diff options
Diffstat (limited to 'old/67755-0.txt')
| -rw-r--r-- | old/67755-0.txt | 8671 |
1 files changed, 0 insertions, 8671 deletions
diff --git a/old/67755-0.txt b/old/67755-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 1b9796b..0000000 --- a/old/67755-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8671 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of Memorabilia, by James Savage - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: Memorabilia - Or Recollections, Historical, Biographical, and Antiquarian - -Author: James Savage - -Release Date: April 1, 2022 [eBook #67755] - -Language: English - -Produced by: Charlene Taylor, David King, and the Online Distributed - Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net. (This file was - produced from images generously made available by The - Internet Archive/American Libraries.) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MEMORABILIA *** - - - - - - MEMORABILIA. - - - - - MEMORABILIA; - - OR - - _RECOLLECTIONS_, - - HISTORICAL, BIOGRAPHICAL, - - AND - - Antiquarian, - - BY JAMES SAVAGE. - - - TAUNTON: - - PRINTED FOR JAMES SAVAGE, - AND SOLD BY - J. POOLE, BOOKSELLER, FORE-STREET, AND - BY BALDWIN, CRADOCK, & JOY, PATERNOSTER ROW, - LONDON. - - 1820. - - - - - TAUNTON: - PRINTED BY J. POOLE, FORE-STREET. - - - - - ADVERTISEMENT. - - -The following pages have been compiled from various sources, and from an -extensive course of reading. The Editor has in some instances placed his -authorities in the notes at the bottom of the page; and, where he has -copied from former writers, he has inserted the names of those from whom -he has borrowed his materials. His chief object has been to confine -himself to facts; he has therefore carefully avoided giving opinions -upon, or drawing conclusions from, the various subjects of which he has -treated. He has endeavoured to place many points of history in a new -light, and in every part to illustrate, in some degree, the several -matters which have occupied his attention. It has been his desire to -present the reader with a volume, from which he hopes both instruction -and amusement may be drawn, and he submits it with confidence, to the -perusal of young persons in particular, as a collection of biographical -and historical Miscellanea, calculated to beguile the tedium of an hour, -without inculcating a single idea that may sully the purest mind. - -_Taunton, May 31st, 1820._ - - - - - CONTENTS. - - -Anecdotes of Dr. Kennicott, 1 - -Remarkable Historical Coincidences, 4 - -Charles XII. of Sweden, 6 - -British Pearls, 8 - -Pillars of Commemoration, 9 - -Mason, the Poet, 13 - -Bishops of Sodor and Man, 17 - -The Table, 19 - -Clocks, 20 - -Aldus Manutius, 22 - -Bottles of Skin, 24 - -English Slave Trade, 25 - -Oliver Cromwell’s Wife, 26 - -Shakespeare, 28 - -University Degrees, 31 - -Guy Carleton, Lord Dorchester, 33 - -Figs, 35 - -Fruits cultivated at Rome in the time of Pliny, that are now grown in -our English gardens, 37 - -Peacocks, 51 - -Ancient Libraries, 52 - -King Charles the First, 58 - -The Fair Geraldine and the Earl of Surrey, 60 - -Jews in England, 66 - -The English Bible, 67 - -Luxury of Ancient Rome, 68 - -Rhyme, 70 - -Mr. Coquebert de Montbret, 72 - -Dr. Thomas Pierce, 73 - -Writing among the Greeks, 74 - -Account of the Scriptoria, or Writing Rooms in the Monasteries of -England, 76 - -Torture in England, 105 - -Dr. Johnson’s Conversation with the late King, 114 - -Dr. Beattie’s Conversation with the late King & Queen, 121 - -Sacred Gardens, 128 - -Sir Thomas Wyat, 129 - -The Hand, a Symbol of Power, 132 - -Henrietta Maria, Queen of Charles I, 135 - -Last Moments of Philip Melancthon, 142 - -House of Commons, 145 - -Mosaic Painting, 165 - -King Egbert, 168 - -The Latin Language, 171 - -Dr. Herschel, 174 - -Parodies, 177 - -Mourning for the Dead, 178 - -Garrick, 179 - -Lemons, 181 - -Origin of the Point of Honour, 182 - -Geoffrey of Monmouth, 185 - -Lifting up the Hand in Swearing, 205 - -Villiers, Duke of Buckingham, 207 - -King Arthur, 210 - -Alchemy, 213 - -Account of several Noble Families, in England, who owe their elevation -to the Peerage to their Ancestors having been engaged in Trade, 214 - -Last Moments of Queen Caroline, 220 - -The Britons, according to the Greek and Latin Classics, 221 - -The Seven Sleepers, 227 - -John Ray, the Naturalist, 230 - -London Bankers and their Origin, 233 - -Elucidation of the Ornaments with which the Greeks and Romans adorned -the Human Head on Coins & Medals, 237 - -The Tradescants, 243 - -Orange Trees, 249 - -Articles of Use and Luxury introduced into Europe by the Romans, 251 - -Account of the Escape of the Earl of Nithsdale from the Tower, in 1716, -255 - -Account of the first rise of Fairs in England, and the Manner of Living, -in the 16th and 17th Centuries, 269 - -Sir Richard Clough, 277 - -Royal Clemency, 279 - -Lotteries, 280 - -Herculaneum Manuscripts, 283 - -Wolves in England, 286 - -Professor Porson, 288 - -History of Sepulchral Monuments, 297 - - - - - Dr. KENNICOTT. - - -Dr. Kennicott was the son of the parish clerk of Totness, once master of -a charity school in that town. At an early age young Kennicott took the -care of the school, and in that situation wrote some verses, addressed -to the Hon. Mrs. Courtenay, which recommended him to her notice, and to -that of many neighbouring gentlemen, who laudably opened a subscription -to send him to Oxford. - - _The following inscription, written by Dr. Kennicott, is engraven on - the tomb of his parents_: - - As Virtue should be of good Report, - Sacred be this humble Monument to the Memory of - BENJAMIN KENNICOTT, - Parish Clerk of Totness, - and ELIZABETH his Wife; - The latter an example of every Christian Duty, - The former animated with the warmest zeal, regulated by the - best good sense, and both constantly exerted - for the salvation of himself and others. - Reader! soon shalt thou die also; - And as a Candidate for Immortality, strike thy breast and say, - “Let me live the life of the righteous,that my - latter end may be like his.” - Trifling are the dates of Time, where the subject is Eternity. - Erected by their Son, B. Kennicott, D. D. - Canon of Christ Church, Oxford. - -It is said that when Dr. Kennicott took orders, he came to officiate in -his clerical capacity in his native town,—when his father, as parish -clerk, proceeded to place the surplice on his shoulders, a struggle -ensued between the modesty of the son and the honest pride of the -parent, who insisted on paying that respect to his son which he had been -accustomed to shew to other clergymen; to this filial obedience he was -obliged to submit. A circumstance is added, that his mother had often -declared she should never be able to support the joy of hearing her son -preach; and that on her attendance at the church, for the first time, -she was so overcome as to be taken out in a state of temporary -insensibility. - - * * * * * - - _The following Letter from Dr. Kennicott to the Rev. William Daddo - has been preserved_: - - “_To the Rev. Mr. Daddo, in Tiverton, Devon._ - - “_Wadh. Coll. Mar. 30, 1744._ - - “Rev. and Hon. Sir, - - “Gratitude to benefactors is the great law of nature, and lest I - should violate what was ever sacred, I presume to lay the following - before you. - - “There are, Sir, in the world, gentlemen who confine their regards - to self, or the circle of their own acquaintance, and there are - (happy experience convinces me) who command their influence to - enlarge and exert itself on persons remotely situate, both by - fortune and education. To you, Sir, belongs the honour of this - encomium,—to me the pleasure of the obligation, and as I am now - first at leisure in the place whither your goodness has transplanted - me, I lay this acknowledgment before you, as one of the movers in - this system of exalted generosity; for when I consider myself as - surrounded with benefactors, there seems a bright resemblance of the - now exploded system of Ptolemy, in which, Sir, (you know) the - heavenly bodies revolved around the central earth which was thus - rendered completely blest by the contribution of their cheering and - benign influence. - - “And now, Sir, the sentiments of duty rise so warm within me, that - every expression of thanks seems faint, and I am lost in endeavours - after a suitable acknowledgment of my obligations. - - “But I know, Sir, whom I am now addressing; I know those who most - deserve can least bear praise, and that your goodness is so great, - as even to reject the very thanks of the grateful; like the sun in - its splendour, which forbids the eye that offers to admire it. - - “That Heaven may reward yourself and Mrs. Daddo with its best - favours, and console you under your parental sorrows, is my daily - and fervent prayer; and I shall esteem it one of the great honours - of my life to be favoured at your leisure with any commands or - advices you shall condescend to bestow on - - Rev. Sir, - - Your dutiful and obliged Servant, - - BENJAMIN KENNICOTT.” - - * * * * * - -The Rev. William Daddo was for many years head-master of Blundell’s Free -School, in Tiverton, where young Kennicott received the rudiments of his -classical education. Mr. Daddo having acquired a considerable fortune -from the emoluments of his school, quitted Tiverton, and retired to -Bow-hill House, in the neighbourhood of Exeter, and there died many -years ago, leaving a daughter, an only child, afterwards married to the -Rev. Mr. Terry. - - - - - REMARKABLE HISTORICAL COINCIDENCES. - - -Among the curiosities in the British Museum are shewn two helmets; the -one Roman, found in the ground on which the battle of Cannæ was fought, -216 years before Christ, and the other made of feathers, brought from -one of the South Sea Islands, by Captain Cook. On comparing these -helmets, the shape will be found exactly similar, though the latter was -made by an uncivilized people living at the distance of more than 2000 -years since the battle of Cannæ was fought, and who had never even heard -of the Roman name. - -A second coincidence is found in the same collection. Two breast-plates -are shewn to the visitors, exactly corresponding in uniformity of shape, -though made of different materials, the one taken from the bosom of an -Egyptian Mummy, which had been dissected, if I may be allowed to use the -term, in the Museum, and the other brought by Captain Cook, among -various other curiosities, from the South Sea Islands. - -A third coincidence is the mode of cookery practised by the South Sea -Islanders as described by Captain Cook, especially in roasting their -hogs. This is by means of hot stones placed in a hole dug in the ground. -In Ossian’s Poems the reader will find that the Caledonians of that time -made use of the same method in cooking their hogs for the table. - -The extinction of the Roman Empire in the West, about the year 476, by -Odoacer, King of Italy, was attended by one of the most memorable -coincidences in the history of mankind. The patrician Orestes had -married the daughter of Count _Romulus_, of Petovio in Noricum; the name -of _Augustus_, notwithstanding the jealousy of power, was known at -Aquileia as a familial surname; and the appellations of the two great -founders, the first of the city of Rome, and the second of the Roman -monarchy, were strangely united in the last of their successors. The son -of Orestes succeeded to the throne of the Western Empire, and assumed -and disgraced the names of ROMULUS AUGUSTUS; the first was corrupted -into Momyllus by the Greeks, and the second has been changed by the -Latins into the contemptible diminutive Augustulus. The life of this -inoffensive youth, the last Sovereign of the Roman Empire in the West, -was spared by the generous clemency of Odoacer, who dismissed him, with -his whole family, from the imperial palace, fixed his annual allowance -at 6000 pieces of Gold, and assigned the castle of Lucullus, in -Campania, for the place of his exile or retirement. - - - - - CHARLES XII. OF SWEDEN. - - -That Charles the twelfth did not fall by a shot from the walls of -Fredericshall, as is commonly supposed, but met his death from a nearer -and more secret hand, has been fully ascertained; and M. Megret, a -French Engineer, who accompanied him, was, no doubt, concerned in the -murder. Many years afterwards, one Cronsted, an officer, on his death -bed, confessed that he had himself, at the instigation of the Prince of -Hesse, brother-in-law of Charles, and whose wife was declared Queen of -Sweden, fired the shot that killed the unfortunate monarch. - -In the arsenal at Stockholm, the Swedes preserve, with great care, the -clothes he was habited in at the time he fell. The coat is a plain blue -cloth regimental one, such as every common soldier wore. Round the waist -he had a broad buff leathern belt, in which hung his sword. The hat is -torn only about an inch square, in that part of it which lies over the -temple, and certainly would have been much more injured by a large shot. -His gloves are of very fine leather, and as the left one is perfectly -clean and unsoiled could only have been newly put on. Voltaire says that -the instant the King received the shot, he had the force and courage to -put his hand to his sword, and lay in that posture. The right hand glove -is covered in the inside with blood, and the belt at that part where the -hilt of his sword lay, is likewise bloody, so that it seems clear, he -had previously put his hand to his head, on receiving the shot, before -he attempted to draw his sword and make resistance. - -In the same case that contains his clothes is preserved the cap he wore -on the terrible day at Bender, when he so desperately defended himself -against the Turks. It is of fur; and has one tremendous cut on the side, -which must have been within a hair’s breadth of there ending the career -of this wonderful man. - - - - - BRITISH PEARLS. - - -The River Conway in North Wales was of considerable importance, even -before the Roman invasion, for the Pearl muscle, (the _Mya -Margaritifera_ of Linnæus) and Suetonius acknowledged, that one of his -inducements for undertaking the subjugation of Wales, was the Pearl -Fishery carried forwards in that river. According to Pliny, the muscles, -called by the natives _Kregindilin_, were sought for with avidity by the -Romans, and the pearls found within them were highly valued; in proof of -which it is asserted, that Julius Cæsar, dedicated a breastplate set -with British Pearls to Venus Genetrix, and placed it in her temple at -Rome. A fine specimen from the Conway is said to have been presented to -Catherine, consort of Charles II. by Sir Richard Wynne of Gwydir; and it -is further said that it has since contributed to adorn the regal crown -of England. Lady Newborough possessed a good collection of the Conway -pearls, which she purchased of those who were fortunate enough to find -them, as there is no regular fishery at present. The late Sir Robert -Vaughan had obtained a sufficient number to appear at Court, with a -button and loop to his hat, formed of these beautiful productions, about -the year 1780. - - - - - PILLARS OF COMMEMORATION. - - -The erection of a column or pillar, on the highest point of that ridge -of hills, called Blackdown, which separates the county of Somerset from -that of Devon, in commemoration of the great victories obtained by the -Duke of Wellington, is an inducement to look into history, to see how -the nations of antiquity, particularly those of Greece and Rome, -rewarded their heroes who signalized themselves by the performance of -feats of military courage, valour, and skill. - -Among the Grecians it was usual to confer honours and rewards upon those -who distinguished themselves in battle by valiant and courageous -conduct. The ordinary rewards presented to conquerors in all the states -of Greece, were crowns, which were sometimes inscribed with the person’s -name and actions that had merited them, as appears from the inscription -upon the crown presented by the Athenians to Conon. The Athenians -sometimes honoured those who had performed great actions with permission -to raise pillars, or erect statues to the gods, with inscriptions -declaring their victories. Plutarch, however, supposes this to have been -a grant rarely yielded to the greatest commanders. Cimon, who commanded -the Athenian fleet against the Persians, became master of the city of -Eion, in Thrace, and was, on account of his not imitating former -commanders, by standing upon the defensive, but repulsing the enemy, and -carrying the war into their own country, highly respected and admired by -his countrymen, who allowed him, in honour of his success over the -enemy, to erect three pillars of stone or marble, each surmounted with -the head of Mercury; but though they bore an inscription, Cimon was not -permitted to inscribe his name upon them. These pillars were considered -by his contemporaries as the highest honour which had then been -conferred upon any commander. - -Various Pillars were erected at Rome in honour of great men, and to -commemorate illustrious actions. Thus there were the _Columna Ænea_, a -pillar of Brass, on which a league with the Latins was written. The -_Columna Rostrata_, the Rostral Column, erected in the Forum, in honour -of Duillius, was adorned with figures of ships, and was constructed of -white marble. This column is still remaining with its inscription. It -was built in honour of a great victory gained by Duillius over the -Carthaginian fleet near Lipara, in the first Punic war. Another Pillar -was erected by M. Fulvius, the Consul, consisting of one stone of -Numidian marble, nearly 20 feet high. - -But the most remarkable columns were those of _Trajan_ and _Antoninus -Pius_. - -Trajan’s Pillar was erected in the middle of his Forum, and was composed -of twenty-four great pieces of marble, but so curiously cemented as to -seem but one. Its height is 128 feet. It is about 12 feet in diameter at -the bottom, and 10 at the top. It has in the inside 185 steps for -ascending to the top, and forty windows for the admission of light. The -whole pillar is incrusted with marble, on which are represented the -warlike exploits of that Emperor and his army, particularly in Dacia. On -the top was a Colossal figure of Trajan, holding in his left hand a -sceptre, and in his right a hollow globe of gold, in which his ashes -were put, but Eutropius affirms that his ashes were put under the -pillar. - -The pillar of Antoninus was erected after his death, by the Senate, in -honour of his memory. It is 176 feet high, the steps of ascent 106, and -the windows 56. The sculpture and other ornaments are much of the same -kind with those of Trajan’s pillar, but the work is greatly inferior. - -Both these pillars are still standing, and justly reckoned among the -most precious remains of antiquity. Pope Sixtus V. instead of the -statues of the Emperors, caused the statue of St. Peter to be erected on -Trajan’s pillar, and of St. Paul on that of Antoninus. - -Pompey’s Pillar, as it is commonly called, in the city of Alexandria in -Egypt, is equally celebrated with the two just mentioned. It is composed -of red granite. The base is a square of about 15 feet on each side; this -block of marble, 60 feet in circumference, rests on two layers of stone -bound together with lead. The shaft and the upper member of the base are -of one piece of 90 feet long, and nine in diameter. The capital is -corinthian, with palm leaves, and not indented; it is 9 feet high. The -whole column is 114 feet in height. It is perfectly well polished, and -only a little shivered on the eastern side. Nothing can equal the -majesty of this column; seen from a distance it overtops the town, and -serves as a signal for vessels. Approaching it nearer, it produces -astonishment mixed with awe. The eye can never be tired with admiring -the beauty of the capital, the length of the shaft, nor the -extraordinary simplicity of the pedestal. - -Among the first inhabitants of the world after the flood there were -pillars erected sacred to the Pythonic god, Apollo, or the Sun. These -pillars had curious hieroglyphical inscriptions; they were very lofty -and narrow in comparison of their length; hence among the Greeks, who -copied from the Egyptians, every thing gradually tapering to a point was -stiled an Obelisk. - - - - - MASON THE POET. - - -The merit of this gentleman as a poet is well known. However he was not -satisfied with the applause he received in that character; he was -desirous also of being esteemed a good musician and a good painter. In -music he succeeded better than in painting. He performed decently on the -harpsichord, and by desire, I undertook, says Dr. Miller, in the History -of Doncaster, to teach him the principles of composition; but that I -never could effect. Indeed, others before me had failed in the attempt, -nevertheless he fancied himself qualified to compose; for a short Anthem -of his, beginning “LORD of all power and might,” was performed at the -Chapel Royal, of which only the melody was his own; the bass was -composed by another person. The same may be said of two more Anthems, -sung in the Cathedral of York. In painting he never arrived even to a -degree of mediocrity; so true is Pope’s observation: - - “One science only will one genius fit, - ”So vast is art, so narrow human wit.” - -Fond, however, of being considered as a patron both of music and -painting, he contributed to the advancement of several young men by his -recommendation: yet I never knew him patronize but one, in either of -these arts, whom he did not desert afterwards, without his former -favourite ever knowing in what he had offended him. - -“When young,” says Dr. Miller, “I was one of those he took under his -protection. He permitted me to dedicate the music of some elegies to -him, and also gave me pieces of his own writing to set to music, -particularly the ‘Ode to Death’ in Caractacus. However, at the end of a -few years, I found myself involved in the disgrace of others, though I -never knew the cause of my dismissal; most probably our disgrace -proceeded from the envy of some officious tale-bearer. On recollection, -I have often observed him listen attentively to these characters; and -his favourite servant had it in his power to lead him which way he -pleased, even to the changing a former acquaintance as easily as he -would change his coat. Rather late in life he married Miss Sharman, of -Hull, which was his native place. The reason he assigned for making her -an offer of marriage was, that he had been a whole evening in her -company with others, and observed, that during all that time she never -spoke a single word. This lady lived about a year after their marriage. -She died at Bristol, where, in the Cathedral, he placed a handsome -monument to her memory, on which are inscribed some beautiful and -much-admired lines as an epitaph. During the short time this lady lived -with him, he appeared more animated and agreeable in his conversation; -but after her decease, his former phlegm returned, and he became silent, -sullen, and reserved. - -“Though he had a good income, and was by no means extravagant, yet he -frequently fancied himself poor, to that degree, that he once asked an -acquaintance to lend him a hundred pounds, though at that very time he -had considerable sums of money in the public funds, for which he -neglected taking the interest. A great attachment appeared to exist -between him and a very hospitable family in the neighbourhood of -Doncaster, to whom he was nearly related, and with whom he used to pass -some months in the summer. At length he fancied they expected to receive -a good legacy at his decease, but resolving to disappoint them, he did -not even mention them in his will, but left the greater part of his -property to a person who had formerly been his curate.” - - * * * * * - - _The following Letter from Mason to Dr. Beattie, is preserved in Sir - William Forbes’s Life of the latter_: - - _York, 17th October, 1771._ - - “In my late melancholy employment of reviewing and arranging the - papers, which dear Mr. Gray’s friendship bequeathed to my care, I - have found nine letters of yours, which I meant to have returned ere - this, had I found a safe opportunity by a private hand; but as no - such opportunity has yet occurred, I take the liberty of troubling - you with this, to enquire how I may best convey them to you. I shall - continue here till the 12th of next month, and hope in that interval - to be favoured with a line from you upon this subject. - - “I should deprive myself of a very sincere gratification, if I - finished this letter, with the business that occasions it. You must - suffer me to thank you for the very high degree of poetical pleasure - which the first book of your ‘Minstrel’ gave my imagination, and - that equal degree of rational conviction which your ‘Essay on the - Immutability of Truth’ impressed on my understanding. I will freely - own to you, that the very idea of a Scotsman’s attacking Mr. Hume, - prejudiced me so much in favour of the latter piece, that I should - have approved it, if, instead of a masterly, it had been only a - moderate performance. - - “I shall be happy to know, that the remaining books of your - ‘Minstrel’ are likely to be published soon. The next best thing, - after instructing the world profitably, is to amuse it innocently. - England has lost that man, (Mr. Gray) who, of all others in it, was - best qualified for both these purposes; but who, from early chagrin - and disappointment, had imbibed a disinclination to employ his - talents beyond the sphere of self-satisfaction and improvement. May - Scotland long possess, in you, a person both qualified and willing - to exert his, for the pleasure and benefit of society.” - - - - - BISHOPS OF SODOR AND MAN. - - -The Bishopric of Sodor and Man was first erected by Pope Gregory IV, -about the year 840, and had for its diocese the Isle of Man and all the -Hebrides or Western Islands of Scotland; but when the Isle of Man became -dependent upon the kingdom of England, the Western Islands withdrew -themselves from the obedience of their Bishop, and had Bishops of their -own, whom they entitled _Episcopi Sodorenses_, but commonly Bishops of -the Isles. The Prelates of the diocese of the Isles had three places of -residence, namely, the Isle of Icolumkill, Man, and Bute; and in ancient -writs, are promiscuously styled _Episcopi Manniæ et Insularum_, -_Episcopi Æbudarum_, and _Episcopi Sodorenses_, which last title is -still retained by the Bishops of the Isle of Man; and the reason of this -style is as follows: The Island of Ily, or I, or Ionah, was in former -ages a place famous for sanctity and learning, and very early became the -seat of a Bishop. This little Island was likewise denominated -Icolumkill, from St. Columba (the companion of St. Patrick) founding a -monastery here in the sixth century, which was the mother of above one -hundred other monasteries situated in different parts of Britain and -Ireland. From the many learned men who came to study here, the Picts and -English Saxons of the North owe their conversion to Christianity. The -Scots used long ago to commit the education of the presumptive heir of -the crown to the care of the Bishops of this see; and so holy was the -Island of Icolumkill reckoned, that most of the Scottish monarchs were -interred there. The Cathedral church was dedicated to our Saviour, for -whom the Greek word is _Soter_, hence _Soterensis_, now corrupted to -_Sodorensis_; and it seems probable that this is the reason why the -Danes called these Islands _Sodoroe_. The civil wars that raged among -the Scots enabled the Danes and Norwegians to seize the Isle of Man; and -about the year 1097 or 1098, Donald Bane, an usurper, who then sat on -the throne of Scotland, treacherously put the Norwegians in possession -of the Western Isles, for the assistance they had given him. It is -probable that these foreigners were the cause that the see was -translated entirely to the Isle of Man. They were at length however, -expelled from all their usurped dominions. During the great contest -between the houses of Bruce and Baliol for the throne of Scotland, King -Edward III., of England, made himself master of the Isle of Man, and it -has remained an appendage of the crown of England ever since. The Lords -of the Isle of Man sat up Bishops of their own, and the Scottish -monarchs continued their Bishops of the Isles. The patronage of the -Bishopric of Man was given, together with the Island, to the Stanleys, -by King Edward IV. and they came by an heir-female to the Duke of Athol, -who still keeps it; and on a vacancy thereof, he nominates the intended -Bishop to the King, who sends him to the Archbishop of York for -consecration. This is the reason why the Bishop of Sodor and Man is not -a Lord of Parliament, as none can have suffrage in the house of Peers -who do not hold immediately of the King himself. - - - - - THE TABLE. - - -The form of a half-moon for a table is of very ancient date; the Romans -called it the _Sigma_, from its resemblance to the Greek letter so -called, which was in the time of the Roman Emperors like the letter C. -Martial tells us this sort of table admitted but of seven persons, -_septem sigma capit_. And Lampridius, in his life of Heliogabalus, -mentions it very frequently, and says it was for seven only; he tells us -the Emperor once invited eight, on purpose to raise a laugh against the -person for whom there would be no seat. The same form of a table -continued in after ages. The authors of the life of St. Martin say, that -the Emperor Maximus invited him to a repast, where the table had the -form of a sigma; and again in the lower ages, Sidonius Apollinaris -speaks of the same thing in the life of the Emperor Majorianus; and it -is likewise represented in a manuscript of the fifth or sixth century. -The seat itself was only a common bench or form; the sigma was the -principal piece of furniture, and most ornamented. In the time of Homer -the guests sat round the table, as we do now, but afterwards some -nations adopted the custom of a reclining position at their meals. - - - - - CLOCKS. - - -The first Clock we know of in this Country was put up in an old tower of -Westminster Hall, in the year 1288, and in 1292, there was one in the -Cathedral of Canterbury. These were probably of foreign workmanship; and -it may be doubted, if there was at that time any person who followed the -business of making clocks. There was, however, one very ingenious -artist, Richard of Wallingford, Abbot of St. Albans, who constructed a -clock which represented the motions of the sun, moon, and stars, and the -ebbing and flowing of the sea. That this wonderful piece of mechanism -might be of permanent utility to his Abbey, he composed a book of -directions for the management of it. And Leland who appears to have seen -it, says, that in his opinion all Europe could not produce such another. - -There is a fine specimen of ancient Clock-making in Wells Cathedral. It -is a clock constructed by Peter Lightfoot, one of the monks of -Glastonbury, about the year 1325, of complicated design and ingenious -execution. It was originally put up in that celebrated Monastery, and -was placed in the south transept, and by means of a communication tolled -the hours on the great bell of the central tower, whilst the quarters -were struck by automata on two small bells in the transept. The dial -plate shews the hours, and also the changes of the moon, the solar and -other astronomical motions; on its summit there is an horizontal frame -work, which exhibits by the aid of machinery, eight knights on horseback -armed for a tournament, and pursuing each other with a rapid rotatory -motion. At the Reformation this clock was removed from Glastonbury Abbey -to its present situation in Wells Cathedral. - -The Clock in Exeter Cathedral was erected by Bishop Courtenay in the -year 1480. It is on the Ptolemaic system of Astronomy and of a curious -construction for the age in which it was put up. The earth is -represented by a globe in the centre; the sun by a fleur-de-lys; and the -moon by a ball painted half black and half white, which turns on its -axis, and shews the different phases of that luminary. - - - - - ALDUS MANUTIUS. - [DIED 1516.] - - -It would be difficult to say whether the exertions of any individual, -however splendid his talents, or even the labours of any particular -association, or academy, however celebrated, ever shed so much lustre on -the place of their residence as that which Venice derives from the -reputation of a stranger, who voluntarily selected it for his abode. I -allude to ALDUS MANUTIUS. This extraordinary person combined the lights -of the scholar, with the industry of the mechanic; and to his labours, -carried on without interruption till the conclusion of a long life, the -world owes the first or _principes editiones_ of twenty eight Greek -Classics. Among these we find Pindar, Æschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, -Herodotus, Thucydides, Demosthenes, Plato, and Aristotle. Besides these, -there are few ancient authors of any note, of whom this indefatigable -editor has not published editions of acknowledged accuracy, and as far -as the means of the art of printing, then in its infancy, permitted, of -great beauty. In order to appreciate the merit of Aldus, we must -consider the difficulties under which he must have laboured at a time -when there were few public libraries; when there was no regular -communication between distant cities; when the price of manuscripts put -them out of the reach of persons of ordinary incomes; and when the -existence of many since discovered, was utterly unknown. The man who -could surmount these obstacles, and publish so many authors till then -inedited; who could find means and time to give new and more accurate -editions of so many others already published, and accompany them all -with prefaces mostly of his own composition; who could extend his -attention still farther and by his labours secure the fame, by -immortalizing the compositions of the most distinguished scholars of his -own age and country, must have been endowed in a very high degree, not -only with industry and perseverance, but with judgment, learning, and -discrimination. One virtue more, Aldus possessed in common with many of -the great literary characters of that period, I mean, a sincere and -manly piety, a virtue which gives consistency, vigour, and permanency to -every good quality, and never fails to communicate a certain grace and -dignity to the whole character. - - - - - BOTTLES OF SKIN. - - -The Ancients made use of bottles of skin to hold their wine, as is usual -in many countries to this day. Thus Homer mentions wine being _brought -in a goat’s skin_. (Il. II. iii. line 247. Odys. VI. line 78, IX. line -196, 212) Herodotus (ii. 121,) mentions _skins_ being filled with wine. -And Maundrell in his Travels to Jerusalem, speaking of the Greek Convent -at Bellmount, near Tripoli, in Syria, says, “The same person whom we saw -officiating at the altar in his embroidered sacerdotal robe, brought us -the next day on his own back, a kid, and a _goat’s skin of wine_ as a -present from the Convent.” - - - - - ENGLISH SLAVE TRADE. - - -A great article of exportation among the Anglo-Saxons was Slaves, in -which kind of traffic, the Northumbrians in particular, were very -famous, amongst whom this trade continued, according to William of -Malmesbury, for some time after the conquest. The people of Bristol were -also very much employed in the Slave Trade, which they pursued with such -eagerness, that they frequently spared not their nearest relations; but -at length they were prevailed upon by the preaching and exhortation of -Wulstan, Bishop of Worcester, who possessed that See at the time of the -Conquest, to quit such a barbarous and inhuman traffic. - -In the history of the Saxon period there is frequent mention of living -money, in contradistinction to coins of gold, silver, &c. This living -money consisted of slaves and cattle of all sorts, which according to -the value fixed upon them by law, were equally current with gold or -silver in the payment of debts. - -In Domesday Book it is said that in the Borough of Lewes, four-pence was -to be paid to the Portreeve for every man sold within that borough. - -The Monks were forbid by an ancient Canon to manumit their slaves, and -this unhappy race of men seems to have been longer perpetuated on the -estates of the Monasteries than elsewhere, for in the survey of -Glastonbury Abbey taken after the dissolution, there is mention of “271 -bondmen, whose bodies and goods were at the King’s Highness’s pleasure.” - - - - - OLIVER CROMWELL’S WIFE. - - -The two following notable instances of this Lady’s niggardliness are -taken from a very scarce little book intitled “The Court and Kitchen of -Elizabeth Cromwell,” &c. printed in 1664. - -“The first, was the very next summer after Oliver’s coming to the -Protectorate in 1654. In June, at the very first season of green pease, -where a poor country woman living some where about London, having a very -early but small quantity in her garden, was advised to gather them and -carry them to the Lady Protectress; her counsellors conceiving she would -be very liberal in her reward, they being the first of that year; -accordingly the poor woman came to the _Strand_; and having her pease -amounting to a peck and a half, in a basket, a cook by the _Savoy_ as -she passed, either seeing or guessing at them, demanded the price, and -upon her silence offered her an angel (a coin so called) for them, but -the woman expecting some greater matter, went on her way to _Whitehall_, -where after much ado, she was directed to her chamber, and one of her -maids came out, and understanding it was a present and a rarity, carried -it in to the Protectress, who out of her princely munificence sent her a -crown, which the maid told into her hand; the woman seeing this -baseness, and the frustration of her hopes, and remembering withal what -the cook had proffered her, _threw back the money into the maid’s hands, -and desired her to fetch her back her pease, for that she was offered -five shillings more for them before she brought them thither, and could -go fetch it presently_; and so half slightingly and half ashamedly, this -great lady returned her present, putting it off with a censure upon the -unsatisfactory daintiness of luxurious and prodigal epicurism. The very -same pease were afterwards sold by the woman to the said cook, who is -yet alive (that is in 1664) to justify the truth of this relation. - -“The other is of a later date. Upon Oliver’s rupture with the Spaniards, -the commodities of Spain grew very scarce, and the prices of them raised -by such as could procure them under-hand. Among the rest of these goods, -the fruits of the growth of that country were very rare and dear, -especially oranges and lemons. One day as the Protector was private at -dinner he called for an orange to a loin of veal, to which he used no -other sauce, and urging the same command, was answered by his wife, that -_Oranges were oranges now; that crab oranges would cost a groat, and for -her part she never intended to give it_; and it was presently whispered -that sure her Highness was never the adviser of the Spanish war: and -that his Highness would have done well to have consulted his digestion, -before his lusty and inordinate appetite of dominion and riches in the -West Indies.” - - - - - SHAKESPEARE. - - -The following ingenious reasons are assigned by Mr. Charles Butler, in -his “Memoirs of the English Catholics,” as grounds for a belief that -Shakespeare was a Roman Catholic. - -“May the Writer premise a suspicion, which from internal evidence, he -has long entertained, that Shakespeare was a Roman Catholic. Not one of -his works contains the slightest reflections on Popery, or any of its -practices; or any eulogy of the Reformation. His panegyric on Queen -Elizabeth is cautiously expressed; whilst Queen Catherine is placed in a -state of veneration; and nothing can exceed the skill with which -Griffith draws the panegyric of Wolsey. The Ecclesiastic is never -presented by Shakespeare in a degrading point of view. The jolly Monk, -the irregular Nun, never appear in his Drama. Is it not natural to -suppose, that the topics, on which at that time, those who criminated -Popery loved so much to dwell, must have often solicited his notice, and -invited him to employ his muse upon them, as subjects likely to engage -the favourable attention both of the Sovereign and the subject? Does not -his abstinence from these justify a suspicion, that _a Popish feeling_ -with-held him from them. Milton made the Gunpowder Conspiracy the theme -of a regular Poem. _Shakespeare is altogether silent on it._” - - * * * * * - -The Editor of the Morning Chronicle has given a short comment on the -above Paragraph: “We will only oppose” says he, “a single observation to -Mr. Butler’s suspicion. Shakespeare was buried _at his own desire in a -Protestant Church_, with this rather curious Inscription, which we -recommend to Mr. Butler’s perusal: - - _Good Friend for Jesu’s sake forbear_ - To dig the dust inclosed here. - Blest be the man that spares these stones, - And curst be he that moves my bones.” - -The Editor of the Morning Chronicle does not give his authority for -stating that Shakespeare was buried _by his own desire_ in a Protestant -Church. The poet, in his will, does not express any _desire_ about being -buried in any particular place, and being buried in a Protestant Church, -neither proves one thing nor another respecting his religion. It is no -proof that he was a Protestant because he was buried in a Protestant -Church, even if it were clearly shewn that it was by his own desire; -neither is it any proof that he was not a Roman Catholic because he was -buried in a Protestant Church. Let us ask the Editor of the M. C. where -the Catholics of Shakespeare’s time could bury their dead but in -Protestant Churches, or in consecrated ground belonging to Protestant -Churches? - -The inscription which the Editor of the M. C. mentions to have been -placed upon Shakespeare’s tomb, certainly does not prove any more -respecting his religion than does his being buried in a Protestant -Church. It has been observed with a high degree of probability that the -inscription in question alludes to the custom which was then in use of -removing skeletons after a certain time, and depositing them in Charnel -Houses. Similar execrations are found in many ancient Latin Epitaphs. - -It is one of the observations of Mr. Butler, in proof of his suspicion, -that Shakespeare was a Roman Catholic, that the poet has not eulogized -the Reformation. In the speech (play of Henry VIII. scene the last) -which Archbishop Cranmer makes at the christening of the Princess -Elizabeth, Shakespeare puts into the Prelate’s mouth these prophetic -words— - - “In her days ... - - “GOD shall be truly known” ... - -which appear evidently to infer that in the Roman Catholic times GOD was -not truly known, but that the Reformation, so eminently promoted by -Queen Elizabeth, had brought forth light and truth. Mr. Butler seems to -have overlooked these lines, and the inference that may be drawn from -them, namely, that Shakespeare was _not_ a Roman Catholic. - -The author of a Tragedy, recently published, entitled “Moscow,” says (p. -67.) that “he has discovered that Shakespeare was a Free-Mason. Let -every brother of the _third degree_, therefore SEARCH the works of the -immortal bard, and he will find the TRUTH of the above assertion.” - - - - - UNIVERSITY DEGREES. - - -It does not appear that there were any degrees in either the Greek or -Roman academies; the only distinction was that of masters and scholars. -The first seminaries of learning among christians were the cathedral -churches and monasteries, but in process of time the schools belonging -to them were regulated, and men of learning opened others in places -where they could find protection and encouragement. Hence the origin of -universities, which at first were merely a collection of those schools, -to which Princes and great men gave liberal endowments, and granted -particular immunities and privileges. Degrees were not conferred till -the universities were incorporated; a circumstance extremely probable, -when we recollect that all civil honours must be derived from the -supreme magistrate. - -The most ancient degrees were those of Bachelor and Master of Arts. -Before the existence of a certain statute, which obliged the theologists -to be regents in arts previously to their ascending the chair of Doctor, -they were only students, and bachelors, or masters of divinity, without -reading the arts. At that time the degrees in arts were held in such -estimation, as to be thought superior to that of doctor in any other -faculty. - -The degree of Doctor was not known in England till the time of Henry II. -It afterwards became common, and was taken not only by Professors of -Divinity, Law, and Medicine, but by those of Grammar, Music, Philosophy, -Arts, &c. As the Doctors of those professions, however, seldom obtained -great honour or riches, this degree declined and fell into neglect. That -of Music is the only one which has survived. - - - - - GUY CARLETON, - LORD DORCHESTER. - - -When General Wolfe was appointed to the Command of the Land Forces -destined to act against Canada, in 1759, Mr. Pitt, then Secretary of -State, told him, that as he could not give him so many troops as he -wanted for the Expedition, he would make it up to him in the best -manner he could, by allowing him the appointment of all his -Officers. Accordingly the General sent in a list, in which was the -name of Lieutenant-Colonel Carleton, whom he had put down as -Quarter-Master-General. This Officer, who had been Aide-de-Camp to -the Duke of Cumberland during the campaign in Germany, in 1757, had -unfortunately made himself obnoxious to George the Second, by some -unguarded expressions relating to the Hanoverian Troops, and which -had by some officious person been reported to the King. Lord -Ligonier, then Commander in Chief of the Forces, took General -Wolfe’s list to his Majesty for his approbation, when the King -having looked over it, made some objections in pointed terms, to -Colonel Carleton’s name, and refused to sign his commission. Lord -Ligonier reported the King’s objections and refusal to Mr. Pitt, who -immediately sent his Lordship a second time to his Majesty with no -better success. Mr. Pitt then suggested that his Lordship should go -again, which he refused, on which Mr. Pitt told him, that unless he -went to the King and got Colonel Carleton’s commission signed he -should lose his place. Lord Ligonier then went a third time to the -King, and represented to him the peculiar state of the expedition, -and that in order to make the General completely responsible for -every part of his conduct, it was necessary that the officers -employed under him should be those who enjoyed his entire and -perfect confidence, so that, if he did not succeed, he might not -accuse the Government at home with putting under him officers who, -either by incapacity, want of energy, or inactivity, should thwart -his commands, and thus paralyse the most skilful arrangements. The -King listened to his Lordship’s reasons with a favourable ear, and -his resentment against Colonel Carleton, was so completely disarmed, -that he immediately signed the commission under which that Officer -accompanied General Wolfe as Quarter-Master-General of his army. - - - - - FIGS. - - -Figs have from the earliest times been reckoned among the delights of -the palate. - -Moses, in the Pentateuch, enumerates among the praises of the promised -land, (Deut. viii. 8.) that it was a “Land of Fig Trees”. - -The Athenians valued figs at least as highly as the Jews. Alexis (in the -Deipnosophists) calls figs “Food for the Gods.” Pausanias says that the -Athenian, Phytalus, was rewarded by Ceres for his hospitality, with the -gift of the first fig-tree. Some foreign guest, no doubt, transmitted to -him the plant, which he introduced into Attica. It succeeded so well -there, that Athensæus brings forward Lynceus and Antiphanes vaunting the -figs of Attica as the best on the earth. Horapollo, or rather his -commentator Bolzair, says that when the master of a house is going a -journey he hangs out a broom of fig-boughs for good luck. - -By one of the laws of Solon all the products of the earth were forbidden -to be exported from Athens; under this law the exportation of figs was -prohibited, and it is from this circumstance we have the word -_sycophant_ from the Greek; those who violated this law were subject to -a heavy penalty, and the informer against the delinquents was called a -sycophant from the original word literally meaning an “exhibiter of -figs,” as thereby substantiating his charge. The name was afterward more -extensively applied, and is now associated with the ideas of meanness, -servility, and calumny. - -A taste for figs marked the progress of refinement in the Roman Empire. -In Cato’s time but six sorts of figs were known; in Pliny’s twenty-nine. -The sexual system of plants seems first to have been observed in the fig -tree. Pliny in his Natural History alludes to this under the term -_caprification_. - -In modern times the esteem for figs has been more widely diffused; when -Charles the 5th visited Holland in 1540, a Dutch merchant sent him, as -the greatest delicacy which Zuricksee could offer, a plate of figs. The -gracious Emperor dispelled for a moment the fogs of the climate by -declaring, that he had never eaten figs in Spain with more pleasure. -Carter praises the figs of Malaga; Tournefort those of Marseilles; Ray -those of Italy; Brydone those of Sicily; Dumont those of Malta; Browne -those of Thessaly; Pocock those of Mycone; De la Mourtraye those of -Tenedos and Mitylene; Chandler those of Smyrna; Maillet those of Cairo; -and Lady Mary Wortley Montague those of Tunis. What less can be inferred -from this conspiring testimony than that wherever there is a fig there -is a feast? - -It remains for Jamaica, and the contiguous Islands, to acquire that -celebrity for the growth of figs, which yet attaches to the Eastern -Archipelago; to learn to dry them as in the Levant, and to supply the -desserts of the English tables. - - - - - FRUITS, - CULTIVATED AT ROME IN THE TIME OF PLINY, THAT ARE NOW GROWN IN OUR - ENGLISH GARDENS. - - -APPLES.—The Romans had twenty-two sorts of Apples. Sweet Apples -(_melimala_) for eating, and others for cookery. They had one sort -without kernels. - -[Eugene Aram, in his collections for a dictionary of the Celtic -language, says that the name of the Apple Tree is a corruption of -“Apollo’s Tree.”—“And that this is its original, will be easily -deducible from a little reflection on the proofs in support of it. The -prizes in the sacred games were the Olive Crown, Apples, Parsleys and -the Pine. Lucian, in his Book of Games, affirms that Apples were the -reward in the Sacred Games of Apollo; and Curtius asserts the same -thing. It appears also that the Apple Tree was consecrated to Apollo -before the Laurel; for both Pindar and Callimachus observe that Apollo -did not put on the Laurel until after his conquest of the Python, and -that he appropriated it to himself on account of his passion for Daphne, -to whom the laurel was sacred. The Victor’s wreath at first was a bough -with its apples hanging upon it, sometimes with a branch of laurel; and -antiquity united these together as the reward of the Victor in the -Pythian games.”] - -APRICOTS.—Pliny says of the Apricot (Armeniaca) _quæ sola et odore -commendantur_. He arranges them among his plums.—Martial valued them but -little, as appears by his epigram, xiii. 46. - -[The Apricot, we are told came originally from Armenia, whence its name -_Armeniaca_. Wolfe, gardener to King Henry the 8th, first introduced -Apricots into England. Tusser mentions the Apricot in his list of fruits -cultivated here in 1573.] - -ALMONDS—were abundant, both bitter and sweet. [The Almond was introduced -into England in 1570; it is not, however, in Tusser’s list of fruits -cultivated here in 1573.] - -CHERRIES—were introduced into Rome in the year of the city 680, B. C. -73, and were carried thence to Britain 120 years after, A. D. 48. The -Romans had eight kinds, a red one, a black one, a kind so tender as -scarce to bear any carriage, a hard fleshed one (_duracina_) like our -bigarreau, a small one with a bitterish flavour (_laurea_) like our -little wild black, also a dwarf one, the tree bearing which did not -exceed three feet in height. - -[Cherries are said to have come originally from Cerasus, a city of -Pontus, from which Lucullus brought them into Italy, after the -Mithridatic War. They so generally pleased at Rome, and were so easily -propagated in all climates into which the Romans extended their arms, -that within the space of a hundred years, they had become common. It has -been erroneously supposed that Cherries were first introduced into this -country by Richard Haynes, fruiterer to King Henry the eighth, who -planted them at Teynham, in Kent, whence they had the name of Kentish -cherries; but Lydgate who wrote his poem called “Lickpenny” before the -middle of the fifteenth century, or probably before the year 1415, -mentions them in the following lines, as being commonly sold at that -time by the hawkers in the streets of London: - - “Hot pescode oon began to cry, - ”Straberys rype, and cherreys in the ryse.” - -Ryce, rice, or ris, properly means a long-branch; and the word is still -used in that sense in the West of England. - -Dr. Bulleyn shews there were plenty of good native cherries at -Ketteringham, near Norwich; pears, called the Blackfriars, in and about -that city; and excellent grapes at Blaxhall in Suffolk, where he was -rector from 1550 to 1554.] - -CHESNUTS.—The Romans had six sorts, some more easily separated from the -skin than others, and one with a red skin. They roasted them as we do. - -[The chesnut, _castanea_, is a native of the South of Europe, and is -said to take its name from Castanea, a city of Thessaly, where anciently -it grew in great plenty. Gerard says that in his time there were several -woods of chesnuts in England, particularly one near Feversham, in Kent; -and Fitz-Stephen, in a description of London, written by him in Henry -the second’s time, speaks of a very noble forest which grew on the north -side of it. This tree grows sometimes to an amazing size. There is one -at Lord Ducie’s at Tortworth, in the county of Gloucester, which -measures 19 yards in circumference, and is mentioned by Sir Robert -Atkyns, in his History of that County, as a famous tree in King John’s -time; and by Mr. Evelyn in his Sylva, to have been so remarkable for its -magnitude in the reign of King Stephen, as then to be called the great -chesnut of Tortworth; from which it may be reasonably supposed to have -been standing before the conquest. Lord Ducie had a drawing of it taken -and engraved in 1772. Formerly a great part of London was built with -chesnut and walnut timber.] - -The Horse Chesnut was brought from the northern parts of Asia into -Europe, about the year 1550, and was sent to Vienna, about the year -1558. From Vienna it migrated into Italy and France: but it comes to us -from the Levant immediately. Gerard in his Herbal, printed in 1597, -speaks of it only as a foreign Tree. In Johnson’s edition of the same -Work printed in 1633, it is said, “Horse Chesnut groweth in Italy, and -in sundry places of the East Country; it is now growing with Mr. -Tradescant at South Lambeth.” Parkinson says “our Christian World had -first the knowledge of it from Constantinople.”—The same Author places -the Horse Chesnut in his Orchard, as a fruit tree between the Walnut and -the Mulberry. How little it was then known, 1629, may be inferred from -his saying not only that it is of a greater and more pleasant aspect, -for the fair leaves, but also of a good use for the fruit, which is of a -sweet taste, roasted and eaten as the ordinary sort.—This tree does not -seem to have been so common a hundred years ago as it is now. Mr. -Houghton (1700) mentions some at Sir William Ashhurst’s at Highgate, and -especially at the Bishop of London’s at Fulham. Those now standing at -Chelsea College were then very young. There was also a very fine one in -the Pest-house garden near Old-Street, and another not far from the -Ice-house under the shadow of the Observatory in Greenwich Park. - -FIGS.—The Romans had many sorts of figs, black and white, large and -small; one as large as a pear, another no larger than an olive. - -[The fig has been cultivated in England ever since 1562. It is omitted -by Tusser in his list of fruits cultivated in our gardens. Cardinal Pole -is said to have imported from Italy that tree, which is still growing in -the garden of the Archbishop’s palace at Lambeth. It is the oldest fig -tree that is known in this kingdom. In the Percy Household-book, the -person who had the charge of providing for the consumption and use of -the Earl of Northumberland’s numerous family, was ordered to purchase -four coppets of figs, for which he was to pay twenty pence for each -coppet. This quantity was to serve for one year.] - -MEDLARS.—The Romans had two kinds of medlars, the one larger, and the -other smaller. - -MULBERRIES.—The Romans had two kinds of the black sort, a larger and a -smaller. Pliny speaks also of a mulberry growing on a briar: _Nascuntur -et in rubis_, (1. xv. sect. 27) but whether this means the raspberry, or -the common blackberry, does not appear. - -[The mulberry, _Morus_, is a native of Persia, whence it was introduced -into the southern parts of Europe, and is commonly cultivated in -England, Germany, and other countries where the winters are not very -severe. “We are informed,” says Forsyth in his treatise on fruit trees, -“that mulberries were first introduced into this country in 1596; but I -have reason to believe that they were brought hither previous to that -period, as many old trees are to be seen standing at this day about the -sites of ancient abbeys and monasteries, from which it is at least -probable that they had been introduced before the dissolution of -religious houses. Four large mulberry trees are still standing on the -site of an old kitchen garden, now part of the pleasure-ground, at Sion -House, which, perhaps may have stood there ever since that house was a -monastery. The first Duke of Northumberland has been heard to say, that -these trees were above 300 years old. At the Priory near Stanmore, -Middlesex, (the seat of the Marquis of Abercorn) there are also some -ancient Mulberry trees. The Priory was formerly a religious house.” - -Gerard in his description of the mulberry tree has the following curious -paragraph: “Hexander in Athenæus affirmeth, that the mulberry trees in -his time did not bring forth fruit in twenty years together; and that so -great a plague of the gout reigned and raged so generally, as not only -men, but boys, and women were troubled with that disease.” - -Tusser, in his list of fruits cultivated in England in 1573 enumerates -the Mulberry.—Gerard, who published his history of plants in 1597, says -in that book, that Mulberry Trees then grew in sundry gardens in -England.] - -NUTS.—The Romans had Hazel Nuts and Filberds. They roasted these Nuts. - -PEARS.—Of these the Romans had many sorts, both Summer and Winter Fruit, -melting and hard; they had more than thirty six kinds, some were called -_Libralia_. We have our Pound Pear. - -[Pliny mentions twenty kinds of this fruit, and Virgil five or six. - -Ælian describing the most ancient food of several nations, reports that -at Argos they fed chiefly upon Pears. - -Tusser, states that “Pears of all sorts” were cultivated here in his -time. - -The Arms of Wardon Abbey, in Bedfordshire, as given by Tanner, are -Argent, Three Pears, Or.—Quere, if these are the species called Wardons, -or if they are peculiar to that part of England. - -The Wardon Pear is common in Yorkshire.] - -PLUMS.—The Romans had a multiplicity of sorts (_ingens turba prunorum_) -black, white, and variegated; one sort was called _asinia_, from its -cheapness; another _damascena_; this had much stone and little flesh: -from Martial’s Epigram, xiii. 29, we may conclude that it was what we -now call prunes. - -[The Plum is generally supposed to be a native of Asia, and the -Damascene (Damson) to take its name from Damascus, a city of Syria. - -Tusser enumerates in his list of fruits “Grene or Grass Plums, and Peer -Plums, black and yellow.” - -Lord Cromwell introduced the Perdrigon Plum in the Reign of Henry the -seventh.] - -QUINCES.—The Romans had three sorts, one was called _Chrysomela_, from -its yellow flesh. They boiled them with honey as we make marmalade. See -Martial, xiii. 24. - -[The Quince is called Cydonia, from Cydon, a town of Crete, famous for -this fruit.—Tusser mentions it among his fruit-trees, and Gerard says it -was cultivated here in his time.] - -SERVICES.—They had the Apple-shaped, the Pear-shaped, and a small kind, -probably the same that we gather wild, the Azarole. - -[There are three sorts of the Service Tree cultivated in England, namely -the cultivated Service; the Wild Service or Mountain Ash; and the Maple -leaved Service. The first is a native of the warmer climes of Europe; -and the other two grow wild in different parts of England.] - -STRAWBERRIES.—The Romans had Strawberries, but do not appear to have -prized them. The climate is too warm to produce this fruit in perfection -unless in the hills. - -[Tusser enumerates Strawberries, red and white, as being cultivated when -he wrote.] - -VINES.—The Romans had a multiplicity of Vines, both thick-skinned, -(_duracina_,) and thin-skinned: one Vine growing at Rome produced 12 -Amphoræ of juice, equal to 84 gallons. They had round-berried, and -long-berried sorts, one so long that it was called _dactilydes_, the -grapes being like the fingers on the hand. Martial (xiii. 22.) speaks -favourably of the hard-skinned grape for eating. - -[In Domesday Book, (1. p. 8. col 1.) there are said to be in the Bishop -of Bayeux’s Manor of _Chert_, in the county of Kent, three arpents of -_Vineyard_, and in the Manor of Leeds (1. p. 7. col. 4.) belonging to -the same Bishop, two Arpents of _Vineyard_. - -In several Charters in the “Registrum Roffensis” mention is made of _the -Vineyard_ belonging to the Monks of Rochester, wherein grew great -quantities of grapes; and which is also, in much later days, said by -Worlidge, to have produced excellent wines. Bishop Hamon presented some -of the wine and grapes of his own growth, at Halling, near Rochester, to -Edward the second, when at Bockinfold; and in some old leases of the -bishoprick, mention has been found made, of considerable quantities of -_Blackberries_ being delivered to the Bishop of Rochester, by sundry of -his Tenants, for the purpose of _colouring the wine_ growing in his -Vineyard. This gives us some idea of what sort the wine was, and also -deserves well to be compared with that ancient usage of making wines in -this country, the remembrance whereof is preserved by means of some -records of the reign of Henry the third; amongst which are two precepts, -the one (Claus. An. 34. Hen. III.) to the keepers of the king’s wines at -York, to deliver out to one Robert (de Monte Pessulano) such wines, and -as much as he pleased to make _for the king’s use, against the feast of -Christmas, (Claret) such drink, as he used to make in preceding years_. -The first record says, _ad potus regis pretiosos delicatos inde -faciendos_. The second says, _ad Claretum inde faciend.—Ad opus regis -sicut annis preteritis facere consuevit._ And both may be seen at length -in Walpole’s Anecdotes of Painting, vol. i. p. 11. Perhaps it may not be -undeserving notice, that even to the beginning of the eighteenth -Century, almost all red wine was, in this country, called Claret. - -Honey and Mead, constituted a part of the mixture of the royal Norman -Claret, and for several ages Claret was considered as belonging to the -Materia Medica; and formed a part of the old English Apothecaries store -of Medicines, preserved in white glazed earthern pitchers, with labelled -inscriptions burnt in large blue letters in the ware; several of which -are still preserved. - -Several other Monasteries and Abbeys, had remarkable Vineyards, as well -as Rochester; particularly that of St. Edmund’s Bury; that at Ely; that -at Peterborough; and even that at Darley Abbey, in Derbyshire; And -indeed most of the original Vineyards mentioned are found to have -belonged to Abbeys. It is a curious circumstance, and elucidating the -_prices_ of the age, that in the time of Henry the third, a _Dolium_. or -cask of the best wine, sold for forty shillings, and sometimes even for -twenty. - -For an enlarged account of Vineyards in England see Archæologia, vol. i. -p. 821.; and vol. iii. p. 53. and 67.] - -WALNUTS.—The Romans had soft shelled, and hard shelled, as we have. In -the golden age, when men lived upon acorns, the gods lived upon Walnuts, -hence the name _Juglans_, that is _Jovis glans_.[1] - - * * * * * - -As a matter of curiosity, it has been deemed expedient, to add a list of -the fruits cultivated in our English Gardens in the year 1573. This list -is taken from Tusser’s _Five hundred points of good Husbandry_. - -Thomas Tusser, who had received a liberal education at Eton school, and -at Trinity hall, Cambridge, lived many years as a farmer in Suffolk and -Norfolk. He afterwards removed to London, where he published in 1557, -the first edition of his work, under the title of “One hundred points of -good husbandry.” - -In his fourth edition, from which this list is taken, he first -introduced the subject of Gardening, and has given us not only a list of -the fruits, but also of all the plants then cultivated in our gardens, -either for pleasure or profit, under the following heads:— - -“Seedes and herbes for the kychen, herbes and roots for sallets and -sauce, herbes and rootes to boyle or to butter, strewing herbes of all -sorts, herbes, branches, and flowers for windowes and pots, herbs to -still in summer, necessarie herbes to grow in the gardens for physick -not reherst before.” - -This list consists of more than 150 species besides the following -fruits:— - -Apple Trees of all sorts—Apricots - -Barberries—Bullass, black and white - -Cherries, red and black—Chesnuts—Cornet Plums[2] - -Damsons, white and black - -Filberds, red and white - -Gooseberries—Grapes, white and red—Green or Grass Plums. - -Hurtle Berries.[3] - -Medlars or Merles—Mulberries. - -Peaches, white and red[4]—Pears of all sorts. Pear Plums, black and -yellow. - -Quince Trees. - -Rasps—Raisins.[5] - -Small Nuts—Strawberries, red and white—Service Trees. - -Wardons, white and red—Walnuts—Wheat Plums. - -Footnote 1: - - This article is taken from the first volume of the Transactions of the - Horticultural Society, and was communicated by the Right Hon. Sir - Joseph Banks, Bart.—The additions, within brackets, are by the Editor. - -Footnote 2: - - Probably the fruit of _Cornus Mascula_, commonly called Cornelian - Cherry. - -Footnote 3: - - _Hurtleberries_, the fruit of _Vaccinium vitis idea_, though no longer - cultivated in our gardens, are still esteemed and served up at the - tables of opulent people in the counties that produce them naturally. - They are every year brought to London from the rocky country, near - Leath Tower in Surrey, where they meet with so ready a sale among the - middle classes of the people, that the richer classes scarcely know - that they are to be bought.—They also grow very plentifully on some of - the hills and heaths in the counties of Somerset and Devon. - -Footnote 4: - - The _Yellow fleshed Peach_, now uncommon in our gardens, but which was - frequent 40 years ago, under the name of the Orange Peach, was called - by our ancestors _Melicoton_. - -Footnote 5: - - By _Raisins_ it is probable that Currants are meant; the imported - fruit of that name of which we make puddings and pies was called by - our ancestors _Raisin de Corance_.—In the Percy Household Book it is - said that 200 pounds _of Raisins de Corance_ should be purchased for - the use of the Earl of Northumberland’s family, which were to serve - one year. - - - - - PEACOCKS. - - -India, says Mr. Pennant, gave us Peacocks, and we are assured by Knox, -in his History of Ceylon, that they are still found in the wild state, -in vast flocks, in that island and in Java. So beautiful a bird could -not be permitted to be a stranger in the more distant parts; for so -early as the days of Solomon (1 Kings, x. 22.) we find among the -articles imported in his Tarshish navies, Apes and Peacocks. A monarch -so conversant in all branches of natural history, would certainly not -neglect furnishing his officers with instructions for collecting every -curiosity in the country to which they made voyages, which gave him a -knowledge that distinguished him from all the princes of his time. Ælian -relates that they were brought into Greece from some barbarous country, -and that they were held in such high estimation, that a male and female -were valued at Athens at 1000 _drachmæ_, or £32. 5_s._ 10_d._ Their next -step might be to Samos; where they were preserved about the temple of -Juno, being the birds sacred to that goddess; and Gellius in his _Noctes -Allicæ_ commends the excellency of the Samian Peacocks. It is therefore -probable that they were brought there originally for the purposes of -superstition, and afterwards cultivated for the uses of luxury. We are -also told, when Alexander was in India, he found vast numbers of wild -ones on the banks of the Hyarotis, and was so struck with their beauty, -as to appoint a severe punishment on any person that killed them. - -Peacocks’ crests, in ancient times were among the ornaments of the kings -of England. Ernald de Aclent (Acland) paid a fine to king John in a -hundred and forty palfries, with sackbuts, _lorains_, gilt spurs and -peacock’s crests, such as would be for his credit.—Some of our regiments -of cavalry bear on their helmets, at present, the figure of a peacock. - - - - - ANCIENT LIBRARIES. - - -Many events have contributed to deprive us of a great part of the -literary treasures of antiquity. A very fatal blow was given to -literature by the destruction of the Phœnician temples and the Egyptian -colleges, when those kingdoms and the countries adjacent, were conquered -by the Persians, about 350 years before Christ. The Persians had a great -dislike to the religion of the Phœnicians and the Egyptians, and this -was one reason for destroying their books, of which Eusebius says they -had a great number. - -The first celebrated library of antiquity was at Alexandria, and called -from thence the Alexandrian library; it owed its foundation to Ptolemy -Soter, king of Egypt, though his Son Ptolemy Philadelphus enjoys the -reputation of being its founder. This was about 284 years before the -Christian æra. - -The palace of Ptolemy Philadelphus was the asylum of learned men whom he -admired and patronized. He paid particular attention to Euclid, -Theocritus, Callimachus, and Lycophron, and by increasing the library, -of which his father had laid the foundation, he shewed his taste for -learning and wish to encourage genius. This celebrated library at his -death contained 200,000 volumes of the best and choicest books, and it -was afterwards increased to 700,000 volumes. The method adopted for -making this collection was the seizing of all the books that were -brought by the Greeks or other foreigners into Egypt, and sending them -to Ptolemy, who had them transcribed by persons employed for that -purpose. The transcripts were then delivered to the proprietors, and the -originals laid up in the library. Ptolemy Euergetes, for instance, -borrowed of the Athenians the works of Sophocles, Euripides, and -Æschylus, and only returned them the copies, which he caused to be -transcribed in as beautiful a manner as possible; the originals he -retained for his own library, presenting the Athenians with fifteen -talents for the exchange, that is, with upwards of £3,000 sterling. As -the Alexandrian academy was at first in the quarter of the city called -_Bruchion_, the library was placed there, but when the number of books -amounted to 400,000 volumes, another library within the _Serapeum_ was -erected, by way of supplement to it, and on that account called the -daughter of the former. The books lodged in the Serapeum increased to -the number of 300,000, and these two made up the number of 700,000 -volumes, of which the royal libraries of the Ptolemys were said to -consist. - -In the war which Julius Cæsar waged with the inhabitants of Alexandria, -the library of Bruchion was accidentally, but unfortunately, burned; but -the library in the Serapeum still remained. The whole was magnificently -repaired by Cleopatra, who deposited there the 200,000 volumes, forming -the library of the kings of Pergamus, with which she had been presented -by Antony. These, and others added to them from time to time, rendered -the new library of Alexandria more numerous and considerable than the -former, and though it was plundered more than once during the -revolutions which happened in the Roman empire, yet it was as frequently -supplied with the same number of books, and continued for many ages to -be of great fame and use, until it was burnt by the Saracens, in the -year 642 of the Christian æra. - -There was a building adjoining to this library, called the Museum, for -the accommodation of a college or society of learned men, who were -supported there at the public expense, and where there were covered -walks and seats where they might carry on disputations. - -The next library of antiquity was that founded at Pergamus, by Eumenes, -and considerably increased by the literary taste of his wealthy and -learned successors, at whose court merit and virtue were always sure of -finding an honorable patronage. This library which consisted of 200,000 -volumes, was given by Antony to Cleopatra, as has been already -mentioned.—Parchment was first invented and made use of at Pergamus to -transcribe books upon, as Ptolemy had forbidden the exportation of -Papyrus from Egypt, in order to prevent Eumenes from making a library as -valuable and choice as that of Alexandria. - -The first public library at Rome, and in the world, as Pliny observes, -was erected by Asinius Pollio, in the Atrium of the Temple of Liberty on -Mount Aventine. Augustus founded a Greek and Latin library in the Temple -of Apollo on the Palatine Hill, and another in the name of his sister -Octavia, adjoining to the Theatre of Marcellus. - -Among the ancient libraries that of Lucullus is mentioned by Plutarch in -terms of the highest praise. The number of volumes was immense, and they -were written in elegant hands. The use he made of them was still more -honorable to him than the possession of so much literary treasure. The -library of Lucullus was open to all; the Greeks who were at Rome -repaired with pleasure to his galleries and porticos, as to the retreat -of the muses, and there spent whole days in conversation upon subjects -of literature, delighted to retire to such a scene from other pursuits. -Lucullus himself, who was a perfect master of the Greek language often -joined and conferred with these learned men in their walks. - -There were several other libraries at Rome, the chief of which was the -Ulpian library, instituted by Trajan, which Dioclesian annexed as an -ornament to his baths. One of the most elegant was that of Serenus -Samonicus, preceptor of the Emperor Gordian. It is said to have -contained not less than 60,000 volumes, and that the room in which they -were deposited was paved with gilded marble. The walls were ornamented -with glass and ivory; and the shelves, cases, presses, and desks, made -of ebony and silver. There were libraries in the capital, in the Temple -of Peace, and in the house of Tiberius. Many private persons had good -libraries particularly in their country villas. The Roman libraries were -in general adorned with statues and pictures, particularly of ingenious -and learned men. - -Learning and the arts received a fatal blow by the destruction of the -heathen temples, in the reign of Constantine. The devastations then -committed, are depicted in the strongest and most lively colours by Mr. -Gibbon, in his History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. - -Many valuable libraries perished by the Barbarians of the north, who -invaded Italy in the fourth and fifth centuries. By these rude hands -perished the library of Perseus, king of Macedon, which Paulus Æmilius -brought to Rome with its captive owner; as did also that noble library, -just mentioned, established for the use of the public by Asinius Pollio, -which was collected from the spoils of all the enemies he had subdued, -and was much enriched by him at a great expense. The libraries of Cicero -and Lucullus met with the same fate, and those of Julius Cæsar, of -Augustus, Vespasian, and Trajan also perished, together with that of the -Emperor Gordian. - - - - - KING CHARLES THE FIRST. - - -The Journey of Prince Charles (afterwards Charles the First) and the -Duke of Buckingham to Spain, was considered at the time to be such a -piece of knight-errantry as scarcely any age could parallel. Spanheim in -his history of Louisa-Juliana, Electress Palatine, mother of the king of -Bohemia, says “that never Prince was more obliged to a sister, than king -Charles I. was to the queen of Bohemia; since it was only the -consideration of _her_ and _her children_, who were then the _next -heirs_ after _him_ to the Crown of England, that prevailed with the -Court of Spain _to permit him ever to see England again_.” - -Charles the First, though of abstemious habits kept a splendid and -hospitable table, at the beginning of his reign. Of this trait in his -character, hitherto unnoticed, the following account affords a -sufficient proof. - -There were daily in his court eighty six tables, well furnished each -meal, whereof the king’s table had twenty-eight dishes; the queen’s -twenty-four; four other tables sixteen dishes each; three other ten -dishes each; twelve other had seven dishes each; seventeen other tables -had each of them five dishes; three other had four each; thirty-two -other tables had each three dishes; and thirteen other had each two -dishes; in all about five hundred dishes each meal, with bread, beer, -wine, and all other things necessary. All which was provided, mostly by -the several purveyors, who, by commission, legally and regularly -authorized, did receive those provisions at a moderate price, such as -had been formerly agreed upon in the several counties of England, which -price, (by reason of the value of money much altered) was become low, -yet a very inconsiderable burthen to the kingdom in general, but thereby -was greatly supported the royal dignity in the eyes of strangers as well -as subjects. - -The English nobility and gentry, according to the king’s example, were -excited to keep a proportionable hospitality in their several country -mansions, the husbandmen encouraged to breed cattle, all tradesmen to a -cheerful industry; and there was then a free circulation of money -throughout the whole body of the kingdom. There was spent yearly in the -king’s house of gross meat fifteen hundred oxen, seven thousand sheep, -twelve hundred veals, three hundred porkers, four hundred storks or -young beefs, six thousand eight hundred lambs, three hundred flitches of -bacon, and twenty-six hams; also one hundred and forty dozen of geese, -two hundred and fifty dozen of capons, four hundred and seventy dozen of -hens, seven hundred and fifty dozen of pullets, one thousand four -hundred and seventy dozen of chickens; for bread three thousand six -hundred bushels of wheat: and for drink six hundred tuns of wine, and -one thousand seven hundred tuns of beer; moreover of butter forty six -thousand six hundred and forty pounds, together with fish and fowl, -venison, fruit and spice proportionably. - - - - - THE FAIR GERALDINE AND THE EARL OF SURREY. - - -The “Fair Geraldine” the general object of Lord Surrey’s empassioned -sonnets, is commonly said to have lived at Florence, and to have been of -the family of the _Geraldi_, of that city. This is however, a -misapprehension of an expression in one of our poet’s Odes, and of a -passage in Drayton’s Heroic Epistles. This lady was Elizabeth, third -daughter of Gerald Fitzgerald, ninth Earl of Kildare. She appears to -have received her education at Hunsdon House, with the Princesses Mary -and Elizabeth. It was here she was first seen by the Earl of Surrey, and -she immediately became the object of his fervent but fruitless devotion. -She was married first to Sir Anthony Browne, Lord Chief Justice of the -Common Pleas, and secondly to Edward Clinton, Earl of Lincoln, surviving -by many years her noble and unfortunate admirer. There is a Portrait of -the “Fair Geraldine” in the Woburn collection. - -It is not precisely known at what period the Earl of Surrey began his -travels. They have the air of a romance. He made the tour of Europe in -the true spirit of chivalry, and with the ideas of an Amadis; he -proclaimed the unparalleled charms of his Mistress, and prepared to -defend the cause of her beauty with the weapons of Knight-errantry; nor -was this adventurous journey performed without the intervention of an -enchanter. The first city in Italy which he proposed to visit was -Florence, the capital of Tuscany, and the original seat of the ancestors -of his Geraldine. - -In his way thither he passed a few days at the Emperor’s court; where he -became acquainted with Cornelius Agrippa, a celebrated adept in natural -magic. This visionary Philosopher shewed our hero in a mirror of glass, -a representation of Geraldine, reclining on a couch, sick, and reading -one of his most tender sonnets by a waxen taper. His imagination, which -wanted not the flattering representations and artificial incentives of -illusion, was heated anew by this interesting and affecting spectacle. -Inflamed with every enthusiasm of the most romantic passion, he hastened -to Florence; and on his arrival, immediately published a defiance -against any person who could handle a lance and was in love, whether -Christian, Jew, Turk, Saracen, or Cannibal, who should presume to -dispute the superiority of Geraldine’s beauty. As the lady was pretended -to be of Tuscan extraction, the pride of the Florentines was flattered -on this occasion; and the Grand Duke of Tuscany permitted a general and -unmolested ingress into his dominions of the combatants of all -countries, until this important trial should be decided. The challenge -was accepted, and the Earl proved victorious. The shield which was -presented to him by the Duke of Tuscany before the tournament began, is -exhibited in Vertue’s valuable print of the Arundel family, and was -actually in the possession of one of the late Dukes of Norfolk. - -These heroic vanities did not, however, so totally engross the time -which the Earl of Surrey spent in Italy, as to alienate his mind from -letters; he studied with the greatest success a critical knowledge of -the Italian tongue; and that he might give new lustre to the name of -Geraldine, attained a just taste for the peculiar graces of the Italian -poetry. - -He was recalled to England for some idle reason by the king, much sooner -than he expected; and he returned home the most elegant traveller, the -most polite lover, the most learned nobleman, and the most accomplished -gentleman of his age. Dexterity in tilting and gracefulness in managing -a horse under arms, were excellencies now viewed with a critical eye, -and practised with a high degree of emulation. In 1540 at a tournament -held in the presence of the Court at Westminster, and in which some of -the principal nobility were engaged, Surrey was distinguished above the -rest for his address in the use and exercise of arms. - -But all these accomplishments, and the popularity that attended them, -laid the foundation of a fatal death for this illustrious nobleman. They -excited the jealousy of his capricious monarch Henry VIII. Lord Orford -says “The unwieldy king growing distempered and froward, and -apprehensive for the tranquillity of his boy-successor, easily conceived -or admitted jealousies infused into him by the Earl of Hertford and the -Protestant party, though one of the last acts of his fickle life was to -found a convent.” Treason was therefore objected to the Earl of Surrey -upon the most frivolous pretences; of which the principal was, his -quartering the arms of Edward the Confessor with those of Howard, though -even this insignificant fact had been justified by the practice of his -family, and the sanction of the heralds. He was arraigned in the -Guildhall, London, found guilty by a jury, and judgment of death being -given, he was beheaded on Tower Hill, in January, 1547. - -The Earl of Surrey was professedly a man of gallantry and pleasure, -possessing a highly cultivated mind, and excelling in all the polite and -elegant accomplishments of the age in which he lived. The flattery which -has been bestowed upon his character by Poets, Heralds, and -Genealogists, has not ceased to flow from his death to the present hour. -A recent genealogical writer has been superlatively lavish of his -panegyrics upon the excellencies and even upon the morals of the gallant -Earl. There is, however, one extraordinary circumstance in the life of -this nobleman which has been entirely overlooked by all his encomiasts. -This is, that while his father urged him to connect himself in marriage -with one lady; while the king was jealous of his designs upon a second; -and while he himself as may be collected from his poem “To a Lady who -refused to dance with him,” made proposals of marriage to a third, he -was during all this time married to the lady Frances,[6] daughter of -John de Vere, Earl of Oxford, by whom he had five children, namely, two -sons and three daughters. The sons were Thomas, afterwards fourth Duke -of Norfolk, and Henry, created Earl of Northampton, by king James the -First. To this lady the Earl of Surrey was united at the age of fifteen, -and several years after his premature death, we find her bearing the -title of Countess of Surrey, and possessing the guardianship of his -children, therefore it is apparent they were never divorced. Can it be -supposed that the example of a lustful king had instructed his -courtiers, among their other accomplishments, to find pretexts for the -dissolution of the marriage tie, whenever interest or their guilty -passions prompted them to such baseness? Yet this is the man whose -moral, as well as poetical and literary character, we are told “it is -delightful to contemplate.” - -The Earl of Surrey had one sister, Mary, who was married to Henry -Fitzroy, Duke of Richmond and Somerset, natural son of Henry VIII. who -died in 1536 at the age of seventeen without issue. There is a most -beautiful portrait of this lady in Chamberlaine’s collection of the -Holbein Heads. Mr. Lodge exclaims pathetically “Would that her story had -died with her; and that we might have been at liberty to fancy the -character of so fair a creature as fair as her countenance. But the -truth must be told. At the iniquitous trial of her brother in 1547, this -lady was called on as a witness and brought forward a body of evidence -against him so keenly pointed, and so full of secrets, which from their -nature must have been voluntarily disclosed by her, that we cannot but -suspect her conduct of a degree of rancour, unpardonable in any case, -but in this unnatural.” - -Footnote 6: - - There is a portrait of this lady among the Holbein Heads, published by - Mr. Chamberlaine. - - - - - JEWS IN ENGLAND. - - -William the Conqueror permitted great numbers of Jews to come over from -Rouen, and to settle in England in the last year of his reign. Their -number soon increased, and they spread themselves throughout most of the -cities and capital towns in England where they built synagogues. There -were fifteen hundred at York about the year 1189. At Bury, in Suffolk, -is a very complete remain of a Jewish synagogue of stone in the Norman -style, large and magnificent. Hence it was that many of the learned -English Ecclesiastics of those times became acquainted with their books -and language. In the reign of William Rufus, the Jews were remarkably -numerous at Oxford, and had acquired considerable property; and some of -their Rabbis were permitted to open a school in the university, where -they instructed not only their own people, but many Christian students, -in Hebrew literature, about the year 1094. Within 200 years after their -admission or establishment by the Conqueror, they were banished the -kingdom. This circumstance was highly favourable to the circulation of -their learning in England. The suddenness of their dismission obliged -them for present subsistence, and other reasons, to sell their moveable -goods of all kinds, among which were large quantities of of Rabbinical -books. The monks in various parts availed themselves of the distribution -of these treasures. At Huntingdon and Stamford there was a prodigious -sale of their effects, containing immense stores of Hebrew manuscripts, -which were immediately purchased by Gregory of Huntingdon, prior of the -abbey of Ramsey. Gregory speedily became an adept in the Hebrew, by -means of these valuable acquisitions, which he bequeathed to his -monastery about the year 1250. Other members of the same convent, in -consequence of these advantages, are said to have been equal proficients -in the same language, soon after the death of Prior Gregory, among whom -were Robert Dodford, Librarian of Ramsey, and Laurence Holbech, who -compiled a Hebrew Lexicon. At Oxford a great number of their books fell -into the hands of Roger Bacon, or were bought by his brethren the -Franciscan friars of that university. - - - - - THE ENGLISH BIBLE. - - -The first translation of any part of the Holy Scriptures into English -that was committed to the press, was _The New Testament_, translated -from the Greek, by William Tyndale, with the assistance of John Foye and -William Roye, and printed first in 1526, in octavo. - -Tyndale published afterwards, in 1530, a translation of the _Five Books -of Moses_, and of _Jonah_, in 1531, in octavo. An English translation of -the _Psalter_, done from the Latin of Martin Bucer, was also published -at Strasburgh in 1530, by Francis Foye, octavo. And the same book -together with _Jeremiah_, and the _Song of Moses_, were likewise -published in 1534, in duodecimo, by George Joye, sometime fellow of -Peter-House in Cambridge. - -The first time _the whole Bible_ appeared in English, was in the year -1535 in folio. The translator and publisher was Miles Coverdale, -afterwards Bishop of Exeter, who revised Tyndale’s version, compared it -with the original, and supplied what had been left untranslated by -Tyndale. It was printed at Zurich, and dedicated to King Henry the -Eighth. This was the Bible, which by Cromwell’s injunction of September, -1536, _was ordered to be laid in Churches_. - - - - - LUXURY OF ANCIENT ROME. - - -The most remote countries of the ancient world were ransacked to supply -the pomp and delicacy of Rome. The forests of Scythia afforded some -valuable furs. Amber was brought overland from the shores of the Baltic -to the Danube; and the Barbarians were astonished at the price which -they received in exchange for so useless a commodity. Pliny has observed -with some humour that even fashion had not found out the use of amber. -Nero sent a Roman knight to purchase great quantities on the spot where -it was produced. There was a considerable demand for Babylonian carpets -and other manufactures of the East; but the most important and unpopular -branch of foreign trade was carried on with Arabia and India. Every year -about the time of the summer solstice, a fleet of a hundred and twenty -vessels sailed from Myoshormos, a port of Egypt on the Red Sea. By the -periodical assistance of the monsoons, they traversed the ocean in about -forty days. The coast of Malabar, or the island of Ceylon, was the usual -limit of their navigation, and it was in those markets that the -merchants from the more remote countries of Asia expected their arrival. -The return of the fleet of Egypt was fixed to the months of December or -January; and as soon as their rich cargo had been transported on the -backs of camels, from the Red Sea to the Nile, and had descended that -river as far as Alexandria, it was poured without delay, into the -capital of the empire. The objects of oriental traffic were splendid and -trifling; silk, a pound of which was esteemed not inferior in value to a -pound of gold; precious stones, among which the pearl claimed the first -rank after the diamond: and a variety of aromatics, that were consumed -in religious worship and the pomp of funerals. The labour and risk of -the voyage was rewarded with almost incredible profit; but the profit -was made upon Roman subjects, and a few individuals were enriched at the -expense of the public. As the natives of Arabia and India were contented -with the productions and manufactures of their own country, silver, on -the side of the Romans, was the principal, if not the only instrument of -commerce. It was a complaint worthy of the gravity of the senate, that -in the pursuit of female ornaments, the wealth of the state was -irrecoverably given away to foreign and hostile nations. The annual loss -is computed by a writer of an inquisitive, but censorious temper, at -upwards of eight hundred thousand pounds sterling.[7] - -Footnote 7: - - Pliny, Hist. Nat. xii. 18. - - - - - RHYME. - - -Every language has powers, and graces, and music peculiar to itself; and -what is becoming in one, would be ridiculous in another. Rhyme was -barbarous in Latin and Greek verse, because these languages by the -sonorousness of their words, by their liberty of transposition and -inversion, by their fixed quantities and musical pronunciation, could -carry on the melody of verse without its aid; and an attempt to -construct English verses after the form of hexameters, and pentameters, -and sapphics, is as barbarous among us. It is not true that rhyme is -merely a monkish invention. On the contrary, it has obtained under -different forms in the versification of most known nations. It is found -in the ancient poetry of the northern nations of Europe; it is said to -be found among the Arabs, the Persians, the Indians, and the Americans. -This shews that there is something in the return of similar sounds, -which is grateful to the ears of most part of mankind. - -The present form of our English heroic rhyme in couplets, is a modern -species of versification. The measure generally used in the days of -queen Elizabeth, king James, and king Charles I. was the stanza of eight -lines, such as Spenser employs, borrowed from the Italian, a measure -very constrained and artificial. Waller was the first who brought -couplets into vogue;[8] and Dryden afterwards established the usage. -Waller first smoothed our verse; Dryden perfected it. Pope’s -versification has a peculiar character. It is flowing and smooth in the -highest degree; far more laboured and correct than that of any who went -before him. He introduced one considerable change into heroic verse, by -almost throwing aside the triplets, or three lines rhyming together, in -which Dryden abounded. Dryden’s versification, however, has very great -merit; and like all his productions, has much spirit, mixed with -carelessness. If not so smooth and correct as Pope’s, it is however more -varied and easy. He subjects himself less to the rule of closing the -sense with the couplet; and frequently takes the liberty of making his -couplets run into one another, with somewhat of the freedom of blank -verse. - -Footnote 8: - - Shakespeare, occasionally, in his plays, uses couplets. - - - - - M. COQUEBERT DE MONTBRET. - - -This gentleman was one of the commercial commissioners from France to -England during the short peace which took place after the treaty of -Amiens. In March, 1803, I was in company with M. de Montbret, who -expressed his dissatisfaction in very angry terms, because he was not -able to procure specimens of the different clays made use of by Mr. -Wedgwood in his manufacture of earthen ware in Staffordshire. He urged -with much vehemence the politeness and attention that were shewn to Mr. -Thomas Wedgwood in France the preceding summer, when on a visit to that -country, and who it appeared had made something like a promise that he -would send to France specimens of the various clays made use of in the -potteries. In answer to Monsieur de Montbret it was observed, that Mr. -Thomas Wedgwood had no concern whatever in the potteries, and that his -brother, Mr. Josiah Wedgwood, who was the proprietor, would never give -his consent that specimens of the clays should be sent to France, but on -the contrary always strongly resisted every application for that -purpose. M. de Montbret replied, that as clay was a natural production, -if there was not that particular sort in France, it would be impossible -to form it by any artificial means—besides, he only wished to have those -things as specimens of English earths, merely with a view of forming a -collection of the earths and minerals of this country. - - - - - DR. THOMAS PIERCE. - - -Dr. Pierce, Dean of Sarum, a perpetual controversialist, and to whom it -was dangerous to refuse a request, lest it might raise a controversy, -asked Dr. Ward, bishop of Salisbury, for a Prebend for his son. He was -refused; and studying revenge, he opened a controversy with the bishop, -maintaining that the king had the right of bestowing every dignity in -all the Cathedral Churches of the kingdom, and not the bishops. This -required a reply from the bishop, who had formerly been an active -controversialist himself. Dean Pierce renewed his attack with a folio -volume, entitled “A vindication of the king’s sovereign right, &c.” Thus -it proceeded, and the web thickened round the bishop in replies and -rejoinders. It cost him many tedious journeys to London, through bad -roads, fretting at “the king’s sovereign right” all the way; and in the -words of a witness, “in unseasonable times and weather, that by degrees -his spirits were exhausted, his memory quite gone, and he was totally -unfitted for business.” Such was the fatal disturbance occasioned by -Dean Pierce’s folio of “The king’s sovereign right.” - - - - - WRITING AMONG THE GREEKS. - - -As a proof of the simplicity of the times described by Homer, it is a -great doubt if his kings and heroes could write or read; at least when -the Grecian leaders cast lots who should engage Hector in single combat, -in the seventh Iliad, they only made their marks, for when the lot -signed by Ajax fell out of the helmet, and was carried round by the -herald, none of the chiefs knew to whom it belonged till it was brought -to Ajax himself. - -The learned Mr. Wood in his Essay on the original genius and writings of -Homer, after observing that neither in the Iliad nor Odyssey is there -any thing that conveys the idea of letters or reading, nor any allusion -to literal writing, adds, “As to symbolical, hieroglyphical, or -picture-like description, something of that kind was, no doubt, known to -Homer, of which the letter (as it is called) which Bellerophon carried -to the king of Lycia is a proof.” This letter was sent from Prœtus; -(_Iliad_, vi. line, 168, &c.) - - “To Lycia the devoted youth he sent, - With _marks_, expressive of his dire intent - GRAV’D on a tablet, that the Prince should die.” - -The probability that Homer lived much nearer the times he described than -is usually supposed, has been shewn by Mr. Mitford (_Hist. of Greece, -Appx. to ch. 4._) with all the clearness of which so distant an event is -capable. - -To this account of the ignorance of the Greeks in literal writing may be -added that the Mexicans, though a civilized people, had no alphabet; the -art of writing was no farther advanced among them than the using of -figures composed of painted feathers, by which they made a shift to -communicate some simple thoughts; and in that manner was the Emperor -Montezuma informed of the landing of the Spaniards in his territories. - - - - - ACCOUNT OF THE SCRIPTORIA, OR WRITING ROOMS IN THE MONASTERIES OF - ENGLAND. - - -It would be in vain to attempt to trace the state of learning among the -Anglo-Saxons before their conversion to Christianity, sometime after -which event, schools and seminaries of learning were established in the -kingdom of Kent, and soon after the year 635, in that of the East -Angles. Previously to this period of our history, the two principal -scholars of the Britons were Gildas and Nennius, the first of whom -flourished towards the latter end of the sixth century, and the latter -in the beginning of the seventh. To Gildas we owe the first lights which -are cast upon the troublesome times of the Britons, and of the miseries -those wretched people suffered by the invasion and conquests of the -Saxons. He has left a short history of Britain and an epistle, in which -he heavily accuses the British princes and clergy who were contemporary -with him.[9] - -To Nennius we owe also a short history of the Britons, and their wars -with the Saxons, but the whole is so concise, and so many miracles are -crowded into it, that it is no easy matter to separate truth from -fiction. - -Theodore, Archbishop of Canterbury, who came into Britain at the latter -end of the seventh century, contributed greatly to the improvement of -learning. About the same time flourished Aldhelm, a near relation of -Ina, king of the West Saxons; he was Abbot of Malmesbury, which -monastery himself had founded, and he was afterwards Bishop of -Sherborne, where he died in the year 709. Besides other works he left a -book on the prosody of the Latin tongue in which he was very expert, -being the first Anglo-Saxon that ever wrote in that language both in -prose and verse. - -On the establishment of Monasteries and Religious Houses in this -kingdom, there was a room called the _Scriptorium_, allotted in all the -greater Abbeys, or else some portion of the cloister was appropriately -fitted up for the same purpose, where their music and missals, the works -of the fathers and other religious books, the latin classics, and such -literary works as the monks could obtain, were copied. In the old -library in Worcester Cathedral, and in the remaining libraries of some -other Cathedral churches, may still be seen the manner of writing music, -before the invention of the present notes, and some of the old copies of -books. - -By means of these _Scriptoria_, or writing rooms, the monks compiled and -preserved, the first annals of Saxon History; without which, however -strange the composition of some of them may appear at this time, this -would now have been a land of darkness, as to any account of what passed -therein, during former ages. - -The custom of making this one good use of monasteries and of christian -societies, was derived from very early days. About the year 220, -Alexander, bishop of Jerusalem, built a library there, for preserving -the epistles of learned ecclesiastical persons, written one to another; -and their commentaries on the holy scriptures. And in what manner Origen -was aided to write his admirable works, we learn from Eusebius, who -tells us that he had more than seven notaries appointed for him, who, -every one in his turn, wrote that which he uttered; and as many more -scriveners, together with _maidens_, well exercised and practised in -penmanship, who were to write copies. (_Eccl. Hist. of Eusebius -Pamphilus, lib. 6. cap. 20 and 21._) - -The preservation and progress of science by means of monasteries, is a -very curious fact, and the precious estimation in which books were held, -when few could read them, is still more so. Some few learned men existed -in different parts of Europe throughout those times of darkness and -ignorance. Our countryman the Venerable Bede was well versed both in -sacred and profane history, as his numerous works testify. - -St. Egbert, Archbishop of York, was a disciple of Venerable Bede; he was -a man of great learning, and founded a noble library at York about 735, -which was casually burnt in the reign of king Stephen, with the -cathedral, the monastery of St. Mary, and several other religious -houses. - -Alcuin, called also Albinus Flaccus, was born in Northumberland; he was -the disciple of Archbishop Egbert, whom he succeeded in the charge of -the famous school, which that prelate had opened at York. Alcuin was in -all respects the most learned man of the age in which he lived; he was -an orator, historian, poet, mathematician, and divine. The fame of his -learning induced Charlemagne to invite him to his court; and by his -assistance that Emperor, founded, enriched, and instructed, the -universities of Tours and Paris. In 794 Alcuin was one of the fathers of -the synod of Frankfort, and died at his abbey at Tours, in 804. In his -epistle to Charlemagne he mentions with great respect his master Egbert, -and the noble library which he had founded at York. Towards the latter -end of the same century flourished our great king Alfred, who engaged -the learned Grimbald, and other foreigners of distinguished abilities in -his service. - -Eadfrid, who was bishop of Lindisfarne in the year 698, was one of the -most learned men of his time. He translated the gospels into latin, -which work after his death was highly decorated by his successor with -gold and jewels. Bilfrid, a hermit, illuminated it with various -paintings and rich devices; and Adred a priest, interlined it with a -Saxon version. Before each gospel is prefixed a painting of the -evangelist who wrote it, and the opposite page is full of beautiful -ornaments, enriched with various colours; then follows the commencement -of the gospel, the first page of which is most elaborately ornamented -with letters of a peculiar form, and very large, which displays at once -the zeal of the writer, and the taste of the age in which the book was -written.[10] This curious work is now among the Cottonian manuscripts in -the British Museum. It was lost in the sea during the removal of the -body of St. Cuthbert in those troublesome times, about the year 876, -when the Danes were laying waste the whole country, but it was -afterwards found washed up on the shore without suffering any injury. -(_Hutchinson’s History of Durham_, 1. p. 57.) It was under the patronage -of the same learned prelate Eadfrid, that the Venerable Bede[11] wrote -the life of St. Cuthbert. - -The books which Fergus the second, king of Scotland, who assisted Alaric -the Goth, had brought with him as a part of the plunder from Rome, had -been deposited in the monastery in the island of Iona. From thence they -were, by degrees, copied for the use of other monasteries; and besides -these, other books were obtained afterwards by means of various journeys -to Rome. Benedict Biscop, the founder of the monastery of Weremouth, and -the friend of Archbishop Wilfrid, made no fewer than five journeys to -Rome to purchase copies of books. These books became deposited in -various monasteries. Some such were at Canterbury, where also were books -that had been brought from Rome, both by Augustine and Theodore. And the -letter of Aldhelm, the very person who founded the monastery of -Malmesbury, containing an account of his studies, and progress at -Canterbury by the help of such books, is one of the most curious -fragments of antiquity. (_Angl. Sacra. tom. 2. p. 6._) - -The price of these books was at various times enormous. Aldfred, king of -Northumberland, gave _eight hides of land_, that is, as much as eight -ploughs could till, for one volume of cosmography; and on this occasion -it perhaps ought not to be forgotten, that there is still preserved in -the library of Hereford cathedral, an ancient map on parchment, for the -illustration of cosmography as known at the period of its being drawn. -In the reign of William the Conqueror books were extremely scarce. -Grace, Countess of Anjou, paid for a collection of homilies, two hundred -sheep, a quarter of wheat, another of rye, and a third of millet, -besides a number of martin skins. (_Kaimes’s Sketches_, 1. 136.) - -In these conventual _Scriptoria_ were copied the writings of the fathers -and the abstruse works of the first schoolmen; here also were copied -little works of genius, sometimes the effusion of fancy and imagination. -The fables of Æsop were so much in repute, that we are told king Alfred -himself made a translation of them from the Greek. The fanciful devices -on the friezes and mouldings of some of our ecclesiastical structures, -which have an allusion to Æsop’s Fables, had their first origin amongst -pious and ingenious persons, in the peaceful retirement of their -conventual retreats. This remark is much confirmed by a curious -observation which has been lately made, that even many of the fables -themselves that now pass for Æsop’s, seem to have had their real -invention and origin in the abodes of the religious. In a very curious -memoir concerning the works of Mary, an Anglo-Norman poetess, born in -France, who wrote in the French language in the reign of king Henry the -third of England, and who among other things translated the fables of -Æsop, it is made to appear that there were indeed but few of Æsop’s -original fables in her collection, and even those she had borrowed -entirely from England, and the greater part, from several allusions in -them, evidently shew, that they must have been composed in monasteries, -before her time. (_See Hume’s Hist. of Eng. vol. 1. 4to. p. 68.—King’s -Munimenta Ant. vol. 4. p. 113.—and Archæologia, vol. 13. p. 36-67._) - -It is an interesting circumstance, deserving to be mentioned on this -occasion, that before the time of Venerable Bede, there lived an -Anglo-Saxon poet, of the name of _Cædman_, or _Kedman_, of the wondrous -powers of whose mind Bede speaks in the highest terms, (_Bede’s Eccles. -Hist. book 4. ch. 24._) and says he sung of the creation of the world, -of the origin of mankind, and of the whole history of the book of -Genesis. He died about the year 680, and therefore must have been -contemporary with Etheldreda, who founded the monastery of Ely. And it -is a very curious fact, little known, that Lye, the author of the -Anglo-Saxon Dictionary, translated this poem, and that therein it was -found had been introduced, almost exactly, the same idea of the fallen -angels, and even the peculiarity of the nine days falling, and of -Satan’s assembling his _Thanes_, on their rousing themselves, which was -afterwards introduced by Milton into his Paradise Lost. This account, -Mr. King says, he received from Dr. Percy, bishop of Dromore, who had -several manuscripts of Lye’s bequeathed to him; and who was well -qualified to investigate such curious matters of ancient literature. - -It should not be forgotten with regard to manuscripts, the productions -of these industrious penmen in their _Scriptoria_, that king Alfred is -said by the Saxon writers, to have first received his eagerness for -erudition, in an age when he himself complained of the general ignorance -even of the clergy, from his mother’s shewing him a book of Saxon poems, -beautifully written, and illuminated, and promising to give it to which -ever of her sons should soonest learn to read it. - -Until the eleventh century, musical notes were expressed only by letters -of the alphabet; and till the fourteenth century they were expressed -only by large lozenge-shaped black dots or points, placed on different -lines, one above another, and then first named _ut_, _re_, _mi_, _fa_, -_sol_, _la_, to which _si_ was afterwards added; and they were all -expressed without any distinction as to length of time; and without any -such things as breves, semi-breves, minims, crotchets, or quavers, &c. -The old psalters in many cathedral churches are found thus written; and -in consequence of this it was, that the _Scriptoria_ in some other -places, as well as at Gloucester, are found so contrived, as to have -long ranges of seats, or benches, one beyond another, for the copyists; -so that a master or person standing at one end, and naming each note, it -might quickly be copied out by all, naming it in succession from one end -to the other. Hence the psalters were more easily copied than any other -books, and it is not a little remarkable that in the library at -Worcester, there is a copy of St. Matthew’s gospel, set to music -throughout, with these sort of notes. - -In foreign monasteries, the boys and novices were chiefly occupied in -these labours, but the missals and bibles were ordered to be written by -monks of mature age and discretion. The _Scriptorium_ of St. Albans’s -abbey was built by Abbot Paulin, a Norman, who ordered many volumes to -be written there, about the year 1080. Archbishop Lanfranc furnished the -copies. Estates were often granted for the support of the _Scriptorium_; -that at St. Edmundsbury was endowed with two mills, and in the year -1171, the tithes of a rectory were appropriated to the cathedral convent -of St. Swithin at Winchester, _ad Libros transcribendos_. Many instances -of this species of benefaction occur from the tenth century. Nigel, in -the year 1160, gave the monks of Ely two churches, _ad libros -faciendos_. - -This employment of copying manuscripts appears to have been diligently -practised at Croyland; for Ingulphus relates, that when the library of -that convent was burned in the year 1091, seven hundred volumes were -consumed. Fifty-eight volumes were transcribed at Glastonbury, during -the government of one abbot, about the year 1300. And in the library of -this monastery, the richest in England, there were upwards of four -hundred volumes in the year 1248. More than eighty books were thus -transcribed for St. Alban’s abbey, by Abbot Whethamstede, who died about -1400. At the foundation of Winchester college, by William of Wykeham, -about 1393, one or more transcribers were hired and employed by the -founder to _make books_ for the library. They transcribed and took their -commons within the college, as appears by computations of expenses on -their account now remaining. - -In the monastery of Ely, the Precentor, or Chantor, was the chief -librarian, and had within his Office, the _Scriptorium_, where writers -were employed in transcribing books for the library, and missals and -other books used in divine service. This officer furnished the vellum, -parchment, paper, ink, colours, gums, and other necessaries for limners, -used in illuminating their books; and leather, and other implements for -binding, and keeping them in repair. - -Some of the Roman classics were copied in the English monasteries at a -very early period. Henry, a Benedictine monk of Hyde abbey, near -Winchester, transcribed in the year 1178, Terence, Boethius, Suetonius, -and Claudian. Of these he formed one volume, illuminating the initials, -and forming the brazen bosses of the covers with his own hands; but this -abbot had more devotion than taste, for he exchanged this manuscript a -few years afterwards for four missals, the legend of St. Christopher, -and St. Gregory’s PASTORAL CARE, with the Prior of the neighbouring -cathedral convent. Benedict, abbot of Peterborough, author of the latin -chronicle of king Henry the second, amongst a great variety of -scholastic and theological treatises, transcribed Seneca’s epistles and -tragedies, Terence, Martial, and Claudian, to which may be added GESTA -ALEXANDRI, about the year 1180. - -In a catalogue of the books of the library of Glastonbury, we find Livy, -Sallust, Seneca, Tully de SENECTUTE and AMICITIA, Virgil, Persius, and -Claudian, in the year 1248. Among the royal manuscripts of the British -Museum, is one of the twelve books of Statius’s Thebaid, supposed to -have been written in the tenth century, which once belonged to the -cathedral convent of Rochester. And another of Virgil’s Æneid, written -in the thirteenth, which came from the library of St. Austin’s, -Canterbury. Wallingford, abbot of St. Alban’s, gave or sold from the -library of that monastery to Richard de Bury, bishop of Durham, author -of the “PHILOBIBLION,” and a great collector of books, Terence, Virgil, -Quintilian, and Jerome against Rufinus, together with thirty-two other -volumes, valued at fifty pounds of silver. The scarcity of parchment -undoubtedly prevented the transcription of many other books in these -societies. About the year 1120, one Master Hugh, being appointed by the -convent of St. Edmundsbury in Suffolk, to write and illuminate a grand -copy of the bible for their library, could procure no parchment for this -purpose in England. It is to this scarcity of parchment that we owe the -loss and destruction of many valuable manuscripts of the ancients, which -otherwise might have been preserved to us. The venerable fathers who -employed themselves in erasing the writing of some of the best works of -the most eminent Greek or Latin authors for the purpose of transcribing -upon the obliterated parchment or vellum the lives of saints, or -legendary tales, possibly mistook these lamentable depredations for -works of piety. The ancient fragment of the 91st book of Livy, -discovered by Mr. Burns in the Vatican, in 1772, was found to be much -defaced in this respect by the pious labours of some well-intentioned -monk. - -The monks of Durham having begun to build a college for their novices at -Oxford, about the year 1290, Richard de Bury, bishop of Durham, not only -assisted, but also partly endowed it. At his decease, in 1345, he left -to this college, then called Durham, and since Trinity, college, all his -books, which were more in number than all the bishops in England then -possessed, in order that the students of that college, and of the -University, might, under certain conditions make use of them. After the -college came into possession of these books, they were, for many years, -kept in chests, under the custody of several scholars deputed for that -purpose, and a library being built in the reign of king Henry the -fourth, these books were put into pews or studies, and chained to them. -They continued in this manner till the college was dissolved by king -Henry the eighth, when they were conveyed away, some to Duke Humphrey’s -library, where they remained till the reign of king Edward the sixth, -and others to the library of Baliol college. Some which remained came -into the hands of Dr. George Owen, a physician of Godstow, who purchased -Trinity college of Edward the sixth. - -The bishop of Durham wrote a treatise containing rules for the -management of the library above-mentioned, describing how the books were -to be preserved, and upon what conditions they were to be lent out to -scholars, and appointed five keepers, to whom he granted yearly -salaries. This treatise he called “_Philobiblion_,” from whence he -himself came to be called by the same name, “a lover of books,” and this -very justly, if, as he says himself in the preface to it, his love of -them was so violent that it put him into a kind of rapture, and made him -neglect all his other affairs. He finished it at Auckland, the 24th of -January, 1345, being then just 63 years of age. It was printed at Spires -in 1483; at Paris, by Badius Ascensius, in 1500; by the learned Thomas -James, at Oxford, in 1599, in quarto; and at Leipsic, in 1674, at the -end of _Philologicarum Epistolarum Centuria una, ex Bibliotheca Melch. -Hamingfeldii_. It appears also in manuscript in the Cottonian library, -in the royal library, and in other libraries in Oxford and Cambridge. - -The “_Philobiblion_,” is written in very indifferent Latin, and in a -declamatory style. It is divided into twenty chapters. In chapter 1. the -author praises wisdom, and books in which it is contained. 2. That books -are to be preferred to riches and pleasure. 3. That they ought to be -always bought. 4. How much good arises from books, and that they are -misused only by ignorant people. 5. That good monks write books, but the -bad ones are otherwise employed. 6. The praise of the ancient begging -friars, with a reproof of the modern ones. 7. He bewails the loss of -books by fire and wars. 8. He shews what fine opportunities he had had -of collecting books, whilst he was chancellor and treasurer, as well as -during his embassies. 9. That the ancients outdid the moderns in hard -studying. 10. That learning is by degrees arrived at perfection, and -that he had procured a Greek and Hebrew grammar. 11. That the law and -law books are not properly learning. 12. The usefulness and necessity of -grammar. 13. An apology for poetry, and the usefulness of it. 14. Who -ought to love books. 15. The manifold advantages of learning. 16. Of -writing new books and mending the old. 17. Of using books well, and how -to place them. 18. An answer to his calumniators. 19. Upon what -conditions books are to be lent to strangers. 20. Conclusion. - -In the “_Philobiblion_” the bishop apologizes for admitting the poets -into his collection; _quare non negleximus Fabulas Poetarum_. But he is -more complaisant to the prejudices of his age, where he says, that the -laity are unworthy to be admitted to any commerce with books: _Laici -omnium librorum communione sunt indigni_. He prefers books of the -liberal arts to treatises of the law. He laments that good literature -had entirely ceased in the university of Paris. He admits _Panfletos -exiguos_ into his library. He employed _Stationarios_ and _Librarios_, -not only in England, but in France, Italy, and Germany. He regrets the -total ignorance of the greek language; but adds that he has provided for -the students of his library both Greek and Hebrew grammars. He calls -Paris the “paradise of the world,” and says that he purchased there a -variety of invaluable volumes in all sciences, which yet were neglected -and perishing. While he was Chancellor and Treasurer of England, instead -of the usual presents and new year’s gifts appendant to his office, he -chose to receive those perquisites in books. By the favour of king -Edward the third, he gained access to the libraries of the principal -monasteries, where he shook off the dust from various volumes preserved -in chests and presses, which had not been opened for many ages. - -There were several collections of manuscripts in England before the -general restoration of science in Europe, which had at different times -been brought hither by those who had travelled into foreign countries; -these were chiefly preserved in the two Universities, in the cathedral -churches, and in religious houses, but in the fifteenth and sixteenth -century several valuable libraries were formed in England. - -In the reign of king Henry the sixth, Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, -fourth and youngest son of king Henry the fourth, was a singular -promoter of literature, just at the dawning of science and learning. -However unqualified this eminent personage was for political intrigue, -and to contend with his malicious and powerful enemies, among whom the -Cardinal Beaufort was the principal, he was nevertheless the common -friend and patron of all the scholars of his time. A sketch of his -character and pursuits, as being closely connected with the progress of -English literature, cannot fail of proving interesting, more especially -as they are peculiarly associated with the subject of the present -inquiry. - -About the year 1440, the Duke gave to the University of Oxford a -library, containing six hundred volumes, one hundred and twenty only of -which were valued at more than one thousand pounds of the money of that -day. These books, it need not be observed, were all in manuscript, the -art of printing not having then been discovered; they are called _Novi -Tractatus_, or New Treatises, in the University Register, and are said -to be _admirandi apparatus_. They were the most splendid and costly -copies that could be procured, finely written on vellum, and elegantly -embellished with miniatures and illuminations. Among the rest was a -translation into French of Ovid’s Metamorphoses. Only a single specimen -of these valuable volumes was suffered to remain; it is a beautiful -manuscript, in folio, of Valerius Maximus, enriched with the most -elegant decorations, and written in Duke Humphrey’s age, evidently with -a design of being placed in this sumptuous collection. All the rest of -the books, which, like this, being highly ornamented, looked like -missals, were destroyed or removed by the pious visitors of the -University, in the reign of king Edward the sixth, whose zeal was -equalled only by their ignorance, or perhaps by their avarice. A great -number of classics, in this grand work of reformation, were condemned as -anti-christian, and some of the books, in this library, had even been -before this, either stolen or mutilated. In the library of Oriel -College, at Oxford, we find a manuscript _Commentary on Genesis_, -written by John Capgrave, a monk, belonging to the monastery of St. -Austin, at Canterbury, a learned theologist of the fifteenth century. In -it is the author’s autograph, and the work is dedicated to Humphrey, -Duke of Gloucester. In the superb initial letter of the dedicatory -epistle, is a curious illumination of the author Capgrave, humbly -presenting his book to his patron, the Duke, who is seated, and covered -with a sort of hat. At the end of the volume is this entry, in the -hand-writing of Duke Humphrey “C’est Livre est a moy Humfrey, Duc de -Gloucestre, du don de Frere Jehan Capgrave, quy le me fist presenter a -mon manoyr de Pensherst le jour ... de l’an MCCCCXXXVIII.” This is one -of the books which Humphrey gave to his new library at Oxford, destroyed -or dispersed by the active reformers of the young Edward. He also gave -to the same library Capgrave _Super Exodum et Regum Libros_. - -John Whethamstede, a learned abbot of St. Alban’s, and a lover of -scholars, but accused by his monks of neglecting their affairs, while he -was too deeply engaged in studious employments, and in procuring -transcripts of useful books, notwithstanding his unwearied assiduity in -beautifying and enriching their monastery, was in high favour with this -munificent prince. The Duke was fond of visiting this monastery, and -employed Abbot Whethamstede to collect valuable books for him. Some of -Whethamstede’s tracts, manuscript copies of which often occur in our -libraries, are dedicated to the Duke, who presented many of them, -particularly a fine copy of Whethamstede’s _Granarium_, an immense work, -which Leland calls _ingens volumen_ to the new library. The copy of -Valerius Maximus, mentioned before, has a curious table or index, made -by Whethamstede. Many other Abbots paid their court to the Duke, by -sending him presents of books, the margins of which were adorned with -the most exquisite paintings. - -Gilbert Kymer, physician to king Henry the sixth, and holding, among -other ecclesiastical preferments, the Deanery of Salisbury and -Chancellorship of the University of Oxford; the latter dignity by the -recommendatory letters of the Duke, inscribed to the Duke of Gloucester -his famous medical system—_Diætarium de Sanitatis Custodia_—in the year -1424. - -Lydgate,[12] one of the early English poets, translated Boccacio’s book, -_De Casibus Virorum illustrium_, at the recommendation and command, and -under the protection and superintendance, of Duke Humphrey, whose -condescension in conversing with learned ecclesiastics, and diligence in -study, the translator displays at large, and in the strongest -expressions of panegyric. He compares the Duke to Julius Cæsar, who, -amidst the weightier cares of state, was not ashamed to enter the -rhetorical school of Cicero at Rome. Nor was his patronage confined only -to English scholars. His favour was solicited by the most celebrated -writers of France and Italy, many of whom he bountifully rewarded. -Leonard Aretin,[13] one of the first restorers of the Greek tongue in -Italy, (which language he learned of Emanuel Chrysoloras,[14]) and of -polite literature in general, dedicates to this universal patron his -elegant Latin translation of Aristotle’s _Politics_. The copy presented -to the Duke by the translator, most elegantly illuminated, is now in the -Bodleian library. - -To the same noble encourager of learning, Petrus Candidus, the friend of -Laurentius Valla,[15] and secretary to the great Cosmo, Duke of Milan, -inscribed by the advice of the Archbishop of Milan, a Latin version of -Plato’s _Republic_. An illuminated manuscript of this translation is in -the British Museum, perhaps the copy presented, with two epistles from -the Duke to Petrus Candidus. - -Petrus de Monte, another learned Italian of Venice, in the dedication of -his treatise—_De Virtutum et Vitiorum differentia_—to the Duke of -Gloucester, mentions the latter’s ardent attachment to books of all -kinds, and the singular avidity with which he pursued every species of -literature. - -A tract entitled _Comparatio Studiorum et Rei Militaris_, written by -Lopus de Castellione, a Florentine civilian, and a great translator into -Latin of the Greek classics, is also inscribed to the Duke at the desire -of Zeno, archbishop of Bayeux. It must not be forgotten that our -illustrious Duke invited into England the learned Tito Livio of -Foro-Juli, whom he naturalized and constituted his poet and orator. He -also retained learned foreigners in his service, for the purpose of -transcribing, and of translating from Greek into Latin. One of these was -Antonio de Beccaria, a Veronese, who translated into Latin prose the -Greek poem of _Dionysius Afer de Situ Orbis_; whom the Duke also -employed to translate into Latin six tracts of Athanasius. This -translation, inscribed to the Duke, is now among the royal manuscripts -in the British Museum, and at the end, in his own hand-writing, is the -following insertion:—“C’est Livre est a moi Homphrey Duc le Gloucestre: -le quel je fis translater de grec en latin par un de mes secretaires -Antoyne de Beccara ne de Verone.” - -An astronomical tract, entitled, by Leland, _Fabulæ Directionum_, is -erroneously supposed to have been written by Duke Humphrey. But it was -compiled at the Duke’s instance, and according to tables which he had -himself constructed, called by the anonymous author in his preface, -_Tabulas illustrissimi principis et nobilissimi Domini mei, Humfredi, -&c._ In the library of Gresham College, however, there is a scheme of -calculations in astronomy, which bears his name. Astronomy was then a -favourite science; nor is it to be doubted that he was intimately -acquainted with the politer branches of knowledge which now began to -acquire estimation, and which his liberal and judicious attention -greatly contributed to restore. - - * * * * * - -King Edward the fourth and Henry the seventh greatly assisted the cause -of learning, by the encouragement they gave to the art of printing in -England, and by purchasing such books as were printed in other -countries. William Warham, archbishop of Canterbury, purchased many -valuable Greek manuscripts which had been brought hither by the prelates -and others after the taking of Constantinople by the Turks. - -King Henry the eighth may justly be called the founder of the royal -library, which was enriched with the manuscripts selected from the -_scriptoria_ and libraries of the principal monasteries, by that -indefatigable antiquary John Leland. - -Matthew Parker, archbishop of Canterbury, enriched the library of the -college of Corpus Christi, with a great number of ancient and curious -manuscripts. - -In the reign of Queen Elizabeth, Sir Thomas Bodley greatly increased the -public library at Oxford, which is now called by his name. This great -benefactor to the literature of his country, quitted the court, and -applied himself wholly to the purchasing of books and manuscripts both -at home and abroad. By these means he had the satisfaction of furnishing -that library with 1294 manuscripts, which by the subsequent liberality -of many great and illustrious persons, has been since increased to more -than eight thousand volumes, including the manuscripts given by Tanner, -Bishop of Norwich, and the valuable library bequeathed by the will of -Dr. Richard Rawlinson. - -Considerable augmentations were made to the libraries of the several -colleges in the two universities, as also to those of our cathedral -churches, the palace at Lambeth, the Inns of Court, the College of Arms, -and others; catalogues of which were published at Oxford in 1697 under -the title of _Catalogus Manuscriptorum Angliæ et Hiberniæ_. - -Bodley’s great contemporary, Sir Robert Cotton, is also entitled to the -gratitude of posterity for his diligence in collecting the Cottonian -library; he was engaged in the pursuit of manuscripts and records -upwards of forty years, during which time he spared neither trouble nor -expense. - -The noble manuscript library founded by Robert Harley, Earl of Oxford, -and greatly enriched by his son Edward, who inherited his father’s love -of science, claims a distinguished place in every account which may be -given of the literary treasures of antiquity in general, and of this -country in particular. Posterity will ever be indebted to her grace the -Duchess Dowager of Portland, for securing this inestimable treasure of -learning to the public, by authority of Parliament, under the -guardianship of the most distinguished persons of the realm, both for -rank and abilities, whose excellent regulations have made this library, -as also the Royal, Cottonian, Sloanian, and others, now deposited in the -British Museum, easy of access, and consequently of real use to the -philosopher, the statesman, the historian, the scholar, and the -artist.[16] - -Footnote 9: - - Gildas, called _Badonicus_, because said to be born at Bath, was, for - his singular prudence and the severity of his morals, surnamed the - WISE; he was a monk of Bangor, and his “Description of the state of - Britain,” above alluded to, is the only one of his writings extant, as - we are assured by Archbishop Usher. Gildas wrote this work in Latin, - in a style, according to that age, harsh and perplexed enough. The - first printed edition of it was published by Polydore Virgil, in - octavo, London, 1525, and dedicated to Cuthbert Tunstal, Bishop of - Durham, which, however, was from an incorrect copy. It was reprinted - at Basil, in 12mo, in 1541; and at London, 1548, though Bishop - Nicolson says 1568. It was again printed at London, in 12mo, in 1638, - translated by Thomas Habingdon, of Henlip, in Worcestershire. John - Josseline, secretary to Archbishop Parker, reprinted Gildas more - correctly from two new manuscripts, Basil, 1568, 12mo; and Paris 1576; - but these are little more perfect than the first.—The latest and best - copy of Gildas is in Dr. Gale’s collection of Ancient English - Historians, 2 vols. folio, Oxford, 1687 and 1691; who had the - advantage of a more ancient and better copy, as Bishop Nicolson - observes. Besides Habingdons’s translation above mentioned, there was - another printed during the Cromwell rebellion, in 1652, for the mere - purpose, it has been said, of retailing Gildas’s sharp reproofs of - Kings and Priests.—For an account of this edition, see Oldys’s British - Librarian, and Savage’s Librarian, vol. 1. p. 117. - -Footnote 10: - - Strutt, in his “Chronicle of England” has given a plate representing a - page of this manuscript, and in Astle’s “History of Writing,” there is - a plate of the same page, coloured, in imitation of the original. - -Footnote 11: - - Bede, commonly called the Venerable Bede, was the most learned man of - the age in which he lived; he was born at Weremouth, in - Northumberland, in the year 672. Both ancient and modern authors have - bestowed the highest encomiums upon the learning of this extraordinary - man. His works are many, making eight large volumes, in folio, the - principal of which is his Ecclesiastical History of the Anglo-Saxons, - consisting of five books, from whence the more perfect part of our - early history is formed; his other works are the Lives of Saints, - Treatises on the Holy Scriptures, and Philosophical Tracts. This great - man died at his cell at Jarrow, in the year 735, aged 63. - -Footnote 12: - - Lydgate was commonly called the Monk of Bury, because born at that - place, about the year 1380. After some time spent in the English - Universities, he travelled through France and Italy, in which - countries he greatly improved himself. In addition to his poetical - talents, he is described as being an eloquent rhetorician, an expert - mathematician, an acute philosopher, and no mean divine. He is said to - have been so much admired by his contemporaries, that they said of - him, that his wit was fashioned by the Muses themselves. After his - return from France and Italy, he became tutor to the sons of several - of the nobility, and for his excellent endowments, was much esteemed - and reverenced by them. He wrote a poem, called _The Life and Death of - Hector_, some satires, eulogies, and odes, and other learned works in - prose. He died in 1440, aged sixty, and was buried in his own convent - at Bury. Lydgate is said to have been a disciple of Chaucer. - -Footnote 13: - - Leonard Aretin, the disciple of Chrysoloras, was a linguist, an - orator, and an historian; the secretary of four successive Popes; and - Chancellor of the Republic of Florence, where he died in 1444, aged - seventy-five. He added a Supplement to Livy on the Punic War, and - wrote the History of Italy, with other valuable works. - -Footnote 14: - - Emanuel Chrysoloras was one of the envoys sent by the Greek Emperor - Manuel, at the end of the fourteenth century, to implore the - compassion of the Western Princes. He was not only conspicuous for the - nobleness of his birth but also for the extent of his learning. After - visiting the courts of France and England, in furtherance of his - mission, he was invited to assume the office of a Professor, and - Florence had the honour of this invitation, as it had had a few years - previously that of the first Greek Professor Leo Pilatus, whose mind - was stored with a treasure of Greek learning, with whom history and - fable, philosophy and grammar, were alike familiar, and who first read - the Poems of Homer in the Schools of Florence. Chrysoloras may be - considered as the founder of the Greek language in Italy, and his - knowledge not only of the Greek, but of the Latin tongue, surpassed - the expectation of the Florentine republic. At the same time and - place, the Latin classics were explained by John of Ravenna, the - domestic pupil of the celebrated Petrarch. The Italians, who - illustrated their age and country, were formed in this double school, - and Florence became the fruitful seminary of Greek and Roman - erudition. Chrysoloras was recalled by the Emperor from the college to - the court, but he afterwards taught at Pavia and Rome with equal - industry and applause. He died at Constance on a public mission from - the Emperor to the council. _Gibbon’s Hist._ vol. 12. p. 126. - -Footnote 15: - - Laurentius Valla, was a native of Placenza, where he was born in 1415; - he revived the Latin language from gothic barbarity, but he was a - rigorous critic. He fell under the displeasure of the Church of Rome, - for the freedom with which he hazarded his opinions respecting some of - its doctrines, and he was condemned to be burnt, but was saved by - Alphonsus, king of Naples. Pope Nicholas the fifth, who was himself - one of the greatest encouragers of learning of his time, and who - highly respected the talents of Valla, invited him to Rome, and gave - him a pension.—This Pope, whose pursuits were in direct association - with our present subject, from a plebeian origin, raised himself by - his virtue and his learning to the highest honours of the Church. The - character of the man prevailed over the interest of the Pontiff, and - he sharpened those weapons which were soon pointed against the - religion of Rome. He had been the friend of the most eminent scholars - of the age, and after his elevation to the chair of St. Peter, he - became their patron. Under Pope Nicholas, the influence of the Holy - See pervaded Christendom, and he exerted that influence in the search, - not of benefices, but of books. From the ruins of the Byzantine - libraries, from the darkest monasteries of Germany and Britain, he - collected the dusty manuscripts of the writers of antiquity; and - whenever the original could not be removed, a faithful copy was - transcribed and transmitted for his use. The Vatican was daily - replenished with precious furniture, and such was his industry, that - in a reign of eight years, he formed a library of five thousand - volumes. To his munificence the Latin world was indebted for the - versions of Xenophon, Diodorus, Polybius, Thucydides, Herodotus, and - Appian; of Strabo’s Geography, of the Iliad, of the more valuable - works of Plato and Aristotle, of Ptolemy, and Theophrastus, and of the - Fathers of the Greek Church. - -Footnote 16: - - For an account of the following Manuscript Libraries in England, see - Savage’s Librarian, 3 vols. London, 1808-1810—namely, that of the - British Museum, in vol. 1. p. 26; of the Royal Society, p. 71; of the - Heralds Office, p. 73; of the Society of Antiquaries, p. 129; of the - Archbishop of Canterbury’s at Lambeth Palace, p. 133; of Lincoln’s - Inn, p. 183, 225; of the Middle Temple, p. 273; of the Inner Temple, - vol. 2. p. 131; of the Lansdown Collection of Manuscripts, vol. 1. p. - 34, and vol. 3. p. 27, and of the Cottonian Manuscripts, vol. 3. p. - 31. - - The curious reader who is interested in the history of the public - records of his country, will find in the same volumes, the Report of - the Committee of the House of Commons on the State of the Records, in - vol. 1. p. 17, &c.—an account of the Records in the Tower of London, - vol. 2. p. 34, &c. of those in the Rolls Chapel, ibid. p. 185, &c. and - of those in the Chapter House of Westminster Abbey, vol. 3. p. 41, &c. - - - - - TORTURE IN ENGLAND.[17] - - -In the reign of King Henry the Sixth, the RACK or BRAKE, was placed in -the Tower of London, by the Duke of Exeter, when he and the Earl of -Suffolk had formed the design of introducing the Civil Law into England. -It was called “Exeter’s daughter,” and remained afterwards in the Tower, -“where it was occasionally used as an _Engine of State_, more than once -in the _reign of Elizabeth_.” - -Though the use of the Rack does not appear to have been known in this -country until the 26th year of Henry the Sixth, and though it was never -authorized by the law, yet to borrow the expression of Mr. Justice -Blackstone, it was occasionally used as an “Engine of State,” to extort -confession from State Prisoners confined in the Tower, from the time of -its introduction, until finally laid aside in consequence of the -decision of the judges in Felton’s case. One Hawkins was tortured[18] in -the reign of Henry the Sixth; and the case of Anne Askew,[19] in that of -Henry the Eighth,[20] cannot escape the recollection of every reader of -English history. The Lord Chancellor Wriothesely (I blush for the honour -and humanity of an English Judge while I write his name) went to the -Tower to take her examination, and upon the Lieutenant’s refusing to -draw the cords tighter, _drew them himself_ till every limb was -dislocated, and her body nearly torn asunder. In Mary’s reign several -persons were racked in order to extort confessions, which was upon -account of Sir Thomas Wyat’s rebellion. And Barrington mentions that in -Oldmixon’s History of England (p. 284,) one Simpson is said to have been -tortured in 1558, and a confession extorted. - -In the beginning of the reign of Elizabeth,[21] the Rack was used upon -offenders against the State, and among others, upon Francis Throgmorton; -in 1571, upon Charles Baillie an attendant upon the Bishop of Ross, -Mary’s ambassador, and upon Banastre, one of the Duke of Norfolk’s -servants; and Barker, another of his servants was brought to confess by -extreme fear of it. In 1581, Campion, the Jesuit, was put upon the -rack,[22] and in 1585, Thomas Morgan writes to the Queen of Scots, that -he has heard D. Atslow was racked in the Tower, twice about the Earl of -Arundel. This is the last instance of the actual application of torture -to extort confession. - -For the greater part of this reign the application of torture in the -examination of State offenders seems to have been in common use, and its -legality not disputed. Mr. Daines Barrington says,[23] that among the -manuscript papers of Lord Ellesmere, is a copy of instructions to him, -as Lord President of the Marches, to use the torture on the taking of -some examinations at Ludlow; and Sir Edward Coke himself,[24] in the -year 1600, (the 43d of Elizabeth’s reign) then being Attorney General, -at the trials of the Earls of Essex and Southampton, boasted of the -clemency of the Queen, because, though the rebellious attempts were so -exceedingly heinous, yet out of her princely mercy “no person was -racked, tortured, or pressed to speak any thing further than of their -own accord.” And in the Countess of Shrewsbury’s case (10 James 1st) -when Sir Edward was Chief Justice, in enumerating the privileges of the -nobility, he mentions as one, that their bodies were not subject to -torture _in causa criminis læsæ majestatis_. Barrington justly -observes[25] there was a regular establishment for torture, for at his -trial,[26] in the first year of James the first, Sir Walter Raleigh -stated that Kemish had been threatened with the rack, and the keeper of -the instrument sent for. Sir William Wade, who, with the Solicitor -General had taken his examination, denied it, but admitted they had told -him he deserved it, and Lord Howard declared, “Kemish was never on the -rack, _the king gave charge that no rigour should be used_.” - -Barrington mentions[27] that Sir John Hayward, the historian, was -threatened with the rack, which Dr. Granger confirms; and the former -also remarks that it is stated in King James’s works, that the rack was -shewn to Guy Faukes when under examination. - -Down to this period we do not find the legality of the practice -questioned, though it has been said by high authority, as will be stated -presently, that some doubts had been suggested to Queen Elizabeth. State -Prisoners were confined usually in the Tower, and commissioners, -attended by the law officers of the crown, were sent to examine them, -who applied the rack at their own discretion, or according to the order -of the privy council, or the king’s, without any objection being made to -their authority. - -In the third year of King Charles the first, Felton was threatened with -the rack by the Earl of Dorset in the Tower, and Laud, then bishop of -London, repeated the threats in council, but the king insisted upon the -judges being consulted as to the legality of the application, and they -being unanimously of opinion that it was illegal, it was never attempted -afterwards. The answer which Felton made to Laud’s threats, is well -worthy of attention; when Laud told him “if he would not confess he must -go to the rack,” he replied “if it must be so, he could not tell whom he -might nominate in the extremity of torture, and if what he should say -then was to go for truth, he could not tell whether his Lordship -(meaning the bishop of London) or which of their Lordships he might -name, for torture might draw unexpected things from him.” - -In the year 1680 (32 Charles 2d) Elizabeth Collier was tried at the Old -Bailey,[28] before Mr. Baron Weston, for the publication of a libel, in -which many circumstances were related for the purpose of inducing a -belief that Prance, when a prisoner in Newgate, had been tortured there, -and he was produced to prove the falsehood of the publication. The -learned judge in summing up the evidence to the jury said, “But you must -first know the laws of the land do not admit a torture, and since Queen -Elizabeth’s time there hath been nothing of that kind ever done. The -truth is indeed, in the twentieth year of her reign, Campion was just -stretched upon the rack, but yet not so but he could walk; but when she -was told it was against the law of the land to have any of her subjects -racked (though that was an extraordinary case, a world of seminaries -being sent over to contrive her death, and she lived in continual -danger) yet it was never done after to any one, neither in her reign, -who reigned twenty-five years, nor in king James’s reign, who reigned -twenty-two years after, nor in king Charles the first’s reign, who -reigned twenty-four years after; and GOD in Heaven knows there hath been -no such thing offered in this king’s reign; for I think we may say we -have lived under as lawful and merciful a government as any people -whatsoever, and have as little blood shed, and sanguinary executions as -any nation under heaven.” - -The learned judge may have been mistaken when stating Campion to be the -last person racked, for in Murden’s state papers, one Atslow, as before -observed, is mentioned to have been tortured four years afterwards. Mr. -Baron Weston states that upon a suggestion made to Queen Elizabeth of -the illegality of the practice, it was discontinued in her reign, and -thus we may account for Campion being racked with so little severity, as -to be able to walk afterwards, and to manage the conferences with -protestant doctors during his confinement in prison. - -In the Jurisprudence of the Romans the deceitful and dangerous -experiment of the criminal _quæstion_, as it is emphatically styled, was -admitted, rather than approved. The Roman government applied this -sanguinary mode of examination only to servile bodies, whose sufferings -were seldom weighed by those haughty Republicans in the scale of justice -or humanity; but they would never consent to violate the sacred person -of a citizen, till they possessed the clearest evidence of his -guilt.[29] The annals of tyranny, from the reign of Tiberius to that of -Domitian, circumstantially relate the executions of many innocent -victims; but as long as the faintest remembrance was kept alive of the -national freedom and honour, the last hours of a Roman were secure from -the danger of ignominious torture. The conduct of the provincial -magistrates was not, however, regulated by the practice of the city, or -the strict maxims of the Civilians. They found the use of torture -established not only among the slaves of oriental despotism, but among -the Macedonians, who obeyed a limited monarch; among the Rhodians, who -flourished by the liberty of commerce; and even among the sage -Athenians, who had asserted and adorned the dignity of human nature.[30] -The acquiescence of the people in the provinces encouraged their -governors to acquire or perhaps to usurp, a discretionary power of -employing the Rack, to extort from vagrants or plebeian criminals the -confession of their guilt, till they insensibly proceeded to confound -the distinctions of rank, and to disregard the privileges of Roman -citizens. The apprehensions of the subjects urged them to solicit, and -the interest of the Sovereign engaged him to grant, a variety of special -exemptions, which tacitly allowed, and even authorized, the general use -of torture. They protected all persons of illustrious or honourable -rank, bishops and their presbyters, professors of the liberal arts, -soldiers and their families, municipal officers, and their posterity to -the third generation, and all children under the age of puberty. But a -fatal maxim was introduced into the new jurisprudence of the Empire, -that in the case of treason, which included every offence that the -subtlety of lawyers could derive from an _hostile intention_ towards the -prince or republic, all privileges were suspended and all conditions -were reduced to the same ignominious level. As the safety of the Emperor -was avowedly preferred to every consideration of justice or humanity, -the dignity of age, and the tenderness of youth were alike exposed to -the most cruel tortures; and the terrors of a malicious information, -which might select them as the accomplices, or even as the witnesses, -perhaps, of an imaginary crime, perpetually hung over the heads of the -principal citizens of the Roman world.[31] - -Footnote 17: - - _Vide_ Serjeant Heywood’s Vindication of Mr. Fox’s History of James - the Second, p. 397. - -Footnote 18: - - Fuller’s Worthies, p. 317. - -Footnote 19: - - There is a small book, printed in black letter, containing an account - of the treatment and trial of Anne Askew, which contains many curious - particulars.—She was the daughter of Sir William Askew, of Kelsay, in - the county of Lincoln, where she was born about 1520. She had a - learned education, and while young was married to a person of the name - of Kyme, much against her inclination. On account of some harsh - treatment from her husband, she went to the Court of Henry the Eighth - to sue for a separation, where she was greatly taken notice of by - those ladies who were attached to the Reformation; in consequence of - which, she was arrested, and having confessed her religious - principles, was committed to Newgate. She was first racked with savage - cruelty in the Tower, and then burnt in Smithfield, in 1546, in - company with her tutor, and two other persons of the same faith. From - her letters and other pieces in Fox and Strype, it appears she was an - accomplished, as well as a pious, woman. - -Footnote 20: - - Burnet’s Reformation, vol. 1. p. 325; vol. 2. p. 382. - -Footnote 21: - - Collier’s Eccl. Hist. vol. 2. p. 591.—Murden’s State Papers, p. 9, - 101. - -Footnote 22: - - Collier’s Eccl. Hist. vol. 2. p. 139.—Murden’s State Papers, p. 452. - -Footnote 23: - - Observations on Ancient Statutes, p. 496, _note_. - -Footnote 24: - - State Trials, vol. 1. p. 199. - -Footnote 25: - - Observations on Statutes, p. 495. - -Footnote 26: - - State Trials, vol. 1. p. 221. - -Footnote 27: - - Observations on Statutes, p. 92. - -Footnote 28: - - State Trials, vol. 3. p. 99. - -Footnote 29: - - The Pandects (1. xlviii. tit. xviii.) contain the sentiments of the - most celebrated civilians on the subject of torture. They strictly - confine it to slaves. - -Footnote 30: - - The Citizens of Athens could not be put to the rack, unless it was for - high treason. The torture was used within thirty days after - condemnation. There was no preparatory torture. In regard to the - Romans, the third and fourth law _de Majestate_, by Julius Cæsar, - shews that birth, dignity, and the military profession exempted people - from the rack, except in cases of high treason.—_Montesquieu’s Spirit - of Laws_, vol. 1. p. 132. - -Footnote 31: - - Archadius Charisius is the oldest lawyer quoted in the Pandects to - justify the universal practice of torture in all cases of treason; but - this maxim of tyranny, which is admitted by Ammianus with the most - respectful terror, is enforced by several laws of the successors of - Constantine.—_Gibbon’s Rom. Hist._ vol. 3. p. 81. - - - - - DR. JOHNSON’S CONVERSATION WITH THE LATE KING. - - -In February, 1767, there happened one of the most remarkable incidents -of Johnson’s life, which gratified his monarchical enthusiasm, and which -he loved to relate with all its circumstances, when requested by his -friends. This was his being honoured by a private conversation with his -late Majesty, in the Library at the Queen’s house. He had frequently -visited those splendid rooms, and noble collection of books, which he -used to say was more numerous and curious than he supposed any person -could have made in the time which the king had employed. Mr. Barnard the -Librarian, took care that he should have every accommodation that could -contribute to his ease and convenience, while indulging his literary -taste in that place, so that he had here a very agreeable resource at -leisure hours. - -His Majesty having been informed of his occasional visits, was pleased -to signify a desire that he should be told when Dr. Johnson came next to -the library. Accordingly the next time that Johnson did come, as soon as -he was fairly engaged with a book, on which, while he sat by the fire he -seemed quite intent, Mr. Barnard stole round to the apartment where the -king was, and, in obedience to his Majesty’s commands, mentioned that -Dr. Johnson was then in the library. His Majesty said he was at leisure -and would go to him; upon which Mr. Barnard took one of the candles that -stood on the king’s table, and lighted his Majesty through a suite of -rooms till they came to a private door into the library, of which his -Majesty had the key. Being entered, Mr. Barnard stepped forward hastily -to Dr. Johnson, who was still in a profound study, and whispered him, -“Sir, here is the king.” Johnson started up, and stood still. His -Majesty approached him, and at once was courteously easy. - -His Majesty began by observing, that he understood he came sometimes to -the library; and then mentioned his having heard that the Doctor had -been lately at Oxford, asked him if he was not fond of going thither. To -which Johnson answered, that he was indeed fond of going to Oxford -sometimes, but was likewise glad to come back again. The king then asked -him what they were doing at Oxford. Johnson answered he could not much -commend their diligence, but that in some respects they were mended, for -they had put their press under better regulations, and were at that time -printing Polybius. He was then asked whether there were better libraries -at Oxford or Cambridge; he answered, he believed the Bodleian was larger -than any they had at Cambridge; at the same time adding, “I hope whether -we have more books or not than they have at Cambridge, we shall make as -good use of them as they do.” Being asked whether All-Souls or Christ -Church library was the largest, he answered, “All-Souls library is the -largest we have except the Bodleian.” “Aye, (said the king) that is the -public library.” - -His Majesty enquired if he was then writing any thing, he answered, he -was not, for he had pretty well told the world what he knew, and must -now read to acquire more knowledge. The king as it should seem with a -view to urge him to rely on his own stores as an original writer, and to -continue his labours, then said, “I do not think you borrow much from -any body.” Johnson said he thought he had already done his part as a -writer. “I should have thought so too,” said the king, “if you had not -written so well.”—Johnson observed to me, says Boswell, that “No man -could have paid a handsomer compliment; and it was fit for a king to -pay. It was decisive.” When asked by another friend at Sir Joshua -Reynolds’s, whether he made any reply to this high compliment, he -answered, “No, Sir. When the king had said it, it was to be so. It was -not for me to bandy civilities with my Sovereign.” Perhaps no man who -had spent his whole life in courts could have shewn a more nice and -dignified sense of true politeness than Johnson did in this instance. - -“His Majesty having observed to him, that he supposed he must have read -a great deal, Johnson answered, that he thought more than he read; that -he had read a great deal in the early part of his life, but having -fallen into ill health, he had not been able to read much compared with -others; for instance he said he had not read much, compared with Dr. -Warburton. Upon which the king said, that he heard Dr. Warburton was a -man of such general knowledge, that you could scarce talk with him on -any subject on which he was not qualified to speak, and that his -learning resembled Garrick’s acting in its universality. The king -observed that Pope made Warburton a bishop; ‘True, Sir,’ said Johnson, -‘but Warburton did more for Pope, he made him a Christian;’ alluding no -doubt, to his ingenious comments on the ‘Essay on Man.’ His Majesty then -talked of the controversy between Warburton and Lowth, which he seemed -to have read, and asked Johnson what he thought of it. Johnson answered, -‘Warburton has most general, most scholastic learning; Lowth is the more -correct scholar. I do not know which of them calls names best.’ The king -was pleased to say he was of the same opinion; adding, ‘You do not think -then, Dr. Johnson, that there was much argument in the case.’ Johnson -said he did not think there was. ‘Why, truly,’ said the king, ‘when once -it comes to calling names, argument is pretty well at an end.’“ - -His Majesty then asked him what he thought of Lord Lyttelton’s history, -which was just then published. Johnson said, he thought his style pretty -good, but that he had blamed Henry the Second rather too much. “Why, -said the king, they seldom do these things by halves.” “No, Sir, -answered Johnson, not to kings.” But fearing to be misunderstood, he -proceeded to explain himself, and immediately subjoined, “That for those -who spoke worse of kings than they deserved, he could find no excuse; -but that he could more easily conceive how some might speak better of -them than they deserved, without any ill intention; for, as kings had -much in their power to give, those who were favoured by them would -frequently, from gratitude, exaggerate their praises; and as this -proceeded from a good motive, it was certainty excusable, as far as -error could be excusable.” - -The king then asked him what he thought of Dr. Hill. Johnson answered, -that he was an ingenious man, but had no veracity; and immediately -mentioned, as an instance of it, an assertion of that writer, that he -had seen objects magnified to a much greater degree by using three or -four microscopes at a time than by using one. “Now,” added Johnson, -“every one acquainted with microscopes knows, that the more of them he -looks through, the less the object will appear.” “Why,” replied the -king, “this is not only telling an untruth, but telling it clumsily; -for, if that be the case, every one who can look through a microscope -will be able to detect him.” - -I now, (said Johnson to his friends, when relating what had passed) -began to consider that I was depreciating this man in the estimation of -his Sovereign, and thought it was time for me to say something that -might be more favourable. He added, therefore, that Dr. Hill was, -notwithstanding, a very curious observer; and if he would have been -contented to tell the world no more than he knew, he might have been a -very considerable man, and needed not to have recourse to such mean -expedients to raise his reputation. - -The king then talked of Literary Journals, mentioned particularly the -_Journal des Savans_, and asked Johnson if it was well done. Johnson -said it was formerly very well done, and gave some account of the -persons who began it, and carried it on for some years; enlarging at the -same time, on the nature and use of such works. The king asked him if it -was well done now. Johnson answered, he had no reason to think that it -was. The king then asked him if there were any other Literary Journals -published in this kingdom, except the Monthly and Critical Reviews; and -on being answered there were no other, his Majesty asked which of them -was the best; Johnson answered, that the Monthly Review was done with -most care, the Critical upon the best principles; adding that the -authors of the Monthly Review were enemies to the church. This the king -said he was sorry to hear. - -The conversation next turned on the Philosophical Transactions, when -Johnson observed that they had now a better method of arranging their -materials than formerly. “Aye, said the king, they are obliged to Dr. -Johnson for that”; for his Majesty had heard and remembered the -circumstance, which Johnson himself had forgot. - -His Majesty expressed a desire to have the literary biography of this -country ably executed, and proposed to Dr. Johnson to undertake it. -Johnson signified his readiness to comply with his Majesty’s wishes. - -During the whole of this interview, Johnson talked to his Majesty with -profound respect, but still in his firm manly manner, with a sonorous -voice, and never in that subdued tone which is commonly used at the -levee and in the drawing-room. After the king withdrew, Johnson shewed -himself highly pleased with his Majesty’s conversation, and gracious -behaviour. He said to Mr. Barnard, “Sir, they may talk of the king as -they will; but he is the finest gentleman I have ever seen.” And he -afterwards observed to Mr. Langton, “Sir, his manners are those of as -fine a gentleman as we may suppose Lewis the fourteenth, or Charles the -second.” - - - - - DR. BEATTIE’S CONVERSATION WITH THE LATE KING AND QUEEN. - - -Dr. Beattie had been informed by Dr. Majendie, who lived at Kew, and was -often at the palace, that the king having asked some questions of the -doctor respecting him, and being told that he sometimes visited Dr. -Majendie there, his Majesty had desired to be informed the next time Dr. -Beattie was to be at Kew. What his Majesty’s intentions were, Dr. -Majendie said he did not know; but supposed the king intended to admit -him to a private audience. A day was therefore fixed, on which Dr. -Beattie was to be at Dr. Majendie’s house early in the morning, of which -the Doctor was to give notice to his Majesty. Of this interesting event, -so honourable to Dr. Beattie, I shall transcribe in his own words, says -Sir William Forbes, the account he has given in his diary:— - -“Tuesday, 24th August, (1773) set out for Dr. Majendie’s at Kew Green. -The Doctor told me that he had not seen the king yesterday, but had left -a note in writing, to intimate, that I was to be at his house to-day; -and that one of the king’s pages had come to him this morning, to say, -‘that his Majesty would see me a little after twelve.’ At twelve, the -Doctor and I went to the king’s house at Kew. We had been only a few -minutes in the hall, when the king and queen came in from an airing; and -as they passed through the hall, the king called to me by name, and -asked how long it was since I came from town? I answered about an hour. -‘I shall see you,’ says he, ‘in a little.’ The Doctor and I waited a -considerable time, for the king was busy, and then we were called into a -large room, furnished as a library, where the king was walking about, -and the queen sitting in a chair. We were received in the most gracious -manner possible, by both their Majesties. I had the honour of a -conversation with them, nobody else being present but Dr. Majendie, for -upwards of an hour on a great variety of topics; in which both the king -and queen joined, with a degree of cheerfulness, affability, and ease, -that was to me surprising, and soon dissipated the embarrassment which I -felt at the beginning of the conference. They both complimented me in -the highest terms on my ‘Essay,’ which they said was a book they always -kept by them; and the king said he had one copy of it at Kew, and -another in town, and immediately went and took it down from a shelf. I -found it was the second edition. ‘I never stole a book, but one,’ said -his Majesty, ‘and that was your’s (speaking to me) I stole it from the -queen, to give it to Lord Hertford to read.’ He had heard that the sale -of Hume’s ‘Essays’ had failed, since my book was published; and I told -him what Mr. Strahan had told me, in regard to that matter. He had even -heard of my being in Edinburgh last summer, and how Mr. Hume was -offended on the score of my book. He asked many questions about the -second part of the ‘Essay,’ and when it would be ready for the press. I -gave him, in a short speech, an account of the plan of it; and said my -health was so precarious, I could not tell when it might be ready, as I -had many books to consult before I could finish it; but, that if my -health were good, I thought I might bring it to a conclusion in two or -three years. He asked how long I had been in composing my Essay? praised -the caution with which it was written; and said he did not wonder that -it had employed me five or six years. He asked, about my Poems. I said -there was only one poem of my own, on which I set any value (meaning the -‘Minstrel’) and that it was first published about the same time with the -‘Essay.’ My other poems, I said were incorrect, being but juvenile -pieces, and of little consequence, even in my own opinion. We had much -conversation on moral subjects; from which both their Majesties let it -appear, that they were warm friends to Christianity; and so little -inclined to infidelity, that they could hardly believe that any thinking -man could really be an Atheist, unless he could bring himself to -believe, that he made himself; a thought which pleased the king -exceedingly; and he repeated it several times to the queen. He asked -whether any thing had been written against me. I spoke of the late -pamphlet, of which I gave an account, telling him, that I had never met -with any man who had read it, except one quaker. This brought on some -discourse about the quakers, whose moderation, and mild behaviour the -king and queen commended. I was asked many questions about the Scots -Universities: the revenues of the Scots Clergy; their mode of praying -and preaching; the medical college of Edinburgh; Dr. Gregory, of whom I -gave a particular character, and Dr. Cullen; the length of our vacation -at Aberdeen, and the closeness of our attendance during the winter; the -number of students that attend my lectures; my mode of lecturing, -whether from notes, or completely written lectures; about Mr. Hume, and -Dr. Robertson, and Lord Kinnoul, and the Archbishop of York, &c. &c. - -His Majesty asked what I thought of my new acquaintance, Lord Dartmouth? -I said there was something in his air and manner, which I thought not -only agreeable, but enchanting, and that he seemed to me to be one of -the best of men; a sentiment in which both their Majesties heartily -joined. “They say that Lord Dartmouth is an enthusiast,” said the king, -“but surely he says nothing on the subject of religion, but what every -Christian may, and ought to say.” He asked whether I did not think the -English language on the decline at present; I answered in the -affirmative; and the king agreed, and named the “Spectator” as one of -the best standards of the language. When I told him that the Scots -clergy sometimes prayed a quarter, or even half an hour at a time, he -asked, whether that did not lead them into repetitions? I said it often -did. “That” said he, “I don’t like in prayers; and excellent as our -liturgy is, I think it somewhat faulty in that respect.” “Your Majesty -knows,” said I, “that three services are joined in one, in the ordinary -church service, which is one cause of those repetitions.” “True,” he -replied, “and that circumstance also makes the service too long.” From -this he took occasion to speak of the composition of the church liturgy; -on which he very justly bestowed the highest commendation. “Observe,” -his Majesty said, “how flat those occasional prayers are, that are now -composed, in comparison with the old ones.” When I mentioned the -smallness of the church livings in Scotland, he said, “he wondered how -men of liberal education would chuse to become clergymen there,” and -asked, “whether in the remote parts of the country, the clergy, in -general were not very ignorant?” I answered, no, for that education was -very cheap in Scotland, and that the clergy, in general, were men of -good sense, and competent learning. He asked whether we had any good -preachers at Aberdeen? I said, yes, and named Campbell and Gerard, with -whose names, however, I did not find that he was acquainted. Dr. -Majendie mentioned Dr. Oswald’s “Appeal,” with commendation; I praised -it too and the queen took down the name, with a view to send for it. I -was asked, whether I knew Dr. Oswald? I answered, I did not; and said -that my book was published before I read his; that Dr. Oswald was well -known to Lord Kinnoul, who had often proposed to make us acquainted. We -discussed a great many other topics; for the conversation, as before -observed, lasted for upwards of an hour, without any intermission. The -queen bore a large share in it. Both the king and her Majesty showed a -great deal of good sense, acuteness, and knowledge, as well as of good -nature and affability. At last, the king took out his watch (for it was -now almost three o’clock, his hour of dinner) which Dr. Majendie and I -took as a signal to withdraw. We accordingly bowed to their Majesties, -and I addressed the king in these words: “I hope, Sir, your Majesty will -pardon me, if I take this opportunity to return you my humble and most -grateful acknowledgments for the honour you have been pleased to confer -upon me.” He immediately answered, “I think I could do no less for a -man, who has done so much service to the cause of Christianity. I shall -always be glad of an opportunity to show the good opinion I have of -you.” The queen sate all the while, and the king stood, sometimes -walking about a little. Her Majesty speaks the English language with -surprising elegance, and little or nothing of a foreign accent. There is -something wonderfully captivating in her manner; so that if she were -only of the rank of a private gentlewoman, one could not help taking -notice of her as one of the most agreeable women in the world. Her face -is much more pleasing than any of her pictures; and in the expression of -her eyes, and in her smile, there is something peculiarly engaging. - -When the Doctor and I came out, “Pray,” said I, “how did I behave? Tell -me honestly, for I am not accustomed to conversations of this kind.” -“Why perfectly well,” answered he, “and just as you ought to do.”—“Are -you sure of that?” said I.—“As sure,” he replied, “as of my own -existence; and you may be assured of it too, when I tell you, that if -there had been any thing in your manner or conversation, which was not -perfectly agreeable, your conference would have been at an end in eight -or ten minutes at most.” The Doctor afterwards told me that it was a -most uncommon thing for a private man, and a commoner, to be honoured -with so long an audience. I dined with Dr. and Mrs. Majendie and their -family, and returned to town in the evening, very much pleased with the -occurrences of the day. - - - - - SACRED GARDENS. - - -The origin of sacred gardens among the heathen nations may be traced up -to the garden of Eden. The gardens of the Hesperides, of Adonis, of -Flora, were famous among the Greeks and Romans. “The garden of Flora,” -says Mr. Spence, (Polymetis, p. 251) “I take to have been the Paradise -in the Roman Mythology. The traditions and traces of Paradise among the -ancients must be expected to have grown fainter and fainter in every -transfusion from one people to another. The Romans probably derived -their notions of it from the Greeks, among whom this idea seems to have -been shadowed out under the stories of the gardens of Alcinous. In -Africa they had the gardens of the Hesperides, and in the East those of -Adonis, or the _Horti Adonis_, as Pliny calls them. The term _Horti -Adonides_ was used by the ancients to signify _gardens of pleasure_, -which answers to the very name of Paradise, or the garden of Eden, as -_Horti Adonis_ does to the _garden of the LORD_.” - - - - - SIR THOMAS WYAT. - [DIED 1541.] - - -The story of this eminent person, probably one of the principal -ornaments of an age unable to discern his merits, or unwilling to record -them, has been very imperfectly related. He was born at Allington -Castle, in Kent, the ancient seat of his family, in 1503, and was the -son of Sir Henry Wyat. He may be said to have finished his education in -the society of that eminent character Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey, with -whom he travelled abroad, and with whom he “tasted in Italy,” says Wood, -“the sweet and stately measures of the Italian poesy.” These, as far as -the rude state of our language, and the still ruder taste of the times, -would allow, he applied to English verse. His poems were printed at -London in 1565, and have since been frequently republished, in -conjunction with those of his noble friend; but here, as in other points -of view, we have but glimpses of him; for through the ignorance or -carelessness of the original editor, his pieces are so confusedly -blended with the Earl’s, that not many of them can be positively -ascertained.[32] - -Having been introduced at Court, where his endowments both of body and -mind, recommended him to the favour of king Henry the Eighth, he was -employed in several foreign embassies, which he discharged with great -ability. His influence with the king was proverbial. Lloyd tells us that -“when a man was newly preferred, they said he had been in Sir Thomas -Wyat’s closet.” - -We are informed by Wood (_Athen. Oxon._) that Sir Thomas was sent by the -king to Falmouth, for the purpose of conducting a Spanish Minister from -thence to London. Being desirous of making great expedition, he fatigued -himself so much that he was thrown into a fever, and was obliged to stop -at Sherborne, in Dorsetshire, where he died a few days after, in the -38th year of his age, “to the great reluctancy,” says Wood, “of the -king, kingdom, his friends, and all that knew the great worth and -virtues of the person.” He was buried in Sherborne Church.[33] - -He left behind him a son of the same name, who lost his head for -exciting a rebellion in the reign of queen Mary, from whom our poet is -commonly distinguished by the appellation of Sir Thomas Wyat the elder. - -Footnote 32: - - There is an engraving of Sir Thomas in the collection of Holbein - Heads, published by Mr. Chamberlaine. - - An original picture of him, which has been frequently copied, is in - the collection of the Earl of Romney. It is nearly a profile, and - bears a strong resemblance to Holbein’s drawing. - - There is a print of Sir Thomas Wyat, from an engraving on wood, after - a painting by Holbein; it is the frontispiece to the book of verses, - written on his death, by Leland, entitled “Næniæ in Mortem Thomæ Viati - Equitis incomparabilis,” an Elegy on the death of Sir Thomas Wyat, - Knt. London, 1542, _quarto_. This book was reprinted by Hearne, at the - beginning of the second volume of Leland’s Itinerary. Under the head - is the following inscription:— - - “Holbenus nitida pingendi maximus arte, - ”Effigiem expressit graphice, sed nullus Apelles - “Exprimet ingenium felix, animumque Viati.” - - This print has been copied by Michael Burghers and Mr. Tyson. - _Granger_ i. 110. - -Footnote 33: - - The first printed Poetical Miscellany, in the English language, is the - Collection of Poems, edited and published by Tottel, entitled “Songes - and Sonnettes of Surrey, Wyat, and of uncertain Auctors, London, - 1557.”—Another edition, 1565—others in 1574, 1585, 1587. The last - edition was edited by Dr. George Sewell, in 1717.—This Dr. Sewell was - a physician in London; he received his early education at Eton, which - he afterwards completed at Cambridge, where he took the degree of - Bachelor of Physic in 1709. From thence he went to Leyden, where he - studied under the celebrated Boerhaave. Not being successful in the - metropolis, he removed to Hampstead, where he died on the 8th of - February, 1726. As an author he possessed a considerable share of - genius, and wrote in concert with several of his contemporaries, - particularly in the Spectator and Tatler; he was principally concerned - in the ninth volume of the former, and in the fifth of the latter, as - he was also in a translation of Ovid’s Metamorphoses, and an edition - of Shakespeare’s Poems. He was the author of a Tragedy, entitled “Sir - Walter Raleigh,” published at London in 1719, and also of another, - which he left unfinished, entitled “King Richard the First,” the - fragments of which were printed in 1728. - - - - - THE HAND A SYMBOL OF POWER. - - -In Parkhurst’s Hebrew Lexicon we have the following remarks on the Hand -as an emblem of strength and power. “The hand was used by the Jews, as a -trophy or monument of victory, and placed on the top of a pillar. Thus -Saul, after smiting the Amalekites, in the pride of his heart erected to -or for himself (not for Jehovah) a hand, 1 Samuel xv. 12. And David -smote Hadadezer, king of Zobah, when he was going to erect his hand or -trophy, by the river Euphrates, 2 Sam. viii. 3, and 1 Chronicles, xviii. -3.—And this appears to be the most ancient use of these memorial hands; -whence Absalom seems to have taken the hint of erecting one, merely to -keep his name in remembrance, 2 Sam. xviii. 18, where it may be observed -that this monument is expressly called not only a _hand_, but _a -pillar_, which shews that the hand was wont to be put on a pillar. - -“Neibuhr (Voyage in Arabia, tom. 2. p. 211. French edition) speaking of -Ali’s mosque at Mesched Ali, says, that ‘at the top of the dome’ where -one generally sees on the Turkish mosques a crescent, or only a pole, -there is here _a hand stretched out_, to represent that of Ali.” And -another writer informs us, that at the Alhambra, or red palace of the -Moorish kings in Granada, “on the key-stone of the outward arch [of the -present principal entrance] is sculptured the figure of an _arm_, the -symbol of strength and dominion.” - -“It may not be amiss to observe, that to this day in the East Indies the -picture of a _hand_ is the emblem of power or authority. Thus I am -assured, says Parkhurst, by a gentleman of undoubted veracity, who -resided many years on the coast of Coromandel, that when the Nabob of -Arcot, who in his time was governor of _five provinces_, appeared on -public occasions, several small flags, with each _a hand_ painted upon -them, and one of a large size with _five hands_, were solemnly carried -before him.” - -The hand was used as an ensign of royalty by the kings of France and -England. In Sandford’s Genealogical History, there is the following note -on the counter-seal of king Edward the third: “In the margin of this -counter-seal, near the point of the king’s sword, is represented the -_hand of justice_, being an ensign of royalty peculiar only to the kings -of France, for though they in common with other princes carry in their -right hand a sceptre of gold, yet in the other they bear the _hand of -justice_, being a short rod, and having on the top of it a _left hand_, -wide open, made of ivory, on account of the elephant being the only -quadruped observable for his devotion, love of his governors, and for -his equity. The left hand it is said, is preferred to the right for this -purpose, because not being employed in working so many wicked actions as -the right, it became more proper than the other to represent the symbol -of justice. This hand is also placed in the counter-seals of his -successors Richard the second, and Henry the fourth; king Henry the -fifth omitted it in his seal, and conquering France both placed that -crown on the head, and the French sceptre and _hand of justice_ in the -hands of his son, king Henry the sixth.” - -Queen Elizabeth used the hand as one of her mint marks. - - - - - HENRIETTA MARIA, - QUEEN OF CHARLES THE FIRST. - - -“Our royal martyr,” says Dr. Kennet, “by taking a consort from the -Bourbon family, did apparently bring over some evils and mischiefs that -disturbed his whole reign. For within less than one year, the French -servants of that queen grew so imperious and insolent, that the king was -forced to discharge them, and to humble them by a return into their own -country.” - -“A very sad doom it was certainly to the French,” says L’Estrange in his -annals of king Charles, “but as the animadversion was extremely severe, -so their offences were in like degree heinous. The bishop of Mende, the -queen’s almoner, stood charged for putting intolerable scorn upon, and -making religion itself do penance, by enjoining her Majesty, under the -notion of penance, to go barefoot, to spin, and to wait upon her family -servants at their ordinary repasts, to walk on foot in the mire on a -rainy morning, from Somerset House to St. James’s; her confessor, mean -while, like Lucifer himself, riding by her in his coach; but, which is -worst of all, to make a progress to Tyburn, there to present her -devotions for the departed souls of the Papists, who had been executed -at that place, on account of the Gunpowder Treason, and other enormous -crimes. A most impious piaculary, whereof the king said acutely, that -the action can have no greater invective than the relation. The other -sex were accused of crimes of another nature, whereof Madam St. George -was, as in dignity of office, so in guilt, the principal; culpable she -was in many particulars, but her most notorious and unpardonable fault -was, her being an accursed instrument of some unkindness between the -king and queen. These incendiaries were cashiered, the queen, who -formerly shewed so much waspish protervity, soon fell into a mode of -loving compliance. But though this renvoy of her Majesty’s servants, -imported domestic peace, yet was it attended with an ill aspect from -France, though our king, studying to preserve fair correspondence with -his brother, sent the Lord Carleton with instructions to represent a -true account of the action, with all the motives to it; but his -reception was very coarse, being never admitted to audience. Louis -despatched Monsieur the Marshal de Bassompierre, as Extraordinary -Ambassador to our king, to demand the restitution of the queen’s -domesticks: which he at last obtained for most of them.” - -“It was this match,” adds Dr. Kennet, “that began to corrupt our nation -with French modes and vanities; which gave occasion to Mr. Prynne to -write that severe invective, called Histriomastix, against stage plays; -to betray our councils to the French court; to weaken the poor -Protestants in France, by rendering ineffectual the relief of Rochelle; -nay, and to lessen our own trade and navigation. These ill effects, -beyond the king’s intention, raised such a jealousy, and spread such a -damp upon the English subjects, that it was unhappily turned into one of -the unjust occasions of civil war, which indeed began more out of hatred -to that party, than out of any disaffection to the king. The people -thought themselves too much under French counsels, and a French -ministry, or else, they could never have been drawn aside into that -great rebellion. This interest when suspected to prevail, brought the -king into urgent difficulties; and in the midst of them the aid and -assistance, which that interest offered him, did but the more -effectually weaken him. On this side the water the French services -betrayed him; and on the other side, the French policies were at work to -betray him.” - -And, indeed, as queen Henrietta had a mighty, if not a supreme sway over -King Charles’s councils, so did her mother, Mary de Medicis, who came -over by her invitation, administer great cause of jealousy to this -nation. “The people,” says L’Estrange, “were generally malecontent at -her coming, and wished her farther off. For they did not like her train -and followers, which had often been observed to be the sword of -pestilence, so that she was beheld as some meteor of evil signification. -Nor was one of these calamities thought more the effect of her fortune -than inclination; for her restless and unconstant spirit was prone to -embroil all wheresoever she came. And besides, as queen Henrietta was -extraordinary active in raising money among the Roman Catholics of this -kingdom, to enable King Charles to make war against his subjects of -Scotland, so was she extreme busy in fomenting the unhappy differences -between his Majesty and his English Parliament.” - -Sir John Reresby, in his Memoirs, asserts that queen Henrietta Maria was -married after the king’s death to Lord St. Alban’s. “The abbess of an -English college in Paris, whither the queen used to retire, would tell -me,” says Sir John, “that Lord Jermyn, since St. Alban’s, had the queen -greatly in awe of him, and indeed it was obvious that he had great -interest with her concerns; but that he was married to her, or _had -children by her, as some have reported_, I did not then believe, _though -the thing was certainly so_.” - -Madame Baviere, in her letters, says, “Charles the First’s widow made a -clandestine marriage, with her _Chevalier d’ Honneur_, Lord St. Alban’s, -who treated her extremely ill, so that whilst she had not a faggot to -warm herself, he had in his apartment a good fire, and a sumptuous -table. He never gave the queen a kind word, and when she spoke to him, -he used to say, _Que me veut cette femme?_” - -To what a miserable state the queen was reduced may be seen in the -following extract from De Retz’s Memoirs, (vol. 1. p. 261.) “Four or -five days before the king removed from Paris, I went to visit the queen -of England, whom I found in her daughter’s chamber, who hath been since -Duchess of Orleans. At my coming in she said, ‘You see I am come to keep -Henrietta company. The poor child could not rise to-day for want of a -fire.’ The truth is, that the cardinal for six months together had not -ordered her any money towards her pension; that no trades-people would -trust her for any thing; and that there was not at her lodgings in the -Louvre one single billet. You will do me the justice to suppose that the -princess of England did not keep her bed the next day for want of a -faggot; but it was not this which the Princess of Conde meant in her -letter. What she spoke about was, that some days after my visiting the -queen of England, I remembered the condition I had found her in, and had -strongly represented the shame of abandoning her in that manner, which -caused the Parliament to send 40,000 livres to her Majesty. Posterity -will hardly believe that a Princess of England, grand-daughter of Henry -the Great, hath wanted a faggot in the month of January, to get out of -bed in the Louvre, and in the eyes of a French court. We read in -histories, with horror, of baseness less monstrous than this; and the -little concern I have met with about it in most people’s minds, has -obliged me to make, I believe, a thousand times this reflection—that -examples of times past move men beyond comparison more than those of -their own times. We accustom ourselves to what we see; and I have -sometimes told you, that I doubted whether Caligula’s horse being made a -consul would have surprized us so much as we imagine.” - -As for the relative situations of the king (Charles II.) and Lord -Jermyn, (afterwards St. Alban’s) Lord Clarendon (Hist. of the Rebellion, -vol. 3. p. 2) says that the “Marquis of Ormond was compelled to put -himself in prison, with other gentlemen, at a pistole a week for his -diet, and to walk the streets a-foot, which was no honourable custom in -Paris, whilst the Lord Jermyn kept an excellent table for those who -courted him, and had a coach of his own, and all other accommodations -incident to the most full fortune; and if the king had the most urgent -occasion for the use but of twenty pistoles, as sometimes he had, he -could not find credit to borrow it, which he often had experiment of.” - -The Lord St. Alban’s above mentioned was Henry Jermyn, second son of -Thomas Jermyn, of Rushbrooke, near Bury St. Edmund’s, in Suffolk. In -1644 he was created Lord Jermyn, with limitation of the honour to the -heirs male of his elder brother Thomas. In 1660 he was further advanced -to the dignity of Earl of St. Alban’s, and Baron of St. Edmund’s Bury, -but on his death in 1683, the earldom became extinct. The barony of -Jermyn devolved on Thomas (son of his elder brother Thomas) who became -second Lord Jermyn: he died unmarried in 1703.—Lord St. Alban’s was -master of the horse to Queen Henrietta Maria, and one of the privy -council to Charles the second. In July 1660 he was sent ambassador to -the court of France, and in 1671 was made Lord Chamberlain of his -majesty’s household.—“He was a man of no great genius,” says Grammont, -“he raised himself a considerable fortune from nothing, and by losing at -play, and keeping a great table, made it appear greater than it was.” -“It is well known what a table the good man kept at Paris, while the -king his master was starving at Brussels, and the queen dowager his -mistress, lived not over well in France.” - -This earl lived in London at _Jermyn house_, which stood at the head of -St. Alban’s-street, Pallmall, which street and Jermyn-street had their -names from him. - - - - - LAST MOMENTS OF PHILIP MELANCTHON.[34] - - -The nineteenth of April, 1560, was the last day of the mortal existence -of this great reformer and pious christian. After the usual medical -inquiries of the morning, he adverted to the calamitous state of the -church of Christ, but intimated his hope that the genuine doctrine of -the gospel would ultimately prevail, exclaiming, “If GOD be for us who -can be against us.” After this he presented fervent supplications to -heaven for the welfare of the church, and in the intervals of sleep -conversed principally upon this subject with several of his visiting -friends. - -Soon after eight in the morning awaking from a tranquil sleep, he -distinctly, though with a feeble voice, repeated a form of prayer which -he had written for his own daily use. An interval of repose having -elapsed after repeating this prayer, he lifted up his eyes to heaven, -and turning to his son-in-law, he said, “I have been in the power of -death, but the LORD has graciously delivered me.” This was supposed to -refer to some deep conflicts of mind, as he repeated the expression to -others. When one of the persons who visited him said, “There is now no -condemnation to them that are in Christ Jesus,” he soon added, “Christ -is made to us wisdom, righteousness, sanctification, and redemption.” -“Let him that glorieth glory in the LORD.” - -The coldness of death was now creeping over him, but his mental -faculties continued unimpaired to the very last breath of mortal -existence. Having expressed a wish to hear some passages from the Old -and New Testaments, his ministerial attendants read the 24th, 25th and -26th Psalms: the 53d chapter of Isaiah; the 7th chapter of John, the 5th -of the Romans, and many other passages. The saying of John respecting -the son of God, he said was perpetually in his mind, “the world knew him -not ... but as many as received him, to them gave he power to become the -sons of GOD, even to them that believe on his name.” - -Upon being asked by his son-in-law if he would have any thing else, he -replied in these emphatic Words, “NOTHING ELSE—BUT HEAVEN!” and -requested that he might not be any further interrupted. Soon afterwards -he made a similar request, begging those around him, who were -endeavouring with officious kindness to adjust his clothes, “not to -disturb his delightful repose.” After some time his friends united with -the Minister present in solemn prayer, and several passages of -scripture, in which he was known always to have expressed peculiar -pleasure were read, such as “Let not your heart be troubled, ye believe -in GOD, believe also in me.”—“In my Father’s house are many -mansions.”—“My sheep hear my voice, and I know them, and they follow -me;” particularly the fifth chapter of Romans, and the triumphant close -of the eighth chapter, commencing “If GOD be for us, who can be against -us?” Many other parts of scripture were recited, and the last word he -uttered was the German particle of affirmation, _Ia_, in reply to one of -his friends, who had inquired if he understood him while reading. The -last motion which his friends who surrounded him to the number of at -least twenty, could discern, was a slight motion of the countenance -which was peculiar to him when deeply affected with religious joy!—“Mark -the perfect man and behold the upright, for the end of that man is -peace!” - -At length, “in the midst of solemn vows and supplications,” at a quarter -before seven, in the evening, at the age of sixty-three, he gently -breathed his last. No distractions of mind, no foreboding terrors of -conscience agitated this attractive scene. His chamber was “privileged -beyond the common walks of virtuous life—quite in the verge of -heaven”—and he expired, like a wave scarcely undulating to the evening -zephyr of an unclouded summer sky. It was a “DEPARTURE”—a “SLEEP”—“the -earthly house of this tabernacle was dissolved.” - -Footnote 34: - - Melancthon was born at Brette, a village of the Palatinate, on the - 16th of February, 1497. In his childhood he made an astonishing - progress in the acquisition of languages. Luther, and his doctrines, - appeared about this time, and Melancthon stood forward as one of their - most strenuous supporters; indeed the Lutheran system was in a great - measure planned by him, and the famous instrument by which it was - publicly declared, called the Confession of Augsburg, was the - production of his pen. Melancthon was the intimate friend of Erasmus, - and Erasmus the patron of Holbein. This connection will account for - his appearance in a Collection of Portraits, drawn by Holbein, of the - principal personages in the Court of Henry the Eighth, though - Melancthon never was in this country. An engraving of him is among the - Holbein Heads, published by Mr. Chamberlaine, and there is a - full-length portrait of this great Reformer, with a fac-simile of his - writing, in his Life, published by the Rev. F. A. Cox, London, 1815, - 8vo. - - - - - HOUSE OF COMMONS. - - -A considerable number of treatises were written in the middle and latter -end of the seventeenth century, and a few in the beginning of the -eighteenth, respecting the period at which the House of Commons asserted -that independence which it is so material to the security and happiness -of the country it should possess, and obtained that share in the -legislature it now enjoys; but the writers on both sides,[35] eager in -the maintenance of the cause they espoused, and taking advantage of the -scanty means the public had of knowing what was contained in the early -Rolls of Parliament[36] and other ancient records, suppressed from -partiality and interested zeal, much of the information themselves -possessed, which rendered of little use to the public an inquiry that -might otherwise have been attended with considerable advantage. - -It might be supposed indeed, that when men so remarkable for diligence -and learning, as Prynne and Petyt, (who were both keepers of the records -in the Tower, among which are most of the Rolls of Parliament, and all -the Claus Rolls) took opposite sides of the controversy, about the time -when the Commons first formed a part of the legislature, whatever could -have made for or against either side of the question would have been -produced. And yet with all their opportunities and their eagerness for -research, those who have attentively looked through the Rolls of -Parliament, will find amongst them much matter of importance respecting -the questions those writers discussed at different periods, to which -neither of them referred, either in support of his own, or in -contradiction to his opponent’s argument. Rymer was equally zealous in -supporting the side he took, in the beginning of the last century. Any -thing therefore having been brought to light by the publication of the -Rolls of Parliament, which appears to have escaped the industry and -research of such men, is a strong proof of the utility of printing those -valuable documents. - -As early as the 46th of Edward the third, a statute was made, ordaining -that all persons should be entitled to search for, and have -exemplifications of records, as well such as proved contrary to the -interest of the king, as such as were favourable to it. - -Great and eminent men, however, not more distinguished by their high -stations, than for their talents and research, stated opinions, some on -points of magnitude, in the pursuit of mere legal investigations, -different from those which are probably entertained by such as have -carefully perused the Parliamentary Records, which were printed during -the reign of his late Majesty. - -In corroboration of this assertion, it may be sufficient to mention two -opinions of Lord Coke’s. - -The first that the Lords and Commons sat together late in the reign of -king Edward the third[37] and until the Commons had a perpetual Speaker. -The direct contrary of this opinion it is thought is evident from the -Rolls of Parliament. It does not appear from any Records that the two -Houses ever sat for deliberation in the same assembly, from the time the -Commons were regularly summoned in their representative capacity to -Parliament. - -On the contrary, so early as the 18th of Edward the first,[38] (Rolls of -Par. vol. 1. p. 25, a. the earliest Roll extant) there is a Grant[39] to -the king for the marriage of his eldest daughter, by several Peers -named, “et cæteri Magnates et Proceres tunc in Parliamento existentes, -pro se et Communitate totius Regni Angliæ quantum in ipsis est;” that -is, “and other Lords and Nobles for themselves and the Community of the -whole kingdom of England, as much as they were able.” In the 19th of -Edward the second (p. 351. a.) there is a grant to the king for carrying -on the war with Scotland, by the Citizens, Burgesses, and Knights for -counties, of a fifteenth of the moveables of the Citizens, Burgesses, -and men of the counties, cities, and towns. - -In the 14th of Edward the second (p. 371.) complaint was made by the -Knights, Citizens and Burgesses of felonies for which they besought a -remedy: and the Record concludes “Et Concordatum est per Dominum Regem -de Consilio Prelatorum, Comitum, Baronum, et aliorum Peritorum, in dicto -Parliamento existentium quod,” &c. that is, “and it was agreed between -our Lord the king and the council of Prelates, Earls, Barons, and other -great men in the said Parliament assembled, &c.” - -The Entries in the sixth of Edward the third, 1331, (to the Parliament -Rolls of which year Lord Coke particularly refers for proof of the Lords -and Commons then sitting together) which appear to bear on the point in -question, are in vol. ii. p. 66. At the first meeting at Westminster, -the Prelates by themselves, and the Knights for counties by themselves, -deliberated on the business opened to them at the beginning of the -Parliament, and answered by advising the king not to go in person to -Ireland to quell the rebellion there. And in the third meeting in that -year at York, when a statement was made by Geoffrey le Scroop, in the -presence of the king, and “de touz les Grantz en plein Parlement,” of -all the Lords in full Parliament; and afterwards it was agreed by the -king and the whole in full Parliament, that certain Bishops and Peers -named, should meet on the business in discussion by themselves, the -other Prelates, Earls and Barons, and the Proxies by themselves; and the -Knights of the shire and Commons by themselves. The business was -discussed accordingly during some days; after which the Commons had -leave to return to their counties, and the Prelates, Earls, and Barons, -were to remain till the day following. - -In the 13th of Edward the third (vol. 2. p. 104.) a grant was made to -the king, “par les Grantz,” of a tenth of the grain of their demesne -lands, and of their fleeces, with certain reservations. The Commons, -however, after representing their having heard the statement of the -king’s necessities, the extent of which they were aware of, and were -willing to relieve as they had always done; said, that as the aid must -be a great one they dared not assent to it without consulting with “les -Communes de leur Pais,” the Commons of their counties. And they desired -another Parliament to be summoned. At which subsequent meeting, in the -same year, (p. 107. b.) the occasion of summoning the Parliament was -explained to the Commons, on which they said they would deliberate. They -afterwards proposed to grant 30,000 sacks of wool on certain conditions, -which if not agreed to by the king, the aid was to be withheld. The -Earls and Barons the same day granted for themselves and the Peers of -the land who held by Barony, the tenth sheaf, the tenth fleece, and the -tenth lamb. - -In the 14th of Edward the third, (p. 112, a.) grants were made by the -Prelates, Earls, and Barons, for themselves and all their tenants, and -by the Knights of shires for themselves, and for the commons of the -land, of the ninth sheaf, the ninth fleece, and the ninth lamb; and by -the Citizens and Burgesses of a real ninth of their property; and -merchants not inhabiting cities and towns, and other people who reside -in forests and wastes, and who do not live by their gains or their -flocks, a fifteenth of all their property according to the true value. - -In the 15th of Edward the third (p. 127, a.) on occasion of a Grant made -to the king in a former Parliament, to enable him to purchase friends -and allies for the recovery of his rights, having not been as available -as it ought to have been, it was proposed that consideration should be -had, “par touz les Grantz et Communes,” “by all the Lords and Commons,” -how the grant should be made most profitable to the king, and least -burthensome to the people, “les Grantz de par eux, et les Chivalers des -Counteez, Citeyens, et Burgeys de par eux,” that is, “the Lords by -themselves, and the Knights for counties, Citizens and Burgesses by -themselves.” - -In the 17th of Edward the third, (p. 136, a.) “les ditz Prelatz et -Grantz assemblez en la Chambre Blanche (the court of requests) -responderent,” &c. (p. 136, 6.) “Et pour vindrent les Chivalers des -Counteez et les Communes et responderent par Monsieur William Trussell -en la dite Chambre Blanche qi’ en Presence de nostre Signeur le Roi et -les ditz Prelates,” &c. that is, “on which day the said Prelates and -Lords assembled in the _Chambre Blanche_, answered,” &c. “And then came -the Knights for counties, and the Commons, and answered by Monsieur -William Trussell in the said _Chambre Blanche_, and in the presence of -our Lord the king, and the said Prelates,” &c. - -There can be little doubt but that this William Trussell was Speaker of -the House of Commons. He is styled by Higden, who wrote in the reign of -Edward the third, in his “Polychronicon,” “Procurator of the -Parliament,” when he, in the name of all the men in the land of England, -renounced allegiance to king Edward the second, in the last year of that -king’s reign. - -The Speaker of the Commons was indeed styled “Parlour and Procurator,” -so late as the first of Henry the fourth. (Rolls of Parl. vol. 3. p. -424, b.) - -In the 18th of Edward the third, when the king was going-to France for -the recovery of his rights, the grants by the Lords and Commons were -quite distinct; the former to accompany him in the war, “les ditz grantz -granterent de passer et lour aventurer ovesque lui;” the Commons -granted, for the same cause, two fifteenths of the commonalty, and two -tenths of the cities and boroughs. (Rolls of Parl. vol. 2. p. 150, b.) - -There are other grants in this reign by the Commons; 20th of Edward the -third, (p. 159, b.) and 21st of Edward the third, (p. 166.) In the 22d -of Edward the third, (p. 200.) the Commons grant an aid, after several -days consideration, but under certain conditions. In the 29th of Edward -the third, (p. 265, b.) there is a separate grant by the Commons. - -In the 40th of Edward the third, after the occasion of summoning the -Parliament had been explained, the Lords and Commons were directed to -depart, and to meet again on the day following, the Lords “en la Chambre -Blanche,” and the Commons in the painted Chamber. (Vol. 2. p. 289.) - -In the 42d of Edward the third (p. 227, a.) a Petition of the Commons, -and the answers thereto, were read in the Court of Requests, in the -presence of the King, Lords, and Commons; and a statement was made to -the king in this Parliament “par les Grantz et Communes,” by the Lords -and Commons, all the former and many of the latter having dined with the -king; after which John de la Lee was put on his defence before them in -the said place. - -In the 50th of Edward the third, (p. 283.) the Commons profess the -utmost loyalty and goodwill to the king; but add, that if he had -faithful ministers about him, he must be rich enough to do without -subsidies, especially considering the sums of money brought into the -kingdom by the ransoms of the king of France, the king of Scotland, &c. -They then proceed to the impeachment of a considerable number of -persons. - -And in the 51st of Edward the third, (p. 363.) on the opening of the -Parliament, the Commons were directed by the king to retire to their -ancient place of meeting, in the Chapter House of the abbey of -Westminster. To this record Lord Coke himself refers. - -It will be seen in the note p. 146, that Sir Thomas Hungerford is -mentioned as Speaker of the House of Commons; and in the first of -Richard the second, that Peter de la Mare was Speaker of the Commons. - -The second opinion of Lord Coke’s to which allusion has already been -made, is, that if an act mentions only that the king enacts, and the -Lords assent, without naming the Commons, the omission cannot be -supplied by any intendment. Lord Coke expressly says, if an act be -penned, that “the king with the assent of the Lords,” or “with the -assent of the Commons,” it is no act of Parliament, for three ought to -assent to it, the King, the Lords, and the Commons; or otherwise it is -not an act of Parliament; and by the record of the act it is expressed -which of them gave their assent; and that excludes all other intendments -that any other gave their assent. (Lord Coke, 8th Report, p. 20, b.) - -How dangerous it would be to decide on the validity of our statutes, on -such ground, will be seen by a single instance. - -The act of the first of Edward the sixth against exporting horses -without a licence, after the recital in the preamble, runs thus; “For -remedy whereof, be it therefore enacted by our sovereign lord the king, -and by the Commons in this present Parliament assembled, and by the -authority of the same,”—the Lords being not once mentioned in the -statute, which is accurately printed from the original act. - -Now it appears by the Lords’ Journals, (vol. 1. p. 303, a,) that this -act had not only the assent of the House of Lords, but that it had its -origin in that House, where it passed unanimously, (p. 306, a.) was -returned from the Commons with a proviso, which was agreed to by the -Lords, (p. 312, a.) and is in the Journals among the acts passed that -session. (p. 313, a.) - -There has not been found in the Records, the slightest foundation for an -opinion, that there was any election of representatives of the Commons -earlier than the 49th of Henry the third, 1265, except in the entry -respecting the borough of St. Alban’s, so often referred to by different -writers. It is, however, certain that those who held _in capite_ of the -king, were a necessary part of the great council, as early as king -John’s time, when aids and escuage were to be granted to the sovereign. - -In the 52d of Henry the third, 1268, a parliament, or more properly a -great council, of Barons only, was held at Marlborough, where the great -charter was confirmed. The members of this parliament or council were -such of the great Barons and Tenants _in capite_, as the king pleased to -summon thereto. - -King Edward the first, at Easter, 1276, held a parliament at -Westminster, of Archbishops, Bishops, Abbots, Priors, Earls, Barons, and -_Commons_, wherein many excellent laws were made, called the Statutes of -Westminster the first. It is proper to mention that the _Commons_ here -spoken of, were not Knights of shires, or Burgesses, but the smaller -Tenants who held in chief of the king, or Tenants _in capite_. - -It is generally said by our Historians, that the first time that any -Citizens, or Burgesses were summoned to parliament by the king’s -authority, was in the 23d year of king Edward the first, 1294, but the -editors of the Parliamentary History (vol. 1. p. 87,) have shewn that -the same king, in the eleventh year of his reign, 1283, called a -parliament to be holden at Shrewsbury, on occasion of taking prisoner, -David, brother of Llewellyn, prince of Wales, the latter having lately -been killed in battle. - -The king in summoning this Parliament was more explicit than he had ever -been before. The writs of summons are still extant. The first is -directed to the Barons to meet the king at Shrewsbury, on the 30th of -September. The second writ is directed to the sheriffs of every county -in England, to cause to be chosen two Knights for the commonalty of the -county, as also a third directed to the several cities and boroughs -mentioned, and a fourth writ to the Judges. - -Mr. Tyrrell observes, that “neither Prynne nor Dr. Brady, with all their -diligence, have taken any notice of these writs to summon this -Parliament. - -“The writs were directed to all the Earls and Barons by name, to the -number of 110; but the writs to the cities and boroughs are more -remarkable, especially as they are the first upon record, requiring the -attendance of the Knights of the shire, Citizens, and Burgesses, except -those issued in the name of the late king Henry the third.” - -The cities and boroughs to which these writs were directed were the -following:—Bristol, Canterbury, Carlisle, Colchester, Chester, Exeter, -Grimsby, Hereford, Lynn, Lincoln, Newcastle (Tyne,) Norwich, -Northampton, Nottingham, Scarborough, Shrewsbury, Winchester, Worcester, -Yarmouth, (Norfolk) and York. - -In the 23d of Edward the third, 1294, a Parliament was summoned to meet -at Westminster, and writs were sent to the several sheriffs of England -to cause to be elected two Knights for each county, two Citizens for -each city, and two Burgesses for each borough, to be at the said -Parliament, to consent and agree to such things, as the Earls, Barons, -and Peers of the Realm should ordain; and from this year is to be dated -the first regular general summons of Knights, Citizens, and Burgesses to -Parliament. It is proper to observe that in this Parliament, the Earls, -Barons, and Knights of the several counties, sat, treated, and consulted -altogether, and gave the king an eleventh part of all their moveable -goods; the Citizens and Burgesses acted separately, and granted a -seventh part of all their moveables. - -In the more early period of the history of the House of Commons, when -the Parliament frequently sat only for a single day, the whole business -being to grant the king a subsidy, it is probable that the Speaker might -with more propriety be called the chairman, for sometimes one of the -members was appointed to the chair, and sometimes another; some -resolutions were ordered to be made by one member, and others to be -reported by another. - -In the 19th of Edward the second, 1325, William Trussell was in the -chair, when Hugh Spenser the younger was accused of Treason, in -Parliament. - -In the 6th of Edward the First, the Commons made answer to the king by -Sir Geoffrey le Scroop, and it was agreed by the king, and the whole in -full Parliament, that certain Bishops and Peers named, should meet on -the business in discussion by themselves; the other Prelates, Earls, and -Barons, and the Proxies[40] by themselves; and the Knights of the shires -and Commons by themselves. In the fifty first of the same king Sir -Thomas Hungerfore was Speaker of the Commons. - -In the first of Richard the Second, 1377, Sir Peter de la Mare, knight -of the shire for the county of Hereford, was Speaker of the Commons, as -he had been in the last Parliament but one of Edward the Third. In the -fifth of the former king, 1382, Sir Richard Waldegrave was chosen by the -Commons to be their Speaker, who made an excuse, and desired to be -discharged. He is the first Speaker that appears upon record to have -made an excuse, but the king commanded him, upon his allegiance, to -accept the office, seeing he had been chosen by the Commons. - -In the fifth of Henry the fourth, 1404, Sir Arnold Savage being chosen -Speaker, after making an excuse, requested the king, in the name of the -Commons, that they might freely make complaint of any thing amiss in the -government, and that the king would not by the sinister information of -any person take offence at that of which they should complain, which -petition was granted by the king. - -In the seventh year of the same king, 1406, Sir John Tiptoft being -chosen Speaker, made an excuse on account of his youth, which not being -accepted, he requested that if any writing was delivered by the Commons, -and they should desire to have it again, to amend or alter any thing -therein, it might be restored to them, which was granted. Whilst he was -Speaker, he signed and sealed in the name of the Commons the deed which -entailed the crown upon Henry the fourth. This _young_ Speaker is said -to have taken more upon him, and to have spoken more boldly and freely -to the King and the Lords, than any before him, insomuch that his -example being followed, the king gave a check to it, when Thomas -Chaucer, Esq. was chosen Speaker in his room. - -In the 20th of Henry the sixth, 1450, the Commons presented Sir John -Popham to the king as their Speaker, who making an excuse, it was -received, and he was discharged, on which the Commons presented William -Tresham, who had twice before been Speaker, who was accepted. - -In the 31st of the same king, 1453, Thomas Thorpe, Esq. Speaker of the -House of Commons was arrested in execution at the suit of the Duke of -York during the vacation between two sessions, and the opinion of the -judges being demanded by the Lords, they refused to judge of the -liberties of Parliament as not belonging to their jurisdiction, -whereupon the Lords without their advice adjudged that the Speaker was -not entitled to any privilege, which, on being-signified to the Commons, -and also the king’s pleasure being made known to them that they should -choose another Speaker, they chose Sir Thomas Charleton. - -In the 15th of Henry the eighth, 1523, Sir Thomas More, Chancellor of -the Duchy of Lancaster, was chosen Speaker of the House of Commons. He -made the usual protestation for himself, and prayed that if any member -should in debate speak more largely than he ought, that he might be -pardoned by the king, which was granted. - -In the first year of queen Elizabeth, 1559, Sir Thomas Gargrave was -chosen Speaker; in his speech to the queen he made four requests, namely -first, free access to her majesty; secondly, for liberty of speech; -thirdly, privilege from arrests; and fourthly, that his mistakes might -not prejudice the house. - -In Scotland the system of representation was not adopted till the reign -of James the first, of that kingdom, in 1427. By an act of that year it -was enacted, that “the king with consent of the whole council generally -has statute and ordained that the small Barons and free Tenants need not -to come to Parliaments nor general councils, so that of each sheriffdom -there be sent, chosen at the head court of the sheriffdom, two or more -wise men after the largeness of the sheriffdom, &c.”—Scottish Acts -printed in 1682, p. 30. - -In Scotland the Lords and Commons unquestionably sat in the same House -till the Union of the two kingdoms, and the Commissioner who represented -the sovereign, debated with them from the throne, although he had the -power, which he sometimes used, of adjourning the assembly when he -pleased. - -Footnote 35: - - Several of these were men remarkable for their talents and learning: - among whom were Petyt, Tyrrel, Sir Robert Filmer, Dr. Brady, Prynne, - Rymer, &c. &c. - - Petyt and Prynne were keepers of the Records in the Tower; and Rymer, - who was the king’s Historiographer, had a warrant not only to search - the Records in every office in the kingdom, but to make copies of such - as he should select for publication. How diligent he was in using this - authority is evident from the invaluable collection of Records, &c. - published by him, and from a large collection of others in manuscript, - now in the Museum. - - Petyt makes a direct charge, and not unfounded, against Prynne, for an - intended omission of a reference to the Rolls of Parliament (2d Hen. - V. p. 2. No. 10.) in the Abridgment of the Rolls made by Sir Robert - Cotton, and printed by Prynne. - - Even Sir Robert Atkyns, a man eminently distinguished for his - integrity and learning, as well as for his deep research into the - ancient History of Parliament, who had been a Judge of the Common - Pleas, and was afterwards Chief Baron of the Exchequer and Speaker of - the House of Lords, in his learned and elaborate argument in the year - 1680, in the case of an information by the Attorney General against - Williams, Speaker of the House of Commons, in asserting the antiquity - of that House, fell into some mistakes, from not having resorted to - the original records. He states, and insists much on it, that the - Speaker of the House of Commons, Sir Thomas Hungerford, 51 Edward III. - was Speaker _of the Parliament_; whereas the words in the Record are, - “Monsieur Thomas de Hungerford, Chivaler, q’i avoit les Paroles pur - les Communes d’ Engleterre.” Rolls of Parl. vol. ii. p. 374, a. In the - first of Richard the Second, the Speaker, Sir Robert says again, was - termed the Speaker _of the Parliament_; the words in the Record are, - “Mons. Pere de la Mare Chivaler q’avoit les Paroles de Par la - Commune.”—Vol. iii. p. 5, 6. - - The same with respect to Sir John Bussey, 20 Richard II. The words in - the Record are, “les Communes presenterent Mons. John Bussey pour leur - Parlour.”—Page 338, a.—339, b. - -Footnote 36: - - In 1766, the late Thomas Astle, Esq. was consulted by the - Sub-Committee of the House of Lords, concerning the printing of the - Rolls of Parliament, and in 1768, on the death of Mr. Blyke, Mr. Astle - introduced his father-in-law, the Rev. Philip Morant, author of the - History of Essex, to succeed that gentleman in preparing the Rolls for - the press. Mr. Morant died in November, 1770, after proceeding in them - as far as the 16th of Henry the fourth, when Mr. Astle was appointed - by the House of Lords to carry on the work, which he completed in - 1775. They are printed in six volumes, _folio_. - -Footnote 37: - - Some reliance was placed by his Lordship on the Treatise “de Modo - tenendi Parliamentum;” the authority of which, if not entirely - destroyed by Prynne, will not at least in future have much - weight.—Prynne’s Animadversions on 4 Inst. p. 1. to p. 8. and p. 331. - -Footnote 38: - - In the Parliament of the 18th of Edward the first there were no - Citizens or Burgesses. There is a bundle of writs yet extant, by which - this Parliament was summoned. They are directed to the sheriffs of - several or most of the counties of England, by which two or three - Knights were directed to be chosen for each county, and accordingly - the counties of Norfolk, Suffolk, Cambridge and Huntingdon, and - Cumberland returned each of them _three_ Knights, and the other - counties two each. This Parliament gave the King a fifteenth of all - their moveables as appears by the account of the same which is entered - upon the Great Roll of the 23d of that king, in which account we have - the style of this Parliament, namely, “The account of the fifteenth, - granted to the king in his 18th year, by the Archbishops, Bishops, - Abbots, Priors, Earls, Barons, and _all others of the kingdom_, - assessed, collected, and levied,” &c. - - We may here observe that the two or three Knights, chosen by the - several counties, did represent those counties, and according to the - form of the writ, consulted upon and consented to this grant of a - fifteenth. - - So also in the 22d Edward the First there were neither Citizens nor - Burgesses summoned to the Parliament of that year. On the 8th of - October the king issued writs directed to every sheriff in England to - cause two discreet Knights to be chosen for each county, with full - powers, “so that for defect of such powers, the business might not - remain undone.” And on the following day the king issued other writs - to the sheriffs to cause to be elected two knights more, to be added - to the former two, making four for each county, and these four Knights - for each county, and the Earls, Barons, and Great Men, on the day of - their meeting gave the king a tenth part of all their goods. - -Footnote 39: - - This was only a grant of forty shillings for every Knight’s fee.—See - Rolls of Parliament, vol. 2, p. 112, a. hereinafter referred to in 14 - of Edward III. - -Footnote 40: - - Proxies in Parliament is a privilege appropriated to the Lords only; - the first instance of a Proxy that occurs in the History of the - English Parliament, is in the reign of Edward the first. - - In a Parliament at Westminster in the reign of Edward the second, the - bishops of Durham and Carlisle were allowed to send their Proxies to - Parliament. - - In the early period of the History of Parliament, the Lords were not - obliged to make Barons only their Proxies as the custom now is; the - Bishops and Parliamentary Abbots usually gave their letters of proxy - to Prebendaries, Parsons, and Canons; but since the first year of king - Henry the eighth, there appear in the journals no Proxies but such as - were Lords of Parliament. - - In the 35th of king Edward the third, 1360, the following Peeres were - summoned by writ to Parliament, to appear there by their Proxies, - namely, Mary, Countess of Norfolk; Eleanor, Countess of Ormond; Anna, - Baroness Despenser; Philippa, Countess of March; Joanna, Baroness - Fitzwalter; Agneta, Countess of Pembroke; Mary de St. Paul, Countess - of Pembroke; Margaret, Baroness de Roos; Matilda, Countess of Oxford; - Catherine, Countess of Athol. These ladies were called _ad colloquium - et tractatum_ by their Proxies. - - - - - MOSAIC PAINTING. - - -Mosaic is a representation of painting by means of small pebbles, or -shells of sundry colours, and, of late years, with pieces of glass -coloured at pleasure; it is an ornament of much beauty, and lasts for -ages, and is mostly used in pavements and floors. - -The term _Mosaic_ is derived from the latin _musivum_, and ought to be -pronounced _musaic_. It is odd enough that many persons have really -fancied they could trace the etymology of this word to the name of the -great Jewish legislator. It is well observed by Wotton that Mosaic has -“long life;” and we have much to lament that, the art was not practised -in ancient Rome with the perfection it has attained in modern Rome. Had -Mosaic been applied to exact imitations of the pictures of Apelles, -Zeuxis, and the great artists of ancient times, we should still have -been the contemporaries of every fine genius, and a new polish had -renewed their fading beauties, and restored them to immortal youth. - -Pliny has proved that the Greeks first practised Mosaic, and notices a -curious work of the kind which was called “the unswept piece.” This -singular performance exhibited to the eye, crumbs of bread and other -things which fall from a table, so naturally imitated, that the eye was -perfectly deceived, and it looked as if the pavement had never been -swept; it was formed of small shells, painted of different colours. - -There were several pieces of Mosaic found in Herculaneum; one much -resembled a Turkey carpet. The ancients probably gave in Mosaic some -historical subjects, for there was also discovered the Rape of Europa, -composed of small flints. - -Mosaic has been practised in Italy two thousand years; the manner of -working it in that country is by copying in very small pieces of marble -of different colours, every thing which a picture can be expected to -imitate. Instead of common stones, too difficult to collect for so great -a work, or which would require too much time to prepare and polish, the -Italian artists sometimes have recourse to paste, that is to a -composition of glass and enamel, which after passing through a crucible -takes a brilliant colour. All these pieces are inlaid, and very thin, -and their length is proportioned to their slenderness. They sometimes -inlay a piece not thicker than a hair, and the artist afterwards -arranges these pieces according to the colours and design of the picture -before him. They are easily fixed in the stucco or plaster of Paris -placed to receive them which soon hardens and dries. Such works are so -solid that they are capable of resisting the assaults of time through -ages. The Mosaic of St. Mark at Venice has existed above 900 years in -perfect splendour and beauty. - -Several fine pieces of Roman Mosaic work have been discovered in England -in the last and preceding centuries, particularly at Woodchester in -Gloucestershire, and at Horkstow, in Lincolnshire, both of which have -been elaborately described and engraved by the late Samuel Lysons, Esq. -Others have been found at Winterton, Roxby, Scampton, and Denton, in the -county of Lincoln; in Yorkshire, Leicestershire, Nottinghamshire, -Northamptonshire, &c. &c. - -Sir Christopher Wren intended to have beautified the inside of the -Cupola of St. Paul’s Cathedral, instead of painting it in the manner in -which it now appears, with the more durable ornament of Mosaic work, as -is nobly executed in the Cupola of St. Peter’s at Rome. For this purpose -he intended to have procured from Italy four of the most eminent artists -in that profession; but as this art was a great novelty in England, and -not generally understood, the plan did not receive the encouragement it -deserved. It was thought also that the expense would prove too great, -and the time very long in the execution; but though these and all other -objections were fully answered, yet this excellent design was no further -pursued. - - - - - KING EGBERT. - - -It is a generally received opinion, sanctioned by nearly every modern -historian, that Egbert king of the West Saxons, having dissolved the -Heptarchy, about the year 828, became the first sole monarch of England. -This is, however, one of those historical points which it is more easy -to assert than to confirm. There were undoubtedly many chief monarchs of -the heptarchy, both before and after the time of Egbert, that sovereign -himself having been one of those chief monarchs, but some of those petty -kingdoms subsisted for nearly one hundred and twenty years after -Egbert’s death. That this was the fact is proved both by their coins and -their laws. Several of their coins are still to be found in the cabinets -of the curious. Thus we find that in the kingdom of the East Angles, -king Edmund, called the Saint, and Ethelstan, (Guthrun the Danish -general being so named by Alfred at his baptism,) coined money, the -first in 857, and the latter in 878. The kings of Mercia coined money -until A. D. 874, and the kings of Northumberland till A. D. 950. In the -last mentioned year, the kingdom of Northumberland, which included all -the country north of the Humber, terminated, and England became one -kingdom. It was again divided by Edwy, who began to reign in 959, so -that Edgar may more justly be regarded as commencing the series of kings -of all England. It may be proper here to remark that two kingdoms of the -Heptarchy never coined any money; these were the kingdoms of the East -Saxons and the South Saxons. - -Alfred was the first king that made a code of laws which was common to -the whole kingdom. There were very few legislators among the Saxon -Monarchs. The laws of Ethelbert, who died in 617, are the most ancient -that we have. The next are those of Lothaire, 673; Edric, 684; and -Wightred, 694; all of them kings of Kent. Ina, king of the West Saxons, -688, and Offa king of the Mercians, 757, were the only other kings of -the Heptarchy who formed any laws which have been preserved by -historians. If it be objected that the people of the other kingdoms -could not subsist without laws suited to the situation of their affairs, -we may observe that the monarchs of those kingdoms received into their -states and adopted the laws of the kings already mentioned. The laws of -Ina were received by the other kings of the Heptarchy, and in one of the -great councils held by Offa, king of Mercia, there were present the king -of the East Saxons, the king of the West Saxons, the king of Kent, the -king of Northumberland, and three kings of Wales. - -Alfred having conquered the Danes at Edington, and Guthrun their general -and his principal officers having been baptized in the church of Aller, -near Langport, in Somersetshire, Alfred concluded a treaty of peace with -Guthrun, and gave him the kingdoms of East Anglia and Northumberland for -himself and his Danes, appointing the boundaries of his dominions and -giving him laws which were agreed to and confirmed by Alfred’s and -Guthrun’s nobles. In all cases which were not provided for by this -treaty, Guthrun consented that the Danes should observe the general laws -of Alfred. This treaty was afterwards confirmed and enlarged by Edward -the Elder, Alfred’s son, with the consent and approbation of his and -Guthrun’s nobles. - - - - - THE LATIN LANGUAGE. - - -So sensible were the Romans of the influence of language over national -manners, that it was their most serious care to extend, with the -progress of their arms, the use of the latin tongue. The ancient -dialects of Italy, the Sabine, the Etruscan, and the Venetian, sunk into -oblivion; but the eastern were less docile than the western provinces to -the voice of its victorious preceptors. This obvious difference marked -the two portions of the empire with a distinction of character, which, -though it was in some degree concealed during the meridian splendour of -prosperity, became gradually more visible, as the shades of night -descended upon the Roman world. The western countries were civilized by -the same hands which subdued them. As soon as the barbarians were -reconciled to obedience, their minds were opened to any new impressions -of knowledge and politeness. The language of Virgil and Cicero, though -with some inevitable mixture of corruption, was so universally adopted -in Africa, Spain, Gaul, Britain and Pannonia, that the faint traces of -the Punic or Celtic idioms were preserved only in the mountains or among -the peasants. The Celtic was indeed preserved in the mountains of Wales, -Cornwall, and Armorica; and it may here be observed that Apuleius -reproaches an African youth, who lived among the populace, with the use -of the Punic, whilst he had almost forgot Greek, and neither could nor -would speak Latin. The greater part of St. Austin’s congregations were -strangers to the Punic. Education and study insensibly inspired the -natives of the countries just mentioned with the sentiments of Romans; -and Italy gave fashions, as well as laws, to her latin provincials. They -solicited with more ardour, and obtained with more facility, the freedom -and honours of the state; supported the national dignity in letters and -in arms; and at length in the person of Trajan, produced an Emperor whom -the Scipios would not have disowned for their countryman. Spain alone -produced Columella, the Senecas, Lucan, Martial, and Quinctilian. - -The situation of the Greeks was very different from that of the -barbarians. The former had been long since civilized and corrupted. They -had too much taste to relinquish their language, and too much vanity to -adopt any foreign institutions. Still preserving the prejudices, after -they had lost the virtues of their ancestors, they affected to despise -the unpolished manners of the Roman conquerors, whilst they were -compelled to respect their superior wisdom and power. The Greeks seemed -to be entirely ignorant that the Romans had any good writers; and it is -believed that there is not a single Greek critic, from Dionysius to -Libanius, who mentions Virgil or Horace. Nor was the influence of the -Grecian language and sentiments confined to the narrow limits of that -once celebrated country. Their empire, by the progress of colonies and -conquests, had been diffused from the Adriatic to the Euphrates and the -Nile. Asia was covered with Greek cities, and the long reign of the -Macedonian kings, had introduced a silent revolution into Syria and -Egypt. In their pompous courts, those princes united the elegance of -Athens with the luxury of the East, and the example of the court was -imitated, at an humble distance, by the higher ranks of their subjects. -Such was the general division of the Roman empire into the Latin and -Greek languages. - -To these we may add a third distinction for the body of the natives in -Syria, and especially in Egypt. The use of their ancient dialects, by -secluding them from the commerce of mankind, checked the improvements of -those barbarians. The slothful effeminacy of the former, exposed them to -the contempt; the sullen ferociousness of the latter, excited the -aversion of the conquerors. Those nations had submitted to the Roman -power, but they seldom desired or deserved the freedom of the city; and -it was remarked, that more than two hundred and thirty years elapsed -after the ruin of the Ptolemys, before an Egyptian was admitted into the -Senate of Rome, the first instance of which happened under the reign of -Septimius Severus. - - - - - Dr. HERSCHEL. - - -In the History of Doncaster, written by Dr. Miller, we find the -following account of the early years of this eminent astronomer:— - -“It will ever be a gratifying reflection to me,” says Dr. Miller, “that -I was the first person by whose means this extraordinary genius was -drawn from a state of obscurity. About the year 1760, as I was dining -with the officers of the Durham militia, at Pontefract, one of them -informed me, that they had a young German in their band, as a performer -on the hautboy, who had been only a few months in this country, and yet -spoke English almost as well as a native; that exclusively of the -hautboy, he was an excellent performer on the violin, and if I chose to -repair to another room, he should entertain me with a solo. I did so, -and Mr. Herschel executed a solo of Giordani’s in a manner that -surprised me. Afterwards I took an opportunity to have a little private -conversation with him, and requested to know if he had engaged himself -to the Durham militia for any long period? he answered, ‘No, only from -month to month.’ Leave them then, said I, and come and live with me; I -am a single man, and think we shall be happy together; doubtless your -merit will soon entitle you to a more eligible situation. He consented -to my request, and came to Doncaster. It is true, at that time, my -humble mansion consisted but of two rooms; however, poor as I was, my -cottage contained a small library of well chosen books; and it must -appear singular, that a young German, who had been so short a time in -England, should understand even the peculiarities of our language so -well, as to adopt Dean Swift for his favourite author. I took an early -opportunity of introducing him at Mr. Copley’s concert; and he presently -began - - “Untwisting all the charms that tie - ”The hidden soul of harmony.” - -For never before had we heard the concertos of Corelli, Geminiani, and -Avison, or the overtures of Handel, performed more chastely, or more -according to the original intention of the composers, than by Mr. -Herschel. I soon lost my companion; his fame was presently spread -abroad, he had the offer of scholars, and was solicited to lead the -public concerts at Wakefield and Halifax. - -“About this time a new organ, for the parish church of Halifax, was -built by Snetzler; which was opened with an oratorio, by the late -well-known Joah Bates. Mr. Herschel, and six others, were candidates for -the organist’s place. They drew lots how they were to perform in -rotation. Herschel drew the third lot—the second performer was Mr. -(afterwards Dr.) Wainwright, of Manchester, whose finger was so rapid, -that old Snetzler, the organ builder, ran about the church -exclaiming:—‘Te tevil, te tevil, he run over te keys like one cat, he -will not give my pipes room for to shpeak!’ During Mr. Wainwright’s -performance, I was standing in the middle aile with Herschel;—What -chance have you, said I, to follow this man? He replied, ‘I do not know, -I am sure fingers will not do.’ On which he ascended the loft, and -produced from the organ such an uncommon fullness, such a volume of -slow, solemn harmony, that I could by no means account for the effect. -After this short extemporary effusion, he finished with the old -hundredth psalm, which he played better than his opponent. ‘Aye, aye,’ -cried old Snetzler, ‘tish is very goot, very goot inteet; I will luf -tish man, for he gives my pipes room for to shpeak!’ Having afterwards -asked Herschel by what means, in the beginning of his performance he -produced such an uncommon effect? he replied, ‘I told you fingers would -not do,’ and producing two pieces of lead from his pocket, ‘one of -these,’ said he, ‘I placed on the lowest key of the organ, and the other -upon the octave above; thus by accommodating the harmony, I produced the -effect of four hands instead of two. However, as my leading the concert -on the violin, is their principal object, they will give me the place in -preference to a better performer on the organ; but I shall not stay long -here, for I have the offer of a superior situation at Bath, which offer -I shall accept.’“ - - - - - PARODIES. - - -The present use of this word is strictly consonant with that of the -ancients, who applied it to the giving a ridiculous turn to passages in -Homer and the tragic Poets. There are many in Aristophanes. One of the -happiest modern instances is the parody of the speech of Sarpedon to -Glaucus in the Rape of the Lock. The genealogy of Agamemnon’s sceptre is -also parodied in the same poem, canto 5, v. 87. - - - - - MOURNING FOR THE DEAD. - - -In the Mosaic law the Israelites were commanded _not to cut themselves -for the dead_. The original Hebrew has, however a more extensive meaning -than cutting, and includes all assaults on their own persons, arising -from immoderate grief, such as beating the breasts, tearing the hair, -&c. which were commonly practised by the heathen, who had no hope of a -resurrection, particularly by the Egyptians, which might afford a -particular reason for the Mosaic prohibition. We may also observe, that -among the Romans, it was ordained by one of the laws of the twelve -tables, “Let not women tear their faces, or make lamentations at -funerals,” which proves that this was the custom with the Romans, -previously to making this law. No doubt the law itself was immediately -borrowed from the Athenian code, of which it is a literal translation. - -The Priests of Baal, (1 Kings, ch. 18, v. 28.) assaulted themselves with -knives and lances, which was indeed equivalent to cutting themselves. -Nor was this frantic custom confined to the Priests of Baal; the -_Galli_, and other devotees of the Syrian goddess, cut their arms, and -scourged each others backs, according to Lucian. “Baal’s Priests”, says -Dr. Leland, “were wont to cut and slash themselves with knives and -lances. The same thing was practised in the worship of Isis, according -to Herodotus, and of Bellona, as Lucan mentions. Many authors take -notice of the solemnities of Cybele, the mother of the gods, whose -priests in their sacred processions, made hideous noises and howlings, -cutting themselves till the blood gushed out, as they went along.” - - - - - GARRICK. - - -The genius of Garrick seems to have been particularly calculated to -introduce Shakespeare on the stage. He knew how to alter him so as to -fit him for the audience of the present day, without divesting him of -any of his excellencies, and the few additions he has ventured are in -the spirit of the original. These Plays, so altered, are likely to keep -possession of the theatre, while every other attempt at change or -improvement are forgotten, except Cibber’s Richard the Third, and Tate’s -Lear, which, with some correction of Garrick’s, are still acted, though -the alteration of the last is directly in opposition to the precepts of -Aristotle and Mr. Addison. - -Cibber, though versed in the province of the drama, which is perhaps -essential to make a good dramatic writer, since the knowledge of stage -effect is of great consequence, possessed a genius not above mediocrity; -and Tate was a very indifferent poet. Yet there is a line in Cibber’s -Richard, written by himself, so characteristic of the manner of his -archetype, that it has often been cited as one of Shakespeare’s -beauties. I mean the exclamation of Richard, on Buckingham’s being -taken, - - “Off with his head! so much for Buckingham.” - -And I heard, says Mr. Pye, (Comment. on Aristotle,) Mr. Pitt, afterwards -Lord Chatham, quote the following verse of Tate’s, in the House of -Commons, undoubtedly taking it for Shakespeare’s, - - “Where the gor’d battle bleeds in every vein.” - -The tragedy of Hamlet was, by order of Mrs. Garrick, thrown into -Garrick’s grave. Though he was undoubtedly great in that character, he -was equally so in many of Shakespeare’s characters, and superior in -Lear. The comic characters it is presumed were thought too light for so -solemn an occasion. If by burying that tragedy with Garrick it was meant -to infer that it was lost to the stage with him, a complete edition of -Shakespeare might, with the utmost propriety have been interred with -that inimitable actor. - - - - - LEMONS. - - -Theophrastus, who studied under Plato and Aristotle, says of lemons, -that they were cultivated for their fragrance, not for their taste; that -the peel was laid up with garments, to preserve them from moths; and -that the juice was administered by physicians medicinally. - -Virgil in his second Georgic, describes agreeably the Lemon-tree. Pliny -mentions the lemon-juice as an antidote; but says that the fruit, from -its austere taste, was not eaten. - -Plutarch, who nourished within a generation of Pliny, witnessed the -introduction of lemons at the Roman tables. Juba, king of Mauritania, -was the first who exhibited them at his dinners. And Athenæus introduces -Democritus as not wondering that old people made wry mouths at the taste -of lemons; for, adds he, in my grandfather’s time, they were never set -upon the table. And to this day the Chinese, who grow the fruit, do not -apply it to culinary purposes. - -The great use of lemons began with the introduction of sugar, which is -said to have resulted from the conquest of Sicily, by the Arabs, in the -ninth century. Sestini, in his letters from Sicily and Turkey, thinks -that the best sorts of lemons, and the best sorts of sherbet, were -derived from Florence, by the Sicilians. Probably Rome continued, even -in the dark ages, to be the chief seat of luxury and refinement; and had -domesticated the art of making lemonade, before either Messina or -Florence. - -In Madagascar slices of lemon are boiled, and eaten with salt. - -Pomet, in his History of Drugs, gives the preference over all others to -the lemons of Madeira; but according to Ferrarius, there grows at the -Cape a sweet lemon, to which he gives the name _incomparabilis_. - - - - - ORIGIN OF THE POINT OF HONOUR. - - -We meet with inexplicable enigmas in the codes of the laws of the -barbarians. The law of the Frisians allowed only about the value of a -farthing, by way of compensation, to a person who had been beaten with a -stick; and yet for ever such a small wound it allows more. By the Salic -law, if a freeman gave three blows with a stick to another freeman, he -paid about three halfpence; if he drew blood, he was punished as if he -had wounded him with steel, and he paid about seven-pence halfpenny; -thus the punishment was proportioned to the greatness of the wound. The -law of the Lombards established different compensations for one, two, -three, four blows, and so on. At present a single blow is equivalent to -a hundred thousand. - -The constitution of Charlemagne, inserted in the law of the Lombards, -ordains, that those who were allowed the trial by combat, should fight -with clubs. Perhaps this was out of regard to the clergy; or, probably, -as the usage of legal duels gained ground, they wanted to render them -less sanguinary. The capitulary of Louis the Pious, added to the Salic -law in 819, allows the liberty of chusing to fight either with the sword -or club. In process of time none but bondmen or slaves fought with the -club. - -Here may be seen the first rise and formation of the particular articles -of our point of honour. The accuser began with declaring, in the -presence of the judge, that such a person had committed such an action, -and the accused made answer that, _he lied_; upon which the judge gave -orders for the duel. It became then an established rule, that whenever a -person had the lie given him, it was incumbent on him to fight. - -Upon a man’s declaring he would fight, he could not afterwards depart -from his word; if he did, he was condemned to a penalty. Hence this rule -followed, that whenever a person had engaged his word, honour forbade -him to recal it. - -Gentlemen fought one another on horseback, armed at all points; villans -fought on foot, and with clubs.[41] Hence it followed, that the club was -looked upon as the instrument of insults and affronts,[42] because to -strike a man with it, was treating him like a villan. - -No one but villans fought with their faces uncovered;[43] so that none -but they could receive a blow on the face. Therefore a box on the ear, -became an injury that must be expiated with blood, because the person -who received it, had been treated as a villan. - -The several people of Germany were not less sensible of the point of -honour. The most distant relations took a very considerable share to -themselves in every affront, and on this all their codes are founded. -The law of the Lombards ordains, that whoever goes attended with -servants to beat a man by surprize, in order to load him thereby with -shame, and to render him ridiculous, should pay half the compensation, -which he would owe if he had killed him; and if through the same motive -he tied or bound him, he should pay three fourths of the same -compensation. - -Footnote 41: - - The club was in use at the Norman Conquest, and in the succeeding - ages. St. Louis had a band of Guards armed with clubs, and was himself - very dextrous in the use of it. - - Pennant, in describing the customs of the ancient Bards and Minstrels - of Wales, says, that the lowest of the musical tribe was the - _Datceiniad pen pastwn_, or he that sung to the sound of his club, - being ignorant of every other kind of instrument. When he was - permitted to be introduced, he was obliged to stand in the middle of - the hall, and sing his _cowydd_ or _awdl_, beating time, and playing - the symphony with his _pastwn_ or club; but if there was a professor - of music present, his leave must be first obtained before he presumed - to entertain the company with this species of melody. Wherever he came - he must act as a menial servant to the bard or minstrel. - -Footnote 42: - - Among the Romans it was not infamous to be beaten with a stick. - -Footnote 43: - - They had only the club and buckler. - - - - - GEOFFREY OF MONMOUTH. - - -Geoffrey of Monmouth was the first person, after the conquest, who -attempted to write any thing concerning the ancient history of Britain. -Although the century, in which he lived, is known, yet neither his -family, the time of his birth, nor the place of his education has been -ascertained. We are only informed that he was born at Monmouth, and -became archdeacon of that place, and that he was consecrated bishop of -St. Asaph, in 1152, which he resigned to live in the monastery of -Abingdon. By some writers he is called a monk of the Dominican order, -but, according to Leland, without sufficient authority. Warton says that -he was a Benedictine monk. - -The history which has made his name celebrated, is entitled _Chronicon -sive Historia Britonum_. This history, written in the British or -Armorican language, was brought into England by Walter Mapes, otherwise -Calenius, archdeacon of Oxford, a learned man, and a diligent collector -of histories. Travelling through France, about the year 1100, he -procured in Armorica, this ancient chronicle, and, on his return, -communicated it to Geoffrey, who, according to Warton, (History of -English Poetry,) was an elegant Latin writer, and admirably skilled in -the British tongue. Geoffrey, at the request and recommendation of -Walter, translated this British chronicle into Latin, executing the -translation with some degree of purity, and fidelity, insomuch that -Matthew Paris speaking of him with reference to this history, says that -he approved himself _Interpres verus_. With whatever fidelity the -translation might be made, Geoffrey, however, was guilty of several -interpolations, for he confesses that he took some part of his account -of king Arthur’s achievements, from the mouth of his friend Walter, the -archdeacon. He also owns that the account of Merlin’s prophecies was not -in the Armorican original. The speeches and letters were his own -forgeries, and in the description of battles, he has not scrupled to -make frequent variations and additions. - -Geoffrey dedicated his translation to Robert, Earl of Gloucester, -natural son of king Henry the first; this, however, did not protect him -from the lash even of his contemporaries, for his fables, it appears, -were soon discovered, and William Neubrigensis, who lived about the same -time, in the beginning of the history which he wrote, thus speaks of -him; “In these days a certain writer is risen, who has devised many -foolish fictions of the Britons; he is named _Geoffrey_, and with what -little shame, and great confidence does he frame his falsehoods.” -William himself, however, did not escape censure for thus animadverting -upon Geoffrey. - -It is difficult to ascertain at what period the original of Geoffrey’s -history was compiled. The subject of it, when divested of its romantic -embellishments, is a deduction of the Welsh princes, from the Trojan -Brutus to Cadwallader, who reigned in the seventh century; and this -notion of their extraction from the Trojans, had so infatuated the -Welsh, that even so late as the year 1284, archbishop Peckham, in his -injunctions to the diocese of St. Asaph, orders the people to abstain -from giving credit to idle dreams and visions, a superstition which they -had contracted from their belief in the dream of their founder Brutus, -in the temple of Diana, concerning his arrival in Britain. The -archbishop very seriously, advises them to boast no more of their -relation to the conquered and fugitive Trojans, but to glory in the -victorious cross of CHRIST. - -The Welsh were not singular in being desirous of tracing their descent -from the Trojans, for several European nations were anciently fond of -being considered as the offspring of that people. A French historian of -the sixth century ascribes the origin of his countrymen to Francio, a -son of Priam, and so universal was this humour, and to such an absurd -excess of extravagance was it carried, that under the reign of -Justinian, even the Greeks themselves were ambitious of being thought to -be descended from their ancient enemies the Trojans. The most rational -mode of accounting for this predilection, is to suppose, that the -revival of Virgil’s Æneid, about the sixth or seventh century, which -represents the Trojans as the founders of Rome, the capital of the -supreme Pontiff, and a city on various other accounts in the early ages -of christianity, highly reverenced and distinguished, occasioned an -emulation in many other European nations of claiming an alliance to the -same celebrated original. In the mean time it is not quite improbable, -that as most of the European nations had become provinces of the Roman -empire, those who fancied themselves to be of Trojan extraction might -have imbibed this notion, or at least have acquired a general knowledge -of the Trojan story from their conquerors, more especially the Britons, -who continued so long under the Roman Government. - -Geoffrey produces Homer in attestation of a fact asserted in his -history; but in such a manner as shews that he knew little more than -Homer’s name, and was but imperfectly acquainted with Homer’s subject. -Geoffrey says that Brutus having ravaged the province of Aquitaine with -fire and sword, came to a place where the city of Tours now stands, _as -Homer testifies_. - -This fable of the descent of the Britons from the Trojans was solemnly -alleged as an authentic and undeniable proof in a controversy of great -national importance by king Edward the first, and his nobility, without -the least objection from the opposite party. It was in the famous -dispute concerning the subjection of the crown of Scotland to that of -England, about the year 1301. The allegations are contained in a letter -to Pope Boniface, signed and sealed by the king and his lords. This is a -curious instance of the implicit faith with which this tradition -continued to be believed, even in a more enlightened age; and an -evidence that it was equally credited in Scotland. - -As to the story of Brutus in particular, Geoffrey’s hero, it may be -presumed, that his legend was not contrived, nor the history of his -successors invented, until after the ninth century; for Nennius,[44] who -lived about the middle of that century, not only speaks of Brutus with -great obscurity and inconsistency, but seems totally uninformed as to -every circumstance of the British affairs which preceded Cæsar’s -invasion. There are other proofs that this piece could not have existed -before the ninth century. Alfred’s Saxon translation of the Mercian law -is mentioned; and Charlemagne’s twelve peers, by an anachronism not -uncommon in romance, are said to be present at king Arthur’s magnificent -coronation, in the city of Caerleon. It were easy to produce instances, -that Geoffrey’s chronicle was, undoubtedly, framed after the legend of -St. Ursula, the acts of St. Lucius, and the historical writings of -Venerable Bede, had procured a considerable circulation in the -neighbouring countries. At the same time it contains many passages which -incline us to determine, that some parts of it, at least, were written -after or about the eleventh century. - -Warton, (Hist. of Eng. Poetry, Dis. 1.) in order to prove these -positions, says, that he will not insist on that passage, in which the -title of legate of the apostolic see is attributed to Dubricius, in the -character of the primate of Britain, as it appears for obvious reasons, -to have been an artful interpolation of Geoffrey, who, it will be -remembered, was an ecclesiastic. Other arguments present themselves, -possessing more efficiency; Canute’s forest, or Cannock Wood, in -Staffordshire, occurs, and Canute died in the year 1036. - -At the ideal coronation of king Arthur, just mentioned, a tournament is -described, as exhibited in its highest splendour. “Many knights,” says -this Armoric chronicler, “famous for feats of chivalry, were present, -with apparel and arms of the same colour and fashion. They formed a -species of diversion, in imitation of a fight on horseback, and the -ladies being placed on the walls of the castles, darted amorous glances -on the combatants. None of these ladies esteemed any knight worthy of -her love, but such as had given proof of his gallantry, in three several -encounters.” Here is the practice of chivalry, under the combined ideas -of love and military prowess, as they seem to have subsisted after the -feudal constitution had acquired greater degrees, not only of stability, -but of splendour and refinement. And, although a species of tournament -was exhibited in France, at the reconciliation of the sons of Lewis the -Feeble, at the close of the ninth century, and at the beginning of the -tenth, the coronation of the emperor Henry, was solemnized with martial -entertainments, in which many parties were introduced fighting on -horseback, yet it was long afterwards that these games were accompanied -with the peculiar formalities, and ceremonious usages here described. In -the mean time, we cannot answer for the innovations of a translator, in -such a description. The burial of Hengist, the Saxon chief, who is said -to have been interred not after the _Pagan_ fashion, as Geoffrey renders -the words of the original, but after the _manner of the Soldans_, is -partly an argument, that our romance was composed about the time of the -Crusades. It was not till those memorable campaigns of mistaken -devotion, had infatuated the western world, that the Soldans, or sultans -of Babylon, of Egypt, of Iconium, and other eastern kingdoms, became -familiar in Europe. Not that the notion of this piece, being written so -late as the crusades, in the least invalidates the doctrine here -delivered. Not even if we suppose that Geoffrey was its original -composer. That notion rather tends to confirm, and establish this -system. - -On the whole it may be affirmed, that Geoffrey’s chronicle, which is -supposed to contain the ideas of the Welsh bards, entirely consists of -Arabian inventions. And in this view no difference is made, whether it -was compiled about the tenth century, at which time, if not before, the -Arabians, from their settlements in Spain, must have communicated their -romantic fables to other parts of Europe, especially to the French; or -whether it first appeared in the eleventh century, after the crusades -had multiplied these fables to an excessive degree, and made them -universally popular. And although the general cast of the inventions, -contained in this romance, is alone sufficient to point out the source -from whence they were derived, yet it is thought proper to prove to a -demonstration what is here advanced, by producing and examining some -particular passages. - -The books of the Arabians and Persians abound with extravagant -traditions about the giants Gog and Magog. These they call Jagiouge and -Magiouge; and the Caucasian Wall, said to be built by Alexander the -Great from the Caspian to the Black Sea, in order to cover the frontiers -of his dominion, and to prevent the incursions of the Scythians, is -called by the orientals the WALL OF GOG AND MAGOG. One of the most -formidable giants, according to our Armorican Romance, who opposed the -landing of Brutus in Britain, was Goemagot. He was twelve cubits high, -and would uproot an oak as easily as a hazel wand; but after a most -obstinate encounter with Corinæus, he was tumbled into the sea from the -summit of a steep cliff on the rocky shores of Cornwall, and dashed in -pieces against the huge crags of the declivity. The place where he fell, -adds our historian, taking its name from the giants fall, is called SAM -GOEMAGOT, or GOEMAGOT’S LEAP to this day. A no less monstrous giant, -whom king Arthur slew on St. Michael’s mount in Cornwall, is said by -this fabler to have come from Spain. Here the origin of these stories is -evidently betrayed. The Arabians, or Saracens, as has been before -hinted, had conquered Spain, and were settled there. Arthur having -killed this redoubted giant, declares, that he had combated with none of -equal strength and prowess, since he overcame the mighty giant, Rytho, -on the mountain Arabius, who had made himself a robe of the beards of -the kings whom he had killed. A magician brought from Spain is called to -the assistance of Edwin a prince of Northumberland, educated under -Solomon king of the Armoricans. In the prophecy of Merlin, delivered to -Vortigern, after the battle of the Dragons, forged perhaps by the -translator Geoffrey, yet apparently in the spirit and manner of the -rest, we have the Arabians named, and their situations in Spain and -Africa. “From Conan shall come forth a wild boar, whose tusks shall -destroy the oaks of the forests of France. The ARABIANS and AFRICANS -shall dread him; and he shall continue his rapid course into the most -distant parts of Spain.” This is king Arthur. In the same prophecy, -mention is made of the “Woods of Africa.” In another place Gormund, king -of the Africans occurs. In a battle which Arthur fights against the -Romans, some of the principal leaders in the Roman army are Alifantinam, -king of Spain; Pandrasus, king of Egypt; Broccus, king of the Medes; -Evander, king of Syria; Micipsa, king of Babylon; and a Duke of Phrygia. - -The old fictions about Stonehenge were derived from the same -inexhaustible source of extravagant imagination. We are told in this -Romance, that the giants conveyed the stones which compose this -miraculous monument from the farthest coasts of Africa. Every one of -these stones is supposed to be mystical, and to maintain a medicinal -virtue; an idea drawn from the medical skill of the Arabians, and more -particularly from the Arabian doctrine of attributing healing qualities, -and other occult properties to stones. Merlin’s transformation of Uther -into Gorlois, and of Ulfin into Bricel, by the power of some medical -preparation is a species of Arabian magic, which professed to work the -most wonderful deceptions of this kind. The attributing of prophetical -language to birds was common among the Orientals, and an eagle is -supposed to speak at building the walls of the city of Paladur, now -Shaftesbury. - -The Arabians cultivated the study of Philosophy, particularly Astronomy, -with amazing ardour. Hence arose the tradition, reported by our -historian, that in king Arthur’s reign, there subsisted at Carleon in -Glamorganshire, a college of two hundred philosophers, who studied -astronomy and other sciences; and who were particularly employed in -watching the courses of the stars, and predicting events to the king -from their observations. Edwin’s Spanish magician above mentioned, by -his knowledge of the flight of birds, and the courses of the stars, is -said to fortel future disasters. In the same strain, Merlin -prognosticates Uther’s success in battle by the appearance of a comet. -The same Enchanter’s _wonderful skill in mechanical powers_, by which he -removes the Giant’s Dance, or Stonehenge, from Ireland into England, and -the notion that this stupendous structure was raised by a PROFOUND -PHILOSOPHICAL KNOWLEDGE OF THE MECHANICAL ARTS, are founded on the -Arabian literature. To which we may add king Bladud’s magical -operations. Dragons are a sure mark of orientalism. One of these in our -Romance is a “terrible dragon flying from the west, breathing fire, and -illuminating all the country with the brightness of his eyes.” In -another place we have a giant mounted on a winged dragon; the dragon -erects his scaly tail, and wafts his rider to the clouds with great -rapidity. - -Arthur and Charlemagne are the first and original heroes of Romance. And -as Geoffrey’s history is the grand repository of the acts of Arthur, so -a fabulous history ascribed to Turpin is the ground work of all the -chimerical legends which have been related concerning the conquests of -Charlemagne and his twelve Peers. In these two fabulous chronicles the -foundations of romance seem to be laid. The principal characters, the -leading subjects, and the fundamental fictions which have supplied such -ample matter to this singular species of composition, are here first -displayed. And although the long continuance of the Crusades imported -innumerable inventions of a similar complexion, and substituted the -achievements of new champions, and the wonders of other countries, yet -the tales of Arthur and Charlemagne, diversified indeed, or enlarged -with additional embellishments, still continued to prevail, and to be -the favourite topics; and this, partly from their early popularity, -partly from the quantity and the beauty of the fictions with which they -were at first supported, and especially because the design of the -Crusades had made those subjects so fashionable in which Christians -fought with Infidels. In a word these volumes are the first specimens -extant in this mode of writing. No European history before these has -mentioned giants, enchanters, dragons, and the like monstrous and -arbitrary fictions. And the reason is obvious; they were written at a -time when a new and unnatural mode of thinking took place in Europe, -introduced by our communication with the East. - -Geoffrey, in his chronicle, gives a genealogy of the kings of Britain, -from the days of Brutus, including a list of seventy monarchs, who -governed this island, previously to the invasion of Julius Cæsar. This -list is very distinct and plain, but bears so many marks of invention, -either of himself, or of the author, from whom he translated his -chronicle, that it has long since been treated as a mere fiction. With -respect to the story of Brutus, the bishop of St. Asaph is of opinion, -that this forgery was intended to pass off the English kings, as being -as nobly descended as the kings of other nations, by drawing their -descent from the Trojans, according to the belief of the age in which -the author lived. Sir William Temple, in his introduction to the History -of England, (p. 19.) accounts the story of Brutus, as a fabulous -invention. - -Bishop Nicolson (Hist. Libr. p. 37.) says, that the best defence that -can be made for Geoffrey’s history, is that which was written by Sir -John Price, and published at London, in quarto, in 1573, under the title -of _Historiæ Britannicæ Defensio_. This was dedicated by the author, to -Lord Burleigh. (See Herbert’s Ames, vol. 2. p. 935, 1056.) - -The chronicle of Geoffrey of Monmouth, has occasioned a long -controversy, and divided the learned world as much as any other work -given to the public. By some it has been treated as a forgery imposed -upon the world by Geoffrey himself, whilst by others the ground work is -considered as true, although the history, like most monkish writings, is -mixed with childish fables and legendary tales. - -The controversy has now been some time finally decided, and the best -Welsh critics allow that Geoffrey’s work was a vitiated translation of -the history of the British kings, written by Tyssilio, or St. Telian, -bishop of St. Asaph, who flourished in the seventh century. Geoffrey in -his work omitted many parts, made considerable alterations, additions, -and interpolations, latinised many of the British appellations, and in -the opinion of a learned Welshman,[45] (Lewis Morris) metaphorically -murdered Tyssillio. We may therefore conclude that Geoffrey ought not to -be cited as historical authority any more than Amadis de Gaul, or the -Seven Champions of Christendom. - -Geoffrey’s historical Romance, however, has not only been versified by -monkish writers, but has supplied some of our best poets with materials -for their sublime compositions. Spenser in the second book of his -“Fairie Queene” has given - - “A Chronicle of Briton kings - ”From Brute to Arthur’s rayne;“ - -in which he has adorned the genealogy with poetical images, and -introduces it with a sublime address to queen Elizabeth, who was proud -of tracing her descent from the British line. - -In this historical romance is also to be found, the affecting history of -Leir, king of Britain, the eleventh in succession after Brutus, who -divided his kingdom between Goneriller and Regan, his two elder -daughters, and disinherited his younger daughter, Cordeilla. Being -ungratefully treated by his elder daughters, he was restored to the -crown by Cordeilla, who espoused Aganippus, king of the Franks. From -this account Shakespeare selected his incomparable tragedy of king Lear; -but improved the pathos by making the death of Cordeilla, which name he -softened after the example of Spenser into Cordelia, precede that of -Lear, whilst in the original story, the aged father is restored to his -kingdom, and survived by Cordeilla. - -Milton seems to have been particularly fond of Geoffrey’s tales,[46] to -which he was indebted for the beautiful fiction of Sabrina in the mask -of Comus. In his youth he even formed the design of making the early -period of the British history, from Brutus to Arthur, the subject of an -Epic Poem. The poetical language of Milton was peculiarly suited to this -species of romance; he would have exalted the legends of Geoffrey, and -enriched with the finest imagery the incantations and prophecies of -Merlin, the heroic deeds of Vortimer, Aurelius, and Uther Pendragon. - -The fables of Geoffrey have been clothed in rhyme by Robert of -Gloucester, a monk of the abbey of Gloucester. He has left a poem of -considerable length, which is a history of England in verse, from Brutus -to the reign of Edward the first. His rhyming chronicle is, however, -destitute either of art or imagination, and Geoffrey’s prose, frequently -has a more poetical air than this author’s verses. It was evidently -written after the year 1278, as the poet mentions king Arthur’s -sumptuous tomb, erected in that year, before the high altar of -Glastonbury abbey, and he declares himself a living witness of the -remarkably dismal weather which distinguished the day on which the -battle of Evesham was fought in the year 1265. From these and other -circumstances this piece appears to have been composed about the year -1280. It is full of Saxonisms, which indeed abound more or less, in -every writer before Gower and Chaucer. - -Geoffrey was also copied by an old French poet, called Maister Wace, or -Gasse, from which Robert de Brunne in his metrical chronicle of England -translated that part which extends from Æneas to the death of -Cadwallader. Wace’s poem is commonly called Roman de Rois d’Angleterre, -and is esteemed one of the oldest of the French Romances. - -With respect to the materials this chronicle has afforded to other -writers, I will here give an instance or two. - -Tyrrel, in his history of England, acknowledges that his first book is -an epitome of Geoffrey’s pretended history; but at the same time says -that if it had not been more for the diversion of the younger sort of -readers, and that the work would have been thought to be imperfect -without it, he should have been much better satisfied in wholly omitting -it. - -In the preface to Stow’s chronicle, (folio, 1631) the editor observes -that Neubrigensis had written several invectives against Geoffrey, but -more out of spleen than judgment. He charges that writer with -maliciously endeavouring to destroy the credit of Geoffrey, because he -himself having been a supplicant for the bishoprick of St. Asaph, had -been rejected by the Prince of Wales, and had thus become the opponent -of the Welsh history. His observations, Stow says, have been confuted by -Sir John Price, Dr. Powel, and also by Lambard, in his perambulations of -Kent. Stow then mentions John of Whethamsted, Polydore Virgil, and -others, who have written against Geoffrey, and afterwards enumerates a -long list of writers, as having uniformly supported him, or in other -words, who have copied his history into their own chronicles.—Hume -occasionally refers to Geoffrey, as an authority for some matters -respecting the Saxon period of his history. - -The History of Geoffrey was printed at Paris, in quarto, in 1508, and -again in the same size, by Ascensius, in 1517. It was also printed with -five other British historians, in folio, at Leyden, in 1587. Ponticus -Virunnius, an Italian author, made an abridgment of it, in six books, -which was printed at London, by Powel, in 1585, and also in the edition -just mentioned. - -A translation of Geoffrey’s chronicle was made by Aaron Thompson, and -published at London in 1718, to which was prefixed a long preface, -relating to the authority of the history. Thompson’s vindication of his -author is elaborately written, and he defends him with great skill and -learning; but after refuting the charge of forgery, he has failed in his -attempt to establish Geoffrey’s work as an historical performance, for -he himself invalidates its authority, by acknowledging that it was only -such an irregular account, as the Britons were able to preserve in those -times of destruction and confusion, with the addition of some romantic -tales, which indeed might be traditions among the Welsh, and such as -Geoffrey might think entertaining stories for the credulity of the -times. - -Thompson, in his preface, says that in making his translation, he used -two editions of Geoffrey. The first was the Paris edition of Ascensius, -1517, which abounds with abbreviations of words, sometimes rendering -their reading ambiguous. The other was the edition of Commeline, printed -in the year 1587, which is much the most correct. These two were printed -from different manuscripts, and there is a considerable variation -between them, especially in the orthography of persons and places. This -observation extends to the several ancient abridgments of Geoffrey, by -Alfred of Beverley, Ralph Diceto, Matthew of Westminster, Ralph Higden, -and Ponticus Virunnius. - -Footnote 44: - - Nennius lived in the ninth century, and is said to have left behind - him several treatises, of which all that has been published is the - history, which was printed for the first time in Dr. Gale’s Collection - of British Historians, published at Oxford in 1687 and 1691, in 2 - vols. folio. Leland mentions an ancient copy of Nennius’s history, - which he says he borrowed from Thomas Solme, Secretary for the French - language to king Henry the eighth, in the margin of which were the - additions of _Sam. Beaulanius_, or _Britannus_. He has transcribed - several of these marginal annotations, which as it appears, were - afterwards inserted in the body of the history, and were printed in - that manner by Dr. Gale. The Doctor in his notes, mentions Beaulanius - as the Scholiast on the copy which he used, but Leland has a great - many other things, as extracts out of Beaulanius, which Dr. Gale does - not mention to be only in the Scholion. There is also in the Bodleian - Library a manuscript of Nennius apparently nearly 600 years old, in - which the prefaces and all the interpolations, which Leland says are - by Beaulanius, are wanting. - - Professor Bertram, of Copenhagen, published in the year 1757, - “Britannicarum gentium Historiæ Antiquæ Scriptores tres; Ricardus - Corinensis, Gildas Badonicus, Nennius Banchorensis: recensuit, - notisque et indice auxit Carolus Bertramus, S. A. Lond. Soc. &c. - Havniæ, 1757.” 8vo. The Professor followed Dr. Gale’s edition of - Gildas and Nennius, but in the latter he has distinguished the - interpolations of Beaulanius from the genuine text. Mr. Gough, (Brit. - Topogr. vol. 1. p. 15.) mentions Mr. Evan Evans having been long - preparing a new edition of Nennius, from the Bodleian and other - manuscripts. - -Footnote 45: - - Cambrian Register, 1795, p. 947. - -Footnote 46: - - In 1670, Milton published his History of England, comprising the whole - fable of Geoffrey, and continued to the Norman Invasion. Why he should - have given the first part, which he seems not to have believed, and - which is universally rejected, it is difficult to conjecture. The - style is harsh, but it has something of rough vigour, which perhaps - may often strike, though it cannot please. On this history, the - licenser fixed his claws, and before he would transmit it to the - press, tore out several parts. Some censures of the Saxon Monks were - taken away, lest they should be applied to the modern Clergy; and a - character of the Long Parliament and Assembly of Divines, was - excluded; of which the Author gave a copy to the Earl of Anglesea, and - which being afterwards published, has been since inserted in its - proper place.—_Johnson’s Lives of the Poets, Art. Milton._ - - - - - LIFTING UP THE HAND IN SWEARING. - - -We find this significant ceremony of lifting up the hand in swearing, -practised by the Greeks and Trojans. Thus Agamemnon swears in Homer, -(Iliad, 7, 412) - - “To all the gods his sceptre he uplifts.” - -And Dolon requiring an oath of Hector, (Iliad, 10, 321) - - “But first exalt thy sceptre to the skies, - ”And swear——“ - -So in Virgil, (Æn. 12, 196) we find Latinus, when swearing, looking up -to heaven, and stretching his right hand to the stars. - -And we even meet with traditionary traces of their gods swearing in like -manner. Thus Apollo, in Pindar, orders Lachesis, one of the Fates, to -lift up her hands and not violate the great oath of the gods. - -Giving one’s hand _under_, or to another was a token of submission. It -was acknowledging his own power subject to that of the other. In this -manner all the princes submitted to Solomon, (1 Chron. 29, 24) and -Hezekiah commands the children of Israel, (2 Chron. 30, 8) to give the -hand to JEHOVAH, that is to submit themselves and ascribe the power and -the glory to him. - -Homage is still performed in many places by the homager’s kneeling down -and putting his hands between those of his lord, then taking an oath of -fealty to him; after which they kiss each other’s cheek, in token of -friendship and fidelity. - -Giving the hand, was also a token of promising; it was a kind of staking -their active powers for the performance of some promise or engagement. -(See Ezra, 10, 19.) - -The joining or taking of hands, among the ancients, betokened -confederacy, or confirmation of some promise. This is illustrated by -Homer’s expression, (Iliad, 21, 286) where Neptune and Minerva appear to -Achilles, in a human shape, and confirm their promise, by taking his -hand in their’s. So (Iliad, 6, 233) Glaucus and Diomed took hold of each -other’s hands, and plighted their faith. On which line, Eustathius -remarks, they plighted their faith to each other, by the accustomed -ceremony of joining their right hands.[47] - -We observe the same mode of joining hands in our marriage ceremony; and -the custom of shaking hands, has also reference to some engagement for -the future, as well as being a token of friendship and amity. - -Footnote 47: - - Parkhurst’s Heb. Lex. 271. - - - - - VILLIERS, DUKE OF BUCKINGHAM. - - -A treaty of marriage between Charles, prince of Wales, (afterwards -Charles I.) and the Infanta of Spain, having been a long time in -agitation, Buckingham, in 1623, persuaded Prince Charles to make a -journey into Spain, and to fetch home his mistress, the Infanta, by -representing to him, how brave and gallant an action it would be, and -how soon it would put an end to those formalities, which, though all -substantial matters were already agreed upon, might yet retard her -voyage to England many months. It is suggested by Lord Clarendon, that -Buckingham’s motive for this journey, was an unwillingness that the Earl -of Bristol, the ambassador in Spain, should have the sole honour of -concluding the treaty of marriage. However, the king was vehemently -against this journey, and indeed with good reason; but the solicitations -of the prince, and the impetuosity of Buckingham, prevailed. - -It appears that Buckingham, during his stay in Spain, behaved with great -insolence to the Earl of Bristol, the English ambassador at that court. -In a letter, written by the Earl to king James, we have the following -particulars:—“Let your Majesty call some certain men unto you, and sift -out of them the opinion of the more moderate parliament-men; and enquire -of those that come out of Spain, who did give the first cause of falling -out? Whether the Duke of Buckingham did not many things against the -authority and reverence due to the Prince? Whether he was not wont to be -sitting, whilst the Prince stood, and was in presence; and also to have -his feet resting upon another seat, after an indecent manner? Whether, -when the Prince was uncovered whilst the Queen and Infanta looked out at -the window, he uncovered his head or not? Whether, sitting; at table -with the prince, he did not behave himself unreverently? Whether he were -not wont to come into the prince’s chamber, with his clothes half on, so -that the doors could not be opened to them that came to visit the prince -from the king of Spain, the door-keepers refusing to go in for modesty -sake? Whether he did not call the prince by ridiculous names? Whether he -did not dishonour and profane the king’s palace with base and -contemptible women? Whether he did not divers obscene things, and used -not immodest gesticulations, and wanton tricks with players in the -presence of the prince? Whether he did not violate his faith to the Duke -d’Olivarez, the Spanish prime minister? Whether he did not presently -communicate his discontents, offences, and complaints, to the -ambassadors of other princes? Whether in doing of his business, he did -not use frequent threatenings unto the catholic king’s ministers, and to -apostolical nuncios? Whether he did not affect to sit at plays presented -in the king’s palace, after the manner and example of the king and -prince, being not contented with the honour that is ordinarily given to -the high steward or major-domo of the king’s house?” - -There is sufficient reason for believing, that most of these queries may -be answered in the affirmative. - - - - - KING ARTHUR. - - -In a century (A.D. 400 to A.D. 500) of perpetual, or at least implacable -war, much courage, and some skill, must have been exerted for the -defence of Britain, on the departure of the Roman legions, against the -Saxon invaders. Yet if the memory of its champions is almost buried in -oblivion, we need not repine; since every age, however destitute of -science or virtue, sufficiently abounds with acts of blood and military -renown. The tomb of Vortimer, the son of Vortigern, was erected on the -margin of the sea-shore, as a landmark formidable to the Saxons, whom he -had thrice vanquished in the fields of Kent. Ambrosius Aurelian was -descended from a noble family of Romans, his modesty was equal to his -valour, and his valour, till the last fatal action, was crowned with -splendid success. But every British name is effaced by the illustrious -name of ARTHUR, the hereditary prince of the Silures, who inhabited -South Wales, and the elective king or general of the nation. According -to the most rational accounts, he defeated, in twelve successive -battles, the Angles of the North, and the Saxons of the West; but the -declining age of the hero was embittered by popular ingratitude and -domestic misfortunes. The events of his life are less interesting, than -the singular revolutions of his fame. During a period of five hundred -years the tradition of his exploits was preserved, and rudely -embellished, by the obscure bards of Wales and Armorica, who were odious -to the Saxons, and unknown to the rest of mankind. The pride and -curiosity of the Norman conquerors, prompted them to enquire into the -ancient history of Britain; they listened with fond credulity to the -tale of Arthur, and eagerly applauded the merit of a prince, who had -triumphed over the Saxons, their common enemies. His romance, -transcribed in the latin of Geoffrey of Monmouth, and afterwards -translated into the fashionable idiom of the times, was enriched with -the various, though incoherent ornaments, which were familiar to the -experience, the learning, or the fancy of the twelfth century. The -progress of a Phrygian colony from the Tyber to the Thames, was easily -engrafted on the fable of the Æneid; and the royal ancestors of Arthur -derived their origin from Troy, and claimed their alliance with the -Cæsars, His trophies were decorated with captive provinces and imperial -titles; and his Danish victories avenged the recent injuries of his -country. The gallantry and superstition of the British hero, his feasts -and tournaments, and the memorable institution of his knights of the -_round table_, were faithfully copied from the reigning manners of -chivalry, and the fabulous exploits of Uther’s son, appear less -incredible than the adventures which were achieved by the enterprising -valour of the Normans. Pilgrimage and the holy wars, introduced into -Europe the specious miracles of Arabian magic. Fairies and giants, -flying dragons, and enchanted palaces, were blended with the more simple -fictions of the west; and the fate of Britain depended on the art, or -the predictions of Merlin. Every nation embraced and adorned the popular -romance of Arthur and the knights of the round table: their names were -celebrated in Greece and Italy; and the voluminous tales of Sir Lancelot -and Sir Tristram were devoutly studied by the princes and nobles, who -disregarded the genuine heroes and historians of antiquity. At length -the light of science and reason was rekindled; the talisman was broken; -the visionary fabric melted into air, and by a natural, though unjust -reverse of the public opinion, the severity of the present age is -inclined to question even the _existence_ of Arthur. - - - - - ALCHEMY. - - -About the year 296, the Emperor Diocletian published a very remarkable -edict which instead of being condemned as the effect of jealous tyranny, -deserves to be applauded as an act of prudence and humanity. He caused a -diligent enquiry to be made for all the ancient books which treated of -the art of making gold and silver, and without pity committed them to -the flames; apprehensive, it is remarked, lest the opulence of the -Egyptians should inspire them with confidence to rebel against the -empire. But if Diocletian had been convinced of the reality of that -valuable art, far from extinguishing the memoirs, he would have -converted the operation of it to the benefit of the public revenue. It -is much more likely, that his good sense discovered to him the folly of -such magnificent pretensions, and that he was desirous of preserving the -reason and fortunes of his subjects from the mischievous pursuit. It may -be remarked that these ancient books, so liberally ascribed to -Pythagoras, to Solomon, or to Hermes, were the pious frauds of more -recent adepts. The Greeks were inattentive either to the use or to the -abuse of chemistry. In that immense register, where Pliny has deposited -the discoveries, the arts, and the errors of mankind, there is not the -least mention of the transmutation of metals, and the persecution of -Diocletian is the first authentic event in the history of Alchemy. The -conquest of Egypt by the Arabs diffused that vain science over the -globe. Congenial to the avarice of the human heart, it was studied in -China as in Europe, with equal eagerness, and with equal success. The -darkness of the middle ages ensured a favourable reception to every tale -of wonder, and the revival of learning gave new vigour to hope, and -suggested more specious arts of deception. Philosophy, with the aid of -experience, has at length banished the study of alchemy; and the present -age, however desirous of riches, is content to seek them by the humbler -means of commerce and industry. - - - - -ACCOUNT OF SEVERAL NOBLE FAMILIES IN ENGLAND WHO OWE THEIR ELEVATION TO - THE PEERAGE TO THEIR ANCESTORS HAVING BEEN ENGAGED IN TRADE. - - -It is a striking and peculiar feature in the constitution of England, -that men who render themselves eminent in the liberal sciences, in the -arts, or in commerce, frequently find their pursuits conduct them to a -high degree of rank and estimation in the state; and the sovereign has, -in numerous instances, conferred the honour of the Peerage on certain -individuals, who have contributed by their abilities to enlarge and -promote the manufactures and commerce of the nation. Among the families -whose ancestors have deserved well of their country, and who owe their -elevation to the Peerage to their forefathers having been engaged in -trade, the following are honourable instances. - -The EARLS OF COVENTRY are descended from John Coventry, son of William -Coventry, of the city of that name. The former was an opulent mercer, -and resided in London, of which city he was Lord Mayor in 1425, and one -of the executors of the celebrated Whittington. He was a resolute and -determined magistrate, and was highly commended for his spirited -interference in the dreadful quarrel between Humphrey Duke of -Gloucester, and the insolent Cardinal Beaufort, which he successfully -quelled. - -The family of RICH, Earls of Warwick and Holland, arose from Richard -Rich, an opulent mercer, sheriff of London in the year 1441. His -descendant, Richard, was distinguished by his knowledge of the law; -became Solicitor General in the reign of king Henry the eighth, and -treacherously effected the ruin of Sir Thomas More; was created a baron -of the realm in the reign of Edward the sixth, and became Lord -Chancellor by the favour of the same monarch. - -The HOLLES’S, Earls of Clare, and afterwards Dukes of Newcastle, sprung -from Sir William Holles, Lord Mayor of London in 1540, son of William -Holles, citizen and baker. His great-grandson was the first who was -called to the House of Peers, in the reign of James the first, by the -title of Lord Haughton, and soon after was advanced to the dignity of -Earl of Clare. The fourth peer of that title was created by king -William, Duke of Newcastle; but the title became extinct in his name in -1711. - -Sir THOMAS LEIGH, Lord Mayor of London, in 1558, furnished the Peerage -with the addition of two. He was the son of Roger Leigh, of Wellington, -in Shropshire. Sir Thomas’s grandson, Francis, was created by Charles -the first, Lord Dunsmore, and afterwards Earl of Chichester; and Sir -Thomas’s second son, Sir Thomas Leigh, of Stoneleigh, had the honour of -being called to the House of Peers by the title of Lord Leigh, of -Stoneleigh. - -The PLEYDELL-BOUVERIES, Earls of Radnor, descend from Edward De -Bouverie, an opulent Turkey merchant, who died in 1694. - -DUCIE, Lord Ducie, is descended from Sir Robert Ducie, who belonged to -the company of merchant tailors, and was sheriff of London in 1621, and -Lord Mayor in 1631. He was immensely rich, and was made banker to king -Charles the first, and on the breaking out of the rebellion, lost -£80,000, owing to him by his Majesty. Nevertheless he is said to have -left at the time of his death, property in land, money, &c. to his four -sons, to the amount of £400,000. - -PAUL BAYNING, sheriff of London in 1593, had a son of the same name, who -was first created a baronet, and in the third of Charles the first, a -baron of the realm, by the title of Baron Bayning, and soon after a -viscount, by the title of Viscount Bayning of Sudbury. He was buried in -the paternal tomb, in the church of St. Olave’s. His house was in -Mark-lane. After the fire of London, the business of the custom house -was transacted in that which went under the name of Lord Bayning’s. - -The CRANFIELDS, Earls of Middlesex, rose from Lionel Cranfield, a -citizen of London, bred up in the custom house. He became, in 1620, Lord -Treasurer of England. The Duke of Dorset is descended from Frances, -sister and heir of the third Earl of Middlesex, married to Richard, Earl -of Dorset. - -The noble family of INGRAM, Viscount Irwin, was raised in the reign of -queen Elizabeth, by Hugh Irwin, citizen, merchant, and tallow-chandler, -who died in 1612. He left a large fortune between two sons; of whom Sir -Arthur, the younger, settled in Yorkshire, and purchased a considerable -estate, the foundation of the good fortune afterwards enjoyed by the -family. The present Marchioness of Hertford is the representative of the -Ingrams, being the daughter and co-heir of the last Viscount Irwin. - -Sir STEPHEN BROWN, son of John Brown, of Newcastle, Lord Mayor of -London, in 1438, and again in 1448, was a grocer, and added another -peer, in the person of Sir Anthony Brown, created Viscount Montagu, by -Philip and Mary, in 1554. - -The LEGGES rose to be Earls of Dartmouth.—The first who was raised to -the peerage was that loyal and gallant naval officer, George Legge, -created Baron of Dartmouth in 1682. He was descended from an ancestor -who filled the Pretorian Chair of London in the years 1347 and 1354, -having by his industry in the trade of a skinner, attained great wealth. - -Sir GEOFFREY BULLEN, Lord Mayor in 1458, was grandfather of Thomas, Earl -of Wiltshire, father of Anna Bullen, and grandfather of queen Elizabeth, -the highest genealogical honour the city of London ever possessed. - -Sir BAPTIST HICKS was a great mercer at the accession of James the -first, and made a large fortune, by supplying the court with silks. He -was first knighted, and afterwards created Viscount Campden. It is said -he left his two daughters one hundred thousand pounds each. He built a -large house in St. John’s street, for the justices of Middlesex to hold -their sessions in, which (till its demolition a few years ago, upon the -erection of a new sessions house on Clerkenwell Green,) retained the -name of Hicks’ Hall. - -The CAPELS, Earls of Essex, are descended from Sir William Capel, -draper, Lord Mayor in 1503. He first set up a cage in every ward of -London, for the punishment of idle people. It is probable that he had -his mansion on the site of the present Stock Exchange, in Capel Court, -so called after him. - -MICHAEL DORMER, mercer, Mayor in 1542, was the ancestor of the Lords -Dormer. - -EDWARD OSBORNE, was apprentice to Sir William Hewet, clothworker. About -the year 1536, when his master lived in one of those tremendous houses -on London bridge, a servant maid was playing with his only daughter in -her arms, in a window over the water, and accidentally dropped the -child. Young Osborne, who was witness to the misfortune, instantly -sprung into the river, and beyond all expectations brought her safe to -her terrified family. When she was marriageable, several persons of rank -paid their addresses to her, and among others the Earl of Shrewsbury; -but Sir William gratefully declined in favour of Osborne.—“OSBORNE -_saved her_,” said he, “_and_ OSBORNE _shall enjoy her_.” In her right -he possessed a most ample fortune. He became sheriff of London in 1575, -and Lord Mayor in 1583, and from his loins sprung the Dukes of Leeds. - -From Sir WILLIAM CRAVEN, merchant tailor, Mayor in 1611, sprung the -gallant Earl Craven, who was his eldest son, and was greatly -distinguished by his actions in the service of the unfortunate Elector -Palatine, by his attachment to the Dowager, and his marriage with that -illustrious Princess. - -Lord Viscount DUDLEY AND WARD is descended from William Ward, a wealthy -goldsmith in London, and jeweller to Henrietta Maria, queen of Charles -the first. His son Humble Ward, married Frances, grand-daughter of -Edward Sutton, Lord Dudley; who, on the death of her grand-father, -became Baroness Dudley; and he himself was created in 1643, Lord Ward of -Birmingham. - - - - - LAST MOMENTS OF QUEEN CAROLINE. - - -A little before the Queen died she asked the physician who was in -attendance, “How long can this last?” And on his answering “Your majesty -will soon be eased of your pains;” she replied “The sooner the better!” -The queen then repeated a prayer of her own composing, in which there -was such a flow of natural eloquence, as demonstrated the vigour of a -great and good mind. When her speech began to falter, and she seemed -expiring, she desired to be raised up in her bed, and fearing that -nature would not hold out long enough without artificial support she -called to have water sprinkled upon her, and a little after desired it -might be repeated. She then with the greatest composure and presence of -mind, requested her weeping relations to kneel down and pray for her. -Whilst they were reading some prayers, she exclaimed “Pray aloud, that I -may hear,” and after the Lord’s prayer was concluded, in which she -joined as well as she was able, said “So,” and waving her hand, lay down -and expired. - - - - - THE BRITONS, ACCORDING TO THE GREEK AND LATIN CLASSICS. - - -Strabo observes in his Geography, that “the woods are their towns; for -having fenced round a wide circular space with trees hewn down, they -there place their huts, and fix stalls for their cattle; but not of long -duration. They have dwellings of a round form, constructed of poles and -wattled work, with very high pointed coverings of beams united at a -point.” - -Diodorus Siculus asserts, that “they inhabit very wretched dwellings, -composed for the most part of reeds (or straw) and wood.” - -Cæsar thus describes, not Londinium, but the capital of Cassivellaunus: -“The Britons call a place, a town, when they have fortified thick -impassable woods, by means of a _vallum_ and fosse, or a high bank and a -ditch; in which sort of a place they are accustomed to assemble -together, to avoid the invasion of enemies.” - -Tacitus describing the strong holds, to which Caractacus resorted, -observes: “They then fortified themselves on steep mountains; and, -where-ever there was any possibility of access in any part, he -constructed a great bank of stones, like a _vallum_.” - -The curious reader is referred to the first volume of King’s Munimenta -Antiqua, for prints and plans, both of the Welsh houses and fortresses, -_of which some are yet entire_ and others in ruins, in every part of -England, Scotland, Wales, and Ireland. No book, either in our tongue, or -in any of the European languages, is so complete and satisfactory on -this interesting and domestic subject: the prints are excellent. - -Diodorus Siculus also notices that the Britons laid up their corn in -subterranean repositories, whence they used to take a portion every day; -and having bruised and dried the grain, made a kind of food from it of -immediate use. Martin in his description of the Western Isles, (p. 204.) -describes this sort of diet, and the quick mode of preparing it, as yet -continued. King, in the 48th and following pages of his first volume, -_has detected, and delineated these rude monuments of our ancestors_. - -It is highly curious to trace the appearance of the persons of our -forefathers and their manners. Cæsar remarks that they painted -themselves with vitrum, or woad; and Herodian, that some of them on the -sea-coast punctured or _tattooed_[48] their bodies with figures -resembling various kinds of animals; in consequence of which they also -went without garments, that they might not cover, nor conceal, these -marks. The other natives were, in _general_, clad with skins. They had -long lank hair, but were shorn in every part of the body, except the -head and upper lip. - -A wretched substitute for salt was obtained merely by pouring sea-water -on the embers of burning wood. - -The Irish drank the blood of animals and even of their enemies. - -King, in the latter half of the first volume, (_Munim. Ant._) gives -prints of the altars, or _Cromlechs_, yet entire, in many situations in -Ireland, the Highlands, and England, on which human victims were cruelly -murdered. - -The Druids were richly clad; some of them even wore golden chains, or -collars, about their necks and arms; and had their garments dyed with -various colours, and adorned with gold. Chains also both of iron and -gold, were worn by some of the chieftains and nobler ranks. These facts -will appear so incredible, that the reader must be informed, that in -most of the tumuli, or old British graves, described by King, these -ornaments are found in our days. It is a remarkable omission in Mr. -King, that he did not quote the three verses from the fourteenth chapter -of Isaiah so descriptive of the Babylonian regal tumuli, similar to the -British: “All the kings of the nations lie down in glory, each in his -own sepulchre: To meet thee, O Sennacherib, Hades rouseth his mighty -dead: he maketh them rise up from their thrones. All of them shall -accost thee, and shall say unto thee, Art thou become weak as we? Art -thou made like unto us? Is then thy pride brought down to the grave? Is -the vermin become thy couch, and the earth-worm thy covering?” - -Strabo, at the end of his third book, says, that “the Cassiterides, or -Islands of Tin, were inhabited by men dressed in black garments, in -tunics descending to the feet, a girdle around their breast; walking -erect with a staff in their hand; and permitting the beard to grow like -that of a goat. They subsist on their cattle, in general spending an -erratic pastoral life.” - -Some of the common order of Britons wore, instead of the skins of -beasts, very thick coarse wrappers made of wool; a sort of blanket or -rug, fastened about the neck with a piece of sharp pointed stick. They -used also a coarse, slit, short vest, with sleeves; it barely reached -down to the knees. - -As armour, the Britons had a long two-handed sword, hanging by a chain -on the right hand side; a great long wooden shield as tall as a man; -long spears; and a sort of missile wooden instrument, like a javelin, -longer than an arrow, which they darted merely by the hand: modern -writers call these two last mentioned, _Celts_, fixed on the end of -staves and sticks. Some of them used slings for stones, others had -breast plates, made of plates of iron, with hooks, or with wreathed -chains: some had helmets of different forms. Many went to battle nearly -naked, and some wound chains of iron around their necks and loins. - -They generally lay and reposed themselves on the bare ground, yet most -of them ate their food sitting on seats. A very beautiful print is given -by Mr. King of their various dresses. The plaid seems to be derived from -them. The coins of the old British, which are engraven in Speed, in -Borlase’s Cornwall, in Gough’s edition of Camden’s Britannia, and in -Plot’s History of Oxfordshire, will explain these descriptions of the -classics. Even Julius Cæsar had noticed that the Britons used either -brass money, or iron circular coins reduced to a standard weight. In the -scale of civilization, therefore, the ancient Britons were as advanced -in the era of Cæsar, as the Romans themselves at the expulsion of their -kings; as the Grecians in the age of Homer; as the Mexicans at the -Spanish conquest; and as the modern Tartars.[49] - -Footnote 48: - - The practice of tattooing is of great antiquity, and has been common - to numerous nations in Turkey, Asia, the Southern parts of Europe, and - perhaps to a great portion of the inhabitants of the earth. It is - still retained among some of the Moorish tribes, who are, probably, - descendants of those who, formerly, were subjected to the Christians - of Africa, and who to avoid paying taxes, like the Moors, thus - imprinted crosses upon their skins, that they might pass for - Christians. This custom, which originally might serve to distinguish - tribes by their religion, or from each other, became afterwards a mode - of decoration that was habitually retained, when all remembrance of - its origin was effaced. - - It may be inferred that the Canaanites and the other nations of the - East, were in the habit of tattooing their skins, because Moses, - (Levit. xix, 28.) expressly enjoins the Israelites not to imprint any - marks upon their bodies, in imitation of the heathens. - - The ancient inhabitants of the British Islands, painted their skins in - various grotesque figures, with the juice of woad. This custom of - tattooing was in use both by the Britons and their first invaders, the - Belgæ, and I believe it will be found, that the warriors of all those - nations which practised tattooing, invariably threw off their garments - in the hour of battle. The name of Picts, is said, though erroneously, - to have been given by the Romans to the Caledonians, who possessed the - East coast of Scotland, from their painting their bodies. This - circumstance has made some imagine that the Picts were of British - extraction, and a different race of men from the Scots. That more of - the Britons who fled northward, from the oppression and tyranny of the - Romans, settled in the low lands of Scotland, than among the Scots of - the mountains, may be easily imagined, from the very nature of the - country. It was these people who introduced painting among the Picts, - From this circumstance, some antiquaries affirm, proceeded the name of - the latter, to distinguish them from the Scots, who never had that art - among them, and from the Britons, who discontinued the practice of - tattooing after the Roman conquest. - - The inhabitants of the South Sea Islands, at this day, paint upon - their bodies various grotesque figures, for the purpose of striking - terror into their enemies, in the day of battle. J. S. - -Footnote 49: - - From the Classical Journal. - - - - - THE SEVEN SLEEPERS. - - -Among the insipid legends of ecclesiastical history, one of the most -memorable is that of the Seven Sleepers, whose imaginary date -corresponds with the reign of the younger Theodosius and the conquest of -Africa by the Vandals, or sometime about the year 440. When the Emperor -Decius persecuted the Christians, seven noble youths of Ephesus -concealed themselves in a spacious cavern in the side of an adjacent -mountain; where they were doomed to perish by the tyrant, who gave -orders that the entrance should be firmly secured with a pile of huge -stones. They immediately fell into a deep slumber, which was -miraculously prolonged, without injuring the powers of life, during a -period of one hundred and eighty seven years. At the end of that time, -the slaves of Adolius, to whom the inheritance of the mountain had -descended, removed the stones to supply materials for some rustic -edifice; the light of the sun darted into the cavern, and the Seven -Sleepers were permitted to awake. After a slumber, as they thought of a -few hours, they were pressed by the calls of hunger; and resolved that -Jamblichus, one of their number, should secretly return to the city, to -purchase bread for the use of his companions. The youth, if we may still -employ that appellation, could no longer recognise the once familiar -aspect of his native country; and his surprize was increased by the -appearance of a large cross triumphantly erected over the principal gate -of Ephesus. His singular dress and obsolete language, confounded the -baker, to whom he offered an ancient medal of Decius as the current coin -of the empire; and Jamblichus, on the suspicion of a secret treasure, -was dragged before the judge. Their mutual enquiries produced the -amazing discovery that two centuries were almost elapsed since -Jamblichus and his friends had escaped from the rage of a Pagan tyrant. -The Bishop of Ephesus, the clergy, the magistrates, the people, and as -it is said, the Emperor Theodosius himself, hastened to visit the cavern -of the Seven Sleepers, who bestowed their benediction, related their -story, and at the same instant peaceably expired. The origin of this -marvellous fable cannot be ascribed to the pious fraud and credulity of -the _modern_ Greeks, since the authentic tradition may be traced within -half a century of the supposed miracle. James of Sarug, a Syrian bishop, -who was born only two years after the death of the younger Theodosius, -has devoted one of his two hundred and thirty homilies to the praise of -the young men of Ephesus. Their legend, before the end of the sixth -century, was translated from the Syriac into the Latin language, by the -care of Gregory of Tours. The hostile communions of the East preserve -their memory with equal reverence; and their names are honourably -inscribed in the Roman, the Abyssinian, and the Russian Calendar. Nor -has their reputation been confined to the Christian world. This popular -tale, which Mahomet might learn when he drove his camels to the fairs of -Syria, is introduced as a divine revelation, into the Koran. The story -of the Seven Sleepers has been adopted, and adorned, by the nations, -from Bengal to Africa, who profess the Mahometan religion; and some -vestiges of a similar tradition have been discovered in the remote -extremities of Scandinavia. - - - - - JOHN RAY, THE NATURALIST. - - -Ray was the son of a blacksmith, at Black Notley, in Essex, where he was -born in 1628. He received his education at Braintree school, at -Catharine Hall, and afterwards at Trinity College, Cambridge. His -intense studies, requiring country air and exercise, occasioned his -predilection for botany; his first rambles in search of plants were -confined in extent, but subsequently diverged throughout England and -Wales; and at length passing the channel he visited many parts of -Europe. His books of instruction were the works of Johnson and -Parkinson, and the Phytologia Britannica. His friend and companion, -Francis Willoughby,[50] was a gentleman as amiable as scientific, their -souls seeming to be blended together. Ray having been ordained, did not -chuse to accept of the emoluments of the church, with which he did not -entirely unite; but just before his death, when it was too late to gain, -he became reconciled to it. Mr. Willoughby, who died in 1672, left him -an annuity of sixty pounds, but it does not appear what other property -he possessed, except his fellowship of Trinity. Though the generations -which have followed him have produced a Linnæus, a Buffon, and a -Pennant, yet Ray’s fame is too well established ever to be supplanted. -He was a wise, a learned, as well as a pious and modest man, and ever -ready to impart that knowledge which he had taken so much pains to -acquire. He died in 1705 with a devout humility that had ever -distinguished him, wishing that he had spent much more of his life in -the immediate service of his Creator. There was no task too arduous for -Ray; if Lister, a contemporary naturalist, would have gone to the bottom -of the ocean for a shell, Ray would have climbed to the extreme point of -the Alps for a new plant. In the church-yard of Black Notley, his native -place, there is a long and elegant inscription to the memory of this -great man, and in the library of Trinity College, there is a fine marble -bust of him, in company with Bacon and other splendid ornaments of that -magnificent foundation. - -Footnote 50: - - This eminent naturalist and excellent man, was justly admired both at - home and abroad for his virtues and knowledge in every branch of human - learning, more particularly in natural history. He was the son of Sir - Francis Willoughby, Knt. of Wollaton Hall in the county of Nottingham. - Observing in the busy and inquisitive age in which he lived, that the - history of animated nature had in a great measure been neglected, he - made the study and illustration thereof his unceasing object. For the - promotion of this branch of science he went abroad with Mr. Ray, for - the purpose of searching out and describing the several species and - productions of nature. He travelled over most parts of France, Spain, - Italy, Germany, and the Netherlands, in all which countries he was so - diligent and successful, that not many sorts of animals described by - others escaped his observation. He drew them with a pencil, and they - were afterwards engraven on copper-plates, at the expense of his - widow. His labours were printed in latin under the title of - “_Ornithologiæ libri tres, &c._ London, 1676,“ folio. This work was - afterwards translated into English by Mr. Ray, with an appendix, and - printed at London, in 1678. Mr. Willoughby also wrote the “History of - Fishes,” which was published by Mr. Ray, at London, in 1686, in folio. - He likewise printed several papers in the Philosophical Transactions. - Mr. Willoughby died on the third of July, 1672, leaving issue by his - wife, Emma, daughter and co-heir of Sir Henry Bernard, Knt. two Sons, - Francis and Thomas, and one daughter Cassandra, married to the Duke of - Chandos. The second son Thomas was in 1712 created Lord Middleton, - from whom is descended the present peer of that title. - - - - - LONDON BANKERS, AND THEIR ORIGIN. - - -The company of Goldsmiths, in London, appeared as a fraternity, as early -as 1180, but it was in the reign of Edward the third, that they were -first incorporated. They became, in time, the bankers of the capital. -The _Lombards_ were the first and greatest, and most of the money -contracts, in old times, passed through their hands. Many of our -monarchs were obliged to them for money.—The three blue balls, now used -by pawnbrokers, but converted by them into golden ones, are, in reality, -the arms of the Lombards. - -Lombard-street, in the metropolis, took its name from being the -residence of the Lombards, the great money-changers and usurers of early -times. They came out of Italy into this kingdom before the year 1274; at -length their extortions became so great, that Edward the third seized on -their estates; perhaps the necessity of furnishing himself with money -for his Flemish expedition, might have urged him to this step. They seem -quickly to have repaired their loss; for complaint was soon after made -against them, for persisting in their practices. They were so opulent in -the days of Henry the fourth, as to be able to furnish him with money, -but they took care to get the customs mortgaged to them, by way of -security. - -They continued in Lombard-street till the reign of queen Elizabeth, and -to this day it is filled with the shops of eminent bankers. The shop of -the great Sir Thomas Gresham stood in Lombard-street; it is now occupied -by Messrs. Martin and Stone, bankers, who are still in possession of the -original sign of that illustrious person, the _Grasshopper_. - -The business of goldsmiths was confined to the buying and selling of -plate, and foreign coins of gold and silver, melting them, and coining -others at the mint. The banking was accidental and foreign to their -institution. - -Regular banking by private persons resulted in 1643 from the calamity of -the times, when a seditious spirit was incited by the acts of the -parliamentary leaders. The merchants and tradesmen who before trusted -their cash to their servants and apprentices found that mode no longer -safe; neither did they dare to leave it in the mint at the tower, by -reason of the distresses of majesty itself, which before was a place of -public deposit. In the year 1645, they first placed their cash in the -hands of goldsmiths, who then began publicly to exercise the two -professions of goldsmiths and bankers. Even of late years there were -several very eminent bankers who kept the goldsmith’s shop; but they -were more frequently separated. - -The first regular banker was Mr. Francis Child, goldsmith, who began -business after the restoration. He was the father of the profession, a -person of large fortune, of most respectable character, and he was -knighted by the king. He lived in Fleet-street, in the house adjoining -Temple-bar, where the banking business is still carried on in the same -firm, though by different persons. Granger, in his Biographical History, -mentions that Mr. Child succeeded Mr. Backwell,[51] a banker in the time -of Charles the second, noted for his integrity, abilities, and industry; -who was ruined by the shutting up of the Exchequer in 1672.[52] His -books were placed in the hands of Mr. Child, and still remain in the -family. - -The next ancient shop was that possessed at present by Messrs. Snow and -Co. in the Strand, a few doors westward of Mr. Child’s, who were -goldsmiths of consequence in the latter part of the same reign. Mr. Gay -celebrates the predecessor of these gentlemen, for his sagacity in -escaping the ruin of the fatal year 1720, in his epistle to Mr. Thomas -Snow, goldsmith, near Temple-bar:— - - O thou whose penetrative wisdom found - The _South Sea_ rocks and shelves where thousands drown’d, - When credit sunk and commerce gasping lay, - Thou stoodst; nor sent’st one bill unpaid away. - -To the westward of Temple-bar the only other house was that of Messrs. -Middleton and Campbell, goldsmiths, who flourished in 1692, and is now -continued with great credit by Mr. Coutts. From thence to the extremity -of the west end of the town there were none till the year 1756, when the -respectable name of Backwell rose again, conjoined with those of Darel, -Hart, and Croft, who with great reputation opened their shop (afterwards -the house of Devaynes, Noble, and Co.) in Pallmall. - -Footnote 51: - - He was an alderman of London, and after the Exchequer was shut retired - to Holland, where he died, and was brought over to be interred in the - church of Tyringham, in Buckinghamshire, where he lies embalmed. A - glass is placed over his face, so that it is likely he may even be - seen at this time. There is a small portrait of him at Tyringham - House, in which he is represented in long hair and a flowered gown, - with a table by him. - -Footnote 52: - - A part of the national debt, amounting to £664,263, is as old as this - iniquitous transaction of Charles the second and his ministers. This - sum was all that those persons received, who had placed their property - and their confidence in that monarch, for the loss of £1,328,526, and - 26 years interest thereon at 6 per cent. about £2,100,000 more. - - - - - ELUCIDATION OF THE ORNAMENTS WITH WHICH THE GREEKS AND ROMANS ADORNED - THE HUMAN HEAD ON COINS AND MEDALS. - - - THE DIADEM. - - -The chief of these ornaments is the diadem, or vitta, which was a -ribband worn about the head, and tied in a floating knot behind. This -was anciently the simple, but superlative badge of kingly power. It is -observable upon the Greek monarchical medals, from the earliest ages, to -the last, without any other ornament, and is almost an infallible sign -of kingly power, and that the portrait, if there be no other -characteristic, is that of a prince. In the Roman coins it is seen on -the Consular ones with Numa and Ancus; but never afterwards till the -time of Licinius. So great an aversion had the Romans to this kingly -distinction, that their emperors had for more than two centuries worn -the radiated crown, peculiar to the gods, before they dared to assume -the diadem, which was considered as the symbol of tyranny. In the family -of Constantine, the diadem becomes common, though not with the ancient -simplicity, being ornamented on either edge with a row of pearls, and -various other decorations. - -The Greek queens used the diadem, but the Roman empresses never appear -with it; however, the variety of their head dresses more than -compensates for the want of this ornament. - - - THE RADIATED CROWN. - - -The radiated crown was, at first, as on the posthumous coins of -Augustus, a mark of deification, and in little more than a century -after, was put upon most of the emperors’ heads on their several medals. - - - THE CROWN OF LAUREL. - - -The crown of laurel was at first the honorary prize of conquerors, but -was afterwards commonly worn, at least on their medals, by all the Roman -emperors, from JULIUS CÆSAR, who was permitted by the senate to wear it -always, to hide the baldness of his forehead. This perhaps gave rise to -the first emperors always appearing with it on their coins, a -circumstance continued even to our times, and looking at its origin is -now a little laughable. The laurel employed by the ancients in forming -their crowns, is apparently what we term the Alexandrian laurel, a most -beautiful evergreen, of a fine tender verdure. In the lower empire the -laurel is often held by a hand above the head as a mark of piety. - - - THE ROSTRAL CROWN. - - -Agrippa appears on his coins with the rostral crown, a sign of naval -victory or command, being made of gold, in resemblance of prows of -ships, tied together. - - - THE MURAL CROWN. - - -Agrippa is likewise seen with the mural or turretted crown, the prize of -first ascending the walls of an enemy’s city. - - - THE CIVIC CROWN. - - -The oaken or civic crown is frequent on reverses, as of Galba and -others; and was the badge of having saved the life of a citizen, or of -many citizens. - - - THE HELMET. - - -The helmet appears on coins; as in those of Macedon under the Romans, -which have a head of Alexander, sometimes covered with a helmet. Probus -also has often the helmet on his coins; and Constantine the first, has -helmets of different forms curiously ornamented. - - - THE NIMBUS OR GLORY. - - -The nimbus or glory, now peculiar to the saints, was formerly applied to -emperors. A nimbus appears round the head of Constantine the second, in -a gold coin of that prince; and of Flavia Maxima Fausta, in a gold -medallion; and of Justinian in another. But the idea is as ancient as -the reign of Augustus, and is found in Roman authors, before it appeared -on coins. Oiselius gives a coin of Antoninus Pius, with the _nimbus_, -but this however is doubtful, and may have been some flaw in the coin -from which he engraved his representation. - - - OTHER ORNAMENTS OF THE HEAD. - - -Besides the diadem, the Greek princes sometimes appear with the laurel -crown. The Arsacidæ, or kings of Parthia, wear a kind of sash round the -head, with their hair in rows of curls like a wig. Tigranes and the -kings of Armenia, wear the _tiara_, a singular kind of cap, but the well -known badge of imperial power in the ancient eastern world. Xerxes, a -petty prince of Armenia, appears in a coin extant of him in a conical -cap, with a diadem around it. Juba, the father, has a singular crown, -like a conical cap, all hung with pearls. - -The successors of Alexander assumed by way of distinction, different -symbols of the Deity, to be observed on the busts of their medals, such -as the lion’s skin of Hercules, which surrounds the head of the first -Seleucus; the horn placed behind the ear, an image of their strength and -power, or of their being the successors of Alexander, called the son of -Jupiter Ammon; the wing placed in like manner behind the ear, symbolic -of the rapidity of their conquests, or of their being descendants from -the god Mercury. - -Some authors, however, have doubted if all these heads be not of gods, -except those with the horn. Eckhel observes, that even the horn and -diadem belong to Bacchus, as on a coin of Nuceria Alfaterna. Bacchus, -according to Diodorus Siculus, invented the diadem, to cure his -head-aches, and was horned like his father Jupiter Ammon. The only king -who appears on coins, according to Eckhel, with the horn, is Lysimachus. -Pyrrhus had a crest of goats’ horns to his helmet, as we are informed by -Plutarch, in his life, and the goat was the symbol of Macedon. It is -likely that the successors of Alexander took this badge of the horn in -consequence. - -Besides the distinctions of supreme power, or honorary reward, there are -other symbolic ornaments of the head, observable on some Roman coins. -Such is the veil, or, more properly, the _toga_ drawn over the head, to -be seen on the busts of Julius Cæsar, when Pontifex Maximus, and others. -This shews that the person bore the pontificate or the augurship; the -augurs having a particular gown, called _laena_, with which they covered -their heads, when employed in observing omens. Latterly the veil is only -a mark of consecration, and is common in coins of empresses, as -Faustina, Mariniana, and others. In the coins of Claudius Gothicus we -first find it as a mark of the consecration of an emperor; and it -continued in those of Constantius the first, Maximian the first, and -Constantine the first. - -The remarkable part of the Roman head dress among the ladies, was the -_sphendona_, or sling, on the crown of the head; answering to the modern -hair cushion. But it was of gold, and so prominent as to be even -remarkable in a coin. The hair appears in many fashions, as now. -Sometimes the bust of an empress is supported by a crescent, to imply -that she was the moon, as her husband was the sun of the state. - -Generally, only the bust is given on ancient coins; but sometimes half -the body or more. In the latter case the hands often appear, with tokens -of majesty in them. Such is the globe, said to have been introduced by -Augustus, to express possession of the world. The sceptre, sometimes -confounded with the consular staff. The roll of parchment, symbolic of -legislative power; and the handkerchief expressing that of the public -games, where the emperor gave the signal. Some princes even hold the -thunderbolt, shewing that their power was equal to that of Jupiter in -heaven. Others hold an image of victory. - -Most queens of Egypt, on their coins, have the sceptre. It appears at -the top of their head; and would seem part of the dress, were it not -that in other coins, it passes beneath the neck transversely, so that -both ends appear. - -The victors, at the sacred games among the ancients, had bound round the -head, an ornament called _anadema_, which has sometimes been confounded -with the diadem worn by the ancient Persian kings. - - - - - THE TRADESCANTS. - - -The Tradescants, father and son, were among the first eminent gardeners, -and were the very first collectors of natural history in this kingdom. -John Tradescant the elder was, according to Anthony Wood, a Fleming, or -a Dutchman. We are informed by Parkinson, that he had travelled into -most parts of Europe, and into Barbary, and from some emblems remaining -upon his monument in Lambeth church-yard, it appears that he had visited -Greece, Egypt, and other Eastern countries. - -In his travels, he is supposed to have collected not only plants and -seeds, but most of those curiosities of every sort which formed his -collection, which afterwards became celebrated, and is now the Ashmolean -museum, at Oxford. - -When he first settled in this kingdom, cannot at this distance of time, -be ascertained; perhaps it was towards the latter end of the reign of -queen Elizabeth, or the beginning of that of king James the first. His -portrait, engraven by Hollar, before the year 1656, represents him as a -person very far advanced in years, and seems to countenance this -opinion. - -He lived in a large house at South Lambeth, where, there is reason to -think, his museum was frequently visited by persons of rank, who became -benefactors thereto; among these were king Charles the first, to whom he -was gardener, Henrietta Maria, his queen, Archbishop Laud, George, Duke -of Buckingham, Robert and William Cecil, Earls of Salisbury, and many -other persons of distinction. - -John Tradescant may, therefore, justly be considered as the earliest -collector in this kingdom,[53] of every thing that was curious in -natural history, namely, minerals, birds, fishes, insects, &c. &c. He -had also a good collection of coins and medals, besides a great variety -of extraordinary rarities. Some of the plants which grew in his garden -are, if not totally extinct in this country, at least become very -uncommon. - -This able man, by his great industry, made it manifest, in the very -infancy of botany, as a science, that there is scarcely any plant -existing in the known world, that will not, with proper care, thrive in -this kingdom. The time of his death cannot be ascertained, no mention -being made of it in the register of Lambeth church. - -John Tradescant the son, and his wife, joined in a deed of gift, by -which their friend Elias Ashmole was entitled to this collection after -the decease of the former. On that event taking place, in 1662, it was -accordingly claimed by him, but the widow Tradescant refusing to deliver -it, was compelled so to do by a decree of the court of Chancery. She -was, a few years after, found drowned, in a pond, in her own garden. - -His house at South Lambeth, then called Tradescant’s Ark,[54] thus -coming into the possession of Ashmole, he came to reside there in 1674, -and added a noble room to it, adorning the chimney with his arms, -impaling those of Sir William Dugdale, whose daughter was his third -wife. Ashmole was much respected by his contemporaries, and was -frequently visited at South Lambeth by persons of very exalted rank, -particularly by the ambassadors of foreign princes, to whom he had -presented his book on the Order of the Garter. - -It is well known that Tradescant’s collection was given by Ashmole to -the University of Oxford, where it forms the principal part of the -museum that goes by his name, the house, in which it is contained, -having been built for its reception.[55] - -A monument was erected in the south east part of Lambeth church-yard, in -1662, by Hester, the relict of John Tradescant, the son, to the memory -of her husband, and the other members of his family. - -This, once beautiful monument has suffered so much by the weather, that -no just idea can now, on inspection, be formed of the north and south -sides; but this defect is supplied from very fine drawings[56] in the -Pepysian library, at Cambridge. On the east side is Tradescant’s arms; -on the west a hydra, and under it a skull; on the south, broken columns, -Corinthian capitals, &c. supposed to be ruins in Greece, or some other -Eastern country; and on the north, a crocodile, shells, &c. and a view -of some Egyptian buildings; various figures of trees, &c. in relievo, -adorn the four corners of the monument. - -In a visit made by Sir W. Watson and Dr. Mitchell to Tradescant’s -garden, in 1749, an account of which, is inserted in Philos. Trans. vol. -xlvi. p. 160, it appears that it had been many years totally neglected, -and the house belonging to it empty and ruined, but though the garden -was quite covered with weeds, there remained among them manifest -footsteps of its founder.[57] They found there the _Borago latifolia -sempervirens_ of Caspar Bauhine; _Polygonatum vulgare latifolium, C. B_; -_Aristolochia clematitis recta, C. B._ and _Dracontium_ of Dodoens. -There were then remaining two trees of the _Arbutus_, which from their -being so long used to our winters, did not suffer by the severe cold of -1739-40, when most of their kind were killed in England. In the orchard -there was a tree of the _Rhamnus catharticus_, about 20 feet high, and -nearly a foot in diameter. There are at present no traces of this garden -remaining. - -The Tradescants were usually called Tradeskin by their contemporaries, -and the name is uniformly so spelled in the parish register of Lambeth, -and by Flatman the painter, who in a poem mentions Tradescant’s -collection; - - “Thus John Tradeskin starves our wond’ring eyes, - ”By boxing up his new-found rarities.“ - -The following is a list of the portraits of the Tradescant family now in -the Ashmolean Museum; both father and son are in these portraits called -Sir John, though it does not appear that either of them were ever -knighted. - -1. Sir John Tradescant, sen. a three quarters piece, ornamented with -fruit, flowers, and garden roots. - -2. The same, after his decease. - -3. The same, a small three-quarters piece, in water colours. - -4. A large painting of his wife, son and daughter, quarter-length. - -5. Sir John Tradescant, junior, in his garden, with a spade in his hand, -half length. - -6. The same with his wife, half length. - -7. The same, with his friend Zythepsa of Lambeth, a collection of -shells, &c. upon a table before them. - -8. A large quarter piece inscribed Sir John Tradescant’s second wife and -son. - -These pictures have neither date nor painter’s name. They are esteemed -to be good portraits, but who the person was, who is called Zythepsa is -not known. He is painted as if entering the room, and Sir John is -shaking him by the hand. - -Hollar engraved two portraits of the Tradescants, father and son, which -are placed as frontispieces to the little volume, mentioned in the -preceding note. - -Granger (2. 370) says he saw a picture at a gentleman’s house in -Wiltshire, which was not unlike that of the deceased Tradescant, and the -inscription was applicable to it:— - - Mortuus haud alio quam quo pater ore quiesti - Quam facili frueris nunc quoque nocte doces. - -Footnote 53: - - Tradescant was the first English collector of curiosities in a private - rank. Thoresby was the second. _Gough’s Topogr_. - -Footnote 54: - - The late James West, Esq. told Mr. Bull, that one of the family of - Roelans, of which there are four or five prints by Hollar, lived a - long while at Lambeth, in the house that afterwards belonged to - Tradescant, to whom Roelans sold it. _Granger’s B. II._ 2. 371. - -Footnote 55: - - In the year 1656 the younger Tradescant, published a small volume, - entitled “Museum Tradescantianum, or a Collection of Rarities - preserved at South Lambeth. London, 1656, small octavo.” This book is - divided into two parts, the first containing a catalogue of the - museum, and the second an enumeration of the plants, shrubs, and - trees, growing in the garden at South Lambeth. Among the natural - curiosities here preserved are “a dragon’s egg—the claw of the bird - _Rock_, which, as authors report, is able to trusse an elephant,” &c. - &c. - -Footnote 56: - - These drawings are engraven in the Philosophical Trans. vol. 63, p. - 88; and printed from the same plates, in Bibl. Topogr. Brit. vol. 2. - in Dr. Ducarel’s Hist. of Lambeth. - -Footnote 57: - - Tradescant’s was the next botanical garden in England after Gerard’s. - - Gerard seems to have been the first that cultivated a botanical - garden. He had a large one near his house in Holborn, London, where he - raised nearly eleven hundred different trees and plants. He published - his history of plants in 1597 under the patronage of Lord Burleigh. - His herbal was republished in 1636 by Johnson. - - - - - ORANGE TREES. - - -The first orange trees seen in England, are said to have been planted by -Sir Francis Carew, at Beddington, in Surrey. Sir Francis died in 1607, -aged 81. Aubrey says they were brought from Italy by Sir Francis, but -the editors of the Biographia Britannica speaking from a tradition -preserved in the family, tell us that they were raised by him from the -seeds of the first oranges which were imported into England by Sir -Walter Raleigh, who had married his niece. The trees were planted in the -open ground, and were preserved in the winter by a moveable shed. They -flourished about a century and a half, being destroyed by the hard frost -in 1739-40. - -In the transactions of the Linnæan Society there are some notices -relating to the progress of botany in England, written by the late -eminent naturalist, Peter Collinson. Speaking of the orange trees at -Beddington be says—“In the reign of queen Elizabeth the first orange and -lemon trees were introduced into England by two curious gentlemen, one -of them Sir Nicholas Carew, at Beddington. They were planted in the -natural ground, but against every winter an artificial covering was -raised for their protection. I have seen them some years ago[58] in -great perfection. But this apparatus going to decay, without due -consideration a green-house of brick work was built all round them, and -left on the top uncovered in the summer. I visited them a year or two -after in their new habitation, and to my great concern found some -dyeing, and all declining; for although there were windows on the south -side, they did not thrive in their confinement; but being kept damp, -with the rains, and wanting a free, airy, full sun, all the growing -months of summer, they languished, and at last all died. - -“A better fate has attended the other fine parcel of orange trees, &c. -brought over at the same time, by Sir Robert Mansell, at Margam in South -Wales. My nephew counted 80 trees of citrons, limes, burgamots, Seville -and China orange-trees, planted in great cases all ranged in a row -before the green-house. This is the finest sight of its kind in England. -He had the curiosity to measure one of them. A China orange measured in -the extent of its branches fourteen feet. A Seville orange-tree was -fourteen feet high, the case included, and the stem twenty one inches -round. A China orange-tree twenty two inches and a half in girt. - -“I visited the orangery at Margam, in the year 1766, in company with Mr. -Lewis Thomas, a very sensible and attentive man, who told me that the -orange-trees, &c. in that garden were intended as a present from the -king of Spain to the king of Denmark; and that the vessel in which they -were shipped, being taken in the channel, the trees were made a present -of to Sir Robert Mansell.” - -Footnote 58: - - This was written in the year 1754. - - - - - ARTICLES OF USE AND LUXURY INTRODUCED INTO EUROPE BY THE ROMANS. - - -Whatever evils either reason or declamation have imputed to extensive -empire, the power of Rome was attended with some beneficial consequences -to mankind; and the same freedom of intercourse which extended the -vices, diffused likewise the improvements of social life. In the more -remote ages of antiquity, the world was unequally divided. The east was -in the immemorial possession of arts and luxury; whilst the west was -inhabited by rude and warlike barbarians, who either disdained -agriculture, or to whom it was totally unknown. Under the protection of -an established government, the productions of happier climates, and the -industry of more civilized nations were gradually introduced into the -western countries of Europe, and the natives were encouraged, by an open -and profitable commerce, to multiply the former, as well as to improve -the latter. It would be almost impossible to enumerate all the articles, -either of the animal or vegetable kingdoms which were successively -imported into Europe from Asia and Egypt; it is only intended here to -touch on a few of the principal heads. It is also not improbable that -the Greeks and Phœnicians introduced some new arts and productions into -the neighbourhood of Marseilles and Cadiz. - -1. Almost all the flowers, the herbs, and the fruits, that grow in our -European gardens, are of foreign extraction, which in many cases, is -betrayed even by their names; the apple was a native of Italy, and when -the Romans had tasted the richer flavour of the apricot, the peach, the -pomegranate, the citron, and the orange, they contented themselves with -applying to all these new fruits the common denomination of apple, -discriminating them from each other by the additional epithet of their -country. - -2. In the time of Homer, the vine grew wild in the island of Sicily, and -most probably in the adjacent continent; but it was not improved by the -skill, nor did it afford a liquor grateful to the taste, of the savage -inhabitants. A thousand years afterwards, Italy could boast, that of the -fourscore most generous and celebrated wines, more than two thirds were -produced from her soil. The blessing was soon communicated to the -Narbonnese province of Gaul; but so intense was the cold to the north of -the Cevennes, that in the time of Strabo, it was thought impossible to -ripen the grapes in those parts of Gaul. The intense cold of a Gallic -winter was even proverbial among the ancients. This difficulty, however, -was gradually vanquished; and there is some reason to believe that the -vineyards of Burgundy are as old as the age of the Antonines. In the -beginning of the fourth century, the orator Eumenius speaks of the vines -in the territory of Autun, which were decayed through age, and the first -plantation of which was totally unknown. - -3. The olive, in the western world, followed the progress of peace, of -which it was considered as the symbol. Two centuries after the -foundation of Rome, both Italy and Africa were strangers to that useful -plant; it was naturalized in those countries; and at length carried into -the heart of Spain and Gaul. The timid errors of the ancients, that it -required a certain degree of heat, and could only flourish in the -neighbourhood of the sea, were insensibly exploded by industry and -experience. - -4. The cultivation of flax was transported from Egypt to Gaul, and -enriched the whole country, however it might impoverish the particular -lands on which it was sown. - -5. The use of artificial grasses became familiar to the farmers both of -Italy and the provinces, particularly the lucerne, which derived its -name and origin from Media. The assured supply of wholesome and -plentiful food for the cattle during winter, multiplied the number of -the flocks and herds, which, in their turn, contributed to the fertility -of the soil. - -To all these improvements may be added an assiduous attention to mines -and fisheries, which by employing a multitude of laborious hands, serves -to increase the pleasures of the rich, and the subsistence of the poor. -The elegant treatise of Columella describes the advanced state of the -Spanish husbandry, under the reign of Tiberius; and it may be observed, -that those famines, which so frequently afflicted the infant republic, -were seldom or never experienced by the extensive empire of Rome. The -accidental scarcity, in any single province, was immediately relieved by -the plenty of its more fortunate neighbours. - - - - - ACCOUNT OF THE ESCAPE OF THE EARL OF NITHSDALE, FROM THE TOWER, IN THE - YEAR, 1716. - - -Lord Nithsdale was one of the Scottish noblemen who were concerned in -the rebellion headed by the Earl of Mar, in the year 1715. The House of -Commons preferred articles of impeachment against him, and several -others, who all, except the Earl of Wintoun, pleaded guilty, and on the -9th of February, 1716, received judgment of death. The countess of -Nithsdale and lady Nairne threw themselves at the king’s feet as he -passed through the apartments of the palace, and implored his mercy in -behalf of their husbands; but their tears and entreaties were of no -avail. The countess finding that nothing would appease the king but the -death of her husband and the other lords, planned the earl’s escape from -the tower in woman’s apparel, which she safely effected. The letter, of -which the following is a copy, written by herself and addressed to her -sister lady Lucy Herbert, abbess of the Augustine nunnery at Bruges, -giving an account of that transaction is still preserved in the family, -and was in the possession of the late Marmaduke Constable Maxwell, Esq. -of Everingham in Yorkshire. - -”_Palais Royal de Rome, 18th April, 1718._ - -“Dear Sister, - -“My Lord’s escape is now such an old story, that I have almost forgotten -it; but since you desire me to give you a circumstantial account of it, -I will endeavour to recal it to my memory, and be as exact in the -narration as I possibly can; for I owe you too many obligations to -refuse you any thing that lies in my power. - -“I think I owe myself the justice to set out with the motives which -influenced me to undertake so hazardous an attempt, which I despaired of -thoroughly accomplishing, foreseeing a thousand obstacles, which never -could be surmounted but by the most particular interposition of Divine -Providence. I confided in the Almighty God, and trusted that he would -not abandon me, even when all human succours failed me. - -“I first came to London upon hearing that my Lord was committed to the -Tower, I was at the same time informed that he had expressed the -greatest anxiety to see me, having, as he afterwards told me, nobody to -console him till I arrived. I rode to Newcastle, and from thence took -the stage to York. When I arrived there the snow was so deep that the -stage could not set out for London. The season was so severe, and the -roads so extremely bad, that the post itself was stopt; however, I took -horses, and rode to London through the snow, which was generally above -the horse’s girth, and arrived safe and sound without any accident. - -“On my arrival I went immediately to make what interest I could amongst -those who were in place. No one gave me any hopes; but all to the -contrary, assured me, that although some of the prisoners were to be -pardoned, yet my lord would certainly not be of the number. When I -enquired into the reason of this distinction, I could obtain no other -answer, than that they would not flatter me; but I soon perceived the -reasons which they declined alleging to me. A roman catholic, upon the -frontiers of Scotland, who headed a very considerable party—a man whose -family had always signalized itself by its loyalty to the royal house of -Stuart, and who was the only support of the catholics against the -inveteracy of the Whigs, who were very numerous in that part of -Scotland, would become an agreeable sacrifice to the opposite party. -They still retained a lively remembrance of his grandfather, who -defended his own castle of Carlaverock to the very last extremity, and -surrendered it up only by the express command of his royal master. Now -having his grandson in their power, they were determined not to let him -escape from their hands. - -“Upon this I formed the resolution to attempt his escape, but opened my -intentions to nobody but my dear Evans. In order to concert measures I -strongly solicited to be permitted to see my lord, which they refused to -grant me, unless I would remain confined with him in the Tower. This I -would not submit to, and alleged for excuse, that my health would not -permit me to undergo the confinement. The real reason of my refusal was, -not to put it out of my power to accomplish my design; however, by -bribing the guards, I often contrived to see my lord, till the day upon -which the prisoners were condemned; after that we were allowed for the -last week to see and take our leave of them. - -“By the help of Evans, I had prepared every thing necessary to disguise -my lord, but had the utmost difficulty to prevail upon him to make use -of them; however, I at length succeeded by the help of ALMIGHTY GOD. - -“On the 22d of February, which fell on a Thursday, our petition was to -be presented to the House of Lords, the purport of which was to intreat -the lords to intercede with his majesty to pardon the prisoners. We -were, however, disappointed the day before the petition was to be -presented; for the Duke of St. Alban’s, who had promised my Lady -Derwentwater to present it, when it came to the point, failed in his -word: however, as she was the only English countess concerned, it was -incumbent upon her to have it presented. We had one day left before the -execution, and the duke still promised to present the petition; but, for -fear he should fail, I engaged the Duke of Montrose to secure its being -done by the one or the other. I then went in company of most of the -ladies of quality who were then in town, to solicit the interest of the -lords, as they were going to the house. They all behaved to me with -great civility, but particularly my Lord Pembroke, who, though he -desired me not to speak to him, yet promised to employ his interest in -our favour, and honourably kept his word; for he spoke in the house very -strongly in our behalf. The subject of the debate was, whether the king -had the power to pardon those who had been condemned by parliament? And -it was chiefly owing to Lord Pembroke’s speech, that it passed in the -affirmative: however, one of the lords stood up and said, that the house -would only intercede for those of the prisoners who should approve -themselves worthy of their intercession, but not for all of them -indiscriminately. This salvo quite blasted all my hopes; for I was -assured it aimed at the exclusion of those who should refuse to -subscribe to the petition, which was a thing I knew my lord would never -submit to; nor, in fact, could I wish to preserve his life on such -terms. - -“As the motion had passed generally, I thought I could draw some -advantage in favour of my design. Accordingly, I immediately left the -House of Lords, and hastened to the Tower, where, affecting an air of -joy and satisfaction, I told all the guards I passed by, that I came to -bring joyful tidings to the prisoners. I desired them to lay aside their -fears, for the petition had passed the house in their favour. I then -gave them some money to drink to the lords and his majesty, though it -was but trifling; for I thought that if I were too liberal on the -occasion, they might suspect my designs, and that giving them something -would gain their good humour and services for the next day, which was -the eve of the execution. - -“The next morning I could not go to the Tower, having so many things in -my hands to put in readiness; but in the evening when all was ready, I -sent for Mrs. Mills, with whom I lodged, and acquainted her with my -design of attempting my lord’s escape, as there was no prospect of his -being pardoned; and this was the last night before the execution. I told -her that I had every thing in readiness, and I trusted that she would -not refuse to accompany me, that my lord might pass for her. I pressed -her to come immediately, as we had no time to lose. At the same time I -sent for Mrs. Morgan, then usually known by the name of Hilton, to whose -acquaintance my dear Evans had introduced me, which I looked upon as a -very singular happiness. I immediately communicated my resolution to -her. She was of a very tall and slender make, so I begged her to put -under her own riding-hood, one that I had prepared for Mrs. Mills, as -she was to lend her’s to my Lord, that in coming out he might be taken -for her. Mrs. Mills was then with child; so that she was not only of the -same height, but nearly of the same size as my lord. When they were in -the coach, I never ceased talking, that they might have no leisure to -reflect. Their surprise and astonishment, when I first opened my design -to them, had made them consent, without ever thinking of the -consequences. On our arrival at the Tower, the first I introduced was -Mrs. Morgan; for I was only allowed to take in one at a time. She -brought in the clothes that were to serve Mrs. Mills, when she left her -own behind her. When Mrs. Morgan had taken off what she had brought for -my purpose, I conducted her back to the staircase; and in going I begged -her to send me in my maid to dress me; that I was afraid of being too -late to present my last petition that night, if she did not come -immediately. I despatched her safe, and went partly down stairs to meet -Mrs. Mills, who had the precaution to hold her handkerchief to her face, -as was very natural for a woman to do when she was going to bid her last -farewell to a friend on the eve of his execution. I had indeed desired -her to do it, that my lord might go out in the same manner. Her eyebrows -were rather inclined to be sandy, and my lords were dark and very thick; -however, I had prepared some paint of the colour of her’s, to disguise -his with. I also brought an artificial head-dress of the same coloured -hair as her’s; and I painted his face with white and his cheeks with -rouge, to hide his long beard, as he had not time to shave. All this -provision I had before left in the Tower. - -The poor guards, whom my slight liberality the day before had endeared -to me, let me go quietly with my company, and were not so strictly on -the watch as they usually had been; and the more so, as they were -persuaded, from what I had told them the day before, that the prisoners -would obtain their pardon. I made Mrs. Mills take off her own hood, and -put on that which I had brought for her; I then took her by the hand and -led her out of my lord’s chamber; and in passing through the next room, -in which there were several people, with all the concern imaginable, I -said, “My dear Mrs. Catherines, go in all haste, and send me my waiting -maid; she certainly cannot reflect how late it is; she forgets that I am -to present a petition to-night, and if I let slip this opportunity I am -undone, for to-morrow will be too late. Hasten her as much as possible, -for I shall be on thorns till she comes.” Every body in the room, who -were chiefly the guards’ wives and daughters, seemed to compassionate me -exceedingly, and the sentinel very officiously opened the door to me. -When I had seen her out I returned back to my lord, and finished -dressing him. I had taken care that Mrs. Mills did not go out crying as -she came in, that my lord might the better pass for the lady who came in -crying and afflicted, and the more so, because he had the same dress she -wore. When I had almost finished dressing my lord in all my petticoats -excepting one, I perceived that it was growing dark, and was afraid that -the light of the candles might betray us, so I resolved to set off; I -went out leading him by the hand, and he held his handkerchief to his -eyes; I spoke to him in the most piteous and afflicted tone of voice, -bewailing bitterly the negligence of Evans, who had ruined me by her -delay. Then, said I, “My dear Mrs. Betty, for the love of GOD run -quickly, and bring her with you; you know my lodging, and if ever you -made despatch in your life, do it at present, I am almost distracted -with this disappointment.” The guards opened the doors, and I went down -stairs with him, still conjuring him to make all possible despatch. As -soon as he had cleared the door I made him walk before me, for fear the -sentinel should take notice of his walk, but I still continued to press -him to make all the despatch he possibly could. At the bottom of the -stairs I met my dear Evans, into whose hands I confided him. I had -before engaged Mr. Mills to be in readiness, before the Tower, to -conduct him to some place of safety, in case we succeeded. He looked -upon the affair so very improbable to succeed, that his astonishment, -when he saw us, threw him into such consternation, that he was almost -out of himself, which Evans perceiving, with the greatest presence of -mind, without telling him any thing, lest he should mistrust them, -conducted him to some of her own friends, on whom she could rely, and so -secured him, without which we should have been undone. When she had -conducted him, and left him with them, she returned to find Mr. Mills, -who, by this time, had recovered himself from his astonishment. They -went home together, and having found a place of security, they conducted -him to it. - -In the mean while, as I had pretended to have sent the young lady on a -message, I was obliged to return up stairs and go back to my lord’s -room, in the same feigned anxiety of being too late, so that every body -seemed sincerely to sympathize with my distress. When I was in the room, -I talked to him, as if he had been really present, and answered my own -questions in my lord’s voice, as nearly as I could imitate it. I walked -up and down, as if we were conversing together, till I thought they had -time enough thoroughly to clear themselves of the guards. I then thought -proper to make off also. I opened the door, and stood half in it, that -those in the outward chamber might hear what I said, but held it so -close, that they could not look in. I bid my lord a formal farewell, for -that night, and added that something more than usual must have happened -to make Evans negligent on this important occasion, who had always been -so punctual in the smallest trifles; that I saw no other remedy than to -go in person; that if the Tower were still open when I finished my -business, I would return that night; but that he might be assured I -would be with him as early in the morning as I could gain admittance -into the Tower, and I flattered myself I should bring favourable news. -Then, before I shut the door, I pulled through the string of the latch, -so that it could only be opened on the inside. I then shut it with some -degree of force, that I might be sure of its being well shut. I said to -the servant as I passed by, that he need not carry in candles to his -master till my lord sent for him, as he desired to finish some prayers -first. I went down stairs, and called a coach. As there were several on -the stand, I drove home to my lodgings, where poor Mr. Mackenzie had -been waiting to carry the petition, in case my attempt had failed. I -told him there was no need of any petition, as my lord was safe out of -the Tower, and out of the hands of his enemies, as I hoped; but that I -did not know where he was. - -I discharged the coach, and sent for a sedan chair, and went to the -Duchess of Buccleugh, who expected me about that time, as I had begged -of her to present the petition for me, having taken my precautions -against all events, and asked if she was at home; and they answered, -that she expected me, and had another duchess with her. I refused to go -up stairs, as she had company with her, and I was not in a condition to -see any other company. I begged to be shewn into a chamber below stairs, -and that they would have the goodness to send her grace’s maid to me, -having something to say to her. I had discharged the chair, lest I might -be pursued and watched. When the maid came in, I desired her to present -my most humble respects to her grace, who they told me had company with -her, and to acquaint her that this was my only reason for not coming up -stairs. I also charged her with my sincerest thanks for the kind offer -to accompany me when I went to present my petition. I added, that she -might spare herself any further trouble, as it was now judged more -advisable to present one general petition in the name of all; however, -that I should never be unmindful of my particular obligations to her -grace, which I would return very soon to acknowledge in person. - -I then desired one of the servants to call a chair, and I went to the -duchess of Montrose, who had always borne a part in my distress. When I -arrived, she left her company to deny herself, not being able to see me -under the affliction which she judged me to be in. By mistake I was, -however admitted; so there was no remedy. She came to me; and as my -heart was in extasy of joy, I expressed it in my countenance as she -entered the room. I ran up to her in a transport of joy. She appeared to -be extremely shocked and frightened; and has since confessed to me that -she apprehended my trouble had thrown me out of myself, till I -communicated my happiness to her. She then advised me to retire to some -place of security; for that the king was highly displeased, and even -enraged at the petition that I had presented to him, and had complained -of it severely. I sent for another chair, for I always discharged them -immediately, lest I might be pursued. Her grace said she would go to -court to see how the news of my lord’s escape was received. When the -news was brought to the king he flew into an excess of passion, and said -he was betrayed; for it could not have been done without some -confederacy. He instantly despatched two persons to the Tower to see -that the other prisoners were well secured, lest they should follow the -example. Some threw the blame upon one, some upon another. The duchess -was the only one at court who knew it. - -When I left the duchess I went to a house which Evans had found out for -me, and where she promised to acquaint me where my lord was; she got -thither some few minutes after me, and told me that when she had seen -him secure, she went in search of Mr. Mills, who, by this time, had -recovered himself from his astonishment; that he had returned to her -house, where she found him, and that he had removed my lord from the -first place, where she had desired him to wait, to the house of a poor -woman, directly opposite to the guard-house; she had but one small room -up one pair of stairs, and a very small bed in it.—We threw ourselves -upon the bed, that we might not be heard walking up and down. She left -us a bottle of wine and some bread; and Mrs. Mills brought us some more -in her pocket the next day. We subsisted on this provision from Thursday -till Saturday night, when Mrs. Mills came and conducted my lord to the -Venetian ambassador’s. - -We did not communicate the affair to his excellency; but one of his -servants concealed him in his own room till Wednesday, on which day the -ambassador’s coach and six was to go down to Dover to meet his brother. -My lord put on a livery, and went down in the retinue, without the least -suspicion, to Dover, where Mr. Mitchell (which was the name of the -ambassador’s servant) hired a small vessel, and immediately set sail for -Calais. The passage was so remarkably short, that the captain threw out -this reflection, that the wind could not have served better if his -passengers had been flying for their lives, little thinking it to be -really the case. Mr. Mitchell might have easily returned without being -suspected of being concerned in my lord’s escape; but my lord seemed -inclined to have him continue with him, which he did, and has at present -a good place under our young master. - -This is as exact and full an account of this affair, and of the persons -concerned in it, as I could possibly give you, to the best of my memory, -and you may rely on the truth of it. I am, with the strongest -attachment, my dear sister, your’s most affectionately, - -WINIFRED NITHSDALE. - - - - -ACCOUNT OF THE FIRST RISE OF FAIRS IN ENGLAND, AND THE MANNER OF LIVING - IN THE SIXTEENTH AND SEVENTEENTH CENTURIES. - - -Before the necessaries or ornaments of life from the convenience of -communication and the increase of provincial intercourse could be -procured in towns, through the medium of shops, goods and commodities of -every kind were chiefly sold at fairs, to which, as to one universal -mart, the people resorted periodically, and supplied most of their wants -for the ensuing year. - -Fairs and markets were at first held near the castles of the great -barons, and near the cathedrals and principal churches in the cities and -great towns, not only to prevent frauds in the king’s duties or customs, -but also as they were esteemed places where the laws of the land were -observed, and as such had a very particular privilege. - -The display of merchandize and the conflux of customers at these -principal and only emporia of domestic commerce were prodigious, and -they were, therefore, often held on open and extensive plains. - -It appears from a curious record containing the establishment and -expenses of the Earl of Northumberland in the year 1512, that the stores -of his lordship’s house at Wressle, for the whole year were laid in from -fairs; “He that stands charged with my lord’s house for the whole year, -if he may possible, shall be at all fairs, where the gross emptions -(that is the principal articles) shall be bought for the house for the -whole year, as wine, wax, beeves, muttons, wheat and malt.” - -This quotation is a proof that fairs were at that time the principal -marts for purchasing necessaries in large quantities, which now are -supplied by trading towns, and the mention of buying beeves and muttons, -(oxen and sheep) shews that at so late a period they knew but little of -breeding cattle. - -The great increase of shops in the retail trade in all the towns and -villages through the kingdom since the commencement of the eighteenth -century, by means of which the inhabitants are supplied with every -article necessary for subsistence as well as for luxury, has in a great -measure rendered useless the purposes for which fairs were originally -established. This change in the domestic trade of the country may be -attributed partly to the facility of payment given by the notes of the -bank of England and inland bills of exchange, and partly to the more -speedy and certain intercourse which has been produced by the regularity -of the post office. The latter may be looked upon as the cause and the -former the effect of this change which has so completely altered the -state of fairs throughout the kingdom. - -Connected with fairs as furnishing the necessaries of life may be given -an account of the living of the people in England in the sixteenth and -seventeenth centuries. - -From the household book of the Earl of Northumberland above-mentioned it -appears, that his family, during winter, lived mostly on salted meat and -salt fish, and on that account there was an order for providing 180 -gallons of mustard. On flesh days through the year, breakfast for the -earl and his lady was a loaf of bread, two manchets, a quart of beer, a -quart of wine, half a chine of mutton, or a chine of beef boiled. On -meagre days, a loaf of bread, two manchets, a quart of beer, a quart of -wine, a dish of butter, a piece of salt fish, or a dish of buttered -eggs. During Lent, a loaf of bread, two manchets, a quart of beer, a -quart of wine, two pieces of salt fish, six baconed herrings, or a dish -of sprats. The other meals had as little variety, except on festival -days. - -At that time capons, chickens, hens, pigeons, rabbits, plovers, -woodcocks, quails, snipes, partridges, and pheasants, were accounted -such delicacies as to be prohibited except at the earl’s table. - -From the same book it appears that the earl had only two cooks for -dressing victuals for his household which consisted of 229 persons. - -Hollinshed, who wrote about 1577, observes that white meats, i. e. milk, -butter and cheese, formerly the chief food of the English people, were -in his time degraded to be the food of the lowest sort, and that the -wealthy fed upon flesh and fish. - -Feasts in those times were carried beyond all bounds of moderation. -There is preserved an account of a feast given by Archbishop Nevill at -his installation, 1466, in which are mentioned, among a great variety of -others, the following articles, viz. wheat 300 quarters, ale 300 tuns, -80 oxen, 6 wild bulls, 1000 sheep, 300 calves, 300 swine called porks, -2000 pigs, 200 kids, 4000 rabbits, upwards of 400 harts, bucks and roes, -3000 geese, 2300 capons, 2000 chickens, 4000 pigeons, 100 peacocks, 200 -cranes, 4000 mallards and teals, 500 partridges, 400 woodcocks; 1500 -hot, and 4000 cold venison pasties, 2000 hot custards, and 4000 cold -ones. On the tables at this feast it is mentioned there were 4 porpoises -and 8 seals. - -There were 62 cooks and 515 servants to assist them, and not less than -3000 persons in all were at this feast. - -At the above period there was not discovered in society, any pleasure -but that of crouding together in hunting and feasting. The delicate -pleasures of conversation, in communicating opinions, sentiments and -desires, were wholly unknown. - -About the year 1512 the breakfast hour was eight, and at ten they sat -down to dinner; at three in the afternoon they had a drinking, and four -was the hour for supper. The gates of the Earl of Northumberland’s -castles were shut at nine in the evening throughout the year, “to the -intent that no servant shall come in at the said gate, that ought to be -within, who are out of the house at that hour.” - -By a household establishment of Lord Fairfax’s, about 1650, it appears -that eleven had then become the hour of dining, and towards the end of -that century the hour was twelve, but from the beginning of the last -century it has gradually grown later to the present times, when seven -has become the fashionable hour in noblemen’s houses. - -In the country, and in moderate families in the metropolis, one and two -are the more general hours for dining. - -From the Percy household book it may be observed, that several dishes -were then in use which have been long banished from our tables; among -these may be reckoned cranes, herons, sea-gulls, bitterns and kirlews, -and at archbishop Nevill’s feast, porpoises and seals were served up. - -After the accession of Henry the seventh to the throne, the nation began -to rest from the scenes of war and blood which for several years had -subsisted between the Houses of York and Lancaster, and in the next -reign the people turned their attention more to trade and the arts of -peace, so that we find the mode of living considerably changed, for -luxury being ever the attendant of extended commerce, this brought us -acquainted with the produce of foreign countries till then unknown in -England. - -Previously to 1509 the principal vegetables used at the tables of the -great were imported from the Netherlands, so that when Catherine, queen -of Henry the eighth wanted a sallad, she was obliged to despatch a -messenger to Flanders. Asparagus and artichokes were introduced into -England about 1578, and cauliflowers somewhat later. Celery was not -introduced into England till after 1709, when Marshal Tallard being made -prisoner at the battle of Malplaquet, and brought into England, first -introduced this plant on the English tables. - -There is an article in the Percy household book which says, “That from -henceforth there be no herbs bought, seeing that the cooks may have -herbs enough in my lord’s gardens.” - -Since the introduction of tea into England at the close of the -seventeenth century the living of all classes of the people has -experienced a total change, but it was not till about 1740 that tea came -to be generally used in the country, for previously to that time those -who made use of it got it by stealth, each being afraid of being known -to be in possession of what was then termed a great luxury. - -Waller has a poem addressed to the queen Maria d’Este, wife of James the -second in 1683, “On Tea commended by her Majesty,” whereby it seems it -was even then a new thing, though Mr. Hanway in his Essay on Tea says -that Lord Arlington and Lord Ossory introduced it into England in 1666, -and that it was then admired as a new thing. Their ladies introduced it -among the women of quality, and its price was then £3 per pound, and -continued the same till 1707. In 1715 green tea began to be used, and -the practice of drinking tea descended to the middling classes of the -people. - -In the Tatler (No. 86, Oct. 27, 1709) the author mentions inviting his -friends, seemingly as though tea was common, to drink a dish of tea, -which they refused, saying they never drank tea in the morning. - -The same author observes, that dinner had in his memory, crept by -degrees from twelve o’clock to three, and in the Spectator it is said -that coffee houses were frequented by shopkeepers from six in the -morning, and that the students at law made their appearance in them in -their night gowns about eight. A lady who sends her journal to the -Spectator represents herself as taking chocolate in bed, and sleeping -after it till ten, and drinking her Bohea from that hour till eleven. -Her dinner hour was from three to four, and she did not sit up later at -a card party than twelve. A citizen out of trade, in the same work, -describes himself as rising at eight, dining at two, and going to bed at -ten if not kept up at the club he frequented. - -The history of Taverns in this country may be traced back to the time of -king Henry the fourth, for so ancient is that of the Boar’s Head in East -Cheap, London, the rendezvous of prince Henry and his riotous -companions. Of little less antiquity is the White Hart without -Bishopsgate, which now bears in the front of it, the date of its -erection, 1480. - - - - - SIR RICHARD CLOUGH. - - -Sir Richard Clough was a man of distinguished character, who raised -himself by his merit, from a poor boy at Denbigh to be one of the -greatest merchants of his time. He was first a chorister at Chester, -then had the good fortune to become apprentice to the famous Sir Thomas -Gresham, and afterwards his partner, with whom he may be considered as -joint founder of the Royal Exchange, having contributed several thousand -pounds towards that noble design. His residence was chiefly at Antwerp, -where after his death his body was interred; his heart at Whitchurch, in -the vicinity of Denbigh. He is said to have made a pilgrimage to -Jerusalem, and to have been a knight of the holy sepulchre; and he -accordingly assumed the five crosses, the badge of that order, for his -arms. His wealth was so great, that his name became proverbial, and the -Welsh have a saying, on any person’s attaining great riches, that he _is -become a CLOUGH_. Sir Richard left two daughters, but it is probable -that they enjoyed but an inconsiderable part of his wealth, which is -said to have gone to Sir Thomas Gresham, according to an agreement in -case of survivorship. Sir Richard died first, but the time is unknown. -Sir Thomas survived till the year 1579. - -The original hint of the Royal Exchange was given to Sir Thomas Gresham -by Sir Richard Clough, who in the year 1561, had been advanced by the -former, to be his correspondent and agent in the then emporium of the -world, Antwerp. Clough wrote to his master, to blame the citizens of -London for neglecting so necessary a thing; bluntly saying that “they -studied nothing else but their own private profit; that they were -content to walk about in the rain, more like pedlars than merchants, and -that there was no kind of people but had their place to transact -business in, in other countries.” Thus stimulated, Sir Thomas, in 1566, -laid the foundation, and the next year completed what was then called -the _Bourse_, which three years after on being visited by queen -Elizabeth, was dignified by her with the title of _Royal Exchange_. - -An original picture of Sir Richard Clough is preserved at Llanywern, the -seat of Sir Thomas Salusbury, Bart. It is a half length extremely well -painted on board, his hair is very short, and of a dark brown. He is -dressed in a short close jacket, black, striped with white, and great -white breeches. In his right hand a glove; his left on his sword; on his -right side is a dagger. The arms of the holy sepulchre, which he had -assumed, are on one side of the picture. It was probably painted at -Antwerp, which at this period abounded with artists of the first merit. - - - - - ROYAL CLEMENCY. - - -Lewis the thirteenth of France being desirous to sit as judge at the -trial of the Duke de la Vallette, assembled, in his cabinet, some -members of the Parliament, together with some counsellors of state, to -consult on the propriety of such a step. Upon their being compelled by -the king to give their opinions concerning the decree for his arrest, -the president, De Believre, said, “That he found it very strange that a -prince should pass sentence upon one of his subjects; that kings had -reserved to themselves the power of pardoning, and left that of -condemning to their officers; that his majesty wanted to see before him -at the bar, a person, who by his decision was to be hurried away in an -hour’s time into another world. That this is what a prince’s -countenance, from whence favours flow, should never bear; that his -presence alone removed ecclesiastical censures; and that subjects ought -not to go away dissatisfied from their prince.” When sentence was -passed, the same president said, “This is an unprecedented judgment, and -contrary to the example of past ages, to see a king of France, in the -quality of a judge, condemning a gentleman to death.”—It may be proper -to add, that the sentence was afterwards revoked. - -It has always been urged against king James the second, as a proof of -the inveterate cruelty of his disposition, that he should have ordered -the Duke of Monmouth into his presence, and not pardoned him. Welwood, -in his Memoirs, says, that James, in this instance, made an exception to -a general rule observed inviolably by kings, “never to allow a criminal, -under sentence of death, the sight of his prince’s face, without a -design to pardon him.” - -The custom of pardoning criminals, by admitting them into the presence -of the sovereign, is of very ancient date. When Agag, king of the -Amalekites, had been taken prisoner by Saul (1 Sam., xv. 20-33) and his -life spared by that monarch, contrary to the divine command, and was -afterwards brought into the presence of Samuel, he exclaimed “Surely the -bitterness of death is past,” evidently in allusion to this custom. But -Samuel executed the command of GOD, by putting Agag to death, which -ought to have been done by Saul, on taking him prisoner. - - - - - LOTTERIES. - - -As a source of revenue, this is only a modern invention; and it is -evident, were it not for the monopoly of this species of gambling, which -the government insists on enjoying, that it could not possibly prove of -any material advantage; for individuals would soon set up private -lotteries, could afford to carry them on with less profit, and would -soon draw all the benefit of such speculations to themselves. - -The Romans had lotteries, particularly whilst they were under the -government of the emperors. The tickets were distributed gratis among -those guests who attended their entertainments, and all of them gained -some prize. Heliogabalus took pleasure in making the prizes of very -disproportionate value. Some of the prizes were ten camels, others ten -flies, some ten pounds of gold, ten eggs, and the like. The plays which -Nero gave, were concluded by lotteries, consisting of prizes of wheat, -wine, stuffs, gold, silver, slaves, ships, houses, and lands. - -In England, lotteries certainly took place in the reign of queen -Elizabeth. According to Raynal, the two American companies in her reign, -were favoured with the first lottery that ever was drawn in her -dominions. The first however, of which we have any regular account was -drawn in the year 1569. It consisted of 400,000 lots, at ten shillings -each; the prizes were plate, and the profits were to go towards -repairing the havens of this kingdom. It was drawn at the west door of -St. Paul’s Cathedral. The drawing began on the 11th of January, 1569, -and continued incessantly, day and night, until the sixth of May, -following. There were then only three lottery offices in London. It was -at first intended to have been drawn at the house of Mr. Derricke, the -queen’s jeweller, but was afterwards drawn as above mentioned. - -The proposals for this lottery were published in the years 1567 and -1568. Dr. Rawlinson shewed the Society of Antiquaries in 1748, “A -proposal for a very rich lottery, general, without any blanks, -containing a great number of good prizes, as well of ready money as of -plate and certain sorts of merchandizes, having been valued and prized -by the commandment of the queen’s most excellent majesty’s order, to the -intent that such commodities as may chance to arise thereof, after the -charges borne, may be converted towards the reparations of the havens, -and strength of the realm, and towards such other public good works. The -number of lots shall be 400,000 and no more, and every lot shall be the -sum of ten shillings sterling and no more. To be filled by the feast of -St. Bartholomew. The shew of prizes are to be seen in Cheapside, at the -sign of the Queen’s Arms, the house of Mr. Derricke, goldsmith, servant -to the queen.” - -In the year 1612, king James in special favour for the plantation of -English colonies in Virginia, granted a lottery to be held at the west -end of St. Paul’s, whereof one Thomas Sharplys, a tailor of London, had -the chief prize, which was 4000 crowns in plate. - -Lotteries were revived in the reign of William the third, and as all our -evils were then attributed to Dutch counsels, the blame of lotteries, -those banes of industry, frugality, and virtue, was ascribed to an -imitation of the example of Holland, and a wish in the natives of that -country to ruin our morals, as well as to cramp our trade. - -In the reign of queen Anne it was thought necessary to suppress -lotteries as nuisances to the public. They have, however, been revived -of late years, and are now carried forward in a more extensive manner -than at any former period. - - - - - HERCULANEUM MANUSCRIPTS. - - -The following account of the ancient rolls of Papyrus, discovered at -Herculaneum, and the method employed to unroll them, is extracted from a -letter written in 1802, by the Hon. Henry Grey Bennett, addressed to the -late Rev. Samuel Henley, D. D. - -“The _papyrus_ of the Greeks and Romans was the inside coating of a -plant of the same name; which was formerly common in various parts of -Sicily; a small river now choaked up near Palermo was called the -_Papyrus_, probably from the number of that species of plant which grew -in its bed; the same name was also given to various rivulets in the -island. It is however most common in the neighbourhood of Syracuse, -where a Sicilian a few years ago established a manufactory of that -article, more indeed to gratify the wishes of the curious, than to reap -any immediate profit. The texture is not so fine as in the Egyptian or -eastern manuscripts, which exist in the libraries of Paris. This may be -owing probably to the method of preparation, and not to any difference -in the plant. - -“The _papyri_ are joined together, and form one roll, on each sheet of -which, the characters are painted, standing out in a species of _bas -relief_, and singly to be read with the greatest ease. As there are no -stops, a difficulty is found in joining the letters, in making out the -words, and in discovering the sense of the phrase. The manuscripts were -found in a chamber of an excavated house, in the ancient Herculaneum, to -the number of about 1800, a considerable part of which were in a state -to be unrolled. That city was buried for the most part under a shower of -hot ashes, and the manuscripts were reduced by the heat to a state of -tinder, or to speak more properly, resembled paper which has been burnt. -Where the baking has not been complete, and where any part of the -vegetable juice has remained it is almost impossible to unroll them, the -sheets towards the centre, being so closely united. In the others as you -approach to the centre, or conclusion, the manuscripts become smoother, -and the work proceeds with greater rapidity. A manuscript, by Epicurus, -was unrolled in March, 1802, twenty seven sheets of which were taken -off, not indeed so well as could have been hoped, but a great part -sufficiently intelligible, to judge of the style of the author, and the -nature of its contents. It unfortunately fell to the lot of a young -beginner, who in his hurry to conclude, spoiled much more than he saved. - -“The _papyri_ are very rough on the outside, and in some there are great -holes. All the inequalities are made smooth, previous to unrolling them, -with facility; in consequence much must inevitably be lost. Great care, -however, is taken to preserve all the pieces, and when broken off, they -are placed in the same sheet, preserving their original position. - -“When first Mr. Hayter began this process, there was one man tolerably -expert, and three only who had ever seen the manner of it; consequently, -all were to be taught. This may serve as a reason why, as yet, so little -has been done. One Latin manuscript was found, but it was in too bad a -state to promise any chance of success. They are of different sizes, -some containing only a few sheets, as a single play, others some -hundreds, and a few, perhaps, two thousand. We may hope from the first, -Menander, and from the others, the histories of Livy and Diodorus -Siculus, perhaps the Doric poetry of the Sicilian muse, or the -philosophy of the schools of Agrigentum and of Syracuse. We are led from -the nature of the manuscripts to trust, that the indefatigable labours, -the attention, and industry of Mr. Hayter will not be thrown away, and -that the assistance to be derived from the English minister, Mr. -Drummond, as well on account of his classical knowledge, and his love of -literature, as the advantages arising from his situation, may command -ultimate success, and secure to those who are engaged in this business, -the protection of the Neapolitan government, and the thanks of the -literary world.” - - - - - WOLVES IN ENGLAND. - - -King Edward the first commissioned Peter Corbet to destroy the wolves in -the counties of Gloucester, Worcester, Hereford, Salop, and Stafford, -and ordered John Gilford to hunt them in all the forests of England. - -The forest of Chiltern was infested by wolves and wild bulls in the time -of Edward the Confessor. William the Conqueror granted the lordship of -Riddesdale, in Northumberland, to Robert de Umfraville, on condition of -defending that part of the country against enemies and wolves. King John -gave a premium of ten shillings for catching two wolves. - -In the reign of king Henry the third Vitalis de Engaine held the manors -of Laxton and Pitchley, in the county of Northampton, by the service of -hunting the wolf, whenever the king should command him. In the reign of -Edward the first, it was found by inquisition that John de Engaine, held -the manor of Great Gidding in the county of Huntingdon by the service of -hunting the hare, fox, wild cat, and wolf, within the counties of -Huntingdon, Northampton, Buckingham, Oxford, and Rutland. In the reign -of Edward the third, Thomas de Engaine, held certain manors by the -service of finding at his own proper cost, certain dogs for the -destruction of wolves, foxes, martins, and wild cats, in the counties of -Northampton, Rutland, Oxford, Essex, and Buckingham. - - - - - PROFESSOR PORSON. - - -This eminent scholar and acute critic was born at East Ruston, in the -county of Norfolk, on the 25th of December, 1759. At a very early period -he displayed talents which gave promise of future excellence, and some -gentlemen who admired his acquirements in learning, sent him to Eton, -from whence he was afterwards entered of Trinity College, Cambridge. The -following account of Mr. Porson, when an Eton boy, is extracted from the -evidence of Dr. Goodall, the present Provost of Eton, given before the -Education Committee of the House of Commons. - -Dr. Goodall being asked if he was acquainted with what happened to the -late Professor Porson to prevent his election to King’s College, replied -as follows:— - - “Every account that I have read about him, in relation to that - circumstance is incorrect. When he came to the school he was placed - rather higher by the reputation of his abilities, than perhaps he - ought to have been, in consequence of his actual attainments; and I - can only say that many of the statements in the life of Porson are - not founded in truth. With respect to prosody, he knew but little, - and as to Greek he had made comparatively but little progress when - he came to Eton. The very ingenious and learned editor of one - account of him, has been misinformed in most particulars; and many - of the incidents which he relates, I can venture from my own - knowledge to assert, are distorted or exaggerated. Even Person’s - compositions, at an early period, though eminently correct, fell far - short of excellence; still we all looked up to him in consequence of - his great abilities and variety of information, though much of that - information was confined to the knowledge of his schoolfellows, and - could not easily fall under the notice of his instructors. He always - undervalued school exercises, and generally wrote his exercises fair - at once, without study. I should be sorry to detract from the merit - of an individual whom I loved, esteemed, and admired; but I speak of - him when he had only given the promise of his future excellence; and - in point of school exercises, I think he was very inferior to more - than one of his contemporaries; I would name the present Marquis - Wellesley as infinitely superior to him in composition. - - “On being asked whether he wrote the same beautiful hand as he did - afterwards, Dr. Goodall replied he did, nor was there any doubt of - his general scholarship. - - “To a question whether he made great progress during the time he was - at Eton, or after he left? Dr. Goodall said he was advanced as far - as he could be with propriety, but there were certainly some there - who would not have been afraid to challenge Porson as a school-boy, - though they would have shunned all idea of competition with him at - Cambridge. The first book that Porson ever studied, as he often told - me, was Chambers’s Cyclopædia; he read the whole of that dictionary - through, and in a great degree made himself master of the algebraic - part of that work entirely by the force of his understanding. - - “Dr. Goodall was then asked if he considered there was any ground - for complaint on the part of Porson, in not having been sent to - Cambridge, to which he answered no; he was placed as high in the - school as he well could be; as a proof however of his merits, when - he left Eton, contributions were readily supplied by Etonians in aid - of Sir George Baker’s proposal, to secure the funds for his - maintenance at the university.” - -In the year 1793, Mr. Porson was elected professor of Greek in the -University of Cambridge, that office being then vacant by the death of -professor Cooke. The following letter relating to this election from Mr. -Porson to the Rev. Dr. Postlethwayte, master of Trinity College, is now -first printed:— - - “_Essex Court, Temple, 6th October, 1792._ - - “Sir,—When I first received the favour of your letter I must own - that I felt rather vexation and chagrin than hope and satisfaction. - I had looked upon myself so completely in the light of an outcast - from Alma Mater, that I had made up my mind to have no farther - connection with the place. The prospect you held out to me gave me - more uneasiness than pleasure. When I was younger than I now am, and - my disposition more sanguine than it is at present, I was in daily - expectation of Mr. Cooke’s resignation, and I flattered myself with - the hope of succeeding to the honour he was going to quit. As hope - and ambition are great castle-builders, I had laid a scheme, partly - as I was willing to think, for the joint credit, partly for the - mutual advantage, of myself and the university. I had projected a - plan of reading lectures, and I persuaded myself that I should - easily obtain a grace, permitting me to exact a certain sum from - every person who attended. But seven years’ waiting will tire out - the most patient temper, and all my ambition of this sort was long - ago laid asleep. The sudden news of the vacant professorship put me - in mind of poor Jacob, who having served seven years in hopes of - being rewarded with Rachel, awoke, and behold it was Leah. - - “Such, sir, I confess were the first ideas that took possession of - my mind. But after a little reflection, I resolved to refer a matter - of this importance to my friends. This circumstance has caused the - delay, for which I ought before now to have apologized. My friends - unanimously exhorted me to embrace the good fortune which they - conceived to be within my grasp. Their advice, therefore, joined to - the expectation I had entertained of doing some small good by my - exertions in the employment, together with the pardonable vanity - which the honour annexed to the office inspired, determined me; and - I was on the point of troubling you, sir, and the other electors - with notice of my intentions to profess myself a candidate, when an - objection which had escaped me in the hurry of my thoughts, now - occurred to my recollection. - - “The same reason which hindered me from keeping my fellowship by the - method you obligingly pointed out to me, would, I am greatly afraid, - prevent me from being Greek professor. Whatever concern this may - give me for myself, it gives me none for the public. I trust there - are at least twenty or thirty in the university, equally able and - willing to undertake the office; possessed, many of talents superior - to mine, and all of a more complying conscience. This I speak upon - the supposition that the next Greek professor will be compelled to - read lectures; but if the place remains a sinecure, the number of - qualified persons will be greatly increased. And though it was even - granted that my industry and attention might possibly produce some - benefit to the interests of learning and the credit of the - university, that trifling gain would be as much exceeded by keeping - the professorship a sinecure, and bestowing it on a sound believer, - as temporal considerations are outweighed by spiritual. Having only - a strong persuasion, not an absolute certainty, that such a - subscription is required of the professor elect; if I am mistaken, I - hereby offer myself as a candidate, but if I am right in my opinion, - I shall beg of you to order my name to be erased from the boards, - and I shall esteem it a favour conferred on, Sir, - - Your obliged humble servant, - - R. PORSON.” - - * * * * * - - _Letter from the Rev. Joseph Goodall, D. D. Upper Master (now - Provost) of Eton College, to Mr. Porson._ - - “_Eton, Nov. 16th, 1806._ - - “Dear Porson,—The bishop of Rochester [Dr. Dampier] has written to - me requesting my assistance on the following subject. ‘On summing up - matters the Oxford people find no account of the Eton MS of Strabo, - of which use has been made, and want one for their preface.’ Now the - said bishop, urged by his brother of Oxford [Dr. Randolph] at the - same time he hints that you have examined the MS in question, and - advises me to enter upon the subject with you, which I most gladly - do, praying for such information as you may be disposed to give me, - being fully persuaded that you are not likely to forget what you - have once seen. - - “I write to the bishop by this post to acknowledge my incompetence. - How glad should Mrs. Goodall and myself be, if you would take the - trouble of once more inspecting the MS and dating your kind - communication from the Eton library. Should you be a prisoner - in——street will you suffer me to bring the MS to town about the - middle of December, and then give me your opinion of its value, age, - &c. The master of the Charter-House, [Dr. Raine] whom I hope soon to - greet by some other title, will I am sure, have the goodness to - forward this petition to you. - - “Charles Hayes, who, with his wife is now on a visit to us, desires - his kindest remembrance. Mrs. Goodall is fatigued to death with - nursing a sick nephew and niece, and I am sorry to add that I am on - the invalid list myself, but we hope to be all well in the course of - a few days. She unites in every good wish with - - Dear Porson, - - Yours most faithfully, - - J. GOODALL.” - - * * * * * - -_From Mr. William Laing of Edinburgh to Mr. Porson._ - - “_Edinburgh, 3d of Jan. 1807._ - - “Sir,—The edition of Herodotus being now compleated after the plan - you proceeded on, I have taken the liberty of dedicating to you, - which I hope will meet your approbation. Mr. Dunbar who has - succeeded poor Mr. Dalzel has paid the utmost attention to it. I - shall order Cuthell to forward a copy for your use. A selection has - been made of the best notes from Wesseling; which with his Index - Rerum, will make it very compleat. I return you my best thanks for - the trouble you voluntarily undertook in promoting this speculation. - I hope soon to see you in town, and shall personally repeat my - obligations. - - “I am about to print a new and elegant edition of Pindar in two - volumes from Heyne’s—You see there is still some spirit for - enterprize existing here. - - “I hope all my little editions will possess beauty and correctness. - I believe you have still a volume of Herodotus which belongs to a - person here who wants it. Please deliver it to my son who will call - for it. - - I remain with the highest respect, - - Sir, your very obedient servant, - - WILLIAM LAING.” - - * * * * * - -_From Dr. Charles Burney to Mr. Porson._ - - “_Greenwich, June 20th, 1808._ - - “My dear Porson,—My friends at Cambridge direct me to request you - will go down as speedily as may be, to vote, and collect votes, for - a degree of M. A. to be conferred on me. Now though I know your - objections to expeditions of such a nature, yet I cannot help - intreating you, if you have not sound reasons against it to go down - and aid my cause. - - “Kaye tells me that no time is to be lost. So if you can, pack up a - small portion of wardrobe and visit _alma mater_, so will you - greatly oblige and favor - - C. BURNEY.” - - * * * * * - -_From Dr. Davy, Master of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge, to Mr. -Porson._ - - “_Caius Coll. Tuesday 21st June, 1808._ - - “My dear Porson—I take the liberty of telling you, in case it should - affect any of your movements, that Dr. Burney’s mandamus will be - voted for on Friday next, at 2 o’clock precisely. Every thing seems - in his favour. - - Your’s most truly, - - M. DAVY.” - - * * * * * - -_From Thomas Tyrwhitt, Esq. to Mr. James Perry, Morning Chronicle -office, Strand._ - - “_Carlton House, Feb. 12th, 1805._ - - “Dear Sir,—Do pray at your convenience inform me of the address of - Mr. Porson, as some papers have been found in the collection of the - late Sir William Hamilton respecting the Papiri, which are very - interesting; and several MSS so clearly written out, as to be ready - for the opinion of Mr. Porson, the only person in my opinion fit to - inspect them in the whole kingdom. - - Your very faithful and obedient servant, - - THOMAS TYRWHITT.” - - - - - HISTORY OF SEPULCHRAL MONUMENTS. - - -In the early ages of Christianity the honour of being deposited within -the walls of the church was reserved to martyrs; and it was the request -of the emperor Constantine in imitation of this holy mode of interment, -that after his death, his remains might be allowed to lie in the porch -of the basilica of the Apostles, which he himself had erected in -Constantinople. Hence the eloquent Chrysostom, when speaking of the -triumphs of Christianity, exultingly observes, in allusion to this -circumstance, that the Cæsars, subdued by the humble fishermen whom they -had persecuted, now appeared as suppliants before them, and gloried in -occupying the place of porters at the doors of their sepulchres. Bishops -and priests distinguished by their learning, zeal, and sanctity, were -gradually permitted to share the honours of the martyrs, and to repose -with them within the sanctuary itself. A pious wish in some to be -deposited in the neighbourhood of such holy persons, and to rest under -the shadow of the altars; in others an absurd love of distinction even -beyond the grave; to which may be added, that the clergy, by making such -a distinction expensive, rendered it enviable; so that by degrees, all -the wholesome restrictions of antiquity were broken through, and at -length the noblest public edifices, the temples of the ETERNAL, the -seats of holiness and purity, were converted into so many dormitories of -the dead. - -Our present business is to investigate the antiquity and variety of -sepulchral monuments, which have been erected as memorials of the -illustrious dead, in the cathedral, conventual, and parish churches of -this island. During the time of our Saxon ancestors, it is probable, -that few or no monuments of this kind were erected; at least, being -usually placed in the churches belonging to the greater abbeys, they -felt the stroke of the general dissolution, and it is believed there are -now scarcely any extant. Those we meet with for the kings of that race, -such as Ina at Wells;[59] Osric, at Gloucester; Sebba and Ethelbert, -which were in Old St. Paul’s, or where-ever else they may occur, are -undoubtedly cenotaphs, erected in later ages by the several abbeys and -convents of which these royal personages were the founders, in gratitude -to such generous benefactors. - -The period immediately after the conquest was not a time for people to -think of such memorials for themselves, or friends. Few could then tell -how long the lands they enjoyed would remain their own; and most indeed -were put into the hands of new possessors, who, frequently, as we find -in Domesday Book, held thirty or forty manors, or more, at a time. All -_then_ above the degree of servants, were soldiers, the sword alone made -the gentleman, and accordingly on a strict inquiry, we shall meet with -few or no monuments of that age, except for the kings, royal family, or -some few of the chief nobility and leaders, among which, those for the -Veres, Earls of Oxford, at Earl’s Colne, in Essex, are some of the most -ancient. It is probable that this state of things, so far as regards -sepulchral monuments, continued through the troublesome reign of -Stephen, and during the confusion which prevailed while the barons’ wars -subsisted, and until the ninth year of king Henry the third, 1224. - -In that year Magna Charta being confirmed, and every man’s security -better established, property became more dispersed, manors were in more -divided hands, and the lords of them began to settle on their -possessions in the country. In that age many parish churches were built, -and it is not improbable that the care of a resting-place for their -bodies, and monuments to preserve their memories, became more general -and diffused. - -In country parish churches, the ancient monuments are usually found -either in the chancel, or in small chapels, or side aisles, which have -been built by the lords of manors, and patrons of the churches, (which -for the most part went together,) and being designed for burying places -for their families, were frequently endowed with chantries, in which -priests officiated, and offered up prayers for the souls of their -founder and his progenitors. - -The tracing out, therefore, of such founders, will frequently help us to -the knowledge of an ancient tomb which is found placed near the altar of -such chantries. If there are more than one, they are, probably, for -succeeding lords, and where there have been found ancient monuments in -the church, also, besides what are in such chapels or aisles, they may -be supposed to have been erected in memory of lords, prior to the -foundation of the buildings. - - - CROSS-LEGGED MONUMENTS. - - -The first species of monument, of which I propose to give the history, -is that denominated _cross-legged_, from its having the recumbent effigy -of the deceased upon it, represented in armour, with the legs crossed. -During the Norman period of our history, the holy war, and vows of -pilgrimage to Palestine, were esteemed highly meritorious. The religious -order of laymen, the knights templars, were received, cherished, and -enriched throughout Europe, and the individuals of that community, after -death, being usually buried cross-legged, in token of the banner under -which they fought, and completely armed in regard to their being -soldiers, this sort of monument grew much in fashion, and though all the -effigies with which we meet in that shape are commonly called knights -templars, yet it is certain that many of them do not represent persons -of that order; and Mr. Lethieullier says (_Archæologia, vol. 2. p. 292_) -that he had rarely found any of these monuments which he could with -certainty say had been erected to the memory of persons who had belonged -to that community. - -The order of knights templars had its rise but in the year 1118, and -in 1134, we find Robert duke of Normandy, son of William the -conqueror, represented in this manner on his tomb in Gloucester -cathedral.[60]—Henry Lacy, Earl of Lincoln, was represented thus on -his fine tomb, which was in St. Paul’s cathedral, before the fire of -London. And in the Temple church there still remain the cross-legged -effigies of William Marshall, Earl of Pembroke, who died in 1219; -William his son, who died in 1231; and Gilbert, another son, who died -in 1241; none of whom it is believed were of the order of Templars. - -If these monuments were designed to denote at least, that the -persons, to whose memory they were erected, had been in the Holy -Land, yet all who had been there did not follow this fashion, for -Edmund Crouchback, Earl of Lancaster, second son of king Henry the -third, had been there, and yet, as appears by his monument, still in -being in Westminster-abbey, he is not represented cross-legged.[61] -However, it seems to have been a prevailing fashion till the sixth -year of Edward the second, 1312, when the order of Templars coming -to destruction, and into the highest contempt, their fashions of all -kinds seem to have been totally abolished. - -By this it may be determined that all those effigies, either of wood or -stone, which we find in country churches, whether in niches in the walls -or on table tombs, and represented in complete armour, with a shield on -the left arm, and the right hand grasping the sword, cross-legged, and a -lion, talbot, or some animal couchant at the feet, have been set up -between the ninth of Henry the third, 1224, and the seventh of Edward -the second, 1313, and what corroborates this opinion is, that whenever -any such figures are certainly known, either by the arms on the shield, -or by uninterrupted tradition, they have always been found to fall -within that period, and whenever, says Mr. Lethieullier in the before -mentioned paper, I have met with such monument, totally forgotten, I -have, on searching for the owners of the church and manor, found some -person or other, of especial note, who lived in that age, and left -little room to doubt but it was his memory which was intended to be -preserved. - -It must, however, be acknowledged that this sort of monument did not -entirely cease after the year 1312, for there is one in the church of -Leekhampton, in Gloucestershire, which, by tradition, is said to be for -Sir John Gifford, who died possessed of that manor, in the third of king -Edward the third, 1328. - -The Rev. Dr. Nash, in his History of Worcester, has the following -observations on this sort of monument:—“It is an opinion which -universally prevails, with regard to the cross-legged monuments, that -they were all erected to the memory of knights templars; now, to me, it -is very evident that not one of them belonged to that order, but as Mr. -Habingdon, in describing those at Alvechurch, hath justly expressed it, -to ‘Knights of the Holy Voyage,’ for the order of knights templars -followed the rule of the canons regular of St. Augustin, and as such -were under a vow of celibacy. Now there is scarcely any one of these -monuments which is certainly known for whom it was erected, but it is as -certain that the person it represents was a married man. - -“The knights templars always wore a white habit, with a red cross on the -left shoulder. I believe not a single instance can be produced of either -the mantle or cross being carved on any of these monuments, which surely -would not have been omitted, as by it they were distinguished from all -other orders, had these been really designed to represent knights -templars. - -“Lastly, this order was not confined to England only, but dispersed -itself all over Europe, yet it will be very difficult to find one -cross-legged monument any where out of England; whereas no doubt they -would have abounded in France, Italy, and elsewhere, had it been a -fashion peculiar to that famous order. - -“But though for these reasons I cannot allow the cross-legged monuments -to have been erected for knights templars, yet they have some relation -to them; being memorials of those zealous devotees, who had either been -in Palestine, personally engaged in what is called the Holy War, or had -laid themselves under a vow to go thither, though perhaps they were -prevented from it by death; some few indeed might possibly be erected to -the memory of persons who had made pilgrimages thither, merely out of -devotion; among the latter probably was the lady of the family of -Metham, of Metham in Yorkshire, to whose memory a cross-legged monument -was placed in a chapel adjoining the once collegiate church of Howden, -in Yorkshire, and is at this day remaining, together with that of her -husband on the same tomb. - -“As this religious madness lasted no longer than the reign of our Henry -the third, (the seventh and last crusade being published in the year -1268) and the whole order of knights templars dissolved in the seventh -of Edward the second; military expeditions to the Holy Land, as well as -devout pilgrimages thither had their period by the year 1312, -consequently none of those cross-legged monuments are of a later date -than the reign of Edward the second, or the beginning of Edward the -third, nor of an earlier than that of king Stephen, when those -expeditions first took place in this kingdom.” - - - THE FOLLOWING RULES WERE OBSERVED BY ANCIENT SCULPTORS IN ERECTING - SEPULCHRAL MONUMENTS.[62] - - -Kings and princes, in what part, or by what means soever, they died, -were represented upon their tombs clothed with their coats of arms, -their shield, bourlet or pad, crown, crest, supporters, lambrequins or -_mantlings_, orders, and devices, upon their effigies, and round about -their tombs. - -Knights and gentlemen might not be represented with their coats of arms, -unless they had lost their lives in some battle, single combat or -rencontre with the prince himself, or in his service, unless they died -and were buried within their own manors and lordships; and then to shew -they died a natural death in their beds, they were represented with -their coat of armour, ungirded, without a helmet, bareheaded, their eyes -closed, their feet resting against the back of a greyhound, and without -any sword. - -Those who died on the day of battle, or in any mortal conflict on the -side of the victorious party, were to be represented with a drawn sword -in their right hand, the shield in their left, their helmet on their -head, (which some think ought to be closed and the vizor let down, as a -sign that they fell fighting against their enemies) having their coats -of arms girded over their armour, and their feet resting on a lion. - -Those who died in captivity, or before they had paid their ransom, were -figured on their tombs without spurs or helmets, without coats of arms, -and without swords, the scabbard thereof only girded to, and hanging at -their side. - -Those who fell on the side of the vanquished in a rencontre or battle -were to be represented without coats of arms, the sword at their side -and in the scabbard, the vizor raised and open, their hands joined -before their breasts, and their feet resting against the back of a dead -and overthrown lion. - -Those who had been vanquished and slain in the lists in a combat of -honour were to be placed on their tomb armed at all points, their -battle-axe lying by them, the left arm crossed over the right. - -Those who were victorious in the lists were exhibited on their tombs -armed at all points, their battle-axe in their arms, the right arm -crossed over the left. - -It was customary to represent ecclesiastical persons on their tombs -clothed in their respective sacerdotal habits. The canons with the -surplice, square cap, and aumasse or amice, that is the undermost part -of the priest’s habit. - -The abbots were represented with their mitres and crosiers turned to the -left. - -The bishops, with their great copes, their gloves in their hands, -holding their crosiers with their left hands and seeming to give their -benediction with the right, their mitres on their heads and their -armorial bearings round their tombs supported by angels. - -The popes, cardinals, patriarchs, and archbishops were likewise all -represented in their official habits. - -The editors of the Antiquarian Repertory (vol. 2. p. 226.) have given -the following additional particulars relating to these monuments:— - -“Although the figures represented on tombs with their legs crossed, are -commonly stiled Knights Templars, there are divers circumstances which -intitled other persons to be so represented. The first, having served -personally, though for hire in the Holy Land. Secondly, having made a -vow to go thither, though prevented by sickness or death. Thirdly, the -having contributed to the fitting out of soldiers or ships for that -service. Fourthly, having been born with the army in Palestine. And -lastly, by having been considerable benefactors to the order of Knights -Templars, persons were rendered partakers of the merits and honours of -that fraternity, and buried with their distinctions, an idea which has -been more recently adopted abroad by many great personages, who have -been interred in the habits of Capuchins. Indeed the admission of laymen -to the fraternity of a religious order was no uncommon circumstance in -former days. - -“So long as the Knights Templars remained in estimation it is probable -that persons availed themselves of that privileged distinction, but as -at its dissolution the Knights were accused of divers enormous crimes, -it is not likely any one would chuse to claim brotherhood with them, or -hand themselves or friends to posterity as members of a society held in -detestation all over Europe, so that cross-legged figures, or monuments, -may pretty safely be estimated as _prior_ to the year 1312, when that -dissolution took place, or at most they cannot exceed it by above sixty -or seventy years, as persons of sufficient age to be benefactors before -that event, would not, according to the common age of man, outlive them -more than that term.” - - - CROSS-LEGGED MONUMENTS IN THE TEMPLE CHURCH.[63] - - -_Geoffrey de Magnaville, first Earl of Essex._ - -(1148.) - -He is represented in mail with a surcoat, and round helmet flatted on -the top, with a nose piece, which was of iron to defend the nose from -swords. His head rests on a cushion placed lozenge fashion, his right -hand on his breast, a long sword at his right side, and on his left arm -a long pointed shield, charged with an escarbuncle on a diapered field. -This is the first instance in England of arms on a sepulchral figure. - -This Earl, driven to despair by the confiscation of his estates by king -Stephen, indulged in every act of violence, and making an attack on the -castle of Burwell, was there mortally wounded, and was carried off by -the Templars, who as he died under sentence of excommunication, declined -giving him Christian burial, but wrapping his body up in lead, hung it -on a crooked tree in the orchard of the Old Temple, London. William, -prior of Walden, having obtained absolution for him of the Pope, made -application for his body, for the purpose of burying it at Walden, upon -which the Templars took it down, and deposited it in the cemetery of the -New Temple. - - -_William Marshall, Earl of Pembroke._ - -This monument represents a knight in mail with a surcoat, his helmet -more completely rounded than the adjoining one, and the cushion as in -all the rest laid straiter under his head. He is drawing his short -dagger or broken sword with his right hand, and on his left arm has a -short pointed shield, on which are his arms, per pale, _or_ and _vert_, -a lion rampant, _gules_, armed and langued, _gules_, below his knees are -bands or garters, as if to separate the cuisses from the greaves; his -legs are crossed, and under his feet is a lion couchant. - -The first account of this William is in the 28th of Henry the second, -when Henry son of that prince, who had behaved himself rebelliously -against his father, lying on his death bed, with great penitence -delivered to him, as to his most intimate friend, his cross to carry to -Jerusalem. He obtained from Richard the first on his first coming to -England after his father’s death, Isabel, daughter and heiress of -Richard, Earl of Pembroke, in marriage, and with her that earldom. He -died advanced in years at his manor of Caversham, near Reading, in 1219. -His body was carried first to Reading abbey, then to Westminster, and -last to the Temple church, where it was solemnly interred. - - -_Robert Lord Ros of Hamlake._ - -The most elegant of all the figures in the Temple church represents a -comely young knight, in mail, and a flowing mantle, with a kind of cowl; -his hair neatly curled at the sides, and his crown appearing to be -shaven. His hands are elevated in a praying posture, and on his left arm -is a short pointed shield, charged with three water-bougets, the arms of -the family of Ros. He has at his left side a long sword, and the armour -of his legs, which are crossed, has a ridge or seam up the front, -continued over the knee, and forming a kind of garter below the knee: at -his feet a lion. - -This Robert Lord Ros was surnamed _Fursan_, and incurred the displeasure -of king Richard the first, but for what offence is not said. He was one -of the chief barons who undertook to compel king John’s observance of -the great charter. At the close of his life he took upon him the order -of the Templars, and died in their habit. He was buried in this church -in 1227. - - -_William Marshall, Earl of Pembroke._ - -The next figure but one to that of the Earl of Pembroke, may be for -William Marshall, eldest son of that Earl. It is a cross-legged knight -in mail, with a surcoat, his helmet round, surmounted with a kind of -round cap, and the mouth piece up, his hands folded on his breast, his -shield long and pointed, and now plain: a very long sword at his right -side; the belt from which his shield hangs studded with quatre-foils, -and that of his sword with lozenges. - -This William Marshall died without issue in 1231, and was buried in this -church near the grave of his father. - - -_Uncertain Monuments in the Temple Church._ - -The five figures in the north group of this church are not ascertained -absolutely to whom they belong. Camden and Weever ascribe one of them to -Gilbert Marshall, third son of the first William, who on the death of -his brother succeeded to the whole of the paternal inheritance, and lost -his life at a tournament at Ware in 1241. His bowels were buried before -the high altar of the church of our Lady at Hertford, and his body in -the Temple Church, London, near his father and brother. - -In the present state of these monuments it is almost impossible to -ascertain the property of more than one of the Marshall family. The two -effigies whose belts have the same ornaments were it is probable of one -family. - -It may be observed that Magnaville, William Marshall, jun. and the last -figure in the north groupe have their legs crossed in an unusual manner. -They lie on their backs and yet cross their legs as if they lay on their -sides. So were those of Henry Lacy, Earl of Lincoln, 1312, in old St. -Paul’s. - -The spurs of all are remarkably short, and seem rather straps with -rowels. Not above two or three have the long pointed shoe, and two have -their surcoats exactly reaching to the knee, whereas the others are of -different lengths and fall more easily. - -Weever informs us that sepulture in this church was much affected by -Henry the third and his nobility. Stowe has determined that four of the -cross-legged figures belong to the three earls of Pembroke and Robert -Ros: “and these are all,” says he, “that I can remember to have read -of.” - -Mr. Gough relates, (he says from good authority,) that a Hertfordshire -baronet applied for some of these cross-legged knights to grace his -newly erected parochial chapel, but the society of Benchers, discovered -their good sense, as well as regard to antiquity, by refusing their -compliance. - - - TABLE TOMB. - - -To the cross-legged monument it is highly probable, says Mr. -Lethieullier, succeeded the table tomb, with figures recumbent upon it, -with their hands joined in a praying posture, sometimes with a rich -canopy of stone over them, sometimes without such canopy, and again, -some very plain without any figures. Round the edge of these for the -most part were inscriptions on brass plates, which are now too -frequently destroyed. - -The table monument, however, came in more early than Mr. L. supposes. - -The most ancient monument of this kind that is extant, in England at -least, of the sovereigns of this kingdom, is that of king John, in the -choir of Worcester Cathedral.[64] His effigy lies on the tomb, crowned; -in his right hand he holds the sceptre, in his left a sword, the point -of which is received into the mouth of a lion couchant at his feet. The -figure is as large as life. On each side of the head are cumbent images, -in small, of the bishops St. Oswald and St. Wulstan, represented as -censing him.—This monarch died in the year 1216. His bowels were buried -in Croxton abbey, and his body, which was conveyed to Worcester from -Newark, was according to his desire, buried in that Cathedral. - - - GRAVE STONES. - - -At the same time came in common use the humble grave stone laid flat -with the pavement, sometimes with an inscription cut round the border of -the stone, sometimes enriched with costly plates of brass, as every -person who has examined our cathedral and parish churches cannot fail to -have observed. But either avarice, or an over zealous aversion to some -words in the inscription, has robbed most of these stones of the brass -which adorned them, and left the less room for certainty when this -fashion began. Earlier than the fourteenth century very few have been -met with, and even towards the beginning of that century it is thought -they were but rare. Mr. Lethieullier says that one was produced at a -meeting of the Society of Antiquaries, dated 1300.[65] Weever mentions -one in St. Paul’s for Richard Newport, anno 1317, and gives another at -Berkhampstead in Hertfordshire, which he by mistake dates 1306, the true -date being 1356. Upon the whole, where we have not a positive date, it -is hardly probable that any brass plate met with on grave stones can be -older than 1350, and few so old, but from about 1380 they grew into -common use and remained so even to the time of king James the first. -Only after the reign of Edward the sixth we find the old gothic square -letter changed into the roman round hand and the phrase _Orate pro -anima_ universally omitted. - -Towards the latter end of the fourteenth century a custom prevailed -likewise of putting the inscription in French and not in Latin. These -inscriptions are generally from 1350 to 1400, and very rarely -afterwards. John Stow has indeed preserved two, which were in St. -Martin’s in the Vintry, dated 1310, and 1311. - -The late editor of the Antiquities of Westminster affirms (from what -authority he does not say) that stone coffins were never or rarely used -after the thirteenth century.[66] If this assertion had been correct we -should have had an æra from whence to go upwards in search of any of -those monuments where the stone coffin appears, as it frequently does, -but there is reason to doubt the accuracy of this author’s statement. - -As Grecian architecture had a little dawning in Edward the sixth’s time, -and made a further progress in the three succeeding reigns, we find, in -the great number of monuments which were then erected, the small column -introduced with its base and capital, sometimes supporting an arch, -sometimes an architrave, but every where mixed with them, may be -observed a great deal of the Gothic ornaments retained, as small spires, -ill carved images, small square roses and other foliage, painted and -gilt, which sufficiently denote the age which made them, though no -inscriptions are left. - - - HERALDIC SYMBOLS. - - -Some knowledge of heraldry is very necessary in monumental researches, a -coat of arms, device, or rebus, very often remains where not the least -word of an inscription appears, and where indeed very probably there -never was any. - -Armorial bearings seem to have taken their rise in this kingdom in the -reign of king Richard the first, and by little and little to have become -hereditary; it was accounted most honourable to carry those arms which -the bearers had displayed in the Holy Land, against the professed -enemies of Christianity, but they were not fully established until the -latter end of the reign of king Henry the third. - -King Richard the first after his return from his captivity in Austria, -had a new great seal made, on which seal he first bore three lions -passant guardant for his arms, which from this time became the -hereditary arms of the kings of England. - -The arms assigned or attributed to the kings of the Norman dynasty, -namely _gules_, two lions passant guardant, _or_, Mr. Sandford, in his -Genealogical History of England, says he could not find had ever been -used by those Princes, either on monuments, coins, or seals, but that -historians had assigned or fixed them upon the Norman line to -distinguish it from that of their successors the Plantagenets, who bore -_gules_, three lions passant guardant, _or_.[67] According to the -opinion of modern genealogists, king Henry the second, who bore two -lions for his arms, in the manner before mentioned, added, on his -marriage with Eleanor of Aquitaine, the arms of that dutchy, namely -_gules_, a lion, _or_, to his own, and so was the first king of England -who bore three lions; but for this there is no better proof than for -those assigned to the Norman dynasty, for the arms of king Henry the -second upon his monument at Fontevraud in Normandy, are on a shield of a -modern form, and on the same monument are escutcheons with both -impalements and quarterings which were not used till a hundred years -after his death. - -King Edward the first was the first son of a king of England that -differenced his arms with a file, and the first king of England that -bore his arms on the caparisons of his horse. - -Margaret of France, second wife of king Edward the first, was the first -queen of England that bore her arms _dimidiated_ with her husband’s in -one escutcheon, that is, both escutcheons being parted by a -perpendicular line, or _per pale_, the dexter side of the husband’s -shield, is joined to the sinister side of the wife’s, which kind of -bearing is more ancient than the impaling of the entire coats of arms. - -King Edward the third, in the year 1339, having taken upon him the title -of king of France, was the first of our kings who quartered arms, -bearing those of France and England, quarterly, and so careful were the -kings, his successors, in marshalling the arms of both kingdoms in the -same shield, that when Charles the sixth, king of France, changed the -semée of fleurs de lys into three, our king Henry the fifth did the -like,[68] and so it continued till the union of Great Britain with -Ireland in 1801, when the arms of France were relinquished. - -The first example of the quartering of arms, is found in Spain, when the -kingdoms of Castile and Leon were united under Ferdinand the third, and -was afterwards imitated, as above described, by king Edward the third. -Eleanor of Castile, his queen, introduced this mode of bearing arms into -England, in which she was followed by the king, her husband. - -Until the time of king Edward the third, we find no coronets round the -heads of peers. The figure upon the monument of John of Eltham, second -son of king Edward the third, who died in 1334, and is buried in -Westminster abbey, is adorned with a diadem, composed of a circle of -greater and less leaves or flowers, and is the most ancient portraiture -of an earl, says Sandford, that has a coronet. For the effigies of Henry -Lacy, earl of Lincoln, on his tomb in Old St. Paul’s, had the head -encompassed with a circle only, and that of William de Valence, earl of -Pembroke, half brother of king John, who died in 1304, and is buried in -St. Edmund’s chapel, in Westminster abbey, has only a circle, enriched -and embellished with stones of several colours, but without either -points, rays, or leaves. - -John Hastings, earl of Pembroke, who died in 1375, was the first subject -who bore two coats quarterly. - -Richard the second was the first of the English kings, who used -supporters to his arms. - -Henry the sixth was the first of our kings who wore an arched crown, -which has been ever since continued by his successors.[69] - -Henry the eighth was the first king of England that added to his shield, -the garter and the crown, in imitation of which, the knights of the -garter, in the latter end of his reign, caused their escutcheons on -their stalls at Windsor, to be encompassed with the garter, and those -who were dukes, marquesses, or earls, had their coronets placed on their -shields, which has been so practised ever since. - -Queen Elizabeth was the first sovereign who used in her arms, a harp -crowned, as an ensign for the kingdom of Ireland. - -King James the first was the first of our monarchs, who quartered the -arms of England, Scotland, and Ireland in one shield. - -The number of princes of the blood royal of the houses of York and -Lancaster, may easily be distinguished, by the labels on their coats of -arms, which are different for each, and very often their devices are -added. - -Where the figure of a woman is found with arms both on her kirtle and -mantle, those on the kirtle are always her own family’s, and those on -the mantle, her husband’s. - -The first instance of arms on sepulchral monuments, in England, are -those on the tomb of Geoffrey de Magnaville, first Earl of Essex, (so -created in 1148,) in the Temple church, in London. Armorial bearings -were used in France, on monuments, forty years before we find them in -England. - -Very intimately connected with the ornaments and devices upon sepulchral -monuments are the figures and dresses of our early monarchs found on -their great seals, and of the principal nobility of those times on their -seals. King Henry the third was the first English sovereign who wore -upon his helmet a crown, and he is also the first king who is depicted -upon his great seal as wearing rowels in his spurs in the manner in -which they are now used, all the former kings using spurs with a single -point or spike from the heel. - -Sandford, in his Genealogical History of England, says, that the arms -upon the seal of John, Earl of Morton, (afterwards king John,) namely, -two lions passant, are the first which he had seen upon any seal of the -royal family. This was in the reign of king Henry the second. - - - MONUMENTS FOR ECCLESIASTICS. - - -As to monuments for the several degrees of churchmen, as bishops, -abbots, priors, monks, &c. or of religious women, they are easily to be -distinguished from other persons, but equally difficult to assign to -their true owners. Among these, as among the before-mentioned monuments, -for the most part the stone effigies are the oldest, with the mitre, -crosier, and other proper insignia, and very often wider at the head -than feet, having, indeed, been the cover to the stone coffins in which -the body was deposited. - -When brass plates came in fashion they were likewise much used by -bishops, &c. many of whose grave stones remain at this day, very richly -adorned, and in many, the indented marble shews that they have been so. -In Salisbury cathedral, says Mr. Lethieullier, I found two very ancient -stone figures of bishops, which were brought from Old Sarum, and are -consequently older than the time of king Henry the third. In that -church, likewise, the pompous marble which lies over Nicholas Longespee, -bishop of that see, and son of the, Earl of Salisbury, who died in the -year 1297, appears to have been richly plated, though the brass is now -quite gone, and is one of the most early of that kind which has been met -with. Frequently, where there are no effigies, crosiers or crosses -denote an ecclesiastic. The latter have been met with, but with little -difference in their form, for every order from a bishop to a parish -priest. - - - THE SKELETON MONUMENT. - - -One sort of monument more may be mentioned, which is somewhat peculiar; -this is the representation of a skeleton in a shroud, lying either under -or upon, but generally under a table tomb. A monument of this kind is to -be met with in almost all the cathedral and conventual churches -throughout England, and scarcely ever more than one, but to what age the -unknown ones are to be attributed, we have no clue to guide us, since -there is one in York cathedral for Robert Claget, treasurer of that -church, as ancient as 1241, and in Bristol cathedral, Paul Bush, the -first bishop of that see, who died so late as 1558, is represented in -the same manner, and some of these figures may be found in every age -between. - -These skeleton monuments represent the figure of a man emaciated by -extreme sickness, or taken immediately after death; they are usually of -ecclesiastics, and placed with another figure of the same prelate, as a -contrast to his pride, in pontificals. The art of the sculptor is more -apparent in the first mentioned, because much anatomical accuracy was -required. - -One of the earliest monuments of a warrior so contrasted is that of John -de Arundel, slain in the French wars, under the Duke of Bedford. It -remains in the sepulchral chapel of that noble family at Arundel, and is -finely sculptured in white marble. The dead figure, is indeed a masterly -performance, and has every appearance of having been originally modelled -from nature. - -In Exeter Cathedral there is an altar tomb, upon which lies the effigy -of bishop Marshall, who died in 1203, dressed in his episcopal robes, -with a mitre on his head, his right hand lying upon his breast, with the -palm upwards, the fore finger, ring finger, and thumb extended, and the -other fingers closed. Near this monument in a low niche, lies the figure -of a skeleton, cut in free stone, with the following inscription over -it:—“Ista figura docet nos omnes premeditari qualiter ipsa nocet mors -quando venit dominari.” - -The tomb of bishop Beckington in Wells Cathedral, who died in 1464, has -his effigy in alabaster, habited in his episcopal robes; and underneath -is a representation of his skeleton. - -Footnote 59: - - In the centre of the nave of Wells Cathedral there is a large stone - that had formerly upon it an effigy in brass, which was generally - ascribed to king Ina, the founder of that church. - -Footnote 60: - - This is one of the earliest specimens we have of the cross-legged - monument. It is made of Irish oak, as well the table part, as the - effigy. On the pannels are the arms of several of the worthies, and at - the foot the arms of France and England, quarterly, which shews these - escutcheons to have been painted since the reign of king Henry the - fourth. This monument stood entire until the parliamentary army, - during the Cromwell usurpation, having garrisoned the city of - Gloucester against the king, the soldiers tore it to pieces, which - being about to be burned, were bought of them by Sir Humphrey Tracy, - of Stanway, and privately laid up until the Restoration, when the - pieces were put together, repaired, and ornamented, and again placed - in their former situation by Sir Humphrey, who also added a wire - screen for their future preservation. There is an engraving of this - monument in Sandford’s Genealogical History, page 16, which Rudder, - (_History of Gloucester_, p. 126.) calls a noble representation of it. - - Gibbon has left us the following account of this prince, (Rom. Hist. - vol. 11. p. 32)—“Robert, Duke of Normandy, one of the chiefs of the - first crusade, on his father’s death was deprived of the kingdom of - England, by his own indolence and the activity of his brother Rufus. - The worth of Robert was degraded by an excessive levity and easiness - of temper; his cheerfulness seduced him to the indulgence of pleasure, - his profuse liberality impoverished the prince and people; his - indiscriminate clemency multiplied the number of offenders; and the - amiable qualities of a private man, became the essential defects of a - sovereign. For the trifling sum of ten thousand marks (the one - hundredth part of its present yearly revenue) he mortgaged Normandy - during his absence in the first crusade, to the English usurper; but - his behaviour in the Holy War, announced in Robert, a reformation of - manners, and restored him in some degree to the public esteem.” - - There is an engraving of Robert, Duke of Normandy, in Ducarel’s - Anglo-Norman Antiq. Plate 5. - - The monument of William, Earl of Flanders, son of Robert, Duke of - Normandy, as also two of his seals, are engraven in Sandford’s - Genealogical Hist. p. 17. - -Footnote 61: - - The monument of Edmund Crouchback has been very lofty; it was painted, - gilt, and inlaid with stained glass. The inside of the canopy has - represented the sky with stars, but, by age, is changed into a dull - red. On the base, towards the area are the remains of ten knights, - armed, with banners, surcoats of armour, and cross-belted, - representing, undoubtedly, his expedition to the Holy Land, the number - exactly corresponding with what Matthew Paris reports, namely, Edmund - and his elder brother, four earls and four knights, of whom some are - still discoverable, particularly the Lord Roger Clifford, as were - formerly in Waverly’s time, William de Valence and Thomas de Clare. - -Footnote 62: - - These rules are extracted from the Antiquarian Repertory, vol. ii. p. - 124; and from the Introduction to Gough’s “History of Sepulchral - Monuments,” p. 115. - -Footnote 63: - - This account of these monuments is extracted from Gough’s “History of - Sepulchral Monuments.” - -Footnote 64: - - This monument was asserted by Green, in his History of Worcester, to - have been a cenotaph, and accordingly the Dean and Chapter had - determined on its removal, intending to place it over the supposed - remains of the king in the lady chapel. But on opening the tomb on - Monday, July the 17th, 1797, the royal remains were found therein in a - stone coffin, the internal measure of which from the feet to the top - of the excavation hollowed out for the head, was 5 feet 6 inches and a - half. The body was doubtless originally placed in the coffin, nearly - in the same form, and arrayed in such a robe as the figure on the - tomb, with his sword in his left hand, and booted, but it was so much - deranged as evidently to shew that it had been disturbed, and that - perhaps at its removal from the place of its first interment in the - lady chapel, if ever that event had taken place, which seems to have - been a controverted point with historians. The most perfect part of - the body seemed to be the toes, on some of which the nails were still - distinguishable, but of what the dress had originally been composed, - could be only matter of conjecture. The influx of people, eager to see - the royal remains after an interment of nearly 600 years, was so great - as to be the cause of the tomb being closed on the following day. - -Footnote 65: - - The monument of Walter de Langton, Dean of York, who died in 1279, was - the first in that Cathedral that had an inscription upon it. It was - destroyed by the Puritans during the Cromwell Usurpation. - -Footnote 66: - - Coffins formed of a single stone, hollowed with a chissel, are an - improvement which has been attributed to the Romans. Sometimes they - were of marble. Some contained two or more bodies, others only one, in - which case, it was not unusual for them to be made to fit the body, - with cavities for the reception of the head and arms, and other - protuberances. - - The solid stone or marble coffin, often curiously wrought, was in use - among the first christians in England, who, in all probability, copied - the customs of the Romans, after those conquerors had quitted our - island.—Stone coffins were disused in the fifteenth century. None but - opulent persons were interred in coffins of this description; the body - was wrapped in fine linen, attired in the most honourable vestments, - and laid in spices. The coffin was placed no deeper in the ground, - than the thickness of a marble slab, or stone to be laid over it, even - with the surface of the pavement. The coffin shaped stones which are - frequently seen in churches at the present day, have, in general, been - the covers of stone coffins. - - The leaden coffin was also in use among the Romans, not only for the - reception of the body, but in many instances, for the ashes and bones. - It was adopted by the christians, and continues in frequent use to the - present time, among the more opulent. - - Alexander was buried in a golden coffin, by his successor Ptolemy; and - glass coffins have been found in England. - - The oldest instance, on record, among us, of a coffin made of wood, is - that of king Arthur, who was buried in an entire trunk of oak. - - It was not till the latter end of the seventeenth or the beginning of - the eighteenth century, that coffins became in general use in England. - Before that time, there was, in every parish church, a common coffin, - in which the corpse was placed and conveyed on a bier, from the - residence of the deceased, to the grave; it was then taken out of the - coffin and interred. Some of these common coffins yet remain in - country churches. - -Footnote 67: - - The gold noble, or half mark, struck by king Edward the third, in the - seventeenth year of his reign, is the first money on which the arms of - England appear, namely, three lions passant guardant. - -Footnote 68: - - The _three_ fleurs de lys were used, on some occasions, much earlier - than this, both in France and England. There is an angel of Philip de - Valois, coined in 1340, with the _three_ fleurs de lys, which was - probably done for the sake of variation, king Edward having then - lately taken the arms _semée_ de lys. Le Blanc mentions a charter of - Philip, in 1355, with a seal of the arms in like manner. There is also - a groat of king John of France, with only _three_ fleurs de lys, - though he used them likewise _semée_. But Charles the sixth, who began - his reign in 1380, constantly bore the _three_ lys for the arms of - France, as they have been continued ever since. As the English kings - altered the arms of France, in imitation of the French king, it is - most likely that our Henry the fourth who was contemporary with - Charles the sixth, began this practice. He did indeed bear the fleurs - de lys _semée_, upon his great seal, because it was his predecessor’s, - but that he bore the _three_ lys upon other occasions is most likely, - for so they are seen at the head of his monument, at Canterbury, and - his son Henry, afterwards Henry the fifth, in like manner, bore the - _three_ fleurs de lys upon his seal, annexed to an indenture, so early - as the sixth year of his father’s reign. - -Footnote 69: - - The coins of king Henry the sixth, both gold and silver, are supposed - to be distinguished from his father’s, by the arched crown, surmounted - with the orb and cross, being the first of our kings who appears with - an arched crown upon his coins; but upon his great seal he has an open - crown, _fleuri_, with small pearls, upon points, between. This is - likewise the first time we see the orb with the cross upon the money, - though it had been used upon other occasions, by almost all our kings, - down from Edward the Confessor. The arched, or close crown, is not of - ancient use, except in the empire, and thence, perhaps, called - imperial. Some think Edward the third first used it, because he was - vicar-general of the empire, and it is said that Henry the fifth had - an imperial crown made, but Henry the sixth had certainly the best - pretence to it, of any prince in Europe, of his time, being crowned - king both of France and England. But why he did not bear it upon his - great seal, as well as upon his coin, is not easily resolved any more - than that his successor should bear it upon his great seal, and not - upon his coins. - -FINIS. - - - - - ● Transcriber’s Notes: - ○ Text that was in italics is enclosed by underscores (_italics_). - ○ Footnotes have been moved to follow the articles in which they are - referenced. - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MEMORABILIA *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part -of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm -concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark, -and may not be used if you charge for an eBook, except by following -the terms of the trademark license, including paying royalties for use -of the Project Gutenberg trademark. If you do not charge anything for -copies of this eBook, complying with the trademark license is very -easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such as creation -of derivative works, reports, performances and research. Project -Gutenberg eBooks may be modified and printed and given away--you may -do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks not protected -by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the trademark -license, especially commercial redistribution. - -START: FULL LICENSE - -THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE -PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK - -To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free -distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work -(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full -Project Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at -www.gutenberg.org/license. - -Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works - -1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to -and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property -(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all -the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or -destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your -possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a -Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound -by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the -person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph -1.E.8. - -1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be -used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who -agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few -things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See -paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this -agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below. - -1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the -Foundation" or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection -of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual -works in the collection are in the public domain in the United -States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the -United States and you are located in the United States, we do not -claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing, -displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as -all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope -that you will support the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting -free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm -works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the -Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with the work. You can easily -comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the -same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg-tm License when -you share it without charge with others. - -1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern -what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are -in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, -check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this -agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, -distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any -other Project Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no -representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any -country other than the United States. - -1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: - -1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other -immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear -prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work -on which the phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the -phrase "Project Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, -performed, viewed, copied or distributed: - - This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and - most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no - restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it - under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this - eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the - United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where - you are located before using this eBook. - -1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is -derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not -contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the -copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in -the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are -redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply -either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or -obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg-tm -trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted -with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution -must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any -additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms -will be linked to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works -posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the -beginning of this work. - -1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm -License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this -work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. - -1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this -electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without -prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with -active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project -Gutenberg-tm License. - -1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, -compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including -any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access -to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format -other than "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official -version posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm website -(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense -to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means -of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original "Plain -Vanilla ASCII" or other form. Any alternate format must include the -full Project Gutenberg-tm License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. - -1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, -performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works -unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing -access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -provided that: - -* You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from - the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method - you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed - to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he has - agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid - within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are - legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty - payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in - Section 4, "Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg - Literary Archive Foundation." - -* You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies - you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he - does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm - License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all - copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue - all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg-tm - works. - -* You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of - any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the - electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of - receipt of the work. - -* You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free - distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. - -1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work or group of works on different terms than -are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing -from the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the manager of -the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the Foundation as set -forth in Section 3 below. - -1.F. - -1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable -effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread -works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project -Gutenberg-tm collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may -contain "Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate -or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other -intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or -other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or -cannot be read by your equipment. - -1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right -of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project -Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all -liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal -fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT -LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE -PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE -TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE -LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR -INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH -DAMAGE. - -1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a -defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can -receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a -written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you -received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium -with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you -with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in -lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person -or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second -opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If -the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing -without further opportunities to fix the problem. - -1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth -in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO -OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT -LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. - -1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied -warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of -damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement -violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the -agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or -limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or -unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the -remaining provisions. - -1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the -trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone -providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in -accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the -production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, -including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of -the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this -or any Project Gutenberg-tm work, (b) alteration, modification, or -additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any -Defect you cause. - -Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm - -Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of -electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of -computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It -exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations -from people in all walks of life. - -Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the -assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's -goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will -remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure -and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future -generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see -Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at -www.gutenberg.org - -Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation - -The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-profit -501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the -state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal -Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification -number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by -U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. - -The Foundation's business office is located at 809 North 1500 West, -Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up -to date contact information can be found at the Foundation's website -and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact - -Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg -Literary Archive Foundation - -Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without -widespread public support and donations to carry out its mission of -increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be -freely distributed in machine-readable form accessible by the widest -array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations -($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt -status with the IRS. - -The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating -charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United -States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a -considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up -with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations -where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND -DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular -state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate - -While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we -have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition -against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who -approach us with offers to donate. - -International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make -any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from -outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. - -Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current donation -methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other -ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To -donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate - -Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works - -Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project -Gutenberg-tm concept of a library of electronic works that could be -freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and -distributed Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of -volunteer support. - -Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed -editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in -the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not -necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper -edition. - -Most people start at our website which has the main PG search -facility: www.gutenberg.org - -This website includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. |