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diff --git a/old/67841-0.txt b/old/67841-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index aa3cdb1..0000000 --- a/old/67841-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,4168 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Emeryville Shellmound, by Max Uhle - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: The Emeryville Shellmound - -Author: Max Uhle - -Release Date: April 14, 2022 [eBook #67841] - -Language: English - -Produced by: Charlene Taylor, Pat McCoy and the Online Distributed - Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was - produced from images generously made available by The - Internet Archive/American Libraries.) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE EMERYVILLE -SHELLMOUND *** - - - [Cover Illustration] - - - - - UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PUBLICATIONS - AMERICAN ARCHAEOLOGY AND ETHNOLOGY - Vol. 7 No. 1 - THE EMERYVILLE SHELLMOUND - BY - MAX UHLE - BERKELEY - THE UNIVERSITY PRESS - JUNE, 1907 - - - - - CONTENTS. - - PAGE - - PART 1. GENERAL REPORT ON THE EXCAVATIONS CONDUCTED BY PROFESSOR.... 1 - JOHN C. MERRIAM AND DR. MAX UHLE IN THE SPRING OF 1902...... - Introduction................................................ 2 - Early Settlements in the Region............................. 5 - Early References to Shellmounds of Middle California........ 6 - The Nature of the Excavations............................... 7 - The Base of the Mound....................................... 9 - The Internal Structure...................................... 14 - Constituents of the Mound................................... 16 - Shells................................................. 16 - Bones.................................................. 18 - Fireplaces............................................. 19 - Human Remains and Relics............................... 19 - Burials..................................................... 21 - Age of the Mound............................................ 30 - Cultural Stages Represented................................. 36 - - PART 2. ARTIFACTS UNEARTHED AT THE EMERYVILLE SHELLMOUND............ 42 - A. Implements of Stone...................................... 42 - a. Made by Grinding................................... 42 - 1. Mortars.......................................... 42 - 2. Flat Stones...................................... 46 - 3. Pestles.......................................... 47 - 4. Hammer-like Stones............................... 49 - 5. Flat Stones Pointed at Both Ends................. 50 - 6. Sinker-like Stones............................... 50 - 7. Cylindrical Stones............................... 56 - 8. Needle-like Stone Implements..................... 57 - 9. Tobacco Pipes.................................... 57 - 10. Various Polished Stones.......................... 59 - b. Chipped Stones..................................... 61 - B. Utensils of Bone, Horn, and the Teeth of Animals......... 66 - Implements of Bone..................................... 66 - 1. Awl-like Tools................................... 66 - a. Common Awls.................................... 66 - b. Blunt Awl-like Implements...................... 69 - c. Flat Awl-like Implements....................... 69 - 2. Needle-like Implements........................... 70 - a. Straight Needles without Perforation........... 70 - b. Curved Needles................................. 70 - c. Needles with Eyes.............................. 70 - d. Long Crooked Needles........................... 70 - 3. Rough Awl-like Implements of the Lower Strata.... 71 - 4. Implements of the Shape of Paper-cutters......... 72 - 5. Pointed Implements............................... 74 - 6. Saw-like Notched Bones........................... 76 - 7. Various Implements and Objects of Bone........... 79 - Implements of Antler................................... 80 - 1. Chisel-like Implements........................... 80 - a. Actual Chisels................................. 80 - b. Chisel-like Implements of Varying Forms........ 81 - 2. Implements of Antler with Dull Rounded Ends...... 82 - 3. Pointed Implements............................... 82 - 4. Straight Truncated Implements.................... 82 - Implements of Teeth.................................... 83 - C. Implements Made of Shells................................ 83 - - - INTRODUCTION. - -California has but few characteristic archaeological remains such as are -found in the mounds of the Mississippi valley or the ancient pueblos and -cliff-dweller ruins of the South. In the shellmounds along this section -of the Pacific coast it possesses, however, valuable relics of very -ancient date. These are almost the only witnesses of a primitive stage -of culture which once obtained among the early inhabitants of this -region. - -Some years ago Professor Merriam recognized the necessity of exploring -these ancient mounds and represented the facts to the University of -California. Mrs. Phoebe A. Hearst generously made the undertaking -possible by providing ample financial support for the exploration work. - - UNIV. CAL. PUB. AM. ARCH. &. ETH. VOL. 7, PL. 1 - -[Illustration: Plate 1: Map of the east shore of San Francisco Bay in -the vicinity of Berkeley, showing the location of the Emeryville -Shellmound with several others in this region. Scale: 1 inch = about -three miles.] - -One of the largest and best preserved shellmounds was selected as the -object of the present investigation, which was entrusted to Professor -Merriam and the writer. The mound selected is situated on the eastern -side of the Bay of San Francisco at Shellmound Station near Emeryville, -and is commonly known as the Emeryville mound. At present it forms a -conspicuous feature of the recreation grounds known as Shellmound Park -(pl. 1). - -The water of the bay rises to within 130 feet of the base of the mound -(pl. 3) during high tide. The beach is then only one foot above the -water level, while the ground in the immediate vicinity of the mound is -from two to three feet higher. This ground is quite level and forms a -part of an extensive alluvial flat. A small creek, having its source -about three miles away, in the hills back of Berkeley, passes the mound -on its south side, at a distance of two hundred feet, and empties into -the bay. In summer the creek runs dry, but its bed furnishes a channel -for subterranean water. Another, lower mound, containing graves, lay on -the site of the Emeryville race-track near by, but it has been leveled -down during the construction of the track. The shellmound which was the -object of the excavation has the form of a truncated cone, with a -diameter of 270 feet at its base and 145 feet at the top, and rising 27 -feet above the plain. On the north side its foot extends 100 feet -farther over the flat, a few feet higher than the level of the ground -about it. - -Twenty-five or thirty years ago the shore line of the bay lay fifty feet -farther out; a pile set at that time is still to be seen at that -distance from the beach. It is above the water during high tide and -marks the coast line on this side of which floodland was sold by the -State. The top of the mound was not at that time crowned by the wooden -pavilion which is there at the present time. It was still ungraded, -having its natural conical form, and was covered with a wild growth of -bushes and brambles. The creek, as yet unregulated, followed its own -course and overflowed the land, causing it to become marshy. In the -seventies and eighties of the last century, railroad tracks were laid -along the eastern side of the mound, and took in a section of its -eastern foot. At that time a number of graves and Indian artifacts were -discovered. Few of these, however, found their way into the collections -of the University, then but recently founded. - - - - - EARLY SETTLEMENTS IN THE REGION. - - -Fages, the first traveler who passed through the country, from south to -north, traveled along the eastern shore of the Bay of San Francisco in -1774,[1] and came upon Indian settlements where he found a friendly -welcome. His account of this expedition however, fails to throw any -light upon the question whether or not the shellmounds were still -occupied at that time. The neighboring creek bears the name of -“Temescal” from a region between Berkeley and Oakland through which it -passes.[2] This name appears to be a mutilation of the Nahua word -“temazcalli,” hot-house, the name of sweat-houses in Mexico, and the -place may have been so named by Mexicans living on the Bay, from an -Indian sweat-house standing there. Hence it may be assumed that an -Indian settlement was in existence on the banks of this creek at a time -from which the name could pass over into the existing vocabulary. - -Other evidences of early Indian settlements in this section of the -eastern shore country of the Bay are the shellmounds, twelve of which -may be found along the coast between Point Richmond and Alameda in a -stretch of twelve miles (pl. 1). They may be seen near Point Richmond -upon the eastern side, facing the peninsula, upon Brooks Island, near -Ellis Landing, northeast from Stege upon a marshy ground intersected by -narrow channels, near Seaver’s Ranch to the west from Stege, on Point -Isabel, in West Berkeley, in Emeryville, and in the eastern section of -Alameda between Mound, Central, and Lincoln avenues. There is also said -to have been one in East Oakland on the canal between Oakland Harbor and -Lake Merritt, but it has disappeared owing to building over that section -of ground. In all probability many others may have met with a similar -fate. - -All these evidences of an early occupation of the country are but a few -of the mounds that skirt the Bay upon all sides, continuing along Suisun -Bay and the Sacramento and Feather rivers. Besides these, there are -numerous mounds dotting the coast land of Northern California, those -surrounding swamps and rivers along the Tulare and Kern lakes in -southern California,[3] and on the shore near Santa Cruz. Others are -found in the regions of San Luis Obispo,[4] of Santa Barbara,[5] and the -islands opposite that place. - ------ - -[1] Cf. H. H. Bancroft, The Native Races, 1886, II, p. 595. - -[2] Cf. also “San Francisco Quadrangle” with the topographical maps of -California by the U. S. Geological Survey. - -[3] Warren K. Moorehead, Prehistoric Implements, 1900, p. 258. - -[4] Paul Schumacher, Smithson. Reports, 1874, p. 335 ff. - -[5] Schumacher, Bulletin of the U. S. Geol. and Geogr. Survey of the -Territories (F. V. Hayden), 1877, III, p. 73 ff.; F. W. Putnam, Reports -upon Archaeological and Ethnological Collections from vicinity of Santa -Barbara, Cal., etc.; Report upon U. S. Geogr. Surveys west of the 100th -Meridian (G. M. Wheeler), 1879, VII, Archaeology. From more northern -sections of the Pacific Coast may be mentioned specifically the -shellmounds of Oregon (P. Schumacher, Bulletin, _l. c._), of Vancouver, -and of the mainland of British Columbia opposite (H. H. Bancroft, Native -Races of the Pacific States, 1886, IV, p. 739), also those upon the -Aleutian Islands, explored exhaustively by W. H. Dall (in U. S. Geogr. -and Geol. Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region, J. W. Powell, -Contributions to the North American Ethnology, 1877, I, p. 41 ff.). -Together with those of California these shellmounds are an important -counterpart to those found along the Atlantic coast, found from Nova -Scotia to the Gulf of Mexico, as well as in the river valleys of nearly -all the southern states (Charles C. Abbott, Primitive Industry, 1881, p. -439; Short, The North Americans of Antiquity, 1892, p. 106), and almost -all of which have been carefully studied in some of their aspects, -although not yet conclusively. - - - EARLY REFERENCES TO SHELLMOUNDS OF MIDDLE CALIFORNIA. - -All the publications treating of the shellmounds of central and northern -California, which from the nature of their contents are different from -those of the coast and the islands of southern California, may be -condensed into the following bibliography: - -The Smithsonian Reports of 1869 mention a collection of artifacts from -the shellmounds of Alameda county presented to the Institute by Dr. -Yates.[6] J. W. Foster, in 1874, speaks of a newspaper notice concerning -a shellmound in the region of San Pablo.[7] James Deans follows in 1876 -with a short notice (together with drawings of some artifacts) -concerning a mound between Visitacion Valley and Point Bruno on the -western shore of the Bay.[8] A short notice by H. H. Bancroft, -accompanied by views of four objects, points to the great historical -value of the shellmounds. The Marquis de Nadaillac in his well known -work mentions the shellmounds in the vicinity of San Francisco.[9] -Moorehead in his work gives a few remarks on excavations in shellmounds -of central California. - ------ - -[6] Smithson. Reports, 1869, p. 36. - -[7] Prehistoric races of the United States of America, 1874, p. 163. - -[8] Journal of the Anthropological Inst. of Great Britain and Ireland, -1876, V, p. 489. The majority of these shellmounds have been graded -down. - -[9] Prehistoric America, ed. by W. H. Dall, 1885, p. 50. - - - THE NATURE OF THE EXCAVATIONS. - -The work of exploration was commenced by Professor Merriam and the -writer in February, 1902, toward the end of the rainy season, and was -finished early in May. Captain Siebe, the proprietor of Shellmound Park, -gave all possible assistance in the investigation. Owing to the presence -of the circle of trees around the truncated top of the mound it was -necessary to confine the excavations to a lateral section and a tunnel -extending from it toward the center of the mound. However desirable a -more extended section through the hill might have been, the results -obtained in these partial excavations are as a whole similar to those -which would have been obtained by a cut through the entire mound. - -The western slope of the mound, facing the bay, was selected as the -starting point for the operations. The entire work of excavation may in -a chronological order be divided into the following four stages. - -_A._ The first lateral cutting in the mound. This was made in the -western foot of the mound, seven feet and a half above the level of the -bay and at a distance of fifty feet from the plateau. The trench was two -feet deep, eighteen feet long and six feet wide, its floor sloped -towards the center of the mound. - -_B._ Tunnel construction. The tunnel formed the underground continuation -of the trench; it was the means of reaching the interior of the mound -and down to its original base. Hence the floor of the tunnel was made to -slope steeply inward. The tunnel was extended from the end of the trench -A for forty-two feet into the interior of the mound, and at its terminal -point it sank to two feet below the level of the bay. It was five feet -wide and six and a half feet high. Several distinct strata were cut -through by the tunnel section. Eleven feet of the length of the tunnel -extended under the plateau of the mound. This was still sixty feet from -the vertical center of the hill (pl. 4), but the observations made in -this interior part of the mound were of a relatively greater value than -those of the outer zone. Many difficulties were met during the -construction of the tunnel, among which the porosity of the soil was one -of the worst. The tunnel was therefore timbered and its sides sheathed. -Another difficulty was the ground water, of which there was often a very -strong flow when digging in the lower part of the tunnel. According to -the advance of the season, it was encountered at different depths, and -it grew less with the approach of summer. A small hand pump was used to -exhaust this water, but it barely answered the purpose, and it was often -with great difficulty that the inrushing water could be mastered. - -_C._ The upper vertical cut of the entire mound. In order to obtain a -view of all the strata contained in the mound this section was -undertaken. The lowest parts of the mound having been thoroughly -explored by the construction of the tunnel, it was now sufficient to -make the upper sectional cut only as deep as the roof of the tunnel, -while its terminal point was fixed by the circle of trees on the summit -of the mound. Its greatest length from the mouth of the tunnel was -twenty-six feet. The sides of the cut were sloped in order to prevent -the fall of loose soil and to avoid the cost of timbering. The length of -this section at its lower end, near _b_ (pl. 4), was reduced from 26 -feet to 19 feet, and the width to 10 feet along the entire foot of the -trench from _a_[10] to _b_. In pl. 5 there is shown the first cut into -the mound, before it had been made wider by five feet throughout its -length. In making this cut the earth was removed stratum by stratum. For -want of other marks of division, the dividing lines of the various -strata (I to VII) were chosen arbitrarily from the several visible lines -of structure, and they are marked in the diagram, pl. 4, by asterisks. -In order to obtain a uniform classification of the contents of the mound -it was thought necessary to introduce the same lines of division in the -sectional diagram of the tunnel: objects found there had been marked -previously by the distance of their position from the mouth of the -tunnel and their relative height. These strata in conformity with the -numbering of the upper ones were marked as numbers VII to X. - -_D._ A series of pits was dug from the foot of the tunnel out to the bay -shore. The pits were made in order to ascertain the general outline of -the base of the mound under the cuts already made, as well as under the -unexcavated portion of the mound farther out toward its margin. The pits -are marked as _h_ in the interior of the mound, and as _i_, _k_, _l_, -_m_, toward its periphery. The two pits _n_ and _o_[11] are situated on -the outside of the superficial foot of the mound, at a distance of 35 -feet and 67 feet from the nearest pit, _m_. It was here seen that the -terminal point of the foot of the mound lay between the pits _n_ and -_o_, the pit near _n_ showing only the debris of the shellmound, while -that near _o_ revealed nothing of it. These two pits were connected by a -trench, which gave an exceedingly interesting section of the margin of -the mound. - ------ - -[10] _a_ seems to have been situated at the intersection of the dotted -lines separating divisions _A_, _B_, _C_, pl. 4, fig. 2.—Editor. - -[11] it _o_ referred to in the text seems to be represented in pl. 4, -fig. 1, by the west end of the cut extending from _n_ to _l_.—Editor. - - - THE BASE OF THE MOUND. - -The mound consists mainly of a mass of broken or entire shells, ashes, -bits of charcoal, and some artifacts. This mass extends far above the -surface of the surrounding land and ends two and a half feet below the -level of the ground water and two feet below the general tide level of -the bay, and rests immediately upon a sharply defined yellowish alluvial -clay stratum. There is no indication of a rocky elevation which might -have served as an inducement for the original settlement, and would have -helped to raise the mound to its present height. Some of the charcoal -and small boulders brought here by man rest upon the clay soil. A slight -discoloration of the upper line of the clay stratum may have been caused -by a transitory plant growth during some early period, while there is no -indication of a crust of good soil which would be a sign of a longer -period of vegetable growth upon it. - -The base of the mound is horizontal according to all indications gained -between pits _h_ and _m_. A slight variation of the level of the ground -near _h_ of but a few inches does not materially change this level. -Between _m_ and _n_, however, the original soil lies one foot and seven -inches lower for a distance of thirty-five feet, and from _n_ to _o_ the -level drops a foot lower. The mound was originally founded upon a site -rising two feet above the adjacent ground on its western side. A gravel -stratum of 8 inches in thickness near _o_, and of 4 inches near _p_, but -disappearing towards _n_, covered the clay which originally sloped to -the west. This gravel stratum was examined by Professor Lawson and -considered to be probably a fresh-water deposit and not a deposit formed -in the bay, as the gravel is more or less angular instead of much -water-worn. The mound terminates near _p_, 177 feet from its center, -where it runs to a point between layers of clay, which are above and -below it (pl. 4, fig. 1). It rises again toward the outside for the last -17 feet measured from the depression _n_, the difference being one and -one-quarter feet, thus varying from the rest of the base which inclines -to the west. A stratum of ferruginous clay, the same as that underlying -the base of the mound, is here inserted between the gravel stratum and -the characteristic mixture of which the mound is composed, and covers it -up even with the present surface of the soil. This raises the actual -height of the shellmound from 27 feet to 32 feet and the actual diameter -to at least 310 feet instead of 270 feet. The volume of the mound, -measured as a truncated cone, may be estimated as being 55,000 cubic -yards, or about 39,000 cubic meters.[12] - -From what we know of the situation it is obvious that the mound was -rounded upon firm though still somewhat marshy land, near the bay shore -and close to the creek. The latter was the occasion of its location[13] -at this place. The ground must have been dry, since a gently rising -slope was selected. The soil was alluvial and relatively new, since it -has no overlying cover of good earth, yet it must have been dry long -enough to allow a thin growth of vegetation to cover it, causing the -slight gray discoloration of this stratum. - -The situation of the base of the mound two feet below the water level -cannot be explained on the assumption that refuse from a pile dwelling -had been the first cause of its formation. This theory would presuppose -modes of living to be followed by the Indians of this coast for which -there is no parallel elsewhere, and which are not borne out by other -evidence obtained in the study of the mound. If the mound has not risen -from the water, then the former land surface must have sunk. The mound -could not possibly have sunk below the water level from its own weight, -for the original ground underneath it is still several feet higher than -that to the west, for instance, near _n_, and sections of the base upon -which the full weight of the mound rested, such as near _h_, are on the -same level with others over which the mound rose only 14 feet. Since the -sinking of the mound has not been brought about by local causes, it must -have been caused by a general subsidence of this coast region. Similar -subsidences of the coast, due probably to sliding motions, are frequent -phenomena on alluvial coasts.[14] Evidences of this are furnished -apparently by the shores of San Francisco Bay.[15] The ground under the -mound having a slope of two feet, it may be assumed that the original -foundation of the base was at least one foot above tide level. -Accordingly the coast must have sunk three feet since the formation of -this mound.[16] This sinkage was leveled up again to its former height -by later alluvial deposits, in consequence of which the originally dry -base of the mound is now situated two feet below the level of the bay, -while the surrounding flats are three feet above it. - -It is to be noted that the younger alluvial deposit, near _o_ (pl. 4) -has a thickness of six feet. - -Samples of soil taken from various parts of the clay stratum underlying -the base of the mound were subjected by Professor W. A. Setchell to -microscopical examinations, but no Diatoms were found in any of them. -Hence those strata were probably formed of alluvial deposits of the -creek, as Professor Lawson had at first suggested, and not of deposits -of the bay. This finding is entirely in accordance with the origin of -the gravel stratum as above stated. - -The slope of the mound was an obstacle to the course of the creek when -it became swollen. In the natural course of things it deposited a bar -near the foot of the mound, which, when the edge of the latter gradually -extended, grew out over this new obstacle. The creek in the same manner -continued to heap up alluvial deposits against the latter. The -horizontal growth of the mound and the vertical growth of the -surrounding land took place simultaneously. This was the cause of the -brim-like upward curve of the edge of the mound as seen in the cross -section (pl. 4). While the mound increased about seventeen feet in its -periphery, the vertical alluvial accumulation was about one and one-half -feet. Hence the base of the mound peripherally increased one foot while -the ground grew one inch, showing that the alluvial growth of the soil -was much slower than the peripheral growth of the mound. About 310 cubic -yards or 240 cubic meters produce a growth of one foot in a mound 9 feet -high and about 300 feet in diameter at the base. If the peripheral -growth of the mound had continued with the growth of the soil, the foot -of the mound would have spread out so that the outer edge would rest in -the highest or surface layer of the present alluvium. The wedge-like -margin situated between alluvial strata is, however, proof that its -peripheral growth ceased a long time before the termination of the -alluvial accumulation in this region, as a result of which the alluvium -has spread itself over the foot of the mound. The alluvial deposit above -the wedged-in margin of the mound (at _p_) being 3 feet 8 inches in -thickness, and the alluvium deposited underneath it from the beginning -of the formation of the mound measuring only 1-1/2 feet, and assuming -the increase to have been absolutely uniform, a period two and a half -times as long has passed since the ceasing of its peripheral growth, as -had been necessary for a peripheral growth of 17 feet on each side. The -cessation of this peripheral growth of the mound, however, is not -identical with the cessation of its growth altogether. It took place -apparently when the mound began to grow more acutely conical in shape, -whereby it increased to twice its former volume. Assuming that the mound -was abandoned 100 years before the end of the alluvial growth of the -land in the vicinity, then according to formula - - 100 × 2/3_f_ = 2-1/2 × 1/3_f_ - -it might be concluded that the mound was probably 600 years old before -it was abandoned.[17] Several numerical values upon which the formula is -based are unfortunately so uncertain that the result may not be -considered as more than suggestive of the possible age. - -The sinking of the coast and the alluvial increase of the ground since -the first settlement of the mussel-eaters would in themselves give an -adequate measure for an estimate of the age of the mound if the measures -upon which both depend were not also unknown; according to Professor -Lawson, this probably occupied centuries at least.[18] At any rate, such -observations as have been made furnish good reasons for believing that -the founding of a settlement and the beginning of the heaping up of the -mound occurred at a remote date. - ------ - -[12] The shellmounds in the vicinity of the bay differ considerably in -shape and size. The majority appear as extended plateaus 10 to 12 feet -in height, others appear as slight undulations of the ground about five -feet in height. The truncated conical form is found more rarely; the -mound at Ellis Landing near Point Richmond approaches it somewhat in its -proportions. Many of these mounds cover acres of ground, _e.g._, the -mounds of Alameda, of Sausalito, of Sierra Point, of West Berkeley (in -its older form, now much changed). In tropical regions many shellmounds -are said to reach a height of 100 feet or more; this is known with -certainty of some in Brazil (cf. Nadaillac, _l. c._, p. 54), and also of -two near the dried-up mouth of the Ica river in Peru. Shellmounds as a -rule are much smaller. On the Atlantic coast near Smyrna a shellmound is -said to be thirty feet high (Short, _l. c._, p. 107), but the majority -of these mounds are less than four feet high (cf. Wyman, Amer. -Naturalist, 1868, I, p. 56 ff., and Abbott, _l. c._, p. 440), while many -of them extend over areas of more than two or three acres. A shellmound -near the mouth of the Altamaha river in Florida is estimated as having a -size of over 80,000 cubic yards (Smithson. Rep., 1866, p. 358). The -shellmounds of Denmark are only from 3 feet to 10 feet high, although -more than a thousand feet long (Ranke, Der Mensch, II, p. 552). Southern -California shellmounds generally are from 4 feet to 5 feet high (P. -Schumacher, Bull., _l. c._, p. 38; and Smithson. Rep., 1874, p. 337, -etc.). The same is the case with those mounds on the Aleutian Islands -explored by W. J. Dall. In Oregon there are some of at least 8 feet in -height (cf. Schumacher, _l. c._, p. 29). - -[13] Shellmounds in the bay region are mostly in localities where there -is fresh water, a creek or a spring, generally the former. W. H. Dall -(Contributions, p. 34) observes that for the formation of shellmounds on -the Aleutian Islands two conditions are necessary, as a rule: running -water or a spring, and a site suitable for boat landing; one or the -other of these conditions lacking, no shellmounds are to be found. In -Oregon the shellmounds are generally to be found near a creek (cf. -Schumacher, _l. c._, p. 28). The same rule probably governs the -shellmounds of the East. D. G. Brinton found shellmounds in Florida -generally near running water (Smithson. Rep., 1866, p. 356), but he -supposes as the cause of this the greater abundance of shells near the -mouths of rivers, while it is certain that the presence of drinking -water was the main attraction. - -[14] Parts of the eastern coast of the United States are sinking. -Several shellmounds on the Jersey coast are being washed away at present -(cf. Abbott, _l. c._, p. 448 ff.). The same may be observed with the -shellmounds near Ellis Landing on the Bay of San Francisco. - -[15] Near the mouth of the valley of San Rafael a small hill rises from -the bay, the isolation of which from the mainland may be explained in -this way. - -[16] Between the shellmounds of Emeryville and West Berkeley the shore -for a long stretch forms a steep bank up to twelve feet high, and broken -down by the water of the bay. Possibly the coast at this point formed a -promontory on the two sides of which these shellmounds were originally -founded, as in sheltered bays, similar to other mounds of this region. - -[17] In that case the sinkage would have amounted to about 6 inches, the -alluvial increase to about 9 to 10 inches in a century. - -[18] The rapidity of the sinkage of alluvial coasts varies greatly owing -to local conditions. For the Atlantic Coast the rate of sinkage is 2 -feet per century (cf. Abbott, _l. c._, p. 449). Applying this same rate -to the eastern coast of the Bay, we would arrive at the absurd result -that the shellmound of Emeryville had begun to form in 1750, while that -date was presumably the end of its occupied state. - - - THE INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE MOUND. - -The principal constituents of the mound are the shells. These have -nearly all crumbled into small fragments and are slightly mixed with -soil, which when damp gives the entire mass the appearance of pure soil. -When this is flooded with water the washing away of the sand produces no -noticeable change in its volume. This mass has mingled with it bits of -charcoal, bones of animals, ashes or cinders, and stones averaging about -the size of one’s fist and blackened by fire.[19] Marks of -stratification may be traced through almost the entire mound. Plate 5, -representing a photographic view of the excavation, shows the -stratification planes in the walls quite distinctly. The strata consist -of compact masses of more or less fragmentary shells, or of beds of -ashes or cinders. In many cases the latter seem to extend through the -entire mound. They are sometimes not thicker than a sheet of heavy -paper, but show the general direction of the bedding planes, and form a -clear contrast with the homogeneous, dark mass of broken shells.[20] -These planes become somewhat less distinct in the deeper strata.[21] As -in other shellmounds,[22] there were observed certain rounded masses of -shells intersecting the lines of stratification. These are caused by -holes, made by moles or other burrowing animals, being afterward -refilled with shells.[23] - -In some shellmounds in other regions strata of earth and sand were found -between the shell layers. These give evidence of a temporary evacuation -of the shellmound. No evidence of this character was obtained in the -study of the Emeryville mound, where the only occurrence of a natural -vegetable soil is the surface cover of 1 to 2 inches in thickness, which -has formed since the mound was finally abandoned.[24] It is possible -that slight differences in the state of preservation of the shell -deposits which now mark the strata lines may have been caused by -differences in the length of time of occupation. Other explanations -might, however, be offered. - -The lines of stratification mark clearly the gradual development of the -strata of the mound from the base until the present truncated cone was -formed. It is apparent that two different principles governed the growth -of the mound. At certain periods it tended to take on a shallow plateau -form. At other times a conical shape developed without the corresponding -increase around the base. According to the first principle the mound -grew in the form of a plateau to a height of from 9 to 10 feet. Near _C_ -in pl. 4 the edge of the plateau still seems to be traceable, from which -point the strata inclined downward. At that period the mound resembled -in its proportions the old Indian camping places of the interior valley, -some of which are still occupied; or some of the shellmounds along the -Bay which have been abandoned at some earlier period. The undulating -lines of the strata, such as seen near _f_ and _g_, suggest -irregularities of the old plateau surface, similar to those which may be -observed in the surfaces of camp locations of the interior, which have -been abandoned for decades. The hollows from 20 to 40 feet in length -mark the sites of former sweat-houses or council-halls; these curves, -such as that from _f_ to _g_, may have a similar origin.[25] - -The manner in which the mound was occupied for habitation varied in the -upper strata. With the growth of the mound the diameter of the plateau -decreased instead of expanding. From line _b_ upward the strata incline -obliquely toward the sides. This change in the manner of forming the -mound signifies a change in the character of its occupants. It would be -interesting to determine, if possible, the exact line where these two -types of growth have met. It might have been about 12 feet above the -base, so that the mound grew in the shape of a shallow plateau as far as -the middle of stratum V in pl. 4, and that it changed after this period -to its conical form. - ------ - -[19] The descriptions of nearly all the shellmounds explored in other -parts of the world tally exactly with this one; cf. Ranke, _l. c._, II, -p. 532, for the Danish Kjökkenmöddinger; Schumacher, on the general -similarity of shellmounds of the Pacific Coast with the mounds in -Denmark, Smithson. Rep., 1874, p. 355, etc. - -[20] Although no shellmound is free from stratification marks, owing to -the gradual growth of the strata, Brinton maintains that this is the -case with shellmounds on the Atlantic Coast (Smithson. Rep., 1866, p. -356). - -[21] Compare the interesting observations of Wyman (Amer. Naturalist, I, -p. 571) concerning shellmounds of New England, that there the shells of -the lowest stratum were softer and more crumbled than those of the upper -strata. - -[22] Cf. Wyman, _l. c._, p. 365, on a shellmound in the vicinity of -Portland, Me. - -[23] Similar holes made by moles may be observed occasionally upon old -shellmounds along the Bay, which if they had been refilled with shells -might also have assumed a rounded form. In such a manner may be -explained the finding of a modern steel knife, with the wooden parts -still well preserved, in one of the strata of the shellmound of West -Berkeley in a place to all appearances undisturbed. - -[24] Cf. also Wyman, _l. c._, p. 571. The absence of true soil from the -interior of the mound is proof that at no time was the mound abandoned -by its occupants long enough to allow of the formation of such a -stratum. - -[25] Somewhat smaller but quite similar hollows are still preserved upon -the surface of the shellmound of Ellis Landing, and are doubtless sites -of houses of that nature. - - - CONSTITUENTS OF THE MOUND. - -_Shells._—The shell layers of the mound are composed principally of the -following species: - - Oysters, _Ostrea lurida_. - Mussel shells, _Mytilus edulis_ and _Mytilus californianus_. - Clams, _Macoma edulis_ and _Macoma nasuta_. - -Many other kinds of shells, including the following species, were found -scattered through the mound: - - _Purpura crispata_ and _canaliculata_. - _Cerithidea californica._ - _Helix_, two species indet. - _Cardium corbis._ - _Standella_, sp. - _Tapes staminea._ - -Of these last species, the cockle, _Cardium corbis_, and the clam, -_Tapes staminea_, occur quite frequently.[26] All of these were used as -food by the occupants of the mound. The various species of _Helix_ were -probably also used, as they were in more recent times eaten by the -California Indians.[27] It may be, however, that this species lived on -the mound. - -The state of preservation of the shells is proportional to their natural -hardness. Hence the shells of the Macomas are the most conspicuous, -those of the mussels, as the most perishable, are the least noticeable -ones in the mound. The relative frequency of occurrence in the case of -the three most important species depends on different circumstances. - -The lower and the upper strata of this mound are composed of the same -varieties of shells, in which point it is different from many -shellmounds in other regions. It is, however, true that oyster shells -predominate in the lower strata, while _Macoma_ shells are more numerous -in the upper ones.[28] - -Visiting the different shellmounds in the vicinity of the Bay, one finds -a general similarity in the kinds of shells composing them. Rarely one -or another variety of shell, the _Macoma_ or the cockle, or some other, -is found to predominate. This general homogeneity of composition in the -shellmounds around the Bay, and the small differences in the amount of -any particular species, indicates as a whole the general similarity of -the shell fauna at many points about the Bay during the period of -occupation of the mounds. - -The Indian camping grounds in the interior, although quite similar in -form and origin to the shellmounds on the coast, when opened generally -present a great difference in appearance. Traces of shells are almost -unnoticed from the outside, yet large quantities supplied as food by the -rivers of the interior are doubtless to be found in them. These shells -have been found during excavations, or their use has been confirmed by -persons who observed the mode of living of the Indians of these regions. -The Indians also obtained salt-water mussels by trade, even in quite -recent times. From the fact that shells are not in evidence on the -surface of the camp grounds, one must conclude that their use -diminished. - -_Bones._—Bones of vertebrates are also found in most of the -shellmounds. These together with the shells represent the debris of -their kitchens. No other shellmound has been seen where so large a -quantity of bones was observed as in that at Emeryville. Bones of land -and sea mammals, of birds, and of fishes were found in abundance -throughout the mound, and fairly evenly distributed in the strata. This -fact is the more remarkable since the shellmound at West Berkeley, -scarcely two miles distant, does not yield nearly such quantities of -bone as this one. The occupants of the mound at Emeryville at all -periods were huntsmen to a great degree, besides being fishermen; those -of the mound at West Berkeley seem to have depended largely upon -fishing; hence the stone sinkers were far more numerous in that mound -than at Emeryville. - -So far the fauna of only the lowest strata up to 3 feet above the base -have been studied. The following species obtained in this horizon were -determined by Dr. W. J. Sinclair. - - Deer, _Cervus_ sp. - Elk, _Cervus canadensis_. - Sea-otter, _Enhydrus lutris_. - Beaver, _Castor canadensis_.[29] - Squirrel, _Spermophilus_ sp. - Rabbit, _Lepus_ sp. - Gopher, _Thomomys talpoides_. - Raccoon, _Procyon lotor_. - Wild cat, _Lynx_ sp. - Wolf, _Canis_ sp. - Bear, _Ursus_ sp. - Dog, _Canis familiaris_.[30] (_?_) - Seal, _Phoca_ sp. - Sea-lion. - Whale. - Porpoise? - Canvasback Duck, _Aythya vallisneria_. - Goose? - Cormorant, _Phlaeocorax_ sp. - Turtle. - Skates, Thornbacks, and other fish. - -No traces of cannibalism have been detected. Most of the hollow bones of -larger mammals, and even the smaller bones of the foot, were found to -have been split to get at the marrow.[31] - -_Fireplaces._—These were generally known by beds several feet in length -consisting of charcoal and yellowish ashes. They occurred in many spots -throughout the mound. Numberless scattered bits of charcoal[32] and -pebbles, mostly about the size of one’s fist and blackened by fire, were -further evidences of the continuous use of fire in the preparation of -food. In no instance were there any stones set in rows for fireplaces, -such as have been observed elsewhere, as in a shellmound near Sierra -Point, where stones are plentiful.[33] A very peculiar feature of this -mound is a yellowish layer of ashes comprising the entire depth of -stratum II in pl. IV, and tapering towards the edge of the mound. Above -it lies only the uppermost stratum (I), that of vegetable soil. Though -calcined shells[34] occurred elsewhere in the mound, they were -especially numerous in this ash stratum, and in some spots all shells -were calcined. The origin of this ash stratum will be explained later. A -similar bed is to be seen in a central layer of the shellmound at West -Berkeley, and another one of similar thickness but shorter in a mound -near Sausalito. - -_Human Remains and Relics._—A large part of the Emeryville mound -consists of remains which have been deposited here by man. Among these -are molluscan shells with bones of fish and mammals, used as articles of -food. In the narrower sense the human relics consist of the bones of -man, graves, and artifacts, which are all found in greater or less -abundance throughout the whole thickness of the mound. Actual human -bones were not found to be common in this part of the mound except in -stratum II, and in the graves of stratum VII. The artifacts obtained -were only those of very resistant material, such as stone or shell. All -other kinds, such as textiles of plant fibre, baskets, and implements of -wood, which doubtless have also existed, had disappeared. The more -resistant artifacts were distributed throughout all layers of the -mound.[35] - -About 200 cubic meters of earth were removed and sifted during the -excavations, and yielded 600 artifacts of various kinds, averaging three -specimens to one cubic meter. The volume of the whole mound we computed -to be about 39,000 cubic meters, and it may be assumed that by -excavating the entire mound the yield would be about 100,000 specimens, -which indicates that many generations must have lived here to deposit -such a large number of objects of imperishable material alone.[36] - -The same computation was applied to each separate layer in the mound, -and it was shown that the yield differed according to the section and -the stratum explored. The open cut _A_ yielded one specimen to .75 cb. -m., and the tunnel _B_ and the pits _h_ to _m_, six per cb. m. Section -_C_ yielded three artifacts to one cb. m. This computation shows that -sections nearer the center of the mound yielded the greater number, -those toward the edge a smaller number. It also appears that the lower -strata contained a larger percentage of artifacts than the upper ones. -If, however, the number of flaked chert fragments were subtracted from -the yield of the lower strata, their percentage would be much the same -as that of the higher layers. The following are the contents of the -various strata: - - Stratum I had 20 artifacts per 15-1/2 cb. m. = 1.3 per cb. m. - Stratum II, 30 cb. m—133 objects = 4.4 per cb. m. - Stratum III, 20-2/3 cb. m—27 objects = 1.16 per cb. m. - Stratum IV, 11-3/4 cb. m.—41 objects = 3.5 per cb. m. - Stratum V, 9-2/3 cb. m.—34 objects = 3.5 per cb. m. - Stratum VI, 4-1/5 cb. m.—9 objects = 2.1 per cb. m. - Stratum VII, 2-4/5 cb. m.—10 objects = 3.5 per cb. m. - -The specimens contained in the graves in strata VI and VII were not -counted in with the rest. This comparison shows mainly that stratum II -is the richest in implements. The connection of this fact with the -preponderance of ashes will be pointed out later. - ------ - -[26] Eight-tenths of all the shells found in the Oregon shellmounds -belong to the species of _Mytilus californianus_, _Tapes staminea_, -_Cardium nuttalii_, and _Purpura lactuca_ (Schumacher, Smithson. Rep., -1874, p. 335). - -[27] As by the Minooks and the Nishinams (Powers, _l. c._, pp. 348 and -430); and certainly the custom was a very general one. - -[28] We were not so fortunate as was W. H. Dall in the shellmounds of -the Aleutian Islands in being able to make “a tolerably uniform -division” of the layers in the mound according to the various foods -used. (These layers were: “1, Echinus layer; 2, fishbone layer; 3, -hunting layer.” Contributions to North American Ethnology, I, p. 49.) -The shellmound of Emeryville presents a much greater similarity in the -kinds of food used during the different periods of its occupancy. - -[29] Extinct in California, and in fact south of Washington; J. Wyman -found the remains of elk, wild turkey, and large auk in the shellmounds -of New England. The elk, though still in existence, is no longer to be -found east of the Allegheny Mountains; the wild turkey is still in -existence, but is not to be found in New England, while the auk lives -only in the Arctic regions, or at least not farther south than the -northern part of Newfoundland (Amer. Naturalist, I, p. 572). - -[30] Also found in the shellmounds of New England. - -[31] Cf. for shellmounds in Denmark: Ranke, _l. c._, II, p. 532, for -those of the Atlantic Coast, Wyman, _l. c._, p. 575 (New England) and -Abbott, _l. c._, p. 442 (New York). - -[32] Analogous is the statement of Wyman, _l. c._, p. 564, about the -shellmounds of New England. - -[33] Cf. also Hellwald, Der vorgeschichtliche Mensch, p. 449, on the -Kjökkenmöddinger of Denmark. - -[34] Nadaillac, _l. c._, p. 50, states from uncertain authority that a -shellmound near San Pablo was said to consist of calcined shells -exclusively, which is certainly an exaggeration. - -[35] It is alleged that there are shellmounds in the East which contain -no implements at all, and have been used for the gathering of mussels -only, and not as dwelling places (Abbott, p. 447, accord. to Charles A. -Woodley). Equally uncertain seems to be the distinction made by -Schumacher between shellmounds yielding few artifacts and those -containing a larger number, as representing a place for temporary or -permanent habitation. Similarly dubious is that classification which -considers the piling up of shells in various separate heaps as proof of -permanent abode and that of single mounds for the use only as temporary -stopping places (Smithson. Rep., 1874, pp. 337 to 338). - -[36] W. J. Dall (contrib. _l. c._, I, p. 47) states that during his -excavations of the shellmounds of the Aleutian Islands he found on the -average one object in one-half ton of earth. This would be 2.63 objects -to one cb. m. The yield of the Emeryville shellmound is three objects to -one cb. m. - - - BURIALS. - -Shellmounds originate on the accumulated refuse deposited by people who -have lived in the place when the heap has formed, and the mounds may -therefore be regarded as sites for dwelling places, or abodes for the -living, and not as mounds set aside as burial grounds by people living -elsewhere in the vicinity. Whenever these mounds were used for burials -it was not done in spite of their being dwelling places, but rather -because they were such.[37] - -Many tribes of a low grade of civilization follow the custom of burying -their dead underneath their feet in the ground upon which they live, to -protect the graves of their dead against being disturbed and also to -enjoy the protection of the spirits of the departed against their -enemies. Wherever graves are found in shellmounds, in all parts of the -world, their presence is generally to be explained in this way.[38] - -Ten graves containing skeletons were found during the excavations. They -were found only in the middle layers of the mound in a zone extending -from stratum VI to stratum VIII. The two lowest layers and the five -upper ones contained no evidence of interment, indicating that the -custom of burial underneath the dwelling places was observed in one -period only. We have no evidence concerning the location of the burials -previous to that period or subsequent to it. A burial site slightly -elevated above the plain was unearthed some years ago under a shellmound -near the principal mound in Emeryville, but as this probably dated from -the same period as the graves in the shellmound no light is thrown upon -the question. - -In the upper strata of the mound there is, however, furnished evidence -of a different manner of disposing of the dead, which was observed -during the period of the deposition of strata II, III, and IV. During -the period represented by strata VI to VIII the dead were buried in the -ground. It has already been shown that stratum II consists mainly of -ashes and calcined shells, which cannot be regarded as kitchen-midden -deposit or as the remains of fireplaces, the latter forming an -inconspicuous part of the stratum. Another characteristic feature of -this layer is the high percentage of calcined bone implements found -there. Very common among them are awls, of which stratum II contained 44 -calcined specimens, or 72 per cent. of the whole number. In the other -layers a much smaller number has been found, but the percentage of -calcined specimens is high. The supposition that these were accidentally -burned cannot be considered an adequate explanation, but the fact that a -number of human bones were found at the same place in the strata gives -weight to the theory that during the deposition of the upper beds the -inhabitants of this region practiced cremation of their dead, a custom -common among the California tribes of today. Then as now they were -accustomed to burn all personal belongings with the body.[39] This -accounts for the large number of calcined bone objects and shells in -stratum II. Doubtless a large number of shell-fish were thrown into the -fire as food for the departed on their long journey into the next world. - -Doubtless the practice of cremation was not confined alone to the period -of stratum II. The percentage of calcined awls in other strata than this -suggests that the builders during the accumulation of stratum I, and -probably also of III and IV and parts of V, practiced this custom, but -to a less extent than in the period of stratum II, or mainly at other -places than the mound. - -Eight of the ten graves containing skeletons lay close together in the -narrow space of the middle section of the excavation. Four were found in -strata VI and VII of the upper cut _C_. Four of the graves were those of -children, lying at different depths in the line of the tunnel. Two other -graves were isolated from the others, lying in the edge of the mound. -None of the burials were less than nine feet below the present surface. -The lowest grave, No. 10 (pl. IV, fig. 2), was 21 feet below the -surface. In accordance with the stratification lines of the mound, -graves 1 and 2, as well as 6, 8, and 9, may be considered as belonging -to the period of strata VII and VII_a_. The eight graves which lay close -together in the middle of the main excavation were distributed over a -space of about 90 square feet. The vertical distance from the uppermost -to the lowest of these was nine feet. As the tunnel inclines toward the -center of the mound it is not certain whether the cemetery extended -through the entire mound or was only around the margin of a settlement -on the summit of the mound at the time when it was in use. From the -depths at which the different graves were found, varying about nine -feet, it is clear that they were not constructed within a short period, -but that long periods intervened, during which the mound grew very -considerably through the deposition of refuse. P. Schumacher explored -the graves of Oregon, which lay at a depth of from 1-1/2 to 2-1/2 feet -below the surface, and probably the tribes of the Pacific Coast buried -their dead in comparatively shallow graves.[40] In the case of a child’s -grave (No. 9, pl. 4, fig. 2) it was seen by the stratification lines -that it was not made deeper than 1-1/2 feet below the surface. Assuming -this as being the general depth of the graves throughout the mound, then -the graves varying between 2-1/2 and 12-1/2 feet above the base of the -mound were dug at periods when the entire height of the mound was about -5 to 14 feet, hence the period of these burials would have to be placed -entirely during the time of the earlier plateau-like growth of the -mound. This period of burial is very closely followed by that of -cremation, the two possibly overlapping. - -The preparation of the graves was not elaborate. A simple pit sufficed. -It was made large enough to place the body in it with the knees drawn -up. The sides of the grave were left bare. If a covering existed -originally it must have been of perishable materials, for none have been -found in excavation. The bottom of the grave, however, was prepared -somewhat like a bed. A layer of charcoal from one-half inch to one inch -thick is found at the very bottom, above that another layer of like -thickness of iron oxide. Upon this the body was laid on its side. It is -evident that the body was buried with its clothing and personal -ornaments, in exceptional cases with utensils or implements only. The -body was tightly bound at the knees before burial. Owing to climatic -conditions, causing excessive moisture in the strata, the greater part -of the material buried with the corpse has decayed and disappeared. Five -of the ten graves were entirely lacking in implements or other -artifacts. - -Before burial the body was entirely covered with the red earth mentioned -above. This settled down upon the bones after decomposition and is still -adhering to them in some cases like a thick crust. The hands were placed -on the body in different ways. In several instances the left hand rested -upon the knees, while the other was raised to the mouth or to the crown -of the head. The corpse is usually laid upon the right side, generally -facing northeast. Associated with a number of skeletons were a variety -of interesting ornaments, including beads made from shells of _Olivella_ -and other molluscs and from sections of bird bones strung together. With -skeleton No. 4 were associated a large number of perforated mica flakes. -The flakes of mica may originally have been fastened to a garment which -shrouded the dead, and when this decayed in the earth the flakes -remained there about the body. Beads of bird bone were found in the -mouth also, but their presence there might be explained by the settling -of the skull in the earth. Mica was much used by the Indians for -ornamentation. It has been observed in Peru in a number of cases in the -vicinity of graves, but circumstances did not show whether its presence -there was purely accidental or not. In the mounds of the middle west of -the United States there have sometimes been found ornaments of thin -plates of mica of round or oval form, provided with holes to fasten them -to the clothing.[41] Similar objects were found in West Virginia and -elsewhere. Pieces of mica 2 or 3 inches in size are reported to have -been found in mounds or in places suggestive of their use for religious -purposes.[42] Beads like the above mentioned from California, both from -graves and from living Indians, were pictured by Holmes.[43] With burial -six was a bone ring set with shell beads fastened on with asphalt. In -burial seven were numerous bone rings similarly decorated with shell -beads. Also in burial seven was found a large quartz crystal. One end of -the crystal is preserved unbroken. The other end is capped with -asphaltum in which numerous small shell beads are set. Quartz crystals -have been found elsewhere in California in graves.[44] The above -mentioned crystal, however, reminds us most strongly of a number of -crystals one foot in length and of the thickness of one’s arm, found -during the excavation of the western wall of the Temple of the Moon at -Moche (Trujillo), in Peru, now in the collection of the University of -California. These, too, had the coating of red coloring earth, the same -as the object shown on pl. 11, fig. 9, and were found under peculiar -conditions pointing strongly to their religious significance. - -Several peculiar bone implements were obtained in burial eight. - -The mode of burial seen here resembles that observed elsewhere in the -shellmounds of California, for example, near San Luis Obispo, and that -of other regions on the Pacific Coast (Oregon), and it is still followed -among the California Indian tribes. The burial of the corpse with its -knees drawn up has also been observed in Southern California[45] and -Oregon.[46] From the latter region also the varying positions in which -the corpses face is confirmed by Schumacher.[47] - -To the layer of charcoal and red iron oxide which generally formed the -bed of the dead may be compared the “thick burned brick-like crusts” and -the “thin light colored crusts” found by Schumacher in Southern -California graves.[48] A large number of lumps of red coloring earth -were found throughout the mound, some of these showing marks of scraping -or cutting. In Southern California graves we find conditions resembling -these almost identically.[49] Up to recent times the California Indians -very generally painted their bodies, and there is undoubtedly a -religious significance in this practice of daubing the corpses and -associated objects with red coloring material, besides depositing them -on red earth. The custom of putting red coloring matter on the body of -the dead is found with many aboriginal tribes. So the Caribs in -Jamaica[50] paint the entire body of the corpse. The Santees of South -Carolina[51] painted face, neck, and hands of the corpse. The -Dakotas[52] painted the face alone. In a number of Peruvian mummies the -faces were painted red. Crania from ancient Peruvian graves that had -been disturbed at some early time were also found covered with red -paint. - -The absence of implements is explained by Schumacher by the analogous -custom of the lower Klamath tribes, where the implements are laid upon -the grave instead of being buried with the dead.[53] This custom may -have prevailed in this shellmound. - -It was an unfortunate circumstance that the exploration in Emeryville -occurred at a season of the year when the interior of the mound was -still very damp from preceding rains. For this reason none of the skulls -could be secured intact, and they will need to be carefully prepared -before use can be made of them for anthropological study. It may be -noted that none of them show striking eccentricities of form. - -Following is a detailed statement of the occurrence and the contents of -each of the ten burials excavated. - -No. 1, pl. IV, fig. 2, was found 9 feet below the present surface; it -may be contemporaneous with the graves of stratum VII (as 6 and 9). The -skeleton was that of an adult, drawn up in the usual manner. It was laid -on its right side and was facing east. The left arm rested upon the -knee, the right hand on the crown of the head, where also was found a -cockleshell. The skeleton lay on a bed of red soil; the bones were -slightly reddened. No associated objects. - -No. 2. Skeleton of an adult, found at a depth of 9 feet in the outer -part (A) of the excavation; neither red earth nor associated objects -present. The burial dated probably from the same period as the -preceding. - -No. 3. Grave of a young person, about 15 years of age, in stratum VI. -The skeleton was facing northwest. No artifacts or other associated -objects. - -No. 4. Grave of an adult, in stratum VI. The skeleton lay from east to -west upon a double bed of charcoal and red earth. Interspersed in the -soil were found a great quantity of flakes of mica 1 to 1-3/4 inches in -diameter, rhomboidal, triangular, and irregular in shape, and each with -a hole at one end (see pl. 11, fig. 18); also a quantity of beads made -of bird bones were found upon the cranium as if they had formed part of -a net drawn over it; others lay along the sides of the head and along -the temples. - -No. 5. Skeleton of an adult lying from east to west and facing north. -Stratum VI. The cranium shows a lupus-like mutilation of the nose (fig. -2). No ornaments. - -[Illustration: Fig. 2.* Skull showing lupus-like mutilation of the nose. -× 1/2. [*Fig. 1 has been omitted owing to double references in the -manuscript.—Editor.]] - -No. 6. Grave of a child a little over a year old, found in the tunnel in -stratum VII_a_, at a depth of 17 feet below the surface. It lay from -north to south upon a bed of charcoal and red earth. Various ornaments -and other articles were taken from this grave, all covered with red -earth. A number of shell beads, both flat (cf. pl. 11, figs. 6_a_ and -6_b_), and concave forms (pl. 11, figs. 5_a_ and 5_b_) lay in rows from -the neck down along the body, and were originally necklaces; two bored -round pieces and two oblong ones (pl. 11, figs. 1 and 2) of _Haliotis_ -shell had completed the necklace. An unusual object (pl. 11, fig. 8) -found here was a flat ring three-eighths of an inch wide, -three-sixteenths of an inch thick, neatly made of stone, both surfaces -being decorated with a number of shell beads, originally 11 to 12 on -each side, fastened with asphaltum. This object may have been a pendant, -but doubtless it possessed talismanic virtues. - -Shell beads like the larger convex ones of _Olivella_ sp. have been -pictured by Holmes as objects belonging to early and modern Indians of -California. Possibly they also resemble the shell coin “Kolkol” of the -modern Indians, which is made of _Olivella biplicata_, according to -Powers, and was strung in such a manner that the beads faced each other -in pairs, but are not much in use in modern times. - -A shell ring of similar proportions as above, but differing through its -inferior material and the absence of decoration, has also been pictured -by Holmes as coming from Illinois, and as being an ear ornament -presumably, while the object described above could not have served that -purpose. - -No. 7. Grave of a child about one year old, found in stratum VIII, about -21 feet below the surface of the mound. The body lay upon the usual bed -of charcoal and of red earth and all the little bones were thickly -covered with red coloring matter. The grave was as rich in artifacts as -the preceding one. A number of small shell beads (as in pl. 11, fig. 6) -were found near the wrist. The following objects were taken from the -earth about the body: - -Three oblong ornaments, bored, of _Haliotis_ shell (pl. 11, fig. 1), a -number of very small shells of _Olivella_ sp. having bored ends, which -fact shows that they were used as ornaments; 11 bead-like rings of bone, -each being about one inch long and seven-sixteenths of an inch thick; -each has a band of asphaltum in which three or four small shells were -imbedded (pl. 11, figs. 10, 11). While these rings may have been mere -ornaments, the following unusual object (pl. 11, fig. 9) taken from the -same grave must without doubt have talismanic importance. It is a piece -of quartz crystal 2-15/16 inches long and 1-1/2 inches thick, having -perfect lateral edges and points; the broken base of the crystal is -capped with asphaltum in which numerous small shell beads are set. - -All these objects were thickly coated with red coloring matter. For the -small ornamental _Olivella_ shells compare similar ones from Santa Rosa -Island, California, pictured by Holmes (l. c., fig. 7). The bone ring -resembles the thick bead-like bone ring taken from another of the -graves, stratum VII_a_, of the mound. - -No. 8. Burial of an adult, in stratum VII, found above the tunnel. The -body in the usual squatting position was placed from north to south, -facing east, upon a bed of red earth and was itself colored red. This -grave contained besides objects of personal adornment a number of bone -implements. The former consisted of a number of beads made of bird bone -(types similar to object pl. 11, figs. 15 to 17) and a like number of -_Olivella_ shells bored at the lower end (pl. 11, fig. 3); they were -scattered in the earth about the body. One of the _Olivella_ shells was -perforated on its side (pl. 11, fig. 4). Several of the bone beads were -connected in twos by thinner bones (pl. 11, fig. 15). It may be assumed -that the bone beads and shells had been fastened to a garment that -served as a shroud for the body but has now disappeared. - -The bone implements taken from this grave have the shape of paper -cutters; there are five in all, representing two distinct types. Three -are made of a hard bone (pl. 8, fig. 4) and are imperfect at their upper -ends; the form is that of a horn, the worn edges show their use as -tools; the other two objects (pl. 8, fig. 5) are made of a much softer -bone; they are unfinished at their lower ends. The two types are -distinct, although it is difficult to compare them in their very -imperfect condition. The upper end of the implement of the second type -shows two hooked projections connected by an outward bending of their -rims. They have each a hole on the lower edge of such a size as to admit -a finger, to facilitate the handling of the tool. Neither of these types -was met in other parts of the mound. - -An _Olivella_ shell with side perforation similar to that of plate 11, -fig. 4, from a grave on Santa Rosa Island has been represented by -Holmes[54]. Bone beads similar to that of figs. 16 and 17 on plate 11 -were found in nearly all the strata of the mound; two of these are shown -in figs. 13 and 14 of the same plate, the former, 1-8702, from stratum -IV, the latter, 1-8743, from stratum V. It also has a remnant of a -former axle-like connection with another bead as was shown in fig. 15 -from stratum V. Bone beads have been widely used as objects of adornment -by the California Indians, as is the case with many tribes in other -parts of the world[55]. With the Yokuts bird bone pieces of 2-1/2 inches -in length at one time represented a value of 12-1/2 cents. - -No. 9. A child’s grave, in stratum VII_a_, in the tunnel about 18 feet -below the surface. The associated objects were convex shell beads (cf. -pl. 11, figs. 5_a_ and 5_b_) and a cockleshell upon the crown of the -head (cf. grave No. 1). - -No. 10. Grave of an infant with very delicate bones. It was found in the -lowest part of section VIII, 23 feet below the surface. - ------ - -[37] See P. Schumacher, Bull. _l. c._, p. 38, for burials in the mounds -on the Island of San Miguel. - -[38] Virchow found them in the Spanish shellmounds (Ranke, _l. c._, II, -p. 533), while in those of Denmark they are absent. Schumacher (Smiths. -Rep., 1874, p. 337) states that he observed shellmounds in Southern -California which had been temporary abodes only and were devoid of -graves; while D. G. Brinton asserts that in Florida graves occurred in -natural shellmounds, while artificial shellmounds were free of them (_l. -c._, 1866, p. 357). Such general statements cannot be accepted unless -they are supported by observations over larger fields than these. - -[39] H. C. Yarrow, Introduction to the mortuary custom among the North -American Indians, 1880, p. 58, points out that this custom was general -among those Indians who cremated their dead. - -[40] Bulletin U. S. Geol. and Geogr. Survey, III, p. 34. In other places -shellmound graves lie deeper; thus sometimes three to six feet on the -Island of San Miguel (P. Schumacher, Bull. _l. c._, p. 38). - -[41] Charles Rau, Ancient Aboriginal Trade in North America, Smithson. -Rep., 1872, p. 361 (from G. Squier). - -[42] _l. c._, p. 360. - -[43] Art in Shell, Second Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 1880 -to 1881, pl. XXIII, fig. 6. - -[44] P. Schumacher, Smithson. Rep., 1874, p. 349. - -[45] Central California, cf. also Moorehead, _l. c._, p. 259. - -[46] P. Schumacher, Bull. _l. c._, p. 34. - -[47] F. W. Putnam, Rep. upon U. S. Geogr. Surveys, _l. c._, p. 30; -Schumacher, Smithson. Rep., 1874, p. 341. - -[48] Smithson. Rep., 1874, p. 342. - -[49] Putnam, _l. c._, p. 22; Schumacher, Smithson. Reports, 1874, p. -350. - -[50] Yarrow, Introduction to the Study of Mortuary Customs among the -North American Indians, 1880, p. 54. - -[51] Schoolcraft, Archives of Aboriginal Knowledge, 1860, IV, p. 156. - -[52] Yarrow, _l. c._, p. 71. - -[53] Bulletin _l. c._, p. 34. - -[54] Art in Shell, pl. XXXII, fig. 2. - -[55] W. H. Dall, for instance, found them among other places in -shellmounds on the Aleutian Islands (Smithson. Contrib., 1878, No. 318, -pl. 10, No. 17261.) - - - AGE OF THE MOUND. - -The shellmounds of the environs of San Francisco Bay are almost the only -witnesses of a practically unknown period in the early history of this -region.[56] They appear to us at first investigation unintelligible, -both as regards the beginning and the end of the period during which -they served as human abodes. For a solution of the problem before us the -most diverse kinds of investigations must be carried on, before the -principal facts of this history can be clearly brought out. - -Shellmounds can be found along almost all parts of the inhabited coast. -In California as well as in other parts of the world they originate by -the accumulation of remnants of food, especially the shells of the -mollusca which are used as articles of diet. In the midst of the -remnants of food cast aside by him, man clung to his place of abode, -raising it more and more above the general level of the ground through -the gradual accumulation of these materials. Hence these localities -represent, in certain stages of human development, true but nevertheless -low types of human dwelling places. The manner of procuring the -essentials of life by collecting shells in itself indicates a low form -of human existence. In all parts of the world, even today, people may be -seen on the shore at low water gathering for food the shells uncovered -by the retreating tide; and although under the changed conditions of -life they raise no shellmounds, these people always belong to the lower -classes of society, and lead in this manner a primitive as well as a -simple life. Peoples depending for food upon collecting shells are -usually not agriculturists, but fishermen, and perhaps hunters as a -secondary occupation. Their implements are of the rudest kind, made of -bone, stone, wood, and the like. Industries of a more highly developed -kind, _e.g._, the dressing of ore and working it up into various -implements, remained unknown to them, except in perhaps a few instances. - -Thus it seems natural to connect the origin of shellmounds in general -with the work of prehistoric generations, _i.e._, man of the stone age. -The only condition necessary for their origin is, that the people who -raised them lived somewhat close together and therefore possessed a -certain social organization. For only in many centuries or even in tens -of centuries could even large groups of men pile up such enormous -quantities of kitchen debris into hills which come to form prominent -features of the landscape. Though little is definitely known, the -beginnings of human social organization evidently reached back into -Quaternary time, just as is the case with the beginnings of human -ornamentation. There is therefore no good reason why the origin of the -shellmounds could not date back to Quaternary time. In this connection -mention must be made of the fact that, according to Cook,[57] stone -implements of argillite, which would consequently be attributed to the -palaeolithic man, were found in a shellmound of New Jersey. The well -known shellmounds of Denmark, the so-called “Kjoekkenmoeddings” (_i.e._, -“Kitchen debris”), which first attracted the attention of scientists to -the remnants left by prehistoric men, are not so old.[58] Nevertheless, -it has been possible to prove by them that Denmark had at the time of -their origin a flora considerably different from that of the present, -and that the Auerhahn, too, lived there, which does not exist in Denmark -today. J. Wyman, a very careful explorer of the shellmounds of New -England, does not consider the Atlantic shellmounds of this continent as -old as those of Denmark.[59] He seems to have taken this view because he -met with no authentic proofs of a greater age. These were difficult to -obtain. Yet he calls attention to the finding of traces of the auk, the -wild turkey, and the elk in those shellmounds, _i.e._, animals which no -longer exist in the region of shellmounds investigated by him. According -to him, their disappearance took place in historic times. - -In determining the age of the Emeryville mound we note first the fact -that no traces of typical Quaternary animals were found in it. It is -interesting to find that this mound resembles those just mentioned in -regard to the finding of traces of the beaver, an animal no longer met -with in this region. It was found in one of the lower strata of the -mound. How far it reaches upward cannot as yet be decided, since the -large number of bones taken from the upper beds have not all been -examined. Since the time that remains of this animal were deposited in -the lower strata of the mound, the beaver has retreated from this -region, in fact from the whole of California, in a northerly direction, -possibly up to Washington. When it left this region is not known. We -cannot, however, be certain that this retreat may not have commenced in -recent times. - -Another fact of importance in fixing the age of this mound is found in -the apparent change of level of the strata upon which the original -layers of the mound were placed. As nearly as can be determined, the -original fundament upon which the mound stands has sunk at least three -feet. The base of the mound, formerly probably one foot above the usual -high water level[60] of the bay, lies at present two feet below. If the -mound with its environs had not since grown above the level of the -original floor, it would be inundated completely for several hours twice -a day. The length of time required for such a subsidence we can of -course not determine with any exactness, as no measure of subsidence is -available. In all probability it is to be taken an indication of -considerable antiquity. - -Further facts upon which an approximation of the age of the mound may be -based are of a purely anthropological nature. Usually the early period -in which man made use solely of flaked stone tools is contrasted with -the later age when polished as well as chipped stone implements were -used. In the very lowest stratum of the hill, almost down at the base, -there were found stone implements of the well known palaeolithic -turtle-back form. A pestle fragment which came from the lower stratum of -the mound, though having a completely disintegrated exterior, seems to -have originally been artificially rounded. A mortar fragment found low -down may have originated from an implement which was formed, as is often -the case, out of a common boulder. But before it broke from this object -the mortar was deeply worn out, just as others that have come down to -our times. Also, the deep concavity of its rims speaks for long -continued wear. The next stratum (two to four feet above the base of the -mound) yielded the fragment of a pestle of irregular, not rounded cross -section. Here a common oblong pebble may have been used as a pestle. -Besides these, the two lower strata furnished only an oval, flattened -pebble, probably used as a hammer, the only one of its kind in the whole -mound. - -These four stone implements represent the only specimens of the two -lowest strata of the mound which are not chipped. A little above these -the excellently polished tool 1-8925 (pl. 10, fig. 9) was found (in -stratum VIII). This is the only one of such workmanship before the IVth -stratum upwards. Therefore it is by no means impossible that rubbed or -polished stone implements, excepting mortars and pestles, were unknown -at the time of the origin of the lower strata, and that their use was -rather limited in the succeeding strata. But the presence of mortar -fragments and pestles in the lowest strata points toward a higher -development of the human type than is usually expected of men who use -flaked tools only. - -It will have become evident from the foregoing remarks that the general -zoological, geological, and anthropological facts which are available -for fixing the age of the mound offer only indefinite evidence; -uncertain even for an approximate dating of the time of the mound’s -beginning. They do not preclude the possibility of an age numbering many -centuries; neither do they prove it. Under such circumstances it seems -proper to take into account some more general considerations which -appear in a study of the shellmounds of the bay as a whole. - -We shall probably not make too great a mistake if we estimate the number -of the larger shellmounds around the Bay of San Francisco to be over -100. So many and such enormous shellmounds can not possibly have been -constructed by human hands unintentionally in any small number of -centuries. Furthermore, they form a link of a larger chain of similar -mounds which stretch northerly along the coast and inland from Southern -California to beyond Vancouver and possibly still farther; _i.e._, a -distance of 18 degrees of latitude. The extension of such a similar -manner of life over so great an area speaks of itself for the work of a -great number of centuries. Even the complete development of this -peculiar mode of existence, as represented in these mounds, must have -taken centuries. And this is the more probably true since in those -earlier stages of cultural evolution advances in the manner of living -were infinitely more difficult than they were later. Under these -circumstances it is only possible to assume that the origin of the -shellmounds in this region represents a historical development of more -than a thousand, possibly many thousand years.[61] If this holds good -generally for the origin of shellmounds among which the one at -Emeryville is, judged by its height, the character of its contents in -the lower strata, and the observed geological facts, by no means the -youngest, we have still to consider on the other hand the limits of the -time up to which these mounds may have been inhabited. - -For a long time it has been customary to consider the last as well as -the first occupation of the shellmounds as belonging to the remote past. -The fact that in California no shellmound is known which is now -inhabited or has been inhabited in historic time would speak for this -assumption. However, many instances point to habitation of the mounds in -the most recent times, not only in a few places, but in different parts -of the whole inhabited world. And this cannot surprise us; for we can -see primitive man reach into the most recent, nay, even the present -time, in various parts of the globe. Thus, as is well known, the first -discoverers described the Indians of the Gulf of Mexico as men “living -in houses of mats erected upon hills of oysters.”[62] R. Schomburgh -attributes a large number of mounds made of snail shells, observed by -him near the mouth of the Orinoco river, to the Warrow Indians, who are -still living in that neighborhood. In the desolate coast lands of the at -present dry mouths of the Ica river in Peru there are two enormous -shellmounds which the writer has visited. Even now there remain large -parts of the wooden huts which were left behind on these shellmounds by -the last shell-eaters. Painted pot-fragments, patches of woven fibres, -and all kinds of bones lie scattered about. It would be an easy matter -to show that the last inhabitants of the hill exhibited the later -cultural conditions which prevailed during the time of the Incas in the -valleys of Pisco and Ica, about 1460 A.D. - -Returning to California, there can be no doubt that the hill-like camp -places of the Indians in the interior of the country represented a local -variation of the shellmounds along the shore. The form and structure of -these camping places resemble the shellmounds of the coast. The material -differs in part, since the inhabitants of the inland had fewer shells at -their disposal. These camping places were inhabited by the Indians quite -recently, or are even now inhabited.[63] The time when the shellmounds -of the Bay shore were vacated by their owners was therefore probably not -very long ago. With this view coincides the fact that in the upper -strata of the shellmound burial is represented by cremation; a form of -burial observed up to the most recent times among the Indians of -California. The white immigrants settled first on the seacoast, and it -is therefore natural that the aborigines retreated earlier from their -shellmounds than their brethren in the interior did from their camp -places. - -Thus, while the history of the shellmounds of this region probably -reaches back more than a thousand years into the past, it must have -extended almost to the threshold of modern times. The fact that their -roots reached far back into the prehistoric period of California does -not prevent our seeing the tops developing almost to the present day. - ------ - -[56] Powers, _l. c._, p. 375. - -[57] Quoted by Abbott, _l. c._ - -[58] Cf. J. Ranke, Der Mensch, II, p. 536. Those shellmounds are placed -in the earlier stone age of the current geologic periods. - -[59] _l. c._, p. 571. - -[60] On an average once in every 14 days the high tide reaches a higher -mark, which, however, is not considered here. - -[61] In a similar manner, Abbott, _l. c._, p. 449, closes a long general -exposition of the reasons which speak either for or against a relatively -great age of the shellmounds on the Atlantic coast, with the estimate of -an age of at least 1,000 years. His deductions are based upon geological -reasons (the sinking of the coast) and the dissimilarities of the -cultural remains found in the mounds. Peculiarly enough, D. G. Brinton, -reasoning from the analogy of the cultural character of the shellmounds -with that of the Indian tribes which the explorers met in this country, -thinks he has found an argument against a comparatively high age of the -shellmounds. W. H. Dall considers the lower strata of his well-explored -Aleutian shellmounds to have an age of about 1,000 years. -(Contributions, _l. c._, p. 53.) - -[62] Abbott, _l. c._, p. 44. - -[63] The old Indian camping place at Knight’s Landing (on the Fair -Ranch), at the mouth of a tributary of the Sacramento river, was -inhabited, according to authentic information (T. Coleman), as late as -1849 by 150-200 “Digger” Indians. They departed in 1865. The shells, of -which only a small number have been found, are of _Mytilus_. A similar -mound in Colusa county, 20 miles to the northwest, is still populated by -Indians. The Wintun Indians are still accustomed to obtain shells for -food by diving into the river. This caused Powers (_l. c._, p. 233) to -surmise that a race somewhat like theirs might have erected these -shellmounds. - - - CULTURAL STAGES REPRESENTED. - -If we attribute to the shellmound an age representing many centuries, -cultural differences should be indicated in the successive strata. For -it is impossible that the cultural state of one and the same place -should have remained stationary for many centuries and, even judging by -the mass alone, the mound could not have reached such a height in less -than a considerable number of centuries. In attempting to discover -possible cultural differences we unfortunately meet with several -difficulties. The action of the climate has destroyed in all the strata -the objects which consisted of perishable materials. Only the more -resistant things remained. But the perishable materials are frequently -those in which the decorative sense of man expresses itself most easily, -and in which cultural differences are most distinctly shown. A further -unfortunate circumstance arises from the general trend to simplicity and -primitiveness of the tools of the inhabitants of all shellmounds. So -that the visible cultural differences which would generally appear with -a people of changing forms of life are imperfectly expressed. Finally, -many objects give only partial evidence as regards form and use, for -they were often mutilated previous to their deposition in the strata. - -In examining the implements of successive layers of the mound we find -that awls and certain knife-like tools found in nearly all known -shellmounds are met with in all of the strata, while ornaments -consisting of _Haliotis_ shells and other simple objects of decoration -made of shells, corresponding in general appearance to those which are -still in use among the Indians, are met with in the graves of the VIth -to the VIIIth strata. In the deepest strata, however, there have not -been found any bone beads, ornaments of _Haliotis_ shells, or saw-like -tools such as are known above the VIIIth stratum. Thus there is some -support for the suggestion that cultural differences are expressed in -the history of the mound. - -One of the most striking differences indicating a change in the -character of the people whose cultural stages are represented in the -successive strata is found in the different forms of burial. The use of -cremation appears for the first time in the 4th stratum and extends to -the upper, completely undisturbed stratum (II). In the IVth stratum out -of 11 bone awls only 4 are calcined, while in the IInd stratum 44 in 61. -In the latter the great amount of ash intermingled with calcined human -bones becomes very noticeable. Powers relates in his great work on the -California tribes that most of them practiced cremation, and concerning -the Karok, Yurok, and Wintun he relates that they bury their dead, while -the Yokuts under certain circumstances make use of both customs. The -inhabitants of the upper strata of the mound may undoubtedly be assumed -to have followed the customs of the majority of modern Californian -tribes in the disposal of their dead. Contrasting with this custom is -burial in the ground. In this connection interesting evidence is -furnished by the strata of this mound: here at least cremation was -preceded by interment. In strata IV to VIII of this mound we find this -custom prevailing, and we are forced to assume it to have been practiced -by the population living on the mound during the time from the -deposition of the lower part of stratum VIII to that of the middle of -stratum V. In their manner of burial the knees were drawn up, resting -upon the side, resembling on the whole the mode of burial in the -shellmounds of Santa Barbara county in California, and in those found in -Oregon. Instead of suggesting that the mode of burial is a recent one, -the findings in the lower strata of the mound at Emeryville might hint -that possibly the shellmounds of Southern California and Oregon are -older than is at present believed. The Yokuts likewise bury their dead -with drawn up knees, but whether lying on one side is not mentioned. -Also of the Wintun detailed information as regards their mode of burial -is missing. But even if a majority of tribes should still practice the -form which prevailed in the middle strata of the mound, this would not -change the fact that the whole mode of burial at this place designates -an earlier ethnical stage. The manner in which the inhabitants of the -lower strata of the mound—say from the bottom portions of the VIIIth -stratum to the bottom of the Xth—buried their dead is not known, -because no graves or other evidences of burial appear in them. It is not -impossible that their mode of burial differed again from the two kinds -of burial found in the strata lying above. - -Another striking difference between the upper and lower layers is found -in the characteristic implements of the strata. This difference is best -represented by a comparative table. In order to understand this better, -we give the relative volume of earth moved for each stratum. In the -table the volume of the VIIth stratum (about 100 cubic feet) has been -taken as the unit. Bracketed figures in the different columns denote the -number of objects which might have been expected as the proportional -content of one of the middle strata. In the last two columns the -contents of the IXth stratum have for practical purposes been used as a -basis. - - Rubbed* Flaked Rough - stone - Relative stone implements Knife-like awl-like -Layers Contents implements Obsidians excepting implements implements - obsidian - - I 5.5 2[5] 2[2] — [6] —[8] - II 10.6 24[10] 11[5] 6[10] [13] —[16] - III 7.3 3[7] 4[4] 4[7] [9] —[11] - IV 4.2 4 2 4 [5] —[6] - V 3.4 4[4] 1[1] 5(2) [4] —[5] - VI 1.5 —[1] —[1] 3 [1] —[2] - VII 1 —[1] 2[1] 6 } [1] —[1] - *VII 2.2 —[2] —[-] 9 } 1[2] } [11] - VIII 7.4 1[7] 1[4] 24 }28 1[9] }5 —[3] - IX 3.3 —[3] 1[2] 62 } 4[4] 5[5] - X 1.8 —[2] —[1] 17 } —[2] 4[3] - - *Except mortars and pestles. - -Parentheses in the 4th column denote the number of chipped stones which -may actually be assumed as tools. - -It is evident that the character of the objects in the upper strata is -entirely different from that of the implements which are found in the -lower beds. Well polished stone implements and obsidians diminish the -nearer we come to the bottom. The sporadic occurrence of a well polished -stone implement in the 8th stratum of the first column has an entirely -abnormal aspect, in view of the otherwise complete absence of such -objects from the VIth stratum downward. The abnormal increase of objects -of the 1st and 2nd kinds in the IInd stratum is doubtless due to the -custom of throwing their possessions into the fire during the cremation -of the dead. Still, the IInd stratum yielded a sufficient number of -fragments of similar objects which were evidently lost in other ways. So -few are furnished by the contents of the lower strata that their limited -use is apparently indicated. In fact, even the Vth stratum shares this -poverty, for its four polished implements are only represented by -fragments of metate-like stones and a tablet of slate, polished on one -side. In the lower strata flaked stones (of local materials), bone -splinters of an awl-like shape, and knife-like tools of bone -predominate. Among the flaked stones, real implements are very numerous; -they are missing in the upper strata. Their technique is primitive. On -one side they are flat and are worked on the other side only. This -working, too, is crude, and the finishing primitive. The turtle-back -form is present. Different kinds of scraper-like tools of primitive -form, and of drill-like sharpened stone fragments, must have been more -common implements in the hands of the inhabitants of this stage than -among the dwellers on the upper strata, where these tools are lacking. - -A well formed implement of flaked stone, worked on both sides, was found -low down in stratum VIII (a spear-like blade, pl. 10, fig. 14). Strata -IX and X offer nothing similar. The leaf-like blade from stratum VIII -(pl. 6, fig. 20), where a crude workmanship is paired with an attempt at -more regular sharpening of the edges, does not favor the view that the -inhabitants of the mound had been well versed from the beginning in the -production of chipped implements. - -Very remarkable is the occurrence together of crude splinters of bone, -which show from long use their real value as tools, and the neat, almost -elegant, knife-like implements. Among the latter we find the only -ornamental fragment of a tool of bone obtained during the whole course -of the excavation. The people who used the splinters of bone for their -tools were not so primitive but that they possessed elegant objects of -bone, and not so far advanced but that they were often satisfied with -such primitive implements as common bone splinters. But both classes of -these typical tools are markedly different from what the upper strata of -the mound offer in the line of implements. Hence the people of the lower -strata must have represented a somewhat different mental type or a -different degree of mental training. - -It seems advisable, from what we know, to separate the older inhabitants -who had settled here and raised the foundations of the mound up to the -middle part of the VIIIth stratum, from the later population of the -grave period. They may have been neolithic, they may have been connected -with the following generation by some common traits, although there is -little evidence for this; but the two people certainly differed in -cultural characteristics. - -The race that commenced building in the middle of the 8th stratum was -apparently less different from the population of the upper strata than -from its predecessors. But differences can here, also, be discovered. -The chipped tools of local materials still continue for some time (about -to VII_a_), and obsidian seems to have come to them as a rather rare -material. Only a few bone implements from grave 8 are extant in this -group of strata. Contrasted with the usage of the people of the upper -strata is also the use of bone arrow blades, which the last inhabitants -of the mound apparently did not possess. They had not yet departed from -an extended employment of bone as a working material; a fact usually -more characteristic of a primitive people than of one further advanced. - -One observation should still be made in this connection. It is a -striking fact that in the fifth stratum and its immediate proximity a -number of objects appear, the likeness of which was not found elsewhere -in the whole mound. They are: - - (1) Fragments of metate-like stones, stratum V. - A long, dull, chisel-like tool of horn, from stratum V. - A tablet of slate polished on one side, stratum V. - (2) Pieces of antlers, truncated for use as tools, stratum V, and a - knife-like implement, stratum V. - -It seems possible that such sporadic types of tools were left by a -people that only temporarily inhabited the mound. Since, however, up to -the present time parallel investigations have furnished but little -material, such an hypothesis cannot be tested as to its exactness; nor -is it possible to state from what region they might have come. - - - PART II.—ARTIFACTS UNEARTHED AT THE EMERYVILLE SHELLMOUND.* - - *For the final literary form of the second half of this paper P. E. - Goddard is responsible. - -The artifacts, complete and fragmentary, unearthed during the excavation -of the Emeryville shellmound are of stone, bone or horn, and shell.[64] -In number, the objects of bone and horn about equal those of stone, or -if the large quantity of chipped stone in the lower strata be deducted, -being mainly workshop chips, the bone specimens are even in the -majority. Although shell heaps usually abound in bone implements, the -large number of such implements recovered in this mound is quite -remarkable, especially since the mound at West Berkeley, only two miles -distant, seems to possess a much smaller number of them. There the bone -implements recovered bear the proportion of from 1:5 to 1:10 of those of -stone, so in the case of bone implements we find verification of the -observation regarding the less frequent occurrence of the bones of -animals as waste in proportion to other waste.[65] The occupants of the -West Berkeley mound being essentially fishermen, apparently gave less -time to the chase, and as a result may have neglected handicrafts in -which bone implements were used.[66][67] - ------ - -[64] Remains of pottery are found in quantities in the shellmounds on -the Atlantic Coast (cf. Abbott, _l. c._, p. 43_a_), and also in those of -other localities (Brazil, Peru). They do not, of course, appear in -California shellmounds since stone pots and baskets were used in their -place at all times. - -[65] The specimens of bone implements recovered in shellmounds are of -great importance in the study of the use of such implements among -primitive peoples, since they are so rarely found in other fields of -research (cf. also Abbott, _l. c._, p. 205). Still shellmounds greatly -differ in this respect. While bone implements are “quite abundant” in -the shellmounds of New England, the same as here (Wyman, Am. Naturalist. -I, p. 581), the mounds in New Jersey yield only one bone to every 3,000 -stone implements. (Abbott, _l. c._) - -[66] - -[67] - - - A. Implements made of Stone. - - a. Made by Grinding. - - 1. Mortars. - -Stone mortars were among the most common and most useful implements that -the ancient inhabitants of the land possessed, being used for the -preparation of meal and for other purposes. Correspondingly numerous -therefore are these objects, found mostly in fragments, and scattered -through nearly all the strata from the second to the tenth. There are -three perfect specimens and eleven fragments in our collection, nearly -all made of lava. The largest of the mortars, 1-9102, fig. 3, was -recovered quite accidentally near g in plan III at the extreme western -end of the mound. Judging from the place of its discovery, about 3-1/2 -inches below the surface, the mortar must have been lost in about the -middle period while the foot of the mound was increasing from n to p. -Its outside surface is rough like the natural boulder, it is 1 foot long -by 9 inches wide and 7-1/2 inches high. Within it is oval and measures 6 -to 7 inches in diameter and 5 inches in depth. The smaller mortar, -1-8705, fig. 4, was found in stratum VI. On the outside it is rounded -off and ornamented with engraved vertical lines, which are intersected -near the edge by a horizontal one. The edge is partly worn away by use. -Such simple lines as an ornamentation of the outside are occasionally -observed on California mortars. - -[Illustration: Fig. 3. × 1/4. A large mortar.] - -1-8664, fig. 5, a small mortar from stratum III, is of different shape, -oval both in its outline and in cross section, the bottom being slightly -flattened; it has a rather small round cavity, 1-1/2 inches in diameter -and one-sixth inch deep. It may have served for the pounding up of -substances which were used only in small quantities, such as color -pigments. The width of this mortar is 2-1/2 inches, its height and -thickness 1-7/8 inches. Powers presents a view of a similar specimen -from California, a proof that this type occurred in this region. A -fragment, 1-8810 of the collection from stratum VIII, may be the bottom -of a similar utensil. - -[Illustration: Fig. 4. About one-half natural size.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 5. × 3/4. Small mortars.] - -Some additional types of mortars are represented among the fragments; -they will be given below in the order in which they were recovered. -1-8594, fig. 6, from stratum II, is one of several fragments of this -stratum and belongs to a relatively advanced type, resembling a vessel. -These stone vessels had a fairly even thickness of the sides of about an -inch, and were fashioned quite regularly without and within. This rim is -flattened and slopes inward. The diameter of the complete mortars may -have been a foot. This type of mortar is quite common in California. The -collection from Santa Rosa Island in the University Museum made by Dr. -Jones contains several similar specimens. 1-8707 fig. 7, stratum IV, is -an odd fragment. Its well fashioned bottom part is surrounded by a rim -which in turn is bordered by two chambers which exactly correspond; the -surface between them is broken. This fragment may also have been part of -a mortar, although it is not possible now to restore it to any shape -represented among the familiar types. Fig. 8, 1-9077, shows a fragment -of a mortar recovered in the Xth stratum, and it is the only one found -lower than stratum VIII. It lay hardly an inch from the base of the -mound. It has a peculiarly jagged shape; the convex exterior is the -rough boulder stone, as are the uneven sides, but the inner concave -surface is ground down smooth. The peculiar jagged shape may be -explained by the fact that it is a piece of a mortar, the rim of which -by long usage had been worn away in places, and as a result points were -formed. The collection of Dr. Jones from Santa Rosa contains a mortar -with a jagged rim, caused probably also by wearing away, but in that -case the points of the rim show some decoration, unlike the present -fragment. 1-8848, fig. 9, stratum VII_a_, may throw some light on the -possible cause of these indentations resulting from long usage. In the -latter specimen the surface of the bulging portion is rough, as in -1-9077. - -[Illustration: Figs. 6, 7, and 8. × 1/2. Fragments of mortars.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 9. × 2/3.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 10. × 1/2. Fragments of mortars.] - -The small fragment, 1-8621, fig. 10, stratum II, has to be included also -in the class of mortar-like utensils. It is made of a soft material -resembling steatite, it curves as if it were a handle and is broken off -at one end, while the other rounded end shows marks of blows. This -object may be compared to the handle of the cup-shaped vessel of -steatite from Dos Pueblos in Southern California and shown by Professor -Putnam, l. c., pl. VI, fig. 5 (cf. l. c., p. 110). Similar utensils from -Santa Catalina Island and other places are mentioned there; hence it may -be assumed that this type of utensils was used by the occupants of the -mound during its last period. - -[Illustration: Fig. 11. × 1/2. Fragment of a mortar.] - -Fig. 11, 1-8533, from stratum I, shows a stone fragment, hollowed out -like a mortar. The upper rim of the specimen must have had a sharp -angle, as the outer surface is almost vertical while the concavity is -rather shallow, forming a cup with a considerable diameter. - -[Illustration: Fig. 12. × 1/2. Fragment of a stone used for grinding.] - - 2. Flat Stones. - -It is only from three small fragments that the presence of this type -within the mound may be inferred. All three were recovered in stratum V; -one of them, 1-8751, is shown in figure 12. Judging from the fragments, -these grinding stones were square in shape, about 1-1/2 to 2 inches in -thickness and were worn smooth, both on the horizontal surface and on -the sides and ends. The occurrence of flat grindstones is not -unprecedented in California; some have been found in Sonoma county[68] -and elsewhere. They were perhaps used in the manufacture of shell -ornaments and beads. - ------ - -[68] Moorehead, _l. c._, p. 291. - - 3. Pestles. - -[Illustration: Fig. 13. × 1/2. Pestle with depression on one side. Fig. -14. × 1/2. A grooved sinker. Fig. 15. × 1/2. Upper end of a pestle.] - -Many fragments having the usual form were found, but only one was -perfect, and that of unusual shape. 1-8670, fig. 13, was recovered in -cut A, 6 inches below the surface. It is 6-3/8 inches long, 3 inches -wide, and 2-1/8 inches thick, tapering toward the pestle-like rounded -end, the other end being flat. Marks on it show that it was also used as -a hammer. Sunk into one of the sides, at about the center of gravity, is -a long conical groove about one-third of an inch deep; the opposite side -shows the beginning of another such groove. They may have been worn into -the stone by using the broad side of the implement in driving stakes, -etc. The beginning of a second groove, otherwise superfluous, on the -opposite side seems to bear this out, as do the marks on the surface of -the broad end. These latter indications are a proof that the utensil was -not used as a pestle only. This is not the only instance of a pestle -with side grooves. Ch. Rau pictures a very similar one from Tesuque in -New Mexico.[69] Mr. Stevenson’s opinion that the side grooves served for -holding the pigment which had just been ground by the pestle seems to be -merely a conjecture on his part. A stone was found in the West Berkeley -shellmound which seems arbitrarily to combine several purposes,—a -groove encircling it shows its use as a sinker, a semispherical cavity -which at its widest part breaks into the groove points to its use as a -mortar. - -[Illustration: Fig. 16 and 17. × 1/2. The lower ends of pestles. Fig. -18. × 1/2. Stone used for hammer with depression for fingers. Fig. 19. × -1/2. A new type of implement of unknown use.] - -The 17 fragments of pestles of usual shape were fairly uniformly -distributed throughout all the strata, as was the case with the mortars. -However, 7 of these came from stratum II alone. There were no -peculiarities to be noted in the fragments as to their forms. They were -about 2-1/2 inches thick and were rounded off at the lower end. The -upper end sometimes tapered after a conical swelling immediately next -the grinding surface. They were cut straight off at the upper end, -unless indeed the abruptly cut surface is the result of a previous -breaking. Sharply pointed or button-like ornamentations at the upper -ends which are usual in those found in California[70] were not noticed. -Figures 15 to 17 show three fragments,—1-8882, 1-8597, and 1-8666 from -strata VIII, II, and from the cut A. Of these, the first illustrates the -upper end of a pestle, the other two, lower ends. - -The little object 1-8620 from stratum II, plate 12, fig. 11, seems to be -best included under pestle stones. It is made of fine grained stone, -which would point to its use for more delicate purposes. It is a -truncated cone, with oval section, 1-1/8 inches wide and 1-3/16 inches -thick. The lower base is slightly arched and, as can plainly be seen, is -scratched slightly by use; a small middle cavity in the narrow upper -surface shows traces of asphaltum. It may have been used as a pestle. - ------ - -[69] Observations on the cup-shaped sculpture in Contrib. to North -American Ethnology, 1882, V, fig. 39, with p. 47 repeated by Stephen D. -Peet in The Moundbuilders, 1892, I, p. 5, fig. 5. - -[70] Putnam, _l. c._, pp. 87-89; Moorehead, _l. c._, p. 290. - - 4. Hammer-like Stones. - -Strangely enough, only two such implements were found in this mound, -while in the West Berkeley mound several that conclusively belonged to -this class were unearthed. - -One of these, a boulder stone the size of one’s fist, oval in shape and -flattened, was found in the lowest stratum, X. The marks of blows making -the side edges uneven show its use as a hammer. The other, 1-8720, fig. -18, from stratum IV, is one of the familiar type having a groove for the -insertion of the fingers. It is a stone 3-1/4 inches long, 3 inches -wide, and of an uneven thickness not exceeding 1-5/8 inches, flattened -off at its thickest (lower) end. There is a depression in each of the -broad sides. The surface of the indentations is dotted with small holes. -Similar stones have been found in many places in the United States,—in -New Jersey, Pennsylvania,[71] on the Aleutians,[72] and elsewhere. -Abbott has pointed out the fact that the edges of some of these stones -could not very well have been used for hammering since they do not show -the signs of such usage. The stone in question was evidently used in two -ways,—as a hammer at the lower flat surface, which is from five-eighths -to 1-1/8 inches wide and in this case provided with indentations serving -for the insertion of the finger; and as a hammer at the flat sides for -the driving of stakes, etc., in which case it was grasped by the rims. -The pits in the depressions were probably the result of this latter use -of the implement. The writer has noticed that just such flat stones were -used in Bolivia for the driving of stakes, and there, too, the broad -side which gave the blow was pitted. The material used is hard -sandstone. - ------ - -[71] Abbott, _l. c._, pp. 425 to 431, figs. 399 to 404. Chas. Rau, _l. -c._ Smithson. Contrib., No. 297, Vol. XXII, p. 20, figs. 80 to 81, and -p. 22. - -[72] Dall, _l. c._, p. 55. - - 5. Flat Stones Pointed at both Ends. - -Two objects of this form, coming from stratum II, represents a new type -of implement. They are almost identical in shape. One of them, 1-8604, -is shown in fig. 19. They consist of long, flat, quadrangular boulder -stones, 3-5/8 and 3-7/8 inches long, with an even width and thickness of -1-5/8 inches. Both ends are simply sharpened to a point, and the broad -sides, top and bottom, are shaved off as far as the middle of the stone. -In form, the stones are similar to a wooden top of today. - - 6. Sinker-like Stones. - -Stones of this description form a large class, exhibiting, however, -great diversities of shape. They all seem to have served the same -purpose since most of them show indisputable signs of such usage. - -About 18 stones of this kind were found in the mound. As regards their -varying form and utility, they may be classed as follows: - -I. Spherical and oval stones with a peripheral groove: Fig. 20, 1-8669, -shows a spherical stone of this kind, found at a depth of 5 feet in cut -A. 1-8534, fig. 21, a fragment of an oval stone with a groove about its -largest circumference is from stratum I. - -II. Flat boulder stones with notches in the corresponding sides for -fastening them: Two of these were found in the upper strata; one, from -stratum IV, is shown in figure 22. - -[Illustration: Fig. 20. × 1/2. Figs. 21 and 22. × 3/4. Sinker-like -stones.] - -III. Stones with holes pierced through them by which they were -suspended: These form the type that may with the most certainty be -classed as sinkers. 1-8535, plate 12, fig. 7, from stratum I, is the -only specimen of this class found. - -IV. Pear-shaped and kindred stones; also conical pendant stones: The -fourth class is the largest, in that the greatest number of shapes may -be included in it. The following are to be counted in with this class: - -_a._ Pear-shaped stones and others, though slighter, still very like -them. This type is represented by: - -1. A perfect pear-shaped stone, 1-8611, plate 10, fig. 2, from stratum -II. - -2. More or less fragmentary bits, 1-8612, 3, the first without a doubt, -the second probably from stratum II. See 1-8613, plate 10, fig. 1. - -3. Five fragments of stones of a slenderer, less perfect though similar -form, 1-8614, 5 and 6 (plate 10, figs. 5, 3, 8), 1-8617 and 1-8718 -(plate 10, fig. 4), the latter one from stratum IV, the others from II. - -_b._ Inverted pear-shaped stones, some flat. This shape is related, -though distantly, to the above. Two fragments, 1-8618 and 1-8619, from -stratum II, see 1-8618, plate 10, fig. 6. - -_c._ A conical stone with slanting lower surface (1-8719, plate 10, fig. -7) from stratum IV. It is very similar in shape to the upper part of the -pear-shaped stones. - -_d._ A pointed stone, 1-8925, from stratum VIII, plate 10, fig. 9, which -is only very distantly related to the pear-shape forms. - -These stones belong to that class of objects which have been interpreted -at different times as being: - - 1. Weights for determining the vertical. - 2. Weights for weaving apparatus. - 3. Weights used in spinning. - 4. Weights used for fishing nets or lines. - 5. Ornaments. - 6. Medicine stones or charms.[73] - -A number of articles under class IV (Form IV_a_) are made of -hematite.[74] Of the objects under consideration, 1-8925 (plate 10, fig. -9) is made of the same. The use of hematite generally presupposes that -an implement is going to be employed as a weight. Since the forms that -belong to this class merge into one another in an uninterrupted series, -one is justified in assuming that they were all weights. - -It is further clear that the shape of the pear-like stones, which have -caused so much speculation, must have been fitted for some particular -purpose. This is to be inferred from the fact that stones of like shape -have been found in widely separated parts of the United States outside -of California, in Maine,[75] Massachusetts,[76] Ohio,[77] Illinois,[78] -and elsewhere. - -Furthermore, H. H. Bancroft[79] has made the important assertion that -such implements are usually found in a mutilated condition. This is -borne out by the fact that out of the nine pear-shaped and inverted -pear-shaped stones represented by groups 4_a_ and 4_b_, there is only -one which is perfect. It is to be inferred from this that, however -elaborately they are ornamented, these implements were put to -essentially practical uses. Hence the theory that they were worn as -ornaments or charms is untenable.[80] - -The supposition that they were used on the end of a plumb line is also -invalid, since civilization was not far enough advanced among the -Indians for that sort of thing. Weaving and spinning apparatus requiring -the use of the stones as weights are so rarely found that we cannot -explain the presence of such a large number of stones in that way. And -especially not in California since the Indians there have never spun nor -woven. - -Hence the only explanation left is that they were used in fishing. The -great quantities of such implements found on the coast has often been -noted.[81] That nine were found in a shellmound such as the one at -Emeryville substantiates this theory. They have also been noticed in a -number of other shellmounds about the bay (even though these have been -little excavated), as at Ellis Landing and in Visitacion Valley,[82] and -their shape is identically the same (plate 10, fig. 2). There is one -from a shellmound on Seaver’s Ranch with exactly the same shape, plate -10, fig. 1. Drawings were made by J. Deans of two other objects which -were also taken from the same shellmound in Visitacion Valley and which -had like forms.[83] If we accept the hypothesis that these stones in -general are sinkers, there are of course difficulties in the case of -individual stones, that must be explained away. The following -peculiarities which appear must be mentioned: - -1. Occasional peculiarities in material: Some are not very heavy, some -rather soft; and in others the ornamentation either in color, grain, or -crystalline markings is so prominent that an ornamental use is -suggested. 1-8615, plate 10, fig. 3, seems to be a stone of this -description,—the material of which it is made is reddish and fine -grained, and ornamented to some extent. - -2. The occasional absolute lack of any contrivance by which the -implement might have been suspended: 1-8925, plate 10, fig. 9, is, for -instance, of this kind. It is for the greater part of its length -absolutely round and gradually tapers to a point. The outer end is in -the form of a handle which is flattened to about one-half inch wide and -one-quarter inch thick and is rough from the marks of blows; the main -part of the instrument is smooth. The handle-like part must, from its -form and roughness, have served to fasten it by. It looks, however, more -as though it were intended to fit into a shaft, rather than to be -suspended. It is important to note that one of the long sides is -entirely covered with asphaltum. This fact excludes the possibility that -it was fastened into a shaft. It must further be called to mind that, as -in the case of the California Indian dancing costume, various rod-like -bits of stone are sometimes fastened on by means of hangers, the -provision for their suspension being made on the stones themselves. The -use of asphaltum in securing them often did away with otherwise -necessary changes in their form. At any rate it allowed great -imperfection in form. - -Fragment 1-8616, plate 10, fig. 8, is an example of the above; it is -pear-shaped and the upper conical point is encircled by a broad band of -asphaltum which served for its attachment. - -The sinker-like stones of classes I-III present fewer difficulties in -their explanation than do the pear-shaped and kindred ones. The use of -flat boulder stones with side grooves as net-sinkers is agreed to by -all.[84] The fact that here as in the East, and as in the shellmound of -West Berkeley, many of these have been found in groups, points almost -conclusively to their use as net weights. - -Professor Putnam has already called attention to the use of spherical -stones (fig. 20), with a peripherally encircling groove as sinkers.[85] -Similar stones are also found in shellmounds in Massachusetts and in the -Aleutian Islands. - -Dr. Yates[86] was informed by an Indian that such was the use of a stone -found in Napa (California).[87] The use of the oval stones (as fig. 21) -is in general to be explained in the same way. A stone of that kind is, -for example, known to have been found in Oregon.[88] Another one has -been found in California (supposedly at Spanish Flat). It has been -pictured by H. H. Bancroft.[89] - -The stone, 1-8535, plate 12, fig. 7, from stratum I, is a sinker, -judging from its general shape; it is long and oval, pierced at the -upper end. Stones of like form have been found in numbers in the -shellmound at West Berkeley. They are probably sinkers like many other -stones found there.[90] The upper eyelet has been broken off in the -stone under consideration. The stone is slightly flattened; one of the -end surfaces is more curved than the other and one of the broad sides -more elaborately adorned. On one side a lattice-like ornamentation joins -on to a deep groove. On the other side may be seen several somewhat -ruder lines like hatchings. The material is that commonly used. Abbott -describes an ornamented stone pendent as a gorget and another one from -Illinois with plastic ornaments, as a sinker.[91] Compare this with a -picture of a pendent stone from San Clemente Island.[92] The fact that -these stones are ornamented seems to make their use as sinkers doubtful -but not impossible, since fishhooks are sometimes much ornamented.[93] - -Plate 12, fig. 8, 1-8630, is somewhat sinker-like, but in many respects -it diverges from the general class. It is made of very light, soft -stone, and is an elongated oval in shape, with five grooves parallel to -one another cut in about the edge. It is elaborately ornamented with -oblique hatch-like lines on the edges between the grooves. Hence it is -improbable that it was a sinker—it cannot, however, as yet be assigned -to another use. - ------ - -[73] Dr. L. G. Yates, Smiths. Rep., 1886, pt. I, p. 296, further -explained in Bulletin of the Santa Barbara Soc. of Nat. History, No. 2; -Moorehead, _l. c._, pp. 249 to 250, etc. - -[74] Abbott, _l. c._, p. 232, fig. 220, from Illinois; Rau, Smith’s -Contrib., p. 27, No. 101, from Tennessee (cf. for both pl. VIII, fig. -2); Moorehead, _l. c._, p. 251, fig. 29, from Santa Barbara, Cal. - -[75] Moorehead, _l. c._, p. 92, fig. 113. - -[76] Rau, _l. c._, p. 27, figs. 105-106, Abbott, pp. 228 and 230, figs. -216 and 218. - -[77] Abbott, _l. c._, p. 233, fig. 222, Rau, fig. 103. - -[78] Abbott, _l. c._, pp. 232 and 233, figs. 221 and 223. - -[79] Native Races, IV, p. 711. - -[80] According to Dr. L. G. Yates, Bulletin 2 of the Santa Barbara Soc. -of Nat. Hist., the California Indians regard such pear-shaped stones as -charms and use them as such. This is analogous to their superstitious -belief concerning stone hatchets whose original significance has long -been forgotten and hence is no explanation of the original use to which -these articles were put. - -[81] Cf. F. W. Putnam, _l. c._, p. 195. - -[82] See Illustration in H. H. Bancroft’s Native Races, IV, p. 711. - -[83] Journal of the Anthropological Institute, _l. c._, p. 489. - -[84] Cf. particularly Abbott, _l. c._, p. 237. - -[85] _l. c._, p. 203. - -[86] Bulletin, _l. c._, pl. III, fig. 22, and p. 17. - -[87] Spherical and oval stones with a peripheral groove are implements -of a very simple form and hence they lend themselves to different uses. -The old copper fac-simile of a stone hammer in the Museum of Science and -Art in Philadelphia shows conclusively for the region in which it was -found, _viz._, Lake Titicaca, Pako Island, in Bolivia, that similar -stones were used as hammers. - -[88] Rau, Smiths. Contrib., No. 318, p. 27, fig. 110. - -[89] Native Races, IV, p. 705. - -[90] Sinkers provided with a hole and of like shape are in use among the -Western Eskimos. See J. Murdock, in IX, Am. Rep. of Bur. of Ethnology, -1887 to 1888, p. 282, fig. 273. They are found in great numbers in the -United States. - -[91] _l. c._, pp. 398 and 234. - -[92] Putnam, _l. c._, p. 209, fig. 81. - -[93] Among the Thlinkites conys Niblack. - - 7. Cylindrical Stones. - -These differ from the pestles in that their diameter is smaller and that -they bulge out only slightly toward the middle. Two objects of this kind -came from stratum II, of which 1-8609 is shown in plate 10, fig. 10. -Both are broken at their ends. They are respectively 4-13/15 inches and -2-5/8 inches long and fifteen-sixteenths inch and 1 inch thick. The -surface of the break in the shorter one was subsequently smoothed off; -perhaps by using it as a pestle. Long cylindrical stones of this kind -partly flattened on one side and having encircling grooves at the -tapering ends have been pictured by Yates[94] and Moorehead[95]; these -were found at Santa Barbara, Southern California. To these may also be -compared a stone pendant from Tuolumne county[96] pictured by Moorehead, -since the lack of complete ends in the stones gives considerable room -for speculation as to what the whole form might have been. On the other -hand, the tentative designation of them by Moorehead and Yates as charms -is in no way justified. The better interpretation of their use would be -that of sinkers especially in the case of those provided at both ends -with grooves for attachment,[97] since stones coming from Peru[98] which -are undeniably sinkers are very like these in many respects. - ------ - -[94] _l. c._, pl. IV, figs. 32, 33, so. Smiths. Reports, 1886, I, -partly, pl. IV, figs. 32, 33, pp. 296 to 305. - -[95] _l. c._, p. 251, fig. 381, Nos. 30 to 33. - -[96] _l. c._, p. 249, fig. 380, No. 1. - -[97] Cf. V. A., also flat specimen, Smiths. Rep., I, pl. IV, fig. 30. - -[98] In the Museum of the Univ. of Philadelphia. - - 8. Needle-like Stone Implements. - -An awl, 1-8608, plate 12, fig. 10, of stone, comes from stratum II. -Plate 12, fig. 9, 1-8711, from stratum IV, is pierced and similar to the -above though needle-shaped.[99] From scratches appearing on 1-8608 we -infer that it was used on rather hard materials. - - 9. Tobacco Pipes. - -It is remarkable that tobacco pipes were found only in stratum II; of -these we have five perfect specimens and one fragment. This bears out -the statement made above, that stone utensils well-made and smoothed off -were found only in the upper strata of the mound and particularly in -stratum II. Since it is not probable that the inhabitants of the lower -strata were ignorant of the practice of smoking, the absence of pipes -must be explained in some other way. On the one hand it is possible that -many of the older pipes were made of wood. Powers has described a number -of wooden pipes in use among the Indians of today. On the other hand, it -is possible that the practice of smoking was not so common in remoter -periods and therefore it would be likely that fewer pipes would be -found. There is a third possibility, that the large number of pipes -found in stratum II is dependent on the method of disposing of the dead, -so characteristic of this stratum and which caused articles to be -preserved which would otherwise have disappeared. The pipes described -below represent two primitive types, with some insignificant variations. - -Plate 12, figs. 2_a_ and (cross section) 2_b_, 1-8622, represents one -type. It is made of a soft serpentine-like material, gray on the broken -surface and reddish brown on the outside. It is one and seven-eighths -inches long and incomplete. There is a broad bowl-like part and a narrow -neck or stem, a prolongation of it. The bowl is conical, one and -one-eighth inches long and of inconsiderable width, being three-fourths -of an inch in diameter. The “boring” of the stem portion is cylindrical -and eccentric. - -Plate 12, figs. 3_a_ and 3_b_, 1-8623, is the only representative of the -second type. It is made of green serpentine, and is two and -one-sixteenth inches long, tapering into a tubular shape. The hole in -the stem is as above, only at the mouth end it is conical and shorter. A -groove is cut into the tapering end. - -Plate 12, figs. 1_a_ and (in section) 1_b_, 1-8624, is made of soft gray -stone and is very similar to the preceding one, except that it lacks the -groove at the mouth end and that it is shorter and thicker. - -Plate 12, figs. 4_a_ and (in section) 4_b_, 1-8626, is a small -cylindrical object only nine-sixteenths of an inch long and -seventeen-thirty-seconds of an inch wide. The seven-sixteenth inch -conical hole takes up nearly the whole width of the stem so that the rim -surrounding it is sharp. The short conical boring at the stem end is -only five-sixteenths of an inch wide. The proof that this too was used -as a tobacco pipe lies in the fact of the disparity of the two conical -borings and in that the entire width of the bowl end of the pipe is used -to the best advantage. It seems to have been more of a miniature or toy -than an article in common use. However, the quantity of tobacco needed -to fill any of the pipes could not have been great since the cone-shaped -cavity in the bowl is so small. One is here reminded of Schumacher’s -entertaining description of the way in which a Klamath tipped back his -head in order to raise his pipe vertically that he might lose none of -the tobacco. The stem ends of the pipes are equally imperfect. They must -certainly all have been fastened to a pipe-like mouth-piece similar to -the stone pipes which Professor Putnam has pictured and described and -which when unearthed still had the mouth-pieces attached by means of -asphaltum.[100] Some Indian pipes of today are fastened to the -mouth-pieces by means of ligatures,[101] as was evidently the case with -pipe shown in plate 12, fig. 3, and with another one of the collection -(1-8625) the stem of which had been broken. A rude notch was cut into -the outside of the stem to facilitate the rebinding and to give it a -better hold. At any rate, the means of attaching the mouth-piece (comp. -particularly figs. 1 and 4) was as inadequate as was the receptacle for -the tobacco at the front end. Short reed-like tobacco pipes are -particularly characteristic of the middle portion of California. A stone -tobacco pipe coming from a shellmound in Visitacion Valley south of San -Francisco, pictured by H. H. Bancroft,[102] is very similar to plate 12, -fig. 3. The fourth one in the plate, pictured by Powers, is also -analogous. Short pipes are of course also found in southern -California,[103] but the longer reed-like variety is more usual. A -tobacco pipe pictured by Marquis de Nadaillac and coming from the cliff -dwellers[104] is somewhat similar to plate 12, fig. 2, but here the stem -was so slight that there was no need of a special mouth-piece. The short -pipes as well as the long ones of southern California[105] are also -found in the eastern part of the United States. Several clay pipes from -New Jersey[106] may be compared to them; also two objects merely -classified as “pipes,” but most probably tobacco pipes, from West -Virginia[107] and Tennessee.[108] - ------ - -[99] Prof. Putnam, p. 211, in figs. 87, 88, from Santa Barbara. - -[100] _l. c._, pl. IX. - -[101] Powers, _l. c._, fig. 43, opp. p. 426. - -[102] _l. c._, IV, p. 711. - -[103] Comp. two of Putnam’s views in pl. VIII. - -[104] _l. c._, p. 256, fig. 112. The one drawn by Peet, _l. c._, I, p. -282, shows the same object. - -[105] Cf. Abbott, _l. c._, p. 330, fig. 322, from Massachusetts. - -[106] Abbott, _l. c._, pp. 336 and 340. - -[107] Fewkes, p. 128, fig. 155. - -[108] Rau, Smiths. Contrib., _l. c._, p. 44, fig. 176. - - 10. Various Polished Stone. - -In the mound were found different kinds of stones,—some isolated -specimens showing good workmanship but as yet unclassified, and others, -of the common kinds which were, of course, in use at the same time with -the more perfect implements. - -Those of the first kind were all found in stratum II. One of these is -1-8671, plate 12, figs. 12_a_ and (front view) 12_b_. It is made of soft -serpentine. Its shape is that of a flat cylinder of not entirely uniform -height, with flat or almost imperceptibly curved ends; there is a -perforation which extends inward in the form of a cone from both -ends.[109] In the gentle curving-out of its peripheral surface it is -particularly like ear-pegs. It is worthy of note that Moorehead shows -two objects from the neighborhood of Stockton analogous to it in many -respects and designated by him as lip-pegs,[110] and that barbed, bone -spear-heads like those used on the northwest coast were found in the -vicinity of Stockton, according to Mr. Meredith, in close proximity to a -lip-peg[111] of the kind used on the northwest coast. The possibility, -therefore, of an ethnological connection between the ancient inhabitants -of the vicinity of the central California water basins and those of the -north cannot well be denied. - -The small object, 1-8628, plate 12, fig. 13, seems similar in size and -form to the object shown in plate 12, fig. 12. This similarity is only a -superficial one, aside from the difference in the material of which it -is made,—burnt clay, rare in California and not carved but modeled; it -is further different in the fact that its cross section is oval and that -its slightly arched end is covered with marks of blows, and that the -perforation is absent. - -Plate 12, fig. 6, 1-8631, is of quartz-colored material, flat and -tongue-shaped. It is broken off at the broad end, the lower surface is -flat, the upper slightly arched, and the edge blunt. Judging from its -form and the brittle nature of the material of which it is made, it must -have been an ornament. - -Plate 12, fig. 5, 1-8850, of chalcedony, looks like a neckless head of a -bird resting on a bust-like body; the bill is linear; the eye is -represented by a deep hollow. That this object is not an artifact is the -conclusion suggested by the presence of a crust over the entire object -from beak to eye, formed by its weathering. In relation to other -products of human workmanship, such an object has worth only in so far -as its shape was of undoubted significance to the inhabitants, and -carefully preserved for that reason. - -Besides this, various flat, smooth stones of chert and agate were found, -one of which, 1-8849, from stratum VII, is shown in fig. 23. It is made -of fine grained sandstone, has but one smooth side and was used as a -whet-stone. A thin oblong sheet of mica-slate was unearthed, but it must -have been used only as an ornament. - -Fig. 24 (1-8721 from stratum V) illustrates one of two analogous objects -from the upper strata of the mound. It is a common stone with about -seven groove-like lines of varying breadth and depth on the sides. Two -of them form an angle which though purely accidental might seem to be -ornamental. The grooves come probably from its use as a whet-stone for -bone awls, etc. To this purpose the hard, sandy substance easily lent -itself. Long bars could not have been fixed to this stone, since for -that purpose the grooves are neither broad nor straight enough. Several -drawings by Rau[112] and by Moorehead[113] may here be compared. - -[Illustration: Fig. 23. × 1/5. Fig. 24. × 1/2. Stones, probably used for -whetting.] - - b. Chipped Stones. - -A great number of these were found in the mound. As regards their shape -they fall into two classes, either finished implements or chips from the -workshop. As regards the material of which they are made, they also fall -into two large separate classes: those of the usual, light stone natural -to the place such as flint, chert (in green or brown variety), -horn-stone, jasper, etc., and those of obsidian (volcanic glass), which -was not to be had in the immediate locality, although it was the -preferred material. The classification according to material is the more -important. There were found about twenty-five obsidian objects (among -them a very few rough pieces or waste bits from the workshop, the latter -all small) and about 140 hewn stones of other kinds of material. Most of -these were waste from the workshop, all of the size of implements, but -relatively few (about one-fourth) complete tools. - -The obsidian implements came from the Ist to the IXth strata, but most -of them were found in the upper layers. Nearly three-fourths of them -were taken from the three upper strata. In stratum II alone there were -ten implements and one piece of obsidian in the rough. It can certainly -be inferred that the great quantity of obsidian tools from II was -connected with the custom of burning the dead and of casting their -belongings into the flames. In addition, the great number found here -shows a broader and more universal use of obsidian in the making of -implements. - -They are all of very simple form, such as arrow-and spear-heads,[114] -spear-like points and a flat knife-like blade, made from the rough stone -by polishing off bits[115] (see plate 10, figs. 11 to 16). Arrow-heads -of obsidian were found only in stratum II, comp. 1-8676, plate 10, fig. -13, the blade-like knife, 1-8633, fig. 11, and the spear-like knife end, -1-8634, fig. 16, which were found there. 1-8926 from stratum VIII, fig. -15, may have been either a spear-head or a knife. Fragment 1-8536 from -stratum I, fig. 12, by virtue of its two unevenly arched surfaces, and -1-8883, fig. 14 of the plate, from stratum VIII (found nineteen feet -down in the tunnel between parts 8 and 9 of the shaft frame) on account -of its long peg-like lower end, may be parts of knife-like implements. -They were fastened on rod-like shafts similar to the fine-handled knives -of southern California shown by Professor Putnam and which are in an -excellent state of preservation. - -From a technical standpoint, it is worthy of note that implements of -such perfect workmanship as figs. 12[116] and 13 were not found among -the obsidian implements of the lower strata of the mound. A proportional -decrease in obsidian implements of good workmanship can be noted as one -approaches the lowest strata. - -In northern California obsidian is found near Mt. Shasta, on the north -side of Mt. St. Helena and in pieces to the size of an ostrich egg in -Napa Valley.[117] It is a product of volcanic eruptions, phenomena which -were of frequent occurrence during the tertiary period. The material of -which the implements found about the bay in all the shellmounds were -made must have come from one of the above-named sources through trading. -The small number of such implements found in the shellmounds is probably -the result of the comparative rarity of the obsidian in this locality -and the resulting care with which it was hoarded. - -It is to be inferred that at no period was obsidian exclusively the -material used for chipped stone implements, since workshop waste -composed of materials found in the neighborhood has been discovered up -to stratum II. Since, however, waste and no finished implements of local -materials have been found above stratum V, the instances of the use of -such must have been relatively isolated in the upper strata. Toward the -lower strata, from about the VIIth but practically from the VIIIth on, -there is a great increase in workshop waste. Stratum V is the uppermost -one out of which one or two single objects (among them 1-8756, plate 6, -fig. 21) may be considered finished implements. Of the thirty-nine -implement-like objects obtained in excavating, only one is of unusual -workmanship, an arrow-head of chert, 1-8815, plate 6, fig. 19, which -comes from stratum VII, at the lowest part of cut C. The extraordinary -accumulation of objects of chipped stone which can be termed implements -begins with stratum VIII and continues down to the lowest stratum X. A -considerable number of these is shown in plate 6. It is, however, -remarkable that of these not one shows in its workmanship complete -mastery in the handling of the material. The implement which, though -still crude, shows the next best workmanship is the leaf-like point of -crystalline rock, 1-8929, plate 6, fig. 20, from stratum VIII, found at -the innermost end of the gallery.[118] All of the remaining -implement-like objects of chipped stone bear the marks of crudity as do -all of those that come from strata IX and X. It is very noticeable that -because of this crudity in most of them, the line between implement and -waste is very vague. It was therefore difficult to decide in the case of -many objects whether they were to be regarded as tools at all. On the -other hand, it is probable that a number of pieces included under -rubbish may have really served as tools.[119] - -Resulting from the discovery of obsidian, plate 10, fig. 15, chipped -stones of good workmanship were found as far down as the upper part of -stratum VIII. It is extremely doubtful whether they appeared at all in -the strata below this. The objects made of material from the vicinity of -the mound were certainly made during its settlement. A characteristic -mark of the uniform crudity of all of these tools made of local -materials and found in the lower strata is that they all are worked from -but one side and that the elaboration of that side is accomplished by -but a very few strokes. The only exception to this is the point, from -stratum VII, pl. 6, fig. 19, which as to technique belongs in another -place. Pl. 6, fig. 18, 1-9012, shows a ridge-like elevation on its lower -side, thus forming an unimportant and superficial exception. The point, -1-8929, pl. 6, fig. 20, is also entirely even on its under side. In this -they have a peculiarity characteristic of the well known -“turtle-backs.”[120] This latter kind which in the eastern states of the -United States has been found typical of the implements of the -palaeolithic age is to be recognized in two objects in our collection, -1-9095, of green chert, pl. 6, fig. 2, from stratum X, and 1-9007 of a -crystalline substance, pl. 6, fig. 1, from stratum IX. The first of -these is without a doubt an implement, and the second is probably one. -The palaeolithic turtle-backs of the East are unmistakably to be -differentiated from the two objects under question in the material of -which they are composed, which is argillite. In any case, however, the -presence of these two objects proves that primordial species of stone -implements existed into the neolithic period (for the mound rests on -alluvial soil) and they may give ground for the establishing of the -period from which such implements date, which is even farther back than -that. The conical piece of jasper brought to a point by chipping, -1-8851, pl. 6, fig. 3, from stratum VII_a_, illustrates how implements -were made by chipping from larger pieces of stone, and may even be -itself a tool. It cannot be stated indisputably that the greater number -of the common forms of chipped stones shown on pl. 6 were obsolete among -the latter inhabitants of the mound. But it must be noted that the -greater number and the most characteristic of them do not appear in the -upper strata. We may surmise that as far as they did occur among the -founders of the upper strata they had a better form. In addition to the -pointed (pl. 6, figs. 19 to 20) and knife-like implements (fig. 21) the -following important types are represented. - -1. Long scrapers sharpened on one side, 1-9012, fig. 18, from stratum -IX, and 1-9093, fig. 17, from stratum X. - -2. Chisel-like tools terminating in front in a straight sharp edge, -1-8857, fig. 14, from stratum VII_a_, and 1-9080, fig. 15, from stratum -X. - -3. Scrapers, more or less rounded off or oval, 1-9023, fig. 8, from -stratum IX, 1-9053, fig. 9, from stratum IX, 1-9085, fig. 10, from -stratum X.[121] - -In a like manner the following irregularly shaped objects might have -been used as scrapers. - -1-9043, fig. 7, from stratum IX. - -1-8966, fig. 11, from stratum VIII or IX. - -1-9012, fig. 12, from stratum IX. - -1-9040, fig. 13, from stratum IX.[122] - -4. Oval stones with high “turtle-back” backs with the encircling edges -sharpened, probably too large for use as the usual scrapers: - -1-9007, fig. 1, and 1-9095, fig. 2. - -5. Drills or awl-like, pointed stones, with a more or less thick base. - -1-8961, fig. 6, from stratum VIII or IX. - -1-9005, fig. 5, from stratum IX. - -1-9031, fig. 4, from stratum IX. - -Instruments like the last have been found in many parts of the United -States.[123] Several of these bear a great resemblance to those here -shown, one such is pictured by Rau[124] from Santa Cruz Island, and one -of like origin by Putnam,[125] one from Santa Rosa Island.[126] Traces -of asphaltum found on the broad base of many similar ones would point to -the fact of their once having been fastened to a shaft.[127] - ------ - -[109] As regards its form it may be compared to the objects shown by -Moorehead, _l. c._, p. 279, fig. 418, Nos. 2 (from Napa county) and 7, -from North and Central California. - -[110] _l. c._, p. 285, fig. 426, Nos. 3 and 5. - -[111] The use of lip-pegs has never been observed in that region between -Mexico and the northwest coast of North America. W. H. Dall, Public of -the Bur. of Ethnology, 1881-82, III, p. 86. - -[112] Smiths. Contrib., _l. c._, p. 304. - -[113] _l. c._, p. 338, fig. 493. - -[114] For the use of spears in California comp. Powers, _l. c._, pp. -221, 321, etc. - -[115] No decorative or fantastic shapes were found among the obsidian -objects as elsewhere in central California. Moorehead has shown some of -these in _l. c._, p. 262. A curved hook-like object was found in the -shellmound at Ellis Landing. - -[116] Moorehead, _l. c._, p. 265. - -[117] Cf. Rau, Smiths. Rep., 1874, p. 358. - -[118] It is similar in form to a point shown by Abbott, _l. c._, p. 92, -fig. 67, found in New Jersey, which he called a knife (p. 90). - -[119] Comp. a similar remark in Abbott, _l. c._, p. 93, concerning the -doubtful nature of chipped stones as implements; from the stones in -their vicinity they were conjectured to be implements. - -[120] Cf. Abbott, _l. c._, pp. 492 ff., and the same, Report of the -Peabody Museum, 1876 to 1879, II, p. 33 ff. - -[121] A hide-scraper fastened into a wooden shaft from the Thuswap -Indians in British Columbia in the Jessup collection shown by Moorehead, -_l. c._, p. 255, fig. 388. - -[122] Pictures of scrapers, see Abbott, _l. c._, pp. 12 to 138. - -[123] Comp. Moorehead, _l. c._, pp. 146, 170, 308; Abbott, _l. c._, -Chap. VII, pp. 97 to 119. - -[124] Smiths. Contrib., _l. c._, p. 90, fig. 318. - -[125] F. W. Putnam, _l. c._, p. 68, fig. 15. - -[126] Moorehead, _l. c._, p. 340, fig. 372, fig. 1. - -[127] Rau, _l. c._, p. 91, after P. Schumacher. - - - B. Utensils of Bone, Horn, and the Teeth of Animals. - - Implements of Bone. - -Artifacts of animal derivation appear in great numbers and in a great -variety of form among the objects recovered in excavating. This -diversity in form is of course partly the result of the different kinds -of bone used in their manufacture, partly of their varied manipulation, -and partly of the uses to which they were put. There are all grades of -elaboration from the most common splinter of bone to the tool whose -shape is almost entirely different from that of the bone employed. All -the objects found, however, may be reduced to the principal types of -bone instruments which have been found in the United States under the -most varying circumstances. In addition to awls, needles and -paper-cutter-like knives of bone, there are instruments of horn used -principally for chiseling and instruments of a secondary nature. They -were the usual tools used in making clothes,[128] in weaving -baskets,[129] etc., not to mention several subordinate uses to which -they were put. - ------ - -[128] Schoolcraft called them “moccasin-needles.” - -[129] The broom-binders of Mark Brandenburg to this day use bone awls, -see Ranke, _l. c._, II, p. 509. - - 1. Awl-like Tools. - -This is a large class containing more than 100 objects having various -secondary forms and it is the most conspicuous class of bone -instruments. They may be classified as follows: - - a. Common Awls with a Good Point. - -These comprise more than 100 perfect and fragmentary specimens. They -were scattered through almost all the strata in the following way: - - Stratum I—8 objects. - Stratum II—61 objects. - Stratum III—8 objects. - Stratum IV—11 objects. - Stratum V—3 objects. - Stratum VI— — objects. - Stratum VII-VIII—5 objects. - Stratum IX—5 objects. - Stratum X—4 objects. - -The remarkable preponderance in stratum II is probably again the result -of the practice of cremation of bodies. - -When one remembers that awls were the principal tools used in making -baskets and that baskets took the place of pottery in the household of -the California Indians, one will not wonder at their great number. - -Their shapes vary. Four of them are shown in plate 9, figs. 1 to 4. Fig. -1, from stratum I, gives the type by far the most common in the 3 or 4 -upper strata; the other three, fig. 2, 1-8686, from stratum IV, fig. 3, -1-8897, from VIII, fig. 4, 1-8972, from IX, give examples of the many -secondary forms and illustrate the diversity of form occurring in the -lower strata. Although fig. 4, as regards its shape, reminds us of the -type of the tool of the upper strata (cf. fig. 1), not a single -implement was found in the lower strata that was the exact counterpart -of those in the upper. Manifestly it was the inhabitants of the upper -strata who developed and established the latter form. Its distinctive -feature is this, that only one side of the bone (mostly tibia of deer) -is used, that a foot-like portion of the joint is left, and that the awl -is sharpened and well finished off on all sides, even to the inner -channel. Usually there is a slight bulging out in the middle of the tool -which increases its strength. - -The characteristic feature of pl. 9, fig. 2, is that only the shaft of -the bone is open, the joint being left intact. In pl. 9, figs. 3 and 4, -the foot-like supports are missing; whether originally they were there -or not is a question. They seem to have been missing from the very -beginning, at least the one shown in pl. 9, fig. 3. The whole shape of -the instrument is crude. In several awl-like implements of the lower -strata, as in text-fig. 25, 1-8797, from stratum VII, the canal in the -bone is not even opened, but kept intact through the whole -instrument.[130] - - b. Blunt Awl-like Implements. - -[Illustration: Fig. 25. × 1/2. A bone, probably used for an awl. Fig. -26. × 1/2. Bone implement of unknown use.] - -The absence of points indicates a somewhat different use to which such -instruments were put. In addition to this feature there is very -frequently a peculiar curve which, while it is the natural shape of the -bone, must have been chosen purposely,—for instance, 1-8692, pl. 9, -fig. 5, from IV, and 1-8829, text-fig. 26, from stratum VII_a_. The bone -of front leg of a stag is the original form of the partly awl-shaped -partly paper-cutter-like implement, 1-8579, text-fig. 27, from stratum -II. A similar one from the southern part of the United States has been -observed.[131] - -[Illustration: Figs. 27 and 28. × 1/2. Bones probably used as awls. Fig. -29. × 1/2. Bone of “paper-cutter” type.] - - c. Flat Awl-like Implements. - -These represent a large and important class of implements which occur in -numbers in several of the lower strata (V and IX), although really only -in fragments; cf. 1-8985, pl. 9, fig. 6, from stratum V. They are curved -sideways, and well-pointed in spite of their otherwise flat character. -The interior reticulate structure of the natural bone is retained on one -side of the implement. - -Fig. 28, 1-8541, from stratum II, has a peculiar shape; it is broad, in -the form of a channel and pointed. One of the edges of the channel seems -to be worn smooth through usage. The back end is broken off. - ------ - -[130] Numbers of awl-like bone implements of this kind coming from the -United States have been depicted. For those from California, see H. H. -Bancroft, Native Races, IV, p. 711, No. 1 (the other so-called tool, No. -2, is a natural bone without value as a tool); Moorehead, _l. c._, p. -271, fig. 410; F. W. Putnam, Rep. of U. S. Geogr. Survey, _l. c._, pl. -XI, figs. 13 to 15 and 19; p. 227, fig. 104; Nadaillac, _l. c._, p. 49, -fig. 15 (not very useful); from the southern states, for instance, Ch. -C. Jones, Antiquities of the Southern Indians, 1873, pl. XVI, fig. 1; -Moorehead, _l. c._, p. 142; Chas. Rau, Smiths. Contrib., No. 287, p. 64, -fig. 238 (Kentucky, Tennessee); from shellmounds of New England; Wyman, -Am. Naturalist, I, pl. 14, fig. 5, and pl. 15, fig. 9 (both repeated in -Abbott, _l. c._, p. 213, figs. 199 and 202), from New York; Schoolcraft -Archives of Aborig. Knowledge, 1860, II, pl. 49, fig. 3, with p. 90, -from the Aleutian Islands, Chas. Rau, _l. c._, fig. 236. - -[131] Moorehead, _l. c._, p. 142; comp. also Ch. Rau, Smiths. Contrib., -No. 287, XXII, p. 64, fig. 237 (from Kentucky). - - 2. Needle-like Implements. - -They differ from the awl-like implements in that they are intended not -only to pierce an article but also to pass through it. In this class -there are also secondary shapes. - - a. Straight Needles without Perforation. - -1-8895, pl. 9, fig. 8, found twenty-seven feet beneath the surface in -stratum VIII, may be taken as the prevailing type. The needle is a thin, -pointed instrument, oval in cross section, blunt at the back end, well -finished throughout. To this class also belongs a number of fragments -found in different strata up to the VIIIth. - - b. Curved Needles. - -1-8901, pl. 9, fig. 9, from stratum VIII, represents this type. The -needle is very slender and thin and of good workmanship. Unfortunately -it is broken off at the smooth posterior end.[132] - - c. Needles with “Eyes.” - -We have also only one specimen of this type, 1-8735, pl. 9, fig. 10, -from stratum V. It is straight, round in cross section and tapering at -the perforated end.[133] The bluntness of the point must be the result -of use. - - d. Long Crooked Needles. - -1-8831, pl. 9, fig. 7, a well preserved and seemingly perfect specimen, -was found in stratum VII_a_, in the tunnel, from eleven to fourteen feet -below the surface. It consists of a long, thin rib pointed at the -stronger end, thereby exposing the canal within.[134] - -Among those found there is also a needle of fish bone and likewise one -made from the spine of a stingray. - ------ - -[132] Comp. the objects found in a shellmound in New England, Am. -Naturalist, I; pl. 15, fig. 17; it, however, is broader. - -[133] A similar needle from a mound in Ohio has been shown by C. L. Metz -and by F. W. Putnam, Rep. of the Peabody Museum, 1880 to 1886, III, p. -452. The Point Barrow Eskimos use a similar one (J. Murdock, IXth Ann. -Rep. of the Bur. of Ethnology, 1887-88, p. 318, fig. 325). - -[134] It reminds one somewhat (in that it is curved and pointed) of an -instrument designated, and that manifestly wrongly, by Moorehead as a -hair-pin (see Moorehead, _l. c._, p. 271, fig. 410, under No. 4). Jeanne -Carr tells of needles made usually of the strong wing bones of the hawk, -used to keep the strands in place when the basket weaver left his work. -These were handed down from mother to daughter generation after -generation and regarded as valuable possessions. (The Californian, 1892, -No. 5, p. 603.) - - 3. Rough Awl-like Implements of the Lower Strata. - -We have chosen to discuss a number of implements from the lower strata -under this separate head. Although some of these were probably used as -awls, yet along with others with which they form a small group they -cannot easily be considered with the other implements of this class. -Plate 7, which represents typical bone implements of the lower layers, -shows the greater number of these peculiar shapes in figs. 1 to 10. -Altogether about fourteen of these awl-like implements were found in -stratum VIII, five in stratum IX and four in stratum X. When one -considers that from layers IX and X, only small sections were explored, -the relative number of these implements must excite some interest. The -awl-like and needle-like objects of pl. 9, although but little worked, -are yet characterized by a definite fundamental form, different from -that shown in the objects represented in pl. 7, figs. 1 to 10.[135] They -represent simply bone splinters of the most varied forms such as would -be made by accident. To be sure, there were isolated bone splinters in -other places in the excavation, probably used as implements, as would -naturally occur in a shellmound. In all of these latter cases, however, -the character of the objects was, owing to the form of the bones and to -the accidental or typical intention of their use, completely different. -The objects shown in figs. 1 to 10 of this plate are made of fragments -of somewhat thick long bones. All of them have been much used and the -upper ends are strongly rounded and worn. Their use was evidently -intentional both with reference to their more general and their typical -uses. They do not belong to a peculiar type of implements because it is -evident from their form that they were used for many purposes. - -Some, as figs. 6, 7, and 8, 1-8919, 1-8918 (VIII), 1-8979 (IX), have an -awl-like pointed form and may accordingly have been used as such an -implement. Others, as figs. 1, 3, 4, and 10, 1-8983 (VIII), 1-9069 (X), -1-9068 (X), 1-9072 (X), although in general awl-like, are blunter and -can hardly have been put to the same use as these forms just mentioned. -Objects like 1-8980, pl. 7, fig. 5; 1-8996, pl. 7, fig. 9, and possibly -also 1-8871, pl. 7, fig. 2, have such broad and blunt ends that for them -characterization as “awl-like” would be entirely unsuitable and their -use must be explained in some other way. The tie that holds them -together is, therefore, in no way that of similar use but rather of -analogous origin. They comprise a large number of implements having -different uses. What is common to them is the similarity of the way in -which they were obtained. Their use was determined by the chance form -which they thereby received. There is before us then a class of the most -primitive ethnological implements of which we have knowledge, in which, -as in the oldest known implement of the human period, the natural form -of the object determines the use, rather than the use the individual -form. - ------ - -[135] The principal smaller forms figured from southern California by -Putnam, _l. c._, Pl. IX, figs. 16-17. - - 4. Implements of the Shape of Paper-cutters. - -It is natural that in so large a number of bone implements this shape -also should be represented. Five belonging to two different types have -already been discussed under the grave finds. Altogether the amount of -material of this character obtained from the upper strata of the mound -is remarkably small. Only a small number of fragments were found, of -which only a fragment of the point, 1-8803, from stratum VIII is -represented in fig. 29. - -In the deeper strata the case was entirely different. There are from -these layers no perfect implements, only fragments, but their number is -in proportion to what one would expect, or even greater. Some of these -show a variety of form and a degree of ornamentation which was hardly to -be expected among the finds of the mound in general and least of all -among the specimens obtained from the lower strata. Little as the well -formed implements, which the fragments figured in pl. 7, figs. 11-17, -represent, appear to resemble the rough awl-like implements on the same -plate and which have been derived from the same strata, there is yet no -doubt possible that the two classes of implements must have been used by -the same people. - -We have therefore the task, instead of denying the contrast, of -suggesting some solution for it. - -These paper-cutter-like implements have a moderate width and a thickness -of only one-thirty-second to one-sixteenth of an inch. They are well -worked in all cases. The objects shown in fig. 12, 1-8989 (IX), fig. 14, -1-8987 (IX), fig. 15, 1-8920 (VIII), fig. 13, 1-8988 (IX), of plate 7 -show artistic forms differing from the simpler types of implements. -Perforation, which in the bone implements of the mound is very -infrequent, is in these implements alone found four times on the lower -end. The notch on the lower end of pl. 7, fig. 14, probably the remnant -of a circular section, is very artistic and one notices also curved -lines on the surface about it. These show the geometric accuracy with -which this work was carried out. 1-8986, pl. 7, fig. 16, from stratum -IX, is the only piece of bone among all those recovered from the mound -which has been engraved with geometric figures. - -Out of the strongly varying yet constantly artistic characters of these -fragments we are justified in drawing the conclusion that a much greater -variety of implements of this form was used by these people. The -variations seem to have been influenced largely by personal taste. - -1-8875, fig. 11, represents a small fine point of a well formed small -paper-cutter-like implement. - -1-8989, fig. 12, stratum IX, is a quadrate piece of bone cut out of a -“paper-cutter” and was possibly used in play. - -1-8988, fig. 13, stratum IX, is the lower end of a “paper-cutter” with -parallel sides and obliquely truncated at the lower end with a -remarkably perfect perforation. - -1-8987, fig. 14, stratum IX, is the lower part of a thin “paper-cutter” -with a semi-circular notch. The base shows broken surfaces next the -notch. - -1-8920, fig. 15, stratum VIII, the lower, triangular part of a -“paper-cutter,” which has been very broad and thin, has a small -perforation. - -1-8986, fig. 16, stratum IX, the middle fragment of a well-worked -“paper-cutter” ornamented with geometric figures. - -1-8984, fig. 17, stratum IX, is the oblong upper part of a very thin, -well-worked “paper-cutter” with a perforation. The upper part is broken -off. - -At this place there should probably be mentioned also the small bar of -bone, 1-8975, fig. 18, stratum IX, as it also comes from this stratum. -This is likewise an uncommon form of implement. It is small and well -worked, although not of the paper-cutter type. It is oval in cross -section and has a small paper-cutter-like lower end which shows that it -was fastened to some other object. Its upper end is broken. - - 5. Pointed Implements. - -In the middle strata of the mound there were found about eight pointed -bones, of which the types are figured in pl. 9, figs. 11-16. - -1-8869, pl. 9, fig. 11, stratum VII, is 2-1/8 inches long, oval in cross -section and having an inferiorly constricted neck. There is a small hook -on the lower end of the broad side. A small fracture on the opposite -side appears to indicate that there were originally two such hooks. - -1-8868, fig. 12, stratum VIII, is two inches long. This specimen is in -general similar to the one just mentioned. There is only one hook at the -lower end. The side opposite is without a hook and is unbroken. Similar -is 1-8738, from stratum V. An analogous object is figured by Moorehead, -page 273, fig. 412, No. 3, from Stockton Channel. - -1-8916, fig. 13, stratum VIII, 2 inches long, is similar to the last -with the differences that the small broad, flat hook points toward the -broad side, and that the pointed end has been smoothed by use. On this -end there are also small traces of asphaltum which indicate that a cord -had sometime been wound about it to fasten it to some other object. - -1-8917, fig. 14, stratum VII_a_ or VIII, 1-7/15 inches long with a -rounded cross section, is slightly curved and gradually narrows towards -the lower point. The convex side shows a slight flattening. - -1-8870, fig. 15, stratum VII_a_ or VIII, is 1-1/2 inches long, but the -lower end is incomplete. The cross section is oval to flat; it shows on -the broad side a sloping groove. - -1-8694, fig. 16, stratum IV, an implement 2-3/15 inches long, is -typically knife-like in its form in so far as it has a broad blade-like -part. It is sharp on one side, blunt on the other and rounded at the -upper end. It is bent well backward. At the lower end it runs out into a -small neck-like portion which is extended in the same line with the back -of the implement and is broadened at the base. - -The objects already described and shown in figs. 11, 13, 14, 15, and 16 -of plate 9 represent the principal types. Among these the knife-like -object, fig. 16, is, judging from its shape, evidently to be separated -from the others.[136] Numerous other knives of obsidian occur in -addition to this one of bone. - -Of the remaining, fig. 14 represents a typical arrow point made of bone -such as are used in various parts of the world, _e.g._, in South -America. The convex, slightly flattened side was laid against the -slightly truncated upper end of the shaft of the arrow and was fastened -to it by numerous coils of cord. The figure of a similar arrow point -from the Swiss Pile Dwellings is given in Ranke’s work, Vol. II, pp. -5-19, fig. 11. This shows very well the manner of attachment. - -The similarity of the remaining bone points, figs. 11, 13, 14, 15, is so -significant that a similar use is to be ascribed to them. That they were -used as fishhooks, which might be conjectured, there appears to be less -evidence. It is worth considering that Mr. Meredith found on the breast -of a single skeleton 51 objects of the form shown in pl. 9, fig. 14. In -another case 28 such objects were found.[137] In the first case, with -the skeleton in addition to these were found two long spear points with -barbs such as are used on the northwest coast of America. A large number -of objects from one grave and the association with other analogous -objects supports very strongly the idea that the pointed bones were used -for the points of arrows. The neck of these points was the portion about -which the cord was wound and about this was laid a small quantity of -asphaltum to hold the cord in place, while the hooks had the object of -preventing the cord from sliding off from the neck. The form of the -hooks varies but slightly. This suggests the prominent hooks at the base -of the arrow points of stone. In a certain way these arrow points may -possibly be considered as a middle form between long bone points -provided with barbs, such as were used by the Eskimo, and the Indian -arrow points of stone. In this connection it is worth noting that Mr. -Meredith finds them in association with such bone points (also with a -lip-plug such as are used on the northwest coast of America). The form -of the Indian stone arrow-heads might have been imitated in the North in -other materials. - -That the analogy with the more northerly races is not limited to the -burial layers of the mound from which the pointed implements, pl. 9, -figs. 11, 15, were found is indicated by the object, pl. 7, fig. 12, -which was found in the cremation layer, No. 2. - ------ - -[136] Compare knife-like “hide-scrapers” of bone used by the Eskimo of -Behring Straits and figured by E. W. Nelson in the 18th Annual Report of -the Bureau of Ethnology, 1896-97, Part I, pl. 50, figs. 3-6. - -[137] In Moorehead, _l. c._, p. 272. Two similar objects from South -America are figured by F. W. Putnam, _l. c._, pl. 11, figs. 10, 11, and -are described (p. 227) as fishhooks. - - 6. Saw-like Notched Bones. - -The excavations furnish twelve objects of this type of implement, of -which perhaps half were from stratum II. The remainder were found from -the lower strata up to the eighth. Quite a number of the objects from -stratum II were calcined, an evidence that they were deemed of value in -life since they were burned with the dead. - -The best preserved type of this implement, of which in most cases only -small fragments were found, is shown in 1-8898, pl. 9, fig. 17, stratum -VIII. - -[Illustration: Figs. 30 and 31. × 1/2. Notched bones perhaps used in -net-making or weaving.] - -Nearly all of these objects have a stereotyped form, being made from the -shoulder blade of some large mammal, probably the deer. One, however, -seems to have been made from a bird bone (1-8900, fig. 30, stratum -VIII). On the specimen shown in pl. 9, fig. 17, about half of the length -is taken up by the rounded handle, using the ridge-like end of the bone -for this purpose. The other end of the object is incomplete, but -according to the form in other specimens it was probably cut off -squarely at the end. At any rate only a small piece of the implement is -missing since the teeth cut into the thin convex margin of the bone are -complete to the number of 15. The ridge-like edge runs next to the row -of teeth, giving the implement greater firmness. The teeth vary -considerably in different objects in size, in form, and in regularity -(compare 1-8573, fig. 31, from stratum II). They also vary in degree of -wear, which so far as observed is sometimes seen on the edge and -sometimes in the spaces between the teeth. On one specimen the opposite -edges of the bone are similarly toothed, although one side of the bone -was quite thick. A smoothing or polishing of the object is never to be -noticed, excepting on the under side. - -Similar objects have frequently been found in California. Single -fragments are figured by Moorehead.[138] As similar as these objects are -to saws, it is probable that they were not used as such. The name -“sachos” given to these implements by the Napa Indians, who possibly did -not know their former use, is not to be taken as the slightest support -for the idea that they were actual saws. In the first place it is hardly -necessary to mention that the concept “saw” is missing among the -Indians. The form of these objects and the general state of wear as -already described shows that they were not and could not have been used -as saws. It is remarkable enough that saw-like implements made of bone -have a distribution much more extended than the Californian region. -Since these occurrences are mostly local and entirely independent of -each other, these implements must in their production have served -certain practical aims. Why, however, saws made of bone should have such -a wide distribution it is difficult to understand. - -An analogous implement has been found in a shellmound in Massachusetts -and figured by J. Wyman. He also in his description has shown that -judging from the width of this implement it could not have been used as -a saw.[139][140] - -Another saw-like toothed bone implement was found in the cave dwellings -in Franconia (Bavaria), which were inhabited in the early neolithic -period. This has been described by Ranke as probably used in -weaving.[141] - -An implement having almost identical form as this just described above -was figured by J. Murdock. This object was obtained from the Pt. Barrow -Eskimo and was made of the shoulder blade of a reindeer. He received it -as a model of a saw said to have been used before the introduction of -iron. - -After having made inquiries for the primitive form of the implement, -this specimen doubtless was made for him.[142] His paper also contains a -figure of another saw-like implement, of about twice the size of the -first, made of antler. There was with this a kind of shuttle and a form -of weaver’s sword with the statement that these three implements had -been used in weaving feather girdles. In watching the process of making -these belts he had, however, not seen any of these three -implements.[143] In the opinion of the writer there is no reason to -doubt materially the accuracy of the statements concerning the use of -these implements by the Eskimo. It therefore contains the key to the -understanding of all the remaining forms of this type of saw-like -implements found in the northern region. And this explanation may be -extended to the wrongly determined Californian bone saws. In our opinion -the bone implement first figured by J. Murdock shows simply that the -Eskimo remembered having had such an implement and that they gave to him -the impression that it had been used in the way in which the -investigator was inclined to think it ought to have been used. It -appears that Ranke was on the right track when he supposed the Frankish -bone implement to have been used in some processes of weaving. In like -manner all of the Californian bone saws agree thoroughly with this -supposed use.[144] In California many valuable feather girdles have been -made, in the weaving of which these bone implements may have been -used.[145] The exact mode of their use is not yet determined, but it is -to be hoped, however, that even this may some time or other be -discovered. - ------ - -[138] Moorehead, _l. c._, p. 236, fig. 363. - -[139] [see Transcriber Notes - -[140] The stone points with saw-like teeth on the edge do not represent -technically such an implement as a saw since the toothing is only a -result of the method of reproduction. - -[141] Am. Naturalist, 1868, Vol. I, pl. 15, fig. 15, 583. - -[142] Der Mensch, II, p. 558-560. - -[143] Ninth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 1887-88, p. 175, -fig. 147. - -[144] _l. c._, p. 317, fig. 323. - -[145] Recently a great deal has been written about the relation of -widely separated peoples to each other. And this relationship has -usually followed definite geographic lines. It is, however, worth while -to notice the great similarity between the implements of eastern and -western United States, and those of the caves of Switzerland and of the -Arctic region. Many implements of similar type and use are to be found -in these regions, implements which are not discovered in any other -portion of the world. - - 7. Various Implements and Objects of Bone. - -It naturally occurs that in a shellmound in which so many implements of -bone have been preserved there would be a number of bone objects the use -of which can only be imperfectly determined. These implements are in -part possibly only attempts to work bone, in part they are actually -implements which had a use somewhat different from that of the other -forms and a use for which the character of the material especially -fitted them. - -[Illustration: Figs. 32 and 33. × 1/2. Bone artifacts of unknown use.] - -Many fragments of bone show only a few cuts or marks as indications that -they were worked. In one case, 1-8527, fig. 32, stratum IX, the marks -which vary somewhat from those in the other strata may represent an -implement of the paper-cutter type. The point is in this case calcined, -as is also true of many other implements. This is evidently done -intentionally, possibly in order to work the bone more easily. Other -common bone fragments look as if they had occasionally been used as -implements when they happened to have the right form, and that they were -not intentionally worked into this shape. Still other bone fragments -show knife-like incisions on the other edges, as, for example, that -shown in fig. 33, 1-8877, stratum VII_a_. They are probably not to be -considered as marks of dog’s teeth, as which these could also be -determined, for they are generally very numerous in one place or else -they show exceeding regularity as if made intentionally. - -The shellmound dwellers did not fail to notice the peculiar character of -the tubular bones, which when cut into sections are easily made into -small receptacles, similar to the cane plant, which is used in a similar -manner by the inhabitants of tropical regions (for instance by the -ancient Peruvians). Many such small objects with differing proportions -were found, two of which are shown in fig. 34. 1-8922, stratum VIII; and -fig. 35, 1-9076, stratum X. - - Implements of Antler. - -For many kinds of implements antler is particularly valuable on account -of its hardness. For this reason a number of implements of this -character have been found in the shellmound; they are, however, not so -numerous as those of bone. They are usually made of deer or elk antler. - - 1. Chisel-like Implements. - -Of these there are two principal types. - - a. Actual Chisels. - -About half of the objects of antler are to be considered as complete -implements. These are shown in pl. 8, figs. 2_a_ and 2_b_, 1-8892, -stratum VIII; figs. 3_a_ and 3_b_, 1-8821, from stratum VII_a_, -represent the two subspecies of the same, _viz._, broad and narrow -chisels. The main difference between the two is simply one of size and -proportion. - -The broad chisels are represented by about ten objects, which belong to -the middle and lower strata of the mound only, down to the Xth stratum. -Whether this is accidental or caused by other reasons remains undecided. -These objects are from four and one-half to five and one-half inches -long, to one and three-fourths inches broad, and even as thick as one -and one-quarter inches. Oval in cross section, they slightly diminish -toward the lower end. Frequently they pass one to two inches above the -lower end into the flat, knife-like, one-sided slope, ending in a -semi-circular edge about one inch broad. The sloping surface as well as -the polished sides of the implement frequently have impressions due to -actual use upon hard objects. In a similar manner, the straight surface -is broken by the use of a hammer which was struck upon it. - -The narrow chisels are represented only by one complete specimen (pl. 8, -fig. 3) and two fragments of the knife-edge. The latter were found -between strata VII_a_ and IX. The complete chisel is only three and -nine-sixteenths inches long; while it is one and three-sixteenths inches -broad at the upper end, and but seven-sixteenths of an inch thick, it -nevertheless diminishes toward the lower end to a breadth of -three-eighths of an inch at the knife-edge. The slope of the one side -toward the latter is by far shorter than that of the broad chisel, and -yet the same indications of its use with a hammer can be found. The -curvature of the cross section of this implement corresponds to the -natural form of the antler from which it was made. - -Such chisels[146] partly took the place of an axe in woodwork among the -Indians, just as, for example, this was still the case among the Hupa -during the eighties of the last century,[147] in the construction of -houses. The Klamaths in Oregon still make use of such chisels. The -better known implements of recent times possess only the natural surface -of the original antler. - -It is of interest to know that implements of exactly the same kind were -found in the shellmounds of the Atlantic coast, _e.g._, in Maine.[148] - - b. Chisel-like Implements of Varying Forms. - -Implement 1-8730, pl. 8, fig. 1, found in stratum V, has a length of -nine and three-fourths inches and a breadth of one and seven-eighths and -one and five-sixteenth inches. It will be seen that though of greater -length and breadth it is flatter than the preceding. On account of its -origin from a complete antler it is curved along its length, and -slightly curved in on its concave side. At the lower end of the latter -it is given a straight slant for three and a quarter inches in the -diameter of the breadth. Its upper end shows the same signs of use with -a hammer, while the slanting surface is greatly worn on the sides. This -makes it probable that the use of this tool was in many respects -different from the preceding. It was possibly used as a lever. - -For this also a parallel exists in the form of an apparently identical -implement from the shellmounds in Maine.[149] As regards form, certain -implements of the bones of cattle found in the caves of French -Switzerland are similar to this object. Rauch calls them -“leather-cutters” (Lederschneidemesser).[150] - ------ - -[146] A little information on this point is brought together by the -writer in Mitth. der Anthrop. Ges. Wien., 1886, Vol. 16. - -[147] A similar one from San Joaquin county has been illustrated by -Moorehead, _l. c._, p. 271, fig. 410, No. 2. Cf. also F. W. Putnam, _l. -c._, p. 229, figs. 106-108, wedge-like implements from southern -California. - -[148] Cf. Mason, Smithson. Reports, 1886, I, pl. xviii, fig. 19, with -10, 208. - -[149] Cf. J. Wyman, _l. c._, pl. IV, figs. 2 and 2_a_ with p. 583. Ch. -A. Abbott, who represents the same implement, _l. c._, p. 211, fig. 196, -says Massachusetts probably by mistake. - -[150] J. Wyman, _l. c._, pl. XIV, fig. 1, with p. 582. Cf. also Ch. A. -Abbott, _l. c._, p. 211, fig. 195. The implement is unfortunately -represented in both places sidewise in an unfavorable manner. - - 2. Implements of Antlers with Dull, Rounded Ends. - -Three such objects have been found. One of them is seven and one-eighth -inches long, diminishing, horn-like, toward the blunt point. It came -from the middle stratum of the mound. It is represented in pl. 8, fig. -7. Another is a young branch of an antler, and the third is a mere -fragment. The use of these objects, which were doubtless implements, -cannot be conjectured. - - 3. Pointed Implements. - -Only one fragmentary blade exists, about one inch long. - - 4. Straight, Truncated Implements. - -Two specimens of this kind came from stratum V of the mound. They are -wanting in other parts of the mound. One of them is reproduced in pl. 8, -fig. 4. It diminishes, horn-like, toward the lower end. Here it is -truncated abruptly, having a breadth of five-eighths inches. -Unfortunately the upper end is incomplete. The other implement, 1-8722, -is absolutely identical with the one just described. - -The collection contains also a fragmentary bone tool, 1-9066, which was -found in stratum X. It may have corresponded to the peculiar implement, -reproduced by J. Wyman,[151] pl. 14, fig. 3 (with the spiral cuts at the -upper end), which was found in the shellmounds of Massachusetts. - - Implements of Tooth. - -Only one object made of tooth was found, _viz._, 1-8736, fig. 36, in -stratum V. It is a bear’s tooth perforated at the root, serving the -purpose of ornament or amulet, and corresponds exactly to the typical -illustration of the one from New Jersey;[152] here Abbott emphasizes the -fact that such ornaments were the most common among the earlier and -present-day Indians. - -[Illustration: Figs. 34 and 35. × 1/2. Fragments of bones. Fig. 36. × -1/2. A bear-tooth ornament.] - - - C. Implements Made of Shells. - -The objects of this material mentioned among the grave finds are -supplemented by two implements, one of which came from the IInd, the -other from the VIIIth stratum of the mound. Both are made of the -haliotis shell, the material preferred for ornamental purposes by the -Indians throughout the country. Recovered in different strata, they -differ completely with respect to their form. Yet, owing to the scarcity -of the finds we are not permitted to advance the opinion that the form -of one was limited in its stratum to the complete exclusion of the -other. - -1-8632, fig. 37, from stratum II, is about as long as broad, but rounded -off at the lower part, while the upper rim is cut off straight. The -three-sixteenths inch wide perforations in one row on the upper rim -served for the purpose of suspending. - -1-9106, fig. 38, from stratum VIII, represents the broken edge of a -larger ornamental plate which was originally triangular or of a -quadrilateral shape. The edge is now trapezoidal. Two of the four sides -still show the well-worked rims, ornamented with indentations, of the -original ornamental plate. The two other sides are rough surfaces of -fracture.[153] - -[Illustration: Fig. 37. × 1/2. Fig. 38. × 4/5. Haliotis shell -ornaments.] - - _Issued June 15, 1907._ - ------ - -[151] _l. c._, II, p. 556. - -[152] Cf. F. W. Putnam, _l. c._, pl. XI, fig. 18. - -[153] Ch. A. Abbott, _l. c._, p. 406. fig. 388. - - - - - UNIV. CAL. PUB. AM. ARCH. &. ETH. VOL. 7, PL. 2 -[Illustration] - EXPLANATION OF PLATE 2. - - Emeryville Shellmound seen from the Bay. The cut made in the - side of the mound had been filled when the photograph was taken, - but the site of the excavation is seen in the light area on the - western slope. - - - - - UNIV. CAL. PUB. AM. ARCH. &. ETH. VOL. 7, PL. 3 -[Illustration] - EXPLANATION OF PLATE 3. - - Topographic map of the Emeryville Shellmound. Contour intervals - 5 feet. Scale: 1 inch = 60 feet. - - - - - UNIV. CAL. PUB. AM. ARCH. &. ETH. VOL. 7, PL. 4 -[Illustration] - EXPLANATION OF PLATE 4. - - Fig. 1. Cross section of the western foot of Emeryville - Shellmound, showing the extent of the excavations. Scale: 1 inch - = 19.4 feet. - - 1. Alluvial clay. 2. Thin gravel layer. 3. Basement clay, the - stratum upon which the mound and the gravel layer rest. - - Fig. 2. Cross section through the principal excavated portion of - the western foot of the Emeryville Shellmound, illustrating the - stratification of the deposits. Scale: 1 inch = 6.46 feet. - - I-X, Recognized strata of the mound. - - A, B, C. Sections of the excavation designated in text. - - - - - UNIV. CAL. PUB. AM. ARCH. &. ETH. VOL. 7, PL. 5 -[Illustration] - EXPLANATION OF PLATE 5. - - The open cut on the western side of the Emeryville Shellmound. - - - - - UNIV. CAL. PUB. AM. ARCH. &. ETH. VOL. 7, PL. 6 -[Illustration] - EXPLANATION OF PLATE 6. - - Figs. 1-21. Flaked cherts principally from the lower layers of - the mound. Some of these, as represented by figs. 4, 5, 6, 11, - 19, and 20, are possibly finished implements. The others are - perhaps in part rejects, but all were probably used to some - extent. × 6/10. - - Following are the accession numbers of the specimens, as - catalogued in the museum of the Department of Anthropology. - - Fig. 1 (1-9007) Fig. 11 (1-8966) - Fig. 2 (1-9095) Fig. 12 (1-9012) - Fig. 3 (1-8551) Fig. 13 (1-9040) - Fig. 4 (1-9031) Fig. 14 (1-8857) - Fig. 5 (1-9005) Fig. 16 (1-?) - Fig. 6 (1-8961) Fig. 17 (1-9093) - Fig. 7 (1-9043) Fig. 18 (1-9012) - Fig. 8 (1-9023) Fig. 19 (1-8815) - Fig. 9 (1-9053) Fig. 20 (1-8929) - Fig. 10 (1-9085) Fig. 21 (1-8756) - - - - - UNIV. CAL. PUB. AM. ARCH. &. ETH. VOL. 7, PL. 7 -[Illustration] - EXPLANATION OF PLATE 7. - - Rough bone implements and ornaments largely from the lower - layers of the mound. × 2/3. - - Fig. 1 (1-8983) Fig. 10 (1-9072) - Fig. 2 (1-8871) Fig. 11 (1-8875) - Fig. 3 (1-9067) Fig. 12 (1-8989) - Fig. 4 (1-9068) Fig. 13 (1-8988) - Fig. 5 (1-8980) Fig. 14 (1-8987) - Fig. 6 (1-8919) Fig. 15 (1-8920) - Fig. 7 (1-8918) Fig. 16 (1-8986) - Fig. 8 (1-8979) Fig. 17 (1-8984) - Fig. 9 (1-8996) Fig. 18 (1-8975) - - - - - UNIV. CAL. PUB. AM. ARCH. &. ETH. VOL. 7, PL. 8 -[Illustration] - EXPLANATION OF PLATE 8. - - Implements of bone and antler from the Emeryville mound. Figures - about one-half natural size. - - Fig. 1 (1-8730) Fig. 5 (1-8780) - Figs. 2_a_ and 2_b_ (1-8892) Fig. 6 (1-8778) - Figs. 3_a_ and 3_b_ (1-8821) Fig. 7 (1-8889) - Fig. 4 (1-?) - - - - - UNIV. CAL. PUB. AM. ARCH. &. ETH. VOL. 7, PL. 9 -[Illustration] - EXPLANATION OF PLATE 9. - - Bone implements from the Emeryville mound. × 6/10. - - Fig. 1 (1-8522) Fig. 10 (1-8735) - Fig. 2 (1-8686) Fig. 11 (1-8869) - Fig. 3 (1-8897) Fig. 12 (1-8868) - Fig. 4 (1-8972) Fig. 13 (1-8916) - Fig. 5 (1-8692) Fig. 14 (1-8917) - Fig. 6 (1-8985) Fig. 15 (1-8870) - Fig. 7 (1-8831) Fig. 16 (1-8694) - Fig. 8 (1-8895) Fig. 17 (1-8898) - Fig. 9 (1-8901) - - - - - UNIV. CAL. PUB. AM. ARCH. &. ETH. VOL. 7, PL. 10 -[Illustration] - EXPLANATION OF PLATE 10. - - Stone implements principally from the upper layers of the mound. - Figures about three-fifths natural size. - - Fig. 1 (1-8613) Fig. 9 (1-8925) - Fig. 2 (1-8611) Fig. 10 (1-8610) - Fig. 3 (1-8615) Fig. 11 (1-8633) - Fig. 4 (1-8718) Fig. 12 (1-8536) - Fig. 5 (1-8614) Fig. 13 (1-8676) - Fig. 6 (1-8618) Fig. 14 (1-8883) - Fig. 7 (1-8719) Fig. 15 (1-8926) - Fig. 8 (1-8616) Fig. 16 (1-8634) - - - - - UNIV. CAL. PUB. AM. ARCH. &. ETH. VOL. 7, PL. 11 -[Illustration] - EXPLANATION OF PLATE 11. - - Ornaments principally from the upper and middle layers of the - mound. Natural size. - - Fig. 1 (1-8777) Fig. 9 (1-8791) - Fig. 2 (1-8784) Fig. 10 (1-?) - Fig. 3 (1-8879) Fig. 11 (1-?) - Fig. 4 (1-8775) Fig. 12 (1-8843) - Figs. 5_a_ and 5_b_ (1-?) Fig. 13 (1-8702) - Figs. 6_a_ and 6_b_ (1-8788) Fig. 14 (7-8743) - Fig. 7 (1-?) Figs. 15, 16, and 17 (1-8776) - Fig. 8 (1-8783) Fig. 18 (1-8766) - - - - - UNIV. CAL. PUB. AM. ARCH. &. ETH. VOL. 7, PL. 12 -[Illustration] - EXPLANATION OF PLATE 12. - - Various artifacts principally from the upper layers of the - mound. Figures 1 to 4, × 3/4; figures 5 to 13, × 2/3. - - Figs. 1_a_ and 1_b_ (1-8624) Fig. 8 (1-8630) - Figs. 2_a_ and 2_b_ (1-8622) Fig. 9 (1-8711) - Figs. 3_a_ and 3_b_ (1-8623) Fig. 10 (1-8608) - Figs. 4_a_ and 4_b_ (1-8626) Fig. 11 (1-8620) - Fig. 5 (1-8850) Figs. 12_a_ and 12_b_ (1-8671) - Fig. 6 (1-8631) Fig. 13 (1-8628) - Fig. 7 (1-8535) - - - - - UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PUBLICATIONS - DEPARTMENT OF ANTHROPOLOGY - -The following publications dealing with archaeological and ethnological -subjects issued under the direction of the Department of Anthropology -are sent in exchange for the publications of anthropological departments -and museums, for journals devoted to general anthropology or to -archaeology and ethnology, and for specimens contributed to the museum -collections of the University. They are for sale at the prices stated, -which include postage or express charges. Exchanges should be directed -to The Exchange Department, University Library, Berkeley, California, U. -S. A. 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Price, $1.00 per year. -Current volume No. IX. - - * * * * * - -Address all orders, or requests for information concerning the above -publications to =The University Press, Berkeley, California=. - -European orders for numbers of the series in American Archaeology and -Ethnology may be addressed to Otto Harrassowitz, Leipzig, or R. -Friedlænder & Sohn, Berlin. - - THE END - - - - - TRANSCRIBER NOTES - - The first page of the list of publications has been moved to the - end of the book. - - Part One/page 1 listed in the Contents is not noted in the book. - - Footnotes have been relocated to the end of the section in which - they are referenced. Footnote numbers 66, 67 and 139 and - associated references are missing in the original text. - - Some illustrations have been relocated closer to their place of - reference and due to the use of a non-page layout. - - "pl. IV" is an undefined reference as there is no pl. IV in the - original text. The link provided is to pl. 4. This occurs in two - place: page 19 and page 27. - - Misspelled words and printer errors have been maintained except - as follows: - - page 27: 'N.' changed to 'No.' -- "No. 4. Grave of an - adult" - - page 45: 'bowlder' changed to 'boulder' -- "the convex - exterior is the rough boulder stone" - - page 70: 'smoth' changed to 'smooth' -- "it is broken - off at the smooth posterior end" - - page 75: 'spoints' changed to 'points' -- "two long - spear points" - - In the Explanation of Plate 6, the reference for image 15 was - omitted in the original text. - - Punctuation has been maintained except where obvious printer - errors occur. - -[The end of _The Emeryville Shellmound_, by Max Uhle.] - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE EMERYVILLE SHELLMOUND *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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