[69]</span>
+rise at every attempt. More rubber, however,
+causes the bow of the boat to nose under and to
+accommodate this increase of power the boat
+should be lengthened.</p>
+
+<div class="chapter"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">[70]</span></p>
+
+
+<h3>THE COOK NO. 42 WORLD RECORD MODEL</h3>
+
+<p class="noindent center small">(TWIN PROPELLER HYDROAËROPLANE, 100.6
+SECONDS RISING FROM WATER)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">During</span> the National Model Aëroplane Competition
+of 1915 held under the auspices of the
+Aëro Club of America, a number of new world
+records were established, one of which was for
+twin propeller hydroaëroplanes. The credit
+for this record is due Mr. Ellis C. Cook of the
+Illinois Model Aëro Club, who succeeded in
+getting his model hydroaëroplane—which by
+the way is a rather difficult type of model to
+operate—to rise from the water and remain in
+the air for a duration of 100.6 seconds. This
+model is of the common A frame design with
+the floats or pontoons arranged in the familiar
+fashion, two forward and one aft. The model
+is fairly light, weighing, when complete, 3.33<span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">[71]</span>
+ounces, ¹⁄₂ ounce of which is made up in rubber
+strands for motive power. <a href="#073">Diagram 14</a>.</p>
+
+<p>The frame is made of two sticks of white
+pine for side members, each member measuring
+38¹⁄₄″ in length, ⁵⁄₁₆″ in depth, by ¹⁄₈″ in width.
+These are cut to taper toward the ends where
+they are only ¹⁄₈″ in width by ³⁄₁₆″ in depth in the
+front and rear respectively. Three “X” strips
+of streamlined bamboo measuring ³⁄₁₆″ in width
+by ³⁄₆₄ths of an inch in depth, are used for bracing
+the frame between the front and rear and
+are arranged as shown in <a href="#073">diagram 14</a>. The
+propeller bearings are of small streamlined
+forgings of light weight, and are bound to the
+rear end of each side member first by gluing,
+then binding around with thread. The front
+hook is made of No. 16 piano wire and is bound
+to the frame as shown in <a href="#073">diagram 14</a>. The
+chassis which holds the floats or pontoons is
+made of ³⁄₃₂″ bamboo bent to shape and bound
+to the frame members. By the use of rubber
+strands the floats are attached to the chassis;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">[72]</span>
+the forward ones being attached so that angle
+may be adjusted.</p>
+
+<p>The main wing has a span of 36″ and a
+chord of 5″ and is constructed of two white
+pine beams each 39″ long, with bamboo wing
+tips. The ribs, seven in number, are also made
+of bamboo and are spaced along the edges of
+the wing at a distance of 4¹⁄₂″ apart. The
+“elevator” or front wing has a span of 14″ and
+a chord of 3¹⁄₄″, the framework of which is
+made entirely of bamboo. The entering edge
+of this wing is given a slightly greater dihedral
+so that the angle of incidence at the tips is
+greater than at the center. By this method the
+added incidence in the front wing is obtained.
+By the use of rubber bands both wings are attached
+to the frame.</p>
+
+<div class="chapter"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">[73]</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe25 mt2 mb2" style="max-width: 65.5em;" id="073">
+  <a rel="nofollow" href="images/i_b_073.jpg">
+    <img class="w100" src="images/i_b_073.jpg" alt="" />
+  </a>
+  <div class="caption">
+    <p class="noindent center small">Diagram 14</p>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="chapter"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">[74]</span></p>
+
+<p>The two forward floats are spaced eight inches
+apart and are of the stepped type, the step
+being 3¹⁄₂″ from the front and has a depth
+of ¹⁄₈″. These two floats are separated by
+two bamboo strips as shown in the <a href="#073">diagram</a>,
+which are tied to the rounded portion of
+the under carriage by small rubber bands. By
+the sliding of these strips back and forth the
+necessary angle of the floats may be obtained to
+suit conditions. The floats are built up with
+two thin pieces of white pine for sides, separated
+by small pieces of wood about one-half
+the size of a match in cross section. Chiffon
+veiling which is used for the covering of the
+wings, is also used for the covering of the
+floats, after which it is covered with a special
+preparation to render both the wings and the
+floats air and water-tight.</p>
+
+<p>The two ten-inch propellers with which the
+model is fitted have a theoretical pitch of twelve
+and one-half inches. The propellers are
+carved from blanks one-half inch thick, the
+blades of the completed propellers having a
+maximum width of one inch at a radius of
+three inches. The propeller shafts are made
+from No. 16 piano wire and have small washers
+for bearings. Each propeller is driven by
+three strands of ¹⁄₄″ strip elastic. The rubber<span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">[75]</span>
+is given 1700 to 1750 turns and revolves the
+propellers at 1150–1200 r.p.m., when the
+model is in flight.</p>
+
+<p>The model usually runs over the surface of
+the water for a distance of from two to three
+feet before it rises, after which it climbs at a
+very steep angle to the necessary altitude.
+The model seems, when in flight, to be slightly
+overpowered but this is misleading. The rubbers
+usually unwind in from 85 to 90 seconds.
+On four out of six flights this model has made
+a duration of between 98 and 100 seconds
+which is rather unusual for a model of this
+type.</p>
+
+<div class="chapter"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">[76]</span></p>
+
+
+<h3>THE RUDY FUNK DURATION MODEL</h3>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Of</span> the many different types of duration
+models that have made their appearance during
+the year of 1915 perhaps the model described
+herewith, constructed and flown by
+Mr. Rudolph Funk, of the Aëro Science Club,
+was one of the most successful. Unlike most
+models the propellers of this model are bent
+and not cut. This model made its appearance
+during the latter part of 1915, on several occasions
+having flown for over 100 seconds duration.
+<a href="#078">Diagram 15</a>.</p>
+
+<p>While retaining the important characteristics
+of his standard model, slight changes have been
+made. Instead of the usual wire for the construction
+of the frame of the wings, bamboo is
+used in its place for lightness and strength.
+The wing frames are single surfaced, China<span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">[77]</span>
+silk being used for covering. The “dope”
+which is used to render the silk airtight is made
+by dissolving celluloid in banana oil. This in
+turn is applied to the silk with a soft brush.</p>
+
+<p>The camber of the main wing is ³⁄₄″ at
+the center, with a slight reduction towards
+the negative tips; it also has a dihedral angle
+of 2 degrees. The main beam, which is secured
+to the under side of the frame for rigidness, is
+of spruce 1″ by ⁵⁄₆₄″, tapering to ³⁄₄″ × ⁵⁄₆₄″.
+The ribs for the main wing and small wing or
+“elevator” are cut from solid pieces of bamboo
+³⁄₁₆″ thick by ¹⁄₄″ wide. These pieces of bamboo
+are first bent to the proper camber and are
+then cut into strips each ¹⁄₁₆″ wide. The ribs
+are next tapered to a V at the bottom, toward
+the trailing edge, as shown in <a href="#078">diagram 15</a>, and
+also toward the entering edge. To accommodate
+the entering and trailing edges of the
+frame, each rib is slit slightly at both ends.
+Both edges of the frame are then inserted in the
+slots at the ends of the ribs and bound around
+with silk thread.</p>
+
+<div class="chapter"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">[78]</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe25 mt2 mb2" style="max-width: 65.5em;" id="078">
+  <a rel="nofollow" href="images/i_b_078.jpg">
+    <img class="w100" src="images/i_b_078.jpg" alt="" />
+  </a>
+  <div class="caption">
+    <p class="noindent center small">Diagram 15</p>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="chapter"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">[79]</span></p>
+
+<p>The frame is composed of two sticks of silver
+spruce 38″ in length, ⁵⁄₁₆″ × ³⁄₁₆″, tapering to
+¹⁄₄″ × ⁵⁄₃₂″, held apart by a streamline bamboo
+cross brace in the center. An additional brace
+of bamboo is securely fastened across the frame
+toward the front. The propeller brace consists
+of a streamline-cut piece of bamboo 12¹⁄₂″
+in length by ³⁄₈″ in width at the center, tapering
+to ¹⁄₄″ toward the ends. The propeller brace
+is inserted in slots cut in the rear ends of the
+frame members, then bound and glued.</p>
+
+<p>The propellers are bent from birch veneer,
+the bending being done over an alcohol flame
+as illustrated in <a href="#078">diagram 15</a>. But first of all
+the blades are cut to shape, sandpapered and
+finished before they are bent. As shown in the
+drawing a slot is filed in the hub of each blade
+to enable the propeller shaft to pass through
+when both have been glued together. The
+blades are then glued and bound together, first
+by placing a piece of wire in the slots to insure
+their being centered and also to prevent their
+being filled with glue. After this has been done<span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">[80]</span>
+each propeller is given three coats of the same
+dope as is used on the wings.</p>
+
+<p>The propeller bearings are turned out of
+¹⁄₃₂″ bronze tubing, the length of each bearing
+being ¹⁄₂″. Steel washers are slipped over
+the propeller shaft, between the bearing and
+propeller to insure smooth running. The propeller
+shafts are made from steel hatpins which
+are heated at both ends, one end of which is
+bent into a loop to receive the rubber strands,
+the other end being bent around the hub of the
+propeller to prevent the shaft from slipping
+during the unwinding of the rubbers. Two
+strips of brass, each ¹⁄₄″ × 2″, are bent around
+the one-half inch bearing and soldered. The
+brass strips are then glued and bound onto the
+ends of the propeller brace as shown in <a href="#078">diagram 15</a>.</p>
+
+<div class="chapter"></div>
+<div class="figcenter illowe35 mt2 mb2" style="max-width: 65.5em;" id="080A">
+  <a rel="nofollow" href="images/i_b_080a_fp.jpg">
+    <img class="w100" src="images/i_b_080a_fp.jpg" alt="" />
+  </a>
+  <div class="caption">
+    <p class="noindent center small">Rudy Funk speed model</p>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe35 mt2 mb2" style="max-width: 65.5em;" id="080B">
+  <a rel="nofollow" href="images/i_b_080b_fp.jpg">
+    <img class="w100" src="images/i_b_080b_fp.jpg" alt="" />
+  </a>
+  <div class="caption">
+    <p class="noindent center small">Schober compressed air driven monoplane. McMahon
+       compressed air driven tractor (right)</p>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="chapter"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">[81]</span></p>
+
+
+<h3>THE ALSON H. WHEELER WORLD RECORD MODEL</h3>
+
+<p class="noindent center small">(TWIN PUSHER BIPLANE 143 SEC. DURATION
+RISING FROM THE GROUND)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Since</span> the beginning of model flying very
+little attention has been paid to the model biplane.
+Practically all records are held by
+model aëroplanes of the monoplane type.
+With this fact in view, the record established
+by Mr. Wheeler with his Twin Pusher Biplane
+is extraordinary, in so far as it surpasses many
+of the monoplane records. This model is a
+very slow flyer, and has excellent gliding ability.
+At the time when this model flew and
+broke the world’s record, the greater portion of
+the flight consisted of a beautiful glide of 86
+seconds’ duration, after the power gave out,
+making it possible for the model to remain in
+the air for a duration of 143 seconds.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">[82]</span></p>
+
+<p>The frame consists of two I-beams, each
+48″ in length, running parallel, and spaced by
+cross pieces, each piece 11¹⁄₂″ long. The
+bearing blocks used made it possible for the
+propellers to clear by one-half inch. Two 12″
+expanding pitch racing propellers are used
+and these are mounted on ball bearing shafts.
+The main upper plane has a span of 34″ with
+a chord of 5″, the lower plane being 26″ by 5″.
+The elevator consists of two planes, each measuring
+14″ by 5″. Cork wheels are used, each
+being one inch in diameter. For motive power
+one-eighth inch flat rubber is used, this being
+coated with glycerine to prevent sticking.</p>
+
+<div class="chapter"></div>
+<div class="figcenter illowe35 mt2 mb2" style="max-width: 65.5em;" id="082A">
+  <a rel="nofollow" href="images/i_b_082a_fp.jpg">
+    <img class="w100" src="images/i_b_082a_fp.jpg" alt="" />
+  </a>
+  <div class="caption">
+    <p class="noindent center small">Alson H. Wheeler twin pusher Biplane</p>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe35 mt2 mb2" style="max-width: 65.5em;" id="082B">
+  <a rel="nofollow" href="images/i_b_082b_fp.jpg">
+    <img class="w100" src="images/i_b_082b_fp.jpg" alt="" />
+  </a>
+  <div class="caption">
+    <p class="noindent center small">C. V. Obst tractor model</p>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">[83]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="A_MODEL_WARPLANE">A MODEL WARPLANE</h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> model shown in the accompanying
+<a href="#084">photograph</a> was constructed by Master R.
+O’Neill, of Montreal, Canada. The machine
+was designed after one of the leading warplanes
+now in active service abroad and in
+carrying out the entire features he did not fail
+to include the identification marks which are
+of utmost importance in the war zone.</p>
+
+<p>The dimensions of the model are as follows:
+Length of fuselage, 23″; span of top wing,
+33″; span of lower wing, 29″, both having a
+chord of 7″. Motive power is derived from
+two ¹⁄₈ inch square elastic strands which operate
+a multiple gear to which is attached a
+10″ propeller.</p>
+
+<p>In coloring the model a dull aluminum was
+selected. Complete the model weighs 12
+ounces. Perhaps the most interesting feature<span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">[84]</span>
+of the model is the ability to change it to a
+monoplane by the removal of the upper wing
+after which the lower wing is raised to the
+sockets in the fuselage which were especially
+arranged for that particular purpose.</p>
+
+<div class="chapter"></div>
+<div class="figcenter illowe35 mt2 mb2" style="max-width: 65.5em;" id="084">
+  <a rel="nofollow" href="images/i_b_084_fp.jpg">
+    <img class="w100" src="images/i_b_084_fp.jpg" alt="" />
+  </a>
+  <div class="caption">
+    <p class="noindent center small">Model warplane</p>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">[85]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="A_SIMPLE_COMPRESSED_AIR_ENGINE">A SIMPLE COMPRESSED AIR ENGINE</h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">During</span> the past few years model flyers in
+America have shown a tendency toward the
+adoption of compressed air engines for use in
+connection with model aëroplanes. Hitherto,
+England has been the home of the compressed
+air engine, where a great deal of experimenting
+has been carried on, to a considerable degree
+of success. Flights of over 40 seconds have
+been made with models in which compressed
+air power plants were used. But, however, the
+desire on the part of a large majority of model
+flyers in America to build scientific models, that
+is, models more closely resembling large machines,
+has made it necessary to find a more
+suitable means of propulsion; rubber strands
+being unsatisfactory for such purposes. Many
+different types of compressed air engines have
+made their appearance during the past few
+years, among which the two cylinder opposed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">[86]</span>
+type is very favorably looked upon, because it
+is perhaps one of the easiest to construct.</p>
+
+<p>To make a simple two cylinder opposed compressed
+air power plant, as illustrated in <a href="#087">Figure 1
+of diagram 16</a>, it is not necessary that the
+builder be in possession of a machine shop. A
+file, drill, small gas blow torch and a small vise
+comprise the principal tools for the making of
+the engine.</p>
+
+<p>The first things needed in the making of this
+engine are cylinders. For the making of the
+cylinders two fishing rod ferrules, known as
+female ferrules, are required. And for the
+heads of the cylinders, two male ferrules are
+required. Such ferrules can be secured at
+most any sporting goods store. The female
+ferrules should be filed down to a length of
+2″, cut down on one side a distance of ³⁄₄
+of the diameter, then cut in from the end as
+shown in <a href="#087">Figure 7</a>. When this has been done
+the two male ferrules should be cut off a distance
+of ¹⁄₈″ from the top as shown in <a href="#087">Figure
+7-a</a>, to serve as heads for the cylinders.</p>
+
+<div class="chapter"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">[87]</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe25 mt2 mb2" style="max-width: 65.5em;" id="087">
+  <a rel="nofollow" href="images/i_b_087.jpg">
+    <img class="w100" src="images/i_b_087.jpg" alt="" />
+  </a>
+  <div class="caption">
+    <p class="noindent center small">Diagram 16</p>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="chapter"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">[88]</span></p>
+
+<p>A hole ¹⁄₈″ in diameter should be drilled in the center
+of each head so as to enable the connecting of
+the intake pipes. By the use of soft wire solder
+the heads should be soldered into the ends of the
+cylinders as shown in <a href="#087">Figure 1-d</a>.</p>
+
+<p>The pistons should now be made; for this purpose
+two additional male ferrules are required.
+These should be made to operate freely within
+the cylinders by twisting them in a rag which
+has been saturated with oil and upon which has
+been shaken fine powdered emery. When they
+have been made to operate freely they should
+be cut down one-half inch from the closed end
+as shown in <a href="#087">Figure 5-a</a>. For the connecting
+rods, 2 pieces of brass tubing, each ¹⁄₈″ in
+diameter by 1¹⁄₄″ long, are required, and, as
+illustrated in <a href="#087">Figure 6</a>, should be flattened out
+at either end and through each end a hole ³⁄₃₂″
+in diameter should be drilled. For the connecting
+of the piston rods to the pistons, studs
+are required, and these should be cut from a
+piece of brass rod ¹⁄₄″ in diameter by ¹⁄₂″
+in length. As two studs are necessary, one<span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">[89]</span>
+for each piston, this piece should be cut in
+half, after which each piece should be filed in
+at one end deep enough to receive the end of
+the connecting rod. Before soldering the
+studs to the heads of the pistons, however,
+the connecting rods should be joined to the
+studs by the use of a steel pin which is passed
+through the stud and connecting rod, after
+which the ends of the pin are flattened, to keep
+it in position as shown in <a href="#087">Figure 5-a</a>.</p>
+
+<p>For the outside valve mechanism and also to
+serve in the capacity as a bearing for the crankshaft,
+a piece of brass tubing ¹⁄₄″ in diameter
+by 1¹⁄₂″ long is required. Into this should be
+drilled three holes, each ¹⁄₈″ in diameter, and
+each ¹⁄₂″ apart as shown in <a href="#087">Figure 4</a>. Next,
+for the valve shaft and also propeller accommodation,
+secure a piece of ³⁄₁₆″ drill rod 2″ long.
+On the left hand side of the valve shaft, as
+shown in <a href="#087">Figure 3</a>, a cut ¹⁄₃₂″ deep by ¹⁄₂″ in
+length is made 1″ from the end. Another cut
+of the same dimensions is made on the right
+side only; this cut is made at a distance of ³⁄₈″
+from the stud end.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">[90]</span></p>
+
+<p>As shown in <a href="#087">Figure 1-f</a>, the crank throw consists
+of a flat piece of steel, ³⁄₃₂″ thick, ³⁄₈″ in
+length by ¹⁄₄″ in width. At each end of the
+crank throw a hole ³⁄₁₆″ in diameter should be
+drilled, the holes to be one-half inch apart.
+Into one hole a piece of steel drill rod ³⁄₃₂″ in
+diameter by ¹⁄₄″ long is soldered, to which the
+connecting rods are mounted, as shown in <a href="#087">Figure
+1-f</a>. Into the other hole the stud end of the
+crank throw is soldered.</p>
+
+<div class="chapter"></div>
+<div class="figcenter illowe35 mt2 mb2" style="max-width: 65.5em;" id="090A">
+  <a rel="nofollow" href="images/i_b_090a_fp.jpg">
+    <img class="w100" src="images/i_b_090a_fp.jpg" alt="" />
+  </a>
+  <div class="caption">
+    <p class="noindent center small">Schober pusher type compressed air driven monoplane</p>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe35 mt2 mb2" style="max-width: 65.5em;" id="090B">
+  <a rel="nofollow" href="images/i_b_090b_fp.jpg">
+    <img class="w100" src="images/i_b_090b_fp.jpg" alt="" />
+  </a>
+  <div class="caption">
+    <p class="noindent center small">Schober compressed air driven biplane</p>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="chapter"></div>
+<p>Before making the tank it is most desirable
+to assemble the parts of the engine, and this
+may be done by first fitting the pistons into the
+cylinders as shown in <a href="#087">Figure 1-b</a>, after which
+the cylinders should be lapped one over the
+other and soldered as shown in <a href="#087">Figure 1-a</a>.
+When this has been done a hole one-fourth of
+an inch in diameter should be drilled half way
+between the ends of the cylinders, and into
+this hole should be soldered one end of the valve
+casing shown in <a href="#087">Figure 4</a>. For the inlet pipes
+as shown in <a href="#087">Figure 1-c</a> secure two pieces of
+¹⁄₈″ brass tubing and after heating until soft,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">[91]</span>
+bend both to a shape similar to that shown in
+<a href="#087">Figure 1-c</a>. When this has been done solder
+one end to the end of the cylinder and the other
+in the second hole of the valve shaft casing.
+The valve shaft should now be inserted in the
+valve shaft casing and the connecting rods
+sprung onto the crank throw as shown in <a href="#087">Figure
+1-d</a>. To loosen up the parts of the engine
+which have just been assembled it should be
+filled with oil and by tightly holding the crankshaft
+in the jaws of a drill the engine can be
+worked for a few minutes.</p>
+
+<p>The tank is made from a sheet of brass or
+copper foil 15″ long by ¹⁄₁₀₀₀″ thick. This
+is made in the form of a cylinder, the edges
+of which are soldered together as shown in
+<a href="#087">Figure 2</a>. Sometimes this seam is riveted
+every one-half inch to increase its strength,
+but in most cases solder is all that is required
+to hold the edges together. For the caps, or
+ends, the tops of two small oil cans are used,
+each can measuring 2¹⁄₂″ in diameter. To
+complete the caps two discs of metal should be<span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">[92]</span>
+soldered over the ends of the cans where formerly
+the spouts were inserted, the bottoms of
+the cans having been removed. The bottom
+edges of the cans should be soldered to the
+ends of the tank as shown in <a href="#087">Figure 2</a>. Into
+one end of the completed tank a hole large
+enough to receive an ordinary bicycle air valve
+should be drilled. <a href="#087">Figure 2</a>. Another hole is
+drilled into the other end of the tank, into which
+is soldered a small gas cock to act as a valve.
+<a href="#087">Figure 2</a>. This should be filed down where
+necessary, to eliminate unnecessary weight.
+To connect the tank with the engine, a piece of
+¹⁄₈″ brass tubing 3″ long is required, the ends
+of which are soldered into the holes in the valve
+shaft casing nearest the cylinders, as shown in
+<a href="#087">Figure 1-ee</a>. As shown in <a href="#087">Figure 1-ee</a>, a hole
+¹⁄₈″ in diameter is drilled in one side of this
+piece, but not through, in the end nearest the
+tank. Another piece of brass tubing ¹⁄₈″ in
+diameter is required to connect the tank with
+the engine, one end of which is soldered to the
+cock in the tank, the other in the hole in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">[93]</span>
+pipe which leads from the engine to the tank,
+illustrated in <a href="#087">Figure 1-ee</a>, thus completing the
+engine.</p>
+
+<p>In conclusion it is suggested that the builder
+exercise careful judgment in both the making
+and assembling of the different parts of the
+engine in order to avoid unnecessary trouble
+and secure satisfactory results. After having
+constructed an engine as has just been described,
+the constructor may find it to his desire
+to construct a different type of engine for experimental
+purposes. The constructor therefore
+may find the descriptions of satisfactory
+compressed air engines in the following paragraphs
+of suggestive value.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">[94]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="COMPRESSED_AIR_DRIVEN_MODELS">COMPRESSED AIR DRIVEN MODELS</h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> development of the compressed air engine
+has given an added impetus to model making,
+necessitating more scientific experimenting
+and developing the art of model flying
+along lines of greater value to those who may
+eventually take up the work of building our
+future air fleets.</p>
+
+
+<div class="chapter"></div>
+<h3>THE DART COMPRESSED AIR DRIVEN MODEL</h3>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">In</span> the accompanying <a href="#094">illustration</a> is shown
+a model aëroplane of monoplane type driven
+by a three-cylinder rotary engine which was
+constructed by Edward Willard Dart of South
+Norwalk, Connecticut.</p>
+
+<p>The engine was constructed after several
+months of patient labor. Careful judgment
+was exercised in the drafting of the plane and
+likewise in the assembling of the engine for
+it is absolutely essential that all parts be properly
+fitted as to enable the engine to run<span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">[95]</span>
+smoothly. In designing the wings every detail
+was taken into consideration to insure
+good flying.</p>
+
+<div class="chapter"></div>
+<div class="figcenter illowe35 mt2 mb2" style="max-width: 65.5em;" id="094">
+  <a rel="nofollow" href="images/i_b_094_fp.jpg">
+    <img class="w100" src="images/i_b_094_fp.jpg" alt="" />
+  </a>
+  <div class="caption">
+    <p class="noindent center small">Model by Edward Willard Dart</p>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="chapter"></div>
+<p>The main wing has a spread of 58″ and 7″
+in chord. The elevator measures 23″ in
+spread and 6″ in chord. In the construction
+of both wings bamboo ribs are used, the
+frames being covered over with China silk and
+coated with celluloid solution. The main
+wing is made in two sections to facilitate quick
+adjustment to the fuselage.</p>
+
+<div class="chapter"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">[96]</span></p>
+
+
+<h3>THE MCMAHON COMPRESSED AIR DRIVEN MONOPLANE</h3>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">One</span> of the latest developments in the field
+of model flying is the McMahon compressed air
+driven monoplane. This model was built to
+be used as either a tractor or pusher, but in view
+of its ability to balance more easily as a pusher
+most of the experiments have been carried out
+on this machine as a pusher. The machine in
+itself is simple and inexpensive to construct, the
+chief portion of the expense being involved in
+the making of the engine. By using the machine
+as a pusher a great deal of protection is
+afforded both the propeller and engine, and this
+protection helps to avoid damaging the propeller
+or engine, which would mean an additional
+expenditure for repairs, thus minimizing
+the cost of flying the model.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">[97]</span></p>
+
+<p>The frame has been made to accommodate
+both the tank and engine, and this is done by
+using two 30″ strips of spruce, each ¹⁄₄″ wide
+by ³⁄₈″ deep, laid side by side, a distance of
+three inches apart, up to within 10″ of the
+front, as shown in the accompanying <a href="#098A">photograph</a>.
+No braces are used on the frame, as
+the tank, when securely fastened between the
+frame, acts in that capacity.</p>
+
+<p>The wings are made in two sections, each
+section measuring 24″ in span by 8″ in chord,
+consisting of two main spars, ³⁄₁₆″ in diameter,
+one for the entering edge and one for the trailing
+edge. To these edges, at a distance of
+three inches apart, are attached bamboo ribs,
+18 in all, each measuring 8″ in length by ¹⁄₈″
+in width by ¹⁄₁₆″ thick. The wings are round
+at the tips, and have a camber of approximately
+one-half inch, but they are not set at an angle
+of incidence. Light China silk is used for
+covering and after being glued over the top of
+the wing frame is given two coats of dope to
+shrink and fill the pores of the fabric. A good<span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">[98]</span>
+“dope” for the purpose can be made from celluloid
+dissolved in banana oil. The wing sections
+are attached to the frame and braced by
+light wire. The forward wing or “elevator” is
+made in the same manner as the main wing, but
+should measure only 18″ × 3″. Instead of being
+made in two sections as the main wing, the
+forward wing is made in one piece.</p>
+
+<p>The chassis is made by forming two V struts
+from strong steel wire sufficiently large enough
+so that when they are attached to the frame of
+the model the forward part will be 9″ above the
+ground. One V strut is securely fastened to
+either side of the frame, at a distance of 8″
+from the front. A 7″ axle is fastened to the
+ends of these struts. On the axle are mounted
+two light wheels, each about 2″ in diameter.
+The chassis is braced by light piano wire.</p>
+
+<p>The rear skid is made in the same manner as
+the forward skid, only that the ends of the
+struts are brought together and a wheel 1 inch
+in diameter is mounted at the bottom ends by
+means of a short axle. The struts are not
+more than 7¹⁄₂″ long, thus allowing a slight
+angle to the machine when it is resting upon
+the ground.</p>
+
+<div class="chapter"></div>
+<div class="figcenter illowe35 mt2 mb2" style="max-width: 65.5em;" id="098A">
+  <a rel="nofollow" href="images/i_b_098a_fp.jpg">
+    <img class="w100" src="images/i_b_098a_fp.jpg" alt="" />
+  </a>
+  <div class="caption">
+    <p class="noindent center small">John McMahon and his compressed air driven
+       monoplane</p>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe35 mt2 mb2" style="max-width: 65.5em;" id="098B">
+  <a rel="nofollow" href="images/i_b_098b_fp.jpg">
+    <img class="w100" src="images/i_b_098b_fp.jpg" alt="" />
+  </a>
+  <div class="caption">
+    <p class="noindent center small">Frank Schober preparing his model for flight.
+       Gauge to determine pressure of air may be
+       seen in photograph</p>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="chapter"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">[99]</span></p>
+
+<p>The machine complete does not weigh over
+7 ounces. The power plant used in connection
+with this model is of the two cylinder opposed
+engine type, with tank such as has just been
+described in the foregoing chapter.</p>
+
+<p>The tank is mounted in the frame by drilling
+a ¹⁄₁₆″ hole through either end of the tank,
+through which a drill rod of this diameter can
+be inserted. About ³⁄₄ths of the drill rod
+should extend out on each side of the tank, to
+permit the fastening of the tank to the frame
+side members. This method of mounting the
+tank serves two purposes to a satisfactory degree.
+First, it permits secure fastening; second,
+as the rods are passed through the side and
+cap of the tank they help materially in preventing
+the caps from being blown off in the event
+of excessive pressure.</p>
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">[100]</span></p>
+
+
+<h3 class="nobreak" id="THE_MCMAHON_COMPRESSED_AIR_DRIVEN">THE MCMAHON COMPRESSED AIR DRIVEN
+BIPLANE</h3>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">In</span> the McMahon model we find a very satisfactory
+type of compressed air driven model.
+On several occasions this model has made
+flights of over 200 feet with a duration of between
+10 and 15 seconds, and the indications
+are that by the use of a more powerful engine
+the model can be made to fly a greater distance,
+with a corresponding increase of duration.
+The engine used in connection with the model
+is of the two cylinder opposed type, such as
+described in the foregoing paragraphs. The
+tank, however, is somewhat different in design
+from that just described, it having been made
+of 28 gauge sheet bronze, riveted every one-half
+inch. The two long bolts that hold the
+steel caps on either end of the tank also serve as
+attachments for the spars that hold the tank to
+the engine bed, as shown in <a href="#102">diagram 17</a>. The
+tank has been satisfactorily charged to a pressure<span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">[101]</span>
+of 200 lbs. per square inch, but only a pressure
+of 150 lbs. is necessary to operate the
+engine. The tank measures 10″ in length by
+3″ in diameter and weighs 7 ounces.</p>
+
+<p>The wings of this machine are single surfaced
+and covered with fiber paper. The top
+wing measures 42″ in span by 6″ in chord.
+The lower wing is 24″ by 6″. The wings have
+a total surface of 396 square inches and are
+built up of two ³⁄₁₆″ dowel sticks, flattened to
+streamline shape. Only two sets of uprights
+separate the wings, thus adding to the streamline
+appearance of the machine.</p>
+
+<p>Both tail and rudder are double surfaced and
+are built entirely of bamboo for lightness,
+the tail being made in the form of a half circle
+measuring 12″ by 8″. Steel wire is used
+on the construction of the landing chassis, the
+chassis being so designed as to render it capable
+of withstanding the most violent shock that it
+may possibly receive in landing. The propeller
+used in connection with the model is 14″ in diameter
+and has an approximate pitch of 18″.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">[102]</span></p>
+
+<div class="chapter"></div>
+<div class="figcenter illowe25 mt2 mb2" style="max-width: 65.5em;" id="102">
+  <a rel="nofollow" href="images/i_b_102.jpg">
+    <img class="w100" src="images/i_b_102.jpg" alt="" />
+  </a>
+  <div class="caption">
+    <p class="noindent center small">Diagram 17</p>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">[103]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="COMPRESSED_AIR_ENGINES">COMPRESSED AIR ENGINES</h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<h3>THE WISE COMPRESSED AIR ENGINE</h3>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Although</span> of peculiar construction, the
+Wise rotary compressed air engine offers a
+very interesting design from a viewpoint of ingenuity.
+This engine embodies a number of
+novel features not hitherto employed in the construction
+of compressed air engines, and in
+view of the fact that the majority of compressed
+air engines are made on the principle of
+the opposed type, this engine suggests many
+possibilities for the rotary type engine.</p>
+
+<p>The engine consists of five cylinders and
+weighs four ounces, including the propeller and
+mounting frame. On a pressure of 15 lbs. the
+engine will revolve at a speed of 1000 r.p.m.
+The connecting rods are fastened to the crankshaft
+by means of segments and are held by
+two rings, making it possible to remove any one<span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">[104]</span>
+piston without disturbing the others. This is
+done by simply removing a nut and one ring.
+The crank case is made from seamless brass
+tubing, into which the cylinders are brazed.
+The valve cage and cylinder heads are also
+turned separately and brazed. One ring only
+is used in connection with the pistons. The
+cylinders have a bore of ¹¹⁄₃₂″, with a piston
+stroke of ⁷⁄₁₆″. In view of the fact that pull
+rods show a greater tendency to overcome centrifugal
+force, they are used instead of push
+rods to operate the valves. The crankshaft has
+but one post, which is uncovered in turn by each
+inlet pipe as the engine revolves. The “overhang”
+method is used to mount this engine to
+the model. With the exception of the valve
+springs, the entire engine, including the mounting
+frame and tank, is made of brass.</p>
+
+<div class="chapter"></div>
+<div class="figcenter illowe35 mt2 mb2" style="max-width: 65.5em;" id="104A">
+  <a rel="nofollow" href="images/i_b_104a_fp.jpg">
+    <img class="w100" src="images/i_b_104a_fp.jpg" alt="" />
+  </a>
+  <div class="caption">
+    <p class="noindent center small">Wise five cylinder rotary compressed air engine</p>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="chapter"></div>
+<h3>THE SCHOBER-FUNK COMPRESSED AIR ENGINE</h3>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Two</span> of the most enthusiastic advocates of
+the compressed air engine for use in model aëroplanes
+are Messrs. Frank Schober and Rudolph<span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">[105]</span>
+Funk, both members of the Aëro Science Club.
+For a number of months both these gentlemen
+have experimented with compressed air engines
+of various designs, until they finally produced
+what is perhaps one of the most satisfactory
+rotary engines now in use, from a standpoint
+of simplicity and results.</p>
+
+<div class="chapter"></div>
+<div class="figcenter illowe35 mt2 mb2" style="max-width: 65.5em;" id="104B">
+  <a rel="nofollow" href="images/i_b_104b_fp.jpg">
+    <img class="w100" src="images/i_b_104b_fp.jpg" alt="" />
+  </a>
+  <div class="caption">
+    <p class="noindent center small">Schober-Funk three cylinder rotary engine</p>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="chapter"></div>
+<p>As can be seen from the accompanying <a href="#104B">illustration</a>,
+this little engine is remarkably simple
+in appearance. The engine complete, with
+equipment, weighs at the most but 14 ounces.
+The cylinders, three in all, are stamped from
+brass shells for strength and lightness. The
+pistons are made from ebony fiber. The cylinders
+have a bore of ⁵⁄₈″, with a piston stroke
+of ¹⁄₂″. The crank case is built up from
+a small piece of brass tubing and is drilled
+out for lightness. The crankshaft is hollow,
+and is supported at the rear by a special bearing
+which acts as a rotary valve, admitting the
+intake through the crankshaft and permitting
+the exhaust to escape through a specially constructed
+bearing.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">[106]</span></p>
+
+<p>The tank is constructed of 30 gauge sheet
+bronze, wire wound, and fitted at the ends with
+spun brass caps. The actual weight of the
+engine alone is 2¹⁄₂ ounces, the tank and fittings
+weighing 11¹⁄₂ ounces, making the total weight
+of the complete power plant 14 ounces.</p>
+
+
+<h3>THE SCHOBER FOUR CYLINDER OPPOSED ENGINE</h3>
+
+<p>Another interesting type of compressed air
+engine that has been developed in America is
+the Schober four cylinder opposed engine.
+While this engine is different in appearance
+from most compressed air engines, it has been
+made to work satisfactorily and is consistent
+with the same high class construction that is
+displayed in most all of Mr. Schober’s engines.
+The accompanying <a href="#107">diagram 18</a> illustrates the
+method of operation of the four cylinder engine.</p>
+
+<div class="chapter"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">[107]</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe35 mt2 mb2" style="max-width: 65.5em;" id="107">
+  <a rel="nofollow" href="images/i_b_107.jpg">
+    <img class="w100" src="images/i_b_107.jpg" alt="" />
+  </a>
+  <div class="caption">
+    <p class="noindent center small">Diagram 18</p>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="chapter"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">[108]</span></p>
+
+<p>The crank case is constructed from four
+pieces of 24 gauge spring brass, substantially
+connected in the form of a rectangle, the top
+and bottom being left open. The front and
+rear walls have flanges which engage the inside
+of the side walls and are secured thereto by
+four small screws on each side, thereby making
+it an easy matter to take the crank case apart.</p>
+
+<p>The four cylinders are made from drawn
+brass shells and have a bore of ¹⁄₂″ and stroke
+of ¹⁄₂″. The pistons are made of solid
+red fiber. The two-throw crankshaft is
+built up of steel with brass webs. The
+bearings are of steel. The valves, being overhead,
+are driven by a gear mounted at the end
+of the crankshaft, the gear driving the valve
+shaft by means of a gear on that shaft, with
+which the crankshaft gear meshes. The valve
+arrangement, as shown in <a href="#107">diagram 18</a>, consists
+of four recesses cut into the valve shaft, two
+of which allow the air to pass from the inlet
+pipes, which lead into the valve chamber at the
+center of same, to two of the cylinders at once,
+while the other two recesses allow the exhaust
+to pass from openings in the sides of the valve
+chamber.</p>
+
+<p>The cylinders are secured to the side plates<span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">[109]</span>
+of the crank case so that when those side plates
+are removed, the cylinders are removed with
+them. The pipes are detachable at their centers;
+small pipes running to the heads of the
+cylinders extending into the larger pipes which
+run to the valve chamber. This arrangement
+is shown in the end view of the engine. A 17″
+propeller is used in connection with this engine.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">[110]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="GASOLINE_ENGINES">GASOLINE ENGINES</h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<h3>THE JOPSON 1 H. P. GASOLINE ENGINE FOR MODEL AËROPLANES</h3>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">During</span> the past few years several attempts
+have been made, both in this country and
+abroad, to produce a reliable gasoline engine for
+model aëroplane work, but mostly without any
+degree of success. The reason for this inability,
+no doubt, is due to the scarcity of small
+working parts sufficiently light and at the same
+time reliable. The engine described herewith,
+designed by Mr. W. G. Jopson, a member of the
+Manchester Aëro Club, England, is one of the
+few that have been made to work satisfactorily.</p>
+
+<div class="chapter"></div>
+<div class="figcenter illowe35 mt2 mb2" style="max-width: 65.5em;" id="108A">
+  <a rel="nofollow" href="images/i_b_108a_fp.jpg">
+    <img class="w100" src="images/i_b_108a_fp.jpg" alt="" />
+  </a>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe35 mt2 mb2" style="max-width: 65.5em;" id="108B">
+  <a rel="nofollow" href="images/i_b_108b_fp.jpg">
+    <img class="w100" src="images/i_b_108b_fp.jpg" alt="" />
+  </a>
+  <div class="caption">
+    <p class="noindent center small">The interesting horizontal-opposed Jopson gasoline engine
+       for model aëroplanes. The top photograph shows the
+       half-speed shaft and the arrangement of the valve mechanism.
+       This engine is air cooled, develops 1 h.p. at 1,500
+       r.p.m., and weighs 7¹⁄₂ lbs., including gasoline tank and
+       propeller. The bottom view shows the engine with propeller
+       <i>in situ</i>. Courtesy <i>Flight</i>.</p>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="chapter"></div>
+<p>As the accompanying diagrams <a href="#112">19</a> and <a href="#115">20</a>
+and <a href="#108A">photograph</a> show, the engine is of the four-cycle,
+horizontal opposed type, having two cast-iron
+cylinders of 1¹⁄₄″ bore and 1³⁄₈″ stroke.
+Each cylinder is cast in one piece, and as the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">[111]</span>
+engine is air cooled, they are cast with radiating
+fins. One h.p. is developed at 1500 r.p.m.
+The total weight of the engine, gasoline tank
+and propeller is 7¹⁄₂ lbs. In preparing the design
+of this engine, the designs of similar full-sized
+aëro engines were followed as far as possible.
+The pistons are similar to those used
+on large aëro engines and are fitted with two
+rings; the crankshaft is turned out of two inch
+special bar steel, and is carried in two phosphor-bronze
+bearings. There is no special
+feature about the connecting rods, these being
+of the standard type, but very strong and light.
+To enable the two cylinders to be exactly opposite
+one another, the connecting-rods are offset
+in the pistons and are connected to the latter
+by gudgeonpins. The aluminum crank case
+is extremely simple, being cylindrical and
+vertically divided. The inlet valves are automatic,
+the exhaust valves being mechanically
+operated; the camshaft is driven from the
+main shaft by two-to-one gearing.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">[112]</span></p>
+
+<div class="chapter"></div>
+<div class="figcenter illowe35 mt2 mb2" style="max-width: 65.5em;" id="112">
+  <a rel="nofollow" href="images/i_b_112.jpg">
+    <img class="w100" src="images/i_b_112.jpg" alt="" />
+  </a>
+  <div class="caption">
+    <p class="noindent center small">Diagram 19<br /><br />
+       Sectional elevation of the 1 h.p. Jopson gasoline engine for
+       models. The disposition of the gasoline tank and wick
+       carburettor is particularly noteworthy. It will be seen
+       that metal journals are provided for the crankshaft,
+       which is turned out of 2-inch bar steel. Courtesy <i>Flight</i>.</p>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="chapter"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">[113]</span></p>
+
+<p>To assist the exhaust, and also the cooling, small holes
+are drilled round the cylinder in such a position
+that when the piston is at the inner end of its
+stroke, these holes are uncovered, thus permitting
+the hot exhaust to escape, and so relieve
+the amount passing through the exhaust valves.
+The commutator is also driven off the camshaft,
+as shown in the drawing. No distributor
+is fitted to the commutator, as small ones
+are somewhat troublesome and very light coils
+are obtainable at a reasonable price.</p>
+
+<p>The gasoline tank is made of copper in
+streamline form, and is usually fitted to the
+back of the crankcase, thus reducing the head
+resistance, but if desired it can be fitted in any
+other position. The action of the carburetor
+can be easily seen from the drawings; it is of
+the surface type and much simpler, lighter and
+quite as efficient as the spray type. Specially
+light and simple spark plugs are used, that
+give very little trouble. The propeller used in
+connection with this engine is somewhat out of
+the ordinary, having been specially designed
+for this engine, and patented. The propeller<span class="pagenum" id="Page_114">[114]</span>
+is made entirely of aluminum and has a variable
+pitch, this being easily obtainable, as the
+blades are graduated so that any desired pitch,
+within certain limits, may be given at once.
+The results of a series of tests on a 30 inch propeller
+are shown on the accompanying <a href="#115">chart</a>,
+and from it the thrust as certain speeds with a
+certain pitch can be obtained. Taking the engine
+running at 1540 r.p.m. with a pitch of 15″,
+the thrust comes out at 9¹⁄₂ lbs., or more than
+the weight of the engine and accessories.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">[115]</span></p>
+
+<div class="chapter"></div>
+<div class="figcenter illowe35 mt2 mb2" style="max-width: 65.5em;" id="115">
+  <a rel="nofollow" href="images/i_b_115.jpg">
+    <img class="w100" src="images/i_b_115.jpg" alt="" />
+  </a>
+  <div class="caption">
+    <p class="noindent center small">Diagram 20<br /><br />
+       Diagram of results obtained from tests of the 1 h.p. Jopson
+       model gasoline engine, showing the thrust in pounds at
+       varying speeds with propellers of different pitch. Courtesy
+       <i>Flight</i>.</p>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="chapter"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_116">[116]</span></p>
+
+
+<h3>THE MIDGET AËRO GASOLINE ENGINE</h3>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Although</span> numerous model constructors in
+America are experimenting with model gasoline
+engines, the Midget Gasoline Engine, the
+product of the Aëro Engine Company, Boston,
+Massachusetts, is perhaps the most satisfactory
+up to the present time. An engine of this
+type was used by Mr. P. C. McCutchen of
+Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, in his 8 foot Voisin
+Type Biplane Model, for which he claims
+a number of satisfactory flights.</p>
+
+<p>The engine is made from the best iron, steel,
+aluminum and bronze and the complete weight
+including a special carburetor, spark plug and
+spark coil is 2¹⁄₂ lbs. From the top of the cylinder
+head to the bottom of the crank case the
+engine measures 7″. It is possible to obtain
+from this engine various speeds from 400 to
+2700 r.p.m., at which speed it develops ¹⁄₂ h.p.
+The propeller used in connection with this
+engine measures 18″ in diameter and has a
+13″ pitch.</p>
+
+<div class="chapter"></div>
+<div class="figcenter illowe25 mt2 mb2" style="max-width: 65.5em;" id="116">
+  <a rel="nofollow" href="images/i_b_116_fp.jpg">
+    <img class="w100" src="images/i_b_116_fp.jpg" alt="" />
+  </a>
+  <div class="caption">
+    <p class="noindent center small">The Midget ¹⁄₂ H. P. gasoline engine</p>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_117">[117]</span></p>
+
+<p>It might be of interest to know that one of
+the parties responsible for the development of
+this engine is Mr. H. W. Aitken, a former
+model maker and who is now connected with
+one of the largest aëro engine manufacturing
+companies in America.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_118">[118]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="STEAM_POWER_PLANTS">STEAM POWER PLANTS</h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Aside</span> from the compressed air engine there
+is the steam driven engine which has been used
+abroad to considerable degree of success.
+Owing to the difficulty in constructing and
+operating a steam driven engine, very few
+model flyers in America have devoted any attention
+to the development of this engine as a
+means of propulsion for model aëroplanes.
+But irrespective of the limitations of the steam
+engine a great deal of experimentation has been
+carried on in England, and without doubt it will
+soon be experimented with in America.</p>
+
+
+<h3>H. H. GROVES STEAM POWER PLANTS</h3>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Perhaps</span>
+one of the most successful steam power
+plants to have been designed since the development
+of the Langley steam driven model, is the
+Groves type of steam power plant, designed by
+Mr. H. H. Groves, of England. On one occasion
+several flights were made with a model<span class="pagenum" id="Page_119">[119]</span>
+driven by a small steam engine of the Groves
+type weighing 3 lbs. The model proved itself
+capable of rising from the ground under its
+own power and when launched it flew a distance
+of 450 feet. This is not a long flight when
+compared with the flight made by Prof. Langley’s
+steam driven model on November 28,
+1896, of three-quarters of a mile in 1 minute
+and 45 seconds, but the size of the models and
+also that Mr. Groves’ model only made a duration
+of 30 seconds, must be considered. The
+model was loaded 12 ounces to the square foot
+and had a soaring velocity of some 20 m.p.h.
+The total weight of the power plant was 1¹⁄₂
+lbs. Propeller thrust 10 to 12 ounces. The
+total weight of the model was 48 ounces. The
+type of steam plant used in connection with this
+model was of the flash boiler, pressure fed type,
+with benzoline for fuel.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Groves has done considerable experimenting
+with the steam driven type power
+plant. Many of the designs used in the construction
+of steam plants for models are taken<span class="pagenum" id="Page_120">[120]</span>
+from his designs. A Groves steam power
+plant is employed in one of Mr. V. E. Johnson’s
+(Model Editor of <i>Flight</i>) model hydroaëroplanes,
+the first power-driven, or “mechanically
+driven” model hydroaëroplane (so far as can
+be learned) to rise from the surface of the
+water under its own power. This model has a
+total weight of 3 lbs. 4 ounces.</p>
+
+
+<h3>G. HARRIS’S STEAM ENGINE</h3>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Another</span> advocate of the steam driven type
+model is Mr. G. Harris, also of England. Several
+good flights were made by Mr. Harris
+with his pusher type monoplane equipped with
+a steam driven engine. As a result of his experiments
+he concluded that mushroom valves
+with a lift of ¹⁄₆₄ part of an inch were best,
+used in connection with the pump, and at least
+12 feet of steel tubing should be used for boiler
+coils. The first power plant constructed by
+Mr. Harris contained a boiler coil 8 feet long,
+but after he had replaced this coil with one 12
+feet long, irrespective of the fact that the extra
+length of tube weighed a couple of ounces, the
+thrust was increased by nearly a half pound.</p>
+
+<div class="chapter"></div>
+<div class="figcenter illowe35 mt2 mb2" style="max-width: 65.5em;" id="120A">
+  <a rel="nofollow" href="images/i_b_120a_fp.jpg">
+    <img class="w100" src="images/i_b_120a_fp.jpg" alt="" />
+  </a>
+  <div class="caption">
+    <p class="noindent center small">An English steam power plant for model aëroplanes.
+       Courtesy <i>Flight</i>.</p>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe35 mt2 mb2" style="max-width: 65.5em;" id="120B">
+  <a rel="nofollow" href="images/i_b_120b_fp.jpg">
+    <img class="w100" src="images/i_b_120b_fp.jpg" alt="" />
+  </a>
+  <div class="caption">
+    <p class="noindent center small">Model hydroaëroplane owned by V. E. Johnson, Model Editor
+       of <i>Flight</i>, England, equipped with an H. H. Groves
+       steam power plant. This model is the first power driven—as
+       far as can be learned—to rise from the surface of the
+       water under its own power. Courtesy <i>Flight</i>.</p>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="chapter"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_121">[121]</span></p>
+
+<p>The principal parts used in Mr. Harris’s steam
+power plant was an engine of the H. H. Groves
+type, twin cylinder, ⁷⁄₈″ bore with a piston
+stroke of ¹⁄₂″. The boiler was made from 12″
+of ³⁄₁₆″ × 20″ G. steel tubing, weighing 10.5
+ounces. The blow lamp consisted of a steel
+tube, ⁵⁄₃₂″ × 22″ G. wound round a carbide
+carrier for a nozzle. The tank was made
+of brass ⁵⁄₁₀₀₀″ thick. The pump, ⁷⁄₃₂″ bore,
+stroke variable to ¹⁄₂″, fitted with two non-return
+valves (mushroom type) and was geared
+down from the engine 4.5 to 1.</p>
+
+
+<h3>PROFESSOR LANGLEY’S STEAM ENGINE</h3>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> Langley steam driven model, of which
+so much has been said, and which on one occasion
+flew a distance of one-half mile in 90 seconds,
+had a total weight of 30 lbs., the engine
+and generating plant constituting one-quarter
+of this weight. The weight of the complete
+plant worked out to 7 lbs. per h.p. The engine
+developed from 1 to 1¹⁄₂ h.p. A flash type
+boiler was used, with a steam pressure of from
+150 to 200 lbs., the coils having been made of
+copper. A modified naphtha blow-torch, such<span class="pagenum" id="Page_122">[122]</span>
+as is used by plumbers, was used to eject a blast
+or flame about 2000 Fahrenheit through the
+center of this coil. A pump was used for circulation
+purposes. With the best mechanical
+assistance that could be obtained at that date,
+it took Professor Langley one year to construct
+the model.</p>
+
+
+<h3>FRENCH EXPERIMENTS WITH STEAM POWER PLANTS</h3>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">About</span> ten months after Langley’s results,
+some experiments were carried out by the
+French at Carquenez, near Toulon. The
+model used for the experiments weighed in
+total 70 lbs., the engine developing more than
+1 h.p. As in the Langley case, twin propellers
+were used, but instead of being mounted side by
+side, they were mounted one in front and the
+other behind. The result of these experiments
+compared very poorly with Langley’s. A
+flight of only 462 feet was made, with a duration
+of a few seconds. The maximum velocity
+is stated to have been 40 m.p.h. The span of
+this model was a little more than 6 meters, or
+about 19 feet, with a surface of more than 8
+square meters, or about 80 square feet.</p>
+
+<div class="chapter"></div>
+<div class="figcenter illowe35 mt2 mb2" style="max-width: 65.5em;" id="122A">
+  <a rel="nofollow" href="images/i_b_122a_fp.jpg">
+    <img class="w100" src="images/i_b_122a_fp.jpg" alt="" />
+  </a>
+  <div class="caption">
+    <p class="noindent center small">An English hydroaëroplane of tractor design equipped with
+       steam power plant. Courtesy <i>Flight</i>.</p>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe35 mt2 mb2" style="max-width: 65.5em;" id="122B">
+  <a rel="nofollow" href="images/i_b_122b_fp.jpg">
+    <img class="w100" src="images/i_b_122b_fp.jpg" alt="" />
+  </a>
+  <div class="caption">
+    <p class="noindent center small">On the left an English 10 oz. Compressed air driven biplane.
+       On the right, the engine shown fitted with a simple
+       speedometer for experimental purposes. Courtesy <i>Flight</i>.</p>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_123">[123]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CARBONIC_GAS_ENGINE">CARBONIC GAS ENGINE</h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> six-cylinder carbonic gas engine described
+herewith is the product of Mr. Henry
+Rompel, Kansas City, Missouri.</p>
+
+<p>This is perhaps one of the most interesting
+of its kind to have been developed during 1916,
+and its appearance in the model aëroplane
+field adds weight to the claim that mechanical
+engines will soon replace the rubber strand as
+motive power for model aëroplanes.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Rompel’s engine is of rotary, carbonic
+gas type, having six cylinders, a bore of ⁵⁄₈″
+and a stroke of ³⁄₄″.</p>
+
+<p>The intake is derived through a rotary valve
+which also acts as a crank shaft bearing, thereby
+saving weight.</p>
+
+<p>The exhaust is accomplished by mechanically
+operated valves situated in the heads of the
+cylinders being opened by the aid of rocker<span class="pagenum" id="Page_124">[124]</span>
+arms and push rods, which gain their timing
+from a cam placed on the crankshaft.</p>
+
+<p>To save weight in construction the crankshaft,
+connecting rods, pistons and cylinders
+were made of telescopic tubing with a side wall
+of one thirty-second of an inch or less in thickness.</p>
+
+<p>The engine has a swing of 5¹⁄₂″ over all,
+weighs a little less than 8 ounces complete,
+and is operated on 1,500 pounds pressure (carbonic
+gas) and at a speed of 3,500 to 3,700
+r.p.m. will develop about 1 horse power.
+While spinning a 17″ propeller with a pitch
+of 20 inches it will deliver a thrust of 21
+ounces, and has a duration of 40 seconds.
+Two hundred and fifty-six pieces were embodied
+in its construction.</p>
+
+<div class="chapter"></div>
+<div class="figcenter illowe35 mt2 mb2" style="max-width: 65.5em;" id="124">
+  <a rel="nofollow" href="images/i_b_124_fp.jpg">
+    <img class="w100" src="images/i_b_124_fp.jpg" alt="" />
+  </a>
+  <div class="caption">
+    <p class="noindent center small">The Rompel six-cylinder carbonic gas engine</p>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_125">[125]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="THE_FORMATION_OF_MODEL">THE FORMATION OF MODEL
+CLUBS</h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">To</span> form a model aëroplane club at least six
+interested persons are necessary. As soon as
+a place in which to hold meetings has been
+decided upon the club should proceed to elect
+a director whose duty should be to manage the
+affairs of the club. One of the first things to
+be considered is the name under which the
+club will operate; the custom is usually to adopt
+the name of the town or city in which the club
+is located, viz.: Concord Model Aëro Club,
+Concord, Massachusetts, although it is the
+privilege of the majority of the members to
+choose a name such as they might feel will best
+benefit the purpose for which the club was organized.
+As in the case of the Aëro Science
+Club of America, this club was formed for the
+purpose of stimulating interest in model<span class="pagenum" id="Page_126">[126]</span>
+aëronautics and to help those who might become
+interested therein, not only in New York City
+but throughout the entire United States.</p>
+
+<p>When the matter of name and place has
+been settled the club should decide upon the
+course it is to follow, first by electing <span class="smcap">officers</span>
+and second by preparing a <span class="smcap">constitution
+and by-laws</span>. In the case of clubs whose
+membership does not comprise more than six
+members, it does not seem desirable to have
+more than one officer, namely, a <span class="smcap">director</span>,
+who might perform the duties of a president,
+treasurer and secretary until the club has
+reached a larger membership. In this way
+the members are enabled to concentrate upon
+the construction and flying of models and to
+engage in such other activities as to carry out
+the purpose for which the club was organized.
+However, the foregoing is merely a suggestion
+on the part of the writer, who by the way is a
+member of the Aëro Science Club of America
+and formerly acted in the capacity of secretary
+to that club.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_127">[127]</span></p>
+
+<p>Clubs whose membership totals more than
+twelve, however, should proceed to elect a President,
+Treasurer and Secretary, all of whom
+must receive a vote of at least two-thirds of
+the membership. With clubs of this size a
+director is not needed as the affairs of the club
+are usually entrusted with the governing officers,
+the President, Treasurer and Secretary.
+In as much as the constitution and by-laws are
+an important factor in the affairs of any
+model club, the governing officers, before mentioned,
+should hold a private meeting at the
+earliest moment whereat to frame a constitution
+and set of by-laws embodying the purposes
+and policy of the club. When the proposed
+constitution and by-laws are completed
+they should be presented to the members for
+approval after which a copy should be given
+to every member.</p>
+
+<p>The following is a specimen of constitution
+and by-laws that might be used by any person
+or persons desiring to form a Model Aëro
+Club:</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_128">[128]</span></p>
+
+
+<p class="noindent center p2">CONSTITUTION AND BY-LAWS OF A MODEL AËROPLANE CLUB</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Article 1. Name.</span> The name of this
+club will be known as The .......... Model
+Aëro Club.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Purpose.</span> The object of this club shall be
+to study and increase the interest in the science
+of aëronautics in every way possible and to
+realize this object, shall construct and fly model
+aëroplanes, gliders and man carrying machines.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Further</span>, Contests shall be held for model
+aëroplanes and prizes awarded to the winners
+thereof. And as a further step in the advancement
+of this art, meetings, lectures,
+discussions, debates and exhibitions will be
+held.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Article 2. Membership.</span> Any person
+may become a member of this club provided
+his application receives the unanimous approval
+of the majority of members, or is passed
+upon by the membership committee. A member<span class="pagenum" id="Page_129">[129]</span>
+may resign his membership by written communication
+to the secretary who shall present
+it to the membership committee to be passed
+upon.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Article 3. Officers.</span> The officers of this
+organization shall be a President, Vice-president,
+Secretary and Treasurer and a board of
+governors to consist of said officers. The
+president and vice-president shall constitute
+the executive committee of the board of governors,
+with full powers to act for them in the
+affairs of the club. The election of officers
+shall take place at the first meeting held during
+the month of .......... of each year and
+shall hold office for one year. In the event
+of a vacancy in the office of the President the
+Vice-president or next highest officer present
+shall preside. Any other vacancy shall be filled
+by an officer temporarily appointed by the President.
+The President shall preside at all meetings
+of the club and of the board of governors,
+and shall perform such other duties as usually
+pertain to that office. The President shall<span class="pagenum" id="Page_130">[130]</span>
+have full authority to appoint committees or
+boards as may be necessary to further the interests
+of the club.</p>
+
+<p>The Secretary shall keep a record of all
+meetings of the club, board of governors and
+committees and shall use the seal of the club
+as may be directed by the executive committee.
+Further, he shall issue notices to officers
+and members of all special meetings and perform
+such other duties as may be assigned him
+by the constitution, by the club or by the board
+of governors.</p>
+
+<p>The Treasurer shall have charge of the
+funds of the club, receive all moneys, fees, dues,
+etc.; pay all bills approved by the board of governors,
+and preserve all proper vouchers for
+such disbursements.</p>
+
+
+<p class="noindent center small p2">RULES FOR CONTESTS</p>
+
+<p>We now come to the matter of contests. As
+there are many different types of models so
+must there be rules to correspond to avoid misunderstandings,
+and until the club has reached<span class="pagenum" id="Page_131">[131]</span>
+the stage where it may decide upon a particular
+set of rules under which its members
+should participate perhaps the following set
+of rules, applicable to contests for hand
+launched models, can be adopted. In so far
+as there are different rules for different contests,
+namely, hand launched, R. O. G. and
+R. O. W. and mechanical driven, the following
+rules are used only in connection with contests
+for hand launched models; rules for other contests
+follow:</p>
+
+
+<p class="noindent center small p2">RULES</p>
+
+<p>A contest to be official must have at least five
+contestants.</p>
+
+<p>Each contestant must abide by the rules of
+the contest and decision of the judges.</p>
+
+<p>Each contestant must register his name, age,
+and address before the event.</p>
+
+<p>Each contestant must enter and fly models
+made by himself only.</p>
+
+<p>Trials to start from a given point indicated
+by the starter of the trials, and distance to be
+measured in a straight line from the starting<span class="pagenum" id="Page_132">[132]</span>
+point to where the model first touches the
+ground, regardless of the curves or circles it
+may have made. Each contestant must have
+his models marked with his name and number
+of his models (1, 2, 3, etc.), and each model
+will be entitled to three official trials. Contestant
+has the privilege of changing the planes
+and propellers as he may see fit, everything
+to be of his own construction, but only three
+frames can be used in any contest. If in the
+opinion of the board of judges there are too
+many entries to give each one nine flights in
+the length of time fixed, the judges have the
+power to change that part of rule No. 6 to the
+following:</p>
+
+<p>“Six flights or less, as circumstances may
+require, will be allowed to each contestant,
+which can be made with one model or any one
+of three entered; all of his own construction;
+due notice must be given to each contestant of
+the change.”</p>
+
+<p>No trial is considered as official unless the
+model flies over 100 feet from the starting<span class="pagenum" id="Page_133">[133]</span>
+point. (The qualifying distance can be
+changed by agreement between the club and
+the starter provided the entrants are notified.)
+Should the rubber become detached from the
+model, or the propeller drop off during the
+trial, the trial is counted as official, provided
+the model has covered the qualifying distance.
+No matter what may happen to the model after
+it has covered the qualifying distance the flight
+is official. Contests should cover a period of
+three hours, unless otherwise agreed.</p>
+
+<p>No contestant shall use the model of another
+contestant, although the former may have
+made it himself.</p>
+
+<p>The officials should be: a starter, measurer,
+judge and scorer; also three or four guards to
+keep starting point and course clear. The
+first three officials shall, as board of judges,
+decide all questions and disputes. A space 25
+feet square (with stakes and ropes) should be
+measured off for officials and contestants, together
+with an assistant for each contestant.
+All others must be kept out by the guards and a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_134">[134]</span>
+space kept clear (at least 25 feet) in front of
+the starting point, so a contestant will not be
+impeded in making his trial.</p>
+
+<p>Each official should wear a badge, ribbon or
+arm band designating his office, and must be
+upheld in his duties.</p>
+
+
+<p class="noindent center small p2">HANDICAPS</p>
+
+<p>At the discretion of the club there may be
+imposed a handicap for club events as follows:
+A contestant in order to win must exceed his
+last record with which he won a prize.</p>
+
+
+<p class="noindent center small p2">COMBINATION AND DURATION EVENTS</p>
+
+<p>First, second and third records to count.
+Lowest number of points to win. For example:</p>
+
+<p>A may have 1st in distance and 2nd in duration,
+3 total points.</p>
+
+<p>B may have 3rd in distance and 1st in duration,
+4 total points.</p>
+
+<p>C may have 2nd in distance and 3rd in duration,
+5 total points.</p>
+
+<p>Accordingly A wins.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_135">[135]</span></p>
+
+
+<p class="noindent center small p2">R. O. G. CONTESTS</p>
+
+<p class="noindent center">(Rising from the Ground)</p>
+
+<p>Models to be set on the ground and allowed
+to start off without any effort on the part of
+the contestant. Models should rise from the
+ground before reaching a predetermined mark,
+no flight to be considered unless it does so.
+Contestant may start at any length back from
+the mark, but the distance is to be measured
+only from the mark.</p>
+
+
+<p class="noindent center small p2">MECHANICALLY DRIVEN MODEL CONTESTS</p>
+
+<p>For duration, or distance, contests for mechanically
+driven models might be held under
+the same ruling that applies to R. O. G. models.
+But owing to the many types of engines used
+in mechanically driven models, definite rules
+for the holding of such a contest must be left
+to the discretion of the club or contestants.</p>
+
+
+<p class="noindent center small p2">EVENTS OPEN TO ALL</p>
+
+<p>These events are open to all, with no handicaps
+to be imposed on either club members or
+others.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_136">[136]</span></p>
+
+
+<p class="noindent center small p2">INTER-CLUB MODEL AËROPLANE TOURNAMENTS</p>
+
+<p class="noindent center">(Prizes to be determined by contesting clubs)</p>
+
+<p>The tournament to consist of five events as
+follows:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>Duration: Models launched from hand.</p>
+
+<p>Distance: Models launched from hand.</p>
+
+<p>Duration: Models launched from ground.
+R. O. G.</p>
+
+<p>Distance: Models launched from ground.
+R. O. G.</p>
+
+<p>Duration: Models launched from water.
+R. O. W.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Dates for inter-club contest should be arranged
+for at least three weeks prior to date
+of first contest, to allow ample time for the
+construction of special models and elimination
+trials.</p>
+
+<p>In event of inclement weather the contest
+to take place the week following (each contest
+following to be set one week ahead), or at any
+time that may be determined by a committee
+appointed by the contesting clubs.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_137">[137]</span></p>
+
+<p>Each competing club must be represented by
+a team of three contestants and one non-competitor,
+who will act as judge in conjunction
+with the judges from the other clubs, and
+a manager selected by the judges who will
+supervise over the entire tournament and issue
+calls for meetings. (Substitutes should
+also be selected for any possible vacancy.)</p>
+
+<p>Meetings of the judges of the competing
+clubs should be held at some designated place,
+at which time dates and general details shall
+be arranged, and between events there should
+be a meeting called, for general discussion regarding
+the recent event, receive protests and
+suggestions and to announce officially the result
+of the contest.</p>
+
+<p>The manager shall have control of the various
+events, assisted by the judges and they
+shall decide all disputes that may arise, and
+act as scorers and timers, as well.</p>
+
+<p>Each flyer will be allowed but one model
+and shall be entitled to three official flights, but
+he shall be permitted to make any repairs or<span class="pagenum" id="Page_138">[138]</span>
+replace any broken parts. No contestant shall
+be privileged to fly a model not of his own construction.
+Each event shall close when all the
+contestants have made three official flights, or
+when three hours’ time has elapsed.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_139">[139]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="WORLDS_MODEL_FLYING">WORLD’S MODEL FLYING
+RECORDS</h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="noindent center smcap">(Twin Propeller Pusher Type Models)<br />
+monoplane</p>
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>Year 1917. Ward Pease (America), rise off ground,
+distance 3364 feet.</p>
+
+<p>Year 1916. Thomas Hall (America), hand launched,
+distance 5537 feet.</p>
+
+<p>Year 1917. Donovan Lathrop (America), hand
+launched, duration 5 minutes.</p>
+
+<p>Year 1917. Emil Laird (America), 18 inch type
+model, distance 750 feet.</p>
+
+<p>Year 1915. Wallace A. Lauder (America), hand
+launched, distance 3537 feet.</p>
+
+<p>Year 1915. Wallace A. Lauder (America), hand
+launched, duration 195 seconds.</p>
+
+<p>Year 1914. Fred Watkins (America), rise off
+ground, distance 1761 feet.</p>
+
+<p>Year 1914. J. E. Louch (England), rise off ground,
+duration 169 seconds.</p>
+
+<p>Year 1915. E. C. Cook (America), rise off water,
+duration 100 seconds.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_140">[140]</span></p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="noindent center smcap">(Twin Propeller Tractor Type)<br />
+monoplane</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>Year 1913. Harry Herzog (America), rise off water, duration 28 seconds.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<p class="noindent center smcap">(Twin Propeller Pusher Type)<br />
+biplane</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>Year 1915. A. H. Wheeler (America), rise off ground, duration 143 seconds.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="noindent center smcap">(Single Propeller Pusher Type)<br />
+monoplane</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>Year 1914. J. E. Louch (England), hand launched, duration 95 seconds.</p>
+
+<p>Year 1914. W. E. Evans (England), rise from ground, distance 870 feet.</p>
+
+<p>Year 1914. J. E. Louch (England), rise from ground, duration 68 seconds.</p>
+
+<p>Year 1914. L. H. Slatter (England), rise from water, duration 35 seconds.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="noindent center smcap">(Single Propeller Tractor Type)<br />
+monoplane</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>Year 1915. D. Lathrop (America), hand launched, distance 1039 feet.</p>
+
+<p>Year 1915. D. Lathrop (America), hand launched, duration 240 seconds.</p>
+
+<p>Year 1914. C. D. Dutton (England), rise from ground, distance 570 feet.</p>
+
+<p>Year 1914. J. E. Louch (England), rise from ground, duration 94 seconds.</p>
+</div>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_141">[141]</span></p>
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>Year 1915. L. Hittle (America), rise from water, duration 116 seconds.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="noindent center smcap">(Single Propeller Tractor Type)<br />
+biplane</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>Year 1915. Laird Hall (American), rise from ground, duration 76 seconds.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="noindent center smcap">(Flying Boat Type)<br />
+monoplane</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>Year 1915. Robert La Tour (America), rise from water, duration 43 seconds.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="noindent center smcap">(Flying Boat Type)<br />
+biplane</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>Year 1914. C. V. Obst (America), rise from water, duration 27 seconds.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="noindent center smcap">(Mechanical Driven Model)</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>Year 1914. D. Stanger (England), rise from ground, duration 51 seconds.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="noindent center p2">(All British records are quoted from <i>Flight</i>)</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_142">[142]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="DICTIONARY_OF_AERONAUTICAL">DICTIONARY OF AËRONAUTICAL
+TERMS</h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<p class="noindent center p2">A</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Aërodrome</span>—A tract of land selected for flying purposes.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Aërodynamics</span>—The science of Aviation, literally the
+study of the influence of air in motion.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Aërofoil</span>—A flat or flexed plane which lends support
+to an aëroplane.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Aëronaut</span>—One engaged in navigating the air.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Aëronautics</span>—The science of navigating the air.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Aëroplane</span>—A heavier than air machine supported by
+one or more fixed wings or planes.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Aërostatics</span>—The science of aërostation, or of buoyancy
+caused by displacement, ballooning.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Aërostation</span>—The science of lighter than air or gas-borne
+machines.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Aileron</span>—The outer edge or tip of a wing, usually
+adjustable, used to balance or stabilize.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Airship</span>—Commonly used to denote both heavier and
+lighter than air machines; correctly a dirigible
+balloon.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Angle of Incidence</span>—The angle of the wing with
+the line of travel.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_143">[143]</span></p>
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Area</span>—In the case of wings, the extent of surface
+measured on both the upper and lower sides. An
+area of one square foot comprises the actual surface
+of two square feet.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Aspect Ratio</span>—The proportion of the chord to the
+span of a wing. For example if the wing has a
+span of 30 inches and a chord of 6 inches the
+aspect ratio will be 5 or <sup>span</sup>&#160;/&#160;<sub>chord.</sub></p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Automatic Stability</span>—Stability secured by fins, the
+angle of the wings and similar devices.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Aviator</span>—One engaged in Aviation.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Aviation</span>—The science of heavier than air machines.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Angle of Blade</span>—The angle of the blade of a propeller
+to the axis of the shaft.</p>
+
+
+<p class="noindent center p2">B</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Balancer</span>—A plane or other part intended for lateral
+equilibrium.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Bearing Block</span>—Used in connection with the mounting
+of propellers on model aëroplanes. Made
+from wood and metal.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Brace</span>—Strip of bamboo or other material used to join
+together the frame side members. Also used in
+joining other parts of a model.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Biplane</span>—An aëroplane or model aëroplane with two
+wings superposed.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Body</span>—The main framework supporting the wing or
+wings and the machinery.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_144">[144]</span></p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Banking</span>—The lateral tilting of an aëroplane when
+taking a turn.</p>
+
+
+<p class="noindent center p2">C</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Camber</span>—The rise of the curved contour of an arched
+surface above the Chord Line.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Center of Gravity</span>—The point at which the aëroplane
+balances.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Center of Pressure</span>—The imaginary line beneath the
+wing at which the pressure balances.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Chassis</span> (<span class="smcap">Carriage</span>)—The part on which the main
+body of an aëroplane or model aëroplane is supported
+on land or water.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Chord</span>—The distance between the entering and trailing
+edges of a wing.</p>
+
+
+<p class="noindent center p2">D</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Deck</span>—The main surface of a biplane or multiplane.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Directional Control</span>—The ability to determine the
+direction of the flight of an aëroplane.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Dirigible</span>—A balloon driven by power.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Dope</span>—A coating for wings.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Down Wind</span>—With the wind.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Drift</span>—The resistance of the wing to the forward
+movement.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Dihedral Angle</span>—The inclination of the wings to each
+other usually bent up from the center in the form
+of a flat V.</p>
+
+
+<p class="noindent center p2">E</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Elevator</span>—The plane or wing intended to control the
+vertical flight of the machine.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_145">[145]</span></p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Engine</span>—A contrivance for generating driving power.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Engine Base</span>—Main stick used for frame of single
+stick model.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Engineer</span>—One who controls the power, driving the
+machinery.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Entering Edge</span> <i>or</i> <span class="smcap">Leading Edge</span>—Front edge or
+edge of the surface upon which the air impinges.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Equilibrator</span>—A plane or other contrivance which
+makes for stability.</p>
+
+
+<p class="noindent center p2">F</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Fin</span>—A fixed vertical plane.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Flexed</span>—A wing is said to be flexed when it curves
+upward forming an arc of a circle.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Flying Stick</span>—Name applied to ordinary A type and
+single stick models.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Flying Machine</span>—Literally a form of lighter than
+air craft; a gas-borne airship.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Flying Boat</span>—A hull or large float used in connection
+with an aëroplane to enable its rising from and
+alighting upon the surface of the water.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Frame</span>—A single or double stick structure to which all
+parts of a model are attached. Three or more
+sticks are sometimes employed in the construction
+of a frame. However, the usual number is two,
+joined together in the form of letter “A.”</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Frame Hooks</span>—The looped ends of a piece of wire attached
+to the point of the frame to accommodate
+the S hooks attached to the rubber strands.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Frame Side Members</span>—Two main sticks of an A type
+frame.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_146">[146]</span></p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Fuselage</span>—The body or framework of an aëroplane.</p>
+
+
+<p class="noindent center p2">G</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Glider</span>—An aëroplane without motive power.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Guy</span>—A brace, usually a wire or cord used for tuning
+up the aëroplane.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Gross Weight</span>—The weight of the aircraft, comprising
+fuel, lubricating oils and the pilot.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Gyroscope</span>—A rotating mechanism for maintaining
+equilibrium.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Gap</span>—The vertical distance between the superposed
+wings.</p>
+
+
+<p class="noindent center p2">H</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Hangar</span>—A shed for housing an aëroplane.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Harbor</span>—A shelter for aircraft.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Heavier than Air</span>—A machine weighing more than
+the air it displaces.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Helicopter</span>—A flying machine in which propellers
+are utilized to give a lifting effect by their own direct
+action on the air. In aviation the term implies
+that the screw exerts a direct lift.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Helmsman</span>—One in charge of the steering device.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Hydroaëroplane</span>—An aëroplane with pontoons to enable
+its rising from the surface of the water.
+Known as hydro in model circles.</p>
+
+
+<p class="noindent center p2">K</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Keel</span>—A vertical plane or planes arranged longitudinally
+either above or below the body for the purpose
+of giving stability.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_147">[147]</span></p>
+
+<p class="noindent center p2">L</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Lateral Stability</span>—Stability which prevents side motion.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Loading</span>—The gross weight divided by the supporting
+area measured in square feet.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Longitudinal Stability</span>—Stability which prevents
+fore and aft motion or pitching.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Longerons</span>—Main members of the fuselage. Sometimes
+called longitudinals.</p>
+
+
+<p class="noindent center p2">M</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Mast</span>—A perpendicular stick holding the stays or
+struts which keep the wings rigid.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Model Aëroplane</span>—A scale reproduction of a man-carrying
+machine.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Mechanical Power</span>—A model driven by means other
+than rubber strands such as compressed air, steam,
+gasoline, spring, electricity and so forth is termed
+a mechanical driven model. The power used is
+termed mechanical power.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Motive Power</span>—In connection with model aëroplanes
+a number of rubber strands evenly strung from the
+propeller shaft to the frame hooks which while
+unwinding furnish the necessary power to propel
+the model.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Main Beam</span>—In connection with model aëroplanes
+a long stick which is secured to the under side of
+the wing frame at the highest point in the curve
+of the ribs adding materially to the rigidity of the
+wing.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_148">[148]</span></p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Monoplane</span>—An aëroplane or heavier than air machine
+supported by a single main wing which may
+be formed of two wings extending from a central
+body.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Multiplane</span>—An aëroplane with more than four
+wings superposed.</p>
+
+
+<p class="noindent center p2">N</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Nacelle</span>—The car of a dirigible balloon, literally a
+cradle. Also applied to short body used in connection
+with aëroplanes for the accommodation of the
+pilot and engine.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Net Weight</span>—Complete weight of the machine without
+pilot, fuel or oil.</p>
+
+
+<p class="noindent center p2">O</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Ornithopter</span>—A flapping wing machine which has
+arched wings like those of a bird.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Orthogonal</span>—A flight maintained by flapping wings.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Outriggers</span>—Members which extend forward or rearward
+from the main planes for the purpose of
+supporting the elevator or tail planes of an aëroplane.</p>
+
+
+<p class="noindent center p2">P</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Plane</span>—A surface or wing, either plain or flexed, employed
+to support or control an aëroplane.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Pilot</span>—One directing an aëroplane in flight.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_149">[149]</span></p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Pitch</span>—Theoretical distance covered by a propeller in
+making one revolution.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Propeller</span>—The screw used for driving an aëroplane.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Propeller Bearings</span>—Pieces of bronze tubing or strips
+of metal formed to the shape of the letter “L”
+used to mount propellers. Also made from blocks
+of wood.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Propeller Blank</span>—A block of wood cut to the design
+of a propeller.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Propeller Spar(s)</span>—The heavy stick or sticks upon
+which the bearing or bearings of a single or twin
+propeller model are mounted.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Propeller Shaft</span>—A piece of wire which is run
+through the hub of the propeller and tubing in
+mounting the propeller.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Pylon</span>—Correctly, a structure housing a falling weight
+used for starting an aëroplane, commonly a turning
+point in aëroplane flights.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Pusher</span>—An aëroplane with the propeller or propellers
+situated in back of the main supporting surfaces.</p>
+
+
+<p class="noindent center p2">Q</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Quadruplane</span>—An aëroplane with four wings superposed.</p>
+
+
+<p class="noindent center p2">R</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Rudder</span>—A plane or group of planes used to steer an
+aëroplane.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Runner</span>—Strip beneath an aëroplane used for a skid.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_150">[150]</span></p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Running Gear</span> <i>or</i> <span class="smcap">Landing Gear</span>—That portion of
+the chassis consisting of the axle, wheels and shock
+absorber.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Rib</span>—Curved brace fastened to the entering and trailing
+edges of a wing.</p>
+
+
+<p class="noindent center p2">S</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Scale Model</span>—A miniature aëroplane exactly reproducing
+the proportions of an original.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Spar</span>—A mast strut or brace.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Side Slip</span>—The tendency of an aëroplane to slide or
+slip sideways when too steep banking is attempted.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Stability</span>—The power to maintain an even keel in
+flight.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Starting Platform</span>—A runway to enable an aëroplane
+to leave the ground.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Surface Friction</span>—Resistance offered by planes or
+wings.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Slip</span>—The difference between the distance actually
+traveled by a propeller and that measured by the
+pitch.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Soaring Flight</span>—A gliding movement without apparent
+effort.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Sustaining Surface</span>—Extent of the wings or planes
+which lend support to an aëroplane.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Span (Spread)</span>—The dimension of a surface across
+the air stream.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Streamline</span>—Exposing as little surface as possible to
+offer resistance to air.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_151">[151]</span></p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Skids</span>—In connection with model aëroplanes, steel
+wires or strips of bamboo allowed to extend below
+the frame to protect the model in landing and to
+permit its rising off the ground or ice.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">S or Motor Hooks</span>—A piece of wire bent in a double
+hook to resemble the letter “S.” One end to
+be attached to the frame hook, the other serving
+as accommodation for the rubber strands.</p>
+
+
+<p class="noindent center p2">T</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Tail</span>—The plane or planes, both horizontal and vertical,
+carried behind the main planes.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Tandem</span>—An arrangement of two planes one behind
+the other.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Thrust</span>—The power exerted by the propeller of an
+aëroplane.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Tension</span>—The power exerted by twisted strands of
+rubber in unwinding.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Tractor</span>—An aëroplane with the propeller situated before
+the main supporting surfaces.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Triplane</span>—An aëroplane with three wings superposed.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Trailing Edge</span>—The rear edge of a surface.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Torque</span>—The twisting force of a propeller tending to
+overturn or swerve an aëroplane sideways.</p>
+
+
+<p class="noindent center p2">U</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Up Wind</span>—Against the wind.</p>
+
+
+<p class="noindent center p2">W</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Wake</span>—The churned or disturbed air in the track of a
+moving aëroplane.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_152">[152]</span></p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Wash</span>—The movement of the air radiating from the
+sides of an aëroplane in flight.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Wings</span>—Planes or supporting surfaces, commonly a
+pair of wings extending out from a central body.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Winder</span>—An apparatus used for winding two sets of
+rubber strands at the same time in opposite directions
+or one at a time. Very often made from an
+egg beater or hand drill.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2"><span class="smcap">Warping</span>—The springing of a wing out of its normal
+shape, thereby creating a temporary difference in
+the extremities of the wing which enables the wind
+to heel the machine back again into balance.</p>
+
+
+<p class="noindent center p2">ABREVIATIONS</p>
+
+<table style="margin-right: auto; margin-left: 0em">
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl">H. P.</td>
+    <td class="tdl">&#8195;Horse Power.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl">R. P. M.</td>
+    <td class="tdl">&#8195;Revolutions per minute.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl">H. L.</td>
+    <td class="tdl">&#8195;Hand launched.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl">R. O. G.</td>
+    <td class="tdl">&#8195;Rise off ground model.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl">R. O. W.</td>
+    <td class="tdl">&#8195;Rise off water model.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl">M. P. H.</td>
+    <td class="tdl">&#8195;Miles per hour.</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p class="noindent center p2">THE END</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
+
+<div class="transnote-end chapter p4">
+
+<p class="center bold TN-style-1"><a id="TN"></a>Transcriber’s Note (continued)</p>
+
+<p class="TN-style-1">Errors in punctuation have been corrected.
+Inconsistencies in spelling, grammar, capitalisation, and hyphenation
+are as they appear in the original publication except where noted
+below:</p>
+
+<p class="TN-style-2">Page 16 – “bob-sled″” changed to “bobsled″” (an ordinary bobsled)</p>
+
+<p class="TN-style-2">Page 53 – “approximately cross section” changed to “approximately circular cross section”</p>
+
+<p class="TN-style-2">Page 55 – “run” changed to “runs” (one of which wires runs to)</p>
+
+<p class="TN-style-2">Page 83 – “ten″” changed to “10″” (10″ propeller)</p>
+
+<p class="TN-style-2">Page 105 – “five cylinder” changed to “three
+cylinder” (Schober-Funk three cylinder rotary engine) [This change was
+made to the illustration caption on this page and also to the entry in
+the List of Illustrations that points to it.]</p>
+
+<p class="TN-style-2">Page 106 – “diagram 17” changed to “diagram 18” (The accompanying diagram 18 illustrates)</p>
+
+<p class="TN-style-2">Page 108 – “crank-shaft” changed to “crankshaft” (The two-throw crankshaft)</p>
+
+<p class="TN-style-2">Page 111 – “cam-shaft” changed to “camshaft” (provided for the camshaft)</p>
+
+<p class="TN-style-2">Page 112 – “crank-shaft” changed to “crankshaft” (the crankshaft is driven)</p>
+
+<p class="TN-style-2">Page 113 – “stream-line” changed to “streamline” (streamline form)</p>
+
+<p class="TN-style-2">Page 116 – “Bi-plane” changed to “Biplane” (Type Biplane Model)</p>
+
+<p class="TN-style-1">The prefix of AËRO/Aëro/aëro as in ‘aëroplane’, etc., is used
+throughout the body text of the original publication with a few
+exceptions. These latter have been changed for consistency in this
+transcription. The unaccented prefix AERO/Aero/aero is now only used in
+title page text.</p>
+
+<p class="TN-style-1">Incorrect entries in the Table of Contents have had their text
+and/or page references changed so that they agree with the text and
+location of the parts of the original publication to which they refer.</p>
+
+<p class="TN-style-1">Entries in the DICTIONARY OF AËRONAUTICAL TERMS which are not
+in the correct alphabetical order have been left as they appear in the
+original publication. Some minor typographical errors and spelling
+mistakes have been corrected without further note.</p>
+
+<hr class="r10" />
+
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author	nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org>	2025-01-22 00:24:42 -0800
committer	nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org>	2025-01-22 00:24:42 -0800
commit	e6b67e4f881411902f261ceb75a387cca8faa9e8 (patch)
tree	28feb78a10887ff5fd7e1b90559aac9b2d5a687c