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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..da4a5dc --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #67749 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/67749) diff --git a/old/67749-0.txt b/old/67749-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 6c403cc..0000000 --- a/old/67749-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,7924 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Story of a Siberian Exile, by M. -Rufin Pietrowski - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: The Story of a Siberian Exile - followed by A Narrative of Recent Events in Poland - -Author: M. Rufin Pietrowski - -Release Date: March 31, 2022 [eBook #67749] - -Language: English - -Produced by: Carlos Colon, Harvard University and the Online Distributed - Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was - produced from images generously made available by The - Internet Archive/American Libraries.) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE STORY OF A SIBERIAN -EXILE *** - - - - - -RECOLLECTIONS OF SIBERIA. - - - - - LONDON - - PRINTED BY SPOTTISWOODE AND CO. - - NEW-STREET SQUARE - - - - - THE STORY - - OF - - A SIBERIAN EXILE. - - BY - - M. RUFIN PIETROWSKI. - - FOLLOWED BY - - A NARRATIVE OF RECENT EVENTS IN POLAND. - - TRANSLATED FROM THE FRENCH. - - LONDON: - LONGMAN, GREEN, LONGMAN, ROBERTS, & GREEN. - 1863. - - - - -TRANSLATOR’S PREFACE. - - -It has not been thought advisable to give these papers to the public -without a few words of explanation to those readers who see them for -the first time in an English dress. It may seem that the three parts -of which the book is composed have little connection with each other, -but this is not the case. Along with the story of a Polish Exile in -Siberia will be found two chapters on the political aspects of Poland. -The first of these contains an account of those measures and events -by which the dismemberment of ancient Poland was effected. But the -Poles contend that the wrong done to their country has not stopped -there; and that she has been not only dismembered, but denationalised. -On referring to the Treaty of Vienna they find that this loss of -nationality was not contemplated by the European powers, and that it is -contrary both to the letter and to the spirit of the Treaties of 1815. -By degrees, however, whether rightly or wrongly, Russian supremacy has -asserted itself, and the story of M. Rufin Pietrowski is intended to -demonstrate what are the amenities of that régime. The Poles will not -submit to a government in which they are not allowed to participate; -and they are engaged in ceaseless attempts to elude its vigilance, and -to defy its power. They wish to organise themselves; and the executive, -obliged to act both on the defensive and the offensive towards -them, has recourse to cruel and arbitrary methods of repression. -The narrative of the Siberian Exile is a strange one, but there is -no reason to believe that his tale is otherwise than authentic. The -candour and moderation with which he speaks of the Russian officials -is highly creditable, and it deserves to be noticed, that it is the -system, rather than the men, which he attacks. - -The last paper in this book will be found, without doubt, to be the -most interesting. A moment’s reflection will convince its readers -that there is no European country in which so great a change is being -effected, and of which they hear so little, as Russian Poland. Yet the -events which have recently agitated Poland are events of historical -interest, and they are not in themselves unimportant to Western Europe. -An outline of their nature and extent is given here. This history of -‘twelve months of agitation’ makes us spectators of a struggle which -the Poles have maintained against the Czar, and in which they have -proved themselves to be still full of that high, haughty, and stubborn -spirit of liberty which Edmund Burke discerned in them of yore. Their -recent efforts towards civilization and self-improvement will not -fail to ensure for them the sympathy of all who can discern in its -energy and its self-control the true greatness of a nation. Sketches -of some of the leading men of Poland will be found here: and, at this -crisis, it has been thought that an account of the career of Count -Andrew Zamoyski could hardly fail of being acceptable. If the destiny -of Poland, as a nation, be eventful and yet obscure, the destiny of -individuals has often proved under the Muscovite rule to be more tragic -and even more obscure. The Polish party in emigration, who now welcome -Count Zamoyski, have great cause to congratulate themselves that their -‘civic hero’--the best and worthiest of their patriots--has not been -sent to expiate a life devoted to his country’s good in the fortress -of Akatouïa, or in some of the desolate wastes of the Russian Empire in -the East. - -The translator is in no wise responsible for any of the sentiments -to be found in this book. His task has been simply that of rendering -into English the thoughts and words of other men. In the story of -M. Rufin Pietrowski he has felt the disadvantages that attend upon -the translation of a translation; but he has striven to preserve the -integrity of the narrative, even in the smallest particulars. It is -with a view to this end that he has adopted all those Russian and -Polish phrases, idioms, and words which occur in the text of M. Klackso. - - LONDON: - _November 1862_. - - - - - CONTENTS. - - - INTRODUCTION. Page 1-9 - - Siberia--Adventures of Beniowski--Madame Felinska--M. Rufin - Pietrowski - - CHAPTER I. - - OF A MISSION INTO POLAND. - - A passport--The journey--The Russian frontier--Kaminieç--A - teacher of languages--Annoyances of disguise--M. Abaza--Suspicions - of the Police 10-24 - - CHAPTER II. - - OF MY ARREST AND IMPRISONMENT AT BRAÇLAW. 25-40 - - Arrest--Examination--Major Poloutkovskï--Journey to Braçlaw--An - accident--The prison--A Russian scene--Kiow - - CHAPTER III. - - OF MY IMPRISONMENT AT KIOW, AND MY DEPARTURE FOR SIBERIA. 41-59 - - The fortress at Kiow--Prince Bibikov--Examination--A Commission - of Inquiry--A Bible--Fellow-prisoners--The maniac--Preparations - for ‘Deportation’--The Sentence - - CHAPTER IV. - - OF DEPORTATION, AND THE LIFE OF AN EXILE IN SIBERIA. 60-81 - - The _knout_ and the _plète_--Running the gauntlet--Gangs of - exiles--Grand-Duchess Marie--The journey--Russian alms--A ‘pope’--The - Russian soldier--Omsk--Prince Gortchakov--Ekaterinski-Zavod - - CHAPTER V. - - THE KATORGA. 82-102 - - Companions in exile--The katorga--A murderer--The felons--Kantier--Pay - and punishments--The counting-house - - CHAPTER VI. - - SIBERIA. 103-114 - - Siberia--Hardships of deportation--Breaking the ban--The Abbé - Sierocinski--His conspiracy and execution - - CHAPTER VII. - - THE FLIGHT. 115-152 - - An attempt--My route--My funds--My dress--A sledge--A - Russian theft--The journey--Irbite--On foot--A night’s - lodging--Danger--Cold and famine--Paouda--The _izbouchka_--The crest - of the Ourals--Lost in the forest--Sleep--Alms--Véliki-Oustiong - - - CHAPTER VIII. - - THE PILGRIM AND THE PILGRIMAGE. 153-169 - - Pilgrimages--The Bohomolets--Manners and customs in Véliki-Oustiong - --On the Dvina--Archangel--The devotions of the pilgrims--Difficulties - --Hope deferred - - CHAPTER IX. - - THE WHITE SEA. 170-194 - - The monastery of Solovetsk--The prisoner of Solovetsk--Heterodoxy - and orthodoxy--The promontory--A farther journey--Onega--St. - Petersburg - - CHAPTER X. - - THE RETURN TO PARIS. 195-208 - - The moujik’s passage--Lithuania--The Prussian frontier--Königsberg - --Arrest and captivity--M. Kamke--Bail--Flight--Arrival - in Paris--The end - - - POLAND - - A CENTURY AFTER ITS DIVISION: 211-263 - - AND THE LATE AGITATION IN WARSAW. - - A century--1772--Battle of Macejowice and Kosciusko--Treaty of - 1815--Opinion of M. de Talleyrand--Cracow--Treaty of Vienna, - Article 6--Policy of Alexander--Policy of Prussia--Policy of the - Emperor of Austria--Nicholas the Tzar--Violent assimilation of - Poland with Russia--Posen--Cracow--The last thirty years--Massacre - in Galicia--1848--Crimean war--The Polish question--Efforts - for internal reform--Temperance league--The Agricultural - Society--Count Andrew Zamoyski--Krasinski--‘Aurora’--Amnesty - of Alexander II.--Conference at Warsaw--Position of Russia - - A YEAR OF AGITATION IN POLAND. 267-321 - - Solution of the Polish question--War in the Crimea--Congress in - Paris--Allocution of the Czar--1856--‘No dreams’--1860--February - 25, 1861--Count Andrew Zamoyski--Prince Gortchakof--His - death--General Souchozanett--The Marquis Wiélopolski--Vacillating - policy of Russia--7th and 8th of April, 1861--A contested - nationality--Horoldo--The procession--The Polish eagle--The - elections--State of siege--15th and 16th of October--General - Lambert--Exiles--Catholicism in Poland--The _Welicorus_--Poland - and Russia - - - - -THE STORY OF A SIBERIAN EXILE. - - - - -INTRODUCTION. - - SIBERIA--ADVENTURES OF BENIOWSKI--MADAME FELINSKA--M. RUFIN PIOTROWSKI. - - -There is an expression in use in Poland which surpasses all that human -eloquence has ever employed to give intensity to despair; it consists -of the words ‘_we never meet again_:’ and thus it is that any political -exile, when about to depart for Siberia, takes leave of his family and -of his friends; ‘_we never meet again!_’ for the only way in which an -exile could find himself once more among those whom he loves would -be for him to meet them in the same place of torment. The conviction -is deep that they who are once transported to those regions of pain -can quit them no more; that Siberia never relinquishes her prey. For -nearly a century she has torn from Poland her most devoted women, her -most generous sons. Back to those realms of snow and of blood fly the -thoughts of every Pole who inquires into the past fortunes of his -family; and when the poet dreams for his country a future which is all -liberty and bliss, it is again Siberia which rears herself before his -eyes, ready after victory itself still to demand her victims. It is a -mysterious and dismal land!--a land ‘from which one returns no more,’ -as the Polish peasants say, or, as Hamlet speaks of that other region -which Siberia so fatally resembles, it is an ‘undiscovered country -from whose bourne no traveller returns.’ And yet now and then some one -does come back. Sometimes at the accession of a Czar to the throne, -an amnesty (which, however incomplete it may be, receives no less the -surname of general) sends back to heart-broken families some of those -who have not wholly succumbed to pain. At least, this did happen twice -in one century; at the accession of Paul I. and of Alexander II.: -the Emperor Nicholas never felt a similar weakness. In other cases, -very rare ones, and therefore not hard to enumerate, entreaties and -prayers backed by some distinguished protection have, after years -of persevering efforts, obtained the return of the condemned exile. -Finally, we have even seen, reappearing in the light, and among the -living, those who, neither waiting nor hoping for an amnesty, whether -general or particular, have found, in their own courage and in their -own despair, a way of extricating themselves from their horrible fate; -but such a phenomenon as this is not to be met with twice in any -hundred years. Several of those who have thus returned, like ghosts -from the tomb, have afterwards written an account of their sojourn -in these desolate places; others again left notes on the spot, which -were afterwards to be piously collected; and thus it happens that the -literature of Poland possesses a complete collection of the writings of -Siberian exiles, a collection already sufficiently large, and which, -in spite of the monotony of the subject, certainly is not lacking in -interest. - -Very strange in truth are the adventures of Beniowski, a soldier of -Bar, deported to Kamtschatka, organising there among its indigenous -savages a vast conspiracy, administering to them an oath of fidelity -to the confederation of Bar, passing Behring’s Straits, conquering -Madagascar, and coming to offer the sovereignty of it to the French -king. A very different fate awaited General Kopec, who was banished -some years later to the same district. Submissive, patient, almost -serene, during the time of his exile, his mind became clouded at the -moment when he was told that the hour of his deliverance had come. Joy -was too great for his soul, and he took back to his native country only -the remnants of his reason. He had some sane and lucid intervals, and -these he employed in dictating a few pages of a history of his past -sufferings, in a style at once sweet and subdued. During thirty years -did poor Adolphus Januszkiewicz, for the use of an aged mother, who -still lived in Lithuania, note down day by day the events of a life -which flowed away among the Kirghis of the Steppes; and a brother’s -hand has lately discovered to us how much filial piety and indomitable -courage filled that exile’s breast. We omit many other names; but how -can we avoid recalling Madame Eva Felinska and her book--that noble -lady and noble Christian, whom the severity of Nicholas sent to be a -dweller in Bérézov, in the middle of the Yakoutes and the Ostiaks, and -whose son has recently (April 1862) been promoted to the archbishopric -of Warsaw? What constitutes the sensible charm of Madame Felinska’s -work is not only the absence of all recrimination (the annals of the -Siberian exiles being in general free from all bitterness), but it -is the feminine modesty with which she instinctively conceals her -personal misfortunes. One might imagine while reading her pages that -they were the remarks of some enquiring person, who sojourned among -unreclaimed tribes out of pure eccentricity of mind, did not the -cries of a mother who asks for her poor little children undeceive us, -and make us only too often aware that the choice rested not in that -mother’s will. One day at Bérézov,[1] while digging a well, there was -discovered a corpse, which (thanks to the glacial nature of the soil) -seemed by its preservation, and the state of the brilliant uniform and -orders, to have been but a thing of yesterday. By dint of enquiries and -recollections, they succeeded, however, in proving that it was the body -of Prince Menstchikov, who more than a century ago had died an exile -on this very spot, after having lived the minister and the favourite -of Czars. Madame Felinska in recording the event contents herself with -exclaiming, ‘What a strange chance!’ She leaves to the mind of the -reader the task of filling in the outlines of this touching picture, -where a Polish woman, in this same land of banishment, finds herself -face to face with the man who first dared with impunity to trample on -the Sarmatian soil. - -One of the most recent and remarkable publications in this the -literature of the deported (for so it is called in Poland to -distinguish it from the literature of the emigrated) is that which has -just been given to us by M. Rufin Piotrowski.[2] His book recommends -itself not only by the richness of its detail and the breadth with -which it is composed, but also, and chiefly, because the author of -it is an escaped ‘Siberian.’ In him, since the case of Beniowski, we -have the only example of a deported person who has attempted such -an enterprise, and who has also succeeded in it. It is the more -extraordinary because M. Piotrowski was also condemned to hard labour -in the public works. Beniowski, as we have seen, had much assistance -and many accomplices. A comparatively narrow tract alone separated him -from the land of freedom, whereas our contemporary had no one to rely -on but himself, and without map or succours, almost without money, -he had to traverse Siberia in its entire length, and a great part of -Russia in Europe in addition. On foot he made the long and perilous -journey from beyond Omsk in Western Siberia, penetrating the Oural -mountains to Archangel, Petersburg, Riga, even into Prussia, never -imparting to a living soul his fatal secret, in order not to involve -any one in his own probable and terrible fate. If the narrative of M. -Piotrowski has not all that romantic brilliancy which the story of -the confederate of Bar can afford, it reveals to us greater dangers -and a perseverance of will far superior in every way. Nor is the -marvellous element wanting to this strange Odyssey, albeit its hero is -no mythological being; he exists, nay, he lives among us, and we rub -shoulders with him every day. This escaped convict and exile from the -banks of Irtiche, this former _unhappy one_ (for thus do the natives -of Siberia call the deported Poles), is now a modest professor in that -excellent Polish school of the Batignolles, for which the emigrated -sons of Poland are partly indebted to the generosity of France. M. -Rufin Piotrowski was one of those heroic emissaries who, from the -extreme limits of Polish emigration, sought to carry back and impart -to an oppressed country the hopes, the ideas, and the dreams of exile; -and his narrative begins precisely at the point when he started from -Paris, on the journey which he undertook to Kaminiec in Podolia. These -emissaries brought with them, generally speaking, impossible plans, -and calls which could not be answered, because sufficient reflection -had not been bestowed upon them. Sometimes, too, they imported ideas -which were positively dangerous, and if they almost always half atoned -for their errors by a constancy which braved both death and danger; -they did not the less draw along with them in their own unhappy fate -some generous and innocent victims. M. Piotrowski has at least this -consolation, that he never made himself the apostle of perverse -doctrines, and that he never sowed the seeds of hatred. His actions as -an emissary were always enlightened by sentiments of that religious -charity to which mob law in all its meanings is utterly repugnant. The -same profoundly religious spirit characterises his book--a book which -was written now many years ago, but which, for reasons obvious in a -case of Polish publication, it was impracticable to publish before -1861. We have thought that the recollections of M. Piotrowski were -likely to find favour with the French public. At a time when nothing -else is heard of in Poland but sentences to Siberia pronounced upon -the most respectable of her citizens, upon canons, rabbins, provosts, -merchants, professors, students, and artisans, it surely cannot -be useless or amiss to explain by one striking example all that is -contained for Poland and the Poles in the single word ‘_deportation_.’ -Is it necessary now to add that what we are about to read in these -pages is in every particular strict matter of fact? The narrative of M. -Piotrowski bears the stamp of truth, and of a good faith which pleads -for itself, and removes every suspicion of exaggeration. For the rest, -as we shall see, the author hardly, if ever, blames persons; as often -as not, he expresses himself with regard to them in words marked by a -lively sense of gratitude. It is the _system_ only which he accuses; -and, shall we confess it, the countrymen of M. Piotrowski, and above -all his companions in misfortune, while unanimous as to the perfect -authenticity of his tale, have rather reproached him with an excessive -indulgence in speaking of the Russian officials. How many Poles, for -example, have been surprised to see the portraits which he has sketched -of Prince Bibikov and of M. Pissarev, men whose names are so painfully -distinguished in the annals of the Poland of to-day? As we do not think -it necessary to anticipate or preach a conviction which will soon make -itself felt, it remains for us only to point out the method which we -have followed in borrowing here from the Polish original of the book. -A mere analysis would have effaced its character of individuality, -while it spoilt the originality of the book. What is presented here -is a faithful abridgement of a more detailed and lengthy narrative--an -abridgement of an abyss, if one may borrow Pascal’s energetic -phrase--for the ‘Recollections of a Siberian Exile’ reveal to us a -perfect abyss of suffering and of misery. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[1] We use here the Latin _v_ as the best equivalent for the _b_ -(viedi) of the Russian alphabet, although the letters _f_ and _w_ in -Russian have nearly the same sound. To be consistent, it is necessary -to write not only Móskova, Iainbov, Bérézov, but Orlov, Menstchikov, -etc.: as for the name of Kiow, we adopt the orthography of the -inhabitants of this town (Little Ruthenes); the Russians alone write it -Kiew, pronouncing it always as Kiow. - -[2] Pamietniki Rufina Piotrowskiego, 3 vols. in 8vo. Posen 1861. - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -OF A MISSION INTO POLAND. - - A PASSPORT--THE JOURNEY--THE RUSSIAN FRONTIER--KAMINIEÇ--A TEACHER OF - LANGUAGES--ANNOYANCES OF DISGUISE--M. ABAZA--SUSPICIONS OF THE POLICE. - - -I had long decided to take my departure for my native land, and was -only occupied by the necessary preparations for it, when I fell -suddenly sick in Paris. It was in the year 1842. I was received into -the hospital of _La Pitié_, then under the direction of Baron Lisfranc, -who had formerly served with Polish troops during the wars of the -Empire, and who still preserved towards them a friendly sentiment. A -number of my compatriots and companions in exile found themselves along -with me in the hospital, a prey to the two forms of disease so common -among us emigrants--consumption and madness. More than one of them died -in my ward, and at my side--a sight which was well calculated to sadden -my spirit, for they died, though without uttering a single complaint, -in utter prostration and gloom. One would almost have said that they -had felt, in leaving this world, as if, even in the next, for them -there might still be no country. - -This sojourn in the hospital was nevertheless not without a good result -on my projects. I had the fortune to make the acquaintance of another -invalid, an American from the United States, who promised to get a -passport for me, a thing which was indispensable for my undertaking, -and which up to this time I had never been able to procure. Leaving, -after a detention of about six weeks, the hospital from which the -American had been discharged a few days earlier, I went at once to seek -him at the address which he had given me. He then and there handed -over to me an English passport, made out in the name of ‘_Joseph -Catharo, native of La Valette (Malta), aged 36_.’ The document was -quite regular, delivered at the English embassy in Paris, and signed -by the ambassador, Lord Cowley. I could desire nothing better. In my -situation an English passport was preferable to any other. I spoke -Italian perfectly, whereas I could only speak English very imperfectly; -but then my supposed Maltese antecedents would make good any failings -on that score. The different _visa_ of Baden, Wurtemberg, Bavaria, -Austria, and Turkey, were soon procured; but at the office of the -Minister for Foreign Affairs there had been put alongside of the seals -two printed lines containing these fatal words--‘Bound to present -himself at the Prefecture of the Police.’ Now I had all sorts of -reasons for not wishing to announce my departure at the Prefecture of -Police, where they might very likely have had more inquisitiveness than -I had found in my American friend. After casting about in my mind for a -long time how best to dispose of this luckless clause, I selected the -not very ingenious plan of spilling some ink over the two lines, thus -counterfeiting a big blot, and leaving nothing visible but the seal of -the Minister. The method was a rude enough one, but it was not the less -serviceable, and at none of the numberless police stations at which the -passport had afterwards to be presented was any exception taken to the -blot which disfigured it. - -Thus accommodated, and furnished with 150 francs, which were to suffice -for the wants of a long journey, I left Paris on January 9, 1843. -After having traversed without hindrance Strasburg, Stuttgart, Munich, -Salzburg, and Vienna, I took the road from the last-named place to -Pesth. In the interests of my mission I was to make a month’s stay in -the capital of Hungary; and I profited by this delay, for I addressed -in the meantime to the English ambassador at Vienna the request that -he would renew my passport, my intention being to go to Russia instead -of to Constantinople, and to make a stay there of considerable length. -An answer was soon returned. At the end of a few days I received from -Vienna, in exchange for my old passport, a new one, of a recent date, -happily free from any ominous blots of ink, and _visé_ for Russia. On -February 28th, I quitted Pesth, meaning to reach Kaminieç in Podolia, -the term and goal of my voyage. I found that the small sum which I -had brought with me from Paris had, in spite of the most frugal way -of living, greatly diminished; and I resolved to make the rest of my -journey from Hungary to Podolia on foot. The season was favourable, the -scenery magnificent, the passage of the Carpathians so splendid as to -make me forget any slight fatigue. It was a strange, sometimes almost -a diverting, sensation for me thus to traverse Galicia, and to have to -ask my way in execrable German of the few Austrian officials, while the -peasants gave utterance to the most minute remarks upon me, all in that -Polish speech which I declared I did not understand. The pleasantries -of our peasants on the subject of ‘the dumb man’ did not, however, miss -fire or fail to amuse me greatly. To these jokes there were often added -on their part marks of respect to a stranger come from the ends of the -earth. ‘I am sure he comes a long way off,’ they would say to each -other; ‘from very far, from where even the crow brings no bones.’ At -last, on one fine March morning, 1843, I found myself at the boundary -which separates the Austrian and Russian territory, near the village -of Bojany. The frontier was marked by two barriers, which were distant -the one from the other by a few dozen paces. Upon showing my papers the -Austrian barrier was opened for me without any difficulty; but when I -arrived at the Russian side, it was in vain that I called and looked -round in all directions--no one came. Tired of waiting I passed by, -stooping under the beam, and directed my steps to a house at a little -distance, which seemed to be the Custom House office. The astonishment -there was great when I was seen to arrive thus unaccompanied by a -soldier. - -‘How did you pass the frontier?’ - -‘At the barrier, down there.’ - -‘Who opened it for you?’ - -‘Nobody. I called in vain, and at last determined to slip underneath -it.’ - -‘What! the guard was not there at his post?’ cried the functionary, as -much exasperated he rushed out to give orders, of which his menacing -tones only too fully explained the nature. Having returned to his room, -he emptied out upon me the remains of his ill humour; but the sight of -the English passport had a sudden and pacifying effect on his wrath. -While my papers were being examined, and they took down the answers -which I made to sundry questions relating to my journey, I heard -the distant cries of the poor soldier, who was expiating under the -bastinado what had been either his negligence or perhaps indeed only -my hastiness. At last I was free to leave the office, with a feeling -of satisfaction which was not, however, wholly unalloyed. There was -indeed something ominous in this incident attending my entrance into -the territory of the Emperor Nicholas. From the first step I had defied -Russian vigilance, but I had at the same time, albeit involuntarily, -caused the punishment of an unhappy creature, and my heart was pained -at it. - -On March 22nd, I reached Kaminieç, at midday. I had my portmanteau -in one hand, while with the other I opened the door of an inn that -had been pointed out to me, and I found myself suddenly in the middle -of a large assembly of people, and in a room where they were playing -billiards. I had purposely kept my hat on my head, and by this sign, so -contrary to our national habits, I was immediately recognised to be a -stranger or a _Frenchman_, for the two words are among us considered to -be synonymous. The sensation, which was evident in the room, was very -curious. ‘A _Frenchman_, a _Frenchman_,’ they murmured on all sides, -speaking with interest and even with sympathy, but with a manifest -fear of compromising themselves by an imprudent of even a friendly -word. Two men only ventured to come forward frankly and converse with -me--the one was a Pole from Cracow, only passing through Kaminieç, -and therefore less obliged to be circumspect; the other was a Russian -officer, who left the billiard-table when he heard me utter a few -sentences in French, and who immediately showed the greatest readiness -to make my acquaintance. ‘You are, then, come to stay here for some -time? Oh! pray remain, I beseech you. It is a fine country! beautiful -women, too! But it is at Warsaw especially that one finds charming -women. Ah! Warsaw! I have been garrisoned there: it is a famous place, -and _there_ really _are_ pretty faces!’ And the young man seemed not -to be able to stop in pouring forth praises which could not but be -disagreeable to me. Strange that this Poland, of which he trod the -soil, and of which he had visited all the principal towns, should have -given him nothing to see or to appreciate but the beauty of our women! -Not one word to say of the government, of the fate of the inhabitants, -of the misery of the people! His only subject of preoccupation, of -praise, and of conversation, was the female population of Poland. One -thing only turned him from this favourite topic. I happened to say -something incidentally of Paris; then he began to ask questions about -the Parisian womankind, and seemed at once pleased and excited at my -replies. On the whole he was not a bad fellow, this officer Rogatchev; -and he wound up by sharing with me the national dish of _pierogi_, -laughing all the time at the strong foreign accent with which I -pronounced the word: but he did me the justice to say soon after, that -in the matter of _pierogi_ my good appetite had made ample amends for -my bad pronunciation. - -While we walked up and down the room and talked in a loud voice on -trifling subjects, the other occupants of it, all Poles and young -people, kept themselves apart and whispered together, directing towards -me from time to time oblique and curious glances. What a striking -contrast there was between their attitude of reserve and the full-blown -confidence of the happy Rogatchev! While keeping up my conversation -with the Russian officer, I endeavored to catch the words which were -passing among my countryman. ‘From France?’ ‘Does he know anything of -our people?’ ‘Do the French care about us?’ ‘Perhaps something new -is about to happen.’ My emotion was great, but I had to redouble the -animation with which I was describing to my new acquaintance the beauty -and the glories of Paris. - -While so discoursing I did not omit to inform M. Rogatchev as well -as the other persons present that I had come to Kaminieç to push my -fortune as a teacher of languages, and that I desired nothing better -than to settle in the town, though, if my interests required it, I -might penetrate even to the interior of Russia. This declaration I -repeated next morning at the station of police, for I was anxious to -lose no time in establishing my position. The permission to remain -was accorded to me without hesitation. As regarded my intention of -giving lessons in private houses, I was warned that some formalities -must in the first place be attended to, and that I must formally ask -and obtain the consent of the military governor, of the director -of the Lyceum, &c. It was not long before I obtained the necessary -authorisation, and thanks to the recommendations of my officer and of -other persons whose acquaintance I made on the first day,--thanks, -above all, to those obliging cares of which a stranger is always the -object in our country, orders for lessons came to me from all sides, -and from the very first. I preferred, I must say, the houses of the -different Russian officials; it was the surest way to avoid suspicion -for myself, and to prevent compromising my countrymen. The offers made -to me by the Abaza family were really precious, and it may be supposed -that I did not neglect such connections as these; for Colonel Abaza, -President of the Chamber of Finance, was a Russian functionary at once -highly placed and very influential. I did not, however, refuse to -attend on Polish families; but I selected those which any discovery -would have the least affected, such as the houses of widows and elderly -gentlemen--those, in short, where there were no young people. After -a few weeks I had made good my position, and my relations were well -understood. I went into all circles, and all over the town I was well -known as the M. Catharo whom they persisted in calling a Frenchman. - -Thus it was that, after having been an emigrant for twelve years, I -found myself again in my native land, not very far either from my own -family (which dwelt in the Ukraine), and in the quality of a Maltese, -a British subject, teaching foreign languages, and not understanding -a word of either the Russian or the Polish tongues. This last -circumstance was one which often put my caution and my _sang froid_ -both to some severe trials, trials which my professorial office only -aggravated. How many times was I not tempted at some difficult idiom or -expression to explain myself to my pupils in a speech quite as familiar -to me as it was to themselves! One of my first pupils was a certain -Dmitrenko, a clerk in the Chamber of Finance, a cheerful being, who -was bitten all of a sudden with a fancy for learning French, of which -he did not know a single word. At the end of the pantomime which was -necessary to make us mutually understand each other during the lesson, -he wound up by proposing to give me some notions about Russian, with -which I was perfectly conversant; but he never managed to make me read -fluently, and he could not conceal his astonishment at this want of -intelligence in one of those Frenchmen whose wits he had heard so much -vaunted. - -Among my own people, the incognito which I preserved exposed me very -often to scenes that made both my inward feelings and my sentiments as -a man of probity suffer acutely. I was the involuntary and helpless -confidant of the relations, even of the secrets, of families, who -thought that they concealed them perfectly from my knowledge by -speaking together in Polish. Nor in such conversations did I always -hear remarks that were flattering to myself. One day, for example, a -visitor who was unknown to me meeting me in a room for the first time, -and hearing that I had recently come from Paris, wished to ask me if I -knew anything of his brother, who lived in that capital, an emigrant, -and a man whom in truth I knew perfectly well; but the master of the -house dissuaded him warmly from it. ‘You know very well how strictly -we are forbidden to make any enquiries about our emigrated relations; -take care what you are about; one is never sure of one’s self with a -foreigner.’ I felt as if all the blood in my body were rushing to my -head, and I bent down quickly over the book in which I was cutting some -leaves. - -I must be permitted one other recollection of this sort. I was -giving lessons to the two daughters of the good and amiable Madame -Piekutowska. One day, while conversing with them, I touched oh the -subject of Poland. The beautiful Matilda replied to my careless -expression with one of those words which we sometimes utter before a -stranger, not witting that we are making some deep wound bleed. The -elder sister took her up sharply in Polish, ’ How can you speak of -sacred things before a hair-brained Frenchman?’ - -Such incidents happened nearly every day, and they caused me sometimes -pleasure, sometimes annoyance; but that annoyance turned to a -concentrated rage when in Russian houses I was obliged to swallow in -silence, or discuss with the passionless calmness of a stranger, -topics wounding to my country, and such discussions as her oppressors -permitted themselves to indulge in. It was in the house of Monsieur -Abaza above all that I suffered this torture most frequently; and I -should try in vain were I to attempt to give any idea of it. - -As my own safety, as well as that of others, would assuredly be -compromised were I suspected of knowing the language of the country, -I was obliged in this respect to keep a constant watch upon myself. -If I may use such an expression, I was forced to watch myself even in -sleep; and I always arranged (especially when I happened to be invited -to any of the dwellings in the neighbourhood) so as to sleep alone, and -in a separate room. I feared that during my slumbers I might chance to -mutter some sentences in Polish. But no incident disturbed me in the -part which I had assumed; and during nine months I was enabled either -to remain in Kaminieç, or to make short excursions into the provinces, -without awakening the suspicions of the police. In the eyes of Poles, -as well as Russians, I passed always for M. Catharo, an inoffensive -man, who liked society, and who was well received in it. As to the true -object of my stay, and my real character, some of my countrymen alone -became privy to it, and the secret was most rigorously kept. The alarm, -as I afterwards learnt, came from St. Petersburg, and Kaminieç was -convulsed with astonishment when it discovered all of a sudden that the -French teacher of languages whom it had harboured so long within its -walls, was a native, an emigrant, and an emissary of emigrants.... - -They say that men are often warned by a strange inward feeling that -danger is approaching. I had no need of such a supernatural gift to be -made aware, during the first days of the month of December, that peril -was imminent; I had only to keep my eyes about me. By the beginning -of December, I perceived that I was watched and spied upon at every -turn by emissaries of the police. The counsels which were given me -from different quarters, as well as the manner half inquisitive and -half constrained with which the Russian officials treated me, could -not but confirm my apprehensions. I have since heard that the moment -of my arrest was delayed not only from their wish to inform themselves -perfectly of my conduct, but from the difficulty which they experienced -in completely identifying my person; and their fear was lest, in case -of any mistake, they should get themselves into trouble by interfering -with a British subject; that is to say, with the subject of a power -well known not to stand any practices of that sort, or any joking on -such a matter. Very soon, however, I felt both that there was no doubt, -but that my arrest was close at hand, and also that it was time for me -to arrange my plans. Up to this moment flight had not been altogether -impossible, but it was repugnant to me. Why should I shun the dangers -to which my accomplices were exposed, who neither could nor ought to -choose the path of exile? It was therefore a strict duty which I owed -to them, and to hundreds of persons who had nothing whatever to do with -me, not to be absent when the day of enquiry came. To tell the truth, -the Russian plan, in any political search of the kind, is to arrest all -those who, from far or near, intimately or casually, may have known the -suspected person. Now, as I was acquainted with everybody, both in the -town and in its environs, the disappearance of the guilty principal -would only have served to aggravate the case of thousands of suspected -persons. The inquiry would have dragged on for years; it would perhaps -never have come to an end. My presence alone could prevent countless -misfortunes, and, if the worst came to the worst, it could limit the -number of the victims. I resolved therefore patiently to abide the -fatal hour; and I spent the days of freedom which yet remained to me -in concerting with my accomplices the plan of conduct which I ought -to follow. The last interview which I had with one of them was in a -church on the eve of my arrest. We agreed as much as possible upon all -points, and then embraced one another with an emotion which may easily -be understood. Remaining to the last, and alone in the church, I prayed -with fervour that God would give me strength to come through the trials -which might await me. - -Like every Pole of my generation, I had imbibed from my mother’s -teaching a fervent attachment to the Catholic faith. But those -convictions had had their times of eclipse, and I can still recall -the moment at which they were for the first time absolutely shaken. -It was in 1831, when, after our glorious campaign, I passed into -Galicia with the corps under General Dwernicki. One day I was at -confession, when the priest, a brother of the order of St Bernard, -among other exhortations full of charity and of the spirit of the -Gospel, represented our revolution to me as a sin, and as a violation -of the oath of fidelity to Nicholas. Respect for the sacred precincts -prevented my replying to him, but, as I rose to go away, I said to -myself that the priests did not always teach the truth, and that there -were a good many tares among their wheat. Some time later, while living -in France, I began to take up, like the rest of the world, new ideas in -religion, as well as in politics. I neglected all religious exercises -and practices, and had come to look on Jesus Christ as an excellent -philosopher, or, at the best, as a democratic teacher. But the -frivolous pleasure of unbelief are soon exhausted; and long before the -period at which my narrative begins, and before my return to my native -land, I had reverted to the feelings and the belief which had guided my -youth, and in which I was to find the only true support throughout the -sad destiny that was in store for me. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -OF MY ARREST AND IMPRISONMENT AT BRAÇLAW. - - ARREST--EXAMINATION--MAJOR POLOUTKOVSKÏ--JOURNEY TO BRAÇLAW--AN - ACCIDENT--THE PRISON AT BRAÇLAW--A RUSSIAN SCENE--KIOW. - - -On December 31st, 1843, and just at the late dawning of the day, I -felt myself shaken by the arm, and I was addressed in a loud voice by -my assumed name. Though awake, I was in no hurry to reply; I wished -to gain time to compose myself for my part. When at last I opened my -eyes, I beheld in my room the Director of Police, Colonel Grunfield; -a Commissary; and Major Poloutkovskoï, of the Council of Prince -Bibikov, Governor-General of Volhynia, Podolia, and the Ukraine; the -Major having come from Kiow to take steps for my arrest. I expressed -my surprise at so early a visit, and my astonishment was naturally -redoubled at the intelligence that I must be taken, under escort, -before the Governor. I did not, of course, fail to represent my rights -as a British subject, or to remind them of the grave results that were -likely to accrue to themselves for this inconceivable conduct towards -me. After having thus gone through all the formalities necessary to -keep up my character, I asked permission to go into the next room, to -perform my toilet. While I was dressing, the Commissary took possession -of my papers and effects, and we were soon on our way to the house of -the Governor Radistchev, with whom I had been personally acquainted for -some time. - -This first interview was both short and indecisive. The Governor -entered the room abruptly, and addressed me in Russian. I pretended not -to understand what he said, and requested that I might be interrogated -in French; above all I begged that he would explain the cause of my -being arrested. ‘You will learn that presently;’ and, at a signal given -by his hand, I was then hustled out of the room. I was conducted to -the house of the Director of Police, and there installed in a room -which opened into a saloon. The doors were locked, and the official in -uniform left to keep me company strictly observed the rule that he was -not to speak to me. - -Up to this time I had preserved my presence of mind, and I had even -been astonished at my own perfect calmness at the moment of my -awakening; but now, when alone or nearly so, I suddenly felt a great -sinking of my heart. The thought of the many sufferings in store for -me, in store also for so many of my brothers, seemed to set my brain on -fire, and tears forced themselves into my eyes. To hide this dangerous -emotion, I turned to the wall, and leant my forehead against it; but -through the walls I fancied that sighs and moans were audible, the -voices of the companions of my unhappy fate. Determined to distract my -thoughts as much as I could, I took up a pack of playing cards that lay -on the round table. A child of the Ukraine, I was by nature a little -superstitious; I began to draw the cards, and they promised ... my -deliverance! Shall I say it? This fortunate augury only increased my -irritation, and I was almost obliged to the head official who entered -the room at this instant, and who, after enquiring into my wants, -carried away with him The tempting game. - -A few minutes later a distraction of a more important kind took the -place of the childish consolation which I had found in the cards. -Another officer had been sent to join the one already in charge of -me, and between them a conversation soon began which certainly was -not devoid of interest for me. I was so well known in Kaminieç, and -everyone was so thoroughly convinced of my ignorance of the two -languages used in the country, that even now these two officials still -thought me a foreigner, and they put no restraint on the remarks which -they made to each other in Russian and in a loud tone of voice. I need -not say that I lost nothing from want of attention to such a colloquy. - -‘It is a serious matter,’ said the one; ‘a political business. They -have arrested twenty people in the town already this morning (he gave -the names), and orders have been sent out to the country, and all on -account of this foreigner, who, they say, is come here to intrigue -against the Tzar, and who is accredited by some other power, England -or France--the devil knows which! They do not speak very well either -of President Abaza; if anything happens to him it will be a pity, -for he is an honest man; but I must say that at _his_ age it _was_ -an odd idea to wish to learn French! Much he is like to make by his -French lessons!’... ‘What a pity! what a pity to be sure!’ answered -the other one; ‘when this gentleman came here nine months ago I was -ordered to watch him, as we do every new comer. I dogged his steps, I -compassed him about on every side; but his conduct was so very open, -his relations with both Russians and Poles so frank, and he appeared -to me to be so really inoffensive, that at last I lost sight of him; -and it seems he was a very pretty fellow after all, and now another -man has been down upon him, and will claim the reward! Now I call -_that_ having no luck! Scoundrel that he is! bah! what a pity, what a -pity to be sure!’... I could not help being amused at the strange way -in which this poor wretch condoled with himself for having lost the -opportunity of bringing about my ruin; but the rest of the information -which I extracted from their talk gave, if possible, a graver turn -to my thoughts. I could no longer doubt that many persons had been -arrested on my account; but the names which I had just heard repeated -belonged to such different classes of my acquaintances that I discerned -in them at least one source of hope. They were evidently groping in the -dark as yet, and arresting right and left, while suspicions reached as -far, or rather were as far astray, as Monsieur Abaza! In another point -of view I imitated the naive cynicism of my police official, and was -quite ready to rejoice at the trouble in which I had landed the worthy -President of the Chamber of Finance. If indeed the Russians whom I knew -were to be implicated in the trial, the affair would get into a strange -confusion, and who knows then whether my accomplices might not benefit -by the perfect innocence of the others, which would certainly soon be -made manifest? - -At four o’clock in the afternoon I had a visit from the Governor, and -from Major Poloutkovskoï. They represented to me that my position was -an alarming one, and that it would be best for my own interest if I -made the most complete confession. I persisted in my resolution. I -declared I did not understand in the least what they wanted with me, -and I spoke of writing to the English ambassador in St. Petersburg, and -of claiming his protection. ‘You are then in a great hurry to leave -Kaminieç?’ replied the Governor, ironically; ‘but keep yourself easy, -I will furnish you with all the means for it.’ The same questions were -repeated on the following days, either in the house of the Director of -Police, where I was still detained, or in that of the Governor, who -had me brought to him under an escort; the same arguments were urged, -on the one side, to make me confess my real character, and there was, -on the other side, the same obstinacy in keeping up the part which -I had assumed. The manners of the Governor were generally cold but -polite, sometimes however they were ironical, and even vehement. ‘It is -in vain to say that you are a Maltese, and to play this comedy,’ cried -he, in one of his examinations; ‘we know very well that you belong to -the Ukraine, and so-and-so have already confessed that they have talked -with you in Polish.’ He named to me two of the co-accused, the least -initiated into my sayings and doings, and also the least firm. Twice -over I was confronted with them. These interviews were most painful, -and in spite of the flat denials which I opposed to those who thus -denounced me, I saw the impossibility of persisting any longer in the -line which I had hitherto followed. Every day more abundant and more -precise information arrived about me, and it became clear that in -prolonging a useless game I ran the risk of aggravating the situation -of my accomplices; but I determined to collect the greatest possible -number of the accused, and to make them witnesses to my confession, -so that they might know its limits and follow my suit. I waited to -be confronted with them in a body. I had not long to wait, and one -evening when summoned to the Governor’s residence, I perceived in -the hall a great number of my fellow-prisoners arranged along the two -walls, and all standing up--they presented a moving spectacle, I might -almost say a fantastic one. Many of them were persons with whom I had -but a very slight acquaintance, others had been in my secret, all bore -upon their faces the marks of suffering and fatigue. After a certain -time spent as usual in pressing questions and in absolute denials, I -exclaimed, as if out of patience, in a loud voice, and in my native -tongue, ‘Well then, yes, I am not a British subject, I am a Pole; I -was born in the Ukraine, I emigrated after the revolution of 1831, -and I came back here. I came back into this country because a life of -exile was no longer endurable to me, and because I wished to revisit -Poland. I came here under a feigned name, because I was perfectly -aware that bearing my own name I should not be suffered to remain; I -was ready at any price to be quiet and inoffensive, asking nothing but -to breathe my native air. I have confided my secret to a few of my -fellow-countrymen, I have asked their help and their advice, I have -asked them for nothing else, and I have nothing else to say to them.’ -In spite of the certainty as to my identity which they must now have -possessed for some time, the Governor and Major Poloutkovskoï could not -suppress an exclamation of surprise at hearing me thus suddenly speak -out in Polish; and while I was speaking I could see the Governor’s face -expand; he rubbed his hands, walked up and down the room with long -steps, and when I ceased came up to me with a benevolent air, as if -he felt obliged to me for having put an end to a situation which was -really untenable. After a few insignificant questions, he gave orders -to have me removed. - -On my return to the house where I was detained, being still under -the influence of the late excitement, I took every one strangely by -surprise by suddenly beginning to talk in Polish. In this language -I addressed the director, the officials, and my keepers. I took a -childish and feverish pleasure in making use of a freedom which had -been so long denied me; and I behaved in the same way on the following -day, though, from an obstinacy which had its root in repugnance, rather -than in any calculation whatever, I pretended, as before, that I did -not understand Russian. As to my native speech I used it to my heart’s -content; it was as if I wished to make amends to myself by the liberty -of a few hours for having had to abstain from it during an entire year. - -Thus ended the preliminaries of my trial, and on the morrow Major -Poloutkovskoï came to desire me to hold myself in readiness to depart -on that very evening for Kiow. - -It was on a fine but cold winter’s night that I quitted Kaminieç. I -took my seat in a roomy open carriage alongside of Major Poloutkovskoï. -Opposite us sat two soldiers, with loaded muskets, and we were followed -by a second carriage, in which were two officers of the secret -Police. Owing to the season, and the lateness of the hour, which was -midnight, the town was dark, and the streets were deserted; but as -I passed before certain houses which I knew well, and of which the -inhabitants were united in the same lot with myself, I looked up, and I -saw lights still burning. Was it as a message of farewell? or did they -bear witness to vigils full of anguish which were being held within? -The plaintive tinkling of bells, fastened, after the Russian fashion, -to the shafts of the vehicle, which was drawn by three horses, alone -broke the mournful silence of the night, and I sank into a reverie of -indulged sadness. I was obliged to my companion for not interrupting -the current of my thoughts by words; he did not speak even when we -stopped to change horses, and it was not till the day began to break -that he commenced a conversation. It turned at first only on France; -her administration, her commercial arrangements, her agriculture, her -commerce, these were all subjects in which he seemed to take a great -interest. By degrees we began to talk of politics, even of emigration, -and I had the opportunity of convincing myself how perfect was the -knowledge which my interlocutor had been able to collect of our -means, our men, and even of our smallest publications. I expressed my -astonishment at this to him; he smiled and replied, ‘We are obliged -to learn all these things, and the means of learning them are never -wanting.’ In general, the Major, whom I had had the opportunity of -studying during the examination that had taken place at Kaminieç, -and whom I was to meet again later in the Commission of Inquiry at -Kiow, showed himself, though cold and almost indifferent, to be a -well-educated man. He was polite and courteous in his demeanour to me, -and in all my interviews with the Governor of Kaminieç he had never -failed to call General Radistchev to reason, whenever he gave vent to -any burst of violence. A spring of my _calèche_ having given way on the -evening of our arrival at Mohilow, I had to be put into a _kibitka_ -with the two soldiers, while the Major in another preceded us, along -with the officers of the secret Police; and we were carried along -with a rapidity of which no one who has not seen a Russian convoy of -this kind can form any idea. There it was that I met with an accident -the nature of which I am still far from understanding and which I -despair of describing to my readers. At one of those jolts of which -the _kibitka_ at its furious pace bestows so many on the traveller, I -felt something snap in the tendons which attach the head, and a sharp -and terrible pain made me give vent to such a savage cry of distress -that I was heard in the accompanying carriage. The Major called a halt, -and asked what was the matter with me. I was not able to reply, I was -simply sobbing; he ordered them to go at a walk to the post-house, -which relieved me much, but at the least jar the same frightful -suffering recurred, and I screamed while I tried to steady my head -between my hands. Arrived at the station I was not able to leave the -carriage, and to my shame and distress I was crying like a child. Then -the Major, who was obliged to press on in person to Braçlaw, left me -in charge of one of the police officials and of the two soldiers, and -desired them to go at a foot’s pace. Thus we continued our journey, -but, at the end of some hours, my companion, wearied by the slowness -of our march, ordered them to go quicker. Hardly had the horses broken -into a gallop when the pain became really insupportable. I felt I was -becoming mad, and warned by my piercing cries, my guardian called to -the driver to stop. ‘You must go slowly; if you won’t, blow my brains -out at once; believe me, if you continue to gallop, I shall not be -able to support it more than five minutes; I shall be dead, and what -will be your position then?’ I did not exaggerate in any way, and my -words gaining force by my strong conviction, made an impression upon -those who had the charge of me. We continued all that night walking -slowly, and when at daybreak we reached a posting-house, they put -me into a sledge, for the road, though not all covered with snow, -was deep in mud. Finally, at one o’clock we reached Braçlaw, where -Major Poloutkovskoï was in waiting for us. My deplorable condition -touched him visibly; he put his hand on my arm, and looking at me with -attention, he questioned me on the pain which I felt. It was the first -and the only time that he showed me any true compassion. He told me -that the wants of the service summoned him imperatively to Kiow, but -that I should remain here until I had recovered my strength a little; -he soon afterwards took leave of me, and after having pushed on a -little longer, my sledge stopped in the town before a vast and sombre -building. They bid me get out, the heavy gates grated on their hinges, -and after having traversed several dim corridors, I found myself in -the middle of a little room, which was tolerably clean, and of which -the window was furnished with strong iron bars. I flung myself on the -paillasse, which I saw in one corner, and covered myself with my cloak. -A few moments afterwards I received a visit from the _sous préfet_, -and from the doctor, a Pole, who examined me with much interest, -prescribed repose, and some medicines; and I was again left alone with -the two soldiers. Repose was in truth the only remedy for my pain, of -which I felt nothing as long as I remained quiet and lying down. Thus -long hours passed away, when all of a sudden breaking through the deep -silence I heard a strange clinking which I was not able to explain; -but I soon distinguished the sound of chains, both behind the wall and -in the corridors. I was then in one of those great prisons, called -Krepost; but who might my companions be? Simple criminals perhaps; -or, it may be political prisoners, countrymen of my own? My doubts -were soon cleared up; I heard a song rise, sonorous, choral, and only -broken by the sound of fetters; the words were Polish, the melody a -familiar one:-- - - In a cradle sleeping, the Babe Divine, ... - -It was then Christmas time, and these poor prisoners, my compatriots, -were intoning at midnight, after our ancient custom, the venerable -hymn which hails the Saviour’s birth. Then followed other canticles in -common use:-- - - Thus to the shepherds did the angels say, ... - -and - - To Bethlehem running, &c.... - -Ah, those Christmas hymns!--songs which had rocked my childhood and -pleased me in youth, and which I had not heard for the last twelve -years--ever since I had emigrated to another land. How after twelve -years was I to hear them again? Chanted by captives, and accompanied by -the rattle of their chains! - -On both the following days I was visited repeatedly by the _sous -préfet_, and by the doctor. I felt very weak, but quite free from the -pain in my head; and upon being asked by the official in charge whether -I was ready to continue my journey, I replied in the affirmative, for -I was anxious to reach Kiow. As we were stepping into our sledges, I -noticed in the courtyard a regiment of soldiers, whose bearing was so -fine and so soldierly that I made a remark upon it to the _sous préfet_ -as he stood beside me. ‘They are,’ he said, ‘Polish soldiers of 1831, -incorporated now into the army of the South.’ Thus did I meet again -after such a lapse of years my former companions in arms. I could not -help uncovering my head to them, and calling out loudly in Polish, ‘All -hail, comrades!’ ‘Forward!’ shouted the _sous préfet_ immediately; and -the horses went off like an arrow from a bow. We had hardly gone two -or three leagues out of Braçlaw when we met a carriage driving at a -fast and furious pace, and which pulled up alongside of us. An officer -of the armed Police sprang out of it, who, after conversing for a few -minutes with my companion, came up to me, and announced that for the -future I should consider myself under his guardianship. - -He seemed a young man of about twenty, or a little older; very tall, -very slight, very tight in his uniform, with a waist like a wasp, and -with a hard haughty manner. He was, as I afterwards learnt, a German -by birth, and the sight of him gave me a curious sense of uneasiness, -so that I began to regret Major Poloutkovskoï. At one place he made -us drive off the high road, and we got out at a solitary house, a -guard-house apparently, and there they fitted me with a pair of -handcuffs. I was then led down to a hut, which was underground, and -to a sort of forge, where a soldier farrier had with some difficulty -lit the furnace fires. The officer produced some chains from some -corner or another, and he now stood contemplating them with an -expression of face which was both curious and fierce. These irons -were the most detestable things that can be imagined; red with rust, -they were composed of two long bars fastened in the middle by a bit -of chain, and having a foot-ring at each end. Having finished all the -preparations, the soldier tried the rings on me above each ankle, but -they were so tight that I could not help shouting with the pain. The -officer simply said, ‘Come, come!’ but when they were to be soldered -up I pulled my feet out, and declared that I would lodge a complaint -before the Governor-General if they did not let the rings out. This -made the officer pause for a moment. He ordered them to attend to my -demand, and bolts were at last let into them with hammers and punches; -but I suffered a great deal from them still, and they remained always -too tight, while the rusty bit of chain hindered the long bars from -turning, and left me wholly unable to walk. They lifted me up, and -hoisted me, thus trussed, into the carriage. Late in the night, and -after we had left Bialocerkiew behind, the sleigh in which I was -reached the top of an incline, and, coming upon some stumbling-block, -it upset. The soldiers were thrown off, I don’t know what became of the -coachman; as for myself, pinioned and unable to move, I was flung out, -but my fetters hooked on in some way to the vehicle, and I was dragged -along through the snow and the mud by the horses, which continued their -maddened course; my knees, elbows, and chest were bruised, and I -finally lost consciousness. When I came to myself again, I found that -I had been reinstalled into my sledge, and that all was restored to -order. The young officer standing alongside of me asked if I was much -hurt? I made no answer; and now began a scene which was truly Russian -in its character. The officer struck with his fists at the two unhappy -soldiers on account of an accident in which no one had had any part -but himself, for he had been constantly calling out to go quicker. The -soldiers, as soon as we were again under way, paid off on the driver -the blows they had received from the officer; and he, in return, -revenged himself on his horses by flogging them so brutally that we -ran every risk of having a repetition of the adventure. More dead than -alive, I saw all that was done; and, such is the weakness of our human -nature, I had but one feeling, the fear of a second accident. At each -pitch and at the least jolt I shut my eyes and nearly swooned; and yet -I was not naturally timid, and my nerves were not precisely of the most -delicate order. The following day I arrived before the fortress of -Kiow. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -OF MY IMPRISONMENT AT KIOW, AND MY DEPARTURE FOR SIBERIA. - - THE FORTRESS AT KIOW--PRINCE BIBIKOV--EXAMINATION--A COMMISSION OF - INQUIRY--A BIBLE--FELLOW-PRISONERS--THE MANIAC--PREPARATIONS FOR - ‘DEPORTATION’--THE SENTENCE. - - -Carried in the arms of several soldiers, I was first deposited in the -business room of the Commandant of the place. Here I was searched, -registered, and inscribed on the books; while they plied me with -questions, to which I know not what answers I made, for I had no -knowledge either of what I was doing or of what I was saying. They set -me upright at last, and I walked, supported by soldiers, through an -endless number of rooms and corridors. A door was opened, I entered -the cell, and I fell exhausted on a mattress. Two jailers and an -aide-de-camp entered along with them, and the latter asked me if I -wanted anything. I requested to have my fetters changed, or to have -the foot-rings opened and made wider. He replied that he had no power -to do so, but that he would report the request. I was then left -alone, and at the end of a very few minutes I fell asleep. I slept -twenty-five hours without turning, and was only awakened at the end -of that time by my keepers, whom this prolonged slumber had alarmed. -Soon after, the colonel in command was ushered in. He was covered with -orders, and addressing me in Polish, he asked how I was, and what might -be the cause of my indisposition. I thanked him, but I said nothing -of the accidents of my journey; for where was the use of making any -complaints? He promised that some broth should be sent to me, and took -leave of me with these words, ‘Try to regain your strength, you are -much weakened; and here, in our prisons, one has need of health to bear -one’s many sufferings. - -I was indeed very weak, but I was no longer tormented by that terrible -pain in my head, of which I was more afraid than of anything else. -There remained the pains in my chest, elbows and knees, which were the -consequences of the accident, and from which I was yet to suffer for -several months to come. I looked round my cell; it was six feet by -five, pretty high in the roof, in very bad repair, very dirty, and lit -by a small window placed close to the ceiling, and grated with iron -bars both within and without. Over my head I could read several names -cut with some difficulty on the wall; among others that of Rabczynski, -whom I was to meet hereafter in Siberia. The only furniture was a -little table, a wooden chair, and a great stove in earthenware. Some -broth and some bread were brought to me, but the difficulty of eating -in handcuffs was so great and irritated me so much that I finished my -meal before my appetite was appeased. Suddenly, the sight of the bread -that remained suggested to me a providential idea. It certainly was not -the first time that I had thought of Konarski, whose sufferings were -fresh in every memory. I knew that hunger had been one of the engines -of torture tried upon him, and I had no security that I might not have -to pass through a similar ordeal. So I determined to lay up a fund -against this extremity, and I hid the bread in a hole behind the stove, -high up in the wall; and this I did on the following days with the -bread that was supplied to me. I was quite pleased with the store of -biscuit thus prepared against the time of famine. - -Somewhat revived by the food and by sleep, I now became sensible of -an annoyance which I could not at first account for. Presently I -discovered that I was literally covered with vermin, the mattress, -and the room were filthy with them, and the handcuffs prevented my -even attempting to destroy them. I looked round and caught two eyes -fixed upon me; it was the sentry on guard in the corridor, who had -orders to watch all my movements through the aperture cut in my door; -in vain, however, did I call to him, he paid me not the slightest -attention; but happily for me on the following day the Commandant of -the fortress caused me to be moved into the opposite cell, and had my -room purified. He gave orders at the same time to have me shaved; an -officer assisted at the operation, and when I requested that they would -leave my whiskers, I received an answer which, all things considered, -was rather out of place: ‘No, no; we will leave you nothing but your -moustaches, and that will be quite in the Polish fashion; the ancient -Poles wore nothing but a moustache.’ I soon returned to my cell, now -a little cleaner than it had been; but what most moved my gratitude -towards the Commandant was that he had my handcuffs taken off; and with -the recovered liberty of my hands I recovered, strange to say, all the -freedom and former energy of my mind. I kept constantly stretching out -my arms, hardly daring to believe in my happiness, and I felt like a -child escaped from its swaddling bands. - -A week, or nearly a week, now elapsed without bringing any notable -change in my position. My food was wholesome and plentiful, the room -was cleansed every day, but the want of air and of exercise had -completely enervated me. My chains prevented my walking, or even -standing. I remained almost always lying on my paillasse, rising in -general only in the morning to kneel and repeat the Lord’s Prayer. The -nights were long and without any light, and their quiet was only broken -by the sound of the hammers, when they fitted or unfitted the fetters -of some of the prisoners. Although it was forbidden to the sentries -and keepers to speak to me, I soon managed to learn that all my accused -friends from Kaminieç were in the same prison with myself, though -lodged in different corridors. - -One day, about noon, a great noise was heard at the entrance of my -cell, the door opened, and a man appeared before me in the undress of -a general officer, surrounded by generals and aides-de-camp, all in -full uniform, who stood back respectfully in the corridor. The man had -a tall figure, grey hair cut like a brush, an oval face without any -moustaches, and very piercing eyes: his left sleeve was fastened up to -one of the breast buttons of his coat, and the loss of an arm which -this indicated convinced me that I now beheld no less a person than -the Governor-General of Volhynia, Podolia, and the Ukraine, Prince -Bibikov.[3] He took off his cap, pushed the door close, without however -shutting it, sat down on the chair, and made me a sign to reseat myself -on the mattress from which I had risen. During the conversation which -followed he seemed very much annoyed at the bad air of the cell, and -turned mechanically to the high window several times, as if to breathe -freely. He addressed me in French. - -‘You probably guess who I am?’ - -‘I believe that I have the honour of speaking to the Governor-General, -Prince Bibikov.’ - -‘Your name is Piotrowski; you are a native of the Ukraine; you took -part in the revolt of 1831, you emigrated to France. You afterwards -returned to Kaminieç under the name of Catharo.’ - -‘Yes, your Excellency.’ - -‘You pretend that your return had no other object than that of -revisiting your native land; but when after 1831 the Emperor granted an -amnesty, why did you not avail yourself of it?’ - -‘I do not wish to say anything that might be displeasing to your -Excellency, but at the same time the manner in which this amnesty -was drawn up was not of the nature to encourage us. Furthermore, the -amnesty only applied to subjects of the kingdom, the inhabitants of the -detached and outlying provinces were deprived of it; and to conclude, -before asking pardon, one must feel that one has been guilty.’ - -‘Who gave you that English passport?’ - -‘I found it in the street.’ - -‘You spent more than a month in Hungary; you see that I am well -informed about you. Why did you go there?’ - -‘To make my traces more difficult to follow, and to shorten the -journey.’ - -‘Oh! but you had some other reasons; you are a member of the Democratic -Society.’ - -‘I once formed a part of it, but I have withdrawn from it a long time -ago.’ - -‘You are an emissary of that society?’ - -‘No.’ - -‘Then in coming here you had no political mission?’ - -‘Certainly, I had none.’ - -‘Such assertions are not likely to improve your situation; I do not -hide from you that it is a very unpleasant one; and only a sincere and -complete confession can diminish your troubles, and above all make you -worthy of the indulgence of the Emperor. You knew Konarski?’[4] - -‘No.’ - -‘But you have heard of him?’ - -‘Certainly, above all of the tortures inflicted upon him.’ - -‘Your case is similar to that of Konarski, and only the sincerity of -your confession can lessen its consequences. I do not wish to judge of -your sentiments, I only wish to know whom you have known at Kaminieç, -and in the provinces; I do not ask you to tell me what were your mutual -plans, tell me only with whom were you acquainted.’ - -‘Why, your Excellency, I knew almost everybody in Kaminieç, and in its -neighbourhood.’ - -‘That is not the question, and you know that it is not; the point is, -who were your intimates?’ - -‘I had none; it is true I was able to reveal my nationality to a few, -and to ask their help and counsel; but your Excellency must fully -understand why I ought not to name them.’ - -After some moments of silence, Prince Bibikov replied, ‘I do not -understand why the Poles and the Russians should hate and hurt each -other for ever; we are all Slaves, brought together by origin, -language, and manners, we ought to be united, and to march on together; -and he who thinks otherwise does not understand the true interests of -the two nations.’ - -‘I am quite of your Excellency’s way of thinking, and we indeed have -no feeling of ill-will towards the Russian nation; but we aspire to be -free, and as regards the government....’ - -‘I have no time to discuss this with you. I repeat it, your situation -is a most critical one, but you can improve it sensibly by making a -sincere avowal; I do not promise you complete or immediate liberty, for -I never promise that which I am not sure of being able to perform, but -I can intercede with the Emperor that he would give you permission to -serve for the future in the army of the Caucasus. The Poles, like all -the Slaves, are brave and courageous; you are still young, you are not -wanting in intellect, you would very soon become an officer, and then -your career would depend only on yourself.’ - -He pronounced these words in a loud and firm voice; then rising, he -added, with a certain gentleness: ‘For the rest, I do not ask for your -secrets; tell me only the names of the persons by whom you were known. -I have no wish to know what you said to them--their names are all that -is required; and I do not even exact from you that you should give them -in immediately. You are weak, and under impressions still too recent -and too lively. When you wish to speak to me, send to say so by the -orderly of the day; in the meantime, let me have a note from you, and -put your biography on paper.’ He made me a slight bow, and, as he went -out, stopped at the door, and said, ‘Have his chains taken off.’ - -Some minutes afterwards, the Commandant of the place came with a -farrier to see me delivered from my chains; and this was the first and -last benefit which I derived from the visit of the Governor-General; -but it was a very great advantage, and I was truly grateful to him for -it, for since my departure from Kaminieç I had not been able to take -my boots off once. My legs were much bruised, yet I walked up and down -my room the whole of that day; and I had almost a pleasure in the pain -which the exercise gave me, for it proved that my feet were free. - -Some weeks passed; and one evening, at a pretty late hour of the night, -I saw a thing which had never yet entered my cell--it was a light. An -aide-de-camp, followed by four soldiers, bid me rise, and follow him. -Is the moment of execution arrived? I thought, as I threw round my cell -a glance which had in it something of a farewell. Supported under my -arms by the soldiers, I traversed the great court of the prison. The -snow creaked under our feet, the night was very dark; but the keen and -pure air, to which I was not accustomed, while it cut my breath, did -me an indescribable amount of good; and while I believed that I was on -the way to meet my fate, I felt, if I may so express it, a bitter-sweet -delight in inhaling the fresh gusts of wind. I was led into a large -room, which was feebly illuminated, and where officers of different -ranks were seated at a large round table covered with green cloth; they -smoked their cigars, talked in a loud voice, and laughed between times. -This was the Commission of Inquiry. - -Among these gentlemen it was with real joy that I recognised the face -of Major Poloutkovskoï, and yet he it was who had arrested me! The -person who presided, and who seemed to be chairman of the commission, -was dressed in a plain black coat. He was a member of the third -division of the Imperial Cabinet (the secret Police) and a Privy -Councillor--in short, it was Pissarev, the _alter ego_ of Prince -Bibikov, a man of whom the remembrance is too terrible to be soon -effaced in the detached provinces. He made a sign to me to approach, -allowed me to be seated near him, and began his questions in French, -and in a very affable tone. Although with more of detail, they were -identical with those which had been put to me by Prince Bibikov. I made -the same answers--and such was the character of the many examinations -which I underwent before the Commission of Inquiry. - -As I was of noble birth, I found, one day, at one of the sittings -of the Commission, the Marshal of the nobility of the province. His -presence was demanded by the laws; but he seemed to suffer from his -office, and evidently only went through a painful formality, while he -addressed me in Polish and put a few questions as to my family and -connections. On the whole, these gentlemen seldom failed to treat me -with consideration, in spite of the silence and the negatives with -which I met their demands. One day, the president even said to me, ‘You -must find the time in prison pass very slowly; my library is at your -disposal, if you wish to have some books. Do you prefer travels or -novels?’ - -‘Will you have the kindness to let me have a Bible?’ - -‘A Bible!’ he replied, looking at me with an odd expression; ‘upon my -word, I have not got such a thing; but I can procure one for you.’ And -he did send me a Bible, after which time I no longer felt that I was -alone. - -Those of my fellow-countrymen to whom the very names of Prince Bibikov -and of M. Pissarev recall the sorrows of so many families, the blood -and tears of so many noble victims, and of three provinces all outraged -and oppressed under the pressure of the most haughty and rapacious of -tyrannies, will no doubt be astonished--it may be, shocked--at what -I have just related. Yet such undoubtedly was the conduct of these -two men towards myself. I ought also here to declare that no attempt -was ever made to inflict on me any of the tortures to which so many -Poles have been subjected in Russian prisons--more than one of my -fellow-accused being, alas! among the number. It is true that I was -several times threatened with such measures, but the threat was never -put into execution. - -The inquest dragged out its length however, and I soon received -the blessed permission to walk in the corridors every day for one -hour--care being taken to clear them at that time of every living soul, -except the two sentries. The corridor was narrow, dark, and damp; but -at least I could satisfy the imperious necessity for exercise which I -had felt, and I could also talk in secret from time to time with the -sentries. If these soldiers chanced to be Poles--which they very often -were, being even men who had served with us in our army of 1831--they -always showed me more compassion, while they maintained also a far -greater show of reserve. The Russian soldiers acted I think more from -curiosity; but what surprised me most was the frequency with which -I was asked whether I had never met, in foreign countries, with the -Grand Duke Constantine, whom they firmly believed to be living in -France or in England, and who should one day return to deliver them -from Nicholas. I found however that I must renounce the real pleasure -which I felt in talking to my sentries. One day the jailer surprised -one of them in conversation with me. He was led off to receive sixty -blows with the rods, and the cries of the unhappy man under punishment -presently reached my ears. - -I ought to say something in this place of my neighbours, viz. of those -who inhabited the cells opposite my prison. Those who were implicated -in my affair were lodged in another part of the fortress, and I -never had any communication with them. Once only I caught a glimpse -of the judge, Zawadzki, and I hardly recognised him again, for the -man formerly so strong and very corpulent was reduced to a perfect -skeleton. My neighbours in the corridor were not political criminals. -One of them, a soldier named Toumanov, awaited in irons the execution -of his sentence of four thousand blows with the rods, which had been -passed on him for some insubordination to his superiors. He had no -fear, counted on the ‘toughness of his hide,’ as he expressed it, -cursed the Tzar, his officers, and his fate, and sang a great deal, -especially an air of which the words began, ‘March to the sacking of -Poland!’ When the moment of his execution arrived, his jailers made -many brutal jests at his expense. ‘Now then, Toumanov, the devil will -get your soul to-day; you will never live through the thing.’ The -unhappy wretch replied, with coarser oaths, ‘I tell you I mean to live -through it, and we will have a glass together yet before I am off -to Siberia! I shall be better there than serving the Tzar.’ I heard -afterwards from these same jailers that after two of the four thousand -blows he fell senseless on the snow, which was red with his blood, and -was carried back to prison. If he survived he was liable to receive, at -some future day, the other half of his sentence! - -The next of my neighbours was a peasant of the district of Poitava, -short in stature, but of immense strength. He had deserted from the -army, taken to the woods and a wild life among them, where he had -killed several men. He also, when led away to punishment (for his -sentence was the knout and penal servitude for life), replied to the -hideous comments of his keepers, that he was not afraid. The third -prisoner, like the two first, was also in chains, a young handsome -soldier, who, while on a march with his battalion, had stopped at a -village and loitered behind for a whole week, being ‘bewitched by a -woman.’ The poor boy had then come of his own accord to give himself -up, and he now expected his trial. His character seemed to be both good -and gentle, and he was in the habit of singing an air of which the -melody, though slightly monotonous, was so sweet and plaintive that I -could not listen to him without emotion--such sweet tones could hardly -have come from a vicious heart. When he left our prison I never was -able to hear what became of him, but I regretted him and that plaintive -strain which had so often charmed my ears. His cell was soon occupied -again--by a subaltern convicted of having set fire to a magazine of -forage which was under his care, the motive being the wish to conceal a -certain deficit which had occurred. He had now gone mad, but in general -his mania was of the inoffensive and quiet kind. He talked constantly, -prepared for death, and exhorted his absent mistress to place over his -remains a black cross, of which he described the shape and ornaments -with the greatest exactness. Another day he complained that a gnat had -stung him--that all the blood had been sucked out of his body, and -that only water had been left. A _pope_ was sent for, who recited a -great number of prayers by way of exorcising him; but at last one day -the prisoner would not permit him to leave the cell. A psalter in one -hand and a crucifix in the other, the madman repeated, without ceasing, -‘Little father (_batiouchka_), _I_ will break your head for you if you -do not immediately give me the holy communion.’ The pope manœuvred -cleverly so as to reach the door, assuring him that he was going to -fetch the pyx; he then saved himself by making a rush, abandoning his -crucifix and his psalter. On the following day the governor of the -citadel had the maniac’s cell opened, though he took care himself to -remain in the corridor. The prisoner, standing at the threshold, made -him a sign to enter. ‘Come, your Excellency, I have a secret to whisper -in your ear;’ but his Excellency was more prudent than the _pope_. Some -soldiers soon advanced; they garotted and bound the poor fool, and they -carried him off to the hospital. - -In his place arrived a Circassian--a free lance of the Caucasus, who, -having been taken prisoner and employed in the works of the fortress, -had tried to make good his escape along with two countrymen of his own, -his fellow-sufferers. Pursued by the troops, they defended themselves -for a long time with their spades, which were their only weapons. One -succeeded in escaping, one was killed by a thrust with a bayonet, -the third fell into the hands of the soldiers and became my opposite -neighbour. He was called ‘a mountain prince,’ and, with hands and feet -in fetters, he was almost always to be seen seated on his couch, gloomy -and silent, and with a proud look on his face. I never failed to make -him a respectful bow when, in walking up and down the corridor, I -passed the loophole in his cell. - -In the meantime, weeks grew to months, and as the months succeeded -each other, the cold of winter had given place to the heats of July. -The stifling air of my prison reduced me to a state of extreme nervous -irritability, which broke out over every trifle, and at night I could -not sleep. I had forgotten to notice one permanent suffering in my -captivity, of which the intensity can never be appreciated, except by -those who may have made a personal trial of it: I mean the order given -to the sentry to watch all my actions through the window in my door. -No one can imagine what an indescribable torture it is to a man to see -and to know that a watch is kept upon every movement. That strange eye, -impassable and implacable, which meets yours at every moment--that -eye which follows you everywhere and at all times--becomes to you a -sort of infernal providence; and I abandon the task of making any one -understand what it is that the prisoner feels who from the instant -that he wakes in the morning sees from his bed those two eyes pointed -towards him like two stilettos. Will it be believed, from the earliest -dawn I longed for the night, even after a night which had been already -very long and rayless; for then at least I was protected from those -two eyes. Sometimes, impatient and distracted, I would go up to the -loophole and oppose my feverish glare to those two persecuting eyes; -and then I laughed like a savage, when I obliged the man to turn away -for a moment. - -It was in this state of extreme irritation that I received one day a -visit from an aide-de-camp, accompanied by another official, by the -jailer, and by some soldiers. He desired me to rise, and to undress. - -‘But I am already undressed!’ - -‘No; but you must be stripped.’ - -‘Why?’ - -‘I have orders to take a complete description of you, and to note down -any marks you may have about your person.’ - -‘But that is something barbarous and savage! the description of my -features ought to suffice!’ - -‘My orders are precise, and I beg of you to undress.’ - -So there was no help for it. - -If I had been better acquainted with the usages and customs in Russian -proceedings of the sort, this notification ought to have enlightened -me as to the nature of the punishment to which I was going to be -condemned, as well as upon the fact that my sentence was imminent, such -examinations being a preliminary to deportation. However, I was so far -from having any idea of this, that when some days later I was again -summoned before the Commission of Inquiry, I anticipated nothing more -than one of those interminable examinations which had already become -so familiar to me; but the unaccustomed solemnity of those who were -present soon gave me a presentiment that something extraordinary was -coming, and before long my sentence was read out. This sentence, which -was long and minutely drawn up, finished with ‘the pain of death,’ -commuted, however, by Prince Bibikov, for that of penal servitude in -Siberia for the term of my natural life. I was, in addition, degraded -from the ranks of the nobility, and I was to make the journey in -fetters. After having heard this document, I was ordered to write at -the bottom of the paper the following words: ‘Rufin Piotrowski heard -this sentence on the 29th of July, O. S. 1844.’ - -I was immediately conducted to the dwelling of the commandant, where I -was to take my old travelling clothes, and have my feet put in irons. -To my horror, they presented me with the same rusty bars which had -caused my torment all the way to Kiow. In vain I besought and implored -the commandant to give me another set of chains, he would not consent -to do so; and all that I could obtain from him was an order given to -the gendarmes who were to be my convoy, that the tight foot-rings were -to be enlarged at one of the nearest stations. I was not permitted -either to revisit my cell or my companions in the corridor; I was -marched down into the courtyard, where a _kibitka_ with three horses -was in waiting, and I took my seat there between two gendarmes whose -muskets were loaded. The doors of the fortress closed behind the -_kibitka_, and before me opened the way to Siberia. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[3] Prince Bibikov had his arm carried away at the battle of Borodino: -all over Poland the answer is current, which he once made to a Polish -lady, who on her knees implored a pardon for her son: ‘The hand which -signs pardons, madam, I left at Borodino.’ - -[4] A celebrated emissary, executed at Wilna, in 1841, after a long and -cruel detention. - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -OF DEPORTATION AND THE LIFE OF AN EXILE IN SIBERIA. - - THE _KNOUT_ AND THE _PLÈTE_--RUNNING THE GAUNTLET--GANGS OF - EXILES--GRAND-DUCHESS MARIE--THE JOURNEY--RUSSIAN ALMS--A ‘POPE’--THE - RUSSIAN SOLDIER--OMSK--PRINCE GORTCHAKOV--EKATERINSKI-ZAVOD. - - -To be exempt from corporal chastisement is one of the privileges of a -Russian noble; and in cases of deportation a member of the nobility -should not be obliged to make the journey on foot, or in a gang of -convicts. This does not prevent the torture being applied to political -prisoners, even when nobles, during the progress of an examination; yet -their sentence is in general in accordance with the laws, and it is -seldom that the statutes are set aside, as they were in the case of the -Polish prince Roman Sanguszko, to whose sentence the Emperor Nicholas -undoubtedly added with his own hand the order that the prince’s journey -should be made _on foot_. Thanks to the accident of my birth, I had -never known the ordinary aggravations of such a lot as mine had now -become, I mean the knout, the _plète_, and the march in a gang; but as -many of my countrymen have undergone such punishments, and as I also -should forfeit (so said the decree against me) my right of being exempt -from them when I reached my destination, I shall give some more precise -details upon the subject, albeit a sad one. - -The knout is a strip of hide, a thong which is steeped in some -preparation, and strongly glazed as it were with metal filings. By -this process it becomes both heavy and extremely hard, but before it -hardens care is taken to double down the edges, which are left thin on -purpose, and in this way a groove runs the whole length of the thong, -except the upper part, which is supple, and winds round the hand of the -executioner; to the other end a small iron hook is fastened. Falling -on the bare back of the sufferer the knout comes down on its concave -side, of which the edges cut like a knife. The thong thus lies in the -flesh, and the operator does not lift it up, but draws it towards -himself horizontally, so that the hook tears off long strips. If the -executioner has not been bribed, and does his business conscientiously, -the person under punishment loses consciousness after the third stroke, -and sometimes dies under the fifth. A peculiarity of the Russian law -may be also noted here, which orders that the number of blows from -the knout shall always be an unequal one! The scaffold on which the -sufferer is placed is called in Russ ‘a mare’ (_kobyla_). It is an -inclined plane, to which the man is tied with his back uncovered. -The head is firmly fastened to the upper part, the feet to the lower -end, and the hands, which are also knotted together, go round below -the plank; any movement of the body becoming in this way impossible. -After receiving the prescribed number of strokes, the poor wretch is -untied, and on his knees undergoes the punishment of being _marked_. -The letters _vor_ (meaning thief, or malefactor) are printed in -sharp-pointed letters on a stamp, which the executioner drives into -the forehead and into both cheeks, and while the blood runs, a black -mixture, of which gunpowder is an ingredient, is rubbed into the -wounds; they heal, but the bluish mark left remains for life. In old -days, after thus marking a man, they sometimes tore off his nostrils -with iron pincers; but a _ukase_ of the last years of Alexander I. -definitively abolished this additional piece of barbarity. I have -myself encountered in Siberia more than one criminal thus hideously -disfigured, but all dating from a time anterior to the publication of -the _ukase_ in question. As for those who had the triple inscription -of _vor_, I have seen an incalculable number in Siberia; but I believe -women cannot be punished in this way, and I never met with one who wore -the triple brand. - -The _plète_, so often and so erroneously confounded with the knout, -is a less fearful instrument of punishment. Three stout thongs are -weighted at the ends with balls of lead, the other extremity winds up -the arm of the executioner, and according to the law it ought to weigh -from five to six pounds. When it comes down on the back it strikes -like three sticks; it does not tear up the flesh like the knout, but -the skin breaks under the blows, which make a lesion of the spinal -column, break the ribs, and I have been told detach even the viscera -from their places; and those who have suffered under the _plète_, if -they have received any great number of lashes, generally fall into -consumption and perish. In order to give himself greater purchase, the -person wielding it makes a run and does not strike till close to ‘the -mare.’ I have said that it is possible to gain over the operator, and -in this case he can manage not to touch the instrument with the little -finger of the hand. This lessens the blow, although the attention of -the superintending officer is not attracted by the practice, and any -reader by experimentalising with a stick may convince himself that it -does so. If however the sentence stands for a great number of strokes, -the executioner is then bribed to inflict the first with tremendous -violence, and as much upon the sides as possible, so that life is -sooner extinct, and death puts a speedier end to the sufferings of the -victim. - -A third species of punishment is running the gauntlet (_skvos-stroï_, -literally ‘through the ranks’); it is generally reserved for soldiers, -and yet many of my countrymen have suffered thus for political -offences. It is inflicted with long rods newly cut, which have been -steeped in water for some days to make them more pliant. Soldiers -are arranged in two files, but each man stands at some distance from -the other, so that all may strike with a long swing without being in -each other’s way. The condemned person, stripped to the waist, passes -through the ranks, his hands are tied in front upon a musket of which -the bayonet rests on his chest; the butt-end is held by the soldier -who leads him. He walks slowly, receiving the rods on his back and -shoulders, and if he faints and falls he is picked up again. A _ukase_ -of Peter the Great fixes the maximum of blows at twelve thousand, but -it is seldom that more than two thousand are given at one time, unless -for the sake of ‘setting an example;’ in general, after two thousand -the patient is carried off to the hospital, and when healed of his -wounds he pays the rest of his penalty. - -After such patients as these have recovered a little health and -strength in a military hospital, they are hurried off to some one of -the head-quarters of the empire, where a large number being assembled, -they are classed according to their sentences, whether of simple -transportation (_possilenié_), or of hard labour in the public works -(_katorga_). Thus classified, they are told off into gangs of a hundred -at the least, and of two hundred and fifty at the greatest computation. -The gangs thus formed then separate for Siberia, and the time which -is spent on the road is one of the greatest elements of suffering in -their painful lot. For example, to go from Kiow to Tobolsk requires -a long year; and if the gang has a farther destination (say the mines -of Nertchinsk, in the government of Irkutsk), the journey will take -more than two years. Criminals condemned to hard labour are placed -under a stronger escort, and under a more severe watch than those who -are simply deported, and they generally form a brigade by themselves. -I met many of these caravans on my journey, and they travelled in the -following order. In front rode a Cossack at a walk, completely armed, -and with a lance in his hand; after him came men either singly or -chained together by hands and feet; these were followed by twenty, -all fastened at the wrists to long iron rods; the next were fettered -in the same way, with their feet chained in addition, but the women, -as far as I could judge, did not wear any irons. On both sides of the -gang marched soldiers with loaded arms, while some Cossacks rode up and -down. After the prisoners, and in the first carriage, one might see the -officer in charge with his head down, and smoking his pipe; the other -carriages brought the baggage and the sick, who wore a collar by which -they could be chained to a pole fixed in the vehicle. - -My heart felt ready to break every time that I met a company of the -sort, and the sight of the women was most trying. A mournful silence -reigned in their groups, and it was only broken by the dull noise of -their chains. No doubt these men were in general real malefactors, the -off-scourings of any society; but who could say that among them there -were none that were innocent, no political criminals, no countrymen -of my own? Later, and when sojourning on the banks of the Irtiche, I -had for my companions two political exiles like myself, Siesieki and -Syezewski: these men had done the whole distance on foot and in a gang, -and they furnished me with every detail of their march. Thus, they told -me that none of these unhappy creatures can stir in his sleep without -awaking companions fastened to the same bar, and indeed without causing -them sharp pain, if the movement should happen to be a rough one, as -often is the case in sleep. At the times for halting and eating the -prisoners are huddled together in a circle, while the foot soldiers -watch them, and the Cossacks stray round them on horseback. The column -walks for two days and rests on the third; and for this purpose, beyond -Nijni-Novgorod, where the villages are few and far between, houses have -been constructed to shelter the gangs at distances calculated to suit -the recurrence of these days of rest. These buildings, long and low -(for they are only one story high), extending in the middle of wide -and desert plains, and only inhabited at intervals, are calculated to -leave a strange impression. Military stations are also established at -unequal distances along the route from Kiow to Smolensk, and even to -Nertchinsk. In each of these stations is to be found an officer with -a number of soldiers sufficient to replace the escort which arrives. -The officer is in all cases responsible for the prisoners, and has -over them a perfectly discretional power. He may punish them with -the bastinado, the rods, and the _plète_; and abuses are, as may be -supposed, inevitable, though, to the honour of humanity, it must be -said that very many of these officers, far from making a cruel use of -their dictatorship, often show themselves full of care and compassion -for the unhappy beings whom they are obliged to conduct. At times of -severe cold or of any great flood, the columns are obliged to stop at -any station where they may happen to be. These expeditions are sent off -in such a way that every week one gang enters Tobolsk as another leaves -it to continue its march. At Tobolsk sits what is called the Commission -of Deportation, whose business is to assign a definitive destination -to each man, according to local convenience, or the necessities of the -public works. It has been calculated that the number of transported -persons amounts every year to little short of ten thousand. - -I must give one more detail, supplied to me by the same Siesieki whom -I have already mentioned. The train of which he formed a part was met -near Moscow by the Duke of Leuchtenberg and his wife, Grand-Duchess -Marie. The daughter of Nicholas, on learning that many Poles, condemned -for political offences, were to be found in the column, had them -pointed out to her, and remained for an hour in contemplation of the -body; no word escaped her lips, but she dried continually the big -tears which fell from her eyes. The Duke of Leuchtenberg approached -Siesieki, asked him his name, and said that he should seek for his -pardon at the hands of the Emperor. Did the Duke forget it, or did he -not dare to ask? Nothing can be known; but this I know for certain, -that, many a long day afterwards, I found Siesieki in Siberia, and that -I was one day to leave him there. - -Were not these strange meetings? Carried away in my _kibitka_ towards -the land from which no man returns, a convict on his way to work out -his bitter sentence, I yet saw many shapes of misfortune worse than my -own. I could see faces of men in such gangs as I have described, who, -looking into mine, counted me as happy. Nay, I could say to myself, -I too had only escaped this, the last and lowest stage of misery -and shame, by means of the privilege which attached to my birth--a -privilege which my own convictions disallowed, but which the Tzar -himself maintained. Compared with the lot of this herd of the lost my -state certainly was more endurable. I was sure to arrive soon, only -too soon, at the place for which I was bound; I was not rivetted to -any parricide, or to a malefactor, and my hands at least were free. -The tight rings of my fetters alone caused me any suffering, and now -I almost blushed to speak of them; but the pain was really great, and -by dint of entreaties I prevailed on the soldiers to have the luckless -rings let out at one of the halting places, which after all was only -in accordance with the orders they had received at Kiow. At first, -these guardians of mine had obstinately refused to meet any of my -attempts at conversation with them, replying that they were forbidden -to address me. However, I kept up with them, and I ended in humanising -them. We soon talked freely, and drank together some glasses of that -Russian brandy of which I was learning to appreciate the salutary and -strengthening qualities. Neither of the men seemed to be bad-hearted in -any way, and they were more distressed than pleased by the business in -hand. One day, when, from sufferings of mind and bodily fatigue I fell -sick, and was lying down at one of the posting-houses, I overheard the -following conversation between them: - -‘Well, we are very unlucky: if we do not arrive at Omsk on the day -appointed, we shall be beaten with rods; and if we hurry him too much, -and he dies of it, we shall be beaten all the same; we are in very bad -luck!’ - -They were continually haunted by the fear of my dying or committing -suicide. When we had a river to cross, they sat by me in the boat, and -held me by both arms, in case I should leap into the water; and at our -meals they gave me meat cut into little squares, from which the bones -had been carefully removed, and which I had to eat with a spoon. - -Thus, without being positively cruel, these soldiers showed an -astonishing indifference to my sad position. In the conversation, for -instance, which I have just cited, it will be seen that they made an -abstraction of me: I ceased to be a man, a creature of God, suffering -in body and in misery of mind; I was only a dangerous charge, to be -got rid of as quickly as possible; and the only thing they could find -pity for was for themselves. But it was not in them alone that I had -to remark a charity so nicely restricted, or such indifference to the -pains of other men. At one of the places where we changed horses, the -new postilion, a great rough fellow, came up to me and asked me: - -‘Are you a Pole? How many _kibitkas_ are following you, then?’ - -‘None.’ - -‘What! none? As soon as you see a _kibitka_ with a Pole, one may always -bet that there will be no end to them; these Poles must be in swarms, -and yet I can’t think how we are not come to the last of them by this -time.’ - -At the same time I should be singularly ungrateful and unjust if I did -not declare that such speeches as these were rare and exceptional, and -that they stood out in contrast with the general manner of the country -people towards me. These showed themselves full of compassion, and -even of solicitude; and after entering Russia Proper, as I advanced -by degrees into the interior, I never ceased to receive from them -unequivocal marks of their sympathy and pity. How often was I not -followed by travellers, especially by ladies, who pressed gifts of -money on my acceptance! How often have I not seen at our halting places -young girls stop and look at me with sadness, even with tearful eyes! -One rich merchant, who was returning from the fair at Nijni-Novgorod, -pressed upon me with real eagerness the sum of two hundred roubles, -saying it was nothing for him to lose, and might be of the greatest -use to me. If I always thought it right to refuse such presents, of -which, moreover, I should have been doubtless deprived by the Russian -authorities, I accepted without hesitation and with much gratitude -the articles of food and drink brought to me on all sides by the -inhabitants. It was rarely that the master of any posting-house failed -to offer me either tea or brandy at the stations where we stopped; -his wife or his daughters presented me with cakes, dried fish, or -fruits, while the neighbours would hasten to do the same. At one of -these stations, not far from Toula, I saw an official in a uniform -arrive, and I was timidly offered by him a little parcel wrapped in -a silk handkerchief. As he gave it me, he said, ‘Accept this from my -patron saint.’ I could not make out his meaning; and as the sight of an -uniform did not predispose me in his favour, I made a sign of refusing -it. - -‘You are a Pole,’ he said, colouring a little; ‘and you are not -acquainted with our customs. This is my birthday, and on such a day it -is our bounden duty to share our goods with those who are in adversity; -accept this then I beseech you, in the name of my saint.’ - -I could not resist a petition so touching and so Christian in its -spirit. The parcel contained bread, salt, and a few coins; the money I -gave to the guards, and I broke bread with the official, who asked me: - -‘Why are they taking you to Siberia?’ - -‘Because I have thought and felt as a Pole.’ - -‘You were right to do so, because you were in Poland; but why do the -Poles wish to plant their ways of thinking in Russia? In the garrison -of our town, there were about ten Poles incorporated into our army -after the revolution of 1831. Will you believe it, Sir, these Poles -excited our soldiers, persuaded them that they were very unhappy, that -the Tzar was the cause of it, and that his authority was not lawful? -Now what was the consequence of all this? They only made their own case -worse, and they drew upon themselves all the severities of the Russian -law. These Poles never reflected that every nation has, and ought to -have, a government suited to its nature. Now the Russian people are -rude, ignorant, and uncultivated; why think, when in such a state as -this, of any other authority or of any political reforms whatever? -However little we were to depart from the severity of our laws, we -should see the life and fortunes of our citizens seriously endangered, -and that before very long; we should have murders, fires, and rapine -of all sorts. I know my nation too well. In time we may proceed to some -changes, but it will not be very soon; and it is vain to think of it at -the present moment.’ - -Very different was a scene which was acted not far from Kazan. There, -on going into a station, I saw, to my great surprise, that with the -character of post-master my landlord combined that of priest (_pope_). -Surrounded by convivial peasants, the _batiouchka_ was delivering a -long peroration, while he swallowed great potations from a monstrous -bottle of brandy which was on the table by which he was seated. I do -not know by what sign he perceived that I was a Pole, but he rose -immediately and turned the torrent of his eloquence upon me, deploring -the seditious spirit of the Poles, their disobedience to the Tzar, and -the misfortunes which they drew upon themselves and upon Russia. All -these considerations did not however prevent his offering me a glass. I -drank and prudently beat a retreat, while the _pope_ made over my head -an infinite number of signs of the cross. I really do not know whether -a benediction was intended, or whether he hoped to drive out of me the -evil spirit of revolt. - -Although thus an object of a general commiseration, which showed itself -by the touching offerings of the poor, and even in the enigmatical -benedictions of a tipsy priest, I nevertheless could practise charity -in my turn, for many begged from me. One day in particular I can -recall. It was, if I mistake not, at Saransk, as, with fetters on my -feet, I stood waiting for a relay of horses, that I saw a man stretch -out his hand towards me and ask for alms. He had on a military cap, -and the many medals on his coat showed that he had served in several -campaigns. He was, in fact, a soldier discharged from the service, and -even I could recognise that he had once been in the Imperial Guard. -What a strange contrast was here! A faithful and deserving servant of -the Tzar begging his bread from a man who, a rebel to this same Tzar, -was condemned by him to labour as a felon among felons! Without doubt, -the most hapless being in the universe, more unhappy than even the -convicts of Siberia, is the soldier of the Emperor of all the Russias. -I do not speak of those twenty or five-and-twenty years of service -which try his health and wear out his strength; I speak not either of -the thousands of blows which he receives during his long martyrdom; -but if, at the end of so many years passed under arms and under the -rod, he were in his old age protected from want and misery, it would -be well. At the most, however, the Russian government grants to some -decrepid and attenuated victim of military discipline permission to -settle upon the crown lands at some thousands of _verstes_ from his -family, and from the place of his birth, without even giving him what -is wanted for reclaiming the fields from which he is to scrape a -living. If he marries he is obliged to remit to the Emperor every male -child who attains the age of ten years; and thus he has the assurance -that there is prepared for his son a life and an old age as miserable -as his own. But it must not be supposed that all veterans are provided -for even after this fashion. By far the greater number are told off to -the fortresses or to the prisons of the government, or else sent back -to their old homes, where they survive, old, poor, and unfit for work, -as burdens upon families to whom they have become all but strangers; -though the government, in giving them their discharge, has taken care -to stipulate that there they shall neither be permitted to beg, nor -allow their beards to grow. Unfortunately, this last order is more -easily carried out than the first. - -With the exception of that enforced halt which was occasioned by the -illness I have mentioned, we continued our course without stopping -anywhere except for our meals and to change horses. Day and night we -drove, sleeping as we sat in the _kibitka_, only that my slumbers -there were less profound than those of my keepers, for at each jolt -of the carriage (and such jolts were incessant) my chains were shaken -and knocked against my feet, so that I was obliged to draw them up and -hold them always in my hands. Often in this plight and tormented by -sleeplessness I sat alongside of my guardians, who slept so heavily -that more than once I caught their caps for them when they were on -the point of losing them from the wind; and I could not help smiling -as I looked at them, and thought that I might be fairly said to be -outwatching my watchers. The journey was monotonous, in spite of its -giddy and headlong pace, or rather this very pace made it monotonous -by confounding all impressions and preventing any contemplation of -the outside world. Going at the rate of about sixty-six _verstes_ or -_kilometres_ a day, I had traversed in succession the governments of -Tchernigov, Orel, Toula, Riazan, Vladimir, Nijni-Novgorod, Kazan, -Viatka and Perm; I had passed the mountain chains of Oural and Tobolsk, -and I found myself, at the end of twenty days, transported from the -fertile plains of Poland to the very centre of Siberia-West; and that -without, so to speak, any remembrance of the people or of the country -which I left behind me. At one of the last stations short of Omsk, -while a relay was being procured, a soldier passed, and stopping in -front of me began to whistle an air which made me quiver--Dombrowski’s -air, ‘No, never shall Poland perish!’ The man was a compatriot of -Mazovia, a soldier of 1831, an old brother in arms, now incorporated -into the army of Siberia. He stole furtively up to me and had only time -to say, ‘What are our people about? What do they think of us in France?’ - -At last, late in the night of August 20, 1844, we stopped before a -sort of castle. ‘Who goes there?’ cried the sentry from the top of the -bastion. ‘An unhappy one,’ replied the postillion of our _kibitka_. -Immediately the gates swung wide, and we were in Omsk. After the lapse -of about twenty minutes, and with all the feverish promptitude which -distinguishes the public service of Russia, a report of my arrival -reached the commandant of the fortress, and Prince Gortchakov, the -Governor-General of Western Siberia. The order was sent back to have me -conveyed to the station of the guard, close to the prince’s residence, -and there I was installed, having for my companion an officer under -arrest in this room, for some infraction of discipline. He was quite -a young man of good family, hardly twenty, good looking, pleasant and -gay, speaking French, and communicating something of his own good -humour to all who came near him. When I said that I was a Pole, he -gave me a more than hearty reception, pressing tea on me, and putting -himself to inconvenience in order to prepare a bed for me. In spite of -the fatigue of the long journey, I spent the greater part of that night -in talking with him, for I found much pleasure in his gay and natural -conversation. He knew the country well, and could give me information -which was at once precise in itself and of the greatest use to me; but -what most enchanted me was his unrolling before me a first-rate map of -Siberia. This I examined with feverish curiosity; I had all the marks -explained to me, I studied and strove to fix in my memory the different -routes and watersheds of the country. My heart beat violently, and I -could not take my eyes off the map. At last the officer noticed my -agitation. ‘Ah!’ he said, ‘I fear you meditate an evasion! pray, pray -do not think of it, it is perfectly impossible. Many of your countrymen -have tried it, and those may be said to have been happy who, tracked on -every side, tortured by hunger, and maddened by despair, have yet been -able to escape the consequences of their crazy undertaking by a timely -suicide. The consequences are certain to be the knout and a life of -misery such as I have no words to describe to you. For God’s sake, put -all such thoughts out of your mind!’ - -I asked my companion what was the cause of his detention. - -‘Far be it from me to know,’ he replied. ‘This is not the first time -that I take off my hat to these walls. It is a pleasure that comes my -way at least twice a month. We have a colonel of the old school, quite -a martinet in discipline; and then, as you see, I have the luck, or the -bad luck, to be always in the most giddy spirits, and he puts me very -often under arrest, to see if it will make a wise man of me. What makes -him more angry is that I never ask him about anything, and he says, -that that is insolence, and that I have too much liberty of thought -(_volnodoumstoo_).’ - -He spoke to me afterwards of his intention to change his regiment, -because his colonel had decidedly taken a dislike to him. He expected -to be sent among the subjugated tribes of the Kirghis, whose language -he was learning, by talking with those of the natives who happened to -be prisoners in this castle. The next morning he had one of these sons -of the desert, a Khan, to breakfast with me; and thus I had for the -first time an opportunity of seeing a representative of those warlike -and nomadic races which occupy the steppes beyond Orenbourg. - -The next day, at eight o’clock in the morning, I was visited by the -commandant, Colonel De Grawe, a worthy old gentleman of alarming -corpulence but very obliging manners, and who was of Swedish -extraction. ‘What a pity, what a pity,’ he never ceased repeating, -‘that once free, and in a foreign country, you ever took it into your -head to come back!’ After him came the prefect of police in Omsk, M. -Nalabardine--tall, thin, dry, straight as an arrow, tight as a cord, -with a long face and little eyes, which were piercing and sunk. He -seemed a mixture of the Cossack, Kirghis and Tartar races. There was -something of a vulture in his physiognomy; and, indeed, I learnt -afterwards that he really was cruel and rapacious in the extreme. Yet -this man had some involuntary feeling. He asked me how it was that I -had dared to return to Poland without the permission of the Tzar; and -when I replied that I had yielded only to the pangs of home sickness, -he cried, with a voice which was unsteady with emotion, ‘Ah! native -country, native land, thou art indeed a beloved thing!’ - -At midday I was desired to wait on Prince Gortchakov, and shown into -a large waiting-room, where a number of persons in his employment sat -writing. After some minutes, several of them rose, and, holding out -their hands to me, addressed me in Polish. They were young Poles, -political prisoners, who worked at desks in the government offices. -Encouraged by their example, the Russians present also had the courage -to approach me, and to ask me about my lot; and from them I learnt that -this was a very decisive moment for me. I have stated before that the -Commission of Deportation held its permanent sittings at Tobolsk; that -it received the gangs, and assigned to each of the condemned his future -and final destination; but as I had not made the journey in a gang, it -was not the commission at Tobolsk, but the Governor-General of Siberia, -residing at Omsk, who was to point out my _settlement_. Now this was a -very important matter to me, because he might, for example, order me to -work out my sentence of penal servitude in any of the government works -or factories of the neighbourhood; or else he might send me to dig in -the mines of Nertchinsk. The hell of a Siberian convict has, alas! many -circles; and the question of determining which of them should be my -fate was precisely the one which was being discussed in the adjoining -room, where the Governor-General’s Council was sitting. They told -me I might pin my hopes chiefly on the presence at the board of M. -Kapoustine, an official of the highest rank and greatest influence -about the Prince--a man of generous instincts, and who always pleaded -in favour of deported persons convicted on political grounds. All of -a sudden, a sound was heard, everybody looked hard at the page before -him, and Prince Gortchakov appeared at the door of the room. He came -forward a step or two, fixed his eyes on me for some seconds, then -turning his back, he returned to his own apartments, without having -addressed me. An hour passed away in waiting in this cruel suspense. -At last we saw M. Kapoustine of the Council leave the inner room. He -announced to me, with a polite and kindly manner, that I was to be -sent to the works at the government distilleries, at Ekaterinski-Zavod -(established by the Empress Catherine), in the district of Tara, on -the banks of the Irtiche, at the distance of rather more than 300 -kilometres from Omsk. Hardly had he ceased speaking and departed, than -the clerks began to offer me their congratulations. I bade farewell -to them, as well as to the two poor gendarmes who had brought me from -Kiow; then, stepping into a _kibitka_ which waited at the gate, I was -whirled away to the final term of my travels. - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -THE KATORGA. - - COMPANIONS IN EXILE--THE ‘KATORGA’--A MURDERER--THE - FELONS--KANTIER--PAY AND PUNISHMENTS--THE COUNTING-HOUSE. - - -About ten o’clock of a cold morning, for it was now the 4th of October, -I saw before me the outlines of a village composed of two hundred -miserable houses, all built of wood, lying near the river Irtiche, -and situated in a vast plain. Further back, upon a rising ground, and -in the middle of a fir wood, the buildings of a factory were visible. -This was Ekaterinski-Zavod. I was introduced into the counting-house -(_kazionnaia kantora_), and the _smotritel_, that is to say, the -inspector of the establishment, soon arrived; for to M. Aramilski the -gendarme had already carried all the papers which concerned me. He made -me strip to the waist before all the persons present, thus verifying -the description drawn up at Kiow, which he had in his hand. He then -ordered me to be inscribed in the register of convict labourers, not -under my name but under my number. I was then to be taken to the -station-house; and he added, as he went out, without even having -addressed me, ‘he will work with chains on his feet.’ - -When he was out of hearing, a young man, who, through all this -business, had continued writing like the other clerks in the office, -rose and threw himself into my arms. It was Charles Bogdaszewski of -Cracow, who, implicated in the affair of Erenberg the poet, had been -condemned for three years to hard labour, and to deportation for the -term of his natural life. Some moments afterwards, we were joined -by John Siesieki of Lublin, another political offender. They spoke -quickly, and with an emotion which they did not disguise. They conjured -me to show myself patient and submissive in every way, and not to -rebel at anything. It was only thus that I could arrive in time at -being employed in the office, instead of having to do the hard and -severe work of the factory itself; and at this price, above all, I -could purchase an immunity from those corporal punishments to which -every labouring convict is liable. I cannot describe what was the -character of this broken and breathless colloquy, or the shiver which -ran through my frame when I heard Polish lips speaking, as of a matter -of course, of their fear of blows and of the rods. They left me, but -it was to make haste to use their influence with the under-officials -of the establishment, with the treasurer and the forester, that they -might induce the _smotritel_ to go back from the order, which seemed -inconceivable to them, that I should work in irons, such a measure -not being in use here even in the case of murderers. I learnt later -what was the meaning of this unusual severity. At the bottom of my -certificated sentence, Prince Gortchakov had added with his own hand, -‘A special watch must be kept upon Piotrowski;’ and this extraordinary -recommendation had made a deep impression on M. Aramilski. ‘Since I -have been superintendent,’ he said to the forester, ‘nothing of the -sort ever occurred to me; this must be some diplomate’ (_eto dolgène -byt kakoï diplomat_). - -The station-house, to which I was immediately directed, was full of -soldiers, many of them Poles who had fought in our war of independence. -These seized the least excuse to come up to me and ask me in whispers -what had become of Poland, what was happening in Europe, and whether -there were any hopes? (_Son Nadzieje?_) - -Worn out with fatigue and by many emotions, I stretched myself on a -bench, and for two hours I remained plunged in a gloomy reverie. All -of a sudden I saw standing in front of me a strong truculent-looking -man, whose ignoble expression did not belie in any way the triple -mark of _vor_ which was printed on his forehead and on both cheeks. -He addressed me thus, ‘Get up, you must go and work.’ This was the -overseer of the convicts, a felon of distinction himself! Oh, my God! -Thou alone didst hear the cry of my soul, when for the first time I was -ordered about by an abject being like this! At these words of his I -darted a look at him in return which seemed to express all the desolate -indignation of my spirit, I do not know that it was so, but he stepped -back, dropped his eyes, and said with a sad air, ‘Well, what can I -do? They order me, and I must execute my orders.’ My breast heaved, I -pressed my head between my hands, for my brain felt on fire, a cold -sweat burst out all over me, and at last I breathed again. ‘Let us go,’ -I said, as I rose up, and I went out, following the overseer. - -He led me to a large forge close to the refining house, my feet were -placed in the anvil and my irons struck off, a deliverance which I owed -to the humane offices of my two countrymen; and thus for the first -time since I had left Kiow I was able to pull off my own boots! I was -then taken to a building which was only in part finished, a kiln for -drying the malt. The roof was not completed, and the wood-work had to -be cleared of a vast quantity of chips, litter and offensive refuse, -with which it was covered. I mounted by a ladder, and was followed by -the overseer, and by a soldier, who had orders for the future never to -let me out of his sight. On the roof I found another convict, whose -labours I was to share. A broom and a shovel were put into my hands by -my colleague, and by the overseer I was shown how to use them. The air -was cold, the sky clouded and dark, and the task imposed certainly -not a severe one; but in order to avoid any remonstrances, and to -escape being either spoken to or looked at, I worked away without ever -stopping or so much as lifting my eyes, and was soon drenched with -perspiration. Alas! I was weak, and what was more, I was weeping! - -In his course of daily inspection M. Aramilski also came up upon -the roof where I was at work, followed by other officials of the -establishment. I continued to sweep without turning round, and I -avoided their eyes as much as if I had been a criminal. Some time after -they had left, the overseer said, ‘Now rest.’ I seated myself on a -heap of sweepings alongside of my companion, a young man, who was tall -and well-made, but who had the triple mark on his face, and who seemed -of an easy cheerful temper. Overcoming the hesitation which I felt, I -spoke first. - -‘Have you been long in these works?’ - -‘Three years.’ - -‘To how many years’ labour are you sentenced?’ - -‘For life!’ - -‘What was your crime?’ - -‘I killed my master.’ - -I shuddered, but went on: - -‘Without doubt it was an accident, you did not intend to kill him?’ - -‘Why, for the matter of that I did not _plan_ it,’ he said with a -sneering look; ‘I had an axe hanging at my girdle, I took it in both -my hands and split his head open for him.’ - -I was chilled with horror. After a few moments’ silence I said: - -‘But why did you kill him so cruelly?’ - -‘Why? not for fun, you may be sure. No, our master was a bad man, very -cruel, who overworked us and beat us incessantly, almost to death; -and to deliver the neighbourhood from a ruffian like that I took upon -myself to kill him, and I did so. It was God’s providence that I did -not die under the knout, and now I am much happier and better off at -this _katorga_ (penal labour) than I ever was at home. The only thing -that I regret is my young wife, whom I had to leave; she is young and -pretty, and will soon find another husband.’ - -‘But you ought to repent of the sin of having slain a man.’ - -‘_That_ was not a man! That was a devil!’ - -We soon after this went to work again, and did not stop till nightfall. - -I returned to the guard-house, and there my two countrymen came under -an escort to visit me, the _smotritel_ having given leave for this -indulgence. We conversed together in a low voice, and in the middle of -all the racket made by the soldiers and convicts we related to each -other the chief events of our lives. These poor friends did not cease -exhorting me to absolute patience and submission. They conjured me -to master my temper, to suppress all exhibitions of it, and not to -despair of seeing myself soon raised to a position which would be by -comparison more happy, and which they themselves now occupied--thanks -to their patient and irreproachable conduct. We embraced tenderly, -then separated, and I fell asleep. Thus ended my first day of convict -labour and of convict life: how many more of the same succeeded it and -resembled it! - -I rose with the sun to go to the works, at eight I had breakfast, from -twelve to one we had an hour in the barracks for dinner and rest, and -then we worked till dark. The occupations were often varied according -to the wants of the establishment or the inclinations and temper of -the inspector. By day and by night I was associated with the other -felons, and always under the eye of the overseer and of the soldier in -charge of my person. On some days I swept the courtyards; sometimes I -carried wood and drew water; sometimes, again, I might be sent to hew -wood for fagots, and to stack them in symmetrical piles; and this last -employment in the open air, in the autumnal and winter months, in rain -and snow, and in the icy temperature of Siberia, was the most trying of -any. Long, gloomy, and mournful were the days, and it is needless to -dwell on them any further. - -The dominant feeling in my mind was the wish to avoid any discussion -or wrangle with my superiors or with the overseers. Such an occurrence -would have brought about a terrible catastrophe, for I had made a -vow that I would not submit to corporal punishment, and that I would -resist it, whether at the price of my own life or of that of others; -and for this reason I worked beyond what was asked of me, and beyond my -own strength. I must do myself the justice to add that I neglected no -effort to conquer my feelings and moments of impatience, and I must do -my superiors the justice to say of them that they were neither teasing -nor gratuitously and wickedly unkind. Severe and hard as they often -were, they never treated me with the capricious rudeness of despots, -while the convicts who were my colleagues treated me with a deference, -I might almost say a kindness, for which I was heartily grateful. -They did not annoy me with any of those cruel jests by which the bad -even in very different ranks of life often insult any one superior to -themselves whom misfortune has brought down to their own level. More -than once I have known them offer to help me at some work which they -thought was too heavy for me, or they would change with me, taking -my task and giving me their own, if it happened to be a lighter one. -From a very early stage they ceased to speak to me with ‘_thee_’ and -‘_thou_,’ and called me ‘Sir;’ and certainly unmerited misfortune ought -to command the respect of untutored men, even of savages, where they, -in spite of bravado and seared consciences, feel themselves to be -really criminals. With the exception of a very few political offenders -like myself, all the convicts at Ekaterinski-Zavod (to the number of -three hundred souls) were really malefactors. One would have murdered -a wayfarer, another had committed a horrible rape, another would be an -utterer of false coin, another both a thief and a housebreaker. As a -daily intercourse with such men was inevitable, I had neither a false -shame nor a misplaced pride in my dealings with them. I often talked to -these strange companions, studied their characters, and heard from them -their different histories and the events of their lives. I am certainly -not about to become the historian of these heroes of the bagnio; but I -will give one tale, which is not without interest, and which shows that -a false Byronism of deed and thought was not unrepresented among them. - -One of our felons, Kantier by name, was sentenced to hard labour for -life. He was still young, a man short of stature, but strongly built, -of a clear and dark but pale complexion; he had black and burning -eyes, and his whole physiognomy bespoke a firm and daring disposition. -He had been clerk to a wine merchant at St. Petersburg; and when I -asked him one day what was the cause of his sentence and punishment, -he replied, ‘It is because I killed the girl with whom I was in love. -I suspected her of being unfaithful to me. I had suffered horribly, -and I was determined to be revenged upon her. In order to execute my -design with greater ease, I pretended to make it up with her; and, by -dint of coaxing, got her to promise, on a certain holiday, to go on -an excursion into the country with me. She hesitated about it a long -time, as if she had had a presentiment of some mischief; but at last -she consented, upon the condition that she might bring a female friend -along with her. _That_ did not suit my plans very well, but I had to -put up with it. On the appointed day we started, all three of us. Armed -with a pistol and a dagger, I walked alongside of my mistress and -talked to her. She had never seemed to me either so pretty or so loving -as she did then; but that only added to my jealousy and my thirst for -revenge. More than once I was on the point of dispatching her, but her -face disarmed me. At last I stopped; it was in a field; I pointed out -something in the view to my sweetheart which made her turn away her -head. At that moment I put the pistol to her temple, and pulled the -trigger. My hand shook, and I only wounded her; the friend screamed -and ran. She, slightly hurt and stunned by the shot, turned round -two or three times, then, throwing herself on her knees before me, -“Forgive me!” she cried in a voice so touching and heart-rending that -I shuddered. But I answered by sinking the dagger into her heart, the -weapon going in up to its hilt. She fell down stiff and dead. I stabbed -her in the breast with my knife, and then ran to give myself up to the -police; and here I am, after the knout, for life....’ - -‘But are you not sorry for having killed her? Does not your conscience -reproach you bitterly for such a crime?’ - -‘Yes, I am sorry for her. I shall never forget her as long as I live, -and I shall never love any one else; but as to my conscience, I thought -I was quite right in killing her.’ - -‘But, if it were possible for her to be alive and come back to you, you -surely would not do so by her again?’ - -‘She made me first the happiest and then the most miserable of men; -and, if she could come back, I should certainly kill her again.’ - -‘Then, you mean to say you think you have committed no crime?’ - -‘Where is the crime? She took away my peace, and I took away her life; -she was the most to blame of the two.’ - -I must now say something about our village, and about the organisation -of the factory. The government distillery at Ekaterinski-Zavod was -founded in the reign of Catherine II., whose name it bears; and -the population consists of the descendants of former convicts. All -the interests of the village were centred in the distillery, which -produces annually from two to three million of _litres_ of alcohol, -and furnishes brandy to the country over a district of one or two -thousand _verstes_. The distillery was farmed by two rich merchants -of the government of Simbirsk, M. Orlov and M. Alexeiev, who must -have realised a considerable profit upon it, because, besides the -price which they paid as rent, and the augmented charges of pay -to the convict labourers, they had contracted for the pay of the -commanding officer and the keep of the garrison, viz. of a hundred and -one persons; and they were necessarily obliged to give constant and -valuable presents to the inspector and other government officials. -The inspector generally allowed them about half the force of convict -labourers for the distillery; the other half was employed in the -public service, as in road-making and mending, in the construction of -government buildings, and in sanitary works. Each of us received in -money three francs a month, and ninety pounds’ weight of corn, the -sale of which in the village was to furnish us with food; but the -gentlemen who farmed or rented the distillery from the crown, in order -to encourage their workpeople, raised the pay up to five, eight, and -even ten francs a month; the men employed in barrelling the spirit -being paid by the piece, and thus gaining more than the rest. In this -way, it was advantageous for the convicts to be in the employment of -the distillery, for they received a better salary, and were less likely -to encounter the trying interference of the government officials; but, -in any case of insubordination or idleness, the distillers or their -representative were obliged to refer to the inspector, who ordered the -punishment to be inflicted. This, I mean, was the case when it was -a question of the stick and the rods; as for blows and cuffs, the -convicts got plenty of them from everybody alike. The greater number -of convicts lived in barracks; the more favoured were allowed to lodge -in the village: but then they had to pay for the bed and board of the -soldier who lived there and watched them. From all this it will be seen -that, by those who had any education, the counting-house and office -of the factory were the posts especially desired, and that those who -occupied them were thought most worthy of envy; but it is needless -to add that all were alike in the eye of the law, that these steps -or grades could not give any acquired rights, and that at the good -pleasure of the inspector, or _smotritel_, one might be at any moment -‘removed to other functions.’ - -Thanks to the constant care with which I acquitted myself of the tasks -imposed upon me, thanks to the mastery which I had gained over myself, -and of which I certainly should not at one time have believed myself -capable, I passed, in the following year, not only into the service of -the lessees, but also was employed in their office; and in this way I -ceased to be in the constant society of persons who were unreclaimed, -and who lacked culture both morally and intellectually. I received -wages to the extent of ten francs a month, and my occupation was in -every way less painful than any former ones had been. I went to my -desk at eight in the morning, and I remained in the counting-house -till mid-day, where I was again from two in the afternoon to ten or -eleven at night; and although work was not pressing, and one was not -really wanted, yet it was incumbent on me to be always present. During -the long hours of ennui I wrote, took notes, and abandoned myself to -meditations, during which plans for the future slowly ripened in my -mind. My office, it happened, was the rendezvous of a great number -of travellers, who frequented it both for the sale of grain and in -order to buy spirituous liquors; they were peasants, townsfolk, -merchants, Russians, Tartars, Jews, and Kirghis. If I was very scant -of speech, and short in my communication with the official, with the -other convicts, and with the custom-house officers, I acquired, on the -contrary, with a curiosity that never flagged, from all these passing -travellers, all that was to be learnt of the peculiarities of Siberia. -I spoke to men some of whom had been to Berezov, others at Nertchinsk, -others had penetrated to the frontiers of China, to Kamtschatka, to the -steppes of the Kirghis, even into Boukhara; and thus, without passing -the threshold of my office, I learnt to know Siberia, its nearest and -its furthest details. The knowledge thus acquired was to be of great -value to me afterwards, in forming the plan for my evasion. - -One of my fellow-countrymen, Wysoçki, was head clerk in the -counting-house of the distillery; but my great ally there was the young -Russian, Stépan Bazanov, manager of the factory for the lessees, whose -relative he was. He was a lad of twenty or upwards, brave and upright, -whose only weakness was the most naïve adoration for the Emperor -Nicholas. He never would or could admit that Nicholas did wrong; all -the wrong, according to him, was owing to the Boyards, and he declared -that, were it not for the intervention of the nobility, the Tzar would -make his people the happiest in the world; and I am bound to say that, -as far as my experience has gone, this opinion is a pretty general one -in Russia, among the people, though not among the ‘staroviertsi.’ What -most disposed me to like Bazanov was that he confided his love griefs -to me. The poor boy, who was lamentably uneducated in every way, had -fallen violently in love with a cousin of his own; but the Orlovs put -difficulties in the way of the union which he so much desired. Fancy -hearing a lover’s confidences in an accursed place like this where -convicts worked! though to be sure the man who made them to me knew -that he was free, and that he did not awake every morning to fear the -stick and the rods! - -I must say that the thought of being exposed at any moment, for any -trivial cause, and at the beck of any official, to treatment as -shameful as it is terrible, created in me a gloomy and fierce temper, -and that, in spite of the relative and very appreciable improvement in -my case, I was kept in a state of continual tension. I could not forget -the subject, there was no way of doing so; the punishments daily -inflicted on some one or other of the convicts, all my own equals in -the social hierarchy of the place, sent up a cry of _cras tibi_, enough -to drive anyone mad with despair. Moreover, the familiarities to which -the superiors often admit their deported labourers have a dangerous -side. There is no real trust to be placed in the caprices of a man -invested with arbitrary powers. His favours are likely to be capricious -also, for these men are generally of low minds and manners; and it -amuses them to make a sport of their fellow-creatures, raising them -one day only in order to humiliate them more deeply hereafter. This is -a snare into which many Poles, who like myself have been carried to -Siberia, are apt to fall; into which indeed they have fallen. Their -education, their manners, the noble nature of their misfortunes, all -attract to them a certain consideration, and sometimes even win for -them the good graces of their masters. Thus they rise above the level -of the common herd of the lost, and they beguile themselves with the -illusion that in this way they are reintegrated into society. But -the moment of awakening from this dream soon comes, and the deported -man, rudely reminded of his real state, may be called happy if he is -reminded of it only by word of mouth! Some years before my arrival at -Ekaterinski-Zavod, there was a Russian general, N----, who had been -condemned by Nicholas to penal servitude in Siberia. The _smotritel_, -respecting the high position and the advanced age of the prisoner, -set him to the lightest and least painful tasks, and admitted him to -society and his table. Unluckily, the general sometimes forgot himself -(especially if he drank a little too much), and, taking up the tone -of a senior and superior officer, showed himself recalcitrant. The -inspector then had him chained to the furnace of the distillery, and -obliged him for a month or a fortnight, during the extreme cold of -winter, to keep up the fires. The general, overheated and covered with -sweat and ashes, promised to amend, and recommenced his familiarities -with the _smotritel_ and other functionaries, only to find himself -again another time by the furnace. Having spent several years in this -way at the _katorga_, he was pardoned by the Tzar, and restored to his -old rank as a general officer. - -One other amelioration took place in my lot, and that even before I -was told off for a clerkship in the counting-house, and it was, in my -estimation, a benefit as great as even that great improvement on my -former labours. The inspector gave me leave to live out of barracks; -and thus I was able to leave behind me that habitation which was the -ordinary dwelling of felons, and which was the scene of their drinking -and of their infamous debaucheries. I dwelt henceforth, along with my -two fellow-clerks and fellow-countrymen, in Siesieki’s house. Thanks -to the length of his long sojourn at Ekaterinski-Zavod, this exile -had scraped together, out of his slender salary, enough money to -construct a small wooden house, which was not complete as yet, and -indeed was not even roofed in; but thither notwithstanding we carried -our household goods. The wind whistled through numberless chinks, but -as wood cost next to nothing, we piled up a great fire on the earth -every night; and there we could feel not only that we were at home, -but that we were delivered from the horrible company of the common -criminals; although it must not be forgotten that we were watched, and -that we had to pay for the soldiers who mounted a ceaseless guard upon -our persons. Ah! if that little house is still standing, and shelters -perhaps at this moment some unhappy and deported brother, let him know -that he is not the first or the only one who within its modest walls -has wept as he invoked a distant and a beloved land! My friend Siesieki -had been, he told me, a prisoner in the citadel of Warsaw along with -the hapless Lévitoux, and had thus been, so to speak, an eyewitness -of his horrible death. Their cells opened into the same corridor; and -more than once Lévitoux, when returning covered with blood from the -inquest and the torture, would call to him, ‘I cannot bear it any -longer, I know that I shall go mad, and then I shall speak in spite -of myself!’ This fear haunted him continually; but one day, on his -return from one of these _blood-baths_, as he called them, he said to -his companion through the window in his door, that he begged he would -keep awake till about eleven that evening. Siesieki, without, however, -attaching much importance to this request, complied with it, and did -not go to bed or lie down: about ten at night he saw a great light -in Lévitoux’s cell. The sentry called, ‘Fire! fire!’ but before the -jailer could be fetched, or the keys of the cell found, some time was -of course allowed to elapse. The door was opened, a dense smoke filled -the corridor, and the poor fellow had just expired upon the straw -mattress, to which he had set fire with his own hands by means of his -night-light. Through his cell window my friend beheld the burnt corpse, -and saw the soldiers drag it along the corridor by the feet, a horrible -spectacle, with the head knocking upon the flags. It is said that at -the news of such a finale even Nicholas was moved, and gave orders that -in future political offenders should not be proceeded against with so -much severity; also, ever since this event, no person detained for a -political cause, and supposed to be gravely implicated in one, is ever -allowed a light in his room. - -Siesieki had made, as I related before, the whole of the journey to -Siberia on foot, and had formed one of a gang. When he first arrived -at our factory, he had been put to the hardest labour, in company with -the other convicts; but some years later the forester required the -services of a clever and safe servant, and Siesieki was attached to -his department, the more readily because he added the qualifications -of a good sportsman and a good shot to those of being a clever and -an honest man. It may easily be guessed that the inspector and other -functionaries profited by the first-fruits of his chase, and that at -that price he gained permission to carry a gun. Indeed he was often -absent on leave for a week at a time, a proceeding of which we once -felt the inconvenience, for as Bogdaszewski and I were obliged to be -all day at the office, he ought to have been there to watch our house; -but profiting by one of his long absences some one robbed us! Our door -was broken in and our provisions of tea and corn stolen, a loss which -to us was no slight one. - -In the neighbourhood lived several deported Poles, dwelling in Siberia -as simple exiles. They used to avail themselves of some saint’s day -or holiday to visit us, for, with permission of the authorities, -they were able to make excursions to Ekaterinski-Zavod. From them we -learnt the fate of many other exiles, and we would invoke together the -names of the thousands of our dead who had laid down their lives in -this land of expiation. The great event, however, of our monotonous -existence was the arrival among us of a Polish and Roman Catholic -priest. Four of our clergy are permitted by the Russian government to -traverse every part of Siberia. Once a year in this way they visit the -different establishments where the political offenders dwell, and offer -to them the rites and the consolations of their faith. The arrival of -one of these servants of God is made known in each district a few -days beforehand, and the faithful collect from different points. The -priest during his stay celebrates a mass, gives the Holy Communion, and -consecrates the graves of those who during the year have passed into -their rest. No honest, and above all no Christian mind, can fail to -appreciate the devotion of these four poor priests. It cannot be too -much admired, for it carries them along their ceaseless travels, and -supports them as, in their sledges, they journey through the intense -cold of Siberia, from Tobolsk to Kamtschatka, and from Nertchinsk to -the Polar Sea. The father who visited us in 1845 was a Dominican from -Samogitia; but he forbore to wear the gown of his order for fear of -outraging the Greek orthodoxy of the natives of Siberia. The inspector -had the kindness to allow us to hold service in his room, which was -the most spacious one in the village. We all went to confession, and -then approached the Lord’s Table. The crowd was great, for exiles and -Polish soldiers arrived from very great distances--even those Poles who -were not Roman Catholics did not fail to come with joy to the sacred -service, for, whether Catholics or not, to them the mass spoke of the -native land so hallowed by them and by all her children. - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -SIBERIA. - - SIBERIA--HARDSHIPS OF DEPORTATION--BREAKING THE BAN--THE ABBÉ - SIEROCINSKI--HIS CONSPIRACY--HIS EXECUTION. - - -In this way I had mounted quickly from the lowest to the highest -status to which a convict can rise in this establishment of ours on -the banks of the Irtiche; and by the beginning of the year 1846 I -might almost have fancied myself merely as a recruit of the omnipotent -bureaucracy of Russia, sadly banished to these distant realms beneath -an inhospitable sky. Very different was this time from the terrible -winter of 1844, when I swept the gutters, hewed or carried wood, and -lived under one roof with all the offscourings of the human race! And, -alas! how many of my brothers, groaning at this moment in the mines -of Nertchinsk or in gangs under the lash--how many indeed of those -who had been condemned to a punishment less severe than my own, would -have thought themselves happy in the position which I had gained at -Ekaterinski-Zavod as early as 1846; and from which, however, I was -perfectly determined to slip away, at the risk even of encountering -the knout and the mysterious dungeons of Akatouia! - -The word Siberia embraces a variety of miseries and of trials which -the nomenclature (already very rich) of the Russian penal code is yet -far from being able to define or even to specify. The two principal -categories, deportation (_possilenié_) and penal labour (_katorga_), -only indicate, so to speak, the two great exterior lines of an immense -_vagueness_, which can be filled up at will. Everything is arbitrary in -a sentence which is applied and interpreted by a host of dictators, by -a commission at Tobolsk, by a Governor-General in Siberia by the first -and the last comer, by an inspector and by an overseer. - -It is one thing to be deported to Viatka, to Tobolsk, or even to Omsk; -it is another thing to be sent to Bérézov, as was our warm-hearted -Madame Felinska, or to Kamtschatka, like Beniowski or General Kopec, -and so many illustrious compatriots; it is another thing, again, to -serve in the army of the Caucasus, with the right of promotion, that is -to say, with the possibility and the hope of being one day protected -from corporal punishments, or of being placed in a Cossack regiment, -and sent to the Kirghis frontier. One may get off with the _katorga_ -in some of the factories or government distilleries, as I did at -Ekaterinski-Zavod; but how many miserable beings labour in the horrible -mines at Nertchinsk, with irons on their feet, and only hoping for -some falling in of the mine to put an end quickly to a life which -has nothing more to hope or to expect in this world. The verdigris -mines are those which are the most dreaded. The disciplined gangs of -Orenbourg, and other places, have the reputation of leading a life yet -more awful than that at Nertchinsk. There the rod and the bastinado are -the daily bread of our poor students and artisans, who are in general -banished thither. There remains the fortress of Akatouia, not far from -Nertchinsk, the last punishment reserved for the greatest criminals, -and for convicts who revolt, or are taken in the attempt to break -their ban. Here it was that Peter Wysoçki, after the bad success of -his conspiracy in Siberia, was at last shut up. I know nothing of this -mysterious place, and I can say nothing about it, for I have never -seen any one who had penetrated its mystery; but I only know that, -throughout Siberia, the very name is pronounced with an indescribable -terror. - -The contempt which the inhabitants of the country very naturally have -for the felon, falls back also upon the man who is simply deported; and -the exile may often hear himself insulted with the name of _varnak_, an -indigenous expression which conveys a concentrated notion of abjectness -and infamy. He who is deported has no civil rights, his deposition -cannot be taken in any court of justice, and his wife, if he has left -one in his native country, may contract a second marriage, because -he is counted among the dead. But the legislator who laid down this -last law with regard to the exile defeated his own object, which is -to increase, by any means, the population of Siberia. The convict or -the exiles in its regions can only marry into the worst class, and -among the least respectable of its inhabitants; and what is more, his -children, if any are born to him, must always remain serfs of the -crown. It is true that it is permitted to a wife to follow her husband -into Siberia, and that the most pitiless measures have not prevented -our seeing such instances of devotion as those of Princess Troubetskoï -and Madame Koszakiewicz, with many other Polish ladies; but then the -law forbids her again to leave the country, and her children born in -this land of exile become, in like manner, royal serfs; and we must -point out that there is a peculiarity in amnesties which, even when -granted, only apply to the parents. Any children of theirs that have -seen the light in Siberia cannot profit by the pardon, but require -a special decree. To the Emperor Nicholas, however, these many and -sad restrictions did not seem sufficient. In the month of December -1845, he issued a general order for Siberia, which, among many other -aggravating clauses, declared all deported persons to be incapable of -possessing any property whatever, even chattels and personalty; and -ordered that all who were sentenced to penal servitude should, without -any exceptions whatever, live in barracks. This command caused a -general consternation throughout the country, and the very officials -themselves were heard to declare that it was as cruel as it was -inopportune, inconvenient, and all but impracticable. I do not know if -it ever was rigorously carried into effect; but I may say that these -new measures went for a great deal in determining my resolution to fly -from Siberia; for I preferred exposing myself to every danger rather -than consent voluntarily to return, and be reinstalled in the barracks -of the felons. - -However hard life in Siberia must of necessity appear to persons under -political sentences, I must confess that ordinary criminals do not -complain of their lot, and that they sometimes appear to prefer it to -their former condition. Serfs and soldiers especially, even when at -hard labour, have often said to us, ‘What have we to regret? we worked -just as hard where we were before, and we were beaten much oftener.’ -And yet these very men are, in many instances, not less ready to brave -the knout and the most terrible punishments, by breaking their ban--so -powerful in man is the love of liberty and the love of his own hearth. -During my journey in Siberia I had already remarked, and was struck -by the fact, that numberless fields of turnips edged the roads on -both sides, and that in more than one place these turnips seemed to -have been torn up, while the plantations bore the marks of footsteps. -I learnt afterwards that the natives keep up the supply of roots on -purpose; and that they are intended for the use of fugitives, and to -serve them as food during their nocturnal flights. In villages and -hamlets along the high roads the inhabitants take pains to place over -night, on their window-ledges, bread, salt, and jars of milk, supplies -which are destined for the same persons; and the natives do all this -quite as much from self-interest as from charity, for the great trunk -roads of Siberia are marauded by runaway convicts, and no man can -imagine or describe what perils, what sufferings, and what privations -these desperate wretches undergo in order to escape detection. Those -who have been branded generally use vitriol or cantharides to get rid -of the obnoxious letters; but they seldom fail of being apprehended, -and the best fate that can await them is that they should henceforth -lead a savage life in the woods, where they become, or rather are -again, robbers. - -If among the ordinary felons in Siberia the temptation to flight is -so strong, among the political exiles and among my fellow-countrymen -that temptation is very seldom yielded to. The fear of the knout, and -of all corporal punishments, is naturally far stronger among educated -persons, or those whose lot is comparatively easy; then, too, the very -imperfect knowledge of the language, the routes, and the manners of the -country, all unite to dissuade the Poles from so desperate an attempt. -The resource which remains for the Russian peasant in his flight does -not apply or offer itself to the Pole; for him it is no object to be -lost in the boundless woods, or to hide in some obscure community for -life. To obtain his ends, the Pole must reach and cross the confines -of another country; and the immensity of the distances to be traversed -before this can be achieved is well calculated to make him lose all -hope. At the same time, attempts to rise in a body and thus effect -their joint deliverance are not at all rare among political exiles. -The exploits of Beniowski are remembered by all, and they appeal to -many spirits; so that we hear sometimes of a conspiracy, of which the -object is to force its way, by dint of arms and numbers, to Persia, -China, or simply across the Steppes. Sometimes we have even had the -wish to make Siberia itself rise in revolt against the rule of the -Tzar. Peter Wysoçki, who first gave the signal of our revolution in -1831, and who, being taken in battle by the Russians, was deported to -Nertchinsk, formed such a plan as this; and he expiated his temerity in -the fortress of Akatouia. Something similar to his was the conspiracy -of the Abbé Sierocinski, so celebrated ever since in Siberian annals. I -arrived at Ekaterinski-Zavod some years after that bloody tragedy had -been played out; but I have been near Omsk, the stage on which it was -acted; I have seen both the eye-witnesses and many of the actors in -it, and I have collected from their lips the following details of the -dismal story, and I can vouch for their perfect truthfulness. - -Previous to the opening scene of our revolution, the Abbé Sierocinski -had been superior of the convent of St. Basil, at Owrucz, in Volhynia, -and at the same time director of the schools in that place. He took -an active part in the movements and political agitation of 1831, and -finally fell into the hands of the Russians, when the Emperor Nicholas -despatched him to Siberia to serve as a private in one of the regiments -of Cossacks; and thus for several years did the former superior of a -convent, mounted and in a Cossack dress, pursue the Kirghis of the -Steppes with a lance in his hand and with a sabre at his side. Now -there existed at Omsk a military college, and one day, being in want of -a professor, the authorities bethought themselves of the ex-Basilian, -whose capabilities were well known, and who was therefore, especially -on account of his knowledge of French and German, recalled from his -life on the Steppes. Thus the old head of a convent and the old Cossack -became by order of the government a professor in the military school -of Omsk, although he did not cease to be a private and to belong to -his former regiment. In his new position Sierocinski soon gained all -hearts and obtained a large number of acquaintances and friends. His -physical constitution was delicate and nervous, but he was gifted by -nature with a spirit of rare enterprise and with great courage. He -conceived the idea of a vast Siberian conspiracy, into which should be -drawn all the exiles, all the soldiers in garrison, and many of those -officers in whose minds the ideas and the sufferings of Pestel still -survived, while he wished the natives of the country, the Russians, -and even the Tatars to take a part in it. There is no doubt that the -elements of revolution and revolt are not wanting in Siberia; how and -why it is so would take me too long to explain in this place, but -those who know the country well are fully aware of this feature in -it. Discontent is very general, although the causes and the degrees -of it are sundry and manifold, and differ so widely as to be almost -contradictory. It is only by the presence of the garrisons that the -country is kept safe within the iron-bound circle of the empire. Yet it -was precisely in the garrisons themselves that Sierocinski sought and -found the great number of sympathisers. His plan was to seize, by means -of the conspirators and old deported soldiers, upon the fortresses and -principal strongholds; this they were to do at a given signal, and then -they were to await the progress of events; while in case of check or -defeat they were to retire under arms into the Kirghis Steppes of the -_Khanat_ of Tachken, where there were many Catholics, or into Boukhara, -and from thence press on into the English territories in the East -Indian peninsula. The centre of the conspiracy was at Omsk, where they -had all the artillery of the place at their disposal. The signal for a -general rising was given; but on the very eve of the day on which it -was to take place, three of the conspirators revealed everything to -the commandant of the place, the same Colonel Degrawe whom I mentioned -on my way through Omsk. Sierocinski and his accomplices were seized -that same night, and couriers started off in all directions to give -orders for arresting an endless number of persons. Thus was the plot -discovered at the very moment when it was to have taken effect, and an -enquiry began which lasted for a long time. Two commissions, selected -and sent down the one after the other, were dissolved without coming to -any decision, so obscure and so complicated was the whole affair; and -it was only a third board, composed of persons chosen and despatched -expressly from St. Petersburg, which succeeded in bringing the trial to -an end. By order of the Emperor Nicholas, the Abbé Sierocinski and five -of his principal accomplices, among whom was an officer of the wars of -the empire more than sixty years of age, by name Gorski, and another -Russian, Mélédine, were sentenced to receive each seven thousand lashes -(with the rods) and ‘without mercy;’ in fact, the sentence consisted -exactly of these five words, ‘Seven thousand lashes without mercy’ -(_bez postchadi_). The other persons under arrest, about one thousand -in all, were condemned some to three thousand, some to two thousand, -some to one thousand five hundred lashes and to hard labour for life, -while others were simply sent to work in the penal settlements. - -The day of execution arrived; it was at Omsk, in the month of March -1837. General Galafeïev, who was celebrated for his cruelty, and who -had been sent down from the capital by reason of this shining quality, -was at the head of the dismal procession. By daybreak two whole -battalions were drawn up in a great open space near the town; one of -these was destined to officiate on the principal culprits, the other -on those condemned to a smaller number of lashes. I do not intend to -detail in all its minutiæ the butchery of that terrible day; I shall -but notice the fate of Sierocinski and his five companions. They were -led upon the ground, their sentence read out, and they began to run -the gauntlet (_skvosstroï_): the blows fell, as the imperial order -directed, _without mercy_, and the cries of the sufferers went up to -heaven. None of them lived to receive the prescribed number of lashes. -All (and they were executed one after the other) after passing through -the ranks twice or thrice fell upon the snow, which was crimson with -their blood, and then expired. The Abbé Sierocinski had been purposely -reserved to the last, in order that he might witness the sufferings -of all his friends. When his turn came, and they had stripped him and -tied his hands to the bayonet, the surgeon of the battalion came up to -him and offered him a flask containing some strengthening drops, but -he refused them, saying, ‘You may drink my blood, but I will not drink -your drops, and I do not want them!’ The signal was given, the fatal -march began, and the old superior of the Basilican convent chaunted in -a loud clear voice, ‘_Miserere mei, Deus, secundum magnam misericordiam -tuam_.’ General Galafeïev called to those who struck, ‘Harder! harder!’ -(_pok repché_), and for several minutes the priest’s chaunt rose above -the whistling of the rods and the _pok repché_ cries of the commanding -officer.... Sierocinski had only passed once through the ranks, that -is to say, he had only received one thousand blows, when he fell upon -the snow bathed in his own blood, and senseless. In vain they attempted -to place him on his feet. He was then laid on a tumbril prepared -beforehand for the purpose, and fastened to a support in such a way as -to let the blows fall on his back and shoulders, and thus a second time -he passed along. When this second passage was gone through, his groans -and screams were still audible; but they got gradually weaker, though -he did not expire till after the fourth turn; the last three thousand -lashes were only laid upon a corpse. - -A common grave soon received those who were either killed that day or -whose deaths followed soon after their punishments; both Russians and -Poles perished, and were buried thus. The friends and relations of -those who lie there were permitted to place the symbol of our faith -over that memorable tomb; and as late as 1846 one might still behold a -great wooden crucifix that stretched its black arms across the steppes, -sharply defined against the sparkling and spotless whiteness of their -snows. - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - -THE FLIGHT. - - AN ATTEMPTED FLIGHT--MY ROUTE--MY FUNDS--MY DRESS--THE SLEDGE--A - RUSSIAN THEFT--THE JOURNEY--IRBITE--ON FOOT--A NIGHT’S - LODGING--DANGER--COLD AND FAMINE--PAOUDA--THE IZBOUCHKA--THE CREST OF - THE OURALS--LOST IN THE FOREST--SLEEP--ALMS--VÉLIKI-OUSTIONG. - - -There had been passed by the Emperor Nicholas, in the autumn of the -year 1845, a decree, which I have already referred to, and of which -the object was to aggravate the condition of the exiles in Siberia, by -tightening round them the fetters which time and custom had slackened, -and which become loose through the sheer impossibility of enforcing -in all its strictness the severe law of the _katorga_. Commissions -nominated for the purpose now visited all the penal settlements, and -proposed new measures of severity in these places; and the enforced -cohabitation in the barracks of all convicts, without any exceptions -whatever, was the first point in which it was thought possible and -desirable to yield to the present savage disposition of the Tzar. -All this induced me to persist in the project which I had already -conceived, and which had been long fructifying in my mind. At the very -moment in which I had signed at Kiow the formula of the sentence which -condemned me to convict labour for the rest of my natural life, I had -formed the determination of flying from such an accursed sojourn and -lot; and a vague hope of being again seen in the land of the living -and among free men had entered my mind. The hard work to which I was -set, during the first period of my _katorga_, was not calculated to -encourage me; but my hopes rose as soon as I was able to have more -relations with men and things, that is, as soon as I became a clerk -in the counting-house of the establishment at Ekaterinski-Zavod; and, -as early as the summer of 1845, I made two attempts, both of which -were frustrated at the very outset, without, however, awakening any -suspicion as to my intentions. - -It was in the month of June that I noticed a little boat, which lay on -the banks of the Irtiche, or floated on its waters, and which was very -often forgotten, and not drawn up at night. I thought that I might take -advantage of this skiff, and let the stream carry me to Tobolsk; but -hardly had I, on one dark night, untied the boat, and given due or two -strokes with the oars, than the moon broke through the clouds, flooding -the landscape with a dangerous light; and at the same time I heard -the sound of the inspector’s (_smotritel_) voice, as he walked on the -banks, with one or two of the other officials. It was all over with me -for that time, and I gently crept back to land. In the following month -I espied the same skiff, and in a much more favourable situation--upon -a lake, at some distance from our factory, which, through a canal, -communicated with the Irtiche. But this second attempt miscarried also, -and that by reason of an unsurmountable and natural obstacle; for, at -nightfall, the air at this time of year becomes so suddenly cooled that -dense columns of vapour are caught up, and they are so thick and so -close that one cannot see or distinguish anything at the distance of -two feet--a phenomenon which is not uncommon in summer on the waters -of Siberia. In vain now did I push my boat to every side and in every -direction. The fog prevented my finding the opening of the canal into -the Irtiche, and only as the day began to dawn did I discover the issue -so long and so vainly sought. It was then too late, and I thought -myself lucky in being able to get back to my lodging without let or -hindrance; and from that time I abandoned every thought of confiding -myself to the inclement waters of the Irtiche, but I set myself not the -less persistently to ripen and consolidate the plans for my intended -flight. - -The first point to be considered, and upon which I had first to fix -my attention, was the direction I ought to select for my perilous -journey. The trunk road, which was the most natural, and presented -itself before all the others, and which, from the heart of Siberia, -would have taken me into the centre of Russia Proper, was, as I saw at -once, the one least fitted for my purpose. The law there maintains a -constant and active watch, and is assisted very often both by the zeal -and by the rapacity of the natives, who sometimes find it profitable -to take a shot from behind a hedge at some convict breaking through -his ban. Indeed, among the people, especially among the Tatars, there -is a popular saying, ‘He who kills a squirrel only gets one skin, -but he who kills a _varnak_ gets three--his coat, his shirt, and his -skin.’ Many other routes, of course, were to be found, and in very -different directions. I could traverse Eastern Siberia, by Irkutsk and -Nertchinsk, as far as the Sea of Okhotsk, and there seek some vessel, -which would have carried me to the ports of the United States or to -California. I might turn towards the south, crossing the steppes of the -Kirghis, and arriving in Boukhara, whence I could reach the confines of -British India. On the other side, the Oural River, if I had the good -fortune to touch its source, might have carried me on its waters into -the Caspian Sea, and allowed me to take refuge in Daghestan, among -the Circassians. Finally, a fourth route remained to me, by which, -after crossing the Oural chain, and reaching Oufa, in the government -of Orenbourg, I might find the Volga, at a point somewhat lower than -that at which a canal unites it with the Don, and the latter river -would have led me to the Sea of Azov; and then, according to my wish, -I might have repaired either to Turkey in Europe or to Turkey in Asia, -or even into the western parts of Circassia. For reasons which it would -take me too long to set down here, I found that I ought to give up all -and each of these four tracks; and I resolved to seek for my liberty -by way of the north, and across the Oural Mountains, and to press on -over the steppes of Petchora and Archangel. This path was the least -frequented, and for this reason only it was the safest. Moreover, it -had the immense advantage of being the shortest; for, if I once touched -at Archangel, it appeared to me an impossibility that, among the four -or five thousand ships in the port, mostly all foreign ones, not one -should be found willing to take on board a political refugee, flying -from the _katorga_. It was then to these districts of the far north, -and to the shores and borders of the White Sea, that I now directed -my most minute investigations, although I also lost no opportunity of -acquiring information as to any of the other directions, in case chance -or fate should impel me in their way. Our bagnio was cosmopolitan -enough in its character, and soon, from convicts gathered from all -parts of the empire, I acquired a very exact knowledge of the manners -and customs of all the Russias; but my conversations with the merchants -and travellers, who, from north and south, from east and from west, -passed through or frequented Ekaterinski-Zavod, chiefly helped to -complete the education of a scholar who appeared to be careless and -apathetic, but who was really greedy for every bit of information he -could extract. - -The exile who combines in his mind different plans of escape is -absorbed in an amazing variety of calculations about very small -matters, and it is only the sum total of his thoughts and designs -which can present any objects of interest to the reader. Slowly and -with difficulty I succeeded in gathering together the articles which I -knew to be indispensable to my journey. Among these, and in the first -rank, figured a passport. Of these documents there are two kinds in use -among the Siberians, for these people have the taste, which is common -among all the Russians, for making long peregrinations in the empire. -There is first a pass, which is good only for distances comparatively -short, and which has only a short time to run; there is also the -passport of great importance, which is a very different matter, being -issued by the higher powers and on stamped paper--it is known as the -_plakatny_. I succeeded in forging both the one and the other, for, by -men who have once learnt to like and to cultivate them, certain arts -are carried on and plied even in the convicts’ barrack; and thus it was -that I obtained from a friend, a clever coiner of false money, and in -return for a few roubles, a capital seal with the arms of his imperial -majesty. Then as to the sheet of stamped paper, it was easy for me -to appropriate one from the mass which I blackened every day in the -office for the public use, and thus I had a _plakatny_ at my service. -Slowly and with difficulty too I procured the dress and the accessories -needful for my disguise, which was to be effected both morally and -physically, for I had to transform myself into a native, a ‘man of -Siberia’ (_sbirski tcheloviék_), as they say in Russia. Ever since my -arrival at Ekaterinski-Zavod, or rather even before that time, and from -the time I left Kiow, I had purposely allowed my beard to grow, and it -had now got to a respectable and perfectly orthodox length. After many -attempts I furthermore became possessed of a wig, a Siberian one, be -it understood--one of those sheepskins with the curls inside, which -are worn in this country to keep out the intense cold; and, thanks -to these means, I trusted to make my personal appearance such as was -most unlikely to be recognised. In the last place, I may mention that, -after deducting the cost of these articles, there remained to me the -sum of 180 roubles (in assignats[5]), that is, about 200 francs--a -very slender sum for so long a journey, and one which, through a sad -accident, was yet to be greatly diminished. - -I had not disguised from myself in any way the difficulties of my -undertaking, nor yet the dangers to which at every step I was to be -exposed. I also knew that I could not even reckon on the poignard -which I carried as a last and perfectly reliable means of safety, -for, in spite of much that one hears, it is not always in one’s power -to put an end to one’s life. I might be arrested in my sleep, or in -some one of those times of moral prostration which follow on very -prolonged effort and tension of body or of mind, and when a man, by -loss of nervous power, is prevented from disposing of his existence. -One thought, however, sustained me, and while it added greatly to the -difficulties of my situation, it much lightened my conscience--it was -the vow I had made not to reveal my secret to a single human being -until, standing on a free soil, I could do so with safety to them. -I determined not to ask for help, protection, or advice from any -living soul until I had passed the limits of the Tzar’s dominions, -and rather to give up my own hoped-for salvation than to become the -cause of peril and suffering to one of my fellow-men. During my stay -at Kaminieç I had implicated more than one of my poor compatriots in -my own bitter lot, but then I believed myself to be on a mission for -the general weal: now, the only object I had in view was my personal -safety at the time, and my freedom hereafter; and I resolved that, for -their accomplishment, I would rely on no one but on myself. God has -vouchsafed to me the strength to persevere in this resolution to the -end. It seemed to me to be the only honest and justifiable course; -and it has perhaps been on account of this vow, made from the very -starting point, that He has extended over me His protecting Arm. - -By the last days of January my preparations were finished, and the -time seemed peculiarly favourable for my start, because there was soon -to be held at Terbite, at the foot of the Oural range, one of those -great fairs which are peculiar to Eastern Russia, where centres of -trade are few and far between. The immense distances which have to be -crossed, and the difficulties in the way of even the most ordinary -communications between one place and another, make fairs of this sort -a real _colluvies gentium_, and the roads are covered with innumerable -trains of merchandise, and with a great concourse of travellers. -Flattering myself with the hope that I might be lost in such a movement -of people and tribes, I lost no time in profiting by the circumstance, -and on February 8th, 1846, I set out. - -I had on three shirts, the coloured one being, after the Russian -fashion, pulled over the trowsers: I had a waistcoat and trowsers of -thick cloth, and over all a little burnous (_armiak_) of sheepskin, -well tallowed, which hung down to my knees, while great boots with tops -strongly tarred completed my costume. A girdle of red, white, and black -worsted was tied round my waist, and over my wig I had one of those red -velvet caps, edged with fur, which are worn on holiday time by Siberian -peasants of any affluence, and by commercial travellers. Besides all -this, I was wrapped in a wide pelisse, of which the collar, turned -up and tied by a red handkerchief round the neck, served less to keep -out the cold than to hide my face. I carried a bag in my hand, and in -it I had put a second pair of boots, a fourth shirt, a pair of blue -trowsers, such as are worn in the country in summer, some bread, and -some dried fish. A large dagger was slipped into the sheath of my right -boot; my money was under my waistcoat in assignats of five or ten -roubles; and, to conclude, in my hands, which were covered with stout -gloves of skin, with the hair inside, I held a strong knotted stick. - -Thus equipped I stole away at eventide from the settlement of -Ekaterinski-Zavod by a cross-road. It was freezing very hard, and the -rime which hung in the air sparkled in the moonlight. I soon passed my -Rubicon, the Irtiche, whose frozen shield I crunched under my feet, and -with hasty steps, which the weight of my dress alone checked, I took -the road to Tara, a small market town at about twelve kilometres from -the place where I had been kept. The winter nights, I said to myself, -are very long in Siberia; how many miles shall I be able to make before -daylight appears to make them aware of my flight? and what shall I do -when it dawns? - -I had hardly crossed the Irtiche when I heard the sound of a sledge -coming up behind me. I shuddered, but determined to await the nocturnal -traveller, and, as happened more than once during my hazardous -wanderings, that which I dreaded as a danger became the unexpected -means of saving myself. ‘Where are you going?’ asked the peasant who -drove the sledge, and who had drawn up beside me. - -‘To Tara. Where do you come from?’ - -‘From the hamlet of Zalivina. Give me sixty kopeks (tenpence) and I -will take you to Tara, for I am going there myself.’ - -‘No; that is too dear, but I will give you fifty kopeks if you like to -take me for that.’ - -‘Well, so be it; look sharp, my friend!’ - -I seated myself beside him, and we started at a gallop. My companion -was in a hurry to get home; the road covered by snow, which the frost -had hardened, was as smooth as a mirror, and the piercing cold seemed -to give wings to the horses. At the end of half an hour we were at -Tara, where my peasant put me down in one of the streets of the town -and went his way. Now alone, I went up to the first posting-house, and -called in Russian fashion through the window, as loud as I could: - -‘Have you any horses?’ - -‘Where are they to go?’ - -‘To the fair at Irbite.’ - -‘Yes, we have some.’ - -‘A pair?’ - -‘Yes, a pair.’ - -‘How much a verste?’ - -‘Eight kopeks.’ - -‘I won’t give so much; say six kopeks.’ - -‘What can we say? Done! Presently.’ - -In a few minutes the horses were ready and put to a sledge. ‘Where do -you come from?’ they asked me. - -‘From Tomsk: I am a clerk of N----’ (I named somebody), my principal -has gone on before me to Irbite; but, you see, I had to stay behind for -some little affairs of my own, and now I am horribly late, and I am -afraid my chief will be angry; if you will drive quickly you shall have -something for yourself.’ - -The peasant whistled, and the horses went off like an arrow. Suddenly -the sky became overcast, and a heavy snow falling, the peasant not only -lost his way but could not find it again. After having wandered about -in many wrong directions, we were obliged to halt and pass the rest -of the night in the forest. I pretended to be furiously angry, and my -driver, full of excuses, began to ask my pardon. I shall not attempt to -describe the agony of that night, passed as it was sitting in a sledge, -in the middle of a snow storm, and at the distance of at most four -leagues from Ekaterinski-Zavod: at every moment I seemed to hear the -bells of the _kibitkas_ that were in full pursuit of me. At last the -day began to redden in the east. ‘Now, go back to Tara,’ I said to the -peasant; ‘I will take another sledge there, and you, you fool! shall -not have a farthing, and I will hand you over to the police for having -made me lose my time in this way.’ The countryman, much abashed, -turned to go back to Tara, but hardly had we gone a verste when he -stopped, looked all round, and pointing out some traces of a road under -the heap of snow, he cried: - -‘There is the road we ought to have taken!’ - -‘Get on, then,’ I said, ‘and thank God!’ - -From this moment my man did his best to make up for the lost time; -but a horrible idea crossed my mind, I remembered our hapless Colonel -Wysoçki, who, after having been detained as I was the whole night in a -wood, was given up to the gendarmes by his driver. Perhaps my peasant, -I said to myself, meditates to betray me in like manner, and my hand -mechanically sought my dagger; but it was a vain terror and an unjust -suspicion. He soon stopped at a friend’s house, where I had some tea, -and where I was provided at the same rate with horses to continue my -journey. Thus I went on my way, changing horses at very reasonable -sums, until I arrived late at night at a village called Soldatskaïa, -where I became the victim of a theft as audacious on the part of the -thief as it was painful to me. I happened to have no change to pay the -driver, and along with him I squeezed my way into a pot-house where -there were a number of tipsy people, for it was near the end of the -carnival. I pulled two or three bank notes from under my waistcoat, -and I was going to give them to the landlord to get them changed, when -a sudden move in the crowd, whether purposely or not I cannot say, -shoved me back from the table on which I had laid down the papers, and -they were carried off in a second. In vain I called out, the thief was -not to be discovered, and as I did not dare really to summon the police -to my assistance, I was obliged to resign myself to my fate, although I -had lost some forty roubles in notes, and (what added much more to my -regrets, I might almost say to my terror) two papers had disappeared -with them, which were of inestimable value to me, the one a memorandum -on which I had marked with the greatest minuteness all the towns and -villages through which I had to pass on my way to Archangel, the other -that passport on stamped paper which it had cost me so much trouble to -fabricate.... - -Thus, at the commencement, and in the first day of my flight, I had -lost a quarter of the small sum which I had saved for my travels, the -note which was to have been the map and guide of my wanderings, and the -_plakatny_, the only document which I could show to disarm the first -suspicions of any curious persons. I was in despair! - -One thing above all others was I believe the main cause of the success -of the perilous task of my evasion, compelling me to persevere in -spite of all obstacles and mistakes, and obliging me to take courage -in spite of myself--this was the manifest impossibility of abandoning -my undertaking. Having once fled from Ekaterinski-Zavod, I should -certainly incur the same fate, whether captured at Tara or among -the Oural Mountains, among the steppes of Petchora or in the port of -Archangel, while every step I took brought me nearer to safety and -deliverance. Thus no room was left for hesitation or regret, and, in -spite of the irreparable loss which I had just sustained, I held on -my way, and soon, striking into the high road to Irbite, I found, in -the sudden animation of the landscape, a sight calculated to distract -my eyes, and to inspire my mind with a certain degree of confidence. -All over that vast and snow-covered plain, to the left of which ever -since I passed Tioumen the wooded slopes of the Oural chain began to -be defined, swarmed an innumerable mass of sledges, either going or -returning from the fair. They were full of goods and _yamstchiks_ (or -peasants who undertake to carry merchandise), and were whirled along by -those Siberian horses whose pace is only to be equalled by the skill -of their drivers. The month of February is a harvest time for the -dwellers in these districts, who make, by the hire of their horses and -sledges at the time of the fair at Irbite, the largest of their yearly -gains. They display then all the good humour and the noisy gaiety which -can animate an active population at the end of the dead season of the -year. I mingled my voice with the sharp cries and piercing calls of the -_yamstchiks_; I greeted every passenger, regarding each in the bottom -of my heart as an involuntary auxiliary of my flight, for the more the -number of men, horses, and sledges increased, the more I took courage. -How, I asked myself, could they distinguish in this vast crowd of -merchants, bagmen, clerks and peasants one solitary political criminal -who seeks his liberty by flight? how pursue me through this moving and -ever-changing Babel? It would be about as likely and as useful to try -(as we say in our proverb of the Ukraine) ‘to follow and catch the wind -upon the steppes.’ - -In order to make the reader understand how rapid was my flight, which -differed in no way from the pace of the other Siberians on the road, it -will suffice to say that, on the third day of my evasion, and in spite -of having spent a night in the forest of Tara, I found myself, late -in the evening, at the gates of Irbite, 4,000 kilometres distant from -Ekaterinski-Zavod. ‘Stop, and show your passport!’ called the sentry; -luckily, he added immediately, ‘Give me twenty kopeks, and through with -you.’ It may be imagined with what alacrity I satisfied the demands -of a law so opportunely modified, and I soon reached an inn, where at -first I was refused admittance, because there was no room. After some -time, however, I was received, on declaring that I only wished to pass -one night on the premises, being sure, I said, of finding out next day -where my master was, with whom I was to lodge for the rest of the time. -I went out soon after, pretending to go to the police station, and, -when I reappeared, said I had left my papers there, and would have -them returned to me next day. The _izba_, or large room in which we all -sat, was as full of _yamstchiks_ as it could hold, and the smell of -tar was enough to stifle one. I talked much of my principal, of _our_ -affairs, and did my best to share in a noisy meal of Siberian dishes; -that is to say, of turnip soup, dried fish, oatmeal gruel mixed with -oil, and pickled cabbages. When the repast was over, each man paid his -share of the reckoning to the landlord, and then prepared a bed for -himself as best he could in the _izba_. Some stretched themselves upon -the stove, some on straw, some on the ground, some on benches, and some -under them. I did as I saw the others do, but sleep never came near -my eyes; so many hopes and so many fears chased each other through my -mind, that rest was impossible. - -Very early in the morning I rose, and, like all my companions, -performed, in the most orthodox fashion, the three bows which every one -is expected to make to the holy images that never fail to occupy the -corners of a Russian dwelling; then, taking my bag on my back, I went -out under pretence of seeking my principal. In spite of the earliness -of the hour, the square was already very animated. Irbite is a town of -a tolerably pleasing appearance, in spite of its houses being built -entirely of wood. The streets are wide, the squares and market-places -spacious. On every side stood booths constructed after the national -fashion of thin planks, and intended to last only during the fair. -Sledges, drawn up like regiments, contained bales of goods; and those -which had been already emptied were now piled up in heaps, one on the -top of the other. I am sure that there were several thousands of these -vehicles. For my part, I did little more than go across the town, as -many reasons weighed with me, and prevented my stopping there for any -length of time--the chief reason being my fear of meeting some one of -the many acquaintances I had made at Ekaterinski-Zavod. I had no wish -to put my disguise to the proof, unless there was an absolute necessity -for so doing. I therefore bought some loaves of bread and some salt -in a shop, put them into my bag, and left the town by an opposite -gate from the one by which I had entered it, and where the sentry did -not, luckily, think it right to ask me any questions whatever. The -expenses which I had incurred in hiring horses to Irbite, as well as -the theft of which I had been the victim, had seriously diminished my -slender finances; and at this moment I stood possessed of no more than -75 roubles in assignats, and how was I to reach France by means of so -small a sum? It was clear that for the future I must trust to my own -legs, not to say to my own hands also, if I chanced to come in the way -of earning anything in my travels. - -The winter of this year, 1846, was one of great severity, and the -snow fell in such quantities that I saw more than one pretty solidly -built house fall in from its weight; indeed, within the memory of -the Siberians, there had not been so hard a winter. On the morning, -however, of the day on which I left Irbite, the air appeared to me to -be rather milder; but then the snow began to fall, and it came down in -such style, so thick and so heavy, that I could not see where I was -going. It was a strange sensation to stand thus alone in the middle -of these wastes, of which the silence is almost always unbroken, and -to be covered with snow flakes, from which I vainly tried to shake -myself free, while walking became very fatiguing in the soft heaps -which got bigger at every moment. I managed, however, not to lose my -way, and every now and then a _yamstchik_ or two, driving past in his -sledge, helped to clear it before me again, till, about mid-day, the -snow began to cease, and my march became less impeded. As a general -rule, I avoided the villages, but when it was necessary to pass one, I -walked straight along the street, as if I belonged to the country, and -did not require to ask my way; and if grave doubts arose in my mind -as to which road to take, it was only at the last house of the hamlet -that I ventured to ask any questions. When I felt hungry, I pulled a -piece of frozen bread out of my bag, and ate it as I walked along, or -sat resting at the foot of a tree, in the most remote part of a wood. -When I was thirsty, I sought to slake my thirst at the holes in the ice -on pools and ponds, which the Siberians constantly make in order to -water their cattle; or, sometimes I had to content myself with letting -snow dissolve in my mouth, although that plan was far from being a -satisfactory one. My first day on foot out of Irbite was very trying, -and the evening found me completely exhausted. My heavy dress had added -greatly to my distress in walking, and yet I knew that I dared not part -with it. When night fell, I sought the heart of the forest, and there -prepared a sleeping-place for myself. I knew how the Ostiaks cover -themselves when asleep in their frozen deserts. They simply scoop out -a deep hole in a big snow wreath, and there find a bed, which, though -certainly hard, is not the less a perfectly warm one. I did in like -fashion, and soon found the repose of which I stood greatly in need. - -On waking next morning, I felt extremely uncomfortable, and found that -my feet were frozen. Not quite familiar with the niceties of Ostiak -bed making, I had been imprudent enough, in covering myself with my -pelisse, to keep the furry side next to my body, and the heat thus -developed had completely melted the snow, and exposed my feet to the -low temperature of the dawn. I resolved to profit by this lesson for -the future, and, in the meantime, tried to bring the circulation back -by walking and running, in which I was, fortunately, successful. By -mid-day, to my sorrow, the wind rose very high--a truly Siberian wind, -dry and icy, seeming to blind one as it cuts one’s eyes, and sweeping -the heaps of snow before it, so as to obliterate in a few minutes -every trace of the best beaten road. The natives are accustomed, as -soon as winter sets in, to mark their tracks on each side by pines and -pine branches stuck into the snow at short distances from one another; -but this season the avalanches had been so numerous that, in most -places, they more than hid the signal branches. I presently perceived -that I had completely lost my way. Plunging about in the snow up to my -waist, sometimes up to my neck, I began to think I must perish there -from hunger and from cold; but by evening I came on a road again, and, -mercifully for me, it was the very one I ought to take, and for which I -was in search. It was quite late, when I saw a small detached cottage, -near a village, with a young woman standing on its doorstep. The hope -of finding a resting-place got the better of all my hesitation; I went -up to the woman, and asked her if she would give me a night’s lodging. -She made no difficulty about it, and took me into the _izba_, where -her old mother sat. I made her the usual greeting, and, in reply to -the usual questions ‘where I came from,’ and ‘whether the Lord God was -leading me?’ I replied that I came from the government of Tobolsk, and -that I was on my way to Bohotole, to look for work. The establishment -at Bohotole is an iron foundry belonging to the Russian government, -and situated far north of Verkhouterie, among the Oural Mountains; -it attracts great numbers of workpeople from the provinces of Perm -and of Tobolsk. While the women prepared some food for me, I spread -my clothes and my linen before the fire, and, having dried them, and -appeased my hunger, I stretched myself on a bench with an indescribable -sense of comfort and happiness. I believed that I had neglected no -precautions, for, after repeating to myself my Catholic prayers, I had -made the orthodox triple salutation, or _poklony_, to the holy images; -and yet some suspicions had been awakened in the minds of these women. -I learnt afterwards that the sight of the linen I had tried to dry was -the exciting cause; they thought me too well provided to be a Russian -artisan, for I had no less than four shirts! - -Sleep was just stealing upon me, when I heard some whisperings that -disturbed me; and, all of a sudden, in came three peasants, one of whom -said in a low voice: - -‘Where is he?’ - -The younger of the women pointed to where I lay. Presently, I was first -called, and then roughly shaken up by these men, who asked if I had a -passport. I was obliged to make some answer, so, sitting up, I retorted: - -‘And what right have you to ask for my passport? Are any of you -_golova_ (an official)?’ - -‘It is true that we are not; we are only the inhabitants of the place.’ - -‘And, as inhabitants of the place, what right have you to attack -houses, and to walk in to ask for passports? How am I to know who you -are, and whether you are not likely enough to steal my papers? But, -keep yourselves easy, you will find presently with whom you have to do.’ - -‘But I tell you we are neighbours, country folks here.’ - -‘Is that true?’ said I, turning to the mistress of the house; and on -getting a sign from her in the affirmative, I went on, ‘Well then, in -that case, I will answer you. My name is Lavrenti Kouzmine, of the -government of Tobolsk, and I am going to the iron foundries at Bohotole -to look for work; and this is not the first time, by any means, that I -have been this way.’ - -I then went into more circumstantial details, and concluded by -exhibiting my passport. It was a mere pass, since, alas! my _plakatny_ -no longer existed, and it never could have imposed upon any official; -but as it had a seal, the sight of that essential convinced this -portion of the public, who then began to ask me a hundred questions -about the fair at Irbite, and many other things. At last they departed, -having wished me a good night’s rest, and excusing themselves for -having troubled me by saying, ‘You see it was very excusable, because -we thought it was a case of a runaway convict: they sometimes pass this -way.’ The remainder of the night passed tranquilly away; and on the -following morning, I took leave of the two women whose hospitality had -so nearly proved fatal to me. - -The incident which I have just related carried with it one sad -conviction, which was, that I could not reckon on a shelter for any -future nights without clearly exposing myself to very serious dangers, -and that, until things should take a new turn, the Ostiak couch must be -my only bed; and so with the Ostiak couch I contented myself, during -the whole of my journey across the Oural Mountains, and until my -arrival at Véliki-Oustiong--that is to say, from the middle of February -to the first days of the month of April 1846. Three or four times only -did I venture to crave hospitality for the night in some lonely hut; -and that was only because I was exhausted by some fifteen or twenty -days passed in the forest, and my strength was so far gone that I was -hardly conscious of what I was, what I said, or what I did. All the -other nights I contented myself with digging an earth for sleeping -in--only I had become more cunning, and I had also acquired a greater -dexterity in preparing my nocturnal refuge. I had noticed that, in -the depths of the forests, the snow hardly reaches to the foot of the -great trees; and that, as it accumulates, it still leaves an empty -space round the trunk, which soon becomes a pretty deep cavity. I let -myself slip down the stem of the tree into the hollow thus formed, -which was not unlike a well. Having arrived at the bottom, I tried with -my stick to throw some of the snow out of the aperture at the top, -and thus made a vault, which covered and sheltered me perfectly. But -very often I could not manage these nightly buildings; the snow would -be too light and dry, or, at another time, the roof thus laboriously -contrived would fall in with a crash. I had then to seat myself close -to the tree; and leaning my back against its trunk, thus slept, or -rather dozed, for the night. When the cold became so great that I felt -my limbs growing numbed, I had to get up, and run hither, and thither. -It was too dark either to follow or to find the road; but exercise, -at all risks, I must have, to revive my animal heat. On more than one -occasion, I have lain down tired, and simply let myself be covered by -the falling snow; this was, perhaps, the warmest cover of any; but I -always found it difficult, in the morning, to shake myself loose of -this white winding-sheet. By degrees, I got accustomed to this way of -sleeping; and sometimes, when night fell, I would find myself turning -into the thickest part of the woods, as to some familiar resting-place; -though at other times, I must confess, this savage life seemed to me -all but unbearable. The absence of any human dwellings, the want of -warm victuals--sometimes even of frozen bread (my only food, for days -together)--would make me feel that, not very far from my side, there -lay in wait for me those two hideous spectres--Cold and Famine--whose -names we are so apt to take in vain at every little trifle which makes -us uncomfortable! In such moments, what I most dreaded were the sudden -attacks of sleep, which would come on me unawares. These I knew full -well to be the forerunners of death, and against them I struggled with -all the little strength that remained to me. The craving for something -warm to eat or drink was very great; and it was often with the utmost -difficulty that I refrained from going into some hut, to beg a little -of the turnip broth which they make so much in Siberia. - -After leaving behind me Verkhouterie--the last town (it is a wooden -one) which I was to pass on my way to the eastern slopes of the Ourals, -and where I took good care not to stop, I fell in with six young -Russians--a meeting which was very fortunate for me, as from them I -obtained various pieces of useful information. By their dress, and -indeed by their speech, I saw that they did not belong to this part -of the country, and that they were not even Siberians. When I asked -them, they told me that they came from the government of Archangel, -from the district of Mezen, on the very borders of the Frozen Sea; -and that they were on their way to the province of Tobolsk, to push -their fortunes as veterinary surgeons. These young men had pleasant -faces, very fair complexions, and hair so light as to have a silvery -tinge, like well-dressed flax. Indeed, had they not had clear blue -eyes, they might have passed for Albinos. They told me that the country -from which they came was very poor--miserably poor. In short, nothing -grew there, either wheat, oats, or barley; and the inhabitants lived -on fish, getting bread only from Archangel. The sight of men who had -come so far, and come on foot, gave me fresh courage and hope. I, in -my turn, could give them many details about Siberia (though not about -the districts in which I had dwelt), and I told them where they were -likely to find the greatest number of horses. Nature seems often to -play strange games in distributing men as she does over this globe. To -these miserable dwellers on the most remote shores of the Frozen Sea, -Siberia appears as a land of promise--the Eldorado of their dreams of -happiness; and thither they emigrate in bands, and in whole families, -to look for more lucrative labour and in search of a more clement sky. - -I do not know how many days I may have spent in thus climbing the woody -but snow-clad heights of the Oural chain. The uniformity of the way, -and the repetition of the same accidents of travel made me at last lose -all count of time. I only know that at Paouda, far set in the heart of -the mountains, I dared for the second time since I had left Irbite to -sleep in a human dwelling, and that then for the third time since that -date I tasted some warm food. Even this little good fortune I owed to -a happy chance. I passed through the village very late in the evening, -and as I went by a house in which the lights still burnt, I suddenly -heard a voice call, ‘Who goes there?’ - -‘A traveller.’ - -‘Have you far to go?’ - -‘Oh, very very far.’ - -‘Well, if you like, you may turn in and sleep with us for the night.’ - -‘The good God reward you! But shall I not trouble you?’ - -‘How trouble us? No one is gone to bed yet.’ - -I crossed the hospitable threshold, and found in the house two kind -worthy beings, a husband and his wife. They gave me a modest Siberian -meal, which to me seemed a feast fit for Lucullus; but what I enjoyed -most was the being able to take off my clothes, which I had not been -able to do for so many nights, while I camped under the stars. They -asked me a good many questions, and I was ready to reply to them, -saying that I belonged to the district of Tobolsk, and that I was -on my way to Solikamsk, on the other side of the Ourals, that I had -a relation there, and that the times being hard, he had written to -me that I might find work in the salt works there. These good folks -then began to talk of their own lot, and to complain of it heartily. -It appeared that they were ‘peasants of the works’ (_pozavodskoïe -krestyany_), or serfs, liable from generation to generation to be -impressed for statute labour in the different government factories, of -which there are a great many in the Oural districts. Formerly there -were works at Paouda itself, but since they had been done away with, -the serfs were now obliged to go to labour as far as Bohotole; from -this liability neither women nor persons above the age of fourteen -years are exempt, and it may be supposed that such conditions were -severely felt. On the next day my hosts would not let me depart till I -had breakfasted with them, and they steadily refused to accept of the -money which I pressed upon them. What a warm and hearty farewell did -we take of each other! but my ease of mind vanished when the good man -of the house, just as he parted from me, and was giving me some final -instructions as to my road, added, ‘at any rate, a little beyond Paouda -you will come to the military station; they will ask for your papers -there, and they will not fail to give you all the information you can -require.’ - -It may be believed that I neglected no efforts not to come in the way -of any such sources of knowledge. I struck aside and went by hill and -by dale, now and then up to my neck in snow, and did not regain the -high road till I had left the tutelary guard station far behind me. -Thus I went on for several days, only buying bread at rare intervals -at the _izbouchka_, which at great distances from one another and from -time to time I met with on my way. - -_Izbouchka_ are little houses built at great intervals for the -accommodation of travellers, and are to be found from the Oural -Mountains to Véliki-Oustiong; you find there bread, salt fish, -turnips, radishes, cabbages and _kvass_ (a liquor made from cider), -and sometimes, though rarely, brandy. In some of these inns, that is -to say, in the more spacious ones, there is to be found hay and corn -for the horses. Their owners buy in the provisions, and it is said -make a good profit on these strange hotels, which in general are kept -by one old man, or by a couple as miserable as they are decrepid. One -evening I met a train of _yamstchiks_ who were on their way back from -the fair at Irbite, and were halting to rest their horses; but I did -not remain with them. I knew that I was nearing the summit of the Oural -range, and a superstitious feeling impelled me towards it as to the -culminating point of my fate. At last I reached the top of the pass. -It was a fine night; the moon illuminated with its full splendour a -glorious but fantastic scene, where the gnarled shadows of the trees, -and of gigantic masses of rocks, were filing far upon the immense -expanse of snow. A silence so solemn as to be almost religious in its -unbroken stillness reigned around, except when at times a dry metallic -sound struck upon the ear as the stones cracked and split from the -intensity of the frost; and yet nature, rude and wild as she appeared -to me at this time, and under this dress, was to me, alas! a friend -more pitiful than any of the civilised beings around; _she_, at least, -never asked me for my passport! It was with difficulty that I kept -my mind from dwelling on spirits from another world, from recurring -to the fairy sprites and other tales to which I had been accustomed -during my childhood in the Ukraine, so much were they recalled by the -strange and sinister-looking forms which the moon revealed, while in -her rays their outlines assumed monstrous proportions. Indeed, in the -eyes of any Ukraine child might not I myself have easily passed for no -less a person than the ‘great demon of the night,’ as I stood there in -my strange dress, beard, eyebrows, and moustaches, all crusted with -frosty rime, wandering thus among the shadows of the forest, myself but -another shade? - -From any more prolonged contemplation of the landscape cold obliged -me to abstain, and I soon began to descend the western slopes of that -immense barrier which nature has interposed between Siberia and Russia -in Europe. During the course of next day the _yamstchiks_ came up with -me again, and I had an opportunity of seeing with what marvellous skill -they drive their horses along roads which are all but impracticable. -They had thirty sledges, to each of which a solitary horse was -harnessed, and the whole string was driven by seven _yamstchiks_. The -way was narrow and hedged on each side by walls of snow as high as a -man, and in these both men and horses would occasionally disappear. -When one train met another coming in the opposite direction, the -train which was the smaller, or the least heavily laden, would then -plunge into the snowy wall; and I do not exaggerate when I say that -sometimes after a plunge the horses’ ears alone remained visible. -Having completed this peculiar evolution, the drivers of both trains -would then apply themselves to pulling both sledges and horses out of -the wreath. But even these occurrences were as nothing compared to -the accidents caused by the bogs and quagmires which are so frequent -on these routes. The horses, however, are perfectly accustomed to all -obstacles, and they throw themselves into the ravines, and then allow -themselves to be extricated by their drivers. The difficulties of the -passage of the Oural chain are so great that these intrepid men cannot -make more than twenty verstes a day, and as far as Véliki-Oustiong I -found all along the wayside the corpses of horses that had given in -from fatigue. What the _yamstchiks_ themselves seem capable of enduring -in the way of privations and fatigues is something truly incredible. - -I reached Solikamsk in the beginning of March. It lies at the foot -of the western declivity of the mountains. Without making any stay -there I pursued my way by the steppe of Petchora, tending towards -Véliki-Oustiong, by way of Tcherdine, Kaï, Lalsk and Nochel. The -country was no longer hilly, but there was now as before the same -immensity of snow, the same thick woods, the same winds and storms -of ice; for me also there were the same weary marches and the same -furtive purchases of bread at the unfrequent _izbouchka_, and the same -earths toilsomely constructed for each night’s repose. One discovery, -however, was an unspeakable boon to me. I had remarked that in these -depopulated regions the foot travellers, who were so few and far -between, were in the habit, when overtaken by night in the woods, of -lighting a large fire, and of keeping it blazing till daybreak. I did -this several times, and the flaming logs in the middle of a frozen -desert not only warmed but cheered me; but this would not do for a -roadside diversion, and I only ventured on it when deep in the forest. - -I always steered clear of the towns which lay in my way; but one -day, when, to avoid Tcherdine, I had wandered long in the woods, I -completely lost my way, and had not a notion to which side to direct -my steps. A hurricane of snow made me literally pirouette, and covered -me all over with its flakes, while, as a climax to my misfortunes, -I had no more bread in my bag. I rolled in the snow with convulsive -movements; I could not sleep, but I prayed for death. When day again -dawned, the sky cleared, the weather was fair, my pains had abated, -but my strength was utterly exhausted. I strove to guide my course by -the sun, or by noticing the moss which grew on the north sides of the -trees, and dragged myself on for a while by help of my stick, till -the pangs of hunger again attacked me. Wearied with the strife, and -with a face bathed in tears of weakness, hunger, and despair, I let -myself drop at the root of a tree. By degrees sleep stole upon me, and -it was accompanied by a humming noise in my head, which threw all my -ideas into the wildest confusion. Strange to say, I became totally -insensible, and only the tearing pains inside gave me any sense of -life. How long I lay in this state I know not; I was suddenly roused -from it by a strong man’s voice. I opened my eyes, a stranger stood -before me. - -‘What are you doing there?’ - -‘I have lost my way.’ - -‘Where do you come from?’ - -‘From Tcherdine; I am on a pilgrimage to Solovetsk; but the storm made -me lose my way, and I have had nothing to eat for several days.’ - -‘I am not surprised at it; we belong to this part of the country, -and yet we often lose our way; you should never have set out in such -weather: drink a little of this.’ - -He put a wooden bottle to my lips; I drank a mouthful of brandy, which -revived me instantly, but so burned the stomach that it made me start -with pain till I executed a perfect tarentelle. - -‘Come, be quiet, can’t you!’ cried the stranger, and he offered me some -bread and dried fish, which I devoured with a sort of frenzy; I then -sat down again at the foot of my tree, and my companion seated himself -alongside of me. He was a trapper by profession (_promychlennik_), -and after having secured his prey, he was returning home, with his -gun slung over his shoulder, and with pattens on his feet. When I -got a little calmer, he offered to conduct me to the neighbouring -_izbouchka_. ‘I thank you with all my heart; may the good Lord reward -you for all you have done!’ - -‘So we are a Christian, are we? Well, step on now, and never give in!’ - -I got up with great difficulty, for my head was swimming round; but -summoning all my strength I followed my leader, and I steadied myself -from time to time on his arm, till at length we stood once more on the -road from which I had wandered, and there the trapper, having commended -me to God, left me, disappearing into the thickets. I could see the -_izbouchka_ at some distance, and so great was my joy at the sight of -it, that I believe I should have walked up to it, had I known that -gendarmes were waiting at the door to arrest me. I managed to get as -far as the said door, but when I had crossed the threshold, my strength -failed me, I fell on the ground, and rolled under a bench. Then, after -a dead faint of some minutes, I came to myself again, and asked to have -something warm to eat or drink. Some turnip soup was given to me, but -this, although tormented by hunger, I was hardly able to swallow, and -towards midday I fell asleep on a bench, where I slept till about the -same hour on the following day, when my landlord in alarm shook me up. -He was a kind honest man, and his affability towards me was redoubled -when he heard that I was on a pious pilgrimage, as far as the Holy -Isle in the White Sea. I was still quite wet, and my garments had to -be dried at the stove; but sleep, rest and warmth had already cured -me. I was able to eat something, and start again on my travels, sorely -against the wishes of mine host, who begged me to rest one day longer -in his house. I had to give some reasons to account for persisting in -my resolution, and I promised him solemnly that on my return from the -goal of my pilgrimage I would pay him a second visit. - -These _izbouchka_ were a constant source of temptation to me during -my arduous journey to Véliki-Oustiong. How often, after many days of -walking, have I passed before one of those hospitable abodes, and had -to struggle with the longing I felt, not for a night’s shelter, as -that was a happiness which I could not aspire, but at least for some -of that warm broth which my stomach, weary of frozen bread, salt fish, -and kvass, implored. At such times I held a sort of tragi-comic dispute -with myself, and my good and my evil genius seemed to contend within me. - -One day, having entered one of these huts to buy some bread, I found -there a tall hale old man, with a silvery beard, and a girl of about -eighteen, with a pleasing face, who was rocking a child, and singing -as she rocked in order to put her infant more readily to sleep. The -old man made me pay very dear for the bread, charging six kopeks for -the pound; and I sat down to eat some, adding to it a little salt, and -washing it down with some mouthfuls of _kvass_. As I did so, he looked -at me with complete indifference, and contented himself with asking -me one or two insignificant questions. The young woman, who was his -grand-daughter, regarded me with an emotion which was quite visible; -and hardly had the man absented himself for a moment, than she jumped -upon a stool, and reaching up to a shelf, took down two large cakes of -wheaten flour mixed with butter and cheese, which she furtively pushed -under my pelisse, and then went back to her cradle, humming her song -all the time. I shall never lose the memory of this charitable action, -done as it was with an inimitable grace, and with all the haste and -trepidation of crime. - -I refrain from wearying the reader by any further account of that long -journey to Véliki-Oustiong, for the frightful monotony of the hours -was only broken by meetings which I at once welcomed and dreaded, with -_yamtschiks_ and pilgrims. I will only mention one incident, which may -give some idea of the state of my mind and nerves. One day, in the -forest, I saw a man running towards me, with a look of the greatest -terror: ‘Do not go any further,’ he cried, ‘there are two brigands in -pursuit of me at this moment!’ I tried to get him to stop so that we -might present a double resistance to these robbers, but he continued -his flight at a great pace. Left alone, I armed myself with a cudgel, -and thus advanced to meet the enemy in question. Will it be believed, -the sensation I then had was one of pleasure? Here was a danger, but -it had nothing to do with a passport. Here were men who had as much to -fear as I had myself, and to whom I represented law and order; but I -never had the satisfaction of making their acquaintance! And I missed -the brigands, as in the Oural Mountains I had also missed the bears -that play so fine a part in the narratives of the natives, for neither -on the one nor yet on the other side of the chain did I meet any of the -redoubtable animals. - -I reached Véliki-Oustiong on some day in the first fortnight in the -month of April 1846, and there I intended to alter the style of -my travelling costume. I had left Irbite on the 13th of February; -therefore, for about two months I had led, in the woods and among the -snow, a life which might truly be called the life of a savage. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[5] Paper currency. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII. - -THE PILGRIM AND THE PILGRIMAGE. - - PILGRIMAGES--THE BOHOMOLETS--MANNERS AND CUSTOMS IN - VÉLIKI-OUSTIONG--ON THE DVINA--ARCHANGEL. - - -Long, however, before reaching Véliki-Oustiong I had decided upon -the part which it now behoved me to play. As I had been a commercial -traveller as far as Irbite, thence through all my wanderings in the -Ourals I had called myself a workman looking for employment in the -foundries at Bohotole, or in the salt works at Solikamsk. But I -had no sooner left the last-named town behind me than I gradually -assumed the manners and the attributes of a pilgrim, on his way to -pay his devotions to the holy images of the convent of Solovetsk, -in the White Sea. Thus, I became a _bohomolets_, according to the -phrase which is thus consecrated in the country, and which literally -means ‘a worshipper of God.’ The worship of holy images and pictures -obtains largely in Russia, where four spots enjoy a peculiar renown, -and attract an infinite number of visitors. These are Kiow, Moscow, -Véliki-Novgorod and the convent of Solovetsk. Many Russians, even -some of the richest merchants, make the tour of all these four places -in succession, a journey which is performed on foot, and occupies -several years. I actually met at Onega two women, of whom one was still -quite young, who had courageously performed the whole of this round, -and were then on their way back to their native districts beyond the -Oural Mountains, and beyond Verhouterie in the government of Irkutsk. -The greater number of the pilgrims content themselves, as a general -rule, with visiting the sanctuary which is nearest to them; and thus -thousands of the faithful from all the northern countries, and from -Siberia itself, annually repair to the convent of Solovetsk, the -journey thither being generally made in winter, because the roads at -all other times of the year are impassable. - -These _bohomolets_, both men and women, are everywhere welcomed and -well received, although it will happen that among their ranks an -occasional rogue will be found making year after year a lucrative trade -out of his peripatetic piety. Indeed, the Russian peasant regards the -entrance of a _bohomolets_ into his house as a benison, and not content -with extending to him alms and a cordial hospitality, he often confides -money to a pilgrim, meaning it to be deposited in the sanctuary, -and there expended on his account in burning tapers, accompanied by -vicarious prayers. I have been myself compelled in my character of a -pilgrim to take charge of the pious deposits and tithes of the poor. - -I was induced to adopt this disguise as much by the hope of uniting -myself to some one of the pilgrim bands as by the universal respect -paid to their character, and by the small chance that under their -dress I should be exposed to any demands for my passport. While -traversing the steppes of Petchora I had met several such companies on -the way to Véliki-Oustiong, but while claiming fellowship with them -I carefully avoided incorporating myself into their ranks. Too great -an acquaintance might, I feared, betray me to them; but I had the -opportunities of furtively studying their devotional habits. At last, -having reached Véliki-Oustiong, I thought myself sure enough of my -part to be able without risk of detection to attempt a way of life in -common with one of these bands of ‘worshippers of God.’ We were in the -town, and I found myself sufficiently embarrassed as I stood alone in -the great market-place, where, by good luck, a young man in a citizen’s -dress stepped out of a shop, and came up to me as he said, ‘You are a -_bohomolets_ going to the monastery of Solovetsk.’ - -‘Yes.’ - -‘Well, I am going there too; have you got a lodging?’ - -‘Not yet, I have only just arrived.’ - -‘Then come along with me. Our numbers are great already, it is true, -but there will be room enough for you. Our hostess is a good woman, -she cooks for us and bakes our bread; I have just been buying flour and -groats,’ and he pointed to the sack which was on his shoulder. I made -haste to follow my guide, whose name was Maxime, and who was a native -of the government of Viatka. We soon reached our dwelling-place, and -there in two _izba_ were crowded together upwards of twenty pilgrims -of both sexes. No one mentioned my passport, and the landlady was so -complaisant as to prepare my bread for me, while I soon established -friendly relations with my companions as well as with the many other -pious travellers who filled the town, to the number of two thousand, -for they all awaited there the breaking up of the ice of the Dvina, -when on rafts and in barges they would make their way to Archangel. -What odd, curious, and instructive faces I might have studied among -my fellows! There might be seen the most sincere asceticism wholly -detached from sense and sin, and specimens of that well-considered -and adjusted piety which trims between the interests of both worlds. -There was every degree between a beatitude which savoured of idiotcy, -and the most astute and hypocritical imposture, so that Leonardo da -Vinci might have found models among the ample collection, as well for -his Apostles as for his Judas. I could not, of course, escape from -the natural consequences of my situation; and there was no help for -it, when, especially through the Passion Week, I had to take part in -the innumerable nasal canticles raised by my brethren in the _izba_, -and furthermore when I was compelled to repair every day to join with -them in matins and in even-song, not to speak of making the sign of -the cross about a thousand times, with _poklony_ by the hundred, or -of carrying lighted candles, and of kissing the hand of the _popes_. -The sight of these priests always gave me an uneasy twinge, for I -feared lest some day I might be requested to repeat the Russian creed, -of which I was absolutely and profoundly ignorant. But, luckily, my -_poklony_, executed with zeal and dexterity, served me in good stead--a -gymnastic exercise which, as exacted by Russian orthodoxy, let me say, -is a sufficiently fatiguing one, as anyone will experience who tries to -touch the ground with his forehead a hundred times running, and that -too without bending his knees. My inward religious feelings suffered -from such mummery, but at least I managed to avoid having to confess -to one of the _popes_, which I did under pretence of having fulfilled -that duty a few days previously at Lalsk; and when once the Holy Week -had passed, this high pressure devotion appeared to subside a little, -though the psalms and stations observed in the churches still occupied -a great deal of our time; and I personally was far from regretting the -long hours thus spent in the sacred edifices, which were resting places -infinitely preferable to our _izba_. - -I had ample leisure to inspect Véliki-Oustiong, and, with the exception -of Archangel, it is the Russian town with which I am best acquainted. -Built almost entirely of brick, it has, however, especially on the -banks of the Suchona, some handsome houses; but its greatest ornament -consists of course in its churches, which are painted yellow, and -crowned with zinc roofs coloured green. I think that I counted not -fewer than twenty-two of these; and there are also two convents, one -for monks (_tcherntsé_), dedicated to Saint Michael; the other for -nuns, which is without the walls. I regret to say that the life and -conversation of the latter body, especially of its younger members, did -not appear to me to be highly edifying. - -Although the population of Oustiong does not exceed 15,000 souls, the -town has, notwithstanding, some commercial importance--being, in truth, -the natural depôt for all the different products of the countries of -Viatka, Perm, Vologda and of Siberia. These products, which consist, -for the most part, in grain of all sorts, flax, hemp, tallow, salt -meat, tar, wood, and furs, &c., accumulate at Véliki-Oustiong, to be -transported thence, through the Dvina, to Archangel, and to be shipped -from that port in vessels bound for all the quarters of the globe. It -also happens that numbers of sailors and boatmen assemble there, to -await the opening of the Dvina, and then to conduct the merchandise in -barges, of which there are many thousand, and of which the owners are -called _prikastchiki_. Now, these contractors allow the _bohomolets_ to -have a free passage in their boats, provided they victual themselves -for the voyage, and bring with them a sufficient supply of flour, -groats, and dried fish; while any pilgrim who is willing to take an -oar receives fifteen roubles (in paper) from the _prikastchiki_, who -are only too glad of such an offer, as there is often a great want of -hands. I had never yet handled an oar in a large barge; but I undertook -this labour, in the hope of adding a little to my finances. I had -spent precisely fifteen roubles since I left Irbite. Bread in those -regions was cheap, and during the passage of the Ourals, and on my -further march, I had never had any occasion to incur foolish expenses; -but I was, nevertheless, very thankful to have the means of bringing -my viaticum back to its original figure of seventy-five roubles. So, -on the first day on which the Dvina was navigable, I, along with my -fellow-pilgrims, struck a bargain with one of these boat-owners--glad -to escape, at last, from Véliki-Oustiong, where I had spent a whole -month in interminable devotions, and where I had been miserable from -_ennui_ and restlessness. One proposition with regard to my voyage -troubled me a little, I was to remit my passport to the _prikastchiki_, -and he, as was customary in these passages, was to keep it for me, -and return it when we landed. The hurry and bustle of our embarkation -reassured me, however, a little; and, indeed, the master did but give -one glance at my unhappy little pass, when the sight of its seal -seemed to content him; and thus, on the 10th of May, 1846, I found -myself installed in the barge, ready to start and drop down the Dvina -to Archangel. - -A Dvina boat is a sufficiently curious piece of construction, and, seen -from any distance, mostly resembles a house, or a floating barn. There -is no art in guiding it. Everything is left to the muscular labours -of the crew, and each craft requires from forty to sixty boatmen. The -number of the oars varies from thirty to forty, and they do not pretend -to be anything but small fir trees. Among the many curious parts of -these boats, which are intended to serve either as magazines for the -wares or shelter for the passengers and crews by night, I will only -mention one great chest, of rough deals, placed on four pile-heads on -the roof, and filled with clay to the middle. This is the kitchen, -and fire is kept up in it during the whole day; while, on two great -beams, fastened transversely to the sides of the case, and over -wooden pins, hang the pots in which the food is prepared. We carried -our baggage on board in the evening, and slept there all the first -night, till, at day-break, the _nosnik_--that is to say, the master of -the vessel--cried, with a loud voice, ‘Be seated, and pray to God!’ -Everyone then assembled on the deck, and after preserving for a moment -a devotional attitude, worthy of a Mussulman, each man rose, crossed -himself repeatedly, and made his _poklony_. When the prayers were -finished, every living soul on board, from the master to the poorest -of the _bohomolets_, threw a piece of copper money into the stream, to -render the Dvina propitious to their course along its breast. - -The aspect of the river, covered with many boats and rafts, is a very -animated one. After any lengthened halt, and at the moment of again -getting under weigh, one hears again the cry, ‘Be seated, and worship -God!’ The crew goes through the accustomed exercise, while signs of the -cross and the _poklony_ went on vigorously, whenever we hove in sight -of any of the many little chapels which abound on both banks of the -Dvina. During a calm, the barge was allowed to float with the stream, -and then both passengers and crew would rest, sing, or converse. I was -struck with the great lack of ideas and sentiment which was apparent -in the songs of our company, in spite of their generally possessing -a sweet and graceful melody; and these are common characteristics of -Russian popular airs. If the wind rose, or if we neared any dangerous -part of the river, the boatmen would then exert themselves; and they -displayed both agility and strength. I, for my part, strove diligently -to acquit myself of the duties of my task; and I may say, without -flattery, that I soon acquired superior dexterity in handling the -oar, and in steering. Thus I had the satisfaction of being applauded -by the old helmsman, and of hearing the name of Lavrenti (my assumed -cognomen) invoked in all moments of difficulty. In spite of our -diligence, the barge stuck twice in shoal water, and then our united -efforts were required, for ten or twelve hours, before we could make -her float, and get her off again. One frequent amusement of the voyage -was being boarded very often by little skiffs, filled by women and -children, who asked us for alms. They sang one of the sweetest and -most plaintive melodies that I ever heard in my life, of which the -refrain always was the words--‘Little fathers, little mothers, give us -bread!’--‘_Batiouchki, diadiouchki, daïtie khlebtsa!_’ No one on board, -either crew or pilgrims, could refuse the request; and these beggars -would then strike up another song, and wish us a good and a happy -journey. - -Our navigation of the Dvina lasted a fortnight. Gradually, as we -approached Archangel, I saw that the nights became shorter--the last -one, indeed, was marked by an interval of only two hours between the -setting of the sun and its rising again; and during that time also, -any one might have read or written without difficulty. When at last -the towers of Archangel began to glitter in the early morning beams, -the whole crew gave a shout of delight, while the boatmen hastened to -throw into the stream the big chest full of earth, which had served as -our kitchen range. The other boats did the same with their respective -kitchens, for this, it appears, is a time-honoured observance. The -rowers, in like manner, break off the ends of their oars, with a -prodigious noise--another strange custom among the navigators of the -Dvina; and when, at last, we reached the landing-place, each man had -his passport restored to him, and received from the _prikastchik_ the -fifteen roubles which he had gained by the labour of his hands. - -Thus I was in Archangel! I touched the shores of that bay of the White -Sea, which, in all my weary wanderings in the Ourals, had appeared -to my mind’s eye as the haven of refuge! I now beheld those flags -fluttering on vessels of deliverance, of which a vague and fairy-like -impression had often risen, like a _Fata Morgana_, to cheer me on my -Ostiak couch in the heart of the lonely forest. Ah, how grateful to my -eyes were those pendants, barred with stripes of many hues--to eyes -which for so many months had dwelt only on vast desert expanses of -snow! How ardent and sincere was the thanksgiving which I now recited -among my fellow ‘worshippers of God,’ who were thankful, like myself, -to have reached the end of pilgrimage! - -I knew, however, that I must avoid making any over-hasty step, and in -order to act out my part, I repaired with my companions to the station -of Solovetsk (_Solovetski dvorets_), that is to say, to the huge -buildings erected in Archangel itself, by the monks of the convent in -the Holy Isle, for the accommodation of the pilgrims. There, as was -the custom, I left my slender baggage in the hands of the porter, and -I was truly thankful to remark that no inquiries as to passports were -addressed to those who arrived. In spite of the large number of its -_izba_, the house was crammed with inmates, and I could find only a -small corner in the highest part of the barn; and this I had to share -with an elderly devotee of the other sex, whom piety certainly did not -render a more lovely object, while on all the following days, no sooner -did one party of _bohomolets_ leave the establishment on its way to the -Holy Isle, than another arrived from Véliki-Oustiong, and in this way -the caravanserai was constantly as full as it could be. The natural -consequences of such an agglomeration of persons, of such a mixture -of all ages and of both sexes, are more easily to be guessed than -described; and it is much to be wished that, between the paradise of -the Holy Isle and the hell of these _Solovetski dvorets_, there should -be some place of purgatory, for it would conduce greatly to the morals -and to the sanitary well-being of those concerned. I need not say that -the chants and processions of Véliki-Oustiong were resumed here with -a marked increase of fervour; and on the day after our arrival I had -_to assist_ in the chapel (_tserkiew_) of the establishment at many -strange acts of devotion, such as are not to be met with except in the -churches of the orthodox. This chapel was filled with _bohomolets_, -some of whom were having prayers read over their heads, others had the -benefit of Akathisti (Antiphones) in the same way, while others again -crouched, and bore the gospels on their backs. The gospel in this case -is a huge folio tome, about two feet in length, and printed in large -antique type; the boards are two solid planks of wood, and encrusted -upon them are the Twelve Apostles in silver. The execution is very -massive, and the officiating _pope_ has great difficulty in lifting -so heavy a book. The man who wishes to have the gospels read upon him -must stoop, but not kneel, until his head serves as a sort of desk. -It is true, that several _bohomolets_ may put their purses and their -heads together for this service of devotion, but then the grace, like -the weight, is distributed among them; and he who wishes to receive it -in all its efficacy, endeavours to make of his individual person, and -for a quarter of an hour, one of those quaint cariatides of the faith. -Everything is bought and sold in the Russian church, and according to -the size of the offering, whether greater or smaller, the _pope_ on -these occasions either reads out the gospel of the day with sonorous -gravity and unction, or mumbles it over in haste with contemptuous -carelessness; and it requires both the strong convictions and the -strong neck of a Russian peasant to submit to such religious exercises. -But what miracles will not piety perform! One of my companions in our -lodging-house, a peasant of Viatka, had complained of violent pains -in his head, but after having gone through this operation with the -Evangel, and having had his neck swelled by it, till the veins of both -neck and face seemed ready to burst, he assured me, as we left the -chapel, that it was as if some one had lifted off with their hands the -horrible pains from which he had suffered: ‘Praise be to God’ (_Slava -Bokow_). - -The occupations of a fervent _bohomolets_ did not, however, prevent -my wandering about the town. Archangel has a population of not much -more than twenty thousand; but its port and commercial business give -it an air of great animation. The town proper is joined by a wooden -bridge over the Dvina with the island of Solonbal--a sort of suburb, -in which has arisen the palace of the Governor. Many churches and some -good houses in brick decorate this city, which is mainly constructed of -wood. One single wide street, which extends through the whole length of -Archangel, is paved: all its other streets and lanes are excessively -dirty and muddy, for the _toundra_, or marshy clay upon which, like -St. Petersburg, this city has been built, crops up in all directions. -In one of the squares rises a colossal statue of Lomonossov. To -this rhetorician and celebrated grammarian is traced the origin of -a national literature in Russia, under the reign of the Tzarina -Elizabeth, the daughter of Peter the Great. - -The chief, and indeed, the only object which I had in view in this -town may easily be guessed. Although the season had only begun, about -twenty vessels were already in the bay; but among the different flags -which waved from their masts, I was not able to discover one with the -tri-coloured emblem. The absence of this ensign was in itself of bad -augury to me. The ships were, for the most part, English; there were -also some from Holland, Sweden and Hamburg, but not one French. I very -soon perceived also that on the deck of every vessel walked a Russian -soldier, a vigilant witness, whose eye it was impossible to elude, -for this watch was not taken off even at night; while sentries posted -at short distances from one another formed an unconquerable barricade -along the quays of the harbour, and obliged all who came and all who -went to give an account of themselves. How, then, with these sentries -on the alert, could I make a signal to any captain or seaman! A crowd -of idlers and foot passengers crossed the quays, and added to the -difficulty of any such attempt. How then could I, if any sea-faring man -should pass, accost him in French or in German--I, in my _bohomolet’s_ -dress, and surrounded by any number of people! Must I not surely draw -all eyes upon myself, and bring about an immediate arrest! I continued, -nevertheless, to wander up and down the quays, in the hope that some -favourable opportunity would present itself; but, alas! none such -came. And thus I was obliged again to turn my steps to the _dvorets_, -where, by this time, I was expected to join in the pious exercises of -the rest. On the second day, all those who had reached Archangel with -me embarked for the Holy Island; but I, pretending excessive fatigue, -did not accompany them, and again betook myself to the harbour. I -sauntered up and down by the edge of the water which I had hoped was -to have set me free; I even saw some ships that had finished taking -their cargo on board, a sign that they would soon set sail and depart. -My heart beat violently; my breast heaved, and I could hardly repress -the cry, ‘Save me! Do not abandon me thus!’ At last I accosted some -seamen, busy with tie hawsers which still fastened a ship to the -pier. In spite of the extreme danger thus incurred, I ventured a few -words in French; they only raised their heads and stared at me with -amazement. I tried German, but with as little success; till, finally, -they burst into a loud laugh, and I had to slip away as quietly as I -might, for a crowd had already collected round me. On the following -day my efforts had no better result, and I shall not describe either -the torment of those three days, or the different attempts I made to -reach any of the outward bound vessels. In spite of the severity of the -season, I did not hesitate even to bathe in the harbour, hoping thus to -approach some one of the ships; but nothing came of it, and no chance -of escape offered itself to me. Late on the third day I returned to -the _dvorets_, and there turned over in my mind all the circumstances -of my present state, and I finished by arriving at the heart-breaking -conviction that I could no longer reckon upon the port of Archangel. -Already some surprise was excited that, as a _bohomolets_, I had so -strangely delayed my departure for the Holy Isle, and to remain any -longer in the town, to await the arrival of some French trader, would -have been to order my own arrest. Had I not assumed the character of -a pilgrim, I might perhaps have ventured into some _café_ of public -resort, and I might have flattered myself with the hope of making the -acquaintance of some foreign captain; but in my peasant’s dress how -could I present myself in any such place? Ah! that last night passed -in the caravanserai of the pilgrims, how dark, and how sad it was! It -was the thought, it had been the hope, of Archangel which had given me -strength to meet the greatest dangers, and to endure the most terrible -privations. And now, having reached the object of all my efforts, I was -to find that they had been all in vain, and that I must fly from the -city which I had so long persisted in greeting as the place of my final -deliverance. - - - - -CHAPTER IX. - -THE WHITE SEA. - - THE MONASTERY OF SOLOVETSK--THE PRISONER OF SOLOVETSK--HETERODOXY AND - ORTHODOXY--THE PROMONTORY--A FURTHER JOURNEY. - - -I did not go as far as the monastery of Solovetsk, but I have collected -a great number of details about that place of pilgrimage. In the White -Sea, about 280 verstes to the westward of Archangel, there is a group -of islands, and of these the largest bears the name of Solovetsk. -Originally inhabited by the Fins, it was afterwards occupied by some -intrepid trappers (_promylchlenniki_) of the ancient republic of -Novgorod. It became afterwards the asylum of St. Zosimus, who built -a cell there, and founded a little wooden chapel. Other cenobites -succeeded him on that spot. A convent of monks (_tcherntsé_) was -formed, and this foundation soon becoming celebrated for its miracles, -was enriched by the offerings of the faithful, and was finally endowed -with a fortress or stronghold, for the preservation of its treasures. -With the republic of Novgorod, Solovetsk and its monastery passed -under the domination of the Tzars, who strengthened its fortifications. -In the time of the false Demetrius, the partisans of Boris Godounov, -along with their riches, took refuge in the castle of the Holy Isle, -and there made an obstinate resistance ‘to the most intrepid knights -who held with the pretender:’ thus saith tradition. May they, by any -chance, have been _our_ celebrated _Lissovians_--our hardy warriors of -the seventeenth century. At any rate, this defence of the place added -to the glory of the island, which, after Kiow, occupies the first place -in the list of the holy places of the Russian Empire. - -The situation of Solovetsk in a frozen region, and in one that is -difficult of access, makes all culture there next to impossible. -Latterly, and chiefly by reason of the labours of the monks, some -vegetables, chiefly cabbages, have been raised on the island; but -flour, wheat, groats, oil, and other articles of food only come thither -from Archangel. The recluses can make _kvass_ for themselves, and -their manufacture has a peculiar celebrity. They also possess a mill, -a few cattle, and even some horses. Close to their cloisters are large -warehouses in which the pilgrims deposit their baggage, receiving a -numbered ticket in exchange; but the buildings destined to shelter the -_bohomolets_ are a much greater affair, and their numbers are very -considerable. There are large furnished rooms or halls with long tables -and benches. There the faithful lodge, sleep, and eat their meals; -the compartments of the men being separated from those for women. I -have never heard the hospitality of the brotherhood spoken of but in -terms of praise. During the repasts, a monk reads to the guests in each -hall, out of the ‘Lives of the Saints,’ or recites some prayers. Every -_bohomolets_ has the right of being lodged and fed gratuitously for -the three first nights. During that time he prays, goes to confession, -lights and hold candles, and gets _akathisti_ (antiphones) or gospels -read over his head. There is a tariff for all these spiritual -exercises, but the terms are very modest, though the visit to the tombs -of St. Zosimus and of St. Savatyï have to be paid for separately. When -the three days have expired, the pilgrim will be expected, if he stays -longer, to provide for his own wants, and to pay for his lodging. A -number of devout persons make a vow to remain on the island for whole -years at a time, and these years they spend in acts of devotion and of -penitence. Such guests are warmly welcomed by the brothers, but on the -condition that they pay their own expenses, or make themselves useful -in the convent by some occupation, and become workmen, gardeners, and -the like. - -As soon as the White Sea has become navigable, that is to say, by -the first days of June, the pilgrims crowd into little boats, called -_karbasses_, which, from Archangel, carry them to the Holy Isle. The -price of the voyage is very small, but owing to the discomforts, and -indeed to the dangers of a long crossing on a sea generally very rough, -many _bohomolets_ go on foot from Archangel, and skirt the shore till -they reach a promontory opposite Solovetsk, from which it is separated -by an arm of the sea not one verst in width, and only then do they -commit themselves to the _karbasses_. No one can land on the island, -except during the four months of June, July, August, and September, -for by the beginning of October all navigation of the White Sea is -prevented by the violence of its tempests, and still more by the ice -which enters it from the Polar Sea. So from October to June there are -no visitors at the convent. - -It is a strange thing, and one perhaps not without significance, that -alongside of the very house of God, the Tzars have built one for -themselves--a mysterious prison, of which the _bohomolets_ speak with -the greatest terror, because no one knows what is the meaning or the -use of it. Who may be the unhappy beings who are inclosed within these -dungeon walls! No common criminals certainly, for _they_ are sent to -Siberia. And yet the prison of Solovetsk is certainly occupied, for -sentries and keepers are always on duty, and at their posts. I have -been told that some years ago an old man was seen there. He had a white -beard, and had become blind from weeping. I do not pretend to give any -guarantee for the truth of this tale, which has, however, been narrated -by many; still less do I venture to vouch for the secret which has -been whispered into my ear on more than one occasion; but they say that -the blind prisoner of Solovetsk is a brother of Nicholas--that he is -the Grand Duke Constantine himself...! - -But to return to my own history; on the day which followed the night -in which I determined to abandon any further attempts at evasion from -Archangel, I rose at daybreak, received my baggage from the porter of -the _dvorets_, and declared to him my intention of pressing on to the -monastery of Solovetsk. After having bought some bread and some salt, -I crossed the Dvina, and struck away in the direction of the western -promontory which faces the Holy Isle. The day was hot and fine, the -country flat, but wild and deserted. By evening I reached a little -hamlet, and there I decided to take a Russian bath, a measure which -had become indispensable after my long sojourn among the saints. The -Russians, even the lowest of the people, frequently use these baths on -Saturdays, or on the eve of their festivals. The bath house is a simple -wooden building, where you find a huge stove of about two yards square, -formed of bricks or of unquarried stone, put together without any -cement. There is no chimney, and the smoke goes out at the holes in the -roof. As soon as these stoves are really heated, water is poured over -them, and the steam which flies from them, filling the whole place, -turns it into a bath room. - -After leaving the stove, I felt a strange longing to drink some milk, -and on going to get some in a hut pointed out by my host, I found two -women, to whom I made my wants known, after having made the three -signs of the cross, which are expected of one. They gave me very scant -measure for the piece of money which I offered, and served me with -a bad grace, for which I was not at first able to account. While I -took some mouthfuls of the milk we began to converse, and at last I -found the solution of the enigma. They belonged to the sect of the -‘_staroviertsi_,’ or old believers, and by the way in which I made -the sign of the cross they recognised in me an orthodoxy that was to -be deplored. They did not conceal from me what was their regret that -a man of such piety, a _bohomolets_, should be thus wandering in the -ways of certain perdition. They then showed me how truly to make sure -of my salvation, and tired at last of differing with them, I ended in -adopting their method. These good women were so happy, that they gave -to their neophyte three fresh measures of milk, and refused payment -for it. As they took leave of me, they offered fervent prayers to -God that I might be preserved in the paths of conversion! But these -prayers, alas! were not to be granted, for as soon as I returned to -my landlord’s dwelling, I was again obliged, to cross myself in the -orthodox fashion. - -I continued my journey, walking for several days in a marshy country, -or through woods of stunted fir trees, where I was often obliged to -spend the night. I became more and more aware of the polar nature of -the climate. The sun hardly ever left us; and even during the short -interval between his setting and his rising again, his level rays threw -over the landscape a clearness of light which would have allowed one to -execute the finest needlework. Night was only to be distinguished from -day by the greater stillness which reigned over the face of nature. -It is true, that the geographical ideas which had been acquired by me -when I sat on a form in school had prepared me years before for this -phenomenon, yet I felt as if in a dream on thus finding myself in -regions where the sun never sets. The country, I found, became always -poorer and more desolate, until, at last, I reached the coast; and -after that, I continued to walk along the cliffs, where, for several -days, the weather was extremely fine, and the sun so warm that I was -obliged to take off my pelisse. But, before long, a heavy gale of -wind rose; and the ocean, rolling in mountainous waves, and covered -with snowy foam, seemed eager to justify its name of White Sea, and -presented a spectacle at once mournful and admirably grand. The tempest -lasted for several days. I hardly ever met a human being; but the sight -of a serpent, which had been newly killed, showed me that in this -country and in this latitude reptiles were not wanting. On reaching a -small village on the sea-shore, I found in a _possada_--that is to say, -in a colony--a multitude of _bohomolets_, and, among others, my former -companions from Véliki-Oustiong, who had set out, long before me, from -Archangel, in _karbasses_ bound for the Holy Island, but who had been -driven by the storm to land and seek for shelter at this spot. One of -the _karbasses_ had been swamped, and every soul on board lost in the -waves; and now these poor people awaited the laying of the tempest; -but I left them, assuring them that I should reach the monastery much -sooner and safer on foot than they would in their wretched little -boats. Towards evening, the sea went down, and I had soon reached the -promontory which faces the island of Solovetsk. Leaning on my staff, -I stood for some moments contemplating the shores, and thinking of -our old Lissoviens, who may, perhaps, have encamped on this very -spot, while pushing their adventurous course to the extreme north. -Then, turning to the left, and without waiting for a passage to the -monastery, I struck into the road which would take me to Onega. - -And, in truth, now that my attempts at Archangel had failed, this -was the only route open to me; for a return to Archangel and -Véliki-Oustiong, with a journey thence through the very heart of Russia -Proper, was not to be thought of; and, again, there was nothing more -natural than that a _bohomolets_, having accomplished his pilgrimage to -Solovetsk, should turn to Onega, and to the government of Olonets, so -as to make the pious round of Novgorod and of Kiow, and there _salute -the holy bones_--for such is the sanctified phraseology in use (_dla -pokloniénïa swiatym mostcham_). I do not say that I yet saw what I -ought to do on reaching Onega; but after the mistake about Archangel, -I was not inclined to make any great plans, or to think of the morrow. -I therefore resolutely pursued my way, skirting the western edge of -the promontory, and walking, for several days, along a path which was -bounded, on the one side, by the sea--on the other, by a low range -of hillocks, densely covered with wood. Before me, I saw nothing but -sands, heaths, and marshes; and one incident will, I think, suffice -to give an idea of this desolate country. One day, having arrived at -a _possada_, I could get no bread. The inhabitants had been without -any for a week, because the bad weather had stopped the boats that -came from Archangel; but, as an equivalent, I found some of the fresh -herrings of the White Sea, which were of a good size and excellent -flavour. - -At Onega, I was not tempted to make any further experiments among the -foreign ships that I saw at anchor in the port. In order to have made -any attempts of the kind, with the slightest chance of success, it -would have been necessary for me to pass several days in the town, -where there was no crowd of pilgrims among whom I could hide, as at -Véliki-Oustiong and at Archangel, so as to conceal myself from the -eyes of the Police. Moreover, I was still under the painful impression -left by the discovery of my last bad reckoning, and I had decidedly -more confidence in _terra firma_, which, as yet, had never deceived my -hopes. Two land routes were open to me from Onega, and it was now time -to choose between them. The one to the right would have led me, by the -marshes of Laponia and the river Torneo, to the Swedish frontier; the -other, to the left, trending across the government of Olonets, would -take me, by Vytiégra, to the Gulf of Finland, and to the Baltic. Of -these lines, the first was the most fatiguing--the second the most -dangerous. Had I not already crossed the Ourals and the steppe of -Petchora, I should certainly have taken an extreme northern direction -to Laponia; but I now dreaded the privations, and the miseries with -which I was too well acquainted. Wasted and disheartened, I had begun -to fear hardships more than danger, and I decided in favour of Vytiégra. - -Without, therefore, making too long a halt in Onega, I pushed towards -the south, by skirting the banks of the river which also bears the -name of Onega. Every now and then I met solitary pilgrims on their -way to the monastery of Solovetsk, to whom naturally I could impart -the latest intelligence about the island. I remember one old man in -particular--small, withered, and white as a dove, but very fresh and -hearty withal, who said to me, ‘Can you doubt where I come from? I am -from Kargopol...!’ He pronounced the name with such pride, with such -a sense of the greatness of his native town, that I really might have -fancied that I heard the famous _civis Romanus_. Now Kargopol, which I -soon reached, may truly be said to be one of the saddest little hamlets -of a very sad country. Yet, in spite of the sombre and monotonous -aspect of these districts, where marshes alternate with boundless -woods, in spite of the enormous distances I had to traverse on foot, in -spite of the discomforts incident to the condition of a fugitive who -has always to fear gendarmes, inns, or any expenditure which exceeds -the bare necessaries of life, this journey from Onega to Vytiégra was -very far from being equal in suffering to that which I had made over -the Ourals and the plain of Petchora. My character of a pilgrim gave me -a certain assurance that I need no longer to the same extent avoid the -dwellings of men. Besides, the season was milder; and when at nightfall -I had to turn into some wood to sleep, I could find branches and green -leaves enough to fashion a pretty soft bed. What most surprises me is, -that, in all these nights passed in the solitude of the forests, I was -never once disturbed by wild beasts. Sometimes, indeed, I was startled -by the distant howling of the wolves, but none of these animals ever -presented themselves to my eyes. - -It must not, however, be supposed that, during this expedition, I was -not exposed to much tribulation, in spite of the really very exact -knowledge which I possessed of the manners and customs of the country. -Sometimes an adventure would be almost comic: as when, one day, not far -from this celebrated Kargopol, I asked for food at a hut, and received -for answer that they had nothing but _tolokno_ to offer me. - -‘Well, let us have the _tolokno_,’ I said, rather pleased than -otherwise to make the acquaintance of a national dish, which I had -often heard of, but never seen. My confusion, however, became great -when the mistress of the house set down before me a jug of water, a -spoon, and a small earthen jar half full of a dry and blackish flour. -How was that to be eaten? How could I fail to betray that I was a -stranger by my crying ignorance of a dish so common in Russia? I began -to talk, as if for my life, about any nonsense that would divert their -attention; but my hostess was not to be diverted, and she asked me why -I did not eat, since I was so hungry? - -‘But perhaps you would like it better mixed with kvass (cider)?’ - -‘Oh yes, with cider,’ I replied, as much at a loss as before. - -She brought some cider, and, luckily, poured it herself into the pot, -stirring it with the spoon. The brown mass then swelled until it filled -the jar, and made a paste, which I now knew how to eat. It was made -of oats baked in an oven, which are then carefully sifted and pounded -in meal, and, when mixed with water or cider it forms a substance -so fairly palatable that I can recommend it especially to our brave -highlanders of the Carpathians. - -The district of Olonets is traversed in all directions by canals, -formed to unite the different lakes and rivers of Onega, Ladoga, -Vytiégra, Svir, &c.; and these form the principal means of -communication between one place and another. For the preservation and -inspection of these works, stations have been set down at different -points, and these are constantly occupied by soldiers, the greater -number of them being Poles, who have groaned under arms in the imperial -service for the last sixteen years, that is to say, ever since 1831. -From Archangel to Vytiégra I fell in with several of my unhappy -countrymen, thus incorporated into military bodies, and generally -found that, in spite of their long residence in the country, they -spoke Russian very imperfectly. I often talked with them, pretending -to be a native of Siberia, and thus drew from them an account of their -sorrows. I remember, in particular, one sinister phrase which made me -shudder. Hearing once the complaints made by a Pole of the hardships -and fatigues of his life as a Russian soldier, I said to him what only -a true Russian would have said: - -‘But, after all, you are not so very much beaten?’ - -‘What! we are not beaten,’ was the retort, accompanied by an almost -savage laugh; ‘you don’t think we are beaten? as if anybody got the -Tzar’s bread to eat gratis!’ - -I frequently saw another sad sight in this country, namely, gangs -(_partyé_) of Jewish children that were being driven to Archangel. -It should be known that, whereas the Russian government in Poland -only recruits among adult Christians, it takes boys of from ten to -fifteen from the Jewish population, in order that, forgetting more -perfectly their traditional religion and manners, they may become fit -for military life, for which it seems that adult Israelites are not so -well adapted. A great number of these young recruits are intended for -the navy, and sent to the different ports of the White Sea, and, to me, -the sight of these poor children, with their heads shaved, and wrapped -in their little pelisses, was most pitiful; for the soldiers in charge -of the gang drove them before them like a flock of sheep, and I was -assured by the natives that many of them died by the way. - -It was also in this department of Olonets that I saw another symptom -of the moral state of Russia, which was in itself not less curious. I -had gone into a cottage to ask my way; it was on the road from Kargopol -to Vytiégra. I found in the hut an old man with a long white beard, -and of respectable appearance, who, as soon as he began to talk to me, -expressed such a hatred of the Tzar, the government, and the priests, -that I had no difficulty in recognising in him a _starovier_, or old -believer. Finding me to be a man well disposed to share his religious -views, he ran on at great length, and finally shed tears over the -persecution of the true faith. In order to prove to me that the manner -of making the sign of the cross adopted ever since the reformation of -Nicon (that is, the ordinary Russian fashion) was wholly heretical, he -looked all round the outside of his house, locked the door, and, having -taken an oath of secrecy from me, he drew from a hiding-place a little -figure in copper, evidently a rough piece of old Byzantine workmanship, -which certainly represented our Lord as giving the benediction with the -two fore fingers of the right hand extended, as in the manner of the -_staroviertsi_. ‘They force us,’ he continued, ‘to go to the _tserkiev_ -of the heretics, where the _popes_ oblige us to make the sign of the -cross in their own way; but when we come back from the _tserkiev_, we -pray to the true God, and we ask Him to forgive the great sin.’ He -afterwards drew from the same repository an old paper book, setting -forth ‘The History of the Patriarch Joseph, as betrayed and sold by his -Brethren.’ The good man proceeded to instruct me in these novelties, -and shed some tears of emotion at the virtue of Joseph when tempted by -the wife of Potiphar. - -Scarcely had I reached Vytiégra than I was accosted on the quays by a -peasant, who asked me where I was going. - -‘I am a _bohomolets_; I replied. ‘I am returning from the monastery of -Solovetsk, and I am on my way to “_adore the sacred bones_” at Novgorod -and at Kiow.’ - -‘Then, I am your man,’ he said. ‘I will take you to St. Petersburg. My -boat is small, but I have only my horse to take with me, and you can -help me to row ... it is not heavy.’ - -‘I know that sort of work very well, and I know that it is not light; -how much will you give me?’ - -We wrangled for a long time over the price, the sly villain having -every mind to get the use of my arms, and not to pay for it; but at -last we agreed that he should give me dressed victuals for the whole -time of our voyage, and, so pleased was he with the bargain he had -made, that he took me straight to a pothouse to drink a glass with him. - -The project of going to St. Petersburg, into the very capital of -Nicholas, was sufficiently strange, and, most certainly, it was not -one which I had contemplated when I made sundry and manifold plans of -evasion at Ekaterinski-Zavod; but, since leaving Archangel, I had been -wandering pretty much on chance, with no other object than always to -get near some sea or frontier, no matter which, and always to avoid -remaining more than a few hours in any place where they were likely to -ask me for my papers. Now the boat in question was to leave that very -day; and there was something, even in the very strangeness of the -enterprise, which seemed reassuring. Any capital appeared to me less -dangerous than a small provincial town, and the event showed that I was -not wrong in this calculation. - -By evening the boat was slipped from her moorings, and the navigation -began, which, by Vytiégra, the lake of Onega, the river Svir, the -lake of Ladoga, and the Néva, was to conduct me to the very walls of -St. Petersburg. We rowed day and night, or floated past innumerable -canoes, boats and ships, with which the lakes and rivers were literally -covered; but, above all, past rafts of wood, also intended to supply -the wants of the metropolis, and which, in some places, completely, -obstructed the passage. We made a party of three--myself, the master, -and his son, a stout young man, who, whenever we neared the banks, -would get the horse out and fasten him to the boat, so as to help -to draw it along. In spite of the smallness of the boat, its owner -could not prevail on himself to refuse an occasional passenger, whom -he would take up or put down at spots agreed upon; for how could he -be expected to resist turning a penny from time to time? But these -freights caused me the greatest distress, for the passengers could not -be said to be members of any Temperance league, and I had to watch over -the tipsiest ones, and once had even to jump into the water to pull -out a poor wretch who had rolled overboard. As I do not wish to make -myself appear better than I am, I must state here that I had a strong -personal interest in the safety of these troublesome guests; for, had -any disaster really occurred, we should have been obliged to stop, and -report ourselves at the nearest police station, when the negotiation -thereupon ensuing would, to a certainty, have been opened by a request -for our papers; thus my charity was hardly of a very evangelical sort. - -As we approached by degrees the end of our voyage, I became more -absorbed in thought, and, above all, more anxious to learn something -of the usages of St. Petersburg. Happily, we picked up at one of the -stations several women, who, after paying visits to their relations, -were returning to the capital, where they seemed to have lived for -many years as servants and housemaids. My condition as a _bohomolets_ -obliged me to preach to them a degree of morality in conduct, which -seemed only to excite their risibility. However, I did not preach -entirely in vain, especially when I took under my protection an old -woman, of whom these chambermaids had made a butt in a way that was -really disgusting. She was an old peasant of Korélia, on her way to St. -Petersburg, which she had never seen before, to visit a daughter, who -plied her trade as a laundress in the city. She was immensely grateful -to me for my protection, called me her ‘_batiouchka_’ (little father), -and soon offered me an assistance which can be called nothing less than -providential. - -After encountering a violent storm, during which our women screamed -horribly, and after leaving behind us Nova-Ladoga and Schlusselbourg, -where Alexis Orlov strangled the unhappy Peter III., by the orders of -Catherine the Great, we reached the quays of the capital, at about -eight o’clock in the morning, and drew towards the shore opposite the -Perspective Nevski. The servant girls jumped gaily from the boat, -giving me a rendezvous _to preach to them_, and I was preparing to -step on shore, feeling, I must confess, much at a loss what to do with -myself, when the poor Korélian woman came up to me, and said, ‘Just -stay with me; I have sent to tell my daughter, and she will soon be -down to fetch me, and will show you where you can get a cheap lodging.’ -It may be imagined with what eagerness I embraced her proposition; and -oh, ineffable joy! while we waited a long time in the boat, no one -came to ask for our papers. At last the laundress appeared; she kissed -her mother affectionately, and took up her trunk, which she and I then -carried between us, on a stick across our shoulders. Thus we set off, -preceded by the good old soul herself, who carried on her head the -earthen jar which had contained her food. And in this strange trim I -entered the city of the Tzar! - -We had to go through an endless number of streets, bridges, and lanes -before we reached the place where the laundress lived; it was in a -lodging-house of one story in height (_dom postoïaly_), where the -poorest of the working-classes dwell, and where they came at night to -sleep on a flock-bed (if they can get it), or if not, to lie, as the -Russian phrase is, ‘on the floor, with their fists for a pillow.’ The -swelled faces and the red noses of some who frequented this miserable -abode, showed that many shapes of sin and distress harboured there. -There were, however, regular lodgers, who let out to passengers rooms -that they had furnished on this speculation, and my laundress was -one of these. Unfortunately, her room was already occupied; but she -recommended me to a neighbour, and a bargain was soon made at the rate -of eight kopeks a-day. In order to avoid the critical moment, I asked -my landlady immediately to show me the way to the Prefecture of Police, -where passports were given and examined. - -‘Who are you?’ asked my hostess. - -‘I am a _bohomolets_, from beyond Vologda; I am returning from -Solovetsk, and going to Véliki-Novgorod, to worship the bones of the -saints....’ - -‘You do well; God be your help! Show me your passport.’ - -I handed to her my shabby little pass, repressing any show of anxiety; -but she evidently could not read, and only looked at the stamp, then -said to me: ‘How long do you think of remaining here?’ - -‘From three to five days at the most; I must just rest a little.’ - -‘Then I will tell you what it is, it is perfectly useless for you to go -to the Police?’ - -‘Just as you please; I don’t know the ways of this place. But why is it -no use to go to the Police?’ - -‘Well, you see, I should have to go with you, and that is too much -trouble for me.’ - -‘Why must you go?’ - -‘Because, you see, the Police have lately become so plaguily exacting. -Formerly, it used to suffice if the new-comer himself went to the -Prefecture; but now nothing will serve them but to see his landlord -along with him. Then there is always such a crowd of people at the -office, that one has to wait ever so long before one’s turn comes -round. If one has a lodger for a month or a year, then it is worth -one’s pains to go through all this trouble and fatigue; but if he is -only to stay a night or two, one would never gain a living, for the -time would be spent in coming and going. One could not do a hand’s-turn -in one’s own house at that rate, and people must live, you know; and it -is but little bread that one gets from the Police. And that is why we -prefer not to make any declaration, when the lodger only remains for a -few days; we find it the best plan, and if at the Prefecture they do -not hear all they might like to hear, I cannot say I think there is any -harm done.’ - -I made no objection, it may be supposed; but installing myself in -my room I remained there all the rest of the day, in spite of the -insinuating discourse of my landlady, who proposed to me that I should -go and see the illuminations, for that day was a high day in the -capital. It was July 9, 1846, and they were celebrating the nuptials, -or the betrothal (I do not quite know which), of a daughter of the -Emperor Nicholas, the Grand-Duchess Olga, with the Prince of Wurtemberg! - -The next day, however, I did go out, and I promenaded the town, of -which the wide handsome streets seemed to me to be singularly deserted. -I was meditating on the quickest way of leaving the place, and had -determined, if need be, to swim to the shores of the Baltic, although -any more convenient method, if it should arise, was not to be despised. -I knew that a packet sailed from St. Petersburg to Havre, but what -were the days of its sailing, where did it lie, and was its captain -French or Russian? Grave questions, which I did not dare to put to any -one for fear of compromising myself. I walked up and down the Néva, -and read the inscriptions on the different red and yellow bills which -were posted up on blank planks on each of the different steamers; -but I could only read by stealth, for a peasant, ‘a Russian man’ -(_rouski tcheloviék_) like me, must not make a display of learning! -So I sauntered slowly and perused the inscriptions. One would be ‘the -vessel of his Majesty the Emperor,’ another ‘of His Highness the Prince -Imperial,’ ‘of the Grand Duke Michael,’ ‘of Her Majesty the Empress, -and the ladies of her court,’ &c. Evidently all of too high a class -for me. I managed at last to discover less titled vessels; but then -their destinations were not to my liking, and would not have suited me -in any way. After having thus examined the whole length of the left -bank of the Néva, I crossed the bridge in front of the statue of Peter -the Great, and now pursued the stream along the right hand to its -mouth. I stopped for a moment at the foot of the two gigantic sphinxes -which are placed opposite the museum, and the sight of these strange -Egyptian guests in the City of Ice made me lose myself for a moment in -thought. Suddenly my eyes fell on an advertisement in large letters, -which, stuck up near the mast of a steamboat, announced that that -vessel was to sail for Riga on the following morning...! - -I trembled, and I had difficulty in suppressing the emotion I felt; -but still, I thought, how was I to reach the steamer, how enter into -parley with the captain of it? I saw a man, probably the pilot, walking -on deck; his red shirt pulled on over his drawers was quite after the -Russian fashion, but I did not dare to address him, and I contented -myself with devouring him with my eyes. In the meantime the sun was -sinking, and it was going on to seven o’clock in the evening, when -suddenly the man in the red shirt looked up and said:-- - -‘Do you by any chance want to go to Riga? If so, take your passage by -us.’ - -‘Certainly, I want to go to Riga; but how is a poor man like me to go -in the steamboat? That costs a great deal, it is not made for the like -of us.’ - -‘Why not; come along. A _moujik_ like you won’t be asked to pay a great -deal.’ - -‘How much?’ - -He named a sum, which I do not remember, but which astonished me at the -time as being really very moderate. - -‘Well, will that suit you? What are you hesitating about now?’ - -‘I only came here to-day, and the Police must _viser_ my passport.’ - -‘Then, let me tell you, you will have a three days’ job of it with your -Police, and our steamer sails to-morrow morning.’ - -‘What can I do then?’ - -‘Go without having it _visé_, to be sure.’ - -‘Bah! suppose I get into trouble?’ - -‘Idiot! Here is a _moujik_ setting up to teach me! Have you got your -passport with you? Let us see it.’ - -I drew from my pocket the pass which I kept carefully wrapped in a silk -handkerchief, after the Russian plan; but the man did not even give -himself the trouble of looking at it. - -‘Come to-morrow, at seven o’clock in the morning, and if you don’t find -me here, wait for me; and now be off as quick as you can.’ - -I returned joyously to my lodgings, and on the following morning I was -punctual to my appointment. Steam was already got up; my man perceived -me, and said simply, ‘Pay your money.’ He then left me, and returned -with a yellow ticket, of which I naturally pretended to ignore the -signification. This extracted a second notice, as follows, ‘Hold your -tongue, _moujik_, and let us manage.’ The bell rang three times, the -barrier was opened, the passengers pressed and hurried in, while a rude -shove from my friend sent me in along with the others. Some moments -after the paddles went round, we were in motion; and I was as one that -dreamed. - - - - -CHAPTER X. - -THE RETURN TO PARIS. - - THE MOUJIK’S PASSAGE--LITHUANIA--THE PRUSSIAN - FRONTIER--KÖNIGSBERG--ARREST AND CAPTIVITY--BAIL--FLIGHT--ARRIVAL IN - PARIS--THE END. - - -A passage in the steamer from St. Petersburg to Riga does not furnish -a subject replete with many features of travel, not even when the -traveller is a Siberian exile, flying from the _katorga_. Yet I had -one little adventure, for ocean certainly was hostile to me. Thanks, -I suppose, to the stupefaction caused by sea-sickness, I suddenly -found myself in the first-class cabin--an intrusion which horrified -and disgusted everyone. An elderly Russian lady in particular never -ceased crying in French, ‘Oh, this peasant will give us the plague! -He corrupts the little air we have to breathe!’ Some servants came, -who brought me to my senses, and took me to my own quarters, where, -squatting in a corner in the fore part of the ship, I kept to myself, -and did not again see any of the passengers of distinction, unless -their walk happened to bring them occasionally in my direction. -Two Germans, seeing me making my breakfast on a bit of bread and an -onion (which I did to keep up my part as a _moujik_, not less than -also, alas! from motives of economy), said out loud, in their amiable -language, ‘One can see that that is a Russian hog.’ Oddly enough, the -only persons among the travellers who showed any interest in me, and -who sometimes condescended to talk to me (without having a suspicion -of my nationality), were two young men, both of them Poles. I often -followed them with my eyes as they paced up and down the deck; how -gladly would I have pressed their hands! - -I shall pass rapidly over the rest of my journey from Riga, across -Courland and Lithuania, as far as the Prussian frontier, and shall only -say a few words about the new profession I assumed on quitting St. -Petersburg. The character of a _bohomolets_ could not any longer serve -me, now that I was going in a contrary direction from Novgorod, and I -was also about to cross countries which, like Courland or Samogitia, -were either of Catholic or Protestant beliefs. I therefore proposed to -pass for a _stchetinnik_, for such is the name for the Russian peasants -so often met in those districts as well as in Lithuania and in the -Ukraine, who, going from one village to another, buy hog’s bristles on -behalf of the merchants of Riga. This trade suited me admirably, for -under pretence of inquiring whether my article was to be had or not, it -allowed me to knock at many doors, and to ask my way. I went on foot, -sleeping most frequently in the woods or in the cornfields, and the -fine weather (it was July) was very favourable to me. I had likewise -exchanged my winter trowsers for the summer suit of blue cotton which -I had brought from Siberia; I renewed my linen and my boots, and I -exchanged my pelisse with a tapster for a great-coat and a little cap, -which, with a view to traversing Prussia, I carried with me in my bag, -while as to my little bournouse of sheep-skin (_armiak_), that, like a -true Russian peasant (_rouski tcheloviék_), I always wore, in spite of -the warmth of summer. - -My passage through Lithuania, across our _hallowed_ Samogitia, was -not void of emotion, or of sufficiently diverting scenes. How often -was I not tempted to reveal my nationality to some one or other of -my own country people, and to ask their advice or assistance! But I -resisted every temptation, and I never belied my character as a Russian -_stchetinnik_. One day, at Polonga, I wanted to buy a cheese in the -market from a Samogitian woman; we could not agree about the price, -and my respectable countrywoman, strong in lungs as any woman of _la -Halle_, delivered herself of a sentiment about ‘dogs of Muscovites,’ -which was certainly not of a highly Christian description. Had I even -been ignorant of the meaning of her words, their sense was sufficiently -explained by gestures, patent even to a _moujik_, and I was obliged -forsooth to pretend to uphold the honour of Muscovy against the -outrages of a Polish woman...! - -It was between Polonga and Kurszany that I determined to pass into -Prussia. I had infinite trouble before I could procure, without -betraying myself any information as to the way or the extent to which -the Russians watched their frontier, my best source of knowledge being -a soldier belonging to the customs. Seeing him take a bath in the -little bay of Polonga, I followed his example, hoping thus to begin -a conversation. As soon as he said that he was a native of Pultava, -I declared myself his countryman. There is always one simple way -of getting a Russian soldier to talk, which is to start him about -his grievances, and the hardships of his lot. Once on this theme my -companion informed me of all the precautionary measures which had to -be taken, by day and by night, by the customs on account of smugglers -and rebels (_bountovstchiki_), for so fugitives are called, with -details as to the strength and the weakness of the watch thus kept.... -I must give one expression used by the soldier, than which nothing -could have been more characteristic. I had naïvely asked him why the -Prussians did not help to keep the frontier and hunt down the _rebels_ -and smugglers? ‘That,’ he answered, ‘is just the pity of it all! These -cursed Prussians will not take any trouble at the frontier, and so _all -the burden falls on our poor Tzar_...!’ - -The conclusion drawn by me from this valuable conversation was -precisely contrary to what I had at first supposed, and I saw that -it would be best that I should try to cross the boundary line in -the day time; so, at two o’clock in the afternoon of that same day, -having armed myself with my poignard, and commended my soul to God, -I slipped into the corn. Then spying from the top of the rampart the -moment during which both sentries on the station turned their backs on -each other, I leapt the first of the three ditches which marked the -frontier. No noise was made; I clambered through the brushwood, but as -I reached the second ditch I was perceived. Shots were fired from guns -on both sides, when, hardly conscious of what I was about, I slipped -into the third ditch, then climbed up and leapt again. I lost sight of -the soldiers, and was in a little wood. I was in Prussia! - -Breathless and exhausted, I lay for many long hours bidden in the -thicket without daring to stir; knowing the violence and eagerness of -the Russians, I feared lest they should even pursue me into forbidden -ground; but happily all was still, and a soft rain which began to fall -tempered the suffocating heat of the day. It was time to think of a -fresh disguise. The _moujik’s_ orthodox beard was not suitable in -Prussia, where it would only have attracted attention; so at Polonga -I had taken the precaution to buy a small mirror and a razor, which I -got at a Jew’s stall, while, as to soap, a piece of what I had brought -from Siberia remained still in my bag. I hung the mirror up on a bush, -and, profiting by the rain and, above all, by the dew on the leaves for -moistening the soap, proceeded in this way, though still lying and on -my elbow, to perform the civilising operation of shaving myself. It was -a slow and a painful one, particularly on account of my uncomfortable -position; but I effected it at last, not, however, without sundry cuts -made in my cheeks. About the middle of the night I got up and went on -my way again, dressed in the great coat and the little cap, with my -trowsers falling over my boots. I knew very well that I was by no means -out of danger, for a convention between Russia and Prussia, a cartel -as it was called, then obliged the two powers to deliver over their -mutual fugitives; and more than one, alas! of my compatriots had been -thus brought back to the Russian frontier, after having succeeded, in -spite of many and great dangers, in leaving it behind them. Still I had -confidence in my star, the great matter for me now being to avoid inns, -and to keep clear of gendarmes, a task which, thanks to the summer -season, was not very difficult. As to the direction of my journey, I -had no longer any hesitation about it. I must gain the Grand Duchy of -Posen, and there, among my fellow-countrymen subject to the Prussian -rule, but whose safety I could in no way compromise, I hoped to find -all the help which the rapid diminution of my finances demanded. I was -then ignorant of the massacres which had recently desolated Galicia, -and I did not even know that in this very Duchy of Posen a vast -conspiracy had been discovered; for it was not in the solitudes of the -Oural chain, nor yet among the lowest of the Russian people, that I -could have learnt these heavy and sad tidings. - -I reached Memel, Tilsit and Königsberg successively without any -obstacles. I walked by day, and slept under the stars; I was nowhere -annoyed about my passport, and to the unfrequent questions of merchants -and travellers I replied that I was a Frenchman, a cotton-spinner, -returning from Russia. At last on July 27th, having reached Königsberg, -I saw in the harbour a vessel that was to sail on the following day -for Elbing. Tired of constant walking, I wished to profit by a means -of transport which could be had for a moderate price, and which would -have taken me nearly to the Grand Duchy of Posen, and to my friends. I -determined therefore to remain in Königsberg till the following day. -While waiting in this way I sauntered about the town, and as evening -fell I sat down on a heap of stones near a dismantled house, meaning at -night to wander away and sleep in the cornfields, and to return next -morning before the vessel sailed. Alas! I had not reckoned on my bodily -fatigue any more than on the exhaustion of my strength, and a certain -carelessness had been engendered by the last period of comparative -security. Upon this heap of stones I fell asleep, and slept deeply. -When I awoke, roughly shaken by the arm by some man, it was a dark -night. A stranger stood before me, a night-watcher of the town, as -they are called. He asked me who I was, and whence I came? Drunk with -sleep, I muttered some incoherent words, and when a sense of my danger -finally recalled me to myself, it was in vain that, in my infamous -German, I offered any explanations as to who I was, and how I came to -be there; all my answers seemed suspicious. My complete ignorance of -the place and the darkness of the night prevented me from beginning to -struggle with him, or attempting to fly; I did feel for my dagger, but -luckily I could not find it. The constable took hold of my arm, called -his comrades, and carried me off by force to the nearest office. I was -arrested...! - -The feeling which came over me when once more I found myself in a -prison was one of shame, far more than of sadness or of despair. To -have escaped from the _katorga_, to have crossed the Oural Mountains, -to have slept for months in the snow in ostiak _earths_, to have -endured so many sufferings and privations, to have leapt the Russian -boundary line among the musket balls of soldiers, and now to be taken -up by neither more nor less than a Prussian night constable! It really -was too ridiculous, and I blushed for myself. - -The next morning, about ten o’clock, I was taken to the Police office, -and then commenced all the sad and abject necessities of simulation and -dissimulation, which press on a man who has to elude the cognisance of -the law. I pretended that I was a Frenchman, a cotton-spinner, who was -on his way back from Russia, and who had lost his passport. I gave my -addresses in both countries, but I could perceive that my declarations -did not inspire any confidence. What hurt me most was to perceive in -this first examination, and still more in some that followed it, that -I was taken for a malefactor, who had some interest in concealing a -crime. I demanded to be sent back to France, where I said I was ready -to answer before public justice for all my actions, and to submit to -the consequences of all and everything that could be discovered about -me. - -I was now remanded to the Blue Tower (Blaûer Thûrm), where for -company I found a burger detained for fraudulent bankruptcy and other -peccadilloes. The Blue Tower certainly was not horrible to a man who -knew the insides of Russian prisons, not to speak of the _katorga_; -but the uncertainty and the irritation caused by this sad interlude -recalled some of the worst days of my existence during the last years. -At last, after a month’s detention, I was again called before the -police; it was signified to me that all the addresses which I had given -had been found to be incorrect, and that I now lay under the gravest -suspicions. Tired of making false pretences, and above all of passing -for a criminal trying to hide his identity, I begged to have a private -interview with one of the high functionaries who examined me, and for -the presence at it of M. Fleury, a Frenchman, naturalised at Königsberg -for the last thirty years. He was _interpréte-juré_, and had always -assisted at the enquiries. When left alone with these two gentlemen -I told them frankly who I was, and I left my fate in their hands. I -cannot describe the astonishment, the stupor, and, I must also add, the -consternation of my two examiners on learning that before them stood -a Pole, a political criminal escaped from the _katorga_, and returned -from Siberia! The official at first could not say a word; at last he -cried, ‘But, miserable man! we must give you up; the convention is -decisive! Oh, my God! why, why did you come here?’ - -‘I wished to spare you both embarrassment and remorse, so why did you -not send me on to France as I asked you?’ - -They made me give all the details of my flight; then the Prussian -official left the room. M. Fleury stepped up to me and said, ‘We cannot -avoid giving you up to the Russians; quite recently several of your -fellows have been sent back over the frontiers. There is only one -likelihood of salvation for you, try to see the Count Eûlenberg, or at -least to write to him. He is President of the government (Regierûngs -Präsident), and almost everything depends on him. He is a good-hearted -man--frank, generous, and beloved by all. Write to him, for Heaven’s -sake! Oh, what a pity! what a pity!’ - -On my return to prison I did write to Count Eûlenberg and also to our -Abbé Kajsiewicz, in Paris, to obtain an attestation of my identity, -because I perceived that they questioned among themselves whether I -was not an emissary who had taken part in the late affairs in Posen. -Since my revelation they treated me better in my prison, but I was -not the less the object of a very strict watch. After ten days I got -an answer from Count Eûlenberg, which was polite but vague, although -the advice at the close of it, ‘to have patience,’ seemed to me to be -some encouragement. The principal point of all the investigations was, -had I or had I not shared in the business in Posen? On that head I -felt perfectly at my ease; but my anguish of mind, nevertheless, was -very great, and very often I had to say to myself that perhaps my most -certain hope of being saved lay in my own dagger. - -One day a gentleman presented himself at my prison; he gave his name as -M. Kamke, a merchant of Königsberg, and he begged to know if I would -accept of his bail. Astonished as well as touched at this unexpected -offer, I asked for an explanation of it, and then learnt that the -report of a Pole who had escaped from Siberia being arrested in the -town had spread, and caused a general and lively emotion. The honest -townsfolk of Königsberg, who had more than once been irritated at the -working of the cartel with Russia, were grieved at the idea of seeing -a man given up who had succeeded in eloping from Siberia, and who had -braved so many dangers. Several steps had been taken in my behalf, and -they hoped to find means to liberate me under bail given for me! Ah, -how much good these words did! The acceptance of securities for me -met with some opposition; but when summoned anew, on September 1st, -I found with the Police this excellent M. Kamke, who coming up to me -embraced me, and told me I was free. It really was so, and the official -in charge of the inquest repeated the assurance to me. He asked if I -wished to remain some time longer in Königsberg, and I replied in the -affirmative, for I wished to thank my benefactors, the many persons who -had interested themselves in my fate, particularly Count Eûlenberg. It -also seemed to me to be good policy not to appear to be too anxious to -leave Prussia. Alas! how suspicious I had become! - -M. Kamke took me home in triumph, and for a week, I found in his family -an affectionate care, of which the remembrance can never be effaced. -Suddenly, a week having barely elapsed since I had been allowed my -liberty, I was again invited to attend at the police. I found there two -functionaries whom I had met before. With a sad but kind manner, they -informed me that orders had come from Berlin that I must be given up to -Russia; they added that they had now nothing in their power but to give -me time to fly from this danger at my own peril, and that they hoped -God would protect my steps. I was profoundly touched by their generous -proceedings, and I promised to do my utmost to save them any further -trouble. I immediately informed M. Kamke and my protectors of this -new incident, and my flight was speedily arranged. I took leave of my -brave and true friends, and on the following day, September 9th, I was -already on my way to Dantzig. I was furnished with letters to different -persons in the German towns which I had to pass through, and everywhere -the greatest zeal was shown to make my journey easy. I must be -permitted to mention especially the good offices of the celebrated and -generous bookseller of Leipsig, Robert Blûm, whom Prince Windischgrætz -thought right to have shot at Vienna two years later. Thanks to Help -which never failed me, I had speedily traversed the whole of Germany, -and on September 22nd, 1846, I found myself again in Paris, in the city -which I had left four years before. - -Something more than a year had scarcely elapsed after my return to -Paris, when the revolution of February broke out, and my country -believed in a better future. But, alas! we soon saw our mistake. Once -more I had hastened to my own land, and had just time to assist in -Galicia at a fresh shipwreck of our hopes. It was during the leisure -which expectations thus deceived had left to me, and while my memory -retained the impression of what had recently passed, that I wrote down -the greater part of these ‘Recollections.’ If I have not mentioned my -poor brothers in misfortune, implicated in the affair at Kaminieç, it -has certainly not been because I was then, or am now, indifferent to -their lot; but because I have been able to learn very little of their -fate, or of the nature of the sentences which were passed upon them. -Some have already succumbed under their sorrows; others still groan in -Siberia, in the Caucasus, or in the penal companies of Orenbourg. - -May God have mercy upon the living, and upon the dead! - - - - -POLAND A CENTURY AFTER ITS DIVISION, - -AND - -THE AGITATION IN WARSAW. - -MAY 1861. - - - - -POLAND - -A CENTURY AFTER ITS DIVISION. - - -The world is full of victimised races, to whose ill-fortune it becomes -almost reconciled, since the marvellous discovery has been made that, -at some time or another, these people may have deserved their fate; as -if the strong, for their part, did not also commit faults; and as if, -too, Justice went evermore hand in hand with Fortune. But whence, then, -those crises of anarchy which are apparent, not only in a solitary -instance, but in the most general relations? Whence those convulsions -which make us present, as it were, at a confused disorganisation of all -political order, in one headlong annihilation of all combinations, and -of all foregone conclusions? These take their rise, most frequently, -in some original defect lying at the very roots of the situation, in -some previous violations which, although they leave the people unarmed, -do not the less affect the governments themselves--which compel the -first to a system of indefatigable revolt, and the second to a system -of repression, which is always fatally increasing in weight, till, at -last, there ensues one of those struggles in which contend all the -rights, principles, and accumulated wrongs--all the causes long thought -to be dormant, but which, now reawakened, make their appeal to that -public opinion which has started up as a new power. The whole history -of Poland is before us, to prove how much violence it costs, how many -perpetually recurring struggles it requires, to make the suppression -of a whole race a public right, before the fact of its suppression can -be forced into the vague and terrible list of ‘things that have been -accomplished.’ - -It is now nearly a century since three Powers, united by the saddest -and most dangerous of solidarities, laboured to this end. Frederick II. -of Prussia and Catherine the Great of Russia rejoiced in the work as in -an easy victory; but it carried remorse into the soul of Maria-Theresa -of Austria, who called it ‘a blot upon her reign,’ to which she could -not subscribe without casting a terrified glance into the future. -Thrice was the partition renewed--in 1772, in 1793, and in 1795. It -began by leaving us a shadow of independence, with the shadow of a king -at Warsaw; and it finished by making everything disappear, even to the -very name of Poland. At each dismemberment they believed that they had -achieved success; each time, on the contrary, the injustice of the -whole proceeding became more evident, till it was almost acknowledged -to be so by the dividers themselves--each time the wound became more -envenomed, and the struggle more serious between an always precarious -domination, and the heroism of a race remodelled by misfortune. At -the capital moment of the last dismemberment, in 1792, Poland did not -yield without a struggle; she proclaimed her political aspirations in -the Constitution of the 3rd of May 1791, and, led by Kosciusko, she -reappeared upon the field of battle. The Polish hero was conquered at -Macejowice, and the work, begun in 1772, seemed very nearly completed. -Up to this time, however, it had only been an affair between Russia, -Austria, and Prussia; and Europe had remained a stranger to this -dismemberment of a nation. - -At the end of the storms of the French Revolution, and of the Empire, -in which the Poles had taken part with all their warlike humour, and -during which, by the timid, ephemeral, and incomplete creation of a -Grand-Duchy of Warsaw, they had for an instant believed that their -country was reborn, the Congress of Vienna, after allowing hope to -shine before the eyes of Poland, let her fall again under the triple -yoke, and consecrated her dismemberment as an accomplished fact. -This time, at least, success seemed sure--the partition had become -a public right, and it formed a part of the constitution of Europe; -yet, in reality, the question was very far from being set at rest. -The treaties of 1815 only organised new strife, under new conditions; -and a new weapon was placed in the hands of the Poles, by this species -of homage paid to a nationality that no one ventured quite to kill, -its titles being recognised, and stipulations being made in favour of -its guarantees; while, at the same time, they dared not refuse its -fragments to those who claimed them by right of prior occupation. The -question, then, was so little settled, that at the first agitation it -did not fail to come up again. In 1830, Poland made an immense effort -for its own resurrection, an effort which for a moment sufficed to -hold in check the power of Russia, and filled Europe with anxiety -and emotion. Alone, and abandoned to her own resources, Poland must -evidently succumb; she must sink under the weight of arms, still more -under the weight of oppression. Then, surely, the last words had been -said, the last resistance conquered, and all was really at an end. On -the contrary, nothing was finished; and this is the curious point, the -great moral, so to speak, of the events which for the last two months -agitate Warsaw and all Polish countries. One hundred years after the -first dismemberment, forty-five years after the treaties of 1815, -thirty years after the revolution quelled at Warsaw by the arms of -Russia, Poland rears her head, more agitated than ever, wounded but -not tamed, and showing herself in two lights--the one, as regards her -relations with the state of Europe; the other, as regards that internal -labour, by which she has obstinately sought to remake for herself -a moral life, and a new destiny, in spite of the darkest, and most -painful trials. - -What, then, really is the character of this situation, so suddenly -revealed in Northern Europe by the strange drama of Warsaw, at the very -moment when Italy has constituted herself anew, and when Hungary claims -her old tradition of independence--when both in the West and in the -East everything is in movement--when all questions of nationality, of -public rights, and of universal balance, are making themselves heard at -once? What is most strange in these events is, that all is spontaneous -and unforeseen, though an eternal reason gives them being. This is the -act of life in a people, which, finding itself one day united by one -and the sane feeling, spreads itself peaceably through the town, and -then demands, what even treaties have not denied to it, respect for -its nationality, and its own religion, the guarantee of its existence -in regular institutions, the preservation of its own language, the -right of interesting itself in its own affairs, of occupying itself -in agriculture, in the education of its own children; the right, it a -word, to live and to breathe. Nothing assuredly can be more dramatic -than the meeting which during the last two months has taken place in -Warsaw. It is no longer one between two sovereigns, but between two -nations, which for the first time for thirty years find themselves -publicly face to face, which have suddenly brought their disagreement -into the broad daylight of European conflict, and which are now -interrogating each other in this mysterious pause; two peoples, of -which the one has no arms but its rights and its prayers, and of which -the other has no danger but in the very excess of its own powers. - -This, then, really is the situation which has disclosed itself in the -heart of Poland since the 25th of February, the day upon which this -new, touching, and heroic adventure began for a population which, to -a certain extent, thus returns to public life, and which goes out to -pray for its country and its dead. At first, Russia appears to have -been visibly surprised at this unexpected manifestation on the part of -Poland, in which she believed, perhaps, that no such vitality existed, -and she was divided between the inquietude caused by the movement, -and by the sense that concessions must be made. She has not the gift -of always making the happiest resolutions; she yields when it would -be natural to resist, and resists when it would be just to yield. She -begins by giving up some of those officials who are most compromised, -and she ends in dissolving those popular corporations of which she not -only herself sanctioned the existence, but of which she had availed -herself for a month, in order to maintain order. This, by a series of -enigmatical and contradictory acts, in which, doubtless, there is as -much embarrassment as calculation, she sets all hopes and all fears -fermenting together. Popular manifestations follow one after the other. -The question assumes greater proportions, the movement becomes graved -and more complicated, and in a short time the whole affair has changed -its aspect. The pressure imposed becomes heavier than ever, when -pitted against a moral agitation which has been throughout innocent of -any violence, so that it requires but a few days and an evolution of -Russian policy to bring the situation to one of those issues, which -Prince Repnin characterised in his day with inexorable bluntness, when -he said, ‘Unless we deny all sentiments of humanity, it is true that we -cannot help recognising the right which the Poles have to complain. You -would have full right to drive out the Russians, if you had the power; -not having the power, you must submit.’ - -Such is the question truly stated by the victorious side, and certainly -such is the question so often supposed to have been definitely settled, -but which has never been resolved. After the bloody repression of the -8th of April, as after all those that went before, the problem of the -destinies of Poland is not the less on foot. It springs out of these -events, and is shaped by their character and their aims, in the midst -of those conditions of universal transition in which the world of -to-day finds itself placed. - -What makes these new events so important, is that they form part of -a European situation, at the same time that they are the outward and -visible signs of a profound and inward work, of which Russian Poland -is the centre (most active and most prominent at present), but which -has also revealed, in the Grand Duchy of Posen, in Galicia, in short, -everywhere, that, in spite of treaties and congresses, Polish feeling, -the last and indestructible tie of a riven country, still lives. -This question of Poland has its roots deep in the past, and I am not -ignorant that it is so. Whether politically or diplomatically, it goes -back, like so many more, to the transactions of 1815, and when the -attempt is made to draw closer the knot of European affairs, whence -come the crises of which this question has been the unhappy and the -perennial source? Is it not because these treaties have manifestly -been an immense and avowed violation of an imprescriptable right, -or rather the fatal and complaisant consecration of all previous -violations? One of the most essential causes of the tribulation and -disorder in the politics of the time--a cause which now appears in -all its distinctness--is the ever-growing contradiction between the -dispositions of the solemn act of Vienna and the real state to which -the different parts of Poland are reduced; so that, if there have been, -if there shall again be, revolutionists, we must settle this in our -minds, that it is not the Poles who are such. An example has been given -them in this matter, and they have been left with this sad conviction, -that, according to the rights of 1815, they have the right on their -side. It is, indeed, a curious thing that the people of Poland have -been the ‘last to step down into the arena of to-day at that name -of “nationality” which serves as a watchword to all other revolting -populations.’ Yet Poland was the first and the only country in whose -favour such a word was hinted at by the Congress of Vienna, when it -was inscribed in treaties, as if to render a marked homage to heroic -misfortune, and, while tempering by guarantees the way in which Poland -was abandoned, to maintain the mockery of an ideal ‘nationality,’ in -spite of territorial division. - -Still more curious was the sort of universal disavowal made of the -partition of Poland, at the moment in which it was announced as a -new public right. M. de Talleyrand, the representative of the French -king, called it ‘the prelude to European convulsions;’ and of all -the questions that were to come before the Congress, he considered -the Polish one to be ‘the first, the greatest, the most eminently -European, and, beyond comparison, before all the others in importance.’ -The Emperor Alexander of Russia, professing himself the renovator of -Poland, was actuated either by ambition or by the vanity of appearing -as a liberal prince, and, doubtless, also by sentiments of generosity; -but this renovation offered itself to his mind under the shape of a -kingdom which should be a feudatory of the Russian crown, while it -still preserved the integrity of Poland. Poland was a subject of -remorse to Europe, and she inspired respect, without having strength -enough to make herself truly and really respected. Hence the strange -combinations adopted by the Congress of Vienna, which (while it -delivered over the provinces of Poland to Austria, to Russia, and -to Prussia) multiplied at the same time protecting guarantees, and -laboured to maintain a national link between the different parts, by -assuring to them a certain autonomy, as if the future could be secured -by abandoning the present. - -From one point of view, nothing can be stranger than the organised -_whole_, of which the scattered elements are to be found in the final -act of Vienna, and in the separate proceedings between Russia, Prussia, -and Austria, under the sanction of Europe. In Galicia, Cracow, escaping -the general shipwreck, is constituted ‘for all time coming’ (_à -perpétuité_) a free, neutral and independent town. The transformation -of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw into the kingdom of Poland, under the -Russian crown, leaves the name of the country still diplomatically -existing, and it leaves it also as the nucleus of reconstruction, the -centre of attraction. The Prussian division gets the name of Grand -Duchy of Posen, that it may preserve a distinct character in the -whole monarchy of Frederick II.; and the frontier on the Prussian -side is defined, as well as on the Russian border. Finally (and here -is the origin of the great debate in the eyes of diplomatic Europe), -the three powers engage themselves, by their act at Vienna, to give -to the Poles, their respective subjects, ‘representation and such -national institutions, arranged according to their modes of political -existence, as each of the governments shall judge to be useful;’ while, -in order better to define the sense and meaning of these guaranteed -institutions, the separate treaties add that these are intended to -secure to the Poles ‘the preservation of their nationality.’ - -Nor is this all. In default of political unity and of real -independence, Poland is at least to keep the unity of her interests. -Full liberty of trading, of transit, and of navigation, is established -in all and between all the divisions of ‘_ancient Poland_;’ and it must -be noted that care was taken constantly to recall the old frontiers -of 1772 as the natural frame for all combinations. The quality of ‘a -mixed subject’ is recognised in those who have possessions in all the -three provinces, and who, escaping all classification, remain, in -spite of everything, _Poles_, as their civil individuality cannot be -divided under three heads. Such, indeed, is the spirit which permeates -this work (singular and incoherent as I do not deny that it is), that -Austrians, Prussians and Russians, are qualified as _strangers_ or -_foreigners_ in the article which treats of arrangements to be made -for the regulation of commercial interests on Polish grounds; and by -this title _they_ are excluded from such benefits as only the Poles -are entitled to enjoy. I shall not proceed further. Considering the -transactions of 1815 as a whole, and putting them together, what do -we find? We find a free town, the last remaining image of former -independence. We find the name of one common country consecrated -by treaty, and resting upon the kingdom newly called into being. -We see our right to a nationality made superior to all territorial -demarcations. We read, in the first place, of the autonomy of the -different provinces that have been dealt out to new masters, and that -the map of old Poland is to be adopted and acted upon in material -life; and we have a sort of _Zollverein_ of commerce and navigation, -serving as the sketch for a confederacy. One would say that it looks -as if Europe, not daring to be wholly just, had wished, at each step, -to soften away by equity the violation of the independent existence -of a nation; that, practically, she sought to reunite the national -tie, which arbitrary right had recently broken; and that she was less -occupied in resolving the question of the destinies of Poland, or -putting an end to it by one act of sovereign power, than in leaving it -in suspense, and handing it over to the future. - -All that thus appears in some inert articles of the treaty, receives -a sort of luminous and decisive confirmation from the interpretations -of the times, from the commentaries of the sovereigns themselves, -as well as from the first deeds done under the fresh impression of -these events. No one knows what passed through the mind of the Emperor -Alexander--through that mind at once so playful and so imperious, so -full of liberal desires and of mysterious unrest, of generous instincts -and of Byzantine duplicity; but he, at any rate, entered upon his part -by not recoiling from such a beginning as would ensure his popularity. -‘In truth,’ he said to Lord Castlereagh, ‘though at this moment the -object is not to re-establish Poland in its integrity, there is -nothing to prevent that being done some day, if Europe should desire -it. To-day, such a thing would be premature. That country needs to be -prepared for so great a change; and there is no better way of doing it -than to erect into a kingdom one part of its territory, and in this to -place such institutions as will make the principles of civilisation -take root and fructify; they will then spread through the whole mass.’ -And, in truth, Alexander was the first who set to work, till he gave -a charter to his new kingdom, the constitution of the 13th of May, -1815; and of this he himself expressed the sense, in a proclamation -made to the Poles: ‘A constitution suited to your wants and to your -characters; the use of your language preserved in public transactions; -offices and employments bestowed solely on Poles; liberty in commerce -and in navigation; facilities of communication with such parts of -ancient Poland as are subject to other powers; a national army; all -means guaranteed to perfect your laws, with the free circulation of -knowledge in your country--_these_ are the advantages which you will -enjoy under our rule, and under that of our successors; and _these_, -also, you will transmit as a patriotic inheritance to your children and -your children’s children....’ - -The reader will remark here, that this is strictly the meaning of -the Treaty of 1815; and three years later, in 1818, Alexander, when -opening the first Polish Diet at Warsaw, still held the same language. -‘Your restoration is defined,’ he said, ‘by the most solemn treaties, -and sanctioned by a constitutional charter; and the inviolability of -these exterior engagements and of this fundamental law henceforward -assures to Poland an honourable rank among the nations of Europe.’ The -Emperor, moreover, seems to have so little questioned the guarantees -of Europe, that he boasted of having won them for Poland, as one wins -a victory, by a brilliant charge. ‘I have made this kingdom,’ he -goes on to say--‘I have established it on the most solid basis; for -_I have obliged_ the Powers of Europe to guarantee its existence by -treaty.’ At one moment, the successful autocrat had thoughts of going -a step further, and of aggrandising the new kingdom by annexing to it -the old Polish provinces incorporated with Russia, viz. Lithuania, -Volhynia, and the Ukraine; for he had reserved the right of doing so, -in his treaty with Austria, in these very words: ‘His Imperial Majesty -reserves to himself the right of giving to this state, which enjoys a -distinct administration, such _interior extension_ as he shall think -proper;’ and this it was which, for a moment, gained over the heart of -old Kosciusko to the policy of Alexander. - -The King of Prussia, if he left a brilliant part, and the formation -of great projects to the Tzar, did not act differently from him. He -held the same language to the Poles of Posen. ‘You, likewise,’ he said -to them, ‘have a country, and I esteem you because you have known how -to defend her. You will be my subjects; but you will not, for that -reason, be obliged to deny your own nationality. Your religion is to be -respected, and your personal rights and properties are to pass under -the guardianship of laws which, for the future, will be enacted by -yourselves. Your language in all public affairs will be employed along -with the German tongue. You will fill up all the offices of the Grand -Duchy of Posen; and my Lieutenant, born among you, will reside with -you.’ - -The formula of the oath imposed upon officials was peculiarly -significant. It was conceived in these terms: ‘I acknowledge his -Majesty the King of Prussia as the only legitimate sovereign of this -country; and _I acknowledge that part of Poland which, in consequence -of the Treaty of Vienna, has fallen to the lot of the royal House of -Prussia, to be my country_, the which I am ready to defend against all -persons whatsoever, and under all circumstances, at the price of my -own blood.’ Such an interpretation long continued to be in use, since, -in 1841, King Frederic William IV. engaged ‘to respect in the Poles -that love which every heroic nation cherishes, for its language, its -customs, and its historic past.’ - -As to the Emperor of Austria, he, in 1815, did nothing. With his cold -temper, the Emperor Francis laughed a little at the restlessness, and -the liberal proclivities of Alexander of Russia. He was, however, -uneasy about them, and ended by saying, ‘I am not false enough -for that,’ which, of course, did not change the _meaning_ of the -arrangements of 1815. In recalling all these facts, it must not be -supposed that I entertain the eccentric idea of making the last of the -rights of Poland rest in the work of the Congress of Vienna; but still -these treaties, such as they were, brought about a certain order of -things. If it was not independence which they secured, at least they -gave us a number of guarantees--the preservation of nationality even in -partition, the autonomy of our institutions, and of our interests. Our -name, our religion, and our language were all, under the sanction of -Europe, saved from total shipwreck and loss. - -But has experience shown us that this is the plan which has been -followed now for nearly half a century? The truth is that, in accepting -the situation created by the Treaty of Vienna (an order of events -which had its conditions, its obligations, and its limits), Russia, -Prussia, and Austria have shaped their practice after the spirit which -presided at the _first_ partition--that is, after the idea of an -assimilation so complete as to be equivalent to conquest. From these -treaties of 1815, they have, to say the truth, reaped the benefit of -having got a European sanction for the dismemberment of Poland; but -they have troubled themselves very little about the guarantees which -were designed to serve as a sad and impotent compensation for the -partition; and each of these three powers has carried on its work after -the fashion which has best suited itself, its politics, and its nature. - -Not that the change was made suddenly, or openly visible. It has been -developed by degrees, especially in the kingdom of Poland. Veiled at -first, during the lifetime of Alexander, by constitutional forms, it -was hastened, and no longer concealed, under the Emperor Nicholas, -whose policy may be described in one word, the _denationalisation_ -of Poland. To accomplish this was the dream, the intense, unbounded, -ardent passion of a prince who was perhaps a great Russian, driven -by continental revolutions to play an exceptional part, but who left -dangerous traces upon European policy, and bequeathed a weight of -formidable difficulties to his successor. Yet it must not be said that -the Revolution of 1831 placed Poland at the mercy of this Tzar, or that -it released him from all his obligations, and gave him all the rights -of a conqueror; for, in the first place, that revolution was nothing -more than a reprisal--a desperate attempt at self-defence; and, what is -more, against any such policy there rise at once all the stipulations -of the Treaty of Vienna, and even all the words of the Emperor -Alexander--‘Your restoration is defined by solemn treaties.... I have -obliged Europe to guarantee your existence by treaties....’ The Emperor -Nicholas was, possibly, the fittest judge to determine what extent of -liberalism he could put into the institutions of the kingdom of Poland; -but he was not the only judge of what was, so to say, the European -essence of these institutions--of that which concerned their spirit, -according to treaty--of the preservation of the nationality of Poland. -Diplomacy had placed that matter out of his power, by putting it beyond -his reach. Now, this very nationality, placed under the guarantees -of all Europe, became, unfortunately, a particular foe of Nicholas; -and he persecuted it with all the inflexible vigour of his character, -in our religion and our language, in the autonomy of our interests -and institutions, in the independence of our hearths, in public -instruction, in our manners, and in our very dress. This originated the -system which, in 1831, substituted a new _statut organique_ for the -Constitution of 1815, and which, we must say, has been followed far too -long, and followed, also, in all the bitterness of a spirit irritated -by the resistance which it has met with. - -The organic statute of 1831 made no secret of it; it was an absolute -and definitive incorporation of the Kingdom into the Russian Empire. -Thenceforward the ceremony of the coronation of the king of Poland -at Warsaw was also abolished. The separate army disappeared, and -military recruiting for Russia spread over the kingdom. The magistracy -ceased to be unremovable, and Russian functionaries replaced Poles in -the administration; while the constitutional chambers gave place to -provincial assemblies, which have, moreover, never even been convoked. -Thus a policy was disclosed, of which the only aim seems to have been -to dissolve all the ties of national life in the kingdom, as well as in -the ancient provinces. The high schools, the university, the library, -the museum, and the mint of Warsaw vanished, or were transferred to -St. Petersburg. Education was reduced to technical studies; Latin was -banished at last; and the children in every parish, to whatever class -of society they might belong, were obliged to attend the government -schools, and to learn Russian, under pain of corporal punishment on -the children, and of a fine in the case of the parents. One day, -5,000 families of the lesser nobility of Poland were ordered to be -transported to the crown lands, or to the Caucasian border; and in -the order of execution it was added, that, ‘if the Polish gentry have -no mind to be transplanted, you are authorised to oblige them, and -to use force;’ while another day the Council of Administration at -Warsaw adjudicated quietly on the transport of the _sons of noble -Poles_ to St. Petersburg, at the price of 120 roubles (paper money). -I do not speak here of other orphan children carried off to Minsk, -or of the multitudes of Poles of all ages removed to Siberia. Where -persons are not safe, religion is also infringed. Sometimes it is -attacked through the police, sometimes it suffers by the expropriation -of Catholic Churches, by persecution, by the forced conversion of the -United Greek to the Orthodox Church. The national costume is the next -subject of interference; there is a law against wearing the national -colours, against using blue, crimson, or white, though green and red -are not wholly forbidden to the women, and we are permitted to put on -white shirts. The Russian costume of a brown hue being much the most -economical wear, the government undertakes to open clothing shops in -all towns and villages! The reward of one rouble is offered to those -who display the greatest alacrity in donning the Russian dress, and -those who oppose themselves are flogged. In short, a vast attempt is -made to efface everything that has the stamp of our country, or that -can recall her existence. This hapless nationality in the midst of the -empire must be made to disappear, and it must be made subordinate to -the intentions and the interests of Russia. - -The design of bringing about a forced assimilation, and of making the -Polish give way to the Russian element, is often shown in the most -futile administrative details, in the simplest questions of trade, and -other material interests. Having once entered on this system, Russia -is condemned to fear everything, and to watch every event. Not very -long ago, Prussia drew up a set of complicated rules with regard to -the importation of cattle into its territories, and established such a -quarantine as might preserve its herds from those epizootic disorders -which ravaged the southern parts of Russia. Who suffered from these -difficulties? Of course, the kingdom of Poland (a country essentially -agricultural, but possessing in its cattle one element of wealth) could -not but suffer. It was then timidly requested that, in order to have -the restrictions, made for the sake of Prussia, removed, and in order -to leave the trade between Germany and Poland free, such precautionary -measures as had heretofore been in force at the Prussian frontier -of the kingdom should also be put in practice on the marches of the -Russian provinces in which the contagion obtained. But nothing of the -sort was done; and for this reason, that the sanitary _cordon_ thus -demanded must have been upon the old Polish boundary, and it would, -oddly enough, have described the line of those frontiers which existed -in 1792, and which the treaties of 1815 had laid down as the frame -within which the commercial life of the different provinces of Poland -was to exist. Russia was represented at Warsaw by a terrible man, a -Director of the Interior, M. Muchanof, who could not bear to see Poland -imaged even under the shape of a law of transit. - -Another fact ought to be noticed. During the last years, a great -question, from which the Russian Empire has much to fear, has been in -agitation, I mean the emancipation of the peasantry; a problem of which -the Emperor Alexander II. has attempted the solution. My business is -not with the discussion of the subject in itself, but only to remark, -that there is a great difference in regard to it between Russia and -the kingdom of Poland. In the kingdom all the principles of the French -civil code remain in full vigour. There is equality of persons in the -eye of the law; but the constitution of property is a different thing. -Thus, our peasants still pay, it is true, a feudal fine, or _corvée_, -on the fields which they cultivate; but this fine is not a sign of -personal servitude. The labouring man has his civil individuality. -Thus, in the different countries his condition differs essentially; -and yet when the question arose the other day, Polish proprietors were -forbidden to do otherwise than follow the programme traced by the -Russian government solely with a view to Russia. - -My object in referring to this, is to point out in what a confusion of -interests Polish autonomy now perishes by force; and yet that autonomy -was placed under the sanction of the whole of Europe. In truth, -must not Russian policy have passed all limits, if quite recently a -permission to teach Polish in schools for _one hour_ in the day (as -if it was English or Turkish) came to be considered as a sort of -reparation, almost as a liberal measure? - -I do not say that a similar policy, under like conditions, or with -similar measures, has been followed in Prussian Poland. There, at -least, so much of liberalism prevails that the right of complaining is -left. Our griefs are not lost in the silence of a boundless oppression. -Polish deputies have to this day a place in the parliament of Berlin, -where, inch by inch, they defend the privileges of their country. But -are the two systems, after all, so very unlike each other? The latter -is less violent in one way, but its object is at bottom the same; for -Prussia, like Russia, labours to denationalise Poland. M. de Flotwell, -a man who governed the Grand Duchy (Posen) for many years, explained -his views when he said, that she did so, by insensibly stifling Polish -manners, inclinations, and tendencies, and by introducing the German -element in their place. The work of infiltering the German element is -carried on in a thousand ways; by bureaucracy, by education, by the -compulsory substitution of the German for the Polish tongue; by the -transfer of land, with the connivance of the state, which sometimes -buys up Polish estates, and sells them to Germans at a loss. There is -not a single Polish notary in Posen. Justice is administered in German, -and he who appears before the public tribunals is often examined, -accused, nay even defended, in a language which he does not understand. -It is the same with public instruction: it has hitherto been found -impossible to establish a Polish high school (Lyceum), and where a -working-man’s college has been opened, the classes are taught and the -course is in German. Even in private institutions it is forbidden to -teach the history of Poland, and for this conclusive reason, ‘that this -history not being taught in the public schools, ought not any more -to be taught in private ones!’ The Prussian government, it must be -said, makes no secret of its intentions; for it has promulgated in the -parliament of Berlin, that ‘the province of Posen is neither more nor -less than a simple province of Prussia.’ - -We now come to Austria. As to that power, need I recall with what -sinister dexterity she one day succeeded in putting hatred into the -hearts of the peasants of Galicia, and in driving them upon the Polish -nobility? And is it not a strange irony of fortune which has made -Austria the guardian of the tombs of two heroes of Poland? The one is -the grave of Sobieski, who sleeps in a church now abandoned and in -ruins at Cracow; the other is that of Kosciusko. When Kosciusko died, -the students of Cracow obtained leave to erect a humble monument to his -memory on a height, at a little distance from the town. The Austrians -came, they did not certainly do away with the tomb, but they covered it -round with the works of a citadel, and placed by it an Austrian sentry! -Finally, there came a day--a day which has not been forgotten, when the -three powers were found united in the definite suppression of Cracow, -that town, ‘free, independent, and neutral to all perpetuity,’ and all -this with the sanction of Europe, which could do nothing but enter one -protest more. - -What result is evident from this assemblage of facts, from this -eloquent demonstration of the lack of efficacy in European guarantees? -This--that in reality the stipulations of Vienna have been set aside -by the very powers in whose behalf they were made, by those who have, -except these treaties, no other titles for the possession of Poland. - -But the stipulations have disappeared under a series of violations, -which have been systematically carried out, but which, while they -enervate or nullify the guarantees that protected our nationality, also -nullify the title of these governments, and give back their rights to -nationalities, whose energy has been increased by their conflicts, or -by the necessity of self-defence. - -Further, it may be thought that these treaties created insoluble -difficulties, attempted to make things live together which were utterly -irreconcilable, viz., the contradictory rights and interests of the -conquerors and the conquered. It may be so; but this only goes to -prove that the Treaties of 1815 sowed the seeds of war and of disorder -by the Vistula as by the Po; and the disturbances of half a century -have grown up out of them, by the Po as by the Vistula. - -Here we see what is most truly characteristic in these Polish matters. -Here is no natural and peaceful developement of an order of things -half constituted by the ruling power of public right. It is a history -full of dramatic mysteries, of ardent protests, of which one-half -only is known to the world, the other half being lost in dungeons, in -subterranean vaults, in mines, in Siberia, in the Ourals. Above all, -since 1831, it is the history of a dark and ceaseless conflict between -a power which, in order to remain mistress, is obliged at every turn to -exceed its rights, and a people which struggles, conspires and rebels, -and to whom the permanent contact of a hard and foreign rule with a -suffering nationality is a continual punishment--a people which passes -its time in believing in hope even against hope, whom oppression raises -more than it tames, and which even when conquered has the ingenuity to -feed on its own sufferings, and to relish them with a dark and bitter -delight. - -Let any man represent to himself what that country is like, where to -have read such and such a book by a Polish poet has sent thousands -of young people to Siberia--a country where in the universities and -schools the students, even the children, secretly practised beating -each other with rods, in order to accustom themselves to tortures, and -to be ready to bear every trial without flinching! This familiarity -with pain, this sort of defiance to a hidden warfare, is one of the -traits of the contemporary genius of Poland; and it is the theme of -a song commonly sung in Poland to a slow and plaintive melody; an -ironical and bloody lesson for the use of Polish mothers! ‘Our Saviour, -when still a child at Nazareth, played with the cross, the future -instrument of his death; and thou, alas! oh, Polish mother, oughtest -to amuse thy child with the instruments of his future play. Early, -then, tie his hands with chains, fasten them to the infamous tumbril, -that he may not grow pale at the executioner’s axe, that he may not -blush at the sight of the noose; for he will never go, as did the -knights of old, to plant the cross triumphant at Jerusalem; nor yet, -like the soldiers of later times, to till the fields of liberty, and -to water them with his blood. He who will provoke your child will be a -secret spy; he who will contend with him will be a perjured judge. His -field of battle will be a dungeon underground; his sentence will be -pronounced in some implacable cave. When conquered, no monument awaits -him but the empty gallows tree; and for glory he shall have the stifled -sobs of women, and the midnight whispers of his brother men!’ - -Thus has Poland existed for nearly thirty years, struggling and -conspiring, trying both to interest Europe in her misfortunes, and to -accomplish within herself the great work of internal revolution--having -to bear the back blow of every event, and of all those catastrophes -which have crossed her efforts. In reality, perhaps Poland has suffered -by three occurrences within the last fifteen years (occurrences which -have had a conspicuous part in her fate) more than by any persecutions -carried on against her. These events were believed to have proved -fatal to her, but they have nevertheless been but as a new trial, a -mysterious and a bitter prelude to a more serious manifestation of -her powerful vitality. The first of these events was the massacre -in Galicia in 1846--the most terrible and bloody deception of all -Polish patriots! The revolution of 1831, when it died out before the -arms of Russia, had at least left this lesson, that for the future, -any and every attempt at national enfranchisement must form part of -such an internal transformation as should unite all classes, and -interest the masses throughout the country in one common work for the -emancipation of the peasantry, and for making them definitely holders -of property. As to the means of doing this, the two parties, namely, -the constitutional or aristocratic, and the democratic, differed. At -bottom they had the same end in view, and the project was cherished -more especially by the democratic propaganda, of which emigrants formed -the central body. But all of a sudden, Austria, taking a part in the -movement, turned the current of emancipative ideas against Poland, and -by unloosing against the nobility the fury of the Galician peasantry, -had taught the other dominant governments in Posen, and in the kingdom -(Warsaw), how to establish their own reign most securely, by inflaming -the minds of men, and by setting class against class. Thus ended the -labours of the democratic conspiracy of the year 1846; and the work -had to be recommenced, for this bloody act, brought about with most -sinister shrewdness, had at least for the time being disconcerted every -attempt in Poland, since action had lost its fulcrum in the masses who -had been thus fatally led astray. - -The French Revolution of February, 1848, was another of those events -which, by deceiving Poland, have helped to weigh her down. It was -the hour at which a great explosion was expected, for, in a French -revolution, how could we do otherwise than see a movement affecting -the world? How could we help thinking that all nations would free -themselves from old claims, and that Europe would be transformed by -democracy? But what, on the contrary, was the result? Everybody knows -that this ill-starred revolution availed none of the nationalities. -Neither could it have been of help to any, since it obliged France to -concentrate her own forces, in order to save herself from dissolution. -But the Polish cause had the misfortune of being united with those -European commotions which were so much to be dreaded; and, what was -worse, that cause served as the banner of the agitators of May 15th, -1848, who menaced everybody, and everything. This was its crime. Having -become importunate and teasing, like some unpleasant recollection, its -popularity was immediately lost; and, what was still more curious, -it was Nicholas who became popular--that Emperor suddenly being -transformed into the high priest of order and civilisation. - -Then came the war in the East, and, at the prospect of inevitable -complications in Europe, as at the sight of that strange -combination--viz. a liberal alliance between France and England against -Russia--the hopes of the Poles once more awoke. Had the Emperor -Nicholas lived, his obstinacy might have occasioned such European -complications as might have again given a place to Poland; but his -death facilitated peace. The name of Poland cannot be spoken; and, -inasmuch as the Revolution of February, 1848, deceived the democratic -party among us, so did the war in the Crimea dissipate the illusions of -these moderate politicians of the diplomatic party who reckoned upon -Europe. - -It is, then, after this series of mistakes and of hopes deceived, that -Poland has retreated more and more into herself, and that she sits -mutely waiting, having seen how conspiracies, European revolutions, and -regular interventions, have all alike failed her. Poland feels that she -has become unpopular; that, as a Pole expressed it, ‘she is a bore,’ -and she avoids being spoken of. No doubt, she could not help feeling -with secret bitterness, that liberal Europe takes interest in Italian -nationality, in Hungarian nationality, in Moldo-Wallachian nationality, -and forgets a little that there was a Polish nationality. But Poland is -silent, and she endures this punishment of silence and indifference, -which is more difficult to accept than war, more hard to bear than any -persecutions; for it has to be borne by a people which has spent its -life in seeking for a country, and which has filled the history of -to-day with its heroism, its protests, and its distress. No one can -imagine what an amount of suffering is inflicted on Polish hearts by -the moral isolation in which we are left, and that, too, in the middle -of the agitation occasioned by the revival of other nationalities. ‘I -see what it is,’ said a Polish peasant; ‘they will end in giving the -Tsigans a king, but no one will ever think of giving one to us.’ Poland -had at one time so completely disappeared, that she was supposed to be -dead; she was thought to be either resigned to her fate or conquered by -suffering; and Europe was ready to go to sleep, as over an accomplished -fact, thinking that now there was one question less in the world. - -But Europe was wrong. These long years of silence and of loneliness, -far from being the dark and unnoted end of the nation, were, on the -contrary, but as the beginning of a new state, which late events -have disclosed; of a new order of things formed by degrees, having -its elements, its character, its personifications, and which, at a -given moment, has turned out to be the unexpected manifestation of an -energetic nationality, rallying to the cry of Dombrowski’s legion, ‘No, -Poland is not dead!’ - -It was the era of conspiracies and of democratic propagandism which, up -to 1846, furnished heroic men of strange intrepidity, such as Konarski, -Zaleski, and Dombrowski; and, of this period of strife, the campaigns -of 1846, in Galicia and Posen, were the bloody and mournful close. Ever -since that time, and especially throughout the last years, we have had -a work of practical renovation, which has used all means, which has -been inoffensive in appearance, but not the less persistent because it -was unobserved, and which has been accomplished, owing, in part, to -that very silence of which I have already spoken. They who laboured -felt deeply what danger lay in making their operations heard. ‘Speak -of us as little as may be,’ wrote one of the leading men in Poland; -‘speak, if you will, of our miseries, of our agonised state, but do not -speak of our vitality, or of those signs of life which you remark in -us, for that would be to kill us.’ To this work, Prince Léon Sapieka -greatly contributed in Galicia, as did Dr. Marcinkowski in Posen, up to -the time of his death; while, in the kingdom, none gave themselves to -it more than did Count Andrew Zamoyski. - -Of what is that movement composed, which, thus suddenly disclosed, has -again brought Polish nationality face to face with Russian power? - -Doubtless, it has its source in many elements. All have a share in it; -for there meet religious zeal heightened by persecution, the labours of -mind, and the efforts made to raise the morals of the people. There is -industrial enterprise, and there also are agricultural improvements; -but what is most characteristic in the movement is chiefly this, -that it has been born in some sort spontaneously from the soil, and -upon the soil itself, independent of the action of emigration, or -of the propagandism of parties. It has been the work of those who -were unwilling either to conspire or to give in, and who, among the -ruins of their native country, and after her violent struggles were -ended, have sought to bring together elements for a new solution of -the Polish question. It certainly was impossible for these patriots -to throw themselves into politics. They would have been instantly -arrested, if they had done so. Their only thought then was, how best, -morally and physically, to remodel the country, and how most to steer -clear of politics in doing so. They began by establishing Temperance -societies; and even this ground required wary walking, because they -ran against the Russian authorities, who protect drunkenness, in order -to protect the inland revenues, and who issued circulars against these -societies, declaring them to be contrary to law. One Governor-General -of Lithuania, M. Nazimof, showed his erudition by citing the marriage -in Cana of Galilee, as a proof that the Gospel was not averse to the -use of spirituous liquors. - -Another institution has played a great part in the present movement: -I mean the Agricultural Society of Warsaw. It had a very humble -beginning. About 1842 an association had been formed for the -publication of a small newspaper, called ‘Annals of Agriculture,’ from -which all political questions and allusions had been strictly banished, -which did not relate either to the situation of Poland, to its -government, its foreign relations, or indeed to things that concerned -it. But this was the germ from which grew, during the first part of -the reign of Alexander II., in those first moments of liberality and -good will, a more serious institution, the Agricultural Society itself, -founded with the exclusive object of making physical improvements, -having correspondents in all the provinces, and being authorised to -hold two sittings yearly at Warsaw. However limited this institution -may have originally been in its object, still it formed a bond of -union, and it has ended by drawing together 4,000 landowners of the -kingdom. - -So slowly did the work proceed--creating on one day an Agricultural -Society, on another day starting the navigation of the -Vistula--sometimes forming banks, at another establishing a Temperance -League--recalling the country to a sense of its own interests, -and drawing men together by making them co-operate in the same -undertakings. Now, let us observe what were the effects of a labour so -patient, so modest, so often crossed, and yet so efficacious. Instead -of conspiracies, we learnt the habit of acting in legal ways, and we -acquired a sense of the power which there is in regular, persistent, -and pacific action. Such questions as the emancipation of the peasants, -and others which have divided the public mind, and kept up divisions -even among emigrants--such questions, mischievous while only a strife -of theories, have now found their natural solution in practice; for -the Agricultural Society has taken the initiative in this matter, and -proposed a system by which the peasant is made an owner, and by which, -through an ingenious combination of credit given, an indemnity is -secured to the actual possessor; and this indemnity the peasant pays up -in successive and limited annuities, without having to give more than -he had formerly done. This may be called the Polish solution of the -difficulty, as opposed to the Russian one. Finally, and what is most -important, this secret regeneration of the country has done what we -have just seen. No longer are parties embittered against each other, -after a common defeat, nor do they dispute over a distant victory; but -we have a compact mass--a nation welded together by one thought--where -there is no distinction of classes, and of which the union has been -cemented by the bloodshed of the 27th of February, 1861--the day -on which Russia made the first attempt to put it all down. Those -intelligent Russian bullets did more than they were aware of; for they -helped to cement the alliance by striking, as they did, victims of -every rank, of every condition, of all religions, almost of every age. - -One man, as I have said, personifies in himself all that is most -serious and practical in this movement, and he has left upon it the -stamp of his own character. This is Count Andrew Zamoyski, whom the -people speaking his language simply call ‘Monsieur André.’ He is not -the only one; but he has been, from the very first, one of the most -active promoters of all that could awaken the land. By birth he is -connected with one of the oldest Polish families--with the family of -that grand-constable, John Zamoyski, of the sixteenth century, who -laboured to constitute a body of lesser nobles, in the face of our -aristocratic oligarchy, and who was one of the greatest of Polish -captains. The family is one which has long been eclipsed, and which -only reappears at certain epochs. There was another Zamoyski, who was -Chancellor in 1772, but who laid down his office because he would not -set his seal to the first division; and of this Zamoyski, Count Andrew -is the grandson, as he is also the brother of the general who, at one -time, was to have headed a Polish legion, at the time of the Crimean -war. Count Andrew naturally found himself mixed up with the revolution -of 1831. He was first Minister of the Interior at Warsaw, and then was -sent on a mission to Vienna, to M. de Metternich, who, it was said, -was, at the time of the last battle, inclined for an intervention. When -that revolution was, at last, quelled by the Russians, he would not -leave the country. He remained in obscurity, cherishing no deceptive -hopes, but soon seeking how best to raise her, after her great defeat. -No very great career offered itself to him; but he turned to material -interests and pursuits, and he brought to the work an activity not -the less singular, because it was narrowed by conditions which were -strait and uncertain. He established breeding-stables (studs), helped -to introduce steam-navigation on the Vistula, which was a tie with -Galicia, and laboured to organise the ‘_Crédit foncier_.’ He it was -who started the little paper, ‘Annals of Agriculture,’ who afterwards -became the principal promoter of the Agricultural Society, and who, up -to the present time, has continued to be its President. - -Count Zamoyski is characterised in all that he has done by his -practical sense, by the clearness of his views, and by a moderation -in action, which is joined to great natural dignity. The situation of -Count Andrew is, moreover, a sufficiently singular one; for, by his -moderation, he excites the suspicions of the more hot-headed among -the Poles, who expect nothing except from revolutions, and, by his -activity, he makes himself suspected by the Russians. The curious and -difficult problem, how to live between these two, is the one which he -has to solve. He has to be master over himself, and he cannot suffer -himself to be led away by useless rashness; while he must not, on the -other hand, sink the dignity and the name of a Pole. His secrets are -hid in his actions. He never revealed them to anyone; and, to speak -truly, is it perfectly certain that he had any secrets? He simply put -in practice the old word ‘laboremus;’ and though constantly obliged to -have dealings with the Government, he never yielded his ground; and -he kept up an obstinate struggle against the venality of the Russian -officials, to which he would not submit upon any terms. More than -once he has had to go through some very thorny trials; but he has -always acquitted himself well. On the day of the foundation of the -Agricultural Society, a dinner took place, at which, of course, the -Director of the Interior, M. Muchanof, was present. At last, the toast -in use at all Polish dinners, ‘Let us love each other,’ was given by -him. All eyes were immediately turned upon Count Zamoyski, who, calmly -and simply, and with scarcely a perceptible smile, replied, ‘Yes: but -at home!’ There was nothing more to be said. The spirit of this policy, -if policy it can be called, is to do all that it is possible to do, -to go as far as may be, and to measure one’s steps according to the -necessities of the day. It breathes no agitation; but it is to be an -activity according to the laws, taking advantage of everything, making -use of everything, and communicating life unawares to the country--this -is precisely what has appeared in the late events, and this remains the -character of the new crisis. - -Are men aware of what it is that gives to this movement the weight of -a true national manifestation? It is that it has nothing in it which -is either artificial or evanescent. It is the work of the few, and -also the work of all. Like all deep movements, it is at once simple -and complex, it is sincere as is the passion of a whole nation; and -far from resolving itself into a mere series of efforts for physical -order, which have suddenly issued in a political question, it has a -moral side, which agrees wonderfully with what I have said of its -characteristics of practical and lawful action. One thing in these -occurrences at Warsaw, interspersed, as they are, with scenes of -bloodshed, is very striking, and that is, the passive attitude of a -people, which appears unarmed and offers no resistance--which persists, -and, though dispersed, constantly reassembles--which offers itself -as a defenceless victim, and which refuses the arms which are left -within its reach. And under such an attitude, there must be something -more than mere obedience to a watchword or to an order. No conspirator -could have been clever enough to have imagined it. It is the sign of a -thorough revolution in the minds and in the souls of men, a revolution -to which the mind of one poet was no stranger--I mean Krasinski, -whose works have appealed to all Polish imaginations, and which will -be imprinted on all hearts, even of the lowest orders of the people. -He is that _anonymous_ poet from whom we formerly had a few poems, -all full of deep meaning, all marked by gloomy and ardent mysticism. -Sigismund Krasinski is dead now; but he had endured the bitterest -trials of spirit, both as a patriot and as a son. He was born in -1812, and was held at the font of baptism by Napoleon, for his father -was that Vincent Krasinski (a descendant of one of the chiefs of the -Confederation of Bar) who, at the end of the empire, replaced Prince -Poniatowski in the command of the Polish army, and who subsequently -played a part in the Chambers of the kingdom of Poland, after the -Restoration. Unhappily, General Krasinski irritated public feeling by -the vote he gave in the Senate, in regard to the conspiracy of 1828; -and his son Sigismund received, in the public square, such a marked and -cutting insult from his school-fellows, that he was obliged to leave -the country. He travelled, and went to Rome. When the revolution of the -29th of November, 1830, broke out, he set out immediately for Poland; -but, at Berlin, he had to stop. His father had been taken, at Warsaw, -by the insurgents, and had only saved himself by promising devotion to -the national cause; and now he had fled to St. Petersburg. Sigismund -despaired; he never could bring himself to remain in his own land, -and the rest of his life, spent among strangers, was devoted entirely -to the composition of his poems, which he published without ever -acknowledging their authorship. Through him, Polish patriotism found a -fresh voice. - -When Mickiewicz addressed the revolutionary and warrior youth of -Poland, he said, ‘Strong through union, wise through self-denial, -forwards! my young friends!’ Krasinski said, in a song now as popular -as once were Mickiewicz’s words, ‘No man can build with mud, and -highest wisdom still is highest virtue.’ These are the watchwords of -two different epochs. - -The ruling inspiration of the whole of the poetry of Krasinski is -the abjuration of all hatred and of all vengeance--that force alone -will not enable us to contend successfully against force, but that -the weapons of our warfare must be superior powers of soul--that, -in order to conquer one’s enemy, it is not enough that we have the -right on our side, unless that right rests upon strong and pure moral -sentiments; that the most powerful levers are love, and the virtues -of self-sacrifice and of heroic patience. One of the heroes of his -‘Infernal Comedy’ is Pancrace, the type of that brutal strength which -yields and quails in helplessness before a superior power. The same -inspiration reigns in his Greek poem ‘Iridion,’ where the Christian -hero is a passive martyr, with a horror of vengeance, who triumphs -over Rome, and confounds the patriotism of Iridion, a man who had -no thoughts beyond revenge, and who makes shipwreck in spite of the -justice of his complaints and of his cause. This is also the thought -embodied in ‘Aurora,’ in the ‘Psalms of the Future.’ In all these songs -the Polish soul thrills with mystic ardour, glows with enthusiasm, -and with inexhaustible youth. ‘Lord!’ says Krasinski, in one Psalm, -‘what we crave is not hope, since she descends upon us like rain upon -flowers. It is not the death of our foes, since that death is written -in the clouds of to-morrow. It is not arms, since they are placed in -our hands by Thee. It is not help, for Thou hast opened a free path -before us; but we implore, put a pure spirit in our inmost hearts. O -Holy Spirit! who dost teach us that our great strength doth lie in -sacrifice, grant that we by love may lead the nations to the ends we -seek!’ But in a fragment of his ‘Aurora,’ Krasinski has still better -described this part of heroic expiation:--‘Is it then required that we -should be murderers with murderers, and criminals with criminals? Must -we lie, hate, slay likewise, and blaspheme? The world cries: At this -price you may have power and liberty; without it, nothing! but nay, my -soul! nay; not with such arms as these. The weight of sacrifice alone -can in its turn crush down the weight which crushes us. In the world’s -story, sacrifice is lionlike and unconquered still; but crime is as the -chaff which the wind in passing sweeps away. - -‘No! my country; yours is rather the patience which doth show, how -stone by stone the building can be reared: yours rather the will -inflexible, which, abiding humbly, prepares for future victory. Rather -yours is calmness amid the storms, and harmony amid discordant cries: -rather yours, eternal loveliness amid abhorrent shapes: rather yours -to heap on cowards and Pharisees that mournful silence which doth -overwhelm. Be yours the strength which lifteth up the weak; and yours -the hope of those who cease to hope. For thy strife against this -world’s hell, be thine the peace and strength of love, against which -hell itself cannot prevail...! - -‘The nations are all sought by God: all in Thy Grace, O Jesus, are -concerned! to each from high a calling Thou hast given; in each a -sense profound from Thee doth live, and weaves the woof of all their -destinies; but some among the nations Thou hast chosen to defend the -cause of Heavenly Beauty, and to give to the world an example, while -they bear, through the long day, a heavy cross, and walk the world’s -paths red with blood. These by their sublime strife shall at last, O -Lord, give to man a feeling higher and more divine, a holier charity, -and a larger brotherhood, in exchange for that sharp sword which men -have plunged into their breast. Such is this Polish land of thine, O -Jesu Christ! Our love of man has caused our death, and men have seen -the corpse of Poland carried to the tomb; but when the third day -comes, the light shall shine, and shine through all the ages yet to -be. Think you, that he who loves, in dying, disappears for evermore? -Yes, to our fleshly eyes; but the whole world, through the soul’s -eyes, beholds him still. He who in love expires, leaves in his hour -of martyrdom his soul to all his brethren. He abides in the sanctuary -of human hearts, and every day, every hour, he lives, though buried; -grows, though in the tomb!’ - -This thought of the power of sacrifice, and of passive heroism, has -filtered through our youth, and permeated even the masses; and this -it is which is visible in the Poland of to-day, for the inspiration -of the poet has become the feeling of the people. One other cause, -and it is a strange and curious one, has also helped, during the -last few years, to spread and to popularise these ideas, by suddenly -throwing a new element into Polish society. When the Emperor Alexander -II. ascended the throne, he signalised his accession by an amnesty, -which, however incomplete, opened the gates of their fatherland to a -multitude of exiles. Some came from the West, the others (and these the -most numerous) came from Siberia. Those who had lived in France, or -in England, naturally returned to their country embittered by thirty -years of sufferings, accustomed to a Western atmosphere, nourished with -all sorts of revolutionary ideas; in short, half strangers in their -mind and manners. But with that tribe of exiles, called in Poland -‘Siberians,’ it was not so. They returned hardened and strengthened by -habits of secret and solitary suffering. Calm and resigned, they were -mystics to a certain extent, but their mysticism was of that grave and -gentle kind, which has nothing fierce or hateful in its nature. It is -a remarkable thing that, among these exiles returned from Siberia, -the country has for the last years found its best men, the most apt -for journalism, for professorships, for the administration of private -and national establishments, such as the Agricultural Society. There -are writers of talent who could not, it is true, sign their works -with their names; but their names were not, therefore, the less well -known. One brought back from Siberia a translation of ‘Faust,’ and is -one of our most eminent critics; another has translated Shakespeare. -A newspaper in Warsaw published a series of sketches of Caucasus, and -of Asia, which were the work of ‘Siberians,’ and in which there was an -indefinable mixture of freshness and resignation. - -These men spread over the country, and had a singular effect upon -it. Thence the serious and religious tinge of striking originality, -in all the popular demonstrations which have since happened, and -in all those manifestations which are so thoroughly free from the -revolutionary phraseology of the West. Theirs is, on the contrary, -a nervous and sober speech, and except in its religious accent it -has nothing exaggerated in it. The influence of the Siberians is -peculiarly visible in that strange address by the artizans of Warsaw: -‘Death is alike for all. Without sparing our persons, it is necessary -that we should go to the slaughter, and show to the world what it is -we wish. This is why we have walked in processions, and sung of the -constitution, and we will do so again whenever it shall be necessary; -if there are to be victims, it will be seen that that is according to -the will of God, if more is required we are ready to draw lots for the -one who is to be sacrificed--ready even to give our throats to the -knife, or to expire under the knout, as did those three victims whom -the waters threw up near Zakroczym, and which wrapped in straw were -flung from the castle into the Vistula. Only if then there is no pity -for our country, it will be ill!...’ Should one not say that this is -the same obstinate idea of sacrifice, which has passed through the -imagination of Krasinski, and through the action of the ‘Siberians,’ -into the popular mind? - -And now that all these elements are reunited, now that this union of -practical efforts extends over all interests, and this lawful impulse -has been communicated by Count Andrew Zamoyski, and instinctively -accepted by a whole population, now that a moral and religious sense -has been propagated in all minds, at once inflaming and satisfying -them, and a national sentiment has spontaneously reappeared in all -hearts, the movement is one, which, though imperceptible at first, and -existing silently for many years, has been facilitated by the change of -reign at a given moment, and it has ended in that brief but eloquent -dialogue which took place recently between the Lieutenant-Governor, -Prince Gortchakof, and the crowd assembled in one of the squares of -Warsaw. ‘What do you want?’ ‘We want our country!’ - -Evidently nothing has been accidental or unforeseen except the hour -at which the explosion took place. For the space of one year already -successive manifestations had revealed a sort of secret understanding -in the populace. First there was a funeral service celebrated all over -the country and at fixed epochs, in memory of the most eminent Polish -poets, Mickiewicz, Krasinski, and Slowacki. Then came the interview -which reunited at Warsaw the three Sovereigns of the north, and which -piqued the popular sense. It was in truth an odd idea which assembled -at Warsaw, for a conference in which it was suspected that designs -hurtful to Italy were to be discussed, the three masters of Poland. -Their reception from the populace was more than cold; and what is -most curious is that, impressed by this disagreeable circumstance, -they tried to ascribe to each other the blame of the annoyance -which they had received. The Russian papers avowed that it was the -Emperor of Austria who had earned this cold reception for the Emperor -Alexander, while the press of Vienna proved no less clearly that this -demonstration had been aimed at the Emperor of Russia. - -Some months later a more serious manifestation followed. It was a -commemorative service for the dead killed at that battle of Grochow, -in which in 1831 the Polish army contended during three days with the -Russian troops; and on that day it was (February 25th) that a new -Poland appeared, personified by a populace which walked with tapers -in its hands, reciting as with one voice this religious and national -hymn: ‘Holy Lord God! God Almighty, God Immortal, have mercy upon us! -From plague and pestilence, from fire and sword, O Lord, deliver us! -Be pleased to give us back our native land! Holy Virgin Mary, Queen of -Poland, pray for us!’ Then the crisis declared itself, and agitation -spread, as the concessions of Russia alternated with scenes of blood; -and thus it continued till April 8th, the day in which violent measures -for repressing the movement finally prevailed. It is not what followed -these events that I now have to describe. Everything in them bore the -mark of those influences which I have pointed out. This movement, as -has been seen, began with a religious service, and when it came to -a crisis, what was the step taken by those who had some power over -the people, and who felt the importance of the moment? A popular -delegation, authorised by the Lieutenant-Governor, took the command of -the town; a voluntary constabulary was organised for the prevention -of all disorders, and the Agricultural Society itself interfered as -a moderator, and a guardian of the peace. The addresses presented to -the Emperor contained nothing but what was according to law, since -they hardly even exacted all that had been assured to Poland by the -treaty of 1815. And what was the attitude of the populace itself? It -showed its _life_, if the expression may be permitted, by abstaining -from all conflicts. It assembled to give vent to its wishes and to its -complaints, but it presented itself unarmed and passive; even after -it was dispersed by force, women, children, and old men crowded round -a Madonna with weeping and with prayers. Strange insight into the -nature of a movement, of which the tactics have been to resist, but -not to take up arms! What constitutes its originality is the alliance -already mentioned of practical sense with a feeling which is moral, -religious, and even mystic--an alliance of which the secret is in the -conscience of a people, and which accords marvellously well with all -the instincts of the Polish nation, and indeed of the Slavonic race -in general, which appeals to political minds because its tendencies -are towards moderation and good sense, and at the same time offers the -charm of a certain poetic mysticism to the young and to the mass of -the lower orders. It is, then, the originality of this movement which -also constitutes its strength, for it reveals sources of vitality ever -new, in a race which has found in misfortune nothing but a generous -incentive. - -It is this same originality which in like manner has placed Russia in a -position of singular difficulty, when opposed to a popular awakening of -this sort; for this is no simple internal strife, but by considerations -of humanity and of right it forms part of a crisis peculiar to the -times, and of an order of things of European interest and extent. - -It is said that after the first bloody scenes at Warsaw in this month -of February, the Emperor Alexander II. being told that some of the -people had fallen victims, asked immediately what loss their army -had sustained, and what quantity of arms had been taken from the -insurgents? He was told in reply that there was no loss in the army, -and that it had not been possible to seize the arms of a populace -who had none, and would not have any. The Emperor, it is said, was -greatly surprised; and this astonishment at the beginning explains the -vacillations of Russia, and the hesitation which is to be observed in -her conduct. She seemed at first to fluctuate between all sorts of -policies. - -She gave up some of her officials, who were the most pointed at by -public animadversion, and, if I may use the expression, only seemed -to repress the movement by mistake. She made some concessions; she -drew the programme of a new organisation; she promised a variety of -reforms; she accepted the popular delegation as an auxiliary--accepted -even the help of the Agricultural Society itself. But presently both -delegation and Society were dissolved. Agitation was allowed to -increase by her indecision, till the scenes of April 8th mark the -fresh starting-point of a repressive policy. _Physically_, no doubt, -Russia can repress and disperse the manifestations of Warsaw, and she -can prevent the population wearing mourning for its dead; but when -that is accomplished, I ask whether, _morally_, the question will -be one whit less living or less important--whether it will be less -_oppressive_--for the politics of Russia? - -Truly, Russia finds herself to-day in a strange and a serious dilemma. -She must make her choice. She may begin over again in Poland her -policy of the last thirty years; and she may even push that system to -extremity. It may be the interest of Prussia and of Austria to keep the -Tzar to this plan; because they are always uneasy at the reappearance -in the Kingdom of a centre of attraction for the parts of Poland which -they possess. This is their interest (and it is odd enough that it -should be so, because the strength of Prussia lies only in ideas of -nationality and of liberalism); but is this the true interest of Russia -at this juncture of the world’s affairs? Russia has only to revert to -her own counsels and to her own traditions to find in them incentives -to a more equitable policy. The Emperor Alexander II. has only to -open his mind to those ideas which are most intimately connected -with the constitution of the kingdom of Poland, and with the epoch at -which the Emperor Alexander I. founded it, saying to the Poles, ‘You -will preserve your language; you will have your laws, your army. Your -restoration is defined by the most solemn treaties.’ - -If the world of to-day appeared such as it did thirty years ago, it -might be possible that any physical victory should have the sad power -of deadening in an unhappy nation its undying feelings, of at least -discouraging it, and of adjourning to another day the solution of a -question so often agitated. But to-day, against the continuance of -an oppressive policy, are ranged the general sense of Europe, the -principles of right, the interests of Russia in her other combinations -and alliances, the irremediable decadence of the treaties of 1815, -forgotten by the governments themselves even before they were abrogated -by the peoples which returned, as it were, to life; and, finally, -this movement on the part of united Poland--a movement which can -but be accelerated, or kept up, by the new Diets in Galicia, by the -incessant way in which the deputies of Posen remind the parliament of -their country, and by the attitude of moral resistance assumed by the -population of Warsaw. Be it what it may, there is certainly something -moving, and morally important, in this determination of a people to -_live_, and to preserve in itself the inviolable inheritance of its -patriotic faith. - -In the legends of the Saints it is related that, one day, in the age of -martyrdom, some Christians had been assembled upon the ice of a frozen -river, and that they were there abandoned, alone and naked, to all the -severities of the air, having also no food to eat. Offers were made -to them from the shore of clothes, and of delicious viands, if they -would abjure their religion. Some of them yielded to the temptation, -and, when they touched the banks, perished. The others, immovable under -trial, invoked the Divine mercy, and were miraculously saved; for there -fell from heaven upon them both food and clothing. In this behold a -touching picture of a nation which suffers, but which will not allow -itself to be tempted, and which sends up to heaven such a cry of faith -as shall melt the rigour of its adverse fortune. - - - - -A YEAR OF AGITATION IN POLAND. - -(April 1861-2.) - - -For some years past we have witnessed one of the most affecting and -instructive sights--the breaking up, if we may say so, of an order -of events, where the confused and dispersed elements join again, as -from some mysterious and invincible unity in themselves. That which -once appeared impossible becomes a startling reality, and perspectives -suddenly open themselves such as our generation would hardly have -allowed itself even to think of. - -We have seen public right itself, or that which, at least, bears its -name, giving way, and leaving a passage for those national and popular -causes which agitate the world, and which are the harbingers of a new -way of thinking. It is vain now to attempt to divide those national -causes which appeal so strongly to public opinion--vain now to grant -everything to one and deny everything to another--to limit justice -to opportunity or to fitness of time or place. Policy may have its -seasons, its measures, and its predilections, but at bottom _right_ -must exist everywhere, or it exists nowhere; and, from its one source, -it must apply to all those peoples who aspire to the purest and the -most legitimate of conquests--the conquest of themselves--as also to -all those movements which, arising at one and the same time, form parts -of a general situation, intimately and profoundly characterised by one -universal work of transformation. - -We must guard against mistakes. What we behold is no vulgar crisis, -which may end in an ordinary peace: it is a warfare between two orders -of things, between two principles; and it was proclaimed the other day, -in a French Assembly, to be the new right--_the right of peoples_--and, -when opposed to this, old political combinations are reduced to act -laboriously and uneasily on the defensive. It is the question which -agitates the modern world: the problem which, in the East as in the -West, in the North as in the South, shows itself under a thousand -different and startling shapes. - -Certainly one of the most curious of these episodes--one of the most -moving of these contemporary spectacles--is that dramatic _tête-à-tête_ -which, for the space of a year, has been carried on in Northern Europe -between those two very unequal powers, Russia and Poland; where the one -is embarrassed by its strength and its political traditions, and where -the other makes an impregnable buckler of its rights, and of its very -weakness. Nothing has been wanting to the play. Unforeseen events, -passionate originality in demonstrations, tragic scenes--all have been -supplied, together with those mysterious fatalities which so often -make a perfect drama out of the affairs of men. This drama is laid in -the heart of a country: it has its colours and its catastrophes; and -across its stage there passes, like some chorus of old, a whole nation, -which sends up to heaven its supplications and complaint. For a whole -year has the spectacle been seen of a moral movement, perfectly new in -its character, confronting a policy which is astonished to find itself -so weak that, while possessed of so many means of physical power, it -resorts to all expedients of apparent concession and of inefficacious -repression, and uses both measures alike without conviction. After -a year all seems again to have settled into silence. Outward -manifestations certainly have ceased, but still the demonstration has -been made. That which had been supposed to be dead was found to be -still full of life. That assimilation of Polish provinces, which Russia -believed to be accomplished, was found to be not even begun; and Europe -suddenly saw that Polish question arise which brings in its train such -prodigious difficulties, and in which are involved at once the fate of -a nation, the policy of a great empire, and the balance of power in -the West. By some vague instinct, Europe felt that she had not yet got -rid of that problem which is, doubtless, so strangely complicated by -the multiplicity of rules and of _régimes_ spread over Poland; which -changes its shapes according to the chances of dismemberments and of -treaties; which is not the same in Posen as in Cracovia, at Warsaw -as at Wilna, in the Kingdom, in Lithuania, or in the Ukraine; but to -which one national sentiment, identical and vital in all the parts, -has communicated an indissoluble unity. This character truly belongs -to a question at once so energetic, so simple, and so complex, which -sums up in itself the strifes of to-day, which is too often believed to -have been stifled under the weight of impossibilities, and which comes -to light again at a time when any palpitations of oppressed patriotism -was least to be expected. I wish to set forth this question in its most -recent explosion, in its elements, and in its progress, as well as in -its relation to all that is in motion or in preparation in Europe, and -even in the very heart of Russia. - -An event which dates back to no very remote period is the source of -many results which belong to the present day. I mean the Crimean war, -which doubtless did nothing directly or ostensibly for Poland, but was -very near (nearer than perhaps is supposed) doing a great deal for -her. At the time when that great strife ended, the name of Poland, as -we are now aware, ought to have been heard in the Congress of Paris, -along with that of Italy. France and England were agreed, and the day -was fixed, but the dexterity of the Russian plenipotentiaries, and of -Count Orlof in particular, eluded this inconvenient call. They made it -the interest of the West to be silent, and they promised far more than -ever was asked of them, on condition that Europe would leave the Tzar -at liberty to make none but spontaneous concessions to the Poles. This -is no longer a secret; for Lord Clarendon said one day in Parliament, -in reply to Lord Lyndhurst (that old champion of liberal causes), ‘We -had serious reasons for believing that the Emperor of Russia was, with -regard to Poland, generous and kind. We were obliged to admit that the -Emperor was not only disposed to publish a general amnesty, but even to -give back to the Poles some of their national institutions; and while -they received guarantees for the exercise of their religion, public -education in Poland was also to be established on a more liberal and -national footing. We also believed that we were warranted to hope that -Russia was about to renounce for ever the severe system which she had -hitherto pursued; and, moved by these convictions, we ceased for the -future any discussion of the question.’ Count Orlof gave promises, -the Congress of Paris kept silence, and scarcely one month had passed -before the Emperor Alexander II., while promulgating an amnesty which -was nothing more than a cruel deception (according to Lord Clarendon’s -own expression), addressed, at the same time, two allocutions to the -Polish nobility at Warsaw, wherein he harshly said, ‘I expect that the -order established by my father is to be maintained: so, gentlemen, -above all, we will, if you please, have no dreams--no dreams! The -happiness of the Polish people depends on its entire fusion with the -people of my empire; what my father did, was well done, and I will -maintain it: my reign shall be the continuation of his. In preserving -to Poland her rights, and her interests, such as my father granted her, -I have the unalterable wish to do good, and to favour the prosperity of -the country. It rests with you to make this last possible for me, and -you alone will be responsible if my intentions fail, on account of your -chimerical resistance.’ When one of the Marshals of the nobility seemed -about to reply, the Emperor turned and said, ‘Have you understood me? -It is pleasanter for me to reward than to punish; but know this, once -for all, gentlemen, that when it is necessary I shall know how to keep -down, and to punish, and it will be seen that I punish severely.’ This -happened in the month of May 1856, immediately after the Congress of -Paris. - -It is not without reason that I recall to-day a vain attempt at -negotiation broken off by an illusory promise. It determines the -events which have since arisen, in the same way that the debate at -the Congress of Paris has governed events in Italy; it also in some -sort puts on the recent crisis in Poland a mark of European sympathy, -and proves an intelligent wish, while it shows further how Russia had -conducted herself up to the time that this crisis arrived. ‘What my -father did, he did well!’ an expression which was perhaps highly filial -on the part of the Emperor Alexander II., but which was certainly -an imprudent and impolitic dictum. What was really that _order_ -established by Nicholas which he promised to maintain? - -I do not refer now to the guarantees by which the treaties of Vienna -had striven to surround a nationality which they abandoned; I do not -speak of the constitution of 1815, the work of the Emperor Alexander -I., but of the _statut_ granted by the Emperor Nicholas himself in -1832--a _statut_ which was as a punishment, the penalty of a defeat -sustained by Poland; and what had become of that? It was M. Tymowski, -a Russian Minister of State, who last year, at the commencement of -the affair, told us what _had_ become of it. In a private report he -stated that this _statut_ had never been either abrogated, or put into -execution. Of all the new authorities which it created, councils for -towns, councils for palatinates and provincial assemblies, ‘with the -right of deliberating on questions of general interest in the kingdom,’ -not one has ever existed. There ought also to have been a Council of -State, but that probably was held to be either too revolutionary a -measure, or too visible a sign of autonomy. So in 1841 this Council -of State was quietly replaced by two new departments of the directing -Senate of St. Petersburg, which were called the ninth and tenth -departments, and were transplanted to Warsaw. ‘In a word,’ added M. -Tymowski, ‘it may be said that since 1831 the kingdom of Poland has -been given up entirely to bureaucracy, and that without any regard -to the _statut_ of 1831, it has also remained under the exclusive -influence of officials, without the participation of any of its -inhabitants, who are in this manner rendered incapable of sharing in -the Government.’ - -It would, indeed, be useless to tell how bureaucracy and officials -have for the last thirty years swayed the Government of Poland: and -I shall content myself with reminding my readers and the public, -that one day the Emperor Nicholas did ‘with his own hand and with a -quiet mind’ (adds his minister) order the _transplantation_ to the -Caucasus of forty-five thousand families, all ‘formerly Polish gentry, -but bearing henceforward the name of freemen and burghers,’ as it is -phrased in this strange Government language. We have often heard that -a painful yoke is laid by their rulers on the people of Lombardy, of -the pontifical States, or of the old kingdom of the two Sicilies: nor -is this said without reason; but we must also remember that there is -a country where, in the daylight of this present century, it has been -possible to _transplant_ forty-five thousand families guilty of no -other crime than of being suspected of patriotism, and of ‘exciting the -suspicion of the Government.’ - -From this specimen we may understand how unintentionally cruel and -how mournfully deceptive were those words of Alexander II.--‘All that -my father did, he did well’--words which were also, at least, an -unfortunate answer to that expression of European sympathy which had -been checked at the threshold of this Congress of Paris in 1856. It -has been the mistake of all Russian policy for the last thirty years, -to believe that an absence of all law means _order_, and to suppose -that the omnipotence of force is at once illimitable and undefined. No -doubt for the moment such policy succeeds. It can command silence, it -can veil difficulties, and adjourn the discussion of them to another -day. But it brings affairs at last into that impossible situation, -of which illegality is the essence, and where we find a new nation, -independent of all organisation and of all hierarchies, rising in -spite of a monstrous system of repression--a nation which, as M. -Tymowski expresses it, ‘is undistrainable and yet ingenious in making -arms for itself out of everything, even out of its own contempt of -death.’ Poland, though beyond the bounds of the law, has a profound -sense of law, and this M. Tymowski again acknowledges. Having no -public representation she has arranged one for herself, for she had -that Agricultural Society, which at a given day proved itself to be a -sort of national representation. No regular outlet was provided for -the utterance of her wishes, instincts, or wants, but she has thrown -herself into a passionate worship of her traditions, her popular -festivals, and religious rites. Indeed, the time has come in which -she has occupied herself for a year in reviewing her anniversaries -and her recollections. She could not, certainly, dream of engaging in -an armed strife, but she retired into herself; she appealed to moral -power, and opened her soul to the strangest of all sentiments--that -of voluntary sacrifice--till a whole nation adopted that terrible -argument in Descartes’ fashion, ‘we die, _ergo_, we live;’ and is it -not a new and a surprising piece of reasoning, if we understand it -aright? By all this Russia is placed in an extraordinary dilemma; -this unexpected resurrection brings all her errors before her. She is -obliged to punish a sedition which is not illegal, to make war upon -peaceful manifestations, on religious services and hymns, on mourning -apparel and inoffensive emblems; she has nothing to oppose to them but -force, and feels therefore all the powerlessness of force itself. The -same causes have impressed this movement: for though European events -may have hastened it, though the accession of Alexander II. and the -internal disorders of Russia may have favoured it, it is not less the -result of a past of thirty years, not less the effect of a policy of -which the whole fatality has not yet perhaps been exhausted. - -The movement is extremely characteristic in this respect--that it is -born in the heart of the country, and that it is independent alike of -complicity with her emigrant children, or of any impulse from without. -Immediately after the Congress of Paris, the Emperor Alexander held -this language to the Polish nobility--‘No dreams, gentlemen! no -dreams!’ and from that moment did the national sentiment of Poland -begin gradually to expand, till it broke out in February 1861. Several -symptoms indicated the unexpected awakening that was to follow. When -the sovereigns met at Warsaw, in 1860, the Emperor Alexander, before -returning to St. Petersburg, wished to show himself to the five German -princes who accompanied him in all the brilliancy of Polish popularity. -He was to be in Wilna. Now in Lithuania, the first manifestation for -the enfranchisement of the serfs had taken place, and the Emperor had -returned thanks for it to the Lithuanian nobility. These circumstances -all seemed auspicious, and the Governor of Lithuania was ordered to -get up a ball. It was, as far as its externals went, simply a ball; -but no one knows what an official ball is to the Poles, where the -splendour of the fête covers so many hurts, so many thousands of -secret wounds. In his ‘Aieux,’ Mickiewicz has introduced an official -ball into that circle of Hell in which he paints all the sufferings of -the Poles. General Nazimof made the most heroic exertions, and spared -no persuasions among the Lithuanian nobility; but nevertheless he -completely failed. The ladies declined the invitations; the gentry said -that, though willing to pay the expenses of this Russian festivity, -they should not appear at it; and there was nothing left for the -Emperor but to refuse to go to the ball upon which General Nazimof had -lavished so much useless zeal; and he hardly made any stay in Wilna. - -At Warsaw, where the three crowned heads held a meeting which seemed to -personify all the disasters of the land, things looked even worse. It -must be said that, to choose Warsaw as a place of meeting between these -three masters of Poland--the Emperor of Russia, the Emperor of Austria, -and the King of Prussia--and to choose it, too, just when all Europe -was ringing with the enfranchisement of Italy, was to throw a challenge -to our unhappy nation; nor was it long before popular feeling took up -a challenge which was the second it had received from Alexander--his -first having been that address to the nobility of Warsaw which he made -after the Congress of Paris. - -After this, demonstrations increased. - -One religious service followed the other, in memory of the -patriot-poets, Mickiewicz, Krasinski, and Slovaçki; and on November -29th, 1860, that song was heard, for the first time, which for a -year has been the impassioned watchword of the multitude, which has -echoes in cathedrals, and which has gone up from the humblest country -churches--that ‘_Boze_ cos Polske’--‘Give us our country! Oh, Lord! -give us our liberty!’ In a short time, the whole face of affairs had -changed, and an electric thrill ran through the country. Perhaps it -ought to be called a revolution; it certainly was a moral revolution, -and it revealed that which had hardly as yet been suspected--the -existence of a nation, unimpaired by suffering and by trial. To be -a revolution, it had a strange beginning. There was no violence, -no bloody intentions, no insurrections; but there were psalms, and -prayers, and manifestations, at once enthusiastic and regulated; and -there was an outburst, as energetic as it was unexpected, of that -irresistible force which is called the soul of a nation. - -Everything converges to that month of February 1861; and then it -was that this Polish insurrection really assumed the character of a -passionate drama, full of startling originality. The 25th was the -anniversary of that formidable battle of Grochow, in which the Poles, -in 1831, disputed for the mastery with Russia during three whole days. -Since the 21st, the Agricultural Society, founded by Count Andrew -Zamoyski, and so rapidly popularised throughout the country, had held a -session to deliberate on the definitive accession of the peasantry to -property. From other quarters, the Polish students--who had come from -Kiev, from Moscow, and from Dorpat, as to a secret rendezvous--might -be heard agitating, and demanding a national university. To ask for -a more liberal education, to effect the union of all classes by the -abolition of the last vestiges of serfdom, and to commemorate mournful -and patriotic anniversaries--these were the subjects which preoccupied -all minds. No doubt other thoughts mingled with them. The idea of -presenting an address to the Emperor asking for a constitution began -to be ventilated; and, oddly enough, it was warmly advocated by a man -who was soon to play a part in these events--the Marquis Wiélopolski. -He became excessively excited, and went to Count Zamoyski to beg him to -take the initiative in this manifestation; but Count Andrew refused. -He was the firm and vigilant guide of his society, and he would not -consent to alter its nature. Moreover, it was repugnant to him to -place, as the Marquis proposed to do, the claims of his country under -the auspices of the treaties of 1815. - -What was Russia about all this time? Quite disconcerted, and more -astonished than enlightened by what she saw happening under her eyes, -she waited, and day by day the movement seemed to slip away from -her. At that time she was represented in Warsaw by Prince Michael -Gortchakof, the Lieutenant of the Tzar--a man who was a good soldier, -and who had shown a great deal of vigour in the defence of Sebastopol. -He had lived fear many years at Warsaw, when head of the Staff to -Prince Paskievitch; he knew Poland, and he liked living in it. To his -soldierly nature extreme measures of repression were repugnant, and -it troubled him to have recourse to them. But unfortunately, in the -heart of the administration of which he was the ostensible chief, -one man was, under shelter of the Prince’s name, omnipotent--M. -Muchanof, Minister of the Interior, of public instruction, and of -religion. He was a Russian of the old school of Nicholas the Tzar--a -vulgar instrument of that inflexible system which had no other object -but the denationalisation of Poland. The dismissal of Count Skarbek, -the Minister of Finance, had been effected by him, because the Count -was an enlightened man, an author of celebrity, who had entertained -the revolutionary notion of asking (as for a right) for a college at -Warsaw. M. Muchanof was at war, in short, with everything that looked -like an awakening or an act of individual life in the country--with -Temperance Leagues, with the Agricultural Society, and with a taste for -a more liberal style of education. The only exception he could make was -in favour of the School of Arts. ‘Let them paint, by all means,’ he -would say, ‘and then they will not think.’ - -Between the gradually excited population of Poland and Russia, when -thus represented and thus divided in her councils, a dialogue was to be -commenced, which, stretching over a year, was to be furnished with such -bloody interludes that the very Russian generals themselves seemed to -grow weary, and to feel a secret aversion to the parts given them to -act. - -Nothing, at such a conjuncture, was wanted but one spark. The morning -of February 25th dawned dark and misty. They were to go that day -to pray for the slain of the battle of Grochow, and, from an early -hour, the populace, impelled by one spontaneous passion, thronged the -streets. An immense procession was soon formed; they marched without -disorder, and with torches in their hands. Before them went a banner, -with the white eagle. As they walked they sang the hymn, ‘Swiety -Boze’--‘Holy Lord God Almighty, have pity upon us; be pleased to give -us back our own country. Holy Virgin Mary, Queen of Poland, pray for -us.’ Up to this time, the Government had done nothing to stop the -manifestation (it had not even been prevented), when suddenly Colonel -Trepow, the head of the Police, appeared, and threw two squadrons of -the armed police upon this dense crowd. The multitude fell on their -knees, and continued their psalm, while being cut down by the troops. -More than forty persons were wounded. At this moment the Agricultural -Society happened to be sitting, and a violent emotion was produced -there by the intelligence that an inoffensive mob had been massacred. -Count Zamoyski, the President, mastering his own emotion, endeavoured -to preserve calmness, and, putting an end to the sitting, he repaired -to Prince Gortchakof, who seemed surprised, and certainly showed -conciliatory intentions. The Russian officers were indignant at the -tasks assigned to them, and one of them, General Liprandi, went so far -as to say that, as long as he commanded the infantry, he would not -permit them to be marched upon unarmed men. The truth is, that one more -such victory as that of February 25th would have made everything look -very doubtful for Russia. The work of thirty years vanished, before the -apparition of a people ready to die undefended. The whole town was in -inexpressible anxiety, and on the following day mourning was worn for -the victims of the previous day. - -But it must not be supposed that any signs of weakness entered into -the popular emotion. On the contrary, a curious excitement filled all -hearts; and, by the 27th, arrangements were made for a new funeral -service, in honour of some patriots hung by the Russians, and of -Count Zawisza in particular. In the Church of the Carmelites and -its vicinity more than 30,000 persons assembled; and, when mass was -said, this immense procession unrolled and marched to the palace of -the Agricultural Society, which, for the last two days, had been -besought to sign an address to the Emperor. This Count Zamoyski always -resisted; and he certainly showed more intelligent heroism, above all, -more patriotic foresight, by this resistance, than by yielding to any -premature haste. He did not wish to compromise an institution which -might again do effectual service to the national cause, and which was -the only representative body of his nation. So, on the approach of the -crowd, Count Andrew took the plan of closing a session which had been -so strangely agitated. But just round this point the whole affair -centred, while, outside, squadrons of Cossacks drove the multitude -before them at the point of their swords, and pursued them into the -very churches. Hardly had the members of the Agricultural Society left -their palace than a murderous fire was opened upon them; also a strange -execution, for which the order had been given by General Zabolotsky, -and in which there probably was no preconcerted design, since, in the -Russian opposition of that day, every measure seemed disunited, and the -work of chance. But the result of this attack was not the less fatal; -ten persons were killed, and more than sixty were wounded. - -A curious scene then took place. The exasperated crowd seized upon -one of the corpses--one which was still warm--and they carried it to -the house of Count Andrew Zamoyski. A feeling of reproach probably -entered into this popular act. It meant, ‘Why do you abandon us at the -moment in which we are slain?’ But this was a popular error. If Count -Zamoyski, in his capacity of a public character, and when invested -with a title which was almost official, had refused to compromise an -institution which, in his eyes, represented the only lawful power in -the country, not the less did there live in him a patriotism which -could be both firm and manly. He received the body thus brought to -him, and, in a voice of great emotion, he replied to the crowd, ‘I -thank you for the mark of esteem which you have given me. Bring in the -corpse of this martyr, and I shall know how to honour it.’ He had a -_chapelle ardente_ arranged in his house, and there, for two days, the -body lay in state. By the incidents of his past life, by his name, by -his active devotion to all his country’s interests, by the attitude he -preserved towards the Russians, so proud and so noble, and yet ever so -moderate, Count Andrew proved himself to be the true chief, the wise -and energetic guide of a movement, which found in his character its -highest personification. - -In this, the second day of bloodshed, which side had conquered? Russia -certainly had not, for never, perhaps, did any power suffer such -complete eclipse, while boasting of such apparent strength. - -After the events of the 27th, Prince Gortchakof called his officers -and chief functionaries together. The Archbishop soon appeared, -complaining of the violation of the churches; and there came also -several dignitaries of the town, who had held a meeting at the house -of one of the principal bankers, M. Kronenberg. There was likewise -Count Zamoyski himself, with two other delegates of the Agricultural -Society, MM. Ostrowski and Poloçki, all holding discourses, of which -the tenor was mournful and proud. Prince Gortchakof did not disguise -from himself either the gravity of the situation, or the odium of the -part assigned to the army. What is more, he absolutely denied having -given the pitiless orders which had just been executed, and he let -fall a curious expression as he did so. ‘Do you,’ he said, ‘take me -for an Austrian? I have given one order, and one only, and that is, -that even on the production of an order signed by my own hand, the -citadel is not to be given up to you.’ What was most essential at -this moment was to appease wrath, to calm men’s minds, and to efface -the late bloodshed. Prince Gortchakof showed himself ready for the -most important transactions. He was ready to dismiss the head of the -police, Colonel Trepow; ready for an enquiry into the conduct of -General Zabolotsky; to withdraw the military to their barracks till the -victims of the 27th had been buried; and also to create a Commission -of Public Safety, under the auspices of Count Zamoyski, with the -concurrence of a Russian much esteemed and honoured in Warsaw, Marquis -Paulueri. He accepted the offer of the students to act as the police -of the town; and by that evening an address to the Emperor was in -general circulation. Thousands of signatures were rapidly affixed to -this document, which was the energetic expression of the griefs and -of the wishes of the Polish nation. ‘Our nation,’ it declared, ‘which -used to be governed by liberal institutions, has, for the last sixty -years, endured the cruellest sufferings. Without any organ for sending -up to your throne the expression of our pains and of our need, we are -forcibly constrained to have no other utterances than the cries of -those martyrs which are daily offered as a holocaust. A country, once -the centre of civilisation to its neighbours of the West, cannot, also, -develope itself, either morally or physically, while its Church, its -legislature, its public education, and its whole social organisation, -do not bear the stamp of its national genius and of its historical -traditions.’ The signatures of the Archbishop and of the Grand Rabbi -headed this address; and those Poles who were in Government offices, as -well as the Marshals of the nobility, tendered their resignations, in -order to join in the manifestation. - -To tell the truth, the whole face of affairs had altered in a very -short space of time. Two days had sufficed to show a nationality, fresh -born and full of energy, pitted against a government which seemed -struck with paralysis. Poland, that phantom which had not been allowed -to appear at the Congress of Paris, and which the Emperor Alexander, -during the interview of the sovereigns at Warsaw, had banished as an -inopportune vision, was now suddenly alive, and become palpable to -all. Henceforward, all distinctions of classes were to be effaced by -one profound feeling of solidarity; and the very bullets of February -27th had cemented this union by striking, as they did, persons of all -classes, of all religions, of all ages, and of every sex. - -With what weapons did this reviving nation arm itself? Poland had -no arms: she would not have any; or rather she had them but of one -kind. She had a passive heroism which amounted to enthusiasm. She -had a fanaticism of self-sacrifice, as might be seen in that address -to the workpeople of Warsaw. The mark by which her sons recognised -each other was mourning array; and from the first days of the month -of March 1861, a proclamation throughout the whole country declared -black to be the national colour. ‘In all the parts of ancient Poland,’ -ran the notification, ‘mourning will be put on, and worn for an -indefinite time.... For nearly a century our emblem has been the Crown -of Thorns! That coronal adorned the coffins of our brethren, and you -have all understood its meaning. It signifies patience under suffering, -self-sacrifice, pardon, and deliverance. We invite every Pole, whatever -be his creed, to spread these words in countries even the most remote.’ - -A population like this, when for a moment its own mistress, had a -pride in avoiding riot and excess; and it even respected the Russian -soldiers in Warsaw. It was the students who on March 2nd kept the peace -during the funerals of those who had fallen victims on February 27th; -and at these obsequies, where patriotism acted for the police, more -than 100,000 persons were present. On the other side, it was quite the -contrary: everything among the Russian authorities was in confusion, -and they appeared to be the discomfited spectators of a movement -which they could not check, and which was wholly incomprehensible -to them. Prince Gortchakof himself was visibly affected by this -extraordinary situation, and he was divided between astonishment and -the strange recurrence of a soldier’s instinct who feels himself to be -powerless, because he seeks an adversary but cannot find him. Nothing -can better pourtray both the character of this Polish movement and -the embarrassment of the Russian power, than a conversation which -took place between Prince Gortchakof and Count Zamoyski, on the 3rd -of March, the day after the interment of the victims of the 27th of -February. The Prince Lieutenant began by thanking the President of the -Agricultural Society, with really good grace, for the order which, -during the ceremony of the previous day, had been maintained in the -town. - -‘The whole town obeys you,’ he said. Then suddenly becoming animated, -and having changed his train of thought, he continued, ‘This cannot go -on; and besides, I have now got troops, and I am not afraid of you.’ - -‘We are ready to receive your bullets,’ replied Count Andrew. - -‘No, no, we will fight!’ - -‘We shall not fight; but you may murder us if you please.’ - -‘If you want arms, I will give you some!’ - -‘We will not use them.’ - -There, in truth, lay the secret of this movement, which was intangible -from its moral nature, and which was terrible because it was vague. -The address from Warsaw reached St. Petersburg; the Emperor Alexander -read it out loud before several members of his family. - -‘But these Poles ask for nothing,’ remarked one. - -‘That is just what is so serious about it,’ replied the Emperor; and -his retort was that of a sensible man. - -If this perilous situation was not to continue, only one course could -be pursued by Russia. She must arrange a termination, and reply to -this passive revolution in Poland by sincere, efficient, and ready -concessions. Russia did not do this, and she lost a month in delay. -As to her sincerity, it was doubtful, to say the least of it. What -was most obvious was her embarrassment; and by the confusion in which -she moved, her policy allowed this embarrassment to be only too well -perceived. At Warsaw, while Prince Gortchakof made some concessions, -Count Zamoyski was challenged, but did not reply. A marvellous unity of -wills kept order in the town, and the authorities waited for a solution -of the difficulty to be sent from St. Petersburg. M. Muchanof, still -master of the Ministry of the Interior, was inspired by the melancholy -policy which Austria had followed in Galicia, and he did send out a -clandestine circular, urging the peasants to rise upon their landlords. -The Jews discovered this circular, and so much indignation was excited -by it, that Prince Gortchakof was soon obliged to dismiss M. Muchanof -from his office, and he left Warsaw amidst the yells and hisses of the -populace. The affair, considered in all its bearings, is a strange mark -of the persistent contradictions which distinguished Russian measures, -and distinguished them at a time when to be sincere would have been to -be judicious. - -Even in St. Petersburg no one knew what to do. Time was gained, and -then it was lost; and when the Emperor Alexander did, on the last -day of March, resolve to send to Warsaw a plan for new reforms, the -movement had by that time become too consistent; the minds of men -were too strongly excited, and too much made up, to be contented with -such timid and equivocal concessions as ill befitted the gravity of -the case. For of what did the offered reforms consist? It is true, -that they suppressed those two departments of the Senate which sat -at Warsaw, and which were the signs of the complete assimilation of -Poland with Russia. They promised the election of provincial councils, -of district councils; they offered a new organisation of public -instruction, with a creation of a Faculty of Rights, and with more -respect for the Polish language. Finally, they summoned the Marquis -Wiélopolski to the direction of public education; the Marquis being -a Pole. This was always something, although it did not even entirely -come up to the _statut_ of Nicholas. And what at bottom was wanting, -was a guarantee for the sincere adoption of a really liberal policy, -which should be carried out by men truly devoted to their country, and -animated by a national spirit. Unfortunately, to the suspicions of the -Poles (suspicions which were only too well founded) Russia replied by -a system of permanent contradictions, one which for the last year has -shown itself to be never nearer to reaction than when there was a talk -about concessions. Concessions so offered were for the edification of -Europe, which looked on. The facts remain the same, or rather they -become worse, and in appearing to yield to this all-powerful movement -of public opinion, it was the object of the Russian Government to stain -it, and to represent the movement as the work of a few incorrigibly -factious persons. But they seemed to wish to treat with this reviving -nationality, and on the 1st of April the plan of reform arrived -from St. Petersburg was published; six days later, however, they -dissolved, without any warning, that Agricultural Society in which -the country beheld its image, which had never interfered except to -make peace, which Prince Gortchakof had himself thanked, and which was -now done away with, on the strange pretext ‘that, under the present -circumstances, and in consequence of the position which it had latterly -assumed, it had ceased to answer its original purpose.’ Of all those -bodies of constables and delegates which had existed, and by means of -which for a whole month peace had been maintained in the town, not one -was allowed to remain. All, with a sort of impatience, were swept away, -while proclamations were multiplied and troops were hastily advanced to -Warsaw. - -What was the result? - -Public opinion resented as a provocation the dissolution of the -Agricultural Society, and the minds of the people rose with -indignation, not against the _reforms_, which might, perhaps, have -been accepted, but against that double-faced policy in which they -could see nothing but menaces; and peace thenceforward became more -and more impossible between Russia and a people which, as M. Tymowski -said in his secret report, was ‘full of life and of obstinacy, and -deeply penetrated by a sense of law. Everything,’ he added, ‘depended -on the good faith observed with them.’ On the 7th of April, 1861, an -immense crowd went to the cemetery to pray for the slain of February. -Later in the evening they marched to the square at the castle, which -was occupied by troops, and there with loud cries demanded the repeal -of the order by which the Agricultural Society had been dissolved. -But this crowd was so far from threatening any violence, that the -military did not continue to keep the ground, and they dispersed at -last, promising to reassemble on the following evening. Accordingly, -in the evening of the 8th, a still larger assemblage repeated the -manifestation of the preceding day, in front of the castle. The Prince -Lieutenant himself came down and mixed with the crowd in order to -appease it. He asked them what they wanted; and the response was -unanimous, being contained in these significant words, ‘We want our -country.’ - -For the rest, nothing in this excited concourse of men, women, and -children betrayed any aggressive thoughts, or any intentions of strife. -They were warned that they must disperse; but with dark passion they -replied, ‘You may kill us, but we will not move;’ and before the troops -drawn up in order of battle, they remained impassive, till suddenly -a post-chaise happened to pass, and the postilion played on his horn -the air of Dombrowski’s legions: ‘No, never shall Poland perish!’ -Immediately an enthusiastic cry burst from every breast, and as the -populace fell on their knees, a movement was perceptible through -the whole crowd. Did the troops believe that they were about to be -attacked, or did they obey a command? Were they decided by the plain -and conclusive reason, that a resolution to fire had been adopted the -evening before, because a stop must be put to this state of affairs? - -However it may have been, an instantaneous fire was opened. While some -squadrons of cavalry received orders to charge, fifteen volleys from -the infantry made many bloody openings in the mass of defenceless -beings, who now found themselves hemmed in on every side. While being -cut down, the crowd continued to kneel, and to pray. The women and the -children were grouped together on their knees round an image of the -Virgin, at the extreme end of the square, and there the people remained -till late into the night; so late that the troops had been previously -drawn off the ground. It is certain that more than fifty persons had -perished, and that the number of the wounded was immense; but darkness -has always been allowed to hang over the numbers who fell on that -night. An eye witness wrote with emotion: ‘Never shall I be able to -make you understand this unparalleled contempt of death, which is so -enthusiastic that it animates men, women, and children. Old soldiers, -accustomed to being under fire, assure me that never, when so close, -have the most solid troops preserved a heroism as calm and invincible -as this crowd has displayed when furiously charged by cavalry and under -fire.’ - -It was, indeed, a strange insurrection. The authorities in Warsaw had -no difficulty in quelling it; but it rendered every future transaction -more difficult, for it had placed between Russia and Poland a barrier -of invincible suspicion. It was a misfortune for Russia, that, while -gaining these melancholy victories, she added nothing to the security -of her rule, and she certainly added nothing to her strength. Her -difficulties were, however, greatly increased by them, and she remained -weighed down by the weight of her own policy. It is true, indeed, that -even after the 8th of April she maintained the reforms which she had -already promulgated; but the logic of her situation was, that she was -at war with the most intangible thing in the world, with the soul of a -nation. Russia could not lay her finger upon any conspiracy, but not -the less did everything seem to threaten her, and she was constantly -obliged to invent new plans for putting down she hardly knew what. At -night no one was to go out without a lantern, and it was forbidden to -be seen walking in certain localities. Against wearing mourning the -rules were peculiarly stringent. Indeed, at one moment it was necessary -to have permission from the police to wear black. Yet the genius of the -police was at fault, and it was baffled by the provoking obstinacy in -favour of universal mourning, and of the black dresses which the Polish -ladies had adopted. - -To do the Russian authorities justice, they did not feel their -consciences at ease in the matter of this war. Even when using -repressive measures they seemed to be agitated by a secret disquiet--a -feeling which declared itself in a very striking manner during the -last days of Prince Gortchakof, whom death overtook in the middle of -this conflict, only two months after the scene of the 8th of April. It -would seem almost as though the tragedies of Poland had something fatal -in them to the Russian officials. Already, they tell us, that Prince -Paskievitch, when on his death-bed, had been troubled by a sinister -apparition; for everywhere before him rose a shade, that of the mother -of Count Zawisza, who had lain at his feet to implore pardon for -her son, and who had implored it in vain. The last moments of Prince -Gortchakof were disturbed in the same way. In Warsaw it was said, that -ever after the bloody scenes of February and of April he had been vexed -by sudden hallucinations, as well as by fits of gloomy irritation. A -few days before his death, he went to the railway-station to meet his -wife, Princess Gortchakof, who was to arrive from a journey. He saw -one of the principal bankers of Warsaw, and, running up to him, he -began: ‘Oh, you there! so you play the patriot, do you? But I know how -to crush you! I shall soon make an end of your d----d students! I will -make dust of you!’ During the last days of his life, he fancied that he -constantly saw women in black, who followed him, or walked beside him. -‘Oh, the women in black! oh, the women in black! send them away,’ he -would cry. If such were the sufferings of the Prince, there were to be -others who, as we shall see, came to a yet more terrible end. The same -secret trouble was betrayed by the words of General Souchozanett, the -immediate successor of Prince Gortchakof, when, before leaving Warsaw, -he said: ‘You may accuse me of being an unsuccessful blunderer; but -you cannot say that I am a cruel man, for I have never fired upon a -single creature.’ There was a strange fatality about this system, for -it weighed upon those who carried it out, as well as upon those who -were its victims; and such as it was, after the 8th of April, it stood -complete, before the eyes of an angry and seething populace. - -Throughout these events, one man made a great effort to procure a -reconciliation. His figure is not the least original, or the least -characteristic of those who meet in this drama, and I have already -named him, for he is the Marquis Wiélopolski. Ever since the 1st of -April, 1861, he had taken a preponderant place in the Councils of the -Government, and, no doubt, his part is not yet played out. During -February, as I have already said, the Marquis Wiélopolski resided in -Warsaw; and he suggested that an address should be sent to the Emperor, -wherein a constitution was to be demanded, but which should open with -an act of submission, and with a testimony of their contrition; for it -was to disallow, in some measure, the Revolution of 1830. Not having -been able to make good this idea, he refused to sign the address that -was sent to St. Petersburg, and held himself aloof from the movement. -Very shortly after, the Emperor called him to the Direction of Public -Education, and from that time he took a decisive part in all the -measures that followed. Before long, and by the dismissal of the other -directors, which was consequent upon the 8th of April, the Marquis -Wiélopolski found himself alone in the Council, and associated with all -its most rigorous proceedings. He is, perhaps, one of the most curious -types of our times, for he is a proud, contemptuous, eloquent man, a -scion of the family of the Gonzagas; and for this reason, perhaps, he -exhibits, at times, traces of the old Italian policy. He is a great -landed proprietor, and, by his different estates, is connected with -all the provinces of Poland; and he is devoted to Russia, not by -servility or interest, but by a passion of revenge which he nourishes -against the West; and his system is the result of calculation, and -of a line of policy which is powerful, although strange. In 1846, -after the massacres in Galicia, the Marquis Wiélopolski wrote that -‘Letter to Prince Metternich, by a Polish Gentleman,’ which rang with -such fiery eloquence, and which being, as it were, a new revelation, -echoed throughout Europe. The author there advised Poland to embrace -a resolution of heroic despair--to renounce, for the future, all help -from the Western Powers, all deceitful and calculating sympathy, all -cheap eloquence, all those guarantees which men have decorated with -the pompous title of ‘rights of peoples,’ and then boldly to give -herself to Russia. ‘Go to the Tzar, and say to him: We come to you, as -to the most generous of our foes; hitherto, we have belonged to you, -as slaves, by right of conquest, and from terror; to-day, we come to -you as free men, who have the courage to acknowledge that they have -been conquered.... We do not stipulate with you about conditions--to -yourself we leave it to judge when you may relax towards us the -severity of your law. We make no reserve; but in our hearts, in letters -of fire, you will read our silent prayer, this single petition, “Do not -leave unpunished the crimes which strangers have committed; and in the -blood of our brethren which has been shed, hear the Slave blood, which -cries for vengeance” ...’ - -In words like these, one can recognise a theorist, who is inflamed -with panslavism, and whose revenge anticipates the day, when by this -fusion, this sacrifice of the idea of national independence, this moral -suicide, the Polish race may revive in the Empire, and again, through -their intelligence, find an ascendency in the Council. - -What the Marquis Wiélopolski had thought in 1846 he still thought in -1861; and he therefore kept himself apart from all attempts to warm -up the thought of nationality, as also from all the practical labours -which were to bring about a patient and invisible reorganisation of his -country; and he never would become a member of the Agricultural Society. - -The Marquis now entered on his official career distinguished by all -the inflexible vigour of a character which was lofty and proud enough -to brave unpopularity among his countrymen; and, while he consented to -serve Russia, he did not the less preserve a haughty attitude towards -her. In the month of February, while agitating for the adoption of his -proposed address, he got a message from Prince Gortchakof, warning -him to take care of what he was about; he proudly replied, ‘Tell the -Prince that my boxes are filled, and that I am quite ready to start for -Siberia.’ To his compatriots he would say, ‘You are not at the height -necessary for understanding me.’ To the Russians he certainly appeared -an enigma; for they could not comprehend this Polish gentleman, who, -while a nobody in the ranks of the administration, suddenly became -a minister, who refused all interposition, and who treated directly -with the Emperor. What could such a man mean? What was the clue to his -thoughts? But it can be believed how, between Poles and Russians, he -occupied a solitary and difficult post; for the first had the greatest -antipathy to his ideas, and the second looked upon him as a phenomenon -rather more extraordinary than consolatory. - -That it was possible to organise a lawful régime, the Marquis firmly -believed. For the present he had no doubt of it, and he directed all -his efforts to this end. But there is nothing that Russians understand -so little as proceeding according to law; and, upon the death of -Prince Gortchakof, this prepossession of the Marquis proved the origin -of those quarrels with the new Lieutenant-General Souchozanett, in -which the Polish gentleman was apt to have the better of the Russian, -although he also was soon to be carried away by the current of a still -more violent reaction. - -This reaction was the system which Russia adopted, and which she -followed, without ever perceiving that, instead of calming and -mastering the movement, every instance of repression so added to -its energy and depth, that when, three months later, the wishes of -the government seemed to incline to a more conciliatory method, the -movement was then found to have gained head greatly. - -Above all, it was found to have spread, and to have reached the -provinces which formed the ancient Poland of 1772. Scenes similar to -those of Warsaw were enacted at Wilna; and, by the application of a -uniform plan of repression, Russia, by her own acts, set a seal upon -that unity of the old Polish fatherland which it was her object to -abolish. - -One of her official proclamations spoke of Lithuania, as of a province -which had always belonged to the Empire, and which had only been -for a short time subjugated by Poland. Some French papers even lent -themselves to help Russia at this juncture, and they undertook to -represent to Lithuania, to the country of Mickiewicz, of Kosciusko, and -of the Czartorynski, that it was not in any way Polish, and ought to -have nothing in common with Poland. And this it was which provoked one -of the most curious scenes of the whole strange drama--a protestation -on the part of Lithuania, under the form of a pilgrimage to Horoldo. - -Horoldo is a little village beyond the river Bug, and there, more -than four centuries ago, the union of Lithuania with Poland was -accomplished. Of this union the 10th of October was the anniversary. As -early as the month of September, circulars were sent into all the parts -of the ancient Polish realm, and delegates of the people were chosen in -every place, even in Western Prussia. Everything was done that could -be done to stop these strange travellers. Those who came from beyond -the Bug were prevented from crossing the river, and those who came from -Cracow were in the same way brought up at the passage of the Vistula. -But the concourse of people was, notwithstanding these precautions, -really immense; and the roads were lined with men on horseback, with -foot passengers, with carriages of all sorts, heavy carts, tarantasses -from Podolia, and phaetons from Léopol. On the eve of October 10, -the houses, the villages, and the country seats round Horoldo, were -filled with unknown guests, who were met everywhere with the readiest -hospitalities. ‘Enter, and welcome,’ was said to all, while no one even -asked their names. - -On the following day, at six o’clock in the morning, an immense -procession was formed, and when it reached the little village of -Kopylowa (half a mile from Horoldo), the crowd fell into their ranks, -and marched along in columns, singing as they went; for, though -strangers to each other’s names and faces, these men were all bound -together by the one feeling which they had in common. Now arose a -momentary doubt. Were they to go on, and so risk meeting with a bloody -reception? A cry rose, ‘We came to pray at Horoldo, let us go to -Horoldo!’ and the procession continued its march, headed by an advanced -guard of more than 200 priests and monks. But as they drew near to -Horoldo, it became apparent that a large military force was drawn up -in a half circle round the town. A feeling of inexpressible anxiety -then prevailed. No one knew what was going to happen, but not the less -they pressed steadily forward, because everything that could be called -_arms_ had already been thrown away. The violence of a commander might -at once have turned the scene into a massacre; but, happily, General -Chrustef, the Military Governor of Lublin, who was entrusted with the -defence of Horoldo, was a humane and pacific man. At the head of his -staff he advanced to meet the procession. He bowed deferentially to -the clergy, and said, ‘I have received strict and formal orders not -to allow any manifestations to take place, and the choice of means -has not been left to me, if any manifestation is attempted. Do not, -therefore, oblige me to use forcible measures; for you would surely not -wish to lay on your own consciences the responsibility of bloodshed.’ -A Canon then stepped out of the ranks, and said that the multitude had -come from far, and that they could not be expected to retire without -at least having heard mass. The General thought for a moment. His -own anxiety was visible, and a terrible silence prevailed. At last, -Chrustef addressed the priest: ‘If you will pray, do it now, and -here, in the fields before the town; my orders do not go so far as to -forbid this.’ Preparations began immediately, and a rustic altar was -soon reared upon a rising ground. When all was ready, forty banners, -representing all the provinces of ancient Poland, were unfurled, and -above them all floated a great flag, with the united arms of Lithuania -and of Poland. - -The scene was a splendid one, and it was lit by a glorious sunshine. -When mass had been said, a Basilican priest (of the United Greek -Church) rose, and thus addressed the crowd: ‘Behold to-day, assembled -for the first time, the mutilated members of our beloved Poland! In our -national history there is no better festival, and no memory more pure, -than that which we have met to celebrate to-day. Look at that forest; -count its trees; and for each tree that you count you may find upon the -Polish soil the grave of a hero, of a martyr who has given himself for -our liberty. Here, as everywhere in Poland, all are ready to sacrifice -their lives; but the hour is not yet arrived. Let us pray, and, as we -pray, not one of us will be found wanting when the summons comes. Let -us not wish any evil to our enemies. See them to-day, how silent and -motionless they stand! They look at us, and they now comprehend what -we are, and what we may become. With one gesture they might crush us, -they might knock us over, bleeding on the soil; but they are silent. -They know that behind us there is a whole people, and that a nation -cannot be slain.’ Then, turning to the fluttering standard, the priest -said, as he concluded, ‘Stainless bird, white eagle! that wast wont to -distribute crowns to others, and art so crownless to-day, float above -thy brothers, and cry to the four quarters of the globe that thou art -living still! Call together thy children, thine emigrants, and thy -defenders of old, and point, still point the way! Thou must suffer, -thou must suffer much; but one day thou shalt rise, rise higher than in -the past, and spread thy wings over a people which, at last, is free.’ -After planting a wooden cross on the spot where mass had been said, the -crowd dispersed, and they carried away with them the solemn memory of a -scene which was passing strange. - -But the real question had not ceased to live in Warsaw, the centre -of Polish agitation; it had existed there before the manifestation -of Horoldo, and from thence it had influenced that episode in the -great movement, of which the spirit seemed to be as contagious as a -passion. And here I must notice the diverse phases of Russian policy, -and the fatality which seemed to attend upon its decisions. Let this -be remarked, that in the last days of March, Russia showed herself -ready for concessions, and promulgated some reforms. Then and there a -reaction occurs which reaches its height on April 8th, and the reforms -of March go for nothing, or, at least, are, like everything else for -the time being, in abeyance. By the month of August, and after a period -of repression and severity, which was also distinguished by a marked -antagonism between Marquis Wiélopolski and General Souchozanett (the -successor of Prince Gortchakof), the sky appears again to clear. To the -kingdom of Poland, a new lieutenant is given, General Count Lambert, -who starts for Warsaw on a conciliatory mission. He is to carry out -new institutions, to call together ‘enlightened and well-intentioned -men,’ and to ‘find out the real wants of the country.’ What was to -be the result of these tactics, adopted again under an aggravated -condition of affairs? Unfortunately in this as in every such attempt -made in Poland by the Russian government, there was something unsound. -Count Lambert, as far as his own qualifications went, doubtless did -unite in himself all the conditions which were most favourable for a -mission of peace. He was a gentleman of courteous and affable manners, -of French origin, and by religion a Roman Catholic; his temper was -candid and moderate, and he enjoyed the peculiar flavour of the Tzar; -but at the same time he had men placed under him, who were understood -to represent the old Russian party; and these men were there to watch -him, and keep him to the point if the occasion should require it. -These were General Gerstenzweig, the Military Governor of Warsaw, -Minister of the Interior, Krijanowski, the head of the staff, and the -senator Platonof, a member of the Council of Administration. In spite -of everything, Count Lambert, on his arrival at Warsaw, was received -with favour, and looked upon as a plenipotentiary of peace; his first -acts being indeed marked by a conciliatory spirit. With the heads of -the national party and with the bishops the Count held conferences, -and even received a confidential memorandum from M. Wyszinski, a Canon -of note in Warsaw, whose paper pointed out the conditions under which -peace might be possible; namely, conditions which meant a constitution -for the kingdom, and an organisation founded upon the national autonomy -of Lithuania and Ruthenia. Finally, Count Lambert bestirred himself -to put into practice the new institutions which had been talked -of, namely, elections in districts and provinces, and a reformed -organisation of the Council of State. - -It was important for the country and for the national party to know -what steps it ought to take when these elections were impending; and -when affairs under the new lieutenant had assumed a new aspect, several -meetings took place. To reject everything and to hold their own hands, -was as yet the opinion offered by those who formed the _advanced_ -party, and whose votes were for action. The _moderate_ party, however, -had more practical sense, and seeing the necessity of not rejecting -any legal means, they combatted this idea of not participating in any -way in the forthcoming elections. The moderate party carried the day, -but one combination was devised as a rallying point for opinions of -every shade. Two petitions were to be signed at the same time--the -first, addressed to the Council of State, was to demand the complete -emancipation of the Jews; the other, addressed to Count Lambert, was -to claim a national representation, as being the only institution -proper for seeking out and making known the wants of the country, as -it was expressed in the imperial rescript. These two petitions, it was -intended, should be signed by all the electors when they gave their -votes; and thus at the end of September they came to the ballot. In -spite of some attempts made by the most hot-headed partisans, great -unanimity prevailed; the peasants in particular showed a vast amount -of zeal, and the two petitions thus agreed upon were signed by the -electors throughout all the districts of the country. One circumstance -of this transaction is a curious one, and that is the secrecy with -which the signatures were affixed. So well indeed was the secret kept, -that of one of the addresses the text has never transpired. In all the -elections the moderate party had a great advantage, and thus a new -character was given to the movement, for, instead of mere agitation, -it assumed the nature of a legal claim, and it was settled that all -manifestations were to terminate in a religious fête, in honour of -Kosciusko, on October 15th, while the addresses were to be sent up by a -deputation on the 18th. - -On the 17th, however, the city was suddenly declared to be in a state -of siege. What had happened? - -No fear of possible troubles and tumult on the 15th had driven the -authorities to this step, but they had become aware of that new plan of -action which I have just described as adopted by the national party. - -Some of the bishops, taking the initiative, had sent a paper to Count -Lambert, which he had refused to receive, while in another way the -business about petitions signed at the elections had got wind, and had -occasioned the greatest uneasiness, above all, in St. Petersburg. - -This was, moreover, the very moment at which the disturbances among the -students had broken out in Russia. Such a complication of symptoms in -the political world terrified the government, and a state of siege was -proclaimed; certainly, less with the view of interrupting the Kosciusko -fête than of stifling the petitions which were to be presented four -days later. Once more the face of affairs was altered; from having -been a matter of politics and of legal claims, it went back to the old -dramatic aspect, and the scenes of October 15th were a new tragedy. The -era of reaction had recommenced, and this reaction swept everything -before it. - -Of the many heavy days which had succeeded each other, the morning of -October 15th was perhaps the saddest that ever dawned. From an early -hour the populace had crowded into the churches, to take part in the -funeral services which invoked and hallowed the memory of Kosciusko. -The troops, employed in the military occupation of the town, offered -no hindrance to the faithful at the doors of the sacred edifices; and -it was not till the churches were filled, that the army had orders to -surround them. From some of the buildings escape would have been easy, -and these were the last to be encircled. The cathedral of St. John and -the church of the Bernardines had the honour of being really besieged; -while at the same time hordes of Cossacks, spread all over Warsaw, -committed every sort of excess, and spared neither the women nor the -strangers within the gates. An Englishman (Mr. George Mitchell) was a -sufferer and an eye-witness of this day’s work, and he wrote, ‘troops -of infuriated Cossacks and Circassians swept the streets, and they cut -down men and women without any distinction whatever. They entered into -the dwellings, they maltreated the inhabitants, and they sacked the -houses.’ - -When the order was given to surround the churches, it had most -certainly not been anticipated that the crowd would embrace the strange -resolution of refusing to quit them as long as the troops were on the -ground, and that it would be necessary to drive them out. Thus, one -rash and ill-considered resolution led, a little later, to the most -disastrous consequences. During the whole day things continued on this -wise; the crowd was in the churches, breathless, excited, hungry, but -unalterable; and still the soldiers camped before the doors. At eight -o’clock in the evening, a General appeared, and he offered pardon to -the crowd, if they would surrender at the mercy of the Lieutenant of -the Kingdom. The reply was, that the people knew what mercy meant, and -that as long as the troops were not withdrawn they should not stir. -Tapers were now lit round the catafalque which had been reared the -night before for the late archbishop, and hymns were chanted from time -to time. - -At two o’clock in the morning a new envoy came to parley with the -multitude, who answered as before, that they did not ask for pardon. -Two long mortal hours now passed away, when at seven o’clock, that is -to say, after a siege of seventeen hours, the soldiers were ordered -to force their way into the churches and to drive out the occupants. -More than two thousand persons were seized, and carried to the citadel. -But this was not all; and here again appears that fatality which I -have said attended upon the Russian officials. Count Lambert, it would -appear, had in no way anticipated or intended either this invasion -of the churches or these wholesale arrests. Both had been executed -in obedience to the commands of General Gerstenzweig, the Chief of -the state of siege, and thence arose an altercation between the two -generals, which was tragical enough in its close. Count Lambert -vehemently reproached Gerstenzweig for all the horrors of the day, and -Gerstenzweig retorted with equal violence. What next? It seems a fact -no longer to be doubted, that General Gerstenzweig then took a pistol, -and blew out his brains, while Count Lambert quitted Warsaw without any -warning. - -The results of the scene which was played out on the 15th of October -were soon felt. The administrator of the diocese ordered all the -churches in Warsaw to be closed, and the leaders of the other religious -bodies soon followed his example; for the same thing was done by the -grand rabbi, and by the head of the Protestant Church. For the last -year, every school in Poland had been locked, and the theatres were in -a like case; and it was now the turn of the churches to be shut. - -Thus and then did Russia inaugurate a new period of reaction, which has -not yet come to an end (April 1862). - -Of a drama which has lasted for a whole year, we behold the sad -and eventful epilogue. And yet all that happened on the 15th of -October, bad as it was, was simply a revision of all that had gone -before--of all the punishments which, since February 1861, had been -indiscriminately applied by martial law to all classes, all religions, -and all professions. Let us see, whom do we find, among this crowd of -men, punished, deported, or confined in prisons? - -There is M. Szlenker, the Provost of the Merchants of Warsaw, himself -the richest and the most honourable merchant of the kingdom. - -There is M. Hiszpanski, the head of the Shoemakers’ Guild (the grandson -of that Kilinski who was so loved and influential in Warsaw), a member -of the delegation formed in 1861, and elected, in September of that -same year, a member of the Municipal Council. - -Poles who, by reason of the amnesty, had returned from Siberia have -since been sent back, ‘by way of precaution’--so run the terms of their -sentence; and of this number is M. Ehrenberg, the celebrated poet, and -M. Krajewski, one of our most eminent critics, the most moderate and -sensible of writers, the author of the translation of ‘Faust.’ - -An immense number of students and artizans have been sent to the -Caucasus and to Orenbourg. The Grand-Rabbi Meiselz, and the Rabbis -Kramstuk and Jastrow have been expelled; and Otho, the Evangelical -pastor, has been sentenced to deportation. The Chapter of Warsaw alone -has lost ten of its members, among whom the most conspicuous were M. -Stecki and the Canon Wyszinski, from whom General Lambert once asked -for memoranda. Last and worst, have we not seen M. Bialobozeski, the -very Administrator of the diocese of Warsaw, an old man of eighty years -of age, condemned to death because, after the 15th of October, he -ordered all the churches to be shut. By way of favour, his sentence was -commuted to imprisonment in a fortress, where he languished, and where -his character was aspersed by the publication of a retractation. If we -can ever suppose it to have been made by the victim himself, it only -renders his sentence of death more inexplicable than it had been before. - -On seeing such a multitude of punishments, it is not unnatural for the -reader to inquire, what are the crimes and the offences of which they -are the reward? In the government publications, and in the sentences -of the sufferers, he who runs may read, that they were awarded for -prayers, hymns, processions, for doubtful gestures made when perusing -official handbills, and for wearing national emblems and black clothes. -Only (and this is perfectly true) they were so inflicted because under -songs, prayers, and mournful apparel, there lay the soul of a people, -of a whole nation, which has been saddened by excess of tyranny, which -has been terribly tried, but which, even now, is not disheartened. - -At this period of agitation in Europe, when new problems complicate her -political life, the true importance of the events of the last year must -be seen to lie in their suddenness, and in the fact that Poland is not -discouraged. Judge of the last twelve months as we may, we cannot but -allow that they have shown us a people which, though often stricken, -is again on foot (though _how_ this is so we cannot tell); that this -nation has found within itself the secret of an indestructible life; -and that, so far from being dead, she lives with a new and more -abundant vitality. - -The drama which has been enacted before us, coloured, though it may -be, by the tender and excited imagination of her sons, and, at times, -seeming more like a legend than a page of history, cannot be mistaken -for the convulsions of a nationality that is dying, and which, in -expiring, utters one last and piercing cry. It is the expression of -a force which, during thirty years, has been purified, tempered, -and trained afresh, and which now appears to prove itself at once -passionate and calm. - -What are the signs by which any true nationality is to be recognised? -Must a nationality have genius, intelligence, and true imagination? -Then Poland, during the last hundred years, has had a legion of -poets, all singularly gifted and inspired, and she still possesses -a flourishing and varied literature; for her language has remained, -although she has not had the freedom of her schools. Is the love of -the past and its traditions required? Then that feeling has been both -evident and rampant for the last year. Must there be originality of -life and manners? Polish manners have preserved all the savour of -their nationality, and, most assuredly, have not been influenced by -Russia. Is it by unity among all classes, and by social peace, that -a nationality approves its integrity and its strength? The present -movement has demonstrated precisely that there is a unity, a fusion -of all classes, and that this fusion is sealed by the abolition of -the last traces of serfdom, by the definitive acquisition of property -by the peasants--a measure which the landlords themselves favoured in -a practical and liberal manner; for if, in this agitation, we have -seen only its moving and dramatic externals, we must not forget that -under all this passion lies a spirit of political sagacity, which is -patent, and which has been enlightened by all the faults, and by all -the history of the past. Lastly, is religion one of the signs of a -truly deeply-living nationality? In this Polish awakening, religion -has been prominent, showing itself in the hymns of a people which -assembles and takes refuge in churches. I have no doubt but that, by -some great democrats, Poland is suspected on account of her religious -fidelity. Men of this stamp do not see that there is something in -suffering which opens the sources of religious feeling, till they -rise to passionate mysticism. Moreover, in a country like Poland, the -Church is the only organised power--the only body which has its own -laws and independence. Catholicism is truly one of the shapes of Polish -nationality; only, into her Catholicism a great sense of toleration is -now admitted; and we have seen priests, bishops, rabbis and Protestant -pastors, all joined in the same manifestations, and suffering under -the same measures of repression. Thus, Polish Catholicism realises -the phenomenon, unhappily so rare, of a profound and intimate alliance -between religion and all the instincts of liberty and nationality. -Thus, also, this union renders Polish agitation something very -different from any of those ephemeral fevers of revolution which give -way before sharp measures of suppression. - -For the same reason, the Polish problem remains a threatening one to -Russia; for it engages Russia in a conflict as ungrateful as it is -impotent. It compromises her in the eyes of Europe; it occupies her -politicians, and it lies a weight upon her own internal developement. I -do not know what is to happen; no one, indeed, can tell. She may again -be stern, or again she may relent in her rule; but the problem is the -same, and, without any compensation to set it off, it becomes more and -more serious in the empire of Tzars. Doubtless, when, a hundred years -ago, Russia, realising the dream of Peter the Great, marched upon -Poland, rent it, and carried off its spoils, she then violated all the -principles of justice; but she had a reason for it. She wished to draw -towards the West, and, through her western possessions, to enter among -European affairs. But everything has changed since then. Does Russia -now require Poland to give her a place in the world, and among European -powers? Russia now approaches the western world, less by her presence -at Warsaw, than by that multiplicity of communications, that mixture -of interests and ideas, and by those iron lines which, bringing all -countries together, have made distances disappear. And what happens now? - -This: that in order to maintain a supremacy, which is always -precarious, and always contested (because lawful wishes have not been -responded to), Russia is obliged to compromise her whole policy. At -every turn, in each combination or alliance, she is tied and bound, -because evermore between her and those who might be her allies, there -rises the phantom of Poland. But not only is her external policy -hampered and entangled, but her internal rule is affected by the -necessity for incessant tyranny. The great Lord Chatham once said, ‘If -the English government subjects America to a despotic rule, so surely -will England herself be obliged to submit to it.’ And herein exactly -lies the bond which connects Polish agitation with those liberal -aspirations which at the present time appear in Russia. It is no longer -a secret that throughout all classes of Russian society sentiments of -sympathy with Poland are being rapidly propagated, and that Russians -begin to foresee, without disturbing themselves, that a separation of -the two countries is really possible. A newspaper, which is published -secretly in St. Petersburg, the _Welicorus_, expressed this very -distinctly not long ago. ‘In order to maintain our rule in Poland, we -are obliged to keep there a supplementary force of 200,000 men, and -annually to disburse 40,000,000 of our money over and above those -revenues which we draw from Poland. Now, our finances will never be -better as long as we squander our resources in this way.... We must let -Poland go, in order to save ourselves from destruction.... We can no -longer conquer Poland, as in the time of Paskievitch, because there are -now no internal discords in Poland; and in spite of the efforts of our -government to sow division between the two classes, her patriots have -consented to deprive themselves of a part of their own estates, and -have settled them on the peasants.... For us Russians, it is a question -whether we are to wait till we are ignominiously expelled from Poland, -which, self-emancipated, will be our enemy, or whether we will be wise -enough voluntarily to renounce a ruinous ascendency, and thus make the -Poles faithful friends of Russia.’ Such is in very truth the question -now in agitation; and Europe looks on attentively. - -And as regards Europe herself, we must say, that this question of the -relations of Russia with Poland, after the terrible drama of last -year, is by no means an indifferent matter. The western world is at -present passing through one of those crises, during which everything -is experienced, where everything is renewed, and everything alters -in appearance. That which forty years ago was called the order of -Europe no longer exists; nor have the peoples alone violated it. The -governments themselves have so far lent a hand to the work, that, -piece by piece, the fabric has fallen away. - -The public order of 1815 is on the eve of disappearing, and what -may be the new order which shall be brought forth by the labours of -to-day assuredly no one can tell; but simply because we live at a time -in which everything is recast, and re-elaborated, it is our first -and best interest to watch the elements of this vast and universal -movement, and carefully to consider every serious manifestation of -the conscience of the nations. We must notice what dies and what -lives. Russia, it has been said, ‘has a certain fear of the opinions -of Europe.’ This opinion, most surely, has nothing in it hostile to -Russia. On the contrary, Europe cannot but feel an interest in such -labours as the emancipation of the serfs, of which the initiative -was taken by the Emperor Alexander II., as also in that liberal work -which is at present, day by day, evidently pursued in the heart of -the Russian nation; but not the less, at the same time, is the eye -of Europe upon that black spot at Warsaw. She sees and weighs both -faults and misfortunes, and she says to herself, that, if faults have -consequences, which follow them inevitably, there is not the less a -fixed limit to a people’s misfortunes, and to a nation’s pangs. - - -PRINTED BY SPOTTISWOODE AND CO., NEW-STREET SQUARE, LONDON. - - - - -Transcriber’s Notes - -Obvious errors in punctuation and some inconsistencies in spellings of -proper nouns have been fixed. - -Page 6: “whereas our cotemporary” changed to “whereas our contemporary” - -Page 114: “the Basilian convent” changed to “the Basilican convent” - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE STORY OF A SIBERIAN -EXILE *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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Rufin Pietrowski—A Project Gutenberg eBook - </title> - <link rel="coverpage" href="images/cover.jpg" /> - <style type="text/css"> - -body { - margin-left: 10%; - margin-right: 10%; -} - - h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 { - text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ - clear: both; -} - -p { - margin-top: .51em; - text-align: justify; - margin-bottom: .49em; - text-indent: 1em; -} - -.p2 {margin-top: 2em;} -.p0 {text-indent: 0em;} - -hr { - width: 33%; - margin-top: 2em; - margin-bottom: 2em; - margin-left: 33.5%; - margin-right: 33.5%; - clear: both; -} - -hr.chap {width: 65%; margin-left: 17.5%; margin-right: 17.5%;} -@media print { hr.chap {display: none; visibility: hidden;} } - -hr.r5 {width: 5%; margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 47.5%; margin-right: 47.5%;} -hr.r65 {width: 65%; margin-top: 3em; margin-bottom: 3em; margin-left: 17.5%; margin-right: 17.5%;} - -div.chapter {page-break-before: always;} -h2.nobreak {page-break-before: avoid;} - -abbr[title] { - text-decoration: none; -} - -table { - margin-left: auto; - margin-right: auto; -} -table.autotable { border-collapse: collapse; width: 80%; font-size: 1.1em;} -table.autotable td, -table.autotable th { padding: 4px; } - -.x-ebookmaker table {width: 95%;} - -.tdr {text-align: right;} -.tdc {text-align: center;} - -.pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ - /* visibility: hidden; */ - position: absolute; - left: 92%; - font-size: smaller; - text-align: right; - font-style: normal; - font-weight: normal; - font-variant: normal; -} /* page numbers */ - -.blockquot { - margin-left: 5%; - margin-right: 5%; -} - -.center {text-align: center;} - -.smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} - -.big {font-size: 1.2em;} -.small {font-size: 0.8em;} -.page {width: 4em; vertical-align: top;} - -/* Footnotes */ -.footnotes {border: 1px dashed; margin-left: 3%; margin-right: 3%; margin-top: 2em;} - -.footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;} - -.footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;} - -.fnanchor { - vertical-align: super; - font-size: .8em; - text-decoration: - none; -} - -/* Poetry */ -.poetry {text-align: left; margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 5%;} -/* uncomment the next line for centered poetry in browsers */ -/* .poetry {display: inline-block;} */ -/* large inline blocks don't split well on paged devices */ -@media print { .poetry {display: block;} } -.x-ebookmaker .poetry {display: block;} - -/* Transcriber's notes */ -.transnote {background-color: #E6E6FA; - color: black; - font-size:smaller; - padding:0.5em; - margin-bottom:5em; - font-family:sans-serif, serif; } - - </style> - </head> -<body> -<p style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Story of a Siberian Exile, by M. Rufin Pietrowski</p> -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online -at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you -are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the -country where you are located before using this eBook. -</div> - -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: The Story of a Siberian Exile</p> -<p style='display:block; margin-left:2em; text-indent:0; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:1em;'>followed by A Narrative of Recent Events in Poland</p> -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: M. Rufin Pietrowski</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: March 31, 2022 [eBook #67749]</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</p> - <p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:left'>Produced by: Carlos Colon, Harvard University and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.)</p> -<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE STORY OF A SIBERIAN EXILE ***</div> - - - -<h2>RECOLLECTIONS OF SIBERIA.</h2> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p class="center p0 p2 small"> LONDON</p> - -<p class="center p0 small"> PRINTED BY SPOTTISWOODE AND <abbr title="company">CO.</abbr></p> - -<p class="center p0 small"> NEW-STREET SQUARE -</p> - -</div> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<h1> THE STORY<br /><br /> - -<span class="small"> OF</span><br /><br /> - -<span class="big"> A SIBERIAN EXILE.</span></h1> - -<p class="center p0 p2 small"> BY</p> - -<p class="center p0"> M. RUFIN PIETROWSKI.</p> - -<p class="center p0 p2 small"> FOLLOWED BY</p> - -<p class="center p0"> A NARRATIVE OF RECENT EVENTS IN POLAND.</p> - -<p class="center p0 small"> TRANSLATED FROM THE FRENCH.</p> - -<p class="center p0 p2"> LONDON:<br /> - LONGMAN, GREEN, LONGMAN, ROBERTS, & GREEN.<br /> - 1863. -</p></div> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_v">[Pg v]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="TRANSLATORS_PREFACE">TRANSLATOR’S PREFACE.</h2> -</div> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p>It has not been thought advisable to give these papers to the public -without a few words of explanation to those readers who see them for -the first time in an English dress. It may seem that the three parts -of which the book is composed have little connection with each other, -but this is not the case. Along with the story of a Polish Exile in -Siberia will be found two chapters on the political aspects of Poland. -The first of these contains an account of those measures and events -by which the dismemberment of ancient Poland was effected. But the -Poles contend that the wrong done to their country has not stopped -there; and that she has been not only dismembered, but denationalised. -On referring to the Treaty of Vienna they find that this loss of -nationality was not contemplated by the European powers, and that it is -contrary both to the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_vi">[Pg vi]</span> letter and to the spirit of the Treaties of 1815. -By degrees, however, whether rightly or wrongly, Russian supremacy has -asserted itself, and the story of M. Rufin Pietrowski is intended to -demonstrate what are the amenities of that régime. The Poles will not -submit to a government in which they are not allowed to participate; -and they are engaged in ceaseless attempts to elude its vigilance, and -to defy its power. They wish to organise themselves; and the executive, -obliged to act both on the defensive and the offensive towards -them, has recourse to cruel and arbitrary methods of repression. -The narrative of the Siberian Exile is a strange one, but there is -no reason to believe that his tale is otherwise than authentic. The -candour and moderation with which he speaks of the Russian officials -is highly creditable, and it deserves to be noticed, that it is the -system, rather than the men, which he attacks.</p> - -<p>The last paper in this book will be found, without doubt, to be the -most interesting. A moment’s reflection will convince its readers -that there is no European country in which so great a change is being -effected, and of which they hear so little, as Russian Poland. Yet the -events which have recently agitated Poland<span class="pagenum" id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</span> are events of historical -interest, and they are not in themselves unimportant to Western Europe. -An outline of their nature and extent is given here. This history of -‘twelve months of agitation’ makes us spectators of a struggle which -the Poles have maintained against the Czar, and in which they have -proved themselves to be still full of that high, haughty, and stubborn -spirit of liberty which Edmund Burke discerned in them of yore. Their -recent efforts towards civilization and self-improvement will not -fail to ensure for them the sympathy of all who can discern in its -energy and its self-control the true greatness of a nation. Sketches -of some of the leading men of Poland will be found here: and, at this -crisis, it has been thought that an account of the career of Count -Andrew Zamoyski could hardly fail of being acceptable. If the destiny -of Poland, as a nation, be eventful and yet obscure, the destiny of -individuals has often proved under the Muscovite rule to be more tragic -and even more obscure. The Polish party in emigration, who now welcome -Count Zamoyski, have great cause to congratulate themselves that their -‘civic hero’—the best and worthiest of their patriots—has not been -sent to expiate a life devoted to his country’s good in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_viii">[Pg viii]</span> fortress -of Akatouïa, or in some of the desolate wastes of the Russian Empire in -the East.</p> - -<p>The translator is in no wise responsible for any of the sentiments -to be found in this book. His task has been simply that of rendering -into English the thoughts and words of other men. In the story of -M. Rufin Pietrowski he has felt the disadvantages that attend upon -the translation of a translation; but he has striven to preserve the -integrity of the narrative, even in the smallest particulars. It is -with a view to this end that he has adopted all those Russian and -Polish phrases, idioms, and words which occur in the text of M. Klackso.</p> - -<p> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="smcap">London</span>:</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>November 1862</i>.</span><br /> -</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_ix">[Pg ix]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CONTENTS">CONTENTS.</h2> -</div> -<hr class="r5" /> - -<table class="autotable"> -<tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2"> -<a href="#INTRODUCTION">INTRODUCTION.</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> -Siberia—Adventures of Beniowski—Madame Felinska—M. Rufin - Pietrowski -</td> -<td class="tdr page"> -<a href="#Page_1">Page 1-9</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc big" colspan="2"> -<a href="#CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I.</a><br /> -<span class="small">OF A MISSION INTO POLAND.</span> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> -A passport—The journey—The Russian frontier—Kaminieç—A - teacher of languages—Annoyances of disguise—M. Abaza—Suspicions - of the Police </td> -<td class="tdr page"> -<a href="#Page_10">10-24</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc big" colspan="2"> -<a href="#CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II.</a><br /> -<span class="small">OF MY ARREST AND IMPRISONMENT AT BRAÇLAW.</span> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> -Arrest—Examination—Major Poloutkovskï—Journey to Braçlaw—An - accident—The prison—A Russian scene—Kiow </td> -<td class="tdr page"> -<a href="#Page_25">25-40</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc big" colspan="2"> -<a href="#CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III.</a><br /> -<span class="small">OF MY IMPRISONMENT AT KIOW, AND MY DEPARTURE FOR SIBERIA.</span> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> - The fortress at Kiow—Prince Bibikov—Examination—A Commission - of Inquiry—A Bible—Fellow-prisoners—The maniac—Preparations - for ‘Deportation’—The Sentence </td> -<td class="tdr page"> -<a href="#Page_41">41-59</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_x">[Pg x]</span> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc big" colspan="2"> -<a href="#CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV.</a><br /> -<span class="small">OF DEPORTATION, AND THE LIFE OF AN EXILE IN SIBERIA.</span> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> - The <em>knout</em> and the <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">plète</i>—Running the gauntlet—Gangs of exiles—Grand-Duchess - Marie—The journey—Russian alms—A ‘pope’—The - Russian soldier—Omsk—Prince Gortchakov—Ekaterinski-Zavod </td> -<td class="tdr page"> -<a href="#Page_60">60-81</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc big" colspan="2"> -<a href="#CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V.</a><br /> -<span class="small">THE KATORGA.</span> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> - Companions in exile—The katorga—A murderer—The felons—Kantier—Pay - and punishments—The counting-house </td> -<td class="tdr page"> -<a href="#Page_82">82-102</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc big" colspan="2"> -<a href="#CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI.</a><br /> -<span class="small">SIBERIA.</span> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> - Siberia—Hardships of deportation—Breaking the ban—The Abbé - Sierocinski—His conspiracy and execution </td> -<td class="tdr page"> -<a href="#Page_103">103-114</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc big" colspan="2"> -<a href="#CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII.</a><br /> -<span class="small">THE FLIGHT.</span> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> - An attempt—My route—My funds—My dress—A sledge—A - Russian theft—The journey—Irbite—On foot—A night’s lodging—Danger—Cold - and famine—Paouda—The <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">izbouchka</i>—The - crest of the Ourals—Lost in the forest—Sleep—Alms—Véliki-Oustiong </td> -<td class="tdr page"> -<a href="#Page_115">115-152</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc big" colspan="2"> -<a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII.</a><br /> -<span class="small">THE PILGRIM AND THE PILGRIMAGE.</span> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> - Pilgrimages—The Bohomolets—Manners and customs in Véliki-Oustiong—On - the Dvina—Archangel—The devotions of the pilgrims—Difficulties—Hope - deferred </td> -<td class="tdr page"> -<a href="#Page_153">153-169</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xi">[Pg xi]</span> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc big" colspan="2"> -<a href="#CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX.</a><br /> -<span class="small">THE WHITE SEA.</span> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>The monastery of Solovetsk—The prisoner of Solovetsk—Heterodoxy - and orthodoxy—The promontory—A farther journey—Onega—St. - Petersburg </td> -<td class="tdr page"> -<a href="#Page_170">170-194</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc big" colspan="2"> -<a href="#CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X.</a><br /> -<span class="small">THE RETURN TO PARIS.</span> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> - The moujik’s passage—Lithuania—The Prussian frontier—Königsberg—Arrest - and captivity—M. Kamke—Bail—Flight—Arrival - in Paris—The end </td> -<td class="tdr page"> -<a href="#Page_195">195-208</a> -</td> -</tr> - -</table> -<hr class="r65" /> -<table class="autotable"> -<tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2"> -<a href="#POLAND1">POLAND</a><br /> -A CENTURY AFTER ITS DIVISION:<br /> -AND THE LATE AGITATION IN WARSAW. -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> - A century—1772—Battle of Macejowice and Kosciusko—Treaty of - 1815—Opinion of M. de Talleyrand—Cracow—Treaty of Vienna, - Article 6—Policy of Alexander—Policy of Prussia—Policy of the - Emperor of Austria—Nicholas the Tzar—Violent assimilation of - Poland with Russia—Posen—Cracow—The last thirty years—Massacre - in Galicia—1848—Crimean war—The Polish question—Efforts - for internal reform—Temperance league—The Agricultural - Society—Count Andrew Zamoyski—Krasinski—‘Aurora’—Amnesty - of Alexander II.—Conference at Warsaw—Position of - Russia </td> -<td class="tdr page"> -<a href="#Page_211">211-263</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xii">[Pg xii]</span> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2"> -<a href="#POLAND2">A YEAR OF AGITATION IN POLAND.</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> - Solution of the Polish question—War in the Crimea—Congress in - Paris—Allocution of the Czar—1856—‘No dreams’—1860—February - 25, 1861—Count Andrew Zamoyski—Prince Gortchakof—His - death—General Souchozanett—The Marquis Wiélopolski—Vacillating - policy of Russia—7th and 8th of April, 1861—A contested - nationality—Horoldo—The procession—The Polish eagle—The - elections—State of siege—15th and 16th of October—General - Lambert—Exiles—Catholicism in Poland—The <i>Welicorus</i>—Poland - and Russia </td> -<td class="tdr page"> -<a href="#Page_267">267-321</a> -</td> -</tr> -</table> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</span></p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="THE">THE<br /> -<span class="big">STORY OF A SIBERIAN EXILE.</span></h2> -</div> -<hr class="r5" /> - - -<h3 class="nobreak" id="INTRODUCTION">INTRODUCTION.</h3> - -<hr class="r5" /> -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p class="center p0">SIBERIA—ADVENTURES OF BENIOWSKI—MADAME FELINSKA—M. RUFIN PIOTROWSKI.</p> -</div> - -<hr class="r5" /> -<p>There is an expression in use in Poland which surpasses all that human -eloquence has ever employed to give intensity to despair; it consists -of the words ‘<em>we never meet again</em>:’ and thus it is that any -political exile, when about to depart for Siberia, takes leave of his -family and of his friends; ‘<em>we never meet again!</em>’ for the only -way in which an exile could find himself once more among those whom -he loves would be for him to meet them in the same place of torment. -The conviction is deep that they who are once transported to those -regions of pain can quit them no more; that Siberia never relinquishes -her prey. For nearly a century she has torn from Poland her most -devoted women, her most generous sons. Back to those realms of snow -and of blood fly the thoughts of every Pole who inquires into the past -fortunes of his<span class="pagenum" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</span> family; and when the poet dreams for his country a -future which is all liberty and bliss, it is again Siberia which rears -herself before his eyes, ready after victory itself still to demand -her victims. It is a mysterious and dismal land!—a land ‘from which -one returns no more,’ as the Polish peasants say, or, as Hamlet speaks -of that other region which Siberia so fatally resembles, it is an -‘undiscovered country from whose bourne no traveller returns.’ And yet -now and then some one does come back. Sometimes at the accession of a -Czar to the throne, an amnesty (which, however incomplete it may be, -receives no less the surname of general) sends back to heart-broken -families some of those who have not wholly succumbed to pain. At least, -this did happen twice in one century; at the accession of Paul I. and -of Alexander II.: the Emperor Nicholas never felt a similar weakness. -In other cases, very rare ones, and therefore not hard to enumerate, -entreaties and prayers backed by some distinguished protection -have, after years of persevering efforts, obtained the return of -the condemned exile. Finally, we have even seen, reappearing in the -light, and among the living, those who, neither waiting nor hoping -for an amnesty, whether general or particular, have found, in their -own courage and in their own despair, a way of extricating themselves -from their horrible fate; but such a phenomenon as this is not to be -met with twice in any hundred years. Several of those who have thus -returned, like ghosts<span class="pagenum" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</span> from the tomb, have afterwards written an -account of their sojourn in these desolate places; others again left -notes on the spot, which were afterwards to be piously collected; and -thus it happens that the literature of Poland possesses a complete -collection of the writings of Siberian exiles, a collection already -sufficiently large, and which, in spite of the monotony of the subject, -certainly is not lacking in interest.</p> - -<p>Very strange in truth are the adventures of Beniowski, a soldier of -Bar, deported to Kamtschatka, organising there among its indigenous -savages a vast conspiracy, administering to them an oath of fidelity -to the confederation of Bar, passing Behring’s Straits, conquering -Madagascar, and coming to offer the sovereignty of it to the French -king. A very different fate awaited General Kopec, who was banished -some years later to the same district. Submissive, patient, almost -serene, during the time of his exile, his mind became clouded at the -moment when he was told that the hour of his deliverance had come. Joy -was too great for his soul, and he took back to his native country only -the remnants of his reason. He had some sane and lucid intervals, and -these he employed in dictating a few pages of a history of his past -sufferings, in a style at once sweet and subdued. During thirty years -did poor Adolphus Januszkiewicz, for the use of an aged mother, who -still lived in Lithuania, note down day by day the events of a life -which flowed away among the Kirghis<span class="pagenum" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</span> of the Steppes; and a brother’s -hand has lately discovered to us how much filial piety and indomitable -courage filled that exile’s breast. We omit many other names; but how -can we avoid recalling Madame Eva Felinska and her book—that noble -lady and noble Christian, whom the severity of Nicholas sent to be a -dweller in Bérézov, in the middle of the Yakoutes and the Ostiaks, and -whose son has recently (April 1862) been promoted to the archbishopric -of Warsaw? What constitutes the sensible charm of Madame Felinska’s -work is not only the absence of all recrimination (the annals of the -Siberian exiles being in general free from all bitterness), but it -is the feminine modesty with which she instinctively conceals her -personal misfortunes. One might imagine while reading her pages that -they were the remarks of some enquiring person, who sojourned among -unreclaimed tribes out of pure eccentricity of mind, did not the -cries of a mother who asks for her poor little children undeceive us, -and make us only too often aware that the choice rested not in that -mother’s will. One day at Bérézov,<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> while digging a well, there was -discovered a corpse, which (thanks to the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</span> glacial nature of the soil) -seemed by its preservation, and the state of the brilliant uniform and -orders, to have been but a thing of yesterday. By dint of enquiries and -recollections, they succeeded, however, in proving that it was the body -of Prince Menstchikov, who more than a century ago had died an exile -on this very spot, after having lived the minister and the favourite -of Czars. Madame Felinska in recording the event contents herself with -exclaiming, ‘What a strange chance!’ She leaves to the mind of the -reader the task of filling in the outlines of this touching picture, -where a Polish woman, in this same land of banishment, finds herself -face to face with the man who first dared with impunity to trample on -the Sarmatian soil.</p> - -<p>One of the most recent and remarkable publications in this the -literature of the deported (for so it is called in Poland to -distinguish it from the literature of the emigrated) is that which has -just been given to us by M. Rufin Piotrowski.<a id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> His book recommends -itself not only by the richness of its detail and the breadth with -which it is composed, but also, and chiefly, because the author of -it is an escaped ‘Siberian.’ In him, since the case of Beniowski, we -have the only example of a deported person who has attempted such -an enterprise, and who has also succeeded in it. It is the more -extraordinary because M. Piotrowski was also condemned<span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</span> to hard labour -in the public works. Beniowski, as we have seen, had much assistance -and many accomplices. A comparatively narrow tract alone separated him -from the land of freedom, whereas our contemporary had no one to rely -on but himself, and without map or succours, almost without money, -he had to traverse Siberia in its entire length, and a great part of -Russia in Europe in addition. On foot he made the long and perilous -journey from beyond Omsk in Western Siberia, penetrating the Oural -mountains to Archangel, Petersburg, Riga, even into Prussia, never -imparting to a living soul his fatal secret, in order not to involve -any one in his own probable and terrible fate. If the narrative of M. -Piotrowski has not all that romantic brilliancy which the story of -the confederate of Bar can afford, it reveals to us greater dangers -and a perseverance of will far superior in every way. Nor is the -marvellous element wanting to this strange Odyssey, albeit its hero -is no mythological being; he exists, nay, he lives among us, and we -rub shoulders with him every day. This escaped convict and exile from -the banks of Irtiche, this former <em>unhappy one</em> (for thus do the -natives of Siberia call the deported Poles), is now a modest professor -in that excellent Polish school of the Batignolles, for which the -emigrated sons of Poland are partly indebted to the generosity of -France. M. Rufin Piotrowski was one of those heroic emissaries who, -from the extreme limits of Polish emigration, sought to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</span> carry back -and impart to an oppressed country the hopes, the ideas, and the -dreams of exile; and his narrative begins precisely at the point when -he started from Paris, on the journey which he undertook to Kaminiec -in Podolia. These emissaries brought with them, generally speaking, -impossible plans, and calls which could not be answered, because -sufficient reflection had not been bestowed upon them. Sometimes, too, -they imported ideas which were positively dangerous, and if they almost -always half atoned for their errors by a constancy which braved both -death and danger; they did not the less draw along with them in their -own unhappy fate some generous and innocent victims. M. Piotrowski -has at least this consolation, that he never made himself the apostle -of perverse doctrines, and that he never sowed the seeds of hatred. -His actions as an emissary were always enlightened by sentiments of -that religious charity to which mob law in all its meanings is utterly -repugnant. The same profoundly religious spirit characterises his -book—a book which was written now many years ago, but which, for -reasons obvious in a case of Polish publication, it was impracticable -to publish before 1861. We have thought that the recollections of M. -Piotrowski were likely to find favour with the French public. At a -time when nothing else is heard of in Poland but sentences to Siberia -pronounced upon the most respectable of her citizens, upon canons, -rabbins, provosts, merchants, professors,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</span> students, and artisans, it -surely cannot be useless or amiss to explain by one striking example -all that is contained for Poland and the Poles in the single word -‘<em>deportation</em>.’ Is it necessary now to add that what we are -about to read in these pages is in every particular strict matter of -fact? The narrative of M. Piotrowski bears the stamp of truth, and -of a good faith which pleads for itself, and removes every suspicion -of exaggeration. For the rest, as we shall see, the author hardly, -if ever, blames persons; as often as not, he expresses himself with -regard to them in words marked by a lively sense of gratitude. It -is the <em>system</em> only which he accuses; and, shall we confess -it, the countrymen of M. Piotrowski, and above all his companions in -misfortune, while unanimous as to the perfect authenticity of his tale, -have rather reproached him with an excessive indulgence in speaking of -the Russian officials. How many Poles, for example, have been surprised -to see the portraits which he has sketched of Prince Bibikov and of M. -Pissarev, men whose names are so painfully distinguished in the annals -of the Poland of to-day? As we do not think it necessary to anticipate -or preach a conviction which will soon make itself felt, it remains for -us only to point out the method which we have followed in borrowing -here from the Polish original of the book. A mere analysis would have -effaced its character of individuality, while it spoilt the originality -of the book. What is presented<span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</span> here is a faithful abridgement of a -more detailed and lengthy narrative—an abridgement of an abyss, if -one may borrow Pascal’s energetic phrase—for the ‘Recollections of -a Siberian Exile’ reveal to us a perfect abyss of suffering and of -misery.</p> - - -<div class="footnotes"><h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="label">[1]</a> We use here the Latin <em>v</em> as the best equivalent for -the <em>b</em> (viedi) of the Russian alphabet, although the letters -<em>f</em> and <em>w</em> in Russian have nearly the same sound. To be -consistent, it is necessary to write not only Móskova, Iainbov, -Bérézov, but Orlov, Menstchikov, etc.: as for the name of Kiow, -we adopt the orthography of the inhabitants of this town (Little -Ruthenes); the Russians alone write it Kiew, pronouncing it always as -Kiow.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2" class="label">[2]</a> Pamietniki Rufina Piotrowskiego, 3 <abbr title="volumes">vols.</abbr> in 8vo. Posen -1861.</p> - -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</span></p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h3 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I.<br /><br /><span class="small">OF A MISSION INTO POLAND.</span></h3> -</div> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p class="center p0">A PASSPORT—THE JOURNEY—THE RUSSIAN FRONTIER—KAMINIEÇ—A TEACHER OF -LANGUAGES—ANNOYANCES OF DISGUISE—M. ABAZA—SUSPICIONS OF THE POLICE.</p> -</div> - -<hr class="r5" /> -<p>I had long decided to take my departure for my native land, and was -only occupied by the necessary preparations for it, when I fell -suddenly sick in Paris. It was in the year 1842. I was received into -the hospital of <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">La Pitié</i>, then under the direction of Baron -Lisfranc, who had formerly served with Polish troops during the wars of -the Empire, and who still preserved towards them a friendly sentiment. -A number of my compatriots and companions in exile found themselves -along with me in the hospital, a prey to the two forms of disease so -common among us emigrants—consumption and madness. More than one of -them died in my ward, and at my side—a sight which was well calculated -to sadden my spirit, for they died, though without uttering a single -complaint, in utter prostration and gloom. One would almost have said -that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</span> they had felt, in leaving this world, as if, even in the next, -for them there might still be no country.</p> - -<p>This sojourn in the hospital was nevertheless not without a good result -on my projects. I had the fortune to make the acquaintance of another -invalid, an American from the United States, who promised to get a -passport for me, a thing which was indispensable for my undertaking, -and which up to this time I had never been able to procure. Leaving, -after a detention of about six weeks, the hospital from which the -American had been discharged a few days earlier, I went at once to seek -him at the address which he had given me. He then and there handed -over to me an English passport, made out in the name of ‘<i>Joseph -Catharo, native of La Valette (Malta), aged 36</i>.’ The document was -quite regular, delivered at the English embassy in Paris, and signed -by the ambassador, Lord Cowley. I could desire nothing better. In my -situation an English passport was preferable to any other. I spoke -Italian perfectly, whereas I could only speak English very imperfectly; -but then my supposed Maltese antecedents would make good any failings -on that score. The different <em>visa</em> of Baden, Wurtemberg, Bavaria, -Austria, and Turkey, were soon procured; but at the office of the -Minister for Foreign Affairs there had been put alongside of the seals -two printed lines containing these fatal words—‘Bound to present -himself at the Prefecture of the Police.’<span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</span> Now I had all sorts of -reasons for not wishing to announce my departure at the Prefecture of -Police, where they might very likely have had more inquisitiveness than -I had found in my American friend. After casting about in my mind for a -long time how best to dispose of this luckless clause, I selected the -not very ingenious plan of spilling some ink over the two lines, thus -counterfeiting a big blot, and leaving nothing visible but the seal of -the Minister. The method was a rude enough one, but it was not the less -serviceable, and at none of the numberless police stations at which the -passport had afterwards to be presented was any exception taken to the -blot which disfigured it.</p> - -<p>Thus accommodated, and furnished with 150 francs, which were to suffice -for the wants of a long journey, I left Paris on January 9, 1843. -After having traversed without hindrance Strasburg, Stuttgart, Munich, -Salzburg, and Vienna, I took the road from the last-named place to -Pesth. In the interests of my mission I was to make a month’s stay in -the capital of Hungary; and I profited by this delay, for I addressed -in the meantime to the English ambassador at Vienna the request that -he would renew my passport, my intention being to go to Russia instead -of to Constantinople, and to make a stay there of considerable length. -An answer was soon returned. At the end of a few days I received from -Vienna, in exchange for my old passport, a new one, of a recent date, -happily<span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</span> free from any ominous blots of ink, and <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">visé</i> for -Russia. On February 28th, I quitted Pesth, meaning to reach Kaminieç -in Podolia, the term and goal of my voyage. I found that the small sum -which I had brought with me from Paris had, in spite of the most frugal -way of living, greatly diminished; and I resolved to make the rest of -my journey from Hungary to Podolia on foot. The season was favourable, -the scenery magnificent, the passage of the Carpathians so splendid -as to make me forget any slight fatigue. It was a strange, sometimes -almost a diverting, sensation for me thus to traverse Galicia, and to -have to ask my way in execrable German of the few Austrian officials, -while the peasants gave utterance to the most minute remarks upon me, -all in that Polish speech which I declared I did not understand. The -pleasantries of our peasants on the subject of ‘the dumb man’ did not, -however, miss fire or fail to amuse me greatly. To these jokes there -were often added on their part marks of respect to a stranger come from -the ends of the earth. ‘I am sure he comes a long way off,’ they would -say to each other; ‘from very far, from where even the crow brings -no bones.’ At last, on one fine March morning, 1843, I found myself -at the boundary which separates the Austrian and Russian territory, -near the village of Bojany. The frontier was marked by two barriers, -which were distant the one from the other by a few dozen paces. Upon -showing my papers the Austrian<span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</span> barrier was opened for me without any -difficulty; but when I arrived at the Russian side, it was in vain -that I called and looked round in all directions—no one came. Tired -of waiting I passed by, stooping under the beam, and directed my steps -to a house at a little distance, which seemed to be the Custom House -office. The astonishment there was great when I was seen to arrive thus -unaccompanied by a soldier.</p> - -<p>‘How did you pass the frontier?’</p> - -<p>‘At the barrier, down there.’</p> - -<p>‘Who opened it for you?’</p> - -<p>‘Nobody. I called in vain, and at last determined to slip underneath -it.’</p> - -<p>‘What! the guard was not there at his post?’ cried the functionary, as -much exasperated he rushed out to give orders, of which his menacing -tones only too fully explained the nature. Having returned to his room, -he emptied out upon me the remains of his ill humour; but the sight of -the English passport had a sudden and pacifying effect on his wrath. -While my papers were being examined, and they took down the answers -which I made to sundry questions relating to my journey, I heard -the distant cries of the poor soldier, who was expiating under the -bastinado what had been either his negligence or perhaps indeed only -my hastiness. At last I was free to leave the office, with a feeling -of satisfaction which was not, however, wholly unalloyed. There was -indeed something<span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</span> ominous in this incident attending my entrance into -the territory of the Emperor Nicholas. From the first step I had defied -Russian vigilance, but I had at the same time, albeit involuntarily, -caused the punishment of an unhappy creature, and my heart was pained -at it.</p> - -<p>On March 22nd, I reached Kaminieç, at midday. I had my portmanteau -in one hand, while with the other I opened the door of an inn that -had been pointed out to me, and I found myself suddenly in the middle -of a large assembly of people, and in a room where they were playing -billiards. I had purposely kept my hat on my head, and by this sign, -so contrary to our national habits, I was immediately recognised to -be a stranger or a <em>Frenchman</em>, for the two words are among us -considered to be synonymous. The sensation, which was evident in the -room, was very curious. ‘A <em>Frenchman</em>, a <em>Frenchman</em>,’ they -murmured on all sides, speaking with interest and even with sympathy, -but with a manifest fear of compromising themselves by an imprudent of -even a friendly word. Two men only ventured to come forward frankly -and converse with me—the one was a Pole from Cracow, only passing -through Kaminieç, and therefore less obliged to be circumspect; the -other was a Russian officer, who left the billiard-table when he heard -me utter a few sentences in French, and who immediately showed the -greatest readiness to make my<span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</span> acquaintance. ‘You are, then, come to -stay here for some time? Oh! pray remain, I beseech you. It is a fine -country! beautiful women, too! But it is at Warsaw especially that one -finds charming women. Ah! Warsaw! I have been garrisoned there: it is -a famous place, and <em>there</em> really <em>are</em> pretty faces!’ And -the young man seemed not to be able to stop in pouring forth praises -which could not but be disagreeable to me. Strange that this Poland, of -which he trod the soil, and of which he had visited all the principal -towns, should have given him nothing to see or to appreciate but the -beauty of our women! Not one word to say of the government, of the -fate of the inhabitants, of the misery of the people! His only subject -of preoccupation, of praise, and of conversation, was the female -population of Poland. One thing only turned him from this favourite -topic. I happened to say something incidentally of Paris; then he -began to ask questions about the Parisian womankind, and seemed at -once pleased and excited at my replies. On the whole he was not a bad -fellow, this officer Rogatchev; and he wound up by sharing with me the -national dish of <i lang="pl" xml:lang="pl">pierogi</i>, laughing all the time at the strong -foreign accent with which I pronounced the word: but he did me the -justice to say soon after, that in the matter of <i lang="pl" xml:lang="pl">pierogi</i> my good -appetite had made ample amends for my bad pronunciation.</p> - -<p>While we walked up and down the room and talked<span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</span> in a loud voice on -trifling subjects, the other occupants of it, all Poles and young -people, kept themselves apart and whispered together, directing towards -me from time to time oblique and curious glances. What a striking -contrast there was between their attitude of reserve and the full-blown -confidence of the happy Rogatchev! While keeping up my conversation -with the Russian officer, I endeavored to catch the words which were -passing among my countryman. ‘From France?’ ‘Does he know anything of -our people?’ ‘Do the French care about us?’ ‘Perhaps something new -is about to happen.’ My emotion was great, but I had to redouble the -animation with which I was describing to my new acquaintance the beauty -and the glories of Paris.</p> - -<p>While so discoursing I did not omit to inform M. Rogatchev as well -as the other persons present that I had come to Kaminieç to push my -fortune as a teacher of languages, and that I desired nothing better -than to settle in the town, though, if my interests required it, I -might penetrate even to the interior of Russia. This declaration I -repeated next morning at the station of police, for I was anxious to -lose no time in establishing my position. The permission to remain -was accorded to me without hesitation. As regarded my intention of -giving lessons in private houses, I was warned that some formalities -must in the first place be attended to, and that I must formally ask -and obtain<span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</span> the consent of the military governor, of the director -of the Lyceum, &c. It was not long before I obtained the necessary -authorisation, and thanks to the recommendations of my officer and of -other persons whose acquaintance I made on the first day,—thanks, -above all, to those obliging cares of which a stranger is always the -object in our country, orders for lessons came to me from all sides, -and from the very first. I preferred, I must say, the houses of the -different Russian officials; it was the surest way to avoid suspicion -for myself, and to prevent compromising my countrymen. The offers made -to me by the Abaza family were really precious, and it may be supposed -that I did not neglect such connections as these; for Colonel Abaza, -President of the Chamber of Finance, was a Russian functionary at once -highly placed and very influential. I did not, however, refuse to -attend on Polish families; but I selected those which any discovery -would have the least affected, such as the houses of widows and elderly -gentlemen—those, in short, where there were no young people. After -a few weeks I had made good my position, and my relations were well -understood. I went into all circles, and all over the town I was well -known as the M. Catharo whom they persisted in calling a Frenchman.</p> - -<p>Thus it was that, after having been an emigrant for twelve years, -I found myself again in my native land, not very far either from -my own family (which dwelt<span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</span> in the Ukraine), and in the quality of -a Maltese, a British subject, teaching foreign languages, and not -understanding a word of either the Russian or the Polish tongues. This -last circumstance was one which often put my caution and my <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">sang -froid</i> both to some severe trials, trials which my professorial -office only aggravated. How many times was I not tempted at some -difficult idiom or expression to explain myself to my pupils in a -speech quite as familiar to me as it was to themselves! One of my first -pupils was a certain Dmitrenko, a clerk in the Chamber of Finance, -a cheerful being, who was bitten all of a sudden with a fancy for -learning French, of which he did not know a single word. At the end -of the pantomime which was necessary to make us mutually understand -each other during the lesson, he wound up by proposing to give me some -notions about Russian, with which I was perfectly conversant; but he -never managed to make me read fluently, and he could not conceal his -astonishment at this want of intelligence in one of those Frenchmen -whose wits he had heard so much vaunted.</p> - -<p>Among my own people, the incognito which I preserved exposed me very -often to scenes that made both my inward feelings and my sentiments as -a man of probity suffer acutely. I was the involuntary and helpless -confidant of the relations, even of the secrets, of families, who -thought that they concealed them perfectly from my knowledge by -speaking together in Polish. Nor in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</span> such conversations did I always -hear remarks that were flattering to myself. One day, for example, a -visitor who was unknown to me meeting me in a room for the first time, -and hearing that I had recently come from Paris, wished to ask me if I -knew anything of his brother, who lived in that capital, an emigrant, -and a man whom in truth I knew perfectly well; but the master of the -house dissuaded him warmly from it. ‘You know very well how strictly -we are forbidden to make any enquiries about our emigrated relations; -take care what you are about; one is never sure of one’s self with a -foreigner.’ I felt as if all the blood in my body were rushing to my -head, and I bent down quickly over the book in which I was cutting some -leaves.</p> - -<p>I must be permitted one other recollection of this sort. I was -giving lessons to the two daughters of the good and amiable Madame -Piekutowska. One day, while conversing with them, I touched oh the -subject of Poland. The beautiful Matilda replied to my careless -expression with one of those words which we sometimes utter before a -stranger, not witting that we are making some deep wound bleed. The -elder sister took her up sharply in Polish, ’ How can you speak of -sacred things before a hair-brained Frenchman?’</p> - -<p>Such incidents happened nearly every day, and they caused me sometimes -pleasure, sometimes annoyance; but that annoyance turned to a -concentrated rage when in Russian houses I was obliged to swallow in -silence,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</span> or discuss with the passionless calmness of a stranger, -topics wounding to my country, and such discussions as her oppressors -permitted themselves to indulge in. It was in the house of Monsieur -Abaza above all that I suffered this torture most frequently; and I -should try in vain were I to attempt to give any idea of it.</p> - -<p>As my own safety, as well as that of others, would assuredly be -compromised were I suspected of knowing the language of the country, -I was obliged in this respect to keep a constant watch upon myself. -If I may use such an expression, I was forced to watch myself even in -sleep; and I always arranged (especially when I happened to be invited -to any of the dwellings in the neighbourhood) so as to sleep alone, and -in a separate room. I feared that during my slumbers I might chance to -mutter some sentences in Polish. But no incident disturbed me in the -part which I had assumed; and during nine months I was enabled either -to remain in Kaminieç, or to make short excursions into the provinces, -without awakening the suspicions of the police. In the eyes of Poles, -as well as Russians, I passed always for M. Catharo, an inoffensive -man, who liked society, and who was well received in it. As to the true -object of my stay, and my real character, some of my countrymen alone -became privy to it, and the secret was most rigorously kept. The alarm, -as I afterwards learnt, came from St. Petersburg, and Kaminieç<span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</span> was -convulsed with astonishment when it discovered all of a sudden that the -French teacher of languages whom it had harboured so long within its -walls, was a native, an emigrant, and an emissary of emigrants....</p> - -<p>They say that men are often warned by a strange inward feeling that -danger is approaching. I had no need of such a supernatural gift to be -made aware, during the first days of the month of December, that peril -was imminent; I had only to keep my eyes about me. By the beginning -of December, I perceived that I was watched and spied upon at every -turn by emissaries of the police. The counsels which were given me -from different quarters, as well as the manner half inquisitive and -half constrained with which the Russian officials treated me, could -not but confirm my apprehensions. I have since heard that the moment -of my arrest was delayed not only from their wish to inform themselves -perfectly of my conduct, but from the difficulty which they experienced -in completely identifying my person; and their fear was lest, in case -of any mistake, they should get themselves into trouble by interfering -with a British subject; that is to say, with the subject of a power -well known not to stand any practices of that sort, or any joking on -such a matter. Very soon, however, I felt both that there was no doubt, -but that my arrest was close at hand, and also that it was time for me -to arrange my plans. Up to this moment flight had not been altogether -impossible, but it was repugnant<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</span> to me. Why should I shun the dangers -to which my accomplices were exposed, who neither could nor ought to -choose the path of exile? It was therefore a strict duty which I owed -to them, and to hundreds of persons who had nothing whatever to do with -me, not to be absent when the day of enquiry came. To tell the truth, -the Russian plan, in any political search of the kind, is to arrest all -those who, from far or near, intimately or casually, may have known the -suspected person. Now, as I was acquainted with everybody, both in the -town and in its environs, the disappearance of the guilty principal -would only have served to aggravate the case of thousands of suspected -persons. The inquiry would have dragged on for years; it would perhaps -never have come to an end. My presence alone could prevent countless -misfortunes, and, if the worst came to the worst, it could limit the -number of the victims. I resolved therefore patiently to abide the -fatal hour; and I spent the days of freedom which yet remained to me -in concerting with my accomplices the plan of conduct which I ought -to follow. The last interview which I had with one of them was in a -church on the eve of my arrest. We agreed as much as possible upon all -points, and then embraced one another with an emotion which may easily -be understood. Remaining to the last, and alone in the church, I prayed -with fervour that God would give me strength to come through the trials -which might await me.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</span></p> - -<p>Like every Pole of my generation, I had imbibed from my mother’s -teaching a fervent attachment to the Catholic faith. But those -convictions had had their times of eclipse, and I can still recall -the moment at which they were for the first time absolutely shaken. -It was in 1831, when, after our glorious campaign, I passed into -Galicia with the corps under General Dwernicki. One day I was at -confession, when the priest, a brother of the order of St Bernard, -among other exhortations full of charity and of the spirit of the -Gospel, represented our revolution to me as a sin, and as a violation -of the oath of fidelity to Nicholas. Respect for the sacred precincts -prevented my replying to him, but, as I rose to go away, I said to -myself that the priests did not always teach the truth, and that there -were a good many tares among their wheat. Some time later, while living -in France, I began to take up, like the rest of the world, new ideas in -religion, as well as in politics. I neglected all religious exercises -and practices, and had come to look on Jesus Christ as an excellent -philosopher, or, at the best, as a democratic teacher. But the -frivolous pleasure of unbelief are soon exhausted; and long before the -period at which my narrative begins, and before my return to my native -land, I had reverted to the feelings and the belief which had guided my -youth, and in which I was to find the only true support throughout the -sad destiny that was in store for me.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</span></p> - -<h3 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II.<br /><br /><span class="small">OF MY ARREST AND IMPRISONMENT AT BRAÇLAW.</span></h3> -</div> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p class="center p0">ARREST—EXAMINATION—MAJOR POLOUTKOVSKÏ—JOURNEY TO BRAÇLAW—AN -ACCIDENT—THE PRISON AT BRAÇLAW—A RUSSIAN SCENE—KIOW.</p> -</div> -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p>On December 31st, 1843, and just at the late dawning of the day, I -felt myself shaken by the arm, and I was addressed in a loud voice by -my assumed name. Though awake, I was in no hurry to reply; I wished -to gain time to compose myself for my part. When at last I opened my -eyes, I beheld in my room the Director of Police, Colonel Grunfield; -a Commissary; and Major Poloutkovskoï, of the Council of Prince -Bibikov, Governor-General of Volhynia, Podolia, and the Ukraine; the -Major having come from Kiow to take steps for my arrest. I expressed -my surprise at so early a visit, and my astonishment was naturally -redoubled at the intelligence that I must be taken, under escort, -before the Governor. I did not, of course, fail to represent my rights -as a British subject, or to remind them of the grave results that were -likely to accrue to themselves for this inconceivable conduct<span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</span> towards -me. After having thus gone through all the formalities necessary to -keep up my character, I asked permission to go into the next room, to -perform my toilet. While I was dressing, the Commissary took possession -of my papers and effects, and we were soon on our way to the house of -the Governor Radistchev, with whom I had been personally acquainted for -some time.</p> - -<p>This first interview was both short and indecisive. The Governor -entered the room abruptly, and addressed me in Russian. I pretended not -to understand what he said, and requested that I might be interrogated -in French; above all I begged that he would explain the cause of my -being arrested. ‘You will learn that presently;’ and, at a signal given -by his hand, I was then hustled out of the room. I was conducted to -the house of the Director of Police, and there installed in a room -which opened into a saloon. The doors were locked, and the official in -uniform left to keep me company strictly observed the rule that he was -not to speak to me.</p> - -<p>Up to this time I had preserved my presence of mind, and I had even -been astonished at my own perfect calmness at the moment of my -awakening; but now, when alone or nearly so, I suddenly felt a great -sinking of my heart. The thought of the many sufferings in store for -me, in store also for so many of my brothers, seemed to set my brain on -fire, and tears forced themselves<span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</span> into my eyes. To hide this dangerous -emotion, I turned to the wall, and leant my forehead against it; but -through the walls I fancied that sighs and moans were audible, the -voices of the companions of my unhappy fate. Determined to distract my -thoughts as much as I could, I took up a pack of playing cards that lay -on the round table. A child of the Ukraine, I was by nature a little -superstitious; I began to draw the cards, and they promised ... my -deliverance! Shall I say it? This fortunate augury only increased my -irritation, and I was almost obliged to the head official who entered -the room at this instant, and who, after enquiring into my wants, -carried away with him The tempting game.</p> - -<p>A few minutes later a distraction of a more important kind took the -place of the childish consolation which I had found in the cards. -Another officer had been sent to join the one already in charge of -me, and between them a conversation soon began which certainly was -not devoid of interest for me. I was so well known in Kaminieç, and -everyone was so thoroughly convinced of my ignorance of the two -languages used in the country, that even now these two officials still -thought me a foreigner, and they put no restraint on the remarks which -they made to each other in Russian and in a loud tone of voice. I need -not say that I lost nothing from want of attention to such a colloquy.</p> - -<p>‘It is a serious matter,’ said the one; ‘a political<span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</span> business. They -have arrested twenty people in the town already this morning (he gave -the names), and orders have been sent out to the country, and all on -account of this foreigner, who, they say, is come here to intrigue -against the Tzar, and who is accredited by some other power, England or -France—the devil knows which! They do not speak very well either of -President Abaza; if anything happens to him it will be a pity, for he -is an honest man; but I must say that at <em>his</em> age it <em>was</em> -an odd idea to wish to learn French! Much he is like to make by his -French lessons!’... ‘What a pity! what a pity to be sure!’ answered -the other one; ‘when this gentleman came here nine months ago I was -ordered to watch him, as we do every new comer. I dogged his steps, I -compassed him about on every side; but his conduct was so very open, -his relations with both Russians and Poles so frank, and he appeared to -me to be so really inoffensive, that at last I lost sight of him; and -it seems he was a very pretty fellow after all, and now another man has -been down upon him, and will claim the reward! Now I call <em>that</em> -having no luck! Scoundrel that he is! bah! what a pity, what a pity to -be sure!’... I could not help being amused at the strange way in which -this poor wretch condoled with himself for having lost the opportunity -of bringing about my ruin; but the rest of the information which I -extracted from their talk gave, if possible, a graver turn to my -thoughts. I could no longer doubt that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</span> many persons had been arrested -on my account; but the names which I had just heard repeated belonged -to such different classes of my acquaintances that I discerned in them -at least one source of hope. They were evidently groping in the dark -as yet, and arresting right and left, while suspicions reached as far, -or rather were as far astray, as Monsieur Abaza! In another point of -view I imitated the naive cynicism of my police official, and was -quite ready to rejoice at the trouble in which I had landed the worthy -President of the Chamber of Finance. If indeed the Russians whom I knew -were to be implicated in the trial, the affair would get into a strange -confusion, and who knows then whether my accomplices might not benefit -by the perfect innocence of the others, which would certainly soon be -made manifest?</p> - -<p>At four o’clock in the afternoon I had a visit from the Governor, and -from Major Poloutkovskoï. They represented to me that my position was -an alarming one, and that it would be best for my own interest if I -made the most complete confession. I persisted in my resolution. I -declared I did not understand in the least what they wanted with me, -and I spoke of writing to the English ambassador in St. Petersburg, and -of claiming his protection. ‘You are then in a great hurry to leave -Kaminieç?’ replied the Governor, ironically; ‘but keep yourself easy, -I will furnish you with all the means for it.’ The same questions were -repeated on the following days, either in the house of the Director of -Police,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</span> where I was still detained, or in that of the Governor, who -had me brought to him under an escort; the same arguments were urged, -on the one side, to make me confess my real character, and there was, -on the other side, the same obstinacy in keeping up the part which -I had assumed. The manners of the Governor were generally cold but -polite, sometimes however they were ironical, and even vehement. ‘It is -in vain to say that you are a Maltese, and to play this comedy,’ cried -he, in one of his examinations; ‘we know very well that you belong to -the Ukraine, and so-and-so have already confessed that they have talked -with you in Polish.’ He named to me two of the co-accused, the least -initiated into my sayings and doings, and also the least firm. Twice -over I was confronted with them. These interviews were most painful, -and in spite of the flat denials which I opposed to those who thus -denounced me, I saw the impossibility of persisting any longer in the -line which I had hitherto followed. Every day more abundant and more -precise information arrived about me, and it became clear that in -prolonging a useless game I ran the risk of aggravating the situation -of my accomplices; but I determined to collect the greatest possible -number of the accused, and to make them witnesses to my confession, -so that they might know its limits and follow my suit. I waited to -be confronted with them in a body. I had not long to wait, and one -evening when summoned to the Governor’s residence, I perceived in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</span> -the hall a great number of my fellow-prisoners arranged along the two -walls, and all standing up—they presented a moving spectacle, I might -almost say a fantastic one. Many of them were persons with whom I had -but a very slight acquaintance, others had been in my secret, all bore -upon their faces the marks of suffering and fatigue. After a certain -time spent as usual in pressing questions and in absolute denials, I -exclaimed, as if out of patience, in a loud voice, and in my native -tongue, ‘Well then, yes, I am not a British subject, I am a Pole; I -was born in the Ukraine, I emigrated after the revolution of 1831, -and I came back here. I came back into this country because a life of -exile was no longer endurable to me, and because I wished to revisit -Poland. I came here under a feigned name, because I was perfectly -aware that bearing my own name I should not be suffered to remain; I -was ready at any price to be quiet and inoffensive, asking nothing but -to breathe my native air. I have confided my secret to a few of my -fellow-countrymen, I have asked their help and their advice, I have -asked them for nothing else, and I have nothing else to say to them.’ -In spite of the certainty as to my identity which they must now have -possessed for some time, the Governor and Major Poloutkovskoï could not -suppress an exclamation of surprise at hearing me thus suddenly speak -out in Polish; and while I was speaking I could see the Governor’s face -expand; he rubbed his hands, walked<span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</span> up and down the room with long -steps, and when I ceased came up to me with a benevolent air, as if -he felt obliged to me for having put an end to a situation which was -really untenable. After a few insignificant questions, he gave orders -to have me removed.</p> - -<p>On my return to the house where I was detained, being still under -the influence of the late excitement, I took every one strangely by -surprise by suddenly beginning to talk in Polish. In this language -I addressed the director, the officials, and my keepers. I took a -childish and feverish pleasure in making use of a freedom which had -been so long denied me; and I behaved in the same way on the following -day, though, from an obstinacy which had its root in repugnance, rather -than in any calculation whatever, I pretended, as before, that I did -not understand Russian. As to my native speech I used it to my heart’s -content; it was as if I wished to make amends to myself by the liberty -of a few hours for having had to abstain from it during an entire year.</p> - -<p>Thus ended the preliminaries of my trial, and on the morrow Major -Poloutkovskoï came to desire me to hold myself in readiness to depart -on that very evening for Kiow.</p> - -<p>It was on a fine but cold winter’s night that I quitted Kaminieç. I -took my seat in a roomy open carriage alongside of Major Poloutkovskoï. -Opposite us sat two soldiers, with loaded muskets, and we were followed -by<span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</span> a second carriage, in which were two officers of the secret -Police. Owing to the season, and the lateness of the hour, which was -midnight, the town was dark, and the streets were deserted; but as -I passed before certain houses which I knew well, and of which the -inhabitants were united in the same lot with myself, I looked up, and -I saw lights still burning. Was it as a message of farewell? or did -they bear witness to vigils full of anguish which were being held -within? The plaintive tinkling of bells, fastened, after the Russian -fashion, to the shafts of the vehicle, which was drawn by three horses, -alone broke the mournful silence of the night, and I sank into a -reverie of indulged sadness. I was obliged to my companion for not -interrupting the current of my thoughts by words; he did not speak -even when we stopped to change horses, and it was not till the day -began to break that he commenced a conversation. It turned at first -only on France; her administration, her commercial arrangements, her -agriculture, her commerce, these were all subjects in which he seemed -to take a great interest. By degrees we began to talk of politics, -even of emigration, and I had the opportunity of convincing myself -how perfect was the knowledge which my interlocutor had been able to -collect of our means, our men, and even of our smallest publications. -I expressed my astonishment at this to him; he smiled and replied, -‘We are obliged to learn all these things, and the means of learning -them are never wanting.’ In general,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</span> the Major, whom I had had the -opportunity of studying during the examination that had taken place -at Kaminieç, and whom I was to meet again later in the Commission of -Inquiry at Kiow, showed himself, though cold and almost indifferent, to -be a well-educated man. He was polite and courteous in his demeanour -to me, and in all my interviews with the Governor of Kaminieç he had -never failed to call General Radistchev to reason, whenever he gave -vent to any burst of violence. A spring of my <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">calèche</i> having -given way on the evening of our arrival at Mohilow, I had to be put -into a <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">kibitka</i> with the two soldiers, while the Major in -another preceded us, along with the officers of the secret Police; -and we were carried along with a rapidity of which no one who has not -seen a Russian convoy of this kind can form any idea. There it was -that I met with an accident the nature of which I am still far from -understanding and which I despair of describing to my readers. At one -of those jolts of which the <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">kibitka</i> at its furious pace bestows -so many on the traveller, I felt something snap in the tendons which -attach the head, and a sharp and terrible pain made me give vent to -such a savage cry of distress that I was heard in the accompanying -carriage. The Major called a halt, and asked what was the matter with -me. I was not able to reply, I was simply sobbing; he ordered them -to go at a walk to the post-house, which relieved me much, but at -the least jar the same frightful suffering recurred, and I screamed -while<span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</span> I tried to steady my head between my hands. Arrived at the -station I was not able to leave the carriage, and to my shame and -distress I was crying like a child. Then the Major, who was obliged to -press on in person to Braçlaw, left me in charge of one of the police -officials and of the two soldiers, and desired them to go at a foot’s -pace. Thus we continued our journey, but, at the end of some hours, -my companion, wearied by the slowness of our march, ordered them to -go quicker. Hardly had the horses broken into a gallop when the pain -became really insupportable. I felt I was becoming mad, and warned by -my piercing cries, my guardian called to the driver to stop. ‘You must -go slowly; if you won’t, blow my brains out at once; believe me, if -you continue to gallop, I shall not be able to support it more than -five minutes; I shall be dead, and what will be your position then?’ -I did not exaggerate in any way, and my words gaining force by my -strong conviction, made an impression upon those who had the charge of -me. We continued all that night walking slowly, and when at daybreak -we reached a posting-house, they put me into a sledge, for the road, -though not all covered with snow, was deep in mud. Finally, at one -o’clock we reached Braçlaw, where Major Poloutkovskoï was in waiting -for us. My deplorable condition touched him visibly; he put his hand on -my arm, and looking at me with attention, he questioned me on the pain -which I felt. It was the first and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</span> the only time that he showed me -any true compassion. He told me that the wants of the service summoned -him imperatively to Kiow, but that I should remain here until I had -recovered my strength a little; he soon afterwards took leave of me, -and after having pushed on a little longer, my sledge stopped in the -town before a vast and sombre building. They bid me get out, the heavy -gates grated on their hinges, and after having traversed several dim -corridors, I found myself in the middle of a little room, which was -tolerably clean, and of which the window was furnished with strong -iron bars. I flung myself on the paillasse, which I saw in one corner, -and covered myself with my cloak. A few moments afterwards I received -a visit from the <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">sous préfet</i>, and from the doctor, a Pole, who -examined me with much interest, prescribed repose, and some medicines; -and I was again left alone with the two soldiers. Repose was in truth -the only remedy for my pain, of which I felt nothing as long as I -remained quiet and lying down. Thus long hours passed away, when all of -a sudden breaking through the deep silence I heard a strange clinking -which I was not able to explain; but I soon distinguished the sound of -chains, both behind the wall and in the corridors. I was then in one of -those great prisons, called Krepost; but who might my companions be? -Simple criminals perhaps; or, it may be political prisoners, countrymen -of my own? My doubts were soon cleared up; I heard a song rise,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</span> -sonorous, choral, and only broken by the sound of fetters; the words -were Polish, the melody a familiar one:—</p> - -<p class="poetry p0"> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">In a cradle sleeping, the Babe Divine, ...</span><br /> -</p> - -<p>It was then Christmas time, and these poor prisoners, my compatriots, -were intoning at midnight, after our ancient custom, the venerable -hymn which hails the Saviour’s birth. Then followed other canticles in -common use:—</p> - -<p class="poetry p0"> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Thus to the shepherds did the angels say, ...</span><br /> -</p> - -<p>and</p> - -<p class="poetry p0"> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">To Bethlehem running, &c....</span><br /> -</p> - -<p>Ah, those Christmas hymns!—songs which had rocked my childhood and -pleased me in youth, and which I had not heard for the last twelve -years—ever since I had emigrated to another land. How after twelve -years was I to hear them again? Chanted by captives, and accompanied by -the rattle of their chains!</p> - -<p>On both the following days I was visited repeatedly by the <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">sous -préfet</i>, and by the doctor. I felt very weak, but quite free -from the pain in my head; and upon being asked by the official in -charge whether I was ready to continue my journey, I replied in the -affirmative, for I was anxious to reach Kiow. As we were stepping -into our sledges, I noticed in the courtyard a regiment of soldiers, -whose bearing was so fine and so soldierly that I made a remark upon -it to the <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">sous préfet</i> as he stood beside me. ‘They are,’ he -said, ‘Polish soldiers<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</span> of 1831, incorporated now into the army of the -South.’ Thus did I meet again after such a lapse of years my former -companions in arms. I could not help uncovering my head to them, and -calling out loudly in Polish, ‘All hail, comrades!’ ‘Forward!’ shouted -the <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">sous préfet</i> immediately; and the horses went off like an -arrow from a bow. We had hardly gone two or three leagues out of -Braçlaw when we met a carriage driving at a fast and furious pace, and -which pulled up alongside of us. An officer of the armed Police sprang -out of it, who, after conversing for a few minutes with my companion, -came up to me, and announced that for the future I should consider -myself under his guardianship.</p> - -<p>He seemed a young man of about twenty, or a little older; very tall, -very slight, very tight in his uniform, with a waist like a wasp, and -with a hard haughty manner. He was, as I afterwards learnt, a German -by birth, and the sight of him gave me a curious sense of uneasiness, -so that I began to regret Major Poloutkovskoï. At one place he made -us drive off the high road, and we got out at a solitary house, a -guard-house apparently, and there they fitted me with a pair of -handcuffs. I was then led down to a hut, which was underground, and -to a sort of forge, where a soldier farrier had with some difficulty -lit the furnace fires. The officer produced some chains from some -corner or another, and he now stood contemplating them with an -expression<span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</span> of face which was both curious and fierce. These irons -were the most detestable things that can be imagined; red with rust, -they were composed of two long bars fastened in the middle by a bit -of chain, and having a foot-ring at each end. Having finished all the -preparations, the soldier tried the rings on me above each ankle, but -they were so tight that I could not help shouting with the pain. The -officer simply said, ‘Come, come!’ but when they were to be soldered -up I pulled my feet out, and declared that I would lodge a complaint -before the Governor-General if they did not let the rings out. This -made the officer pause for a moment. He ordered them to attend to my -demand, and bolts were at last let into them with hammers and punches; -but I suffered a great deal from them still, and they remained always -too tight, while the rusty bit of chain hindered the long bars from -turning, and left me wholly unable to walk. They lifted me up, and -hoisted me, thus trussed, into the carriage. Late in the night, and -after we had left Bialocerkiew behind, the sleigh in which I was -reached the top of an incline, and, coming upon some stumbling-block, -it upset. The soldiers were thrown off, I don’t know what became of the -coachman; as for myself, pinioned and unable to move, I was flung out, -but my fetters hooked on in some way to the vehicle, and I was dragged -along through the snow and the mud by the horses, which continued their -maddened course; my knees, elbows, and chest were<span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</span> bruised, and I -finally lost consciousness. When I came to myself again, I found that -I had been reinstalled into my sledge, and that all was restored to -order. The young officer standing alongside of me asked if I was much -hurt? I made no answer; and now began a scene which was truly Russian -in its character. The officer struck with his fists at the two unhappy -soldiers on account of an accident in which no one had had any part -but himself, for he had been constantly calling out to go quicker. The -soldiers, as soon as we were again under way, paid off on the driver -the blows they had received from the officer; and he, in return, -revenged himself on his horses by flogging them so brutally that we -ran every risk of having a repetition of the adventure. More dead than -alive, I saw all that was done; and, such is the weakness of our human -nature, I had but one feeling, the fear of a second accident. At each -pitch and at the least jolt I shut my eyes and nearly swooned; and yet -I was not naturally timid, and my nerves were not precisely of the most -delicate order. The following day I arrived before the fortress of -Kiow.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</span></p> - -<h3 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III.<br /><br /><span class="small">OF MY IMPRISONMENT AT KIOW, AND MY DEPARTURE FOR SIBERIA.</span></h3> -</div> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>THE FORTRESS AT KIOW—PRINCE BIBIKOV—EXAMINATION—A COMMISSION OF -INQUIRY—A BIBLE—FELLOW-PRISONERS—THE MANIAC—PREPARATIONS FOR -‘DEPORTATION’—THE SENTENCE.</p> -</div> -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p>Carried in the arms of several soldiers, I was first deposited in the -business room of the Commandant of the place. Here I was searched, -registered, and inscribed on the books; while they plied me with -questions, to which I know not what answers I made, for I had no -knowledge either of what I was doing or of what I was saying. They set -me upright at last, and I walked, supported by soldiers, through an -endless number of rooms and corridors. A door was opened, I entered -the cell, and I fell exhausted on a mattress. Two jailers and an -aide-de-camp entered along with them, and the latter asked me if I -wanted anything. I requested to have my fetters changed, or to have -the foot-rings opened and made wider. He replied that he had no power -to do so, but that he would report the request.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</span> I was then left -alone, and at the end of a very few minutes I fell asleep. I slept -twenty-five hours without turning, and was only awakened at the end -of that time by my keepers, whom this prolonged slumber had alarmed. -Soon after, the colonel in command was ushered in. He was covered with -orders, and addressing me in Polish, he asked how I was, and what might -be the cause of my indisposition. I thanked him, but I said nothing -of the accidents of my journey; for where was the use of making any -complaints? He promised that some broth should be sent to me, and took -leave of me with these words, ‘Try to regain your strength, you are -much weakened; and here, in our prisons, one has need of health to bear -one’s many sufferings.</p> - -<p>I was indeed very weak, but I was no longer tormented by that terrible -pain in my head, of which I was more afraid than of anything else. -There remained the pains in my chest, elbows and knees, which were the -consequences of the accident, and from which I was yet to suffer for -several months to come. I looked round my cell; it was six feet by -five, pretty high in the roof, in very bad repair, very dirty, and lit -by a small window placed close to the ceiling, and grated with iron -bars both within and without. Over my head I could read several names -cut with some difficulty on the wall; among others that of Rabczynski, -whom I was to meet hereafter in Siberia. The only furniture<span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</span> was a -little table, a wooden chair, and a great stove in earthenware. Some -broth and some bread were brought to me, but the difficulty of eating -in handcuffs was so great and irritated me so much that I finished my -meal before my appetite was appeased. Suddenly, the sight of the bread -that remained suggested to me a providential idea. It certainly was not -the first time that I had thought of Konarski, whose sufferings were -fresh in every memory. I knew that hunger had been one of the engines -of torture tried upon him, and I had no security that I might not have -to pass through a similar ordeal. So I determined to lay up a fund -against this extremity, and I hid the bread in a hole behind the stove, -high up in the wall; and this I did on the following days with the -bread that was supplied to me. I was quite pleased with the store of -biscuit thus prepared against the time of famine.</p> - -<p>Somewhat revived by the food and by sleep, I now became sensible of -an annoyance which I could not at first account for. Presently I -discovered that I was literally covered with vermin, the mattress, -and the room were filthy with them, and the handcuffs prevented my -even attempting to destroy them. I looked round and caught two eyes -fixed upon me; it was the sentry on guard in the corridor, who had -orders to watch all my movements through the aperture cut in my door; -in vain, however, did I call to him, he paid me not the slightest -attention; but happily for me on the following<span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</span> day the Commandant of -the fortress caused me to be moved into the opposite cell, and had my -room purified. He gave orders at the same time to have me shaved; an -officer assisted at the operation, and when I requested that they would -leave my whiskers, I received an answer which, all things considered, -was rather out of place: ‘No, no; we will leave you nothing but your -moustaches, and that will be quite in the Polish fashion; the ancient -Poles wore nothing but a moustache.’ I soon returned to my cell, now -a little cleaner than it had been; but what most moved my gratitude -towards the Commandant was that he had my handcuffs taken off; and with -the recovered liberty of my hands I recovered, strange to say, all the -freedom and former energy of my mind. I kept constantly stretching out -my arms, hardly daring to believe in my happiness, and I felt like a -child escaped from its swaddling bands.</p> - -<p>A week, or nearly a week, now elapsed without bringing any notable -change in my position. My food was wholesome and plentiful, the room -was cleansed every day, but the want of air and of exercise had -completely enervated me. My chains prevented my walking, or even -standing. I remained almost always lying on my paillasse, rising in -general only in the morning to kneel and repeat the Lord’s Prayer. The -nights were long and without any light, and their quiet was only broken -by the sound of the hammers, when they fitted or unfitted the fetters -of some of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</span> prisoners. Although it was forbidden to the sentries -and keepers to speak to me, I soon managed to learn that all my accused -friends from Kaminieç were in the same prison with myself, though -lodged in different corridors.</p> - -<p>One day, about noon, a great noise was heard at the entrance of my -cell, the door opened, and a man appeared before me in the undress of -a general officer, surrounded by generals and aides-de-camp, all in -full uniform, who stood back respectfully in the corridor. The man had -a tall figure, grey hair cut like a brush, an oval face without any -moustaches, and very piercing eyes: his left sleeve was fastened up to -one of the breast buttons of his coat, and the loss of an arm which -this indicated convinced me that I now beheld no less a person than -the Governor-General of Volhynia, Podolia, and the Ukraine, Prince -Bibikov.<a id="FNanchor_3" href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> He took off his cap, pushed the door close, without however -shutting it, sat down on the chair, and made me a sign to reseat myself -on the mattress from which I had risen. During the conversation which -followed he seemed very much annoyed at the bad air of the cell, and -turned mechanically to the high window several times, as if to breathe -freely. He addressed me in French.</p> - -<p>‘You probably guess who I am?’</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</span></p> - -<p>‘I believe that I have the honour of speaking to the Governor-General, -Prince Bibikov.’</p> - -<p>‘Your name is Piotrowski; you are a native of the Ukraine; you took -part in the revolt of 1831, you emigrated to France. You afterwards -returned to Kaminieç under the name of Catharo.’</p> - -<p>‘Yes, your Excellency.’</p> - -<p>‘You pretend that your return had no other object than that of -revisiting your native land; but when after 1831 the Emperor granted an -amnesty, why did you not avail yourself of it?’</p> - -<p>‘I do not wish to say anything that might be displeasing to your -Excellency, but at the same time the manner in which this amnesty -was drawn up was not of the nature to encourage us. Furthermore, the -amnesty only applied to subjects of the kingdom, the inhabitants of the -detached and outlying provinces were deprived of it; and to conclude, -before asking pardon, one must feel that one has been guilty.’</p> - -<p>‘Who gave you that English passport?’</p> - -<p>‘I found it in the street.’</p> - -<p>‘You spent more than a month in Hungary; you see that I am well -informed about you. Why did you go there?’</p> - -<p>‘To make my traces more difficult to follow, and to shorten the -journey.’</p> - -<p>‘Oh! but you had some other reasons; you are a member of the Democratic -Society.’</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</span></p> - -<p>‘I once formed a part of it, but I have withdrawn from it a long time -ago.’</p> - -<p>‘You are an emissary of that society?’</p> - -<p>‘No.’</p> - -<p>‘Then in coming here you had no political mission?’</p> - -<p>‘Certainly, I had none.’</p> - -<p>‘Such assertions are not likely to improve your situation; I do not -hide from you that it is a very unpleasant one; and only a sincere and -complete confession can diminish your troubles, and above all make you -worthy of the indulgence of the Emperor. You knew Konarski?’<a id="FNanchor_4" href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></p> - -<p>‘No.’</p> - -<p>‘But you have heard of him?’</p> - -<p>‘Certainly, above all of the tortures inflicted upon him.’</p> - -<p>‘Your case is similar to that of Konarski, and only the sincerity of -your confession can lessen its consequences. I do not wish to judge of -your sentiments, I only wish to know whom you have known at Kaminieç, -and in the provinces; I do not ask you to tell me what were your mutual -plans, tell me only with whom were you acquainted.’</p> - -<p>‘Why, your Excellency, I knew almost everybody in Kaminieç, and in its -neighbourhood.’</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</span></p> - -<p>‘That is not the question, and you know that it is not; the point is, -who were your intimates?’</p> - -<p>‘I had none; it is true I was able to reveal my nationality to a few, -and to ask their help and counsel; but your Excellency must fully -understand why I ought not to name them.’</p> - -<p>After some moments of silence, Prince Bibikov replied, ‘I do not -understand why the Poles and the Russians should hate and hurt each -other for ever; we are all Slaves, brought together by origin, -language, and manners, we ought to be united, and to march on together; -and he who thinks otherwise does not understand the true interests of -the two nations.’</p> - -<p>‘I am quite of your Excellency’s way of thinking, and we indeed have -no feeling of ill-will towards the Russian nation; but we aspire to be -free, and as regards the government....’</p> - -<p>‘I have no time to discuss this with you. I repeat it, your situation -is a most critical one, but you can improve it sensibly by making a -sincere avowal; I do not promise you complete or immediate liberty, for -I never promise that which I am not sure of being able to perform, but -I can intercede with the Emperor that he would give you permission to -serve for the future in the army of the Caucasus. The Poles, like all -the Slaves, are brave and courageous; you are still young, you are not -wanting in intellect, you would very soon become an officer, and then -your career would depend only on yourself.’</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</span></p> - -<p>He pronounced these words in a loud and firm voice; then rising, he -added, with a certain gentleness: ‘For the rest, I do not ask for your -secrets; tell me only the names of the persons by whom you were known. -I have no wish to know what you said to them—their names are all that -is required; and I do not even exact from you that you should give them -in immediately. You are weak, and under impressions still too recent -and too lively. When you wish to speak to me, send to say so by the -orderly of the day; in the meantime, let me have a note from you, and -put your biography on paper.’ He made me a slight bow, and, as he went -out, stopped at the door, and said, ‘Have his chains taken off.’</p> - -<p>Some minutes afterwards, the Commandant of the place came with a -farrier to see me delivered from my chains; and this was the first and -last benefit which I derived from the visit of the Governor-General; -but it was a very great advantage, and I was truly grateful to him for -it, for since my departure from Kaminieç I had not been able to take -my boots off once. My legs were much bruised, yet I walked up and down -my room the whole of that day; and I had almost a pleasure in the pain -which the exercise gave me, for it proved that my feet were free.</p> - -<p>Some weeks passed; and one evening, at a pretty late hour of the night, -I saw a thing which had<span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</span> never yet entered my cell—it was a light. An -aide-de-camp, followed by four soldiers, bid me rise, and follow him. -Is the moment of execution arrived? I thought, as I threw round my cell -a glance which had in it something of a farewell. Supported under my -arms by the soldiers, I traversed the great court of the prison. The -snow creaked under our feet, the night was very dark; but the keen and -pure air, to which I was not accustomed, while it cut my breath, did -me an indescribable amount of good; and while I believed that I was on -the way to meet my fate, I felt, if I may so express it, a bitter-sweet -delight in inhaling the fresh gusts of wind. I was led into a large -room, which was feebly illuminated, and where officers of different -ranks were seated at a large round table covered with green cloth; they -smoked their cigars, talked in a loud voice, and laughed between times. -This was the Commission of Inquiry.</p> - -<p>Among these gentlemen it was with real joy that I recognised the face -of Major Poloutkovskoï, and yet he it was who had arrested me! The -person who presided, and who seemed to be chairman of the commission, -was dressed in a plain black coat. He was a member of the third -division of the Imperial Cabinet (the secret Police) and a Privy -Councillor—in short, it was Pissarev, the <em>alter ego</em> of Prince -Bibikov, a man of whom the remembrance is too terrible to be soon -effaced in the detached provinces.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</span> He made a sign to me to approach, -allowed me to be seated near him, and began his questions in French, -and in a very affable tone. Although with more of detail, they were -identical with those which had been put to me by Prince Bibikov. I made -the same answers—and such was the character of the many examinations -which I underwent before the Commission of Inquiry.</p> - -<p>As I was of noble birth, I found, one day, at one of the sittings -of the Commission, the Marshal of the nobility of the province. His -presence was demanded by the laws; but he seemed to suffer from his -office, and evidently only went through a painful formality, while he -addressed me in Polish and put a few questions as to my family and -connections. On the whole, these gentlemen seldom failed to treat me -with consideration, in spite of the silence and the negatives with -which I met their demands. One day, the president even said to me, ‘You -must find the time in prison pass very slowly; my library is at your -disposal, if you wish to have some books. Do you prefer travels or -novels?’</p> - -<p>‘Will you have the kindness to let me have a Bible?’</p> - -<p>‘A Bible!’ he replied, looking at me with an odd expression; ‘upon my -word, I have not got such a thing; but I can procure one for you.’ And -he did send me a Bible, after which time I no longer felt that I was -alone.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</span></p> - -<p>Those of my fellow-countrymen to whom the very names of Prince Bibikov -and of M. Pissarev recall the sorrows of so many families, the blood -and tears of so many noble victims, and of three provinces all outraged -and oppressed under the pressure of the most haughty and rapacious of -tyrannies, will no doubt be astonished—it may be, shocked—at what -I have just related. Yet such undoubtedly was the conduct of these -two men towards myself. I ought also here to declare that no attempt -was ever made to inflict on me any of the tortures to which so many -Poles have been subjected in Russian prisons—more than one of my -fellow-accused being, alas! among the number. It is true that I was -several times threatened with such measures, but the threat was never -put into execution.</p> - -<p>The inquest dragged out its length however, and I soon received -the blessed permission to walk in the corridors every day for one -hour—care being taken to clear them at that time of every living soul, -except the two sentries. The corridor was narrow, dark, and damp; but -at least I could satisfy the imperious necessity for exercise which I -had felt, and I could also talk in secret from time to time with the -sentries. If these soldiers chanced to be Poles—which they very often -were, being even men who had served with us in our army of 1831—they -always showed me more compassion, while they<span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</span> maintained also a far -greater show of reserve. The Russian soldiers acted I think more from -curiosity; but what surprised me most was the frequency with which -I was asked whether I had never met, in foreign countries, with the -Grand Duke Constantine, whom they firmly believed to be living in -France or in England, and who should one day return to deliver them -from Nicholas. I found however that I must renounce the real pleasure -which I felt in talking to my sentries. One day the jailer surprised -one of them in conversation with me. He was led off to receive sixty -blows with the rods, and the cries of the unhappy man under punishment -presently reached my ears.</p> - -<p>I ought to say something in this place of my neighbours, viz. of those -who inhabited the cells opposite my prison. Those who were implicated -in my affair were lodged in another part of the fortress, and I -never had any communication with them. Once only I caught a glimpse -of the judge, Zawadzki, and I hardly recognised him again, for the -man formerly so strong and very corpulent was reduced to a perfect -skeleton. My neighbours in the corridor were not political criminals. -One of them, a soldier named Toumanov, awaited in irons the execution -of his sentence of four thousand blows with the rods, which had been -passed on him for some insubordination to his superiors. He had no -fear, counted on the ‘toughness of his hide,’ as he expressed it, -cursed the Tzar, his officers, and his fate,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</span> and sang a great deal, -especially an air of which the words began, ‘March to the sacking of -Poland!’ When the moment of his execution arrived, his jailers made -many brutal jests at his expense. ‘Now then, Toumanov, the devil will -get your soul to-day; you will never live through the thing.’ The -unhappy wretch replied, with coarser oaths, ‘I tell you I mean to live -through it, and we will have a glass together yet before I am off -to Siberia! I shall be better there than serving the Tzar.’ I heard -afterwards from these same jailers that after two of the four thousand -blows he fell senseless on the snow, which was red with his blood, and -was carried back to prison. If he survived he was liable to receive, at -some future day, the other half of his sentence!</p> - -<p>The next of my neighbours was a peasant of the district of Poitava, -short in stature, but of immense strength. He had deserted from the -army, taken to the woods and a wild life among them, where he had -killed several men. He also, when led away to punishment (for his -sentence was the knout and penal servitude for life), replied to the -hideous comments of his keepers, that he was not afraid. The third -prisoner, like the two first, was also in chains, a young handsome -soldier, who, while on a march with his battalion, had stopped at a -village and loitered behind for a whole week, being ‘bewitched by a -woman.’ The poor boy had then come of his own accord to give himself<span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</span> -up, and he now expected his trial. His character seemed to be both good -and gentle, and he was in the habit of singing an air of which the -melody, though slightly monotonous, was so sweet and plaintive that I -could not listen to him without emotion—such sweet tones could hardly -have come from a vicious heart. When he left our prison I never was -able to hear what became of him, but I regretted him and that plaintive -strain which had so often charmed my ears. His cell was soon occupied -again—by a subaltern convicted of having set fire to a magazine of -forage which was under his care, the motive being the wish to conceal a -certain deficit which had occurred. He had now gone mad, but in general -his mania was of the inoffensive and quiet kind. He talked constantly, -prepared for death, and exhorted his absent mistress to place over his -remains a black cross, of which he described the shape and ornaments -with the greatest exactness. Another day he complained that a gnat had -stung him—that all the blood had been sucked out of his body, and -that only water had been left. A <em>pope</em> was sent for, who recited -a great number of prayers by way of exorcising him; but at last one -day the prisoner would not permit him to leave the cell. A psalter in -one hand and a crucifix in the other, the madman repeated, without -ceasing, ‘Little father (<i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">batiouchka</i>), <em>I</em> will break your -head for you if you do not immediately give me the holy communion.’ -The pope manœuvred<span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</span> cleverly so as to reach the door, assuring him -that he was going to fetch the pyx; he then saved himself by making a -rush, abandoning his crucifix and his psalter. On the following day the -governor of the citadel had the maniac’s cell opened, though he took -care himself to remain in the corridor. The prisoner, standing at the -threshold, made him a sign to enter. ‘Come, your Excellency, I have a -secret to whisper in your ear;’ but his Excellency was more prudent -than the <em>pope</em>. Some soldiers soon advanced; they garotted and -bound the poor fool, and they carried him off to the hospital.</p> - -<p>In his place arrived a Circassian—a free lance of the Caucasus, who, -having been taken prisoner and employed in the works of the fortress, -had tried to make good his escape along with two countrymen of his own, -his fellow-sufferers. Pursued by the troops, they defended themselves -for a long time with their spades, which were their only weapons. One -succeeded in escaping, one was killed by a thrust with a bayonet, -the third fell into the hands of the soldiers and became my opposite -neighbour. He was called ‘a mountain prince,’ and, with hands and feet -in fetters, he was almost always to be seen seated on his couch, gloomy -and silent, and with a proud look on his face. I never failed to make -him a respectful bow when, in walking up and down the corridor, I -passed the loophole in his cell.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</span></p> - -<p>In the meantime, weeks grew to months, and as the months succeeded -each other, the cold of winter had given place to the heats of July. -The stifling air of my prison reduced me to a state of extreme nervous -irritability, which broke out over every trifle, and at night I could -not sleep. I had forgotten to notice one permanent suffering in my -captivity, of which the intensity can never be appreciated, except by -those who may have made a personal trial of it: I mean the order given -to the sentry to watch all my actions through the window in my door. -No one can imagine what an indescribable torture it is to a man to see -and to know that a watch is kept upon every movement. That strange eye, -impassable and implacable, which meets yours at every moment—that -eye which follows you everywhere and at all times—becomes to you a -sort of infernal providence; and I abandon the task of making any one -understand what it is that the prisoner feels who from the instant -that he wakes in the morning sees from his bed those two eyes pointed -towards him like two stilettos. Will it be believed, from the earliest -dawn I longed for the night, even after a night which had been already -very long and rayless; for then at least I was protected from those -two eyes. Sometimes, impatient and distracted, I would go up to the -loophole and oppose my feverish glare to those two persecuting eyes; -and then I laughed like a savage, when I obliged the man to turn away -for a moment.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</span></p> - -<p>It was in this state of extreme irritation that I received one day a -visit from an aide-de-camp, accompanied by another official, by the -jailer, and by some soldiers. He desired me to rise, and to undress.</p> - -<p>‘But I am already undressed!’</p> - -<p>‘No; but you must be stripped.’</p> - -<p>‘Why?’</p> - -<p>‘I have orders to take a complete description of you, and to note down -any marks you may have about your person.’</p> - -<p>‘But that is something barbarous and savage! the description of my -features ought to suffice!’</p> - -<p>‘My orders are precise, and I beg of you to undress.’</p> - -<p>So there was no help for it.</p> - -<p>If I had been better acquainted with the usages and customs in Russian -proceedings of the sort, this notification ought to have enlightened -me as to the nature of the punishment to which I was going to be -condemned, as well as upon the fact that my sentence was imminent, such -examinations being a preliminary to deportation. However, I was so far -from having any idea of this, that when some days later I was again -summoned before the Commission of Inquiry, I anticipated nothing more -than one of those interminable examinations which had already become -so familiar to me; but the unaccustomed solemnity of those who were -present soon gave me a presentiment that something extraordinary<span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</span> was -coming, and before long my sentence was read out. This sentence, which -was long and minutely drawn up, finished with ‘the pain of death,’ -commuted, however, by Prince Bibikov, for that of penal servitude in -Siberia for the term of my natural life. I was, in addition, degraded -from the ranks of the nobility, and I was to make the journey in -fetters. After having heard this document, I was ordered to write at -the bottom of the paper the following words: ‘Rufin Piotrowski heard -this sentence on the 29th of July, O. S. 1844.’</p> - -<p>I was immediately conducted to the dwelling of the commandant, where I -was to take my old travelling clothes, and have my feet put in irons. -To my horror, they presented me with the same rusty bars which had -caused my torment all the way to Kiow. In vain I besought and implored -the commandant to give me another set of chains, he would not consent -to do so; and all that I could obtain from him was an order given to -the gendarmes who were to be my convoy, that the tight foot-rings were -to be enlarged at one of the nearest stations. I was not permitted -either to revisit my cell or my companions in the corridor; I was -marched down into the courtyard, where a <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">kibitka</i> with three -horses was in waiting, and I took my seat there between two gendarmes -whose muskets were loaded. The doors of the fortress closed behind the -<i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">kibitka</i>, and before me opened the way to Siberia.</p> - - -<div class="footnotes"><h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_3" href="#FNanchor_3" class="label">[3]</a> Prince Bibikov had his arm carried away at the battle of -Borodino: all over Poland the answer is current, which he once made to -a Polish lady, who on her knees implored a pardon for her son: ‘The -hand which signs pardons, madam, I left at Borodino.’</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_4" href="#FNanchor_4" class="label">[4]</a> A celebrated emissary, executed at Wilna, in 1841, after a -long and cruel detention.</p> - -</div> -</div> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</span></p> - -<h3 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV.<br /><br /><span class="small">OF DEPORTATION AND THE LIFE OF AN EXILE IN SIBERIA.</span></h3> -</div> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p class="center p0">THE <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">KNOUT</i> AND THE <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">PLÈTE</i>—RUNNING THE GAUNTLET—GANGS OF -EXILES—GRAND-DUCHESS MARIE—THE JOURNEY—RUSSIAN ALMS—A ‘POPE’—THE -RUSSIAN SOLDIER—OMSK—PRINCE GORTCHAKOV—EKATERINSKI-ZAVOD.</p> -</div> -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p>To be exempt from corporal chastisement is one of the privileges of a -Russian noble; and in cases of deportation a member of the nobility -should not be obliged to make the journey on foot, or in a gang of -convicts. This does not prevent the torture being applied to political -prisoners, even when nobles, during the progress of an examination; yet -their sentence is in general in accordance with the laws, and it is -seldom that the statutes are set aside, as they were in the case of the -Polish prince Roman Sanguszko, to whose sentence the Emperor Nicholas -undoubtedly added with his own hand the order that the prince’s journey -should be made <em>on foot</em>. Thanks to the accident of my birth, I -had never known the ordinary aggravations of such a lot as mine had now -become, I mean the knout, the <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">plète</i>, and the march in a gang; -but as many of my countrymen have undergone such<span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</span> punishments, and as I -also should forfeit (so said the decree against me) my right of being -exempt from them when I reached my destination, I shall give some more -precise details upon the subject, albeit a sad one.</p> - -<p>The knout is a strip of hide, a thong which is steeped in some -preparation, and strongly glazed as it were with metal filings. By -this process it becomes both heavy and extremely hard, but before it -hardens care is taken to double down the edges, which are left thin -on purpose, and in this way a groove runs the whole length of the -thong, except the upper part, which is supple, and winds round the hand -of the executioner; to the other end a small iron hook is fastened. -Falling on the bare back of the sufferer the knout comes down on its -concave side, of which the edges cut like a knife. The thong thus -lies in the flesh, and the operator does not lift it up, but draws -it towards himself horizontally, so that the hook tears off long -strips. If the executioner has not been bribed, and does his business -conscientiously, the person under punishment loses consciousness after -the third stroke, and sometimes dies under the fifth. A peculiarity -of the Russian law may be also noted here, which orders that the -number of blows from the knout shall always be an unequal one! The -scaffold on which the sufferer is placed is called in Russ ‘a mare’ -(<i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">kobyla</i>). It is an inclined plane, to which the man is tied with -his back uncovered. The head is firmly fastened to the upper part, the -feet to the lower end,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</span> and the hands, which are also knotted together, -go round below the plank; any movement of the body becoming in this -way impossible. After receiving the prescribed number of strokes, -the poor wretch is untied, and on his knees undergoes the punishment -of being <em>marked</em>. The letters <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">vor</i> (meaning thief, or -malefactor) are printed in sharp-pointed letters on a stamp, which the -executioner drives into the forehead and into both cheeks, and while -the blood runs, a black mixture, of which gunpowder is an ingredient, -is rubbed into the wounds; they heal, but the bluish mark left remains -for life. In old days, after thus marking a man, they sometimes tore -off his nostrils with iron pincers; but a <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">ukase</i> of the last -years of Alexander I. definitively abolished this additional piece of -barbarity. I have myself encountered in Siberia more than one criminal -thus hideously disfigured, but all dating from a time anterior to the -publication of the <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">ukase</i> in question. As for those who had the -triple inscription of <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">vor</i>, I have seen an incalculable number -in Siberia; but I believe women cannot be punished in this way, and I -never met with one who wore the triple brand.</p> - -<p>The <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">plète</i>, so often and so erroneously confounded with the -knout, is a less fearful instrument of punishment. Three stout thongs -are weighted at the ends with balls of lead, the other extremity winds -up the arm of the executioner, and according to the law it ought to -weigh from five to six pounds. When it<span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</span> comes down on the back it -strikes like three sticks; it does not tear up the flesh like the -knout, but the skin breaks under the blows, which make a lesion of -the spinal column, break the ribs, and I have been told detach even -the viscera from their places; and those who have suffered under -the <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">plète</i>, if they have received any great number of lashes, -generally fall into consumption and perish. In order to give himself -greater purchase, the person wielding it makes a run and does not -strike till close to ‘the mare.’ I have said that it is possible to -gain over the operator, and in this case he can manage not to touch the -instrument with the little finger of the hand. This lessens the blow, -although the attention of the superintending officer is not attracted -by the practice, and any reader by experimentalising with a stick may -convince himself that it does so. If however the sentence stands for a -great number of strokes, the executioner is then bribed to inflict the -first with tremendous violence, and as much upon the sides as possible, -so that life is sooner extinct, and death puts a speedier end to the -sufferings of the victim.</p> - -<p>A third species of punishment is running the gauntlet -(<i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">skvos-stroï</i>, literally ‘through the ranks’); it is generally -reserved for soldiers, and yet many of my countrymen have suffered -thus for political offences. It is inflicted with long rods newly cut, -which have been steeped in water for some days to make them<span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</span> more -pliant. Soldiers are arranged in two files, but each man stands at -some distance from the other, so that all may strike with a long swing -without being in each other’s way. The condemned person, stripped to -the waist, passes through the ranks, his hands are tied in front upon -a musket of which the bayonet rests on his chest; the butt-end is held -by the soldier who leads him. He walks slowly, receiving the rods on -his back and shoulders, and if he faints and falls he is picked up -again. A <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">ukase</i> of Peter the Great fixes the maximum of blows at -twelve thousand, but it is seldom that more than two thousand are given -at one time, unless for the sake of ‘setting an example;’ in general, -after two thousand the patient is carried off to the hospital, and when -healed of his wounds he pays the rest of his penalty.</p> - -<p>After such patients as these have recovered a little health and -strength in a military hospital, they are hurried off to some one -of the head-quarters of the empire, where a large number being -assembled, they are classed according to their sentences, whether of -simple transportation (<i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">possilenié</i>), or of hard labour in the -public works (<i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">katorga</i>). Thus classified, they are told off -into gangs of a hundred at the least, and of two hundred and fifty -at the greatest computation. The gangs thus formed then separate -for Siberia, and the time which is spent on the road is one of the -greatest elements of suffering in their painful lot. For example, to -go from Kiow to Tobolsk<span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</span> requires a long year; and if the gang has a -farther destination (say the mines of Nertchinsk, in the government -of Irkutsk), the journey will take more than two years. Criminals -condemned to hard labour are placed under a stronger escort, and under -a more severe watch than those who are simply deported, and they -generally form a brigade by themselves. I met many of these caravans on -my journey, and they travelled in the following order. In front rode -a Cossack at a walk, completely armed, and with a lance in his hand; -after him came men either singly or chained together by hands and feet; -these were followed by twenty, all fastened at the wrists to long iron -rods; the next were fettered in the same way, with their feet chained -in addition, but the women, as far as I could judge, did not wear any -irons. On both sides of the gang marched soldiers with loaded arms, -while some Cossacks rode up and down. After the prisoners, and in the -first carriage, one might see the officer in charge with his head down, -and smoking his pipe; the other carriages brought the baggage and the -sick, who wore a collar by which they could be chained to a pole fixed -in the vehicle.</p> - -<p>My heart felt ready to break every time that I met a company of the -sort, and the sight of the women was most trying. A mournful silence -reigned in their groups, and it was only broken by the dull noise of -their chains. No doubt these men were in general real malefactors, the -off-scourings of any society; but who could say that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</span> among them there -were none that were innocent, no political criminals, no countrymen -of my own? Later, and when sojourning on the banks of the Irtiche, I -had for my companions two political exiles like myself, Siesieki and -Syezewski: these men had done the whole distance on foot and in a gang, -and they furnished me with every detail of their march. Thus, they told -me that none of these unhappy creatures can stir in his sleep without -awaking companions fastened to the same bar, and indeed without causing -them sharp pain, if the movement should happen to be a rough one, as -often is the case in sleep. At the times for halting and eating the -prisoners are huddled together in a circle, while the foot soldiers -watch them, and the Cossacks stray round them on horseback. The column -walks for two days and rests on the third; and for this purpose, beyond -Nijni-Novgorod, where the villages are few and far between, houses have -been constructed to shelter the gangs at distances calculated to suit -the recurrence of these days of rest. These buildings, long and low -(for they are only one story high), extending in the middle of wide -and desert plains, and only inhabited at intervals, are calculated to -leave a strange impression. Military stations are also established at -unequal distances along the route from Kiow to Smolensk, and even to -Nertchinsk. In each of these stations is to be found an officer with -a number of soldiers sufficient to replace the escort which arrives. -The officer is in all<span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</span> cases responsible for the prisoners, and has -over them a perfectly discretional power. He may punish them with the -bastinado, the rods, and the <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">plète</i>; and abuses are, as may be -supposed, inevitable, though, to the honour of humanity, it must be -said that very many of these officers, far from making a cruel use of -their dictatorship, often show themselves full of care and compassion -for the unhappy beings whom they are obliged to conduct. At times of -severe cold or of any great flood, the columns are obliged to stop at -any station where they may happen to be. These expeditions are sent off -in such a way that every week one gang enters Tobolsk as another leaves -it to continue its march. At Tobolsk sits what is called the Commission -of Deportation, whose business is to assign a definitive destination -to each man, according to local convenience, or the necessities of the -public works. It has been calculated that the number of transported -persons amounts every year to little short of ten thousand.</p> - -<p>I must give one more detail, supplied to me by the same Siesieki whom -I have already mentioned. The train of which he formed a part was met -near Moscow by the Duke of Leuchtenberg and his wife, Grand-Duchess -Marie. The daughter of Nicholas, on learning that many Poles, condemned -for political offences, were to be found in the column, had them -pointed out to her, and remained for an hour in contemplation of the -body; no word escaped her lips, but she dried continually<span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</span> the big -tears which fell from her eyes. The Duke of Leuchtenberg approached -Siesieki, asked him his name, and said that he should seek for his -pardon at the hands of the Emperor. Did the Duke forget it, or did he -not dare to ask? Nothing can be known; but this I know for certain, -that, many a long day afterwards, I found Siesieki in Siberia, and that -I was one day to leave him there.</p> - -<p>Were not these strange meetings? Carried away in my <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">kibitka</i> -towards the land from which no man returns, a convict on his way to -work out his bitter sentence, I yet saw many shapes of misfortune -worse than my own. I could see faces of men in such gangs as I have -described, who, looking into mine, counted me as happy. Nay, I could -say to myself, I too had only escaped this, the last and lowest stage -of misery and shame, by means of the privilege which attached to my -birth—a privilege which my own convictions disallowed, but which the -Tzar himself maintained. Compared with the lot of this herd of the -lost my state certainly was more endurable. I was sure to arrive soon, -only too soon, at the place for which I was bound; I was not rivetted -to any parricide, or to a malefactor, and my hands at least were free. -The tight rings of my fetters alone caused me any suffering, and now -I almost blushed to speak of them; but the pain was really great, and -by dint of entreaties I prevailed on the soldiers to have the luckless -rings let out at one of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</span> the halting places, which after all was only -in accordance with the orders they had received at Kiow. At first, -these guardians of mine had obstinately refused to meet any of my -attempts at conversation with them, replying that they were forbidden -to address me. However, I kept up with them, and I ended in humanising -them. We soon talked freely, and drank together some glasses of that -Russian brandy of which I was learning to appreciate the salutary and -strengthening qualities. Neither of the men seemed to be bad-hearted in -any way, and they were more distressed than pleased by the business in -hand. One day, when, from sufferings of mind and bodily fatigue I fell -sick, and was lying down at one of the posting-houses, I overheard the -following conversation between them:</p> - -<p>‘Well, we are very unlucky: if we do not arrive at Omsk on the day -appointed, we shall be beaten with rods; and if we hurry him too much, -and he dies of it, we shall be beaten all the same; we are in very bad -luck!’</p> - -<p>They were continually haunted by the fear of my dying or committing -suicide. When we had a river to cross, they sat by me in the boat, and -held me by both arms, in case I should leap into the water; and at our -meals they gave me meat cut into little squares, from which the bones -had been carefully removed, and which I had to eat with a spoon.</p> - -<p>Thus, without being positively cruel, these soldiers<span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</span> showed an -astonishing indifference to my sad position. In the conversation, for -instance, which I have just cited, it will be seen that they made an -abstraction of me: I ceased to be a man, a creature of God, suffering -in body and in misery of mind; I was only a dangerous charge, to be -got rid of as quickly as possible; and the only thing they could find -pity for was for themselves. But it was not in them alone that I had -to remark a charity so nicely restricted, or such indifference to the -pains of other men. At one of the places where we changed horses, the -new postilion, a great rough fellow, came up to me and asked me:</p> - -<p>‘Are you a Pole? How many <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">kibitkas</i> are following you, then?’</p> - -<p>‘None.’</p> - -<p>‘What! none? As soon as you see a <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">kibitka</i> with a Pole, one may -always bet that there will be no end to them; these Poles must be in -swarms, and yet I can’t think how we are not come to the last of them -by this time.’</p> - -<p>At the same time I should be singularly ungrateful and unjust if I did -not declare that such speeches as these were rare and exceptional, and -that they stood out in contrast with the general manner of the country -people towards me. These showed themselves full of compassion, and -even of solicitude; and after entering Russia Proper, as I advanced -by degrees into the interior, I never ceased to receive from them -unequivocal<span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</span> marks of their sympathy and pity. How often was I not -followed by travellers, especially by ladies, who pressed gifts of -money on my acceptance! How often have I not seen at our halting places -young girls stop and look at me with sadness, even with tearful eyes! -One rich merchant, who was returning from the fair at Nijni-Novgorod, -pressed upon me with real eagerness the sum of two hundred roubles, -saying it was nothing for him to lose, and might be of the greatest -use to me. If I always thought it right to refuse such presents, of -which, moreover, I should have been doubtless deprived by the Russian -authorities, I accepted without hesitation and with much gratitude -the articles of food and drink brought to me on all sides by the -inhabitants. It was rarely that the master of any posting-house failed -to offer me either tea or brandy at the stations where we stopped; -his wife or his daughters presented me with cakes, dried fish, or -fruits, while the neighbours would hasten to do the same. At one of -these stations, not far from Toula, I saw an official in a uniform -arrive, and I was timidly offered by him a little parcel wrapped in -a silk handkerchief. As he gave it me, he said, ‘Accept this from my -patron saint.’ I could not make out his meaning; and as the sight of an -uniform did not predispose me in his favour, I made a sign of refusing -it.</p> - -<p>‘You are a Pole,’ he said, colouring a little; ‘and you are not -acquainted with our customs. This is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</span> my birthday, and on such a day it -is our bounden duty to share our goods with those who are in adversity; -accept this then I beseech you, in the name of my saint.’</p> - -<p>I could not resist a petition so touching and so Christian in its -spirit. The parcel contained bread, salt, and a few coins; the money I -gave to the guards, and I broke bread with the official, who asked me:</p> - -<p>‘Why are they taking you to Siberia?’</p> - -<p>‘Because I have thought and felt as a Pole.’</p> - -<p>‘You were right to do so, because you were in Poland; but why do the -Poles wish to plant their ways of thinking in Russia? In the garrison -of our town, there were about ten Poles incorporated into our army -after the revolution of 1831. Will you believe it, Sir, these Poles -excited our soldiers, persuaded them that they were very unhappy, that -the Tzar was the cause of it, and that his authority was not lawful? -Now what was the consequence of all this? They only made their own case -worse, and they drew upon themselves all the severities of the Russian -law. These Poles never reflected that every nation has, and ought to -have, a government suited to its nature. Now the Russian people are -rude, ignorant, and uncultivated; why think, when in such a state as -this, of any other authority or of any political reforms whatever? -However little we were to depart from the severity of our laws, we -should see the life and fortunes of our citizens seriously endangered, -and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</span> that before very long; we should have murders, fires, and rapine -of all sorts. I know my nation too well. In time we may proceed to some -changes, but it will not be very soon; and it is vain to think of it at -the present moment.’</p> - -<p>Very different was a scene which was acted not far from Kazan. There, -on going into a station, I saw, to my great surprise, that with -the character of post-master my landlord combined that of priest -(<em>pope</em>). Surrounded by convivial peasants, the <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">batiouchka</i> -was delivering a long peroration, while he swallowed great potations -from a monstrous bottle of brandy which was on the table by which he -was seated. I do not know by what sign he perceived that I was a Pole, -but he rose immediately and turned the torrent of his eloquence upon -me, deploring the seditious spirit of the Poles, their disobedience to -the Tzar, and the misfortunes which they drew upon themselves and upon -Russia. All these considerations did not however prevent his offering -me a glass. I drank and prudently beat a retreat, while the <em>pope</em> -made over my head an infinite number of signs of the cross. I really -do not know whether a benediction was intended, or whether he hoped to -drive out of me the evil spirit of revolt.</p> - -<p>Although thus an object of a general commiseration, which showed itself -by the touching offerings of the poor, and even in the enigmatical -benedictions of a tipsy<span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</span> priest, I nevertheless could practise charity -in my turn, for many begged from me. One day in particular I can -recall. It was, if I mistake not, at Saransk, as, with fetters on my -feet, I stood waiting for a relay of horses, that I saw a man stretch -out his hand towards me and ask for alms. He had on a military cap, -and the many medals on his coat showed that he had served in several -campaigns. He was, in fact, a soldier discharged from the service, and -even I could recognise that he had once been in the Imperial Guard. -What a strange contrast was here! A faithful and deserving servant of -the Tzar begging his bread from a man who, a rebel to this same Tzar, -was condemned by him to labour as a felon among felons! Without doubt, -the most hapless being in the universe, more unhappy than even the -convicts of Siberia, is the soldier of the Emperor of all the Russias. -I do not speak of those twenty or five-and-twenty years of service -which try his health and wear out his strength; I speak not either of -the thousands of blows which he receives during his long martyrdom; -but if, at the end of so many years passed under arms and under the -rod, he were in his old age protected from want and misery, it would -be well. At the most, however, the Russian government grants to some -decrepid and attenuated victim of military discipline permission to -settle upon the crown lands at some thousands of <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">verstes</i> from -his family, and from the place of his birth, without even giving him -what is wanted for reclaiming the fields<span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</span> from which he is to scrape a -living. If he marries he is obliged to remit to the Emperor every male -child who attains the age of ten years; and thus he has the assurance -that there is prepared for his son a life and an old age as miserable -as his own. But it must not be supposed that all veterans are provided -for even after this fashion. By far the greater number are told off to -the fortresses or to the prisons of the government, or else sent back -to their old homes, where they survive, old, poor, and unfit for work, -as burdens upon families to whom they have become all but strangers; -though the government, in giving them their discharge, has taken care -to stipulate that there they shall neither be permitted to beg, nor -allow their beards to grow. Unfortunately, this last order is more -easily carried out than the first.</p> - -<p>With the exception of that enforced halt which was occasioned by the -illness I have mentioned, we continued our course without stopping -anywhere except for our meals and to change horses. Day and night we -drove, sleeping as we sat in the <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">kibitka</i>, only that my slumbers -there were less profound than those of my keepers, for at each jolt -of the carriage (and such jolts were incessant) my chains were shaken -and knocked against my feet, so that I was obliged to draw them up and -hold them always in my hands. Often in this plight and tormented by -sleeplessness I sat alongside of my guardians, who slept so heavily -that more than once I caught their caps for them when they were on -the point of losing them from the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</span> wind; and I could not help smiling -as I looked at them, and thought that I might be fairly said to be -outwatching my watchers. The journey was monotonous, in spite of its -giddy and headlong pace, or rather this very pace made it monotonous -by confounding all impressions and preventing any contemplation of the -outside world. Going at the rate of about sixty-six <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">verstes</i> or -<em>kilometres</em> a day, I had traversed in succession the governments -of Tchernigov, Orel, Toula, Riazan, Vladimir, Nijni-Novgorod, Kazan, -Viatka and Perm; I had passed the mountain chains of Oural and Tobolsk, -and I found myself, at the end of twenty days, transported from the -fertile plains of Poland to the very centre of Siberia-West; and that -without, so to speak, any remembrance of the people or of the country -which I left behind me. At one of the last stations short of Omsk, -while a relay was being procured, a soldier passed, and stopping in -front of me began to whistle an air which made me quiver—Dombrowski’s -air, ‘No, never shall Poland perish!’ The man was a compatriot of -Mazovia, a soldier of 1831, an old brother in arms, now incorporated -into the army of Siberia. He stole furtively up to me and had only time -to say, ‘What are our people about? What do they think of us in France?’</p> - -<p>At last, late in the night of August 20, 1844, we stopped before -a sort of castle. ‘Who goes there?’ cried the sentry from the top -of the bastion. ‘An unhappy one,’ replied the postillion of our -<i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">kibitka</i>. Immediately<span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</span> the gates swung wide, and we were in -Omsk. After the lapse of about twenty minutes, and with all the -feverish promptitude which distinguishes the public service of Russia, -a report of my arrival reached the commandant of the fortress, and -Prince Gortchakov, the Governor-General of Western Siberia. The order -was sent back to have me conveyed to the station of the guard, close -to the prince’s residence, and there I was installed, having for my -companion an officer under arrest in this room, for some infraction of -discipline. He was quite a young man of good family, hardly twenty, -good looking, pleasant and gay, speaking French, and communicating -something of his own good humour to all who came near him. When I said -that I was a Pole, he gave me a more than hearty reception, pressing -tea on me, and putting himself to inconvenience in order to prepare -a bed for me. In spite of the fatigue of the long journey, I spent -the greater part of that night in talking with him, for I found much -pleasure in his gay and natural conversation. He knew the country well, -and could give me information which was at once precise in itself and -of the greatest use to me; but what most enchanted me was his unrolling -before me a first-rate map of Siberia. This I examined with feverish -curiosity; I had all the marks explained to me, I studied and strove to -fix in my memory the different routes and watersheds of the country. -My heart beat violently, and I could not take my eyes off the map.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</span> -At last the officer noticed my agitation. ‘Ah!’ he said, ‘I fear you -meditate an evasion! pray, pray do not think of it, it is perfectly -impossible. Many of your countrymen have tried it, and those may be -said to have been happy who, tracked on every side, tortured by hunger, -and maddened by despair, have yet been able to escape the consequences -of their crazy undertaking by a timely suicide. The consequences are -certain to be the knout and a life of misery such as I have no words -to describe to you. For God’s sake, put all such thoughts out of your -mind!’</p> - -<p>I asked my companion what was the cause of his detention.</p> - -<p>‘Far be it from me to know,’ he replied. ‘This is not the first time -that I take off my hat to these walls. It is a pleasure that comes my -way at least twice a month. We have a colonel of the old school, quite -a martinet in discipline; and then, as you see, I have the luck, or the -bad luck, to be always in the most giddy spirits, and he puts me very -often under arrest, to see if it will make a wise man of me. What makes -him more angry is that I never ask him about anything, and he says, -that that is insolence, and that I have too much liberty of thought -(<i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">volnodoumstoo</i>).’</p> - -<p>He spoke to me afterwards of his intention to change his regiment, -because his colonel had decidedly taken a dislike to him. He expected -to be sent among the subjugated tribes of the Kirghis, whose language -he<span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</span> was learning, by talking with those of the natives who happened to -be prisoners in this castle. The next morning he had one of these sons -of the desert, a Khan, to breakfast with me; and thus I had for the -first time an opportunity of seeing a representative of those warlike -and nomadic races which occupy the steppes beyond Orenbourg.</p> - -<p>The next day, at eight o’clock in the morning, I was visited by the -commandant, Colonel De Grawe, a worthy old gentleman of alarming -corpulence but very obliging manners, and who was of Swedish -extraction. ‘What a pity, what a pity,’ he never ceased repeating, -‘that once free, and in a foreign country, you ever took it into your -head to come back!’ After him came the prefect of police in Omsk, M. -Nalabardine—tall, thin, dry, straight as an arrow, tight as a cord, -with a long face and little eyes, which were piercing and sunk. He -seemed a mixture of the Cossack, Kirghis and Tartar races. There was -something of a vulture in his physiognomy; and, indeed, I learnt -afterwards that he really was cruel and rapacious in the extreme. Yet -this man had some involuntary feeling. He asked me how it was that I -had dared to return to Poland without the permission of the Tzar; and -when I replied that I had yielded only to the pangs of home sickness, -he cried, with a voice which was unsteady with emotion, ‘Ah! native -country, native land, thou art indeed a beloved thing!’</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</span></p> - -<p>At midday I was desired to wait on Prince Gortchakov, and shown into -a large waiting-room, where a number of persons in his employment sat -writing. After some minutes, several of them rose, and, holding out -their hands to me, addressed me in Polish. They were young Poles, -political prisoners, who worked at desks in the government offices. -Encouraged by their example, the Russians present also had the courage -to approach me, and to ask me about my lot; and from them I learnt that -this was a very decisive moment for me. I have stated before that the -Commission of Deportation held its permanent sittings at Tobolsk; that -it received the gangs, and assigned to each of the condemned his future -and final destination; but as I had not made the journey in a gang, it -was not the commission at Tobolsk, but the Governor-General of Siberia, -residing at Omsk, who was to point out my <em>settlement</em>. Now this -was a very important matter to me, because he might, for example, order -me to work out my sentence of penal servitude in any of the government -works or factories of the neighbourhood; or else he might send me to -dig in the mines of Nertchinsk. The hell of a Siberian convict has, -alas! many circles; and the question of determining which of them -should be my fate was precisely the one which was being discussed in -the adjoining room, where the Governor-General’s Council was sitting. -They told me I might pin my hopes chiefly on the presence at the -board of M. Kapoustine,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</span> an official of the highest rank and greatest -influence about the Prince—a man of generous instincts, and who always -pleaded in favour of deported persons convicted on political grounds. -All of a sudden, a sound was heard, everybody looked hard at the page -before him, and Prince Gortchakov appeared at the door of the room. He -came forward a step or two, fixed his eyes on me for some seconds, then -turning his back, he returned to his own apartments, without having -addressed me. An hour passed away in waiting in this cruel suspense. -At last we saw M. Kapoustine of the Council leave the inner room. He -announced to me, with a polite and kindly manner, that I was to be -sent to the works at the government distilleries, at Ekaterinski-Zavod -(established by the Empress Catherine), in the district of Tara, on -the banks of the Irtiche, at the distance of rather more than 300 -kilometres from Omsk. Hardly had he ceased speaking and departed, than -the clerks began to offer me their congratulations. I bade farewell -to them, as well as to the two poor gendarmes who had brought me from -Kiow; then, stepping into a <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">kibitka</i> which waited at the gate, I -was whirled away to the final term of my travels.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</span></p> - -<h3 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V.<br /><br /><span class="small">THE KATORGA.</span></h3> -</div> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p class="center p0">COMPANIONS IN EXILE—THE ‘KATORGA’—A MURDERER—THE -FELONS—KANTIER—PAY AND PUNISHMENTS—THE COUNTING-HOUSE.</p> -</div> -<hr class="r5" /> - - -<p>About ten o’clock of a cold morning, for it was now the 4th of October, -I saw before me the outlines of a village composed of two hundred -miserable houses, all built of wood, lying near the river Irtiche, -and situated in a vast plain. Further back, upon a rising ground, and -in the middle of a fir wood, the buildings of a factory were visible. -This was Ekaterinski-Zavod. I was introduced into the counting-house -(<i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">kazionnaia kantora</i>), and the <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">smotritel</i>, that is to say, -the inspector of the establishment, soon arrived; for to M. Aramilski -the gendarme had already carried all the papers which concerned me. -He made me strip to the waist before all the persons present, thus -verifying the description drawn up at Kiow, which he had in his -hand. He then ordered me to be inscribed in the register of convict -labourers, not under my name but under my number.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</span> I was then to be -taken to the station-house; and he added, as he went out, without even -having addressed me, ‘he will work with chains on his feet.’</p> - -<p>When he was out of hearing, a young man, who, through all this -business, had continued writing like the other clerks in the office, -rose and threw himself into my arms. It was Charles Bogdaszewski of -Cracow, who, implicated in the affair of Erenberg the poet, had been -condemned for three years to hard labour, and to deportation for the -term of his natural life. Some moments afterwards, we were joined -by John Siesieki of Lublin, another political offender. They spoke -quickly, and with an emotion which they did not disguise. They conjured -me to show myself patient and submissive in every way, and not to rebel -at anything. It was only thus that I could arrive in time at being -employed in the office, instead of having to do the hard and severe -work of the factory itself; and at this price, above all, I could -purchase an immunity from those corporal punishments to which every -labouring convict is liable. I cannot describe what was the character -of this broken and breathless colloquy, or the shiver which ran through -my frame when I heard Polish lips speaking, as of a matter of course, -of their fear of blows and of the rods. They left me, but it was to -make haste to use their influence with the under-officials of the -establishment, with the treasurer and the forester, that they might -induce the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</span> <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">smotritel</i> to go back from the order, which seemed -inconceivable to them, that I should work in irons, such a measure -not being in use here even in the case of murderers. I learnt later -what was the meaning of this unusual severity. At the bottom of my -certificated sentence, Prince Gortchakov had added with his own hand, -‘A special watch must be kept upon Piotrowski;’ and this extraordinary -recommendation had made a deep impression on M. Aramilski. ‘Since I -have been superintendent,’ he said to the forester, ‘nothing of the -sort ever occurred to me; this must be some diplomate’ (<i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">eto dolgène -byt kakoï diplomat</i>).</p> - -<p>The station-house, to which I was immediately directed, was full of -soldiers, many of them Poles who had fought in our war of independence. -These seized the least excuse to come up to me and ask me in whispers -what had become of Poland, what was happening in Europe, and whether -there were any hopes? (<i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">Son Nadzieje?</i>)</p> - -<p>Worn out with fatigue and by many emotions, I stretched myself on a -bench, and for two hours I remained plunged in a gloomy reverie. All -of a sudden I saw standing in front of me a strong truculent-looking -man, whose ignoble expression did not belie in any way the triple mark -of <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">vor</i> which was printed on his forehead and on both cheeks. -He addressed me thus, ‘Get up, you must go and work.’ This was the -overseer of the convicts, a felon of distinction himself! Oh, my<span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</span> God! -Thou alone didst hear the cry of my soul, when for the first time I was -ordered about by an abject being like this! At these words of his I -darted a look at him in return which seemed to express all the desolate -indignation of my spirit, I do not know that it was so, but he stepped -back, dropped his eyes, and said with a sad air, ‘Well, what can I -do? They order me, and I must execute my orders.’ My breast heaved, I -pressed my head between my hands, for my brain felt on fire, a cold -sweat burst out all over me, and at last I breathed again. ‘Let us go,’ -I said, as I rose up, and I went out, following the overseer.</p> - -<p>He led me to a large forge close to the refining house, my feet were -placed in the anvil and my irons struck off, a deliverance which I owed -to the humane offices of my two countrymen; and thus for the first -time since I had left Kiow I was able to pull off my own boots! I was -then taken to a building which was only in part finished, a kiln for -drying the malt. The roof was not completed, and the wood-work had to -be cleared of a vast quantity of chips, litter and offensive refuse, -with which it was covered. I mounted by a ladder, and was followed by -the overseer, and by a soldier, who had orders for the future never to -let me out of his sight. On the roof I found another convict, whose -labours I was to share. A broom and a shovel were put into my hands by -my colleague, and by the overseer I was shown how to use them. The air -was cold, the sky<span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</span> clouded and dark, and the task imposed certainly -not a severe one; but in order to avoid any remonstrances, and to -escape being either spoken to or looked at, I worked away without ever -stopping or so much as lifting my eyes, and was soon drenched with -perspiration. Alas! I was weak, and what was more, I was weeping!</p> - -<p>In his course of daily inspection M. Aramilski also came up upon -the roof where I was at work, followed by other officials of the -establishment. I continued to sweep without turning round, and I -avoided their eyes as much as if I had been a criminal. Some time after -they had left, the overseer said, ‘Now rest.’ I seated myself on a -heap of sweepings alongside of my companion, a young man, who was tall -and well-made, but who had the triple mark on his face, and who seemed -of an easy cheerful temper. Overcoming the hesitation which I felt, I -spoke first.</p> - -<p>‘Have you been long in these works?’</p> - -<p>‘Three years.’</p> - -<p>‘To how many years’ labour are you sentenced?’</p> - -<p>‘For life!’</p> - -<p>‘What was your crime?’</p> - -<p>‘I killed my master.’</p> - -<p>I shuddered, but went on:</p> - -<p>‘Without doubt it was an accident, you did not intend to kill him?’</p> - -<p>‘Why, for the matter of that I did not <em>plan</em> it,’ he said with a -sneering look; ‘I had an axe hanging at my<span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</span> girdle, I took it in both -my hands and split his head open for him.’</p> - -<p>I was chilled with horror. After a few moments’ silence I said:</p> - -<p>‘But why did you kill him so cruelly?’</p> - -<p>‘Why? not for fun, you may be sure. No, our master was a bad man, very -cruel, who overworked us and beat us incessantly, almost to death; -and to deliver the neighbourhood from a ruffian like that I took upon -myself to kill him, and I did so. It was God’s providence that I did -not die under the knout, and now I am much happier and better off at -this <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">katorga</i> (penal labour) than I ever was at home. The only -thing that I regret is my young wife, whom I had to leave; she is young -and pretty, and will soon find another husband.’</p> - -<p>‘But you ought to repent of the sin of having slain a man.’</p> - -<p>‘<em>That</em> was not a man! That was a devil!’</p> - -<p>We soon after this went to work again, and did not stop till nightfall.</p> - -<p>I returned to the guard-house, and there my two countrymen came under -an escort to visit me, the <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">smotritel</i> having given leave for this -indulgence. We conversed together in a low voice, and in the middle of -all the racket made by the soldiers and convicts we related to each -other the chief events of our lives. These poor friends did not cease -exhorting me to absolute patience and submission. They conjured me -to master my temper,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</span> to suppress all exhibitions of it, and not to -despair of seeing myself soon raised to a position which would be by -comparison more happy, and which they themselves now occupied—thanks -to their patient and irreproachable conduct. We embraced tenderly, -then separated, and I fell asleep. Thus ended my first day of convict -labour and of convict life: how many more of the same succeeded it and -resembled it!</p> - -<p>I rose with the sun to go to the works, at eight I had breakfast, from -twelve to one we had an hour in the barracks for dinner and rest, and -then we worked till dark. The occupations were often varied according -to the wants of the establishment or the inclinations and temper of -the inspector. By day and by night I was associated with the other -felons, and always under the eye of the overseer and of the soldier in -charge of my person. On some days I swept the courtyards; sometimes I -carried wood and drew water; sometimes, again, I might be sent to hew -wood for fagots, and to stack them in symmetrical piles; and this last -employment in the open air, in the autumnal and winter months, in rain -and snow, and in the icy temperature of Siberia, was the most trying of -any. Long, gloomy, and mournful were the days, and it is needless to -dwell on them any further.</p> - -<p>The dominant feeling in my mind was the wish to avoid any discussion -or wrangle with my superiors or with the overseers. Such an occurrence -would have<span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</span> brought about a terrible catastrophe, for I had made a -vow that I would not submit to corporal punishment, and that I would -resist it, whether at the price of my own life or of that of others; -and for this reason I worked beyond what was asked of me, and beyond my -own strength. I must do myself the justice to add that I neglected no -effort to conquer my feelings and moments of impatience, and I must do -my superiors the justice to say of them that they were neither teasing -nor gratuitously and wickedly unkind. Severe and hard as they often -were, they never treated me with the capricious rudeness of despots, -while the convicts who were my colleagues treated me with a deference, -I might almost say a kindness, for which I was heartily grateful. -They did not annoy me with any of those cruel jests by which the bad -even in very different ranks of life often insult any one superior to -themselves whom misfortune has brought down to their own level. More -than once I have known them offer to help me at some work which they -thought was too heavy for me, or they would change with me, taking my -task and giving me their own, if it happened to be a lighter one. From -a very early stage they ceased to speak to me with ‘<em>thee</em>’ and -‘<em>thou</em>,’ and called me ‘Sir;’ and certainly unmerited misfortune -ought to command the respect of untutored men, even of savages, where -they, in spite of bravado and seared consciences, feel themselves to be -really criminals. With the exception of a very few political offenders<span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</span> -like myself, all the convicts at Ekaterinski-Zavod (to the number of -three hundred souls) were really malefactors. One would have murdered -a wayfarer, another had committed a horrible rape, another would be an -utterer of false coin, another both a thief and a housebreaker. As a -daily intercourse with such men was inevitable, I had neither a false -shame nor a misplaced pride in my dealings with them. I often talked to -these strange companions, studied their characters, and heard from them -their different histories and the events of their lives. I am certainly -not about to become the historian of these heroes of the bagnio; but I -will give one tale, which is not without interest, and which shows that -a false Byronism of deed and thought was not unrepresented among them.</p> - -<p>One of our felons, Kantier by name, was sentenced to hard labour for -life. He was still young, a man short of stature, but strongly built, -of a clear and dark but pale complexion; he had black and burning -eyes, and his whole physiognomy bespoke a firm and daring disposition. -He had been clerk to a wine merchant at St. Petersburg; and when I -asked him one day what was the cause of his sentence and punishment, -he replied, ‘It is because I killed the girl with whom I was in love. -I suspected her of being unfaithful to me. I had suffered horribly, -and I was determined to be revenged upon her. In order to execute my -design with greater ease, I pretended to make it up with her;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</span> and, by -dint of coaxing, got her to promise, on a certain holiday, to go on -an excursion into the country with me. She hesitated about it a long -time, as if she had had a presentiment of some mischief; but at last -she consented, upon the condition that she might bring a female friend -along with her. <em>That</em> did not suit my plans very well, but I had -to put up with it. On the appointed day we started, all three of us. -Armed with a pistol and a dagger, I walked alongside of my mistress and -talked to her. She had never seemed to me either so pretty or so loving -as she did then; but that only added to my jealousy and my thirst for -revenge. More than once I was on the point of dispatching her, but her -face disarmed me. At last I stopped; it was in a field; I pointed out -something in the view to my sweetheart which made her turn away her -head. At that moment I put the pistol to her temple, and pulled the -trigger. My hand shook, and I only wounded her; the friend screamed -and ran. She, slightly hurt and stunned by the shot, turned round -two or three times, then, throwing herself on her knees before me, -“Forgive me!” she cried in a voice so touching and heart-rending that -I shuddered. But I answered by sinking the dagger into her heart, the -weapon going in up to its hilt. She fell down stiff and dead. I stabbed -her in the breast with my knife, and then ran to give myself up to the -police; and here I am, after the knout, for life....’</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</span></p> - -<p>‘But are you not sorry for having killed her? Does not your conscience -reproach you bitterly for such a crime?’</p> - -<p>‘Yes, I am sorry for her. I shall never forget her as long as I live, -and I shall never love any one else; but as to my conscience, I thought -I was quite right in killing her.’</p> - -<p>‘But, if it were possible for her to be alive and come back to you, you -surely would not do so by her again?’</p> - -<p>‘She made me first the happiest and then the most miserable of men; -and, if she could come back, I should certainly kill her again.’</p> - -<p>‘Then, you mean to say you think you have committed no crime?’</p> - -<p>‘Where is the crime? She took away my peace, and I took away her life; -she was the most to blame of the two.’</p> - -<p>I must now say something about our village, and about the organisation -of the factory. The government distillery at Ekaterinski-Zavod was -founded in the reign of Catherine II., whose name it bears; and -the population consists of the descendants of former convicts. All -the interests of the village were centred in the distillery, which -produces annually from two to three million of <em>litres</em> of -alcohol, and furnishes brandy to the country over a district of one -or two thousand <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">verstes</i>. The distillery was farmed by two rich -merchants of the government of Simbirsk, M. Orlov and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</span> M. Alexeiev, -who must have realised a considerable profit upon it, because, besides -the price which they paid as rent, and the augmented charges of pay -to the convict labourers, they had contracted for the pay of the -commanding officer and the keep of the garrison, viz. of a hundred and -one persons; and they were necessarily obliged to give constant and -valuable presents to the inspector and other government officials. -The inspector generally allowed them about half the force of convict -labourers for the distillery; the other half was employed in the -public service, as in road-making and mending, in the construction of -government buildings, and in sanitary works. Each of us received in -money three francs a month, and ninety pounds’ weight of corn, the -sale of which in the village was to furnish us with food; but the -gentlemen who farmed or rented the distillery from the crown, in order -to encourage their workpeople, raised the pay up to five, eight, and -even ten francs a month; the men employed in barrelling the spirit -being paid by the piece, and thus gaining more than the rest. In this -way, it was advantageous for the convicts to be in the employment of -the distillery, for they received a better salary, and were less likely -to encounter the trying interference of the government officials; but, -in any case of insubordination or idleness, the distillers or their -representative were obliged to refer to the inspector, who ordered the -punishment to be inflicted. This, I mean, was the case when it was -a question of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</span> the stick and the rods; as for blows and cuffs, the -convicts got plenty of them from everybody alike. The greater number -of convicts lived in barracks; the more favoured were allowed to lodge -in the village: but then they had to pay for the bed and board of the -soldier who lived there and watched them. From all this it will be seen -that, by those who had any education, the counting-house and office -of the factory were the posts especially desired, and that those who -occupied them were thought most worthy of envy; but it is needless -to add that all were alike in the eye of the law, that these steps -or grades could not give any acquired rights, and that at the good -pleasure of the inspector, or <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">smotritel</i>, one might be at any -moment ‘removed to other functions.’</p> - -<p>Thanks to the constant care with which I acquitted myself of the tasks -imposed upon me, thanks to the mastery which I had gained over myself, -and of which I certainly should not at one time have believed myself -capable, I passed, in the following year, not only into the service of -the lessees, but also was employed in their office; and in this way I -ceased to be in the constant society of persons who were unreclaimed, -and who lacked culture both morally and intellectually. I received -wages to the extent of ten francs a month, and my occupation was in -every way less painful than any former ones had been. I went to my -desk at eight in the morning, and I remained in the counting-house -till<span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</span> mid-day, where I was again from two in the afternoon to ten or -eleven at night; and although work was not pressing, and one was not -really wanted, yet it was incumbent on me to be always present. During -the long hours of ennui I wrote, took notes, and abandoned myself to -meditations, during which plans for the future slowly ripened in my -mind. My office, it happened, was the rendezvous of a great number -of travellers, who frequented it both for the sale of grain and in -order to buy spirituous liquors; they were peasants, townsfolk, -merchants, Russians, Tartars, Jews, and Kirghis. If I was very scant -of speech, and short in my communication with the official, with the -other convicts, and with the custom-house officers, I acquired, on the -contrary, with a curiosity that never flagged, from all these passing -travellers, all that was to be learnt of the peculiarities of Siberia. -I spoke to men some of whom had been to Berezov, others at Nertchinsk, -others had penetrated to the frontiers of China, to Kamtschatka, to the -steppes of the Kirghis, even into Boukhara; and thus, without passing -the threshold of my office, I learnt to know Siberia, its nearest and -its furthest details. The knowledge thus acquired was to be of great -value to me afterwards, in forming the plan for my evasion.</p> - -<p>One of my fellow-countrymen, Wysoçki, was head clerk in the -counting-house of the distillery; but my great ally there was the young -Russian, Stépan Bazanov,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</span> manager of the factory for the lessees, whose -relative he was. He was a lad of twenty or upwards, brave and upright, -whose only weakness was the most naïve adoration for the Emperor -Nicholas. He never would or could admit that Nicholas did wrong; all -the wrong, according to him, was owing to the Boyards, and he declared -that, were it not for the intervention of the nobility, the Tzar would -make his people the happiest in the world; and I am bound to say that, -as far as my experience has gone, this opinion is a pretty general one -in Russia, among the people, though not among the ‘staroviertsi.’ What -most disposed me to like Bazanov was that he confided his love griefs -to me. The poor boy, who was lamentably uneducated in every way, had -fallen violently in love with a cousin of his own; but the Orlovs put -difficulties in the way of the union which he so much desired. Fancy -hearing a lover’s confidences in an accursed place like this where -convicts worked! though to be sure the man who made them to me knew -that he was free, and that he did not awake every morning to fear the -stick and the rods!</p> - -<p>I must say that the thought of being exposed at any moment, for any -trivial cause, and at the beck of any official, to treatment as -shameful as it is terrible, created in me a gloomy and fierce temper, -and that, in spite of the relative and very appreciable improvement in -my case, I was kept in a state of continual tension. I could not forget -the subject, there was no way of doing so;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</span> the punishments daily -inflicted on some one or other of the convicts, all my own equals in -the social hierarchy of the place, sent up a cry of <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">cras tibi</i>, -enough to drive anyone mad with despair. Moreover, the familiarities -to which the superiors often admit their deported labourers have a -dangerous side. There is no real trust to be placed in the caprices -of a man invested with arbitrary powers. His favours are likely to be -capricious also, for these men are generally of low minds and manners; -and it amuses them to make a sport of their fellow-creatures, raising -them one day only in order to humiliate them more deeply hereafter. -This is a snare into which many Poles, who like myself have been -carried to Siberia, are apt to fall; into which indeed they have -fallen. Their education, their manners, the noble nature of their -misfortunes, all attract to them a certain consideration, and sometimes -even win for them the good graces of their masters. Thus they rise -above the level of the common herd of the lost, and they beguile -themselves with the illusion that in this way they are reintegrated -into society. But the moment of awakening from this dream soon comes, -and the deported man, rudely reminded of his real state, may be called -happy if he is reminded of it only by word of mouth! Some years before -my arrival at Ekaterinski-Zavod, there was a Russian general, N——, -who had been condemned by Nicholas to penal servitude in Siberia. The -<i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">smotritel</i>, respecting the high position<span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</span> and the advanced age -of the prisoner, set him to the lightest and least painful tasks, and -admitted him to society and his table. Unluckily, the general sometimes -forgot himself (especially if he drank a little too much), and, -taking up the tone of a senior and superior officer, showed himself -recalcitrant. The inspector then had him chained to the furnace of the -distillery, and obliged him for a month or a fortnight, during the -extreme cold of winter, to keep up the fires. The general, overheated -and covered with sweat and ashes, promised to amend, and recommenced -his familiarities with the <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">smotritel</i> and other functionaries, -only to find himself again another time by the furnace. Having spent -several years in this way at the <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">katorga</i>, he was pardoned by the -Tzar, and restored to his old rank as a general officer.</p> - -<p>One other amelioration took place in my lot, and that even before I -was told off for a clerkship in the counting-house, and it was, in my -estimation, a benefit as great as even that great improvement on my -former labours. The inspector gave me leave to live out of barracks; -and thus I was able to leave behind me that habitation which was the -ordinary dwelling of felons, and which was the scene of their drinking -and of their infamous debaucheries. I dwelt henceforth, along with my -two fellow-clerks and fellow-countrymen, in Siesieki’s house. Thanks -to the length of his long sojourn at Ekaterinski-Zavod, this exile had -scraped together,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</span> out of his slender salary, enough money to construct -a small wooden house, which was not complete as yet, and indeed was not -even roofed in; but thither notwithstanding we carried our household -goods. The wind whistled through numberless chinks, but as wood cost -next to nothing, we piled up a great fire on the earth every night; and -there we could feel not only that we were at home, but that we were -delivered from the horrible company of the common criminals; although -it must not be forgotten that we were watched, and that we had to -pay for the soldiers who mounted a ceaseless guard upon our persons. -Ah! if that little house is still standing, and shelters perhaps at -this moment some unhappy and deported brother, let him know that he -is not the first or the only one who within its modest walls has wept -as he invoked a distant and a beloved land! My friend Siesieki had -been, he told me, a prisoner in the citadel of Warsaw along with the -hapless Lévitoux, and had thus been, so to speak, an eyewitness of his -horrible death. Their cells opened into the same corridor; and more -than once Lévitoux, when returning covered with blood from the inquest -and the torture, would call to him, ‘I cannot bear it any longer, I -know that I shall go mad, and then I shall speak in spite of myself!’ -This fear haunted him continually; but one day, on his return from -one of these <em>blood-baths</em>, as he called them, he said to his -companion through the window in his door, that he begged he would keep -awake<span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</span> till about eleven that evening. Siesieki, without, however, -attaching much importance to this request, complied with it, and did -not go to bed or lie down: about ten at night he saw a great light -in Lévitoux’s cell. The sentry called, ‘Fire! fire!’ but before the -jailer could be fetched, or the keys of the cell found, some time was -of course allowed to elapse. The door was opened, a dense smoke filled -the corridor, and the poor fellow had just expired upon the straw -mattress, to which he had set fire with his own hands by means of his -night-light. Through his cell window my friend beheld the burnt corpse, -and saw the soldiers drag it along the corridor by the feet, a horrible -spectacle, with the head knocking upon the flags. It is said that at -the news of such a finale even Nicholas was moved, and gave orders that -in future political offenders should not be proceeded against with so -much severity; also, ever since this event, no person detained for a -political cause, and supposed to be gravely implicated in one, is ever -allowed a light in his room.</p> - -<p>Siesieki had made, as I related before, the whole of the journey to -Siberia on foot, and had formed one of a gang. When he first arrived -at our factory, he had been put to the hardest labour, in company with -the other convicts; but some years later the forester required the -services of a clever and safe servant, and Siesieki was attached to -his department, the more readily because he added the qualifications -of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</span> a good sportsman and a good shot to those of being a clever and -an honest man. It may easily be guessed that the inspector and other -functionaries profited by the first-fruits of his chase, and that at -that price he gained permission to carry a gun. Indeed he was often -absent on leave for a week at a time, a proceeding of which we once -felt the inconvenience, for as Bogdaszewski and I were obliged to be -all day at the office, he ought to have been there to watch our house; -but profiting by one of his long absences some one robbed us! Our door -was broken in and our provisions of tea and corn stolen, a loss which -to us was no slight one.</p> - -<p>In the neighbourhood lived several deported Poles, dwelling in Siberia -as simple exiles. They used to avail themselves of some saint’s day -or holiday to visit us, for, with permission of the authorities, -they were able to make excursions to Ekaterinski-Zavod. From them we -learnt the fate of many other exiles, and we would invoke together the -names of the thousands of our dead who had laid down their lives in -this land of expiation. The great event, however, of our monotonous -existence was the arrival among us of a Polish and Roman Catholic -priest. Four of our clergy are permitted by the Russian government to -traverse every part of Siberia. Once a year in this way they visit the -different establishments where the political offenders dwell, and offer -to them the rites and the consolations of their faith. The arrival of -one of these servants of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</span> God is made known in each district a few -days beforehand, and the faithful collect from different points. The -priest during his stay celebrates a mass, gives the Holy Communion, and -consecrates the graves of those who during the year have passed into -their rest. No honest, and above all no Christian mind, can fail to -appreciate the devotion of these four poor priests. It cannot be too -much admired, for it carries them along their ceaseless travels, and -supports them as, in their sledges, they journey through the intense -cold of Siberia, from Tobolsk to Kamtschatka, and from Nertchinsk to -the Polar Sea. The father who visited us in 1845 was a Dominican from -Samogitia; but he forbore to wear the gown of his order for fear of -outraging the Greek orthodoxy of the natives of Siberia. The inspector -had the kindness to allow us to hold service in his room, which was -the most spacious one in the village. We all went to confession, and -then approached the Lord’s Table. The crowd was great, for exiles and -Polish soldiers arrived from very great distances—even those Poles who -were not Roman Catholics did not fail to come with joy to the sacred -service, for, whether Catholics or not, to them the mass spoke of the -native land so hallowed by them and by all her children.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</span></p> - -<h3 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI.<br /><br /><span class="small">SIBERIA.</span></h3> -</div> -<hr class="r5" /> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p class="center p0">SIBERIA—HARDSHIPS OF DEPORTATION—BREAKING THE BAN—THE ABBÉ -SIEROCINSKI—HIS CONSPIRACY—HIS EXECUTION.</p> -</div> -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p>In this way I had mounted quickly from the lowest to the highest -status to which a convict can rise in this establishment of ours on -the banks of the Irtiche; and by the beginning of the year 1846 I -might almost have fancied myself merely as a recruit of the omnipotent -bureaucracy of Russia, sadly banished to these distant realms beneath -an inhospitable sky. Very different was this time from the terrible -winter of 1844, when I swept the gutters, hewed or carried wood, and -lived under one roof with all the offscourings of the human race! And, -alas! how many of my brothers, groaning at this moment in the mines -of Nertchinsk or in gangs under the lash—how many indeed of those -who had been condemned to a punishment less severe than my own, would -have thought themselves happy in the position which I had gained at -Ekaterinski-Zavod as early as 1846; and from which, however, I was -perfectly determined to slip<span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</span> away, at the risk even of encountering -the knout and the mysterious dungeons of Akatouia!</p> - -<p>The word Siberia embraces a variety of miseries and of trials which -the nomenclature (already very rich) of the Russian penal code -is yet far from being able to define or even to specify. The two -principal categories, deportation (<i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">possilenié</i>) and penal -labour (<i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">katorga</i>), only indicate, so to speak, the two great -exterior lines of an immense <em>vagueness</em>, which can be filled up -at will. Everything is arbitrary in a sentence which is applied and -interpreted by a host of dictators, by a commission at Tobolsk, by a -Governor-General in Siberia by the first and the last comer, by an -inspector and by an overseer.</p> - -<p>It is one thing to be deported to Viatka, to Tobolsk, or even to Omsk; -it is another thing to be sent to Bérézov, as was our warm-hearted -Madame Felinska, or to Kamtschatka, like Beniowski or General Kopec, -and so many illustrious compatriots; it is another thing, again, -to serve in the army of the Caucasus, with the right of promotion, -that is to say, with the possibility and the hope of being one day -protected from corporal punishments, or of being placed in a Cossack -regiment, and sent to the Kirghis frontier. One may get off with the -<i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">katorga</i> in some of the factories or government distilleries, -as I did at Ekaterinski-Zavod; but how many miserable beings labour -in the horrible mines at Nertchinsk, with irons on their feet, and -only hoping<span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</span> for some falling in of the mine to put an end quickly to -a life which has nothing more to hope or to expect in this world. The -verdigris mines are those which are the most dreaded. The disciplined -gangs of Orenbourg, and other places, have the reputation of leading -a life yet more awful than that at Nertchinsk. There the rod and the -bastinado are the daily bread of our poor students and artisans, -who are in general banished thither. There remains the fortress of -Akatouia, not far from Nertchinsk, the last punishment reserved for the -greatest criminals, and for convicts who revolt, or are taken in the -attempt to break their ban. Here it was that Peter Wysoçki, after the -bad success of his conspiracy in Siberia, was at last shut up. I know -nothing of this mysterious place, and I can say nothing about it, for -I have never seen any one who had penetrated its mystery; but I only -know that, throughout Siberia, the very name is pronounced with an -indescribable terror.</p> - -<p>The contempt which the inhabitants of the country very naturally have -for the felon, falls back also upon the man who is simply deported; -and the exile may often hear himself insulted with the name of -<i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">varnak</i>, an indigenous expression which conveys a concentrated -notion of abjectness and infamy. He who is deported has no civil -rights, his deposition cannot be taken in any court of justice, and his -wife, if he has left one in his native country, may contract a second -marriage,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</span> because he is counted among the dead. But the legislator -who laid down this last law with regard to the exile defeated his own -object, which is to increase, by any means, the population of Siberia. -The convict or the exiles in its regions can only marry into the worst -class, and among the least respectable of its inhabitants; and what is -more, his children, if any are born to him, must always remain serfs -of the crown. It is true that it is permitted to a wife to follow her -husband into Siberia, and that the most pitiless measures have not -prevented our seeing such instances of devotion as those of Princess -Troubetskoï and Madame Koszakiewicz, with many other Polish ladies; but -then the law forbids her again to leave the country, and her children -born in this land of exile become, in like manner, royal serfs; and -we must point out that there is a peculiarity in amnesties which, -even when granted, only apply to the parents. Any children of theirs -that have seen the light in Siberia cannot profit by the pardon, but -require a special decree. To the Emperor Nicholas, however, these many -and sad restrictions did not seem sufficient. In the month of December -1845, he issued a general order for Siberia, which, among many other -aggravating clauses, declared all deported persons to be incapable of -possessing any property whatever, even chattels and personalty; and -ordered that all who were sentenced to penal servitude should, without -any exceptions whatever, live in barracks. This command caused a -general consternation<span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</span> throughout the country, and the very officials -themselves were heard to declare that it was as cruel as it was -inopportune, inconvenient, and all but impracticable. I do not know if -it ever was rigorously carried into effect; but I may say that these -new measures went for a great deal in determining my resolution to fly -from Siberia; for I preferred exposing myself to every danger rather -than consent voluntarily to return, and be reinstalled in the barracks -of the felons.</p> - -<p>However hard life in Siberia must of necessity appear to persons under -political sentences, I must confess that ordinary criminals do not -complain of their lot, and that they sometimes appear to prefer it to -their former condition. Serfs and soldiers especially, even when at -hard labour, have often said to us, ‘What have we to regret? we worked -just as hard where we were before, and we were beaten much oftener.’ -And yet these very men are, in many instances, not less ready to brave -the knout and the most terrible punishments, by breaking their ban—so -powerful in man is the love of liberty and the love of his own hearth. -During my journey in Siberia I had already remarked, and was struck -by the fact, that numberless fields of turnips edged the roads on -both sides, and that in more than one place these turnips seemed to -have been torn up, while the plantations bore the marks of footsteps. -I learnt afterwards that the natives keep up the supply of roots on -purpose;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</span> and that they are intended for the use of fugitives, and to -serve them as food during their nocturnal flights. In villages and -hamlets along the high roads the inhabitants take pains to place over -night, on their window-ledges, bread, salt, and jars of milk, supplies -which are destined for the same persons; and the natives do all this -quite as much from self-interest as from charity, for the great trunk -roads of Siberia are marauded by runaway convicts, and no man can -imagine or describe what perils, what sufferings, and what privations -these desperate wretches undergo in order to escape detection. Those -who have been branded generally use vitriol or cantharides to get rid -of the obnoxious letters; but they seldom fail of being apprehended, -and the best fate that can await them is that they should henceforth -lead a savage life in the woods, where they become, or rather are -again, robbers.</p> - -<p>If among the ordinary felons in Siberia the temptation to flight is -so strong, among the political exiles and among my fellow-countrymen -that temptation is very seldom yielded to. The fear of the knout, and -of all corporal punishments, is naturally far stronger among educated -persons, or those whose lot is comparatively easy; then, too, the very -imperfect knowledge of the language, the routes, and the manners of the -country, all unite to dissuade the Poles from so desperate an attempt. -The resource which remains for the Russian peasant in his flight does -not apply or offer itself to the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</span> Pole; for him it is no object to be -lost in the boundless woods, or to hide in some obscure community for -life. To obtain his ends, the Pole must reach and cross the confines -of another country; and the immensity of the distances to be traversed -before this can be achieved is well calculated to make him lose all -hope. At the same time, attempts to rise in a body and thus effect -their joint deliverance are not at all rare among political exiles. -The exploits of Beniowski are remembered by all, and they appeal to -many spirits; so that we hear sometimes of a conspiracy, of which the -object is to force its way, by dint of arms and numbers, to Persia, -China, or simply across the Steppes. Sometimes we have even had the -wish to make Siberia itself rise in revolt against the rule of the -Tzar. Peter Wysoçki, who first gave the signal of our revolution in -1831, and who, being taken in battle by the Russians, was deported to -Nertchinsk, formed such a plan as this; and he expiated his temerity in -the fortress of Akatouia. Something similar to his was the conspiracy -of the Abbé Sierocinski, so celebrated ever since in Siberian annals. I -arrived at Ekaterinski-Zavod some years after that bloody tragedy had -been played out; but I have been near Omsk, the stage on which it was -acted; I have seen both the eye-witnesses and many of the actors in -it, and I have collected from their lips the following details of the -dismal story, and I can vouch for their perfect truthfulness.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</span></p> - -<p>Previous to the opening scene of our revolution, the Abbé Sierocinski -had been superior of the convent of St. Basil, at Owrucz, in Volhynia, -and at the same time director of the schools in that place. He took -an active part in the movements and political agitation of 1831, and -finally fell into the hands of the Russians, when the Emperor Nicholas -despatched him to Siberia to serve as a private in one of the regiments -of Cossacks; and thus for several years did the former superior of a -convent, mounted and in a Cossack dress, pursue the Kirghis of the -Steppes with a lance in his hand and with a sabre at his side. Now -there existed at Omsk a military college, and one day, being in want of -a professor, the authorities bethought themselves of the ex-Basilian, -whose capabilities were well known, and who was therefore, especially -on account of his knowledge of French and German, recalled from his -life on the Steppes. Thus the old head of a convent and the old Cossack -became by order of the government a professor in the military school -of Omsk, although he did not cease to be a private and to belong to -his former regiment. In his new position Sierocinski soon gained all -hearts and obtained a large number of acquaintances and friends. His -physical constitution was delicate and nervous, but he was gifted by -nature with a spirit of rare enterprise and with great courage. He -conceived the idea of a vast Siberian conspiracy, into which should be -drawn all the exiles, all the soldiers in garrison, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</span> many of those -officers in whose minds the ideas and the sufferings of Pestel still -survived, while he wished the natives of the country, the Russians, -and even the Tatars to take a part in it. There is no doubt that the -elements of revolution and revolt are not wanting in Siberia; how and -why it is so would take me too long to explain in this place, but -those who know the country well are fully aware of this feature in -it. Discontent is very general, although the causes and the degrees -of it are sundry and manifold, and differ so widely as to be almost -contradictory. It is only by the presence of the garrisons that the -country is kept safe within the iron-bound circle of the empire. Yet it -was precisely in the garrisons themselves that Sierocinski sought and -found the great number of sympathisers. His plan was to seize, by means -of the conspirators and old deported soldiers, upon the fortresses and -principal strongholds; this they were to do at a given signal, and -then they were to await the progress of events; while in case of check -or defeat they were to retire under arms into the Kirghis Steppes of -the <i>Khanat</i> of Tachken, where there were many Catholics, or into -Boukhara, and from thence press on into the English territories in the -East Indian peninsula. The centre of the conspiracy was at Omsk, where -they had all the artillery of the place at their disposal. The signal -for a general rising was given; but on the very eve of the day on which -it was to take place, three of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</span> conspirators revealed everything to -the commandant of the place, the same Colonel Degrawe whom I mentioned -on my way through Omsk. Sierocinski and his accomplices were seized -that same night, and couriers started off in all directions to give -orders for arresting an endless number of persons. Thus was the plot -discovered at the very moment when it was to have taken effect, and an -enquiry began which lasted for a long time. Two commissions, selected -and sent down the one after the other, were dissolved without coming to -any decision, so obscure and so complicated was the whole affair; and -it was only a third board, composed of persons chosen and despatched -expressly from St. Petersburg, which succeeded in bringing the trial -to an end. By order of the Emperor Nicholas, the Abbé Sierocinski -and five of his principal accomplices, among whom was an officer of -the wars of the empire more than sixty years of age, by name Gorski, -and another Russian, Mélédine, were sentenced to receive each seven -thousand lashes (with the rods) and ‘without mercy;’ in fact, the -sentence consisted exactly of these five words, ‘Seven thousand lashes -without mercy’ (<i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">bez postchadi</i>). The other persons under arrest, -about one thousand in all, were condemned some to three thousand, some -to two thousand, some to one thousand five hundred lashes and to hard -labour for life, while others were simply sent to work in the penal -settlements.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</span></p> - -<p>The day of execution arrived; it was at Omsk, in the month of March -1837. General Galafeïev, who was celebrated for his cruelty, and who -had been sent down from the capital by reason of this shining quality, -was at the head of the dismal procession. By daybreak two whole -battalions were drawn up in a great open space near the town; one of -these was destined to officiate on the principal culprits, the other -on those condemned to a smaller number of lashes. I do not intend to -detail in all its minutiæ the butchery of that terrible day; I shall -but notice the fate of Sierocinski and his five companions. They were -led upon the ground, their sentence read out, and they began to run -the gauntlet (<i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">skvosstroï</i>): the blows fell, as the imperial -order directed, <em>without mercy</em>, and the cries of the sufferers -went up to heaven. None of them lived to receive the prescribed number -of lashes. All (and they were executed one after the other) after -passing through the ranks twice or thrice fell upon the snow, which was -crimson with their blood, and then expired. The Abbé Sierocinski had -been purposely reserved to the last, in order that he might witness -the sufferings of all his friends. When his turn came, and they had -stripped him and tied his hands to the bayonet, the surgeon of the -battalion came up to him and offered him a flask containing some -strengthening drops, but he refused them, saying, ‘You may drink my -blood, but I will not drink your drops, and I do not<span class="pagenum" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</span> want them!’ The -signal was given, the fatal march began, and the old superior of the -Basilican convent chaunted in a loud clear voice, ‘<i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">Miserere mei, -Deus, secundum magnam misericordiam tuam</i>.’ General Galafeïev called -to those who struck, ‘Harder! harder!’ (<i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">pok repché</i>), and for -several minutes the priest’s chaunt rose above the whistling of the -rods and the <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">pok repché</i> cries of the commanding officer.... -Sierocinski had only passed once through the ranks, that is to say, he -had only received one thousand blows, when he fell upon the snow bathed -in his own blood, and senseless. In vain they attempted to place him -on his feet. He was then laid on a tumbril prepared beforehand for the -purpose, and fastened to a support in such a way as to let the blows -fall on his back and shoulders, and thus a second time he passed along. -When this second passage was gone through, his groans and screams were -still audible; but they got gradually weaker, though he did not expire -till after the fourth turn; the last three thousand lashes were only -laid upon a corpse.</p> - -<p>A common grave soon received those who were either killed that day or -whose deaths followed soon after their punishments; both Russians and -Poles perished, and were buried thus. The friends and relations of -those who lie there were permitted to place the symbol of our faith -over that memorable tomb; and as late as 1846 one might still behold a -great wooden crucifix that stretched its black arms across the steppes, -sharply defined against the sparkling and spotless whiteness of their -snows.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</span></p> - -<h3 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII.<br /><br /><span class="small">THE FLIGHT.</span></h3> -</div> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>AN ATTEMPTED FLIGHT—MY ROUTE—MY FUNDS—MY DRESS—THE SLEDGE—A -RUSSIAN THEFT—THE JOURNEY—IRBITE—ON FOOT—A NIGHT’S -LODGING—DANGER—COLD AND FAMINE—PAOUDA—THE IZBOUCHKA—THE CREST OF -THE OURALS—LOST IN THE FOREST—SLEEP—ALMS—VÉLIKI-OUSTIONG.</p> -</div> - -<hr class="r5" /> -<p>There had been passed by the Emperor Nicholas, in the autumn of the -year 1845, a decree, which I have already referred to, and of which -the object was to aggravate the condition of the exiles in Siberia, by -tightening round them the fetters which time and custom had slackened, -and which become loose through the sheer impossibility of enforcing in -all its strictness the severe law of the <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">katorga</i>. Commissions -nominated for the purpose now visited all the penal settlements, and -proposed new measures of severity in these places; and the enforced -cohabitation in the barracks of all convicts, without any exceptions -whatever, was the first point in which it was thought possible and -desirable to yield to the present savage disposition of the Tzar. -All this induced me to persist in the project<span class="pagenum" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</span> which I had already -conceived, and which had been long fructifying in my mind. At the very -moment in which I had signed at Kiow the formula of the sentence which -condemned me to convict labour for the rest of my natural life, I had -formed the determination of flying from such an accursed sojourn and -lot; and a vague hope of being again seen in the land of the living -and among free men had entered my mind. The hard work to which I was -set, during the first period of my <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">katorga</i>, was not calculated -to encourage me; but my hopes rose as soon as I was able to have more -relations with men and things, that is, as soon as I became a clerk -in the counting-house of the establishment at Ekaterinski-Zavod; and, -as early as the summer of 1845, I made two attempts, both of which -were frustrated at the very outset, without, however, awakening any -suspicion as to my intentions.</p> - -<p>It was in the month of June that I noticed a little boat, which lay on -the banks of the Irtiche, or floated on its waters, and which was very -often forgotten, and not drawn up at night. I thought that I might take -advantage of this skiff, and let the stream carry me to Tobolsk; but -hardly had I, on one dark night, untied the boat, and given due or two -strokes with the oars, than the moon broke through the clouds, flooding -the landscape with a dangerous light; and at the same time I heard the -sound of the inspector’s (<i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">smotritel</i>) voice, as he walked on the -banks, with one or two of the other<span class="pagenum" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</span> officials. It was all over with me -for that time, and I gently crept back to land. In the following month -I espied the same skiff, and in a much more favourable situation—upon -a lake, at some distance from our factory, which, through a canal, -communicated with the Irtiche. But this second attempt miscarried also, -and that by reason of an unsurmountable and natural obstacle; for, at -nightfall, the air at this time of year becomes so suddenly cooled that -dense columns of vapour are caught up, and they are so thick and so -close that one cannot see or distinguish anything at the distance of -two feet—a phenomenon which is not uncommon in summer on the waters -of Siberia. In vain now did I push my boat to every side and in every -direction. The fog prevented my finding the opening of the canal into -the Irtiche, and only as the day began to dawn did I discover the issue -so long and so vainly sought. It was then too late, and I thought -myself lucky in being able to get back to my lodging without let or -hindrance; and from that time I abandoned every thought of confiding -myself to the inclement waters of the Irtiche, but I set myself not the -less persistently to ripen and consolidate the plans for my intended -flight.</p> - -<p>The first point to be considered, and upon which I had first to fix -my attention, was the direction I ought to select for my perilous -journey. The trunk road, which was the most natural, and presented -itself before<span class="pagenum" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</span> all the others, and which, from the heart of Siberia, -would have taken me into the centre of Russia Proper, was, as I saw at -once, the one least fitted for my purpose. The law there maintains a -constant and active watch, and is assisted very often both by the zeal -and by the rapacity of the natives, who sometimes find it profitable -to take a shot from behind a hedge at some convict breaking through -his ban. Indeed, among the people, especially among the Tatars, there -is a popular saying, ‘He who kills a squirrel only gets one skin, but -he who kills a <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">varnak</i> gets three—his coat, his shirt, and his -skin.’ Many other routes, of course, were to be found, and in very -different directions. I could traverse Eastern Siberia, by Irkutsk and -Nertchinsk, as far as the Sea of Okhotsk, and there seek some vessel, -which would have carried me to the ports of the United States or to -California. I might turn towards the south, crossing the steppes of the -Kirghis, and arriving in Boukhara, whence I could reach the confines of -British India. On the other side, the Oural River, if I had the good -fortune to touch its source, might have carried me on its waters into -the Caspian Sea, and allowed me to take refuge in Daghestan, among -the Circassians. Finally, a fourth route remained to me, by which, -after crossing the Oural chain, and reaching Oufa, in the government -of Orenbourg, I might find the Volga, at a point somewhat lower than -that at which a canal unites it with the Don, and the latter river -would have led me<span class="pagenum" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</span> to the Sea of Azov; and then, according to my wish, -I might have repaired either to Turkey in Europe or to Turkey in Asia, -or even into the western parts of Circassia. For reasons which it would -take me too long to set down here, I found that I ought to give up all -and each of these four tracks; and I resolved to seek for my liberty -by way of the north, and across the Oural Mountains, and to press on -over the steppes of Petchora and Archangel. This path was the least -frequented, and for this reason only it was the safest. Moreover, -it had the immense advantage of being the shortest; for, if I once -touched at Archangel, it appeared to me an impossibility that, among -the four or five thousand ships in the port, mostly all foreign ones, -not one should be found willing to take on board a political refugee, -flying from the <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">katorga</i>. It was then to these districts of the -far north, and to the shores and borders of the White Sea, that I -now directed my most minute investigations, although I also lost no -opportunity of acquiring information as to any of the other directions, -in case chance or fate should impel me in their way. Our bagnio was -cosmopolitan enough in its character, and soon, from convicts gathered -from all parts of the empire, I acquired a very exact knowledge of the -manners and customs of all the Russias; but my conversations with the -merchants and travellers, who, from north and south, from east and from -west, passed through or frequented Ekaterinski-Zavod, chiefly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</span> helped -to complete the education of a scholar who appeared to be careless and -apathetic, but who was really greedy for every bit of information he -could extract.</p> - -<p>The exile who combines in his mind different plans of escape is -absorbed in an amazing variety of calculations about very small -matters, and it is only the sum total of his thoughts and designs -which can present any objects of interest to the reader. Slowly and -with difficulty I succeeded in gathering together the articles which I -knew to be indispensable to my journey. Among these, and in the first -rank, figured a passport. Of these documents there are two kinds in use -among the Siberians, for these people have the taste, which is common -among all the Russians, for making long peregrinations in the empire. -There is first a pass, which is good only for distances comparatively -short, and which has only a short time to run; there is also the -passport of great importance, which is a very different matter, being -issued by the higher powers and on stamped paper—it is known as the -<i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">plakatny</i>. I succeeded in forging both the one and the other, -for, by men who have once learnt to like and to cultivate them, certain -arts are carried on and plied even in the convicts’ barrack; and thus -it was that I obtained from a friend, a clever coiner of false money, -and in return for a few roubles, a capital seal with the arms of his -imperial majesty. Then as to the sheet of stamped paper, it was easy -for me to appropriate one from the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</span> mass which I blackened every day -in the office for the public use, and thus I had a <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">plakatny</i> at -my service. Slowly and with difficulty too I procured the dress and -the accessories needful for my disguise, which was to be effected both -morally and physically, for I had to transform myself into a native, a -‘man of Siberia’ (<i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">sbirski tcheloviék</i>), as they say in Russia. -Ever since my arrival at Ekaterinski-Zavod, or rather even before that -time, and from the time I left Kiow, I had purposely allowed my beard -to grow, and it had now got to a respectable and perfectly orthodox -length. After many attempts I furthermore became possessed of a wig, a -Siberian one, be it understood—one of those sheepskins with the curls -inside, which are worn in this country to keep out the intense cold; -and, thanks to these means, I trusted to make my personal appearance -such as was most unlikely to be recognised. In the last place, I -may mention that, after deducting the cost of these articles, there -remained to me the sum of 180 roubles (in assignats<a id="FNanchor_5" href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a>), that is, about -200 francs—a very slender sum for so long a journey, and one which, -through a sad accident, was yet to be greatly diminished.</p> - -<p>I had not disguised from myself in any way the difficulties of my -undertaking, nor yet the dangers to which at every step I was to be -exposed. I also knew<span class="pagenum" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</span> that I could not even reckon on the poignard -which I carried as a last and perfectly reliable means of safety, -for, in spite of much that one hears, it is not always in one’s power -to put an end to one’s life. I might be arrested in my sleep, or in -some one of those times of moral prostration which follow on very -prolonged effort and tension of body or of mind, and when a man, by -loss of nervous power, is prevented from disposing of his existence. -One thought, however, sustained me, and while it added greatly to the -difficulties of my situation, it much lightened my conscience—it was -the vow I had made not to reveal my secret to a single human being -until, standing on a free soil, I could do so with safety to them. -I determined not to ask for help, protection, or advice from any -living soul until I had passed the limits of the Tzar’s dominions, -and rather to give up my own hoped-for salvation than to become the -cause of peril and suffering to one of my fellow-men. During my stay -at Kaminieç I had implicated more than one of my poor compatriots in -my own bitter lot, but then I believed myself to be on a mission for -the general weal: now, the only object I had in view was my personal -safety at the time, and my freedom hereafter; and I resolved that, for -their accomplishment, I would rely on no one but on myself. God has -vouchsafed to me the strength to persevere in this resolution to the -end. It seemed to me to be the only honest and justifiable course; -and it has perhaps been on account<span class="pagenum" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</span> of this vow, made from the very -starting point, that He has extended over me His protecting Arm.</p> - -<p>By the last days of January my preparations were finished, and the -time seemed peculiarly favourable for my start, because there was -soon to be held at Terbite, at the foot of the Oural range, one of -those great fairs which are peculiar to Eastern Russia, where centres -of trade are few and far between. The immense distances which have -to be crossed, and the difficulties in the way of even the most -ordinary communications between one place and another, make fairs of -this sort a real <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">colluvies gentium</i>, and the roads are covered -with innumerable trains of merchandise, and with a great concourse of -travellers. Flattering myself with the hope that I might be lost in -such a movement of people and tribes, I lost no time in profiting by -the circumstance, and on February 8th, 1846, I set out.</p> - -<p>I had on three shirts, the coloured one being, after the Russian -fashion, pulled over the trowsers: I had a waistcoat and trowsers -of thick cloth, and over all a little burnous (<i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">armiak</i>) of -sheepskin, well tallowed, which hung down to my knees, while great -boots with tops strongly tarred completed my costume. A girdle of red, -white, and black worsted was tied round my waist, and over my wig I -had one of those red velvet caps, edged with fur, which are worn on -holiday time by Siberian peasants of any affluence, and by commercial -travellers. Besides all this, I was wrapped in a wide pelisse,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</span> of -which the collar, turned up and tied by a red handkerchief round the -neck, served less to keep out the cold than to hide my face. I carried -a bag in my hand, and in it I had put a second pair of boots, a fourth -shirt, a pair of blue trowsers, such as are worn in the country in -summer, some bread, and some dried fish. A large dagger was slipped -into the sheath of my right boot; my money was under my waistcoat in -assignats of five or ten roubles; and, to conclude, in my hands, which -were covered with stout gloves of skin, with the hair inside, I held a -strong knotted stick.</p> - -<p>Thus equipped I stole away at eventide from the settlement of -Ekaterinski-Zavod by a cross-road. It was freezing very hard, and the -rime which hung in the air sparkled in the moonlight. I soon passed my -Rubicon, the Irtiche, whose frozen shield I crunched under my feet, and -with hasty steps, which the weight of my dress alone checked, I took -the road to Tara, a small market town at about twelve kilometres from -the place where I had been kept. The winter nights, I said to myself, -are very long in Siberia; how many miles shall I be able to make before -daylight appears to make them aware of my flight? and what shall I do -when it dawns?</p> - -<p>I had hardly crossed the Irtiche when I heard the sound of a sledge -coming up behind me. I shuddered, but determined to await the nocturnal -traveller, and, as happened more than once during my hazardous -wanderings,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</span> that which I dreaded as a danger became the unexpected -means of saving myself. ‘Where are you going?’ asked the peasant who -drove the sledge, and who had drawn up beside me.</p> - -<p>‘To Tara. Where do you come from?’</p> - -<p>‘From the hamlet of Zalivina. Give me sixty kopeks (tenpence) and I -will take you to Tara, for I am going there myself.’</p> - -<p>‘No; that is too dear, but I will give you fifty kopeks if you like to -take me for that.’</p> - -<p>‘Well, so be it; look sharp, my friend!’</p> - -<p>I seated myself beside him, and we started at a gallop. My companion -was in a hurry to get home; the road covered by snow, which the frost -had hardened, was as smooth as a mirror, and the piercing cold seemed -to give wings to the horses. At the end of half an hour we were at -Tara, where my peasant put me down in one of the streets of the town -and went his way. Now alone, I went up to the first posting-house, and -called in Russian fashion through the window, as loud as I could:</p> - -<p>‘Have you any horses?’</p> - -<p>‘Where are they to go?’</p> - -<p>‘To the fair at Irbite.’</p> - -<p>‘Yes, we have some.’</p> - -<p>‘A pair?’</p> - -<p>‘Yes, a pair.’</p> - -<p>‘How much a verste?’</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</span></p> - -<p>‘Eight kopeks.’</p> - -<p>‘I won’t give so much; say six kopeks.’</p> - -<p>‘What can we say? Done! Presently.’</p> - -<p>In a few minutes the horses were ready and put to a sledge. ‘Where do -you come from?’ they asked me.</p> - -<p>‘From Tomsk: I am a clerk of N——’ (I named somebody), my principal -has gone on before me to Irbite; but, you see, I had to stay behind for -some little affairs of my own, and now I am horribly late, and I am -afraid my chief will be angry; if you will drive quickly you shall have -something for yourself.’</p> - -<p>The peasant whistled, and the horses went off like an arrow. Suddenly -the sky became overcast, and a heavy snow falling, the peasant not -only lost his way but could not find it again. After having wandered -about in many wrong directions, we were obliged to halt and pass the -rest of the night in the forest. I pretended to be furiously angry, -and my driver, full of excuses, began to ask my pardon. I shall not -attempt to describe the agony of that night, passed as it was sitting -in a sledge, in the middle of a snow storm, and at the distance of at -most four leagues from Ekaterinski-Zavod: at every moment I seemed to -hear the bells of the <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">kibitkas</i> that were in full pursuit of me. -At last the day began to redden in the east. ‘Now, go back to Tara,’ I -said to the peasant; ‘I will take another sledge there, and you, you -fool! shall not have a farthing, and I will hand you over to the police -for having made me lose my time in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</span> this way.’ The countryman, much -abashed, turned to go back to Tara, but hardly had we gone a verste -when he stopped, looked all round, and pointing out some traces of a -road under the heap of snow, he cried:</p> - -<p>‘There is the road we ought to have taken!’</p> - -<p>‘Get on, then,’ I said, ‘and thank God!’</p> - -<p>From this moment my man did his best to make up for the lost time; -but a horrible idea crossed my mind, I remembered our hapless Colonel -Wysoçki, who, after having been detained as I was the whole night in a -wood, was given up to the gendarmes by his driver. Perhaps my peasant, -I said to myself, meditates to betray me in like manner, and my hand -mechanically sought my dagger; but it was a vain terror and an unjust -suspicion. He soon stopped at a friend’s house, where I had some tea, -and where I was provided at the same rate with horses to continue my -journey. Thus I went on my way, changing horses at very reasonable -sums, until I arrived late at night at a village called Soldatskaïa, -where I became the victim of a theft as audacious on the part of the -thief as it was painful to me. I happened to have no change to pay the -driver, and along with him I squeezed my way into a pot-house where -there were a number of tipsy people, for it was near the end of the -carnival. I pulled two or three bank notes from under my waistcoat, -and I was going to give them to the landlord to get them changed, when -a sudden move in the crowd, whether purposely<span class="pagenum" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</span> or not I cannot say, -shoved me back from the table on which I had laid down the papers, and -they were carried off in a second. In vain I called out, the thief was -not to be discovered, and as I did not dare really to summon the police -to my assistance, I was obliged to resign myself to my fate, although I -had lost some forty roubles in notes, and (what added much more to my -regrets, I might almost say to my terror) two papers had disappeared -with them, which were of inestimable value to me, the one a memorandum -on which I had marked with the greatest minuteness all the towns and -villages through which I had to pass on my way to Archangel, the other -that passport on stamped paper which it had cost me so much trouble to -fabricate....</p> - -<p>Thus, at the commencement, and in the first day of my flight, I had -lost a quarter of the small sum which I had saved for my travels, the -note which was to have been the map and guide of my wanderings, and the -<i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">plakatny</i>, the only document which I could show to disarm the -first suspicions of any curious persons. I was in despair!</p> - -<p>One thing above all others was I believe the main cause of the success -of the perilous task of my evasion, compelling me to persevere in -spite of all obstacles and mistakes, and obliging me to take courage -in spite of myself—this was the manifest impossibility of abandoning -my undertaking. Having once fled from Ekaterinski-Zavod, I should -certainly incur the same fate,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</span> whether captured at Tara or among -the Oural Mountains, among the steppes of Petchora or in the port of -Archangel, while every step I took brought me nearer to safety and -deliverance. Thus no room was left for hesitation or regret, and, in -spite of the irreparable loss which I had just sustained, I held on -my way, and soon, striking into the high road to Irbite, I found, in -the sudden animation of the landscape, a sight calculated to distract -my eyes, and to inspire my mind with a certain degree of confidence. -All over that vast and snow-covered plain, to the left of which ever -since I passed Tioumen the wooded slopes of the Oural chain began to -be defined, swarmed an innumerable mass of sledges, either going or -returning from the fair. They were full of goods and <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">yamstchiks</i> -(or peasants who undertake to carry merchandise), and were whirled -along by those Siberian horses whose pace is only to be equalled by the -skill of their drivers. The month of February is a harvest time for the -dwellers in these districts, who make, by the hire of their horses and -sledges at the time of the fair at Irbite, the largest of their yearly -gains. They display then all the good humour and the noisy gaiety which -can animate an active population at the end of the dead season of the -year. I mingled my voice with the sharp cries and piercing calls of -the <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">yamstchiks</i>; I greeted every passenger, regarding each in -the bottom of my heart as an involuntary auxiliary of my flight, for -the more the number of men, horses,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</span> and sledges increased, the more I -took courage. How, I asked myself, could they distinguish in this vast -crowd of merchants, bagmen, clerks and peasants one solitary political -criminal who seeks his liberty by flight? how pursue me through this -moving and ever-changing Babel? It would be about as likely and as -useful to try (as we say in our proverb of the Ukraine) ‘to follow and -catch the wind upon the steppes.’</p> - -<p>In order to make the reader understand how rapid was my flight, which -differed in no way from the pace of the other Siberians on the road, it -will suffice to say that, on the third day of my evasion, and in spite -of having spent a night in the forest of Tara, I found myself, late -in the evening, at the gates of Irbite, 4,000 kilometres distant from -Ekaterinski-Zavod. ‘Stop, and show your passport!’ called the sentry; -luckily, he added immediately, ‘Give me twenty kopeks, and through with -you.’ It may be imagined with what alacrity I satisfied the demands -of a law so opportunely modified, and I soon reached an inn, where at -first I was refused admittance, because there was no room. After some -time, however, I was received, on declaring that I only wished to pass -one night on the premises, being sure, I said, of finding out next day -where my master was, with whom I was to lodge for the rest of the time. -I went out soon after, pretending to go to the police station, and, -when I reappeared, said I had left my papers there, and would<span class="pagenum" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</span> have -them returned to me next day. The <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">izba</i>, or large room in which -we all sat, was as full of <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">yamstchiks</i> as it could hold, and the -smell of tar was enough to stifle one. I talked much of my principal, -of <em>our</em> affairs, and did my best to share in a noisy meal of -Siberian dishes; that is to say, of turnip soup, dried fish, oatmeal -gruel mixed with oil, and pickled cabbages. When the repast was over, -each man paid his share of the reckoning to the landlord, and then -prepared a bed for himself as best he could in the <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">izba</i>. Some -stretched themselves upon the stove, some on straw, some on the ground, -some on benches, and some under them. I did as I saw the others do, but -sleep never came near my eyes; so many hopes and so many fears chased -each other through my mind, that rest was impossible.</p> - -<p>Very early in the morning I rose, and, like all my companions, -performed, in the most orthodox fashion, the three bows which every one -is expected to make to the holy images that never fail to occupy the -corners of a Russian dwelling; then, taking my bag on my back, I went -out under pretence of seeking my principal. In spite of the earliness -of the hour, the square was already very animated. Irbite is a town of -a tolerably pleasing appearance, in spite of its houses being built -entirely of wood. The streets are wide, the squares and market-places -spacious. On every side stood booths constructed after the national -fashion of thin planks,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</span> and intended to last only during the fair. -Sledges, drawn up like regiments, contained bales of goods; and those -which had been already emptied were now piled up in heaps, one on the -top of the other. I am sure that there were several thousands of these -vehicles. For my part, I did little more than go across the town, as -many reasons weighed with me, and prevented my stopping there for any -length of time—the chief reason being my fear of meeting some one of -the many acquaintances I had made at Ekaterinski-Zavod. I had no wish -to put my disguise to the proof, unless there was an absolute necessity -for so doing. I therefore bought some loaves of bread and some salt -in a shop, put them into my bag, and left the town by an opposite -gate from the one by which I had entered it, and where the sentry did -not, luckily, think it right to ask me any questions whatever. The -expenses which I had incurred in hiring horses to Irbite, as well as -the theft of which I had been the victim, had seriously diminished my -slender finances; and at this moment I stood possessed of no more than -75 roubles in assignats, and how was I to reach France by means of so -small a sum? It was clear that for the future I must trust to my own -legs, not to say to my own hands also, if I chanced to come in the way -of earning anything in my travels.</p> - -<p>The winter of this year, 1846, was one of great severity, and the -snow fell in such quantities that I saw more than one pretty solidly -built house fall in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</span> from its weight; indeed, within the memory of -the Siberians, there had not been so hard a winter. On the morning, -however, of the day on which I left Irbite, the air appeared to me to -be rather milder; but then the snow began to fall, and it came down in -such style, so thick and so heavy, that I could not see where I was -going. It was a strange sensation to stand thus alone in the middle of -these wastes, of which the silence is almost always unbroken, and to -be covered with snow flakes, from which I vainly tried to shake myself -free, while walking became very fatiguing in the soft heaps which got -bigger at every moment. I managed, however, not to lose my way, and -every now and then a <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">yamstchik</i> or two, driving past in his -sledge, helped to clear it before me again, till, about mid-day, the -snow began to cease, and my march became less impeded. As a general -rule, I avoided the villages, but when it was necessary to pass one, I -walked straight along the street, as if I belonged to the country, and -did not require to ask my way; and if grave doubts arose in my mind -as to which road to take, it was only at the last house of the hamlet -that I ventured to ask any questions. When I felt hungry, I pulled a -piece of frozen bread out of my bag, and ate it as I walked along, or -sat resting at the foot of a tree, in the most remote part of a wood. -When I was thirsty, I sought to slake my thirst at the holes in the ice -on pools and ponds, which the Siberians constantly make in order to -water their cattle; or, sometimes<span class="pagenum" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</span> I had to content myself with letting -snow dissolve in my mouth, although that plan was far from being a -satisfactory one. My first day on foot out of Irbite was very trying, -and the evening found me completely exhausted. My heavy dress had added -greatly to my distress in walking, and yet I knew that I dared not part -with it. When night fell, I sought the heart of the forest, and there -prepared a sleeping-place for myself. I knew how the Ostiaks cover -themselves when asleep in their frozen deserts. They simply scoop out -a deep hole in a big snow wreath, and there find a bed, which, though -certainly hard, is not the less a perfectly warm one. I did in like -fashion, and soon found the repose of which I stood greatly in need.</p> - -<p>On waking next morning, I felt extremely uncomfortable, and found that -my feet were frozen. Not quite familiar with the niceties of Ostiak -bed making, I had been imprudent enough, in covering myself with my -pelisse, to keep the furry side next to my body, and the heat thus -developed had completely melted the snow, and exposed my feet to the -low temperature of the dawn. I resolved to profit by this lesson for -the future, and, in the meantime, tried to bring the circulation back -by walking and running, in which I was, fortunately, successful. By -mid-day, to my sorrow, the wind rose very high—a truly Siberian wind, -dry and icy, seeming to blind one as it cuts one’s eyes, and sweeping -the heaps of snow before it, so as to obliterate<span class="pagenum" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</span> in a few minutes -every trace of the best beaten road. The natives are accustomed, as -soon as winter sets in, to mark their tracks on each side by pines -and pine branches stuck into the snow at short distances from one -another; but this season the avalanches had been so numerous that, -in most places, they more than hid the signal branches. I presently -perceived that I had completely lost my way. Plunging about in the -snow up to my waist, sometimes up to my neck, I began to think I must -perish there from hunger and from cold; but by evening I came on a road -again, and, mercifully for me, it was the very one I ought to take, -and for which I was in search. It was quite late, when I saw a small -detached cottage, near a village, with a young woman standing on its -doorstep. The hope of finding a resting-place got the better of all my -hesitation; I went up to the woman, and asked her if she would give -me a night’s lodging. She made no difficulty about it, and took me -into the <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">izba</i>, where her old mother sat. I made her the usual -greeting, and, in reply to the usual questions ‘where I came from,’ and -‘whether the Lord God was leading me?’ I replied that I came from the -government of Tobolsk, and that I was on my way to Bohotole, to look -for work. The establishment at Bohotole is an iron foundry belonging to -the Russian government, and situated far north of Verkhouterie, among -the Oural Mountains; it attracts great numbers of workpeople from the -provinces of Perm and of Tobolsk.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</span> While the women prepared some food -for me, I spread my clothes and my linen before the fire, and, having -dried them, and appeased my hunger, I stretched myself on a bench with -an indescribable sense of comfort and happiness. I believed that I had -neglected no precautions, for, after repeating to myself my Catholic -prayers, I had made the orthodox triple salutation, or <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">poklony</i>, -to the holy images; and yet some suspicions had been awakened in the -minds of these women. I learnt afterwards that the sight of the linen -I had tried to dry was the exciting cause; they thought me too well -provided to be a Russian artisan, for I had no less than four shirts!</p> - -<p>Sleep was just stealing upon me, when I heard some whisperings that -disturbed me; and, all of a sudden, in came three peasants, one of whom -said in a low voice:</p> - -<p>‘Where is he?’</p> - -<p>The younger of the women pointed to where I lay. Presently, I was first -called, and then roughly shaken up by these men, who asked if I had a -passport. I was obliged to make some answer, so, sitting up, I retorted:</p> - -<p>‘And what right have you to ask for my passport? Are any of you -<i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">golova</i> (an official)?’</p> - -<p>‘It is true that we are not; we are only the inhabitants of the place.’</p> - -<p>‘And, as inhabitants of the place, what right have you to attack -houses, and to walk in to ask for passports?<span class="pagenum" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</span> How am I to know who you -are, and whether you are not likely enough to steal my papers? But, -keep yourselves easy, you will find presently with whom you have to do.’</p> - -<p>‘But I tell you we are neighbours, country folks here.’</p> - -<p>‘Is that true?’ said I, turning to the mistress of the house; and on -getting a sign from her in the affirmative, I went on, ‘Well then, in -that case, I will answer you. My name is Lavrenti Kouzmine, of the -government of Tobolsk, and I am going to the iron foundries at Bohotole -to look for work; and this is not the first time, by any means, that I -have been this way.’</p> - -<p>I then went into more circumstantial details, and concluded by -exhibiting my passport. It was a mere pass, since, alas! my -<i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">plakatny</i> no longer existed, and it never could have imposed -upon any official; but as it had a seal, the sight of that essential -convinced this portion of the public, who then began to ask me a -hundred questions about the fair at Irbite, and many other things. At -last they departed, having wished me a good night’s rest, and excusing -themselves for having troubled me by saying, ‘You see it was very -excusable, because we thought it was a case of a runaway convict: they -sometimes pass this way.’ The remainder of the night passed tranquilly -away; and on the following morning, I took leave of the two women whose -hospitality had so nearly proved fatal to me.</p> - -<p>The incident which I have just related carried with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</span> it one sad -conviction, which was, that I could not reckon on a shelter for any -future nights without clearly exposing myself to very serious dangers, -and that, until things should take a new turn, the Ostiak couch must be -my only bed; and so with the Ostiak couch I contented myself, during -the whole of my journey across the Oural Mountains, and until my -arrival at Véliki-Oustiong—that is to say, from the middle of February -to the first days of the month of April 1846. Three or four times only -did I venture to crave hospitality for the night in some lonely hut; -and that was only because I was exhausted by some fifteen or twenty -days passed in the forest, and my strength was so far gone that I was -hardly conscious of what I was, what I said, or what I did. All the -other nights I contented myself with digging an earth for sleeping -in—only I had become more cunning, and I had also acquired a greater -dexterity in preparing my nocturnal refuge. I had noticed that, in -the depths of the forests, the snow hardly reaches to the foot of the -great trees; and that, as it accumulates, it still leaves an empty -space round the trunk, which soon becomes a pretty deep cavity. I let -myself slip down the stem of the tree into the hollow thus formed, -which was not unlike a well. Having arrived at the bottom, I tried with -my stick to throw some of the snow out of the aperture at the top, -and thus made a vault, which covered and sheltered me perfectly. But -very often I could not<span class="pagenum" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</span> manage these nightly buildings; the snow would -be too light and dry, or, at another time, the roof thus laboriously -contrived would fall in with a crash. I had then to seat myself close -to the tree; and leaning my back against its trunk, thus slept, or -rather dozed, for the night. When the cold became so great that I felt -my limbs growing numbed, I had to get up, and run hither, and thither. -It was too dark either to follow or to find the road; but exercise, -at all risks, I must have, to revive my animal heat. On more than one -occasion, I have lain down tired, and simply let myself be covered by -the falling snow; this was, perhaps, the warmest cover of any; but I -always found it difficult, in the morning, to shake myself loose of -this white winding-sheet. By degrees, I got accustomed to this way of -sleeping; and sometimes, when night fell, I would find myself turning -into the thickest part of the woods, as to some familiar resting-place; -though at other times, I must confess, this savage life seemed to me -all but unbearable. The absence of any human dwellings, the want of -warm victuals—sometimes even of frozen bread (my only food, for days -together)—would make me feel that, not very far from my side, there -lay in wait for me those two hideous spectres—Cold and Famine—whose -names we are so apt to take in vain at every little trifle which makes -us uncomfortable! In such moments, what I most dreaded were the sudden -attacks of sleep, which would come on me<span class="pagenum" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</span> unawares. These I knew full -well to be the forerunners of death, and against them I struggled with -all the little strength that remained to me. The craving for something -warm to eat or drink was very great; and it was often with the utmost -difficulty that I refrained from going into some hut, to beg a little -of the turnip broth which they make so much in Siberia.</p> - -<p>After leaving behind me Verkhouterie—the last town (it is a wooden -one) which I was to pass on my way to the eastern slopes of the Ourals, -and where I took good care not to stop, I fell in with six young -Russians—a meeting which was very fortunate for me, as from them I -obtained various pieces of useful information. By their dress, and -indeed by their speech, I saw that they did not belong to this part -of the country, and that they were not even Siberians. When I asked -them, they told me that they came from the government of Archangel, -from the district of Mezen, on the very borders of the Frozen Sea; -and that they were on their way to the province of Tobolsk, to push -their fortunes as veterinary surgeons. These young men had pleasant -faces, very fair complexions, and hair so light as to have a silvery -tinge, like well-dressed flax. Indeed, had they not had clear blue -eyes, they might have passed for Albinos. They told me that the country -from which they came was very poor—miserably poor. In short, nothing -grew there, either wheat, oats, or barley; and the inhabitants lived -on<span class="pagenum" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</span> fish, getting bread only from Archangel. The sight of men who had -come so far, and come on foot, gave me fresh courage and hope. I, in -my turn, could give them many details about Siberia (though not about -the districts in which I had dwelt), and I told them where they were -likely to find the greatest number of horses. Nature seems often to -play strange games in distributing men as she does over this globe. To -these miserable dwellers on the most remote shores of the Frozen Sea, -Siberia appears as a land of promise—the Eldorado of their dreams of -happiness; and thither they emigrate in bands, and in whole families, -to look for more lucrative labour and in search of a more clement sky.</p> - -<p>I do not know how many days I may have spent in thus climbing the woody -but snow-clad heights of the Oural chain. The uniformity of the way, -and the repetition of the same accidents of travel made me at last lose -all count of time. I only know that at Paouda, far set in the heart of -the mountains, I dared for the second time since I had left Irbite to -sleep in a human dwelling, and that then for the third time since that -date I tasted some warm food. Even this little good fortune I owed to -a happy chance. I passed through the village very late in the evening, -and as I went by a house in which the lights still burnt, I suddenly -heard a voice call, ‘Who goes there?’</p> - -<p>‘A traveller.’</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</span></p> - -<p>‘Have you far to go?’</p> - -<p>‘Oh, very very far.’</p> - -<p>‘Well, if you like, you may turn in and sleep with us for the night.’</p> - -<p>‘The good God reward you! But shall I not trouble you?’</p> - -<p>‘How trouble us? No one is gone to bed yet.’</p> - -<p>I crossed the hospitable threshold, and found in the house two kind -worthy beings, a husband and his wife. They gave me a modest Siberian -meal, which to me seemed a feast fit for Lucullus; but what I enjoyed -most was the being able to take off my clothes, which I had not been -able to do for so many nights, while I camped under the stars. They -asked me a good many questions, and I was ready to reply to them, -saying that I belonged to the district of Tobolsk, and that I was -on my way to Solikamsk, on the other side of the Ourals, that I had -a relation there, and that the times being hard, he had written to -me that I might find work in the salt works there. These good folks -then began to talk of their own lot, and to complain of it heartily. -It appeared that they were ‘peasants of the works’ (<i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">pozavodskoïe -krestyany</i>), or serfs, liable from generation to generation to be -impressed for statute labour in the different government factories, of -which there are a great many in the Oural districts. Formerly there -were works at Paouda itself, but since they had been done away with, -the serfs were now obliged to go to labour as far as<span class="pagenum" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</span> Bohotole; from -this liability neither women nor persons above the age of fourteen -years are exempt, and it may be supposed that such conditions were -severely felt. On the next day my hosts would not let me depart till I -had breakfasted with them, and they steadily refused to accept of the -money which I pressed upon them. What a warm and hearty farewell did -we take of each other! but my ease of mind vanished when the good man -of the house, just as he parted from me, and was giving me some final -instructions as to my road, added, ‘at any rate, a little beyond Paouda -you will come to the military station; they will ask for your papers -there, and they will not fail to give you all the information you can -require.’</p> - -<p>It may be believed that I neglected no efforts not to come in the way -of any such sources of knowledge. I struck aside and went by hill and -by dale, now and then up to my neck in snow, and did not regain the -high road till I had left the tutelary guard station far behind me. -Thus I went on for several days, only buying bread at rare intervals -at the <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">izbouchka</i>, which at great distances from one another and -from time to time I met with on my way.</p> - -<p><i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">Izbouchka</i> are little houses built at great intervals for the -accommodation of travellers, and are to be found from the Oural -Mountains to Véliki-Oustiong; you find there bread, salt fish, turnips, -radishes, cabbages and <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">kvass</i> (a liquor made from cider), and -sometimes, though<span class="pagenum" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</span> rarely, brandy. In some of these inns, that is to -say, in the more spacious ones, there is to be found hay and corn for -the horses. Their owners buy in the provisions, and it is said make -a good profit on these strange hotels, which in general are kept by -one old man, or by a couple as miserable as they are decrepid. One -evening I met a train of <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">yamstchiks</i> who were on their way back -from the fair at Irbite, and were halting to rest their horses; but -I did not remain with them. I knew that I was nearing the summit of -the Oural range, and a superstitious feeling impelled me towards it -as to the culminating point of my fate. At last I reached the top of -the pass. It was a fine night; the moon illuminated with its full -splendour a glorious but fantastic scene, where the gnarled shadows of -the trees, and of gigantic masses of rocks, were filing far upon the -immense expanse of snow. A silence so solemn as to be almost religious -in its unbroken stillness reigned around, except when at times a dry -metallic sound struck upon the ear as the stones cracked and split -from the intensity of the frost; and yet nature, rude and wild as -she appeared to me at this time, and under this dress, was to me, -alas! a friend more pitiful than any of the civilised beings around; -<em>she</em>, at least, never asked me for my passport! It was with -difficulty that I kept my mind from dwelling on spirits from another -world, from recurring to the fairy sprites and other tales to which -I had been accustomed during my childhood in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</span> the Ukraine, so much -were they recalled by the strange and sinister-looking forms which -the moon revealed, while in her rays their outlines assumed monstrous -proportions. Indeed, in the eyes of any Ukraine child might not I -myself have easily passed for no less a person than the ‘great demon -of the night,’ as I stood there in my strange dress, beard, eyebrows, -and moustaches, all crusted with frosty rime, wandering thus among the -shadows of the forest, myself but another shade?</p> - -<p>From any more prolonged contemplation of the landscape cold obliged -me to abstain, and I soon began to descend the western slopes of -that immense barrier which nature has interposed between Siberia and -Russia in Europe. During the course of next day the <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">yamstchiks</i> -came up with me again, and I had an opportunity of seeing with what -marvellous skill they drive their horses along roads which are all -but impracticable. They had thirty sledges, to each of which a -solitary horse was harnessed, and the whole string was driven by -seven <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">yamstchiks</i>. The way was narrow and hedged on each side -by walls of snow as high as a man, and in these both men and horses -would occasionally disappear. When one train met another coming in -the opposite direction, the train which was the smaller, or the least -heavily laden, would then plunge into the snowy wall; and I do not -exaggerate when I say that sometimes after a plunge the horses’ ears -alone remained visible.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</span> Having completed this peculiar evolution, -the drivers of both trains would then apply themselves to pulling -both sledges and horses out of the wreath. But even these occurrences -were as nothing compared to the accidents caused by the bogs and -quagmires which are so frequent on these routes. The horses, however, -are perfectly accustomed to all obstacles, and they throw themselves -into the ravines, and then allow themselves to be extricated by their -drivers. The difficulties of the passage of the Oural chain are so -great that these intrepid men cannot make more than twenty verstes -a day, and as far as Véliki-Oustiong I found all along the wayside -the corpses of horses that had given in from fatigue. What the -<i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">yamstchiks</i> themselves seem capable of enduring in the way of -privations and fatigues is something truly incredible.</p> - -<p>I reached Solikamsk in the beginning of March. It lies at the foot -of the western declivity of the mountains. Without making any stay -there I pursued my way by the steppe of Petchora, tending towards -Véliki-Oustiong, by way of Tcherdine, Kaï, Lalsk and Nochel. The -country was no longer hilly, but there was now as before the same -immensity of snow, the same thick woods, the same winds and storms -of ice; for me also there were the same weary marches and the same -furtive purchases of bread at the unfrequent <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">izbouchka</i>, and -the same earths toilsomely constructed for each night’s repose. One -discovery, however, was an unspeakable<span class="pagenum" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</span> boon to me. I had remarked that -in these depopulated regions the foot travellers, who were so few and -far between, were in the habit, when overtaken by night in the woods, -of lighting a large fire, and of keeping it blazing till daybreak. I -did this several times, and the flaming logs in the middle of a frozen -desert not only warmed but cheered me; but this would not do for a -roadside diversion, and I only ventured on it when deep in the forest.</p> - -<p>I always steered clear of the towns which lay in my way; but one -day, when, to avoid Tcherdine, I had wandered long in the woods, I -completely lost my way, and had not a notion to which side to direct -my steps. A hurricane of snow made me literally pirouette, and covered -me all over with its flakes, while, as a climax to my misfortunes, -I had no more bread in my bag. I rolled in the snow with convulsive -movements; I could not sleep, but I prayed for death. When day again -dawned, the sky cleared, the weather was fair, my pains had abated, -but my strength was utterly exhausted. I strove to guide my course by -the sun, or by noticing the moss which grew on the north sides of the -trees, and dragged myself on for a while by help of my stick, till -the pangs of hunger again attacked me. Wearied with the strife, and -with a face bathed in tears of weakness, hunger, and despair, I let -myself drop at the root of a tree. By degrees sleep stole upon me, and -it was accompanied by a humming noise in my head,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</span> which threw all my -ideas into the wildest confusion. Strange to say, I became totally -insensible, and only the tearing pains inside gave me any sense of -life. How long I lay in this state I know not; I was suddenly roused -from it by a strong man’s voice. I opened my eyes, a stranger stood -before me.</p> - -<p>‘What are you doing there?’</p> - -<p>‘I have lost my way.’</p> - -<p>‘Where do you come from?’</p> - -<p>‘From Tcherdine; I am on a pilgrimage to Solovetsk; but the storm made -me lose my way, and I have had nothing to eat for several days.’</p> - -<p>‘I am not surprised at it; we belong to this part of the country, -and yet we often lose our way; you should never have set out in such -weather: drink a little of this.’</p> - -<p>He put a wooden bottle to my lips; I drank a mouthful of brandy, which -revived me instantly, but so burned the stomach that it made me start -with pain till I executed a perfect tarentelle.</p> - -<p>‘Come, be quiet, can’t you!’ cried the stranger, and he offered me some -bread and dried fish, which I devoured with a sort of frenzy; I then -sat down again at the foot of my tree, and my companion seated himself -alongside of me. He was a trapper by profession (<i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">promychlennik</i>), -and after having secured his prey, he was returning home, with his -gun slung over his shoulder, and with pattens on his feet. When I -got a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</span> little calmer, he offered to conduct me to the neighbouring -<i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">izbouchka</i>. ‘I thank you with all my heart; may the good Lord -reward you for all you have done!’</p> - -<p>‘So we are a Christian, are we? Well, step on now, and never give in!’</p> - -<p>I got up with great difficulty, for my head was swimming round; but -summoning all my strength I followed my leader, and I steadied myself -from time to time on his arm, till at length we stood once more on the -road from which I had wandered, and there the trapper, having commended -me to God, left me, disappearing into the thickets. I could see the -<i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">izbouchka</i> at some distance, and so great was my joy at the sight -of it, that I believe I should have walked up to it, had I known that -gendarmes were waiting at the door to arrest me. I managed to get as -far as the said door, but when I had crossed the threshold, my strength -failed me, I fell on the ground, and rolled under a bench. Then, after -a dead faint of some minutes, I came to myself again, and asked to have -something warm to eat or drink. Some turnip soup was given to me, but -this, although tormented by hunger, I was hardly able to swallow, and -towards midday I fell asleep on a bench, where I slept till about the -same hour on the following day, when my landlord in alarm shook me up. -He was a kind honest man, and his affability towards me was redoubled -when he heard that I was on a pious pilgrimage, as far as the Holy -Isle in the White<span class="pagenum" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</span> Sea. I was still quite wet, and my garments had to -be dried at the stove; but sleep, rest and warmth had already cured -me. I was able to eat something, and start again on my travels, sorely -against the wishes of mine host, who begged me to rest one day longer -in his house. I had to give some reasons to account for persisting in -my resolution, and I promised him solemnly that on my return from the -goal of my pilgrimage I would pay him a second visit.</p> - -<p>These <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">izbouchka</i> were a constant source of temptation to me -during my arduous journey to Véliki-Oustiong. How often, after many -days of walking, have I passed before one of those hospitable abodes, -and had to struggle with the longing I felt, not for a night’s shelter, -as that was a happiness which I could not aspire, but at least for some -of that warm broth which my stomach, weary of frozen bread, salt fish, -and kvass, implored. At such times I held a sort of tragi-comic dispute -with myself, and my good and my evil genius seemed to contend within me.</p> - -<p>One day, having entered one of these huts to buy some bread, I found -there a tall hale old man, with a silvery beard, and a girl of about -eighteen, with a pleasing face, who was rocking a child, and singing -as she rocked in order to put her infant more readily to sleep. The -old man made me pay very dear for the bread, charging six kopeks for -the pound; and I sat down to eat some, adding to it a little salt, and -washing<span class="pagenum" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</span> it down with some mouthfuls of <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">kvass</i>. As I did so, he -looked at me with complete indifference, and contented himself with -asking me one or two insignificant questions. The young woman, who -was his grand-daughter, regarded me with an emotion which was quite -visible; and hardly had the man absented himself for a moment, than -she jumped upon a stool, and reaching up to a shelf, took down two -large cakes of wheaten flour mixed with butter and cheese, which she -furtively pushed under my pelisse, and then went back to her cradle, -humming her song all the time. I shall never lose the memory of this -charitable action, done as it was with an inimitable grace, and with -all the haste and trepidation of crime.</p> - -<p>I refrain from wearying the reader by any further account of that long -journey to Véliki-Oustiong, for the frightful monotony of the hours -was only broken by meetings which I at once welcomed and dreaded, with -<i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">yamtschiks</i> and pilgrims. I will only mention one incident, which -may give some idea of the state of my mind and nerves. One day, in the -forest, I saw a man running towards me, with a look of the greatest -terror: ‘Do not go any further,’ he cried, ‘there are two brigands in -pursuit of me at this moment!’ I tried to get him to stop so that we -might present a double resistance to these robbers, but he continued -his flight at a great pace. Left alone, I armed myself with a cudgel, -and thus advanced to meet the enemy in question.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</span> Will it be believed, -the sensation I then had was one of pleasure? Here was a danger, but -it had nothing to do with a passport. Here were men who had as much to -fear as I had myself, and to whom I represented law and order; but I -never had the satisfaction of making their acquaintance! And I missed -the brigands, as in the Oural Mountains I had also missed the bears -that play so fine a part in the narratives of the natives, for neither -on the one nor yet on the other side of the chain did I meet any of the -redoubtable animals.</p> - -<p>I reached Véliki-Oustiong on some day in the first fortnight in the -month of April 1846, and there I intended to alter the style of -my travelling costume. I had left Irbite on the 13th of February; -therefore, for about two months I had led, in the woods and among the -snow, a life which might truly be called the life of a savage.</p> - - -<div class="footnotes"><h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_5" href="#FNanchor_5" class="label">[5]</a> Paper currency.</p> - -</div> -</div> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</span></p> - -<h3 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII.<br /><br /><span class="small">THE PILGRIM AND THE PILGRIMAGE.</span></h3> -</div> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>PILGRIMAGES—THE BOHOMOLETS—MANNERS AND CUSTOMS IN -VÉLIKI-OUSTIONG—ON THE DVINA—ARCHANGEL.</p> -</div> - -<hr class="r5" /> - - -<p>Long, however, before reaching Véliki-Oustiong I had decided upon -the part which it now behoved me to play. As I had been a commercial -traveller as far as Irbite, thence through all my wanderings in the -Ourals I had called myself a workman looking for employment in the -foundries at Bohotole, or in the salt works at Solikamsk. But I -had no sooner left the last-named town behind me than I gradually -assumed the manners and the attributes of a pilgrim, on his way to -pay his devotions to the holy images of the convent of Solovetsk, in -the White Sea. Thus, I became a <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">bohomolets</i>, according to the -phrase which is thus consecrated in the country, and which literally -means ‘a worshipper of God.’ The worship of holy images and pictures -obtains largely in Russia, where four spots enjoy a peculiar renown, -and attract an infinite number of visitors. These are Kiow,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</span> Moscow, -Véliki-Novgorod and the convent of Solovetsk. Many Russians, even -some of the richest merchants, make the tour of all these four places -in succession, a journey which is performed on foot, and occupies -several years. I actually met at Onega two women, of whom one was still -quite young, who had courageously performed the whole of this round, -and were then on their way back to their native districts beyond the -Oural Mountains, and beyond Verhouterie in the government of Irkutsk. -The greater number of the pilgrims content themselves, as a general -rule, with visiting the sanctuary which is nearest to them; and thus -thousands of the faithful from all the northern countries, and from -Siberia itself, annually repair to the convent of Solovetsk, the -journey thither being generally made in winter, because the roads at -all other times of the year are impassable.</p> - -<p>These <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">bohomolets</i>, both men and women, are everywhere welcomed -and well received, although it will happen that among their ranks an -occasional rogue will be found making year after year a lucrative trade -out of his peripatetic piety. Indeed, the Russian peasant regards -the entrance of a <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">bohomolets</i> into his house as a benison, and -not content with extending to him alms and a cordial hospitality, -he often confides money to a pilgrim, meaning it to be deposited in -the sanctuary, and there expended on his account in burning tapers, -accompanied by vicarious prayers. I have been myself<span class="pagenum" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</span> compelled in my -character of a pilgrim to take charge of the pious deposits and tithes -of the poor.</p> - -<p>I was induced to adopt this disguise as much by the hope of uniting -myself to some one of the pilgrim bands as by the universal respect -paid to their character, and by the small chance that under their -dress I should be exposed to any demands for my passport. While -traversing the steppes of Petchora I had met several such companies on -the way to Véliki-Oustiong, but while claiming fellowship with them -I carefully avoided incorporating myself into their ranks. Too great -an acquaintance might, I feared, betray me to them; but I had the -opportunities of furtively studying their devotional habits. At last, -having reached Véliki-Oustiong, I thought myself sure enough of my -part to be able without risk of detection to attempt a way of life in -common with one of these bands of ‘worshippers of God.’ We were in the -town, and I found myself sufficiently embarrassed as I stood alone in -the great market-place, where, by good luck, a young man in a citizen’s -dress stepped out of a shop, and came up to me as he said, ‘You are a -<i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">bohomolets</i> going to the monastery of Solovetsk.’</p> - -<p>‘Yes.’</p> - -<p>‘Well, I am going there too; have you got a lodging?’</p> - -<p>‘Not yet, I have only just arrived.’</p> - -<p>‘Then come along with me. Our numbers are great already, it is true, -but there will be room enough for<span class="pagenum" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</span> you. Our hostess is a good woman, -she cooks for us and bakes our bread; I have just been buying flour -and groats,’ and he pointed to the sack which was on his shoulder. I -made haste to follow my guide, whose name was Maxime, and who was a -native of the government of Viatka. We soon reached our dwelling-place, -and there in two <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">izba</i> were crowded together upwards of twenty -pilgrims of both sexes. No one mentioned my passport, and the landlady -was so complaisant as to prepare my bread for me, while I soon -established friendly relations with my companions as well as with -the many other pious travellers who filled the town, to the number -of two thousand, for they all awaited there the breaking up of the -ice of the Dvina, when on rafts and in barges they would make their -way to Archangel. What odd, curious, and instructive faces I might -have studied among my fellows! There might be seen the most sincere -asceticism wholly detached from sense and sin, and specimens of that -well-considered and adjusted piety which trims between the interests of -both worlds. There was every degree between a beatitude which savoured -of idiotcy, and the most astute and hypocritical imposture, so that -Leonardo da Vinci might have found models among the ample collection, -as well for his Apostles as for his Judas. I could not, of course, -escape from the natural consequences of my situation; and there was no -help for it, when, especially through the Passion Week, I had to take -part in the innumerable<span class="pagenum" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</span> nasal canticles raised by my brethren in the -<i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">izba</i>, and furthermore when I was compelled to repair every day -to join with them in matins and in even-song, not to speak of making -the sign of the cross about a thousand times, with <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">poklony</i> by -the hundred, or of carrying lighted candles, and of kissing the hand of -the <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">popes</i>. The sight of these priests always gave me an uneasy -twinge, for I feared lest some day I might be requested to repeat the -Russian creed, of which I was absolutely and profoundly ignorant. But, -luckily, my <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">poklony</i>, executed with zeal and dexterity, served -me in good stead—a gymnastic exercise which, as exacted by Russian -orthodoxy, let me say, is a sufficiently fatiguing one, as anyone will -experience who tries to touch the ground with his forehead a hundred -times running, and that too without bending his knees. My inward -religious feelings suffered from such mummery, but at least I managed -to avoid having to confess to one of the <em>popes</em>, which I did -under pretence of having fulfilled that duty a few days previously -at Lalsk; and when once the Holy Week had passed, this high pressure -devotion appeared to subside a little, though the psalms and stations -observed in the churches still occupied a great deal of our time; and -I personally was far from regretting the long hours thus spent in the -sacred edifices, which were resting places infinitely preferable to our -<i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">izba</i>.</p> - -<p>I had ample leisure to inspect Véliki-Oustiong, and, with the exception -of Archangel, it is the Russian town<span class="pagenum" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</span> with which I am best acquainted. -Built almost entirely of brick, it has, however, especially on the -banks of the Suchona, some handsome houses; but its greatest ornament -consists of course in its churches, which are painted yellow, and -crowned with zinc roofs coloured green. I think that I counted not -fewer than twenty-two of these; and there are also two convents, one -for monks (<i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">tcherntsé</i>), dedicated to Saint Michael; the other for -nuns, which is without the walls. I regret to say that the life and -conversation of the latter body, especially of its younger members, did -not appear to me to be highly edifying.</p> - -<p>Although the population of Oustiong does not exceed 15,000 souls, the -town has, notwithstanding, some commercial importance—being, in truth, -the natural depôt for all the different products of the countries of -Viatka, Perm, Vologda and of Siberia. These products, which consist, -for the most part, in grain of all sorts, flax, hemp, tallow, salt -meat, tar, wood, and furs, &c., accumulate at Véliki-Oustiong, to be -transported thence, through the Dvina, to Archangel, and to be shipped -from that port in vessels bound for all the quarters of the globe. It -also happens that numbers of sailors and boatmen assemble there, to -await the opening of the Dvina, and then to conduct the merchandise -in barges, of which there are many thousand, and of which the owners -are called <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">prikastchiki</i>. Now, these contractors allow the -<i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">bohomolets</i> to have a free<span class="pagenum" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</span> passage in their boats, provided they -victual themselves for the voyage, and bring with them a sufficient -supply of flour, groats, and dried fish; while any pilgrim who is -willing to take an oar receives fifteen roubles (in paper) from the -<i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">prikastchiki</i>, who are only too glad of such an offer, as there -is often a great want of hands. I had never yet handled an oar in a -large barge; but I undertook this labour, in the hope of adding a -little to my finances. I had spent precisely fifteen roubles since I -left Irbite. Bread in those regions was cheap, and during the passage -of the Ourals, and on my further march, I had never had any occasion -to incur foolish expenses; but I was, nevertheless, very thankful to -have the means of bringing my viaticum back to its original figure -of seventy-five roubles. So, on the first day on which the Dvina was -navigable, I, along with my fellow-pilgrims, struck a bargain with one -of these boat-owners—glad to escape, at last, from Véliki-Oustiong, -where I had spent a whole month in interminable devotions, and where I -had been miserable from <i>ennui</i> and restlessness. One proposition -with regard to my voyage troubled me a little, I was to remit my -passport to the <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">prikastchiki</i>, and he, as was customary in these -passages, was to keep it for me, and return it when we landed. The -hurry and bustle of our embarkation reassured me, however, a little; -and, indeed, the master did but give one glance at my unhappy little -pass, when the sight of its seal seemed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</span> to content him; and thus, on -the 10th of May, 1846, I found myself installed in the barge, ready to -start and drop down the Dvina to Archangel.</p> - -<p>A Dvina boat is a sufficiently curious piece of construction, and, seen -from any distance, mostly resembles a house, or a floating barn. There -is no art in guiding it. Everything is left to the muscular labours -of the crew, and each craft requires from forty to sixty boatmen. The -number of the oars varies from thirty to forty, and they do not pretend -to be anything but small fir trees. Among the many curious parts of -these boats, which are intended to serve either as magazines for the -wares or shelter for the passengers and crews by night, I will only -mention one great chest, of rough deals, placed on four pile-heads on -the roof, and filled with clay to the middle. This is the kitchen, -and fire is kept up in it during the whole day; while, on two great -beams, fastened transversely to the sides of the case, and over wooden -pins, hang the pots in which the food is prepared. We carried our -baggage on board in the evening, and slept there all the first night, -till, at day-break, the <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">nosnik</i>—that is to say, the master of -the vessel—cried, with a loud voice, ‘Be seated, and pray to God!’ -Everyone then assembled on the deck, and after preserving for a moment -a devotional attitude, worthy of a Mussulman, each man rose, crossed -himself repeatedly, and made his <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">poklony</i>. When the prayers were -finished, every living soul on board, from the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</span> master to the poorest -of the <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">bohomolets</i>, threw a piece of copper money into the -stream, to render the Dvina propitious to their course along its breast.</p> - -<p>The aspect of the river, covered with many boats and rafts, is a very -animated one. After any lengthened halt, and at the moment of again -getting under weigh, one hears again the cry, ‘Be seated, and worship -God!’ The crew goes through the accustomed exercise, while signs of -the cross and the <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">poklony</i> went on vigorously, whenever we -hove in sight of any of the many little chapels which abound on both -banks of the Dvina. During a calm, the barge was allowed to float -with the stream, and then both passengers and crew would rest, sing, -or converse. I was struck with the great lack of ideas and sentiment -which was apparent in the songs of our company, in spite of their -generally possessing a sweet and graceful melody; and these are common -characteristics of Russian popular airs. If the wind rose, or if we -neared any dangerous part of the river, the boatmen would then exert -themselves; and they displayed both agility and strength. I, for my -part, strove diligently to acquit myself of the duties of my task; and -I may say, without flattery, that I soon acquired superior dexterity in -handling the oar, and in steering. Thus I had the satisfaction of being -applauded by the old helmsman, and of hearing the name of Lavrenti -(my assumed cognomen) invoked in all moments of difficulty. In spite -of our diligence, the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</span> barge stuck twice in shoal water, and then our -united efforts were required, for ten or twelve hours, before we could -make her float, and get her off again. One frequent amusement of the -voyage was being boarded very often by little skiffs, filled by women -and children, who asked us for alms. They sang one of the sweetest and -most plaintive melodies that I ever heard in my life, of which the -refrain always was the words—‘Little fathers, little mothers, give us -bread!’—‘<i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">Batiouchki, diadiouchki, daïtie khlebtsa!</i>’ No one on -board, either crew or pilgrims, could refuse the request; and these -beggars would then strike up another song, and wish us a good and a -happy journey.</p> - -<p>Our navigation of the Dvina lasted a fortnight. Gradually, as we -approached Archangel, I saw that the nights became shorter—the last -one, indeed, was marked by an interval of only two hours between the -setting of the sun and its rising again; and during that time also, -any one might have read or written without difficulty. When at last -the towers of Archangel began to glitter in the early morning beams, -the whole crew gave a shout of delight, while the boatmen hastened to -throw into the stream the big chest full of earth, which had served as -our kitchen range. The other boats did the same with their respective -kitchens, for this, it appears, is a time-honoured observance. The -rowers, in like manner, break off the ends of their oars, with a -prodigious noise—another strange custom<span class="pagenum" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</span> among the navigators of the -Dvina; and when, at last, we reached the landing-place, each man had -his passport restored to him, and received from the <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">prikastchik</i> -the fifteen roubles which he had gained by the labour of his hands.</p> - -<p>Thus I was in Archangel! I touched the shores of that bay of the White -Sea, which, in all my weary wanderings in the Ourals, had appeared -to my mind’s eye as the haven of refuge! I now beheld those flags -fluttering on vessels of deliverance, of which a vague and fairy-like -impression had often risen, like a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Fata Morgana</i>, to cheer me on -my Ostiak couch in the heart of the lonely forest. Ah, how grateful -to my eyes were those pendants, barred with stripes of many hues—to -eyes which for so many months had dwelt only on vast desert expanses of -snow! How ardent and sincere was the thanksgiving which I now recited -among my fellow ‘worshippers of God,’ who were thankful, like myself, -to have reached the end of pilgrimage!</p> - -<p>I knew, however, that I must avoid making any over-hasty step, and in -order to act out my part, I repaired with my companions to the station -of Solovetsk (<i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">Solovetski dvorets</i>), that is to say, to the huge -buildings erected in Archangel itself, by the monks of the convent in -the Holy Isle, for the accommodation of the pilgrims. There, as was -the custom, I left my slender baggage in the hands of the porter, and -I was truly thankful to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</span> remark that no inquiries as to passports were -addressed to those who arrived. In spite of the large number of its -<i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">izba</i>, the house was crammed with inmates, and I could find only -a small corner in the highest part of the barn; and this I had to share -with an elderly devotee of the other sex, whom piety certainly did not -render a more lovely object, while on all the following days, no sooner -did one party of <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">bohomolets</i> leave the establishment on its way -to the Holy Isle, than another arrived from Véliki-Oustiong, and in -this way the caravanserai was constantly as full as it could be. The -natural consequences of such an agglomeration of persons, of such a -mixture of all ages and of both sexes, are more easily to be guessed -than described; and it is much to be wished that, between the paradise -of the Holy Isle and the hell of these <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">Solovetski dvorets</i>, -there should be some place of purgatory, for it would conduce greatly -to the morals and to the sanitary well-being of those concerned. I -need not say that the chants and processions of Véliki-Oustiong were -resumed here with a marked increase of fervour; and on the day after -our arrival I had <em>to assist</em> in the chapel (<i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">tserkiew</i>) -of the establishment at many strange acts of devotion, such as are -not to be met with except in the churches of the orthodox. This -chapel was filled with <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">bohomolets</i>, some of whom were having -prayers read over their heads, others had the benefit of Akathisti -(Antiphones) in the same way, while others again crouched, and bore<span class="pagenum" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</span> -the gospels on their backs. The gospel in this case is a huge folio -tome, about two feet in length, and printed in large antique type; -the boards are two solid planks of wood, and encrusted upon them are -the Twelve Apostles in silver. The execution is very massive, and the -officiating <em>pope</em> has great difficulty in lifting so heavy a -book. The man who wishes to have the gospels read upon him must stoop, -but not kneel, until his head serves as a sort of desk. It is true, -that several <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">bohomolets</i> may put their purses and their heads -together for this service of devotion, but then the grace, like the -weight, is distributed among them; and he who wishes to receive it in -all its efficacy, endeavours to make of his individual person, and for -a quarter of an hour, one of those quaint cariatides of the faith. -Everything is bought and sold in the Russian church, and according to -the size of the offering, whether greater or smaller, the <em>pope</em> -on these occasions either reads out the gospel of the day with sonorous -gravity and unction, or mumbles it over in haste with contemptuous -carelessness; and it requires both the strong convictions and the -strong neck of a Russian peasant to submit to such religious exercises. -But what miracles will not piety perform! One of my companions in our -lodging-house, a peasant of Viatka, had complained of violent pains -in his head, but after having gone through this operation with the -Evangel, and having had his neck swelled by it, till the veins of both -neck and face seemed ready to burst, he<span class="pagenum" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</span> assured me, as we left the -chapel, that it was as if some one had lifted off with their hands the -horrible pains from which he had suffered: ‘Praise be to God’ (<i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">Slava -Bokow</i>).</p> - -<p>The occupations of a fervent <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">bohomolets</i> did not, however, -prevent my wandering about the town. Archangel has a population of not -much more than twenty thousand; but its port and commercial business -give it an air of great animation. The town proper is joined by a -wooden bridge over the Dvina with the island of Solonbal—a sort of -suburb, in which has arisen the palace of the Governor. Many churches -and some good houses in brick decorate this city, which is mainly -constructed of wood. One single wide street, which extends through the -whole length of Archangel, is paved: all its other streets and lanes -are excessively dirty and muddy, for the <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">toundra</i>, or marshy -clay upon which, like St. Petersburg, this city has been built, crops -up in all directions. In one of the squares rises a colossal statue of -Lomonossov. To this rhetorician and celebrated grammarian is traced -the origin of a national literature in Russia, under the reign of the -Tzarina Elizabeth, the daughter of Peter the Great.</p> - -<p>The chief, and indeed, the only object which I had in view in this -town may easily be guessed. Although the season had only begun, about -twenty vessels were already in the bay; but among the different flags -which waved from their masts, I was not able to discover one<span class="pagenum" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</span> with -the tri-coloured emblem. The absence of this ensign was in itself of -bad augury to me. The ships were, for the most part, English; there -were also some from Holland, Sweden and Hamburg, but not one French. -I very soon perceived also that on the deck of every vessel walked a -Russian soldier, a vigilant witness, whose eye it was impossible to -elude, for this watch was not taken off even at night; while sentries -posted at short distances from one another formed an unconquerable -barricade along the quays of the harbour, and obliged all who came -and all who went to give an account of themselves. How, then, with -these sentries on the alert, could I make a signal to any captain or -seaman! A crowd of idlers and foot passengers crossed the quays, and -added to the difficulty of any such attempt. How then could I, if any -sea-faring man should pass, accost him in French or in German—I, in my -<i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">bohomolet’s</i> dress, and surrounded by any number of people! Must -I not surely draw all eyes upon myself, and bring about an immediate -arrest! I continued, nevertheless, to wander up and down the quays, in -the hope that some favourable opportunity would present itself; but, -alas! none such came. And thus I was obliged again to turn my steps -to the <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">dvorets</i>, where, by this time, I was expected to join -in the pious exercises of the rest. On the second day, all those who -had reached Archangel with me embarked for the Holy Island; but I, -pretending excessive fatigue, did not<span class="pagenum" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</span> accompany them, and again betook -myself to the harbour. I sauntered up and down by the edge of the water -which I had hoped was to have set me free; I even saw some ships that -had finished taking their cargo on board, a sign that they would soon -set sail and depart. My heart beat violently; my breast heaved, and I -could hardly repress the cry, ‘Save me! Do not abandon me thus!’ At -last I accosted some seamen, busy with tie hawsers which still fastened -a ship to the pier. In spite of the extreme danger thus incurred, I -ventured a few words in French; they only raised their heads and stared -at me with amazement. I tried German, but with as little success; -till, finally, they burst into a loud laugh, and I had to slip away -as quietly as I might, for a crowd had already collected round me. On -the following day my efforts had no better result, and I shall not -describe either the torment of those three days, or the different -attempts I made to reach any of the outward bound vessels. In spite of -the severity of the season, I did not hesitate even to bathe in the -harbour, hoping thus to approach some one of the ships; but nothing -came of it, and no chance of escape offered itself to me. Late on the -third day I returned to the <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">dvorets</i>, and there turned over in -my mind all the circumstances of my present state, and I finished by -arriving at the heart-breaking conviction that I could no longer reckon -upon the port of Archangel. Already some surprise was excited that, as -a <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">bohomolets</i>, I<span class="pagenum" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</span> had so strangely delayed my departure for the -Holy Isle, and to remain any longer in the town, to await the arrival -of some French trader, would have been to order my own arrest. Had I -not assumed the character of a pilgrim, I might perhaps have ventured -into some <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">café</i> of public resort, and I might have flattered -myself with the hope of making the acquaintance of some foreign -captain; but in my peasant’s dress how could I present myself in any -such place? Ah! that last night passed in the caravanserai of the -pilgrims, how dark, and how sad it was! It was the thought, it had been -the hope, of Archangel which had given me strength to meet the greatest -dangers, and to endure the most terrible privations. And now, having -reached the object of all my efforts, I was to find that they had been -all in vain, and that I must fly from the city which I had so long -persisted in greeting as the place of my final deliverance.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</span></p> - -<h3 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX.<br /><br /><span class="small">THE WHITE SEA.</span></h3> -</div> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>THE MONASTERY OF SOLOVETSK—THE PRISONER OF SOLOVETSK—HETERODOXY AND -ORTHODOXY—THE PROMONTORY—A FURTHER JOURNEY.</p> -</div> - -<hr class="r5" /> - - -<p>I did not go as far as the monastery of Solovetsk, but I have collected -a great number of details about that place of pilgrimage. In the White -Sea, about 280 verstes to the westward of Archangel, there is a group -of islands, and of these the largest bears the name of Solovetsk. -Originally inhabited by the Fins, it was afterwards occupied by some -intrepid trappers (<i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">promylchlenniki</i>) of the ancient republic of -Novgorod. It became afterwards the asylum of St. Zosimus, who built -a cell there, and founded a little wooden chapel. Other cenobites -succeeded him on that spot. A convent of monks (<i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">tcherntsé</i>) was -formed, and this foundation soon becoming celebrated for its miracles, -was enriched by the offerings of the faithful, and was finally endowed -with a fortress or stronghold, for the preservation of its treasures. -With the republic of Novgorod,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</span> Solovetsk and its monastery passed -under the domination of the Tzars, who strengthened its fortifications. -In the time of the false Demetrius, the partisans of Boris Godounov, -along with their riches, took refuge in the castle of the Holy Isle, -and there made an obstinate resistance ‘to the most intrepid knights -who held with the pretender:’ thus saith tradition. May they, by any -chance, have been <em>our</em> celebrated <i>Lissovians</i>—our hardy -warriors of the seventeenth century. At any rate, this defence of the -place added to the glory of the island, which, after Kiow, occupies the -first place in the list of the holy places of the Russian Empire.</p> - -<p>The situation of Solovetsk in a frozen region, and in one that is -difficult of access, makes all culture there next to impossible. -Latterly, and chiefly by reason of the labours of the monks, some -vegetables, chiefly cabbages, have been raised on the island; but -flour, wheat, groats, oil, and other articles of food only come thither -from Archangel. The recluses can make <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">kvass</i> for themselves, and -their manufacture has a peculiar celebrity. They also possess a mill, -a few cattle, and even some horses. Close to their cloisters are large -warehouses in which the pilgrims deposit their baggage, receiving a -numbered ticket in exchange; but the buildings destined to shelter the -<i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">bohomolets</i> are a much greater affair, and their numbers are -very considerable. There are large furnished rooms or halls with long -tables and benches. There the faithful lodge, sleep, and eat their<span class="pagenum" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</span> -meals; the compartments of the men being separated from those for -women. I have never heard the hospitality of the brotherhood spoken -of but in terms of praise. During the repasts, a monk reads to the -guests in each hall, out of the ‘Lives of the Saints,’ or recites some -prayers. Every <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">bohomolets</i> has the right of being lodged and fed -gratuitously for the three first nights. During that time he prays, -goes to confession, lights and hold candles, and gets <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">akathisti</i> -(antiphones) or gospels read over his head. There is a tariff for all -these spiritual exercises, but the terms are very modest, though the -visit to the tombs of St. Zosimus and of St. Savatyï have to be paid -for separately. When the three days have expired, the pilgrim will be -expected, if he stays longer, to provide for his own wants, and to pay -for his lodging. A number of devout persons make a vow to remain on the -island for whole years at a time, and these years they spend in acts -of devotion and of penitence. Such guests are warmly welcomed by the -brothers, but on the condition that they pay their own expenses, or -make themselves useful in the convent by some occupation, and become -workmen, gardeners, and the like.</p> - -<p>As soon as the White Sea has become navigable, that is to say, by -the first days of June, the pilgrims crowd into little boats, called -<i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">karbasses</i>, which, from Archangel, carry them to the Holy Isle. -The price of the voyage is very small, but owing to the discomforts,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</span> -and indeed to the dangers of a long crossing on a sea generally very -rough, many <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">bohomolets</i> go on foot from Archangel, and skirt the -shore till they reach a promontory opposite Solovetsk, from which it is -separated by an arm of the sea not one verst in width, and only then -do they commit themselves to the <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">karbasses</i>. No one can land on -the island, except during the four months of June, July, August, and -September, for by the beginning of October all navigation of the White -Sea is prevented by the violence of its tempests, and still more by the -ice which enters it from the Polar Sea. So from October to June there -are no visitors at the convent.</p> - -<p>It is a strange thing, and one perhaps not without significance, that -alongside of the very house of God, the Tzars have built one for -themselves—a mysterious prison, of which the <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">bohomolets</i> speak -with the greatest terror, because no one knows what is the meaning or -the use of it. Who may be the unhappy beings who are inclosed within -these dungeon walls! No common criminals certainly, for <em>they</em> are -sent to Siberia. And yet the prison of Solovetsk is certainly occupied, -for sentries and keepers are always on duty, and at their posts. I have -been told that some years ago an old man was seen there. He had a white -beard, and had become blind from weeping. I do not pretend to give any -guarantee for the truth of this tale, which has, however, been narrated -by many; still less<span class="pagenum" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</span> do I venture to vouch for the secret which has -been whispered into my ear on more than one occasion; but they say that -the blind prisoner of Solovetsk is a brother of Nicholas—that he is -the Grand Duke Constantine himself...!</p> - -<p>But to return to my own history; on the day which followed the night -in which I determined to abandon any further attempts at evasion from -Archangel, I rose at daybreak, received my baggage from the porter of -the <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">dvorets</i>, and declared to him my intention of pressing on to -the monastery of Solovetsk. After having bought some bread and some -salt, I crossed the Dvina, and struck away in the direction of the -western promontory which faces the Holy Isle. The day was hot and fine, -the country flat, but wild and deserted. By evening I reached a little -hamlet, and there I decided to take a Russian bath, a measure which -had become indispensable after my long sojourn among the saints. The -Russians, even the lowest of the people, frequently use these baths on -Saturdays, or on the eve of their festivals. The bath house is a simple -wooden building, where you find a huge stove of about two yards square, -formed of bricks or of unquarried stone, put together without any -cement. There is no chimney, and the smoke goes out at the holes in the -roof. As soon as these stoves are really heated, water is poured over -them, and the steam which flies from them, filling the whole place, -turns it into a bath room.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</span></p> - -<p>After leaving the stove, I felt a strange longing to drink some milk, -and on going to get some in a hut pointed out by my host, I found two -women, to whom I made my wants known, after having made the three -signs of the cross, which are expected of one. They gave me very scant -measure for the piece of money which I offered, and served me with -a bad grace, for which I was not at first able to account. While I -took some mouthfuls of the milk we began to converse, and at last I -found the solution of the enigma. They belonged to the sect of the -‘<i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">staroviertsi</i>,’ or old believers, and by the way in which I made -the sign of the cross they recognised in me an orthodoxy that was to -be deplored. They did not conceal from me what was their regret that -a man of such piety, a <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">bohomolets</i>, should be thus wandering in -the ways of certain perdition. They then showed me how truly to make -sure of my salvation, and tired at last of differing with them, I -ended in adopting their method. These good women were so happy, that -they gave to their neophyte three fresh measures of milk, and refused -payment for it. As they took leave of me, they offered fervent prayers -to God that I might be preserved in the paths of conversion! But these -prayers, alas! were not to be granted, for as soon as I returned to -my landlord’s dwelling, I was again obliged, to cross myself in the -orthodox fashion.</p> - -<p>I continued my journey, walking for several days in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</span> a marshy country, -or through woods of stunted fir trees, where I was often obliged to -spend the night. I became more and more aware of the polar nature of -the climate. The sun hardly ever left us; and even during the short -interval between his setting and his rising again, his level rays threw -over the landscape a clearness of light which would have allowed one to -execute the finest needlework. Night was only to be distinguished from -day by the greater stillness which reigned over the face of nature. -It is true, that the geographical ideas which had been acquired by me -when I sat on a form in school had prepared me years before for this -phenomenon, yet I felt as if in a dream on thus finding myself in -regions where the sun never sets. The country, I found, became always -poorer and more desolate, until, at last, I reached the coast; and -after that, I continued to walk along the cliffs, where, for several -days, the weather was extremely fine, and the sun so warm that I was -obliged to take off my pelisse. But, before long, a heavy gale of -wind rose; and the ocean, rolling in mountainous waves, and covered -with snowy foam, seemed eager to justify its name of White Sea, and -presented a spectacle at once mournful and admirably grand. The tempest -lasted for several days. I hardly ever met a human being; but the sight -of a serpent, which had been newly killed, showed me that in this -country and in this latitude reptiles were not wanting.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</span> On reaching a -small village on the sea-shore, I found in a <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">possada</i>—that is to -say, in a colony—a multitude of <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">bohomolets</i>, and, among others, -my former companions from Véliki-Oustiong, who had set out, long before -me, from Archangel, in <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">karbasses</i> bound for the Holy Island, -but who had been driven by the storm to land and seek for shelter at -this spot. One of the <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">karbasses</i> had been swamped, and every -soul on board lost in the waves; and now these poor people awaited the -laying of the tempest; but I left them, assuring them that I should -reach the monastery much sooner and safer on foot than they would in -their wretched little boats. Towards evening, the sea went down, and I -had soon reached the promontory which faces the island of Solovetsk. -Leaning on my staff, I stood for some moments contemplating the shores, -and thinking of our old Lissoviens, who may, perhaps, have encamped on -this very spot, while pushing their adventurous course to the extreme -north. Then, turning to the left, and without waiting for a passage to -the monastery, I struck into the road which would take me to Onega.</p> - -<p>And, in truth, now that my attempts at Archangel had failed, this -was the only route open to me; for a return to Archangel and -Véliki-Oustiong, with a journey thence through the very heart of -Russia Proper, was not to be thought of; and, again, there was nothing -more natural than that a <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">bohomolets</i>, having accomplished his -pilgrimage to Solovetsk, should turn to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</span> Onega, and to the government -of Olonets, so as to make the pious round of Novgorod and of Kiow, -and there <em>salute the holy bones</em>—for such is the sanctified -phraseology in use (<i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">dla pokloniénïa swiatym mostcham</i>). I do not -say that I yet saw what I ought to do on reaching Onega; but after the -mistake about Archangel, I was not inclined to make any great plans, or -to think of the morrow. I therefore resolutely pursued my way, skirting -the western edge of the promontory, and walking, for several days, -along a path which was bounded, on the one side, by the sea—on the -other, by a low range of hillocks, densely covered with wood. Before -me, I saw nothing but sands, heaths, and marshes; and one incident -will, I think, suffice to give an idea of this desolate country. One -day, having arrived at a <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">possada</i>, I could get no bread. The -inhabitants had been without any for a week, because the bad weather -had stopped the boats that came from Archangel; but, as an equivalent, -I found some of the fresh herrings of the White Sea, which were of a -good size and excellent flavour.</p> - -<p>At Onega, I was not tempted to make any further experiments among the -foreign ships that I saw at anchor in the port. In order to have made -any attempts of the kind, with the slightest chance of success, it -would have been necessary for me to pass several days in the town, -where there was no crowd of pilgrims among whom I could hide, as at -Véliki-Oustiong<span class="pagenum" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</span> and at Archangel, so as to conceal myself from the -eyes of the Police. Moreover, I was still under the painful impression -left by the discovery of my last bad reckoning, and I had decidedly -more confidence in <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">terra firma</i>, which, as yet, had never -deceived my hopes. Two land routes were open to me from Onega, and it -was now time to choose between them. The one to the right would have -led me, by the marshes of Laponia and the river Torneo, to the Swedish -frontier; the other, to the left, trending across the government of -Olonets, would take me, by Vytiégra, to the Gulf of Finland, and to -the Baltic. Of these lines, the first was the most fatiguing—the -second the most dangerous. Had I not already crossed the Ourals and the -steppe of Petchora, I should certainly have taken an extreme northern -direction to Laponia; but I now dreaded the privations, and the -miseries with which I was too well acquainted. Wasted and disheartened, -I had begun to fear hardships more than danger, and I decided in favour -of Vytiégra.</p> - -<p>Without, therefore, making too long a halt in Onega, I pushed towards -the south, by skirting the banks of the river which also bears the -name of Onega. Every now and then I met solitary pilgrims on their -way to the monastery of Solovetsk, to whom naturally I could impart -the latest intelligence about the island. I remember one old man in -particular—small, withered, and white as a dove, but very fresh and -hearty withal,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</span> who said to me, ‘Can you doubt where I come from? I am -from Kargopol...!’ He pronounced the name with such pride, with such -a sense of the greatness of his native town, that I really might have -fancied that I heard the famous <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">civis Romanus</i>. Now Kargopol, -which I soon reached, may truly be said to be one of the saddest -little hamlets of a very sad country. Yet, in spite of the sombre and -monotonous aspect of these districts, where marshes alternate with -boundless woods, in spite of the enormous distances I had to traverse -on foot, in spite of the discomforts incident to the condition of a -fugitive who has always to fear gendarmes, inns, or any expenditure -which exceeds the bare necessaries of life, this journey from Onega to -Vytiégra was very far from being equal in suffering to that which I -had made over the Ourals and the plain of Petchora. My character of a -pilgrim gave me a certain assurance that I need no longer to the same -extent avoid the dwellings of men. Besides, the season was milder; and -when at nightfall I had to turn into some wood to sleep, I could find -branches and green leaves enough to fashion a pretty soft bed. What -most surprises me is, that, in all these nights passed in the solitude -of the forests, I was never once disturbed by wild beasts. Sometimes, -indeed, I was startled by the distant howling of the wolves, but none -of these animals ever presented themselves to my eyes.</p> - -<p>It must not, however, be supposed that, during this<span class="pagenum" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</span> expedition, I was -not exposed to much tribulation, in spite of the really very exact -knowledge which I possessed of the manners and customs of the country. -Sometimes an adventure would be almost comic: as when, one day, not far -from this celebrated Kargopol, I asked for food at a hut, and received -for answer that they had nothing but <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">tolokno</i> to offer me.</p> - -<p>‘Well, let us have the <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">tolokno</i>,’ I said, rather pleased than -otherwise to make the acquaintance of a national dish, which I had -often heard of, but never seen. My confusion, however, became great -when the mistress of the house set down before me a jug of water, a -spoon, and a small earthen jar half full of a dry and blackish flour. -How was that to be eaten? How could I fail to betray that I was a -stranger by my crying ignorance of a dish so common in Russia? I began -to talk, as if for my life, about any nonsense that would divert their -attention; but my hostess was not to be diverted, and she asked me why -I did not eat, since I was so hungry?</p> - -<p>‘But perhaps you would like it better mixed with kvass (cider)?’</p> - -<p>‘Oh yes, with cider,’ I replied, as much at a loss as before.</p> - -<p>She brought some cider, and, luckily, poured it herself into the pot, -stirring it with the spoon. The brown mass then swelled until it filled -the jar, and made a paste, which I now knew how to eat. It was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</span> made -of oats baked in an oven, which are then carefully sifted and pounded -in meal, and, when mixed with water or cider it forms a substance -so fairly palatable that I can recommend it especially to our brave -highlanders of the Carpathians.</p> - -<p>The district of Olonets is traversed in all directions by canals, -formed to unite the different lakes and rivers of Onega, Ladoga, -Vytiégra, Svir, &c.; and these form the principal means of -communication between one place and another. For the preservation and -inspection of these works, stations have been set down at different -points, and these are constantly occupied by soldiers, the greater -number of them being Poles, who have groaned under arms in the imperial -service for the last sixteen years, that is to say, ever since 1831. -From Archangel to Vytiégra I fell in with several of my unhappy -countrymen, thus incorporated into military bodies, and generally -found that, in spite of their long residence in the country, they -spoke Russian very imperfectly. I often talked with them, pretending -to be a native of Siberia, and thus drew from them an account of their -sorrows. I remember, in particular, one sinister phrase which made me -shudder. Hearing once the complaints made by a Pole of the hardships -and fatigues of his life as a Russian soldier, I said to him what only -a true Russian would have said:</p> - -<p>‘But, after all, you are not so very much beaten?’</p> - -<p>‘What! we are not beaten,’ was the retort, accompanied<span class="pagenum" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</span> by an almost -savage laugh; ‘you don’t think we are beaten? as if anybody got the -Tzar’s bread to eat gratis!’</p> - -<p>I frequently saw another sad sight in this country, namely, gangs -(<i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">partyé</i>) of Jewish children that were being driven to Archangel. -It should be known that, whereas the Russian government in Poland -only recruits among adult Christians, it takes boys of from ten to -fifteen from the Jewish population, in order that, forgetting more -perfectly their traditional religion and manners, they may become fit -for military life, for which it seems that adult Israelites are not so -well adapted. A great number of these young recruits are intended for -the navy, and sent to the different ports of the White Sea, and, to me, -the sight of these poor children, with their heads shaved, and wrapped -in their little pelisses, was most pitiful; for the soldiers in charge -of the gang drove them before them like a flock of sheep, and I was -assured by the natives that many of them died by the way.</p> - -<p>It was also in this department of Olonets that I saw another symptom -of the moral state of Russia, which was in itself not less curious. I -had gone into a cottage to ask my way; it was on the road from Kargopol -to Vytiégra. I found in the hut an old man with a long white beard, -and of respectable appearance, who, as soon as he began to talk to me, -expressed such a hatred of the Tzar, the government, and the priests, -that I had<span class="pagenum" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</span> no difficulty in recognising in him a <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">starovier</i>, -or old believer. Finding me to be a man well disposed to share his -religious views, he ran on at great length, and finally shed tears -over the persecution of the true faith. In order to prove to me that -the manner of making the sign of the cross adopted ever since the -reformation of Nicon (that is, the ordinary Russian fashion) was wholly -heretical, he looked all round the outside of his house, locked the -door, and, having taken an oath of secrecy from me, he drew from a -hiding-place a little figure in copper, evidently a rough piece of old -Byzantine workmanship, which certainly represented our Lord as giving -the benediction with the two fore fingers of the right hand extended, -as in the manner of the <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">staroviertsi</i>. ‘They force us,’ he -continued, ‘to go to the <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">tserkiev</i> of the heretics, where the -<em>popes</em> oblige us to make the sign of the cross in their own way; -but when we come back from the <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">tserkiev</i>, we pray to the true -God, and we ask Him to forgive the great sin.’ He afterwards drew from -the same repository an old paper book, setting forth ‘The History of -the Patriarch Joseph, as betrayed and sold by his Brethren.’ The good -man proceeded to instruct me in these novelties, and shed some tears of -emotion at the virtue of Joseph when tempted by the wife of Potiphar.</p> - -<p>Scarcely had I reached Vytiégra than I was accosted on the quays by a -peasant, who asked me where I was going.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</span></p> - -<p>‘I am a <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">bohomolets</i>; I replied. ‘I am returning from the -monastery of Solovetsk, and I am on my way to “<em>adore the sacred -bones</em>” at Novgorod and at Kiow.’</p> - -<p>‘Then, I am your man,’ he said. ‘I will take you to St. Petersburg. My -boat is small, but I have only my horse to take with me, and you can -help me to row ... it is not heavy.’</p> - -<p>‘I know that sort of work very well, and I know that it is not light; -how much will you give me?’</p> - -<p>We wrangled for a long time over the price, the sly villain having -every mind to get the use of my arms, and not to pay for it; but at -last we agreed that he should give me dressed victuals for the whole -time of our voyage, and, so pleased was he with the bargain he had -made, that he took me straight to a pothouse to drink a glass with him.</p> - -<p>The project of going to St. Petersburg, into the very capital of -Nicholas, was sufficiently strange, and, most certainly, it was not -one which I had contemplated when I made sundry and manifold plans of -evasion at Ekaterinski-Zavod; but, since leaving Archangel, I had been -wandering pretty much on chance, with no other object than always to -get near some sea or frontier, no matter which, and always to avoid -remaining more than a few hours in any place where they were likely to -ask me for my papers. Now the boat in question was to leave that very -day; and there was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</span> something, even in the very strangeness of the -enterprise, which seemed reassuring. Any capital appeared to me less -dangerous than a small provincial town, and the event showed that I was -not wrong in this calculation.</p> - -<p>By evening the boat was slipped from her moorings, and the navigation -began, which, by Vytiégra, the lake of Onega, the river Svir, the -lake of Ladoga, and the Néva, was to conduct me to the very walls of -St. Petersburg. We rowed day and night, or floated past innumerable -canoes, boats and ships, with which the lakes and rivers were literally -covered; but, above all, past rafts of wood, also intended to supply -the wants of the metropolis, and which, in some places, completely, -obstructed the passage. We made a party of three—myself, the master, -and his son, a stout young man, who, whenever we neared the banks, -would get the horse out and fasten him to the boat, so as to help -to draw it along. In spite of the smallness of the boat, its owner -could not prevail on himself to refuse an occasional passenger, whom -he would take up or put down at spots agreed upon; for how could he -be expected to resist turning a penny from time to time? But these -freights caused me the greatest distress, for the passengers could not -be said to be members of any Temperance league, and I had to watch over -the tipsiest ones, and once had even to jump into the water to pull -out a poor wretch who had rolled overboard. As I do not wish to make -myself appear better than I am, I<span class="pagenum" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</span> must state here that I had a strong -personal interest in the safety of these troublesome guests; for, had -any disaster really occurred, we should have been obliged to stop, and -report ourselves at the nearest police station, when the negotiation -thereupon ensuing would, to a certainty, have been opened by a request -for our papers; thus my charity was hardly of a very evangelical sort.</p> - -<p>As we approached by degrees the end of our voyage, I became more -absorbed in thought, and, above all, more anxious to learn something -of the usages of St. Petersburg. Happily, we picked up at one of the -stations several women, who, after paying visits to their relations, -were returning to the capital, where they seemed to have lived for many -years as servants and housemaids. My condition as a <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">bohomolets</i> -obliged me to preach to them a degree of morality in conduct, which -seemed only to excite their risibility. However, I did not preach -entirely in vain, especially when I took under my protection an old -woman, of whom these chambermaids had made a butt in a way that was -really disgusting. She was an old peasant of Korélia, on her way to St. -Petersburg, which she had never seen before, to visit a daughter, who -plied her trade as a laundress in the city. She was immensely grateful -to me for my protection, called me her ‘<i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">batiouchka</i>’ (little -father), and soon offered me an assistance which can be called nothing -less than providential.</p> - -<p>After encountering a violent storm, during which<span class="pagenum" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</span> our women screamed -horribly, and after leaving behind us Nova-Ladoga and Schlusselbourg, -where Alexis Orlov strangled the unhappy Peter III., by the orders of -Catherine the Great, we reached the quays of the capital, at about -eight o’clock in the morning, and drew towards the shore opposite the -Perspective Nevski. The servant girls jumped gaily from the boat, -giving me a rendezvous <em>to preach to them</em>, and I was preparing to -step on shore, feeling, I must confess, much at a loss what to do with -myself, when the poor Korélian woman came up to me, and said, ‘Just -stay with me; I have sent to tell my daughter, and she will soon be -down to fetch me, and will show you where you can get a cheap lodging.’ -It may be imagined with what eagerness I embraced her proposition; and -oh, ineffable joy! while we waited a long time in the boat, no one -came to ask for our papers. At last the laundress appeared; she kissed -her mother affectionately, and took up her trunk, which she and I then -carried between us, on a stick across our shoulders. Thus we set off, -preceded by the good old soul herself, who carried on her head the -earthen jar which had contained her food. And in this strange trim I -entered the city of the Tzar!</p> - -<p>We had to go through an endless number of streets, bridges, and lanes -before we reached the place where the laundress lived; it was in a -lodging-house of one story in height (<i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">dom postoïaly</i>), where the -poorest of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</span> the working-classes dwell, and where they came at night to -sleep on a flock-bed (if they can get it), or if not, to lie, as the -Russian phrase is, ‘on the floor, with their fists for a pillow.’ The -swelled faces and the red noses of some who frequented this miserable -abode, showed that many shapes of sin and distress harboured there. -There were, however, regular lodgers, who let out to passengers rooms -that they had furnished on this speculation, and my laundress was -one of these. Unfortunately, her room was already occupied; but she -recommended me to a neighbour, and a bargain was soon made at the rate -of eight kopeks a-day. In order to avoid the critical moment, I asked -my landlady immediately to show me the way to the Prefecture of Police, -where passports were given and examined.</p> - -<p>‘Who are you?’ asked my hostess.</p> - -<p>‘I am a <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">bohomolets</i>, from beyond Vologda; I am returning from -Solovetsk, and going to Véliki-Novgorod, to worship the bones of the -saints....’</p> - -<p>‘You do well; God be your help! Show me your passport.’</p> - -<p>I handed to her my shabby little pass, repressing any show of anxiety; -but she evidently could not read, and only looked at the stamp, then -said to me: ‘How long do you think of remaining here?’</p> - -<p>‘From three to five days at the most; I must just rest a little.’</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</span></p> - -<p>‘Then I will tell you what it is, it is perfectly useless for you to go -to the Police?’</p> - -<p>‘Just as you please; I don’t know the ways of this place. But why is it -no use to go to the Police?’</p> - -<p>‘Well, you see, I should have to go with you, and that is too much -trouble for me.’</p> - -<p>‘Why must you go?’</p> - -<p>‘Because, you see, the Police have lately become so plaguily exacting. -Formerly, it used to suffice if the new-comer himself went to the -Prefecture; but now nothing will serve them but to see his landlord -along with him. Then there is always such a crowd of people at the -office, that one has to wait ever so long before one’s turn comes -round. If one has a lodger for a month or a year, then it is worth -one’s pains to go through all this trouble and fatigue; but if he is -only to stay a night or two, one would never gain a living, for the -time would be spent in coming and going. One could not do a hand’s-turn -in one’s own house at that rate, and people must live, you know; and it -is but little bread that one gets from the Police. And that is why we -prefer not to make any declaration, when the lodger only remains for a -few days; we find it the best plan, and if at the Prefecture they do -not hear all they might like to hear, I cannot say I think there is any -harm done.’</p> - -<p>I made no objection, it may be supposed; but installing myself in -my room I remained there all the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</span> rest of the day, in spite of the -insinuating discourse of my landlady, who proposed to me that I should -go and see the illuminations, for that day was a high day in the -capital. It was July 9, 1846, and they were celebrating the nuptials, -or the betrothal (I do not quite know which), of a daughter of the -Emperor Nicholas, the Grand-Duchess Olga, with the Prince of Wurtemberg!</p> - -<p>The next day, however, I did go out, and I promenaded the town, -of which the wide handsome streets seemed to me to be singularly -deserted. I was meditating on the quickest way of leaving the place, -and had determined, if need be, to swim to the shores of the Baltic, -although any more convenient method, if it should arise, was not to be -despised. I knew that a packet sailed from St. Petersburg to Havre, -but what were the days of its sailing, where did it lie, and was its -captain French or Russian? Grave questions, which I did not dare to -put to any one for fear of compromising myself. I walked up and down -the Néva, and read the inscriptions on the different red and yellow -bills which were posted up on blank planks on each of the different -steamers; but I could only read by stealth, for a peasant, ‘a Russian -man’ (<i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">rouski tcheloviék</i>) like me, must not make a display of -learning! So I sauntered slowly and perused the inscriptions. One would -be ‘the vessel of his Majesty the Emperor,’ another ‘of His Highness -the Prince Imperial,’ ‘of the Grand Duke Michael,’ ‘of Her Majesty the -Empress, and the ladies of her court,’ &c.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</span> Evidently all of too high -a class for me. I managed at last to discover less titled vessels; -but then their destinations were not to my liking, and would not have -suited me in any way. After having thus examined the whole length of -the left bank of the Néva, I crossed the bridge in front of the statue -of Peter the Great, and now pursued the stream along the right hand -to its mouth. I stopped for a moment at the foot of the two gigantic -sphinxes which are placed opposite the museum, and the sight of these -strange Egyptian guests in the City of Ice made me lose myself for a -moment in thought. Suddenly my eyes fell on an advertisement in large -letters, which, stuck up near the mast of a steamboat, announced that -that vessel was to sail for Riga on the following morning...!</p> - -<p>I trembled, and I had difficulty in suppressing the emotion I felt; -but still, I thought, how was I to reach the steamer, how enter into -parley with the captain of it? I saw a man, probably the pilot, walking -on deck; his red shirt pulled on over his drawers was quite after the -Russian fashion, but I did not dare to address him, and I contented -myself with devouring him with my eyes. In the meantime the sun was -sinking, and it was going on to seven o’clock in the evening, when -suddenly the man in the red shirt looked up and said:—</p> - -<p>‘Do you by any chance want to go to Riga? If so, take your passage by -us.’</p> - -<p>‘Certainly, I want to go to Riga; but how is a poor<span class="pagenum" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</span> man like me to go -in the steamboat? That costs a great deal, it is not made for the like -of us.’</p> - -<p>‘Why not; come along. A <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">moujik</i> like you won’t be asked to pay a -great deal.’</p> - -<p>‘How much?’</p> - -<p>He named a sum, which I do not remember, but which astonished me at the -time as being really very moderate.</p> - -<p>‘Well, will that suit you? What are you hesitating about now?’</p> - -<p>‘I only came here to-day, and the Police must <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">viser</i> my passport.’</p> - -<p>‘Then, let me tell you, you will have a three days’ job of it with your -Police, and our steamer sails to-morrow morning.’</p> - -<p>‘What can I do then?’</p> - -<p>‘Go without having it <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">visé</i>, to be sure.’</p> - -<p>‘Bah! suppose I get into trouble?’</p> - -<p>‘Idiot! Here is a <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">moujik</i> setting up to teach me! Have you got -your passport with you? Let us see it.’</p> - -<p>I drew from my pocket the pass which I kept carefully wrapped in a silk -handkerchief, after the Russian plan; but the man did not even give -himself the trouble of looking at it.</p> - -<p>‘Come to-morrow, at seven o’clock in the morning, and if you don’t find -me here, wait for me; and now be off as quick as you can.’</p> - -<p>I returned joyously to my lodgings, and on the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</span> following morning I was -punctual to my appointment. Steam was already got up; my man perceived -me, and said simply, ‘Pay your money.’ He then left me, and returned -with a yellow ticket, of which I naturally pretended to ignore the -signification. This extracted a second notice, as follows, ‘Hold your -tongue, <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">moujik</i>, and let us manage.’ The bell rang three times, -the barrier was opened, the passengers pressed and hurried in, while -a rude shove from my friend sent me in along with the others. Some -moments after the paddles went round, we were in motion; and I was as -one that dreamed.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</span></p> - -<h3 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X.<br /><br /><span class="small">THE RETURN TO PARIS.</span></h3> -</div> - -<hr class="r5" /> -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>THE MOUJIK’S PASSAGE—LITHUANIA—THE PRUSSIAN -FRONTIER—KÖNIGSBERG—ARREST AND CAPTIVITY—BAIL—FLIGHT—ARRIVAL IN -PARIS—THE END.</p> -</div> -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p>A passage in the steamer from St. Petersburg to Riga does not furnish -a subject replete with many features of travel, not even when the -traveller is a Siberian exile, flying from the <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">katorga</i>. Yet -I had one little adventure, for ocean certainly was hostile to me. -Thanks, I suppose, to the stupefaction caused by sea-sickness, I -suddenly found myself in the first-class cabin—an intrusion which -horrified and disgusted everyone. An elderly Russian lady in particular -never ceased crying in French, ‘Oh, this peasant will give us the -plague! He corrupts the little air we have to breathe!’ Some servants -came, who brought me to my senses, and took me to my own quarters, -where, squatting in a corner in the fore part of the ship, I kept to -myself, and did not again see any of the passengers of distinction, -unless their walk happened to bring them<span class="pagenum" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</span> occasionally in my direction. -Two Germans, seeing me making my breakfast on a bit of bread and an -onion (which I did to keep up my part as a <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">moujik</i>, not less than -also, alas! from motives of economy), said out loud, in their amiable -language, ‘One can see that that is a Russian hog.’ Oddly enough, the -only persons among the travellers who showed any interest in me, and -who sometimes condescended to talk to me (without having a suspicion -of my nationality), were two young men, both of them Poles. I often -followed them with my eyes as they paced up and down the deck; how -gladly would I have pressed their hands!</p> - -<p>I shall pass rapidly over the rest of my journey from Riga, across -Courland and Lithuania, as far as the Prussian frontier, and shall only -say a few words about the new profession I assumed on quitting St. -Petersburg. The character of a <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">bohomolets</i> could not any longer -serve me, now that I was going in a contrary direction from Novgorod, -and I was also about to cross countries which, like Courland or -Samogitia, were either of Catholic or Protestant beliefs. I therefore -proposed to pass for a <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">stchetinnik</i>, for such is the name for -the Russian peasants so often met in those districts as well as in -Lithuania and in the Ukraine, who, going from one village to another, -buy hog’s bristles on behalf of the merchants of Riga. This trade -suited me admirably, for under pretence of inquiring whether my article -was to be had or not, it allowed me to knock at many<span class="pagenum" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</span> doors, and to ask -my way. I went on foot, sleeping most frequently in the woods or in the -cornfields, and the fine weather (it was July) was very favourable to -me. I had likewise exchanged my winter trowsers for the summer suit of -blue cotton which I had brought from Siberia; I renewed my linen and -my boots, and I exchanged my pelisse with a tapster for a great-coat -and a little cap, which, with a view to traversing Prussia, I carried -with me in my bag, while as to my little bournouse of sheep-skin -(<i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">armiak</i>), that, like a true Russian peasant (<i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">rouski -tcheloviék</i>), I always wore, in spite of the warmth of summer.</p> - -<p>My passage through Lithuania, across our <em>hallowed</em> Samogitia, was -not void of emotion, or of sufficiently diverting scenes. How often -was I not tempted to reveal my nationality to some one or other of -my own country people, and to ask their advice or assistance! But I -resisted every temptation, and I never belied my character as a Russian -<i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">stchetinnik</i>. One day, at Polonga, I wanted to buy a cheese in -the market from a Samogitian woman; we could not agree about the price, -and my respectable countrywoman, strong in lungs as any woman of <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">la -Halle</i>, delivered herself of a sentiment about ‘dogs of Muscovites,’ -which was certainly not of a highly Christian description. Had I even -been ignorant of the meaning of her words, their sense was sufficiently -explained by gestures, patent even to a <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">moujik</i>, and I was -obliged forsooth to pretend to uphold<span class="pagenum" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</span> the honour of Muscovy against -the outrages of a Polish woman...!</p> - -<p>It was between Polonga and Kurszany that I determined to pass into -Prussia. I had infinite trouble before I could procure, without -betraying myself any information as to the way or the extent to which -the Russians watched their frontier, my best source of knowledge being -a soldier belonging to the customs. Seeing him take a bath in the -little bay of Polonga, I followed his example, hoping thus to begin -a conversation. As soon as he said that he was a native of Pultava, -I declared myself his countryman. There is always one simple way -of getting a Russian soldier to talk, which is to start him about -his grievances, and the hardships of his lot. Once on this theme my -companion informed me of all the precautionary measures which had to -be taken, by day and by night, by the customs on account of smugglers -and rebels (<i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">bountovstchiki</i>), for so fugitives are called, -with details as to the strength and the weakness of the watch thus -kept.... I must give one expression used by the soldier, than which -nothing could have been more characteristic. I had naïvely asked him -why the Prussians did not help to keep the frontier and hunt down the -<em>rebels</em> and smugglers? ‘That,’ he answered, ‘is just the pity -of it all! These cursed Prussians will not take any trouble at the -frontier, and so <em>all the burden falls on our poor Tzar</em>...!’</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</span></p> - -<p>The conclusion drawn by me from this valuable conversation was -precisely contrary to what I had at first supposed, and I saw that -it would be best that I should try to cross the boundary line in -the day time; so, at two o’clock in the afternoon of that same day, -having armed myself with my poignard, and commended my soul to God, -I slipped into the corn. Then spying from the top of the rampart the -moment during which both sentries on the station turned their backs on -each other, I leapt the first of the three ditches which marked the -frontier. No noise was made; I clambered through the brushwood, but as -I reached the second ditch I was perceived. Shots were fired from guns -on both sides, when, hardly conscious of what I was about, I slipped -into the third ditch, then climbed up and leapt again. I lost sight of -the soldiers, and was in a little wood. I was in Prussia!</p> - -<p>Breathless and exhausted, I lay for many long hours bidden in the -thicket without daring to stir; knowing the violence and eagerness of -the Russians, I feared lest they should even pursue me into forbidden -ground; but happily all was still, and a soft rain which began to fall -tempered the suffocating heat of the day. It was time to think of a -fresh disguise. The <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">moujik’s</i> orthodox beard was not suitable in -Prussia, where it would only have attracted attention; so at Polonga -I had taken the precaution to buy a small mirror and a razor, which I -got at a Jew’s stall, while, as to soap, a piece of what I had<span class="pagenum" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</span> brought -from Siberia remained still in my bag. I hung the mirror up on a bush, -and, profiting by the rain and, above all, by the dew on the leaves for -moistening the soap, proceeded in this way, though still lying and on -my elbow, to perform the civilising operation of shaving myself. It was -a slow and a painful one, particularly on account of my uncomfortable -position; but I effected it at last, not, however, without sundry cuts -made in my cheeks. About the middle of the night I got up and went on -my way again, dressed in the great coat and the little cap, with my -trowsers falling over my boots. I knew very well that I was by no means -out of danger, for a convention between Russia and Prussia, a cartel -as it was called, then obliged the two powers to deliver over their -mutual fugitives; and more than one, alas! of my compatriots had been -thus brought back to the Russian frontier, after having succeeded, in -spite of many and great dangers, in leaving it behind them. Still I had -confidence in my star, the great matter for me now being to avoid inns, -and to keep clear of gendarmes, a task which, thanks to the summer -season, was not very difficult. As to the direction of my journey, I -had no longer any hesitation about it. I must gain the Grand Duchy of -Posen, and there, among my fellow-countrymen subject to the Prussian -rule, but whose safety I could in no way compromise, I hoped to find -all the help which the rapid diminution of my finances demanded. I was -then ignorant of the massacres<span class="pagenum" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</span> which had recently desolated Galicia, -and I did not even know that in this very Duchy of Posen a vast -conspiracy had been discovered; for it was not in the solitudes of the -Oural chain, nor yet among the lowest of the Russian people, that I -could have learnt these heavy and sad tidings.</p> - -<p>I reached Memel, Tilsit and Königsberg successively without any -obstacles. I walked by day, and slept under the stars; I was nowhere -annoyed about my passport, and to the unfrequent questions of merchants -and travellers I replied that I was a Frenchman, a cotton-spinner, -returning from Russia. At last on July 27th, having reached Königsberg, -I saw in the harbour a vessel that was to sail on the following day -for Elbing. Tired of constant walking, I wished to profit by a means -of transport which could be had for a moderate price, and which would -have taken me nearly to the Grand Duchy of Posen, and to my friends. I -determined therefore to remain in Königsberg till the following day. -While waiting in this way I sauntered about the town, and as evening -fell I sat down on a heap of stones near a dismantled house, meaning at -night to wander away and sleep in the cornfields, and to return next -morning before the vessel sailed. Alas! I had not reckoned on my bodily -fatigue any more than on the exhaustion of my strength, and a certain -carelessness had been engendered by the last period of comparative -security. Upon this heap of stones I fell asleep, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</span> slept deeply. -When I awoke, roughly shaken by the arm by some man, it was a dark -night. A stranger stood before me, a night-watcher of the town, as -they are called. He asked me who I was, and whence I came? Drunk with -sleep, I muttered some incoherent words, and when a sense of my danger -finally recalled me to myself, it was in vain that, in my infamous -German, I offered any explanations as to who I was, and how I came to -be there; all my answers seemed suspicious. My complete ignorance of -the place and the darkness of the night prevented me from beginning to -struggle with him, or attempting to fly; I did feel for my dagger, but -luckily I could not find it. The constable took hold of my arm, called -his comrades, and carried me off by force to the nearest office. I was -arrested...!</p> - -<p>The feeling which came over me when once more I found myself in a -prison was one of shame, far more than of sadness or of despair. -To have escaped from the <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">katorga</i>, to have crossed the -Oural Mountains, to have slept for months in the snow in ostiak -<em>earths</em>, to have endured so many sufferings and privations, -to have leapt the Russian boundary line among the musket balls of -soldiers, and now to be taken up by neither more nor less than a -Prussian night constable! It really was too ridiculous, and I blushed -for myself.</p> - -<p>The next morning, about ten o’clock, I was taken to the Police office, -and then commenced all the sad and abject necessities of simulation and -dissimulation,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</span> which press on a man who has to elude the cognisance of -the law. I pretended that I was a Frenchman, a cotton-spinner, who was -on his way back from Russia, and who had lost his passport. I gave my -addresses in both countries, but I could perceive that my declarations -did not inspire any confidence. What hurt me most was to perceive in -this first examination, and still more in some that followed it, that -I was taken for a malefactor, who had some interest in concealing a -crime. I demanded to be sent back to France, where I said I was ready -to answer before public justice for all my actions, and to submit to -the consequences of all and everything that could be discovered about -me.</p> - -<p>I was now remanded to the Blue Tower (Blaûer Thûrm), where for -company I found a burger detained for fraudulent bankruptcy and -other peccadilloes. The Blue Tower certainly was not horrible to a -man who knew the insides of Russian prisons, not to speak of the -<i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">katorga</i>; but the uncertainty and the irritation caused by this -sad interlude recalled some of the worst days of my existence during -the last years. At last, after a month’s detention, I was again called -before the police; it was signified to me that all the addresses which -I had given had been found to be incorrect, and that I now lay under -the gravest suspicions. Tired of making false pretences, and above all -of passing for a criminal trying to hide his identity, I begged to have -a private interview with one of the high functionaries who<span class="pagenum" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</span> examined -me, and for the presence at it of M. Fleury, a Frenchman, naturalised -at Königsberg for the last thirty years. He was <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">interpréte-juré</i>, -and had always assisted at the enquiries. When left alone with these -two gentlemen I told them frankly who I was, and I left my fate in -their hands. I cannot describe the astonishment, the stupor, and, -I must also add, the consternation of my two examiners on learning -that before them stood a Pole, a political criminal escaped from the -<i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">katorga</i>, and returned from Siberia! The official at first could -not say a word; at last he cried, ‘But, miserable man! we must give you -up; the convention is decisive! Oh, my God! why, why did you come here?’</p> - -<p>‘I wished to spare you both embarrassment and remorse, so why did you -not send me on to France as I asked you?’</p> - -<p>They made me give all the details of my flight; then the Prussian -official left the room. M. Fleury stepped up to me and said, ‘We cannot -avoid giving you up to the Russians; quite recently several of your -fellows have been sent back over the frontiers. There is only one -likelihood of salvation for you, try to see the Count Eûlenberg, or at -least to write to him. He is President of the government (Regierûngs -Präsident), and almost everything depends on him. He is a good-hearted -man—frank, generous, and beloved by all. Write to him, for Heaven’s -sake! Oh, what a pity! what a pity!’</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</span></p> - -<p>On my return to prison I did write to Count Eûlenberg and also to our -Abbé Kajsiewicz, in Paris, to obtain an attestation of my identity, -because I perceived that they questioned among themselves whether I -was not an emissary who had taken part in the late affairs in Posen. -Since my revelation they treated me better in my prison, but I was -not the less the object of a very strict watch. After ten days I got -an answer from Count Eûlenberg, which was polite but vague, although -the advice at the close of it, ‘to have patience,’ seemed to me to be -some encouragement. The principal point of all the investigations was, -had I or had I not shared in the business in Posen? On that head I -felt perfectly at my ease; but my anguish of mind, nevertheless, was -very great, and very often I had to say to myself that perhaps my most -certain hope of being saved lay in my own dagger.</p> - -<p>One day a gentleman presented himself at my prison; he gave his name as -M. Kamke, a merchant of Königsberg, and he begged to know if I would -accept of his bail. Astonished as well as touched at this unexpected -offer, I asked for an explanation of it, and then learnt that the -report of a Pole who had escaped from Siberia being arrested in the -town had spread, and caused a general and lively emotion. The honest -townsfolk of Königsberg, who had more than once been irritated at the -working of the cartel with Russia, were grieved at the idea of seeing -a man given up who had succeeded<span class="pagenum" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</span> in eloping from Siberia, and who had -braved so many dangers. Several steps had been taken in my behalf, and -they hoped to find means to liberate me under bail given for me! Ah, -how much good these words did! The acceptance of securities for me -met with some opposition; but when summoned anew, on September 1st, -I found with the Police this excellent M. Kamke, who coming up to me -embraced me, and told me I was free. It really was so, and the official -in charge of the inquest repeated the assurance to me. He asked if I -wished to remain some time longer in Königsberg, and I replied in the -affirmative, for I wished to thank my benefactors, the many persons who -had interested themselves in my fate, particularly Count Eûlenberg. It -also seemed to me to be good policy not to appear to be too anxious to -leave Prussia. Alas! how suspicious I had become!</p> - -<p>M. Kamke took me home in triumph, and for a week, I found in his family -an affectionate care, of which the remembrance can never be effaced. -Suddenly, a week having barely elapsed since I had been allowed my -liberty, I was again invited to attend at the police. I found there two -functionaries whom I had met before. With a sad but kind manner, they -informed me that orders had come from Berlin that I must be given up to -Russia; they added that they had now nothing in their power but to give -me time to fly from this danger at my own peril, and that they hoped -God would protect<span class="pagenum" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</span> my steps. I was profoundly touched by their generous -proceedings, and I promised to do my utmost to save them any further -trouble. I immediately informed M. Kamke and my protectors of this -new incident, and my flight was speedily arranged. I took leave of my -brave and true friends, and on the following day, September 9th, I was -already on my way to Dantzig. I was furnished with letters to different -persons in the German towns which I had to pass through, and everywhere -the greatest zeal was shown to make my journey easy. I must be -permitted to mention especially the good offices of the celebrated and -generous bookseller of Leipsig, Robert Blûm, whom Prince Windischgrætz -thought right to have shot at Vienna two years later. Thanks to Help -which never failed me, I had speedily traversed the whole of Germany, -and on September 22nd, 1846, I found myself again in Paris, in the city -which I had left four years before.</p> - -<p>Something more than a year had scarcely elapsed after my return to -Paris, when the revolution of February broke out, and my country -believed in a better future. But, alas! we soon saw our mistake. Once -more I had hastened to my own land, and had just time to assist in -Galicia at a fresh shipwreck of our hopes. It was during the leisure -which expectations thus deceived had left to me, and while my memory -retained the impression of what had recently passed, that I wrote down -the greater part of these<span class="pagenum" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</span> ‘Recollections.’ If I have not mentioned my -poor brothers in misfortune, implicated in the affair at Kaminieç, it -has certainly not been because I was then, or am now, indifferent to -their lot; but because I have been able to learn very little of their -fate, or of the nature of the sentences which were passed upon them. -Some have already succumbed under their sorrows; others still groan in -Siberia, in the Caucasus, or in the penal companies of Orenbourg.</p> - -<p>May God have mercy upon the living, and upon the dead!</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="POLAND1">POLAND A CENTURY AFTER ITS DIVISION,<br /><br /> -<span class="small">AND</span><br /><br /> -THE AGITATION IN WARSAW.</h2> -</div> -<p class="center p0"><span class="smcap">May 1861.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</span></span></p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h3 class="nobreak" id="POLAND2">POLAND<br /><br /><span class="small">A CENTURY AFTER ITS DIVISION.</span></h3> -</div> -<hr class="r5" /> - - -<p>The world is full of victimised races, to whose ill-fortune it becomes -almost reconciled, since the marvellous discovery has been made that, -at some time or another, these people may have deserved their fate; as -if the strong, for their part, did not also commit faults; and as if, -too, Justice went evermore hand in hand with Fortune. But whence, then, -those crises of anarchy which are apparent, not only in a solitary -instance, but in the most general relations? Whence those convulsions -which make us present, as it were, at a confused disorganisation of all -political order, in one headlong annihilation of all combinations, and -of all foregone conclusions? These take their rise, most frequently, -in some original defect lying at the very roots of the situation, in -some previous violations which, although they leave the people unarmed, -do not the less affect the governments themselves—which<span class="pagenum" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</span> compel the -first to a system of indefatigable revolt, and the second to a system -of repression, which is always fatally increasing in weight, till, at -last, there ensues one of those struggles in which contend all the -rights, principles, and accumulated wrongs—all the causes long thought -to be dormant, but which, now reawakened, make their appeal to that -public opinion which has started up as a new power. The whole history -of Poland is before us, to prove how much violence it costs, how many -perpetually recurring struggles it requires, to make the suppression -of a whole race a public right, before the fact of its suppression can -be forced into the vague and terrible list of ‘things that have been -accomplished.’</p> - -<p>It is now nearly a century since three Powers, united by the saddest -and most dangerous of solidarities, laboured to this end. Frederick II. -of Prussia and Catherine the Great of Russia rejoiced in the work as in -an easy victory; but it carried remorse into the soul of Maria-Theresa -of Austria, who called it ‘a blot upon her reign,’ to which she could -not subscribe without casting a terrified glance into the future. -Thrice was the partition renewed—in 1772, in 1793, and in 1795. It -began by leaving us a shadow of independence, with the shadow of a king -at Warsaw; and it finished by making everything disappear, even to the -very name of Poland. At each dismemberment they believed that they had -achieved success; each<span class="pagenum" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</span> time, on the contrary, the injustice of the -whole proceeding became more evident, till it was almost acknowledged -to be so by the dividers themselves—each time the wound became more -envenomed, and the struggle more serious between an always precarious -domination, and the heroism of a race remodelled by misfortune. At -the capital moment of the last dismemberment, in 1792, Poland did not -yield without a struggle; she proclaimed her political aspirations in -the Constitution of the 3rd of May 1791, and, led by Kosciusko, she -reappeared upon the field of battle. The Polish hero was conquered at -Macejowice, and the work, begun in 1772, seemed very nearly completed. -Up to this time, however, it had only been an affair between Russia, -Austria, and Prussia; and Europe had remained a stranger to this -dismemberment of a nation.</p> - -<p>At the end of the storms of the French Revolution, and of the Empire, -in which the Poles had taken part with all their warlike humour, and -during which, by the timid, ephemeral, and incomplete creation of a -Grand-Duchy of Warsaw, they had for an instant believed that their -country was reborn, the Congress of Vienna, after allowing hope to -shine before the eyes of Poland, let her fall again under the triple -yoke, and consecrated her dismemberment as an accomplished fact. -This time, at least, success seemed sure—the partition had become -a public right, and it formed a part of the constitution of Europe; -yet, in reality, the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</span> question was very far from being set at rest. -The treaties of 1815 only organised new strife, under new conditions; -and a new weapon was placed in the hands of the Poles, by this species -of homage paid to a nationality that no one ventured quite to kill, -its titles being recognised, and stipulations being made in favour of -its guarantees; while, at the same time, they dared not refuse its -fragments to those who claimed them by right of prior occupation. The -question, then, was so little settled, that at the first agitation it -did not fail to come up again. In 1830, Poland made an immense effort -for its own resurrection, an effort which for a moment sufficed to -hold in check the power of Russia, and filled Europe with anxiety -and emotion. Alone, and abandoned to her own resources, Poland must -evidently succumb; she must sink under the weight of arms, still more -under the weight of oppression. Then, surely, the last words had been -said, the last resistance conquered, and all was really at an end. On -the contrary, nothing was finished; and this is the curious point, the -great moral, so to speak, of the events which for the last two months -agitate Warsaw and all Polish countries. One hundred years after the -first dismemberment, forty-five years after the treaties of 1815, -thirty years after the revolution quelled at Warsaw by the arms of -Russia, Poland rears her head, more agitated than ever, wounded but -not tamed, and showing herself in two lights—the one, as regards her<span class="pagenum" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</span> -relations with the state of Europe; the other, as regards that internal -labour, by which she has obstinately sought to remake for herself -a moral life, and a new destiny, in spite of the darkest, and most -painful trials.</p> - -<p>What, then, really is the character of this situation, so suddenly -revealed in Northern Europe by the strange drama of Warsaw, at the very -moment when Italy has constituted herself anew, and when Hungary claims -her old tradition of independence—when both in the West and in the -East everything is in movement—when all questions of nationality, of -public rights, and of universal balance, are making themselves heard at -once? What is most strange in these events is, that all is spontaneous -and unforeseen, though an eternal reason gives them being. This is the -act of life in a people, which, finding itself one day united by one -and the sane feeling, spreads itself peaceably through the town, and -then demands, what even treaties have not denied to it, respect for -its nationality, and its own religion, the guarantee of its existence -in regular institutions, the preservation of its own language, the -right of interesting itself in its own affairs, of occupying itself -in agriculture, in the education of its own children; the right, it a -word, to live and to breathe. Nothing assuredly can be more dramatic -than the meeting which during the last two months has taken place in -Warsaw. It is no longer one between two sovereigns, but between two -nations, which for the first time for thirty years find<span class="pagenum" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</span> themselves -publicly face to face, which have suddenly brought their disagreement -into the broad daylight of European conflict, and which are now -interrogating each other in this mysterious pause; two peoples, of -which the one has no arms but its rights and its prayers, and of which -the other has no danger but in the very excess of its own powers.</p> - -<p>This, then, really is the situation which has disclosed itself in the -heart of Poland since the 25th of February, the day upon which this -new, touching, and heroic adventure began for a population which, to -a certain extent, thus returns to public life, and which goes out to -pray for its country and its dead. At first, Russia appears to have -been visibly surprised at this unexpected manifestation on the part of -Poland, in which she believed, perhaps, that no such vitality existed, -and she was divided between the inquietude caused by the movement, -and by the sense that concessions must be made. She has not the gift -of always making the happiest resolutions; she yields when it would -be natural to resist, and resists when it would be just to yield. She -begins by giving up some of those officials who are most compromised, -and she ends in dissolving those popular corporations of which she not -only herself sanctioned the existence, but of which she had availed -herself for a month, in order to maintain order. This, by a series of -enigmatical and contradictory acts, in which, doubtless, there is as -much embarrassment as<span class="pagenum" id="Page_217">[Pg 217]</span> calculation, she sets all hopes and all fears -fermenting together. Popular manifestations follow one after the other. -The question assumes greater proportions, the movement becomes graved -and more complicated, and in a short time the whole affair has changed -its aspect. The pressure imposed becomes heavier than ever, when -pitted against a moral agitation which has been throughout innocent of -any violence, so that it requires but a few days and an evolution of -Russian policy to bring the situation to one of those issues, which -Prince Repnin characterised in his day with inexorable bluntness, when -he said, ‘Unless we deny all sentiments of humanity, it is true that we -cannot help recognising the right which the Poles have to complain. You -would have full right to drive out the Russians, if you had the power; -not having the power, you must submit.’</p> - -<p>Such is the question truly stated by the victorious side, and certainly -such is the question so often supposed to have been definitely settled, -but which has never been resolved. After the bloody repression of the -8th of April, as after all those that went before, the problem of the -destinies of Poland is not the less on foot. It springs out of these -events, and is shaped by their character and their aims, in the midst -of those conditions of universal transition in which the world of -to-day finds itself placed.</p> - -<p>What makes these new events so important, is that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_218">[Pg 218]</span> they form part of -a European situation, at the same time that they are the outward and -visible signs of a profound and inward work, of which Russian Poland -is the centre (most active and most prominent at present), but which -has also revealed, in the Grand Duchy of Posen, in Galicia, in short, -everywhere, that, in spite of treaties and congresses, Polish feeling, -the last and indestructible tie of a riven country, still lives. -This question of Poland has its roots deep in the past, and I am not -ignorant that it is so. Whether politically or diplomatically, it goes -back, like so many more, to the transactions of 1815, and when the -attempt is made to draw closer the knot of European affairs, whence -come the crises of which this question has been the unhappy and the -perennial source? Is it not because these treaties have manifestly -been an immense and avowed violation of an imprescriptable right, -or rather the fatal and complaisant consecration of all previous -violations? One of the most essential causes of the tribulation and -disorder in the politics of the time—a cause which now appears in -all its distinctness—is the ever-growing contradiction between the -dispositions of the solemn act of Vienna and the real state to which -the different parts of Poland are reduced; so that, if there have been, -if there shall again be, revolutionists, we must settle this in our -minds, that it is not the Poles who are such. An example has been given -them in this matter, and they have been left with this sad conviction, -that,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_219">[Pg 219]</span> according to the rights of 1815, they have the right on their -side. It is, indeed, a curious thing that the people of Poland have -been the ‘last to step down into the arena of to-day at that name -of “nationality” which serves as a watchword to all other revolting -populations.’ Yet Poland was the first and the only country in whose -favour such a word was hinted at by the Congress of Vienna, when it -was inscribed in treaties, as if to render a marked homage to heroic -misfortune, and, while tempering by guarantees the way in which Poland -was abandoned, to maintain the mockery of an ideal ‘nationality,’ in -spite of territorial division.</p> - -<p>Still more curious was the sort of universal disavowal made of the -partition of Poland, at the moment in which it was announced as a -new public right. M. de Talleyrand, the representative of the French -king, called it ‘the prelude to European convulsions;’ and of all -the questions that were to come before the Congress, he considered -the Polish one to be ‘the first, the greatest, the most eminently -European, and, beyond comparison, before all the others in importance.’ -The Emperor Alexander of Russia, professing himself the renovator of -Poland, was actuated either by ambition or by the vanity of appearing -as a liberal prince, and, doubtless, also by sentiments of generosity; -but this renovation offered itself to his mind under the shape of a -kingdom which should be a feudatory of the Russian crown, while it -still preserved the integrity of Poland.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_220">[Pg 220]</span> Poland was a subject of -remorse to Europe, and she inspired respect, without having strength -enough to make herself truly and really respected. Hence the strange -combinations adopted by the Congress of Vienna, which (while it -delivered over the provinces of Poland to Austria, to Russia, and -to Prussia) multiplied at the same time protecting guarantees, and -laboured to maintain a national link between the different parts, by -assuring to them a certain autonomy, as if the future could be secured -by abandoning the present.</p> - -<p>From one point of view, nothing can be stranger than the organised -<em>whole</em>, of which the scattered elements are to be found in the -final act of Vienna, and in the separate proceedings between Russia, -Prussia, and Austria, under the sanction of Europe. In Galicia, -Cracow, escaping the general shipwreck, is constituted ‘for all time -coming’ (<i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">à perpétuité</i>) a free, neutral and independent town. -The transformation of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw into the kingdom of -Poland, under the Russian crown, leaves the name of the country still -diplomatically existing, and it leaves it also as the nucleus of -reconstruction, the centre of attraction. The Prussian division gets -the name of Grand Duchy of Posen, that it may preserve a distinct -character in the whole monarchy of Frederick II.; and the frontier on -the Prussian side is defined, as well as on the Russian border. Finally -(and here is the origin of the great debate in the eyes of diplomatic -Europe), the three<span class="pagenum" id="Page_221">[Pg 221]</span> powers engage themselves, by their act at Vienna, -to give to the Poles, their respective subjects, ‘representation and -such national institutions, arranged according to their modes of -political existence, as each of the governments shall judge to be -useful;’ while, in order better to define the sense and meaning of -these guaranteed institutions, the separate treaties add that these are -intended to secure to the Poles ‘the preservation of their nationality.’</p> - -<p>Nor is this all. In default of political unity and of real -independence, Poland is at least to keep the unity of her interests. -Full liberty of trading, of transit, and of navigation, is established -in all and between all the divisions of ‘<em>ancient Poland</em>;’ -and it must be noted that care was taken constantly to recall the -old frontiers of 1772 as the natural frame for all combinations. -The quality of ‘a mixed subject’ is recognised in those who have -possessions in all the three provinces, and who, escaping all -classification, remain, in spite of everything, <em>Poles</em>, as their -civil individuality cannot be divided under three heads. Such, indeed, -is the spirit which permeates this work (singular and incoherent as I -do not deny that it is), that Austrians, Prussians and Russians, are -qualified as <em>strangers</em> or <em>foreigners</em> in the article which -treats of arrangements to be made for the regulation of commercial -interests on Polish grounds; and by this title <em>they</em> are excluded -from such benefits as only the Poles are entitled to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_222">[Pg 222]</span> enjoy. I shall -not proceed further. Considering the transactions of 1815 as a whole, -and putting them together, what do we find? We find a free town, the -last remaining image of former independence. We find the name of one -common country consecrated by treaty, and resting upon the kingdom -newly called into being. We see our right to a nationality made -superior to all territorial demarcations. We read, in the first place, -of the autonomy of the different provinces that have been dealt out -to new masters, and that the map of old Poland is to be adopted and -acted upon in material life; and we have a sort of <i>Zollverein</i> -of commerce and navigation, serving as the sketch for a confederacy. -One would say that it looks as if Europe, not daring to be wholly -just, had wished, at each step, to soften away by equity the violation -of the independent existence of a nation; that, practically, she -sought to reunite the national tie, which arbitrary right had recently -broken; and that she was less occupied in resolving the question of the -destinies of Poland, or putting an end to it by one act of sovereign -power, than in leaving it in suspense, and handing it over to the -future.</p> - -<p>All that thus appears in some inert articles of the treaty, receives -a sort of luminous and decisive confirmation from the interpretations -of the times, from the commentaries of the sovereigns themselves, -as well as from the first deeds done under the fresh impression of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_223">[Pg 223]</span> -these events. No one knows what passed through the mind of the Emperor -Alexander—through that mind at once so playful and so imperious, so -full of liberal desires and of mysterious unrest, of generous instincts -and of Byzantine duplicity; but he, at any rate, entered upon his part -by not recoiling from such a beginning as would ensure his popularity. -‘In truth,’ he said to Lord Castlereagh, ‘though at this moment the -object is not to re-establish Poland in its integrity, there is -nothing to prevent that being done some day, if Europe should desire -it. To-day, such a thing would be premature. That country needs to be -prepared for so great a change; and there is no better way of doing it -than to erect into a kingdom one part of its territory, and in this to -place such institutions as will make the principles of civilisation -take root and fructify; they will then spread through the whole mass.’ -And, in truth, Alexander was the first who set to work, till he gave -a charter to his new kingdom, the constitution of the 13th of May, -1815; and of this he himself expressed the sense, in a proclamation -made to the Poles: ‘A constitution suited to your wants and to your -characters; the use of your language preserved in public transactions; -offices and employments bestowed solely on Poles; liberty in commerce -and in navigation; facilities of communication with such parts of -ancient Poland as are subject to other powers; a national army; all -means guaranteed to perfect<span class="pagenum" id="Page_224">[Pg 224]</span> your laws, with the free circulation -of knowledge in your country—<em>these</em> are the advantages which -you will enjoy under our rule, and under that of our successors; and -<em>these</em>, also, you will transmit as a patriotic inheritance to -your children and your children’s children....’</p> - -<p>The reader will remark here, that this is strictly the meaning of -the Treaty of 1815; and three years later, in 1818, Alexander, when -opening the first Polish Diet at Warsaw, still held the same language. -‘Your restoration is defined,’ he said, ‘by the most solemn treaties, -and sanctioned by a constitutional charter; and the inviolability of -these exterior engagements and of this fundamental law henceforward -assures to Poland an honourable rank among the nations of Europe.’ The -Emperor, moreover, seems to have so little questioned the guarantees -of Europe, that he boasted of having won them for Poland, as one wins -a victory, by a brilliant charge. ‘I have made this kingdom,’ he goes -on to say—‘I have established it on the most solid basis; for <em>I -have obliged</em> the Powers of Europe to guarantee its existence by -treaty.’ At one moment, the successful autocrat had thoughts of going -a step further, and of aggrandising the new kingdom by annexing to it -the old Polish provinces incorporated with Russia, viz. Lithuania, -Volhynia, and the Ukraine; for he had reserved the right of doing so, -in his treaty with Austria, in these very words: ‘His Imperial Majesty -reserves to himself the right of giving to this state,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_225">[Pg 225]</span> which enjoys -a distinct administration, such <em>interior extension</em> as he shall -think proper;’ and this it was which, for a moment, gained over the -heart of old Kosciusko to the policy of Alexander.</p> - -<p>The King of Prussia, if he left a brilliant part, and the formation -of great projects to the Tzar, did not act differently from him. He -held the same language to the Poles of Posen. ‘You, likewise,’ he said -to them, ‘have a country, and I esteem you because you have known how -to defend her. You will be my subjects; but you will not, for that -reason, be obliged to deny your own nationality. Your religion is to be -respected, and your personal rights and properties are to pass under -the guardianship of laws which, for the future, will be enacted by -yourselves. Your language in all public affairs will be employed along -with the German tongue. You will fill up all the offices of the Grand -Duchy of Posen; and my Lieutenant, born among you, will reside with -you.’</p> - -<p>The formula of the oath imposed upon officials was peculiarly -significant. It was conceived in these terms: ‘I acknowledge his -Majesty the King of Prussia as the only legitimate sovereign of this -country; and <em>I acknowledge that part of Poland which, in consequence -of the Treaty of Vienna, has fallen to the lot of the royal House of -Prussia, to be my country</em>, the which I am ready to defend against -all persons whatsoever, and under all circumstances, at the price of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_226">[Pg 226]</span> -my own blood.’ Such an interpretation long continued to be in use, -since, in 1841, King Frederic William IV. engaged ‘to respect in the -Poles that love which every heroic nation cherishes, for its language, -its customs, and its historic past.’</p> - -<p>As to the Emperor of Austria, he, in 1815, did nothing. With his cold -temper, the Emperor Francis laughed a little at the restlessness, and -the liberal proclivities of Alexander of Russia. He was, however, -uneasy about them, and ended by saying, ‘I am not false enough for -that,’ which, of course, did not change the <em>meaning</em> of the -arrangements of 1815. In recalling all these facts, it must not be -supposed that I entertain the eccentric idea of making the last of the -rights of Poland rest in the work of the Congress of Vienna; but still -these treaties, such as they were, brought about a certain order of -things. If it was not independence which they secured, at least they -gave us a number of guarantees—the preservation of nationality even in -partition, the autonomy of our institutions, and of our interests. Our -name, our religion, and our language were all, under the sanction of -Europe, saved from total shipwreck and loss.</p> - -<p>But has experience shown us that this is the plan which has been -followed now for nearly half a century? The truth is that, in accepting -the situation created by the Treaty of Vienna (an order of events -which had its conditions, its obligations, and its limits), Russia,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_227">[Pg 227]</span> -Prussia, and Austria have shaped their practice after the spirit which -presided at the <em>first</em> partition—that is, after the idea of an -assimilation so complete as to be equivalent to conquest. From these -treaties of 1815, they have, to say the truth, reaped the benefit of -having got a European sanction for the dismemberment of Poland; but -they have troubled themselves very little about the guarantees which -were designed to serve as a sad and impotent compensation for the -partition; and each of these three powers has carried on its work after -the fashion which has best suited itself, its politics, and its nature.</p> - -<p>Not that the change was made suddenly, or openly visible. It has been -developed by degrees, especially in the kingdom of Poland. Veiled at -first, during the lifetime of Alexander, by constitutional forms, it -was hastened, and no longer concealed, under the Emperor Nicholas, -whose policy may be described in one word, the <em>denationalisation</em> -of Poland. To accomplish this was the dream, the intense, unbounded, -ardent passion of a prince who was perhaps a great Russian, driven -by continental revolutions to play an exceptional part, but who left -dangerous traces upon European policy, and bequeathed a weight of -formidable difficulties to his successor. Yet it must not be said that -the Revolution of 1831 placed Poland at the mercy of this Tzar, or that -it released him from all his obligations, and gave him all the rights -of a conqueror; for, in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_228">[Pg 228]</span> first place, that revolution was nothing -more than a reprisal—a desperate attempt at self-defence; and, what is -more, against any such policy there rise at once all the stipulations -of the Treaty of Vienna, and even all the words of the Emperor -Alexander—‘Your restoration is defined by solemn treaties.... I have -obliged Europe to guarantee your existence by treaties....’ The Emperor -Nicholas was, possibly, the fittest judge to determine what extent of -liberalism he could put into the institutions of the kingdom of Poland; -but he was not the only judge of what was, so to say, the European -essence of these institutions—of that which concerned their spirit, -according to treaty—of the preservation of the nationality of Poland. -Diplomacy had placed that matter out of his power, by putting it beyond -his reach. Now, this very nationality, placed under the guarantees -of all Europe, became, unfortunately, a particular foe of Nicholas; -and he persecuted it with all the inflexible vigour of his character, -in our religion and our language, in the autonomy of our interests -and institutions, in the independence of our hearths, in public -instruction, in our manners, and in our very dress. This originated the -system which, in 1831, substituted a new <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">statut organique</i> for -the Constitution of 1815, and which, we must say, has been followed -far too long, and followed, also, in all the bitterness of a spirit -irritated by the resistance which it has met with.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_229">[Pg 229]</span></p> - -<p>The organic statute of 1831 made no secret of it; it was an absolute -and definitive incorporation of the Kingdom into the Russian Empire. -Thenceforward the ceremony of the coronation of the king of Poland -at Warsaw was also abolished. The separate army disappeared, and -military recruiting for Russia spread over the kingdom. The magistracy -ceased to be unremovable, and Russian functionaries replaced Poles in -the administration; while the constitutional chambers gave place to -provincial assemblies, which have, moreover, never even been convoked. -Thus a policy was disclosed, of which the only aim seems to have been -to dissolve all the ties of national life in the kingdom, as well as in -the ancient provinces. The high schools, the university, the library, -the museum, and the mint of Warsaw vanished, or were transferred to -St. Petersburg. Education was reduced to technical studies; Latin was -banished at last; and the children in every parish, to whatever class -of society they might belong, were obliged to attend the government -schools, and to learn Russian, under pain of corporal punishment on -the children, and of a fine in the case of the parents. One day, -5,000 families of the lesser nobility of Poland were ordered to be -transported to the crown lands, or to the Caucasian border; and in -the order of execution it was added, that, ‘if the Polish gentry have -no mind to be transplanted, you are authorised to oblige them, and -to use force;’ while another day the Council of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_230">[Pg 230]</span> Administration at -Warsaw adjudicated quietly on the transport of the <em>sons of noble -Poles</em> to St. Petersburg, at the price of 120 roubles (paper money). -I do not speak here of other orphan children carried off to Minsk, -or of the multitudes of Poles of all ages removed to Siberia. Where -persons are not safe, religion is also infringed. Sometimes it is -attacked through the police, sometimes it suffers by the expropriation -of Catholic Churches, by persecution, by the forced conversion of the -United Greek to the Orthodox Church. The national costume is the next -subject of interference; there is a law against wearing the national -colours, against using blue, crimson, or white, though green and red -are not wholly forbidden to the women, and we are permitted to put on -white shirts. The Russian costume of a brown hue being much the most -economical wear, the government undertakes to open clothing shops in -all towns and villages! The reward of one rouble is offered to those -who display the greatest alacrity in donning the Russian dress, and -those who oppose themselves are flogged. In short, a vast attempt is -made to efface everything that has the stamp of our country, or that -can recall her existence. This hapless nationality in the midst of the -empire must be made to disappear, and it must be made subordinate to -the intentions and the interests of Russia.</p> - -<p>The design of bringing about a forced assimilation,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_231">[Pg 231]</span> and of making the -Polish give way to the Russian element, is often shown in the most -futile administrative details, in the simplest questions of trade, and -other material interests. Having once entered on this system, Russia -is condemned to fear everything, and to watch every event. Not very -long ago, Prussia drew up a set of complicated rules with regard to -the importation of cattle into its territories, and established such a -quarantine as might preserve its herds from those epizootic disorders -which ravaged the southern parts of Russia. Who suffered from these -difficulties? Of course, the kingdom of Poland (a country essentially -agricultural, but possessing in its cattle one element of wealth) could -not but suffer. It was then timidly requested that, in order to have -the restrictions, made for the sake of Prussia, removed, and in order -to leave the trade between Germany and Poland free, such precautionary -measures as had heretofore been in force at the Prussian frontier -of the kingdom should also be put in practice on the marches of the -Russian provinces in which the contagion obtained. But nothing of the -sort was done; and for this reason, that the sanitary <em>cordon</em> -thus demanded must have been upon the old Polish boundary, and it -would, oddly enough, have described the line of those frontiers which -existed in 1792, and which the treaties of 1815 had laid down as the -frame within which the commercial life of the different provinces of -Poland was to exist. Russia was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_232">[Pg 232]</span> represented at Warsaw by a terrible -man, a Director of the Interior, M. Muchanof, who could not bear to see -Poland imaged even under the shape of a law of transit.</p> - -<p>Another fact ought to be noticed. During the last years, a great -question, from which the Russian Empire has much to fear, has been in -agitation, I mean the emancipation of the peasantry; a problem of which -the Emperor Alexander II. has attempted the solution. My business is -not with the discussion of the subject in itself, but only to remark, -that there is a great difference in regard to it between Russia and -the kingdom of Poland. In the kingdom all the principles of the French -civil code remain in full vigour. There is equality of persons in -the eye of the law; but the constitution of property is a different -thing. Thus, our peasants still pay, it is true, a feudal fine, or -<i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">corvée</i>, on the fields which they cultivate; but this fine is -not a sign of personal servitude. The labouring man has his civil -individuality. Thus, in the different countries his condition differs -essentially; and yet when the question arose the other day, Polish -proprietors were forbidden to do otherwise than follow the programme -traced by the Russian government solely with a view to Russia.</p> - -<p>My object in referring to this, is to point out in what a confusion of -interests Polish autonomy now perishes by force; and yet that autonomy -was placed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_233">[Pg 233]</span> under the sanction of the whole of Europe. In truth, -must not Russian policy have passed all limits, if quite recently a -permission to teach Polish in schools for <em>one hour</em> in the day -(as if it was English or Turkish) came to be considered as a sort of -reparation, almost as a liberal measure?</p> - -<p>I do not say that a similar policy, under like conditions, or with -similar measures, has been followed in Prussian Poland. There, at -least, so much of liberalism prevails that the right of complaining is -left. Our griefs are not lost in the silence of a boundless oppression. -Polish deputies have to this day a place in the parliament of Berlin, -where, inch by inch, they defend the privileges of their country. But -are the two systems, after all, so very unlike each other? The latter -is less violent in one way, but its object is at bottom the same; for -Prussia, like Russia, labours to denationalise Poland. M. de Flotwell, -a man who governed the Grand Duchy (Posen) for many years, explained -his views when he said, that she did so, by insensibly stifling Polish -manners, inclinations, and tendencies, and by introducing the German -element in their place. The work of infiltering the German element is -carried on in a thousand ways; by bureaucracy, by education, by the -compulsory substitution of the German for the Polish tongue; by the -transfer of land, with the connivance of the state, which sometimes -buys up Polish estates, and sells them to Germans at<span class="pagenum" id="Page_234">[Pg 234]</span> a loss. There is -not a single Polish notary in Posen. Justice is administered in German, -and he who appears before the public tribunals is often examined, -accused, nay even defended, in a language which he does not understand. -It is the same with public instruction: it has hitherto been found -impossible to establish a Polish high school (Lyceum), and where a -working-man’s college has been opened, the classes are taught and the -course is in German. Even in private institutions it is forbidden to -teach the history of Poland, and for this conclusive reason, ‘that this -history not being taught in the public schools, ought not any more -to be taught in private ones!’ The Prussian government, it must be -said, makes no secret of its intentions; for it has promulgated in the -parliament of Berlin, that ‘the province of Posen is neither more nor -less than a simple province of Prussia.’</p> - -<p>We now come to Austria. As to that power, need I recall with what -sinister dexterity she one day succeeded in putting hatred into the -hearts of the peasants of Galicia, and in driving them upon the Polish -nobility? And is it not a strange irony of fortune which has made -Austria the guardian of the tombs of two heroes of Poland? The one is -the grave of Sobieski, who sleeps in a church now abandoned and in -ruins at Cracow; the other is that of Kosciusko. When Kosciusko died, -the students of Cracow obtained leave to erect a humble monument to his -memory on a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_235">[Pg 235]</span> height, at a little distance from the town. The Austrians -came, they did not certainly do away with the tomb, but they covered it -round with the works of a citadel, and placed by it an Austrian sentry! -Finally, there came a day—a day which has not been forgotten, when the -three powers were found united in the definite suppression of Cracow, -that town, ‘free, independent, and neutral to all perpetuity,’ and all -this with the sanction of Europe, which could do nothing but enter one -protest more.</p> - -<p>What result is evident from this assemblage of facts, from this -eloquent demonstration of the lack of efficacy in European guarantees? -This—that in reality the stipulations of Vienna have been set aside -by the very powers in whose behalf they were made, by those who have, -except these treaties, no other titles for the possession of Poland.</p> - -<p>But the stipulations have disappeared under a series of violations, -which have been systematically carried out, but which, while they -enervate or nullify the guarantees that protected our nationality, also -nullify the title of these governments, and give back their rights to -nationalities, whose energy has been increased by their conflicts, or -by the necessity of self-defence.</p> - -<p>Further, it may be thought that these treaties created insoluble -difficulties, attempted to make things live together which were utterly -irreconcilable, viz., the contradictory rights and interests of the -conquerors and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_236">[Pg 236]</span> the conquered. It may be so; but this only goes to -prove that the Treaties of 1815 sowed the seeds of war and of disorder -by the Vistula as by the Po; and the disturbances of half a century -have grown up out of them, by the Po as by the Vistula.</p> - -<p>Here we see what is most truly characteristic in these Polish matters. -Here is no natural and peaceful developement of an order of things -half constituted by the ruling power of public right. It is a history -full of dramatic mysteries, of ardent protests, of which one-half -only is known to the world, the other half being lost in dungeons, in -subterranean vaults, in mines, in Siberia, in the Ourals. Above all, -since 1831, it is the history of a dark and ceaseless conflict between -a power which, in order to remain mistress, is obliged at every turn to -exceed its rights, and a people which struggles, conspires and rebels, -and to whom the permanent contact of a hard and foreign rule with a -suffering nationality is a continual punishment—a people which passes -its time in believing in hope even against hope, whom oppression raises -more than it tames, and which even when conquered has the ingenuity to -feed on its own sufferings, and to relish them with a dark and bitter -delight.</p> - -<p>Let any man represent to himself what that country is like, where to -have read such and such a book by a Polish poet has sent thousands -of young people to Siberia—a country where in the universities and -schools the students, even the children, secretly practised<span class="pagenum" id="Page_237">[Pg 237]</span> beating -each other with rods, in order to accustom themselves to tortures, and -to be ready to bear every trial without flinching! This familiarity -with pain, this sort of defiance to a hidden warfare, is one of the -traits of the contemporary genius of Poland; and it is the theme of -a song commonly sung in Poland to a slow and plaintive melody; an -ironical and bloody lesson for the use of Polish mothers! ‘Our Saviour, -when still a child at Nazareth, played with the cross, the future -instrument of his death; and thou, alas! oh, Polish mother, oughtest -to amuse thy child with the instruments of his future play. Early, -then, tie his hands with chains, fasten them to the infamous tumbril, -that he may not grow pale at the executioner’s axe, that he may not -blush at the sight of the noose; for he will never go, as did the -knights of old, to plant the cross triumphant at Jerusalem; nor yet, -like the soldiers of later times, to till the fields of liberty, and -to water them with his blood. He who will provoke your child will be a -secret spy; he who will contend with him will be a perjured judge. His -field of battle will be a dungeon underground; his sentence will be -pronounced in some implacable cave. When conquered, no monument awaits -him but the empty gallows tree; and for glory he shall have the stifled -sobs of women, and the midnight whispers of his brother men!’</p> - -<p>Thus has Poland existed for nearly thirty years, struggling and -conspiring, trying both to interest<span class="pagenum" id="Page_238">[Pg 238]</span> Europe in her misfortunes, and to -accomplish within herself the great work of internal revolution—having -to bear the back blow of every event, and of all those catastrophes -which have crossed her efforts. In reality, perhaps Poland has suffered -by three occurrences within the last fifteen years (occurrences which -have had a conspicuous part in her fate) more than by any persecutions -carried on against her. These events were believed to have proved -fatal to her, but they have nevertheless been but as a new trial, a -mysterious and a bitter prelude to a more serious manifestation of -her powerful vitality. The first of these events was the massacre -in Galicia in 1846—the most terrible and bloody deception of all -Polish patriots! The revolution of 1831, when it died out before the -arms of Russia, had at least left this lesson, that for the future, -any and every attempt at national enfranchisement must form part of -such an internal transformation as should unite all classes, and -interest the masses throughout the country in one common work for the -emancipation of the peasantry, and for making them definitely holders -of property. As to the means of doing this, the two parties, namely, -the constitutional or aristocratic, and the democratic, differed. At -bottom they had the same end in view, and the project was cherished -more especially by the democratic propaganda, of which emigrants formed -the central body. But all of a sudden, Austria, taking a part in the -movement, turned the current of emancipative<span class="pagenum" id="Page_239">[Pg 239]</span> ideas against Poland, and -by unloosing against the nobility the fury of the Galician peasantry, -had taught the other dominant governments in Posen, and in the kingdom -(Warsaw), how to establish their own reign most securely, by inflaming -the minds of men, and by setting class against class. Thus ended the -labours of the democratic conspiracy of the year 1846; and the work -had to be recommenced, for this bloody act, brought about with most -sinister shrewdness, had at least for the time being disconcerted every -attempt in Poland, since action had lost its fulcrum in the masses who -had been thus fatally led astray.</p> - -<p>The French Revolution of February, 1848, was another of those events -which, by deceiving Poland, have helped to weigh her down. It was -the hour at which a great explosion was expected, for, in a French -revolution, how could we do otherwise than see a movement affecting -the world? How could we help thinking that all nations would free -themselves from old claims, and that Europe would be transformed by -democracy? But what, on the contrary, was the result? Everybody knows -that this ill-starred revolution availed none of the nationalities. -Neither could it have been of help to any, since it obliged France to -concentrate her own forces, in order to save herself from dissolution. -But the Polish cause had the misfortune of being united with those -European commotions which were so much to be dreaded; and, what was -worse, that cause served<span class="pagenum" id="Page_240">[Pg 240]</span> as the banner of the agitators of May 15th, -1848, who menaced everybody, and everything. This was its crime. Having -become importunate and teasing, like some unpleasant recollection, its -popularity was immediately lost; and, what was still more curious, -it was Nicholas who became popular—that Emperor suddenly being -transformed into the high priest of order and civilisation.</p> - -<p>Then came the war in the East, and, at the prospect of inevitable -complications in Europe, as at the sight of that strange -combination—viz. a liberal alliance between France and England against -Russia—the hopes of the Poles once more awoke. Had the Emperor -Nicholas lived, his obstinacy might have occasioned such European -complications as might have again given a place to Poland; but his -death facilitated peace. The name of Poland cannot be spoken; and, -inasmuch as the Revolution of February, 1848, deceived the democratic -party among us, so did the war in the Crimea dissipate the illusions of -these moderate politicians of the diplomatic party who reckoned upon -Europe.</p> - -<p>It is, then, after this series of mistakes and of hopes deceived, that -Poland has retreated more and more into herself, and that she sits -mutely waiting, having seen how conspiracies, European revolutions, and -regular interventions, have all alike failed her. Poland feels that she -has become unpopular; that, as a Pole expressed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_241">[Pg 241]</span> it, ‘she is a bore,’ -and she avoids being spoken of. No doubt, she could not help feeling -with secret bitterness, that liberal Europe takes interest in Italian -nationality, in Hungarian nationality, in Moldo-Wallachian nationality, -and forgets a little that there was a Polish nationality. But Poland is -silent, and she endures this punishment of silence and indifference, -which is more difficult to accept than war, more hard to bear than any -persecutions; for it has to be borne by a people which has spent its -life in seeking for a country, and which has filled the history of -to-day with its heroism, its protests, and its distress. No one can -imagine what an amount of suffering is inflicted on Polish hearts by -the moral isolation in which we are left, and that, too, in the middle -of the agitation occasioned by the revival of other nationalities. ‘I -see what it is,’ said a Polish peasant; ‘they will end in giving the -Tsigans a king, but no one will ever think of giving one to us.’ Poland -had at one time so completely disappeared, that she was supposed to be -dead; she was thought to be either resigned to her fate or conquered by -suffering; and Europe was ready to go to sleep, as over an accomplished -fact, thinking that now there was one question less in the world.</p> - -<p>But Europe was wrong. These long years of silence and of loneliness, -far from being the dark and unnoted end of the nation, were, on the -contrary, but as the beginning of a new state, which late events -have<span class="pagenum" id="Page_242">[Pg 242]</span> disclosed; of a new order of things formed by degrees, having -its elements, its character, its personifications, and which, at a -given moment, has turned out to be the unexpected manifestation of an -energetic nationality, rallying to the cry of Dombrowski’s legion, ‘No, -Poland is not dead!’</p> - -<p>It was the era of conspiracies and of democratic propagandism which, up -to 1846, furnished heroic men of strange intrepidity, such as Konarski, -Zaleski, and Dombrowski; and, of this period of strife, the campaigns -of 1846, in Galicia and Posen, were the bloody and mournful close. Ever -since that time, and especially throughout the last years, we have had -a work of practical renovation, which has used all means, which has -been inoffensive in appearance, but not the less persistent because it -was unobserved, and which has been accomplished, owing, in part, to -that very silence of which I have already spoken. They who laboured -felt deeply what danger lay in making their operations heard. ‘Speak -of us as little as may be,’ wrote one of the leading men in Poland; -‘speak, if you will, of our miseries, of our agonised state, but do not -speak of our vitality, or of those signs of life which you remark in -us, for that would be to kill us.’ To this work, Prince Léon Sapieka -greatly contributed in Galicia, as did <abbr title="doctor">Dr.</abbr> Marcinkowski in Posen, up to -the time of his death; while, in the kingdom, none gave themselves to -it more than did Count Andrew Zamoyski.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_243">[Pg 243]</span></p> - -<p>Of what is that movement composed, which, thus suddenly disclosed, has -again brought Polish nationality face to face with Russian power?</p> - -<p>Doubtless, it has its source in many elements. All have a share in it; -for there meet religious zeal heightened by persecution, the labours of -mind, and the efforts made to raise the morals of the people. There is -industrial enterprise, and there also are agricultural improvements; -but what is most characteristic in the movement is chiefly this, -that it has been born in some sort spontaneously from the soil, and -upon the soil itself, independent of the action of emigration, or -of the propagandism of parties. It has been the work of those who -were unwilling either to conspire or to give in, and who, among the -ruins of their native country, and after her violent struggles were -ended, have sought to bring together elements for a new solution of -the Polish question. It certainly was impossible for these patriots -to throw themselves into politics. They would have been instantly -arrested, if they had done so. Their only thought then was, how best, -morally and physically, to remodel the country, and how most to steer -clear of politics in doing so. They began by establishing Temperance -societies; and even this ground required wary walking, because they -ran against the Russian authorities, who protect drunkenness, in order -to protect the inland revenues, and who issued circulars against these -societies, declaring them to be contrary to law. One<span class="pagenum" id="Page_244">[Pg 244]</span> Governor-General -of Lithuania, M. Nazimof, showed his erudition by citing the marriage -in Cana of Galilee, as a proof that the Gospel was not averse to the -use of spirituous liquors.</p> - -<p>Another institution has played a great part in the present movement: -I mean the Agricultural Society of Warsaw. It had a very humble -beginning. About 1842 an association had been formed for the -publication of a small newspaper, called ‘Annals of Agriculture,’ from -which all political questions and allusions had been strictly banished, -which did not relate either to the situation of Poland, to its -government, its foreign relations, or indeed to things that concerned -it. But this was the germ from which grew, during the first part of -the reign of Alexander II., in those first moments of liberality and -good will, a more serious institution, the Agricultural Society itself, -founded with the exclusive object of making physical improvements, -having correspondents in all the provinces, and being authorised to -hold two sittings yearly at Warsaw. However limited this institution -may have originally been in its object, still it formed a bond of -union, and it has ended by drawing together 4,000 landowners of the -kingdom.</p> - -<p>So slowly did the work proceed—creating on one day an Agricultural -Society, on another day starting the navigation of the -Vistula—sometimes forming banks, at another establishing a Temperance -League—recalling<span class="pagenum" id="Page_245">[Pg 245]</span> the country to a sense of its own interests, -and drawing men together by making them co-operate in the same -undertakings. Now, let us observe what were the effects of a labour so -patient, so modest, so often crossed, and yet so efficacious. Instead -of conspiracies, we learnt the habit of acting in legal ways, and we -acquired a sense of the power which there is in regular, persistent, -and pacific action. Such questions as the emancipation of the peasants, -and others which have divided the public mind, and kept up divisions -even among emigrants—such questions, mischievous while only a strife -of theories, have now found their natural solution in practice; for -the Agricultural Society has taken the initiative in this matter, and -proposed a system by which the peasant is made an owner, and by which, -through an ingenious combination of credit given, an indemnity is -secured to the actual possessor; and this indemnity the peasant pays up -in successive and limited annuities, without having to give more than -he had formerly done. This may be called the Polish solution of the -difficulty, as opposed to the Russian one. Finally, and what is most -important, this secret regeneration of the country has done what we -have just seen. No longer are parties embittered against each other, -after a common defeat, nor do they dispute over a distant victory; but -we have a compact mass—a nation welded together by one thought—where -there is no distinction of classes, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_246">[Pg 246]</span> of which the union has been -cemented by the bloodshed of the 27th of February, 1861—the day -on which Russia made the first attempt to put it all down. Those -intelligent Russian bullets did more than they were aware of; for they -helped to cement the alliance by striking, as they did, victims of -every rank, of every condition, of all religions, almost of every age.</p> - -<p>One man, as I have said, personifies in himself all that is most -serious and practical in this movement, and he has left upon it the -stamp of his own character. This is Count Andrew Zamoyski, whom the -people speaking his language simply call ‘Monsieur André.’ He is not -the only one; but he has been, from the very first, one of the most -active promoters of all that could awaken the land. By birth he is -connected with one of the oldest Polish families—with the family of -that grand-constable, John Zamoyski, of the sixteenth century, who -laboured to constitute a body of lesser nobles, in the face of our -aristocratic oligarchy, and who was one of the greatest of Polish -captains. The family is one which has long been eclipsed, and which -only reappears at certain epochs. There was another Zamoyski, who was -Chancellor in 1772, but who laid down his office because he would not -set his seal to the first division; and of this Zamoyski, Count Andrew -is the grandson, as he is also the brother of the general who, at one -time, was to have headed a Polish legion, at the time of the Crimean -war. Count Andrew<span class="pagenum" id="Page_247">[Pg 247]</span> naturally found himself mixed up with the revolution -of 1831. He was first Minister of the Interior at Warsaw, and then was -sent on a mission to Vienna, to M. de Metternich, who, it was said, -was, at the time of the last battle, inclined for an intervention. When -that revolution was, at last, quelled by the Russians, he would not -leave the country. He remained in obscurity, cherishing no deceptive -hopes, but soon seeking how best to raise her, after her great defeat. -No very great career offered itself to him; but he turned to material -interests and pursuits, and he brought to the work an activity not -the less singular, because it was narrowed by conditions which were -strait and uncertain. He established breeding-stables (studs), helped -to introduce steam-navigation on the Vistula, which was a tie with -Galicia, and laboured to organise the ‘<i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Crédit foncier</i>.’ He -it was who started the little paper, ‘Annals of Agriculture,’ who -afterwards became the principal promoter of the Agricultural Society, -and who, up to the present time, has continued to be its President.</p> - -<p>Count Zamoyski is characterised in all that he has done by his -practical sense, by the clearness of his views, and by a moderation -in action, which is joined to great natural dignity. The situation of -Count Andrew is, moreover, a sufficiently singular one; for, by his -moderation, he excites the suspicions of the more hot-headed among -the Poles, who expect nothing except<span class="pagenum" id="Page_248">[Pg 248]</span> from revolutions, and, by his -activity, he makes himself suspected by the Russians. The curious and -difficult problem, how to live between these two, is the one which he -has to solve. He has to be master over himself, and he cannot suffer -himself to be led away by useless rashness; while he must not, on the -other hand, sink the dignity and the name of a Pole. His secrets are -hid in his actions. He never revealed them to anyone; and, to speak -truly, is it perfectly certain that he had any secrets? He simply put -in practice the old word ‘laboremus;’ and though constantly obliged to -have dealings with the Government, he never yielded his ground; and -he kept up an obstinate struggle against the venality of the Russian -officials, to which he would not submit upon any terms. More than -once he has had to go through some very thorny trials; but he has -always acquitted himself well. On the day of the foundation of the -Agricultural Society, a dinner took place, at which, of course, the -Director of the Interior, M. Muchanof, was present. At last, the toast -in use at all Polish dinners, ‘Let us love each other,’ was given by -him. All eyes were immediately turned upon Count Zamoyski, who, calmly -and simply, and with scarcely a perceptible smile, replied, ‘Yes: but -at home!’ There was nothing more to be said. The spirit of this policy, -if policy it can be called, is to do all that it is possible to do, -to go as far as may be, and to measure one’s steps according to the -necessities of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_249">[Pg 249]</span> the day. It breathes no agitation; but it is to be an -activity according to the laws, taking advantage of everything, making -use of everything, and communicating life unawares to the country—this -is precisely what has appeared in the late events, and this remains the -character of the new crisis.</p> - -<p>Are men aware of what it is that gives to this movement the weight of -a true national manifestation? It is that it has nothing in it which -is either artificial or evanescent. It is the work of the few, and -also the work of all. Like all deep movements, it is at once simple -and complex, it is sincere as is the passion of a whole nation; and -far from resolving itself into a mere series of efforts for physical -order, which have suddenly issued in a political question, it has a -moral side, which agrees wonderfully with what I have said of its -characteristics of practical and lawful action. One thing in these -occurrences at Warsaw, interspersed, as they are, with scenes of -bloodshed, is very striking, and that is, the passive attitude of a -people, which appears unarmed and offers no resistance—which persists, -and, though dispersed, constantly reassembles—which offers itself -as a defenceless victim, and which refuses the arms which are left -within its reach. And under such an attitude, there must be something -more than mere obedience to a watchword or to an order. No conspirator -could have been clever enough to have imagined it. It is the sign of a -thorough revolution<span class="pagenum" id="Page_250">[Pg 250]</span> in the minds and in the souls of men, a revolution -to which the mind of one poet was no stranger—I mean Krasinski, whose -works have appealed to all Polish imaginations, and which will be -imprinted on all hearts, even of the lowest orders of the people. He -is that <em>anonymous</em> poet from whom we formerly had a few poems, -all full of deep meaning, all marked by gloomy and ardent mysticism. -Sigismund Krasinski is dead now; but he had endured the bitterest -trials of spirit, both as a patriot and as a son. He was born in -1812, and was held at the font of baptism by Napoleon, for his father -was that Vincent Krasinski (a descendant of one of the chiefs of the -Confederation of Bar) who, at the end of the empire, replaced Prince -Poniatowski in the command of the Polish army, and who subsequently -played a part in the Chambers of the kingdom of Poland, after the -Restoration. Unhappily, General Krasinski irritated public feeling by -the vote he gave in the Senate, in regard to the conspiracy of 1828; -and his son Sigismund received, in the public square, such a marked and -cutting insult from his school-fellows, that he was obliged to leave -the country. He travelled, and went to Rome. When the revolution of the -29th of November, 1830, broke out, he set out immediately for Poland; -but, at Berlin, he had to stop. His father had been taken, at Warsaw, -by the insurgents, and had only saved himself by promising devotion to -the national cause; and now he had fled to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_251">[Pg 251]</span> St. Petersburg. Sigismund -despaired; he never could bring himself to remain in his own land, -and the rest of his life, spent among strangers, was devoted entirely -to the composition of his poems, which he published without ever -acknowledging their authorship. Through him, Polish patriotism found a -fresh voice.</p> - -<p>When Mickiewicz addressed the revolutionary and warrior youth of -Poland, he said, ‘Strong through union, wise through self-denial, -forwards! my young friends!’ Krasinski said, in a song now as popular -as once were Mickiewicz’s words, ‘No man can build with mud, and -highest wisdom still is highest virtue.’ These are the watchwords of -two different epochs.</p> - -<p>The ruling inspiration of the whole of the poetry of Krasinski is -the abjuration of all hatred and of all vengeance—that force alone -will not enable us to contend successfully against force, but that -the weapons of our warfare must be superior powers of soul—that, -in order to conquer one’s enemy, it is not enough that we have the -right on our side, unless that right rests upon strong and pure moral -sentiments; that the most powerful levers are love, and the virtues -of self-sacrifice and of heroic patience. One of the heroes of his -‘Infernal Comedy’ is Pancrace, the type of that brutal strength which -yields and quails in helplessness before a superior power. The same -inspiration reigns in his Greek poem ‘Iridion,’ where the Christian -hero is a passive martyr, with a horror of vengeance, who triumphs -over<span class="pagenum" id="Page_252">[Pg 252]</span> Rome, and confounds the patriotism of Iridion, a man who had -no thoughts beyond revenge, and who makes shipwreck in spite of the -justice of his complaints and of his cause. This is also the thought -embodied in ‘Aurora,’ in the ‘Psalms of the Future.’ In all these songs -the Polish soul thrills with mystic ardour, glows with enthusiasm, -and with inexhaustible youth. ‘Lord!’ says Krasinski, in one Psalm, -‘what we crave is not hope, since she descends upon us like rain upon -flowers. It is not the death of our foes, since that death is written -in the clouds of to-morrow. It is not arms, since they are placed in -our hands by Thee. It is not help, for Thou hast opened a free path -before us; but we implore, put a pure spirit in our inmost hearts. O -Holy Spirit! who dost teach us that our great strength doth lie in -sacrifice, grant that we by love may lead the nations to the ends we -seek!’ But in a fragment of his ‘Aurora,’ Krasinski has still better -described this part of heroic expiation:—‘Is it then required that we -should be murderers with murderers, and criminals with criminals? Must -we lie, hate, slay likewise, and blaspheme? The world cries: At this -price you may have power and liberty; without it, nothing! but nay, my -soul! nay; not with such arms as these. The weight of sacrifice alone -can in its turn crush down the weight which crushes us. In the world’s -story, sacrifice is lionlike and unconquered still; but crime is as the -chaff which the wind in passing sweeps away.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_253">[Pg 253]</span></p> - -<p>‘No! my country; yours is rather the patience which doth show, how -stone by stone the building can be reared: yours rather the will -inflexible, which, abiding humbly, prepares for future victory. Rather -yours is calmness amid the storms, and harmony amid discordant cries: -rather yours, eternal loveliness amid abhorrent shapes: rather yours -to heap on cowards and Pharisees that mournful silence which doth -overwhelm. Be yours the strength which lifteth up the weak; and yours -the hope of those who cease to hope. For thy strife against this -world’s hell, be thine the peace and strength of love, against which -hell itself cannot prevail...!</p> - -<p>‘The nations are all sought by God: all in Thy Grace, O Jesus, are -concerned! to each from high a calling Thou hast given; in each a -sense profound from Thee doth live, and weaves the woof of all their -destinies; but some among the nations Thou hast chosen to defend the -cause of Heavenly Beauty, and to give to the world an example, while -they bear, through the long day, a heavy cross, and walk the world’s -paths red with blood. These by their sublime strife shall at last, O -Lord, give to man a feeling higher and more divine, a holier charity, -and a larger brotherhood, in exchange for that sharp sword which men -have plunged into their breast. Such is this Polish land of thine, O -Jesu Christ! Our love of man has caused our death, and men have seen -the corpse of Poland carried to the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_254">[Pg 254]</span> tomb; but when the third day -comes, the light shall shine, and shine through all the ages yet to -be. Think you, that he who loves, in dying, disappears for evermore? -Yes, to our fleshly eyes; but the whole world, through the soul’s -eyes, beholds him still. He who in love expires, leaves in his hour -of martyrdom his soul to all his brethren. He abides in the sanctuary -of human hearts, and every day, every hour, he lives, though buried; -grows, though in the tomb!’</p> - -<p>This thought of the power of sacrifice, and of passive heroism, has -filtered through our youth, and permeated even the masses; and this -it is which is visible in the Poland of to-day, for the inspiration -of the poet has become the feeling of the people. One other cause, -and it is a strange and curious one, has also helped, during the -last few years, to spread and to popularise these ideas, by suddenly -throwing a new element into Polish society. When the Emperor Alexander -II. ascended the throne, he signalised his accession by an amnesty, -which, however incomplete, opened the gates of their fatherland to a -multitude of exiles. Some came from the West, the others (and these the -most numerous) came from Siberia. Those who had lived in France, or -in England, naturally returned to their country embittered by thirty -years of sufferings, accustomed to a Western atmosphere, nourished with -all sorts of revolutionary ideas; in short, half strangers in their -mind and manners. But with that tribe of exiles,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_255">[Pg 255]</span> called in Poland -‘Siberians,’ it was not so. They returned hardened and strengthened by -habits of secret and solitary suffering. Calm and resigned, they were -mystics to a certain extent, but their mysticism was of that grave and -gentle kind, which has nothing fierce or hateful in its nature. It is -a remarkable thing that, among these exiles returned from Siberia, -the country has for the last years found its best men, the most apt -for journalism, for professorships, for the administration of private -and national establishments, such as the Agricultural Society. There -are writers of talent who could not, it is true, sign their works -with their names; but their names were not, therefore, the less well -known. One brought back from Siberia a translation of ‘Faust,’ and is -one of our most eminent critics; another has translated Shakespeare. -A newspaper in Warsaw published a series of sketches of Caucasus, and -of Asia, which were the work of ‘Siberians,’ and in which there was an -indefinable mixture of freshness and resignation.</p> - -<p>These men spread over the country, and had a singular effect upon -it. Thence the serious and religious tinge of striking originality, -in all the popular demonstrations which have since happened, and -in all those manifestations which are so thoroughly free from the -revolutionary phraseology of the West. Theirs is, on the contrary, -a nervous and sober speech, and except in its religious accent it -has nothing exaggerated in it. The influence<span class="pagenum" id="Page_256">[Pg 256]</span> of the Siberians is -peculiarly visible in that strange address by the artizans of Warsaw: -‘Death is alike for all. Without sparing our persons, it is necessary -that we should go to the slaughter, and show to the world what it is -we wish. This is why we have walked in processions, and sung of the -constitution, and we will do so again whenever it shall be necessary; -if there are to be victims, it will be seen that that is according to -the will of God, if more is required we are ready to draw lots for the -one who is to be sacrificed—ready even to give our throats to the -knife, or to expire under the knout, as did those three victims whom -the waters threw up near Zakroczym, and which wrapped in straw were -flung from the castle into the Vistula. Only if then there is no pity -for our country, it will be ill!...’ Should one not say that this is -the same obstinate idea of sacrifice, which has passed through the -imagination of Krasinski, and through the action of the ‘Siberians,’ -into the popular mind?</p> - -<p>And now that all these elements are reunited, now that this union of -practical efforts extends over all interests, and this lawful impulse -has been communicated by Count Andrew Zamoyski, and instinctively -accepted by a whole population, now that a moral and religious sense -has been propagated in all minds, at once inflaming and satisfying -them, and a national sentiment has spontaneously reappeared in all -hearts, the movement is one, which, though imperceptible at first, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_257">[Pg 257]</span> -existing silently for many years, has been facilitated by the change of -reign at a given moment, and it has ended in that brief but eloquent -dialogue which took place recently between the Lieutenant-Governor, -Prince Gortchakof, and the crowd assembled in one of the squares of -Warsaw. ‘What do you want?’ ‘We want our country!’</p> - -<p>Evidently nothing has been accidental or unforeseen except the hour -at which the explosion took place. For the space of one year already -successive manifestations had revealed a sort of secret understanding -in the populace. First there was a funeral service celebrated all over -the country and at fixed epochs, in memory of the most eminent Polish -poets, Mickiewicz, Krasinski, and Slowacki. Then came the interview -which reunited at Warsaw the three Sovereigns of the north, and which -piqued the popular sense. It was in truth an odd idea which assembled -at Warsaw, for a conference in which it was suspected that designs -hurtful to Italy were to be discussed, the three masters of Poland. -Their reception from the populace was more than cold; and what is -most curious is that, impressed by this disagreeable circumstance, -they tried to ascribe to each other the blame of the annoyance -which they had received. The Russian papers avowed that it was the -Emperor of Austria who had earned this cold reception for the Emperor -Alexander, while the press of Vienna<span class="pagenum" id="Page_258">[Pg 258]</span> proved no less clearly that this -demonstration had been aimed at the Emperor of Russia.</p> - -<p>Some months later a more serious manifestation followed. It was a -commemorative service for the dead killed at that battle of Grochow, -in which in 1831 the Polish army contended during three days with the -Russian troops; and on that day it was (February 25th) that a new -Poland appeared, personified by a populace which walked with tapers -in its hands, reciting as with one voice this religious and national -hymn: ‘Holy Lord God! God Almighty, God Immortal, have mercy upon us! -From plague and pestilence, from fire and sword, O Lord, deliver us! -Be pleased to give us back our native land! Holy Virgin Mary, Queen of -Poland, pray for us!’ Then the crisis declared itself, and agitation -spread, as the concessions of Russia alternated with scenes of blood; -and thus it continued till April 8th, the day in which violent measures -for repressing the movement finally prevailed. It is not what followed -these events that I now have to describe. Everything in them bore the -mark of those influences which I have pointed out. This movement, as -has been seen, began with a religious service, and when it came to -a crisis, what was the step taken by those who had some power over -the people, and who felt the importance of the moment? A popular -delegation, authorised by the Lieutenant-Governor, took the command of -the town; a voluntary constabulary was organised for the prevention<span class="pagenum" id="Page_259">[Pg 259]</span> -of all disorders, and the Agricultural Society itself interfered as a -moderator, and a guardian of the peace. The addresses presented to the -Emperor contained nothing but what was according to law, since they -hardly even exacted all that had been assured to Poland by the treaty -of 1815. And what was the attitude of the populace itself? It showed -its <em>life</em>, if the expression may be permitted, by abstaining -from all conflicts. It assembled to give vent to its wishes and to its -complaints, but it presented itself unarmed and passive; even after -it was dispersed by force, women, children, and old men crowded round -a Madonna with weeping and with prayers. Strange insight into the -nature of a movement, of which the tactics have been to resist, but -not to take up arms! What constitutes its originality is the alliance -already mentioned of practical sense with a feeling which is moral, -religious, and even mystic—an alliance of which the secret is in the -conscience of a people, and which accords marvellously well with all -the instincts of the Polish nation, and indeed of the Slavonic race -in general, which appeals to political minds because its tendencies -are towards moderation and good sense, and at the same time offers the -charm of a certain poetic mysticism to the young and to the mass of -the lower orders. It is, then, the originality of this movement which -also constitutes its strength, for it reveals sources of vitality<span class="pagenum" id="Page_260">[Pg 260]</span> ever -new, in a race which has found in misfortune nothing but a generous -incentive.</p> - -<p>It is this same originality which in like manner has placed Russia in a -position of singular difficulty, when opposed to a popular awakening of -this sort; for this is no simple internal strife, but by considerations -of humanity and of right it forms part of a crisis peculiar to the -times, and of an order of things of European interest and extent.</p> - -<p>It is said that after the first bloody scenes at Warsaw in this month -of February, the Emperor Alexander II. being told that some of the -people had fallen victims, asked immediately what loss their army -had sustained, and what quantity of arms had been taken from the -insurgents? He was told in reply that there was no loss in the army, -and that it had not been possible to seize the arms of a populace -who had none, and would not have any. The Emperor, it is said, was -greatly surprised; and this astonishment at the beginning explains the -vacillations of Russia, and the hesitation which is to be observed in -her conduct. She seemed at first to fluctuate between all sorts of -policies.</p> - -<p>She gave up some of her officials, who were the most pointed at by -public animadversion, and, if I may use the expression, only seemed -to repress the movement by mistake. She made some concessions; she -drew the programme of a new organisation; she promised a variety of -reforms; she accepted the popular delegation<span class="pagenum" id="Page_261">[Pg 261]</span> as an auxiliary—accepted -even the help of the Agricultural Society itself. But presently both -delegation and Society were dissolved. Agitation was allowed to -increase by her indecision, till the scenes of April 8th mark the fresh -starting-point of a repressive policy. <em>Physically</em>, no doubt, -Russia can repress and disperse the manifestations of Warsaw, and she -can prevent the population wearing mourning for its dead; but when -that is accomplished, I ask whether, <em>morally</em>, the question will -be one whit less living or less important—whether it will be less -<em>oppressive</em>—for the politics of Russia?</p> - -<p>Truly, Russia finds herself to-day in a strange and a serious dilemma. -She must make her choice. She may begin over again in Poland her -policy of the last thirty years; and she may even push that system to -extremity. It may be the interest of Prussia and of Austria to keep the -Tzar to this plan; because they are always uneasy at the reappearance -in the Kingdom of a centre of attraction for the parts of Poland which -they possess. This is their interest (and it is odd enough that it -should be so, because the strength of Prussia lies only in ideas of -nationality and of liberalism); but is this the true interest of Russia -at this juncture of the world’s affairs? Russia has only to revert to -her own counsels and to her own traditions to find in them incentives -to a more equitable policy. The Emperor Alexander II. has only to -open his mind<span class="pagenum" id="Page_262">[Pg 262]</span> to those ideas which are most intimately connected -with the constitution of the kingdom of Poland, and with the epoch at -which the Emperor Alexander I. founded it, saying to the Poles, ‘You -will preserve your language; you will have your laws, your army. Your -restoration is defined by the most solemn treaties.’</p> - -<p>If the world of to-day appeared such as it did thirty years ago, it -might be possible that any physical victory should have the sad power -of deadening in an unhappy nation its undying feelings, of at least -discouraging it, and of adjourning to another day the solution of a -question so often agitated. But to-day, against the continuance of -an oppressive policy, are ranged the general sense of Europe, the -principles of right, the interests of Russia in her other combinations -and alliances, the irremediable decadence of the treaties of 1815, -forgotten by the governments themselves even before they were abrogated -by the peoples which returned, as it were, to life; and, finally, -this movement on the part of united Poland—a movement which can -but be accelerated, or kept up, by the new Diets in Galicia, by the -incessant way in which the deputies of Posen remind the parliament of -their country, and by the attitude of moral resistance assumed by the -population of Warsaw. Be it what it may, there is certainly something -moving, and morally important, in this determination of a people to -<em>live</em>, and to preserve in itself the inviolable inheritance of -its patriotic faith.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_263">[Pg 263]</span></p> - -<p>In the legends of the Saints it is related that, one day, in the age of -martyrdom, some Christians had been assembled upon the ice of a frozen -river, and that they were there abandoned, alone and naked, to all the -severities of the air, having also no food to eat. Offers were made -to them from the shore of clothes, and of delicious viands, if they -would abjure their religion. Some of them yielded to the temptation, -and, when they touched the banks, perished. The others, immovable under -trial, invoked the Divine mercy, and were miraculously saved; for there -fell from heaven upon them both food and clothing. In this behold a -touching picture of a nation which suffers, but which will not allow -itself to be tempted, and which sends up to heaven such a cry of faith -as shall melt the rigour of its adverse fortune.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_267">[Pg 267]</span></p> - -<h3 class="nobreak" id="A_YEAR_OF_AGITATION_IN_POLAND">A YEAR OF AGITATION IN POLAND.</h3> -</div> - -<p class="center p0">(April 1861-2.)</p> - -<hr class="r5" /> -<p>For some years past we have witnessed one of the most affecting and -instructive sights—the breaking up, if we may say so, of an order -of events, where the confused and dispersed elements join again, as -from some mysterious and invincible unity in themselves. That which -once appeared impossible becomes a startling reality, and perspectives -suddenly open themselves such as our generation would hardly have -allowed itself even to think of.</p> - -<p>We have seen public right itself, or that which, at least, bears -its name, giving way, and leaving a passage for those national and -popular causes which agitate the world, and which are the harbingers -of a new way of thinking. It is vain now to attempt to divide those -national causes which appeal so strongly to public opinion—vain now -to grant everything to one and deny everything to another—to limit -justice to opportunity or to fitness of time or place. Policy may -have<span class="pagenum" id="Page_268">[Pg 268]</span> its seasons, its measures, and its predilections, but at bottom -<em>right</em> must exist everywhere, or it exists nowhere; and, from its -one source, it must apply to all those peoples who aspire to the purest -and the most legitimate of conquests—the conquest of themselves—as -also to all those movements which, arising at one and the same -time, form parts of a general situation, intimately and profoundly -characterised by one universal work of transformation.</p> - -<p>We must guard against mistakes. What we behold is no vulgar crisis, -which may end in an ordinary peace: it is a warfare between two -orders of things, between two principles; and it was proclaimed the -other day, in a French Assembly, to be the new right—<em>the right of -peoples</em>—and, when opposed to this, old political combinations are -reduced to act laboriously and uneasily on the defensive. It is the -question which agitates the modern world: the problem which, in the -East as in the West, in the North as in the South, shows itself under a -thousand different and startling shapes.</p> - -<p>Certainly one of the most curious of these episodes—one of the -most moving of these contemporary spectacles—is that dramatic -<i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">tête-à-tête</i> which, for the space of a year, has been carried on -in Northern Europe between those two very unequal powers, Russia and -Poland; where the one is embarrassed by its strength and its political -traditions, and where the other makes an impregnable buckler of its -rights, and of its very<span class="pagenum" id="Page_269">[Pg 269]</span> weakness. Nothing has been wanting to the -play. Unforeseen events, passionate originality in demonstrations, -tragic scenes—all have been supplied, together with those mysterious -fatalities which so often make a perfect drama out of the affairs -of men. This drama is laid in the heart of a country: it has its -colours and its catastrophes; and across its stage there passes, like -some chorus of old, a whole nation, which sends up to heaven its -supplications and complaint. For a whole year has the spectacle been -seen of a moral movement, perfectly new in its character, confronting a -policy which is astonished to find itself so weak that, while possessed -of so many means of physical power, it resorts to all expedients of -apparent concession and of inefficacious repression, and uses both -measures alike without conviction. After a year all seems again to have -settled into silence. Outward manifestations certainly have ceased, but -still the demonstration has been made. That which had been supposed -to be dead was found to be still full of life. That assimilation of -Polish provinces, which Russia believed to be accomplished, was found -to be not even begun; and Europe suddenly saw that Polish question -arise which brings in its train such prodigious difficulties, and in -which are involved at once the fate of a nation, the policy of a great -empire, and the balance of power in the West. By some vague instinct, -Europe felt that she had not yet got rid of that problem which is, -doubtless, so<span class="pagenum" id="Page_270">[Pg 270]</span> strangely complicated by the multiplicity of rules -and of <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">régimes</i> spread over Poland; which changes its shapes -according to the chances of dismemberments and of treaties; which is -not the same in Posen as in Cracovia, at Warsaw as at Wilna, in the -Kingdom, in Lithuania, or in the Ukraine; but to which one national -sentiment, identical and vital in all the parts, has communicated an -indissoluble unity. This character truly belongs to a question at once -so energetic, so simple, and so complex, which sums up in itself the -strifes of to-day, which is too often believed to have been stifled -under the weight of impossibilities, and which comes to light again -at a time when any palpitations of oppressed patriotism was least to -be expected. I wish to set forth this question in its most recent -explosion, in its elements, and in its progress, as well as in its -relation to all that is in motion or in preparation in Europe, and even -in the very heart of Russia.</p> - -<p>An event which dates back to no very remote period is the source of -many results which belong to the present day. I mean the Crimean war, -which doubtless did nothing directly or ostensibly for Poland, but was -very near (nearer than perhaps is supposed) doing a great deal for -her. At the time when that great strife ended, the name of Poland, as -we are now aware, ought to have been heard in the Congress of Paris, -along with that of Italy. France and England were agreed, and the day -was fixed, but the dexterity of the Russian<span class="pagenum" id="Page_271">[Pg 271]</span> plenipotentiaries, and of -Count Orlof in particular, eluded this inconvenient call. They made it -the interest of the West to be silent, and they promised far more than -ever was asked of them, on condition that Europe would leave the Tzar -at liberty to make none but spontaneous concessions to the Poles. This -is no longer a secret; for Lord Clarendon said one day in Parliament, -in reply to Lord Lyndhurst (that old champion of liberal causes), ‘We -had serious reasons for believing that the Emperor of Russia was, with -regard to Poland, generous and kind. We were obliged to admit that the -Emperor was not only disposed to publish a general amnesty, but even to -give back to the Poles some of their national institutions; and while -they received guarantees for the exercise of their religion, public -education in Poland was also to be established on a more liberal and -national footing. We also believed that we were warranted to hope that -Russia was about to renounce for ever the severe system which she had -hitherto pursued; and, moved by these convictions, we ceased for the -future any discussion of the question.’ Count Orlof gave promises, -the Congress of Paris kept silence, and scarcely one month had passed -before the Emperor Alexander II., while promulgating an amnesty which -was nothing more than a cruel deception (according to Lord Clarendon’s -own expression), addressed, at the same time, two allocutions to the -Polish nobility at Warsaw, wherein he harshly said, ‘I expect that the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_272">[Pg 272]</span> -order established by my father is to be maintained: so, gentlemen, -above all, we will, if you please, have no dreams—no dreams! The -happiness of the Polish people depends on its entire fusion with the -people of my empire; what my father did, was well done, and I will -maintain it: my reign shall be the continuation of his. In preserving -to Poland her rights, and her interests, such as my father granted her, -I have the unalterable wish to do good, and to favour the prosperity of -the country. It rests with you to make this last possible for me, and -you alone will be responsible if my intentions fail, on account of your -chimerical resistance.’ When one of the Marshals of the nobility seemed -about to reply, the Emperor turned and said, ‘Have you understood me? -It is pleasanter for me to reward than to punish; but know this, once -for all, gentlemen, that when it is necessary I shall know how to keep -down, and to punish, and it will be seen that I punish severely.’ This -happened in the month of May 1856, immediately after the Congress of -Paris.</p> - -<p>It is not without reason that I recall to-day a vain attempt at -negotiation broken off by an illusory promise. It determines the -events which have since arisen, in the same way that the debate at -the Congress of Paris has governed events in Italy; it also in some -sort puts on the recent crisis in Poland a mark of European sympathy, -and proves an intelligent wish, while it shows further how Russia had -conducted herself up to the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_273">[Pg 273]</span> time that this crisis arrived. ‘What my -father did, he did well!’ an expression which was perhaps highly filial -on the part of the Emperor Alexander II., but which was certainly an -imprudent and impolitic dictum. What was really that <em>order</em> -established by Nicholas which he promised to maintain?</p> - -<p>I do not refer now to the guarantees by which the treaties of Vienna -had striven to surround a nationality which they abandoned; I do not -speak of the constitution of 1815, the work of the Emperor Alexander -I., but of the <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">statut</i> granted by the Emperor Nicholas himself -in 1832—a <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">statut</i> which was as a punishment, the penalty of -a defeat sustained by Poland; and what had become of that? It was -M. Tymowski, a Russian Minister of State, who last year, at the -commencement of the affair, told us what <em>had</em> become of it. In a -private report he stated that this <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">statut</i> had never been either -abrogated, or put into execution. Of all the new authorities which it -created, councils for towns, councils for palatinates and provincial -assemblies, ‘with the right of deliberating on questions of general -interest in the kingdom,’ not one has ever existed. There ought also to -have been a Council of State, but that probably was held to be either -too revolutionary a measure, or too visible a sign of autonomy. So in -1841 this Council of State was quietly replaced by two new departments -of the directing Senate of St. Petersburg, which were called the ninth -and tenth departments, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_274">[Pg 274]</span> were transplanted to Warsaw. ‘In a word,’ -added M. Tymowski, ‘it may be said that since 1831 the kingdom of -Poland has been given up entirely to bureaucracy, and that without any -regard to the <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">statut</i> of 1831, it has also remained under the -exclusive influence of officials, without the participation of any of -its inhabitants, who are in this manner rendered incapable of sharing -in the Government.’</p> - -<p>It would, indeed, be useless to tell how bureaucracy and officials -have for the last thirty years swayed the Government of Poland: and I -shall content myself with reminding my readers and the public, that -one day the Emperor Nicholas did ‘with his own hand and with a quiet -mind’ (adds his minister) order the <em>transplantation</em> to the -Caucasus of forty-five thousand families, all ‘formerly Polish gentry, -but bearing henceforward the name of freemen and burghers,’ as it is -phrased in this strange Government language. We have often heard that -a painful yoke is laid by their rulers on the people of Lombardy, of -the pontifical States, or of the old kingdom of the two Sicilies: nor -is this said without reason; but we must also remember that there is -a country where, in the daylight of this present century, it has been -possible to <em>transplant</em> forty-five thousand families guilty of no -other crime than of being suspected of patriotism, and of ‘exciting the -suspicion of the Government.’</p> - -<p>From this specimen we may understand how unintentionally<span class="pagenum" id="Page_275">[Pg 275]</span> cruel and -how mournfully deceptive were those words of Alexander II.—‘All -that my father did, he did well’—words which were also, at least, -an unfortunate answer to that expression of European sympathy which -had been checked at the threshold of this Congress of Paris in 1856. -It has been the mistake of all Russian policy for the last thirty -years, to believe that an absence of all law means <em>order</em>, and -to suppose that the omnipotence of force is at once illimitable and -undefined. No doubt for the moment such policy succeeds. It can command -silence, it can veil difficulties, and adjourn the discussion of them -to another day. But it brings affairs at last into that impossible -situation, of which illegality is the essence, and where we find a -new nation, independent of all organisation and of all hierarchies, -rising in spite of a monstrous system of repression—a nation which, -as M. Tymowski expresses it, ‘is undistrainable and yet ingenious in -making arms for itself out of everything, even out of its own contempt -of death.’ Poland, though beyond the bounds of the law, has a profound -sense of law, and this M. Tymowski again acknowledges. Having no -public representation she has arranged one for herself, for she had -that Agricultural Society, which at a given day proved itself to be a -sort of national representation. No regular outlet was provided for -the utterance of her wishes, instincts, or wants, but she has thrown -herself into a passionate worship of her traditions, her popular<span class="pagenum" id="Page_276">[Pg 276]</span> -festivals, and religious rites. Indeed, the time has come in which -she has occupied herself for a year in reviewing her anniversaries -and her recollections. She could not, certainly, dream of engaging in -an armed strife, but she retired into herself; she appealed to moral -power, and opened her soul to the strangest of all sentiments—that -of voluntary sacrifice—till a whole nation adopted that terrible -argument in Descartes’ fashion, ‘we die, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ergo</i>, we live;’ and -is it not a new and a surprising piece of reasoning, if we understand -it aright? By all this Russia is placed in an extraordinary dilemma; -this unexpected resurrection brings all her errors before her. She is -obliged to punish a sedition which is not illegal, to make war upon -peaceful manifestations, on religious services and hymns, on mourning -apparel and inoffensive emblems; she has nothing to oppose to them but -force, and feels therefore all the powerlessness of force itself. The -same causes have impressed this movement: for though European events -may have hastened it, though the accession of Alexander II. and the -internal disorders of Russia may have favoured it, it is not less the -result of a past of thirty years, not less the effect of a policy of -which the whole fatality has not yet perhaps been exhausted.</p> - -<p>The movement is extremely characteristic in this respect—that it is -born in the heart of the country, and that it is independent alike of -complicity with her emigrant children, or of any impulse from without.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_277">[Pg 277]</span> -Immediately after the Congress of Paris, the Emperor Alexander held -this language to the Polish nobility—‘No dreams, gentlemen! no -dreams!’ and from that moment did the national sentiment of Poland -begin gradually to expand, till it broke out in February 1861. Several -symptoms indicated the unexpected awakening that was to follow. When -the sovereigns met at Warsaw, in 1860, the Emperor Alexander, before -returning to St. Petersburg, wished to show himself to the five German -princes who accompanied him in all the brilliancy of Polish popularity. -He was to be in Wilna. Now in Lithuania, the first manifestation for -the enfranchisement of the serfs had taken place, and the Emperor had -returned thanks for it to the Lithuanian nobility. These circumstances -all seemed auspicious, and the Governor of Lithuania was ordered to -get up a ball. It was, as far as its externals went, simply a ball; -but no one knows what an official ball is to the Poles, where the -splendour of the fête covers so many hurts, so many thousands of -secret wounds. In his ‘Aieux,’ Mickiewicz has introduced an official -ball into that circle of Hell in which he paints all the sufferings of -the Poles. General Nazimof made the most heroic exertions, and spared -no persuasions among the Lithuanian nobility; but nevertheless he -completely failed. The ladies declined the invitations; the gentry said -that, though willing to pay the expenses of this Russian festivity, -they should not<span class="pagenum" id="Page_278">[Pg 278]</span> appear at it; and there was nothing left for the -Emperor but to refuse to go to the ball upon which General Nazimof had -lavished so much useless zeal; and he hardly made any stay in Wilna.</p> - -<p>At Warsaw, where the three crowned heads held a meeting which seemed to -personify all the disasters of the land, things looked even worse. It -must be said that, to choose Warsaw as a place of meeting between these -three masters of Poland—the Emperor of Russia, the Emperor of Austria, -and the King of Prussia—and to choose it, too, just when all Europe -was ringing with the enfranchisement of Italy, was to throw a challenge -to our unhappy nation; nor was it long before popular feeling took up -a challenge which was the second it had received from Alexander—his -first having been that address to the nobility of Warsaw which he made -after the Congress of Paris.</p> - -<p>After this, demonstrations increased.</p> - -<p>One religious service followed the other, in memory of the -patriot-poets, Mickiewicz, Krasinski, and Slovaçki; and on November -29th, 1860, that song was heard, for the first time, which for a -year has been the impassioned watchword of the multitude, which -has echoes in cathedrals, and which has gone up from the humblest -country churches—that ‘<i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">Boze</i> cos Polske’—‘Give us our -country! Oh, Lord! give us our liberty!’ In a short time, the whole -face of affairs had changed, and an electric thrill ran through the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_279">[Pg 279]</span> -country. Perhaps it ought to be called a revolution; it certainly -was a moral revolution, and it revealed that which had hardly as yet -been suspected—the existence of a nation, unimpaired by suffering -and by trial. To be a revolution, it had a strange beginning. There -was no violence, no bloody intentions, no insurrections; but there -were psalms, and prayers, and manifestations, at once enthusiastic -and regulated; and there was an outburst, as energetic as it was -unexpected, of that irresistible force which is called the soul of a -nation.</p> - -<p>Everything converges to that month of February 1861; and then it -was that this Polish insurrection really assumed the character of a -passionate drama, full of startling originality. The 25th was the -anniversary of that formidable battle of Grochow, in which the Poles, -in 1831, disputed for the mastery with Russia during three whole days. -Since the 21st, the Agricultural Society, founded by Count Andrew -Zamoyski, and so rapidly popularised throughout the country, had held a -session to deliberate on the definitive accession of the peasantry to -property. From other quarters, the Polish students—who had come from -Kiev, from Moscow, and from Dorpat, as to a secret rendezvous—might -be heard agitating, and demanding a national university. To ask for -a more liberal education, to effect the union of all classes by the -abolition of the last vestiges of serfdom, and to commemorate mournful -and patriotic anniversaries—these<span class="pagenum" id="Page_280">[Pg 280]</span> were the subjects which preoccupied -all minds. No doubt other thoughts mingled with them. The idea of -presenting an address to the Emperor asking for a constitution began -to be ventilated; and, oddly enough, it was warmly advocated by a man -who was soon to play a part in these events—the Marquis Wiélopolski. -He became excessively excited, and went to Count Zamoyski to beg him to -take the initiative in this manifestation; but Count Andrew refused. -He was the firm and vigilant guide of his society, and he would not -consent to alter its nature. Moreover, it was repugnant to him to -place, as the Marquis proposed to do, the claims of his country under -the auspices of the treaties of 1815.</p> - -<p>What was Russia about all this time? Quite disconcerted, and more -astonished than enlightened by what she saw happening under her eyes, -she waited, and day by day the movement seemed to slip away from -her. At that time she was represented in Warsaw by Prince Michael -Gortchakof, the Lieutenant of the Tzar—a man who was a good soldier, -and who had shown a great deal of vigour in the defence of Sebastopol. -He had lived fear many years at Warsaw, when head of the Staff to -Prince Paskievitch; he knew Poland, and he liked living in it. To his -soldierly nature extreme measures of repression were repugnant, and -it troubled him to have recourse to them. But unfortunately, in the -heart of the administration of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_281">[Pg 281]</span> which he was the ostensible chief, -one man was, under shelter of the Prince’s name, omnipotent—M. -Muchanof, Minister of the Interior, of public instruction, and of -religion. He was a Russian of the old school of Nicholas the Tzar—a -vulgar instrument of that inflexible system which had no other object -but the denationalisation of Poland. The dismissal of Count Skarbek, -the Minister of Finance, had been effected by him, because the Count -was an enlightened man, an author of celebrity, who had entertained -the revolutionary notion of asking (as for a right) for a college at -Warsaw. M. Muchanof was at war, in short, with everything that looked -like an awakening or an act of individual life in the country—with -Temperance Leagues, with the Agricultural Society, and with a taste for -a more liberal style of education. The only exception he could make was -in favour of the School of Arts. ‘Let them paint, by all means,’ he -would say, ‘and then they will not think.’</p> - -<p>Between the gradually excited population of Poland and Russia, when -thus represented and thus divided in her councils, a dialogue was to be -commenced, which, stretching over a year, was to be furnished with such -bloody interludes that the very Russian generals themselves seemed to -grow weary, and to feel a secret aversion to the parts given them to -act.</p> - -<p>Nothing, at such a conjuncture, was wanted but one spark. The morning -of February 25th dawned<span class="pagenum" id="Page_282">[Pg 282]</span> dark and misty. They were to go that day -to pray for the slain of the battle of Grochow, and, from an early -hour, the populace, impelled by one spontaneous passion, thronged the -streets. An immense procession was soon formed; they marched without -disorder, and with torches in their hands. Before them went a banner, -with the white eagle. As they walked they sang the hymn, ‘Swiety -Boze’—‘Holy Lord God Almighty, have pity upon us; be pleased to give -us back our own country. Holy Virgin Mary, Queen of Poland, pray for -us.’ Up to this time, the Government had done nothing to stop the -manifestation (it had not even been prevented), when suddenly Colonel -Trepow, the head of the Police, appeared, and threw two squadrons of -the armed police upon this dense crowd. The multitude fell on their -knees, and continued their psalm, while being cut down by the troops. -More than forty persons were wounded. At this moment the Agricultural -Society happened to be sitting, and a violent emotion was produced -there by the intelligence that an inoffensive mob had been massacred. -Count Zamoyski, the President, mastering his own emotion, endeavoured -to preserve calmness, and, putting an end to the sitting, he repaired -to Prince Gortchakof, who seemed surprised, and certainly showed -conciliatory intentions. The Russian officers were indignant at the -tasks assigned to them, and one of them, General Liprandi, went so far -as to say that, as long as he commanded the infantry,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_283">[Pg 283]</span> he would not -permit them to be marched upon unarmed men. The truth is, that one more -such victory as that of February 25th would have made everything look -very doubtful for Russia. The work of thirty years vanished, before the -apparition of a people ready to die undefended. The whole town was in -inexpressible anxiety, and on the following day mourning was worn for -the victims of the previous day.</p> - -<p>But it must not be supposed that any signs of weakness entered into -the popular emotion. On the contrary, a curious excitement filled all -hearts; and, by the 27th, arrangements were made for a new funeral -service, in honour of some patriots hung by the Russians, and of -Count Zawisza in particular. In the Church of the Carmelites and -its vicinity more than 30,000 persons assembled; and, when mass was -said, this immense procession unrolled and marched to the palace of -the Agricultural Society, which, for the last two days, had been -besought to sign an address to the Emperor. This Count Zamoyski always -resisted; and he certainly showed more intelligent heroism, above all, -more patriotic foresight, by this resistance, than by yielding to any -premature haste. He did not wish to compromise an institution which -might again do effectual service to the national cause, and which was -the only representative body of his nation. So, on the approach of the -crowd, Count Andrew took the plan of closing a session which had been -so strangely agitated.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_284">[Pg 284]</span> But just round this point the whole affair -centred, while, outside, squadrons of Cossacks drove the multitude -before them at the point of their swords, and pursued them into the -very churches. Hardly had the members of the Agricultural Society left -their palace than a murderous fire was opened upon them; also a strange -execution, for which the order had been given by General Zabolotsky, -and in which there probably was no preconcerted design, since, in the -Russian opposition of that day, every measure seemed disunited, and the -work of chance. But the result of this attack was not the less fatal; -ten persons were killed, and more than sixty were wounded.</p> - -<p>A curious scene then took place. The exasperated crowd seized upon -one of the corpses—one which was still warm—and they carried it to -the house of Count Andrew Zamoyski. A feeling of reproach probably -entered into this popular act. It meant, ‘Why do you abandon us at the -moment in which we are slain?’ But this was a popular error. If Count -Zamoyski, in his capacity of a public character, and when invested -with a title which was almost official, had refused to compromise an -institution which, in his eyes, represented the only lawful power in -the country, not the less did there live in him a patriotism which -could be both firm and manly. He received the body thus brought to him, -and, in a voice of great emotion, he replied to the crowd, ‘I thank you -for the mark of esteem which you<span class="pagenum" id="Page_285">[Pg 285]</span> have given me. Bring in the corpse of -this martyr, and I shall know how to honour it.’ He had a <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">chapelle -ardente</i> arranged in his house, and there, for two days, the body -lay in state. By the incidents of his past life, by his name, by his -active devotion to all his country’s interests, by the attitude he -preserved towards the Russians, so proud and so noble, and yet ever so -moderate, Count Andrew proved himself to be the true chief, the wise -and energetic guide of a movement, which found in his character its -highest personification.</p> - -<p>In this, the second day of bloodshed, which side had conquered? Russia -certainly had not, for never, perhaps, did any power suffer such -complete eclipse, while boasting of such apparent strength.</p> - -<p>After the events of the 27th, Prince Gortchakof called his officers -and chief functionaries together. The Archbishop soon appeared, -complaining of the violation of the churches; and there came also -several dignitaries of the town, who had held a meeting at the house -of one of the principal bankers, M. Kronenberg. There was likewise -Count Zamoyski himself, with two other delegates of the Agricultural -Society, MM. Ostrowski and Poloçki, all holding discourses, of which -the tenor was mournful and proud. Prince Gortchakof did not disguise -from himself either the gravity of the situation, or the odium of the -part assigned to the army. What is more, he absolutely denied having -given the pitiless orders which had just been executed,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_286">[Pg 286]</span> and he let -fall a curious expression as he did so. ‘Do you,’ he said, ‘take me -for an Austrian? I have given one order, and one only, and that is, -that even on the production of an order signed by my own hand, the -citadel is not to be given up to you.’ What was most essential at -this moment was to appease wrath, to calm men’s minds, and to efface -the late bloodshed. Prince Gortchakof showed himself ready for the -most important transactions. He was ready to dismiss the head of the -police, Colonel Trepow; ready for an enquiry into the conduct of -General Zabolotsky; to withdraw the military to their barracks till the -victims of the 27th had been buried; and also to create a Commission -of Public Safety, under the auspices of Count Zamoyski, with the -concurrence of a Russian much esteemed and honoured in Warsaw, Marquis -Paulueri. He accepted the offer of the students to act as the police -of the town; and by that evening an address to the Emperor was in -general circulation. Thousands of signatures were rapidly affixed to -this document, which was the energetic expression of the griefs and -of the wishes of the Polish nation. ‘Our nation,’ it declared, ‘which -used to be governed by liberal institutions, has, for the last sixty -years, endured the cruellest sufferings. Without any organ for sending -up to your throne the expression of our pains and of our need, we are -forcibly constrained to have no other utterances than the cries of -those martyrs which are daily offered as a holocaust.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_287">[Pg 287]</span> A country, once -the centre of civilisation to its neighbours of the West, cannot, also, -develope itself, either morally or physically, while its Church, its -legislature, its public education, and its whole social organisation, -do not bear the stamp of its national genius and of its historical -traditions.’ The signatures of the Archbishop and of the Grand Rabbi -headed this address; and those Poles who were in Government offices, as -well as the Marshals of the nobility, tendered their resignations, in -order to join in the manifestation.</p> - -<p>To tell the truth, the whole face of affairs had altered in a very -short space of time. Two days had sufficed to show a nationality, fresh -born and full of energy, pitted against a government which seemed -struck with paralysis. Poland, that phantom which had not been allowed -to appear at the Congress of Paris, and which the Emperor Alexander, -during the interview of the sovereigns at Warsaw, had banished as an -inopportune vision, was now suddenly alive, and become palpable to -all. Henceforward, all distinctions of classes were to be effaced by -one profound feeling of solidarity; and the very bullets of February -27th had cemented this union by striking, as they did, persons of all -classes, of all religions, of all ages, and of every sex.</p> - -<p>With what weapons did this reviving nation arm itself? Poland had -no arms: she would not have any; or rather she had them but of one -kind. She had a passive heroism which amounted to enthusiasm. She<span class="pagenum" id="Page_288">[Pg 288]</span> -had a fanaticism of self-sacrifice, as might be seen in that address -to the workpeople of Warsaw. The mark by which her sons recognised -each other was mourning array; and from the first days of the month -of March 1861, a proclamation throughout the whole country declared -black to be the national colour. ‘In all the parts of ancient Poland,’ -ran the notification, ‘mourning will be put on, and worn for an -indefinite time.... For nearly a century our emblem has been the Crown -of Thorns! That coronal adorned the coffins of our brethren, and you -have all understood its meaning. It signifies patience under suffering, -self-sacrifice, pardon, and deliverance. We invite every Pole, whatever -be his creed, to spread these words in countries even the most remote.’</p> - -<p>A population like this, when for a moment its own mistress, had a -pride in avoiding riot and excess; and it even respected the Russian -soldiers in Warsaw. It was the students who on March 2nd kept the peace -during the funerals of those who had fallen victims on February 27th; -and at these obsequies, where patriotism acted for the police, more -than 100,000 persons were present. On the other side, it was quite the -contrary: everything among the Russian authorities was in confusion, -and they appeared to be the discomfited spectators of a movement -which they could not check, and which was wholly incomprehensible -to them. Prince Gortchakof himself was visibly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_289">[Pg 289]</span> affected by this -extraordinary situation, and he was divided between astonishment and -the strange recurrence of a soldier’s instinct who feels himself to be -powerless, because he seeks an adversary but cannot find him. Nothing -can better pourtray both the character of this Polish movement and -the embarrassment of the Russian power, than a conversation which -took place between Prince Gortchakof and Count Zamoyski, on the 3rd -of March, the day after the interment of the victims of the 27th of -February. The Prince Lieutenant began by thanking the President of the -Agricultural Society, with really good grace, for the order which, -during the ceremony of the previous day, had been maintained in the -town.</p> - -<p>‘The whole town obeys you,’ he said. Then suddenly becoming animated, -and having changed his train of thought, he continued, ‘This cannot go -on; and besides, I have now got troops, and I am not afraid of you.’</p> - -<p>‘We are ready to receive your bullets,’ replied Count Andrew.</p> - -<p>‘No, no, we will fight!’</p> - -<p>‘We shall not fight; but you may murder us if you please.’</p> - -<p>‘If you want arms, I will give you some!’</p> - -<p>‘We will not use them.’</p> - -<p>There, in truth, lay the secret of this movement, which was intangible -from its moral nature, and which<span class="pagenum" id="Page_290">[Pg 290]</span> was terrible because it was vague. -The address from Warsaw reached St. Petersburg; the Emperor Alexander -read it out loud before several members of his family.</p> - -<p>‘But these Poles ask for nothing,’ remarked one.</p> - -<p>‘That is just what is so serious about it,’ replied the Emperor; and -his retort was that of a sensible man.</p> - -<p>If this perilous situation was not to continue, only one course could -be pursued by Russia. She must arrange a termination, and reply to -this passive revolution in Poland by sincere, efficient, and ready -concessions. Russia did not do this, and she lost a month in delay. -As to her sincerity, it was doubtful, to say the least of it. What -was most obvious was her embarrassment; and by the confusion in which -she moved, her policy allowed this embarrassment to be only too well -perceived. At Warsaw, while Prince Gortchakof made some concessions, -Count Zamoyski was challenged, but did not reply. A marvellous unity of -wills kept order in the town, and the authorities waited for a solution -of the difficulty to be sent from St. Petersburg. M. Muchanof, still -master of the Ministry of the Interior, was inspired by the melancholy -policy which Austria had followed in Galicia, and he did send out a -clandestine circular, urging the peasants to rise upon their landlords. -The Jews discovered this circular, and so much indignation was excited -by it, that Prince Gortchakof was soon obliged<span class="pagenum" id="Page_291">[Pg 291]</span> to dismiss M. Muchanof -from his office, and he left Warsaw amidst the yells and hisses of the -populace. The affair, considered in all its bearings, is a strange mark -of the persistent contradictions which distinguished Russian measures, -and distinguished them at a time when to be sincere would have been to -be judicious.</p> - -<p>Even in St. Petersburg no one knew what to do. Time was gained, and -then it was lost; and when the Emperor Alexander did, on the last -day of March, resolve to send to Warsaw a plan for new reforms, the -movement had by that time become too consistent; the minds of men -were too strongly excited, and too much made up, to be contented with -such timid and equivocal concessions as ill befitted the gravity of -the case. For of what did the offered reforms consist? It is true, -that they suppressed those two departments of the Senate which sat -at Warsaw, and which were the signs of the complete assimilation of -Poland with Russia. They promised the election of provincial councils, -of district councils; they offered a new organisation of public -instruction, with a creation of a Faculty of Rights, and with more -respect for the Polish language. Finally, they summoned the Marquis -Wiélopolski to the direction of public education; the Marquis being a -Pole. This was always something, although it did not even entirely come -up to the <i lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">statut</i> of Nicholas. And what at bottom was wanting,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_292">[Pg 292]</span> -was a guarantee for the sincere adoption of a really liberal policy, -which should be carried out by men truly devoted to their country, and -animated by a national spirit. Unfortunately, to the suspicions of the -Poles (suspicions which were only too well founded) Russia replied by -a system of permanent contradictions, one which for the last year has -shown itself to be never nearer to reaction than when there was a talk -about concessions. Concessions so offered were for the edification of -Europe, which looked on. The facts remain the same, or rather they -become worse, and in appearing to yield to this all-powerful movement -of public opinion, it was the object of the Russian Government to stain -it, and to represent the movement as the work of a few incorrigibly -factious persons. But they seemed to wish to treat with this reviving -nationality, and on the 1st of April the plan of reform arrived -from St. Petersburg was published; six days later, however, they -dissolved, without any warning, that Agricultural Society in which -the country beheld its image, which had never interfered except to -make peace, which Prince Gortchakof had himself thanked, and which was -now done away with, on the strange pretext ‘that, under the present -circumstances, and in consequence of the position which it had latterly -assumed, it had ceased to answer its original purpose.’ Of all those -bodies of constables and delegates which had existed, and by means of -which for a whole month peace had<span class="pagenum" id="Page_293">[Pg 293]</span> been maintained in the town, not one -was allowed to remain. All, with a sort of impatience, were swept away, -while proclamations were multiplied and troops were hastily advanced to -Warsaw.</p> - -<p>What was the result?</p> - -<p>Public opinion resented as a provocation the dissolution of the -Agricultural Society, and the minds of the people rose with -indignation, not against the <em>reforms</em>, which might, perhaps, -have been accepted, but against that double-faced policy in which they -could see nothing but menaces; and peace thenceforward became more -and more impossible between Russia and a people which, as M. Tymowski -said in his secret report, was ‘full of life and of obstinacy, and -deeply penetrated by a sense of law. Everything,’ he added, ‘depended -on the good faith observed with them.’ On the 7th of April, 1861, an -immense crowd went to the cemetery to pray for the slain of February. -Later in the evening they marched to the square at the castle, which -was occupied by troops, and there with loud cries demanded the repeal -of the order by which the Agricultural Society had been dissolved. -But this crowd was so far from threatening any violence, that the -military did not continue to keep the ground, and they dispersed at -last, promising to reassemble on the following evening. Accordingly, -in the evening of the 8th, a still larger assemblage repeated the -manifestation of the preceding day, in front of the castle. The Prince -Lieutenant<span class="pagenum" id="Page_294">[Pg 294]</span> himself came down and mixed with the crowd in order to -appease it. He asked them what they wanted; and the response was -unanimous, being contained in these significant words, ‘We want our -country.’</p> - -<p>For the rest, nothing in this excited concourse of men, women, and -children betrayed any aggressive thoughts, or any intentions of strife. -They were warned that they must disperse; but with dark passion they -replied, ‘You may kill us, but we will not move;’ and before the troops -drawn up in order of battle, they remained impassive, till suddenly -a post-chaise happened to pass, and the postilion played on his horn -the air of Dombrowski’s legions: ‘No, never shall Poland perish!’ -Immediately an enthusiastic cry burst from every breast, and as the -populace fell on their knees, a movement was perceptible through -the whole crowd. Did the troops believe that they were about to be -attacked, or did they obey a command? Were they decided by the plain -and conclusive reason, that a resolution to fire had been adopted the -evening before, because a stop must be put to this state of affairs?</p> - -<p>However it may have been, an instantaneous fire was opened. While some -squadrons of cavalry received orders to charge, fifteen volleys from -the infantry made many bloody openings in the mass of defenceless -beings, who now found themselves hemmed in on every side. While being -cut down, the crowd continued to kneel, and to pray. The women and the -children were grouped<span class="pagenum" id="Page_295">[Pg 295]</span> together on their knees round an image of the -Virgin, at the extreme end of the square, and there the people remained -till late into the night; so late that the troops had been previously -drawn off the ground. It is certain that more than fifty persons had -perished, and that the number of the wounded was immense; but darkness -has always been allowed to hang over the numbers who fell on that -night. An eye witness wrote with emotion: ‘Never shall I be able to -make you understand this unparalleled contempt of death, which is so -enthusiastic that it animates men, women, and children. Old soldiers, -accustomed to being under fire, assure me that never, when so close, -have the most solid troops preserved a heroism as calm and invincible -as this crowd has displayed when furiously charged by cavalry and under -fire.’</p> - -<p>It was, indeed, a strange insurrection. The authorities in Warsaw had -no difficulty in quelling it; but it rendered every future transaction -more difficult, for it had placed between Russia and Poland a barrier -of invincible suspicion. It was a misfortune for Russia, that, while -gaining these melancholy victories, she added nothing to the security -of her rule, and she certainly added nothing to her strength. Her -difficulties were, however, greatly increased by them, and she remained -weighed down by the weight of her own policy. It is true, indeed, that -even after the 8th of April she maintained the reforms which she had -already promulgated;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_296">[Pg 296]</span> but the logic of her situation was, that she was -at war with the most intangible thing in the world, with the soul of a -nation. Russia could not lay her finger upon any conspiracy, but not -the less did everything seem to threaten her, and she was constantly -obliged to invent new plans for putting down she hardly knew what. At -night no one was to go out without a lantern, and it was forbidden to -be seen walking in certain localities. Against wearing mourning the -rules were peculiarly stringent. Indeed, at one moment it was necessary -to have permission from the police to wear black. Yet the genius of the -police was at fault, and it was baffled by the provoking obstinacy in -favour of universal mourning, and of the black dresses which the Polish -ladies had adopted.</p> - -<p>To do the Russian authorities justice, they did not feel their -consciences at ease in the matter of this war. Even when using -repressive measures they seemed to be agitated by a secret disquiet—a -feeling which declared itself in a very striking manner during the -last days of Prince Gortchakof, whom death overtook in the middle of -this conflict, only two months after the scene of the 8th of April. It -would seem almost as though the tragedies of Poland had something fatal -in them to the Russian officials. Already, they tell us, that Prince -Paskievitch, when on his death-bed, had been troubled by a sinister -apparition; for everywhere before him rose a shade, that of the mother -of Count<span class="pagenum" id="Page_297">[Pg 297]</span> Zawisza, who had lain at his feet to implore pardon for -her son, and who had implored it in vain. The last moments of Prince -Gortchakof were disturbed in the same way. In Warsaw it was said, that -ever after the bloody scenes of February and of April he had been vexed -by sudden hallucinations, as well as by fits of gloomy irritation. A -few days before his death, he went to the railway-station to meet his -wife, Princess Gortchakof, who was to arrive from a journey. He saw -one of the principal bankers of Warsaw, and, running up to him, he -began: ‘Oh, you there! so you play the patriot, do you? But I know how -to crush you! I shall soon make an end of your d——d students! I will -make dust of you!’ During the last days of his life, he fancied that he -constantly saw women in black, who followed him, or walked beside him. -‘Oh, the women in black! oh, the women in black! send them away,’ he -would cry. If such were the sufferings of the Prince, there were to be -others who, as we shall see, came to a yet more terrible end. The same -secret trouble was betrayed by the words of General Souchozanett, the -immediate successor of Prince Gortchakof, when, before leaving Warsaw, -he said: ‘You may accuse me of being an unsuccessful blunderer; but -you cannot say that I am a cruel man, for I have never fired upon a -single creature.’ There was a strange fatality about this system, for -it weighed upon those who carried it out, as well as upon those<span class="pagenum" id="Page_298">[Pg 298]</span> who -were its victims; and such as it was, after the 8th of April, it stood -complete, before the eyes of an angry and seething populace.</p> - -<p>Throughout these events, one man made a great effort to procure a -reconciliation. His figure is not the least original, or the least -characteristic of those who meet in this drama, and I have already -named him, for he is the Marquis Wiélopolski. Ever since the 1st of -April, 1861, he had taken a preponderant place in the Councils of the -Government, and, no doubt, his part is not yet played out. During -February, as I have already said, the Marquis Wiélopolski resided in -Warsaw; and he suggested that an address should be sent to the Emperor, -wherein a constitution was to be demanded, but which should open with -an act of submission, and with a testimony of their contrition; for it -was to disallow, in some measure, the Revolution of 1830. Not having -been able to make good this idea, he refused to sign the address that -was sent to St. Petersburg, and held himself aloof from the movement. -Very shortly after, the Emperor called him to the Direction of Public -Education, and from that time he took a decisive part in all the -measures that followed. Before long, and by the dismissal of the other -directors, which was consequent upon the 8th of April, the Marquis -Wiélopolski found himself alone in the Council, and associated with all -its most rigorous proceedings. He is, perhaps, one of the most curious<span class="pagenum" id="Page_299">[Pg 299]</span> -types of our times, for he is a proud, contemptuous, eloquent man, a -scion of the family of the Gonzagas; and for this reason, perhaps, he -exhibits, at times, traces of the old Italian policy. He is a great -landed proprietor, and, by his different estates, is connected with -all the provinces of Poland; and he is devoted to Russia, not by -servility or interest, but by a passion of revenge which he nourishes -against the West; and his system is the result of calculation, and -of a line of policy which is powerful, although strange. In 1846, -after the massacres in Galicia, the Marquis Wiélopolski wrote that -‘Letter to Prince Metternich, by a Polish Gentleman,’ which rang with -such fiery eloquence, and which being, as it were, a new revelation, -echoed throughout Europe. The author there advised Poland to embrace -a resolution of heroic despair—to renounce, for the future, all help -from the Western Powers, all deceitful and calculating sympathy, all -cheap eloquence, all those guarantees which men have decorated with -the pompous title of ‘rights of peoples,’ and then boldly to give -herself to Russia. ‘Go to the Tzar, and say to him: We come to you, as -to the most generous of our foes; hitherto, we have belonged to you, -as slaves, by right of conquest, and from terror; to-day, we come to -you as free men, who have the courage to acknowledge that they have -been conquered.... We do not stipulate with you about conditions—to -yourself we leave it to judge when you may relax towards<span class="pagenum" id="Page_300">[Pg 300]</span> us the -severity of your law. We make no reserve; but in our hearts, in letters -of fire, you will read our silent prayer, this single petition, “Do not -leave unpunished the crimes which strangers have committed; and in the -blood of our brethren which has been shed, hear the Slave blood, which -cries for vengeance” ...’</p> - -<p>In words like these, one can recognise a theorist, who is inflamed -with panslavism, and whose revenge anticipates the day, when by this -fusion, this sacrifice of the idea of national independence, this moral -suicide, the Polish race may revive in the Empire, and again, through -their intelligence, find an ascendency in the Council.</p> - -<p>What the Marquis Wiélopolski had thought in 1846 he still thought in -1861; and he therefore kept himself apart from all attempts to warm -up the thought of nationality, as also from all the practical labours -which were to bring about a patient and invisible reorganisation of his -country; and he never would become a member of the Agricultural Society.</p> - -<p>The Marquis now entered on his official career distinguished by all -the inflexible vigour of a character which was lofty and proud enough -to brave unpopularity among his countrymen; and, while he consented to -serve Russia, he did not the less preserve a haughty attitude towards -her. In the month of February, while agitating for the adoption of his -proposed address, he got a message from Prince Gortchakof,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_301">[Pg 301]</span> warning -him to take care of what he was about; he proudly replied, ‘Tell the -Prince that my boxes are filled, and that I am quite ready to start for -Siberia.’ To his compatriots he would say, ‘You are not at the height -necessary for understanding me.’ To the Russians he certainly appeared -an enigma; for they could not comprehend this Polish gentleman, who, -while a nobody in the ranks of the administration, suddenly became -a minister, who refused all interposition, and who treated directly -with the Emperor. What could such a man mean? What was the clue to his -thoughts? But it can be believed how, between Poles and Russians, he -occupied a solitary and difficult post; for the first had the greatest -antipathy to his ideas, and the second looked upon him as a phenomenon -rather more extraordinary than consolatory.</p> - -<p>That it was possible to organise a lawful régime, the Marquis firmly -believed. For the present he had no doubt of it, and he directed all -his efforts to this end. But there is nothing that Russians understand -so little as proceeding according to law; and, upon the death of -Prince Gortchakof, this prepossession of the Marquis proved the origin -of those quarrels with the new Lieutenant-General Souchozanett, in -which the Polish gentleman was apt to have the better of the Russian, -although he also was soon to be carried away by the current of a still -more violent reaction.</p> - -<p>This reaction was the system which Russia adopted,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_302">[Pg 302]</span> and which she -followed, without ever perceiving that, instead of calming and -mastering the movement, every instance of repression so added to -its energy and depth, that when, three months later, the wishes of -the government seemed to incline to a more conciliatory method, the -movement was then found to have gained head greatly.</p> - -<p>Above all, it was found to have spread, and to have reached the -provinces which formed the ancient Poland of 1772. Scenes similar to -those of Warsaw were enacted at Wilna; and, by the application of a -uniform plan of repression, Russia, by her own acts, set a seal upon -that unity of the old Polish fatherland which it was her object to -abolish.</p> - -<p>One of her official proclamations spoke of Lithuania, as of a province -which had always belonged to the Empire, and which had only been -for a short time subjugated by Poland. Some French papers even lent -themselves to help Russia at this juncture, and they undertook to -represent to Lithuania, to the country of Mickiewicz, of Kosciusko, and -of the Czartorynski, that it was not in any way Polish, and ought to -have nothing in common with Poland. And this it was which provoked one -of the most curious scenes of the whole strange drama—a protestation -on the part of Lithuania, under the form of a pilgrimage to Horoldo.</p> - -<p>Horoldo is a little village beyond the river Bug, and there, more -than four centuries ago, the union of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_303">[Pg 303]</span> Lithuania with Poland was -accomplished. Of this union the 10th of October was the anniversary. As -early as the month of September, circulars were sent into all the parts -of the ancient Polish realm, and delegates of the people were chosen in -every place, even in Western Prussia. Everything was done that could -be done to stop these strange travellers. Those who came from beyond -the Bug were prevented from crossing the river, and those who came from -Cracow were in the same way brought up at the passage of the Vistula. -But the concourse of people was, notwithstanding these precautions, -really immense; and the roads were lined with men on horseback, with -foot passengers, with carriages of all sorts, heavy carts, tarantasses -from Podolia, and phaetons from Léopol. On the eve of October 10, -the houses, the villages, and the country seats round Horoldo, were -filled with unknown guests, who were met everywhere with the readiest -hospitalities. ‘Enter, and welcome,’ was said to all, while no one even -asked their names.</p> - -<p>On the following day, at six o’clock in the morning, an immense -procession was formed, and when it reached the little village of -Kopylowa (half a mile from Horoldo), the crowd fell into their ranks, -and marched along in columns, singing as they went; for, though -strangers to each other’s names and faces, these men were all bound -together by the one feeling which they had in common. Now arose a -momentary doubt.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_304">[Pg 304]</span> Were they to go on, and so risk meeting with a bloody -reception? A cry rose, ‘We came to pray at Horoldo, let us go to -Horoldo!’ and the procession continued its march, headed by an advanced -guard of more than 200 priests and monks. But as they drew near to -Horoldo, it became apparent that a large military force was drawn up -in a half circle round the town. A feeling of inexpressible anxiety -then prevailed. No one knew what was going to happen, but not the less -they pressed steadily forward, because everything that could be called -<em>arms</em> had already been thrown away. The violence of a commander -might at once have turned the scene into a massacre; but, happily, -General Chrustef, the Military Governor of Lublin, who was entrusted -with the defence of Horoldo, was a humane and pacific man. At the head -of his staff he advanced to meet the procession. He bowed deferentially -to the clergy, and said, ‘I have received strict and formal orders not -to allow any manifestations to take place, and the choice of means -has not been left to me, if any manifestation is attempted. Do not, -therefore, oblige me to use forcible measures; for you would surely not -wish to lay on your own consciences the responsibility of bloodshed.’ -A Canon then stepped out of the ranks, and said that the multitude had -come from far, and that they could not be expected to retire without -at least having heard mass. The General thought for a moment. His -own anxiety was visible, and a terrible<span class="pagenum" id="Page_305">[Pg 305]</span> silence prevailed. At last, -Chrustef addressed the priest: ‘If you will pray, do it now, and -here, in the fields before the town; my orders do not go so far as to -forbid this.’ Preparations began immediately, and a rustic altar was -soon reared upon a rising ground. When all was ready, forty banners, -representing all the provinces of ancient Poland, were unfurled, and -above them all floated a great flag, with the united arms of Lithuania -and of Poland.</p> - -<p>The scene was a splendid one, and it was lit by a glorious sunshine. -When mass had been said, a Basilican priest (of the United Greek -Church) rose, and thus addressed the crowd: ‘Behold to-day, assembled -for the first time, the mutilated members of our beloved Poland! In our -national history there is no better festival, and no memory more pure, -than that which we have met to celebrate to-day. Look at that forest; -count its trees; and for each tree that you count you may find upon the -Polish soil the grave of a hero, of a martyr who has given himself for -our liberty. Here, as everywhere in Poland, all are ready to sacrifice -their lives; but the hour is not yet arrived. Let us pray, and, as we -pray, not one of us will be found wanting when the summons comes. Let -us not wish any evil to our enemies. See them to-day, how silent and -motionless they stand! They look at us, and they now comprehend what -we are, and what we may become. With one gesture they might crush us, -they might<span class="pagenum" id="Page_306">[Pg 306]</span> knock us over, bleeding on the soil; but they are silent. -They know that behind us there is a whole people, and that a nation -cannot be slain.’ Then, turning to the fluttering standard, the priest -said, as he concluded, ‘Stainless bird, white eagle! that wast wont to -distribute crowns to others, and art so crownless to-day, float above -thy brothers, and cry to the four quarters of the globe that thou art -living still! Call together thy children, thine emigrants, and thy -defenders of old, and point, still point the way! Thou must suffer, -thou must suffer much; but one day thou shalt rise, rise higher than in -the past, and spread thy wings over a people which, at last, is free.’ -After planting a wooden cross on the spot where mass had been said, the -crowd dispersed, and they carried away with them the solemn memory of a -scene which was passing strange.</p> - -<p>But the real question had not ceased to live in Warsaw, the centre -of Polish agitation; it had existed there before the manifestation -of Horoldo, and from thence it had influenced that episode in the -great movement, of which the spirit seemed to be as contagious as a -passion. And here I must notice the diverse phases of Russian policy, -and the fatality which seemed to attend upon its decisions. Let this -be remarked, that in the last days of March, Russia showed herself -ready for concessions, and promulgated some reforms. Then and there a -reaction occurs which reaches its height on April 8th, and the reforms -of March go for<span class="pagenum" id="Page_307">[Pg 307]</span> nothing, or, at least, are, like everything else for -the time being, in abeyance. By the month of August, and after a period -of repression and severity, which was also distinguished by a marked -antagonism between Marquis Wiélopolski and General Souchozanett (the -successor of Prince Gortchakof), the sky appears again to clear. To the -kingdom of Poland, a new lieutenant is given, General Count Lambert, -who starts for Warsaw on a conciliatory mission. He is to carry out -new institutions, to call together ‘enlightened and well-intentioned -men,’ and to ‘find out the real wants of the country.’ What was to -be the result of these tactics, adopted again under an aggravated -condition of affairs? Unfortunately in this as in every such attempt -made in Poland by the Russian government, there was something unsound. -Count Lambert, as far as his own qualifications went, doubtless did -unite in himself all the conditions which were most favourable for a -mission of peace. He was a gentleman of courteous and affable manners, -of French origin, and by religion a Roman Catholic; his temper was -candid and moderate, and he enjoyed the peculiar flavour of the Tzar; -but at the same time he had men placed under him, who were understood -to represent the old Russian party; and these men were there to watch -him, and keep him to the point if the occasion should require it. -These were General Gerstenzweig, the Military Governor of Warsaw, -Minister of the Interior, Krijanowski, the head of the staff, and the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_308">[Pg 308]</span> -senator Platonof, a member of the Council of Administration. In spite -of everything, Count Lambert, on his arrival at Warsaw, was received -with favour, and looked upon as a plenipotentiary of peace; his first -acts being indeed marked by a conciliatory spirit. With the heads of -the national party and with the bishops the Count held conferences, -and even received a confidential memorandum from M. Wyszinski, a Canon -of note in Warsaw, whose paper pointed out the conditions under which -peace might be possible; namely, conditions which meant a constitution -for the kingdom, and an organisation founded upon the national autonomy -of Lithuania and Ruthenia. Finally, Count Lambert bestirred himself -to put into practice the new institutions which had been talked -of, namely, elections in districts and provinces, and a reformed -organisation of the Council of State.</p> - -<p>It was important for the country and for the national party to know -what steps it ought to take when these elections were impending; and -when affairs under the new lieutenant had assumed a new aspect, several -meetings took place. To reject everything and to hold their own hands, -was as yet the opinion offered by those who formed the <em>advanced</em> -party, and whose votes were for action. The <em>moderate</em> party, -however, had more practical sense, and seeing the necessity of -not rejecting any legal means, they combatted this idea of not -participating in any way in the forthcoming elections. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_309">[Pg 309]</span> moderate -party carried the day, but one combination was devised as a rallying -point for opinions of every shade. Two petitions were to be signed at -the same time—the first, addressed to the Council of State, was to -demand the complete emancipation of the Jews; the other, addressed to -Count Lambert, was to claim a national representation, as being the -only institution proper for seeking out and making known the wants -of the country, as it was expressed in the imperial rescript. These -two petitions, it was intended, should be signed by all the electors -when they gave their votes; and thus at the end of September they came -to the ballot. In spite of some attempts made by the most hot-headed -partisans, great unanimity prevailed; the peasants in particular -showed a vast amount of zeal, and the two petitions thus agreed upon -were signed by the electors throughout all the districts of the -country. One circumstance of this transaction is a curious one, and -that is the secrecy with which the signatures were affixed. So well -indeed was the secret kept, that of one of the addresses the text has -never transpired. In all the elections the moderate party had a great -advantage, and thus a new character was given to the movement, for, -instead of mere agitation, it assumed the nature of a legal claim, and -it was settled that all manifestations were to terminate in a religious -fête, in honour of Kosciusko, on October 15th, while the addresses were -to be sent up by a deputation on the 18th.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_310">[Pg 310]</span></p> - -<p>On the 17th, however, the city was suddenly declared to be in a state -of siege. What had happened?</p> - -<p>No fear of possible troubles and tumult on the 15th had driven the -authorities to this step, but they had become aware of that new plan of -action which I have just described as adopted by the national party.</p> - -<p>Some of the bishops, taking the initiative, had sent a paper to Count -Lambert, which he had refused to receive, while in another way the -business about petitions signed at the elections had got wind, and had -occasioned the greatest uneasiness, above all, in St. Petersburg.</p> - -<p>This was, moreover, the very moment at which the disturbances among the -students had broken out in Russia. Such a complication of symptoms in -the political world terrified the government, and a state of siege was -proclaimed; certainly, less with the view of interrupting the Kosciusko -fête than of stifling the petitions which were to be presented four -days later. Once more the face of affairs was altered; from having -been a matter of politics and of legal claims, it went back to the old -dramatic aspect, and the scenes of October 15th were a new tragedy. The -era of reaction had recommenced, and this reaction swept everything -before it.</p> - -<p>Of the many heavy days which had succeeded each other, the morning of -October 15th was perhaps the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_311">[Pg 311]</span> saddest that ever dawned. From an early -hour the populace had crowded into the churches, to take part in the -funeral services which invoked and hallowed the memory of Kosciusko. -The troops, employed in the military occupation of the town, offered -no hindrance to the faithful at the doors of the sacred edifices; and -it was not till the churches were filled, that the army had orders to -surround them. From some of the buildings escape would have been easy, -and these were the last to be encircled. The cathedral of St. John and -the church of the Bernardines had the honour of being really besieged; -while at the same time hordes of Cossacks, spread all over Warsaw, -committed every sort of excess, and spared neither the women nor the -strangers within the gates. An Englishman (<abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> George Mitchell) was a -sufferer and an eye-witness of this day’s work, and he wrote, ‘troops -of infuriated Cossacks and Circassians swept the streets, and they cut -down men and women without any distinction whatever. They entered into -the dwellings, they maltreated the inhabitants, and they sacked the -houses.’</p> - -<p>When the order was given to surround the churches, it had most -certainly not been anticipated that the crowd would embrace the strange -resolution of refusing to quit them as long as the troops were on the -ground, and that it would be necessary to drive them out. Thus, one -rash and ill-considered resolution led, a little later, to the most -disastrous consequences. During the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_312">[Pg 312]</span> whole day things continued on this -wise; the crowd was in the churches, breathless, excited, hungry, but -unalterable; and still the soldiers camped before the doors. At eight -o’clock in the evening, a General appeared, and he offered pardon to -the crowd, if they would surrender at the mercy of the Lieutenant of -the Kingdom. The reply was, that the people knew what mercy meant, and -that as long as the troops were not withdrawn they should not stir. -Tapers were now lit round the catafalque which had been reared the -night before for the late archbishop, and hymns were chanted from time -to time.</p> - -<p>At two o’clock in the morning a new envoy came to parley with the -multitude, who answered as before, that they did not ask for pardon. -Two long mortal hours now passed away, when at seven o’clock, that is -to say, after a siege of seventeen hours, the soldiers were ordered -to force their way into the churches and to drive out the occupants. -More than two thousand persons were seized, and carried to the citadel. -But this was not all; and here again appears that fatality which I -have said attended upon the Russian officials. Count Lambert, it would -appear, had in no way anticipated or intended either this invasion -of the churches or these wholesale arrests. Both had been executed -in obedience to the commands of General Gerstenzweig, the Chief of -the state of siege, and thence arose an altercation between the two -generals, which was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_313">[Pg 313]</span> tragical enough in its close. Count Lambert -vehemently reproached Gerstenzweig for all the horrors of the day, and -Gerstenzweig retorted with equal violence. What next? It seems a fact -no longer to be doubted, that General Gerstenzweig then took a pistol, -and blew out his brains, while Count Lambert quitted Warsaw without any -warning.</p> - -<p>The results of the scene which was played out on the 15th of October -were soon felt. The administrator of the diocese ordered all the -churches in Warsaw to be closed, and the leaders of the other religious -bodies soon followed his example; for the same thing was done by the -grand rabbi, and by the head of the Protestant Church. For the last -year, every school in Poland had been locked, and the theatres were in -a like case; and it was now the turn of the churches to be shut.</p> - -<p>Thus and then did Russia inaugurate a new period of reaction, which has -not yet come to an end (April 1862).</p> - -<p>Of a drama which has lasted for a whole year, we behold the sad -and eventful epilogue. And yet all that happened on the 15th of -October, bad as it was, was simply a revision of all that had gone -before—of all the punishments which, since February 1861, had been -indiscriminately applied by martial law to all classes, all religions, -and all professions. Let us see, whom do we find, among this crowd of -men, punished, deported, or confined in prisons?</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_314">[Pg 314]</span></p> - -<p>There is M. Szlenker, the Provost of the Merchants of Warsaw, himself -the richest and the most honourable merchant of the kingdom.</p> - -<p>There is M. Hiszpanski, the head of the Shoemakers’ Guild (the grandson -of that Kilinski who was so loved and influential in Warsaw), a member -of the delegation formed in 1861, and elected, in September of that -same year, a member of the Municipal Council.</p> - -<p>Poles who, by reason of the amnesty, had returned from Siberia have -since been sent back, ‘by way of precaution’—so run the terms of their -sentence; and of this number is M. Ehrenberg, the celebrated poet, and -M. Krajewski, one of our most eminent critics, the most moderate and -sensible of writers, the author of the translation of ‘Faust.’</p> - -<p>An immense number of students and artizans have been sent to the -Caucasus and to Orenbourg. The Grand-Rabbi Meiselz, and the Rabbis -Kramstuk and Jastrow have been expelled; and Otho, the Evangelical -pastor, has been sentenced to deportation. The Chapter of Warsaw alone -has lost ten of its members, among whom the most conspicuous were M. -Stecki and the Canon Wyszinski, from whom General Lambert once asked -for memoranda. Last and worst, have we not seen M. Bialobozeski, the -very Administrator of the diocese of Warsaw, an old man of eighty years -of age, condemned to death because, after the 15th of October,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_315">[Pg 315]</span> he -ordered all the churches to be shut. By way of favour, his sentence was -commuted to imprisonment in a fortress, where he languished, and where -his character was aspersed by the publication of a retractation. If we -can ever suppose it to have been made by the victim himself, it only -renders his sentence of death more inexplicable than it had been before.</p> - -<p>On seeing such a multitude of punishments, it is not unnatural for the -reader to inquire, what are the crimes and the offences of which they -are the reward? In the government publications, and in the sentences -of the sufferers, he who runs may read, that they were awarded for -prayers, hymns, processions, for doubtful gestures made when perusing -official handbills, and for wearing national emblems and black clothes. -Only (and this is perfectly true) they were so inflicted because under -songs, prayers, and mournful apparel, there lay the soul of a people, -of a whole nation, which has been saddened by excess of tyranny, which -has been terribly tried, but which, even now, is not disheartened.</p> - -<p>At this period of agitation in Europe, when new problems complicate her -political life, the true importance of the events of the last year must -be seen to lie in their suddenness, and in the fact that Poland is not -discouraged. Judge of the last twelve months as we may, we cannot but -allow that they have shown us a people which, though often stricken, -is again on foot (though <em>how</em> this is so we cannot tell); that -this nation<span class="pagenum" id="Page_316">[Pg 316]</span> has found within itself the secret of an indestructible -life; and that, so far from being dead, she lives with a new and more -abundant vitality.</p> - -<p>The drama which has been enacted before us, coloured, though it may -be, by the tender and excited imagination of her sons, and, at times, -seeming more like a legend than a page of history, cannot be mistaken -for the convulsions of a nationality that is dying, and which, in -expiring, utters one last and piercing cry. It is the expression of -a force which, during thirty years, has been purified, tempered, -and trained afresh, and which now appears to prove itself at once -passionate and calm.</p> - -<p>What are the signs by which any true nationality is to be recognised? -Must a nationality have genius, intelligence, and true imagination? -Then Poland, during the last hundred years, has had a legion of -poets, all singularly gifted and inspired, and she still possesses -a flourishing and varied literature; for her language has remained, -although she has not had the freedom of her schools. Is the love of -the past and its traditions required? Then that feeling has been both -evident and rampant for the last year. Must there be originality of -life and manners? Polish manners have preserved all the savour of -their nationality, and, most assuredly, have not been influenced by -Russia. Is it by unity among all classes, and by social peace, that -a nationality approves its integrity and its strength?<span class="pagenum" id="Page_317">[Pg 317]</span> The present -movement has demonstrated precisely that there is a unity, a fusion -of all classes, and that this fusion is sealed by the abolition of -the last traces of serfdom, by the definitive acquisition of property -by the peasants—a measure which the landlords themselves favoured in -a practical and liberal manner; for if, in this agitation, we have -seen only its moving and dramatic externals, we must not forget that -under all this passion lies a spirit of political sagacity, which is -patent, and which has been enlightened by all the faults, and by all -the history of the past. Lastly, is religion one of the signs of a -truly deeply-living nationality? In this Polish awakening, religion -has been prominent, showing itself in the hymns of a people which -assembles and takes refuge in churches. I have no doubt but that, by -some great democrats, Poland is suspected on account of her religious -fidelity. Men of this stamp do not see that there is something in -suffering which opens the sources of religious feeling, till they -rise to passionate mysticism. Moreover, in a country like Poland, the -Church is the only organised power—the only body which has its own -laws and independence. Catholicism is truly one of the shapes of Polish -nationality; only, into her Catholicism a great sense of toleration is -now admitted; and we have seen priests, bishops, rabbis and Protestant -pastors, all joined in the same manifestations, and suffering under -the same measures of repression. Thus, Polish Catholicism<span class="pagenum" id="Page_318">[Pg 318]</span> realises -the phenomenon, unhappily so rare, of a profound and intimate alliance -between religion and all the instincts of liberty and nationality. -Thus, also, this union renders Polish agitation something very -different from any of those ephemeral fevers of revolution which give -way before sharp measures of suppression.</p> - -<p>For the same reason, the Polish problem remains a threatening one to -Russia; for it engages Russia in a conflict as ungrateful as it is -impotent. It compromises her in the eyes of Europe; it occupies her -politicians, and it lies a weight upon her own internal developement. I -do not know what is to happen; no one, indeed, can tell. She may again -be stern, or again she may relent in her rule; but the problem is the -same, and, without any compensation to set it off, it becomes more and -more serious in the empire of Tzars. Doubtless, when, a hundred years -ago, Russia, realising the dream of Peter the Great, marched upon -Poland, rent it, and carried off its spoils, she then violated all the -principles of justice; but she had a reason for it. She wished to draw -towards the West, and, through her western possessions, to enter among -European affairs. But everything has changed since then. Does Russia -now require Poland to give her a place in the world, and among European -powers? Russia now approaches the western world, less by her presence -at Warsaw, than by that multiplicity of communications, that mixture<span class="pagenum" id="Page_319">[Pg 319]</span> -of interests and ideas, and by those iron lines which, bringing all -countries together, have made distances disappear. And what happens now?</p> - -<p>This: that in order to maintain a supremacy, which is always -precarious, and always contested (because lawful wishes have not been -responded to), Russia is obliged to compromise her whole policy. At -every turn, in each combination or alliance, she is tied and bound, -because evermore between her and those who might be her allies, there -rises the phantom of Poland. But not only is her external policy -hampered and entangled, but her internal rule is affected by the -necessity for incessant tyranny. The great Lord Chatham once said, ‘If -the English government subjects America to a despotic rule, so surely -will England herself be obliged to submit to it.’ And herein exactly -lies the bond which connects Polish agitation with those liberal -aspirations which at the present time appear in Russia. It is no longer -a secret that throughout all classes of Russian society sentiments of -sympathy with Poland are being rapidly propagated, and that Russians -begin to foresee, without disturbing themselves, that a separation of -the two countries is really possible. A newspaper, which is published -secretly in St. Petersburg, the <i>Welicorus</i>, expressed this very -distinctly not long ago. ‘In order to maintain our rule in Poland, we -are obliged to keep there a supplementary force of 200,000 men, and -annually to disburse 40,000,000 of our money<span class="pagenum" id="Page_320">[Pg 320]</span> over and above those -revenues which we draw from Poland. Now, our finances will never be -better as long as we squander our resources in this way.... We must let -Poland go, in order to save ourselves from destruction.... We can no -longer conquer Poland, as in the time of Paskievitch, because there are -now no internal discords in Poland; and in spite of the efforts of our -government to sow division between the two classes, her patriots have -consented to deprive themselves of a part of their own estates, and -have settled them on the peasants.... For us Russians, it is a question -whether we are to wait till we are ignominiously expelled from Poland, -which, self-emancipated, will be our enemy, or whether we will be wise -enough voluntarily to renounce a ruinous ascendency, and thus make the -Poles faithful friends of Russia.’ Such is in very truth the question -now in agitation; and Europe looks on attentively.</p> - -<p>And as regards Europe herself, we must say, that this question of the -relations of Russia with Poland, after the terrible drama of last -year, is by no means an indifferent matter. The western world is at -present passing through one of those crises, during which everything -is experienced, where everything is renewed, and everything alters -in appearance. That which forty years ago was called the order of -Europe no longer exists; nor have the peoples alone violated it. The -governments themselves have so far lent a hand to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_321">[Pg 321]</span> the work, that, -piece by piece, the fabric has fallen away.</p> - -<p>The public order of 1815 is on the eve of disappearing, and what -may be the new order which shall be brought forth by the labours of -to-day assuredly no one can tell; but simply because we live at a time -in which everything is recast, and re-elaborated, it is our first -and best interest to watch the elements of this vast and universal -movement, and carefully to consider every serious manifestation of -the conscience of the nations. We must notice what dies and what -lives. Russia, it has been said, ‘has a certain fear of the opinions -of Europe.’ This opinion, most surely, has nothing in it hostile to -Russia. On the contrary, Europe cannot but feel an interest in such -labours as the emancipation of the serfs, of which the initiative -was taken by the Emperor Alexander II., as also in that liberal work -which is at present, day by day, evidently pursued in the heart of -the Russian nation; but not the less, at the same time, is the eye -of Europe upon that black spot at Warsaw. She sees and weighs both -faults and misfortunes, and she says to herself, that, if faults have -consequences, which follow them inevitably, there is not the less a -fixed limit to a people’s misfortunes, and to a nation’s pangs.</p> - -<hr class="r65" /> -<p class="center p0 small">PRINTED BY SPOTTISWOODE AND <abbr title="company">CO.</abbr>, NEW-STREET SQUARE, LONDON.</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter transnote"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="Transcribers_Notes">Transcriber’s Notes</h2> - - -<p>Obvious errors in punctuation and some inconsistencies in spellings of -proper nouns have been fixed.</p> - -<p><a href="#Page_6">Page 6</a>: “whereas our cotemporary” changed to “whereas our contemporary”</p> - -<p><a href="#Page_114">Page 114</a>: “the Basilian convent” changed to “the Basilican convent”</p> -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE STORY OF A SIBERIAN EXILE ***</div> -<div style='text-align:left'> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will -be renamed. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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