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diff --git a/67637-0.txt b/67637-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..2e59b74 --- /dev/null +++ b/67637-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,23567 @@ +The Project Gutenberg eBook of The History of the Manners and Customs
+of Ancient Greece Volume II (of III), by James Augustus St. John
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
+most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
+whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
+of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
+www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you
+will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before
+using this eBook.
+
+Title: The History of the Manners and Customs of Ancient Greece Volume
+ II (of III)
+
+Author: James Augustus St. John
+
+Release Date: March 16, 2022 [eBook #67637]
+
+Language: English
+
+Produced by: KD Weeks, Turgut Dincer and the Online Distributed
+ Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+ produced from images generously made available by The
+ Internet Archive)
+
+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE HISTORY OF THE MANNERS
+AND CUSTOMS OF ANCIENT GREECE VOLUME II (OF III) ***
+
+
+------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+ Transcriber’s Note:
+
+This version of the text cannot represent certain typographical effects.
+Italics are delimited with the ‘_’ character as _italic_. The single
+instance (in French) of a superscript character is rendered as 1^{er}.
+
+Footnotes have been moved to follow the paragraphs in which they are
+referenced.
+
+Minor errors, attributable to the printer, have been corrected. Please
+see the transcriber’s note at the end of this text for details regarding
+the handling of any textual issues encountered during its preparation.
+
+
+
+
+ THE HISTORY
+ OF THE
+ MANNERS AND CUSTOMS
+ OF
+ ANCIENT GREECE.
+
+ BY J. A. ST. JOHN.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ IN THREE VOLUMES.
+
+ VOL. II.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ LONDON:
+ RICHARD BENTLEY, NEW BURLINGTON STREET,
+ =Publisher in Ordinary to Her Majesty.=
+ 1842.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ LONDON:
+ Printed by S. & J. BENTLEY, WILSON, and FLEY,
+ Bangor House, Shoe Lane.
+
+
+
+
+ CONTENTS
+ OF THE SECOND VOLUME.
+
+ -------
+
+ BOOK III.
+
+ CHAPTER PAGE
+
+ IV. Marriage Ceremonies 1
+ V. Condition of Married Women 28
+ VI. Toilette, Dress, and Ornaments 50
+
+ BOOK IV.
+
+ I. Private Dwellings 75
+ II. Household Furniture 97
+ III. Food of Homeric Times—Meat, Fish, &c. 125
+ IV. Poultry, Fruit, Wine, &c. 150
+ V. Entertainments 170
+ VI. Entertainments (_continued_) 197
+ VII. The Theatre 220
+ VIII. The Theatre (_continued_) 248
+
+ BOOK V.
+
+ RURAL LIFE.
+
+ I. The Villa and the Farmyard 269
+ II. Garden and Orchard 301
+ III. Vineyards, Vintage, &c. 335
+ IV. Studies of the Farmer 362
+ V. The Various Processes of Agriculture 381
+ VI. Pastoral Life 401
+
+
+
+
+ THE HISTORY
+ OF THE
+ MANNERS AND CUSTOMS
+ OF
+ ANCIENT GREECE.
+
+
+
+
+ BOOK III.
+
+
+
+
+ CHAPTER IV.
+ MARRIAGE CEREMONIES.
+
+
+When marriage was determined on, whether love or interest prompted to
+it, the business part of the transaction, which in all countries is
+exceedingly unromantic, was delegated, as in China, to a female
+matchmaker,[1] whose professional duties appear to have been considered
+important. She carried the lovers proposals to the family of his
+mistress, or rather, perhaps, broke the ice and paved the way for him.
+In the earlier ages men, no doubt, performed this delicate office
+themselves, or entrusted it to their parents; as in Homer we find
+Achilles declaring, that his father Peleus shall choose a wife for him.
+Earlier still, if we may credit certain prevalent traditions, men
+dispensed altogether with such preliminaries and lived “more pecudum”
+with the first females who came in their way; a state of barbarism from
+which it is said they were reclaimed by Cecrops.[2] But, to whomsoever
+this fable may trace its origin, it is evidently unworthy of the
+slightest credit. Of times sunk in such an abyss of ignorance no record
+could remain, or even of many succeeding revolutions of manners touching
+close upon the orbit of civilisation. If, however, the tradition arose
+originally out of any real innovation in manners, it may refer to the
+partial abolition of polygamy, which, whether made by Cecrops or not,
+was an important step in the progress of the Greeks towards polished
+life.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1:
+
+ Προμνηστρία. Aristoph. Nub. 41. et Schol. Poll. iii. 41.
+
+Footnote 2:
+
+ Athen. xiii. 2. Mr. Mitford defers too much to “the traditions
+ received in the polished ages” when, upon the authority of such
+ traditions and of such writers as Justin (ii. 6.), he appears to
+ conclude that, before the time of Cecrops, the people of Attica were
+ in knowledge and civilisation inferior to the wildest savages. Hist,
+ of Greece, i. 58. Upon legends and authors of this description no
+ reliance can be placed. If society existed, everything “indispensable”
+ to society also existed; therefore, if marriage be so, it could not be
+ unknown. Besides, how happens it that this same Cecrops who instituted
+ marriage did not likewise teach them to sow corn, which, if Egypt was,
+ when he left it, a civilised country, must have been as familiar to
+ him as matrimony? This most necessary acquisition, however, they were
+ left to make many ages afterwards, during the reign of Erechtheus.
+ Justin, ii. 6.
+
+-----
+
+But if Cecrops ever lived, and should not be regarded as a mere
+mythological creation, we must still reject the comparatively modern
+tradition which fetches him from Egypt. Coming from the East, he would
+more probably have instituted polygamy than the contrary. In every point
+of view the tradition is absurd; for it at once represents the people of
+Attica as savages, and as having made considerable advances in the
+science of civil government. They have already emerged from the state of
+patriarchal rule, not by any means the lowest, and have arrived at the
+monarchical period in the history of society—for Cecrops marries the
+daughter of king Actæos—yet have not made the first step in
+refinement,[3] have not passed the barrier dividing the rudest savage
+from even the barbarian,—had not made the discovery that, for the
+preservation of society, children must be cared for and maintained,
+which is impossible until they have other fathers than the community. We
+must, therefore, reject this Cecropian legend, and acknowledge that,
+from the earliest times of which any record remains, the people of
+Hellas married and were given in marriage.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 3:
+
+ Cf. Goguet, Origine des Lois. iv. 394, where the learned author
+ contends most chivalrously for the received theory. Apollodorus,
+ however, represents Cecrops as an Autochthon, συμφύες ἔχων σῶμα ἀνδρὸς
+ καὶ δράκοντος. iii. 14. 1.—The reason why he was thus said to partake
+ of two natures—half-man and half-snake—has been very variously and
+ very fantastically explained. Diodorus Siculus, (i. p. 17,) derives
+ his title to be considered half a man and half a beast, from his
+ being, by choice a Greek, by nature a barbarian. Yet he conceives that
+ it was the beast that civilised the man. Others explain διφυὴς
+ somewhat differently to mean that he was of gigantic stature and
+ understood two languages: διὰ μῆκος σώματος οὑτω καλούμενος, ὅς φήσιν
+ ὁ Φιλόχορος, ἢ ὅτι Αἰγυπτίων τὰς δύο γλώσσας ἠπίστατο.—Euseb. No.
+ 460.—Eustathius, familiar with the fables of the mythology, turns the
+ tables upon Cecrops, and conceives that he may have civilised himself,
+ not the Athenians, by settling in Attica. He supposes him ἀπὸ ὄφεως
+ εἰς ἀνθρωπὸν ἐλθειν, ἐπειδὴ ἐκεῖνος ἐλθὼν εἰς Ἑλλάδα καὶ τὸν βάρβαρον
+ Αἰγυπτιασμὸν ἀφεις, χρηστοὺς ἀναλάβετο τρόπους πολιτικοὺς.—In Dionys.
+ Peneg. p. 56.
+
+-----
+
+Whatever the original practice of the Greeks may have been, traces of
+polygamy long continued discernible in their manners. Heracles
+maintained a seraglio worthy of an Ottoman sultan. His wives, indeed,
+like those of a wandering Brahmin, were scattered at convenient points
+over the country, that, whithersoever he roamed, he might find lodging
+and entertainment; but, as rumours of his different establishments
+travelled about, the jealousy of the ladies was at last excited and
+proved fatal to him. Ægeus, too, and his brother Pallas, old Priam,
+Agamemnon, Theseus, and nearly every public man in the heroic times, are
+represented as possessing a harem. Indeed, to judge by the practice of
+princes, it would seem as if polygamy were the law of every land; so
+habitual is it with them to transgress, in this point, against public
+opinion. A report, still current among certain writers, represents
+Socrates with two wives, the gentle nature of Xantippe encouraging him,
+perhaps, to venture on a second! But even that diligent retailer of
+scandal, Athenæus,[4] rejects this story, which, no doubt, originated
+with some sophist, who owed the philosopher a grudge. If not in the son
+of Sophroniscos, however, at least in Philip of Macedon, the kings of
+heroic times found an exact imitator. This Pellæan fox, though he did
+not, like the Persian monarch, lead about with him an army of concubines
+in his military expeditions, yet, from policy or other motives,
+contracted numerous marriages, as many, perhaps, as Heracles. Satyros
+has bequeathed to us a curious account of his majesty’s matrimonial
+exploits. During his long reign, of from twenty to four-and-twenty
+years, the dishes of one nuptial feast had scarcely time to cool before
+a new one was in preparation. It was nothing but truffles and rich soup
+from June till June. I am unable to furnish a list of all the ladies who
+claimed, through Philip’s diffusive love, to be queens of Macedon; but
+it may be proper to name a few, to show how the morals of his subjects
+must have been improved by his example. The first lady whose landed
+attractions won Philip’s heart was _Andatè_, an Illyrian, by whom he had
+a daughter, called Cynna. To her succeeded _Phila_, sister of Derda and
+Macatè. His next wives were two Thessalian women, _Pherè_ of
+Nikesipolis, mother of Thessalonia, and _Philinna_ of Larissa, mother of
+Aridæos. Had he sought merely the women these might have sufficed; but
+Philip had other views, and, finding marriage a still more expeditious
+method of extending his dominions even than conquest, he forthwith added
+to the list _Olympias_, who brought him the kingdom of Molossia in
+dowry, and, as every one knows, was mother of Alexander. Had the crafty
+prince stopped here, posterity, overlooking his immorality, might have
+applauded his prudence. But, elated by success, he proceeded to augment
+the number of his queens. To Olympias succeeded _Meda_, daughter of
+Cithalas, king of Thrace; and, lastly, _Cleopatra_, sister of
+Hippostratos, and niece of Attalos. By this time he was somewhat
+advanced in years, for Alexander, son of Olympias, approached manhood.
+At the feast given in honour of this new marriage, when the wine had
+circulated, as was customary among Macedonians, Attalos, who had
+probably drunk deep, observed, “At length we shall have legitimate
+princes, not bastards!” Alexander, who was present, in resentment of the
+affront, threw his goblet in the face of Attalos, who saluted him in the
+same way. Upon this, perceiving how matters were likely to proceed,
+Olympias fled to Molossia, Alexander into Illyria. Philip lived to have
+by Cleopatra one daughter, Europa; but, shortly afterwards, at the
+instigation, it is supposed of Olympias and Alexander, was murdered by
+Pausanias.[5]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 4:
+
+ Deipnosoph. xiii. 2.—Compare the account in Diogenes Laertius, ii. 5.
+ 10.—The conduct of Socrates, who married Xantippe to prove the
+ goodness of his temper, was imitated, we are told, by a Christian
+ lady, who “desired of St. Athanasius to procure for her, out of the
+ widows fed from the ecclesiastical corban, an old woman morose,
+ peevish, and impatient, that she might by the society of so ungentle a
+ person have often occasion to exercise her patience, her forgiveness,
+ and charity.”—Jeremy Taylor’s Life of Christ, i. 384.
+
+Footnote 5:
+
+ Athen. xiii. 5.
+
+-----
+
+Ordinary individuals, however, were restrained from the commission of
+such immoralities by the laws, more particularly at Athens, where
+marriage was contemplated with all the reverence due to the great
+palladium of civilisation. As a necessary consequence, celibacy could be
+no other than disreputable, so that, to a man ambitious of public
+honour, the possession of a wife and children was no less indispensable
+than the means of living.[6] Among the Spartans, bachelors were
+delivered over to the tender mercies of the women, and subjected to very
+heavy penalties. During the celebration of certain festivals they were
+seized by a crowd of petulant viragoes, each able to strangle an ox,[7]
+and dragged in derision round the altars of the gods, receiving from the
+fists of their gentle tormentors such blows as the regular practice of
+boxing had taught the young ladies to inflict.[8]
+
+ “And ladies sometimes hit exceeding hard.”
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 6:
+
+ Dinarch. in Demosth. § 11. Cf. Poll. viii. 40. Comm. p. 644.
+
+Footnote 7:
+
+ Aristoph. Lysistrat. 78, seq.
+
+Footnote 8:
+
+ Athen. xiii. 2.
+
+-----
+
+But we shall be the less inclined to judge uncharitably of this somewhat
+unfeminine custom, if we consider that, in the ancient world, no less
+than in the modern, unmarried and childless women were held but in
+slight esteem. And this feeling, which never for a moment slumbers in
+society, teaches better than the cant of a thousand sentimentalists what
+the true origin of love is.
+
+Of the impediments to marriage arising, among ancient nations, from
+relationship or consanguinity, very little is with certainty known. In
+the heroic ages, all unions excepting those of parents with their
+children appear to have been lawful; for, in the Odyssey, we find the
+six sons of Æolos joined in marriage with their six sisters, the manners
+of the olden times, abandoned on earth, still lingering among the gods.
+
+Iphidamos has to wife his mother’s sister,[9] and Alcinoös, by no means
+a profligate or immoral prince, is united with his brother’s
+daughter;[10] Deiphobos, after Paris’s death, takes possession of
+Helen,[11] and Helenos, the seer, is united in wedlock with Andromache,
+the widow of his brother Hector.[12] But without alleging any further
+examples, we may, from the practice imputed to the gods, among whom
+scarcely any degree of relationship was a bar to marriage, infer that,
+in very early ages, few scruples were entertained upon the subject.
+Later mythologists have even imputed to Zeus an illicit amour with his
+daughter Aphrodite,[13] but libellously, and in contradiction to the
+best ancient authorities.[14] Nature, indeed, has so peremptorily
+prohibited the union of parents with their own children, that positive
+laws forbidding connexions so nefarious, have in all ages been nearly
+unnecessary, though the superstition of the Magi[15] in ancient, and the
+profligacy of popes and princes in modern times, have been accused of
+transgressing these natural boundaries.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 9:
+
+ Hom. Il. λ. 221, seq.
+
+Footnote 10:
+
+ Hom. Odyss. η. 55, seq.
+
+Footnote 11:
+
+ Keightley, Mythology, p. 490.
+
+Footnote 12:
+
+ Serv. ad Virg. Æn. iii. 297.
+
+Footnote 13:
+
+ Virg. Cir. 133.
+
+ Sed malus ille puer, quem nec sua flectere mater,
+ Iratum potuit, quem nec pater, atque avus idem
+ Jupiter.
+
+Footnote 14:
+
+ For Valckernaer’s correction of Eurip. Hippol. 536, where for ὁ Δίος
+ παῖς, he reads ὄλιγος παῖς, should, I think, be adopted. Diatrib. in
+ Eurip. Perd. Dram. xv. p. 159, c. His whole defence of Zeus on this
+ _count_ is triumphant. Still the notes of Monk, Beck, Musgrave, and
+ the Classical Journal, vi. 80, should be compared.
+
+Footnote 15:
+
+ Diog. Laert. Proœm. § 6. To this practice Euripides probably alludes
+ in the Andromache, v. 173, sqq., where Hermione describes, with scorn,
+ the profligate manners of the barbarians. Catullus, inveighing against
+ the impious depravity of a contemporary, observes—
+
+ “Nam Magus ex matre et gnato gignatur oportet,
+ Si vera est Persarum _impia religio_.”
+
+ Epig. lxxxiii. 3, seq. Pope Alexander VI. and the Emperor Shah Jehan
+ have, in modern times, been accused of similar crimes. Bayle, Dict.
+ Hist. et Crit. Art. Alexandre VI. and Bernier, Voyages, t. i. On the
+ prohibited degrees of consanguinity, see Sepulveda, de Ritu Nupt. et
+ Dispens. i. § 20, where he says, that the Pope could authorize all
+ unions, save those between parents and children. “Et ideo hodiè non
+ ligant, nisi quatenus ab ecclesia sunt assumptæ; ac propterea Papa
+ dispensare potest cum omnibus personis, nisi cum matre et patre, ut
+ matrimonium contrahant.” Card. Cajetan. ap. Sepulved. ub. sup.
+
+-----
+
+Could we credit the sophist of Naucratis, there was likewise one
+distinguished person[16] among the Athenians who coveted the reputation
+of equal guilt.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 16:
+
+ Alcibiades. Athen. xii. 48. xiii. 34. Lysias, fr. p. 640.
+
+-----
+
+The marriage of brothers with their own sisters was, in later ages,
+considered illegal; not so with respect to half sisters by the fathers’s
+side, whom no law forbade men to marry.[17] Still the recorded examples
+of those who availed themselves of this privilege are few; but among
+them we find the great Cimon, son of Miltiades, who, from affection,
+observes Cornelius Nepos, and in perfect conformity with the manners of
+his country, took to wife his sister Elpinice.[18] Plutarch, too, speaks
+of the union as public and legal, but Athenæus[19] characteristically
+insinuates that Elpinice was merely her brother’s mistress. The Spartan
+law took a different view of what constitutes sisterhood. Here the
+father was everything, and therefore with an uterine sister, as no near
+relation, marriage might be contracted.[20] All connexions in the direct
+line of ascent or descent were prohibited; but the prohibition extended
+not to the collateral branches,[21] uncles being permitted to take to
+wife their nieces, and nephews their aunts.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 17:
+
+ Sch. Aristoph. Nub. 1353.
+
+Footnote 18:
+
+ Corn. Nep. Vit. Cim. i. Plut. Cim. § 4, where we find this lady
+ accused of an amour with the painter Polygnotos, who introduced her
+ portrait among the Trojan ladies in the Stoa Pœcile.
+
+Footnote 19:
+
+ Deipnosophist. xiii. 56. Muretus, Var. Lect. vii. i. discusses the
+ question, but without throwing much new light upon it.—Andocides cont.
+ Alcibiad. § 9, assigns Cimon’s amour with Elpinice as the cause of his
+ banishment. We find, however, Archeptolis, son of Themistocles,
+ marrying his half-sister Mnesiptolema. Plut. Themistocl. § 32.
+
+Footnote 20:
+
+ Meurs. Themis Attica. i. 14. Philo. De Leg. Spec. ii. Eurip. Orest.
+ 545. sqq.
+
+Footnote 21:
+
+ Cf. Herod. v. 39. Pausan. iii. 3, 9.
+
+-----
+
+The precise age at which an Athenian citizen might legally take upon him
+the burden of a family, is said, without proof, though not altogether
+without probability, to have been determined by Solon; for such matters
+were in those ages supposed to come within the legitimate scope of
+legislation.[22] They attributed to the season of youth a much greater
+duration than comports with our notions. It was, in fact, thought to
+extend to the age of thirty-five or thirty-seven, more or less: when
+entering upon the less flowery domain of manhood, men would need the aid
+and consolation of a helpmate. But if there ever existed such a law it
+was often broken,[23] for early marriages, though less common perhaps
+than in modern times, are constantly alluded to both by historians and
+poets. Apprehensions of the too great increase of population already led
+philosophers, even in those early ages, vainly to apply themselves to
+the discovery of checks, which the irresistible impulses of nature
+always render nugatory; and viewing in that light the regulation
+attributed to Solon,[24] they, with some variation, adopt it in their
+political works. Plato,[25] in accordance with Hesiod’s notion, fixes
+for the male, the marriageable age at thirty; but Aristotle, who chose
+on most points to differ from his master, allows his citizens seven
+years more of liberty. For women the proper age, he thought, is about
+eighteen. His reasons are, that the husband and wife will thus flourish
+and decay together; and, their offspring inheriting the bloom and
+highest vigour of their parents, be at once[26] healthy in body and
+energetic in mind.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 22:
+
+ Censor. de Die Natal. 14.
+
+Footnote 23:
+
+ Thus Mantitheos, in Demosthenes, marries at the age of eighteen, in
+ obedience to his father’s wishes.—Contr. Bœot. ii. § 1.
+
+Footnote 24:
+
+ Aristot. Polit. ii. 7. vii. 14. Gœttling.—Cf. Malthus on Population,
+ i. 9, 10.
+
+Footnote 25:
+
+ Repub. v. t. vi. p. 237. De Legg. vi. t. vii. p. 452. Hesiod, Opp. et
+ Dies, 696. Gœttling.
+
+Footnote 26:
+
+ Polit. vii. 16. Hist. Anim. vii. 5, 6. Cf. Tac. de Mor. Germ. 20.
+ Just. Instit. t. x. Brisson. de Jur. Nupt. p. 99.
+
+-----
+
+Winter, more particularly the month of January, thence called Gamelion,
+or the “Nuptial Month,” was regarded as the fittest season[27] of the
+year for the celebration of marriage; and if the north wind happened to
+blow, as at that time of the year it often does, the circumstance was
+supposed to be peculiarly auspicious. For this notion several
+physiological reasons are assigned; as that, during the prevalence of
+that wind, the human frame is peculiarly nervous and full of energy;
+that the spirits are consequently light, and the temper and disposition
+sweet, cheerful, and flexible. Lingering sparks of ancient superstition
+may also have had their share in establishing this persuasion: towards
+that quarter of the heavens, as towards an universal _Kebleh_, all the
+civilised nations of antiquity turned as the home of their gods; in that
+direction point all the openings of the Egyptian pyramids; thither to
+the present moment turn the Chinese and Brahmins when they pray, and in
+the holy tabernacle of the Jews the Table of Shewbread[28] likewise
+faced the north. Attention, too, was paid to the lunar influences; for,
+no other circumstance preventing it, it was usual to fix on the full of
+the moon, when the festival denominated _Theogamia_, or “Nuptials of the
+Gods” was celebrated, in order that religion itself, by its august and
+venerable ceremonies, might appear to sanctify the union of mortals
+effected under its auspices.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 27:
+
+ Olympiod. in Meteor. c. 6. Meurs. Grec. Fer. v. 240.
+
+Footnote 28:
+
+ Exod. xl. 22.
+
+-----
+
+To this practice there are several allusions in ancient writers.
+Agamemnon, in Euripides, when questioned by his wife respecting the time
+of Iphigenia’s marriage, replies, that it shall take place
+
+ “When the blest moon its silvery circle fills.”[29]
+
+And Themis, adjudging Thetis to Peleus, to terminate the contentions of
+the gods, selects the same season for the solemnization of the nuptial
+rites.
+
+ “But when next that solemn eve
+ Duly doth the moon divide,
+ For the chieftain let her leave
+ Her lovely virgin zone aside.”[30]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 29:
+
+ Iphigen. in Aul. 717.
+
+Footnote 30:
+
+ Pindar, Isth. Od. viii. 41, seq. Dissen.—Rev. H. F. Cary’s
+ translation, admirable for its closeness and spirit, p. 212.
+
+-----
+
+Most ancient nations, as the Hebrews, Indians, Thracians, Germans, and
+Gauls, regarded women as a marketable commodity; and, in this respect,
+the Greeks of early times perfectly agreed with them, buying and selling
+their females like cattle.[31] But, by degrees, as manners grew more
+polished, this barbarous custom was discontinued, though, in remembrance
+of it, presents were still made both to the father and the bride, even
+in the most civilised periods. We must, nevertheless, beware that we
+infer not too much from these gifts; for equally primitive and prevalent
+was the custom imposing upon fathers the necessity of dowrying their
+daughters.[32] In the case, too, of the husband’s death this matrimonial
+portion devolved to the children, so that if the widow chose,—as widows
+sometimes will,[33]—to embark a second time on the connubial sea, her
+father was called upon to furnish a fresh outfit. But, if the husband
+grew tired of his better half, and would insist on a divorce, or if,
+after his death, the sons were sufficiently unnatural to chase their
+mother from the paternal roof, the right over the entire dowry reverted
+to her.[34]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 31:
+
+ Aristot. Polit. ii. 6. Tacit. de Mor. Germ. 18. Heracl. Pont. v.
+ Θρακων. Leg. Salic. Art. 46. Hist. Gen. des Voy. vi. 144. Cf. Goguet,
+ Orig. des Loix, i. 53.
+
+Footnote 32:
+
+ In cases where the fathers were unable to dowry them, we find
+ daughters growing old in the paternal mansion. Demosth. in Steph. i. §
+ 20. Dowries were frequently considerable, amounting sometimes to a
+ hundred minæ. § 18.
+
+Footnote 33:
+
+ On their anxiety to discover the designs of the Fates in this respect,
+ see Schol. Aristoph. Lysist. 597.
+
+Footnote 34:
+
+ Goguet, Orig. des Loix, iii. 127, sqq.
+
+-----
+
+Parties were usually betrothed before marriage by their parents. And
+young women, whose parents no longer survived, were settled in marriage
+by their brothers, grandfathers, or guardians. Husbands on their
+deathbeds sometimes disposed of the hands of their wives, as in the case
+of Demosthenes’ father, who bequeathed Cleobula to Aphobos, whom he
+likewise appointed guardian of his children. In this instance, the widow
+had better have chosen for herself. Aphobos possessed himself of the
+dowry, and consented to fulfil the office of guardian, that he might
+plunder the children; but the marriage he declined. Another example
+occurs in the case of Phormio who, having been slave[35] to an opulent
+citizen, and conducted himself with zeal and fidelity, received at once
+his freedom and the widow of his master. In all serious matters the
+Athenians were a very methodical people, and conducted everything, even
+to the betrothing or marrying of a wife, with an attention to form
+worthy the quaintest citizen of our own great city.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 35:
+
+ Demosth. pro Phorm. § 8–10.
+
+-----
+
+Potter observes, with great naïveté, that, before men married, it was
+customary to provide themselves with a house to live in. The custom was
+a good one, and the thrifty old poet of Ascra, undertaking to enlighten
+his countrymen in economics, is explicit on the point—
+
+ “First build your house and let the wife succeed:”[36]
+
+which, no doubt, is better advice than if he had said “first marry a
+wife and next consider where you shall put her.” And we find that, even
+among pastoral, young ladies who, in modern poets, make their meat and
+drink of love, and hang up a rag or two of it to preserve them from the
+elements, in antiquity posed their lovers with interrogations about
+comforts. “You are very pressing, my dear Daphnis, and swear you love
+me; but that is not just now the question. Have you a house and harem to
+take me to?”[37]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 36:
+
+ Opera et Dies, 405.
+
+Footnote 37:
+
+ Theocrit. Eidyll. xxvii. 36.
+
+-----
+
+But prudent as they may be considered, the Athenians were still more
+pious than thrifty. Before the virgin quitted her childhood’s home, and
+passed from the state she had tried, and in most cases, perhaps, found
+happy, to enter into one altogether unknown to her, custom demanded the
+performance, on the day before the marriage, of several religious
+ceremonies eminently significant and beautiful. Hitherto, in the
+poetical recesses of their thalamoi, they had been reckoned as so many
+nymphs attached to the train of the virgin goddess of the woods. About
+to become members of a noviciate more conformable to nature than that of
+the Catholic church, they deemed it incumbent on them to implore their
+Divinity’s permission to transfer their worship from her to Hymen; and,
+the more readily to obtain it, they approached her, in the simplicity of
+their hearts, with baskets full of offerings such as it became them to
+present and her to receive.[38] Nor was Artemis the only deity sought,
+on this occasion, to be rendered auspicious by sacrifice and prayer.
+Offerings were likewise made to the Nymphs, those lovely creations with
+which the fancy of the Greeks peopled the streams and fountains of their
+native land.[39] These rites performed, the future bride was conducted
+in pomp to the citadel, where solemn sacrifice was offered up to Athena,
+the tutelar goddess of the state, with prayers for happiness, peculiarly
+the gift of supreme wisdom.[40] To Hera, also, and the Fates,[41] as to
+the goddesses that watched over the connubial state and rigidly punished
+those who transgressed its sacred laws, were gifts presented, and vows
+preferred; and on one or all of their several altars did the maiden
+deposit a lock of her own hair, in remoter ages, perhaps, the whole of
+it, to intimate that, having obtained a husband, she must preserve him
+by other means than beauty, and the arts of the toilette.[42] At Megara
+the young women devoted their severed locks to Iphinoë. Those of Delos
+to Hecaerga and Ops,[43] while, like the Athenians, the maidens of Argos
+performed this rite in honour of Athena.[44]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 38:
+
+ Theocrit. Eidyll. ii. 66, ibique Schol.
+
+Footnote 39:
+
+ Schol. Pind. Pyth. iv. ap. Meurs. Græc. Fer. p. 238.
+
+Footnote 40:
+
+ Suid. v. προτέλεια. t. ii. p. 629. v. Æschyl. Eumen. 799. Cf. Cœl.
+ Rhodig. xxviii. 24.
+
+Footnote 41:
+
+ Poll. iii. 38. Schol. Pind. Pyth. x. 31. Aristoph. Thesmoph. 982.
+ Kust.
+
+Footnote 42:
+
+ Poll. iii. 38. ibique Comm. p. 529, seq. Cf. Spanh. Observ. in Callim.
+ 149, 507. The youth usually cut off their hair on reaching the age of
+ puberty. Athen. xiii. 83.
+
+Footnote 43:
+
+ Pausan. i. 43. 4. Callim. in Del. 292. Spanh. Observat. t. ii. p. 503,
+ sqq.
+
+Footnote 44:
+
+ Stat. Theb. ii. 255, with the ancient commentary of Lutatius.
+
+-----
+
+Having, by the performance of the above rites and others of similar
+significance, discharged their instant duties to the gods, and impressed
+on their own minds a deep sense of the sacred engagements they were
+about to contract, they proceeded to perform the nuptial ceremonies
+themselves, still intermingling the offices of religion with every
+portion of the transaction. An auspicious day having been fixed upon,
+the relations and friends of both parties assembled in magnificent
+apparel, at the house of the bride’s father, where all the ladies of the
+family were busily engaged in the recitation of prayers and presentation
+of offerings. These domestic ceremonies concluded, the bride,
+accompanied by her paranymph or bridesmaid, was led forth into the
+street by the bridegroom and one of his most intimate friends,[45] who
+placed her between them in an open carriage.[46] Their dresses, as was
+fitting, were of the richest and most splendid kind. Those of the
+bridegroom full, flowing, and of the gayest and brightest colours,[47]
+glittered with golden ornaments, and diffused around, as he moved, a
+cloud of perfume. The bride herself, gifted with that unerring taste
+which distinguished her nation, appeared in a costume at once simple and
+magnificent—simple in its contour, its masses, its folds, magnificent
+from the brilliance of its hues and the superb and costly style of its
+ornaments. She was not, like some modern court dame, a blaze of precious
+stones tastelessly heaped upon each other; but through the snowy gauze
+of her veil flashed the jewelled fillet and coronet-like sphendone
+which, with a chaplet of flowers,[48] adorned her dark tresses; and
+between the folds of her robe of gold-embroidered purple, appeared her
+gloveless fingers, with many rings glittering with gems. Strings of Red
+Sea pearls encircled her neck and arms; pendants, variously wrought and
+dropped with Indian jewels, twinkled in her ears; and her feet, partly
+concealed by the falling robe, displayed a portion of the golden thonged
+sandal, crusted with emeralds, rubies, or pearls. But all these
+ornaments often failed to distract the eye from those which she owed to
+nature. Her luxuriant hair, which in Eastern women often reaches the
+ground:
+
+ Her hair in hyacinthine flow,
+ When left to roll its folds below,
+ As ’midst her maidens in the ball
+ She stood superior to them all,
+ Hath swept the marble, where her feet
+ Gleamed whiter than the mountain sleet,
+ Ere from the cloud that gave it birth
+ It fell and caught one stain of earth;
+
+her hair, I say, perfumed with delicate unguents,[49] such as nard from
+Tarsos, œranthe from Cypros, essence of roses from Cyrene, of lilies
+from Ægina or Cilicia, fell loosely in a profusion of ringlets over her
+shoulders, while in front it was confined by the fillet and grasshoppers
+of gold.[50] More perishable ornaments, in the shape of crowns of
+myrtle, wild thyme,[51] poppy, white sesame, with other flowers and
+plants sacred to Aphrodite, adorned the heads of both bride and
+bridegroom.[52]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 45:
+
+ Πάροχος. Suid. v. Ζεῦγος ἡμιονικὸν. t. i. p. 1123, b. Eurip. Helen.
+ 722, sqq.
+
+Footnote 46:
+
+ This was the usual practice. When the bride was led home on foot she
+ was called χαμαίπους a term of disrespect not far removed in meaning
+ from our word _tramper_. Poll. iii. 40.
+
+Footnote 47:
+
+ Aristoph. Plut. 529, et Schol. Suid. v. βαπτά. t. i. p. 533, b.
+
+Footnote 48:
+
+ Eurip. Iphig. in Aul. 905. This chaplet was placed on the bride’s head
+ by her mother. Hopfn. in loc.—In Locrensibus usu erat, ut matronæ ex
+ lectis floribus nectant coronas. Nam emptagestare serta, vitio
+ dabatur. Alex. ab Alexand. p. 58. b.
+
+Footnote 49:
+
+ Aristoph. Plut. 529. id. Pac. 862.
+
+Footnote 50:
+
+ Thucyd. i. 60.
+
+Footnote 51:
+
+ Σισυμβρία. Dioscor. ii. 155.
+
+Footnote 52:
+
+ Schol. Aristoph. Av. 160. In Bœotia the bride was crowned with a reed
+ of wild asparagus, a prickly but sweet plant. Plut. Conjug. Præcept.
+ 2. Bion. Epitaph. Adon. 88. On Nuptial Crowns vide Paschal. De
+ Coronis, lib. ii. c. 16. p. 126, sqq.
+
+-----
+
+The relations and friends followed, forming, in most cases, a long and
+stately procession, which, in the midst of crowds of spectators, moved
+slowly towards the temple, thousands strewing flowers or scattering
+perfume in their path, and in loud exclamations comparing the happy pair
+to the most impassioned and beautiful of their nymphs and gods.[53]
+Meanwhile, a number of the bride’s friends, scattered among the
+multitude, were looking out anxiously for favourable omens, and
+desirous, in conjunction with every person present, to avert all such as
+superstition taught them to consider inauspicious. A crow appearing
+singly was supposed to betoken sorrow or separation, whereas, a couple
+of crows,[54] issuing from the proper quarter of the heavens, presaged
+perfect union and happiness. A pair of turtle doves, of all omens, was
+esteemed the best.[55]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 53:
+
+ Charit. Char. et Callir. Amor. iii. 44.
+
+Footnote 54:
+
+ Orus Apollo Hieroglyph. viii. p. 6. b.
+
+Footnote 55:
+
+ Meziriac sur les Epitres d’Ovide, p. 190, sqq. Ælian de Animal. Nat.
+ iii. 9. Alex. ab Alexand. ii. 5, p. 57, b.
+
+-----
+
+On reaching the temple, the bride and bridegroom were received at the
+door by a priest, who presented them with a small branch of ivy, as an
+emblem of the close ties by which they were about to be united for ever.
+They were then conducted to the altar,[56] where the ceremonies
+commenced with the sacrifice of a heifer,[57] after which Artemis,
+Athena, and other virgin goddesses, were solemnly invoked. Prayers were
+then addressed to Zeus and his consort, the supreme divinities of
+Olympos;[58] nor, on this occasion, would they overlook the ancient
+gods, Ouranos and Gaia, whose union produces fertility and
+abundance,[59]—the Graces, whose smile shed upon life its sweetest
+charm, and the Fates, who shorten or extend it at their pleasure, were
+next in order adored; and, lastly, Aphrodite, the mother of Love, and of
+all the host of Heaven, the most beautiful and beneficent to
+mortals.[60] The victim having been opened, the gall was taken out and
+significantly cast behind the altar.[61] Soothsayers skilled in
+divination then inspected the entrails, and if their appearance was
+alarming the nuptials were broken off, or deferred. When favourable, the
+rites proceeded as if hallowed by the smile of the gods. The bride now
+cut off one of her tresses, which, twisting round a spindle, she placed
+as an offering on the altar of Athena, while, in imitation of Theseus,
+the bridegroom made a similar oblation to Apollo, bound, as an emblem of
+his out-door life, round a handful of grass or herbs.[62] All the other
+gods, protectors of marriage, were then, by the parents or friends,
+invoked in succession, and the rites thus completed, the virgin’s
+father, placing the hand of the bridegroom in that of the bride, said,
+“I bestow on thee my daughter, that thine eyes may be gladdened by
+legitimate offspring.”[63] The oath of inviolable fidelity was now taken
+by both, and the ceremony concluded with fresh sacrifices.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 56:
+
+ Theod. Prodrom. de Rhodanth. et Dosicl. Amor. ix.
+
+Footnote 57:
+
+ Eurip. Iphig. in Aul. 1113.
+
+Footnote 58:
+
+ Poll. iii. 38.
+
+Footnote 59:
+
+ Procl. in Tim. t. v, Meziriac. p. 155.
+
+Footnote 60:
+
+ Etym. Mag. 220, 53. sqq. Cf. Plut. Conj. Præcept. proœm. t. i. p. 321.
+ Tauchnitz.
+
+Footnote 61:
+
+ Plut. Conj. Precept. 27. Cœl. Rhodig. xxviii. 21.
+
+Footnote 62:
+
+ Meurs. Lect. Att. iii. 6, 106, sqq. Herod. iv. 34.
+
+Footnote 63:
+
+ Menand. ap. Clem. Alexand. Stromat. ii. p. 421, a. Heins.
+
+-----
+
+The performance of rites so numerous generally consumed the whole day,
+so that the shades of evening were falling before the bride could be
+conducted to her future home. This hour, indeed, according to some, was
+chosen to conceal the blushes of the youthful wife.[64] And now
+commenced the secular portion of the ceremony. Numerous attendants,
+bearing lighted torches,[65] ran in front of the procession, while bands
+of merry youths dancing, singing, or playing on musical instruments,
+surrounded the nuptial car. Similar in this respect was the practice
+throughout Greece, even so early as the time of Homer, who thus, in his
+description of the Shield, calls up before our imagination the lively
+picture of an heroic nuptial procession:
+
+ “Here sacred pomp and genial feasts delight,
+ And solemn dance and Hymeneal rite.
+ Along the streets the new-made brides are led,
+ With torches flaming, to the nuptial bed.
+ The youthful dancers in a circle bound
+ To the soft flute and cittern’s silver sound.[66]
+ Through the fair streets the matrons, in a row,
+ Stand in their porches and enjoy the show.”[67]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 64:
+
+ Potter, Arch. Græc. ii. 281.
+
+Footnote 65:
+
+ Eurip. Helen. 722. Hesiod, Scut. Heracl. 275, seq. where the torches
+ are said to be borne by Dmoës.
+
+Footnote 66:
+
+ In Hesiod a troop of blooming virgins, playing on the phorminx, lead
+ the procession. αἱ δ᾽ ὑπὸ φορμίγγων ἄναγον χορὸν ἱμερόεντα. A band of
+ youths follow, playing on the syrinx. See the note of Gœttling on
+ Scut. Heracl. 274, p. 117, sqq.
+
+Footnote 67:
+
+ Iliad, σ. 490, sqq. Pope’s Translation.
+
+The song on this occasion sung received the name of the “Carriage
+Melody,” from the carriage in which the married pair rode while it was
+chaunted.[68]
+
+Footnote 68:
+
+ Ἁρμάτειον μέλος. Leisner, in his notes on Bos (Antiq. Græc. Pars. iv.
+ c. ii. § 4.), observes, that in Suidas, Hesychius, and Eustathius (ad
+ Il. χ. p. 1380. 5), these words have a different meaning from that
+ which, with Bos and Potter (Antiq. Græc. ii. 282), I have adopted. But
+ in the passage quoted by Henri de Valois (ad Harpocrat. p. 222), they
+ would seem to bear the signification above given them.
+
+-----
+
+The house of the bridegroom, diligently prepared for their reception,
+was decorated profusely with garlands, and brilliantly lighted up. When,
+among the Bœotians, the lady, accompanied by her husband, had descended
+from the carriage, its axletree was burnt, to intimate that having found
+a home she would have no further use for it.[69] The celebration of
+nuptial rites generally puts people in good temper, at least for the
+first day; and new-married women at Athens stood in full need of all
+they could muster to assist them through the crowd of ceremonies which
+beset the entrances to the houses of their husbands. Symbols of domestic
+labours, pestles, sieves,[70] and so on, met the young wife’s eye on all
+sides. She herself, in all her pomp of dress, bore in her hands an
+earthen barley-parcher.[71] But, to comfort her, very nice cakes of
+sesamum,[72] with wine and fruit and other dainties innumerable,
+accompanied by gleeful and welcoming faces, appeared in the background
+beyond the sieves and pestles. The hymeneal lay,[73] with sundry other
+songs, all redolent of “joy and youth,” resounded through halls now her
+own. Mirth and delight ushered her into the banqueting-room, where
+appeared a boy covered with thorn branches, and oaken boughs laden with
+acorns, who, when the epithalamium chaunters had ceased, recited an
+ancient hymn beginning with the words, “I have escaped the worse and
+found the better.”[74] This hymn, constituting a portion of the divine
+service performed by the Athenians during a festival instituted in
+commemoration of the discovery of corn, by which men were delivered from
+acorn-eating, they introduced among the nuptial ceremonies to intimate,
+that wedlock is as much superior to celibacy as wheat is to mast. At the
+close of the recitation, there entered a troop of dancing girls crowned
+with myrtle-wreaths, and habited in light tunics reaching very little
+below the knee, just as we still behold them on antique gems and vases,
+who, by their varied, free, and somewhat wanton, movements, vividly
+represented all the warmth and energy of passion.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 69:
+
+ Plut. Quæst. Roman. xx. 19. Valckenaer ad Herodot. iv. 114.
+
+Footnote 70:
+
+ Poll. iii. 37.
+
+Footnote 71:
+
+ Poll. i. 246.
+
+Footnote 72:
+
+ Schol. Aristoph. Pac. 834.
+
+Footnote 73:
+
+ Athen. xiv. 10. Anac. Od. xviii. Schol. Hom. Il. σ. 493. Pind. Pyth.
+ iii. 17. Dissen. Schol. ad v. 27.
+
+Footnote 74:
+
+ Suid. v. ἔφυγον κακὸν. t. i. p. 1113, d.
+
+-----
+
+The feast which now ensued was, at Athens, to prevent useless
+extravagance, made liable to the inspection of certain magistrates. Both
+sexes partook of it; but, in conformity with the general spirit of their
+manners and institutions, the ladies, as in Egypt, sat at separate
+tables.[75] At these entertainments we may infer that, among other good
+things, great quantities of sweetmeats were consumed, since the woman
+employed in kneading and preparing them, and in officiating at the
+nuptial sacrifices, was deemed of sufficient importance to possess a
+distinct appellation, (δημιουργὸς,)[76] while the bride-cake, which
+doubtless was the crowning achievement of her art, received the name of
+Gamelios. The general arrangement of the banquet, however, they
+entrusted to the care of a sort of major-domo, who received the
+appellation of Trapezopoios.[77]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 75:
+
+ Luc. Conviv. § 8. In the sepulchral grottoes of Eilithyia, in the
+ Thebaid, we find a rough fresco representing a marriage-feast, at
+ which the men and women sit as described in the text.
+
+Footnote 76:
+
+ Schol. Aristoph. Pac. 421. Poll. iii. 41. The water of the bath used
+ on this occasion by the bride was, according to ancient custom,
+ brought from the fountain of Enneakrounos. Etym. Mag. 568, 57, seq.
+
+Footnote 77:
+
+ Poll. iv. 41.
+
+-----
+
+Among the princes and grandees of Macedonia the nuptial banquet differed
+very widely, as might be expected, from the frugal entertainments of the
+Athenians; but as it may assist us in comprehending the changes
+introduced into Hellenic manners by the conquests of Alexander and his
+successors, I shall crave the reader’s permission to lay before him a
+description, bequeathed to us by antiquity, of the magnificent
+banquet[78] given at the marriage of Caranos.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 78:
+
+ Athen. iv. 2, seq.
+
+-----
+
+The guests, twenty in number, immediately on entering the mansion of the
+bridegroom, were crowned by his order with golden stlengides,[79] each
+valued at five pieces of gold. They were then introduced into the
+banqueting-hall, where the first article set before them on taking their
+places at the board was, no doubt, exceedingly agreeable, consisting of
+a silver beaker presented to each as a gift, which, when they had
+drained off, they delivered to their attendant slaves, who, according to
+the custom of the country, stood behind their seats with large baskets
+intended to contain the presents to be bestowed on them by the master of
+the feast.[80] There was then placed before every member of the company
+a bronze salver, of Corinthian workmanship, completely covered by a
+cake, on which were piled roast fowls and ducks and woodcocks, and a
+goose, together with other dainties in great abundance. These, likewise,
+followed the beakers into the corbels of the slaves, and were succeeded
+by numerous dishes, of which the guests were expected to partake on the
+spot. Next was brought in a capacious silver tray, also covered by a
+cake, whereon were heaped up geese, hares, kids, other cakes curiously
+wrought, pigeons, turtle-doves, partridges, with a variety of similar
+game, which, likewise, after they had been tasted, I presume, were
+handed to the servants.[81]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 79:
+
+ Cf. Schol. Aristoph. Eq. 578. Ἔστι τι στλεγγὶς, δέρμα κεχρυσωμένον, ὁ
+ περὶ τὴν κεφαλὴν φοροῦσι.—Poll. vii. 179.
+
+Footnote 80:
+
+ When the host happened to be less rich or generous, people sometimes,
+ in the corruption of later ages, endeavoured to steal what they could
+ not obtain as a gift. Thus the sophist Dionysodoros is detected in
+ Lucian with a cup stuffed into the breast of his mantle.—Conviv. seu
+ Lapith. § 46.
+
+Footnote 81:
+
+ This singular kind of liberality continued in fashion down to a very
+ late period:—καὶ ἃμα εἰς ἐκικόμιστο ἡμῖν τὸ ἐντελὲς ὀνομαζόμενον
+ δεῖπνον, μία ὄρνις ἑκάστω, καὶ κρέας ὑὸς, καὶ λαγῶα, καὶ ἰχθὺς ἐν
+ ταγήνου, καὶ σησαμοῦντες, καὶ ὅσα ἐν τραγεῖν, καὶ ἐζῆν ἀποφέρεσθαι
+ ταῦτα. Luc. Conviv. § 38.
+
+-----
+
+When the rage of hunger had been appeased, as it must soon have been,
+they washed their hands, after which crowns, wreathed from every kind of
+flower, were brought in, and along with them other golden stlengides,
+equal in weight to the former, were placed, for form’s sake, on the
+heads of the company, before they found their way to the baskets in the
+rear.
+
+While they were still in a sort of delirium of joy, occasioned by the
+munificence of the bridegroom, there entered to them a troop of female
+flute players, singers, and Rhodian performers on the Sambukè,[82] naked
+in the opinion of some, though others reported them to have worn a
+slight tunic. When these performers had given them a sufficient taste of
+their art, they retired to make way for other female slaves, bearing
+each a pair of perfume vases, containing the measure of a cotyla, the
+one of gold, the other of silver, and bound together by a golden thong.
+Of these every guest received a pair. In fact, the princely bridegroom,
+in order, as we suppose, that his friends might share with him the joy
+of his nuptials, bestowed upon every one of them a fortune instead of a
+supper; for immediately upon the heels of the gift above described came
+a number of silver dishes, each of sufficient dimensions to contain a
+large roast pig, laid upon its back, with its paunch thrown open, and
+stuffed with all sorts of delicacies which had been roasted with it,
+such as thrushes, metræ, and becaficoes, with the yolk of eggs poured
+around them, and oysters and cockles. Of these dishes every person
+present received one, with its contents, and, immediately afterwards,
+such another dish containing a kid hissing hot. Upon this, Caranos
+observing that their corbils were crammed, caused to be presented to
+them wicker panniers, and elegant bread-baskets, plaited with slips of
+ivory.[83] Delighted by his generosity, the company loudly applauded the
+bridegroom, testifying their approbation by clapping their hands. Then
+followed other gifts, and perfume vases of gold and silver, presented to
+the company in pairs as before. The bustle having subsided, there
+suddenly rushed in a troop of performers worthy to have figured in the
+feast of the Chytræ,[84] at Athens, and along with them ithyphalli,
+jugglers, and naked female wonder-workers, who danced upon their heads
+in circles of swords, and spouted fire from their mouths. These
+performances ended, they set themselves more earnestly and hotly to
+drink, from capacious golden goblets, their wines, now less mixed than
+before, being the Thasian, the Mendian, and the Lesbian. A glass dish,
+three feet in diameter, was next brought in upon a silver stand, on
+which were piled all kinds of fried fish. This was accompanied by silver
+bread-baskets, filled with Cappadocian rolls, some of which they ate,
+and delivered the rest to their slaves. They then washed their hands,
+and were crowned with golden crowns, double the weight of the former,
+and presented with a third pair of gold and silver vases filled with
+perfume. They by this time had become quite delirious with wine, and
+began a truly Macedonian contest, in which the winner was he who
+swallowed most; Proteas, grandson of him who was boon companion to
+Alexander the Great, drinking upwards of a gallon at a draught, and
+exclaiming—
+
+ “Most joy is in his soul
+ Who drains the largest bowl.”
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 82:
+
+ The Sambukè was a stringed instrument of triangular form, invented by
+ the poet Ibycos. It was sometimes called Iambukè, because used by
+ chaunters of Iambic verse.—Suid. in v. t. ii. p. 709, c. d. Poll. iv.
+ 59.
+
+Footnote 83:
+
+ Casaubon is particular in his explanation of this passage, lest any
+ one should fall into the singular mistake of supposing these nuptial
+ bread-baskets to have been made with plaited thongs of elephant’s
+ hide: “_Lora elephantina_ fortasse aliquis capiat de _corio
+ elephanti_: sed ἱμάντας arbitror appellare Hippolochum _virgas
+ subtiles ex ebore_, quibus ceu vimine utebantur in contexendis
+ panariis istis.”—Animadv. in Athen. t. vii. p. 392.
+
+Footnote 84:
+
+ Vid. Animadv. in Athen. t. vii. p. 393. Meurs. Græcia Feriata. i. p.
+ 30, seq.
+
+-----
+
+The immense goblet was then given him by Caranos, who declared, that
+every man should reckon as his own property the bowl whose contents he
+could despatch. Upon this, nine valiant bacchanals started up at once,
+and sought each to empty the goblet before the others, while one unhappy
+wight among the company, envying them their good fortune, sat down and
+burst into tears because he should go cupless away. The master of the
+house, however, unwilling that any should be dissatisfied, presented him
+with an empty bowl.[85]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 85:
+
+ In like manner, Alexander, son of Philip, when he entertained nine
+ thousand persons at a marriage feast at Susa, presented each of them
+ with a golden goblet, and paid all their debts, amounting to nearly
+ ten thousand talents.—Plut. Alexand. § 70.
+
+-----
+
+A chorus of a hundred men now entered to chaunt the epithalamium; and
+after them dancing girls, dressed in the character of nymphs and
+nereids.
+
+The drinking still proceeding, and the darkness of evening coming on,
+the circle of the hall appeared suddenly to dilate, a succession of
+white curtains, which had extended all round, and disguised its
+dimensions, being drawn up, while from numerous recesses in the wall,
+thrown open by concealed machinery, a blaze of torches flashed upon the
+guests, seeming to be borne by a troop of gods and goddesses, Hermes,
+Pan, Artemis, and the Loves, with numerous other divinities, each
+holding a flambeau and administering light to the assembled mortals.
+
+While every person was expressing his admiration of this contrivance,
+wild boars of true Erymanthean dimensions, transfixed with silver
+javelins, were brought in on square trays with golden rims, one of which
+was presented to each of the company. To the _bon vivants_ themselves
+nothing appeared so worthy of commendation, as that, when anything
+wonderful was exhibited, they should all have been able to get upon
+their legs, and preserve the perpendicular, notwithstanding they were so
+top-heavy with wine.
+
+“Our slaves,” says one of the guests, “piled all the gifts we had
+received in our baskets; and the trumpet, according to the custom of the
+Macedonians, at length announced the termination of the repast.” Caranos
+next began that part of the potations in which small cups alone figured,
+and commanded the slaves to circulate the wine briskly; what they drank
+in this second bout being regarded as an antidote against that which
+they had swallowed before.
+
+They were now, as might be supposed, in the right trim to be amused, and
+there entered to them the buffoon Mandrogenes, a descendant, it was
+said, of Strato the Athenian. This professional gentleman for a long
+time shook their sides with laughter, and terminated his performances by
+dancing with his wife, an old woman, upwards of eighty.[86] This fit of
+merriment would appear to have restored the edge of their appetites, and
+made them ready for those supplementary dainties which closed the
+achievements of the day. These consisted of a variety of sweetmeats,
+rendered more tempting by the little ivory-plaited corbels in which they
+nestled, delicate cakes from Crete, and Samos, and Attica, in the boxes
+in which they were imported.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 86:
+
+ If octogenarian dancers were held in admiration in England, it would,
+ according to Lord Bacon, be easy to form an army of them; since “there
+ is, he says, scarce a village with us, if it be any whit populous, but
+ it affords some man or woman of fourscore years of age; nay, a few
+ years since there was, in the county of Hereford, a May-game, or
+ morrice-dance, consisting of eight men, whose age computed together,
+ made up eight hundred years, inasmuch as what some of them wanted of
+ an hundred, others exceeded as much.” History of Life and Death, p.
+ 20.
+
+-----
+
+Hippolochos, to whose enthusiasm for descriptions of good cheer, the
+reader is indebted for the above picturesque details, concludes his
+important narrative by observing, that, when they rose to depart, their
+anxiety respecting the wealth they had acquired sobered them completely.
+He then adds, addressing himself to his correspondent Lynceus,
+“Meanwhile you, my friend, remaining all alone at Athens, enjoy the
+lectures of Theophrastus with your thyme, rocket and delicate twists,
+mingling in the revels of the Linnean and Chytrean festivals. For our
+own part we are looking out, some for houses, others for estates, others
+for slaves, to be purchased by the riches which dropped into our baskets
+at the supper of Caranos.”
+
+The marriage feast having been thus concluded, the bride was conducted
+to the harem by the light of flambeaux, round one of which,
+pre-eminently denominated the “Hymeneal Torch,” her mother, who was
+principal among the torch-bearers, twisted her hair-lace,[87] unbound at
+the moment from her head. On retiring to the nuptial chamber the bride,
+in obedience to the laws, ate a quince, together with the bridegroom, to
+signify, we are told, that their first conversation should be full of
+sweetness and harmony.[88] The guests continued their revels with music,
+dancing, and song, until far in the night.[89]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 87:
+
+ Senec. Thebais, Act. iv. 2, 505.
+
+Footnote 88:
+
+ Plut. Conjug. Præcept. i. t. i. p. 321. Meurs. Them. Att. i. 14, p.
+ 39. Petit. Legg. Att. vi. i. p. 449.
+
+Footnote 89:
+
+ See Douglas, Essay on certain points of resemblance between the
+ ancient and modern Greeks, p. 114, and Chandler, Travels, ii. 152.
+
+-----
+
+At daybreak on the following morning their friends re-assembled and
+saluted them with a new epithalamium, exhorting them to descend from
+their bower to enjoy the beauties of the dawn,[90] which in that warm
+and genial climate are even in January equal to those of a May morning
+with us. On appearing in the presence of their congratulators, the wife,
+as a mark of affection, presented her husband with a rich woollen
+cloak,[91] in part, at least, the production of her own fair hands. On
+the same occasion the father of the bride sent a number of costly gifts
+to the house of his son-in-law, consisting of cups, goblets, or vases of
+alabaster or gold, beds, couches, candelabra, or boxes for perfumes or
+cosmetics, combs, jewel-cases, costly sandals, or other articles of use
+or luxury. And, that so striking an instance of his wealth and
+generosity might not escape public observation, the whole was conveyed
+to the bridegroom’s house in great pomp by female slaves, before whom
+marched a boy clothed in white, and bearing a torch in his hand,
+accompanied by a youthful basket-bearer habited like a canephora in the
+sacred processions.[92] Customs in spirit exactly similar still survive
+among the primitive mountaineers of Wales, where the newly-married
+couple, in the middle and lower ranks of life, have their houses
+completely furnished by the free-will offerings, not only of their
+parents but of their friends. It is, however, incumbent on the
+recipients to make proof in their turn of equal generosity when any
+member of the donor’s family ventures on the hazards of housekeeping.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 90:
+
+ Theocrit, Eidyll. xviii. 9.
+
+Footnote 91:
+
+ Ἀπαυλιστηρία. Poll. iii. 40.
+
+Footnote 92:
+
+ Etymol. Mag. 354. 1. sqq. Suid. v. ἐπαυλία, t. i. p. 964, e. sqq.
+
+-----
+
+
+
+
+ CHAPTER V.
+ CONDITION OF MARRIED WOMEN.
+
+
+From the spirit pervading the foregoing ceremonies it will be seen, that
+married women enjoyed at Athens numerous external tokens of respect. We
+must now enter the harem, and observe how they lived there. Most,
+perhaps, of the misapprehensions which prevail on this subject arise out
+of one very obvious omission,—a neglect to distinguish between the
+exaggeration and satire of the comic poets, much of which, in all
+countries, has been levelled at women, and the sober truth of history,
+less startling, and therefore, less palatable. To comprehend the
+Athenians, however, we must be content to view them as they were, with
+many virtues and many vices, often sinning against their women, but
+never as a general rule treating them harshly. Indeed, according to no
+despicable testimony, their errors when they erred would appear to have
+lain in the contrary direction.[93]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 93:
+
+ For example, public opinion regarded it as more atrocious to kill a
+ woman than a man.—Arist. Prob. xxix. 11.
+
+-----
+
+Certainly the mistress of a family at Athens was not placed above the
+necessity of extending her solicitude to the government of her
+household, though too many even there neglected it, degenerating into
+the resemblance of those mawkish, insipid, useless things, without heart
+or head, who often in our times fill fashionable drawing-rooms, and have
+their reputations translated to Doctors’ Commons. Of female education I
+have already spoken, together with the several acts and ceremonies,
+which conducted an Athenian woman to the highest and most honourable
+station her sex can fill on earth. In this new relation she shares with
+her husband that domestic patriarchal sovereignty, pictures of which
+abound in the Scriptures. How great soever might be the establishment,
+she was queen of every thing within doors. All the slaves, male and
+female, came under her control.[94] To every one she distributed his
+task, and issued her commands; and when there were no children who
+required her care, she might often be seen sitting in the recesses of
+the harem, at the loom, encircled, like an Homeric princess, by her
+maids,[95] laughing, chatting, or, along with them, exercising her sweet
+voice in songs,[96] those natural bursts of melody which came
+spontaneously to the lips of a people whose every-day speech resembled
+the music of the nightingale.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 94:
+
+ She wakes them in the morning.—Aristoph. Lysist. 18. This comic poet
+ gives a concise sketch of an Athenian woman’s morning work, which
+ rendered their going out difficult at such an hour:—Χαλεπή τε γυναικῶν
+ ἔξοδος· ἠ μὲν γὰρ ἡμῶν περὶ τὸν ἀνδρ’ ἐκύπτασεν· ἠ δ᾽ οἰκέτην ἤγειρεν·
+ ἡ δὲ παιδίον κατέκλινεν· ἡ δ᾽ ἐλουσεν· ἠ δ᾽ ἐψώμισεν.—Lysist. 16, sqq.
+
+Footnote 95:
+
+ Precisely the same picture is presented in the interior of Jason’s
+ palace at Pheræ, where we find the tyrant’s mother at work in the
+ midst of her handmaidens.—Polyæn. Stratag. vi. i. 5.
+
+Footnote 96:
+
+ Plat. de Legg. t. viii. p. 36.—Among the Thracians, and many other
+ people, women were employed in agriculture, as they are in England and
+ France, as herdswomen and shepherds, and every other laborious
+ employment, like men.—Id. ib.
+
+-----
+
+Xenophon, in that interesting work, the Œconomics, introduces an
+Athenian gentleman laying open to Socrates the internal regulations of
+his family. In this picture, the wife occupies an important position in
+the foreground. She is, indeed, the principal figure around which the
+various circumstances of the composition are grouped with infinite
+delicacy and effect. Young and beautiful she comes forth hesitating and
+blushing at being detected in some slight economical blunders. The
+husband takes her by the hand; they converse in our presence, and while
+the interior arrangements of a Greek house are unreservedly laid open,
+we discover the exact footing on which husband and wife lived at Athens,
+and a state of more complete confidence, of greater mutual affection, of
+more considerate tenderness on the one side, or feminine reliance and
+love on the other, it would be difficult to conceive.
+
+Ischomachos, I admit, is to be regarded as a favourable specimen; he
+unites in his character the qualities of an enterprising and enlightened
+country gentleman, with those of a politician and orator of no mean
+order, and his probity as a citizen infuses an air of mingled grandeur
+and sweetness into his domestic manners. Describing a conversation
+which, soon after their marriage, took place between him and his
+youthful wife, he observes:—“When we had together taken a view of our
+possessions I remarked to her that, without her constant care and
+superintendence, nothing of all she had seen would greatly profit us.
+And taking my illustration from the science of politics, I showed that,
+in well-regulated states, it is not deemed sufficient that good laws are
+enacted, but that proper persons are chosen to be guardians of those
+laws, who not only reward with praise such as yield them due obedience,
+but visit also their infraction with punishment. Now, my love,” said I,
+“you must consider yourself the guardian of our domestic commonwealth,
+and dispose of all its resources as the commander of a garrison disposes
+of the soldiers under his orders. With you it entirely rests to
+determine respecting the conduct of every individual in the household,
+and, like a queen, to bestow praise and reward on the dutiful and
+obedient, while you keep in check the refractory by punishment and
+reproof. Nor should this high charge appear burdensome to you; for
+though the duties of your station may seem to involve deeper solicitude
+and necessity for greater exertion than we require even from a domestic,
+these greater cares are rewarded by greater enjoyments; since, whatever
+ability they may display in the improving or protecting of their
+master’s property, the measure of their advantages still depends upon
+his will, while you, as its joint owner, enjoy the right of applying it
+to whatever use you please. It follows, therefore, that as the person
+most interested in its preservation you should cheerfully encounter
+superior difficulties.”
+
+Having listened attentively to the somewhat quaint discourse of the
+Economist, Socrates felt anxious, as well he might, to learn the result;
+for the lady, expected thus wisely “to queen it,” was as yet but
+fifteen. His faith, however, in womanhood was great; and Xenophon, who
+but reflects from a less brilliant mirror the Socratic wisdom, delivers,
+under the mask of Ischomachos, the mingled convictions both of the
+master and the pupil. The moral beauty of the dialogue, and its truth to
+nature, would have been lost had the lady at all shrunk from the duties
+of her high office. But her ambition was at once awakened. The obscurity
+to which, in the time of Pericles, women were, by the manners of the
+country, condemned, now no longer seemed desirable, and the love of fame
+was urged upon her as a motive to extraordinary exertions.[97] Her reply
+is highly characteristic. Running, with the unerring tact of her sex,
+even in advance of her husband, she desired him to believe that he would
+have formed an extremely erroneous opinion of her character, had he for
+a moment supposed that the care of their common property could ever have
+proved burdensome to her: on the contrary, the really grievous thing
+would have been to require her to be neglectful of it!
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 97:
+
+ That this passion led women to interfere too frequently with politics
+ may be inferred from the remark of Theophrastus, that to be versed in
+ the science of domestic economy was more honourable to them.—Stob. 85.
+ 7. Gaisf.
+
+-----
+
+Men always conceive they are complimenting a woman when they attribute
+to her a masculine understanding, and they thus, in fact, do place her
+on the highest intellectual level known to them. Socrates adopted this
+style of compliment in speaking of the wife of Ischomachos. And I may
+here remark, that we need no other proof of how differently the
+Athenians felt on the subject of women from the Orientals with whom they
+have been compared, than the mere circumstance of their conversing
+openly with strangers respecting their wives. In the East, a greater
+affront could scarcely be offered a man than to inquire about his female
+establishment. The most an old friend does is to say, “Is your house
+well?”—whereas at Athens, women formed a never-failing theme in all
+companies; which proves them to have been there contemplated in a
+different light. In fact, the sentiments of Ischomachos, every way
+worthy the most chivalrous people of antiquity, could only have sprung
+up in a society where just and exalted notions of female virtue
+prevailed; for, under the word “high-mindedness,” we find him grouping
+every refined and estimable quality which a gentlewoman can possess.
+
+But, perhaps, the reader will not be displeased if we introduce
+dramatically upon the scene an Athenian married pair discussing in his
+presence a question closely connected with domestic happiness. There is
+little risk of exaggeration. The picture is by Xenophon, a writer whose
+subdued and sober colouring is calculated rather to diminish than
+otherwise the poetical features of his subject.
+
+By Heaven! exclaimed Socrates, according to this account, your wife’s
+understanding must be of a highly masculine character.
+
+Nay, but suffer me, answered the husband, to place before you a
+convincing proof of her high-mindedness, by showing how, on a single
+representation, she yielded to me on a subject extremely important.
+
+Proceed, cried the philosopher, (who had not found Xantippe thus
+manageable,) proceed; for, believe me, friend, I experience much greater
+delight in contemplating the active virtues of a living woman, than the
+most exquisite female form by the pencil of Zeuxis would afford me.
+
+Observing, said Ischomachos, that my wife sought by cosmetics[98] and
+other arts of the toilette to render herself fairer and ruddier than she
+had issued from the hands of Nature, and that she wore high-heeled shoes
+in order to add to her stature,—Tell me, wife,[99] I began, would you
+now esteem me to be a worthy participator of your fortunes if,
+concealing the true state of my affairs, I aimed at appearing richer
+than I am, by exhibiting to you heaps of false money, necklaces of
+gilded wood for gold, and wardrobes of spurious for genuine purple?
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 98:
+
+ Xen. Œcon. x. ii. 60. Among the Orientals we find there existed a
+ peculiar collyrium for the white of the eye. Bochart, Hieroz, Pt. ii.
+ p. 120.
+
+Footnote 99:
+
+ Γύναι, a term of greatest endearment among the Greeks, as with the
+ French “ma femme.” On this point our language is more sophisticated.
+ The practice reprehended by Ischomachos, in the text, was generally
+ prevalent in Greece, where certain classes of the community, who could
+ afford nothing better, used, when they had painted the rest of their
+ skin white, to dye the cheeks with mulberry-juice, and paint the
+ eyelids black at the edge. In hot weather, therefore, dusky streamlets
+ sometimes flowed from the corners of their eyes; and the roses melted
+ from their cheeks, and dropped into their bosoms. They imitated old
+ age, too, by covering their hair with white powder. (Athen. xiii. 6.)
+ It was likewise, at one time, the fashion to bring forward their curls
+ so as to conceal the forehead, as was the practice in France and
+ England during a part of the eighteenth century.—Lucian, Dial. Meret.
+ i. t. iv. p. 123.
+
+-----
+
+Nay, exclaimed my wife, interrupting me, put not the injurious
+supposition: it is what you could not be guilty of. For, were such your
+character I could never love you from my soul.
+
+Well, by entering together into the bonds of marriage are we not
+mutually invested with a property in each other’s persons?
+
+People say so.
+
+They say truly: and since this is the case shall I not more sincerely
+evince my esteem for you by watching sedulously over my own health and
+well-being, and displaying to your gaze the natural hues of a manly
+complexion, than if, neglecting these, I presented myself with rouged
+cheeks, eyes encircled by paint, and my whole exterior false and hollow?
+
+Indeed, she replied, I prefer the native colour of your cheeks to any
+artificial bloom, and could never gaze with so much delight into any
+eyes as into yours—bright and sparkling with health.
+
+Then believe no less of me, said I; but be well persuaded that, in my
+judgment, there are no tints so beautiful as those with which nature has
+adorned your cheeks. The same rule indeed holds universally. For, even
+in the inferior creation, every living thing delights most in
+individuals of its own species. And so it is with man whom nothing so
+truly pleases as to behold the image of his own nature mirrored in
+another and a fairer form of humanity. Besides, false beauties, though
+they may deceive the incurious glance of strangers,[100] must inevitably
+be detected by persons living always together. Women necessarily appear
+undisguised when first rising in the morning, before they have undergone
+the renovation of the toilette; and perspiration, or tears, or the
+waters of the bath, will even at other times float away their artificial
+complexions.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 100:
+
+ Cf. Lucian, Amor. § 42. Aristoph. Nub. 49.
+
+-----
+
+And what, in the name of all the gods, did she say to that? inquired
+Socrates.
+
+What? replied the husband. Why, that for the future she would abjure all
+meretricious ornaments, and consent to appear decked with that simple
+grace and beauty which she owed to nature.
+
+At Sparta married persons, as in France, occupied separate beds; but
+among the Athenians and in other parts of Greece a different custom
+prevailed. The same remark may be applied to the Heroic Ages. Odysseus
+and Penelope, Alcinoös and Arete, Paris and Helen, occupy the same
+chamber and the same couch. The women in the Lysistrata of Aristophanes
+appealed to this circumstance in justification of their late appearance
+at the female assembly held before day, and Euphiletos in the oration of
+Lysias on Eratosthenes’ murder, who admits us freely into the recesses
+of the harem, confirms this fact, except, that when the mother suckled
+her own child she usually slept with it in a separate bed. At Byzantium
+also the same practice prevailed, as we learn from a very amusing
+anecdote. Python an orator of that city who, like Falstaff, seems to
+have been somewhere about two yards in the waist, once quelled an
+insurrection by a jocular allusion to this part of domestic economy. “My
+dear fellow-citizens,” cried he to the enraged multitude, “you see how
+fat I am. Well! my wife is still fatter than I, yet when we agree one
+small bed will contain us both; but, if we once begin to quarrel, the
+whole house is too little to hold us.”[101]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 101:
+
+ Athen. xii. 74.
+
+-----
+
+We have seen above how absolute was the authority of women over their
+household, and this authority likewise extended to their children. The
+father no doubt could exercise, when he chose, considerable influence;
+but as most of his time was spent abroad, in business or politics, the
+chief charge of their early education, the first training of their
+intellect, the first rooting of their morals and shaping of their
+principles devolved upon the mother.[102] There have been writers,
+indeed, to whom this has seemed a circumstance to be lamented. But their
+judgment probably was warped by theory. In the original discipline of
+the mind, great attainments and experience of the world are less needed
+than tact to discern, and patience to apply, those minute incentives to
+action which women discover with a truer sagacity than we do. In this
+task, ever pleasing to a true mother, the aid of nurses, however, was
+usually obtained; nor are we, as Cramer observes, on this account to
+blame the Athenian ladies, so long as they did not, as in after times
+was too much the fashion, consider their whole duty performed when they
+had delivered their children to the nurse.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 102:
+
+ Xenoph. Œcon. vii. 12. 24. Cf. A. Cramer. de Educ. Puer. ap. Athen. 9.
+ This writer acutely remarks, (p. 13,) that the words καὶ αὐτος ὁ πατὴρ
+ in Plat. Protag. p. 325. d. show that it was seldom the father meddled
+ with the matter. The mother, therefore, from early habit, was held in
+ greater love and reverence than the father. Casaub. ad Theoph. Char.
+ p. 187.
+
+-----
+
+It will be evident from what has been said, that an Athenian lady who
+conscientiously discharged her duties was very little exposed to ennui.
+She arose in the morning with the lark, roused her slaves, distributed
+to all their tasks,[103] superintended the operations of the nursery,
+and, on days frequently recurring, went abroad in the performance of
+rites specially allotted to her sex. But, one effect of democracy is to
+confer undue influence upon women.[104] And this influence, where by
+education or otherwise they happen to be luxurious or vain, must
+infallibly prove pernicious to the state. At Athens, the number of this
+class of women, extremely limited in the beginning, augmented rapidly
+during the decline of the republic, and the comic poets substituting a
+part for the whole, invest their countrywomen generally with the
+qualities belonging exclusively to these.—But, the success of such
+writers depending generally on ingenious extravagance and exaggeration,
+we must be on our guard against their insinuations. Their faith in the
+existence of virtue, male or female, has, in all ages, if we are to
+judge by their works, been very lanksided. In their view, if there has
+been one good woman since the world began, it is as much as there has.
+Accordingly when these lively caricaturists describe the female _demos_
+as addicted extravagantly to wine[105] and pawning their wardrobe to
+purchase it—as compelling the men by their intemperance to keep their
+cellars under lock and key, and still defeating them by manufacturing
+false ones—as forming illicit connexions, and having recourse to the
+boldest stratagems in furtherance of their intrigues, we must
+necessarily suppose them to have amused themselves at the expense of
+truth; though that, among the Athenians, there were examples enough of
+women of whom all this might be said, it would be absurd to deny.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 103:
+
+ Aristoph. Lysist. 18. Plato, who admired the practice, requires his
+ airy female citizens to go and do likewise. Καὶ δὴ καὶ δέσποιναν ἐν
+ οἰκίᾳ ὑπὸ θεραπαινίδων ἐγείρεσθαί τινων καὶ μὴ πρώτην αὐτὴν ἐγείρειν
+ τὰς ἄλλας, αἰσχρὸν λέγειν χρὴ πρὸς αὑτοὺς δοῦλον τε καὶ δούλην καὶ
+ παῖδα, καὶ εἴ πως ἦν οἷον τε, ὅλην καὶ πᾶσαν τὴν οἰκίαν. De Legg. vii.
+ t. viii. p. 40. Bekk.
+
+Footnote 104:
+
+ Cf. Plat. de Rep. t. vi. p. 102.
+
+Footnote 105:
+
+ Arist. Lysist. 113, seq. 205.
+
+-----
+
+We know that where the minds of married dames are fixed chiefly upon
+dress and show their anxiety has often very little reference to their
+husbands. And if it be their object to excite admiration out of doors,
+it is simply as a means to an end, which end, in too many cases, is
+intrigue. Proofs exist that among the Athenian ladies there were numbers
+whose idle lives and luxurious habits produced their natural
+results—loose principles and dissolute manners. The beauty of Alcibiades
+drew them after him in crowds,[106] though we do not read that, like
+another very handsome personage in a modern republic, the son of
+Cleinias found it necessary to carry about a club to defend himself from
+their importunities. They went abroad elaborately habited and adorned
+merely to attract the gaze of men,[107] and having thus sown the first
+seeds of intrigue, they took care to cultivate and bring them to
+maturity. The felicitous invention of Falstaff’s friends, which got him
+safe out of Ford’s house in a buck-basket, was not so new as Shakspeare,
+perhaps, imagined. His predecessors on the Athenian stage had already
+discovered stratagems equally happy among their countrywomen, whose
+lovers we find made their way into the harem wrapped up in straw, like
+carp—or crept through holes made purposely by fair hands in the eaves—or
+scaled the envious walls by the help of those vulgar contrivances called
+ladders.[108]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 106:
+
+ Xenoph. Memor. i. 2. 24. Ἀλκιβιάδης δ᾽ αὖ διὰ μὲν κάλλος ὑπὸ πολλῶν
+ καὶ σεμνῶν γυναικῶν θηρώμενος. κ. τ. λ.
+
+Footnote 107:
+
+ Aristoph. Nub. 60. Married ladies occasionally rode out in carriages
+ with their husbands. Demosth. cont. Mid. § 44. Even at Sparta we find
+ young ladies possessed of their carriages called Canathra, resembling
+ in form griffins, or goat-stags, in which they rode abroad during
+ religious processions. Plut. Ages. § 19. Cf. Xenoph. Ages. p. 73.
+ Hutchin. cum not. et add. p. 89. Athen. iv. 16, cum annot. p. 449.
+ Scheffer, de Re Vehic. i. 7. p. 68. The same custom prevailed in
+ Thessaly and elsewhere. Athen. xii. 37. Luxurious ladies at Athens
+ used to perfume even the soles of their feet. Their lapdogs lived in
+ great state, and slept on carpets of Miletos. Athen. xii. 78.
+
+Footnote 108:
+
+ Xenarch. ap. Athen. xiii. 24.
+
+-----
+
+The laws of Athens, however, were more modest than its women. For, from
+the very interference of the laws, it is evident, that the example of
+the Spartan ladies, who enjoyed the privilege of exposing themselves
+indecently, found numerous imitators among the female democracy. To
+repress this unbecoming taste, it was enacted, that any woman detected
+in the streets in indecorous deshabille[109] should be fined a thousand
+drachmæ, and, to add disgrace to pecuniary considerations, the name of
+the offender, with the amount of the fine, was inscribed on a tablet and
+suspended on a certain platane tree in the Cerameicos. However, what
+constituted _indecorous deshabille_ in the opinion of Philippides, who
+procured the enactment of the law, it might be difficult to determine.
+Possibly it may have consisted in the too great exposure of the bosom,
+for the covering of which ladies in remoter ages appear to have depended
+very much on their veils. Thus in the interview of Helen with Aphrodite
+she saw, says the poet, her beautiful neck, desire-inflaming bosom, and
+eyes bright with liquid splendour. Her garments concealed the rest.[110]
+Now, as it was customary for ladies to appear veiled in public, the
+object of the law of Philippides may simply have been to enforce the
+observance of this ancient practice. The magistrates who presided over
+this very delicate part of Athenian police were denominated “Regulators
+of the women,”[111] an office which Sultan Mahmood in our day took upon
+himself. They were chosen by the twenty from among the wealthiest and
+most virtuous of the citizens, and in their office resembled the Roman
+Censors and similar magistrates in several other states.[112]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 109:
+
+ Ἀκοσμοῦσαι. Harpocrat. v. ὅτι χίλιας. κ. τ. λ. Potter, Arch. Græc. ii.
+ 309, understands his law to have meant, women who literally appeared
+ _laconically_ in the streets. “Undressed,” is his word. But will
+ ἀκοσμοῦσαι which Meursius, Lect. Att. ii. 5, 62, renders by
+ “inornatius,” bear such a signification? Κόσμος γυναικῶν does not, as
+ Kühn observes, signify _ornamentum mulierum_, nor ἀκοσμοῦσαι
+ _inornatius prodeuntes feminæ_; but κόσμος is εὐταξία and ἀκοσμοῦσαι
+ means ἀτακτοῦσαι, that is, women who acted in any way whatever
+ contrary to decorum and good manners, which persons appearing
+ indecently dressed in public unquestionably do.—Ad. Poll. viii. 112.
+ p. 763. On the manners of the Tyrrhenian women, Cf. Athen. xii. 14.
+ sqq.
+
+Footnote 110:
+
+ Il. γ. 396. sqq. Cf. 141.
+
+Footnote 111:
+
+ Γυναικόσμοι. Poll. viii. 112.
+
+Footnote 112:
+
+ Cf. Arist. Pol. iv. 15. 120.
+
+-----
+
+The evil influence of women of this description,[113] who, as Milton
+expresses it, would fain at any rate ride in their coach and six, was
+perceived and lamented by the philosophers. To their vain and frivolous
+notions might be traced, in part at least, the love of power, of
+trifling distinctions, of unmanly pleasures, which infected the
+Athenians towards the decline of their republic. By them the springs of
+education were poisoned, and the seeds sown of those inordinate
+artificial desires which convulse and overthrow states. In vain did
+philosophers inculcate temperance and moderation, while the youth were
+imbued with different opinions by their mothers. The lessons of the
+Academy were overgrown and checked in the harem. Such dames no doubt
+would grieve to find their husbands content with little[114] (as was the
+case with Xantippe) and not numbered with the rulers, since their
+consequence among their own sex was thus lessened. They would have had
+them keen worshipers of Mammon, eagerly squabbling and wrangling in the
+law-courts or the ecclesiæ, not cultivators of domestic habits or
+philosophical tranquillity and content: and in conversing with their
+sons would be careful to recommend maxims the reverse of the father’s,
+with all the cant familiar to women of their character.[115]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 113:
+
+ On the luxurious manners of the Syracusan women see Athen. xii. 20. In
+ such disorders may be discovered the first germs of the decay of
+ states; on which account prudent statesmen even in oligarchies have
+ sought to restrain the licentious manners of women. Thus Fra Paolo:
+ “Let the women be kept chaste, and in order to that, let them live
+ retired from the world; it being certain that all open lewedness has
+ had its first rise from a salutation, from a smile.”—i. § 20. To this
+ let us add the opinion of the female Pythagorician Phintys: ἴδια δὲ
+ γυναικὸς, τὸ οἰκουρὲν, καὶ ἔνδον μένεν καὶ ἐκδέχεσθαι καὶ θεραπεύεν
+ τὸν ἄνδρα. Stob. Florileg., 74. 61. Both the philosophical lady,
+ however, and the Venetian monk have their views corroborated by the
+ authority of Pericles: τῆς τε γὰρ ὑπαρχούσης φύσεως μὴ χείροσι
+ γενέσθαι, ὑμῖν μεγάλη ἡ δόξα, καὶ οἷς ἂν ἐπ’ ἄρσεσι κλέος ᾖ. Thucyd.
+ ii. 45. Besides leading a retired life, ladies were likewise expected
+ to cultivate the virtue of silence. Soph. Ajax, 293. Hom. Il. ζ. 410.
+
+Footnote 114:
+
+ Which, according to Plato, well-educated men generally are. De Repub.
+ t. vi. p. 173.
+
+Footnote 115:
+
+ Plat. De Repub. viii. 5. t. ii. p. 182. Stallb.
+
+-----
+
+Our review of female society at Athens would be incomplete were we to
+overlook the Hetairæ who exerted so powerful an influence over the
+morals and destinies of the state. They occupied much the same position
+which the same class of females still do in modern communities,
+cultivated in mind, polished and elegant in manners, but scarcely
+deserving as a body to be viewed in the light in which a very
+distinguished historian has placed them.[116] Their position, however,
+was anomalous, resembling rather that of kings’ mistresses in modern
+times, whose vices are tolerated on account of their rank, than that of
+plebeian sinners whose deficiencies in birth and fortune exclude them
+from good society. There is much difficulty in rightly apprehending the
+notions of the ancients on the subject of these women. At first sight we
+are shocked to find that, during one festival, they were permitted to
+enter the temples in company with modest ladies. But in what Christian
+country are they excluded from church?[117] Again, behold in our
+theatres the matron and the courtezan in the same box, while at Athens
+even foreign women were not suffered to approach the space set apart for
+the female citizens. Nevertheless, though on this point so rigid, they
+were in their own houses permitted occasionally to visit them[118] and
+receive instructions from their lips, as in Turkish harems ladies do
+from the Almè.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 116:
+
+ Mitford, Hist, of Greece, iii. 4. sqq. It appears not to have been
+ common for these women to rear the children they bore, more
+ particularly when they were girls. They flew to the practice of
+ infanticide that they might remain at liberty. Lucian, Hetair. Diall.
+ ii. 5. iv. 124.
+
+Footnote 117:
+
+ Besides, from a passage in Lucian it appears that the ladies and the
+ hetairæ frequented together the public baths.—Diall. Hetair. xii. 4.
+
+Footnote 118:
+
+ Cf. Antiphon. Nec. Venef. § 5.
+
+-----
+
+It is not permitted here to lift the curtain from the manners of these
+ladies. But their position, pregnant with evil to the state through its
+contaminating influences on the minds of youth, must be comprehensively
+explained before a correct idea can be formed of the internal structure
+of the Athenian commonwealth, of the germs of dissolution which it
+concealed within its own bosom, or the premature blight which an
+unspiritual system of morals was mainly instrumental in producing. No
+doubt the question whether the existence of such a class of persons
+should be tolerated at all, is environed by difficulties almost
+insurmountable. They have always existed and therefore, perhaps, it is
+allowable to infer that they always will exist; but this does not seem
+to justify Solon for sanctioning, by legislative enactments, a
+modification of moral turpitude debasing to the individual, and
+consequently detrimental to the state. To do evil that good may come, is
+as much a solecism in politics as in ethics. On this point I miss the
+habitual wisdom of the Athenian legislator. Lycurgus himself could have
+enacted nothing more at variance with just principles, or more
+subversive of heroic sentiments.
+
+The Hetairæ,[119] recognised by law and scarcely proscribed by public
+opinion, may be said to have constituted a sort of monarchical leaven in
+the very heart of the republic; they shared with the sophists, whom I
+have already depicted, the affections of the lax ambitious youths,
+panting at once for pleasure and distinction, fostered expensive tastes
+and luxurious habits, increased consequently their aptitude to indulge
+in peculation, shared with the unprincipled the spoils of the state, and
+vigorously paved the way for the battle of Chæronea. But if their
+existence was hurtful to the community, so was it often full of
+bitterness to themselves. In youth, no doubt, when beauty breathed its
+spell around them, they were puffed up and intoxicated with the incense
+of flattery[120]—their conversation at once sprightly and learned seemed
+full of charms—their houses spacious as palaces and splendidly adorned
+were the resort of the gay, the witty, the powerful, nay, even of the
+wise—for Socrates did not disdain to converse with Theodota or to imbibe
+the maxims of eloquence from Aspasia. But when old age came on, what
+were they? It then appeared, that the lively repartees and grotesque
+extravagancies which had pleased when proceeding from beautiful lips,
+seemed vapid and poor from an old woman. The wrinkles which deformed
+their features were equally fatal to their wisdom that flitted from
+their dwellings, and became domiciliated with the last beautiful
+importation from Ionia. Thus deserted, the most celebrated Hetairæ
+became a butt for the satire even of the most clownish. The wit wont to
+set the table in a roar scarcely served to defend them against the jests
+of the agora.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 119:
+
+ Vice is generally superstitious; and these ladies accordingly when
+ they lost a lover, instead of attributing it to the superior beauty or
+ accomplishments of their rivals, or the common love of novelty of
+ mankind, always supposed that enchantments had been employed.—Luc.
+ Diall. Hetair. i. t. iv. 124.
+
+Footnote 120:
+
+ Statues, for example, were sometimes erected in their honour—Winkelm.
+ iv. 3. 7. They were generally well educated, and there were none
+ probably who could not read.—Drosè, in Lucian, complaining of the
+ philosopher who kept away her lover, observes that his slave came in
+ the evening bearing a note from his young master.—Diall. Hetair. x. 2.
+ 3.
+
+-----
+
+“How do you sell your beef?” said Laïs to a young butcher in the
+flesh-market.
+
+“Three obels the _Hag_,” answered the coxcomb.
+
+“And how dare you, said the faded beauty, here in Athens pretend to make
+use of barbarian weights?”
+
+The word in the original signifying an old woman and a Carian weight, it
+suited her purpose to understand him in the latter sense.[121]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 121:
+
+ Athen. xiii. 43. where the word is κύβδα.—The Turkish practice of
+ drowning female delinquents in sacks, is merely an imitation of what
+ was performed by a tyrant of old, who disposed of wicked old women in
+ this manner.—Idem. x. 60. In France likewise formerly it was customary
+ to avoid the scandal of a public trial, for noblemen and gentlemen to
+ be examined privately by the king who, when he could satisfy his
+ conscience that they were guilty, ordered them to be “without any
+ fashion of judgment put in a sack and in the night season, by the
+ Marshall’s servants, hurled into a river and so drowned.” Fortescue,
+ Laud, Legg. Angl. chap. 35. p. 82. b.
+
+-----
+
+Worshiped and slighted alternately they adopted narrow and interested
+principles in self-defence. Besides, generally barbarians by birth, they
+brought along with them from their original homes the creed best suited
+to their calling—“Let us eat and drink for to-morrow we die.” They were
+often the lumber of Asia and hence known under the appellation of
+“strange women,” though it is very certain, that many female citizens
+were from time to time enrolled among their ranks, some through the
+pressure of adversity, others from a preference for that kind of life.
+Their education it must be conceded, however, was far more masculine
+than that of other women. They cultivated all the sciences but that of
+morals, and concealed their lack of modesty by the dazzling splendour of
+their wit. Hence among a people with whom intellect was almost
+everything their company was much sought after and highly valued, not
+habitually perhaps by statesmen, but by wits, poets, sophists, and young
+men of fashion.
+
+Many of the _bons mots_ uttered by those ladies have been preserved. One
+day at table Stilpo the philosopher accused Glycera of corrupting the
+manners of youth.
+
+“My friend,” said she, “we are both to blame; for you, in your turn,
+corrupt their minds by innumerable forms of sophistry and error. And if
+men be rendered unhappy, what signifies it whether a philosopher or a
+courtezan be the cause?”
+
+It is to her that a joke, somewhat hackneyed but seldom attributed to
+its real author, was originally due. A gentleman presenting her with a
+very small jar of wine sought to enhance its value by pretending it was
+sixteen years old. “Then,” replied she, “it is extremely little for its
+age.” Gnathena too, another member of the sisterhood, sprinkled her
+conversation with sparkling wit, but too redolent of the profession to
+be retailed. Some of her sayings, however, will bear transplantation,
+though they must suffer by it. To stop the mouth of a babbler who
+observed that he had just arrived from the Hellespont—“And yet,” she
+remarked, “it is clear to me that you know nothing of one of its
+principal cities!” “Which city is that?”—“Sigeion,”[122] (in which there
+appears to be a reference to the word Silence) answered Gnathena.
+Several noisy gallants, who being in her debt sought to terrify her by
+menaces, once saying they would pull her house down, and had pickaxes
+and mattocks ready, “I disbelieve it,” she replied, “for if you had, you
+would have pledged them to pay what you owe me.” A comic poet remarking
+to one of these ladies that the water of her cistern was delightfully
+cold—“It has always been so,” she replied, “since we have got into the
+habit of throwing your plays into it.” The repartee of Melitta to a
+conceited person who was said to have fled ignominiously from the field
+of battle is exceedingly keen. Happening to be eating of a hare which
+she seemed much to enjoy, our soldier, desirous of directing attention
+to her, inquired if she knew what was the fleetest animal in the world.
+“The runaway,” replied Melitta.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 122:
+
+ Athen. xiii. 47.
+
+-----
+
+The same taste which induces many persons of rank in our own day to
+marry opera dancers and actresses, in antiquity favoured the ambition of
+the Hetairæ, many of whom rose from their state of humiliation to be the
+wives of satraps and princes. This was the case with Glycera, whom after
+the death of Pythionica, Harpalos sent for from Athens, and domiciliated
+within his royal palace at Tarsos. He required her to be saluted and
+considered as his queen, and refused to be crowned unless in conjunction
+with her. Nay, he had even the hardihood to erect in the city of Rossos,
+a brazen statue to her, beside his own.[123] Herpyllis, one of the same
+sisterhood, won the heart of Aristotle, and was the mother of
+Nicomachos. She survived the philosopher, and was carefully provided for
+by his will.[124] Even Plato, whose genius and virtue are still the
+admiration of mankind, succumbed to the charms of Archæanassa, an
+Hetaira of Colophon, whose beauty, which long survived her youth, he
+celebrated in an epigram still extant.[125]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 123:
+
+ Athen. xiii. 50.
+
+Footnote 124:
+
+ Athen. xiii. 56.—Diog. Laert. v. 12.
+
+Footnote 125:
+
+ Diog. Laert. iii. 31.
+
+-----
+
+Of all these ladies, however, not even excepting Phryne, or the Sicilian
+Laïs,[126] Aspasia[127] has obtained the most widely extended fame. This
+illustrious woman, endowed by nature with a mind still more beautiful
+than her beautiful form, exercised over the fortunes of Athens an
+influence beyond the reach of the greatest queen. Her genius, unobserved
+for some time, by degrees drew around her all those whom the love of
+letters or ambition induced to cultivate their minds. Her house became a
+sort of club-room, where eloquence, politics, philosophy, mixed with
+badinage, were daily discussed, and whither even ladies of the highest
+rank resorted to acquire from Aspasia those accomplishments which were
+already beginning to be in fashion. From her Socrates professed to have
+in part acquired his knowledge of rhetoric, and it is extremely probable
+that he could trace to the habit of conversing with one so gifted by
+nature, so polished by rare society, something of that exquisite
+facility and lightness of manner which characterize his familiar
+dialectics. No doubt, we may attribute something of the reputation she
+acquired to the desire to disparage Pericles. It was thought that by
+appropriating many of his harangues to her they could bring him down
+nearer their own level. She was, in influence and celebrity, the Madame
+Roland of Athens, though living in times somewhat less troubled.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 126:
+
+ She was a native of Hyccara, but taken prisoner in childhood, and
+ carried to Corinth, whence that city has generally the honor of being
+ regarded as her birthplace.—Athen. xiii. 54.—Cf. Thucyd. vi. 62. Sch.
+ Aristoph. Lysist. 179.
+
+Footnote 127:
+
+ Of the younger Aspasia, who had the reputation of being the loveliest
+ woman of her time, we have the following sketch in Ælian:—“Her hair
+ was auburn, and fell in slightly waving ringlets. She had large full
+ eyes, a nose inclined to aquiline, (ἐπίγρυπος) and small delicate
+ ears. Nothing could be softer than her skin, and her complexion was
+ fresh as the rose; on which account the Phoceans called her Milto, or
+ ‘the Blooming’. Her ruddy lips, opening, disclosed teeth whiter than
+ snow. She, moreover, possessed the charm on which Homer so often
+ dwells in his descriptions of beautiful women, of small, well-formed
+ ankles. Her voice was so full of music and sweetness, that those to
+ whom she spoke imagined they heard the songs of the Seirens. To crown
+ all she was like Horace’s Pyrrha, simplex munditiis, abhorring
+ superfluous pomp of ornament.”—Hist. Var. xii. 1. Some persons,
+ however, would not have admired the nose of Milto:—thus, the youth in
+ Terence (Heauton, v. 5. 17. seq.) “What? must I marry”
+
+ “Rufamne illam virginem
+ Cæsiam, sparso ore, adunco naso?
+ Non possum, pater.”
+
+ Aristotle (Rhet. i. 2) does not undervalue the slightly aquiline nose;
+ and Plato appears rather to have admired it in men.—Repub. v. § 19. t.
+ i. p. 392.—Stallb. where the philosopher calls it the Royal Nose.
+
+-----
+
+The name of Phryne, though not so celebrated, is still familiar to every
+one, partly, perhaps, through the accusation brought against her in the
+court of Heliæa,[128] by Euthios. She was a native of Thespiæ, but
+established at Athens, and beloved by the orator Hyperides, who
+undertook her defence. His pleading, it may therefore be presumed, was
+eloquent. Perceiving, however, he could make but little impression on
+the judges, he had her called into court, and, as if by accident, bared
+her bosom,[129] the fairness and beauty of which heaving with anguish
+and terror—for it was a matter of life and death—so wrought upon the
+august judges that her acquittal immediately followed. The Heliasts,
+renowned for their upright decisions, were suspected on this occasion of
+undue commiseration, though the charge was probably grounded on some
+frivolous pretence of impiety; and, to prevent the recurrence of similar
+partiality in future, a decree was passed, rendering it illegal thus to
+extort the pity of the court, or, on any account, to introduce the
+accused, whether man or woman, into the presence of the judges. It was
+on her figure that Apelles chiefly relied in painting his Aphrodite
+rising from the sea, as Phryne herself rose before all Greece on the
+beach at Eleusis; and Praxiteles also wrought from the same model his
+Cnidean Aphrodite.[130] This sculptor, who was the rival of Hyperides,
+and, indeed, of all Athens, in the affections of Phryne, permitted her
+one day to make choice for herself from two statues of his own
+workmanship—the Eros and the Satyr. Discovering, by a stratagem, that he
+himself preferred the former, she was guided by his judgment, and
+dedicated the winged god in a temple of her native city. In admiration
+of her beauty, a number of gentlemen erected, by subscription, in her
+honour, a golden statue at Delphi. It was the work of Praxiteles, and
+stood on a pillar of white marble of Pentelicos, between the statues of
+Archidamos, king of Sparta, and Philip, son of Amyntas. The inscription
+ran simply thus:—
+
+ “Phryne, of Thespiæ, daughter of Epicles.”
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 128:
+
+ Poseidip. ap. Athen. xiii. 60.
+
+Footnote 129:
+
+ Honest old Burton, whom few anecdotes of this description escaped,
+ imagines this artifice to have been the only defence he made.—Anatomy
+ of Melancholy, ii. 222.
+
+Footnote 130:
+
+ Athen. xiii. 59. seq.
+
+-----
+
+On seeing this statue, Crates, the cynic, exclaimed, “Behold a trophy of
+Hellenic wantonness!”
+
+It is not, of course, among women of this class, that we should expect
+to discover proofs of female truth or enduring attachment. But the human
+heart sometimes triumphs over adverse circumstances.[131] History has
+preserved the memory of more than one act of heroism performed by an
+Hetaira, to show that woman doth not always put off her other virtues,
+though habitually trampling on the one which constitutes for her the
+boundary between honour and infamy.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 131:
+
+ Athen. xiii. 59.—In the apprehension of Lucian, too, they were
+ anything but mercenary; and stripped themselves cheerfully of all
+ their personal ornaments to bestow them, like so many sisters, on the
+ person they loved.—Diall. Hetair. vii. 1.
+
+-----
+
+Ptolemy, son of Philadelphos, while commanding the garrison of Ephesos,
+had along with him the courtezan, Irene, who, when his Thracian
+mercenaries rose in revolt, fled along with him to the temple of
+Artemis, where they fell together, sprinkling the altar with their
+blood.[132] Alcibiades, too, of all his friends, found none adhere to
+him in his adversity but an Hetaira, who cheerfully exposed her life for
+his sake; and, when the assassins of Pharnabazos had achieved their
+task, performed, like another Antigone, the last duties over the ashes
+of the man she loved.[133] Other anecdotes might be added equally
+honourable to their feelings and fidelity, but these will sufficiently
+illustrate their character and the estimation in which they were
+generally held.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 132:
+
+ Athen. xiii. 64.
+
+Footnote 133:
+
+ Plut. Alcib. § 39.
+
+-----
+
+
+
+
+ CHAPTER VI.
+ TOILETTE, DRESS, AND ORNAMENTS.
+
+
+Having now described the condition and influence of women, it will be
+necessary to institute some inquiry into one of the principal means by
+which they achieved and maintained their empire. At first sight,
+perhaps, the disquisition may appear scarcely to deserve all the pains I
+have bestowed upon it; but, as the dress of the ancients is connected on
+the one hand with the progress of the useful arts, as spinning, weaving,
+dyeing, &c., and on the other with the forms and developement of
+sculpture, it can scarcely, when well considered, be reckoned among
+matters of trifling moment. Besides, the costume and ornaments of a
+people often afford important aid towards comprehending the national
+character, constituting, in fact, a sort of practical commentary on the
+mental habits, and tone and principles of morals, prevailing at any
+given period among them.
+
+The raiment of the Grecian women, of which the public generally obtain
+some idea from the remaining monuments of ancient art, may be said to
+have been regulated by the same laws of taste which presided over the
+developement of the national genius in sculpture and painting. Every
+article of their habiliment appeared to harmonise exactly with the rest.
+Nothing of that grotesque extravagance which in some of the fleeting
+vagaries of fashion transforms our modern ladies, with their inflated
+balloon sleeves and painfully deformed waists, into so many whalebone
+and muslin hobgoblins, was ever allowed to disfigure the rich contour of
+a Greek woman. As she proceeded lovely from the hands of nature, her
+pride was to preserve that loveliness. Her garments, accordingly, were
+not fashioned with a view to disguise or conceal her form, but by
+graceful folds, flowing curves, ornaments rich and tastefully disposed,
+to afford as many indications of its matchless symmetry and perfection
+as might be compatible with her sex’s delicacy and the severity of
+public morals. Consequently the art of dress, like every other
+conversant with taste and beauty, reached in Greece its highest
+perfection. A woman draped according to the prevalent fashion in the
+best ages of the Athenian commonwealth, was an object not to be equalled
+for elegance or grace. From the snow white veil which probably shaded
+her countenance and ringlets of auburn or hyacinth, to the sandals of
+white satin and gold that ornamented her small ankle, the eye could
+detect nothing gaudy, affected, or out of keeping. There was
+magnificence without ostentation, brilliance of colours, but a
+brilliance that harmonised with whatever was brought in contact with it;
+the splendour of numerous jewels and trinkets of gold, but no appearance
+of display, or of a wish to dazzle. Everything appeared to stand where
+it did, because it was its proper place.
+
+But in Sparta where there existed little tendency towards art or
+refinement,[134] a costume the antipodes of all this prevailed. That of
+the virgins differed in some respects from that of the matrons, and the
+difference arose out of a peculiar feature of manners, in which, if in
+nothing else, they resembled the English. In several Ionic countries, as
+at present on the continent, girls were previously to marriage guarded
+with much strictness. At Sparta, on the contrary, and among the Dorians
+generally,[135] they were permitted, as in England, to walk abroad in
+company with young men, and, of course, to form attachments at their own
+discretion. In this, too, as in their dress, they only preserved the
+customs of antiquity; for in Homer we find the Trojan ladies making
+anxious inquiries of Hector respecting their relations and friends in
+the field, and going forth from their houses attended only by their
+maids. The married women led more retired lives, and when they went
+abroad fashion required that they should be veiled, as we learn from the
+following apophthegm of Charillos, who being asked why the maidens went
+abroad uncovered while the matrons concealed their faces, replied:
+“Because it is incumbent on the former to find themselves husbands, on
+the latter only to keep those they have.”[136]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 134:
+
+ Cf. Montaigne, Essais, t. iv. p. 214, seq.
+
+Footnote 135:
+
+ See above, chapter ii.
+
+Footnote 136:
+
+ Plut. Apophtheg. Lacon. Charill. 2. t. i. p. 161.
+
+-----
+
+The principal, or, rather, the sole garment of the Dorian maidens was
+the chiton, or himation,[137] made of woollen stuff, and without
+sleeves, but fastened on either shoulder by a large clasp, and gathered
+on the breast by a kind of brooch. This sleeveless robe, which seldom
+reached more than half way to the knee, was moreover left open up to a
+certain point on both sides,[138] so that the skirts or wings, flying
+open as they walked, entirely exposed their limbs, closely resembling
+the shift of the Bedouin women,[139] slit up to the arm-pit, but
+gathered tight by a girdle about the waist. When the girdle was removed
+it reached to the calves of the legs,[140] and would then, but for the
+side-slits, have been quite as becoming as the blue chemise of the
+modern Egyptian women, which is open in front from the neck to the
+waist.[141] When dressed in this single robe, their whole form breathing
+health, and modesty in their countenance, there was no doubt a simple
+elegance in their appearance, little less attractive, perhaps, than the
+exquisite and elaborate _mise_ of an Ionian or an Attic girl. In this
+costume Melissa, daughter of Procles, of Epidaurus, was habited when, as
+she poured out wine to her father’s labourers, Periander, the
+Corinthian,[142] beheld and loved her. The married women, however, did
+not make their appearance in public _en chemise_, but when going abroad
+donned a second garment which seems to have resembled pretty closely
+their husbands’ himatia.[143]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 137:
+
+ Herod. v. 87. Duris. ap. Schol. Eurip. Hecub. 922. Æl. Dionys. ap.
+ Eustath. ad Il. p. 963. 17. ed. Basil. Æl. Var. Hist. i. 18. Cf.
+ Spanh. Observ. in Hymn. in Apoll. 32. t. ii. p. 63. Schol. Pind. Nem.
+ i. 74.
+
+Footnote 138:
+
+ Poll. vii. 54. seq. Mus. Chiaramont. pl. 35. Antich. di Ercol. t. iv.
+ tav. 24.
+
+Footnote 139:
+
+ Castellan, Mœurs des Ottomans, vi. 47.
+
+Footnote 140:
+
+ Schol. Eurip. Hecub. 922.
+
+Footnote 141:
+
+ Suidas, however, supposes these garments to have been less becoming
+ when the girdle was removed, and adds ἐν Σπαρτῇ δὲ καὶ τάς κόρας
+ γυμνὰς φαίνεσθαι.—v. δωριάζειν. t. i. p. 772. Montaigne observes, that
+ the ancient Gauls made little use of clothing; and that the same thing
+ might be said of the Irish of his time, t. iv. p. 214.—The French
+ ladies, also, of his own day, affected a costume in no respect less
+ indelicate than that of the Spartan girls: “nos dames, ainsi molles et
+ delicates qu’elles sont, elles s’en vont tantôt entre ouvertes jusques
+ au nombril.”—Essais, II. xii. t. iv. p. 213.
+
+Footnote 142:
+
+ Athen. xiii. 56.
+
+Footnote 143:
+
+ Cf. Il. ε. 425.—In the life of Pyrrhus, the difference between the
+ dress of married women and that of the virgins is distinctly pointed
+ out:—ἀρχομένοις δὲ ταῦτα πράττειν, ἧκον αὐτοις τῶν παρθενῶν καὶ
+ γυναικῶν, αἱ μὲν ἐν ἱματίοις, καταζωσάμεναι τοὺς χιτωνίσκους, αἱ δὲ
+ μονοχίτωνες, συναργασόμεναι τοῖς πρεσβυτέροις. Plut. Pyrrh. § 27.
+
+-----
+
+Of the simple wardrobe of a Doric lady, which in ancient times was that
+of all women of Hellenic race, exceedingly little can be said. It is
+altogether different with respect to that of the gentlewomen of Attica,
+where, though inferior in personal beauty to none, the women exhibited
+so much fertility in the matter of dress, that they appeared to depend
+on that alone for the establishment of their empire. For this reason it
+would be vain to pretend to describe all their vestments and ornaments,
+or the arts of the toilette by which they were adapted to their
+purposes. To do so properly would, in fact, require a volume. But all
+that can be crowded into one short chapter shall be given, since I am
+not deterred by any such scruples as formerly arrested the pen of a very
+learned writer, who apprehended that, if he proceeded, he might be
+supposed to have been rummaging the boudoir notes of an Athenian
+lady![144]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 144:
+
+ Taylor ad Demosth.
+
+-----
+
+The primary garment,[145] answering to the _chemise_ of the moderns, was
+a white tunic reaching to the ground,[146] in some instances sleeveless,
+and fastened on the shoulders with buttons, in others furnished with
+loose hanging sleeves descending to the wrist, and brought together at
+intervals upon the arm by silver or golden agraffes.[147] It was
+gathered into close folds under the bosom by a girdle,[148] or riband,
+sometimes fastened in front by a knot, sometimes by a clasp.[149] This
+inner robe, made in the earlier ages of fine linen,[150] manufactured in
+Attica, or imported from Tyre, Egypt, or Sidon, came, in after times, to
+be of muslin from Tarentum, or woven at home from Egyptian cotton. The
+use of linen, however, for this purpose was not wholly superseded. A
+very beautiful kind, from the island of Amorgos,[151] one of the
+Cyclades, was often substituted down to a very late period in place of
+the byssos, or fine muslin of Egypt; and this insular fabric,[152]
+whether snow-white or purple, would have rivalled the finest cambric,
+being of the most delicate texture and semi-transparent,[153] like the
+Tarentine and Coan vests of the Roman ladies, the sandyx-coloured Lydian
+robe, or the silken chemises of the Turkish sultanas, described by Lady
+Montague.[154] It is in a tunic of this linen that Lysistrata, in
+Aristophanes, advises the Athenian ladies to appear before their
+husbands in order to give full effect to the splendour of their
+charms.[155]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 145:
+
+ Athen. xii. 5. 29. Boeckh. i. 141. Aristoph. Lysist. 43. sqq.
+
+Footnote 146:
+
+ Ἐκ δὲ λίνου, λινοῦς χιτὼν, ὃν Ἀθηναῖοι ἔφορουν ποδήρη.—Poll. vii. 71.
+
+Footnote 147:
+
+ Ælian. V. H. i. 8.
+
+Footnote 148:
+
+ On the ζῶνη, Cf. Il. ξ. 181. Odyss. τ. 231. Damm. 988. On the Cestus
+ Il. ξ. 214. Aristoph. Lysist. 72. βαθυχζώνοι. Æschyl. Pers. 155. et
+ Schol.—Bœttig. Les Furies, p. 34.
+
+Footnote 149:
+
+ Achilles Tatius. ii. cap. xi. p. 33, seq. Jacobs.
+
+Footnote 150:
+
+ Thucyd. i. 6.
+
+Footnote 151:
+
+ Aristoph. Lysist. 150. 735, et Schol.
+
+Footnote 152:
+
+ Poll. vii. 75.
+
+Footnote 153:
+
+ Aristoph. Lysist. 48. Poll. vii. 57. 74.
+
+Footnote 154:
+
+ Works, ii. 191.
+
+Footnote 155:
+
+ Aristoph. Lysist. 48.
+
+-----
+
+Because the Amorginean linen was often, perhaps commonly, dyed purple,
+it has been inferred, that none purely white was produced; but this, as
+Bochart[156] observes, is, probably, a mistake. At all events, it was of
+extraordinary fineness, superior, in the opinion of Suidas,[157] even to
+the byssos and carbasos, or lawn of Cyprus, and appears to have been of
+a thin, gauze-like texture, like the drapery of “woven air” which
+Petronius[158] throws around his female characters.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 156:
+
+ Chanaan. I. 14. p. 449.
+
+Footnote 157:
+
+ Corrected by Bochart, who reads ἔστι δὲ σφόδρα λεπτὸν ὑπὲρ τὴν βύσσον
+ ἢ τὴν κάρπασον. Cf. Suid. v. Ἀμοργ. t. i. p. 204. c. Etym. Mag. 85.
+ 15.
+
+Footnote 158:
+
+ Satyricon. cap. 55. p. 273. Burmann.
+
+-----
+
+Over the chiton was worn a shorter robe not reaching below the knee, and
+confined above the loins by a broad riband. This also was, in some
+instances, furnished with sleeves, and of a rich purple or saffron
+colour, generally ornamented, like the chiton, with a broad border of
+variegated embroidery. To these, in order to complete the walking-dress,
+was added a magnificent mantle, generally purple, embroidered with gold,
+which, being thrown negligently over the shoulders,[159] floated airily
+about the person, discovering the under garments exquisitely disposed
+for the purpose of displaying all the contours of the form, particularly
+of the waist and bosom. The Athenian ladies being, like our own,
+peculiarly jealous of possessing the reputation of a fine figure, and
+nature sometimes failing them, had recourse to art, and wore what, among
+milliners, I believe, are called _bustles_.[160] I am sorry to be
+obliged to add, that there were, also, mothers at Athens who anticipated
+us in the absurdity of tight lacing, and invented corsets for the
+purpose of compressing the abdomen and otherwise reducing the figures of
+their daughters to some artificial standard which they had already begun
+to set up in defiance of nature.[161] Some women, too, when apprehensive
+of growing fat, would collect on fine wool a quantity of summer dew,
+which they afterwards squeezed out and drank, this liquid having been
+supposed to be possessed of deleterious qualities, more particularly the
+ascending dew.[162]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 159:
+
+ We find, from ancient monuments, that persons likewise wore over their
+ shoulders an article of dress exactly resembling the modern cape or
+ tippet.—Mus. Cortonens. tab. 58.
+
+Footnote 160:
+
+ Athen. xiii. 23. Alex. Frag. v. 13, seq.
+
+Footnote 161:
+
+ Victor. Var. Lect. ii. 6. 32.
+
+Footnote 162:
+
+ Plut. Quæst. Nat. § 6. t. v. p. 321.—Coray sur Hippocrate, t. II. p.
+ 82, seq.
+
+-----
+
+Like the eastern ladies of the present day, they seldom went abroad
+without their veil, which was a light fabric of transparent texture,
+white or purple, from Cos, or Laconia. It was thrown tastefully over the
+head, raised in front on the point of the sphendone,[163] as in modern
+Italy by the comb, and hung waving on the shoulders and down the back in
+glittering folds. But this was not the only covering they made use of
+for their head. Those modern writers who have so thought are mistaken,
+since it is clear, both from contemporary testimony and numerous works
+of art still remaining, that very frequently they wore caps or bonnets.
+Several examples occur in Mr. Hope’s work, on the Costumes of the
+Ancients;[164] and Mnesilochos, in Aristophanes, when putting on the
+disguise of a woman for the purpose of being present at the Festival of
+Demeter, like Clodius at that of the Bona Dea, desires to borrow from
+Agathon a net or mitre for the head. “Will you have my night-cap?”
+inquires the poet. “Exactly,” replies Euripides, “that is just what we
+want.”[165]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 163:
+
+ See an exact representation of it in the Mus. Chiaramont. pl. 8, where
+ we likewise find an example of the sleeves closed with agraffes.—Cf.
+ pl. 16.
+
+Footnote 164:
+
+ Plates. Nos. 98. 108. 131. 162. 172.
+
+Footnote 165:
+
+ Aristoph. Thesmoph. 256.
+
+-----
+
+But we have hitherto scarcely entered upon the list of their wardrobe,
+in enumerating some of the articles of which, I must crave the reader’s
+permission to employ the original terms, our language, in most cases,
+furnishing us with no equivalent. And, first, following the order of
+Pollux, who observes no principle of classification, we have the
+_Epomis_, a robe with sleeves, opposed to the _Exomis_, which had none.
+The _Diploïdion_, an ample cloak, or mantle, capacious enough to be worn
+double. The _Hemidiploïdion_, a more scanty mantle; the _Katastiktos_,
+adorned with flowers or figures of animals, or richly marked with spots,
+the _Katagogis_, the _Epiblema_, or cloak, and the _Peplos_,[166] a word
+of very equivocal character, used to signify a veil or mantle, a
+sofa-carpet, or a covering for a chariot. Generally, it seems to have
+designated a garment of double the necessary size, that, at pleasure, it
+might be put on, or cast, like a cloak, over the whole body, as appears
+from the Peplos of Athena.[167] That the word sometimes was used to
+signify a tunic appears from Xenophon, who says “the peplos being rent
+above, the bosom appeared.”[168] He, however, considers it to have
+formed part of the male costume.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 166:
+
+ Poll. vii. 49, seq.—The _peploma_ of Pindar (Pyth. ix. 219) is now
+ paploma. Wordsworth, Athens and Attica, p. 32. Cf. Iliad. ε. 315.—The
+ peplos was sometimes embroidered with figures.—Il. ζ. 289–295.
+
+Footnote 167:
+
+ Sch. Aristoph. Eq. 564. Poll. vii. 50.
+
+Footnote 168:
+
+ Poll. vii. 50. Cf. Cyrop. iii. 1. 13.-3. 67. In Homer, Iliad, γ. 385,
+ &c. the word, ἑανὸς, signifying a richly-wrought vest or robe, is
+ synonymous, as Pollux remarks, with πέπλος vii. 51. This is, likewise,
+ the opinion of Buttmann, who, however, supposes it to mean a “flexibly
+ soft garment.”—Lexil. Art. 41. Others draw a distinction between ἑανὸς
+ and πέπλος, the former, they say, being employed to signify a veil
+ unwrought and purely white, the latter, one which was variegated with
+ colours and embroidery. Passow considers it to be a mere adjective
+ signifying “clear, light,” and says, that εἷμα or ἱμάτιον is always
+ understood with it.
+
+-----
+
+Another article of female dress was the _Zoma_, a short vest fitting
+close to the shape, and adorned at the bottom with fringe, as appears
+from a fragment of Æschylus in the Onomasticon. A character of Menander,
+too, exclaims,—“Don’t you perceive the nurse habited in her Zoma?”—for,
+adds Pollux, it was generally worn by old women. An elegant woollen
+dress, called _Parapechu_, white, but with purple sleeves, was imported
+from Corinth, and would appear to have been much worn by the
+Hetairæ.[169] Other garments seem to have been affected by the middle
+class of citizens, who, being unable to dress in purple,[170] the
+distinguishing colour of the wealthy and the noble, brought into fashion
+the _Paruphes_ and _Paralourges_, robes adorned on either side with a
+purple stripe. As much dignity is supposed to belong to ample drapery,
+our citizen ladies took care not to be sparing of stuff, their dresses
+trailing to the ground, and displaying numerous folds, produced
+purposely at the extremity by a band passing round the edge. These
+garments were generally of linen; but when a lady, in Homer, is said to
+be wrapped in her shining mantle, the poet[171] is supposed to intend a
+fine, light, woollen cloak, like the white burnooses of the Tunisian and
+Egyptian ladies.[172]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 169:
+
+ Poll. vii. 53. Jam παράπηχυ λήδιον vel ἱμάτιον, collatis Hesychii et
+ Pollucis interpretationibus, intelligi videtur dictam fuisse vestem
+ albam cui manicæ adpositæ essent purpureæ.—Schweig. ad Athen. xiii.
+ 45. t. xii. p. 146.
+
+Footnote 170:
+
+ Athen. xiii. 45. Poll. _ubi supra_.
+
+Footnote 171:
+
+ Iliad, γ. 141.
+
+Footnote 172:
+
+ Poll. vii. 54.
+
+-----
+
+Several sorts of dresses obtained their appellation from their colours;
+as the _Crocotos_, a saffron robe of ceremony, the _Crocotion_, a
+diminutive of the same; the _Omphakinon_, of the colour of unripe
+grapes, which, though prescriptively appropriated to women, was much
+affected by Alexander the Great. Modern ladies have delighted in
+flea-coloured dresses, and, in like manner, the ancients had theirs of
+asinine hue, called _Killios_, from a Doric name for the ass, and
+afterwards _Onagrinos_,[173] which, if they really resembled the wild
+ass in hue, must have been exceedingly beautiful. There was a scarlet
+robe, with the appellation of _Coccobaphes_, the _Sisys_, a thick heavy
+cloak, likewise called _Hyphandron Himation_, resembling the
+_Amphimallos_, which had a double warp, and was hairy on both
+sides.[174]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 173:
+
+ Among the Dorians the ass (ὄνος) was called κίλλος, and an ass-driver
+ (ὀνηλάτης) κιλλακτὴρ. Poll. vii. 56.
+
+Footnote 174:
+
+ Poll. vii. 56, seq.
+
+-----
+
+Not to extend this list of dresses beyond the patience of a milliner, we
+will now pass on to the principal ornaments for the head,[175] in which
+the Greek ladies evinced extraordinary taste and invention.[176] Among
+these one of the most elegant was the _Ampyx_, a fillet by which they
+confined their hair in front. It sometimes consisted of a piece of gold
+embroidery, the place of which was often supplied by a thin plate of
+pure gold, studded with jewels. Another Homeric ornament, the
+_Kekruphalos_,[177] can only be alluded to as a critical puzzle which
+has baffled all the commentators, in which predicament the _Plekte
+anadesme_[178] also stands; all that we know being, that it found its
+place in the female head-dress, though whether as a mitre or a diadem
+Apollonios is unable to determine. It may possibly have been, under
+another appellation, that graceful wreath or garland, consisting of
+fragrant flowers interwoven or bound together by their stems, described
+among female ornaments by Pollux.[179]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 175:
+
+ Cf. Winkelmann, iv. 2. 76. Alex. Pædag. ii. 12.
+
+Footnote 176:
+
+ Theoc. Eidyll. i. 33. Æmil. Port. Lex. Dor. in voce.
+
+Footnote 177:
+
+ Iliad. χ. 469. Heyne in loc. Pollux. v. 95, enumerates the ἄμπυξ among
+ female ornaments, but without giving any description of it. Cf. Pind.
+ Olymp. vii. 118. Dissen. Comm. ad v. 64. Bœttiger. Pictur. Vascul. i.
+ 87.—The κεκρύφαλος, or κροκύφαντος,, which occurs once in the Iliad,
+ was a female ornament for the head, unknown to the later Greeks. The
+ scholiast describes it as κόσμος τὶς περὶ κεφαλήν; and Damm observes
+ that, it was “redimiculam _vel_ reticulam quo mulieres crines
+ coërcent.”—1158. Heyne is equally unsatisfactory. The commentators on
+ Pollux. v. 95, avoid the subject altogether. Cf. Foës. Œcon. Hippoc.
+ p. 202.
+
+Footnote 178:
+
+ Iliad, χ. 469. Πλεκτὴ ἀναδέσμη· οἱ μὲν διάδημα, says Apollonios, οἱ δὲ
+ μίτραν. Πλὴν κοσμου εἶδος περὶ τὴν κεφαλὴν. This is the basis of
+ Hesychius’ article. The Leyden scholia say:—ἀναδέσμη λέγεται, σειρὰ,
+ ἥν περὶ τοὺς κροτάφους ἀναδοῦνται· καλεῖται δ᾽ ὑπ’ ἑνίων καλανδάκη.
+ (In which Heyne imagines we may detect _calantica_, “a hood, hurlet,
+ or coif.”) Κρήδεμνον δὲ πάλιν τὸ μαφόριον.
+
+Footnote 179:
+
+ Poll. v. 96. Iliad. σ. 595. In Homer the epithet, however, is not
+ πλεκτὴ but καλὴ. Hemsterhuis ad Poll. t. iv. p. 998.
+
+-----
+
+Another article of the same ambiguous character was the _Pylæon_,
+supposed to have derived its name from φύλον, _a leaf_. Athenæus,[180]
+on a subject of this kind, perhaps, one of the best authorities,
+describes it as the crown which, during certain festivals, the Spartans
+placed upon the head of Hera. Doubtless, however, the most tasteful and
+elegant of this class of female ornaments was the _Kalyx_, a golden
+syrinx or reed, passed like a ring over each several tress to keep it
+separate.[181] Eustathius describes it as a ring resembling a
+full-blown, but not expanded, rose; and this explanation will not be
+inconsistent with that of Hesychius, if we suppose the golden tubes to
+have terminated in the form of that flower. The _Strophion_ was a band
+or fillet[182] with which women confined their hair, as we discover from
+many ancient statues. Parrhasios the artist, who used to bind his
+luxuriant locks with a white strophion, was therefore accused of
+effeminacy.[183] The name, however, appears to have been applied to any
+kind of band, even to the broad belt worn to support the bosom: “My
+strophion being untied the walnuts fell out,” says the girl in
+Aristophanes.[184] There was also an ornament of the same name worn by
+priests.[185]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 180:
+
+ Deipnosoph. xv. 22. Cf. Poll. v. 96.
+
+Footnote 181:
+
+ Cœl. Rhodig. xxvii. 27, imagines it to mean a female head-dress, or a
+ parasol. Jungermann. ad Poll. v. 96. Eustath. ad Iliad. β. 401.
+
+Footnote 182:
+
+ On a mask, engraved among the Gemm. Antich. of Agostini, we find an
+ exact representation of the modern feronet, pl. 24.
+
+Footnote 183:
+
+ Athen. xii. 62. Pollux. v. 96.
+
+Footnote 184:
+
+ Poll. vii. 67. 95.
+
+Footnote 185:
+
+ Plut. Arat. § 58.
+
+-----
+
+The _Opisthosphendone_,[186] one of the female ornaments enumerated in a
+fragment of Aristophanes, was worn only on the stage. Its proper name
+_sphendone_ it derived from its resemblance to a sling, being broad and
+elevated in front,[187] and terminating in narrow points at the back of
+the head where it was tied. On the comic stage it was sometimes worn for
+sport with the fore part behind.[188] The _Anadesma_[189] was a gilded
+fillet or diadem of gold, used like the _strophion_ for encircling the
+forehead. What was the precise use or form of the _Xanion_, another
+golden ornament fashionable in remote antiquity, could not be
+ascertained in the age of Pollux, who says that many writers supposed it
+to have been a comb. Of this number are Hesychius, Suidas,[190] and
+Phavorinus. But a learned modern conjectures with more probability, that
+it was some talismanic idol worn as a spell against the evil eye.[191]
+In fact it is expressly observed in the Etymologicon Magnum,[192] that
+the Hellenic women reckoned it among their phylacteries.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 186:
+
+ Clem. Alexand. Pædag. ii. 12. Winkelmann, Histoire de l’Art. iv. 2.
+ 75. note 6, and i. 2. 18. See also Cabinet Pio Clement, t. i. pl. 2,
+ with the observations of Visconti.
+
+Footnote 187:
+
+ Cf. Mus. Chiaramont, pl. 20.
+
+Footnote 188:
+
+ Poll. v. 96. vii. 95. Eustath. ad Dion. Perieg, v. 7. Comment. ad
+ Poll. iv. 999. On the κάλαμος, named but not described by Pollux, v.
+ 96, see Eustath. ad Il. τ. p. 1248. Phavor. et Hesych. _in voce_
+ καλαμις. What the ἔντροπον was, Jungermann confesses he does not know;
+ nor do I, though it appears probable that it may have been the golden
+ or gilt ornament with which the hair when gathered on the top of the
+ head was bound together.
+
+Footnote 189:
+
+ Damm. 444. Aristoph. Plut. 589. Poll. v. 96.
+
+Footnote 190:
+
+ This lexicographer speaks of it as follows:—κτένιον. ὁ φοροῦσιν αἱ
+ γυναῖκες ἐν τοῖς ἀναδέμασιν, οἷς κόσμος χρυσοῦς ἐπὶ κεφαλῆς. t. ii. p.
+ 252. b.
+
+Footnote 191:
+
+ 612, 23, seq.
+
+Footnote 192:
+
+ Hemsterhuis. ad Poll. t. iv. p. 1000.
+
+-----
+
+Of the ear-rings worn by Grecian women the variety was very great. The
+most ancient kind were called _Hermata_, of which mention occurs both in
+the Iliad and the Odyssey.[193] They were usually adorned with three
+emerald drops,[194] for which reason they were by the Athenians
+denominated _Triopia_ or _Triopides_,[195] and by the other Greeks
+_Triopthalma_ or “the triple eye.” By this word, as an ancient
+grammarian informs us, some understood an animal like the beetle,
+supposed to have three eyes, whence a necklace with three hyaline or
+crystal eyes, depending from it in front, was likewise called by the
+same name. Pollux[196] supposed the earrings of Hera to have been
+adorned with three diminutive figures in precious stones, or gold,
+probably of goddesses. The _Diopos_ seems to have been an earring with
+two drops. The _Helix_ appears in Homer[197] rather to mean an earring
+than an armlet, and to have received its name from its circular shape or
+curvature; but the spiral gold rings round the walking-stick of
+Parrhasios are also called _Helices_ by Athenæus.[198] Another name for
+this sort of earring was _Heliktes_.[199] In the Æolic dialect earrings
+were called _Siglai_, in the Doric _Artiala_. A particular kind
+denominated _Enclastridia_ and _Strobelia_, by the comic poets, had gold
+drops in the form of a pine cone.[200] Two very curious kinds of
+earrings were the _Caryatides_, and the _Hippocampia_, the former
+representing in miniature the architectural figures, so called, the
+latter little horses with tails ending in a fish. There were earrings,
+likewise, with drops in the forms of centaurs and other fantastic
+creations.[201]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 193:
+
+ Il. ξ. 182. Odys. σ. 296. Ælian. Var. Hist. i. 18.
+
+Footnote 194:
+
+ Fabri. Thes. v. auris.
+
+Footnote 195:
+
+ Damm. 2195, reads τριότταια, and τριοττίδες, in the passage of
+ Eustathius, which forms the basis of my text; but Kuhn and Jungermann
+ ad Poll. t. iv. p. 1003, correct as above.
+
+Footnote 196:
+
+ Onomast. v. 97.
+
+Footnote 197:
+
+ Il. σ. 401. Cf. Eustath. ad Odyss. ω. 49.
+
+Footnote 198:
+
+ Deipnosoph. xii. 62.
+
+Footnote 199:
+
+ Poll. v. 97.
+
+Footnote 200:
+
+ Jungermann ad Poll. t. iv. 1001.
+
+Footnote 201:
+
+ Poll. v. 95.
+
+-----
+
+The names and figures of necklaces were scarcely less numerous.[202] A
+jewelled collar fitting tight to the throat formed, under the name of
+_Peritrachelion_, the principal of these ornaments, of which another was
+the _Perideraion_.[203] The _Hypoderaion_ was as its name imports a
+necklace that hung low on the bosom, and the same was the case with the
+_Hormos_.[204] On the _Tantheuristos Hormos_ little information can be
+obtained, for which reason the commentators would alter the text; but
+the most probable conjecture is, that it obtained its appellation from
+the flashing and glancing of the jewels depending from it upon the
+breast.[205] The _Triopis_ was a species of necklace distinguished for
+having three stars or eye-like gems depending from it as drops. This
+being the most fashionable necklace was known under a variety of names,
+as the _Kathema_, and _Katheter_, and _Mannos_ or _Monnos_, among the
+Dorians.[206]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 202:
+
+ Odyss. σ. 290. Hymn, in Ven. ii. 11, seq. Necklaces of gilded wood.
+ Xen. Œcon. x. 3. 61.
+
+Footnote 203:
+
+ Plut. Mar. § 17. Bulenger, De Spoliis Bellicis, c. 12.
+
+Footnote 204:
+
+ Sch. Aristoph. Vesp. 677.
+
+Footnote 205:
+
+ Comment. ad Poll. v. 98 p. 1003.
+
+Footnote 206:
+
+ Theocrit. xi. 41. Casaub. Lect. Theocrit. c. 13.
+
+-----
+
+Of armlets and bracelets there was likewise a great variety. Some worn
+above the elbow were denominated _Brachionia_, others called
+_Pericarpia_, or _Echinoi_ encircled the wrists and were often in the
+form of twisted snakes of gold, which the woman-hater in Lucian would
+have converted into real serpents.[207] The _Psellia_ or chain bracelets
+were much worn; the _Clidones_ adorned the rich and luxurious only. As
+stockings were not in common use, and shoes and sandals frequently
+dispensed with when within doors, fashion required that the feet and
+ankles should not remain unadorned. Ancient writers, accordingly,
+enumerate several kinds of anklets, or bangles, all of gold, and varying
+only in form, the distinction between which I have been unable to
+discover. The _Ægle,_ the _Pede_ and the _Periscelides_ were so many
+ornaments for the instep or ankle.[208]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 207:
+
+ Amor. § 41.
+
+Footnote 208:
+
+ Poll. v. 100. Golden periscelides are enumerated by Longus l. i. among
+ the possessions of the young Lesbian girl; and Horace, Epist. i. xvii.
+ 56, speaks of the periscelis being snatched away from a courtezan.
+ Here Dr. Bentley understands the word to mean _tibialia_, and
+ observes,—“delicatulæ fasciolis involvebant sibi crura et femora.” But
+ Gesner ad Horat. p. 503, seq. rather supposes “compedes mulierum,” to
+ be intended, and he is probably right. Cf. Petron. Sat. c. 67.
+
+-----
+
+Among the ornaments for the bosom we find the _Ægis_, evidently like the
+ægis of Athena, a sort of rich covering with two hemispherical caps to
+receive the breasts, such as we find worn by the Bayadères of the
+Dekkan. Extending from this on either side, or passing over its lower
+edge was the _Maschalister_, a broad belt which covered the armpits,
+though in Herodotus the word merely signifies a sword-belt.[209]
+
+Like all other delicate and luxurious women, the Grecian ladies
+displayed upon their fingers a profusion of rings, of which some were
+set with signets, others with jewels remarkable for their colour and
+brilliance. To each of these their copious language supplied a distinct
+name.[210] Other female ornaments are spoken of by the comic poets; but
+in their descriptions it is difficult to distinguish satire from
+information. Among these were the _Leroi_, golden drops attached to the
+tunic; the _Ochthoiboi_, which seem to have been a sort of rich tassels;
+the _Helleboroi_, ornaments shaped perhaps like the leaves or flowers of
+that plant; and the _Pompholuges_, which, though left unexplained by the
+commentators, probably signified a large clear kind of bead, as the word
+originally meant a “water-bubble,” which a transparent bead
+resembles.[211]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 209:
+
+ Cf. Mus. Chiaram. pl. 14. pl. 18.
+
+Footnote 210:
+
+ Poll. v. 101. Rhodig. vi. 12.
+
+Footnote 211:
+
+ Poll. v. 101. Cf. Schol. Aristoph. Ran. 249. Bergler ad loc. renders
+ it by _bulla_, which, among the Romans, signified “a golden ornament
+ worn about the neck, or at the breast of children, fashioned like a
+ heart, and hollow within, which they wore until they were fourteen
+ years old, and then hung up to the household gods.”—Porphyr. in Horat.
+ vid. et Fab. Thes. in v.
+
+-----
+
+The Athenian ladies, likewise, displayed their taste for luxury and
+splendour in their shoes and sandals.[212] Like our own fashionable
+dames, they seldom contented themselves with articles of home
+manufacture, but imported whatever was considered most elegant or
+tasteful from the neighbouring countries. Sometimes, perhaps, the
+fashion only and the name were imported, as in the case of the Persian
+half-boot, fitting tight to the ankle.[213] The same thing may probably
+be said of the Sicyonian slipper. But there was an elegant sandal,
+ornamented with gold, which, down to a very late period, continued to be
+imported from Patara, in Lycia.[214] Snow-white slippers of fine linen,
+flowered with needlework, were occasionally worn; and from many ancient
+statues it would seem, that something very like stockings had been
+already introduced. Short women, desirous of adding, if not a cubit, at
+least a few inches to their stature, adopted the use of _baukides_ with
+high cork heels, and soles of great thickness.[215]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 212:
+
+ Diog. Laert. ii. 37. c. Sch. Aristoph. Lysist. 417. Wooden shoes were
+ worn in Thessaly. With these the women killed Lais in the temple of
+ Aphrodite—Athen. xiii. 55. There was a species of shoes peculiar to
+ female slaves called peribarides.—Poll. vii. 87. Aristoph. Lysist. 47.
+
+Footnote 213:
+
+ Sch. Aristoph. Nub. 152. See in Antich. di Ercol. t. vi. p. 11, a
+ representation of half-boots open in front.
+
+Footnote 214:
+
+ Lucian, Diall. Meret. xiv. 3. ἐκ Πατάρων σανδάλια ἐπίχρυσα.
+
+Footnote 215:
+
+ Athen. xiii. 23. Poll. vii. 94.
+
+-----
+
+An Athenian beauty usually spent the whole morning in the important
+business of the toilette.[216] The crowd of maids who attended on these
+occasions appears to have exceeded in number the assistants at similar
+rites in a modern dressing-room, the principle of the division of labour
+having been pushed to its greatest extent. Like Hera, who was said by
+mythologists to renew her virgin charms as often as she bathed in the
+fountain of Canathos,[217] the Attic lady appeared to undergo diurnal
+rejuvenescence under the hands of her maids.[218] Her lovely face grew
+tenfold more lovely by their arts. Clustering in interesting groups
+around her, some held the silver basin and ewer, others the boxes of
+tooth-powder, or black paint for the eyebrows, the rouge pots or the
+blanching varnish, the essence-bottles or the powder for the head, the
+jewel-cases or the mirrors.[219] But on nothing was so much care
+bestowed as on the hair.[220] Auburn, the colour of Aphrodite’s
+tresses[221] in Homer, being considered most beautiful,[222] drugs were
+invented in which the hair being dipped, and exposed to the noon-day
+sun, it acquired the coveted hue, and fell in golden curls over their
+shoulders.[223] Others, contented with their own black hair, exhausted
+their ingenuity in augmenting its rich gloss, steeping it in oils and
+essences, till all the fragrance of Arabia seemed to breathe around
+them. Those waving ringlets which we admire in their sculpture were
+often the creation of art, being produced by curling-irons heated in
+ashes;[224] after which, by the aid of jewelled fillets and golden pins,
+they were brought forward over the smooth white forehead,[225] which
+they sometimes shaded to the eyebrows, leaving a small ivory space in
+the centre, while behind they floated in shining profusion down the
+back. When decked in this manner, and dressed for the harem[226] in
+their light flowered sandals and semi-transparent robes already
+described, they were scarcely farther removed from the state of nature
+than the Spartan maids themselves.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 216:
+
+ Their perfumes and essences were kept in alabaster boxes from
+ Phœnicia, some of which cost no more than two drachmæ.—Lucian, Diall.
+ Meret. xiv. 2.
+
+Footnote 217:
+
+ Paus. ii. 37, 38.
+
+Footnote 218:
+
+ Aristoph. Concion. 732, et Schol.
+
+Footnote 219:
+
+ Pignor. de Serv. p. 195.
+
+Footnote 220:
+
+ Cf. Suid. v. κομᾷ. t. i. p. 1489. b.
+
+Footnote 221:
+
+ See Pashley, i. 247. Pignor. de Serv. 193.
+
+Footnote 222:
+
+ “The beautiful colour we call auburn, and which the ancients expressed
+ by the term golden, is the most common among the Greeks; and they have
+ gilt wire and various other ornaments (among which might yet perhaps
+ be recognised the Athenian grasshopper) in ringlets, which they allow
+ to float over their shoulders, or bind their hair in long tresses that
+ hang upon the back.”—Douglas, Essay, &c. p. 147, seq.
+
+Footnote 223:
+
+ This is beautifully described by Lucian:—Γυναικὶ δὲ ἀεὶ πάσῃ ἡ τοῦ
+ δαψιλεῖς μὲν ἀπὸ τῶν βοστρύχων τῆς κεφαλῆς ἕλικες, ὑακίνθοις τὸ καλὸν
+ ἀνθοῦσιν ὅμοια πορφύροντες· οἱ μὲν, ἐπινώτιοι κέχυνται μεταφρένων
+ κόσμος, οἱ δε παρ’ ὦτα καὶ κροτάφους, πολὺ τῶν ἐν λειμῶνι οὐλότερον
+ σελίνων· τὸ δ᾽ ἄλλο σῶμα, μηδ᾽ ἀκαρῆ τριχὸς αὐταῖς ὑποφυομένης
+ ἠλέκτρου, φάσιν, ἢ Σιδωνίας ὑέλου διαφεγγέστιρον ἀπαστραπται.—Amor. §
+ 26.
+
+Footnote 224:
+
+ Pignor. de Serv. 194, seq.
+
+Footnote 225:
+
+ The young lady, in Lucian, describes thin hair drawn back so as to
+ expose the forehead as a great deformity.—Diall. Meret. i.
+
+Footnote 226:
+
+ A taste not greatly dissimilar presides over the in-door dress of the
+ modern Greek women. “In the gynecæum,” says Chandler, “the girl, like
+ Thetis, treading on a soft carpet, has her white and delicate feet
+ naked; the nails tinged with red. Her trowsers, which in winter are of
+ red cloth, and in summer of fine calico or thin gauze, descend from
+ the hip to the ankle, hanging loosely about her limbs, the lower
+ portion embroidered with flowers, and appearing beneath the shift,
+ which has the sleeves wide and open, and the seams and edges curiously
+ adorned with needlework. Her vest is of silk, exactly fitted to the
+ form of the bosom and the shape of the body, which it rather covers
+ than conceals, and is shorter than the shift. The sleeves button
+ occasionally to the hand, and are lined with red or yellow satin. A
+ rich zone encompasses her waist, and is fastened before by clasps of
+ silver gilded, or of gold, set with precious stones. Over the vest is
+ a robe, in summer lined with ermine, and in cold weather with fur. The
+ head-dress is a skull-cap, red or green, with pearls; a stay under the
+ chin, and a yellow fore-head cloth, She has bracelets of gold on her
+ wrists; and, like Aurora, is rosy-fingered, the tips being stained.
+ Her necklace is a string of zechins, a species of gold coin, or of the
+ pieces called Byzantines. At her cheeks is a lock of hair made to curl
+ toward the face; and down her back falls a profusion of tresses,
+ spreading over her shoulders.”—ii. 140.
+
+-----
+
+Contrary to the fashion prevalent in modern times the bosom, however,
+was always closely covered, because being extremely full shaped it began
+very early to lose its firmness and beauty.[227] Earrings, set with
+Red-Sea pearls of great price, depended from their ears, and an
+orbicular crown studded with Indian jewels surmounted and contrasted
+strikingly with their dark locks. Add to these the jewelled throat
+bands, and costly and glittering necklaces. Their cheeks though
+sometimes pale by nature, blushed with rouge,[228] and they even
+possessed the art to superinduce over this artificial complexion that
+peach-like purple bloom which belongs to the very earliest, dewiest dawn
+of beauty. To the tint of the rose they could likewise add that of the
+lily. White paint was in common use,[229] not merely among unmarried
+women, and ladies of equivocal reputation, but with matrons the chastest
+and most prudent in Athens, for we find that pattern of an Attic
+gentlewoman, the wife of Ischomachos, practising after marriage every
+delusive art of the toilette.[230]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 227:
+
+ Lucian. Amor. § 41. Homer in numerous passages celebrates the deep
+ bosoms of his country women, and Anacreon, also, touches more than
+ once on the same topic.
+
+Footnote 228:
+
+ Anchusa. Theoph. Hist. Plant. vii. 8. 3. Dion. Chrysost. i. 262. Poll.
+ vii. 95. Aristoph. Lysist. 46. et Schol. Muret. Not. in Xen. Cyrop. p.
+ 743, seq. Xen. Cyrop. i. 3. 2.
+
+Footnote 229:
+
+ Poll. v. 101, vii. 95.
+
+Footnote 230:
+
+ Xenoph. Œconom. x. 2, 60.
+
+-----
+
+It by no means follows that all this attention[231] to dress had any
+other object than to please their husbands; for the Turkish Sultanas who
+pass their lives in the most rigid seclusion are no less sumptuous in
+their apparel; but we know that at Athens, as in London, much of this
+care was designed to excite admiration out of doors. For it is highly
+erroneous to transfer to Athens the ideas of female seclusion acquired
+from travellers in the East, where no such rigid seclusion was ever
+known. Husbands, indeed, who had cause, or supposed they had, to be
+jealous, might be put on the rack by beholding the crowds of admirers
+who flocked around their wives the moment they issued into the streets.
+But there was no remedy. The laws and customs of the country often
+forced the women abroad to assist at processions and perform their
+devotions at the shrines of various goddesses.[232]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 231:
+
+ Cf. Xen. de Vect. iv. 8.
+
+Footnote 232:
+
+ Luc. Amor. § 41, seq. Cf. Casaub. ad Theoph. Char. p. 339. Aristoph.
+ Plut. 1015, et schol. Plut. Vit. x. Orat. Lycurg. In the country, too,
+ women went often abroad, and evidently led a very comfortable life;
+ their habits, in fact, greatly resembled those of English country
+ ladies; the wives of men whose estates lay contiguous freely visiting
+ and gossiping with each other. Thus in the action on the damage caused
+ by the torrent, we find the wife of Tisias and the mother of Callicles
+ discussing the spoiling of the barley and the barley meal, and
+ meeting, evidently, as often as they thought proper. In fact, before
+ the quarrel, the footpath across the field was clearly well
+ worn.—Demosth. in Call. § 7.
+
+-----
+
+The dress of men included many of the garments worn by women; for
+example, the chiton of which there were several kinds, some with and
+some without sleeves. Among the latter was the _Exomis_,[233] a short
+tunic worn by aged men and slaves, but the name was sometimes applied to
+a garment thrown loosely round the body, and to the chiton with one
+sleeve.[234] Over this in Homeric times was worn as a defence against
+the cold, the _Chlaina_[235] a cloak strongly resembling a highlander’s
+tartan, or the burnoose of the Bedouin Arab. It was, in fact, a square
+piece of cloth, occasionally with the corners rounded off, which,
+passing over the left shoulder, and under the right arm, was again
+thrown over the left shoulder, leaving the spear arm free.[236] This is
+what the poet means where he terms the _Chlaina_ double. It was wrapped
+twice round the breast, and fastened over the left shoulder by a
+brooch.[237] Even this, however, was not deemed sufficient in very cold
+weather, and a cloak of skins sown together with thongs was wrapped
+about the body as a defence against the rain or snow. Some persons
+appear to have worn skin-cloaks all the year round, for we find
+Anaxagoras, in the midst of summer at Olympia, putting on his when he
+foresaw there would be rain.[238] Rustics also appear to have considered
+a tunic and skin-cloak necessary to complete their costume.[239]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 233:
+
+ Aristoph. Lysist. 662.
+
+Footnote 234:
+
+ Poll. vii. 49.
+
+Footnote 235:
+
+ If the appearance of a ghost can be regarded as good testimony, it may
+ be concluded that the Thessalians wore the chlamys, since Achilles
+ when called up by Apollonios of Tyana, presented himself in that
+ garment.—Philost. Vit. Apoll. iv. 16.
+
+Footnote 236:
+
+ Müll. Dor. ii. 283. Diog. Laert. ii. 47. Clothes were suspended in the
+ house on pegs.—Odyss. α. 440.
+
+Footnote 237:
+
+ Il. ω. 230. Poll. vii. 49.
+
+Footnote 238:
+
+ Diog. Laert. ii. iii. 5. Cum not. Menag. t. ii. p. 49.
+
+Footnote 239:
+
+ Dion, Chrysost. i. 231. Reiske. On the dress of the Arcadians, Polyæn.
+ Stratagem. iv. 14.
+
+-----
+
+The Dorian style of dress formed the point of transition from the simple
+elegance of the Homeric period to the elaborate splendour of the
+historic age at Athens. In this mode of clothing, a modern author
+remarks, a peculiar taste was displayed, an antique simplicity “equally
+removed from the splendour of Asiatics, and the uncleanliness of
+barbarians.”[240] They preserved the use of the Homeric chiton, or
+woollen shirt, and over this wore also the _Chlaina_ or _Himation_, in
+the manner described above. To these was added the _Chlamys_, which, as
+the Spartan laws prohibited dyeing, was universally white, and
+denominated _Hololeukos_.[241]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 240:
+
+ Müller. Hist. Dor. ii. 277. See the picturesque description which
+ Hesiod gives of the rustic winter costume of Bœotia. Opp. et Dies,
+ 534, sqq. Goettl.
+
+Footnote 241:
+
+ Poll. vii. 46.
+
+-----
+
+It was of Thessalian or Macedonian origin, of an oblong form, the points
+meeting on the right shoulder, where they were fastened with a clasp.
+This garment was not in use in the heroic ages, and the earliest mention
+of it occurs in Sappho;[242] but when once introduced, it quickly grew
+fashionable, at first among the young men, afterwards as a military
+cloak. At Athens it was regarded as a mark of effeminacy, and was
+fastened with a gold or jewelled brooch on the breast.[243]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 242:
+
+ Σαπφὼ πρώτη γὰρ μέμνηται τῆς χλαμύδος.—Ammonius, p. 147. Valcken.
+
+Footnote 243:
+
+ Heliodor. i. and ii.
+
+-----
+
+The men of Sparta, though less thinly clad than the women, still went
+abroad very scantily covered. Their _Tribon_, a variety of the
+himation,[244] like the cloak of the poor Spanish gentleman, was clipped
+so close that it would barely enclose their persons, like a case, but
+was thick and heavy, and calculated to last. Accordingly, the youth were
+allowed only one of these per annum, so that, in warm weather, it is
+probable that, with an eye to saving it for winter, they exchanged it
+for that more lasting coat with which nature had furnished them.[245] In
+the towns, however, and as often as they thought proper to put on the
+appearance of extreme modesty, the young Spartans drew close their
+cloaks around them so as to conceal their hands,[246] the exhibiting of
+which has always been regarded as a mark of vulgarity. Hence the use of
+gloves, and the affectation of soft white hands in modern times. The
+same notions prevail even among the Turks, who, like Laertes in Homer,
+wear long sleeves to their pelisses for the purpose of defending the
+hand, to have which white and well-shaped is among them a mark of noble
+blood.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 244:
+
+ Sch. Aristoph. Nub. 415. Cf. Vesp. 116, 475.
+
+-----
+
+The Spartans had the good taste to suffer their beards and hair to grow
+long, and were at much pains to render them glossy and shining. Even in
+the field, contrary to the practice at Athens, they preserved this
+natural ornament of their heads, and we find them busy in combing and
+putting it in order on the very eve of battle.[247] It was usually
+parted at the top, and was, in fact, the most becoming covering
+imaginable. But they set little value on cleanliness, and bathed and
+perfumed themselves seldom, being evidently of opinion,[248] that a
+brave man ought not to be too spruce. However, having no object to gain
+by aping the exterior of mendicants, they eschewed the wearing of ragged
+cloaks, which, indeed, was forbidden by law.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 245:
+
+ Plut. Lyc. § 16. Inst. Lac. § 5.
+
+Footnote 246:
+
+ Xenoph. de Rep. Laced. iii. 4. Of Phocion, an imitator of Spartan
+ manners, the same thing is related.—Plut Phoc. § 4.
+
+Footnote 247:
+
+ Herod. vii. 208, with the notes of Valckenaar and Wesseling.
+
+Footnote 248:
+
+ Plut. Instit. Lacon. § 5.
+
+-----
+
+But the Athenians ran into the opposite extreme. Wealthy, and fond of
+show, they delighted in a style of dress in the highest degree curious
+and magnificent, appearing abroad in flowing robes of the finest linen,
+dyed with purple and other brilliant colours.[249] Beneath these they
+wore tunics of various kinds, which, though the fashion afterwards
+changed, were at first sleeveless, since we find the women, in
+Aristophanes, suffering the hair to grow under their arm-pits to avoid
+being discovered when, disguised as their husbands, they should hold up
+their hands to vote in the assembly.[250]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 249:
+
+ Thucyd. i. 6. Plat. de Rep. t. vi. p. 167. Tim. Lex. 188. Aristoph.
+ Eccles. 332. Sch. Aristoph. Eq. 879. Lucian. Amor. § 3.
+
+Footnote 250:
+
+ Aristoph. Concion. 60, et Schol.
+
+-----
+
+Like the women, they affected much variety and splendour in their rings,
+which were sometimes set with a stone with the portrait engraved thereon
+of some friend or benefactor, as Athenion wore on one of his the
+portrait of Mithridates.[251]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 251:
+
+ Athen. v. 49.—Even slaves were in the habit of wearing rings set with
+ precious stones, sometimes of three colours, of which several
+ specimens are found in the British Museum. Thus, in Lucian, we find
+ Parmenon, the servant of Polemon, with a ring of this kind on his
+ little finger.—Diall. Meret. ix. 2. Cf. Hemster. ad Poll. ix. 96. t.
+ vi. p. 1193.
+
+-----
+
+In his girdle and shoes,[252] too, the Athenian betrayed his love of
+splendour. The hair worn long like that of the ladies,[253] was curled
+or braided and built up in glossy masses on the crown of the head, or
+arranged artfully along the forehead by golden grasshoppers.[254] But as
+all this pile of ringlets could not be thrust into the helmet, it was
+customary in time of war to cut the hair short, which the fashionable
+young men reckoned among its most serious hardships. Hats[255] were not
+habitually worn, though on journeys or promenades undertaken during hot
+weather they formed a necessary part of the costume. Above all things
+the Athenian citizen affected extreme cleanliness and neatness in his
+person, and the same taste descended even to the slaves who in the
+streets could scarcely be distinguished by dress, hair, or ornaments,
+from their masters.[256]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 252:
+
+ Poll. vii. 92, seq.
+
+Footnote 253:
+
+ Casaub. ad Theoph. Char. p. 329.
+
+Footnote 254:
+
+ Athen. xii. 5. Sch. Aristoph. Eq. 1328. Nub. 971.
+
+Footnote 255:
+
+ It is very clear from a passage in Demosthenes (De Fals. Leg. § 72),
+ that hats or caps were sometimes worn in the city. There are those
+ indeed who suppose the word to mean a wig; but Brodæus disposes of
+ this by inquiring whether sick persons would be likely to go to bed
+ with their wigs on as men did with their πιλίδια. Miscell. i. 13.
+ However, I must confess their wearing hats in bed is still less
+ likely. The Bœotians appeared in winter with caps which covered the
+ ears. Hesiod. Opp. et Dies, 545. On the form of which, see Theoph.
+ Hist. Plant. iii. 9. 6, with the note of Schneid. t. iii. p. 191.
+
+Footnote 256:
+
+ Xenoph. de Rep. Athen. i. 10.
+
+-----
+
+Even the philosophers, after holding out a long time, yielded to the
+influence of fashion, and, lest their profession should suffer, became
+exquisites in its defence. Your truly wise man, says an unexceptionable
+witness in a matter of this kind, has his hair closely shaved, (this was
+an eastern innovation,) but suffers his magnificent beard to fall in
+wavy curls over his breast. His shoes, fitting tight as wax, are
+supported by a net-work of thongs, disposed at equal distances up the
+small of the leg. A chlamys puffed out effeminately at the breast
+conceals his figure, and like a foreigner he leans contemplatively upon
+his staff.[257]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 257:
+
+ Athen. xi. 120. On the gorgeous dress of the painter Parrhasios. xii.
+ 62.
+
+-----
+
+But the art of dress appears to have received its greatest improvements
+in Ionia, where, according to Democritos, the Ephesian, both the
+garments, at one time in fashion, and the stuffs of which they
+consisted, were varied with a skill and fertility of invention worthy of
+a polished people. Some persons, he says, appeared in robes of a violet,
+others of a purple, others of a saffron colour, sprinkled with dusky
+lozenges. As at Athens, much attention was bestowed on the hair, which
+they adorned with small ornamental figures. Their vests were yellow,
+like a ripe quince, or purple, or crimson, or pure white. Even their
+tunics, imported from Corinth, were of the finest texture, and of the
+richest dyes, hyacinthine or violet, flame-coloured or deep sea-green.
+Others adopted the Persian _calasiris_,[258] of all tunics the most
+superb, and there were those among the opulent who even affected the
+Persian _actœa_, a shawl-mantle of the costliest and most gorgeous
+appearance. It was formed of a close-woven, but light stuff, bedropped
+with golden beads in the form of millet-seed, which were connected with
+the tissue by slender eyes passing through the stuff and fastened by a
+purple thread.[259]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 258:
+
+ We find mention made of Persian dresses variegated with the figures of
+ animals. Philost. Icon. ii. 32.
+
+Footnote 259:
+
+ Athen. xii. 29.
+
+-----
+
+Duris, on the authority of the poet Asios, draws a scarcely less
+extravagant picture of the luxury and magnificence of the Samians, who,
+on certain festivals, appeared in public adorned, like women, with
+glittering bracelets, their hair floating on their shoulders, skilfully
+braided into tresses. The words of Asios preserved in the Deipnosophist
+are as follow: “Thus proceed they to the fane of Hera, clothed in
+magnificent robes, with snowy pelisses, trailing behind them on the
+ground. Glistening ornaments of gold, like grasshoppers, surmount the
+crown of their heads, while their luxuriant tresses float behind in the
+wind, intermingled with golden chains. Bracelets of variegated
+workmanship adorn their arms, as the warrior is adorned by his shield
+thongs.”[260] This excess of effeminate luxury, attended as everywhere
+else by enervating vices, terminated in the ruin of Samos. Similar
+manners in the Colophonians drew upon them a similar fate, and so in
+every other Grecian community; for men never learn wisdom by the example
+of others, but hurry on in the career of indulgence as if in the hope
+that Providence might overlook them, or set aside, in their favour, its
+eternal laws.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 260:
+
+ Athen. xii. 30.
+
+-----
+
+
+
+
+ BOOK IV.
+
+
+
+
+ CHAPTER I.
+ PRIVATE DWELLINGS.
+
+
+The opinion appears to prevail among certain writers, that the private
+dwellings of the Hellenes, or at least of the Athenians, were always
+mean and insignificant.[261] This imaginary fact they account for by
+supposing, that nobles and opulent citizens were deterred from indulging
+in the luxuries of architecture by the form of government and the
+envious jealousy of the common people. But such a view of the matter is
+inconsistent with the testimony of history. At Athens, as everywhere
+else, things followed their natural course. In the early ages of the
+commonwealth, when manners were simple, the houses of the greatest men
+in the state differed very little from those of their neighbours. As
+wealth, however, and luxury increased, together with the developement of
+the democratic principle, individuals erected themselves mansions vying
+in extent and splendour with the public edifices of the state;[262] and
+as the polity degenerated more and more into ochlocracy, the dwellings
+of the rich[263] increased in size and grandeur, until they at length
+outstripped the very temples of the gods. A similar process took place
+at Sparta, where shortly after the Peloponnesian war, the more
+distinguished citizens possessed suburban villas, which seem to have
+been of spacious dimensions and filled with costly furniture.[264]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 261:
+
+ But even from a fragment of Bacchylides we may infer the magnificence
+ of Grecian houses; for the poor man who drinks wine, he says, sees his
+ house blazing with gold and ivory:
+
+ χρυσῷ δ᾽ ἐλεφαντί τε
+ μαρμαίρουσιν οἶκοι.
+ Athen. ii. 10.
+
+ Men had by this time advanced considerably from the state in which
+ they are supposed to have built their huts in imitation of the
+ swallow’s nest. Vitruv. ii. 1.
+
+Footnote 262:
+
+ Plat. Repub. iv. t. vi. p. 165. Dion Chrysost. i. 262. ii. 459. Dem.
+ cont. Mid. § 44.—Lucian. Amor. § 34.
+
+Footnote 263:
+
+ Dem. Olynth. iii. § 9. De Rep. Ord. § 10.
+
+Footnote 264:
+
+ Xenoph. Hellen. vi. 5. 27.
+
+-----
+
+Upon these points, however, I dwell, not from any belief that they are
+honourable to the Greek character, but because they are true. It would
+have been more satisfactory to find them preserving, in every period of
+their history, the stern and lofty simplicity of republican manners, far
+outshining in the eyes of the philosopher the palaces of Oriental kings
+glittering with gold and ivory and jewels, insomuch that the cottage of
+Socrates, erected in the humblest style of Athenian domestic
+architecture, would be an object, were it still in existence, of far
+deeper interest to the genuine lover of antiquity than the mansions of
+Meidias or Callias, or even than the imperial abodes of Semiramis,
+Darius, and Artaxerxes.
+
+Nevertheless, wherever there exists opulence, it will exhibit itself in
+the erection of stately dwellings; and accordingly we find that, prior
+even to the Trojan war,[265] commerce and increasing luxury had already
+inspired the Greeks with a taste for splendour and magnificence, which
+displayed itself especially in the architecture and ornaments of their
+palaces and houses of the great.[266]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 265:
+
+ Cf. Athen. i. 28.
+
+Footnote 266:
+
+ Cf. Müll. Dor. ii. 272.
+
+-----
+
+Homer, minute and graphic in his descriptions, delineates a very
+flattering picture of Greek domestic architecture in his time, when the
+chiefs and nobles had already begun to enshrine themselves in spacious
+edifices, elaborately ornamented with, and surrounded by, all the
+circumstances of pomp known to their age.[267]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 267:
+
+ Il. β. 657, sqq.
+
+-----
+
+In those days the greatest men did not disdain to apply themselves to
+agriculture, to have their dwellings surrounded by the signs and
+implements of the pursuit in which they were engaged.[268] And as in
+southern Italy the ancient nobles erected shops in front of their
+palaces or villas, in which the produce of their land was disposed of,
+so in the Homeric houses the same space was occupied by the farm-yard
+enclosed by strong and lofty walls, surrounded by battlements, within
+which were their heaps of manure, harrows, ploughs, carts, and waggons,
+and stacks of hay and corn;[269] and hither, too, in the evening were
+driven in their numerous flocks and herds, to protect them from the
+nightly marauders. The great entrance gates were in the heroic ages
+guarded by ban dogs,[270] which afterwards made way for porters,[271]
+and in still later times were succeeded by eunuchs.[272]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 268:
+
+ A similar taste prevailed among the Merovingian princes of France:
+ “The mansion of the long-haired kings was surrounded with convenient
+ yards and stables for the cattle and the poultry; the garden was
+ planted with useful vegetables; the various trades, the labours of
+ agriculture, and even the arts of hunting and fishing were exercised
+ by servile hands for the emolument of the sovereign; his magazines
+ were filled with corn and wine, either for sale or consumption, and
+ the whole administration was conducted by the strictest maxims of
+ private economy.”—Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, ii.
+ 356.
+
+Footnote 269:
+
+ Hesych. v. αὐλῆς.
+
+Footnote 270:
+
+ Feith. Antiq. Hom. iii. 10. p. 242.
+
+Footnote 271:
+
+ Casaub. ad Theoph. Char. p. 145.
+
+Footnote 272:
+
+ Plat. Protag. t. i. p. 159. Cf. Aristid. t. i. p. 518. Jebb.
+
+-----
+
+Occasionally for the canine doorkeepers were substituted in commercial
+states gold and silver representations, more likely to attract than
+repel thieves; for example, at the entrance to Alcinoös’s palace were
+groups of this description, attributed to the wonder-working
+Hephæstos.[273] A coarse imitation of this practice prevailed among the
+Romans, for we find in Petronius that Trimalchio had his court guarded
+by a painted mastiff, over which in good square characters were the
+words “Beware of the dog.”[274]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 273:
+
+ Odyss. η. 93.
+
+Footnote 274:
+
+ Satyr, c. 29. p. 74. Hellenop.
+
+-----
+
+Along the walls of this enclosure the cattle-sheds would in remoter ages
+appear to have been ranged, where afterwards stood suites of chambers
+for the domestics, or piazzas, or colonades, to serve as covered walks
+in extremely hot or bad weather. Within, on either side the
+gateway,[275] chiefly among the Dorians, rose a pillar of conical shape,
+sometimes an obelisk, in honour of Apollo or of Dionysos, or, according
+to others, of both, while in the centre was an altar of Zeus Herceios,
+on which family sacrifices were offered up.[276] At its inner extremity
+you beheld a spacious portico, adjoining the entrance to the house,
+where in warm weather the young men often slept. From the descriptions
+of the poet, however, it would appear to have been something more than a
+common portico, resembling rather the porches of our old English houses,
+roofed over and extending like a recess into the body of the house
+itself. In the dwellings of the great, this part of the building,
+adorned with numerous statues, was probably of marble finely polished if
+not sculptured, and being merely a chamber open in front could not in
+those fine climates be by any means an unpleasant bedroom, particularly
+as it usually faced the south and caught the early rays of the sun. Here
+Odysseus[277] slept during his stay with Alcinoös, as did likewise Priam
+and the Trojan Herald while guests of Achilles in his military hut.[278]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 275:
+
+ Sch. Aristoph. Vesp. 875. Here the Romans sacrificed to Janus, the
+ Greeks to Apollo. Macrob. Saturn. l. i. c. 9. Poll. iv. 123. Comm. p.
+ 790.
+
+Footnote 276:
+
+ Eustath ad Od. χ. 376. p. 790. Cf. Poll. i. 22, seq. Muret. in Plat.
+ de Rep. p. 635. Soph. Œdip. Tyr. 16.
+
+Footnote 277:
+
+ Odyss. η. 345. Cf. Il. ζ. 243. Hesych. v. πρόδομος.
+
+Footnote 278:
+
+ Il. ω. 673, sqq. Cf. Feith. Antiq. Hom. iii. 10. p. 244.
+
+-----
+
+In this porch were seats of handsome polished stone, as in the palace of
+Nestor at Pylos, which, to render them more shining, would appear to
+have been rubbed with oil.[279] Similar seats are found to this day
+before the houses of the wealthy at Cairo and other cities of the East,
+where in the cool of the evening old men habitually take their station,
+and are joined for the purpose of gossip by their neighbours. In the
+larger towns of Nubia an open space planted with dates, palms, or the
+Egyptian fig-tree, more shady and spreading than the oak, and furnished
+with wooden seats, collects together the elders, who there enjoy what
+the Englishman seeks in his club, and the Greek found in his lesche—the
+pleasure of comparing his opinions with those of his neighbours.
+
+When, in after times, this plain porch had been succeeded by a
+magnificent peristyle or colonnade, the primitive custom of sleeping in
+the open air was abandoned; but here the master of the house with his
+guests took their early walk to enjoy the morning sun. It was customary
+among all ranks at Athens to rise betimes, as it generally is still in
+the warm countries of the South. Socrates and his young friend, the
+sophist-hunter,[280] coming to the house of Callias, soon after
+day-break, find its owner taking the air with several of his guests in
+the colonnade, the young men moving in the train of their elders, and
+making way for them as they turn round to retrace their steps. There was
+usually at Athens a similar peristyle on both sides of the house—one for
+summer the other for winter, and a door generally opened from the
+women’s apartment into that communicating with the garden, where the
+ladies enjoyed the cool air in the midst of laurel copses, fountains,
+and patches of green sward,[281] interspersed with rose-trees,
+violet-beds, and other sweet shrubs and flowers.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 279:
+
+ Odyss. γ. 406, sqq. Cf. π. 343, seq.
+
+Footnote 280:
+
+ Plat. Protag. t. i. p. 160.
+
+Footnote 281:
+
+ Plat. Epist. t. viii. p. 403. Athen. v. 25. Poll. ix. 466.
+
+-----
+
+The town-houses of Homeric times had generally no aulè, but the porch
+opened directly into the street, since it is here that, in the
+description of the shield, we find the women standing to behold the
+dancers and enjoy the music of the nuptial procession.[282] Afterwards,
+as the taste for magnificence advanced, the whole façade of the corps de
+logis[283] was richly ornamented, while the outer gates were purposely
+left open, that the passers-by might witness the splendour of the owner.
+Occasionally, likewise, the great door, leading from the portico into
+the house, was concealed by costly purple hangings,[284] which, being
+passed, you entered a broad passage, having on either side, doors[285]
+leading into the apartments on the ground floor, and conducting to an
+inner court, surrounded by a peristyle, where the gynæconitis,[286] or
+harem, commenced.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 282:
+
+ Il. σ. 496. Cf. Sch. Aristoph. Nub. 93.
+
+Footnote 283:
+
+ Hesych. v. ἐνώπια. Casaub. ad Theoph. Char. p. 380. Compare the whole
+ character of the “Vain Man,” pp. 57–59. Etym. Mag. 346. 10.
+
+Footnote 284:
+
+ Athen. v. 25. Hesych. v. αυλεία. Suid. in v. t. i. p. 491. d.
+
+Footnote 285:
+
+ “The doors (at Tanjeers) are richly carved, and placed in arches
+ shaped like an ace of spades, a form so completely oriental, that
+ there is no mistaking its origin; these, when they opened on the
+ verandah, were further ornamented with curtains of rich crimson
+ silk.”—Napier, Excursions along the Shores of the Mediterranean, i. p.
+ 264.
+
+Footnote 286:
+
+ Hesych. v. γυναικωνίτις.
+
+-----
+
+The apartments of palaces displayed, even in very early times, the taste
+of the Greeks for splendour and magnificence. The walls were covered
+with wainscoting inlaid with gold and ivory, as we still find in the
+East whole chambers lined with mother-of-pearl.[287] At first, the gold
+was laid on in thin plates, which, in process of time, led to the idea
+of gilding.[288] Even Phocion, who affected great simplicity and
+plainness, had the walls of his house adorned with laminæ of
+copper,[289] probably in the same style as that subterraneous chamber
+discovered, during the last century, in the excavations made at Rome. It
+appears, too, that, occasionally, the walls of the apartments at Athens,
+as at Herculaneum and Pompeii were decorated with paintings in bright
+colours,[290] probably in the same style, though as much superior in
+beauty and delicacy of execution, as art, in the age of Pericles, was
+superior to art in the days of Nero. Still the paintings discovered in
+the excavated Italian cities,—sometimes[291] grotesque and extravagant,
+as where we behold the pigmies making war upon the cranes, winged
+geniuses at work in a carpenter’s or shoemaker’s shop, or an ass laden
+with hampers of wine, rushing forward to engage a crocodile, whilst his
+master pulls him back by the tail—sometimes rural and elegant,
+consisting of a series of wild landscapes, mountains dotted with
+cottages, sea-shores, harbours, and baths, Nymphs and Cupids angling on
+the borders of lakes, beneath trees of the softest and most exquisite
+foliage,—may enable us to form some conception of the landscapes with
+which Agelarcos[292] adorned the house of Alcibiades.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 287:
+
+ Lady Montague’s Works, ii. 234.
+
+Footnote 288:
+
+ Plin. xxxiii. 18. Cf. Dion. Chrysost. t. i. p. 262. t. ii. p. 259.
+ Pignor. de Serv. p. 214.
+
+Footnote 289:
+
+ Plut. Phoc. § 18.
+
+Footnote 290:
+
+ As, _minium_, Dioscor. v. 109.
+
+Footnote 291:
+
+ Antich. di Ercol. t. i. tav. 34. p. 181. tav. 35. p. 187. tav. 36. p.
+ 191. tav. 48. pp. 253, 257. t. ii. tav. 39. p. 273. Cf. Poll. x. 34.
+
+Footnote 292:
+
+ Andocid. cont. Alcib. § 7.
+
+-----
+
+The halls and saloons on the ground-floor were paved with marble or
+mosaic work,[293] which often, if we may judge from the specimens left
+us by their imitators, represented pictures of the greatest elegance,
+containing, among other things, likenesses of the loveliest divinities
+of Olympos.[294] These mosaics were wrought with minute shards of
+precious marbles of various colours, interspersed with pieces of
+amber,[295] and, probably, also, of glass, as was the fashion in Italy,
+where whole hyaline floors have been found consisting either of one
+piece or of squares so finely joined together, that the sutures were
+invisible to the naked eye. No mention, I believe, is made in Greek
+authors of lining the walls of apartments with glass, or even of glass
+windows,[296] which, however, were common in the cities of Magna Græcia
+in the age immediately succeeding that of our Saviour. It is extremely
+probable, however, that as the Greeks were as well acquainted as the
+Romans with the properties of the lapis specularis;[297] they likewise
+made use of thin plates of this stone, or talc, or gypsum, as they still
+do in Egypt for window-panes. So much, indeed, seems inferable from a
+passage of Plutarch,[298] as, also, that transparent squares of horn
+were employed for the same purpose, as oyster-shells and oiled paper
+still are in China. Previously, however, the windows[299] (sometimes
+square and situated high in the wall, sometimes reaching from the
+ceiling to the floor) were closed with lattice-work[300] in iron,
+bronze, or wood, over which, in bad weather, blinds of hair-cloth or
+prepared leather were usually drawn.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 293:
+
+ Plin. xxxvi. 60. Poll. vii. 121. Cf. Sir W. Hamilton, Acc. of Discov.
+ at Pomp. p. 7, seq. pl. 5.
+
+Footnote 294:
+
+ Galen, in Protrept, § 8. t. i. p. 19.
+
+Footnote 295:
+
+ Hom. Eires. 10. p. 199. Franke.
+
+Footnote 296:
+
+ See the authorities collected by Nixon, Phil. Trans, t. i. p. 126,
+ sqq. Seneca speaks of glass windows as a new invention, Epist. 90. Sir
+ William Hamilton, however, in his Account of Discoveries made at
+ Pompeii, observes:—“Below stairs is a room with a large bow-window;
+ fragments of large panes of glass were found here, shewing that the
+ ancients knew well the use of glass for windows.”—p. 13. Cf. Caylus,
+ Rec. d’Ant. t. 2. p. 293. Mazois, Pal. de Scaur. p. 97. Castell.
+ Villas of the Ancients, p. 4. Vitruv. vii. 3.
+
+Footnote 297:
+
+ In lieu of the lapis specularis, they make use in Persia of thin slabs
+ of Tabreez marble for the windows of baths, and other buildings
+ requiring a soft subdued light.—See Fowler, Three Years in Persia,
+ where the growth of this stone is curiously described.—i. 228, sqq.
+
+Footnote 298:
+
+ De Plac, Phil. iii. 5, ed. Corsin. Flor. 1750, p. 81. Cf. Plin. Hist.
+ Nat. xi. 37.
+
+Footnote 299:
+
+ Sir W. Hamilt. Acc. of Discov. at Pomp. p. 7, seq. Antich. di
+ Ercolano. t. i. tav. i. p. 1. tav. 3. p. 11. Cf. Schol. Aristoph. Eq.
+ 996.
+
+Footnote 300:
+
+ Mazois, Pal. de Scaur. p. 98.
+
+-----
+
+The ceilings at first consisted merely of the beams, rafters, and
+planks, forming the roof, and supporting the layers of earth or straw
+that covered it; but, by degrees, the wood-work was carefully painted,
+and arranged so as to form a succession of coffers and deep sunken
+panels. Sometimes the whole ceiling consisted of chamfered, or fretted
+cedar work,[301] or of cypress wood, or was covered with paintings in
+blue and gold, and supported on columns[302] lofty and deeply fluted for
+the purpose, as has been ingeniously conjectured,[303] of receiving
+spears into the semi-cylindrical cavities thus formed. If this idea be
+well founded, we have a very satisfactory reason of the origin of
+fluting columns, and it appears to be perfectly consistent with Homer’s
+account of Odysseus’s chamber, where a number of lances are spoken of
+standing round a pillar.[304]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 301:
+
+ Athen. ix. 67. Plat. de Rep. t. vi. p. 353. Cf. Gog. Origine des Loix,
+ t. v. p. 443. Poll. Onom. x. 84. Comm. p. 1552. Maz. Pal. de Scau. p.
+ 102. Tibull. iii. 3. 16. Luc. de Dea Syr. § 30. Cynic, § 9. Eurip.
+ Orest. 1361.
+
+Footnote 302:
+
+ Odyss. δ. 45, seq. Luc. Somn. seu Gall. § 29.
+
+Footnote 303:
+
+ By Payne Knight, Prolegg. ad Hom. § 47. Cf. Feith. Antiq. Homer, iii.
+ 11. 6.
+
+Footnote 304:
+
+ Odyss. α. 127, seq.
+
+-----
+
+The principal apartments, according to the fashion still prevailing in
+the East, were furnished with divans,[305] or broad immovable seats,
+running along the walls, which are now stuffed soft atop with cotton,
+and covered with scarlet or purple, bordered by gold fringe a foot deep.
+In the Homeric age they would appear to have been of carved wood, inlaid
+with ivory and gold, and studded with silver nails.[306] For these
+divans they had a variety of coverings, sometimes skins, at others
+purple carpets, in addition to which they, as now, piled up, as a rest
+for the back or elbow, heaps of cushions, purple above, and of white
+linen beneath.[307] By degrees, these seats became movable and were
+converted into couches or sofas, manufactured of bronze, or silver, or
+precious woods, veneered with tortoiseshell.[308] In the palaces of
+oriental sultans they are sometimes made of alabaster, encrusted with
+jewels. Somewhere in the more retired parts of the Domos were the
+picture-gallery and library, of neither of which have we any exact
+description. The former, however, faced the north, and the latter the
+west. If the libraries of the Greeks at all resembled in form and
+dimensions those found at Pompeii, they were by no means spacious;
+neither, in fact, was a great deal of room necessary, as the manuscripts
+of the ancients stowed away much closer than our modern books,[309] and
+were sometimes kept in circular boxes, of elegant form, with covers of
+turned wood. The volumes consisted of rolls of parchment, sometimes
+purple at the back,[310] or papyrus, about twelve or fourteen inches in
+breadth, and as many feet long as the subject required. The pages formed
+a number of transverse compartments, commencing at the left, and
+proceeding in order to the other extremity, and the reader, holding in
+either hand one end of the manuscript, unrolled and rolled it up[311] as
+he read. Occasionally these books were placed on shelves, in piles, with
+the ends outwards, adorned with golden bosses,[312] the titles of the
+various treatises being written on pendant labels.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 305:
+
+ Id. η. 95, seq.
+
+Footnote 306:
+
+ Id. θ. 65. π. 32.
+
+Footnote 307:
+
+ Id. κ. 352, seq.
+
+Footnote 308:
+
+ Lucian, Luc. siv. Asin. § 53.
+
+Footnote 309:
+
+ Antich. di Ercol. t. ii. tav. 2. p. 13.—Books were preserved from the
+ moth by cedar-oil.—Geopon. v. 9.
+
+Footnote 310:
+
+ Luc. de Merced. Conduct. § 41.
+
+Footnote 311:
+
+ Luc. Imag. § 9.
+
+Footnote 312:
+
+ Luc. de Merced. Conduct. 41.
+
+-----
+
+If we proceed now to the court[313] dividing the Domos from the Thalamos
+we shall perceive, on both sides of the door leading out of the Andron,
+flights of steps ascending to the upper chambers where, in the heroic
+ages, the young men and strangers of distinction usually slept. Thus, in
+the palace of Ithaca, Telemachos had a bed-chamber on the second story,
+whence the poet is careful to observe he enjoyed a good prospect.[314]
+In later times, however, there were, on the ground floor, suites of
+apartments, denominated Xenon, appropriated to the use of guests, who
+there lived freely and at ease as in their own houses.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 313:
+
+ Similar courts in the houses of Magna Græcia are described as having
+ had in the middle a square tank where the rain-water was collected,
+ and ran into a reservoir beneath.—Sir W. Hamilt. Acc. of Discov. at
+ Pomp. p. 13.
+
+Footnote 314:
+
+ Odyss. α. 425. seq.
+
+-----
+
+At the further extremity of the interior court a steep flight of steps
+led to an elevated basement and doorway, which formed the entrance into
+the thalamos.[315] This part of the house would appear to have been laid
+out in a peculiar manner, consisting, first, of a lofty and spacious
+apartment,[316] where all the females of the family usually sat while
+engaged in embroidery or other needlework.[317] It likewise formed the
+nursery, and, at its inner extremity, in a deep recess, the bed of the
+mistress of the family appears to have stood, on either side of which
+were doors leading to flights of steps into the garden, set apart for
+the use of the women.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 315:
+
+ Eustath. ad Odyss. χ. p. 776.—These female apartments were sometimes
+ hired out and inhabited by men.—Antiph. Nec. Venef. § 3.—Mr.
+ Fosbroke’s account is curious:—“The thalamos was an apartment where
+ the _mothers of families_ worked in embroidery, in tapestry, and other
+ works, _with their wives_, or their friends.”—Encyclop. of Ant. i. 50.
+
+Footnote 316:
+
+ Sometimes, at least, roofed with cypress-wood, as we learn from
+ Mnesimachos, in his Horsebreeder: βαίν’ ἐκ θαλάμων κυπαρισσορόφων ἔξω,
+ Μάνη.—Athen. ix. 67.
+
+Footnote 317:
+
+ We find ladies, however, sometimes dining with their children in the
+ Aulè.—Demosth. in Ev. et Mnes. § 16.
+
+-----
+
+It has by many been supposed, that the Thalamos was a chamber
+particularly appropriated to the use of young unmarried ladies; but,
+since we find Helen and Penelope inhabiting the Thalamos, it may be
+presumed that it was common to all the females of the house. Hector, in
+his visit to Paris, finds him in the Thalamos, turning about and
+polishing his arms, as if he meant to use them, while, close at hand,
+are Helen and her maids engaged in weaving or embroidery. The word was
+often used in the same signification as Gynæconitis,[318] or “the
+harem;” and, therefore, when Theocritus[319] speaks of a “maiden from
+the Thalamus,” and Phocylides, with the suspicious caution of a more
+vicious age, advises that young women be kept in “well-locked Thalamoi,”
+it is clear that the female apartments generally are meant. These were,
+in Sparta, called οα̈ (which, as is well known, in the common language
+of Greece, signifies eggs), whence, according to Clearchos,[320] the
+fable which describes Helen proceeding from an egg, because born and
+educated in the chambers so called. Throughout the Iliad and the Odyssey
+we find the poet speaking of this part of the house as inhabited by
+women. Here lived Penelope,[321] far from the brawls of the suitors who
+crowded the halls of the Domos; and here Ares pressed his suit with
+success to Astyoche and Polymela, who both became the mothers of valiant
+sons.[322] From which, among many other circumstances, it is manifest
+that, in those ages, the sexes met easily, even the entrance to the
+harem not being impracticable to a lover.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 318:
+
+ Hesych, v. γυναίκ. p. 866. Cyrill. Lex. Ms. Bren. Bret. ad Hesych. l.
+ c.
+
+Footnote 319:
+
+ Eidyll. ii. 136. Phocyl. v. 198.
+
+Footnote 320:
+
+ Athen. ii. 50. Cf. Sch. Aristoph. Vesp. 68.
+
+Footnote 321:
+
+ Odyss. ο. 516.
+
+Footnote 322:
+
+ Il. β. 514. π. 184.
+
+-----
+
+The bedchambers of the young unmarried women appear to have flanked the
+great central hall of the Thalamos, and here the female slaves likewise
+slept, apparently in recesses, near the chamber-doors of their
+mistresses, as we find particularly remarked in the case of Nausicaa and
+her maids. At Athens, the door of communication between the Andron[323]
+and the Gynæconitis was kept carefully barred and locked to prevent all
+intercourse between the male and female slaves, the keys being entrusted
+solely to the mistress of the house.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 323:
+
+ Cf. Poll. vi. 7. Cœl. Rhodig. xvii. 24.
+
+-----
+
+As these apartments were less exposed than any other portion of the
+building, and far more carefully guarded, it became customary, as in the
+East it still is, to lay up in the Thalamos, more especially in the dark
+basement story, much valuable property, such as arms, gold, silver, the
+wardrobe of both sexes, and even oil and wine. Among the Romans, or,
+indeed, among the Greeks, of a later age,[324] this step would scarcely
+have been taken, lest the ladies should have grown too assiduous in
+their attention to the skins. But in remoter ages these sordid fears had
+no existence. Accordingly, we find the prudent Odysseus, who
+apprehended, perhaps, the tricks of his domestics, stowing away his
+casks of choice old wine in the Thalamos, doubtless, considering it
+safer there, under the keeping of Euryclea, than it would have been
+anywhere else in the palace.[325]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 324:
+
+ Plut. Paral. Vit. § 3.
+
+Footnote 325:
+
+ Odyss. β. 337, 345. χ. 442. Schol. 459. 466. Poll. vii. 397.
+
+-----
+
+In later and more civilized ages, the Thalamos was still used for the
+same purposes; for, in the establishment of Ischomachos, a pattern of
+Attic economy, we find that the more valuable portion of the family
+wardrobe, with the plate and other costly utensils, was there deposited.
+Corn, according to the suggestions of common sense, they laid up in the
+driest rooms, wine in the coolest. The apartments into which most
+sunshine found its way were appropriated to such employments and to the
+display of such furniture as required much light.[326] Their
+dining-rooms, where, also, the men usually sat when at home, they
+carefully contrived so as to be cool in summer and warm in winter,
+though, in severe weather, a good fire was often found necessary.[327]
+The same judicious principle commonly regulated the erection of their
+habitations, which were divided into two sets of apartments, suited to
+the two great divisions of the year. As we have already remarked, the
+principal front looked towards the south, that it might catch the rays
+of the wintry sun, whose more vertical summer beams were excluded by
+broad verandahs, or colonnades.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 326:
+
+ Xen. Memorab. iii. 8, 9.
+
+Footnote 327:
+
+ Anaxand. ap. Athen. ii. 29.—So also thought Socrates, who observes,
+ that in winter every one will have a fire who can get wood. And,
+ though he himself wore the same garments all the year round, he
+ considered it, apparently, a judicious practice in others to put on
+ warm clothing.—Xen. Œcon. xvii. 3. Sch. Aristoph. Acharn. 716. When
+ the dining-room was not furnished with a chimney, braziers were
+ kindled outside the door, and carried in when the worst fumes of the
+ charcoal had evaporated.—Plut. Symp. vi. 7.
+
+-----
+
+In what part of the edifice stood the bathing-room (βαλανεῖον, so called
+from its having, in remoter ages, been heated with acorns, βάλανοι)[328]
+I have been unable to discover, though it appears certain that, even so
+far back as the heroic ages, a chamber was always set apart for the
+bath. At first, doubtless, they were content with cold water; but that
+this was soon succeeded by warm water[329] may be conjectured from the
+tradition ascribing the first use of it to Heracles, whence warm baths
+were ever afterwards called the Baths of Heracles.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 328:
+
+ Etym. Mag. 186, 8. Athen. i. 18. Phot. Bib. 60. b. Hesiod. Frag. 53.
+ Baths, at Sparta, were common to both sexes.—Goguet, v. 428. Cf.
+ Pashley, Travels. i. 183.
+
+Footnote 329:
+
+ Baccius, de Thermis, p. 365. Schol. Aristoph. Nub. 1034.
+
+-----
+
+The form of the Puelos,[330] or vessel in which they bathed, appears
+occasionally to have resembled an Egyptian sarcophagus, and to have been
+sometimes round, and constructed of white or green marble, or glass, or
+bronze, or common stone, or wood,[331] in which case it would seem to
+have been portable. In the baths of Pompeii the marble basins, whether
+parallelogramatic or circular, were of spacious dimensions, and raised
+two or three feet above the pavement. A step for the convenience of the
+bathers extends round it on the inside, and at the bottom are marble
+cushions upon which they rested. In the labra of the Grecian female
+baths rose a smooth cippus in the form of a truncated cone, denominated
+omphalos, on which the ladies sat while chatting with their female
+companions.[332]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 330:
+
+ Cf. Etymol. Mag. 151, 52, seq. Schol. Aristoph. Eq. 1055.
+
+Footnote 331:
+
+ Baccius, de Therm. p. 399.
+
+Footnote 332:
+
+ Athen. xi. 104.
+
+-----
+
+When once the warm bath came into use, people employed it to excess,
+bathing as frequently as five or six times a day, and in water so hot as
+to half scald themselves.[333] Immediately afterwards, to prevent the
+skin from chapping, they anointed their bodies with oils and perfumed
+unguents.[334] Occasionally, instead of plunging into the water, they
+sat upright, as is still the custom in the hammāms of the East, while
+the water was poured with a sort of ladle on their head and shoulders.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 333:
+
+ Schol. Aristoph. Nub. 1034.
+
+Footnote 334:
+
+ Plut. Alexand. § 40.
+
+-----
+
+The public baths, of which no full description referring to very ancient
+times remains, were numerous in all Hellenic cities, more particularly
+at Athens, where they were surmounted with domes,[335] and received
+their light from above. These establishments were frequented by all
+classes of women who could afford to pay for such luxury, rich, poor,
+honourable, and dishonourable.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 335:
+
+ Athen. xi. 104.
+
+-----
+
+The attendants, in later and more corrupt times at least, were men,
+whose sole clothing consisted of a leathern apron about the loins, while
+the ladies, who undressed in the Apodyterion, went through the various
+processes of the bath in the same primitive clothing. It was, however,
+customary for them to enter the water together in crowds,[336] so that
+they kept each other in countenance. Here the matrons who had sons to
+marry studied the form and character of the young ladies who frequented
+the baths; and as all the defects both of person and features were
+necessarily revealed, it was next to impossible for any lady, not
+sufficiently opulent to keep up a bathing establishment in her own
+house, to retain for any length of time an undeserved celebrity for
+beauty. In the baths of the East, the bodies of the bathers are cleansed
+by small bags of camel-hair, woven rough, and passed over the hand of
+the attendant; or with a handful of the fine fibres of the Mekka
+palm-tree combed soft, and filled with fragrant and saponaceous earths,
+which are rubbed on the skin till the whole body is covered with froth.
+Similar means were employed in the baths of Greece, and the whole was
+afterwards cleansed off the skin by gold or silver stlengides, or blunt
+scrapers somewhat curved towards the point.[337]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 336:
+
+ Victor. ad Aristot. Ethic. p. 214. There was a set of vicious fellows,
+ called τρίβαλλοι, who passed their lives disorderly in the
+ baths.—Etym. Mag. 765. 55. Aristophanes bestows the name on certain
+ barbarian divinities.—Aves. 1528.
+
+Footnote 337:
+
+ Xenoph. Anab. i. 2. 10. See one of these stlengides in Zoëga, Bassi
+ Rilievi, tav. 29.
+
+-----
+
+The architectural arrangements of these baths,[338] if we may draw any
+analogy from similar establishments in a later age, were nearly as
+follows:—Entering the building by a lofty and spacious portico, you
+found yourself in a large hall, paved with marble and adorned with
+columns, from which, through a side-door, you passed into the
+Apodyterion, or undressing-room; next, into a chamber where was the cold
+water in basins of porphyry or green jasper; immediately contiguous lay
+the Tepidarium, to which succeeded the Sudarium, a vaulted apartment
+furnished with basins of warm water, and where the heat was excessive;
+from this, moving forward, you successively traversed saloons of various
+degrees of temperature and dimensions, until you found yourself in the
+dressing-room, whither your garments had been carried by your domestic,
+or the attendants on the baths.[339] These establishments were likewise
+provided with water-closets,[340] placed in a retired part of the
+building, and furnished with wooden seats, basin and water-pipe, as in
+modern times.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 338:
+
+ Cf. Etymol. Mag. 384. 10. Poll. vii. 166, and Plut. Alexand. § 20,
+ where he describes the luxurious baths of Darius.
+
+Footnote 339:
+
+ Lucian. Hippias. § 5, sqq.
+
+Footnote 340:
+
+ Sir W. Hamilton’s Acc. of Discov. at Pompeii, p. 41. Cf. Casaub. ad
+ Theoph. Char. p. 269.
+
+-----
+
+To diminish the chances of being robbed, stealing from a bath was at
+Athens made a capital offence;[341] so that the persons who frequented
+them ran very little risk. The price was usually moderate, though in
+some cities, as for example at Phaselis, they were in the habit of
+doubling their charges to foreigners, which drew from a witty sophist a
+very cutting remark; for his slave disputing with the keeper of the
+bath, and contending that his master ought not to be charged more than
+other persons, the sophist, who overheard the dispute, exclaimed,
+“Wretch, would you make me a ‘Phaselitan for a farthing?’”[342]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 341:
+
+ Aristot. Problem. xix. 14. Casaub. ad Theoph. Char. p. 215.
+
+Footnote 342:
+
+ Athen. viii. 45.
+
+-----
+
+The roofs of the more ancient Greek houses were generally flat,[343] not
+sloping upwards to a point, as was afterwards the fashion.[344] In Egypt
+and Syria, and almost throughout the East, the same taste still obtains;
+and as palm trees, loftier than the buildings, often grow beside the
+walls, and extend their beautiful pendulous branches over a great part
+of the roof, nothing can be more delightful on a mild serene evening
+than to sit aloft on those breezy eminences sipping coffee, gazing over
+the green rice fields, or watching the stars as they put forth their
+golden lamps through the violet skirts of day. But there a parapet
+usually preserves him who enjoys the scene from falling. It was
+otherwise of old in Greece. The roof consisted simply of a number of
+beams laid close together and covered with cement, so that, as was
+proved by the fate of Elpenor,[345] the practice of sleeping there in
+warm weather, quite common throughout the country, was not wholly
+without danger.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 343:
+
+ Æsch. Agam. 3, sqq. We find, however, an allusion to the pointed roof
+ in Iliad. ψ. 712, seq.
+
+Footnote 344:
+
+ Antich. di Erc. tav. 3, p. 11.
+
+Footnote 345:
+
+ Odyss. κ. 559. Eustath. ad loc. p. 1669, l. 15. Feith. Ant. Hom. iii.
+ 10, p. 249.
+
+-----
+
+On the construction of the kitchen,[346] which in Greek houses was
+sometimes a separate little building erected in the court-yard, our
+information is extremely imperfect. It is certain, however, contrary to
+the common opinion, that it was furnished with a chimney,[347] and that
+the smoke was not permitted to find its way through an aperture in the
+roof. Thus much might be inferred from a passage in the Wasps, when the
+old dicast, in love with the courts of law, is endeavouring to escape
+from the restraint imposed on him by his son, by climbing out through
+the chimney. It is clear that he has got into some aperture, where he is
+hidden from sight, for hearing a noise in the wall, his son Bdelycleon,
+cries out, “What is that?” upon which the old man replies, “I am only
+the smoke.” It is plain, that he would not, like a Hindù Yoghi, be
+balancing himself in the air, otherwise the young man must have beheld
+him sailing up towards the roof. But the matter is set entirely at rest
+by the Scholiast, who observes, that the καπνοδόχη was a narrow channel
+like a pipe through which the smoke ascended from the kitchen. This
+explanation has been confirmed by the discoveries of Colonel Leake,[348]
+who on the rocky slopes of the hill of the Museion and Pnyx, found the
+remains of a house partly excavated in the rock, in which the chimney
+still remained.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 346:
+
+ Cf. Athen. ix. 22. iii. 60.
+
+Footnote 347:
+
+ Cf. Sch. Aristoph. Nub. 91. Vesp. 139, 147.
+
+Footnote 348:
+
+ Topog. of Athens, p. 361.
+
+-----
+
+The same convenience, also, existed in the Roman kitchens,[349] though
+they would appear to have been unskilfully constructed in both
+countries, since the cooks complain of the smoke being borne hither and
+thither by the wind, and interfering with their operations. However,
+this may have arisen from the numerous small furnaces which, as in
+France, were ranged along the wall for the purpose of cooking several
+dishes at once. The chimneys having been perpendicular, as in our old
+farm-houses, were furnished with stoppers to keep out the rain in bad
+weather.[350]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 349:
+
+ Cf. Perrault, sur Vitruv. vi. 9. Mazois, Pal. de Scaur. p. 178. On the
+ interior of a Roman house, see Pet. Bellori, Frag. Vet. Rom. p. 31.
+
+Footnote 350:
+
+ Schol. Aristoph. Vesp. 148.
+
+-----
+
+That the kitchens were sometimes not sufficiently airy and comfortable
+may be inferred from the practice of a philosophical cook in Damoxenos,
+who used to take his station immediately outside the door, and from
+thence give his orders to the inferior operatives. Great care was
+nevertheless taken that it should be well lighted, and that the door
+should be so situated as to be as little exposed as possible to whirling
+gusts of wind.[351] From a passage in the Scholiast on the Wasps, and
+the existence of drains in the excavations on the hill of the Museion,
+it is clear that the Athenian houses were furnished with sinks,[352]
+though in the Italian kitchens there seem merely to have been little
+channels running along the walls to carry off the water. The floor, too,
+was constructed in both countries with a view at once to dryness and
+elegance,[353] being formed of several layers of various materials all
+porous though binding, so that it allowed whatever water was spilt to
+sink through instantaneously. The upper layer, about six inches thick,
+consisted of a cement composed of lime, sand, and pounded charcoal or
+ashes, the surface of which, being polished with pumice-stone, presented
+to the eye the appearance of a fine black marble. The roof in early
+times was no doubt of wood,[354] though afterwards it came to be vaulted
+or run up in the form of a cupola. The walls were sometimes decorated
+with rude paintings.[355]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 351:
+
+ Athen. iii. 60 ix. 22.
+
+Footnote 352:
+
+ Leake, Topog. of Ath. p. 361. Yet we find them sometimes throwing the
+ water out of the window, crying, Stand out of the way. Schol.
+ Aristoph. Acharn. 592.
+
+Footnote 353:
+
+ Vitruv. viii. 4.
+
+Footnote 354:
+
+ Mazois, Palais de Scaurus, p. 177.
+
+Footnote 355:
+
+ Representing, for example, a sacrifice to Fornax. Mazois, p. 177.
+
+-----
+
+The street-door of a Grecian house, usually, when single, opened
+outwards, but when there were folding doors they opened inwards as with
+us.[356] In the former case it was customary when any one happened to be
+going forth, to knock, or call, or ring a bell, in order to warn
+passengers to make way.[357] These doors were constructed of various
+materials,[358] according to the taste and circumstances of the owner,
+sometimes of oak, or fir, or maple, or elm; and afterwards as luxury
+advanced they were made of cedar, cyprus, or even of citron wood, inlaid
+as in the East, with plates of brass or gold.[359] Mention is likewise
+made of doors entirely composed of the precious metals; of iron also,
+and bronze and ivory.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 356:
+
+ Cf. Antich. di Ercol. t. i. tav. 34. pp. 175, 181. Sagittar. de Januis
+ Veterum. p. 23.
+
+Footnote 357:
+
+ Plut. Poplic. § 20.
+
+Footnote 358:
+
+ Sagitt. de Jan. Vet. p. 152, seq. Plin. xvi. 40. Theoph. Hist. Plant.
+ v. 4. 2. iii. 14. 1. Martial. xiv. 89, ii. 43. Lucian. l. ix. Tertull.
+ de Pall. c. 5. Plin. xiii. 15. Ovid. Metamorph. iv. 487.
+
+Footnote 359:
+
+ Aristoph. Acharn. 1072.
+
+-----
+
+The jambs were generally of wood;[360] but likewise sometimes of brass
+or marble. The doors were fastened at first by long bars passing into
+the wall on both sides;[361] and by degrees smaller bolts, hasps,
+latches, and locks and keys succeeded. For example the outer door of the
+Thalamos in Homer was secured by a silver hasp, and a leathern thong
+passed round the handle and tied, perhaps, in a curious knot.[362] Doors
+were not usually suspended on hinges, but turned, as they still do in
+the East, upon pivots inserted above into the lintel and below into the
+threshhold.[363] In many houses there were in addition small half-doors
+of open wood-work,[364] which alone were commonly closed by day, in
+order to keep the children from running out, or dogs or pigs from
+entering. The doors usually consisted of a frame-work, with four or six
+sunken panels, as with us; but at Sparta, so long as the laws of
+Lycurgus prevailed, they were made of simple planks fashioned with the
+hatchet.[365] In the great Dorian capital the custom was for persons
+desirous of entering a house to shout aloud at the door,[366] which, at
+Athens,[367] was always furnished with an elegant knocker.[368]
+Door-handles, too, of costly materials and curious workmanship,[369]
+bespoke even in that trifling matter the taste of the Greeks.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 360:
+
+ Sagitt. de Jan. Vet. p. 29, sqq.
+
+Footnote 361:
+
+ Sagitt. de Jan. p. 67.
+
+Footnote 362:
+
+ Odyss. α. 441. Schol. et Eustath. ad loc.—δ. 862. ρ. 186. Cf. Schol.
+ Aristoph. Vesp. 155.
+
+Footnote 363:
+
+ Sagitt. de Jan. Vet. p. 41.
+
+Footnote 364:
+
+ Antich. di Ercol. t. i. tav. 3. p. 11. It should perhaps be remarked,
+ that when houses were built on a solid basement the door was sometimes
+ approached by a movable pair of steps. Id. ibid. tav. 8. p. 39. tav.
+ 43. p. 228.
+
+Footnote 365:
+
+ Plut. Lycurg. § 13. Agesil. § 19.
+
+Footnote 366:
+
+ Plut. Inst. Lac. § 30. Cf. Theocrit. Eidyll. xxix. 39.
+
+Footnote 367:
+
+ Schol. Aristoph. Nub. 133.
+
+Footnote 368:
+
+ Sometimes in form of a crow. Poll. i. 77.
+
+Footnote 369:
+
+ See Donaldson’s Collection of Doorways, pl. 8.
+
+-----
+
+The materials commonly used in the erection of a house were stones and
+bricks. In the manufacture of the latter[370] the ancients exhibited
+more skill and care than we; they had bricks of a very large size, and
+half bricks for filling up spaces, which prevented the necessity of
+shortening them with the trowel. Of these some were simply dried in the
+sun, used chiefly in building the dwellings of the poor.[371] At Utica
+in Africa there were public inspectors of brick-kilns,[372] to prevent
+any from being used which had not been made five years. In several
+cities on the Mediterranean bricks were manufactured of a porous earth,
+which when baked and painted, as it may be conjectured, on the outside,
+were so light that they would swim in water.[373] To diminish the weight
+of bricks, straw was introduced into them in Syria and Egypt, which was
+altogether consumed in the baking. In roofing such of their houses as
+were not terraced they employed slates, tiles, and reed-thatch.[374]
+Possibly, also, the wealthy may have tiled their houses with those
+elegant thin flakes of marble, with which the roofs of temples were
+occasionally covered.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 370:
+
+ Winkelm. Hist. de l’Art. ii. 544. Cf. Xen. Memor. iii. 17. Cyropæd.
+ vi. 3. 25. Plin. xxxv. 14. Polyb. x. 22. Plat. de Repub. t. vi. p. 15.
+
+Footnote 371:
+
+ Sanchon. ap. Euseb. Præp. Evang. i. 10. p. 35.
+
+Footnote 372:
+
+ Vitruv. ii. 3.
+
+Footnote 373:
+
+ Id. ibid. 3. In lieu of these light bricks, pumice stones are now
+ frequently used on the shores of the Mediterranean, more particularly
+ in turning arches. They are, consequently, cut into parallelopipeds,
+ and exported in great quantities from the Lipari islands.—Spallanzani,
+ Travels in the Two Sicilies, &c. vol. ii. pp. 298, 302, sqq.
+
+Footnote 374:
+
+ Poll. x. 170. Luc. Contemplant. § 6. Schol. Aristoph. Nub. 174.
+
+-----
+
+
+
+
+ CHAPTER II.
+ HOUSEHOLD FURNITURE.
+
+
+The movables in a Grecian house were divided into classes after a very
+characteristic manner. First, as a mark of the national piety,
+everything used in domestic sacrifices was set apart. The second
+division, placing women immediately after the gods, comprehended the
+whole apparatus of female ornaments[375] worn on solemn festivals. Next
+were classed the sacred robes and military uniforms of the men; then
+came the hangings, bed-furniture, and ornaments of the harem; afterwards
+those of the men’s apartments. Another division consisted of the shoes,
+sandals, slippers, &c., of the family, from which we pass to the arms
+and implements of war, mixed up familiarly in a Greek house with looms,
+cards, spinning-wheels, and embroidery-frames, just, as Homer describes
+them in the Thalamos of Paris at Troy. Even yet we have not reached the
+end of our inventory in mere classification. The baking, cooking,
+washing, and bathing vessels formed a separate class, and so did the
+breakfast and dinner services, the porcelain, the plate of silver and
+gold, the mirrors, the candelabra, and all those curious articles made
+use of in the toilette of the ladies.[376]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 375:
+
+ This profusion of wearing apparel was laid up in trunks and
+ _mallekins_ of wickerwork. The former were called κιβωτοὶ, the latter
+ κίσται.—Casaub. ad Theoph. Char. p. 233. Clem. Alexand. Pæd. iii.
+ Hesych. v. v. κιβωτὸς—κίστη. Mention is also made of presses.—Mazois,
+ Pal. de Scaur. p. 120.
+
+Footnote 376:
+
+ Xenoph. Œconom. ix. 6, sqq. Aristot. Œconom. i. 6.
+
+-----
+
+In well-regulated families a second division took place, a separation
+being made of such articles as might be required for daily use, from
+those brought forward only when routs and large parties were given. The
+movables of all kinds having been thus arranged in their classes, the
+next step was to deposit every thing in its proper place.[377] The more
+ordinary utensils were generally laid up in a spacious store-room,
+called _tholos_,[378] a circular building detached from the house, and
+usually terminating in a pointed roof, whence in after ages a
+sharp-crowned hat obtained among the people the name of Tholos. When a
+gentleman first commenced housekeeping, or got a new set of domestics,
+he delivered into the care of the proper individuals his kneading
+troughs, his kitchen utensils, his cards, looms, spinning wheels, and so
+on; and, pointing out the places where all these, when not in use,
+should be placed, committed them to their custody.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 377:
+
+ Cicero ap. Columell. De Re Rust. xii. 3.
+
+Footnote 378:
+
+ Odysseus had a storehouse of this kind in his palace at Ithaca.—Odyss.
+ χ. 442, 459, 466.
+
+-----
+
+Of the holiday, or show articles, more account was made. These, being
+brought forward only on solemn festivals, or in honour of some foreign
+guest, were entrusted to the immediate care of the housekeeper, a
+complete list of everything having first been taken; and it was part of
+her duty, when she delivered any of these articles to the inferior
+domestics, to make a note of what she gave out, and take care they were
+duly returned into her keeping.[379]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 379:
+
+ Xen. Œconom. ix. 10. 57.
+
+-----
+
+But the above comprehensive glance over the articles of furniture made
+use of in an Athenian gentleman’s establishment, though it may give some
+notion of the careful and economical habits of the people, affords no
+conception of the splendour and magnificence often found in a Grecian
+house: for, as we have already seen, their opinions are highly erroneous
+who imagine that in the Attic democracy the rich were by any prudential
+or political considerations restrained from indulging their love of
+ostentation by the utmost display they could make of wealth.[380] In
+fact, not content with outstripping their neighbours in the grandeur of
+their dwellings, furniture, and dress, these persons had often the
+ludicrous vanity, when they gave a large party, to excite the envy of
+such dinnerless rogues as might pass, by throwing out the feathers of
+game and poultry before their doors.[381] Indeed, since the Athenians
+exactly resembled other men, the exhibition of magnificence tended but
+too strongly to dazzle them; so that, among the arts of designing
+politicians, one generally was, to create a popular persuasion that they
+possessed the means of conferring important favours on all who obliged
+them.
+
+Footnote 380:
+
+ That the sycophants were sometimes troublesome, however, is certain;
+ that is to say, in later ages. Speaking of the time of his youth,
+ Isocrates says:—Οὐδεὶς οὔτ᾽ ἀπεκρύπτετο τὴν οὐσίαν οὔτ᾽ ὤκνει
+ συμβάλλειν. κ. τ. λ.—Areop. § 12. Cf. Bergmann. in loc. p. 362. But
+ their persecution must always have been confined to a very few
+ individuals, as people generally continued to display whatever they
+ possessed down to the final overthrow of the state.
+
+Footnote 381:
+
+ Aristoph. Acharn. 398.—_Mitchell._ The learned editor fails to remark
+ how little this custom harmonizes with the fears which he imagines
+ rich people felt at Athens.
+
+-----
+
+To proceed, however, with the furniture. Though the principal value of
+many articles arose from the exquisite taste displayed in the design and
+workmanship, the materials themselves, too, were often extremely rare
+and costly. Porcelain, glass, crystal, ivory, amber,[382] gold, silver,
+and bronze, with numerous varieties of precious woods, were wrought up
+with inimitable taste and fancy into various articles of use or luxury.
+Among the decorations of the dining-room was the side-board, which,
+though sometimes of iron, was more frequently of carved wood, bronze, or
+wrought silver, ornamented with the heads of satyrs and oxen.[383] Their
+tables, in the Homeric age, were generally of wood, of variegated
+colours, finely polished, and with ornamented feet. Myrleanos, an
+obscure writer in Athenæus, imagines[384] they were round, that they
+might resemble the disc of the sun and moon; but from the passage in the
+Odyssey,[385] and the interpretation of Eustathius, they may be inferred
+to have been narrow parallelograms,[386] like our own dining-tables. The
+luxury of table-cloths being unknown, the wine spilled, &c., was
+cleansed away with sponges.[387] But the poet had witnessed a superior
+degree of magnificence, for he already, in the Odyssey,[388] makes
+mention of tables of silver. The poor were, of course, content with the
+commonest wood. But as civilisation proceeded, the tables of the wealthy
+became more and more costly in materials, and more elegant in form.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 382:
+
+ On the attractive power of this substance, see Plat. Tim. t. vii. p.
+ 118.
+
+Footnote 383:
+
+ Athen. v. 45. Lys. Frag. 46. Orat. Att. t. ii. p. 647.
+
+Footnote 384:
+
+ Deipnosoph. xi. 78.
+
+Footnote 385:
+
+ α. 111. 138.
+
+Footnote 386:
+
+ This is also the opinion of Potter, ii. 376, 377; and Damm. in v.
+ τράπεζα, col. 1822.
+
+Footnote 387:
+
+ Odyss. τ. 259. Pind. Olymp. i. 26.
+
+Footnote 388:
+
+ κ. 354, seq. 361, seq. In the letters attributed to Plato we find
+ mention made of silver tables. t. viii. p. 397. Sometimes, also, of
+ brass. Athen. ix. 75.
+
+-----
+
+It grew to be an object of commerce, to import from foreign countries
+the most curious kinds of wood,[389] to be wrought into tables, which
+originally supported on four legs, rested afterwards on three,
+fancifully formed, or on a pillar and claws of ivory, or silver, as with
+us. There was a celebrated species of table manufactured in the island
+of Rhenea;[390] the great, among the Persians, delighted in maple tables
+with ivory feet, and, in fact, the knotted maple appears at one time to
+have been regarded as the most rare and beautiful of woods.[391] But the
+rage for sumptuous articles of furniture of this kind did not reach its
+full height until Roman times, when a single table of citron wood
+
+ (Gorgeous feasts
+ On citron tables or Atlantic stone)[392]
+
+sometimes cost six or seven thousand pounds sterling. Already, however,
+in the best ages of Greece, their tables were inlaid with silver, brass,
+or ivory, with feet in the form of lions, leopards, or other wild
+beasts.[393]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 389:
+
+ Plin. Nat. Hist. xvi. 27.
+
+Footnote 390:
+
+ Athen. xi. 27.
+
+Footnote 391:
+
+ Athen. ii. 31.
+
+Footnote 392:
+
+ Paradise Regained, iv. 114, seq. where see Mitford’s curious and
+ learned note. ii. 350, seq. and cf. Plin. v. 1. t. ii. p. 259. Hard.
+ not. a. 261. xiii. 29. t. iv. p. 746, sqq. Petronius speaks of the
+ “citrea mensa,” p. 157. Erhard. Symbol. ad Petron. 709, seq. shows
+ that Numidian marble was in use at Rome.
+
+Footnote 393:
+
+ Potter, ii. 377.
+
+-----
+
+In more early times, before the effeminate Oriental habit of reclining
+at meals obtained,[394] the Greeks made use of chairs which were of
+various kinds, some being formed of more, others of less costly
+materials, but all beautiful and elegant in form, as we may judge from
+those which adorn our own drawing-rooms, entirely fashioned after
+Grecian models. The thrones of the gods represented in works of art,
+however richly ornamented, are simply arm-chairs with upright backs, an
+example of which occurs in a carnelian in the Orleans Collection,[395]
+where Apollo is represented playing on the seven-stringed lyre. This
+chair has four legs with tigers’ feet, a very high upright back, and is
+ornamented with a sculptured car and horses. They had no Epicurean
+notions of their deities, and never presented them to the eye of the
+public lounging in an easy chair, which would have suggested the idea of
+infirmity. On the contrary, they are full of force and energy, and sit
+erect on their thrones, as ready to succour their worshipers at a
+moment’s warning. In the Homeric age these were richly carved, like the
+divans, adorned with silver studs, and so high that they required a
+footstool.[396] The throne of the Persian kings was of massive gold, and
+stood beneath a purple canopy, supported by four slender golden columns
+thickly crusted with jewels.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 394:
+
+ In the Antichita di Ercolano, we have the representation of a very
+ handsome armed chair, with upright back, beautifully turned legs, and
+ thick and soft cushions, with low footstool, t. i. tav. 29. p. 155.
+ Athen. xi. 72.
+
+Footnote 395:
+
+ Pierres Gravées, du Cabinet du Duc d’Orleans, t. i. No. 46. Cf. No. 7,
+ representing Zeus thus seated.
+
+Footnote 396:
+
+ Odyss. η. 162. Il. σ. 390, 422.
+
+-----
+
+Bedsteads were generally of common wood such as deal,[397] bottomed
+sometimes with planks, pierced to admit air, sometimes with ox-hide
+thongs,[398] which in traversing each other left numerous open spaces
+between them. Odysseus’s bedstead, which the hero was sufficient joiner
+to manufacture with his own hands, was made of olive-wood, inlaid with
+silver, gold, and ivory. Sometimes the bed was supported by a sort of
+netting of strong cord, stretched across the bedstead, and made fast all
+round.[399] Later ages witnessed far greater luxury,—bedsteads of solid
+silver,[400] or ivory embossed with figures wrought with infinite art
+and delicacy,[401] or of precious woods carved, with feet of ivory or
+amber.[402] Occasionally, also, they were veneered with Indian
+tortoiseshell, inlaid with gold.[403] This taste would appear to have
+flowed from the East, where among the kings of Persia still greater
+magnificence was witnessed even in very early times. Thus, speaking of
+the royal feast celebrated at Susa, the Scripture says, there were in
+the court of the garden of the king’s palace “white, green, and blue
+hangings, fastened with cords of fine linen and purple to silver rings,
+and pillars of marble. The beds were of gold and silver, upon a pavement
+of red, and blue, and white, and black marble.” A similar style of
+grandeur is attributed by Hellenic writers to the Persian king, who,
+according to Chares,[404] reclined in his palace on a couch shaded by a
+spreading golden vine, the grape clusters of which were imitated by
+jewels of various colours.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 397:
+
+ Athen. xi. 48. i. 60. ii. 29. Plat. de Rep. t. vi. p. 468. Cf. Xenoph.
+ Memor. ii. 1, 30.
+
+Footnote 398:
+
+ This bedstead was called δέμνιον; (Odyss. η. 336, seq.) when heaped
+ with soft mattresses it was πυκινὸν λέχος (345); εὐνὴ was the term
+ applied to the whole, bed and bedstead. Iliad. ω. 644. Odyss. δ. 297,
+ &c. Pind. Nem. i. 3.
+
+Footnote 399:
+
+ Odyss. ψ. 189, seq. Schol. ad Il. γ. 448.
+
+Footnote 400:
+
+ Plat. de Legg. t. viii. p. 397.
+
+Footnote 401:
+
+ Athen. vi. 67. ii. 30.
+
+Footnote 402:
+
+ Schol. Aristoph. Eq. 530.
+
+Footnote 403:
+
+ Lucian. Luc., sive Asin. § 53. Bedsteads of solid gold are spoken of
+ in scripture.—Esther i. 6. Bochart. Geog. Sac. i. 6. 30.
+
+Footnote 404:
+
+ Athen. xii. 9, 55.
+
+-----
+
+Four-post bedsteads were in use in remoter ages, as appears from a white
+sardonyx in the Orleans Collection,[405] representing the surprisal of
+Ares and Aphrodite, by Hephæstos. There is a low floating vallance
+fastened up in festoons, the tester is roof-shaped, and the pillars
+terminate in fanciful capitals. The figure of an eagle adorns the
+corners of the bedstead below. From a painting on the walls of Pompeii
+we discover, that the peculiar sort of bedstead at present found almost
+universally in France was likewise familiar to the ancients, made
+exactly after the same fashion, and raised about the same height above
+the floor. With regard to the beds themselves they were at different
+times manufactured from very different materials, and those of some
+parts of Greece enjoyed a peculiar reputation. From a phrase in
+Homer,[406] it would appear that, in his times, beds were stuffed in
+Thessaly with very fine grass. Those of Chios and Miletos were
+famous[407] throughout Greece. In other parts of the country, persons of
+peculiar effeminacy slept on beds of sponge.[408] Sicily was famous for
+its pillows, as were also several other Doric countries. At Athens the
+rich were accustomed to sleep upon very soft beds, placed on bedsteads
+considerably above the floor;[409] and sometimes, it has been supposed,
+adorned with coverlets of dressed peacocks’ skins with the feathers
+on.[410]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 405:
+
+ No. 34.
+
+Footnote 406:
+
+ Il. β. 697. δ. 383.
+
+Footnote 407:
+
+ Athen. xi. 72.
+
+Footnote 408:
+
+ Athen. i. 32.
+
+Footnote 409:
+
+ Xen. Mem. ii. 1. 30.
+
+Footnote 410:
+
+ Palm. Exercit. in Auct. Græc. p. 191. We find mention in ancient
+ authors of certain tribes who went clad in garments covered with the
+ feathers of birds. Senec. Epist. 90.
+
+-----
+
+But the Greeks appear to have consulted their ease, and sunk more
+completely into softness and effeminacy, in proportion as they
+approached the East. Among the Peloponnesians most persons lived hard
+and lay hard; greater refinement and luxury prevailed in Attica; but in
+Ionia and many of the Ægæan isles the great—although there were
+exceptions as in the case of Attalos—fell little short in
+self-indulgence of Median or Persian satraps. Some idea may be formed of
+their habits in this respect from the description of a Paphian prince’s
+bed by Clearchos of Soli.[411] Over the soft mattresses supported by a
+silver-footed bedstead, was flung a short grained Sardian carpet of the
+most expensive kind. A coverlet of downy texture succeeded, and upon
+this was cast a costly counterpane of Amorginian purple. Cushions,
+striped or variegated with the richest purple, supported his head, while
+two soft Dorian pillows[412] of pale pink gently raised his feet. In
+this manner habited in a milk-white chlamys the prince reclined. Their
+bolsters in form resembled our own;[413] but the pillows were usually
+square, as in France, though occasionally rounded off at both ends, and
+covered with richly chequered or variegated muslins. To prevent the fine
+wool or whatever else they were stuffed with from getting into heaps,
+mattresses were sewn through as now, and carefully tufted that the
+packthread might not break through the ticking.[414]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 411:
+
+ Athen. vi. 37.
+
+Footnote 412:
+
+ Athen. ii. 29, sqq.
+
+Footnote 413:
+
+ Gitone, Nozze di Ulisse è Penelope, Il Costume, &c. tav. 67.
+
+Footnote 414:
+
+ See the mattress on which the statue of Hermaphroditos reclines in the
+ Louvre.
+
+-----
+
+Among the Orientals it is common at present for persons to sleep in
+their day apparel; but even in the heroic ages it was already customary
+in Greece to undress on going to bed. When Agamemnon is roused before
+dawn by the delusive dream, the whole process of the morning toilette is
+described. First, says the poet, he donned his soft chiton which was new
+and very handsome; next his pelisse; after which he bound on his elegant
+sandals and suspended his silver-hilted sword from his shoulder. Thus
+accoutred he issued forth, sceptre in hand, towards the ships.[415]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 415:
+
+ Il. β. 42, seq.
+
+-----
+
+In Syria, children luxuriously educated are said to have been rocked in
+their cradles wrapped in coverlets of Milesian wool.[416] The sheep of
+Miletos were, in fact, the Merinos of antiquity; and their wool being
+celebrated for its fineness and softness, it was not only employed in
+manufacturing the best cloths, but also in stuffing the mattresses of
+kings and other great personages who thought much of their ease. And as
+the vulgar imagine they become great by habiting themselves in garments
+similar to those of their princes, like the honest man who sought wisdom
+through reading by Epictetus’ lamp, the stuffs, couches, and coverlets
+of Miletos got into great vogue among the ancients. Virgil, Cicero,
+Servius, Columella, and many other writers speak accordingly of their
+excellence, and their testimonies have, with wonderful industry, been
+collected by the learned Bochart.[417]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 416:
+
+ Esther i. 6. Lament, iv. 5. Bochart. Geograph. Sac. i. 6. 30.
+
+Footnote 417:
+
+ Geog. Sac. i. 6. 28, seq.
+
+-----
+
+But though Miletos had a reputation for this kind of manufacture, it by
+no means enjoyed a monopoly. The scarlet coverings of Sardis, and the
+variegated stuffs of Cyprus, produced by the famous weaver Akesas and
+his son Helicon,[418] appear in many instances to have obtained a
+preference over all others. Pathymias, too, the Egyptian, distinguished
+himself in the same line.[419]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 418:
+
+ Eustath. ad Odyss. α. p. 32. 30.
+
+Footnote 419:
+
+ Athen. ii. 30.
+
+-----
+
+All these bed-coverings were commonly perfumed with fragrant
+essences,[420] for which reason the voluptuous poets of antiquity dwell
+with a sort of rapture on the pleasure of rolling about in bed. Ephippos
+exclaims:—
+
+ “How I delight
+ To spring upon the dainty coverlets;
+ Breathing the perfume of the rose, and steeped
+ In tears of myrrh!”
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 420:
+
+ In old times the whole bedroom was sometimes perfumed.—Iliad, γ. 382.
+
+-----
+
+Aristophanes, likewise, and Sophron, the mimographer, make mention of
+these fragrant counterpanes, which were extremely costly, and inwrought,
+according to the latter, with figures of birds.[421] Elsewhere Athenæus
+relates that the Persian carpets contained representations of men,
+animals, and monsters.[422] Their blankets, like our own, were plain
+white; but even so far back as the heroic ages, the upper coverings, as
+being partly designed for show, were of rich and various colours.[423]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 421:
+
+ Athen. ii. 30. Aristoph. Frag. incert. 2. Brunck.
+
+Footnote 422:
+
+ Deipnosoph. xi. 55. Casaub. ad Theoph. Char. p. 172.
+
+Footnote 423:
+
+ Feith. Antiq. Homer, iii. 8. 4.
+
+-----
+
+There seems to be good ground for believing, that if the Greeks did not
+borrow their philosophy from the East, they at least derived from them
+many of the vain and luxurious habits which at length rendered that
+philosophy of none effect. No one appears to have paid a single visit to
+Persia, or Syria, or Egypt, without bringing back along with him some
+pestilent new freak in the matter of dress or furniture, wholly at
+variance with republican simplicity. We might adduce numerous anecdotes
+in proof of this. For the present we confine ourselves to the following.
+Among the Persians, renowned in all ages for sensual indulgences, it was
+judged of so much importance to enjoy soft and elegantly arranged beds,
+that in great houses persons were employed who attended only to this. An
+anecdote in illustration has been preserved by Athenæus. Timagoras, or,
+according to Phanias, Entimos of Gortyna, envying Themistocles his
+reception at the court of Persia, undertook himself a toad-eating
+expedition to that country. Artaxerxes, whose ear could tolerate more
+flatterers than one, took the Cretan into favour, and made him a present
+of a superb marquee, a silver-footed bedstead, with costly furniture,
+and, along with them, sent a slave, as a Turkish pasha would send a cook
+or a pipe-lighter, because, in his opinion, the Greeks who prepared
+sleeping-places for so many Persians at Marathon and Platæa, understood
+nothing of bed-making.
+
+Entimos evidently excelled the great Athenian in the arts of a courtier.
+In fact, he was the very prototype of Hajji Baba, and enjoyed even still
+greater influence over the Shah than the illustrious barber’s son of
+Ispahan. Charmed by his cajolery, Artaxerxes invited him to his private
+table, where, usually, none but princes of the blood were admitted,[424]
+an honour, as Phanias assures us, which no other Greek ever enjoyed.
+For, though Timagoras of Athens performed _kou-tou_ before the
+throne,[425] whereby he obtained great consideration among a nation of
+slaves, and was hanged when he got home, he was not invited to
+hob-and-nob with his majesty, but only enjoyed the distinction of having
+certain dishes sent him from the king’s table. To Antalcidas, the
+Spartan, Artaxerxes sent his crown dipped in liquid perfume, an
+agreeable compliment, but which he more than once paid to Entimos, whose
+extraordinary favour at court in the long run, however, awakened the
+envy of the Persians. The canopy of the marquee presented to this Cretan
+was spangled with bright flowers, and, among the other articles of which
+the imperial gift consisted, were a throne of massive silver, a gilded
+parasol, several golden cups crusted with jewels, a hundred maple-tables
+with ivory feet, a hundred goblets of silver, several vases of the same
+precious metal, a hundred female slaves, an equal number of youths, with
+six thousand pieces of gold, besides what was furnished him for his
+daily expenditure.[426]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 424:
+
+ Very nearly the same customs prevail in Persia at the present day,
+ except that the rules of etiquette seem to be still more rigidly
+ observed. “It is a general custom with the kings of Persia to eat in
+ solitary grandeur. The late Shah, however, would sometimes have select
+ portions of his family to breakfast with him.” On which occasion,
+ “they used to squat round him in the form of a crescent, of which he
+ was the centre, and were all placed scrupulously according to
+ rank.”—Fowler, i. 48.
+
+Footnote 425:
+
+ Athen. vi. 58. Vales. not. in Maussac. p. 282, where he corrects the
+ old reading of the text. Cf. Xenoph. Hellen. vii. 1. 38. Plut. Pelop.
+ § 30. Artax. § 22. Valer. Max. vi. 3. extern. 2. Demosth. de Fals.
+ Leg. § 42, where the orator accuses Timagoras of having received a
+ bribe of forty talents.
+
+Footnote 426:
+
+ Athen. ii. 31.
+
+-----
+
+A gentleman travelling in Ireland witnessed the ingenuity of that
+ready-witted people in applying the same thing to various uses: first,
+he saw the tablecloth, on which he had eaten a good supper, transferred
+as a sheet to his bed, and, next morning, his kind hostess, offering her
+services to put him in the right way, converted the same article into a
+mantle, which she wrapped about her shoulders. The Greeks were almost
+equally ingenious. With them what was a cloak by day became sometimes a
+counterpane at night,[427] in addition, perhaps, to the ordinary
+bed-clothes; for it is clear they loved to be warm, from the somewhat
+reproachful allusion of Strepsiades in the “Clouds” to the five
+_sisyræ_,[428] rolled snugly up in which, his son, Pheidippides, could
+sleep while thoughts of his debts bit the old man like so many bugs, and
+roused him hours before day to consult his ledgers. All kinds of
+stromata were, in Plato’s time, divided into two classes, first,
+coverings for the body, such as cloaks, mantles, and so on; secondly,
+bed-clothes, properly so called.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 427:
+
+ Xen. Anab. i. 5. 5.
+
+Footnote 428:
+
+ Nub. 10. Cf. Av. 122. Concionat. 838. ibique not. Pollux, vii. 382,
+ seq. x. 542.
+
+-----
+
+The walls of their chambers were frequently hung with Milesian tapestry,
+a custom to which Amphis alludes in his Odysseus:
+
+ A. Milesian hangings line your walls, you scent
+ Your limbs with sweetest perfume, royal myndax[429]
+ Piled on the burning censor, fills the air
+ With costly fragrance.
+
+ B. Mark you that, my friend!
+ Knew you before of such a fumigation?[430]
+
+Mention is likewise made among the ancients of purple tapestry,
+inwrought with pearls and gold.[431]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 429:
+
+ Cf. Poll. vi. 105.
+
+Footnote 430:
+
+ Athen. xv. 42. Cf. Meineke. Curæ Crit. in Com. Frag. p. 7.
+
+-----
+
+Carthage enjoyed celebrity for its manufacture of carpets and variegated
+pillows,[432] a piece of luxury which, as we have seen above, had
+already been introduced in the heroic ages; for Homer, in innumerable
+passages, speaks of rare and costly carpets, and these were not only
+spread over couches and seats, but over the floor likewise.[433] Rolled
+up, they would occasionally appear to have served for pillows. The
+manufacture of carpets had, moreover, been carried to considerable
+perfection, for the poet speaks of some with a soft pile on both sides,
+which were evidently very splendid.[434] Theocritus,[435] too, in his
+Adoniazusæ, enumerates, among the luxuries of the youthful God,
+
+ Carpets of purple, _softer far than sleep_,[436]
+ Woven in Milesian looms.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 431:
+
+ Mazois, Pal. de Scaur, p. 103. Tibull. iii. 3, 17, seq. Athen. iv. 29.
+
+Footnote 432:
+
+ Athen. i. 49.
+
+Footnote 433:
+
+ Il. ι. 200.—The use of mats first prevailed, (Festus, in v. Scirpus.)
+ but, as luxury increased, superb carpets were substituted.—Æschyl.
+ Agam. 842. Tryphiod. Ἅλωσις Ἴλιου. 343, seq. Hemster. Comm. in Poll.
+ viii. 133. p. 287. Cf. Klausen. Comm. in Æschyl. Agam. p. 197, sqq.
+
+Footnote 434:
+
+ Il. π. 224. Poll. vi. 2. Synes. Epist. 61.
+
+Footnote 435:
+
+ Eidyll, xv. 125.
+
+Footnote 436:
+
+ A beautiful simile, which Virgil has imitated—
+
+ “Muscosi fontes, et _somno mollior herba_.”—Eclog. vii. 45.
+
+ Shakespeare, too, has, without imitation, struck upon a similar
+ thought, where the amorous Troilus thus describes himself:—
+
+ “But I am weaker than a woman’s tear,
+ _Tamer than sleep_, fonder than ignorance.”
+ Troilus & Cressida, i. 1.
+
+-----
+
+But in nothing did the Greeks display a more gorgeous or costly taste
+than in what may be termed their _plate_, which was not only fabricated
+of the rarest materials, but wrought likewise with all the elaborateness
+and delicacy and richness of design within the reach of art. Among the
+Macedonians, after their Eastern conquests, gold plate appears not to
+have been uncommon; for at the grand supper described by Hippolochos in
+his letter to Lynceus, every guest is said to have used it.[437] The
+predilection for this sort of magnificence they acquired in Asia, where,
+at a banquet given to Alexander, the whole dessert was brought in
+tastefully covered with gold-leaf.[438] In the reign of his father,
+Philip, the precious metals were rare in Macedonia. Indeed, that crafty
+old monarch, possessing but one gold cup in the world, had so good an
+opinion of his courtiers that, to prevent their thieving it, he slept
+every night with it under his pillow.[439] Gold was, more early,
+plentiful in Attica. Alcibiades, with tastes and habits unsuited to a
+democracy, carried so far his love of display as to make use of
+thuribles, or censers, and wash-hand basins of pure gold.[440] But the
+ostentatious son of Clinias, though extravagant, was in this respect
+only a type of his nation. Every rich citizen of Athens aimed at the
+same degree of splendour; and, in describing his town-house or favourite
+villa, might, with little alteration, have adopted the language of the
+poet:—
+
+ ——“My house within the city
+ Is richly furnished with plate and gold,
+ Basins and ewers to lave her dainty hands:
+ My hangings all of Tyrian tapestry.
+ In ivory coffers have I stuffed my crowns;
+ In cypress chests my arras, counterpanes,
+ Costly apparel, tents, and canopies,
+ Fine linen, Turkey cushions bossed with pearl,
+ Vallance of Venice, gold in needle-work,
+ Pewter and brass, and all things that belong
+ To house or housekeeping.”
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 437:
+
+ Athen. iv. 2, sqq. Cf. iii. 100.
+
+Footnote 438:
+
+ Athen. iv. 42.
+
+Footnote 439:
+
+ Deipnosoph. _ut sup._
+
+Footnote 440:
+
+ Athen. ix. 75.
+
+-----
+
+Socrates, in the Republic, speaking of what the prevailing fashion
+required to be found in a city, makes out a list of good things, not
+much inferior upon the whole to Shakspeare’s,—beds, tables, and other
+furniture; dainties of all kinds; perfumes, unguents, sauces, &c.; to
+which the philosopher adds apparel, shoes, pictures, tapestry, ivory,
+and gold:[441] and these rare materials, as farther on he observes, were
+wrought into utensils for domestic purposes.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 441:
+
+ Plat. De Rep. i. t. vi. p. 86. Cf. Tim. t. vii. p. 77.
+
+-----
+
+One of the most plentifully furnished departments of a Greek house was
+the _Kulikeion_, or “cupboard,” usually closed in front with a
+curtain,[442] where they kept their goblets, cups, and drinking-horns,
+under the protection of a statue of Hermes, who, as god of thieves,
+would, it was supposed, be respected by his children. The form and
+workmanship of these materials varied, no doubt, according to the taste
+and means of the possessor; but they were in general distinguished for
+the elegance of their outline, the grace and originality of the
+sculpture, the fineness, delicacy, and minute finish of the execution.
+It is well known, as an able antiquarian[443] has remarked, to what an
+excess the luxury of the table was carried among the ancients, and how
+much they surpassed us in the dimensions, the massiveness, the
+workmanship, the quality, and the variety of their drinking apparatus.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 442:
+
+ Athen. xi. 3. Poll. x. 122.
+
+Footnote 443:
+
+ Le Comte de Caylus, Mem. de l’Acad. des Inscrip, t. xxiii. p. 353.
+
+-----
+
+Many persons, however, seem chiefly to have valued their plate as a mark
+of their wealth and magnificence; among whom may be reckoned Pythias of
+Phigaleia, who, when dying, commanded the following epitaph to be
+inscribed upon his tomb:—
+
+ Here jolly Pythias lies,
+ A right honest man, and wise,
+ Who of goblets had very great store,
+ Of amber, silver, gold,
+ All glorious to behold,
+ In number ne’er equalled before.[444]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 444:
+
+ Athen. xi. 14. Among the Egyptians were vases of papyrus. Bochart.
+ Geog. Sac. i. 240.
+
+-----
+
+Amber goblets not being, I believe, in fashion among the modern nations
+of Europe, some doubt may be experienced respecting the veracity of our
+friend of Phigaleia; but the ancients had other gobletary legends to
+bring forward in support of it. Helen,[445] it is said, justly proud of
+her beautiful bosom, dedicated in one of the temples of Rhodes, as a
+votive offering, an amber goblet, exactly of the size and shape of one
+of her breasts, which, had it come down to posterity, might have
+furnished artists with a perfect model of that part of the female form.
+However this may be, the ancients, in remote ages, set a great value on
+their cups, particularly such as were considered heir-looms in the
+family, and laid apart to be used only on extraordinary occasions. Hence
+Œdipos, in the old Cyclic poet, is seized with fierce anger at his son,
+who had, contrary to his will, brought forth his old hereditary goblets
+to be used at an ordinary entertainment.
+
+ Then Polyneices of the golden locks,
+ Sprung from the Gods, before his father placed
+ A table all of silver, which had once
+ Been Cadmus’s, next filled the golden bowl
+ With richest wine. At this old Œdipos,
+ Seeing the honoured relics of his sire
+ Profaned to vulgar uses, roused to anger,
+ Pronounced fierce imprecations, wished his sons
+ Might live no more in amity together,
+ But plunge in feuds and slaughters, and contend
+ For their inheritance: and the Furies heard.[446]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 445:
+
+ Bruyerin, De Re Cibaria, l. iii. c. 9. This goblet could by no means
+ have been a diminutive one, if Helen resembled her countrywomen
+ generally, who were celebrated for their large bosoms:
+ βαθύκολποι.—Anacr. v. 14. Bruyerin’s authority is Plin. Hist. Nat.
+ xxxii. 23. “Minervæ templum habet Lindos, insula Rhodiorum, in quo
+ Helena sacravit calycem ex electro. Adjicit historia, mammæ suæ
+ mensura.” This, I suppose, is what Rousseau calls “Cette coupe célèbre
+ à qui le plus beau sein du monde servit de moule.”—Nouv. Heloise,
+ 1^{re} partie. Lett. 23. t. i. p. 144,—though, I confess, I am not
+ acquainted with the authors by whom it has been celebrated. Several
+ votive offerings, representing the female breast, may be seen in the
+ British Museum, among the Elgin Marbles. But the most curious relic of
+ the ancient female form is mentioned in the following passage: “In the
+ street just out of the gate of this villa I lately saw a skeleton dug
+ out; and by desiring the labourers to remove the skull and bones
+ gently, I perceived distinctly the perfect mould of every feature of
+ the face, and that the eyes had been shut. I also saw distinctly the
+ impression of the large folds of the drapery of the toga, and some of
+ the cloth itself sticking to the earth. The city was first covered by
+ a shower of hot pumice-stones and ashes, and then by a shower of small
+ ashes mixed with water. It was in the latter stratum that the skeleton
+ above described was found. In the Museum at Portici a piece of this
+ sort of hardened mud is preserved; it is stamped with the impression
+ of the breast of a woman, with a thin drapery over it. The skeleton I
+ saw dug out was not above five feet from the surface. It is very
+ extraordinary that the impression of the body and face should have
+ remained from the year 79 to this day, especially as I found the earth
+ so little hardened that it separated upon the least touch.”—Sir W.
+ Hamilton, Acc. of Discov. at Pompeii, p. 15.
+
+Footnote 446:
+
+ Athen. xi. 14.
+
+-----
+
+Agathocles, tyrant of Sicily, appears to have been an amateur of cups,
+and would sometimes while exhibiting his collection to his friends make
+a good-humoured allusion to his original occupation. “These golden
+vessels,” said he, “have been made out of those earthenware ones which I
+formerly manufactured.”[447] Drinking-bowls in fact made no
+inconsiderable figure in ancient times. They were bestowed as the prizes
+in gymnastic contests, and in Greece men boxed and wrestled for the cup
+as horses run for it in England. Parasites, like the jester of Louis
+XIV., used sometimes to carry home the cups and dishes set before them
+at dinner; but the tables were often turned when the subject gave and
+the prince pocketed the dole.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 447:
+
+ Athen. xi. 15. Polyb. xii. 15. 6. xv. 35. 2.
+
+-----
+
+A curious legend has been preserved to us connected with the subject of
+cups. Several princes uniting, in remote times, to send a colony to
+Lesbos, were commanded by an oracle to cast a virgin, during their
+voyage, into the sea, as a sacrifice to Poseidon. Obedience, in those
+superstitious ages, was seldom refused to such injunctions. The maiden
+was precipitated into the waves, but Enallos, one of the chiefs, in whom
+love had quenched the reverence for oracles, immediately plunged in to
+save her. Neither the chief, however, nor the virgin appeared again, and
+the fleet proceeded. The remainder of the tradition may be illustrated
+by an event said to have taken place in the Tonga islands.[448] They
+were probably near some uninhabited isle, and instead of rising to the
+surface of the sea, emerged into a cavern elevated considerably above
+its level, and opening perhaps upon the land. “God tempers the wind to
+the shorn lamb,” says a modern writer, and so Enallos found it. By means
+unrevealed in the ancient narrative, the hero and his bride continued to
+subsist on the rock, and many years afterwards, when the colony was
+already flourishing, he one day presented himself before his old friends
+at Methymna, and entertained them with a very romantic account of his
+residence among the Nereids at the bottom of the sea, where he was
+honoured with the care of Poseidon’s horses when sent out to grass. At
+length, however, getting on the back of a large wave it bore him upwards
+and he escaped from the deep, bearing in his hand a golden cup, the
+metal of which was so marvellously beautiful that in comparison ordinary
+gold appeared no better than brass.[449]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 448:
+
+ See ariner’s Account, chap. 9.
+
+Footnote 449:
+
+ Athen. xi. 15.
+
+-----
+
+Even the loftiest and least worldly-minded of the Homeric heroes,
+Achilles, set great value on a favourite drinking-cup, which he
+preserved for his own particular use, and for pouring out libations to
+Zeus alone. Priam[450] was careful to include a rare goblet in the
+ransom of Hector’s body, and a similar gift aided in alluring Alcmena
+from the paths of virtue.[451] But the most famous bowl of antiquity was
+that of Heracles, which, more capacious than the barber’s basin in Don
+Quixote, served its illustrious owner in the double capacity of a
+drinking-cup and a canoe; for when he had quenched his thirst, he could
+set his bowl afloat, and, leaping into it, steer to any part of the
+world he pleased. Some, indeed, speak of it as a borrowed article,
+belonging originally to the Sun, and in which the god used nightly to
+traverse the ocean from West to East.[452]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 450:
+
+ Iliad. ω. 234.
+
+Footnote 451:
+
+ Athen. xi. 16.
+
+Footnote 452:
+
+ Bentley, Dissert. on Phal. i. 175, sqq.
+
+-----
+
+To pass, however, over the goblets of mythology. It was fashionable to
+possess plate of this kind finely sculptured with historical arguments;
+and history has preserved the names of Cimon and Athenocles, two artists
+who excelled in this style of engraving. These cups were sometimes of
+silver gilt, sometimes of massive gold crusted with jewels.[453] In
+addition to the two artists named above, we may enumerate Crates,
+Stratonicos, Myrmecides of Miletos, Callicrates the Lacedemonian, and
+Mys, whose “Cup of Heracles,” celebrated in antiquity, had represented
+upon it the storming of Ilion, with this inscription,
+
+ Troy’s lofty towers by Grecians sacked behold!
+ Parrhasios’ draught, by Mys engraved in gold.[454]
+
+The names by which the ancients distinguished their several kinds of
+goblets are too numerous to be here given. Some were curious—“Amalthea’s
+Horn,” “The Year,” &c. Rustics made use of two-handled wooden bowls in
+which, when thirsty, they drew fresh milk from the cow in the
+fields.[455] There was a big-bellied cup with a narrow neck which being
+shaped like a purse, participated with this very necessary article in
+the name of Aryballos.[456]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 453:
+
+ Plin. xxxiii. 2. Juven. v. 42. Athen. iv. 29.
+
+Footnote 454:
+
+ Athen. xi. 19.
+
+Footnote 455:
+
+ Athen. xi. 25, states this from Philetas: but Kayser, in his edition
+ of that author’s fragments, seems to have overlooked this passage.
+
+Footnote 456:
+
+ Athen. xi. 36. On the Cantharos, see § 48.
+
+-----
+
+Glass cups of much beauty were manufactured in great abundance at
+Alexandria. Among these was the _Baucalis_, mentioned by Sopater the
+parodist, who says:—
+
+ ’Tis sweet in early morn to cool the lips
+ With pure fresh water from the gushing fount,
+ Mingled with honey in the Baucalis,
+ When one o’er night has made too free with wine,
+ And feels sharp thirst.[457]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 457:
+
+ Athen. xi. 28.
+
+-----
+
+The glass-workers of Alexandria procured earthenware vessels from all
+parts of the world, which they used as models for their cups. Even the
+great sculptor Lysippos did not disdain to employ his genius in the
+invention of a new kind of vase. Having made a collection of vessels of
+many various shapes, and diligently studied the whole, he hit upon a
+form entirely new, and presented the model to Cassander, who having just
+then founded the city of Cassandria, was ambitious of originating an
+invention of this kind. He was desirous, perhaps, of recommending by the
+elegance of his drinking-cups the Mendæan wine exported in great
+quantities from his city.[458]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 458:
+
+ Athen. xi. 28.
+
+-----
+
+There was a peculiar kind of cup called Grammateion, from the letters of
+gold chased upon its exterior.[459] Alexis mentions one of this sort in
+the following lines:
+
+ A. But let me first describe the cup; ’twas round,
+ Old, broken-eared, and precious small besides,
+ Having indeed some letters on’t.
+
+ B. Yes letters;
+ Eleven, and all of gold, forming the name
+ Of Saviour Zeus.
+
+ A. Tush! no, some other god.[460]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 459:
+
+ We find in Winkelmann, Hist. de l’Art t. i. p. 23, the representation
+ of a glass grammateion, on which are the words: Bibe Vivas Multis
+ Annis. See a detailed description of this vase by the Marquis
+ Trivulsi, p. 46.
+
+Footnote 460:
+
+ Athen. xi. 30.
+
+-----
+
+A very handsome sort of cup was imported from Sidon. It had two handles,
+and was ornamented with small figures in relief. Drinking-vases were
+also formed from the large horns of the Molossian and Pœonian oxen; and
+these articles were commonly rimmed with silver or gold.[461] Small cups
+were made little account of. There was even one kind of bowl which, for
+its enormous capacity, was called the Elephant.
+
+ A. If this hold not enough, see the boy comes
+ Bearing the Elephant!
+
+ B. Immortal gods!
+ What thing is that?
+
+ A. A double-fountained cup,
+ The workmanship of Alcon; it contains
+ Only three gallons.[462]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 461:
+
+ Theopomp. ap. Athen. xi. 34. 51.
+
+Footnote 462:
+
+ Athen. xi. 35.
+
+-----
+
+A very celebrated cup among the Athenians was the Thericlean,[463]
+originally invented by Thericles, a Corinthian potter, contemporary with
+Aristophanes. This ware was black, highly varnished, with gilt
+edges;[464] but the name came afterwards to be applied to any vessel of
+the same form from whatever materials manufactured. There were
+accordingly Thericlea of gold with wooden stands. The cups of this kind,
+made at Athens, being very expensive, an inferior sort, in imitation,
+was produced at Rhodes, which, as far more economical, had a great run
+among the humbler classes. The Thericlean was a species of deep chalice
+with two handles, and bulging but little at the sides. Theophrastus[465]
+speaks of Thericlea turned from the Syrian Turpentine tree, the wood of
+which being black and taking a fine polish, it was impossible at a
+glance to distinguish them from those of earthenware. The paintings on
+these utensils appear to have been various. Sometimes a single wreath of
+ivy encircled them immediately beneath the golden rim; but it seems
+occasionally to have been covered with representations of animals, which
+gave rise to a forced and false etymology of the name.[466]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 463:
+
+ Cf. Bentley on the Epist. of Phalaris i. 169–189.
+
+Footnote 464:
+
+ Alexis, ap. Athen. xi. 42.
+
+Footnote 465:
+
+ Hist. Plant. v. 4. 2. cum not. Schnei. t. iii. p. 426.
+
+Footnote 466:
+
+ Athen. xi. 41. ἄλλοι δὲ ἱστοροῦσι, θηρίκλειον ὀνομασθῆναι τὸ ποτήριον
+ διὰ τὸ δορὰς θηρίων αὐτῷ ἐντετυπῶσθαι.
+
+-----
+
+We have already observed, that the use of drinking-horns[467] was not
+unknown to the ancients. In fact, it seems, in very remote ages, to have
+been customary to convert bulls’ horns into cups with very little
+preparation; and the practice of quaffing wine from this rude kind of
+goblet had by some been supposed to have suggested the idea to artists
+of representing Bacchos with horns, and to poets the epithet of the Bull
+Dionysos. He was moreover worshiped at Cyzicos under the form of a bull.
+Afterwards, as taste and luxury advanced, these simple vessels were
+exchanged for horns of silver, which Pindar attributes to the
+Centaurs.[468] Xenophon[469] found drinking-horns among the
+Paphlagonians, and afterwards even in the palace of the Thracian king
+Seuthes. Æschylus speaks of silver horns, with lids of gold, in use
+among the Perrhæbians, and Sophocles, in his Pandora, makes mention of
+drinking-horns of massive gold. Philip of Macedon was accustomed among
+his friends to drink from the common horn. Golden horns were found among
+the inhabitants of Cythera. Horns of silver were in use at Athens; and,
+among the articles enumerated as sold at a public auction, mention is
+made of one of these vessels of a twisted form.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 467:
+
+ Bœckh. Pub. Econ. of Athens, ii. 254.
+
+Footnote 468:
+
+ Pind. Frag. Incert. 44. i. 244. Dissen. Comm. ii. 659. Jacob. Anthol.
+ vii. 336. Athen. xi. 51. Cf. Damm. v. κέρας.
+
+Footnote 469:
+
+ Anab. vi. 1. 4. vii. 3. 24, seq.
+
+-----
+
+Mirrors constituted another article of Hellenic luxury. These were
+sometimes of brass,[470] whence the proverb:
+
+ As forms by brass, so minds by wine are mirrored.[471]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 470:
+
+ Xen. Conv. vii. 4. They were sometimes square and washed with silver.
+ Caylus, Rec. d’Antiq. t. vi. p. 398. Cf. Cœl. Rhodig. xv. 12, 13.
+ Plat. Tim. t. vii. 52, seq. 61. Lucian. Amor. § 39. Ter. Adelph. ii.
+ 3. 61. Cicero in Pison. c. 29. Poll. vii. 95. x. 126, 164.
+
+Footnote 471:
+
+ Athen. x. 31.
+
+-----
+
+The best, however, until those of glass came into use, were made of
+silver or of a mixed metal, the exact composition of which is not now
+known. Another kind was fashioned from a species of carbuncle found near
+the city of Orchomenos,[472] in Arcadia. Glass mirrors[473] also came
+early into use, chiefly manufactured, at the outset, by the Phœnicians
+of Sidon. The hand-mirrors were usually circular,[474] and set in costly
+frames. To prevent their being speedily tarnished they were, when not in
+use, carefully enclosed in cases.[475]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 472:
+
+ Theoph. de Lapid. §. 33.
+
+Footnote 473:
+
+ It is to be observed, that before the application of quicksilver in
+ the construction of these glasses (which I presume is of no great
+ antiquity) the reflection of images by such specula must have been
+ effected by their being besmeared behind, or tinged through with some
+ dark colour, especially black, which would obstruct the refraction of
+ the rays of light. Nixon in Philosoph. Trans, t. iv. p. 602. Cf. Plin.
+ xxxvi. 26. § 67.
+
+Footnote 474:
+
+ Sch. Aristoph. Nub. 742.
+
+Footnote 475:
+
+ Sch. Aristoph. Nub. 741.
+
+-----
+
+There were mirrors, too, of polished silver, fashioned so as to magnify
+immensely the objects they reflected.[476] They invented also large cups
+containing within many diminutive mirrors, so that when any one looked
+into them, his eye was met by a multitude of faces all resembling his
+own.[477] In a temple of Hera in Arcadia, was a mirror fixed in the
+wall, wherein the spectator could at first scarcely, if at all, discern
+his own image, while the throne of the goddess and the statues of the
+other deities ranged around were most brilliantly reflected.[478] Many
+sorts of mirrors appear to have been made for the purpose of playing off
+practical jokes. For example, looking in one of these, a handsome woman
+would find her visage transformed into that of a Gorgon, so as to appear
+terrible even to herself. Others again were so very flattering, that a
+half-starved barber, viewing his figure therein, appeared to be gifted
+with the thewes of a Heracles. Another sort distorted the countenance,
+or inverted it, or showed merely the half.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 476:
+
+ Plaut. in Mostell. i. 3. 101.
+
+Footnote 477:
+
+ Plin. xxxiii. 45. Senec. Quæst. Nat. i. 4.
+
+Footnote 478:
+
+ Paus. viii. 37. 7.
+
+-----
+
+Religion was the nurse of the fine arts, and first gave rise, not only
+to sculpture and painting, but also to those private collections of
+statues and pictures[479] in which we discover the germs of our modern
+galleries[480] and museums. The first step was made towards these when
+the Greek set up the images of his household gods upon his hearth.
+Thence, step by step, he proceeded, improving the appearance, enriching
+the materials, increasing the number of his domestic deities, with which
+niche after niche was filled, till his private dwelling became in some
+sort a temple. The religious feeling, no doubt, made way, in many cases,
+for a passion for show, or a nascent taste for the beautiful; so that
+rude figures in terra-cotta, wood, or stone, were gradually replaced by
+exquisite statues in ivory, gold, or silver,[481] or the fairest marble,
+breathing beauty and life, with eyes of gems, and clothed with majesty
+as with a garment. Hence flowed the passion for mimetic representations
+and all the plastic arts. The gods were transferred from the fireside to
+the temple, to the agora, to the senate-house, to the innumerable
+porticoes everywhere abounding in Greece.[482]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 479:
+
+ Plat. de Rep. t. vi. p. 86. Plin. Hist. Nat. vii. 39. xxxv. 36.
+ xxxiii. 56.
+
+Footnote 480:
+
+ Athen. xi. 3. Menage, Observat. in Diog. Laert. vi. 32. p. 138. a. b.
+
+Footnote 481:
+
+ Poll. i. 28.
+
+Footnote 482:
+
+ Plat. de Rep. t. vi. p. 86.
+
+-----
+
+On their superb candelabra,[483] &c., matter for a curious volume might
+be collected. The lamps in common use,[484] though sometimes very
+beautiful in shape, were of course fictile,[485] such as we find in
+great numbers among the ruins of Greek cities, both in the
+mother-country, and in their Egyptian and other colonies. Sometimes,
+however, they were of bronze, silver, or massive gold. A very beautiful
+specimen in this last metal was found, by Lord Belmore, among the ruins
+of an Egyptian temple, a short time before my visit to the Nile. In many
+houses were magnificent chandeliers, suspended from the ceiling, with
+numerous branches, which filled the apartments[486] with a flood of
+light. The most remarkable article of this kind which I remember was
+that set up as a votive offering to Hestia, in the Prytaneion of
+Tarentum, by Dionysios the Younger, which held as many lamps as there
+are days in the year.[487] Among people of humble condition wooden
+chandeliers, or candlesticks, were in use.[488] In remoter ages they
+burned slips of pine-branches, the bark of various trees, &c., instead
+of lamps. They were acquainted with the use of horn and wicker
+lanterns.[489]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 483:
+
+ An elegant candelabrum, ornamented with the figure of a twisted
+ serpent, and a flight of birds resting here and there on the branches,
+ is found in the Mus. Cortonens. tab. 80.—They were sometimes of gilt
+ wood.—Winkelmann, i. 34.
+
+Footnote 484:
+
+ Poll. ii. 72. vi. 103. x. 115. Soph. Ajax. 285, sqq.
+
+Footnote 485:
+
+ Poll. x. 192.—On the brazen ladle (ἀρύταινα) for filling lamps with
+ oil, see Sch. Aristoph. Eq. 1087.
+
+Footnote 486:
+
+ Athen. xi. 48.
+
+Footnote 487:
+
+ Id. xv. 60.
+
+Footnote 488:
+
+ Id xv. 61.
+
+Footnote 489:
+
+ Id. xv. 59.
+
+-----
+
+Another kind of decoration of Greek houses we must not overlook,—their
+armour and implements of war,[490] with which the poet Alcæos[491] loved
+to adorn his chambers, though, like Paris, he cared little to make any
+other use of them. “My spacious mansion,” exclaims he, “gleams
+throughout with brazen arms. Even along the ceiling are ranged the
+ornaments of Ares, glittering helmets, surmounted by white nodding
+plumes; greaves of polished brass are suspended on the walls, with
+cuirasses of linen, while, here and there, about my apartments, are
+scattered hollow shields. Elsewhere, you behold scimitars of Chalcis,
+and baldricks, and the short vest which we wear beneath our
+armour.”[492] Besides the articles enumerated by the poet, there were
+shield-cases, sheaths for their spears, quivers curiously adorned,
+feathered arrows, and bows of polished horn, tipped at either end with
+gold.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 490:
+
+ The custom, also, in Lydia. Herod. i. 34.
+
+Footnote 491:
+
+ Alcæi Frag. vi. p. 95. Anacr. ed. Glasg.
+
+Footnote 492:
+
+ Κύπασσις of which Pollux furnishes us with an exact description: ὁ δὲ
+ κύπασσις, λίνου πεποίητο, σμικρὸς χιτωνίσκος, ἄχρι μέσου μηροῦ, ὡς Ἴων
+ φησὶ, βραχὺς λίνου κύπασσις, ἐς μηρὸν μέσον ἐσταλμένος. (vii. 60) That
+ is, “the _kupassis_ is a small linen chiton, reaching mid-thigh,
+ according to Ion, who says, ‘a short linen kupassis, descending to the
+ middle of the thigh.’”
+
+-----
+
+From these gorgeous and costly commodities the reader, we fear, will be
+reluctant to accompany us into the kitchen, where we must pick our way
+among kneading-troughs, pots and pans, Delphian cutlery[493] and
+honey-jars.[494] But as without these the warriors, as Homer himself
+acknowledges, could make but little use of their weapons, it is
+absolutely necessary we should inquire into their cooking conveniences.
+To commence, however, we must allow[495] Clearchos of Soli, to enumerate
+a few of the articles found among the furniture of this important part
+of the house. There was, first, says he, a three-legged table, then a
+chytra, or earthen pot, which, as in France, was always preferred for
+making soup. It was not, however, of coarse brown ware, as with us; for,
+Socrates, in his conversation with Hippias on the Beautiful, observes
+that, when properly made, round, smooth, and well-baked, the chytra was
+very handsome, particularly that large sort which contained upwards of
+seven gallons. It had two handles, and was evidently glazed.[496] In
+stirring the chytra while boiling, the Attic cook made choice of a ladle
+turned from the wood of the fig-tree, which, it is said, communicated an
+agreeable flavour to the soup, and, in Socrates’s opinion, was
+preferable to one of gold which, being very weighty, might chance to
+crack the pot, spill the broth, and extinguish the fire.[497]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 493:
+
+ Hesych. v. Δελφικὴ μάχαιρα.
+
+Footnote 494:
+
+ Athen. xi. 50, ὀξίνη, a vinegar cruet.—Sch. Aristoph. Eq. 1301. ὑρχη,
+ a pickle-jar.—Vesp. 676.
+
+Footnote 495:
+
+ Athen. xiv. 60.
+
+Footnote 496:
+
+ Plat. Hipp. Maj. t. v. p. 425, sqq.
+
+Footnote 497:
+
+ Plat. Opp. t. v. p. 429. seq. Schol. Aristoph. Acharn. 244.
+
+-----
+
+There was used in the kitchen a sort of candelabrum, or lamp-stand,
+which Clearchos merely names. Then followed the mortar, the stool, the
+sponge, the cauldron, the kneading-trough, the mug, the oil-flask, the
+rush-basket, the large knife, the cleaver,[498] the wooden platter, the
+bowl, and the larding-pin.[499] Pollux, who had, doubtless, served an
+apprenticeship to Marcus Aurelius’s cook, gives a formidable list of
+culinary utensils, from which we must be content to select the most
+remarkable. First, however, we shall show how important a piece of
+sponge was to an Athenian cook. It often saved him his dinner; for, if
+any of his stewpans, crocks, or kettles, had suffered from the embraces
+of Hephæstos, in other words, had got a hole burnt in them, a bit of
+sponge was drawn into the aperture, and on went the cooking operations
+as before.[500] In some houses culinary utensils were regarded as a
+nuisance, the presence of which was not to be constantly endured, and,
+accordingly, when the master desired to treat his friends, cookey was
+despatched early in the morning to hire pots and kettles of a broker. To
+this custom Alexis alludes in his Exile:
+
+ How fertile in new tricks is Chæriphon,
+ To sup scot-free and everywhere find welcome!
+ Spies he a broker’s door with pots to let?
+ There from the earliest dawn he takes his stand,
+ To see whose cook arrives; from him he learns
+ Who ’tis that gives the feast,—flies to the house,
+ Watches his time, and, when the yawning door
+ Gapes for the guests, glides in among the first.[501]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 498:
+
+ See a figure, probably, of that instrument in Mus. Chiaramont. tav.
+ 21.
+
+Footnote 499:
+
+ Athen. xiv. 60. Poll. x. 95, sqq.—We find mention, also, of the
+ cheese-rasp.—Schol. Aristoph. Pac. 251.
+
+Footnote 500:
+
+ Aristoph. Acharn. 439. Brunck is vastly scandalised at the idea of the
+ Scholiast, that any man should have been so poor in Attica as to be
+ driven to mend his pots in the way commemorated in the text; but a
+ German commentator, who had looked more into kitchens, is satisfied
+ that the practice prevailed, and was perfectly rational. In fact,
+ similar contrivances are still resorted to, even in England.
+
+Footnote 501:
+
+ Athen. iv. 58.
+
+-----
+
+But we must not pass over the Pyreion or Trypanon,[502] the clumsy
+contrivance which supplied the place of our lucifers, phosphorus, and
+tinder-boxes. This was a hollow piece of wood, in which another piece
+was turned rapidly till sparks of fire flew out.[503] Soldiers carried
+these fire-kindlers along with them as a necessary part of their kit.
+
+Footnote 502:
+
+ Theoph. Histor. Plant. v. 9. 7.
+
+Footnote 503:
+
+ Plat. de Rep. iv. t. vi. p. 194. Pollux. x. 146. vii. 113.
+
+-----
+
+The ordinary fuel of the Greeks consisted chiefly of wood and
+charcoal,[504] (kept in rush or wicker baskets,) though the use of
+mineral coal was not altogether unknown to them.[505] In Attica,
+where wood was always scarce, they economically made use of
+vine-cuttings,[506] and even the green branches of the fig tree with
+the leaves on.[507] The charcoal of Acharnæ, the best probably in
+the country, was sometimes prepared from the scarlet oak.[508] To
+prevent the wood, used in their saloons, halls, and drawing-rooms
+from smoking, it was often boiled[509] in water or steeped in dregs
+of oil. The use of the bellows[510] was known in Hellas from the
+remotest antiquity. They had likewise a kind of osier flap, with a
+handle, and shaped like a fan, which at times supplied the place of
+a pair of bellows.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 504:
+
+ Cf. Schol. Aristoph. Acharn. 34, 302, 314. Plat. de Legg. t. viii.
+ 116.
+
+Footnote 505:
+
+ Theoph. de Lap. § 16.
+
+Footnote 506:
+
+ Schol. Aristoph. Lysist. 308.
+
+Footnote 507:
+
+ Schol. Aristoph. Acharn. 312. Cf. Schol. Vesp. 145, 326.
+
+Footnote 508:
+
+ Sch. Aristoph. Acharn. 587.
+
+Footnote 509:
+
+ Plin. Hist. Nat. xv. 8.
+
+Footnote 510:
+
+ Schol. Aristoph. Acharn. 853. Athen. ii. 71.
+
+-----
+
+There were chopping-blocks[511] both of wood and stone, mortars,[512]
+fish-kettles, frying-pans, and spits of all dimensions,[513] some being
+so diminutive that thrushes and other small birds could be roasted on
+them. Their ends in the heroic ages rested on stone hobs, but afterwards
+andirons were invented, probably of fanciful shape as in modern France.
+Occasionally they would appear to have been manufactured of lead. To
+these we may add the ovens, the bean and barley-roasters, the sieves of
+bronze and other materials, the wine-strainers in the form of colanders,
+the crate for earthern-ware, and the chafing-dish.[514]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 511:
+
+ Schol. Aristoph. Acharn. 319. Vesp. 238. κρεάγρα a flesh-hook. Sch.
+ Eq. 769.
+
+Footnote 512:
+
+ Schol. Aristoph. Vesp. 924.
+
+Footnote 513:
+
+ Schol. Aristoph. Nub. 179.
+
+Footnote 514:
+
+ Aristoph. Acharn. 34. Cooks’ tables were made of wicker-work or
+ olive-wood. Etym. Mag. 298. 36, seq.
+
+-----
+
+
+
+
+ CHAPTER III.
+ FOOD OF HOMERIC TIMES—MEAT, FISH, ETC.
+
+
+Having described the implements with which a Greek meal was prepared,
+let us next inquire of what materials it consisted, and how it was
+eaten. There will be no occasion in pursuing this investigation to
+adhere to any very strict method. It will probably be sufficient to make
+a few broad divisions and a flexible outline which we can fill up as the
+materials fall in our way.
+
+What the original inhabitants of Hellas ate might no doubt be
+satisfactorily inferred from the accounts we possess of nations still
+existing in the same state of civilisation. But it is nevertheless
+curious to examine their traditions relating to the subject. Ælian, who
+has preserved many notices of remote antiquity, gives a list of various
+kinds of food, which, as he would appear to think, constituted the
+chief, if not the whole, sustenance of several ancient nations. The
+Arcadians lived, he says, upon acorns; the Argives upon pears, the
+Athenians upon figs;[515] the wild pear-tree furnished the Tirynthians
+with their favourite food; a sort of cane was the chief dainty of the
+Indians; of the Karamanians[516] the date; millet of the Mæotæ and
+Sauromatæ; while the Persians[517] delighted chiefly in cardamums and
+pistachio nuts.[518]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 515:
+
+ Cf. Plut. Quæst. Græc. 51.
+
+Footnote 516:
+
+ Cf. Dion. Perieg. 1082.
+
+Footnote 517:
+
+ These people were great eaters, and held none in estimation but those
+ who resembled them. Aristoph. Acharn. 74. sqq.
+
+Footnote 518:
+
+ Ælian. Var. Hist. iii. 39. Perizonius in his note on this passage
+ observes, that ἄπιος and ἀχράς are but different names for the same
+ thing, both signifying “the pear,” the former term prevailing among
+ the Argives, the latter among the Tirynthians and Laconians. By the
+ other Greeks both words were used promiscuously, though ἄπιος was the
+ more common. This able commentator objects to the assertion of his
+ author, that the Hindoos lived on cane, since they also ate millet,
+ rice, &c. But Ælian could really have intended nothing more than that
+ the articles he enumerates were in common use among the nations spoken
+ of. Otherwise the whole must be regarded as a mere fable. The canes,
+ mentioned by Ælian, are those from which sugar has been from very
+ remote antiquity extracted.
+
+ Quique bibunt tenerâ dulces ab arundine succos.
+ Lucan. Pharsal. iii. 237.
+
+-----
+
+The tradition that while some degree of civilisation already existed in
+the East, many tribes of Hellas still subsisted upon acorns, has given
+rise to much curious disquisition. It is abundantly clear, however, that
+the fruit of our English oak is not what is meant; for, upon this, no
+one who has made the experiment will for one moment imagine that man
+could subsist; but every kind of production comprehended by the Greeks
+under the term “acorn,” (βάλανος). Gerard, an old English botanist,
+enumerates chestnuts among acorns, and Xenophon calls dates “the acorns
+of the palm-tree.” The mast, however, of a tree common in Greece, would,
+as Mitford thinks, afford a not unwholesome nourishment, though he is
+quite right in supposing that it could not have been a favourite food in
+more civilised times.[519] While upon the subject of acorns, this
+ingenious and able writer appears disposed to make somewhat merry with a
+certain project of Socrates. If we rightly comprehend him, which very
+possibly we do not, he means to accuse the philosopher of reducing the
+citizens of his airy republic to very short commons indeed,[520] nothing
+but a little beech-mast, and a few myrtle-berries. This borders strongly
+on the notion of the comic writer, who describes the Athenians as living
+on air and hope. But though abstemious enough, Socrates was not so
+unreasonable as to require even his Utopians to fight and philosophise
+upon a diet so scanty. Before he comes to the mast and the
+myrtle-berries, we find him enumerating wheaten and barley bread, salt,
+olives, cheese, and truffles, together with pulse and all such herbs as
+the fields spontaneously produce. For a dessert he would indulge them
+with figs, chickpeas, and beans, myrtle-berries, and beech-mast, or
+chestnuts roasted in the fire. Plato was aware how the luxurious wits of
+his time would turn up their noses at such primitive diet, and therefore
+brings in Glaucon inquiring,—“If you were founding a polity of swine,
+what other food would you provide for them?”[521] Pausanias remarks,
+however, that acorns long continued to be a common article of food in
+Arcadia,[522] but only those of the fagus.[523]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 519:
+
+ See Goguet, i. 160, seq.
+
+Footnote 520:
+
+ Hist. of Greece, i. 9, note. Cf. Anab. ii. 3.
+
+Footnote 521:
+
+ Plat. de Rep. t. vi. p. 85.
+
+Footnote 522:
+
+ Cf. Polluc. i. 234.
+
+Footnote 523:
+
+ Paus. viii. 1. 6. Pliny observes that the fruit of the fagus is sweet
+ “dulcissima omnium glans fagi.” Hist. Nat. xvii. 6. Cf. Lucian. Amor.
+ § 33. Theophrast. Hist. Plant. iii. 8, 2. This Arcadian dainty is
+ still eaten in Spain. “In some parts (of Navarre) the mountains are
+ girt at their base by forests of chestnut trees or of the Spanish oak
+ called _encina_, whose acorn roasted, is as palatable as the
+ chestnut.” (A Campaign with Zumalacarregui, i. 40.) The same writer
+ observes, that the fruit of the ever-green arbutus, in shape like a
+ cherry, though insipid and intoxicating in its effects, is also eaten
+ by the omniverous Spaniards, p. 51. See also Laborde’s Itinerary of
+ Spain, iv. 80, and Capell Brooke’s Travels, ii. 72.
+
+-----
+
+If we may credit some writers the ancient inhabitants of Hellas made use
+of food much more revolting than acorns, having been, in fact, cannibals
+who devoured each other. There, no doubt, existed among the Greeks of
+later times traditions of a state of society in which human flesh was
+eaten by certain fierce and lawless individuals, such as Polyphemos, but
+nothing in their literature can authorise us to infer that the practice
+was ever general. Superstition seems on very extraordinary occasions to
+have impelled them into the guilt of human sacrifice, when the
+officiating priests, and, perhaps, some few others, probably tasted of
+the entrails, and Galen had conversed with individuals who had been led
+by mere curiosity to sup on man’s flesh, and found its flavour to
+resemble that of tender beef.[524] But instances of this kind prove
+nothing; for how often does it not happen that mariners are even now
+driven by distressful circumstances to slaughter and eat their
+companions at sea! And yet shall we on this account pass for
+anthropophagi with posterity?
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 524:
+
+ See Bochart. Geog. Sac. i. 309.
+
+-----
+
+The Greeks, however, were not content with one set of traditions, or
+upon the whole inclined to give currency to the most gloomy. On the
+contrary, their poets casting backward the light of their imagination,
+and kindling up the landscapes of the far past, called up the vision of
+the golden age, when neither the domestic hearth[525] nor the altars of
+the gods were stained with blood, and the fruits of the field,—milk,
+honey, cheese, and butter sufficed to sustain life. But we must escape
+from these shadowy times, and come down to the age of beef and mutton.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 525:
+
+ Cf. Plat. De Legg. vi. t. vii. p. 471.
+
+-----
+
+Food is, with great precision, divided by Aristotle into moist and dry,
+that is, into meat and drink.[526] A classification, the credit of
+which, as Feith contends, belongs to Homer.[527] In this poet, bread
+(σίτος), the principal article of provision, is made indiscriminately
+both from wheat and barley, though the latter grain is thought to have
+been first in use.[528] Herodotus found, in the matter of bread, a
+peculiar taste among the Egyptians; barley and wheat they despised,
+though in no country are finer produced than in Egypt; giving, very
+strangely, the preference to the _olyra_, by some supposed to be the
+spelt, but more probably Syrian _dhourra_, ears of which I observed
+sculptured on the interior of the pronaos of Leto’s temple at Esneh.
+Bread, in the Homeric age, was brought to table in a reed basket, the
+use of silver bread-baskets, or trays, not having been then, as Donatus
+thinks, introduced. But in this the learned commentator is mistaken; or,
+if they had no silver trays, at least they had them of brass and gold,
+to match their tables of massive silver.[529]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 526:
+
+ Problem. x. 56, 58.
+
+Footnote 527:
+
+ Iliad. α. 496. β. 432, seq.
+
+Footnote 528:
+
+ Iliad. ε. 196, et 341. The scholiast on this verse, observes that,
+ before the invention of mills, men used to eat the raw grain. (Cf. on
+ Iliad. α. 449, and Etym. Magn. v. οὐλόχυται, 641, 29.) But this is
+ merely an absurd conjecture; for they could, at least, have roasted
+ the young ear as in the East they still do, while it is full of juice,
+ and have eaten it thus with salt, when it is both pleasant and
+ nutritive. Besides, some means of reducing the grain to meal appears
+ to have been known almost from the beginning.
+
+Footnote 529:
+
+ Iliad. λ. 629. Odyss. κ. 355. See, too, Theocrit. Eidyll. xxiv. 135,
+ sqq. Virgil. Æneid. i. 705.
+
+-----
+
+Next to bread, flesh, in the heroic ages, was the greatest stay-stomach,
+particularly beef, kid, mutton, and pork. They had not, however, as yet
+discovered many ways of cooking it. Nearly all their culinary ingenuity
+reduced itself in fact to roasting and boiling, a circumstance which led
+Athenæus,[530] and the president Goguet to look back with great pity and
+concern on these unhappy ages when even princes, generally gourmands,
+were deprived of the supreme felicity of dining on ragouts, soups, and
+boiled brains. Servius,[531] too, and Varro are inclined to participate
+in this feeling of commiseration, and the latter observes, that among
+their own ancestors people were originally compelled to dine on roast
+meat, though in the course of time the arts of boiling and soup-making
+were introduced.[532] With regard to Homer’s heroes, however, our
+sympathies are somewhat relieved by finding, that learned men have
+overrated the extent of their misfortunes. They were not altogether
+ignorant of the art of boiling, as Athenæus himself admits, where he
+mentions the boiled shin of beef which one of the drunken suitors flung
+at Odysseus’s head.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 530:
+
+ Deipnosoph. i. 15. Origine des Loix, ii. 306. “J’ai dit que la
+ simplicité faisoit le caractère distinctif de ses premiers âges. La
+ manière dont on se nourissoit alors en fait preuve. On ne voit
+ paroître ni sauce ni ragoût, ni même de gibier, dans la description
+ que l’Ecriture fait du repas donné par Abraham aux trois anges qui lui
+ apparurent dans la vallée de Membré. Ce Patriarche leur sert un veau
+ roti, ou, pour mieux dire, grillé; du lait de beurre, et du pain frais
+ cuit sous la cendre. Voilà tout le festin. Ce fait montre que les
+ repas alors étoient plus solides que délicats. Abraham avoit
+ certainement intention de traiter ses hôtes du mieux qu’il lui étoit
+ possible, et il faut observer que ce Patriarche possédoit de
+ très-grandes richesses en or, en argent, en troupeaux et en esclaves.
+ On peut donc regarder le repas qu’il donne aux trois anges, comme le
+ modèle d’un festin magnifique, et juger en conséquence quelle étoit de
+ son tems la manière de traiter splendidement.”
+
+Footnote 531:
+
+ Comm. ad Æneid. i. 710.
+
+-----
+
+The flesh of young animals was not habitually eaten in those early ages,
+so that in denominating them public devourers of kids and lambs, Priam
+accuses his sons of scandalous luxury.[533] In fact, with the design of
+preventing a scarcity of animal food, a law was enacted at Athens
+prohibiting the slaughter of an unshorn lamb, and from the same motive
+the Emperor Valens forbade the use of veal.[534]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 532:
+
+ Feith, Antiq. Homer, iii. 1, 3.
+
+Footnote 533:
+
+ Il. ω. 262.
+
+Footnote 534:
+
+ Hieron adv. Jovian. ii. 75. a. Diosc. ap. Athen. ix. 17. Eustath. ad
+ Il. ω. p. 1481. 12. Schweigh, Animad. in Athen. t. vi. p. 96, seq.
+
+-----
+
+But there was nothing beyond the difficulty of catching it, to prevent
+the Homeric heroes from making free with game, such as venison, and the
+flesh of the wild goat;[535] and from a passage in the Iliad, Feith
+infers, that even birds were not spared.[536] We trust, however, that
+they feathered and cooked them, and did not devour them _au naturel_, as
+certain Hindùs do their sheep, wool and all. The Egyptians had a very
+peculiar taste in ornithophagy, and actually ate some kinds of birds
+quite raw, as they likewise did several species of fish; and this not in
+those early ages when Isis and Osiris had not reclaimed the bogs of the
+Nile, but in times quite modern, when Herodotus travelled in their
+country, and heard their vain priests lay claim to having civilised
+Hellas. Both birds and fish, indeed, underwent a certain sort of
+preparation. Of the latter some were dried in the sun, others preserved
+in pickle, and the same process was applied to ducks, quails, and many
+other species of birds, after which they were eaten raw. We recommend
+the practice to our gourmands, and have no doubt they would find a
+pickled owl or jackdaw, devoured in the Egyptian style, altogether as
+wholesome as diseased goose’s liver. It must not, however, be
+dissembled, that many critics, concerned for the gastronomic reputation
+of the Egyptians, contend that, by the word which we translate “to
+pickle,”[537] Herodotus must have meant some kind of cookery; to which
+Wesseling replies, that, without designing to impugn the taste of those
+gentlemen, he must yet refuse to accept of their interpretation, since
+by observing that they roasted or boiled all other species of birds and
+fish, such as were sacred excepted, the historian evidently intends to
+say, that these were eaten raw. The learned editor might have added,
+that Herodotus uses the same term in treating of the process of
+embalming,[538] and we nowhere learn that the mummies were cooked before
+they were deposited in the tombs.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 535:
+
+ Od. ι. 185. κ. 180.
+
+Footnote 536:
+
+ Iliad. ψ. 852, seq.
+
+Footnote 537:
+
+ Προταριχεύειν. Herod. ii. 77, edit. Wessel.
+
+Footnote 538:
+
+ Herod. i. 77, seq. ii. 15. ix. 80.
+
+-----
+
+But to return to the Homeric warriors; it seems extremely[539] probable,
+notwithstanding the opinions of several writers of great authority, both
+ancient and modern, that the demi-gods, and heroes before Troy, admitted
+that effeminate dainty called _fish_ to their warlike tables. At all
+events the common people understood the value of this kind of food,[540]
+and it may safely be inferred that their betters, never slow in
+appropriating delicacies to their own use, soon perceived that fish is
+no bad eating. Hunger would at least reconcile them to the flavour of
+broiled salmon, as we find by the example of Odysseus’s companions, who
+devoured both fish and fowl.[541] This is acknowledged by Athenæus;[542]
+but Plutarch contends, that they could have been driven to it only by
+extreme necessity. At all other times he imagines they temperately
+abstained from food of so exciting a kind,[543] though Homer describes
+the Hellespont as abounding in fish,[544] and more than once alludes to
+the practice of drawing it thence with hook and line.[545] Thus we find
+that angling can trace back its pedigree to the heroic ages; and the
+disciple of the rod as he trudges with Izaak in his pocket through bog
+and mire in search of a good bite, may solace his imagination with
+reminiscences of Troy and the Hellespont. But the good people of those
+days did not wholly rely for a supply of fish on this very tedious and
+inefficient process; they had discovered the use of nets, which Homer
+describes the fisherman casting on the sea shore.[546] Though the poet,
+however, had omitted all allusion to this kind of food, its use might,
+nevertheless, have been confidently inferred, as may that of milk,
+common to all nations, though Homer mentions it only, I believe, in the
+case of the Hippomolgians,[547] and the cannibal Polyphemus, who
+understood also the luxury of cheese.[548] Circe, too, who being a
+goddess may be supposed to have been a connoisseur in dainties, presents
+her paramour Odysseus with a curious mixture, consisting of cheese,
+honey, flour, and wine,[549] very savoury, no doubt, and by old Nestor
+considered of salutary nature, since Hecamedè, at his order, prepares a
+plentiful supply of it for the wounded Machaon. Along with this posset,
+garlic was eaten as a relish.[550]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 539:
+
+ Plato, among others, remarks that, in the military messes of his
+ heroes, Homer introduces neither fish nor boiled meat. De Rep. iii. t.
+ vi. p. 141.
+
+Footnote 540:
+
+ Odyss. τ. 113.
+
+Footnote 541:
+
+ Odyss. μ. 330. sqq.
+
+Footnote 542:
+
+ Deipnosoph. i. 47.
+
+Footnote 543:
+
+ Plut. Sympos. viii. 8.
+
+Footnote 544:
+
+ Il. ι. 360.
+
+Footnote 545:
+
+ Il. π. 407.
+
+Footnote 546:
+
+ Od. χ. 364, sqq. Eustathius, however, on this passage observes, that
+ though nets are spoken of in the Iliad, (ε. 487,) this is the only
+ place where the poet distinctly mentions their being used in taking
+ fish.
+
+Footnote 547:
+
+ Il. ο. 6.
+
+Footnote 548:
+
+ Od. ι. 236, 246. Theoc. Eidyll. xi. 35.
+
+Footnote 549:
+
+ Od. κ. 234, seq.
+
+Footnote 550:
+
+ Il. λ. 623, sqq. This mixture called κυκεὼν, is more than once
+ mentioned by Plato—De Rep. iii. t. vi. p. 148.
+
+-----
+
+Fruits and potherbs, as may be supposed, were already in use.[551]
+Garlic we have mentioned above; and Odysseus, after all his wars and
+wanderings, recalls to mind with a quite natural pleasure the apple and
+pear trees which his father, Laertes, had given him when a boy.[552]
+Alcinoös possessed a fine orchard, where, though the process of grafting
+is supposed to have been then unknown, we find a variety of beautiful
+fruits, as pears, apples, pomegranates, delicious figs, olives, and
+grapes; and in his kitchen-garden were all kinds of vegetables.[553] And
+the shadowy boughs of a similar orchard, covered with golden fruit, wave
+over Tantalos in Hades, but are blown back by the wind whenever the
+wretched old sinner stretches forth his hand towards them.[554] From
+this circumstance Athenæus, with much ingenuity, infers that fruit was
+actually in use before the Trojan war! Apples seem then, as now, to have
+constituted a favourite portion of the dessert, though among the Homeric
+warriors they seem sometimes to have formed a principal part of the
+meal; for Servius[555] describes the primitive repasts as consisting of
+two courses, of which the first was animal food, and apples the second.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 551:
+
+ Cf. Hom. Il. λ. 629, seq.
+
+Footnote 552:
+
+ Od. ω. 339.
+
+Footnote 553:
+
+ Od. η. 115, sqq. Plut. Sympos. v. 8.
+
+Footnote 554:
+
+ Od. λ. 587, sqq.
+
+Footnote 555:
+
+ Ad Æneid. i. 727.
+
+Footnote 556:
+
+ Il. ι. 214. In later times it was customary to bruise thyme small, and
+ mingle it with salt to give it a finer flavour. Aristoph. Acharn. 772.
+ Suid. v. θυμιτίδων ἁλῶν. t. i. p. 1336. b.
+
+-----
+
+Salt was in great use in the Homeric age, and by the poet sometimes
+called divine.[556] Plato, also, in the Timæos,[557] speaks of salt as a
+thing acceptable to the gods, an expression which Plutarch quotes with
+manifest approbation in a passage where he grows quite eloquent in
+praise of this article, which he denominates the condiment of
+condiments, adding, that of some it was numbered among the Graces.[558]
+By the most ancient Greeks salt was, for this reason, always spoken of
+in conjunction with the table, as in the old proverb, where men were
+advised “never to pass by salt or a table,” that is, not to neglect a
+good dinner.[559] Poor men, who probably had no other seasoning for
+their food, were contemptuously denominated “salt-lickers.”[560] But, in
+Homer’s time, there existed certain Hellenic tribes who had not yet
+arrived at a knowledge of this luxury; among whom, accordingly, even the
+most aristocratic personages were compelled to go without salt to their
+porridge.[561] The poet has, indeed, omitted to mention their names; but
+Pausanias supposes him to have alluded to the more inland clans of
+Epeirots, many of which had not yet, in those ages, acquired a knowledge
+of salt, or even of the sea.[562]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 557:
+
+ Opera, t. vii. p. 80.
+
+Footnote 558:
+
+ Sympos. v. 9.
+
+Footnote 559:
+
+ Erasm. Adag. Chil. i. Cent. vi. Adag. 10.
+
+Footnote 560:
+
+ Ἅλα λείχειν. Erasm. Adag. iii. vi. 33, or, as Persius expresses it,
+ “digito terebrare salinum.” Sat. v. 138.
+
+Footnote 561:
+
+ Od. λ. 122.
+
+Footnote 562:
+
+ Paus. i. 1. 12.
+
+-----
+
+It appears to be agreed on all hands, that the primitive races of men
+were mere water-drinkers. Accordingly they had neither poets nor
+inn-keepers, nor excisemen,—three classes of persons who never flourish
+but where wine, or at least beer, is found. Homer more than once alludes
+to this vicious habit of the old world, where, with a sly insinuation of
+contempt,—for he was himself partial to the blood-red wine,—he tells us
+that this or that nation drank, like so many oxen or crocodiles, of the
+waters of such or such a river. Thus, when enumerating the allies of
+Ilion, he describes the Zeleians as those who sipped the black waters of
+the Æsepos.[563] Pindar, too, in the hope of obtaining a reputation for
+sobriety, says, he was accustomed to drink the waters of Thebes, which,
+in his opinion, were very delicious,[564] though Hippocrates would
+unquestionably have been of a totally different way of thinking. The
+Persian, and afterwards the Parthian kings, appear in many cases to have
+entertained a temperate predilection for the water of certain streams,
+of which Milton has given eternal celebrity to one:—
+
+ “Choaspes, amber stream,
+ The drink of none but kings.”[565]
+
+But evidently through mistake; for though historians pretend that the
+Parthian monarchs would drink of no water save that of the Choaspes, to
+which Pliny[566] adds the Eulæus, it is by no means said that they
+enjoyed a monopoly of those streams. Perhaps our great poet confounded
+the Choaspes with those Golden Waters which, in Athenæus, are said to
+have been wholly reserved for the use of the king and his eldest
+son.[567]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 563:
+
+ Il. β. 824, seq.
+
+Footnote 564:
+
+ Pind. Olymp. vi. 85.
+
+Footnote 565:
+
+ Paradise Regained, iii. 288, seq.
+
+Footnote 566:
+
+ Hist. Nat. xxxi. 21. “Parthorum reges,” says this writer, “ex Choaspe
+ et Eulæo tantum bibunt; et eæ quamvis in longinqua comitatur eos.”
+ Hence Tibullus has the following verses in his Panegyric of Messala,
+ iv. 1. 142:
+
+ “Nec quâ vel Nilus vel _regia lympha_ Choaspes
+ Profluit.”
+
+ Herod. i. 188. Æl. Var. Hist. xii. 40. Cf. Strabo. 1. xv. c. 3. t.
+ iii. p. 318.
+
+Footnote 567:
+
+ Athen. xii. 9. Ἀγαθοκλῆς δ᾽, ἐν τρίτῳ Περὶ Κυζίκου, ἐν Πέρσαις φησὶν
+ εἶναι καὶ χρυσοῦν καλούμενον ὕδωρ. εἶναι δὲ τοῦτο λιβάδας ἑβδομήκοντα,
+ καὶ μηδὲνα πίνειν ἀπ’ αὐτοῦ ἢ μόνον βασιλέα, καὶ τὸν πρεσβύτατον αὐτοῦ
+ τῶν παίδων. τῶν δ᾽ ἄλλων ἐάν τις πίῃ, θάνατος ἡ ζημία.
+
+-----
+
+Wine, however, was invented very early in the history of the world; and
+the virtue of sobriety was born along with it; for, until then, it had
+been no merit to be sober. With whomsoever its use began, wine was well
+known to Homer’s heroes, one of whom speaks of it, in conjunction with
+bread, as the chief root of man’s strength and vigour.[568] Yet the
+warriors of those ages by no means exhibited that selfish parsimony
+which led the Romans to debar their matrons the use of wine.[569] In
+Homer we find women, even while very young, permitted the enjoyment of
+it: for example, Nausicaa and her companions, who, in setting forth on
+their washing excursion, are furnished by the queen herself with a
+plentiful supply of provisions, and a skin of wine.[570] Boys, likewise,
+in the heroic ages, met with similar indulgence; for Phœnix is
+represented permitting Achilles to join him in his potations before the
+little urchin knew how to drink without spilling it over himself.[571]
+This practice, however, is very properly condemned by Plato, who
+considered that no person under eighteen should be allowed to taste of
+wine, and even then but sparingly.[572] After thirty, more discretion
+might, he thought, be granted them; though he recommended sobriety at
+all times, save, perhaps, on the anniversary festival of Dionysos, and
+certain other divinities, when a merry bowl was judged in keeping with
+the other ceremonies of the day.[573]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 568:
+
+ Iliad, ι. 702. τ. 161.
+
+Footnote 569:
+
+ Athen. x. 33.
+
+Footnote 570:
+
+ Od. ζ. 77, seq.
+
+Footnote 571:
+
+ Iliad. ι. 487.
+
+Footnote 572:
+
+ Montaigne, whom few things of this kind had escaped, reads _forty_,
+ and thinks that men might lawfully get drunk after that age. Essais,
+ ii. 2. t. iii. p. 278.
+
+Footnote 573:
+
+ De Legg. ii. t. vii. p. 258, sqq.
+
+-----
+
+We shall now pass from the primitive aliments of the heroic times to
+those almost infinite varieties of good things which the ingenuity of
+later ages brought into use. The reader, not already familiar with the
+gastronomic fragments of ancient literature, will probably be surprised
+at the omniverous character of the Greeks, to whom nothing seems to have
+come amiss, from the nettle-top to the peach, from the sow’s metra to
+the most delicate bird, from the shark to the small semi-transparent
+aphyæ, caught along the shores of Attica.[574] Through this ocean of
+dainties we shall endeavour to make our way on the following
+plan:—first, it will be our “hint to speak” of the more solid kinds of
+food, as beef, mutton, pork, veal; we shall then make a transition to
+the soups, fowls, and fish; next the fruit will claim our attention;
+and, lastly, the several varieties of wines.
+
+Footnote 574:
+
+ Ass’s flesh was commonly eaten by the Athenians. Poll. ix. 48, et
+ Comment. t. vi. p. 938, seq. Their neighbours the Persians, however,
+ enjoyed one dainty not known, I believe, to the Greeks; that is to
+ say, a camel, which, we are told, they sometimes roasted whole. Herod.
+ i. 123. Athen. iv. 6. In the opinion of Aristotle the flesh of this
+ animal was singularly good: ἔχει δὲ καὶ τὰ κρέα καὶ τὸ γάλα ἥδιστα
+ πάντων.—Hist. Anim. vi. 26. It was this passage, perhaps, that first
+ induced Heliogabalus to try a camel’s foot, which he appears
+ afterwards to have much affected. Lamprid. Vit. Anton. Heliogab. § 19.
+ Hist. Aug. Script. p. 195. The same emperor also tried the taste of an
+ ostrich, whose eggs anciently constituted an article of food among
+ certain nations of Africa. Lucian. de Dipsad. § 7.
+
+-----
+
+It has already been observed, that in the earliest ages men wholly
+abstained from animal food.[575] Afterwards when they began to cast
+“wolfish eyes” upon their mute companions on the globe, the hog is said
+to have been the first creature whose character emboldened them to make
+free with him. They saw it endued with less intelligence than other
+animals; and, from its stupidity, inferred that it ought to be eaten,
+its soul merely serving during life, as salt, to keep the flesh from
+putrefying.[576] The determining reason, however, appears to have been,
+that they could make no other use of him, since he would neither plough
+like the ox, nor be saddled and mounted like the horse or ass, nor
+become a pleasant companion, or guard the house, like the dog.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 575:
+
+ Plato, De Legg. vi. t. vii. p. 471.
+
+Footnote 576:
+
+ Cicero, De Natura Deorum, ii. 64. Dion. Chrysost. i. 280, cum not.
+ Reisk.
+
+-----
+
+It was long before men in any country slew the ox for food; his great
+utility was his protection, and in some parts of the East the
+well-meaning priesthood at length compassed him round with the armour of
+superstition, which outlasted the occasion, and in India has come down
+in nearly all its strength to our own day. It was otherwise in Greece.
+There common sense quickly dissipated the illusion, which, while it was
+necessary, had guarded the ox, and beef became the favourite food of its
+hardy and active inhabitants, who likewise fed indiscriminately on
+sheep, goats, deer, hares, and almost every other animal, wild or tame.
+
+It has been seen that in remote ages fish did not constitute any great
+part of the sustenance of the Greeks. But public opinion afterwards
+underwent a very considerable change. From having been held in so little
+estimation as to be left chiefly to the use of the poor, in the
+historical ages it became their greatest luxury.[577] And there arose
+among gourmands, those ancient St. Simonians, whose god was their belly,
+a kind of enthusiastic rivalry as to who should be first in the morning
+at the fish-market, and bear away, as in triumph, the largest Copaic
+eels, the finest pair of soles, or the freshest _anthias_.[578] On this
+subject, therefore, our details must be somewhat more elaborate than on
+beef and mutton. And first, we shall take the reader along with us to
+the market, whither it will be advisable that he carry as little money
+as possible, since, according to the comic poets, your Athenian
+fishmonger, not content with being a mere rogue, dealt a little also in
+the assassin’s trade.[579]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 577:
+
+ The Pythagoreans, however, must be excluded from this category since
+ they abstained from fish because they kept perpetual silence like
+ themselves.—Athen. vii. 80. Another and a better reason, perhaps, may
+ be discovered in a passage of Archestratos, who, observing that the
+ sea-dog is delicious eating, proceeds to dispose of the objection that
+ it feeds on human flesh, by saying, that all fish do the same. Id.
+ vii. 85. From this fact the Pythagoreans esteemed fish-eaters no
+ better than cannibals at second-hand.
+
+Footnote 578:
+
+ Cf. Schol. Aristoph. Acharn. 525.
+
+Footnote 579:
+
+ Amphis ap. Athen. vi. 5.
+
+-----
+
+The first thing which a rich gourmand inquired in the morning was, which
+way the wind blew. If from the north, and there was anything like a sea,
+he remained sullenly at home, for no fishing smacks could in that case
+make the Peiræeus;[580] but if the wind sat in any other quarter, out he
+went eagerly and stealthily with a slave and basket[581] at his heels,
+casting about anxious looks to discover whether any other impassioned
+fish-eater had got the start of him on his way to the Agora, who might
+clear the stalls of the best anthias or thunny before he could reach the
+spot.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 580:
+
+ Athen. viii. 81. Cf. Xenoph. Hellen. v. i. 23.
+
+Footnote 581:
+
+ This basket was usually of rushes, in form like a basin, and with a
+ handle passing over the top.—Antich. di Ercol. tav. 21. tom. i. p.
+ 111.
+
+-----
+
+The unmoneyed rogue, however, whose ambitious taste soared to these
+expensive dainties, approached the market with a rueful countenance.
+Thus we find a poor fellow describing, in Antiphanes, his morning’s
+pilgrimage in search of a pair of soles:
+
+ I once believed the Gorgons fabulous:
+ But in the agora quickly changed my creed,
+ And turned almost to stone, the pests beholding
+ Standing behind the fish stalls. Forced I am
+ To look another way when I accost them,
+ Lest if I saw the fish they ask so much for,
+ I should at once grow marble.[582]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 582:
+
+ Athen. vi. 4.
+
+-----
+
+Amphis, another comic poet, supplies us with further details respecting
+the hardships encountered by those who had to deal with fishmongers at
+Athens. Much of his wit is, I fear, intransferable, depending in a great
+measure on the vernacular clipping of Greek common in the market-place.
+But the sense, at least, may perhaps be given:
+
+ “Ten thousand times more easy ’tis to gain
+ Admission to a haughty general’s tent,
+ And have discourse of him, than in the market
+ Audience to get of a cursed fishmonger.
+ If you draw near and say, How much, my friend,
+ Costs _this_ or _that_?—No answer. Deaf you think
+ The rogue must be, or stupid; for he heeds not
+ A syllable you say, but o’er his fish
+ Bends silently like Telephos (and with good reason,
+ For his whole race he knows are cut-throats all).
+ Another minding not, or else not hearing,
+ Pulls by the legs a polypus.[583] A third
+ With saucy carelessness replies, ‘Four oboli,
+ That’s just the price. For this no less than eight.
+ Take it or leave it!’”[584]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 583:
+
+ Cf. Chandler, ii. 143. Plin. Hist. Nat. ix. 45, seq.
+
+Footnote 584:
+
+ Athen. vi. 5.
+
+-----
+
+Alexis, too, that most comic of comic writers, seems to have imagined,
+that the humour of his pieces would be incomplete without a spice of the
+fishmonger. Commencing, like Amphis, with an allusion to the haughty
+airs of military men, he glides into his subject as follows:—
+
+ However, this is still endurable.
+ But when a paltry fishfag will look big,
+ Cast down his eyes affectedly, or bend
+ His eyebrows upwards like a fullstrained bow,
+ I burst with rage. Demand what price he asks
+ For—say two mullets; and he answers straight
+ “Ten obols”—“Ten? That’s dear: will you take eight?”
+ “Yes, if one fish will serve you.”—“Friend, no jokes;
+ I am no subject for your mirth.”—“Pass on, Sir!
+ And buy elsewhere.”—Now tell me is not this
+ Bitterer than gall?[585]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 585:
+
+ Athen. vi. 5.
+
+-----
+
+But if the reader should be disposed to infer from these testimonies
+that the fishmongering race were saucy only at Athens, he will be in
+danger of falling into error. Throughout the ancient world they were the
+same, and we fear that should any poor devil from Grub-street, or the
+_Quartier Latin_, presume to dispute respecting the price of salmon with
+one of their cockney or Parisian descendants, he would meet with little
+more politeness. At all events their manners had not improved in the
+Eternal city,[586] for it is _a propos_ of the Roman fishfags that
+Athenæus brings forward his examples of like insolence elsewhere. The
+poet Diphilos would appear, like Archestratos, to have travelled in
+search of good fish and civil fishmongers, but his labours were
+fruitless; he might as well have peregrinated the world in the hope of
+finding that island where soles are caught ready-fried in the sea. Such
+at least is the tenour of his own complaint:
+
+ Troth, in my greener days I had some notion
+ That here at Athens only, rogues sold fish;
+ But everywhere, it seems, like wolf or fox,
+ The race is treacherous by nature found.
+ However, we have one scamp in the agora
+ Who beats all others hollow. On his head
+ A most portentous fell of hair nods thick
+ And shades his brow. Observing your surprise,
+ He has his reasons pat; it grows forsooth
+ To form, when shorn, an offering to some god!
+ But that’s a feint, ’tis but to hide the scars
+ Left by the branding iron upon his forehead.
+ But, passing that, you ask perchance the price
+ Of a sea-wolf—“Ten oboli”—very good.
+ You count the money. “Oh not those,” he cries,
+ “Æginetan I meant.” Still you comply.
+ But if you trust him with a larger piece,
+ And there be change to give; mark how the knave
+ Now counts in Attic coin, and thus achieves
+ A two-fold robbery in the same transaction![587]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 586:
+
+ Deipnosoph. vi. 4.
+
+Footnote 587:
+
+ Athen. vi. 6.
+
+-----
+
+Xenarchos paints a little scene of ingenious roguery with a comic
+extravagance altogether Shakespearian, and incidentally throws light on
+a curious law of Athens, enacted to protect the citizens against
+stinking fish.[588] The power of invention, he observes—willing to kill
+two birds with one stone—had totally deserted the poets in order to take
+up with the fishmongers; for while the former merely hashed up old
+ideas, the latter were always hitting upon new contrivances to poison
+the Demos:
+
+ Commend me for invention to the rogue
+ Who sells fish in the agora. He knows
+ In fact there’s no mistaking,—that the law
+ Clearly and formally forbids the trick
+ Of reconciling stale fish to the nose
+ By constant watering. But if some poor wight
+ Detect him in the fact, forthwith he picks
+ A quarrel, and provokes his man to blows.
+ He wheels meanwhile about his fish, looks sharp
+ To catch the nick of time, reels, feigns a hurt:
+ And prostrate falls, just in the right position.
+ A friend placed there on purpose, snatches up
+ A pot of water, sprinkles a drop or two,
+ For form’s sake on his face, but by mistake,
+ As you must sure believe, pours all the rest
+ Full on the fish, so that almost you might
+ Consider them fresh caught.[589]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 588:
+
+ The longer to preserve fish fresh, the Orientals sometimes cover them
+ with a coating of wax. Mullets, caught at Damietta, are sent, thus
+ preserved, throughout the Turkish Empire, as well as to different
+ parts of Europe. Pococke’s Description of the East.
+
+Footnote 589:
+
+ Our readers will probably remember the good old Italian marchioness,
+ who having, perhaps, been cajoled, by the blarney of some Hibernian
+ peripatetic, into the purchase of a pair of strong-odoured soles,
+ recommended to our magistrates the adoption of an ordinance passed, as
+ she affirmed, by his grace of Tuscany. In that prince’s territories,
+ she assured their worships, the man who has fish to sell, must
+ transact business standing on one leg in a bucket of hot water, a
+ practice undoubtedly calculated to induce despatch and prevent
+ haggling. This Tuscan enactment might evidently have been adopted with
+ great advantage at Athens, where, however, legislation proceeded on
+ exactly the same principles, and attained in this point an almost
+ equal degree of perfection.
+
+-----
+
+By a law passed at the instance of the wealthy Aristonicos, himself no
+doubt an ichthyophagos, the penalty of imprisonment was decreed against
+all those who, having named a price for their fish, should take less, in
+order that they might at once demand what was just and no more. In
+consequence of this enactment, an old woman or a child might be sent to
+the fish-market, without danger of being cheated. According to another
+provision of this Golden Law, as it is termed by Alexis, fishmongers
+were compelled to stand at their stalls and not to sit as had previously
+been the custom. The comic poet, in the fulness of his charity,
+expresses a hope that they might be all _suspended_ aloft on the
+following year, by which means, he says, they would get a quicker sight
+of their customers, and carry on their dealings with mankind from a
+machine like the gods of tragedy.[590]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 590:
+
+ Athen. vi. 8.
+
+-----
+
+In consequence no doubt of the perpetually increasing demand, fish was
+extremely dear at Athens. Accordingly Diphilos, addressing himself to
+Poseidon, who, as god of the sea, was god also of its inhabitants,
+informs him that, could he but secure the tithe of fish, he would soon
+become the wealthiest divinity in Olympos. Among those who distinguished
+themselves in this business in the agora, and apparently became rich, it
+is probable that many were metoiki, such as Hermæos, the Egyptian, and
+Mikion, who, though his country is not mentioned, was probably not an
+Athenian. In proportion as they grew opulent, the gourmands on whom they
+preyed became poor, and doubtless there was too much truth in the satire
+which represented men dissipating their whole fortunes in the
+frying-pan. There were those also it seems who spent their evenings on
+the highway, in order to furnish their daily table with such dainties.
+For this fact we have the satisfactory testimony of Alexis in his
+Heiress:
+
+ Mark you a fellow who, however scant
+ In all things else, hath still wherewith to purchase
+ Cod, eel, or anchovies, be sure i’ the dark
+ He lies about the road in wait for travellers.
+ If therefore you’ve been robbed o’ernight, just go
+ At peep of dawn to th’ agora and seize
+ The first athletic, ragged vagabond
+ Who cheapens eels of Mikion. He, be sure,
+ And none but he’s the thief: to prison with him![591]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 591:
+
+ Athen. vi. 10. 12.
+
+-----
+
+They had at Corinth a pretty strict police regulation on this subject.
+When any person was observed habitually to purchase fish, he was
+interrogated by the authorities respecting his means. If found to be a
+man of property they suffered him to do what he pleased with his own;
+but, in the contrary event, he received a gentle hint that the state had
+its eye upon him. The neglect of this admonition was followed, in the
+first place, by a fine, and ultimately, if persevered in, by a
+punishment equivalent to the treadmill.[592] These matters were in
+Athens submitted to the cognizance of two or three magistrates, called
+Opsonomoi, nominated by the Senate.[593] With respect to the purchase of
+this class of viands, everywhere attended with peculiar difficulties, it
+may be said, that the ancients had considerably the advantage of us;
+since in Lynceus of Samos’s “Fish-buyer’s Manual,” they possessed a sure
+guide through all the intricacies of bargaining in the agora.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 592:
+
+ Diphilos apud Athen. vi. 12.
+
+Footnote 593:
+
+ Athen. vi. 72.
+
+-----
+
+But before we proceed further with this part of our subject, we will
+demand permission of Lynceus to hear what Hesiod has to say of saltfish,
+on which Euthydemos, the Athenian, composed a separate treatise.
+According to this poet, who boldly speaks of cities erected long after
+his death, immense quantities of fish were salted on the Bosporos,
+sometimes entire, as in modern times,[594] sometimes cut into gobbets of
+a moderate size. Among these were the oxyrinchos whose taste proved
+often fatal, the thunny, and the mackerel. The little city of Parion
+furnished the best kolias (a kind of mackerel), and the Tarentine
+merchants brought to Athens pickled orcynos from Cadiz, cut into small
+triangular pieces, in jars.[595] Physicians, indeed, inveighed against
+these relishes; but the gourmands would consult only their palates and
+preferred a short life with pickled thunny to that of Saturn himself on
+beef and mutton.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 594:
+
+ Herod. iv. 53.
+
+Footnote 595:
+
+ Athen. iii. 84.
+
+-----
+
+But the Hesiod of Euthydemos (a creation probably of his own) is but
+very poor authority compared with Archestratos, who made the pilgrimage
+of the world in search of good cheer, and afterwards, for the benefit of
+posterity, treasured up his experience in a grand culinary epic. In his
+opinion a slice of Sicilian thunny was a rare delicacy, while the
+saperda, though brought from the Pontos Euxinos, he held as cheap as
+those who boasted of it.[596] The scombros, by some supposed to be a
+species of thunny, though others understand by it the common mackerel,
+stood high in the estimation of this connoisseur. He directs that it be
+left in salt three days, and eaten before it begins to melt into
+brine.[597] In his estimation the horaion[598] of Byzantium was likewise
+a great delicacy, which he advises the traveller, who might pass through
+that city, to taste by all means. It seems to have been there what
+macaroni is at Naples.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 596:
+
+ Athen. iii. 85.
+
+Footnote 597:
+
+ Athen. iii. 85. The Scomber Pelamys or mackerel of Pallas, caught in
+ the Black Sea, is pickled in casks and not eaten for a twelvemonth.
+ Travels in Southern Russia, iv. 242.
+
+Footnote 598:
+
+ Poterant ὡραῖα nominari, ut _vere_ vel initio æstatis salita, quo
+ tempore minus pinguis totus piscis esset. Schweigh. Animadv. in Athen.
+ iii. 85. t. vii. 313. Cf. Plin. Nat. Hist. xxxii. 53. Gesner, De
+ Salsamentis.
+
+-----
+
+Alexis, in one of his comedies, introduces the Symposiarch of an Eranos
+(president of a picnic) accounting with one of the subscribers who comes
+to demand back his ring, and in the course of the dialogue, where
+something like Falstaff’s tavern-bill is discussed, we find the prices
+of several kinds of salt-fish. An omotarichos (shoulder piece of thunny)
+is charged at five chalci; a dish of sea-mussels, seven chalci, of
+sea-urchins, an obol, a slice of kybion, three obols, a conger eel, ten,
+and another plate of broiled fish, a drachma. This comic writer[599]
+rates the fish of the Nile very low, and he is quite right, for they are
+generally muddy and ill-tasted, though the Copts, who have considerable
+experience during Lent, contrive, by the application of much
+Archestratic skill, to render some kinds of them palatable. Sophocles,
+in a fragment of his lost drama of Phineus, speaks of salt-fish embalmed
+like an Egyptian mummy.[600] Stock-fish, as I know to my cost, is still
+a fashionable dish in the Mediterranean, especially on board ship, and
+from a proverb preserved by Athenæus we find it was likewise in use
+among the Athenians.[601]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 599:
+
+ Ap. Athen. iii. 86. Cf. Herod. ii. 77.
+
+Footnote 600:
+
+ Athen. iii. 86.
+
+Footnote 601:
+
+ Deipnosoph. iii. 89.
+
+-----
+
+The passion of this refined people for salt-fish furnished them with an
+occasion of showing their gratitude publicly. They bestowed the rights
+of citizenship on the sons of Chæriphilos, a metoikos who first
+introduced among them a knowledge of this sort of food.[602] A similar
+feeling prompted the Dutch to erect a statue to G. Bukel, the man who
+taught them to salt herrings.[603]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 602:
+
+ Athen. iii. 90.
+
+Footnote 603:
+
+ Goguet, Origine des Loix, i. 254.
+
+-----
+
+Without enumerating a tenth part of the other species eaten among the
+Greeks, we pass to the shell-fish, of which they were likewise great
+amateurs. Epicharmos, in his marriage of Hebe, supplies a curious list,
+which, however, might be extended almost ad infinitum. Among these were
+immense limpets, the buccinum, the cecibalos, the tethynakion, the
+sea-acorn, the purple fish, oysters hard to open but easy to swallow,
+mussels, sea-snails or periwinkles, skiphydria sweet to taste but
+prickly to touch, large shelled razor-fish, the black conch, and the
+amathitis. The conch was also called tellinè as the same poet in his
+Muses observes. Alcæos wrote a song to the limpet beginning with
+
+ “Child of the rock and hoary sea.”[604]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 604:
+
+ Athen. iii. 30, 31. Cf. Scheigh. Animadv. t. vii. p. 68, sqq.
+
+-----
+
+Boys used to make a sort of whistle of tortoise and mussel shells. These
+mussels were usually broiled on the coals, and Aristophanes, very
+ingenious in his similes, compares a gaping silly fellow to a mussel in
+the act of being cooked.[605]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 605:
+
+ Fragm. Babylon. 2. Brunck. Athen. iii. 33.
+
+-----
+
+Like the sepia, of which excellent pilaus are made at Alexandria, the
+porphyra or purple fish was very good eating, and thickened the liquor
+in which it was boiled.[606] There was a small delicate shell-fish
+caught on the island of Pharos and adjacent coasts of Egypt, which they
+called Aphrodite’s ear,[607] and there is still found on the same coast
+near Canopos a diminutive and beautiful rose-coloured conch called
+Venus’s nipple. On the same shore, about the rise of the Nile, that
+species of mussel called tellinè was caught in great abundance, but the
+best-tasted were said to be found in the river itself. A still finer
+kind were in season about autumn in the vicinity of Ephesos. The
+echinos, or sea-chestnut,[608] cooked with oxymel, parsley, and mint,
+was esteemed good and wholesome eating. Those caught about Cephalonia,
+Icaria, and Achaia were bitterish, those of Sicily laxative; the best
+were the red and the quince coloured. A laughable anecdote is told of a
+Spartan, who being invited to dine where sea-chestnuts were brought to
+table, took one upon his plate, and not knowing how they were eaten put
+it into his mouth, shell and all. Finding it exceedingly unmanageable,
+he turned it about for some time, seeking slowly and cautiously to
+discover the knack of eating it. But the rough and prickly shell still
+resisting his efforts, his temper grew ruffled: crunching it fiercely he
+exclaimed, “Detestable beast! Well! I will not let thee go now, after
+having thus ground thee to pieces; but assuredly I will never touch thee
+again.”
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 606:
+
+ Athen. iii. 30. During their long fasts the modern Greeks also eat the
+ cuttle-fish, snails, &c. Chandler, ii. 143.
+
+Footnote 607:
+
+ Athen. iii. 35.
+
+Footnote 608:
+
+ Athen. iii. 40. The taking of this fish at Sunium is thus described by
+ Chandler: “Meanwhile our sailors, except two or three who accompanied
+ us, stripped to their drawers to bathe, all of them swimming and
+ diving remarkably well; some running about on the sharp rocks with
+ their naked feet, as if devoid of feeling, and some examining the
+ bottom of the clear water for the Echinus or sea-chestnut, a species
+ of shell-fish common on this coast, and now in perfection, the moon
+ being nearly at the full.” Vol. ii. p. 8.
+
+-----
+
+Oysters were esteemed good when boiled with mallows, or monks’
+rhubarb.[609] In general, however, the physicians of antiquity
+considered them hard of digestion. But lest the shelled-fish should
+usurp more space than is their due, we shall conclude with Archestratos’
+list, in which he couples with each the name of the place where the best
+were caught:
+
+ For mussels you must go to Ænos; oysters
+ You’ll find best at Abydos. Parion
+ Rejoices in its urchins; but if cockles
+ Gigantic and sweet-tasted you would eat,
+ A voyage must be made to Mitylene,
+ Or the Ambracian Gulf, where they abound
+ With many other dainties. At Messina,
+ Near to the Faro, are pelorian conchs,
+ Nor are those bad you find near Ephesos;
+ For Tethyan oysters, go to Chalcedon;
+ But for the Heralds,[610] may Zeus overwhelm them
+ Both in the sea and in the agora!
+ Aye, all except my old friend Agathon,
+ Who in the midst of Lesbian vineyards dwells.[611]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 609:
+
+ Demet. Scep. ap. Athen. iii. 41.
+
+Footnote 610:
+
+ The κήρυξ, ceryx, so called because the Heralds (κήρυκες) used its
+ shell instead of a trumpet, when making proclamation of any decree in
+ the agora.
+
+Footnote 611:
+
+ Athen. iii. 44. Cf. Polluc. vi. 47. The ancients made the most of
+ their fish in every way. They were hawked about the streets in
+ rush-baskets, as with us.—Athen. vii. 72.
+
+-----
+
+We have already mentioned the magnificent eels of Lake Copais,[612] in
+Bœotia, a longing for which appears to have been Aristophanes’s chief
+motive for desiring an end to the Peloponnesian war. Next in excellence
+were those caught in the river Strymon, and the Faro of Messina.[613]
+The ellops, by some supposed to be the sword-fish,[614] was found in
+greatest perfection near Syracuse; at least, in the opinion of
+Archestratos; but Varro and Pliny give the preference to that of Rhodes,
+and others to that of the Pamphylian sea.[615] The red mullet, the
+hepsetos, the hepatos, the elacaten, the thunny, the hippouros, the
+hippos, or sea-horse, found in perfection on the shores[616] of
+Phœnicia, the ioulis, the kichlè, or sea-thrush, the sea-boar, the
+citharos, the kordylos, the river cray-fish, the shark, which was eaten
+when young, the mullet, the coracinos, the carp, the gudgeon, the
+sea-cuckoo, the sea-wolf, the latos, the leobatos, or smooth ray, the
+lamprey,[617] the myræna, the anchovy,[618] the black tail, the torpedo,
+the mormyros, the orphos, the onos, the polypus, the crab, the
+sea-perch, the physa, or sea-tench, the raphis, the sea-dog,[619] the
+scaros, the sparos, the scorpios, the salpe, or stock-fish, the synodon,
+the sauros, the scepinos, or halibut, the sciaina, the syagris, the
+sphyræna, the sepia, the tœnia, the skate, the cuttle-fish, the hyca,
+the phagros, the perca cabrilla, the chromis, the gilthead, the
+trichidon, the thratta, and the turbot;[620] such is a list of the fish
+in common use among the Greeks. The species it will be seen has not in
+many cases been ascertained.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 612:
+
+ Sch. Aristoph. Acharn. 845. Lysist. 36. There were in the fountain at
+ Arethusa, as we are told by the philosophical Plutarch, eels that
+ understood their own names.—Solert. Anim. § 23.
+
+Footnote 613:
+
+ Archestratos gives the preference over all other eels to those caught
+ in the Faro of Messina. Athen. vii. 53. Very excellent and large eels
+ are taken in the lake of Korion, in Crete, according to the testimony
+ of Buondelmonte. Pashley, i. 72.
+
+Footnote 614:
+
+ On the sword-fish fishery in the Strait of Messina, see Spallanzani’s
+ Travels in the Two Sicilies, vol. iv. p. 331, sqq.
+
+Footnote 615:
+
+ Athen. vii. 57. Animadv. t. ix. p. 220.
+
+Footnote 616:
+
+ The finest prawns were taken at Minturnæ, on the coast of Campania,
+ exceeding in size those of Smyrna, and the crabs (ἀστακοὶ) of
+ Alexandria.—Athen. i. 12.
+
+Footnote 617:
+
+ See on Crassus’s lamprey. Plut. Solert. Animal. § 23.
+
+Footnote 618:
+
+ Esteemed a delicacy cooked with leeks. Aristoph. Vesp. 494. Cf.
+ Acharn. 901. Av. 76.
+
+Footnote 619:
+
+ See Spallanzani’s Travels in the Two Sicilies, vol. iv. p. 343, sqq.
+
+Footnote 620:
+
+ Athen. vii. 16–39. Aristot. Hist. Anim. iv. 2–6. viii. 3, 4, 5, 16.
+
+-----
+
+
+
+
+ CHAPTER IV.
+ POULTRY, FRUIT, WINE, ETC.
+
+
+The reader by this time will, probably, be willing to escape from fish,
+though it would be easy to treat him to many new kinds, and along with
+us take a slice of Greek pheasant, or the breast of an Egyptian quail.
+In other words, he will hear what we have to say on Hellenic poultry.
+Chrysippos, in his treatise on things desirable in themselves, appears
+to have reckoned Athenian cocks and hens among the number, and
+reprehends the people of Attica for importing, at great expense,
+barn-door fowls from the shores of the Adriatic, though of smaller size,
+and much inferior to their own; while the inhabitants of those
+countries, on the other hand, were anxious to possess Attic
+poultry.[621] Matron, the parodist, who furnishes an amusing description
+of an Athenian repast, observes, that excellent wild ducks were brought
+to town from Salamis, where they grew fat in great numbers on the
+borders of the sacred Lake.[622]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 621:
+
+ Athen. vii. 23.
+
+Footnote 622:
+
+ Athen. iv. 23.
+
+-----
+
+The thrush,[623] reckoned among the greatest delicacies of the ancients,
+generally at grand entertainments formed part of the propoma, or first
+course, and was eaten with little cakes, called ametiskoi. If we may
+credit Epicharmos, a decided preference was given to such as fed on the
+olive. Aristotle divides the thrush into three species, the first and
+largest of which he denominates Ixophagos, or the “mistletoe-eater;” it
+was of the size of a magpie. The second, equal in bigness to the black
+bird, he calls Trichas,[624] and the third, and smallest kind, which was
+named Ilas or Tulas, according to Alexander, the Myndian, went in
+flocks, and built its nest like the swallow.[625] Next in excellence to
+the thrush was a bird known by a variety of names, elaios, pirias,
+sycalis,[626] the beccafico of the moderns, which was thought to be in
+season when the figs were ripe. They likewise ate the turtle and the
+ringdove,[627] which are excellent in Egypt; the chaffinch, to whose
+qualities I cannot bear testimony; and the blackbird. Nor did they spare
+the starling, the jackdaw, or the strouthanion, a small bird for which
+modern languages cannot afford a name. Brains were thought by the
+ancient philosophers an odious and cannibal-like food, because they are
+the fountain of all sensation; but this did not prevent the gourmands
+from converting pigs’ brains into a dainty dish,[628] and their taste
+has maintained its ground in Italy. Partridges, wood-pigeons, geese,
+quails, jays, are also enumerated among the materials of an Hellenic
+banquet.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 623:
+
+ The solitary sparrow inhabits the cliffs of Delphi, and the
+ song-thrush is heard in the pine woods of Parnassus. Above these, when
+ the heights of the mountain are covered with snow, is seen the
+ Emberiza Nivalis, inhabitant alike of the frozen Spitzbergen, and of
+ the Grecian Alp.—Sibthorpe in Walp. Mem. i. 76, seq. Homer is said to
+ have written a poem called Ἐπικιχλίδες, because when he sung it to the
+ boys they rewarded him with thrushes. In consequence of the estimation
+ in which these birds were held κιχλίζω “to feed on thrushes,” came to
+ signify “to live luxuriously.”—Payne Knight, Prolegg. ad Hom. p. 8.
+
+Footnote 624:
+
+ The red-winged thrush, well known to sportsmen in hard weather.
+
+Footnote 625:
+
+ Athen. ii. 68.
+
+Footnote 626:
+
+ Arist. Hist. Anim. viii. 3. p. 221. ix. 49. p. 305. Bekk.
+
+Footnote 627:
+
+ The turtle and the wood-pigeon are found in the woods and thickets.
+ Among the larks, I observed the crested lark to be the most frequent
+ species, with a small sort, probably the alauda campestris of Linnæus.
+ Blackbirds frequent the olive grounds of Pendeli.—Sibth. in Walp. Mem.
+ i. 76.
+
+Footnote 628:
+
+ Athen. ii. 69–72.
+
+-----
+
+Goose’s liver was in extreme request both at Rome and Athens.[629]
+Another dainty was a cock served up with a rich sauce, containing much
+vinegar. Aristophanes speaks of the pheasant in his comedy of the Birds;
+and, again, in the Clouds, Athenæus rightly supposes him to mean this
+bird, where others imagine he alludes to the horses of the Phasis.
+Mnesilochos, a writer of the middle comedy, classes a plucked pheasant
+with _hen’s milk_, among things equally difficult to be met with, which
+shows that the bird had not then become common. It obtained its name
+from being found in immense numbers about the embouchure of the Phasis,
+and the bird was evidently propagated very slowly in Greece and Egypt,
+since we find Ptolemy Philadelphos, in a grand public festival at
+Alexandria, exhibiting it, among other rarities, such as parroquets,
+peacocks, guinea-fowl, and Ethiopian birds in cages.[630]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 629:
+
+ See the fragment of Eubulos’s Garland-Seller, in Athen. ix. 33.
+
+Footnote 630:
+
+ Athen. ix. 38.
+
+-----
+
+Among the favourite game of the Athenian gourmands was the Attagas,[631]
+or francolin, a little larger than the partridge, variegated with
+numerous spots, and of common tile colour, somewhat inclining to red. It
+is said to have been introduced from Lydia into Greece, and was found in
+extraordinary abundance in the Megaris. Another of their favourites was
+the porphyrion, a bird which might with great advantage be introduced
+into many countries of modern Europe, since it was exceedingly domestic,
+and kept strict watch over the married women, whose _faux pas_ it
+immediately detected and revealed to their husbands, after which,
+knowing the revengeful spirit of ladies so situated, it very prudently
+hung itself. It is no wonder, therefore, that the breed has long been
+extinct, or that the remnant surviving has taken refuge in some remote
+region, where wives require no such vigilant guardians. In the matter of
+eating it agreed exactly with Lord Byron, loving to feast alone, and in
+retired nooks, where none could observe. Aristotle describes this half
+fabulous bird as unwebfooted, of blue colour, with long legs, and red
+beak. The porphyrion was about the size of a cock, and originally a
+native of Libya, where it was esteemed sacred.[632]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 631:
+
+ No bird appears to have puzzled commentators more than the _attagas_,
+ some supposing it to be the _francolin_, or grouse, which is
+ Schneider’s opinion; others, as Passow, the _hazel-hen_; others,
+ again, as Ainsworth, consider it to have been a delicious bird,
+ resembling our wood-cock, or snipe. Mr. Mitchell’s edit. of the
+ Acharnæ of Aristophanes, 783.—This learned writer professes not to
+ understand what Schneider means by _francolin_. The word in Italian is
+ _francolino_, as appears from Bellon. v. 6: Les Italiens ont nommé cet
+ oiseau Francolin, que parcequ’il est franc dans ce pays, c’est-à-dire,
+ qu’il est defendu au peuple d’en tuer: il n’y a que les princes qui
+ aient cette prérogative.—Valmont de Bomare, ii. 739.—Hardouin thinks,
+ that the Attagas is the _gallina rustica_, or _gelinotte de bois_,
+ which Laveaux explains to be a sort of partridge.—Cf. Dict. Franç. in
+ voce, and Plin. Hist. Nat. xi. 68. ed. Franz. Cf. Schol. Aristoph.
+ Vesp. 257. This bird was plentiful about Marathon, Pac. 249.
+
+Footnote 632:
+
+ Athen. ix. 40. Aristoph. Hist. Anim. i. 17. viii. 6.
+
+-----
+
+Another bird common in Greece, but now no longer known, was the
+porphyris, by some confounded with the foregoing. Of the partridge,
+common throughout Europe, we need merely remark, that both the gray and
+the red (the _bartavelle_ of the French) were common in Greece.
+
+If we pass from the poultry to puddings and soups,[633] we shall find
+that the Athenians were not ill-provided with these dainties. They even
+converted gruel into a delicacy,[634] and it is said, that the best was
+made at Megara. They had bean soup, flour soup, ptisans made with
+pearl-barley or groats.[635] We hear, also, of a delicately-powdered
+dish or soup which was sprinkled over with fine flour and olives. The
+polphos, evidently _soupe à la julienne_, is said, by some, to have been
+composed of scraped roots, vegetables, and flour. Others take it to mean
+a sort of made-dish, resembling macaroni or vermicelli. Another kind of
+soup was the _kidron_, which, according to Pollux,[636] they made of
+green wheat, roasted and reduced to powder.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 633:
+
+ Schol. Aristoph. Eq. 103.
+
+Footnote 634:
+
+ Schol. Aristoph. Eq. 803.—It was thought, also, to deserve a place
+ among the offerings to Asclepios, especially by pious old women, who,
+ having lost their teeth, could eat nothing else. In lieu of the
+ classical name of ἀθάρα, this gruel obtained, in the dialect of the
+ common people, the more homely designation of κουρκούτη. Schol. Plut.
+ 673.
+
+Footnote 635:
+
+ Athen. iii. 101. iv. 30.
+
+Footnote 636:
+
+ Onomast. vi. 62.—Made usually from panic seed in Caria.—Schol.
+ Aristoph. Pac. 580, et Eq. 803. Cf. Goguet, Origine des Loix, i. 212.
+
+-----
+
+There was one dish fashionable among the ancient Greeks mistaken by our
+neighbours, the French, for plum-pudding, which is still found in
+perfection in the Levant, where I have many times eaten of it. Julius
+Pollux[637] has preserved the recipe for making it, and we can assure
+our gourmands, that nothing more exquisite was ever tasted, even in the
+best café of the Palais Royal. They took a certain quantity of the
+finest clarified lard, and, mixing it up with milk until it was quite
+thick, added an equal portion of new cheese, yolks of eggs, and the
+finest flour. The whole rolled up tight in a fragrant fig-leaf, was then
+cooked in chicken-broth, or soup made with kid’s flesh. When they
+considered it well done, the leaf was removed and the pudding soused in
+boiling honey. It was then served up hissing-hot. All the ingredients
+were used in equal proportions, excepting the yolks of eggs, of which
+there was somewhat more than of anything else, in order to give firmness
+and consistency to the whole.[638]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 637:
+
+ Onomast. i. 237. vi. 57, 69.
+
+Footnote 638:
+
+ Vid. Schol. Arist. Eq. 949. Acharn. 1066.
+
+-----
+
+Black puddings, made with blood, suet, and the other materials now used
+were also common at Athens.[639] Mushrooms and snails were great
+favourites; and Poliochos speaks of going out in the dewy mornings in
+search of these luxuries.[640] In spring, before the arrival of the
+swallow, the nettle was collected and eaten, it being then young and
+tender.[641] Leeks, onions, garlic, were in much request, the last
+particularly, which grew in great plenty in the Megarean territory, and
+hence, perhaps, the inhabitants were accounted hot and quarrelsome,
+garlic being supposed to inspire game, even in fighting cocks, to which
+it was accordingly given in great quantities.[642]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 639:
+
+ Aristoph. Eq. 208.
+
+Footnote 640:
+
+ Athen. ii. 19.
+
+Footnote 641:
+
+ Aristoph. Eq. 422. Brunck.
+
+Footnote 642:
+
+ Aristoph. Pac. 503.
+
+-----
+
+Among the herbs eaten by his countrymen, Hesiod enumerates the
+mallow,[643] and the asphodel, which are likewise said by Aristophanes
+to have constituted a great part of the food of the early Greeks.
+Gœttling, therefore, not without reason, wonders that Pythagoras should
+have prohibited the use of the mallow. Lupines, pomegranates,
+horse-radish, the dregs of grapes and olives, all of which entered into
+the material of an Attic entertainment, were commonly cried about the
+streets of Athens.[644] But these edible lupines, (θέρμοι) still eaten
+by the Egyptian peasantry and the poor generally throughout the Levant,
+must be distinguished from the common species. An anecdote of Zeno, of
+Cittion, will illustrate the character of this kind of pulse, with which
+the philosopher was evidently familiar. Being one day asked why, though
+naturally morose, he became quite affable when half-seas-over: “I am
+like the lupine,” he replied, “which, when dry, is very bitter, but
+perfectly sweet and agreeable after it has been well soaked.”[645]
+Kidney-beans, too, were in much request, and pickled olives, slightly
+flavoured with fennel.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 643:
+
+ Cf. Lucian. Amor. § 33.
+
+Footnote 644:
+
+ Cf. Arist. Acharn. 166. Eq. 493. Athen. xiii. 22.
+
+Footnote 645:
+
+ This is as good as the reply of an English labourer who, being
+ reproached for babbling in his drink, replied, “Sir, I am like a
+ hedgehog—when I’m wet I open.”
+
+-----
+
+The radish[646] was esteemed a great delicacy, particularly that of
+Thasos and Bœotia. And the seeds of the ground-pine,[647] still eaten as
+a dessert in Italy, entered, in Greece, also into the list of edible
+fruits.[648] The tree, I am informed, has been introduced into England,
+but I have nowhere seen its fruit brought among pears, walnuts, and
+apples, to table. Hen’s milk has already been spoken of among the good
+things of Hellas;[649] but lest the reader should suspect us of amusing
+him with fables, it should be explained, that the white of an egg was so
+called by Anaxagoras.[650] Eggs of all kinds were much esteemed.
+Sometimes they were boiled hard, and cut in two with a hair; but, many
+writers, confounding ὄα, the berries of the service-tree, with ὠὰ, eggs,
+have imagined that the Athenians, in the capriciousness of their
+culinary taste, actually ate pickled eggs, an idea which stirs to the
+bottom the erudite bile of David Ruhnken.[651] Generally, eggs were
+eaten soft, as with us, or swallowed quite raw. Those of the pea-hen
+were considered the most delicate; next to these, the eggs of the
+chenalopex bergander, or Egyptian goose, and, lastly, those of the hen.
+This, at least, is the opinion of Epicrates and Heracleides, of
+Syracuse, in their treatises on cookery.[652]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 646:
+
+ Hesiod. Oper. et Dies, 41. ed. Gœttling. Aristoph. Plut. 543.
+ Brunck.—Lobeck. Aglaoph. p. 899.
+
+Footnote 647:
+
+ The kernels of the stone-pine are brought to table in Turkey. They are
+ very common in the kitchens of Aleppo.—Russell ap. Walp. Mem. i. 236.
+
+Footnote 648:
+
+ Tim. Lex. Platon. v. στέμφυλα, p. 239. Ruhnken. Athen. ii. 45.
+
+Footnote 649:
+
+ Schol. Aristoph. Vesp. 505.
+
+Footnote 650:
+
+ Athen. ix. 37.
+
+Footnote 651:
+
+ Not. ad Timæi Lex. Plat. p. 189. Cf. Platon. Conviv. Oper. iv. 404.
+ Bekk. Athen. ii. 50.
+
+Footnote 652:
+
+ Athen. ii. 50.
+
+-----
+
+As when an entertainment was given the host necessarily expected his
+guests to make a good dinner, they usually commenced the business of the
+day with an antecœnium or whet, consisting of herbs of the sharpest
+taste. At Athens, the articles which generally composed this course were
+colewort, eggs, oysters, œnomel—a mixture of honey and wine—all supposed
+to create appetite.[653] To these even in later times were added the
+mallow and the asphodel, king’s-spear or day-lily, gourds,[654] melons,
+cucumbers. The melons of Greece are still delicious, and famous as ever
+in the Levant. Antioch was celebrated for its cucumbers, Smyrna for its
+lettuces. Mushrooms were always a favourite dish;[655] and they had
+receipts for producing them, which even now, perhaps, may not be wholly
+unworthy of attention.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 653:
+
+ Potter, Archæol. Græc. iv. 20. Stuck. Antiq. Conviv. iii. 11. Petron.
+ Satyr. § 31. 33.
+
+Footnote 654:
+
+ The σίκυα or long Indian gourd, so called because the seed was first
+ brought from India to Greece. Athen. ii. 53.
+
+Footnote 655:
+
+ Schol. Aristoph. Nub. 189. 191. Eccles. 1092. Theoph. Hist. Plant.
+ vii. 13. 8. Dioscor. ii. 200, seq. Athen. xii. 44. 70. Plin. Hist.
+ Nat. xix. 11.
+
+-----
+
+The use, however, of this kind of food was always attended with great
+danger, there being comparatively few species that could be safely
+eaten. Persons were frequently poisoned by them, and a pretty epigram of
+Euripides has been preserved, commemorating a mother and three children
+who had been thus cut off, in the island of Icaros:
+
+ Bright wanderer through the eternal way,
+ Has sight so sad as that which now
+ Bedims the splendour of thy ray,
+ E’er bid the streams of sorrow flow?
+ Here, side by side, in death are laid
+ Two darling boys, their mother’s care;
+ And here their sister, youthful maid,
+ Near her who nursed and thought them fair.[656]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 656:
+
+ Athen. ii. 57.
+
+-----
+
+Diodes, of Carystos, enumerates among wholesome vegetables the red beet,
+the mallow, the dock, the nettle, orach, the bolbos, or truffle, and the
+mushroom, of which the best kinds were supposed to grow at the foot of
+elm and pine trees.[657]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 657:
+
+ Athen. ii. 57. 59.
+
+-----
+
+The sion[658] (sium latifolium), another of their vegetables, is a plant
+found in marshes and meadows, with the smallage.[659]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 658:
+
+ Plin. Hist. Nat. xix. 11. Schol. Aristoph. Nub. 191. 199.
+
+Footnote 659:
+
+ Dioscorid. ii. 154.
+
+-----
+
+Another plant, of far greater celebrity, was the Silphion,[660] once
+extremely plentiful in Cyrenaica, as also, though of an inferior
+quality, in Syria, Armenia, and Media, but afterwards so rare as to be
+thought extinct. Besides being used in seasoning soups and sauces, and
+mixed with salt for giving a superior flavour to meat, its juice
+occupied a high place among the materia medica.[661] A single plant was
+discovered in the reign of Nero, and sent to Rome as a present to the
+Emperor. Its seed, according to Pollux,[662] was called magudaris, its
+root silphion, the stem caulos, and the leaf maspeton. Be this as it
+may, it communicated to the sauces in which it was infused a pungent and
+somewhat bitter taste, and was in no favour with Archestratos.[663]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 660:
+
+ Sch. Aristoph. Eq. 891.
+
+Footnote 661:
+
+ It is called _laser_, Plin. Hist. Nat. xix. 15. Hard. But Philoxenos,
+ in his Glossary, writes λάσαριον. Idem. See Dioscorid. iii. 76; and
+ Strabo, xi. 13. t. ii. p. 452. Cf. Ezek. Spanh. Diss. iv. De Usu et
+ Præstant. Numism. p. 253, sqq. Brotier, in his notes on Pliny,
+ observes, on the authority of Le Maire, that the Silphion is still
+ found in the neighbourhood of Derné, where it is called _cefie_ or
+ _zerra_.
+
+Footnote 662:
+
+ Onomast. vi. 67.
+
+Footnote 663:
+
+ Ap. Athen. ii. 64.
+
+-----
+
+We come now to the fruit,[664] and shall begin with that which was the
+pride of Attica, the fig.[665] According to traditions fully credited in
+Athens, figs were first produced on a spot near the city, on the road to
+Eleusis, thence called _Hiera Sukè_, “the sacred fig-tree.”[666] Like
+its men, the figs of Attica were esteemed the best in the world, and to
+secure an abundant supply for the use of the inhabitants it was
+forbidden to export them. As might have been expected, however, this
+decree was habitually contravened, and the informers against the
+delinquents were called sycophants, that is, “revealers of figs,”[667] a
+word which has been adopted by most modern languages to signify
+mean-souled, dastardly persons, such as informers always are. The
+fig-tree of Laconia was a dwarfed species, and its fruit, according to
+Aristophanes,[668] savoured of hatred and tyranny, like the people
+themselves.
+
+ There is no kind of fig,
+ Whether little or big,
+ Save the Spartan, which here does not grow;
+ But this, though quite small,
+ Swells with hatred and gall,
+ A stern foe to the Demos, I trow.[669]
+
+Aristophanes, in Athenæus, speaking of fruit, couples myrtle-berries
+with Phibaleian figs.[670]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 664:
+
+ Plat. Tim. t. vii. p. 119. Bruyerin. de Re Cib. 1. xi. p. 447, sqq.
+
+Footnote 665:
+
+ At present the green fig is esteemed insipid in Greece. Hobhouse,
+ Travels, i. 227.
+
+Footnote 666:
+
+ Athen. iii. 6. Meurs. Lect. Att. v. 16. p. 274.
+
+Footnote 667:
+
+ Athen. iii. 6.
+
+Footnote 668:
+
+ Fragm. Γεωργ. iv. t. ii. p. 268. Bekk.
+
+Footnote 669:
+
+ Athen. iii. 7.
+
+Footnote 670:
+
+ See Schol. Aristoph. Acharn. 707.
+
+-----
+
+According to the ancients, there were certain sorts of fig-trees that
+bore twice, thrice, and even four times, in the year. Sosibios, the
+Laconian, attributing the discovery of the fig to Bacchos, observes,
+that for this reason the god was, at Sparta, worshiped under the name of
+_Sukites_. Andriscos, however, and Agasthenes, relate that this divinity
+obtained the name of Meilichios, “the gracious,” among the Naxians
+because he taught them the use of figs. To eat figs at noon was regarded
+as unwholesome; and they were at all times supposed to be highly
+prejudicial to the voice, for which reason singers should carefully
+eschew them.[671]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 671:
+
+ Athen. iii. 19.
+
+-----
+
+The apples of Delphi enjoyed great celebrity, and probably, therefore,
+were mild, since these were thought superior, or at least more
+wholesome, than sharp ones. Quinces they esteemed still more salubrious
+than apples, and, during certain public rejoicings, this fruit, handfuls
+of myrtle-leaves, crowns of roses and violets, were cast before the cars
+of their princes and other great men.[672] The Greeks loved to connect
+something of the marvellous with whatever they admired. To the quince
+they attributed the honour of being a powerful antidote, observing that
+even the Phariac poison, though of extremely rapid operation, lost its
+virulence if poured into any vessel which had held quinces and retained
+their odour.[673] According to Hermon, in his Cretic Glossaries, the
+quince was called Kodumala, in Crete. Sidoüs, a village of Corinthia,
+was famous for its fine apples; and even Corinth itself, the “windy
+Ephyrè” of Homer, produced them in great perfection.
+
+ “O where is the maiden, sweeter far
+ Than the ruddy fruits of Ephyrè are?
+ When the winds of summer have o’er them blown,
+ And their cheeks with autumn’s gold have been strown!”[674]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 672:
+
+ Stesich. ap. Athen. iii. 20.
+
+Footnote 673:
+
+ Athen. iii. 21.
+
+Footnote 674:
+
+ Antigonos Carystios, ap. Athen. iii. 22.
+
+-----
+
+Another favourite fruit was the peach, introduced from Persia into
+Greece.[675] The citron, too, though supposed by some not to have been
+known to the ancient inhabitants of Hellas, perfumed in later ages the
+tables of the Greeks with its delicious fragrance. This is the fruit
+which, according to King Juba, was called in Africa “the apple of the
+Hesperides,” a name bestowed by Timachidas on a rich and fragrant kind
+of pear called _epimelis_. The oldest Greek writer who has described the
+citron tree is Theophrastus,[676] who says it was found in Persia and
+Media. Its leaf, he observes, resembled that of the laurel, the
+strawberry tree, or the walnut. Like the wild pear tree, and the
+oxyacanthos, it has sharp, smooth, and very strong prickles. The fruit
+is not eaten, but together with the leaves exhales a sweet odour, and
+laid with cloths in coffers protects them from the moth. The citron
+tree, is always covered with fruit, some ripe and fit to be gathered,
+others green, with patches of gold; and, in the midst of these, are
+other branches covered thick with blossoms. It now forms the fairest
+ornaments of the gardens of Heliopolis, where it shades the Fountain of
+the Sun.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 675:
+
+ Vict. Var. Lect. p. 892.
+
+Footnote 676:
+
+ Hist. Plantarum, iv. 4. 2. The orange attains great perfection in
+ Crete. Mr. Pashley speaks of twelve different kinds, and nearly as
+ many sorts of lemons. Travels, i. 96, seq.
+
+-----
+
+Antiphanes observes, in his Bœotian, that it had only recently been
+introduced into Attica:
+
+ A. ’Twould be absurd to speak of what’s to eat,
+ As if you thought of such things; but, fair maid,
+ Take of these apples.
+
+ B. Oh, how beautiful!
+
+ A. They are, indeed, since hither they but lately
+ Have come from the great king.
+
+ B. By Phosphoros!
+ I could have thought them from the Hesperian bowers,
+ Where th’ apples are of gold.
+
+ A. There are but three.
+
+ B. The beautiful is no where plentiful.[677]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 677:
+
+ Ap. Athen. iii. 27. Mitford, Hist. Greece, i. 154, note 59, misled by
+ Barthelemy (Anacharsis, ch. 59) confounds Antiphanes, the comic poet,
+ born B. C. 407 (Clinton, Fast. Hellen. ii. 81) with Antiphon, the
+ master of Thucydides, born B. C. 479, and who died in the year 411,
+ four years before the birth of Antiphanes.—Clinton, ii. 31, 37.
+
+-----
+
+Athenæus, after quoting the testimony of poets, relates a curious
+anecdote _à propos_ of citrons, which I shall here repeat: it has,
+probably, some reference to the secret of the Psylli. An opinion, it
+seems, prevailed in Egypt, that a citron eaten the first thing in the
+morning was an antidote against all kinds of poison, whether taken into
+the stomach, or introduced by puncture into the blood, and the notion
+arose out of the following circumstance. A governor of Egypt, in the
+time of the Emperors, had condemned two criminals to be executed, in
+obedience to custom, by the bite of an asp. They were, accordingly, led
+in the morning towards the place of execution, and on the way the
+landlady of an inn, who happened to be eating citrons, compassionating
+their condition, gave them some which they ate. Shortly afterwards they
+were exposed to the hungry serpents, which immediately bit them, but
+instead of exhibiting the usual symptoms followed by death, they
+remained uninjured. At this the governor marvelled much, and at length
+demanded of the soldier who guarded them, whether they had taken
+anything previously to their arrival. Learning what had happened he put
+off the execution to the following day, and ordering a citron to be
+given to one and not to the other, they were once more exposed to the
+bite of the asp. The wretch who had eaten nothing died soon after he was
+bitten, but the other experienced no inconvenience. Similar experiments
+were several times afterwards made by others, until it was at length
+ascertained that this exquisite fruit is really an antidote against
+poisons.[678]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 678:
+
+ Athen. iii. 28.
+
+-----
+
+Another fruit of which great use was made, was the damascene plum,
+sometimes confounded with the brabylon. The cherry,[679] introduced into
+Italy by Lucullus, was known to the Greeks[680] at a much earlier
+period, and is described by Theophrastus. The wild service berry,[681]
+the dwarf cherry, the arbutus fruit, and the mulberry, formed part of
+their dessert. Even the blackberry, when perfectly ripe, was not
+disdained.[682] In fact, both the mulberry and blackberry were esteemed
+a preventive of gout, and an ancient writer relates, that this kind of
+fruit having failed during a period of twenty years, that disease
+prevailed like an epidemic, attacking persons of both sexes and all
+ages, and extending its ravages even to the sheep and cattle.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 679:
+
+ Theoph. Hist. Plant. iii. 13, 1.
+
+Footnote 680:
+
+ It was spoken of by Xenophanes in his treatise περὶ φύσεως. Poll. vi.
+ 46. Now this philosopher was born about the 40th Olympiad, 620 B.
+ C.—Clinton, Fast. Hellen. ii. sub an. 477.
+
+Footnote 681:
+
+ The berry of the cedar, about the same size as that of the myrtle, had
+ a pleasant taste, and was commonly eaten.—Theoph. Hist. Plant. iii.
+ 12. 3.
+
+Footnote 682:
+
+ Athen. ii. 33–37. A dainty of a very peculiar character is sometimes
+ seen on the tables of the modern Greeks. “We were served also with
+ some φασκομῆλια, or sage apples, the inflated tumours formed upon a
+ species of sage, and the effect of the puncture of a cynops.”—Sibth.
+ in Walp. Mem. t. i. p. 62. Cf. Sibth. Flor. Græc. t. i. pl. 15.
+
+-----
+
+Filberts, walnuts, and almonds,[683] deservedly held a high place in the
+estimation of the ancients. Of almonds, the island of Naxos had the
+reputation of producing very excellent ones, and those of Cypros also
+enjoyed considerable reputation. These latter were longer in form than
+the former; like pickled olives they were eaten at the commencement of a
+repast, for the purpose of producing thirst; and bitter almonds were
+considered a preservative against intoxication, as we learn from an
+anecdote of Tiberius’s physician, who could encounter three bottles when
+thus fortified, but easily succumbed if deprived of his almonds. This
+fruit being extremely common in Greece, they had their almond-crackers,
+as we have our nut-crackers, which at Sparta were called _moucerobatos_
+but _amygdalocatactes_ in the rest of Greece.[684]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 683:
+
+ Theoph. Hist. Plant. i. 11. 2.
+
+Footnote 684:
+
+ Athen. ii. 40.
+
+-----
+
+The larger kind of chestnut, sometimes denominated the “acorns of Zeus,”
+appears to have been introduced into Greece from the countries round the
+Pontos Euxinos, where they were produced in great abundance,
+particularly in the environs of Heraclea. There was, likewise, a sort of
+chestnut imported from Persia, and another from the neighbourhood of
+Sardes, in Lydia. Both these and the walnut were considered
+indigestible; but not so the almond, of which it was thought great
+quantities might be eaten with impunity.[685] The best kinds were
+produced in Thasos and Cypros, and, when freshly gathered, the almonds
+of the south are, undoubtedly, of all fruit, the most delicate. The
+walnuts and chestnuts of Eubœa, in the opinion of Mnestheos, were
+difficult of digestion, but fattening; and no one can have frequented
+the eastern shores of the Mediterranean without observing what an
+important article of food, and how nourishing, they are.[686] The
+pistachio nut, produced from a tree resembling the almond-tree, was
+imported from Syria and Arabia.[687] The _persea_, now no longer known,
+but supposed to be represented on the walls of the Memnonium,[688] at
+Thebes, is, also, said, by Poseidonios, the stoic, to have grown in
+Arabia and Syria, and I brought home a quantity of leaves, preserved in
+an Egyptian coffin, which are, probably, those of this tree. Pears,
+which were brought to table floating in water,[689] and service-berries,
+were grown in great perfection in the island of Ceos, and Bœotia was
+famous for its pomegranates.[690]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 685:
+
+ Dioscorid. i. 176. Athen. ii. 42. Cf. Hippocrat. de Morb. ii. p. 484.
+ Foës.
+
+Footnote 686:
+
+ Athen. ii. 43.
+
+Footnote 687:
+
+ Athen. xiv. 61.
+
+Footnote 688:
+
+ We find that the Persea grew, likewise, in the island of Rhodes, but
+ there, though flowers came, it produced no fruit.—Theoph. Hist. Plant.
+ iii. 3, 5. For a full description of the tree see iv. 2, 5, and Cf.
+ Caus. Plant. ii. 3, 7.—In its original country, Persia, the fruit of
+ this tree is said to have been poisonous, for which reason the
+ companions of Cambyses carried along with them numerous young trees,
+ which they planted in various parts of Egypt, that the inhabitants,
+ eating of the fruit, might perish. But, through the influence of soil
+ and climate, the nature of the Persea was wholly changed, and, instead
+ of a harsh and fatal berry, produced delicious fruit.—Ælian. de Nat.
+ Animal. ap. Schneid. ad Theoph. Hist. Plant. iv. 2, 5. t. iii. p.
+ 284.—Cf. Athen. xiv. 61.—Schweigh. Animadv. t. xii. p. 585. Plin. xv.
+ 13. xvi. 46.
+
+Footnote 689:
+
+ Athen. xiv. 63.
+
+Footnote 690:
+
+ The best pomegranates, however, were grown in Egypt and
+ Cilicia.—Theoph. Caus. Plant. ii. 13. 4.
+
+-----
+
+Speaking of this fruit, which the Bœotians call _sidè_, Agatharchides
+relates the following anecdote: A dispute arising between the Athenians
+and Bœotians, respecting a spot called _Sidè_, situated on the
+borders, Epaminondas, in order to decide the question, took out a
+pomegranate from under his robe, and demanded of the Athenians, what
+they called it. “_Rhoa_” they replied. “Very good,” said Epaminondas;
+“but we call it _Sidè_, and, as the place derives its name from the
+fruit which grows there in abundance, it is clear the land must belong
+to us.” And it was decided in favour of the Bœotians.[691]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 691:
+
+ Athen. xiv. 64.
+
+-----
+
+We have already observed, that the palm-tree flourished and produced
+dates in Greece, particularly in Attica and Delos;[692] but it is clear,
+from a remark of Xenophon, that these dates were small and of an
+inferior quality; for, speaking of the productions of Mesopotamia, he
+says, that they set aside for the slaves such dates as resembled those
+produced in Greece, while the larger and finer kinds,[693] which were
+like amber in colour, they selected for their own use. They were also
+dried, as they still are in the East, to be eaten as a dessert, at other
+seasons of the year. From which we learn, that the black date, which is
+larger and finer than the yellow, was not then cultivated in Persia. But
+neither dates, nor any other fruit, could compare with the grape, which
+is found in perfection in almost every part of Greece, where, as in
+Burgundy and, I presume, in the rest of France, the law regulated the
+period of the vintage, prohibiting individuals from gathering their
+grapes earlier under a heavy penalty.[694] The best kind of grape in
+Attica, like that of the _Clos Vougeot_ in Burgundy, was the
+_Nikostrateios_, supposed to be unrivalled for excellence, though the
+Rhodians pretended, in their _Hipponion_, to possess its equal.[695]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 692:
+
+ Theoph. Char. pp. 33, 233. Casaub. A very fine palm-tree is at present
+ growing in one of the principal streets of Athens.—Blackwood’s
+ Magazine, April, 1838.
+
+Footnote 693:
+
+ Pollux, i. 73. Herod. i. 28, 172, 193. ii. 156. iv. 172, 183.
+
+Footnote 694:
+
+ Plato de Legg. t. viii. p. 106. Bekk. Athen. xiv. 68.
+
+Footnote 695:
+
+ Athen. xiv. 68. Cf. Bruyerin. de Re Cibaria, xi. 447, sqq.
+
+-----
+
+From the grape we pass naturally to wine, which has of itself formed the
+subject of many treatises. It will not, therefore, be expected that we
+should enter into very minute details; though, if we are sparing, it
+will certainly not be for want of materials. D’Herbelot[696] relates an
+oriental tradition which attributes the invention of wine to the ancient
+Persian monarch Giamshid; and Bochart, with some show of ingenuity,
+attributes to Bacchos, the Grecian inventor and god of wine, an origin
+which would confound him with the founder of Babylon.[697] A very
+celebrated wine, called _nectar_, is said to have been produced in the
+neighbourhood of that city.[698] But, according to Theopompos, it was
+the inhabitants of Chios who first planted and cultivated the vine, and
+from them the knowledge was transmitted to the other Greeks.[699]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 696:
+
+ Biliothèque Orientale, Article Giamschid.
+
+Footnote 697:
+
+ Geog. Sacr. I. ii. 13.
+
+Footnote 698:
+
+ Chæreas. ap. Athen. i. 58.
+
+Footnote 699:
+
+ Athen. i. 47.
+
+-----
+
+Theophrastus[700] relates that, in the territory of Heraclea, in
+Arcadia, there was a wine which rendered men insane and women
+prolific.[701] In the environs of Cerynia, in Achaia, grew a vine, the
+wine of which blasted the fruit of the womb, nay, the very grapes were
+said to possess a similar quality.[702] At Thasos were two kinds of
+wine, of which the one caused stupefaction, while the other was in the
+highest degree exhilarating.[703] The wine called anthosmias,[704]
+according to Phanias of Eresos, was produced by mixing one part of
+salt-water with fifty parts of wine, and it was considered best when
+made with the grapes of young vines. The comic poets are eloquent in
+praise of the wines of Thasos, particularly of that mixed sort, of most
+agreeable flavour, which was drunk in their Prytaneion.
+Theophrastus[705] gives the recipe for making it. They threw, he says,
+into the jars, a small quantity of flour kneaded with honey, the latter
+to impart a sweet odour to the wine, the former mildness. A similar
+effect was produced by mixing up hard inodorous wine with one which was
+oily and fragrant.[706]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 700:
+
+ Hist. Plant. ix. 18. 10, seq. In Athenæus, instead of Heraclea, we
+ find Heræa, i. 57. Cf. Ælian. Var. Hist. xiii. 6.
+
+Footnote 701:
+
+ The same effect was attributed to the waters of a fountain flowing
+ near a temple of Aphrodite upon Mount Hymettos.—Chandler, ii. 164.
+
+Footnote 702:
+
+ Plin. Hist. Nat. xiv. 18.
+
+Footnote 703:
+
+ Athen. i. 57.
+
+Footnote 704:
+
+ Ὁ ἀνθέων ὀσμὴν ἔχων οἶνος.—Etym. Mag. 108. 41. Cf. Suid. v. ἀνθοσμίας.
+ t. i. p. 289. b. Aristoph. Plut. 808. Ran. 1181.
+
+Footnote 705:
+
+ De Odor. 51.
+
+Footnote 706:
+
+ Athen. i. 56.—Cydonia, in Crete, is conjectured, by Mr. Pashley, to
+ have produced a good wine.—Travels in Crete, i. 23, seq.
+
+-----
+
+The wines of Cos, Myndos, and Halicarnassos, being thought to temper the
+crudity of rain and well-water, were, therefore, like all others
+containing a quantity of salt-water, in great request at Athens and
+Sicyon, where the springs were harsh. The Mareotic wine[707] was made
+from vineyards on the banks of the lake Mareotis, where the present
+Pasha has his gardens, in the vicinity of Marea, once a place of
+considerable importance, but now a small village. Attempts, however,
+have been made by M. Abro, an Armenian, once more to cover the ancient
+sites with vineyards, several acres of ground being planted with
+cuttings imported from the great nursery grounds at Chambéry, in Savoy.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 707:
+
+ Athen. i. 59.
+
+-----
+
+The town of Marea derived its name, according to tradition, from
+Maron,[708] a person who accompanied Bacchos in his military expedition,
+and, in honour of its founder, surrounded itself with the fruit-tree
+most agreeable to that god. The grapes here produced were delicious, and
+the wine, slightly astringent and aromatic, had an exquisite flavour.
+The Mareotic was white, of delicate taste, light, sparkling, and by no
+means heady. The best sort was the Tæniotic, so called from the _tænia_,
+“sandy eminences,” on which the vineyards were situated. This wine, in
+its pure state, had a greenish tinge, like the Johanisberg, and was rich
+and unctuous; but, mingled with water, it assumed the colour of Attic
+honey. By degrees the vine grew to be cultivated along the whole course
+of the Nile,[709] but its produce differed greatly in different places,
+both in colour and quality. Among the best was that of Antylla, a city
+near Alexandria, the revenues arising from which the ancient kings of
+Egypt, and afterwards those of Persia, settled on their queens for their
+girdle. The wines of the Thebaid, particularly those made about Koptos,
+were so extremely light as to be given even in fevers, as, moreover,
+they passed quickly, and greatly promoted digestion.[710]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 708:
+
+ Idem, i. 60. Horat. Carm. i. 37. 14.
+
+Footnote 709:
+
+ The cultivation of the vine appears to have flourished in Egypt down
+ to the reign of the Caliph Beamrillah, who commanded all the vineyards
+ both in the valley of the Nile and in Syria to be utterly destroyed.
+ Maured Allatafet Jemaleddini, p. 7.
+
+Footnote 710:
+
+ Athen. i. 60.
+
+-----
+
+According to Nicander of Colophon, the word οἶνος, “wine,” was derived
+from the name of _Oineus_, who having squeezed out the juice of the
+grape into vases, called it, after his own name, _wine_. Diphilos,[711]
+the comic poet, gives us, however, something better than etymologies in
+that burst of Bacchic enthusiasm in which, in verses fragrant as
+Burgundy, he celebrates the praises of the gift of Dionysos:
+
+ “Oh! friend to the wise, to the children of song,
+ Take me with thee, thou wisest and sweetest, along;
+ To the humble, the lowly, proud thoughts dost thou bring,
+ For the wretch who has thee is as blythe as a king:
+ From the brows of the sage, in thy humorous play,
+ Thou dost smooth every furrow, every wrinkle away;
+ To the weak thou giv’st strength, to the mendicant gold,
+ And a slave warmed by thee as a lion is bold.”
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 711:
+
+ Idem, ii. 1, where are collected many other etymologies and curious
+ fables.
+
+-----
+
+Nectar, the poetical drink of the gods, was a sort of wine made near
+Olympos in Lydia, by mingling with the juice of the grape a little pure
+honey and flowers of delicate fragrance. Anaxandrides, indeed, regards
+the nectar as the food of the immortals, and ambrosia as their wine; in
+which opinion he is upheld by Alcman and Sappho. But Homer and Ibycos
+take an opposite view of the matter.[712]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 712:
+
+ Athen. ii. 8.
+
+-----
+
+Alexis speaks of those who are half-seas-over as much addicted to
+reasoning. Nicænetus[713] considers wine as the Pegasus of a poet,
+mounted on the wings of which like Trygæos on his beetle he soars “to
+the bright heaven of invention.” At the port of Munychia, too, good wine
+was held in high estimation; indeed, the honest folks of this borough,
+with small respect for the water nymphs, paid particular honour to the
+hero _Acratopotes_, that is, in plain English, “one who drinks unmixed
+wine.” Even among the Spartans,[714] in spite of their cothons, and
+black broth, certain culinary artistes set up in the Phydition, or
+common dining-hall, statues in honour of the heroes _Matton_ and
+_Keraon_, that is, the genii of eating and drinking. In Achaia, too,
+much reverence was paid to _Deipneus_, or the god who presides over good
+suppers.[715]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 713:
+
+ Or Nicarchos. Anthol. Græc. xiii. 29. Athen. ii. 9.
+
+Footnote 714:
+
+ Athen. ii. 9.
+
+Footnote 715:
+
+ Athen. ii. 9. Cf. x. 9.
+
+-----
+
+As the Greeks had a marvellous respect for wine they, like the German
+paper enthusiast, almost appeared to imagine it could be made out of a
+stone. They had, accordingly, fig wine,[716] root wine, palm wine, and
+so on; and their made or mixed wines were without number. There was
+scarcely an island or city in the Mediterranean that did not export its
+wines to Athens: they had the Lesbian, the Eubœan, the Peparethian,
+the Chalybonian, the Thasian, the Pramnian, and the Port wine. We have
+already observed, that wine was drunk mixed with flour,[717] and in the
+island of Theræ it was thickened with the yolk of an egg. In the Megaris
+they prepared with raisins or dried grapes[718] a wine called _passon_,
+in taste resembling the Ægosthenic sweet wine, or the Cretan malmsey.
+But, however exquisite the wines themselves, it was not thought enough
+in the summer months unless they were brought to table cooled with ice
+or snow,[719] which was accordingly the practice.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 716:
+
+ Damm. 2224. βρύτον. Athen. x. 67. Plato de Rep. t. vi. p. 144. Xenoph.
+ Anab. p. 54. 138. Cyrop. p. 522. Plin. Hist. Nat. xiii. 4. Diod. Sic.
+ ii. 136. On the οἶνος συκίτης vid. Foës. Œcon. Hip. in v. Dioscorid.
+ v. 40. Lotus wine. Theoph. Hist. Plant, iv. 3. 1. Herod, iv. 177.
+ Athen. vii. 9–13.
+
+Footnote 717:
+
+ Plato de Repub. t. vi. p. 144. Bekk. Athen. viii. 1. On the Pramnian
+ cf. Athen. 1, 17.
+
+Footnote 718:
+
+ Athen. x. 41.
+
+Footnote 719:
+
+ Athen. x. 56.
+
+-----
+
+
+
+
+ CHAPTER V.
+ ENTERTAINMENTS.
+
+
+Having now gone rapidly through the materials of which Grecian repasts
+consisted, it will next be necessary to describe the manner in which all
+these good things were disposed of, first to maintain the energy of the
+frame, and secondly, for mere pleasure and pastime. Locke, with many
+other modern philosophers, erroneously supposes the Greeks of remote
+antiquity to have been so abstemious as to content themselves with one
+meal per diem. But experience appears to have led all mankind on this
+point to much the same conclusion; viz., that health and comfort require
+men to eat at least thrice in the day,[720] which accordingly was the
+practice of the ancient Greeks, though Philemon and others enumerate
+four repasts. Our own ancestors, before the introduction of tea and
+coffee, appear to have been very well content with beer or ale for their
+morning’s meal, so that we could not pity the Greeks even though it
+should be found that they had nothing better[721] than hot rolls,
+muffins, or crumpets, with strawberries, grapes, pears, and a flask of
+Chian or Falernian. But they soon found the necessity of some warm
+beverage; and though it does not appear how it was prepared, they had a
+substitute for tea,[722] in use at Athens, in Eubœa, in Crete, and, no
+doubt, in all other parts of Greece. This meal, of whatever it
+consisted, was called _acratisma_, or _ariston_, and eaten at break of
+day.[723] Homer’s heroes, whose business was fighting, just snatched a
+hasty meal, and hurried to the field; but at Athens, where people had
+other employments, they breakfasted early, to allow themselves ample
+time for despatching their affairs in the city, if they had any, and
+afterwards at their neighbouring farms or villas.[724] The second
+repast, _deipnon_, or dinner, seems to have been eaten about eleven or
+twelve o’clock: the _hesperisma_,[725] equivalent to our tea, late in
+the afternoon, and the _dorpon_, or supper, the last thing in the
+evening. But of these meals two only were serious affairs, and the
+_hesperisma_ was often dispensed with altogether. In fact, Athenæus, a
+great authority on this subject, considers it perfectly absurd to
+suppose, that the frugal ancients could have thought of eating so often
+as three times in one day.[726]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 720:
+
+ Æschyl. Palamed. fr. 168. Klausen. Comm. in Agamemnon. p. 136.
+
+Footnote 721:
+
+ In modern times a breakfast in the Troad often consists of grapes,
+ figs, white honey in the comb, and coffee.—Chandler, i. p. 37.
+
+Footnote 722:
+
+ Athen. xi. 26, 50. Pollux, ix. 67, sqq. Schol. Aristoph. Acharn. 643.
+ Cf. Bœckh. Pub. Econ. of Athens, i. 140.
+
+Footnote 723:
+
+ Which we may infer from a passage of Aristotle, Hist. Anim. vi. 8.
+ where describing the habits of birds, he says, τῶν δὲ φαβῶν ἡ μὲν
+ θήλεια ἀπὸ δείλης ἀρξαμένη τὴν τε νύχθ᾽ ὅλην ἐπῳάζει καὶ ἕως
+ ἀκρατίσματος ὥρας, ὁ δ᾽ ἄῤῥην τὸ λοιπὸν τοῦ χρόνου.—One of the Homeric
+ scholiasts is more explicit:—καὶ τὴν μὲν πρώτην ἐκάλουν ἄριστον, ἣν
+ ἐλάμβανον πρωΐας σχεδὸν ἔτι σκοτίας οὔσης.—In Iliad β. 381. Cf. Athen.
+ i. 19.
+
+Footnote 724:
+
+ Xenoph. Œcon. xi. 14.
+
+Footnote 725:
+
+ Philemon, ap. Athen. i. 19. Suid. v. δεῖπνον t. i. p. 671. a. b.
+
+Footnote 726:
+
+ Deipnosoph v. 20.—τρισὶ δὲ οὐδέποτε οὔτε μνηστῆρες οὔτε μὴν κύκλωψ
+ ἐχρῶντο τροφαῖς.—Schol. Il. β. 381. Yet Athenæus i. 19. speaks in one
+ place of a fourth repast in Homeric times.—τῆς δὲ τετάρτης τροφῆς
+ οὔτως Ὅμηρος μέμνηται—“σὺ δ᾽ ἔρχεο δειελιήσας.” ὁ καλοῦσι τινες
+ δειλινὸν, ὁ ἐστι μεταξὺ τοῦ ὑφ’ ἡμῶν λεγομένου ἀρίστου καὶ δείπνου.
+
+-----
+
+As the greater includes the less, instead of confining ourselves to the
+ordinary daily dinner of a Greek, we shall in preference describe their
+grand entertainments, introducing remarks on the former by the way.
+These repasts were divided into three classes, the public dinner, the
+pic-nic, and the marriage feast. The last, so far as it had any peculiar
+features, has been described among the circumstances attending
+matrimony. We have, therefore, for the present, to do with two only;
+and, as the Greek contrived to throw much of his ingenuity into all
+matters connected with feasting and merry-making, the discussion of this
+part of our subject should savour strongly of mirth and jollity.
+
+The grand dinner,[727] which they called _eilapinè_, was generally given
+at the expense of an individual, and its sumptuousness knew no limit but
+the means of the host. Other kinds of feasts there were at which all the
+members of a tribe, a borough, or a fraternity, were entertained, not to
+speak for the present of the common tables of the Cretans, Spartans, or
+Prytanes of Athens. We now confine ourselves to those jovial assemblages
+of private citizens whose object in meeting was not so much the dinner,
+though that was not overlooked, as the elevation of animal spirits and
+flow of soul produced by the union of a thousand different
+circumstances.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 727:
+
+ On the subject of dining see Pollux, vi. 9, seq. with the notes of
+ Jungermann, Kuhn, Hemsterhuis. &c.
+
+-----
+
+When a rich man desired to see his friends around him at his board, he
+delivered to his _deipnocletor_[728] a domestic kept for this purpose, a
+tablet, or as we should say, a card, whereon the names of the persons to
+be invited, with the day and hour fixed upon for the banquet, were
+inscribed. With brothers and other very near relations this ceremony was
+thought unnecessary.[729] They came without invitation. So likewise did
+another class of men, who, living at large upon the public and lighting
+unbidden upon any sport to which they were attracted by the savour of a
+good dinner, were denominated[730] FLIES, and occasionally SHADES or
+PARASITES. There was at one time a law at Athens, which a good deal
+nonplussed these gentlemen. It was decreed, that not more than thirty
+persons should meet at a marriage feast, and a wealthy citizen, desirous
+of “going the whole hog,” had invited the full complement. An honest
+Fly, however, who respected no law that interfered with his stomach,
+contrived to introduce himself, and took his station at the lower end of
+the table. Presently the magistrate appointed for the purpose, entered,
+and espying his man at a glance, began counting the guests, commencing
+on the other side and ending with the parasite. “Friend,” said he, “you
+must retire. I find there is one person more than the law allows.” “It
+is quite a mistake, sir,” replied the Fly, “as you will find if you will
+have the goodness to count again, beginning _on this side_.”[731] Among
+the Egyptians, who shrouded all their poetry in hieroglyphics, _a fly_
+was the emblem of impudence, which necessarily formed the principal
+qualification of a Parasite, and in Hume’s[732] opinion is no bad
+possession to any man who would make his way in the world.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 728:
+
+ Athen. iv. 70. Aristoph. Concion. 648, et Schol.
+
+Footnote 729:
+
+ For a further account of the persons usually invited, see Athen. v. 4.
+
+Footnote 730:
+
+ Plut. Sympos. vii. 6. Each guest was also followed by a footman who
+ stood behind his master’s chair and waited on him. Casaub. ad Theoph.
+ Char. p. 219. To persons of this description the guests delivered the
+ presents that were made them, or if they happened to be bad
+ characters, what they stole. Athen. iv. 2. Plut. Anton. § 28. Lucian.
+ Conviv. seu Lapith. § 46. Rich men then as now were usually haunted by
+ flatterers who would pluck off the burrs from their cloaks or the
+ chaff which the wind wafted into their beards, and try to screw a joke
+ out of the circumstance by saying, they were grown grey! Theoph. Char.
+ c. ii. p. 7. If the patron joked, they would stuff their chlamys into
+ their mouths as if they were dying of laughter. In the street they
+ would say to the person they met, “Stand aside, friend, and allow this
+ gentleman to pass!” They would bring apples and pears in their pocket
+ for his little ones and be sure to give them in his sight, with great
+ praise both of father and children.
+
+Footnote 731:
+
+ Athen. vi. 45, seq.
+
+Footnote 732:
+
+ Nothing, says this philosopher, carries a man through the world like a
+ true genuine natural impudence. Essays, p. 9, quarto.
+
+-----
+
+Archbishop Potter,[733] in his account of Grecian entertainments,
+observes, upon the authority of Cicero and Cornelius Nepos, that women
+were never invited with the men.[734] But in this, as has been shown in
+the proper place, he was misled by those learned Romans; for, in many
+cities and colonies of Greece, no banquet was given at which they were
+not present. Even at Athens, where women of character thought it
+unbecoming to mingle in the convivial revelries of the men,[735] in
+which wine constantly overleaps the boundaries of decorum, their place
+was supplied by hetairæ, whose polished manners, ready wit, and enlarged
+and enlightened understandings, recommended them to their companions,
+and caused the laxity of their morals to be forgotten.[736] To proceed,
+however, with our feast: it will readily be supposed, that gentlemen
+invited out to dinner were careful to apparel themselves elegantly, to
+shave clean, and arrange their beards and moustachios after the most
+approved fashion of the day. Even Socrates, who cared as little as most
+people for external appearances, bathed, put on a pair of new shoes,
+brushed his chlamys, and otherwise spruced himself up when going to sup
+at Agathon’s with Phædros, Aristophanes, Eryximachos, and other
+exquisites. Even in Homeric times the bath was among the preliminaries
+to dinner, and guests arriving from a distance were attended through all
+the operations of the toilette by female slaves.[737] But this general
+ablution was not considered sufficient. On sitting down to table water
+was again presented to every guest in silver[738] lavers or ewers of
+gold. And since they ate with their fingers, as still is the practice in
+the Levant, it was moreover customary to wash the hands between every
+course,[739] and wipe them,[740] in remoter ages, with soft bread, which
+was thrown to the dogs, and in aftertimes with napkins. The Arcadians,
+however, about whose mountains all the old superstitions of Hellas clung
+like bats, found a very different use for the cakes with which they
+wiped their fingers. They supposed them to acquire some mystic powers by
+the operation, and preserved them as a charm against ghosts.[741]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 733:
+
+ Antiq. iv. 19.
+
+Footnote 734:
+
+ Plato giving directions for a marriage feast, observes, that five male
+ and five female friends should be invited; along with these, five male
+ and five female relations, who with the bride and bridegroom, with
+ their parents, grandfathers, &c., would amount to 28. De Legg. vi. t.
+ vii. Schweigh. ad Athen. t. vi. p. 60. Among the ancient Etruscans,
+ who, if not Greeks, had many Greek customs, the women reclined at
+ table with the men, under the same cover. Athen. i. 42.
+
+Footnote 735:
+
+ Isæus, De Pyrrh. Hered. § 2. That among the more simple and
+ old-fashioned citizens of Athens, however, men and women, when of the
+ same family or clan, dined together, we have the testimony of Menander
+ to prove. He introduces one of his characters, apparently a fop,
+ observing that it was a bore to be at a family party, where the
+ father, holding the goblet in his hand, first made a speech, abounding
+ with exhortations: the mother followed, and then the grandmother
+ prated a little. Afterwards stood up her father, hoarse with age, and
+ his wife, calling him her dearest; while he mean time nodded to all
+ present. Athen. ii. 86.
+
+Footnote 736:
+
+ Athen. v. 6.
+
+Footnote 737:
+
+ Odyss. δ. 48, sqq.
+
+Footnote 738:
+
+ Athen. ix. 27. In some luxurious houses wine mingled with spices was
+ presented to the guests in lavers for the purpose of washing their
+ feet. Plut. Phoc. § 20. In the palace of Trimalchio we find Egyptian
+ servants pouring water, cooled with snow, on the hands of the guests.
+ Petron. Satyr. p. 76.
+
+Footnote 739:
+
+ Schol. Aristoph. Eq. 412.
+
+Footnote 740:
+
+ Rich purple napkins were sometimes used. Sappho in Deipnosoph. ix. 79.
+ These articles are still in the Levant elaborately embroidered.
+
+Footnote 741:
+
+ Athen. iv. 31.
+
+-----
+
+But we are proceeding too fast, for the guests are scarcely within
+doors, and our imagination has jumped to the conclusion. To return then.
+Immediately on entering, and when the host had welcomed and shaken hands
+with all, such gentlemen as possessed beards[742] had them perfumed over
+burning censers of frankincense, as ladies have their tresses on
+visiting a Turkish harem. The hands, too, after each lavation, were
+scented.[743] Before sitting down to table, and while the cooks were
+peppering the soup, frying the fish, or giving the roast-meat another
+turn, politeness required the guests to take a stroll[744] in the
+picture-gallery and admire the exquisite taste of their entertainer in
+articles of _virtu_.[745] Here while the scent of the savoury viands
+found its way through every apartment, and set the bowels of the hungry
+parasites croaking, the rogues who had lunched well at home leisurely
+discussed the merits of Zeuxis or Parrhasios, of Pheidias or Polygnotos,
+or opened wide their eyes at the microscopic creations of that Spartan
+artist whose chisel produced a chariot and four that could be hidden
+under the wing of a fly. At length, however, the connoisseurs were
+interrupted in their learned disquisitions by the entrance of Xanthos,
+Davos, or Lydos, with the welcome intelligence that dinner was on the
+table.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 742:
+
+ Hom. Odyss. γ. 33, seq. Athen. xv. 23. Similar customs still prevail
+ in the Levant: “When we visited the Turks we were received with
+ cordiality and treated with distinction. Sweet gums were burned in the
+ middle of the room to scent the air, or scattered on coals before us
+ while sitting on the sofa, to perfume our moustachios and garments,
+ and at the door, at our departure, we were sprinkled with rose-water.”
+ Chandler, ii. 150.
+
+Footnote 743:
+
+ Athen. ix. 77.
+
+Footnote 744:
+
+ Cf. Hom. Odyss. δ. 43, sqq.
+
+Footnote 745:
+
+ Aristoph. Vesp. 1208. Athen. v. 6, where the splendid roofs and
+ ornaments of the court are mentioned. These ornaments, κρεκάδια,
+ whatever they were, must have been worth looking at. See the note of
+ Casaubon, Animadv. in Athen. t. viii. p. 27, seq. Consult likewise the
+ note on Aristophanes in Bekker’s edition, t. iii. p. 606.
+
+-----
+
+But the appetites of the gourmands had still to encounter another
+trial.[746] The Greeks were above all things a pious people, and
+regarded every banquet, nay, every meal, in the light of a sacrifice, at
+which the first and best portion should be offered as an oblation to the
+gods,[747] with invocations and prayer, after which it was considered
+lawful to attend to their own appetites. An altar, accordingly, of Zeus
+stood in the midst of every dining-room, on which these ceremonies were
+performed, and libations of pure wine poured.[748] This done, the guests
+took their places, in the earlier ages on chairs, but afterwards, when
+they had become familiar with the East, on rich sofas, arranged round
+the board.[749] Occasionally, however, even so late as the age of
+Alexander,[750] princes and other great men chose to adopt the ancient
+custom, and, on one occasion, that conqueror himself entertained four
+hundred of his officers, when seats of wrought silver, covered with
+purple carpets, were provided for all.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 746:
+
+ Athen. v. 7. Cf. Plat. Symp. t. iv. p. 376, et Xenoph. Conviv. ii. 1.
+ Schweigh. Animadv. in Athen. viii. p. 26, seq.
+
+Footnote 747:
+
+ Casaubon mentions this as a thing _nota eruditis_. Ad Theoph. Charact.
+ p. 232; but we must not on that account pass it over. Alexis
+ poetically deplores the miseries of the half-hour before dinner.
+ Athen. i. 42.
+
+Footnote 748:
+
+ There was in great houses a person whose duty it was to assign each
+ guest his place at table, ὀνομακλήτωρ, or nomenclator. Athen. ii. 29.
+
+Footnote 749:
+
+ Plin. xxxiii. 51. xxxiv. 8.
+
+Footnote 750:
+
+ At most sumptuous entertainments _tasters_ were employed who, as in
+ the East, made trial of the dishes before the guests, lest they should
+ be poisoned. These persons were called ἐδέατροι and προτένθαι. Athen.
+ iv. 71.
+
+-----
+
+The manner of reclining on the divans was not a little ludicrous. For,
+at the outset, while the appetite was keen, they stretched themselves
+flat upon their stomachs, in order, I presume, to command the use of
+both hands, and putting forward their mouths towards the table looked
+like so many sparrows with their open bills projecting over the nest.
+But this they could conveniently do only when they had a large space to
+themselves. When packed close, as usually they were, one man, the chief
+in dignity, throwing off his shoes,[751] placed himself on the upper end
+of the divan, that is, next the host, reclining on one elbow supported
+by soft cushions. The head of the next man reached nearly to his
+breast,—whence in Scripture, the beloved disciple is said to recline on
+the bosom of Christ,[752]—while the feet of the first extended down
+behind him. The third guest occupied the same position with respect to
+the second, and so on until five individuals sometimes crowded each
+other on the same sofa.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 751:
+
+ Schol. Aristoph. Eq. 825.
+
+Footnote 752:
+
+ John, xiii. 23. On the cushions, of which there was a great variety,
+ see Pollux, vi. 9, where he reckons among them the ὑπηρέσιον, which
+ Mitford confounds with the ἄσκωμα, or leathern bags which closed the
+ row-port of war-galleys round the oar, to prevent the influx of
+ sea-water.
+
+-----
+
+As the heaven of the poets was but a colossal picture of earth, we may,
+from the practice of the gods, infer what took place among mortals, even
+where supported by no direct testimony. Now, in Homer, we find gods and
+goddesses mingling freely together at the feast. Zeus takes the head of
+the table, next him sits his daughter Athena, while the imperial Hera,
+as Queen of Heaven, takes precedence of all the she Olympians, by
+placing herself at the head of the secondary divinities, directly
+opposite her husband. On one occasion we find Athena, the type of
+hospitality and politeness, yielding up her seat of honour to Thetis,
+because, as an Oceanid, she was somewhat of a stranger in Olympos.[753]
+Potter has discussed, with more learning than perspicuity, the question
+of precedence at table. To render the matter perfectly intelligible
+would require a plan of the dining-room; but wanting this, it may be
+observed, that in Persia the king, or host of whatever rank, sat in the
+middle, while the guests ranged themselves equally on both sides of him.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 753:
+
+ Iliad, ω. 100.
+
+-----
+
+In Greece, the bottom of the table was the end next the door. Here no
+one sat, it being left open for the servants to bring in and remove the
+dishes. From this point, on either side, the seats augmented in value,
+and consequently the post of greatest honour was the middle of the other
+extremity.[754] There were those, however, who made no account of these
+matters, but suffered their guests to seat themselves as they pleased.
+This was the case with Timon, who, having invited a very miscellaneous
+party, would not be at the pains to settle the question of precedence
+between them; but a pompous individual of aristocratic pretensions,
+dressed like an actor, arriving late with a large retinue, and surveying
+the company from the door, went away again, observing, there was no fit
+place left for him. Upon which the guests, who, as Plutarch remarks,
+were far gone in their cups, burst into shouts of laughter, and bade him
+make the best of his way home.[755]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 754:
+
+ Cf. Plut. Conv. Quæst. i. 3. Pet. Ciacon, De Triclin. p. 44.
+
+Footnote 755:
+
+ Sympos. i. 2. 1.
+
+-----
+
+Some persons observed a very different order in arranging their guests,
+grouping those together whom they considered suited by age or temper to
+each other, in order by this contrivance to produce general harmony,—the
+vehement and impetuous being placed beside the meek and gentle, the
+silent beside the talkative, the ripe and full and expansive minds
+beside those who were ready to receive instruction. But very often, as
+at Agathon’s, those sat next each other, who were most intimately
+acquainted or united together by friendship; for thus the greatest
+freedom of intercourse with the brightest sallies of convivial wit were
+likely to be produced.
+
+At length, however, we must imagine the guests in their places and every
+thing in proper train. The servants bring in first one well-covered
+table, then a second, then a third, till the whole room is filled with
+dainties. Brilliant lamps and chandeliers poured a flood of light over
+the crowned heads of the guests, over the piled sweetmeats, over the
+shining dishes, and all the baits with which the appetite is caught.
+Then, on silver pateræ, cakes whiter than snow were served round. To
+these succeeded eggs, pungent herbs, oysters, and thrushes.[756] Next
+several dishes of rich eels, brown and crisp, sprinkled thickly with
+salt, followed by a delicious conger dressed with every rare device of
+cookery, calculated to delight the palate of the gods. Then came the
+belly of a large ray, round as a hoop; dishes, containing, one some
+slices of a sea-dog, another garnished with a sparos, a third with a
+cuttle-fish, or smoking polypus whose legs were tender as a chicken.
+While the sight of these dainties was feasting the eyes of the guests,
+the noses of the experienced informed them of the approach of a
+synodon,[757] which perfumed the passages all the way from the kitchen,
+and, flanked with calamaries, covered the whole table. Shrimps too were
+there in their yellow cuirasses, sweet in flavour as honey, with
+delicious varieties of puff pastry bordered with fresh green
+foliage.[758] The teeth of the parasites watered at the sight. But while
+deeply engaged in the discussion of these good things, in came some
+smoking slices of broiled thunny, a mullet fresh from the fish-kettle,
+with the teats of a young sow cooked _en ragoût_.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 756:
+
+ Probably also the myttotos, a dish flavoured with garlic and rich
+ spices, formed a part of this course. Schol. Aristoph. Acharn. 173.
+ Vesp. 62.
+
+Footnote 757:
+
+ Athen. i. 8. vii. 46. 68. 119. Arist. Hist. Anim. v. 5.
+
+Footnote 758:
+
+ Pollux, vi. 77.
+
+-----
+
+Pleasure of all kinds being supposed to promote digestion, female
+singers, flute-players and dancers, were meanwhile exercising their
+several arts for the entertainment of the guests. But as they paid very
+little attention to them till the rage of hunger was appeased, we shall
+imitate their example, and proceed with the gourmandize. One of the
+greatest accomplishments a boon companion could possess, was the power
+to seize with the fingers, and swallow hissing-hot, slices of grilled
+fish or morsels of lamb or veal broiled like kabobs, so as to be
+slightly burnt and cracking externally, while all the juice and flavour
+of the meat remained within. And the acquirement being highly important,
+great pains were taken to become masters of it. For this purpose some
+accustomed themselves daily to play with hot pokers, others
+case-hardened their fingers by repeatedly dipping them in water as hot
+as they could bear, and gargled their throats with the same, while one
+famous gourmand, more inventive than the rest, hit upon the ingenious
+device of wearing metallic fingerlings with which he could have seized a
+kabob even from the gridiron. These proficients in the art of eating, an
+art practised indeed by all, but possessed in perfection by very few,
+enjoyed great advantages over the ignorant and uninitiated. And
+accordingly, when invited out, they generally succeeded in bribing the
+cook to send in all his dishes hot as Phlegethon, that, while the more
+modest and inexperienced guests sat gazing on, they might secure the
+best cuts, and come again before the others could venture on a mouthful.
+
+Among the articles served up in this scorching state were calf’s pluck,
+pig’s harslet, with the chine, the kidneys, and a variety of small
+hors-d’œuvre. To these may be added the head of a sucking-kid which had
+tasted nothing but milk, baked between two dishes well luted together;
+giblets boiled; small, delicate hams with their white sward unbroken;
+pigs’ snouts and feet swimming in white sauce, which the gourmand
+Philoxenos thought a rare invention. Roast kid and lamb’s chitterlings,
+or the same viands boiled, formed a supplement to the dishes above
+enumerated, and were usually done so exactly to a turn, that even the
+gods, Bacchos for example, and Hermes, the parasites of Olympos, might
+have descended expressly to wag their beards over them. But the
+Levantines have always been enamoured of variety in cookery. Lady
+Wortley Montague counted fifty dishes served up in succession at the
+Sultana Hafiten’s table; and this she-barbarian, with all her wealth,
+could never rival the variety of invention of an ancient Eleian or
+Sicilian cook, who usually closed the list of his dainties with hare,
+chickens roasted to the gold-colour celebrated by Aristophanes,
+partridges, pheasants, wood-pigeons or turtle-doves, which your true
+gourmand should eat in the Thebaid, immediately after the close of
+harvest. But the dinner was not yet over. There still remained the
+dessert to be disposed of, consisting of pure honey from the district of
+the silver mines, curdled cream, cheese-tarts, and all that profusion of
+southern fruit of which we have already spoken.[759]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 759:
+
+ Athen. iv. 28. There was a kind of cheese, apparently much in use,
+ imported from Gythion, in Laconia. Lucian. Diall. Hetair. xiv. 2.
+
+-----
+
+It is a well-known rule among modern gourmands, that no man should utter
+a syllable at table till the first course is removed, and precisely the
+same regulation prevailed among the ancients. Silence, however, was
+sometimes interrupted by the arrival of some wandering buffoon, who,
+after long roaming about in search of a dinner, happened, perhaps, to be
+attracted thither by the wings and feathers ostentatiously scattered
+before the door. This sort of gentry required no introduction: they had
+only to knock and announce themselves to ensure a ready welcome; for
+most men would willingly part with a share of their supper to be made
+merry over the remainder. The Athenian demos was pre-eminently of this
+humour. No king, in fact, ever kept up so large an establishment of
+fools by profession, or, which is much the same thing, of wits,—fellows
+who grind their understandings into pointed jests to tickle the risible
+muscles and expand the mouths of sleek junketters, who esteem nothing
+beyond eating and grinning.
+
+At a feast given by Callias, the famous jester, Philip, a-kin in spirit,
+I trow, to him of Macedon, presented himself in this way, and, on being
+admitted,—“Gentlemen,” said he, “you know my profession and its
+privileges, relying on which I am come uninvited, being a foe to all
+ceremony, and desiring to spare you the trouble of a formal
+invitation.”—“Take your place,” replied the host; “your company was much
+needed, for our friends appear to be plunged up to the chin in gravity,
+and would be greatly benefited by a hearty laugh.”[760]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 760:
+
+ Xenoph. Conv. i. 13, 14.
+
+-----
+
+In fact, the heads of the honest people were filled with very serious
+meditations, being all in love, and endeavouring to discover how each
+might excel the other in absurdity. Philip began to fear, therefore,
+that he had carried his jests to a bad market, and, in reality, made
+many vain attempts to kindle the spirit of mirth, and call home the
+imaginations of persons who had evidently suffered them to stray as far
+as the clouds. Aware that success on this point was indispensable to his
+subsistence, the jester grew piqued at the indifference of his hearers,
+and breaking off in the midst of his supper, wrapped up his head in his
+chlamys, and lay down like one about to die. “What, now!” cried Callias.
+“Has any sudden panic seized on thee, friend?”—“The worst possible, by
+Zeus!” replied Philip; “for, since laughter, like justice, has taken its
+leave of earth, my occupation is gone. Hitherto I have enjoyed some
+celebrity in this way, living at the public expense, like the guests of
+the Prytaneion, because my drollery was effective, and could set the
+table in a roar. But it is all over, I see, with me now, for I might as
+soon hope to render myself immortal as acquire serious habits.” All this
+he uttered in a pouting, desponding tone, as if about to shed tears. The
+company, to humour the joke, undertook to comfort him, and the effect of
+their mock condolences, and assurances that they would laugh if he
+continued his supper, was so irresistibly ludicrous, that Autolychos, a
+youthful friend of Callias, was at length unable to restrain his
+merriment; upon which the jester took courage, and apostrophising his
+soul, informed it very gravely, that there would be no necessity for
+them to part company yet.[761]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 761:
+
+ Xenoph. Conviv. i. 15. 16.
+
+-----
+
+The Greeks had, properly speaking, no drawing-rooms, so that, instead of
+retreating to another part of the house, they had the tables themselves
+removed immediately after dinner. Libations were then poured out to Zeus
+Teleios, and having sung a hymn to Phœbos Apollo, the amusements of the
+evening commenced. Professional singers and musicians were always hired
+on these occasions. They were female slaves, selected in childhood for
+their beauty and budding talents, and carefully educated by their
+owners.[762] When not already engaged, they stood in blooming bevies in
+the agora, waiting, like the Labourers of Scripture, until some one
+should hire them, upon which they proceeded, dressed and ornamented with
+great elegance, to the house of feasting. But, besides these, there were
+other _artistes_ who contributed to the entertainment of the demos,
+persons that, like our Indian jugglers, performed wonderful feats by way
+of interlude between the regular exhibitions of the damsels from the
+agora.[763]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 762:
+
+ Cf. Luc. Amor. § 10. Schol. Aristoph. Acharn. 1058.
+
+Footnote 763:
+
+ The Indian jugglers themselves became known to the Greeks in the age
+ of Alexander. Ælian. Var. Hist. viii. 7.
+
+-----
+
+Xenophon introduces into that living picture of Greek manners called the
+Banquet, a company of this kind. Finding Philip’s jokes dull things, he
+brings upon the scene a strolling Syracusan, with a beautiful female
+flute-player, a dancing girl who could perform surpassing feats of
+activity, and a handsome boy, who, besides performing on the cithara,
+was likewise able, on occasion, to sport the toe like his female
+companions.
+
+But, where philosophers were present, amusements of this kind were not
+allowed to occupy their whole attention. Every thing that occurred was
+made a handle for conversation, so that discussions, more or less
+lively, according to the temperament or ability of the interlocutors,
+formed the solid ground-work upon which the flowers of gaiety and
+laughter were spread. It was usual, immediately after supper, to perfume
+the guests, and great was the variety of unguents, essences, and odorous
+oils, made use of by the rich and vain upon these occasions; but when
+Callias proposed conforming to the mode in this particular, Socrates
+objected, observing, that the odour of honourable toil was perfume
+enough for a man.[764] Women, indeed, to whom every thing sweet and
+beautiful naturally belongs, might, he admitted, make use of perfume,
+and they did so most lavishly as we have already shown, when we entered
+their dressing-room and assisted at their toilette.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 764:
+
+ Xen. Conv. ii. 4.
+
+-----
+
+The Greeks, however, were careful not to convert their pleasure-parties
+into a mere arena for the exhibition of dialectic power. They from time
+to time glanced at philosophy, but only by the way, in the moments of
+transition from one variety of recreation to another. Their conversation
+was now and then brought to a pause by the rising of dancing girls,[765]
+robed elegantly, as we behold them still on vases and on bas-reliefs, in
+drapery adapted to display all the beauty of their forms. Hoops were
+brought them, and while musicians of their own sex called forth
+thrilling harmonies from the flute, they executed a variety of graceful
+movements, in part pantomimic,—now casting up the hoops, now catching
+them as they fell, keeping time exactly with the cadences of the flute.
+Their skill in this accomplishment was so great, that many were enabled
+to keep up twelve hoops in the air at the same time, while others made
+use of poniards.[766]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 765:
+
+ Lucian. Amor. § 10.
+
+Footnote 766:
+
+ Artemid. Oneirocrit. i. 68. Xen. Conviv. ii. 8.
+
+-----
+
+When the novelty of this exhibition was worn off a little, other
+different feats followed. A hoop stuck all round with upright swords was
+placed in the midst of the apartment, into which one of the dancing
+girls threw herself head foremost, and while standing on her head
+balanced the lower part of her body round over the naked points, to the
+infinite terror of the spectators. She would then dart forth between the
+swords, and, with a single bound, regain her footing without the
+circle.[767] To add to the entertainment of the company, some
+parasitical buffoon would at times undertake to exhibit his awkwardness
+as a foil to the grace of the dancers, frisking about with the clumsy
+heaviness of a bear, and exaggerating his own ignorance of orchestics to
+excite a laugh. Sometimes the female dancer, like our own fair tumblers,
+would throw back her head till it reached her heels, and then putting
+herself in motion, roll about the room like a hoop.[768] To these, as a
+relief and a change, would succeed, perhaps, a youth with fine rich
+voice, who accompanied himself on the lyre with a song.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 767:
+
+ Poll. iii. 134.
+
+Footnote 768:
+
+ Xen. Conviv. ii. 22.
+
+-----
+
+But nothing could entirely restrain the Greeks from indulging in the
+pleasure of listening to their own voices. The buzz of conversation
+would soon be heard in different parts of the room, which, when Socrates
+was present, sometimes provoked from him a sarcastic reproof. For
+example, at Callias’s dinner, observing the company broken up into
+knots, each labouring at some particular question in dialectics, and
+filling the apartment with a babel of confused murmurs; “As we talk all
+at once,” said he, “we may as well sing all at once;” and without
+further ceremony he pitched his voice and began a song.[769]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 769:
+
+ Xen. Conviv. vii. 1.
+
+But when professed jugglers happened to be present, gentlemen were not
+long abandoned to their own resources for amusement. Trick followed
+trick in rapid succession. To the pantomimic dances, and the sword
+circle, succeeded the exhibition of the potter’s wheel, in which a young
+girl seated on this machine, like a little Nubian at a cow’s-tail in a
+_sakia_, was whirled round with great velocity,[770] but retained so
+much self-possession as to be able both to write and to read. These,
+however, were merely sources of momentary wonder. Other amusements
+succeeded capable of exciting superior delight, such for example, as the
+mimetic dance, which, like that of the ghawazi, could tell a whole story
+of love, of adventure, of war, of religious frenzy and enthusiasm,
+transporting by vivid representations the fancy of the spectators to
+warmer or wilder scenes, calling up images and reminiscences of times
+long past, or steeping the thoughts in poetical dreams, filled with the
+caverned nymphs, the merry Seileni, the frisking satyrs, Bacchos, Pan,
+the Hours, the Graces, sporting by moonlit fountains, through antique
+woods, or on the shelled and sand-ribbed margin of the ocean.[771]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 770:
+
+ Xen. Conviv. vii. 3.
+
+Footnote 771:
+
+ Plat. de Legg. vii. t. viii. p. 55. Bekk. Xen. Conv. vii. 5.
+
+-----
+
+On some occasions a slight dramatic scene was represented. Clearing the
+centre of the banqueting hall, the guests ranged themselves in order as
+at the theatre. A throne was then set up in the open space, and a female
+actor, representing Ariadne, entering, took her seat upon it, decked and
+habited like a bride, and supposed to be in her Thalamos at Naxos.
+Dionysos, who has been dining with Zeus, comes flushed with Olympian
+nectar into the harem to the sound of the Bacchic flute, while the nymph
+who has heard his approaching footsteps makes it manifest by her
+behaviour that her soul is filled with joy, though she neither advances
+nor rises to meet him, but restrains her feelings with difficulty, and
+remains apparently tranquil. The god, drawing near with impassioned
+looks, and dancing all the while, now seats himself, and places the fair
+one on his knee. Then, in imitation of mortal lovers, he embraces and
+kisses her, nothing loth; for, though she hangs down her head, and would
+wish to appear out of countenance, her arms find their way round his
+neck and return his embrace. At this the company, we may be sure,
+clapped and shouted. The god, encouraged by their plaudits, then stood
+up with his bride, and going through the whole pantomime of courtship,
+not coldly and insipidly, but as one whose heart was touched, at length
+demanded of Ariadne if in truth she loved him. Sometimes the mimic scene
+concealed beneath it all the reality of passion. From personating
+enamoured characters, the youthful actor and his partner learned in
+reality to love; and what was amusement to others contained a deep and
+serious meaning for them. This, Xenophon says, was the case with the
+youth and maiden who enlivened the banquet of Callias. Absorbed in the
+earnestness of their feelings, they seem to have forgotten the presence
+of spectators, and instead of a stage representation, gave them a scene
+from real life, where every impassioned look and gesture were genuine,
+and every fiery glance was kindled at the heart.[772]
+
+This, however, may be considered a serious amusement, and something like
+broad farce was necessary to awaken the guests from the reverie into
+which the love scene had plunged them. Jesters were, therefore, put in
+requisition; and, as even they sometimes failed to raise a laugh, their
+more humorous brethren the wits and jesters of the forests, or, in the
+language of mortals, monkeys were called upon to dissipate the clouds of
+seriousness. These were the favourite buffoons of the Scythian
+Anacharsis,—not the Abbé Barthélemy’s,—who said, he could laugh at a
+monkey’s tricks, because his tricks were natural, but that he found no
+amusement in a man who made a trade of it.[773] Nor could Euripides at
+all relish punsters and manufacturers of jokes, whom he considered, with
+some reason, as a species of animal distinct from mankind.
+
+ Many there be who exercise their wits
+ In giving birth, by cutting jests, to laughter.
+ I hate the knaves whose rude unbridled tongues
+ Sport with the wise; and cannot for my life
+ Think they are men, though laughter doth become them,
+ And they have houses filled with treasured stores
+ From distant lands.[774]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 772:
+
+ Xen. Conviv. ix. 1–7.
+
+Footnote 773:
+
+ Athen. xiv. 2.
+
+Footnote 774:
+
+ Eurip. Fragm. Melanipp. 20.
+
+-----
+
+But if Euripides found nothing desirable in laughter, there were those
+who had a clean contrary creed, and lamented nothing so much as the loss
+of their risible faculties. On this subject Semos has a story quite _à
+propos_. Parmeniscos, the Metapontine, having descended, he says, into
+the cave of Trophonios, became so extremely grave, that with all the
+appliances, and means to boot, furnished by wealth, and they were not a
+few, he thereafter found himself quite unable to screw up his muscles
+into a smile; which taking much to heart, as was natural, he made a
+pilgrimage to Delphi, to inquire by what means he might rid himself of
+the blue devils. Somewhat puzzled at the strangeness of the inquiry, the
+Pythoness replied,—
+
+ Poor mortal unmerry, who seekest to know
+ What will bid thy brow soften, thy quips and cranks flow,
+ To the house of the mother I bid thee repair—
+ Thou wilt find, if she’s pleased, what thy heart covets, there.
+
+Upon this, Parmeniscos hastened homeward, hoping soon to enjoy a good
+laugh as the reward of his industry; but, finding his features remain
+fixed as cast-iron, he began to suspect the oracle had deceived him.
+Some time after, being at Delos, he beheld with admiration the several
+wonders of the island, and, lastly, proceeded to the temple of Leto,
+expecting to find in the mother of Apollo something worthy of so great a
+divinity. But, on entering and perceiving, instead, a grotesque and
+smoky old figure in wood, he burst into an immoderate fit of laughter,
+whereupon the response of the oracle recurred to his mind, and he
+understood it; and, being thus delivered from his infirmity, he ever
+after held the goddess in extremest reverence.[775]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 775:
+
+ Athen. xiv. 2.
+
+-----
+
+Even from this story, therefore, it will be seen how highly “broad
+grins” were estimated in antiquity, particularly at Athens, where there
+was a regular “Wits’ Club,” consisting of threescore members, who
+assembled during the Diomeia,[776] in the temple of Heracles. The names
+of several of these jovial mortals have come down to us; Mandrogenes,
+for example, and Strato, Callimedon, who, for some particular quality of
+mind or body, obtained the _sobriquet_ of the _Lobster_, Deinias,
+Mnasigeiton, and Menæchmos. The reputation of these gentlemen spread
+rapidly through the city, and, when a good thing had a run among the
+small wits, it was remarked, that “the Sixty had said _that_.” Or, if a
+man of talent were asked, whence he came, he would answer, “From the
+Sixty.” This was in the time of Demosthenes, when, unhappily, jesters
+were in more request in Athens than soldiers; and Philip of Macedon,
+himself no mean buffoon, learning the excellent quality of their _bon
+mots_, sent them a present of a talent of gold, with a request that, as
+public business prevented his joining the sittings of the club, they
+would make for his use a collection in writing of all their smart
+sayings, which was, probably, the first step towards those repositories
+for stray wit, called “Joe Millers,” that form so indispensable a
+portion of a bon vivant’s library.[777]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 776:
+
+ Eustath. ad Iliad. δ. p. 337. 53. Etym. Mag. 277. 24. Meurs. Græc.
+ Feriat. ii. 96.
+
+Footnote 777:
+
+ Athen. xiv. 3.
+
+-----
+
+But we are all this while detaining the company from their wine, and
+those other recreations which the fertile genius of the Greeks invented
+to make the wheels of life move smoothly. Though the tables, according
+to the fashion of the times, were removed with the solid viands, others
+were brought in to replace them, on which the censers, the goblets, the
+silver or golden ladles for filling the smaller cups, were arranged in
+order.[778] The chairman, or, as he was then called, the king of the
+feast,[779] enjoyed absolute power over his subjects, and could
+determine better than their own palates, how much and how often each man
+should drink. This important functionary was not always identical with
+the entertainer, but sometimes his substitute, sometimes a person chosen
+by lot.[780] Capacious bowls of wine,[781] mingled with water, were
+placed on a sideboard, whence cup-bearers, sometimes of one, sometimes
+of the other sex, but always selected for their youth and beauty,
+filled, with ladles,[782] the goblets of the guests, which, when the
+froth rose above the brim, were, by an obvious metaphor, said to be
+crowned.[783] Among the Doric Greeks, female cup-bearers seem to have
+been always preferred; the Ptolemies of Egypt cherished the same taste;
+and the people of Tarentum, themselves of Doric race, passing
+successively through every stage of luxury, came, at length, to be
+served at table by beautiful young women without a vestige of clothing.
+In most cases, these maidens were slaves, but, in some countries, and
+everywhere, in remoter ages, the performance of such offices was not
+regarded as any way derogatory to persons of noble or princely blood.
+But, whatever might be their birth, beauty of form and countenance
+constituted their chief recommendation. For there is a language in looks
+and gestures, there is a fountain of joy and delight concealed deep in
+the physical structure, and its waters laugh to the eye of intellect,
+and reflect into the hearts of those who behold it a sunniness and
+exhilaration greater than we derive from gazing on the summer sea.
+Hence, Hebe and Ganymede were chosen to minister at the tables of the
+gods, even Zeus himself[784] not disdaining to taste of the pleasures to
+be derived from basking in the irradiations of beauty.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 778:
+
+ Among the Etruscans these ladles were of bronze, and of extremely
+ elegant form, the point ending in a swan’s or duck’s head.
+
+Footnote 779:
+
+ The proceedings of this person were governed by a code of laws, the
+ making and reformation of which employed the wits of no less
+ personages than Xenophanes, Spensippos, and Aristotle. Athen. i. 5.
+
+Footnote 780:
+
+ Horat. Od. ii. 7. 25.
+
+Footnote 781:
+
+ Schol. Aristoph. Eq. 1183. Vesp. 1005.
+
+Footnote 782:
+
+ Eustath. ad Iliad, γ. p. 333. Schol. Aristoph. Vesp. 855.—A specimen
+ of these ladles (ἀρύταιναι) occurs in Mus. Chiaramont. pl. 2.
+
+Footnote 783:
+
+ Virgil actually wreaths the bowls with garlands.—Æneid. iii.
+ 525.—Homer, however, crowns his bowls only with wine.-Il. ε. 471.
+
+Footnote 784:
+
+ Homer. Iliad. δ. 2. γ. 232. β. 813. Odyss. ο. 327. Juven. Sat. v. 60.
+ Cf. Philo. Jud. de Vit. Contempl. t. ii. p. 479. Mangey.
+
+-----
+
+When the goblets were all crowned with the nectar of earth, the Master
+of the Feast[785] set the example of good-fellowship by drinking to his
+guests, beginning with the most distinguished.[786] Originally, custom
+required him who drank to the health of another to drain off his cup
+while his comrade did the same; but, in after ages, they sipped only a
+portion of the wine, and, as they still do in the East, presented the
+remainder to their friend. The latter, by the rules of politeness, was
+bound to finish the goblet, or, where the antique fashion prevailed, to
+drink one of equal size.[787] The Macedonians, who, probably, excelled
+the Greeks in drinking, if in nothing else, disdained small cups as
+supplying a very roundabout way to intoxication, and plunged into Lethe
+at once by the aid of most capacious bowls. It was customary, when the
+practice of passing round the goblet had been introduced, for the king
+of the feast to drink to the next man on his right hand, who, in his
+turn, drank to the next, and so on till the bowl had circulated round
+the board. But different customs prevailed in the different parts of
+Greece. At Athens, small cups, like our wine-glasses, were in use; among
+the Chians, Thracians, and Thessalians, nations more prone to sensual
+indulgences, the goblets were of larger dimensions; but, at Sparta,
+where sobriety and frugality long flourished, the practice was to drink
+from diminutive vessels, which, as often as required, were replenished
+by the attendants.[788]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 785:
+
+ There were certain barbarians, who, to cement their friendships, drank
+ wine tinged with each other’s blood.—Athen. xv. 47.
+
+Footnote 786:
+
+ Plut. Symp. i. 2. 2. The first cup was drunk to the
+ Agathodemon.—Schol. Aristoph. Eq. 85. Athen. xv. 47.
+
+Footnote 787:
+
+ Athen. v. 20.
+
+Footnote 788:
+
+ Athen. x. 39. Plut. Cleom. § 13.
+
+-----
+
+Isocrates, in his exhortation to Demonicos, marks the distinction
+between the true and false friend, by observing, that, while the latter
+thinks only of those around him, the former remembers the absent, and
+makes his affection triumph over time and distance. And the Greeks
+generally had this merit. Amid the enjoyments of the festive board, they
+recalled to mind the friends of other days; and, having first performed
+libations to the gods, those best and purest of friends, drank to the
+health and prosperity of former associates, now far removed by
+circumstances,[789] and this they did not in the mixed beverage which
+formed their habitual potations, but in pure wine.[790] There was
+something extremely delicate in this idea, for tacitly it intimated,
+that their love placed the objects of it almost on a level with their
+divinities, in whose honour, also, on these occasions, a small portion
+of the wine was spilt in libations[791] upon the earth. The young, in
+whose hearts a mistress held the first place,[792] drank deeply in
+honour of their beloved, sometimes equalling the number of cups to that
+of the letters forming her name,[793] which, if the custom prevailed so
+early, would account for Ægisthos’s being a sot. Sometimes, however,
+taking the hint from the number of the Graces, they were satisfied with
+three goblets; but, when an excuse for drinking “pottle deep” was
+sought, they chose the Muses for their patrons, and honoured their
+mistresses’ names with three times three.[794] This is the number of
+cheers with which favourite political toasts are received at our public
+dinners, though every one who fills his bumper, and cries “hip, hip,
+hip, hurrah!” on these occasions, is, probably, not conscious that he is
+keeping up an old pagan custom in honour of the Muses.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 789:
+
+ Theoc. Eidyll. vii. 69.
+
+Footnote 790:
+
+ Cicero in Verr. Act. ii. Orat. i. § 26, and Ascon. Pedan. in loc.
+
+Footnote 791:
+
+ Antiphon. Acc. Nec. Ven. § 3.—The third libation was in honour of
+ Zeus.—Scol. Pind. Isth. vi. 22.
+
+Footnote 792:
+
+ Theocrit. Eidyll. xiv. 18, et Schol.
+
+Footnote 793:
+
+ Mart. Epig. i. 78.
+
+Footnote 794:
+
+ Horat. Od. iii. 19. 11, sqq. Lambinus in loc. p. 143.
+
+-----
+
+The number four was in no favour at the drinking-table, not because it
+was an even number, for they sometimes drank ten, but because some old
+superstition had brought discredit on it. Our very fox-hunters, however,
+exhibit an inferior capacity to many of the ancients in affairs of the
+bottle, though when it is the poets who perform the feat, we may safely
+consider them to be simply regaling their fancies on “air-drawn”
+goblets, which cost nothing, and leave no head-aches behind them. On
+this subject there is a very pretty song in the Anthology, which Potter,
+following some old edition, completely misrepresents.[795] It deserves
+to be well translated, and I would translate it well if I could. The
+following at least preserves the meaning:
+
+ Pour out ten cups of the purple wine,
+ To crown Lycidicè’s charms divine;
+ One for Euphrantè, young and fair,
+ With the sparkling eye and the raven hair.
+ Then I love Lycidicè more, you say?
+ By this foaming goblet I say ye nay.
+ More valued than ten is Euphrantè to me,
+ For, as when the heavens unclouded be,
+ And the stars are crowding far and nigh
+ On the deep deep blue of the midnight sky,
+ The moon is still brighter and lovelier far
+ Than the loveliest planet or brightest star;
+ So, ’mid the stars of this earthly sphere,
+ None are so lovely or half so dear
+ As to me is Euphrantè young and fair,
+ With the sparkling eye and the raven hair.[796]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 795:
+
+ Antiq. ii. 394, seq.
+
+Footnote 796:
+
+ Marc. Argent. ap. Anthol. Græc. v. 110.
+
+-----
+
+But the Macedonians entertained no respect for poetical goblets: they
+loved to scent their moustachios with the aroma of the real rosy wine
+when it sparkled in the cup,—when it moved itself aright, as the wise
+king of Judah expresses it. Plutarch describes briefly one of their
+drinking-bouts which took place on the evening of the day wherein old
+Kalanos, the Hindù Yoghi, burnt himself alive to escape the colic.
+Alexander, on returning from the funeral pile, invited a number of his
+friends and generals to sup with him, and, proposing a drinking contest,
+appointed a crown for the victor. Prodigious efforts were made by all
+present to achieve so enviable a triumph; but the man who proved himself
+to possess the most capacious interior was Promachos, who is said to
+have swallowed upwards of two gallons. He obtained the prize, which was
+a golden crown, valued at a talent, but died within three days.[797]
+Chares, the Mitylenian, relates the matter somewhat differently.
+According to him, Alexander celebrated funeral games in honour of
+Kalanos, at his barrow, where horseraces and gymnastic contests took
+place,[798] and a poetical encomium was pronounced upon the Yoghi, who,
+like the rest of his countrymen, was, doubtless, a great toper, and
+thence the drinking-match instituted in the evening. Chares says there
+were three prizes; the first, in value, a talent; the second, thirty
+minæ, or about a hundred and twenty pounds sterling; the third, three
+minæ. The number of aspirants is not stated, but thirty-five (Plutarch
+says forty-one) perished in cold shiverings on the spot, and six more
+died shortly after in the tents.[799]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 797:
+
+ Plut. Alexand. Magn. §§ 69, 70.
+
+Footnote 798:
+
+ Ælian. Var. Hist. ii. 41. Periz.
+
+Footnote 799:
+
+ Athen. x. 49.
+
+-----
+
+Numbers have celebrated the military genius of Alexander; but Athenæus
+alone has given him due credit for his truly royal power of drinking.
+Like his father, Philip, who, in his jolly humour, ruffled the Athenian
+dead at Chæronea, where he could safely beard the fallen republicans,
+Alexander delighted to spend his evenings among drunken roysterers,
+whose chief ambition consisted in making a butt of their bowels. One of
+these worthies was Proteas, the Macedonian mentioned by Ephippos, in his
+work on the sepulture of Alexander and Hephæstion. He was a man of iron
+constitution, on which wine, whatever quantity he drank, appeared to
+make no impression. Alexander, knowing this, loved to pledge him in huge
+bowls, such as none, perhaps, but themselves could cope with. This he
+did even at Babylon, where the climate suffers few excesses to be
+indulged in with impunity. Taking a goblet more like a pail than a
+drinking-cup, Alexander caused it to be crowned with wine, which, having
+tasted, he presented the bowl to Proteas. The veteran immediately
+drained it off, to the great amusement of the company, and presently
+afterwards, desiring to pledge the king, he filled it up again, and
+sipping a little, according to custom, passed the bowl to Alexander,
+who, not to be outdone by a subject, forthwith drank the whole. But if
+he possessed the courage, he wanted the physical strength of Proteas:
+the goblet dropped from his hand, his head sank on a pillow, and a fever
+ensued of which the conqueror of Persia, and the rival of Proteas in
+drinking, died in a few days.[800]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 800:
+
+ Athen. x. 44.
+
+-----
+
+But to return from these barbarians: as the presence of sober persons
+must always be felt by hard drinkers to be a tacit reproach, it was one
+of the rules of good fellowship, that all such as joined not in the
+common potations should depart. “Drink, or begone!” said the law, and a
+good one in Cicero’s opinion it was, for if men experienced no
+disposition to join in the mirth and enjoyment of the company, what had
+they to do there?[801]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 801:
+
+ Tuscul. Quæst. ii. 41.
+
+-----
+
+From the existence of these rules, however, an inference has been drawn
+unfavourable to the Greek character, as if, because some were merry, the
+nation generally must of necessity have been wine-bibbers.[802] But this
+is scarcely more logical than the reasoning of a writer, who, because
+the comic poets speak chiefly of the mirth and lighter enjoyments of the
+Athenians, very gravely concludes that they busied themselves about
+little else. The truth is, that like all ardent and energetic people,
+they threw their whole souls into the affair, whether serious or
+otherwise, in which they happened to be engaged; and besides, while the
+careful and industrious applied themselves to business, there was always
+an abundance of light and trifling people to whom eating and drinking
+constituted a serious occupation.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 802:
+
+ Potter, ii. 396.
+
+-----
+
+
+
+
+ CHAPTER VI.
+ ENTERTAINMENTS.
+
+
+The man upon the creations of whose art the principal enjoyments of
+Greek gourmands were based was the cook,[803] whose character and
+achievements ought not perhaps to be entirely passed over. We are,
+indeed, chiefly indebted for our information to the comic poets; but, in
+spite of some little exaggeration, the likeness they have bequeathed to
+us is probably upon the whole pretty exact.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 803:
+
+ On famous Cooks see Max. Tyr. Dissert. v. 60. 83. Pollux, vi. 70, seq.
+ Athen. iii. 60.
+
+-----
+
+The Athenian cook was a singularly heterogeneous being, something
+between the parasite and the professed jester; he was usually a poor
+citizen, with all the pride of autochthoneïty about him, who considered
+it indispensable to acquire, besides his culinary lore, a smattering of
+many other kinds of knowledge, not only for the purpose of improving his
+soups or ragouts, but in order, by the orations he pronounced in praise
+of himself, to dazzle and allure such persons as came to the agora in
+search of an artist of his class. Of course the principal source of his
+oratory lay among pots and frying-pans, and the wonders effected by his
+art. Philemon hits off with great felicity one of these worthies, who
+desires to convey a lofty opinion of himself,—
+
+ “How strong is my desire ’fore earth and heaven,
+ To tell how daintily I cooked his dinner
+ ’Gainst his return! By all Athena’s owls!
+ ’Tis no unpleasant thing to hit the mark
+ On all occasions. What a fish had I—
+ And ah! how nicely fried! Not all bedevilled
+ With cheese, or browned atop, but though well done,
+ Looking alive, in its rare beauty dressed.
+ With skill so exquisite the fire I tempered,
+ It seemed a joke to say that it was cooked.
+ And then, just fancy now you see a hen
+ Gobbling a morsel much too big to swallow;
+ With bill uplifted round and round she runs
+ Half choking; while the rest are at her heels
+ Clucking for shares. Just so ’twas with my soldiers;
+ The first who touched the dish upstarted he
+ Whirling round in a circle like the hen,
+ Eating and running; but his jolly comrades,
+ Each a fish worshiper, soon joined the dance,
+ Laughing and shouting, snatching some a bit,
+ Some missing, till like smoke the whole had vanished.
+ Yet were they merely mud-fed river dabs:
+ But had some splendid scaros graced my pan,
+ Or Attic glaucisk, or, O saviour Zeus!
+ Kapros from Argos, or the conger eel,
+ Which old Poseidon exports to Olympos,
+ To be the food of gods, why then my guests
+ Had rivalled those above. I have, in fact,
+ The power to lavish immortality
+ On whom I please, or, by my potent art,
+ To raise the dead, if they but snuff my dishes!”[804]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 804:
+
+ Athen. vii. 32.
+
+-----
+
+This honest fellow, in the opinion of Athenæus, exceeded in boasting
+even that Menecrates of Syracuse, who for his pride obtained the surname
+of Zeus; he was a physician, and used vauntingly to call himself the
+arbiter of life to mankind. He is supposed to have possessed some
+specific against epilepsy; but being afflicted with a vanity at least
+equal to his skill, he would undertake no one’s cure unless he first
+entered into an agreement to follow him round the country ever after as
+his slave, which great numbers actually did. Nicostratos, of Argos, one
+of the persons so restored, travelled in his train habited and equipped
+like Heracles; others personated Asclepios, and Apollo, while Menecrates
+himself enacted in this fantastic masquerade the part of Zeus; and, as
+the actors say, he dressed the character well, wearing a purple robe, a
+golden crown upon his head, sandals of the most magnificent description,
+and bearing a sceptre in his hand.[805]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 805:
+
+ Athen. vii. 33.
+
+-----
+
+But whatever might have been the conceit of our Syracusan physician,
+there were those among the cooking race, who certainly lagged not far
+behind him. They usually stunned such as came to hire them with reciting
+their own praises, laying claim to as much science and philosophy as
+would have sufficed to set up two or three sophists. In fact, to take
+them at their word, there was nothing which they did not know, nothing
+which they could not do. Painting they professed to comprehend as
+profound connoisseurs, and, no doubt, the soles they fried tasted all
+the better for the accomplishment. In astronomy, medicine, and geometry,
+they appear to have made a still greater proficiency than Hudibras,
+notwithstanding that—
+
+ “In mathematics he was greater
+ Than Tycho Brahe, or Erra Pater;
+ For he by geometric scale
+ Could take the size of pots of ale;
+ Discern by sines and tangents strait
+ If bread and butter wanted weight;
+ And wisely tell what hour o’ the day
+ The clock does strike by algebra.”
+
+In all this he was a fool to the Athenian cooks; for, by the help of
+astronomy, they could tell when mackerel was in season, and at what time
+of the year a haddock is better than a salmon. From geometry they
+borrowed the art of laying out a kitchen to the best advantage, and how
+to hang up the gridiron in one place, and the porridge-pot in another.
+To medicine it is easy to see how deeply they must have been indebted,
+since it not only taught them what meats are wholesome, and what not,
+but also enabled them by some sleight of art to diminish the appetite of
+those voracious parasites, who when they dined out appeared to have
+stomachs equal in capacity to the great tun of Heidelberg.[806]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 806:
+
+ Athen. vii. 37.
+
+-----
+
+Many individuals, half guests, half parasites, used to extract
+considerable matter for merriment out of the dinner materials, that they
+might render themselves agreeable, and be invited again. Thus Charmos,
+the Syracusan, used to convert every dish served at table into an
+occasion for reciting poetical quotations or old proverbs, and
+sometimes, perhaps, suffered the fish to cool while he was displaying
+his erudition. He had always civil things to say both to shell-fish and
+tripe, so that a person fond of flattery might have coveted to be
+roasted, in order that his shade might be soothed with this kind of
+incense, which even Socrates allowed was not an illiberal enjoyment. It
+was, however, a common custom among parasites to make extracts from the
+poets and carry them in portfolios to the tables of their patrons, where
+they recited all such as appeared to be _à propos_. In this way the
+above Charmos obtained among the people of Messina the reputation of a
+learned man, and Calliphanes,[807] son of Parabrycon,[808] succeeded no
+less ingeniously by copying out the first verses of various poems, and
+reciting them, so that it might be supposed he knew the whole.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 807:
+
+ Suidas in v. t. i. p. 1361. c.
+
+Footnote 808:
+
+ Athen. i. 6. “Sic ut παράσιτος, et παραμασήτης vel παραμασύντης
+ convivam denotat invocatum, qui absque symbola ad convivium venit; sic
+ nomen παραβρύκων (à verbo βρύκω, mordeo, rodo, deglutio) eumdem habet
+ significatum.”—Scheigh. Animadv. t. vi. p. 54.
+
+-----
+
+Cleanthes, of Tarentum, always spoke at table in verse, so likewise did
+the Sicilian Pamphilos; and these parasites, travelling about with
+wallets of poetry on their backs, were everywhere welcomed and
+entertained, which might with great propriety have been adduced by
+Ilgen[809] among his other proofs of the imaginative character of the
+Greeks.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 809:
+
+ De Scol. Poes. p. 8.
+
+-----
+
+Archestratos, the Syracusan, belonged no doubt to this class. He
+composed an epic poem on good eating, which commenced with recommending
+that no company, assembled for convivial enjoyment, should ever exceed
+four,[810] or at most five, otherwise he said they would rather resemble
+a troop of banditti than gentlemen. It had probably escaped him, that
+there were twenty-eight guests at Plato’s banquet. Antiphanes, after
+observing that the parasites had lynx’s eyes to discover a good dinner
+though never invited, immediately adds, that the republic ought to get
+up an entertainment for them, upon the same principle that during the
+games an ox[811] was slaughtered some distance from the course at
+Olympia, to feast the flies, and prevent them from devouring the
+spectators.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 810:
+
+ Athen. i. 7.
+
+Footnote 811:
+
+ Athen. i. 7. This ox was sacrificed to Zeus the Fly-Chaser, in order
+ to prevail on him to drive the swarms of insects, by which the
+ spectators were incommoded, beyond the Alpheios. Cf. Plin. Nat. Hist.
+ x. 40. ix. 34. Pausan. v. 14. i. viii. 26. 7. Ælian. De Nat. Animal.
+ v. 17. xi. 8.
+
+-----
+
+Besides Archestratos, there were several other celebrated gastronomers
+among the ancients. Of these the principal were Timachidas, of Rhodes,
+who wrote a poem in eleven books on good eating,[812] Noumenios, of
+Heraclea, pupil to the physician Dieuches, Metreas, of Pitana, the
+parodist Hegemon, of Thasos, surnamed the _Lentil_, by some reckoned
+among the poets of the old comedy, Philoxenos, of Leucadia, and a second
+Philoxenos, of Cythera, who composed his work in hexameter verse. The
+former, after chaunting the eulogium of the kettle, comes nevertheless
+to the conclusion at last, that superior merit belongs to the
+frying-pan. He earnestly recommended truffles to lovers, but would not
+have them touch the barbel. His anger burst forth with great vehemence
+against those who cut in pieces fish which should be served up whole;
+and, though he admits that a polypus may occasionally be boiled, it was
+much better, he says, to fry it. From this man the Philoxenian cakes
+derived their name; and he it is whom Chrysippos reproaches with half
+scalding his fingers in the warm bath and gargling his throat with hot
+water, in order that he might be able to swallow kabobs hissing from the
+coals.[813] He likewise used, at the houses of his friends, to bribe the
+cooks to bring up everything fiery hot, that he might help himself
+before any one else could touch them. A kindred gourmand, in the poet
+Krobylos, exclaims: “My fingers are insensible to fire like the Dactyls
+of Mount Ida. And ah! how delightful it is to refresh my throat with the
+crackling flakes of broiled fish! Oh I am in fact an oven, not a man!”
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 812:
+
+ Athen. i. 8. Suidas. v. Τιμαχίδας. t. i. p. 899, seq.
+
+Footnote 813:
+
+ Athen. i. 9.
+
+-----
+
+According to Clearchos it was this same Philoxenos, who used to maraud
+about rich men’s houses, followed by a number of slaves laden with wine,
+vinegar, oil, and other seasonings. Wherever he smelled the best dinner
+he dropped in unasked, and slipping slily among the cooks, obtained
+their permission to season the dishes they were preparing, after which
+he took his place among the guests where he fed like a Cyclops. Arriving
+once at Ephesos, by sea, he found, upon inquiry in the market, that all
+the best fish had been secured for a wedding feast. Forthwith he bathed,
+and repairing to the house of the bridegroom, demanded permission to
+sing the Epithalamium. Every one was delighted; they could do no less
+than invite him to dinner. And “Will you come again to-morrow?” inquired
+the generous host. “If there be no fish in the market,” replied
+Philoxenos. It was this gourmand who wished nature had bestowed on man
+the neck of the crane that the pleasure of swallowing might be
+prolonged.[814]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 814:
+
+ Suid. in v. Φιλοξ. t. ii. p. 1058. c. Athen. i. 10.
+
+-----
+
+Pithyllos, another parasite, surnamed “the Dainty,” not content with the
+membrane which nature has spread over the tongue, superinduced
+artificially a sort of mucous covering, which retained for a
+considerable time the flavour of what he ate.[815] To prolong his
+luxurious enjoyment as much as possible, he afterwards scraped away this
+curious coating with a fish. Of all ancient gourmands he alone is said
+to have made use of artificial finger-points, that he might be enabled
+to seize upon the hottest morsels. An anecdote so good as to have given
+rise to many modern imitations, is related of Philoxenos, of Cythera.
+Dining one day with Dionysios, of Syracuse, he observed a large barbel
+served up to the prince, while a very diminutive one was placed before
+him. Upon this, taking up the little fish, he held it to his ear and
+appeared to be listening attentively. Dionysios, expecting some humorous
+extravagance, made a point of inquiring the meaning of this movement,
+and Philoxenos replied, that happening just then to think of his
+Galatea,[816] he was questioning the barbel respecting her. But as it
+makes no answer, said he, I imagine they have taken him too young and
+that he does not understand me. I am persuaded, however, that the old
+fellow they have placed before your majesty must know all about it. The
+king, amused by his ingenuity, immediately sent him the larger fish
+which he soon questioned effectually.[817]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 815:
+
+ Athen. i. 10. Suid. v. Πιθυλλ. t. ii. p. 526. c.
+
+Footnote 816:
+
+ Making allusion perhaps to his love for Galatea, the mistress of
+ Dionysios. Athen. i. 11. Ælian. Var. Hist. xii. 44. Schol. Aristoph.
+ Plut. 290.
+
+Footnote 817:
+
+ Athen. i. 11. See another anecdote of this gourmand in Ælian. Var.
+ Hist. x. 9.
+
+-----
+
+But the Athenians were not reduced to depend for amusement at table upon
+the invention of these humble companions. They knew how, when occasion
+required, to entertain themselves, and, in the exuberance of their
+hilarity, descended for this purpose to contrivances almost infantine.
+They posed each other with charades, enigmas, conundrums, and,
+sometimes, in the lower classes of society, related stories of witches,
+lamias, mormos, and other hobgoblins believed in by the vulgar of all
+nations. Among persons engaged in public affairs the excitement of
+political discussion was often, of course, intermingled with their more
+quiet pleasures.[818] But with this we have, just now, nothing to do,
+nor with the enigmas which we shall describe anon. There was another and
+more elegant practice observed by the Greeks at convivial meetings,
+which, though not peculiar to them, has nowhere else, perhaps, prevailed
+to the same extent,—I mean the introduction of music and the singing of
+songs,[819] light, graceful, and instinct with wit and gaiety, to the
+barbitos or the lyre.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 818:
+
+ Aristoph. Aves. 1189, sqq.
+
+Footnote 819:
+
+ Sch. Aristoph. Eq. 403.
+
+-----
+
+Among the Greeks, generally, the love of music and poetry seemed to be a
+spontaneous impulse of nature. Almost every act of life was accompanied
+by a song,—the weaver at his loom, the baker at his kneading-trough, the
+reaper, the “spinners and the knitters in the sun,” the drawer of water,
+even the hard-working wight who toiled at the mill, had his peculiar
+song, by the chaunting of which he lightened his labour. The mariner,
+too, like the Venetian gondolier, sang at the oar, and the shepherd and
+the herdsman, the day-labourer and the swineherd, the vintager and the
+husbandman, the attendant in the baths, and the nurse beside the cradle.
+It might, in fact, be said, that from an Hellenic village music arose as
+from a brake in spring. Their sensibilities were tremblingly alive to
+pleasure. There was elasticity, there was balm in their atmosphere, and
+joy and freedom in their souls.—How could they do other than sing?
+
+But, if music and poetry thus diffused their delights over the industry
+of the laborious, it was quite natural that where men met solely for
+enjoyment, these best handmaids of enjoyment should not be absent.
+Accordingly, we find that while the goblet circulated, kindling the
+imagination, and unbending the mind, the lyre was brought in and a song
+called for. Nor was the custom of recent date. It prevailed equally in
+the heroic ages, and, like many other features of Greek manners, derived
+its origin from religion. For, in early times, men rarely met at a
+numerous banquet, except on occasion of some sacrifice, when hymns in
+honour of the gods constituted an important part of the ceremonies. Thus
+Homer, describing the grand expiatory rites by which the Achæan host
+sought to avert the wrath of Apollo, observes, that they made great
+feasts, and celebrated the praises of the god amid their flowing
+goblets.[820]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 820:
+
+ Iliad, α. 492, sqq. Ilgen, Disq. de Scol. Poes. p. 55.
+
+-----
+
+Yet, though the theme of those primitive songs may have been at first
+serious, it was, probably, not long before topics better adapted to
+festive meetings obtained the preference. At all events, they soon came
+to be in fashion. The first step appears to have been from the gods to
+the heroes, whose achievements, being sometimes tinged with the
+ludicrous, opened the door to much gay and lively description. And these
+convivial pleasures,[821] so highly valued on earth, were, with great
+consistency, transferred to Olympos, where the immortals themselves were
+thought to heighten their enjoyments by songs and merriment.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 821:
+
+ Conf. Odyss. θ 72, sqq. α. 154. 350.
+
+-----
+
+In the ages following, the art of enhancing thus the delights of social
+intercourse, so far from falling into neglect, grew to be more than ever
+cultivated. Even the greatest men, beginning from the Homeric Achilles,
+disdained not to sing. They did not, says a judicious and learned
+writer, consider it sufficient to perform deeds worthy of immortality,
+or to be the theme of poets and musicians, or so far to cultivate their
+minds as to be able to relish and appreciate the songs of others, but
+included music within the circle of their own studies, as an
+accomplishment without which no man could pretend to be liberally
+educated. For this reason it was objected by Stesimbrotos, as a reproach
+to Cimon, that he was ignorant of music, and every other gentlemanly
+accomplishment held in estimation among the Greeks;[822] and even
+Themistocles himself incurred the charge of rusticity, because, when
+challenged at a party, he refused to play on the cithara.[823]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 822:
+
+ Plut. Cim. § 4. Afterwards, however, we find Cimon represented as
+ singing with great skill. § 9.
+
+Footnote 823:
+
+ Cicero, Tuscul. Quæst. i. 2. Cf. Ilgen. De Scol. Poes. p. 62.
+
+-----
+
+A different theory of manners prevailed among the Romans, who, like the
+modern Turks, considered it unbecoming a gentleman to sing. But to the
+Greeks, a people replete with gaiety and ardour, and whose amusements
+always partook largely of poetry, music presented itself under a wholly
+different aspect, and was so far from appearing a mean or sordid study,
+that no branch of education was held in higher honour, or esteemed more
+efficacious in promoting tranquillity of mind, or polish and refinement
+of manners. The lyre is accordingly said, by Homer, to be a divine gift,
+designed to be the companion and friend of feasts, where it proved the
+source of numerous advantages. In the first place, persons too much
+addicted to the bottle found in this instrument an ally against their
+own failing, for, whether playing or listening, a cessation from
+drinking was necessarily effected. Rudeness also and violence, and that
+unbridled audacity commonly inspired by wine, were checked by music,
+which, in their stead, inspired a pleasing exaltation of mind, and joy
+free from all admixture of passion.[824]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 824:
+
+ Athen. xiv. 24. Ilgen, Disq. De Scol. Poes. p. 64.
+
+-----
+
+It has already been observed that the convivial song soon divested
+itself of its religious and sombre character; for, as parties are made
+up of persons differing extremely in taste and temperament, it
+necessarily happened that when each was required to sing, much variety
+would be found in the lays, which generally assumed a festive and jocund
+air. Hymns in honour of the gods were more sparingly introduced,[825]
+nor was much stress laid on the praises of heroes;[826] the spirit of
+joviality moulded itself into
+
+ Quips and cranks, and wanton wiles;
+ Nods and becks, and wreathed smiles.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 825:
+
+ The hymn, for example, in honour of Pallas was, in all ages, sung.
+ Sch. Aristoph. Nub. 954.
+
+Footnote 826:
+
+ Of Harmodios, for example, and Aristogeiton. Sch. Aristoph. Acharn.
+ 942. See Ilgen, Disq. de Scol. Poes. p. 69.
+
+-----
+
+Every one poured forth what the whim of the moment inspired,—jokes,
+love-songs, or biting satires, with the freedom and fertility of an
+improvisatore.[827]
+
+These convivial songs were divided by the ancients into several kinds,
+with reference sometimes to their nature, sometimes to the manner in
+which they were chaunted: the most remarkable they denominated Scolia,
+or zig-zag songs,[828] for a reason somewhat difficult of explanation.
+Several of the later Greek writers appear to have been greatly at a loss
+to account for the appellation, which is, no doubt, a singular one; but
+the learning and diligence of Ilgen[829] may be said to have fully
+resolved this curious question. After determining the antiquity of the
+Scolion, which Pindar[830] supposes to have been an invention of
+Terpander, or, at least, the verses of the song, but which Ilgen dates
+as far back as the heroic period, he observes, that the name itself was
+known in very remote ages, since they formed a separate class among the
+works of Pindar, and are mentioned by Aristophanes and Plato,[831] and
+that, like the Cyclic chorus, it arose out of the circumstances under
+which it was sung. For as this chorus was called Cyclic, or circular,
+because chaunted by persons moving in a circle round the altar of
+Bacchos, so the Scolion, or zig-zag song,[832] received its name from
+the myrtle branch, or the cithara, to which it was sung, being passed
+from one guest to another in a zig-zag[833] fashion, just as those who
+possessed the requisite skill happened to sit at table.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 827:
+
+ Conf. Hom. Hymn. in Herm. 52, sqq. Pind. Olymp. i. 24.
+
+Footnote 828:
+
+ Poll. vi. 108, with the notes of Seber and Jungermann, t. v. p. 142.
+
+Footnote 829:
+
+ Who has published a collection of these songs, accompanied by very
+ interesting and instructive notes. Σκολια· hoc est, Carmina Convivalia
+ Græcorum. Jenæ, 1798.
+
+Footnote 830:
+
+ Apud Plut. de Musica, § 28.
+
+Footnote 831:
+
+ Pind. Fragm. Dissen. t. i. p. 234, with the Commentary, t. ii. p.639,
+ sqq. Aristoph. Vesp. 1222, 1240. Acharn. 532. Pac. 1302. Plat. Gorg.
+ t. iii. p. 13. Bekk.
+
+Footnote 832:
+
+ Suidas, v. σκολίον, t. ii. p. 759, e. sqq. Etym. Mag. 718, 35, sqq.
+ Eustath. ad Odyss. η. 276, 49.
+
+Footnote 833:
+
+ Mr. Müller, however, disapproves of this etymology. “It is much more
+ likely,” he says, “that in the melody to which the scolia were sung,
+ certain liberties and irregularities were permitted, by which the
+ extempore execution of the song was facilitated.”—History of Greek
+ Literature, pt. i. chap. xiii. § 16, seq.
+
+-----
+
+To render this explanation perfectly intelligible, it will, perhaps, be
+necessary to describe succinctly the whole process of singing in
+company. At first, it has been conjectured, when manners were rude, and
+the language still in its infancy, singing, like dancing, required no
+great art, and was little more than those wild bursts of melody still
+common among the improvisatori of Arabia and other Eastern countries,
+but that from these humble beginnings lyrical poetry took its rise,
+preserving still the freedom of its original state, and rising,
+unshackled by the rigid laws of metre, to heights of sublimity and
+grandeur beyond which no human composition ever soared. By degrees some
+complex forms of verse obtained the preference,—such, for example, as
+those of Sappho and Alcæos,—and fixed and definite laws of metre were
+established.
+
+The Scolion, however, always preserved something of its original
+spontaneous character, at least in appearance, and the same thing may be
+predicated of all their festive lays. But before they gave loose to
+their gaiety, the deep religious sentiment which pervaded the whole
+nation required a pæan, or hymn, to be sung in honour of the gods, and
+in this every person present joined.[834] While thus engaged, each
+guest, it is supposed, held in his hand a branch of laurel, the tree
+sacred to Apollo.[835] To the pæan succeeded another air, which all
+present sang in their turn, holding this time a branch of myrtle,[836]
+which, like the laurel bough mentioned above, was called æsakos, or the
+“branch of song.”[837] The singing commenced with the principal guest,
+to whom the symposiarch or host delivered the Cithara[838] and æsakos,
+demanding a song, which, according to the laws of the table, no one
+could refuse. Having performed his part, the singer was, in turn,
+entitled to call upon his neighbour, beginning on the right hand, and
+delivering to him the Cithara and the myrtle branch. The second, when he
+had sung, handed it then to the third, the third to the fourth, and so
+on until the whole circle of the company had been made. It sometimes
+happened, though not often, that among the guests an individual,
+unskilled in instrumental music, was found, and, in this case, he sang
+without accompaniment, holding the æsakos in his hand.[839]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 834:
+
+ Plut. Symp. i. 1. Athen. xiv. 24.
+
+Footnote 835:
+
+ Hesych. v. ᾄσακος, ap. Ilgen. De Scol. Poes. p. 154.
+
+Footnote 836:
+
+ Sch. Aristoph. Nub. 1339, 1346.
+
+Footnote 837:
+
+ Potter, Antiq. ii. 403.
+
+Footnote 838:
+
+ Sch. Aristoph. Nub. 1337, seq.
+
+Footnote 839:
+
+ Ilgen, De Scol. Poes. p. 156.
+
+-----
+
+The poets who had the honour thus to cheer the convivial hours of the
+Greeks were, in remoter times, Simonides and Stesichoros, and, probably,
+Anacreon, with others of the same grade;[840] and, if we may credit
+Aristophanes, songs were also selected from the plays of Æschylus,
+Sophocles, and Euripides, as among ourselves from Shakespeare, Beaumont
+and Fletcher, or Ben Jonson. It may even be inferred that passages from
+Homer himself[841] were sung on these occasions; or, if not sung, they
+were certainly recited by rhapsodists introduced for the purpose into
+the assembly, who, holding a laurel branch while thus engaged, probably
+gave rise to the practice of passing round the myrtle bough. This
+branch, therefore, whether of myrtle or laurel,[842] constituted a part
+of a singer’s apparatus. The latter was originally chosen as sacred to
+Apollo, the patron of music, and because it was also believed to be
+endowed with something of prophetic power, the Pythoness eating its
+leaves before she ascended the tripod, while it was the symbol of
+ever-during song. Instead of the laurel, myrtle was afterwards
+introduced, on account, probably, of its being sacred to Aphrodite,
+whose praises were celebrated in those amatory songs common at feasts.
+It may, likewise, have been considered an emblem of republican virtue,
+since Harmodios and Aristogeiton concealed their swords in a myrtle
+wreath.[843]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 840:
+
+ Aristoph. Nub. 1358. Conf. Schol. ad Vesp. 1222.
+
+Footnote 841:
+
+ Schol. Aristoph. Nub. 1367.
+
+Footnote 842:
+
+ Dresig. de Rhapsodis. p. 7. sqq. ap. Ilgen, De Scol. Poes. p. 157.
+ Pind. Isthm. iv. 63.
+
+Footnote 843:
+
+ Ilgen, De Scol. Poes. p. 159.
+
+-----
+
+To proceed, however, with the Scolia. These lays, like the rest, made
+the circle of the company, though not by passing in an unbroken series
+from man to man, but, as has already been said, from one skilful singer
+to another. In fact, the chanting of the scolia was a kind of contest
+which took place when all the other songs were concluded.[844] The
+person who occupied the seat of honour chanted to the Cithara a song
+containing the praises of some mortal or immortal, or the developement
+of some moral precept or erotic subject, which was comprehended in a
+small number of verses. When he had finished, he handed the Cithara and
+myrtle, at his own discretion, to some other among the guests, and the
+person thus challenged, who could not refuse without passing for an
+illiterate clown, must at once take up the same subject, and, without
+delay or premeditation, break forth into a song in the same metre and
+number of verses, if possible; and if unfamiliar with the Cithara, he
+could sing to the myrtle. The second singer now exercised his privilege
+and called upon a third, who was expected to do as he had done; so that
+very often the same idea underwent five or six transformations in the
+course of the evening. When the first argument had thus made the circle
+of the company, he who concluded had the right to start a new theme,
+which received the same treatment as the first; so that sometimes, when
+people were in a singing humour, air followed air, until eight or ten
+subjects had received all the poetical ornaments which the invention of
+those present could bestow upon them.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 844:
+
+ Athen. xv. 49.
+
+-----
+
+But to sing without wine would have been insipid. I have said the
+chanting of the scolia was a sort of contest, and, as he who contends
+and obtains the victory looks naturally for a reward, so the successful
+performer aspired to his, which, it must be owned, was not
+inappropriate, consisting of a brimming bowl, called _odos_, or the “cup
+of song,” at once a mark of honour and a reward of skill.[845] All these
+particulars are inferable from the examples of the scolion, which still
+remain; and Aristophanes in the “Wasps,” presents something like an
+outline, though dim and obscure, both of the argument and the mode of
+execution. He imagines a company of jolly fellows,[846] such as Theoros,
+Æschines, Phanos, Cleon, Acestor, and a foreigner of the same kidney,
+and represents them as engaged in performing certain scolia for their
+own entertainment.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 845:
+
+ Athen. xi. 110.
+
+Footnote 846:
+
+ Vesp. 1220.
+
+-----
+
+But the idea we should form of this kind of song from the very comic
+passage in the “Wasps” differs materially from the theoretic view of
+Ilgen, since Philocleon constantly interrupts his son, terminating each
+sentence for him in a manner wholly unexpected, and of course calculated
+to excite laughter.
+
+But though musical, the Greeks would not imitate the grasshoppers,[847]
+who are said to sing till they starve; but, having accomplished the
+circle above-mentioned, proceeded to other amusements which, though too
+numerous to be described at length, must not be altogether passed over.
+In the heroic ages the discovery had not been made that rest after meals
+is necessary to digestion, which in later times was a received maxim,
+and accordingly we find from the practice of the Phæacians,[848] who, if
+an after-dinner nap had been customary, would certainly have taken it,
+that the men of those times, instead of indulging in indolent repose out
+of compliment to their stomachs, sallied forth to leap, to run, to
+wrestle, and engage in other athletic sports, which by no means appear
+to have impaired their health or their prowess. As civilisation
+advances, however, excuses are found for laying aside the habits of
+violent exercise. Science, in too many cases, fosters indolence and
+pronounces what is fashionable to be wise. But to the race-course and
+the wrestling-ring, sedentary, or at least indoor, pastimes succeed,
+and, instead of overthrowing their antagonists on the palæstra-floor or
+the greensward, men seek to subdue them at Kottabos, or on the
+chess-board, or to ruin them at the card-table or in the billiard-room.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 847:
+
+ Plato Phædr. t. i. p. 65.
+
+Footnote 848:
+
+ Homer. Odyss. θ. 97, sqq. Eustath. p. 295, 43.
+
+-----
+
+The play of Kottabos,[849] invented in Sicily, soon propagated itself,
+as such inventions do, throughout the whole of Greece, and got into
+great vogue at Athens, where the lively temperament of the people
+inclined them to indulge immoderately in whatever was convivial and gay.
+The most usual form of the game was this,—a piece of wood like the
+upright of a balance having been fixed in the floor or upon a stable
+basis, a small cross-beam was placed on the top of it with a shallow
+vessel like the basin of a pair of scales, at either end.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 849:
+
+ Athen. xv. 2, sqq. xi. 22, 58, 75.—Suidas, v. κοταβίζειν. t. i. p.
+ 1504, b. seq. Etym. Mag. 538. 13, sqq.
+
+-----
+
+Under each of these vessels stood a broad-mouthed vase, filled with
+water, with a gilt bronze statue, called Manes, fixed upright in its
+centre. The persons who played at the game, standing at some little
+distance, cast, in turn, their wine, from a drinking-cup into one of the
+pensile basins, which descending with the weight, struck against the
+head of the statue, which resounded with the blow. The victor was he who
+spilled least wine during the throw, and elicited most noise from the
+brazen head. It was, in fact, in its origin a species of divination, the
+object being to discover by the greater or less success obtained, the
+place occupied by the player in his mistress’s affections. By an
+onomatopœa the sound created by the wine in its projection was called
+_latax_, and the wine itself _latagè_. Both the act of throwing and the
+cup used were called _ankula_, from the word which expresses the
+dexterous turn of the hand with which the skilful player cast his wine
+into the scales.[850]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 850:
+
+ Potter, ii. 405, 406.
+
+-----
+
+Our learned Archbishop Potter, who has not unskilfully abridged the
+account of Athenæus, confounds the above with the _kottabos katactos_,
+another form of the game described both by Pollux and Athenæus.[851] In
+this the apparatus was suspended like a chandelier from the roof. It was
+formed of brass, and a brazen vessel, called the skiff, was placed
+beneath it. The player, standing at a little distance, with a long wand,
+struck one end of the kottabos, which descending came in contact with
+the skiff, or rather the manes within, and produced a hollow sound.
+Occasionally the small vessels at the extremity of the kottabos were
+brought down, as in the former game, by having wine cast into them.
+Another variety required the skiff to be filled with water, upon which
+floated a ball, an instrument like the tongue of a balance, a manes,
+three myrtle boughs, and as many phials. In this the great art consisted
+in striking some one of these with the kottabos, and whoever could sink
+most of them won the game. The prize, on these occasions, was usually
+one of those cakes called _pyramos_[852] or something similar; but
+instead of these it was sometimes agreed, when women were present, that
+the prize should be a kiss, as in our game of forfeits. Another kind of
+kottabos, chiefly practised on those occasions which resembled our
+christenings, when on the tenth day the child received its name, was a
+contention of wakefulness, when the person who longest resisted sleep,
+won the prize. Properly, however, kottabos was the amusement first
+described; and so fashionable did it become, that persons erected
+circular rooms expressly for the purpose, in order that the players
+might take their stand at equal distances from the apparatus which stood
+in the centre.[853]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 851:
+
+ Pollux. vi. 100, sqq. Athen. xv. 4. Cf. Flor. Christian ad Aristoph.
+ Pac. 343.
+
+Footnote 852:
+
+ Pollux. vi. 101.
+
+Footnote 853:
+
+ Athen. xv. 7.
+
+-----
+
+It might, without any authority, be presumed that when people met
+together for enjoyment they would derive the greater portion of it from
+conversation, which would, of course, vary and slide
+
+ “From grave to gay, from lively to severe,”
+
+according to the character or fluctuating humour of the company. The
+Spartans, like all military people, were grievously addicted to jokes,
+which among them supplied the place of that elegant badinage,
+alternating with profound or impassioned discourse, familiar to the more
+intellectual Athenians. The latter, however, though free from the
+coarseness, possessed more than the mirthfulness of the Dorians, and in
+the midst of their habits of business and application to philosophy,
+knew better than any people how, amidst wine and good-eating, to unbend
+and enjoy the luxury of careless trifling and an unwrinkled brow. While
+some therefore retired to the kottabos-room, which occupied the place of
+our billiard-room, others still sat clustered round the table,
+extracting amusement from each other. Among these of course would be
+found all such as excelled in the art of small talk, who could tell a
+good story or anecdote, scatter around showers of witticisms, or give
+birth to a pun. Some, like the Spartans, had a Welsh passion for
+genealogies, and loved to run back over the history of the “Landed
+Gentry” of old Hellas, to the time of Deucalion or higher; others coined
+their wisdom and experience into fables, for which they exhibited an
+almost Oriental fondness; while the greater number, like the princes in
+the Arabian Nights, exercised their wits in propounding and resolving
+difficult questions, enigmas, charades, anagrams, and conundrums.
+
+But the principal classes into which these contrivances were divided
+were two: _enigmas_ and _griphoi_,[854] the former comprehending all
+those terminating in mere pleasure, the latter such questions and
+riddles as involved within themselves the kernel of wisdom or
+knowledge,[855] supposed to have been a dull and serious affair.
+Casaubon,[856] however, vindicates it stoutly from this charge,
+affirming that in the griphos the _utile_ was mingled with the _dulce_
+in due proportion; so that it must, according to Horace’s opinion, have
+borne away the palm from most literary inventions. In point of
+antiquity, too, the riddle may justly boast; for, if to be old is to be
+noble, it has “more of birth and better blood” even than the hungry
+Dorians of the Peloponnesos, whom Mr. Mitchell prefers, on this account,
+before all nations of Ionic race. Like everything good also it comes
+from the East. The earliest mention of the riddle occurs in the book of
+Judges,[857] where Samson, during his marriage-feast at Timnath,
+perplexes his guests with the following riddle:
+
+ “Out of the eater came forth meat, and out of the strong came forth
+ sweetness;”
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 854:
+
+ Vid. Clem. Alexan. Protrep. i. 1. Diog. Laert. ii. 33.
+
+Footnote 855:
+
+ Pollux. vi. 107.
+
+Footnote 856:
+
+ Animadv. in Athen. x. 15. Cf. Scaliger, Poet. iii. 84, where the
+ distinction made by Pollux is explained.
+
+Footnote 857:
+
+ Chap. xiv. vv. 14. 18. Chytræus, in his note on this passage, has
+ several excellent and learned remarks on the subject. Vid. Seber. ad
+ Poll. t. v. p. 141.
+
+-----
+
+To which they, being instructed by his wife, replied:
+
+ “What is sweeter than honey? and what is stronger than a lion?”
+
+The word griphos, in its original acceptation, signified a fishing-net,
+and hence by translation was employed to describe a captious or
+cunningly contrived question, in which the wits of people were
+entangled.[858] As the ancients delighted in this sort of intellectual
+trifling they were at the pains to be very methodical about it, dividing
+the riddle into several kinds, which Clearchos of Soli[859] made the
+subject of a separate work. This writer, a sort of Greek D’Israeli,
+defines the griphos to mean “a sportive problem proposed for solution on
+condition, that the discovery of the sense should be attended by a
+reward, and failure with punishment.” His description of the seven
+classes could scarcely be rendered intelligible, and certainly not
+interesting to the modern reader. It will be more to the purpose to
+introduce two or three specimens, prefacing them by a few remarks.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 858:
+
+ Pollux. vi. 108. Scalig. Poet. iii. 84.
+
+Footnote 859:
+
+ Schol. Aristoph. Vesp. 20. Athen. x. 69.
+
+-----
+
+It has been above observed, that philosophical truths were often wrapped
+up in these sportive problems, which purposely obscured, so as to afford
+but dim and distant glimpses of the forms within, necessarily exercised
+and sharpened the wit and induced keen and persevering habits of
+investigation. The reward also and the penalty had the same tendency. A
+crown, an extra junket, and the applause of the company, cheered the
+successful Œdipos, while the lackwit who beat about the bush without
+catching the owl, had to make wry faces over a cup of brine or pickle.
+Theodectes, the sophist, a man distinguished for the excellence of his
+memory, obtained reputation as a riddle-solver, and denominated such
+questions the “springs of memory.”[860] But whatever the interrogatories
+themselves may have been, the reward, to which their solution often led,
+was rather a source of forgetfulness, consisting of a goblet of wine
+which, when no interpreter could be found, passed to the
+propounder.[861]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 860:
+
+ Pollux. vi. 108.
+
+Footnote 861:
+
+ Etym. Mag. 341, 35, sqq. Suidas. v. γρῖφος, t. i. p. 628, seq.
+
+-----
+
+The riddle was of course a mine of wealth to the comic poets, who could
+not be supposed to forego the use of so admirable a contrivance to raise
+expectation and beget surprise. But it is clear, from the examples still
+preserved, that they oftener missed than hit. Antiphanes’s griphoi on
+“bringing and not bringing;” on the “porridge-pot;” on a “tart,” &c.,
+are poor things; but the following from the “Dream” of Alexis is good:
+
+ A. A thing exists which nor immortal is,
+ Nor mortal, but to both belongs, and lives
+ As neither god nor man does. Every day,
+ ’Tis born anew and dies. No eye can see it,
+ And yet to all ’tis known.
+
+ B. A plague upon you!
+ you bore me with your riddles.
+
+ A. Still, all this
+ Is plain and easy.
+
+ B. What then can it be?
+
+ A. SLEEP—that puts all our cares and pains to flight.[862]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 862:
+
+ Athen. x. 71.
+
+-----
+
+The following from Eubulos is not amiss:
+
+ A. What is it that, while young, is plump and heavy,
+ But, being full grown, is light, and wingless mounts
+ Upon the courier winds, and foils the sight?
+
+ B. The THISTLE’S BEARD; for this at first sticks fast
+ To the green seed, which, ripe and dry, falls off
+ Upon the cradling breeze, or, upwards puffed
+ By playful urchins, sails along the air.
+
+Antiphanes, in his Sappho, introduces a very ingenious riddle, partly
+for the purpose of offering a sarcastic explanation directed against the
+orators:
+
+ There is a female which within her bosom
+ Carries her young, that, mute, in fact, yet speak,
+ And make their voice heard on the howling waves,
+ Or wildest continent. They will converse
+ Even with the absent, and inform the deaf.[863]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 863:
+
+ Athen. x. 73.
+
+-----
+
+The poet introduces the “Lesbian maid,” explaining the riddle, and this
+passage of the Athenian comic writer may be regarded as the original of
+those fine lines in Ovid, which Pope has so elegantly translated:
+
+ Heaven first taught LETTERS for some wretch’s aid,
+ Some banish’d lover, or some captive maid,
+ They live, they speak, they breathe what love inspires,
+ Warm from the soul, and faithful to its fires,
+ The virgin’s wish without her fears impart,
+ Excuse the blush and pour out all the heart,
+ Speed the soft intercourse from soul to soul,
+ And waft a sigh from Indus to the pole.
+
+By this time, however, the reader will probably be of opinion, that we
+have lingered long enough about the dinner-table and its attendant
+pastimes. We shall therefore hasten the departure of the guests, who
+after burning the tongues of the animals that had been sacrificed, to
+intimate that whatever had been uttered was to be kept secret, offered
+libations to Zeus, Hermes, and other gods, and took their leave, in
+ancient times before sunset; but afterwards, as luxury and extravagance
+increased, the morning sun often enabled them to dispense with
+link-boys. Examples, indeed, of similar perversions of the night occur
+in Homer and Virgil, but always among the reckless or effeminate in the
+palaces of princes, whence, in all ages, the stream of immorality has
+flowed downward upon society to disturb and pollute it. The company
+assembled at Agathon’s, also, sit up all night in Plato; and
+Aristophanes represents drunken men reeling home through the agora by
+daylight.
+
+
+
+
+ CHAPTER VII.
+ THE THEATRE.
+
+
+It is far from being my purpose to repeat the information which may be
+obtained from a hundred authors on the rise and progress of scenic
+representation in Greece. I shall, on the contrary, confine myself
+chiefly to those parts of the subject which others have either
+altogether neglected, or treated in a concise and unsatisfactory manner.
+It would, nevertheless, be beside my purpose to attempt the clearing up
+of all such difficulties as occur in the accounts transmitted to us of
+the Hellenic drama; and, in fact, notwithstanding the laborious
+investigations into which I have been compelled to enter, I feel that
+there are many points upon which I can throw no new light, and which
+appear likely for ever to baffle the ingenuity of architects and
+scholars.
+
+Dionysos, being a deity connected with agriculture, his worship
+naturally took its rise, and for a long time prevailed chiefly, in the
+country. His festivals were celebrated with merriment; and, the power of
+mimicry being natural to man, the rustics, when congregated to set forth
+the praise of their tutelar god, easily glided into the enactment of a
+farcical show. And dramatic exhibitions at the outset were little
+superior to the feats of Punch, though, so great was their suitableness
+to the national character, that, in the course of time, every town of
+note had its own theatre, as it had of old its own dithyrambic
+bard;[864] and dramatic writers were multiplied incomparably beyond what
+they have been in any other country.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 864:
+
+ Schol. Aristoph. Av. 1404.
+
+-----
+
+Both tragedy and comedy,[865] properly so called, took their rise in
+Attica, and there only, in the ancient world, flourished and grew up to
+perfection. The theatre, in fact, formed at length a part of the
+constitution, and, probably, the worst part, its tendency being to
+foster personal enmities, to stir the sources of malice, and, while
+pretending to purge off the dross of the passions by the channels of
+sorrow and mirth, to induce habits of idleness and political apathy, by
+affording in the brilliant recesses of a mock world a facile refuge from
+the toils and duties of the real one. Nevertheless, it may be curious to
+open up a view into that universe of shadows wherein the vast creations
+of Æschylus, of Sophocles, of Euripides, of Aristophanes, and Menander
+displayed themselves before the eyes of the Athenians, with a costly
+grandeur and magnificence never equalled save in imperial Rome.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 865:
+
+ See Bentley, Dissert. on Phal. i. 251.
+
+-----
+
+It has been already remarked, that to the Dionysiac theatre of Athens
+the architectural speculations of Vitruvius on dramatic edifices apply,
+this building having constituted the model on which similar structures
+were afterwards erected.[866] By carefully studying its details,
+therefore, we shall be enabled to form a tolerably just conception of
+all the theatres once found in Greece, though each, perhaps, may have
+been slightly modified in plan, general arrangement, and decorations, by
+the peculiarities of the site, and the science or taste of its
+architect.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 866:
+
+ On the form and construction of ancient theatres, see Chandler,
+ Travels, &c., who describes the ruins of the theatre of Teos. i. 110;
+ of Ephesos, 138; of Miletos, (457 feet in length,) 168; of Myos, 191;
+ of Stratonica, 222; of Nysa, built with a blue-veined marble, 245; of
+ Laodicea, 262; of Ægina, ii. 16; of Athens, 113; of Eleusis, 215; on
+ the theatre of Syracuse, see Antiq. of Athens, &c. Supplementary to
+ Stuart, by Cockerel, Donaldson, &c. p. 38.—See a plan of the theatre
+ in the grove of Asclepios at Epidauros, pl. 1. p. 53, and another of
+ that of Dramysos, near Joannina, pl. 3.—(Compare on the Dionysiac
+ Theatre, Leake, Topog. of Athens, p. 53, sqq.)
+
+-----
+
+The great theatre of Bacchos, partly scooped out of the rock on the face
+of the hill at the south-eastern angle of the Acropolis, stretched
+forth, on solid piers of masonry, a considerable distance into the
+plain, and was capable of containing upwards of thirty thousand people.
+The diameter, accordingly, if it did not exceed, could have fallen
+little short of five hundred feet.[867] For we are not to suppose that,
+while Sparta,[868] and Argos, and Megalopolis, cities comparatively
+insignificant, possessed theatres of such dimensions, Athens,
+incomparably the largest and most beautiful of Hellenic capitals, would
+have been content with one of inferior magnitude.[869]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 867:
+
+ Even a provincial theatre is compared by the rustic in Dion Chrysostom
+ to a large hollow valley, i. 229; what then could the Abbé Dubos be
+ thinking of when he wrote, “Il étoit impossible que les altérations du
+ visage que le masque cache furent aperçûes distinctment des
+ spectateurs, dont plusieurs étoient éloignes _de plus de douze toises_
+ du comédien qui récitoit!”—Reflex. Crit. i. 609.
+
+Footnote 868:
+
+ Scalig. Poet. i. 21.
+
+Footnote 869:
+
+ Colonel Leake, Topog. of Ath. p. 59. Cf. Wordsworth’s Athens and
+ Attica, p. 29. The conjecture of Hemsterhuis on the passage of
+ Dicæarchos cannot be adopted. The words must apply to the theatre; for
+ he says the Parthenon charmed the spectators. But this could not apply
+ to the Odeion, which was roofed.
+
+-----
+
+To determine accurately the various parts of the theatre, and thus affix
+a distinct meaning to every term connected with it, has exercised the
+ingenuity of critics and architects for the last three hundred years,
+still leaving many difficulties to be overcome. I can scarcely hope in
+every case to succeed where they have failed. But the following
+explanation may, perhaps, convey of its interior an idea sufficiently
+exact for all practical purposes.
+
+Supposing ourselves to be standing at the foot of the Katatomè,[870] a
+smooth wall of rock, rising perpendicularly from the back of the theatre
+to the superimpending fortifications of the Acropolis, we behold on
+either hand, surmounted by porticoes, lofty piers of masonry projecting
+like horns down the rocky slope into the plain and united at their
+extremities by a wall of equal height, running in a straight line from
+one point of the horseshoe to the other. The space thus enclosed is
+divided into three principal parts,—the amphitheatre for the spectators,
+the orchestra,[871] filling all the space occupied by the modern pit,
+for the chorus, and the stage, properly so called, for the actors. Each
+of these parts was again subdivided. Looking down still from the
+Katatomè, we behold the benches of white marble, sweeping round the
+whole semicircle of the theatre, descend like steps to the level of the
+orchestra, and intersected at intervals by narrow straight passages
+converging towards a point below.[872] A number of the upper seats, cut
+off, by an open space extending round the whole semicircle, from the
+rest, was set apart for the women. Other divisions were appropriated to
+other classes of the population, as the tier of seats immediately
+overlooking the orchestra to the senators, or dicasts, another portion
+to the youth, another to foreigners and the guests of the state, while
+the remainder was occupied by the dense mass of citizens of all
+ages,[873] with crowns of flowers on their heads.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 870:
+
+ Poll. iv. 123.
+
+Footnote 871:
+
+ Tim. Lex. Platon. in v. ὀρχήστρα. p. 104. Poll. iv. 123.
+
+Footnote 872:
+
+ Poll. iv. 123.—The Cunei, for greater convenience, had particular
+ marks, numbers, or names to distinguish them: the podium of the
+ diazoma of the theatre at Syracuse has an inscription cut on the
+ fascia of the cornice to each cuneus.—Antiq. of Ath. &c. Supplem. to
+ Stuart, &c., by Cockerel, Kinnaird, Donaldson, &c., p. 38.
+
+Footnote 873:
+
+ For the children, see Plat. de Rep. t. vi. p. 128. Athen. xi. 13. Cf.
+ Aristid. t. i. p. 505. Jebb.
+
+-----
+
+Above the level of the most elevated range of seats, and stretching
+round the whole sweep of the edifice,[874] arose a spacious
+portico,[875] designed to afford shelter to the spectators during the
+continuance of a sudden shower. Another range of porticoes extended
+along the small lawn or grove within the limits of the theatre, at the
+back of the stage, so that there was little necessity for the Athenian
+people to take refuge, as some have imagined, from the weather in the
+public buildings, sacred or civil, in the vicinity.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 874:
+
+ Vitruv. v. 9. Donaldson, Theatre of the Greeks, p. 139.
+
+Footnote 875:
+
+ Among the Romans it was customary to carry along with them, as a
+ defence against rain, thick cloaks, rockets, or mandilions. Buleng. de
+ Theat. i. 15.—The theatre of Regilla, built by Herodes Atticus in
+ honour of his wife, was roofed with cedar.—Philost. Vit. Sophist. ii.
+ 1. 5.—In later ages a velarium appears to have been extended over the
+ great Dionysiac theatre, as was the custom at Rome.—Wordsworth, Athens
+ and Attica, p. 90. Cf. Dion. Cass. xliii. p. 226. a. Hanov. 1606.
+
+-----
+
+It would appear from an expression in Pollux,[876] that the lower seats
+of the theatre, appropriated to persons of distinction, were covered
+with wood,[877] notwithstanding which, it was usual, in the later ages
+of the commonwealth, for rich persons to have cushions brought for them
+to the theatre by their domestics,[878] together with purple carpets for
+their feet. Theophrastus, accordingly, whom few striking traits of
+manners escaped, represents his flatterer snatching this theatrical
+cushion from the slave, and adjusting and obsequiously smoothing it for
+his patron.[879] To render their devotion to Dionysos still less
+irksome, it was customary to hand round cakes and wine during the
+representation, though, like Homer’s heroes, they were careful to
+fortify themselves with a good meal before they ventured abroad. We are
+informed, moreover, that when the actors were bad there was a greater
+consumption of confectionary, the good people being determined to make
+up in one kind of enjoyment what they lost in another. Full cups,
+moreover, were habitually drained on the entrance and exit of the
+chorus.[880]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 876:
+
+ Onomast. iv. 122.—To kick the seats with the heel was called
+ πτερνοκοπεῖν, which they did when they wanted to drive away an actor,
+ id. ibid. Cf. Diog. Laert. ii. 8. 4.
+
+Footnote 877:
+
+ On the old wooden theatre see Hesych. v. ἰκρία. Suid. v. ἰκρία, t. i.
+ p. 1234. d. Sch. Aristoph. Thesm. 395.—This theatre fell down whilst a
+ play of Pratinas was acting.—Suid. v. Πρατίνας, t. ii. 585. d.
+
+Footnote 878:
+
+ Upon this practice Dr. Chandler has an ingenious conjecture. After
+ attentively viewing the seats of several ancient theatres, and
+ “considering their height, width, and manner of arrangement, I am
+ inclined to believe that the ancient Asiatics sate at their plays and
+ public spectacles, like the modern, with under them, and, it is
+ probable, upon carpets.”—Travels, &c. i. 269.
+
+Footnote 879:
+
+ Charact. c. ii. p. 10. Casaub.
+
+Footnote 880:
+
+ Philoch. Frag. Sieb. p. 85. Aristot. Ethic. Nic. 5. Athen. xi. 13.
+
+-----
+
+The orchestra, being considerably below the level of the stage, had in
+the middle of it a small square platform, called the Thymele,[881]
+sometimes regarded as a bema on which the leader of the chorus mounted
+when engaged in dialogue with the actors; sometimes as an altar on
+which sacrifice was offered up to Dionysos. That part of the orchestra
+which lay between the Thymele and the stage was denominated the
+Dromos, while the name of Parodoi was bestowed on those two spacious
+side-passages,[882] the one from the east, the other from the west, at
+the extremities of the tiers of seats which afforded the chorus ample
+room for marching in and out in rank and file, in the quadrangular
+form it usually affected.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 881:
+
+ Etym. Mag. 653. 7. Cf. 458. 30. 743. 30. et Suid. v. σκηνὴ t. ii. p.
+ 753, seq. Cf. Thom. Magist. in v. θυμέλη, p. 458, seq. Blancard.
+ Scalig. Poet. i. 21. Poll. iv. 123.
+
+Footnote 882:
+
+ Sch. Aristoph. Acharn. 8. Cf. Vesp. 270.
+
+-----
+
+At the extremity of the orchestra a pier of masonry called the
+Hyposcenion, adorned with columns and statues, rose to the level of the
+stage, where a most intricate system of machinery and decoration
+represented all that was tangible to sense in the creations of the poet.
+The stage was divided into two parts; first, the Ocribas or
+Logeion,[883] floored with boards, and hollow beneath, for the purpose
+of reverberating the voice; second, the Proscenion,[884] a broader
+parallelogram of solid stonework, necessary to support the vast
+apparatus of machinery and decoration required by the character of the
+Grecian drama. The descent from the stage[885] into the orchestra was by
+two flights of steps situated at either extremity of the Logeion, at the
+point where the Parodoi touched upon the Dromos. Beyond the Proscenion
+arose the Scene,[886] properly so called, the aspect of which was
+constantly varied, to suit the requirements of each successive piece. In
+most cases, however, it represented the front of three different
+edifices, of which the central one, communicating with the stage by a
+broad and lofty portal, was generally a palace. Sometimes, as in the
+Philoctetes, this portal was converted into the mouth of a cavern,[887]
+opening upon the view, amid the rocks and solitudes of Lemnos, while in
+other plays it formed the entrance to the mansion of some private person
+of distinction, but was always appropriated to the principal actor. The
+building on the right assumed in comedy the appearance of an inn,
+through the door of which the second actor issued upon the stage, while
+the portal on the left led into a ruined temple, or uninhabited house.
+In tragedy the right hand entrance was appropriated to strangers, while
+on the left was that of the female apartments, or of a prison.[888]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 883:
+
+ Plat. Conviv. t. iv. 411. Tim. Lex. v. ὀκρίβας, p. 102. Etym. Mag.
+ 620. 52. Poll. iv. 123.
+
+Footnote 884:
+
+ Poll. iv. 123.
+
+Footnote 885:
+
+ It is impossible to adopt Genelli’s idea on these flights of steps, by
+ the injudicious position of which in his plan, he entirely breaks up
+ and destroys the beauty of the Hyposcenion, especially as the
+ Scholiast on Aristophanes positively states, that they led from the
+ Parodoi to the Logeion.—Sch. Aristoph. Eq. 149.
+
+Footnote 886:
+
+ On the stage and scenery, see Casalius.—De Trag. et Com. c. i. ap.
+ Gronov. Thesaur. t. viii. p. 1603.
+
+Footnote 887:
+
+ Cf. Sch. Aristoph. Av. i.
+
+Footnote 888:
+
+ Vid. Scalig. de Art. Poet. i. 21.
+
+-----
+
+Upon the stage, in front of the doors, stood an altar of Apollo Aguieus,
+and a table covered with cakes and confectionary,[889] which appears
+sometimes to have been regarded as the representative of that ancient
+table, on which, in the simplicity of Prothespian times, the solitary
+actor mounted when engaged in dialogue with the chorus.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 889:
+
+ Poll. iv. 123. Vid. Spanh. ad Callim. t. ii. p. 228, seq.
+
+-----
+
+When the stage was fitted up for the performance of comedy, there stood
+near the house a painted scene representing a large cattle-shed, with
+capacious double gates, for the admission of waggons and sumpter oxen,
+with herds and droves of asses, when returning from the field. In the
+Akestriæ of Antiphanes,[890] this rustic building was converted into a
+workshop. Beyond each of the side-doors on the right and left were two
+machines,[891] one on either hand, upon which the extremity of the
+periactoi abutted. The scene on the right represented rural landscapes,
+that on the left prospects in the environs of the city, particularly
+views of the harbour. On these periactoi,[892] were represented the
+marine deities riding on the waves, and generally all such objects as
+could not be introduced by machinery. By turning the periactoi on the
+right, the situation was changed, but when both were turned a wholly new
+landscape was placed before the eye. Of the parodoi, or side-passages,
+that on the right led from the fields, from the harbour, or from the
+city, as the necessities of the play required, while those arriving on
+foot from any other part entered by the opposite passage, and,
+traversing a portion of the orchestra, ascended the stage by the flights
+of steps before mentioned.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 890:
+
+ Scalig. reads Antipho. De Art. Poet. i. 21.
+
+Footnote 891:
+
+ Μηχαναὶ for μία. Cf. Annot. Poll. iv. 126.
+
+Footnote 892:
+
+ Poll. iv. 126, 130, seq.
+
+-----
+
+The machinery[893] by which the dumb economy of the play was developed
+consisted of numerous parts, highly complicated and curious. To avoid
+labour, and, perhaps, some tediousness, these might be passed over with
+such a remark as the above, but this would be to escape from
+difficulties not to diminish them. I shall descend to particulars.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 893:
+
+ Vid. Buleng. De Theat. c. 21.
+
+-----
+
+First, and most remarkable, was that machine called an Eccyclema,[894]
+much used by the ancients when scenes within-doors were to be brought to
+view. It consisted of a wooden structure, moved on wheels, and
+represented the interior of an apartment. In order to pass forth through
+the doors, it was formed less deep than broad, and rolled forth
+sideways, turning round afterwards, and concealing the front of the
+building from which it had issued. The channels in the floor, which were
+traversed by the wheels, doubtless concealed beneath the lofty basis,
+received the name of Eiscyclema.[895] Sometimes, as in the Agamemnon, it
+presented to view “the royal bathing apartment with the silver laver,
+the corpse enveloped in the fatal garment, and Clytemnestra, besprinkled
+with blood, and holding in her hand the reeking weapon, still standing
+with haughty mien over her murdered victim.”[896] On other occasions a
+throne, a corpse, the interior of a tent, the summit of a building, were
+exhibited; and in the Clouds of Aristophanes the interior of Socrates’
+house was laid open to the spectators, containing a number of masks,
+gaunt and pale, the natural fruit of philosophy.[897] It should be
+remarked that the Eccyclema issued through any of the doors, as the
+piece required the cells of a prison, the halls of a palace, or the
+chambers of an inn, to be placed before the eyes of the audience.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 894:
+
+ Poll. iv. 127, seq.
+
+Footnote 895:
+
+ Poll. iv. 128.
+
+Footnote 896:
+
+ Müller, Dissert. on the Eumenid. p. 91.
+
+Footnote 897:
+
+ Sch. Aristoph. Nub. 185.
+
+-----
+
+That peculiar machine in which the gods made their appearance,[898] or
+such heroes as enjoyed the privilege of travelling through the
+air,—Bellerophon, for example, and Perseus,—stood near the left
+side-entrance, and, in height, exceeded the stone skreen at the back of
+the stage. This, in tragedy, was denominated Mechanè, and Kradè in
+comedy,[899]—in this case resembling a fig-tree, which the Athenians
+called Kradè. The watch-tower, the battlements, and the turret, were
+constructed for the use of those watchmen, such as the old man in the
+Agamemnon, who looked out for signals, or indications of the coming foe.
+The Phructorion[900] was a pharos, or beacon-tower. Another portion of
+the stage was the Distegia, a building two stories high in palaces, from
+the top of which, in the Phœnissœ of Euripides,[901] Antigone beholds
+the army. It was roofed with tiles, (and thence called Keramos,) which
+they sometimes cast down upon the enemy. In comedy, libertines and old
+women, or ladies of equivocal character, were represented prying into
+the street for prey from such buildings.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 898:
+
+ Ξενοκλῆς ὁ Καρκίνου δοκεῖ μηχανὰς καὶ τερατείας εἰσάγειν ν τοῖς
+ δράμασι. Πλάτων Σοφισταῖς· Ξενοκλῆς ὁ δωδεκαμήχανος ὁ Καρκίνου παῖς
+ τοῦ θαλαττίου· μηχανοδίφας δὲ εἶπεν αὐτοὺς, ἐπειδὴ πολλάκις ὡς
+ τραγῳδοὶ μηχανὰς προσέφερον, ἡνίκα Θεοὺς ἐμιμοῦντο ἀνερχομένους ἢ
+ κατερχομένους ἐκ τοῦ οὐρανοῦ ἢ ἄλλοτι τοιοῦτον. Schol. Aristoph. Pac.
+ 769.
+
+Footnote 899:
+
+ Poll. iv. 129. Etym. Mag. 465. 56. 534. 39.
+
+Footnote 900:
+
+ Aristoph. Av. 1161, et Schol. Cf. Herod. ap. Const. in v. φρυκτώριον.
+ Poll. iv. 127.
+
+Footnote 901:
+
+ Phæn. 688, cum not. et Schol. Bekk. Poll. iv. 127, 129.
+
+-----
+
+The Keraunoskopeion[902] was a lofty triangular column, which appears to
+have been hollow, and furnished with narrow fissures, extending in right
+lines from top to bottom. Within seem to have been a number of lamps, on
+stationary bases, from which, as the periactos whirled round, sheets of
+mimic lightning flashed upon the stage from behind the scenes.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 902:
+
+ Poll. iv. 127, 130.
+
+-----
+
+The construction of the Bronteion,[903] or thunder magazine, I imagine
+to have been nearly as follows:—a number of brazen plates, arranged one
+below another, like stairs, descended through a steep, vaulted passage
+behind the scene, into the bottom of a tower, terminating in a vast
+brazen caldron. From the edge of this, a series of metallic
+apertures,[904] probably spiral, pierced the tower wall, and opened
+without in funnels, like the mouths of trumpets.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 903:
+
+ Idem, Ibid.
+
+Footnote 904:
+
+ These were called ἠχεῖα. Schol. Aristoph. Nub. 292.
+
+-----
+
+When some deity was required to descend to earth in the midst of
+lightning and sudden thunder, the Keraunoskopeion was instantaneously
+put in motion, and showers of pebbles from the sea-shore were hurled
+down the mouth of the Bronteion, and, rolling over the brazen
+receptacles, produced a terrific crash, which, with innumerable
+reverberations, was poured forth by the Echeia upon the theatre.[905]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 905:
+
+ Schol. Aristoph. Nub. 292, 294.
+
+-----
+
+In a lofty gallery called the Theologeion, extending over the marble
+skreen at the back of the stage, appeared the gods, when the drama
+required their presence; and hence, I imagine, the Hebrew colony which
+makes its appearance nightly near the roof of our own theatres have
+obtained the name of gods. Here Zeus, and the other deities of Olympos,
+were assembled in that very extraordinary drama of Æschylus, the
+Psychostasia, or weighing in the balance the souls of Achilles and
+Hector.
+
+They employed in the theatre the machine called a Crane,[906] the point
+of which being lowered, snatched up whatever it was designed to bear
+aloft into the air. By means of this contrivance, Eos, goddess of the
+dawn, descended and bore away the body of Memnon, slain by Achilles
+before Troy. At other times strong cords, so disposed as to resemble
+swings, were let down from the roof, to support the gods or heroes who
+seemed to be borne through the air.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 906:
+
+ Poll. iv. 130.
+
+-----
+
+Though by turning the Periactoi three changes of scene could be
+produced, many more were sometimes required, and, when this was the
+case, new landscapes were dropped, like hangings, or slided in frames in
+front of those painted columns. These usually represented views of the
+sea, or mountain scenery, or the course of some river winding along
+through solitary vales, or other prospects of similar character,
+according to the spirit of the drama.
+
+The position of the Hemicycle is more difficult to comprehend. It
+appears to have been a retreating semicircular scene, placed facing the
+orchestra, and masking the marble buildings at the back of the stage,
+when a view was to be opened up into some distant part of the city, or
+shipwrecked mariners were to be exhibited buffeting with the waves. Not
+very dissimilar was the Stropheion,[907] which brought to view heroes
+translated to Olympos, or on the ocean, or in battle slain, where change
+of position with respect to the spectator was produced by the rotatory
+motion of the machine.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 907:
+
+ Poll. iv. 131.
+
+-----
+
+The position of the Charonian staircase,[908] by which spectres and
+apparitions ascended from the nether world, is exceedingly difficult to
+be determined; but that it was somewhere on the stage appears to me
+certain, notwithstanding the seeming testimony of Pollux to the
+contrary. The hypothesis which makes the ghosts issue from a door
+immediately beneath the seats of the spectators, and rush along the
+whole depth of the orchestra, among the chorus and musicians, is, at any
+rate, absurd. It must have been somewhere towards the back of the stage,
+near the altar of Loxios, the table of shew-bread and those sacred and
+antique images which in certain dramas were there exhibited. Here,
+likewise, was the trap-door, through which river-gods issued from the
+earth, while the other trap-door, appropriated to the Furies, seems to
+have been situated in the boards of the Logeion, near one of the flights
+of steps leading down into the orchestra.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 908:
+
+ Id. iv. 132.
+
+-----
+
+The above synopsis of the machinery and decorations employed by the
+Greeks in their theatrical shows may, possibly, from its imperfection,
+suggest the idea of a rude and clumsy apparatus. But, as the arts of
+poetry, sculpture, painting, and architecture reached in Greece the
+highest perfection, and, as this perfection was coëtaneous with the
+flourishing state of the drama, it is impossible to escape the
+conviction, that the art of scene-painting and the manufacturing of
+stage machinery, likewise, underwent all the improvements of which by
+their nature they are susceptible. For, in the first place, it is not
+easy to suppose, that a people, so fastidious as were the Athenians,
+would have tolerated in the theatre displays of ignorance and want of
+skill which everywhere else they are known to have overwhelmed with
+contempt and derision; more especially as, in the first place, the
+landscapes and objects represented were usually those with which they
+were most familiar, though the fancy of the poet sometimes ventured to
+transport them to the most elevated and inaccessible recesses of Mount
+Caucasus, to the summit of the celestial Olympos, to the palaces and
+harems of Persia, to the wilds of the Tauric Chersonese,[909] or even to
+the dim and dreary regions of the dead. The names, nevertheless, of few
+scene-painters, besides Agatharchos,[910] have come down to us, though
+it is known, that, in their own day, they sometimes divided with the
+poet the admiration of the audience, and, on other occasions, enabled
+poets of inferior merit to bear away the prize from their betters.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 909:
+
+ Cf. Æsch. Prom. 2.
+
+Footnote 910:
+
+ Vitruv. Præfat. lib. vii. Plut. Alcib. § 16.
+
+-----
+
+The character, however, of stage-scenery differed very widely in
+tragedy, comedy, and satyric pieces,[911] usually consisting, in the
+first, of façades of palaces, with colonnades, architraves, cornices,
+niches, statues, &c.; in comedy, of the fronts or courts of ordinary
+houses, with windows, balconies, porticoes, &c.; while, in the satyric
+drama, the fancy of the painter and decorator was allowed to develope
+before the audience scenes of rural beauty remote from cities, as the
+hollows of mountains shaded with forests, winding valleys, plains,
+rivers, caverns, and sacred groves.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 911:
+
+ Vitruv. v. 8. Etym. Mag. 763. 27.
+
+-----
+
+Of the Grecian actors,[912] whose business and profession next require
+to be noticed, too little by far is known, considering the curious
+interest of the subject. Their art, however, would appear to have sprung
+from that of the rhapsodists, who chanted in temples, during religious
+festivals, and afterwards in the theatres, the heroic lays of Greece. To
+a certain extent, indeed, the rhapsodist was himself an actor. His art
+required him to enter deeply into the spirit of the poetry he recited,
+to suit to the passion brought into play the modulations and inflexions
+of his voice, his tone, his looks, his gesture, so as vividly to paint
+to the imagination the picture designed by the poet, and sway the whole
+theatre by the powerful wand of sympathy through all the gradations of
+sorrow, indignation, and joy.[913] By some writers, accordingly, the
+rhapsodist is apparently confounded with the actor, that is, he is
+considered an actor of epics,[914] though in reality his imitations of
+character were partial and imperfect.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 912:
+
+ Vid. Casal. c. 2.
+
+Footnote 913:
+
+ Plat. Ion. t. ii. p. 183, seq. Wolf. Proleg. p. 95. Cf. S. F. Dresig.
+ Comment. Lips. 1734. Gillies, Hist. of Greece, vol. i. c. 6.
+
+Footnote 914:
+
+ Diod. Sic. xiv. 109. xv. 7.
+
+-----
+
+Actors formed at Athens part of a guild, or company, called the
+Dionysiac artificers,[915] among whom were also comprehended
+rhapsodists, citharœdi, citharistæ, musicians, jugglers, and other
+individuals[916] connected with the theatre. These persons, though for
+the most part held in little estimation, were yet somewhat more
+respectable than at Rome, where to appear on the stage was
+infamous.[917] Like the rhapsodists, they generally led a wandering
+life, sometimes appearing at Athens,[918] sometimes at Corinth, or
+Sicyon, or Epidauros, or Thebes, after the fashion approved among the
+strollers of our own day. In the course of these wanderings they now and
+then fell in with rare adventures, as in the case of that company of
+comedians which, on returning from Messenia towards the Isthmus, was met
+by king Cleomenes and the Spartan army near Megalopolis.[919] To exhibit
+the superiority of his power and his contempt for the enemy, Cleomenes
+threw up, probably with turf and boards, a temporary theatre, where he
+and his army sat all day enjoying the jokes and wild merriment of the
+stage, after which, he bestowed, as a prize, upon the principal
+performers, the sum of forty minæ, or about one hundred and sixty pounds
+sterling.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 915:
+
+ Philost. Vit. Soph. ii. 16. Vit. Apoll. Tyan. v. 7. Vandale, Dissert.
+ 380, seq.
+
+Footnote 916:
+
+ Casaub. ad Theoph. Char. p. 121. Athen. v. 49. Animadv. t. viii. p.
+ 196.
+
+Footnote 917:
+
+ Vandale. Dissert, v. p. 383.
+
+Footnote 918:
+
+ Plat. de Rep. viii. t. ii. p. 229, seq. Athen. xiii. 44. In Roman
+ times we find an actor travelling from the capital to Seville in
+ Spain, where with his lofty cothurni, strange dress, and gaping mask,
+ he frightened the natives out of the theatre.—Philost. Vit. Apoll.
+ Tyan. v. 9. Cf. Luc. de Saltat. § 27. A taste for the amusements of
+ the Grecian stage was diffused far and wide through the ancient world,
+ so that we find the princes of Persia and Armenia not only enjoying
+ the representation of Greek tragedies, but themselves, likewise, in
+ some instances, aspiring to rival the dramatic poets of Hellas. Thus
+ Artavasdes, the Armenian prince, is said to have written tragedies, as
+ well as histories and orations, some of which still existed in the age
+ of Plutarch. The Parthian court was engaged in beholding the Bacchæ of
+ Euripides, in which Jason of Tralles was the principal performer, when
+ Sillaces brought in the head of Marcus Crassus, upon which both king
+ and nobles delivered themselves up to immoderate joy, and the actor,
+ seizing upon the Roman’s head, exchanged the part of Pentheus for that
+ of his mother, who appears upon the stage bearing a bleeding head upon
+ her thyrsus; for this he received a present of a talent from the
+ king.—Plut. Crass. § 33. Polyæan. vii. 41. 1.
+
+Footnote 919:
+
+ Plut. Cleom. § 12.
+
+-----
+
+About this period, however, it was usual for the armies of Greece,
+republican as well as royal, to be followed by companies of strollers,
+jugglers, dancing girls, and musicians.[920] Even in the army of
+Alexander, when proceeding on the Persian expedition, the “flatterers of
+Dionysos”[921] were not forgotten; in fact, the son of Philip set a high
+value upon the performances of these gentlemen, and with truly royal
+munificence allowed them to enjoy their full share of the plunder of the
+East. Thus, when Nicocreon, king of Salamis, and Pasicrates, king of
+Soli,[922] played the part of Choregi in Cyprus, in getting up certain
+tragedies there performed for the amusement of Alexander, and the
+actors, Thessalos, and Athenodoros the Athenian, contended for the
+prize; he was piqued at the victory of the Athenian, and, though he
+commended the judges for bestowing the prize on him whom they regarded
+as the best performer, said, he would have given a part of his kingdom
+rather than have beheld Thessalos overcome by a rival.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 920:
+
+ Plut. ubi supra.
+
+Footnote 921:
+
+ Διονυσοκόλακες. Athen. vi. 56.
+
+Footnote 922:
+
+ Plut. Alex. § 29.
+
+-----
+
+Afterwards, when Athenodoros was fined by his countrymen for absenting
+himself from Athens during the Dionysiac festival, evidently contrary to
+the statutes in that case made and provided, Alexander paid the fine for
+his humble friend, though he refused to make application to the people
+for its remission.
+
+An anecdote related of Lycon of Scarphe, also shows the high value set
+by the Macedonian prince upon the amusements of the stage, and the
+influence exercised over his mind by the Dionysiac artificers, though,
+according to Antiphanes, he wanted the taste to discriminate between a
+good play and a bad one. The Scarpheote being one day in want of money,
+as actors sometimes are, introduced into the piece he was performing a
+line of his own making, beseeching the conqueror to bestow on him ten
+talents; Alexander, amused by his extravagance, or captivated perhaps,
+by the flattery which accompanied it, at once granted his request, and
+thus upwards of two thousand four hundred pounds of the public money
+were expended for the momentary gratification of a prince.[923]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 923:
+
+ Plut. Alex. § 29.
+
+-----
+
+The philosophers, almost of necessity, thought and spoke of these
+wandering performers with extreme contempt. Plato observes, that they
+went about from city to city collecting together thoughtless crowds,
+and, by their beautiful, sonorous, and persuasive voices, converting
+republics into tyrannies and aristocracies. Aristotle endeavoured to
+account for their evil character and agency.[924] They were worthless,
+he says, because of all men they profited least by the lessons of reason
+and philosophy, their whole lives being consumed by the study of their
+professional arts, or passed in intemperance and difficulties.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 924:
+
+ Prob. xxx. 10. They were likewise corrupted by their profession,
+ since, in female parts, they frequently indulged in immodest gestures,
+ as is particularly related of Callipedes. Id. Poet. v. 2. Cf. Macrob.
+ Saturnal. l. ii. c. 10.
+
+-----
+
+Nevertheless, even among them there were different grades, some aiming
+at the higher walks of tragedy and comedy; while others were content to
+declaim rude, low songs, seated on waggons like mountebanks during the
+Lenæan festival.[925] Nor must this fashion be at all regarded as
+Prothespian, since it prevailed down to a very late period. And as in
+every thing the Greeks aimed at excellence and distinction, so even here
+we find that there was a contest between the poets who wrote the comic
+songs sung by these humble performers from their waggons.[926]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 925:
+
+ Occasionally, as among ourselves, jugglers were introduced upon the
+ stage, swallowing swords and performing other fantastic tricks.—Plut.
+ Lycurg. § 19.
+
+Footnote 926:
+
+ Schol. Aristoph. Eq. 545.
+
+-----
+
+The various classes of actors known to the ancients were numerous. Among
+the lower grades were the Magodos, and the Lysiodos,[927] who though
+confounded by some, appear clearly to have been distinct; the former
+personating both male and female characters; the latter female
+characters only, though disguised in male costume. But the songs, and
+every other characteristic of their performances, were the same. The
+spirit of the coarse satirical farces they acted forbids my explaining
+their nature fully.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 927:
+
+ Athen. iv. 80. v. 47. vi. 61. Cf. Eustath. ad Odyss. ψ. p. 106, sub
+ fin.
+
+-----
+
+There were even several authors who attained a “bad eminence” in this
+department of literature, which especially affected the Ionic dialect,
+as Alexander, the Ætolian,[928] Pyretos of Miletos, a city noted for its
+dissolute characters, and Alexos, who obtained on this account an
+opprobrious sobriquet. The most remarkable, however, of this vicious
+brood would appear to have been Sotades[929] the Maronite, and his son
+Apollonios who wrote a work on his father’s poems. Sotades was probably
+the original imitated by Pietro Aretino, who obtained in modern times a
+like reputation, though timely penitence may have snatched him from a
+similar end. The ancient libeller, enacting the part of Thersites,
+fastened with peculiar delight on the vices of princes, not from
+aversion to their manners, but because such scandal paved the way to
+notoriety. Thus at Alexandria, he covered Lysimachos with obloquy,
+which, when at the court of Lysimachos, he heaped upon Ptolemy
+Philadelphos. His punishment, however, exceeded the measure of his
+offences. Being overtaken in the island of Caunos by Patrocles, one of
+Ptolemy’s generals, the obsequious mercenary caused him to be enclosed
+in a leaden box and cast into the sea.[930]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 928:
+
+ Suid. v. φλύακες, t. ii. p. 1073. b.
+
+Footnote 929:
+
+ Cf. Fabric. Bib. Græc. ii. p. 495, seq.
+
+Footnote 930:
+
+ Athen. xiv. 13.
+
+-----
+
+The Magodos, then, was a wandering farce actor, not unlike the tumbling
+mountebanks one sometimes sees in France and southern Europe. He
+travelled about with an apparatus of drums, cymbals, and female
+disguises, sometimes impersonating women, sometimes adulterers or the
+mean servants of vice; and the style of his dancing and performances
+corresponded with the low walk he selected, being wholly destitute of
+beauty or decorum. It seems necessary, therefore, to adopt the opinion
+of Aristoxenos, who considered the art of the Hilarodos as a serious
+imitation of tragedy; that of the Magodos as a comic parody, brought
+down to the level of the grossly vulgar. The latter art would appear to
+have derived its name from the charms, spells, or magical songs chanted
+by the mountebanks who likewise pretended to develope the secrets of
+pharmaceutics.
+
+Superior in every way to the Magodos and Lysiodos was the
+Hilarodos,[931] who, though a wandering singer like the Italians and
+Savoyards of modern Europe, affected no little state, and was evidently
+treated with some respect. His costume, in conformity with the popular
+taste, displayed considerable magnificence, consisting of a golden
+crown, white stole and costly sandals, though in earlier ages he
+appeared in shoes. He was usually accompanied by a youth or maiden who
+touched the lyre as he sung. The style of his performances was decorous
+and manly. When a crown was given him in token of approbation by the
+audience, it was bestowed on the Hilarodos himself, not on the musician.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 931:
+
+ Cf. Athen. iv. 57. Salm. Exercit. Plin. p. 76. Voss. Institut. Poet.
+ ii. 21. Rhinthon was the inventor of the Hilaro-tragœdi. i. e.
+ Tragi-comedy. Suid. v. Ῥίνθων, t. ii. p. 685. b.
+
+-----
+
+A class of actors existed, also from very remote times, among the
+Spartans. They were called Deikelistæ,[932] and their style of
+performing showed the little value set upon the drama at Sparta. The
+poetry of the piece, if poetry it could be called, was extempore and of
+the rudest description, and the characters were altogether conformable.
+Sometimes the interest of the play turned upon a man robbing an orchard,
+or on the broken Greek of an outlandish physician, whom people respected
+for his gibberish. This weakness, prevalent of course at Athens also, is
+wittily satirised by Alexis in his Female Opium Eater.
+
+ “Now if a native
+ Doctor prescribe, ‘Give him a porringer
+ Of ptisan in the morning,’ we despise him.
+ But in some _brogue_ disguised ’tis admirable.
+ Thus he who speaks of _Beet_ is slighted, while
+ We prick our ears if he but mention _Bate_,
+ As if _Bate_ knew some virtue not in _Beet_.”[933]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 932:
+
+ Schol. Apoll. Rhod. i. 746. Plut. Ages. 21. Athen. xiv. 15. Etym. Mag.
+ 260. 42.
+
+Footnote 933:
+
+ I have substituted this joke, à la Smollett, “for the miserable joke
+ in the original.” Beet, Atticé σευτλίον, became τεύτλιον in the Doric
+ brogue. Athen. xiv. 15.
+
+-----
+
+The Deikelistæ, however, were not confined to Laconia, but, under
+various names were known in most other parts of Greece. Thus, at Sicyon,
+they obtained the appellation of Phallophori, elsewhere they were called
+Autocabdali, or Improvisator; while in Italy, (that is, among the Greek
+colonists,[934]) they were known by the name of Phlyakes.[935] By the
+common people they were called the wise men (σοφίσται), upon the same
+principle that actors in France are known by the name of _artistes_. The
+Thebans, renowned for the havoc they made in the language of Greece,
+denominated them the Voluntaries, alluding proleptically perhaps to the
+“voluntary principle.” Semos, the Delian, draws an amusing picture of
+these Improvisatori. Those performers, he says, who are called
+Autocabdali made their appearance on the stage, crowned with ivy, and
+poured forth their verse extempore. The name of Iambi was afterwards
+bestowed, both on them and their poems. Another class who were called
+Ithyphalli,[936] wore those masks, which on the stage were appropriated
+to drunkards, with crowns of ivy and flowered gloves upon their hands.
+Their chitons were striped with white, and over these, bound by a girdle
+at the loins, they wore a Tarentine pelisse descending to the ankle.
+They entered upon the stage by the great door appropriated to royal
+personages, and, advancing in silence across the stage, turned towards
+the audience and exclaimed,—
+
+ “Make way there, a wide space
+ Yield to the god;
+ For Dionysos has a mind to walk
+ Bolt upright through your midst.”
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 934:
+
+ Among the mimics of this part of Italy, the most celebrated was Cleon,
+ surnamed the Mimaulos, who dispensed with the use of a mask.—Athen. x.
+ 78.
+
+Footnote 935:
+
+ Athen. xiv. 15. Cf. Suid. in φλύακες, t. ii. p. 1073. b.
+
+Footnote 936:
+
+ Vid. Harpocrat. in v. ἰθύφαλλοι. Mauss. p. 152.
+
+-----
+
+The Phallophori made their appearance unmasked, shading their face with
+a drooping garland of wild thyme, intermingled with acanthus-leaves, and
+surmounted by an ample crown of ivy, with violets appearing between its
+glossy dark foliage. Their costume was the caunacè. Of these actors,
+some entered through the side-passages, others through the central door,
+advancing with measured tread, and saying,—
+
+ “Bacchos, to thee our muse belongs,
+ Of simple chant, and varied lays;
+ Nor fit for virgin ears our songs,
+ Nor handed down from ancient days:
+ Fresh flows the strain we pour to thee,
+ Patron of joy and minstrelsy!”
+
+After which, skipping forward, they made a halt and showered their
+sarcasms indiscriminately on whomsoever they pleased, while the leader
+of the troop moved slowly about, his face bedaubed with soot.[937]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 937:
+
+ Athen. xiv. 16.
+
+-----
+
+The superior classes of performers, whether actors or musicians, seem to
+have been held in much estimation, and to have been still more
+extravagantly paid than in our own day. Thus Amœbæos, the Citharœdos,
+who lived near the Odeion at Athens, received, but at what period of the
+republic is not known, an Attic talent a day, as often as he played in
+public.[938] Music, however, was always in high estimation in Greece,
+where the greatest men, though they did not seek to rival regular
+professors in skill, yet learned to amuse their leisure with it. Thus
+the Homeric Achilles plays on the lyre, the sounds of which could not
+only cure diseases of the mind but of the body. A similar belief existed
+among the Israelites, as we learn from the example of Saul.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 938:
+
+ Athen. xiv. 17.
+
+-----
+
+Though talent must have been always respected in an actor, it appears to
+me that anciently they made comparatively little figure, while there
+were great poets to excite admiration. But, afterwards, when dramatic
+literature had sunk very low, the actor usurped the consideration due to
+the poet, as has long been the case in this country. They then contended
+for the prize in the tragic contests,[939] and began to entertain a high
+opinion of their own merits. In fact, the ignorant being better
+calculated to feel than to judge, the actors often obtained the first
+prizes in the games, and were held in higher estimation than the poets
+themselves.[940]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 939:
+
+ Aristot. Ethic. Nicom. iii. 4.
+
+Footnote 940:
+
+ Aristot. Rhet. iii. 1.
+
+-----
+
+Thus persuaded of their own importance, they gradually exercised over
+the poor devils who composed plays for them, much the same tyranny as
+that in our own age complained of by the poetical servants of the
+theatre. That is, they despotically interfered with the framing of the
+plot, with the succession of the scenes, and procured episodes to be
+introduced, in order that they might show off their peculiar abilities.
+This is evident from a passage in Aristotle’s Politics,[941] where he
+observes that the celebrated actor Theodoros would allow no inferior
+performer to appear before him on the stage, knowing the force of first
+impressions; from which it is evident that the author was compelled to
+yield to his caprice.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 941:
+
+ Polit. vii. 17.
+
+-----
+
+Antiquity has preserved the names of many celebrated actors, of whom
+several played a conspicuous though sometimes a dishonourable part in
+the great theatre of the world. Thus Aristodemos, who performed the
+first character alternately with Theodoros, became afterwards a traitor
+and betrayed the state to Philip. Such too was the case with Philocrates
+and Æschines, both actors,[942] and both rogues. Satyros, a comedian of
+the same period, appears to have been a man of high character and
+honour, who in consequence obtained the friendship of Demosthenes. But
+the Garrick of that age seems to have been Theocrines,[943] who by many,
+however, is supposed to have afterwards degenerated into a sycophant.
+Callipedes is chiefly known to us from the anecdote which describes the
+check his vanity received from Agesilaos. Having acquired great
+reputation as a tragic actor, he appears to have considered himself as
+equal at least to any king, and therefore, meeting one day with
+Agesilaos, he ostentatiously put himself forward, mingled with the
+courtiers and took much pains to attract his notice. Finding all these
+efforts useless, his pride was wounded, and going up directly to the
+Spartan, he said,
+
+“Dost thou not know me, king?”
+
+“Why,” replied Agesilaos, “art thou not Callipedes, the
+stage-buffoon?”[944]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 942:
+
+ Dem. de Fal. Leg. § 58.
+
+Footnote 943:
+
+ Dem. de Coron. § 97.
+
+Footnote 944:
+
+ Δεικηλίκτας. Plut. Ages. § 21. Apothegm. Lac. Ages. 57.
+
+-----
+
+The account transmitted to us of Æsopos is somewhat puzzling; he is
+described as one of the actors[945] who performed in the tragedies of
+Æschylus, but is said to have been at the same time a fellow of infinite
+merriment who turned everything into a jest, a sort I suppose of comic
+Macbeth. Œagros obtained celebrity in the part of Niobe,[946] in the
+tragedy of Æschylus or Sophocles; and Aristophanes enumerates among the
+pleasures of Dicasts the power, should such an actor appear before them
+in a court of justice, of requiring him by way of pleading his own
+cause, to give them a few choice speeches of his favourite tragic queen.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 945:
+
+ Sch. Aristoph. Vesp. 566. Flor. Christ. ad loc. In Plato’s time there
+ were few or no actors who excelled at the same time in tragedy and
+ comedy. Plat. de Rep. t. vi. p. 123.
+
+Footnote 946:
+
+ Sch. Aristoph. Vesp. 579.
+
+-----
+
+Among the most celebrated actors of antiquity was Polos, a native of
+Ægina, who studied the art of stage-declamation under Archias, known in
+his own age by the infamous surname of Phugadotheras, or the “Exile
+Hunter.”[947] This miscreant it was, who, under the orders of Antipater,
+pursued Demosthenes to the temple of Poseidon in Calauria, where, to
+escape the cruelty of the Macedonians, the orator put a period to his
+own life.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 947:
+
+ Plut. Dem. § 28. Vit. x. Orat. 8. Another actor obtained the name of
+ the Partridge. Athen. iii. 82.
+
+-----
+
+Polos appears to have risen speedily to that eminence which he
+maintained to the last. A striking anecdote is related of the means by
+which he worked upon his own feelings, in order the more vehemently to
+stir those of his audience. On one occasion,[948] having to perform the
+part of Electra, he took along with him to the theatre an urn containing
+the ashes of a beloved son, whom he had recently lost, and thus, instead
+of shedding, under the mask of the heroic princess, feigned tears over
+the supposed remains of Orestes, he sprinkled the urn which he bore upon
+the stage with the dews of genuine and deep sorrow. He eclipsed in
+reputation all the actors of his time, and was in tragedy what
+Theocrines, in the preceding age, had been in comedy. His salary,
+accordingly, was very great, amounting at one time to half a talent per
+day, out of which, to be sure, he was required to pay the third actor.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 948:
+
+ Aulus Gellius, vii. 5.
+
+-----
+
+He must have led, moreover, a life of much temperance, otherwise he
+would scarcely have been able to accomplish what is related of him by
+Philochoros, who says, that, at seventy years of age, a little before
+his death, he performed the principal parts of eight tragedies in four
+days. His devotion to his art did not, however, carry him so far as that
+of the comic poets, Philemon and Alexis, who breathed their last upon
+the stage at the moment that the crown of victory was placed upon their
+heads, and so were literally dismissed for the last time from the scene
+amidst the shouts and acclamations of the admiring multitude.[949] But
+the passion of the Greeks for the arts of imitation did not confine
+itself to the enacting of human character and human feelings. Every
+species of mimicry found its patrons among them. There were, for
+example, persons who, by whistling, could imitate the notes of the
+nightingale; and Agesilaos, being once invited to witness the
+performances of one of these artists, replied somewhat contemptuously,
+“I have heard the nightingale herself.”[950] Others, as Parmenion, could
+counterfeit to perfection the grunt of a pig,[951] though it is
+probable, that actors of smaller dimensions were called upon to perform
+in the comedy of Aristophanes, where the Megarean[952] brings on the
+stage his daughters in a sack, and disposes of them as porkers, having
+first carefully instructed them in the proper style of squeaking. Other
+actors obtained celebrity[953] through their power of imitating by their
+voice the grating or rumbling of wheels, the creaking of axletrees, the
+whistling of winds, the blasts of trumpets, the modulations of flutes,
+or pipes, or the sounds of other instruments. It was customary, too,
+among this class of performers, to mimic, doubtless, in pastoral scenes,
+the bleating of sheep, and the bark of the shepherd’s dog, the neighing
+of horses, and the deep bellowing of bulls. They could imitate,
+moreover, but by what means is uncertain, the pattering of hail-storms,
+the dash and breaking of water in rivers or seas, with other natural
+phenomena. It was customary, likewise, as in modern times, to introduce
+boats and galleys rowed along the mimic waters of the stage, an example
+of which occurs on an Etruscan Chalcidone, where we behold a little
+vessel of extraordinary form, with a mariner at bow and stern, paddled
+along a bank adorned with flowers, while on a platform, occupying the
+boat’s waist, two naked dancers are exhibiting their saltatorial
+powers.[954]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 949:
+
+ Plut. An. Seni. § 3.
+
+Footnote 950:
+
+ Plut. Ages. § 21.
+
+Footnote 951:
+
+ Etym. Mag. 607. 25.
+
+Footnote 952:
+
+ Acharn. 834.
+
+Footnote 953:
+
+ Plut. de Aud. Poet. § 3. Plat. de Rep. t. vi. pp. 125–127. This
+ philosopher, it is clear, entertained a less elevated idea of art than
+ some modern writers, who define it as follows: “Art is a
+ representation (μίμησις), i. e. an energy by means of which a subject
+ becomes an object,”—(Müller, cited by Mr. Donaldson, Theatre of the
+ Greeks, p. 4,)—in other words, by which a nominative becomes an
+ accusative.
+
+Footnote 954:
+
+ Mus. Cortonens. tab. 60.
+
+-----
+
+Very singular figures were also introduced upon the stage, as wasps,
+frogs, and birds, of sufficiently large dimensions to be enacted by men;
+and still stranger personages occasionally made their appearance, as
+where, in a kind of practical parody of the story of Andromeda,[955] a
+whale emerges on the sea beach to snap off an old woman. In another
+drama the transformation of Argos was represented, after which this
+luckless male duenna strutted like a peacock before the audience. Io,
+moreover, was changed into a cow, and Euippe, in Euripides, into a mare.
+What there was peculiar in the appearance of Amymone it is not easy to
+conjecture; but she was, possibly, represented in the act of withdrawing
+the trident of Poseidon from the rock, from which gushed forth three
+fountains. The rivers, and mountains, and cities introduced[956] were,
+doubtless, personifications, such as we still find in many works of art.
+The giants were simply, in all probability, huge figures of men, made to
+stalk about the stage, like elephants, with an actor in each leg; and
+the Indians, Tritons, Gorgons, Centaurs, with other personages of
+terrible or fantastic aspect, owed their existence, perhaps, to masks,
+if we may so speak, representing the whole figures.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 955:
+
+ Schol. Aristoph. Nub. 548.
+
+Footnote 956:
+
+ See the figure of Alexandria in the Gemme Antiche Figurate of
+ Agostini.
+
+-----
+
+In what form the Seasons, the Pleiades,[957] or the nymphs of Mithakos,
+made their appearance on the stage, we are, I believe, nowhere told,
+though we possess some information respecting the costume and figure of
+those other strange persons of the drama, the Clouds,[958] which came
+floating in through the Parodoi, enveloped, some in masses of white
+fleecy gauze, like vapour, others in azure, or many-tinted robes, or in
+drapery like piled-up flocks of wool, to represent the various aspects
+of the skies; while a hazy atmosphere was probably diffused around them,
+as around the other gods, by the smoke of styrax or frankincense, burnt
+in profusion on the altars of the theatre. Here and there, through these
+piles of drapery, a mask with ruddy pendant nose, like the tail of a
+lobster, peered forth, and a human voice was heard chanting in richest
+cadence and modulation the lively anapæsts of the chorus.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 957:
+
+ Poll. iv. 142.
+
+Footnote 958:
+
+ Vid. Schol. Aristoph. Nub. 289. 343. 442.
+
+-----
+
+In the tragedy of Alcestis, the grim, spectral figure of Death was
+beheld gliding to and fro through the darkness, in front of the palace
+of Admetos, while personifications still, if possible, more strange and
+wild, made their appearance in other dramas,—as Justice, Madness,
+Frenzy, Strength, Violence, Deceit, Drunkenness, Laziness, Envy.[959]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 959:
+
+ Poll. iv. 141, seq.
+
+-----
+
+Plato, who entertained peculiar notions[960] respecting the dignity of
+human nature, banished the theatre from his Republic, because he thought
+it unbecoming a brave man, who had political rights to watch over and
+defend, to demean himself by low stage impersonations; and, from his
+account of what he would not have his citizens do, we learn what by
+others was done. Sometimes, he observes, the actor was required to
+imitate a woman, (though this task often devolved upon eunuchs,) whether
+young or old, reviling her husband, railing at and expressing contempt
+for the gods, either puffed up by the supposed stableness of her
+felicity, or stung to desperation by the severity of her misfortunes and
+sorrows. Other female characters were to be represented, toiling, or in
+love, or in the pangs of labour; which shows that there was scarcely an
+act or passage in human life not occasionally imitated on the stage.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 960:
+
+ De Rep. t. vi. p. 125.
+
+-----
+
+Slaves of course performed an important part in the mimic world of the
+theatre; and with these, Plato, by some unaccountable association of
+ideas, classes smiths, and madmen, and vagabonds, and low artificers of
+every kind, and the rowers of galleys, and rogues, and cowards, below
+which his imagination could discover nothing in human nature.
+
+But it was these very characters, with their low wit, buffoonery, and
+appropriate actions, that constituted the most effective materials of
+the comic poet, whose creed was, that
+
+ Les fous sont ici-bas pour nos menus plaisirs.
+
+They accordingly hesitated at no degree of grotesque buffoonery and
+extravagance, introducing not only low sausage-sellers with their trays
+of black-puddings and chitterlings suspended on their paunches,[961] and
+drunkards lisping, hiccuping, and reeling about the stage,[962] but even
+libertines and profligates carrying on their intrigues in the view of
+the spectators. An example of this kind of scene occurs on an Etruscan
+bronze seal dug up near Cortona, which represents an adulterer in
+conference with his mistress, together with the Leno who brought them
+together.[963]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 961:
+
+ Sch. Aristoph. Eq. 150.
+
+Footnote 962:
+
+ Athen. x. 33.
+
+Footnote 963:
+
+ Mus. Cortonens. tabb. 18, 19. Cf. p. 26, seq. 1750. Rom.
+
+-----
+
+
+
+
+ CHAPTER VIII.
+ THEATRE (_continued_).
+
+
+Into the various questions which have been raised respecting the origin
+and constitution of the chorus it is not my intention to enter. It
+undoubtedly appears, however, to have arisen amid the festivities of the
+vintage, when, after the grapes were brought home and pressed and the
+principal labours of the season concluded,[964] the rustics delivered
+themselves up to wild joy and merriment, chanting hymns and performing
+dances in honour of Dionysos, the protecting god of the vine. At first
+the number of the persons engaged in these dances could not have been
+fixed, since it is probable that all the vintagers, both male and
+female, joined in the sports, as they had previously joined in the
+labour. And this free and unformal character the Dithyrambic or
+Dionysiac chorus must have preserved, as long as it remained a mere
+village pastime. But when afterwards, advancing from one step to
+another, it assumed something of an artificial form and several
+chorusses arose which contended with each other for a prize, the
+performers must have undergone some kind of training,[965] both in
+singing and dancing, and then the number of the individuals constituting
+the chorus was possibly fixed. There appears to be some reason for
+thinking, that these exhibitions were more ancient than the congregation
+of the Athenians in one city, and that originally every tribe had its
+own chorus,[966] since we find that afterwards, when all the inhabitants
+of Attica came to regard themselves as one people, the Choreutæ were
+chosen from every tribe five.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 964:
+
+ Cf. Ficorini, Degli Masch. Scen. p. 15.
+
+Footnote 965:
+
+ On the importance afterwards attached to the training of the chorus,
+ see the substance of an inscription in Chandler, ii. 72.
+
+Footnote 966:
+
+ Sch. Aristoph. Av. 1404. Schneid. de Orig. Trag. Græc. c. i. p. 2. The
+ Dithyrambic ode was said to have been invented by Arion at Corinth.
+ Schol. Pind. Olymp. xiii. 25, seq. The first choral songs were
+ improvisations. Max. Tyr. Dissert. xxi. p. 249.
+
+-----
+
+By what gradations, however, the village chorus was transformed into the
+Dithyrambic, the Dithyrambic into the Satyric, and the Satyric again
+into the Tragic, it now appears impossible to ascertain; but it seems to
+be quite clear,[967] that in many ancient tragedies the number of the
+chorus was fifty,[968] as, for example, in the “Judgment of the Arms,”
+by Æschylus, in which silver-footed Thetis appeared upon the stage
+accompanied by a train of fifty Nereids.[969] Again, according to
+certain ancient authors,[970] in the Eumenides of Æschylus, the chorus
+of Furies at first amounted to fifty, which, rushing tumultuously, with
+frightful gestures and horrid masks,[971] into the orchestra, struck so
+great a terror into the people, particularly the women[972] and
+children, that their number was afterwards reduced by law. I am aware
+that several distinguished scholars think very differently on this
+subject; some maintaining, that the chorus of Furies always consisted of
+fifteen, while others reduce their number to three. But, though both
+these opinions have been supported with much learning and ingenuity, it
+seems difficult to admit either the one or the other. In the first
+place, since every thing connected with the stage was in a state of
+perpetual fluctuation, since the masks and costume were repeatedly
+altered, since the number of the actors was augmented, since almost
+every arrangement of the theatre, and every characteristic of the
+poetry, underwent numerous modifications; the chorus, also, it is
+probable, submitted to the same alterations or reforms till it settled
+in that tetragonal figure[973] and determinate number which it
+afterwards preserved, as long as the legitimate drama existed in Greece.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 967:
+
+ Poll. iv. 108. Sch. Aristoph. Acharn. 210.
+
+Footnote 968:
+
+ Cf. Schol. ad Æschin. Tim. Orator. Att. t. xii. p. 376. Tzetz. ad
+ Lycoph. p. 251, sqq. See also Müller, Dissert. on the Eumenides of
+ Æschylus, p. 54. Schol. Aristoph. Eq. 587.—“Nous savons que sur les
+ Théâtres Grecs les femmes dansaient dans les chœurs.”—Winkel. Mon.
+ Ined. iii. p. 86. I have found no proof in any ancient author that
+ this was the practice among the Greeks.
+
+Footnote 969:
+
+ Sch. Aristoph. Acharn. 848.
+
+Footnote 970:
+
+ Vit. Æschyl. p. vi.
+
+Footnote 971:
+
+ Bœttiger, Furies, p. 2. Poll. iv. 110. Schol. Aristoph. Av. 298. Eq.
+ 586.
+
+Footnote 972:
+
+ According to Mr. Bœttiger, however, “chez les anciens Atheniens les
+ femmes n’ont jamais assisté aux représentations théatrales.”—Furies,
+ p. 3, note. But, in addition to the proofs of the contrary,
+ accumulated in the preceding book, the reader may consult the
+ testimony of Aristides, who severely blames his countrymen for
+ allowing their wives and children to frequent the theatres, t. i. p.
+ 518, cf. p. 507.—Jebb. He speaks, indeed, more particularly of the
+ Smyrniotes; but Smyrna was an Ionian colony.—Herod. i. 149.
+
+Footnote 973:
+
+ Cf. Schol. Aristoph. Acharn. 209.
+
+-----
+
+In one point of view the history of the chorus is extremely remarkable.
+At first, and for some time, it constituted in itself the whole of the
+spectacle exhibited at the Dionysiac festivals, where its songs and
+dances, accompanied by such rude music as the times afforded, satisfied
+the demands of the popular taste, and were consequently supposed to be
+everything that the god required. By degrees, as experience suggested
+improvements either in the music, in the manner of dancing, or in the
+materials and composition of the odes, the movements, singing, and
+appearance of the Chorus, assumed a more artificial form, which was
+necessarily carried forward many steps in the career of amelioration by
+the institution of rival bodies of Choreutæ, who, from the natural
+principle of emulation, endeavoured to excel each other. Next, a
+detached member of its own body, mounted on a table, enacted the part of
+a stranger or messenger come to announce something which it imported the
+servants of Dionysos to know. This table was doubtless placed directly
+in front of the altar of Bacchos, on the steps of which the leader of
+the chorus was probably mounted in after ages, to hold communication
+with the stranger; and, as this altar ripened through many gradations
+into the Thymele, so the aforesaid table rose through innumerable
+changes into the Logeion. It may be remarked, moreover, that the slope
+of a hill,[974] when any such existed near the village, would naturally
+be chosen on such occasions to afford the peasants an opportunity of
+standing behind each other on ascending levels, and thus, without
+inconvenience, beholding the show; and where such natural aid did not
+present itself, they probably threw up embankments of turf in the
+semicircular form, which experience proved to be most convenient, and,
+out of this rude contrivance, grew those vast and magnificent
+structures, which afterwards constituted one of the noblest ornaments of
+Greece.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 974:
+
+ Cf. Scalig. Poet, i. 21. Leroy, Ruines des plus beaux Monumens de la
+ Grèce, p. 14.
+
+-----
+
+The single actor, detached in the manner we have said from the Chorus,
+speedily acquired greater importance, and the aid of poetry was called
+in to frame and adorn his recitals; and as, during the songs and dances
+of the Chorus, he necessarily remained idle, the idea soon suggested
+itself that a second actor[975] would be an improvement, upon which
+dialogue and the regular drama sprang into existence.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 975:
+
+ Cf. Hesych. v. νέμησις ὑποκριτῶν.
+
+-----
+
+Among the principal duties of the Chorus was the performance of certain
+dances, simple enough at the outset, but, in process of time, refined
+and rendered so intricate by art, that it required no little learning
+and ability to execute all their varied movements with dignity and
+grace. Somewhat to assist the eye and memory, the whole pattern, as it
+were, of the dance seems to have been chalked out on the floor of the
+orchestra;[976] while the greatest possible pains were taken in drilling
+the Choreutæ to open, file off, and wheel through their labyrinthine
+evolutions, without confusion. The manner in which these persons usually
+entered the orchestra, that is to say, ranged in a square body, three in
+front and five deep, or five in front and three deep, has suggested to
+some the notion that they represented a military Lochos;[977] but
+besides that this is inconsistent with their Dionysiac origin, they did
+not always preserve this arrangement, but, on some occasions, came
+rushing in confusedly, while on others they traversed the Parodos in
+Indian file.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 976:
+
+ This, however, I merely conjecture from the practice of marking with
+ lines the station of the chorus. Hesych. v. γραμμαί.
+
+Footnote 977:
+
+ When making their exit, it is said they were preceded by a
+ flute-player. Sch. Aristoph. Vesp. 582. These musicians wore, while
+ playing, straps of leather called φορβείαι, bound over their mouth in
+ order to regulate the quantity of air transmitted into the pipe. Id.
+ ibid. See Burney, Hist. of Music, i. 279.
+
+-----
+
+The musicians,[978] in the Greek theatre, took their station upon and
+about the steps of the Thymele, which answers as nearly as possible to
+the position of the orchestra in our own theatres. Here, also, stood the
+Rhabduchi,[979] or vergers of the theatre, whose business it was to see
+that order was preserved among the spectators.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 978:
+
+ Cf. Torrent. in Suet. Domit. Com. p. 390. a. The best auletæ were
+ those of Thebes. Dion Chrysost. i. 263.
+
+Footnote 979:
+
+ Suidas, v. ῥαβδοῦχοι, t. ii. p. 672. f. Scalig. Poet. i. 21.
+
+-----
+
+With respect to the dances[980] performed by the Chorus, they were so
+numerous, long, and intricate, that it would be here impossible to
+enumerate and describe the whole. They appear to have conceived the idea
+of representing almost every passion and action in human life by that
+combination of movements and gestures which the term pantomime, borrowed
+from their own language, expresses much better than our word
+dancing.[981] A taste, in some respects similar, still prevails among
+the Orientals, whose Ghawazi and Bayadères, though relying rather upon
+routine and impulse than on the resources of art, perform at festivals
+and marriages, and before the ladies of the harem, little love-pieces
+and pastoral scenes, which evidently belong to the class of mimetic
+dances described by ancient authors.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 980:
+
+ See Cahusac, Traité Historique de la Dance, ii. i. t. i. p. 61, sqq.
+
+Footnote 981:
+
+ It is said that certain ancient poets were called orchestic,—as
+ Thespis, Phrynichos, Pratinas, Carcinos,—not only because they adapted
+ the subjects of their pieces to the dances of the chorusses, but,
+ also, because they instructed in dancing the chorusses of other
+ dramatic writers. Athen. i. 39. The above poet, Carcinos, was likewise
+ celebrated for being the father of three sons who danced in the tragic
+ chorusses, and, from their extremely diminutive stature, obtained the
+ name of Quails. Schol. Aristoph. Pac. 761.
+
+-----
+
+In tragedy, such as it existed in the polished ages of Greece, the
+movements were slow and solemn, and, no doubt, full of dignity. The
+spirit of comedy required brisk and lively, and frequently tolerated,
+audaciously wanton dances; while the Chorus of the Satyric Drama would
+appear to have been rude and clownish rather than indecent, indulging in
+grotesque movements, ludicrous and extravagant gestures, and that rustic
+and farcical style of mimicry which may be supposed to have prevailed
+among the rough peasantry of Hellas.
+
+In classing the various dances, it will, perhaps, be sufficient if we
+divide them into lively and serious,[982] joining with the latter all
+such as attempted to embody a symbol or an allegory.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 982:
+
+ Hesych. v. ἐμμέλεια. Sch. Aristoph. Nub. 532. Poll. iv. 99. Athen.
+ xiv. 27, seq. Luc. de Saltat. § 22. 26. Plut. Symposiac. ix. 15. 1.
+
+-----
+
+In certain dramas of Phrynichos the Chorus represented a company of
+wrestlers,[983] who contrived by the quick, flexible, and varied
+movements of the dance, to imitate all the accidents of the palæstra.
+Sometimes they personated a party of scouts in the active look-out for
+the enemy, each with his right hand curved above the brow: this was one
+form of the Scops.[984] On other occasions the dancer mimicked the
+habits of the Scops, or mocking-owl, twirling about the head, and
+appearing to be absorbed in an ecstasy of imitation, until taken by the
+fowler. The performance of a piece like this, by a numerous Chorus,
+sometimes breaking off into a brisk gallopade, sometimes maintaining the
+same position, jigging, pirouetting, and ducking the crest, must, no
+doubt, have appeared infinitely comic; and yet it could have been
+nothing in comparison with the Morphasmos,[985] in which, not the
+characteristic peculiarities of a single owl, but those of the whole
+animal creation were “taken off.” Thus we may suppose that the Hegemon
+of the Chorus started as a baboon, his next-door neighbour as a hog, a
+third as a lion, a fourth as an ass, and so on, each man accommodating
+his voice to the character he had, pro tempore, assumed, and gibbering,
+grunting, roaring, braying, as he leaped, or gamboled, or bounded, or
+scampered about the orchestra. Anon the frisky foresters were
+transformed into slaves, who would seem to have been introduced to the
+audience pounding something, perhaps onions and garlick, in a mortar.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 983:
+
+ Suid. v. Φρυνίχου πάλαισμα, t. ii. p. 1092. b. c. d.
+
+Footnote 984:
+
+ Poll. iv. 103. Athen. xiv. 27.
+
+Footnote 985:
+
+ Poll. iv. 103. Cf. Xenoph. Conviv. vi. 4.
+
+-----
+
+The Oclasma,[986] a dance borrowed from the Persians, reminds one
+strongly of the performances of the negroes in the interior of Africa,
+the whole Chorus alternately crouching upon its heels, and springing
+aloft, like the frogs of Aristophanes about the fens of Acheron. Not,
+perhaps, un-akin to this, were those three frenzied dances, alluded to
+rather than described by the ancients,—that is to say, the
+Thermaustris,[987] which seems to have consisted of a series of violent
+bounds, like the performances of the Hurons and Iroquois;[988] the
+Mongas, which, from the name, probably represented the friskings and
+caracollings of a jackass; and the Kernophoros,[989] or dance of the
+first-fruits, wherein the Chorus appeared upon the stage, some bearing
+censers, others fruit-baskets, evidently in a character resembling that
+of Bacchanals.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 986:
+
+ Poll. vi. 99.
+
+Footnote 987:
+
+ Pfeiffer. Antiq. Græc. ii. 58. p. 382.
+
+Footnote 988:
+
+ Cf. Dodwell, Classical Tour in Greece, vol. i. p. 133, seq.
+
+Footnote 989:
+
+ Athen. xiv. 27. Poll. iv. 104.
+
+-----
+
+To this species of dance belonged, also, the Hecaterides, in which the
+performer interpreted his desires or passion by furious gestures of the
+hands. The Eclactisma was a female dance,[990] requiring the exertion of
+great force and agility, its characteristics consisting in flinging the
+heels backwards above the level of the shoulders. Corresponding, in some
+measure, to the Eclactisma, was the Skistas,[991] in which the dancer
+bounded aloft, crossing his legs several times while in the air. There
+was a dance, evidently of a very extraordinary description, which they
+performed to an air called Thyrocopicon,[992] or “knocking at doors,”
+possibly representing the frolics of such wild youths as anticipated the
+scape-graces of our own day. The Mothon was a loose dance, common among
+sailors; the Baukismos, Bactriasmos, Apokinos, Aposeisis, and
+Sobas,[993] were laughable, but lewd dances,[994] resembling the Bolero
+and Fandango of the Spaniards.[995]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 990:
+
+ Poll. iv. 10. 2. Aristoph. Vesp. 1492. 1495, et Schol.
+
+Footnote 991:
+
+ Poll. iv. 105. See, in the Mus. Cortonens. tab. 60, the representation
+ of a group of dancers on a platform in a boat, on the margin of the
+ sea.
+
+Footnote 992:
+
+ Athen. xiv. 9.
+
+Footnote 993:
+
+ Athen. xiv. 27.
+
+Footnote 994:
+
+ On the character of the old comedy, which tolerated these dances, see
+ Plut. Lucull. § 39. Demet. § 12. Pericl. § 5.
+
+Footnote 995:
+
+ Poll. iv. 99.
+
+-----
+
+The Heducomos was a dance expressive of the outbreaks of joy, and the
+Knismos,[996] represented the pinching, struggling, and quarrels of
+lovers. The Deimalea was a Laconian dance performed by Satyrs and
+Seileni, skipping and jumping about in a circle.[997] Another Spartan
+dance[998] was the Bryallika, of a ludicrous and licentious character,
+performed by women in grotesque masks, whence a courtezan at Sparta was
+denominated, Bryallika. The name of Hypogypones,[999] was bestowed on
+certain performers who imitated old men, flourishing their sticks about
+the stage, as we are informed they did in the play of Simermnos.[1000]
+Akin in spirit to these were the Gypones,[1001] who made their
+appearance in transparent Tarentine robes, and mounted on stilts
+probably in the form of goats’ feet, to give them a resemblance to the
+Ægipanes, worshipped as gods of the woods. A peculiar dance in honour of
+Artemis took its rise in the village of Carya in Laconia, where its
+invention was attributed to Castor and Polydeukes. No description of it,
+so far as I know, has come down to us; but the maidens by whom it was
+performed probably bore, and steadied with one hand, a basket of flowers
+on their heads, thus forming the model of those architectural figures,
+still from them called Caryatides.[1002] The representation of this
+performance was, doubtless, a favourite subject among Spartan artists or
+such as were employed by the Spartans, as may perhaps be fairly inferred
+from the circumstance, that the device on the ring, which, in return for
+a comb, was presented by Clearchus to Ctesias to be shown to his friends
+at Lacedæmon, was a dance of Caryatides.[1003]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 996:
+
+ Id. ib.
+
+Footnote 997:
+
+ Poll. iv. 104.
+
+Footnote 998:
+
+ See Müller. ii. 354.
+
+Footnote 999:
+
+ Poll. iv. 104.
+
+Footnote 1000:
+
+ Schol. Aristoph. Nub. 534.
+
+Footnote 1001:
+
+ Poll. iv. 104.
+
+Footnote 1002:
+
+ Vitruv. i. 1.—Poll. iv. 104.
+
+Footnote 1003:
+
+ Plut. Artaxerx. § 18.
+
+-----
+
+Amid the laxity of morals which prevailed in the later ages of Greece,
+the Pyrrhic,[1004] once supposed to be peculiar to warriors, degenerated
+into a dance of Bacchanals, with thyrsi instead of spears, or carrying
+torches in one hand, while with the other they sportively cast light
+reeds at one another. The story told in this mimetic performance
+referred to remote antiquity, and was both curiously and elaborately
+intricate, comprehending all the adventures of Bacchos and his merry
+crew during the Indian expedition, and assuming towards the conclusion a
+tragical form, developing the sad story of Pentheus.[1005]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1004:
+
+ Duport. ad Theoph. Char. c. 6. p. 305, sqq. Poll. iv. 99.—Athen. xiv.
+ 29. On the Cretan warlike dances Orsites and Epicredios, id. xiv.
+ 26.—Luc. de Saltat. § 9.
+
+Footnote 1005:
+
+ Athen xiv. 29.
+
+-----
+
+Among the dances of a grave character are enumerated the Gingra
+performed like the Podismos to slow and solemn music, the Lion and the
+Tetracomos,[1006] a warlike measure performed in honour of Heracles and
+supposed in its origin to have had some connexion with the Tetracomoi of
+Attica, that is, the Peiræeus, Phaleron, Oxypeteones, and
+Thymotadæ.[1007] We read, moreover, of dances in which the performers
+represented certain historic or mythological personages, such as
+Rhodope, Phædra, or Parthenope.[1008]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1006:
+
+ Poll. iv. 99.
+
+Footnote 1007:
+
+ Poll. iv. 105.
+
+Footnote 1008:
+
+ Luc. de Saltat. § 2.
+
+-----
+
+The Anthema,[1009] or Flower-dance, appears to have been chiefly
+performed in private parties by women, who acted certain characters and
+chanted, as they moved, the following verses:
+
+ Where is my lovely parsley, say?
+ My violets, roses, where are they?
+ My parsley, roses, violets fair,
+ are my flowers? Tell me where.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1009:
+
+ Athen. xiv. 27.
+
+-----
+
+The Athenians, however, seem to have imagined that there was nothing in
+nature which might not be imitated in the dance, by the turns and mazes
+of which they accordingly sought to represent the movements of the
+stars.[1010] A similar fancy, if Lucian may be credited, possessed the
+Indian Yoghis, who every morning and evening before their doors saluted
+the sun, at his rising and setting, with a dance resembling his
+own,[1011] which, as that luminary no otherwise dances than by turning
+on its axis, must have been a performance resembling that of the
+whirling derwishes, whose broad symbolical petticoats are meant, I
+presume, to represent the disk of the sun. But the dance most difficult
+of comprehension is that upon which they bestowed the name of κόσμου
+εκπύρωσις,[1012] or the “Conflagration of the World.” Of the figure and
+character of this performance antiquity, I believe, has left us no
+account, though it probably represented, by a train of allegorical
+personages and movements, the principal events which, according to the
+Stoics, are to precede the delivering up of the Universe to fire.[1013]
+Scaliger,[1014] who does not attempt to explain this strange exhibition,
+observes, however, pertinently, that it was a dance in which Nero might
+have figured, his burning of Rome deserving in some sort to be regarded
+as a rehearsal of this piece.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1010:
+
+ It may possibly have been in this dance that Eumelos or Arctinos, an
+ old Corinthian poet, introduced Zeus himself sporting the toe:—
+
+ Μέσσοισιν δ᾽ ὠρχεῖτο πατὴρ ἀνδοῶν τε θεῶν τε. Athen. i. 40.
+
+ Cf. Plut. Sympos. ix. 15.
+
+Footnote 1011:
+
+ Luc. de Saltat. § 17.
+
+Footnote 1012:
+
+ Athen. xiv. 27.
+
+Footnote 1013:
+
+ Cf. Lips. Physiolog. Stoic. ii. 22. t. iv. p. 955.
+
+Footnote 1014:
+
+ De Poet. i. 18.
+
+-----
+
+There existed among the Spartans[1015] an elegant dance denominated
+Hormos, or the Necklace, performed by a chorus of youths and virgins who
+moved through the requisite evolutions in a row. The line was headed by
+a young man who executed his part in the firm and vigorous steps proper
+to his age, and which he would afterwards be expected to preserve in the
+field of battle. A maiden immediately followed, but, instead of
+imitating his masculine manner, confined herself to the modest graceful
+paces and gestures of her sex, and this alternation and interweaving, as
+it were, of force and beauty, suggesting the idea of a necklace composed
+of many coloured gems, gave rise to the appellation.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1015:
+
+ Luc. de Saltat. § 12.
+
+-----
+
+The dance of the Crane,[1016] among the Athenians, in some respects
+resembled the above. It was, according to tradition, first invented by
+Theseus, who landing at Delos on his return from Crete, offered
+sacrifice to Apollo and dedicated the statue of Aphrodite which he had
+received from Ariadne, after which he joined the young men and women
+whom he had delivered, in performing a joyous dance[1017] about the
+altar of Horns erected by Apollo, from the spoils of his sister’s bow.
+The Choreutæ, engaged in executing the Geranos, or Crane, formed
+themselves into one long line with a leader in van and rear, and then,
+guided by the design on the floor of the orchestra, described by their
+movements the various mazes and involutions of the Cretan labyrinth,
+until, having traversed all its intricate passages, they emerged at
+once, like their great countryman and his companions, into light and
+safety. Other dances there were, which, however curious they may have
+been, cannot now be described from the scanty materials left us: such
+were the dance of Heralds, or Messengers, the dance of the Lily,[1018]
+the Chitonea, the Pinakides, the dance of the Graces,[1019] and that of
+the Hours, in which the performers floated about with a circle of light
+drapery held over the head by both hands.[1020]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1016:
+
+ Poll. iv. 101. Spanh. ad Callim. t. ii. p. 513. Plut. Thes. § 21. Cf.
+ Douglas, Essay on some points of Resemblance, &c., p. 123.
+
+ “One of the dances still performed by the Athenians has been supposed
+ that which was called the Crane, and was said to have been invented by
+ Theseus, after his escape from the labyrinth of Crete. The peasants
+ perform it yearly in the street of the Frank convent at the conclusion
+ of the vintage; joining hands and preceding their mules and asses,
+ which are laden with grapes in panniers, in a very curved and
+ intricate figure; the leader waving a handkerchief, which has been
+ imagined to denote the clue given by Ariadne.” Chandler, ii. 151.
+
+Footnote 1017:
+
+ Like the Cyclic Chorus. Vid. Izetzes ad Lycoph. i. p. 251, sqq. Sch.
+ Aristoph. Nub. 311.
+
+Footnote 1018:
+
+ Athen. iii. 82. xiv. 27.
+
+Footnote 1019:
+
+ Poll. iv. 93. Xenoph. Conviv. vii. 5. Plat. De Legg. vii. t. viii. p.
+ 55. Cf. Herm. Comment. ad Arist. Poet. xxvii. 3. p. 190, sqq.
+
+Footnote 1020:
+
+ Scalig. Poet. i. 18.
+
+-----
+
+If from the dances we now pass to the Choreutæ,[1021] by whom they were
+performed, we shall find that they generally made their appearance in
+the orchestra with golden crowns upon their heads, and habited in
+gorgeous raiment, frequently interwoven or embroidered with gold.[1022]
+The Chorus, however, like the actors, must have constantly varied its
+costume, to suit the exigencies of the drama; sometimes to perform the
+part of senators, sometimes of Nereids, sometimes of female suppliants,
+sometimes of urn-bearers, sometimes of clouds, or wasps, or birds. When
+in the tragedy of Æschylus they were required to personate the Furies,
+their exterior was the most frightful that can well be imagined,—their
+long but scanty robes consisting, as has been conjectured, of black
+lamb-skins, slit up below and exposing their tawny withered limbs to
+sight, while their blood-stained eyes, livid tongue hanging out, and
+hair like a mass of knotted serpents, easily accredited the belief of
+their being infernal existences. Thus habited, with fingers terminating
+in black claws,[1023] and grasping a burning torch, they burst upon the
+view of the spectators, like so many hideous phantoms conjured up by an
+imagination diseased with terror.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1021:
+
+ Cf. Buleng. de Theat. c. 55.
+
+Footnote 1022:
+
+ Dem. cont. Mid. § 7, seq. Athen. iii. 62. Animadv. t. vii. p. 215.
+
+Footnote 1023:
+
+ Bœttiger, Furies, p. 28, sqq. and pl. ii. Casaub. ad Athen. xii. 2.
+ Aristoph. Plut. 423.
+
+-----
+
+The costume of the actors,[1024] which some modern writers suppose to
+have been extremely monotonous,[1025] was in reality, however, as rich,
+varied, and characteristic as the masks of which we shall presently have
+to speak. Gods, heroes, kings, chiefs, soothsayers, heralds, rustics,
+the hetairæ, and their mothers; gay youths, flatterers, libertines,
+procurers, cooks, satyrs, slaves, &c., had each and all their
+appropriate dresses and ornaments, modified, no doubt, from time to time
+by the change in public taste, and the fancy of the poets. The
+divinities had almost to be wholly framed by the Dionysiac artificers.
+Conceived to be of superhuman stature, it was necessary that the actors
+who represented them should, in the first place, be lifted up on
+Cothurni,[1026] or half-boots, the soles of which were many inches
+high,[1027] their limbs and bodies were enlarged by padding, their arms
+lengthened by gloves, while their countenances, which might be ignoble
+or even ugly, were concealed by masks of exquisite ideal beauty, rising
+above the stately forehead in a mass of curls, which at once
+corresponded with the nobleness of their features and augmented their
+colossal height: add to all this robes of purple, or scarlet, or azure,
+or saffron, or cloth of gold, floating about the person in graceful
+folds, and training along the floor, and we have some faint idea of the
+celestial personages who with gemmed sceptres and glittering crowns made
+their appearance on the Grecian stage.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1024:
+
+ On the actors’ wardrobe, see Poll. iv. 113, sqq.
+
+Footnote 1025:
+
+ Müller, Dissert. on the Eumenides, p. 100. Mr. Donaldson, Theatre of
+ the Greeks, p. 132, adopts this opinion.
+
+Footnote 1026:
+
+ Luc. Jup. Tragœd. § 41. Cf. Xen. Cyrop. viii. 8, 17. Poll. ii. 151.
+ vii. 62.
+
+Footnote 1027:
+
+ See Winkel. Monum. Ined. t. iii. p. 84. c. ix. § 1. Les extrémités des
+ Cothurnes étoient ronds et quelquefois un peu aigues; mais on n’en vit
+ jamais de carrés, comme aux gravés sur l’estampe, de Vasali. p. 85.
+ Cf. Luc. de Saltat. § 27. Their height depended first upon the stature
+ of the actor, second, upon that of the character represented.
+ Sometimes they were satisfied with attributing four cubits even to the
+ heroes.—Aristoph. Ran. 1046. Cf. Athen. v. 27. But the ghost of
+ Achilles when it appeared to Apollonios of Tyana, rose five cubits in
+ height, and, no doubt, the spectre was careful to accommodate itself
+ to public opinion.—Philost. Vit. Apoll. Tyan. iv. 16. Aul. Gell. iii.
+ 10. See, also, Scalig. Poet. i. 13. Scaliger relates _à propos_ of the
+ Cothurnus a facetious remark of his father: “Italas mulieres
+ altissimis soccis usas vidimus; quamvis diminutiva dicant voce
+ Socculos. Patris mei perfacetum dictum memini. Ejusmodi uxorum dimidio
+ tantùm in lectis frui maritos, alter dimidio cum soccis deposito,” p.
+ 53.
+
+-----
+
+The queens and heroes,[1028] who were constantly beheld grouped in
+converse, or in action, with these sublime dwellers of Olympos, were
+clad in a costume scarcely less majestic; the former, for example, in
+times of prosperity, issued forth from their palaces in white garments,
+with loose sleeves reaching to the elbow, and closed on the upper part
+of the arm by a succession of jewelled agraffes,[1029] their tresses
+confined in front by a golden sphendone, or fillet, crusted with gems,
+while their robes terminated below in long sweeping trains of
+purple.[1030] But when their houses were visited by misfortune, the
+milk-white pelisse was exchanged for one quince-coloured or blue, while
+the purple train was converted into black. The costume of the
+kings,[1031] likewise varied by circumstances, consisted usually of an
+ample robe of purple, or scarlet, or dark green, descending to the feet,
+a rich cloak of cloth of gold, or of some delicate colour, adorned with
+gold embroidery, and a lofty mitre on the head.[1032] When any of these
+characters, as Tydeus or Meleager, was engaged in hunting or war, he
+wore the scarlet or purple mantle called Ephaptis,[1033] which in action
+was wrapped about the left arm. Athenæus, in describing the horsemen of
+Antiochos, observes, that these Ephaptides[1034] were embroidered with
+gold and adorned with the figures of animals. Bacchanals and
+soothsayers, like Teiresias, generally appeared upon the stage in an
+extraordinary garment, denominated Agrenon,[1035] formed of a reticular
+fabric of wool of various colours. Dionysos himself,[1036] in whose
+honour the theatre with all its shows was created, descended from
+Olympos in a saffron-coloured robe compressed below the bosom by a broad
+flowered belt, and bearing a thyrsus in his hand.[1037] This girdle, in
+the case of other gods, or heroes, was sometimes replaced by one of
+gold.[1038] Persons overtaken by calamity, especially exiles, wore
+garments dirty-white, or sad-coloured, or black, or quince-coloured, or
+bluish. The costume of Philoctetes, Telephos, Œneus, Phœnix,
+Bellerophontes, was ragged. The Seileni appeared in a shaggy Chiton, and
+the other personages of the Satyric drama in the skins of fawns, or
+goats, or sheep, or pards, and, sometimes, in the Theraion or Dionysiac
+garment, and a flowered cloak and a scarlet Himation. Old men were
+distinguished by the Exomis,[1039] a white Chiton of mean appearance,
+having no seam or arm-hole on the left side—young men by the
+Campulè,[1040] a scarlet or deep purple Himation,—the parasites by
+bearing the Stlengis and flask (as country people by the Lagobalon) and
+by black or sad-coloured robes, except in the play of the Sicyonians,
+where a person of this class, being about to be married, sported a white
+garment,—the cook by an Himation double and unfulled,—priestesses by
+white robes,—comic old women by such as were quince-coloured or dusky,
+like a cloudy morning sky in autumn,—the mothers of the hetairæ wore a
+purple fillet about the head,—the dresses of young women were white and
+delicate,—of heiresses the same with fringes. Pornoboski wore garments
+of various colours, with flowered cloaks, and carried a straight wand,
+called ἀρéσκος.[1041] There were, likewise, female characters which wore
+the Parapechu and the Symmetria, a chiton reaching to the feet, with a
+border of marine purple.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1028:
+
+ Poll. iv. 119.
+
+Footnote 1029:
+
+ Cf. Mus. Chiaramont. tavv. 3. 7. 16.
+
+Footnote 1030:
+
+ Poll. vii. 60. Bœttiger, Furies, p. 32. Luc. Jup. Tragoed. § 41.
+
+Footnote 1031:
+
+ On voit parmi les plus belles peintures d’Herculaneum un de ces
+ premiers acteurs, ou protagonistes, avec une large ceinture de couleur
+ d’or, une sceptre dans une main, et l’épée au côté.—Winkelmann. Monum.
+ Ined. t. iii. p. 84. Pitt. Ercol. i. 4. i. 41.—Plutarch observes,
+ that, together with their royal garments, actors assumed the very
+ strut of kings.—Vit. Demet. § 18.—Demetrius moreover, is said to have
+ resembled a tragic actor, because he went clad in cloth of purple and
+ gold, and wore sandals of purple and gold tissue. § 41.
+
+Footnote 1032:
+
+ Aristoph. Av. 512, et Schol. Nub. 70. Poll. iv. 115. Suid. v. Ξυστὶς.
+ t. ii. p. 264. e.—The actor who personated Heracles made his
+ appearance with club and lion’s skin.—Luc. de Saltat. § 27.
+
+Footnote 1033:
+
+ Poll. iv. 116, 117. Aristoph. Nub. 71, et Schol. Lysist. 1189.
+
+Footnote 1034:
+
+ Deipnosoph. v. 22.
+
+Footnote 1035:
+
+ Poll. iv. 117. Hesych. v. ἀγρηνὸν.
+
+Footnote 1036:
+
+ Poll. iv. 118.
+
+Footnote 1037:
+
+ It behoved the actors, however, to take care of their gold and jewels,
+ since it would appear that thieves found their way even to the
+ stage.—Aristoph. Acharn. 258.
+
+Footnote 1038:
+
+ Poll. iv. 118.
+
+Footnote 1039:
+
+ Dion. Chrysost. i. 231. Scalig. Poet. i. 13.
+
+Footnote 1040:
+
+ Poll. iv. 119, sqq.
+
+Footnote 1041:
+
+ Scalig. Poet. i. 13.
+
+-----
+
+We now come to the masks,[1042] a subject upon which much has been
+written, though very little has been explained. The primary difficulty
+connected with them is, to determine whether they were so constructed as
+to resemble a speaking-trumpet,[1043] which, by narrowing the stream,
+and compressing, as it were, the particles of the voice, cast it forth
+condensed and corroborated upon the theatre,[1044] which it was thus
+enabled to penetrate and fill, even to its utmost extremities. My own
+opinion, after bestowing much attention upon the subject, is, that the
+mask was in reality so constructed as to communicate additional force
+and intensity to the voice; but whether by roofing or encircling the
+artificial mouth by metallic plates, or thin laminæ of the stone called
+Chalcophonos,[1045] it is now scarcely possible to determine. Be this,
+however, as it may, there existed in some theatres other contrivances
+for conveying and augmenting the volume of the actor’s voice; these were
+the Echeia,[1046] vases generally of metal, finely toned, and arranged
+according to the musical scale, in a succession of domed cells,[1047]
+running in diverging lines up the hollow face of the theatre. They
+rested with one edge upon a smooth and polished pavement, the mouth
+outward, and the external edge reposing on the summit of a small, blunt
+obelisk,[1048] while a low opening in each cell enabled the resonances,
+or echoes, thus created, to issue forth, and fill the air with
+sound,[1049] which, however the fact may be accounted for, produced no
+isolated reverberations, no confusion.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1042:
+
+ When actors displeased the audience they were sometimes compelled to
+ take off their masks and face those who hissed them, which was
+ regarded as a serious punishment. Duport. ad Theoph. Char. p. 308. We
+ ought, perhaps, to understand Lucian _cum grano_, when he informs us
+ that actors who performed their parts ill were scourged. Piscator, §
+ 33. On the derivation of the word _persona_, Aul. Gell. v. 7. Cf.
+ Aristoph. Poet. c. 5. Scalig. Poet. i. 13, on the derivation of
+ πρόσωπον. Etym. Mag. 691. 1.
+
+Footnote 1043:
+
+ Vid. Cassiod. iv. 51. Plin. xlvii. 10. Solin. cxxxvii. Lucian. de
+ Saltat. § 27. De Gymnast. § 23. A tragic poet, Hieronymos, exposed
+ himself to ridicule by introducing into one of his pieces a mask of
+ frightful aspect. Aristoph. Acharn. 390.
+
+Footnote 1044:
+
+ Cf. Suid. v. φλοιός. t. ii. p. 1073. Diog. Laert. iv. p. 27.
+
+Footnote 1045:
+
+ Plin. xxxvii. 56.
+
+Footnote 1046:
+
+ See Burney’s Hist. of Music, i. 153. sqq. Scalig. Poet. i. 21. Antiq.
+ of Athens, &c., Supplementary to Stuart, by Cockerell, Kinnaird,
+ Donaldson, &c. p. 39.
+
+Footnote 1047:
+
+ Vitruv. v. 6. Antiq. of Ath. by Cockerell, Donaldson, &c. p. 39.
+ Tectum porticus quod est in summa gradatione, respondet Sienæ
+ altitudinem, ut vox crescens æqualiter ad summas gradationes et tectum
+ perveniat. Buleng. de Theat. c. 17.
+
+Footnote 1048:
+
+ Marinus’s edition of Vitruv. t. iv. tab. 81.
+
+Footnote 1049:
+
+ Empty pots were built into the walls of certain public edifices to
+ augment the sound of the voice. Aristot. Prob. xi. 8. i. 1. v. 5. The
+ orchestra was sometimes strewed with chaff, which was found to deaden
+ the voice. 25. Plin. ii. 51.
+
+-----
+
+The materials wherewith the masks were constructed varied, no doubt,
+considerably in different ages;[1050] but that they were ever
+manufactured of bronze or copper is scarcely credible, if we reflect
+upon the weight of so voluminous an apparatus, covering the entire head
+and neck, composed of either of those metals. Such metallic specimens as
+have come down to us are to be regarded simply as model-masks, or as
+works of art, designed by the statuary as ornaments. The intention, at
+first, of this disguise being to give additional boldness and
+self-confidence to the actor, by concealing from his neighbours the
+shamefacedness which a raw performer would sometimes naturally feel
+while strutting about in imperial robes, and pouring forth the
+_sesquipedalia verba_ of Pelias and Telephos, they were contented to
+cover the face with a piece of linen, having openings for the eyes and a
+breathing-place.[1051] To this appears to have succeeded a mask
+manufactured from the flexible bark of certain trees,[1052] shaped, of
+course, and coloured to resemble the human countenance. The next step
+was to employ wood, some kinds of which, while possessing the advantage
+of extreme lightness, might be wrought with all the delicacy and
+fineness of a statue, while, better than any other material, it would
+receive that smooth and polished enamel by which were represented the
+texture[1053] and complexion of the skin. Specimens of masks of this
+kind have been found among nations in a very rude state; among the
+inhabitants, for example, of Nootka Sound, whose dress, we are
+told,[1054] “is accompanied by a mask representing the head of some
+animal: it is made of wood, with the eyes, teeth, &c., and is a work of
+considerable ingenuity. Of these masks they have a great variety, which
+are applicable to certain circumstances and occasions. Those, for
+example, which represent the head of the otter or any other marine
+animals, are used only when they go to hunt them. In their war
+expeditions, but at no other time, they cover the whole of their dress
+with large bear-skins.”
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1050:
+
+ Scalig. Poet. i. 14. Poll. iv. 143.
+
+Footnote 1051:
+
+ Suid. in θέσπις, p. 1315. d. Poll. x. 167.
+
+Footnote 1052:
+
+ Virg. Georg. ii. 387.
+
+Footnote 1053:
+
+ Vid. Horat. de Art. Poet. 278. Athen. xiv. 77. Suid. v. χοιρίλλος, t.
+ ii. p. 1160. f. Etym. Mag. 376. 47. Poll. iv. 133, sqq. Schol. Soph.
+ Œdip. Tyr. 80.
+
+Footnote 1054:
+
+ Meare’s Voyage, p. 254.
+
+-----
+
+But while the above improvements were going on in the national
+theatre,[1055] the rustic drama continued to preserve its original
+simplicity, the actors to prevent their being recognised, shading their
+brows with thick projecting crowns of leaves, and daubing their
+faces[1056] with lees of wine. Thus disguised they chanted their songs
+upon the public roads, sitting in a waggon,[1057] whence the proverb,
+“he speaks as from the waggon,” _i. e._ he is shamelessly abusive, which
+was in fact the case with the comic poets.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1055:
+
+ On the Roman Stage the actors appeared in hats up to the age of Livius
+ Andronicus. Roscius Gallus was the first who put on a mask, which he
+ did on account of his squinting. Ficorini, Masch. Scen. p. 15. On the
+ origin of the Mask see Paccichelli De Larvis, Capillamentis, et
+ Chirothecis. Neap. 1693.
+
+Footnote 1056:
+
+ Schol. Aristoph. Nub. 29. Scalig. Poet. i. 13.
+
+Footnote 1057:
+
+ Schol. Aristoph. Eq. 545. Nub. 29.—Demosth. De Coron. § 37. Ulp. in. §
+ 5.
+
+-----
+
+The masks were divided into three kinds, the Tragic, the Comic, and the
+Satyric. Those belonging to Tragedy were again subdivided into numerous
+classes, representing every marked variety of character, and every stage
+of human life from childhood to extreme old age. In the highly varied
+range of countenances thus brought into play, the mask-maker enjoyed
+abundant opportunities of exhibiting his skill. The hair, of course, was
+real and adjusted on the mask like a wig,[1058] differently fashioned
+and coloured according to the age, habits, and complexion of the wearer.
+In some cases it was gathered together and piled up on the
+forehead,[1059] in a triangular figure,[1060] adding many inches to the
+actor’s stature; at other times it was combed smoothly downwards, from
+the crown, twisted round a fillet and disposed like a wreath about the
+head as we sometimes find it in the figures of Asclepios and the
+philosopher Archytas. Some characters were represented wholly bald, with
+a garland of vine-leaves or ivy wreathed about the brow,[1061] others
+were simply bald in front, while a third class exhibited a bushy fell of
+hair, something like a lion’s mane. Young ladies displayed a profusion
+of pendant curls, kept in order by the fillet or sphendone, or gathered
+up in nets, or twisted about the head in braided tresses. In
+representing certain characters the eye-sockets were left open, so that
+the actor’s eyes could be seen moving and flashing within;[1062] but on
+other occasions, when the part of a squinter was to be acted by a
+performer who did not squint or vice versa, as in the case of Roscius
+Gallus, the mask-maker must have represented the eyes by glass or some
+other transparent substance, through which the actor could see his way.
+This was necessarily the case in the part of the poet Thamyris,[1063]
+who, like our own Chatterton, had eyes of different colours, one blue,
+the other black, which, as Aristotle informs us, was common among the
+horses of Greece.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1058:
+
+ Scalig. Poet. i. 13.—Poll. iv. 133, sqq.
+
+Footnote 1059:
+
+ Cf. Thucyd. i. 6, et Schol. Ælian. Var. Hist. iv. 22.
+
+Footnote 1060:
+
+ See a beautiful head of Aphrodite with a pole of curls. (ὄγκος) Mus.
+ Chiaramont. tav. 27. Cf. a tragic female mask, with the hair bound by
+ a fillet, in the Cabinet d’ Orleans, pl. 52.
+
+Footnote 1061:
+
+ It may be remarked that persons ridiculed upon the stage were
+ introduced with masks exactly resembling their countenances. They
+ seized, however, upon the ludicrous features, which any one happened
+ to possess, as the eyebrows of Chærephon, and the baldness of
+ Socrates. Sch. Aristoph. Nub. 147, 224. This applies to living
+ characters. The dead were protected from ridicule by the laws. Sch.
+ Pac. 631. The Comic mask was said to have been invented by Mason.
+ Athen. xiv. 77. The Comte de Caylus, however, attributes the invention
+ of masks to the Etruscans. Recueil d’ Antiq. i. 147, seq.
+
+Footnote 1062:
+
+ Cic. de Orat. ii. 46. See in Agostini Gemme Antiche, pl. 17, a
+ representation of one of these masks. For examples of hideous masks
+ see Mus. Florent. t. i. pp. 45–51.
+
+Footnote 1063:
+
+ Poll. iv. 141. Dubos, Reflex. Crit. sur la Poes. et sur la Peint. i.
+ 603.
+
+-----
+
+The time of acting, as is well-known, was during the Dionysiac and
+Lenæan festivals, in the spring and autumn.[1064] The theatres being
+national establishments, in the proper sense of the word, were therefore
+open, free of expense, to all the citizens, who were not called together
+as with us by playbills,[1065] but for the most part knew nothing of
+what they were going to see till they were seated in the theatre, and
+the herald[1066] commanded the chorus of such and such a poet to
+advance. Previously to the commencement of the performance the theatre
+was purified by the sacrifice of a young hog, the blood of which was
+sprinkled on the earth.[1067]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1064:
+
+ Schol. Aristoph. Eq. 545. Acharn. 336. Cf. Dem. cont. Mid. § 4, et
+ annot. Plut. Vit. x. Rhet. Lycurg.
+
+Footnote 1065:
+
+ Winkelmann, however, supposes they had a kind of playbill, Monum.
+ Ined. iii. p. 86, founding his opinion upon a misinterpretation of
+ Pollux, iv. 131.
+
+Footnote 1066:
+
+ Aristoph. Acharn. 10, sqq.
+
+Footnote 1067:
+
+ Sch. Æschin. Tim. p. 17. Orator. Att. t. xiii. p. 377. Vales. ad
+ Harpoc. 99, 296. Suid. v. καθάρσιον, t. i. p. 1346. a. Poll. viii.
+ 104.
+
+-----
+
+
+
+
+ BOOK V.
+ RURAL LIFE.
+
+
+
+
+ CHAPTER I.
+ THE VILLA AND THE FARMYARD.
+
+
+If we now, for a moment, quit the city and its amusements, and observe
+the tone and character of Hellenic rural life, we shall find, perhaps,
+that there existed in antiquity a still greater contrast between town
+and country than in modern times. From the poetry of Athens, rife with
+sylvan imagery, we, no less than from its history, discover how deeply
+they loved the sunshine and calm and quiet of their fields. The rustic
+population confined to the city during the Peleponnesian war almost
+perished of nostalgia within sight of their village homes. Half the
+metaphors in their language are of country growth. The bee murmurs, the
+partridge whirrs, the lark, the nightingale, the thrush, pour their
+music through the channels of verse and prose. The odours of ripe fruit,
+of new wine “purple and gushing,” the fresh invigorating morning breeze
+from harvest fields, from clover meadows dotted with kine, the scent of
+milk-pails, of honey, and the honey-comb, still breathe sweetly over the
+Attic page, and prove how smitten with home delights the Athenian people
+were,
+
+ “With plesaunce of the breathing fields yfed.”
+
+This their manly and healthful taste, however, constantly, in time of
+war, exposed them to the malice of their enemies. For the valleys and
+grassy uplands of Attica, being thickly covered with villas and
+farmhouses,[1068] the first act of an invading army was to lay all those
+beautiful homesteads in ashes. Thus the Persians, in their two
+invasions, destroyed the whole with fire and sword. But the gentlemen,
+immediately on their return, rebuilt their dwellings[1069] with greater
+taste and magnificence, so that, before the breaking out of the
+Peloponnesian war, it is probable that, as a scene of unambitious
+affluence, taste, high cultivation, and rustic contentment, nothing was
+ever beheld to compare with Attica. Here and there, throughout the land,
+perched on rocks, or shaded by trees, were small rustic chapels
+dedicated to the nymphs, or rural gods.[1070] On the mountains, and in
+solitary glens, and wherever springs gushed from the cliffs, caverns
+were scooped out by the hands of the leisurely shepherds,[1071] and
+consecrated by association with mythology. Fountains, also, and
+water-courses, altars, statues,[1072] and sacred groves,[1073] protected
+at once by religion and the laws,[1074] imprinted on the landscape
+features of poetry and elegance.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1068:
+
+ Demosth. in Ev. et Mnes. § 15.
+
+Footnote 1069:
+
+ Thucyd. ii. 65.
+
+Footnote 1070:
+
+ In the neighbourhood of the Isthmus the shepherds of the present day
+ often pass the winter months in mountain caverns.—Chandler, ii. p.
+ 261.
+
+Footnote 1071:
+
+ Theocrit. i. 143, seq.
+
+Footnote 1072:
+
+ Cf. Iliad. β. 305, seq.
+
+Footnote 1073:
+
+ On the wild olive and other trees, of which these groves were
+ composed, the eye of the passenger usually beheld suspended a number
+ of votive offerings.—Sch. Aristoph. Ran. 943.
+
+Footnote 1074:
+
+ Cf. Plat. Phæd. t. i. p. 9.
+
+-----
+
+Another cause which, in the eyes of the Athenians, imparted sanctity to
+their lands, was the practice of burying in them their dead. The spot
+selected for this sacred purpose seems usually to have been the orchard,
+where, amid fig-trees and trailing vines,[1075] often near the
+boundaries of the estate, might be seen the ancient and venerable
+monuments of the dead. All Attica, therefore, in their eyes, appeared
+holy as a sepulchre; and, as every one guarded his own ancestral ashes,
+to sell a farm cost a man’s feelings more than in countries where people
+inter those they love in public cemeteries; and this circumstance with
+many would operate like a law of entail.[1076]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1075:
+
+ Eurip. Bacch. 10, seq. Cf. Kirch. de Funer. Rom. iii. 17.
+
+Footnote 1076:
+
+ Demosth. in Callicl. § 4.
+
+-----
+
+But it is easy thus to present to the imagination a general picture of
+the country. What we want is to thrust aside the impediments, to
+dissipate the obscurity of two thousand years, and lift the latch of a
+Greek farmhouse, such as it existed in the days of Pericles.
+
+In the first place it was common in Attica to erect country-houses in
+the midst of a grove of silver firs,[1077] which in winter protect from
+cold, and in summer attract the breezes that imitate in their branches
+the sound of trickling runnels, or the distant murmur of the sea.
+Towards the centre of the grove, with a spacious court in front and a
+garden behind, stood the house,[1078] sometimes with flat, sometimes
+with pointed roof, ornamented with a picturesque porch, and surrounded
+with verandahs or colonnades. Occasionally opulent persons had on the
+south front of their houses large citron trees,[1079] growing in pots,
+on either side the door, where they were well watered and carefully
+covered during winter.[1080] In the plainer class of dwellings, numerous
+outhouses, as stables, sheds for cattle,[1081] henroosts, pigstyes, &c.,
+extended round the court, while the back-front, generally in the East
+the principal, opened upon the garden or orchard.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1077:
+
+ Schol. Aristoph. Eq. 406. On the music of the pine-groves, the Schol.
+ on Theocritus, i. 1, has an amusing passage: ἡ πίτυς ἐκείνη, ἡδὺ τι
+ μελουργεῖ, κατὰ τὸ ψιθύρισμα. κ. τ. λ.
+
+Footnote 1078:
+
+ Called in Latin pagus from πηγὴ, a fountain. Serv. ad Virg. Georg.
+ 182. See also the note of Gibbon, t. iii. p. 410.
+
+Footnote 1079:
+
+ Geop. x. 7. 11. These pots, like those in which the palm-tree was
+ cultivated, were pierced at the bottom like our own. Theoph. Hist.
+ Plant. iv. 4. 3.
+
+Footnote 1080:
+
+ As the orange-tree is still in Lemnos. Walp. Mem. i. 280.
+
+Footnote 1081:
+
+ The stalls for cattle were built as often as convenient, near the
+ kitchen and facing the east, because when exposed to light and heat
+ they became smooth-coated. Vitruv. vi. 9. Cf. Varro. i. 13.
+
+-----
+
+Much pains was usually taken in selecting the site of a farmhouse,[1082]
+though opinions of course varied according to the peculiar range of
+experience on which they were based. In general such positions were
+considered most favourable as neighboured the sea, or occupied the
+summits or the slopes of mountains,[1083] more especially if looking
+towards the north.[1084] The vicinity of swamps and marshes, and as much
+as possible of rivers, was avoided, together with coombs, or hollow
+valleys, and declivities facing the south or the setting sun. If
+necessitated by the nature of the ground to build near the banks of a
+stream, the front of the dwelling was carefully turned away from it,
+inasmuch as its waters communicated an additional rigour to the winds in
+winter, and in summer filled the atmosphere with unwholesome vapours.
+The favourite exposure was towards the east whence the most salubrious
+breezes were supposed to blow, while the cheerful beams of the sun, as
+soon as they streamed above the horizon, dissipated the dank fogs and
+murkiness of the air. Notwithstanding the warmth of the climate,
+moreover, they loved such situations as were all day long illuminated by
+the sun, whilst every care was taken to fence out the sirocco, a moist
+and pestilential wind, blowing across the Mediterranean from the deserts
+of Africa. In Italy, nevertheless, the farmer often selected for the
+site of his mansion the southern roots of mountains, further defended
+from Alpine blasts by a sweep of lofty woods.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1082:
+
+ Geop. ii. 3. Cf. Vitruv. i. 4.
+
+Footnote 1083:
+
+ Petatur igitur aer calore et frigore temperatus, quem fere medius
+ obtinet collis, quod neque depressus hieme pruinis torpet, aut torret
+ æstute vaporibus, neque elatus in summa montium perexiguis ventorum
+ motibus, aut pluviis omni tempore anni sævit. Columell. De Re Rust. i.
+ 4.
+
+Footnote 1084:
+
+ The same opinion is held by Hippocrates, De Morbo Sacro. cap. 7. p.
+ 308, ed. Foes. Ὁ Βορέης ὑγιεινότατος ἐστι τῶν ἀνέμων. Cf. Plin. ii.
+ 48. Varro. i. 12.
+
+-----
+
+According to the fashion prevailing in antiquity, farmhouses were built
+high, large, and roomy, though Cato[1085] shrewdly advises, that their
+magnitude should bear some relation to that of the domain, lest the
+villa should have to seek for the farm, or the farm for the villa.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1085:
+
+ De Re Rust. 3. “Ita ædifices, ne villa fundum quærat, neve fundus
+ villam.” Cf. Colum. De Re Rust. i. 4. It may here by the way be
+ observed that, during the flourishing periods of Roman agriculture,
+ farms were generally rather small than large. Plin. Hist. Nat. viii.
+ 21. Schulz. Antiq. Rustic. § vii.
+
+-----
+
+Much, however, would depend upon the taste of the individual; but in a
+plain farmhouse more attention appears to have been paid to substantial
+comfort, and something like rough John-Bullism, than to that cold
+finical elegance which certain persons are fond of associating with
+whatever is classical. An Attic farmer of the true old republican school
+was anything but a fine gentleman. He scorned none of the occupations or
+productions by which he lived. On entering his dwelling you found no
+small difficulty in steering between bags of corn,[1086] piles of
+cheeses, hurdles of dried figs[1087] or raisins, while the racks groaned
+with hams[1088] and bacon flitches. If they resembled their
+descendants,[1089] too, even their bedchambers were invaded by some
+species of provisions, for there in the present day you often behold
+long strings of melons suspended like festoons from the rafters. In one
+corner of the ground-floor stood a corbel filled with olive-dregs,
+recently pressed, in another a wool-sack or a pile of dressed
+skins.[1090] Yonder in the room looking into the garden, with the
+honey-suckle twining about the open lattice, were madam’s loom and
+spinning-wheel, and carding apparatus, and work-baskets; and there with
+the lark[1091] might you see her, serene and happy, suckling her young
+democrat, and rocking the cradle of a second with her foot, thriftily
+giving directions the while to Thratta, Xanthia or “the neat-handed”
+Phillis.[1092]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1086:
+
+ Schol. Aristoph. Nub. 45.
+
+Footnote 1087:
+
+ Philost. Icon. ii. 26. p. 851.
+
+Footnote 1088:
+
+ Cf. Athen. iv. 38.
+
+Footnote 1089:
+
+ Walp. Mem. i. 281.
+
+Footnote 1090:
+
+ Aristoph. Nub. 45, seq. et Schol.—Schol. Eq. 803.
+
+Footnote 1091:
+
+ Plat. De Legg. vii. t. viii. p. 40. Aristoph. Lysist. 18, sqq.
+
+Footnote 1092:
+
+ Aristoph. Acharn. 272. Vesp. 824. Pac. 1138. Thesm. 286, seq. Suid. v.
+ Θρᾶττα. t. p. 1330. a.
+
+-----
+
+The kitchen must sometimes have been in fine disorder; geese and ducks
+waddling across the floor, picking up the spilled grain, or snatching
+away the piece of bread and honey which my young master had just put
+down on the stool to play at a game of romps with Thratta. Up in the
+dusky corner there, behind a huge armchair or settle, you may discern a
+very suspicious looking enclosure, from which, at intervals, issues a
+suppressed grunt; it is the pigsty.[1093] But be not offended; the
+practice is classical; and pigs, in my apprehension, are as pleasant
+company as geese and many other animals. Now, that geese were fed even
+about palaces, we have the testimony of Homer, whose Penelope, the _beau
+idéal_ of a good housewife, says—
+
+ “Full twenty geese have we at home, that feed
+ On wheat in water steeped.”[1094]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1093:
+
+ Ἐπὶ τῆς ἑστίας τρέφουσι χοίρους.—Schol. Aristoph. Vesp. 844. Lysist.
+ 1073, Poll. ix. 16.
+
+Footnote 1094:
+
+ Odyss. τ. 536.
+
+Footnote 1095:
+
+ Cf. Vict. Var. Lect. p. 891.
+
+-----
+
+But the whole economy of geese-feeding[1095] has been transmitted to us;
+in the first place, the birds usually preferred were those most
+remarkable for their size and whiteness.[1096] The ancients esteemed the
+variegated, or spotted, as of inferior value. The same rule applied to
+fowls. The chenoboscion,[1097] or enclosure in which the geese were
+kept, was commonly situated near ponds or freshes,[1098] abounding with
+rich grass and aquatic plants. Geese, it was observed, are not nice in
+the article of food, but devour eagerly nearly all kinds of plants,
+though the chick-pea, and the couch-grass, the laurel and the
+laurel-rose,[1099] were by the ancients supposed to be hurtful to them.
+Of their eggs some were hatched by hens, but such as were designed to be
+sitten on by the goose herself, (who, during the period of
+incubation[1100] was fed on barley steeped in water,) were marked by
+writing or otherwise, to distinguish them from the eggs of their
+neighbours, which it was thought she would not be at the pains to hatch.
+For the first ten days after they had broken the shell the young
+goslings were kept within-doors, where they were fed on wheat steeped in
+water, _polenta_ a preparation of barley-meal dried at the fire, and
+chopped cresses. This period over, they were driven out to feed and
+afterwards to water; they who tended them taking great care that they
+should not be stung by nettles, or pricked by thorns, or swallow the
+hair[1101] of pigs or kids, which they imagined to be fatal to them.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1096:
+
+ Geop. xiv. 22. Varro. iii. 10. Colum. viii. 14.
+
+Footnote 1097:
+
+ Poll. ix. 16. Heresbach. De Re Rust. lib. iv. p. 285. a.
+
+Footnote 1098:
+
+ Cf. Pallad. i. 30. Plin. x. 79. Plaut. Trucul. ii. 1. 41.
+
+Footnote 1099:
+
+ Ælian. De Nat. Anim. v. 29. This ingenious writer, anxious to remove
+ from geese the reputation of folly, relates that, when traversing
+ Mount Taurus, conscious of their disposition to cackling, they carry
+ stones in their bills, and thus frequently escape the eagles which
+ inhabit that lofty ridge of mountains. This the poet Phile undertakes
+ to confirm in verse:—
+
+ Λίθον δὲ τῷ στόματι μὴ κλάγξῃ στέγων
+ Ὅνπερ καλοῦσι Ταῦρον, ἀμείβει πάγον
+ Τοὺς ἀετοὺς γὰρ φασὶ τοὺς χηνοσκόπους,
+ Ἐκεῖσε δεινῶς ἐλλοχᾷν πρὸ τοῦ ψύχους.
+
+ Iamb. De Animal. Proprietat. c. 15. p. 62.
+
+Footnote 1100:
+
+ Which according to Aristotle was thirty days.—-Hist. Anim. vii. 6.
+
+Footnote 1101:
+
+ Pallad. i. 30. Cavendum est etiam, ne pulli eorum setas glutiant.
+
+-----
+
+When full-grown geese were intended to be fattened, the custom was, to
+confine them in dark and extremely warm cells.[1102] Their food was
+scientifically varied and regulated, proceeding from less to more
+nutritious, until they were judged fit for the table. At first their
+diet consisted of a preparation composed of two parts _polenta_, and
+four parts bran boiled in water. Of this they were permitted to eat as
+much as they pleased three times a day, and once again at midnight,
+while water was furnished them in abundance. When they had continued on
+this regimen for some time, they were indulged with a more luxurious
+table,—nothing less than the most exquisite dried figs, which, being
+chopped small, and dissolved in water, were served up as a sort of jelly
+for twenty days, after which the pampered animal itself was ready for
+the spit.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1102:
+
+ The Quintilian Brothers, ap. Geop. xiv. 22. For the fate of these
+ illustrious authors, Maximus and Condianus, see Gibbon, i. 142. “Sint
+ calido et tenebroso loco: quæres ad creandas adipes multum conferunt.”
+ Colum. viii. 14.
+
+-----
+
+Occasionally that delicate and humane device, for the practice of which
+Germany has, in modern times, obtained so enviable a celebrity, of
+enlarging preternaturally the dimensions of the liver, was resorted to
+by the ancients,[1103] whose mode of proceeding was as follows: during
+five-and-twenty days, being cooped up as before in a place of high
+temperature, the geese were fed with wheat and barley steeped in water,
+the former of which fattened, while the latter rendered their flesh
+delicately white. For the next five days certain cakes or balls,
+denominated collyria,[1104] the composition of which is not exactly
+known, were given them at the rate of seven per day, after which the
+number was gradually augmented to fifteen, which constituted their whole
+allowance for other twenty days. To this succeeded the most
+extraordinary dish of all, consisting of bolusses of leavened dough,
+steeped in a warm decoction of mallows, by which they were puffed up for
+four days. Their drink, meanwhile, was still more delicious than their
+food, being nothing less than hydromel,[1105] or water mingled with
+honey. During the last six days dried figs, chopped fine, were added to
+their leaven, and the process being thus brought to a conclusion, the
+gourmands for whom they were intended, feasted on the tenderest geese
+and the largest livers in the world. It should be added, however, that
+before being cooked the liver was thrown into a basin of warm water,
+which the _artistes_ several times changed. Geese, adds the ingenious
+gastronomer to whom we are indebted for these details, are, both for
+flesh and liver, much inferior to ganders. The Greeks did not, however,
+like the Romans and the moderns, select young geese for this species of
+culinary apotheosis, but birds of a mature age and of the largest size,
+from two to four years old, which only proves the superior strength and
+keenness of their teeth.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1103:
+
+ Eupolis, ap. Athen. ix. 32.
+
+Footnote 1104:
+
+ Cf. Suid. v. κολλύρα. t. i. p. 1489. a. Poll. i. 248. Etym. Mag. 526.
+ 26. Schol. Aristoph. Pac. 122.
+
+Footnote 1105:
+
+ Cf. Dioscor. v. 30.
+
+-----
+
+Ducks were kept in ponds, carefully enclosed, and, perhaps, covered over
+that they might not fly away. In the centre were certain green
+islets,[1106] planted with couch-grass, which the ancients considered as
+beneficial to ducks as it was hurtful to geese. Their usual food, which
+was cast in the water encircling the islets, consisted of wheat, millet,
+barley, sometimes mixed with grape-stones and grape-skins. Occasionally
+they were indulged with locusts, prawns, shrimps,[1107] and whatever
+else aquatic birds habitually feed on. Persons desirous of possessing
+tame ducks were accustomed to beat about the lakes and marshes[1108] for
+the nest of the wild bird. Giving the eggs to a hen to sit on, they
+obtained a brood of ducklings perfectly domesticated.[1109] Wild ducks
+were sometimes caught by pouring red wine, or the lees of wine, into the
+springs whither they came to drink.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1106:
+
+ Geop. xiv. 23. Varro, iii. 11. Ælian. De Nat. Anim. v. 33. Aristot. De
+ Hist. Anim. viii. 3. Athen. ix. 52. Phile, De Anim. Proprietat. c. 14.
+ p. 59.
+
+Footnote 1107:
+
+ Athen. iii. 64. Κουρίδες· καρίδες, ἢ τὰς μικρ`ας ἐγχλώρας, τὰς δὲ
+ ἐρυθρὰς καμμάρους. Hesych.
+
+Footnote 1108:
+
+ Cf. Philost. Icon. i. 9. p. 776.
+
+Footnote 1109:
+
+ Colum. viii. 15. Heresbach. De Re Rust. lib. iv. p. 288. a.
+
+-----
+
+With respect to barn-door fowl, originally introduced from India and
+Media into Greece, the greatest care appears to have been taken to vary
+and improve the breeds. For this purpose cocks and hens were
+imported[1110] from the shores of the Adriatic, from Italy, Sicily,
+Numidia, and Egypt, while those of Attica were occasionally exported to
+other countries. There appears to have been a prejudice against keeping
+more than fifty fowls[1111] about one farmyard, some traces of which may
+also be discovered in the practice of the Arabs.[1112] The fowl-house
+furnished with roosts,[1113] as with us, was so contrived and situated
+as to receive from the kitchen a tolerable supply of smoke, which was
+supposed to be agreeable to these Median strangers. The food of
+fowls[1114] being much the same all the world over, it is unnecessary to
+observe more than that the green leaves of the Cytisus were supposed to
+render them prolific. To preserve them from vermin, the juice of rue, by
+way I suppose of charm, was sprinkled over their feathers.[1115] The
+proportion of male birds was one to six. Hens were usually put to sit
+about the vernal equinox, during the first quarter of the moon, in nests
+carefully constructed of boards, and strewed with fresh clean straw,
+into which, as a sort of talisman against thunder, they threw an iron
+nail, heads of garlic, and sprigs of laurel.[1116] During the period of
+incubation, the eggs which had previously been kept in bran were turned
+every day.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1110:
+
+ Athen. vii. 23. Of these birds the black were esteemed less than the
+ white. ix. 15. On the fighting cocks. Plin. x. 24. Æsch. Eum. 864,
+ 869. Schol. ad Æsch. Tim. Orat. Attic. t. xii. p. 379. Schol.
+ Aristoph. Eq. 492.
+
+Footnote 1111:
+
+ Geop. xiv. 7, 9.
+
+Footnote 1112:
+
+ Arabian Nights, Story of the Ass, the Ox, and the Labourer, vol. 1. p.
+ 23.
+
+Footnote 1113:
+
+ Ταῤῥοὶ. Sch. Aristoph. Nub. 227.
+
+Footnote 1114:
+
+ Beans, however, were eschewed as they were supposed to prevent them
+ from laying.—Geoponic. ii. 35. But cocks were suffered to feed on
+ them, at least when they belonged to poor men.—Luc. Mycill. § 4.
+
+Footnote 1115:
+
+ Dioscor. iii. 52.
+
+Footnote 1116:
+
+ Geop. xiv. 7. 11. Colum. viii. 5.
+
+-----
+
+The other inhabitants of the farmyard were peacocks,[1117] commonly
+confined in beautiful artificial islands provided with elegant sheds;
+pheasants[1118] from the shores of the Black Sea;[1119] guinea-fowls
+from Numidia,[1120] though according to other authors they were
+originally found in Ætolia;[1121] partridges, quails, and the attagas.
+Thrushes were bred in warm rooms with slight perches projecting from the
+walls, and laurel boughs or other evergreens fixed in the corners.[1122]
+Over the clean floor was strewed their food, dried figs, which had been
+steeped in water, and mixed with flour or barley meal, together with the
+berries of the myrtle; the lentiscus, the ivy, the laurel, and the
+olive. They were fattened with millet, panic, and pure water.[1123]
+Other still smaller birds were reared, and fattened in like manner.
+Every farmhouse had, moreover, its columbary and dove-cotes,[1124]
+sometimes so large as to contain five thousand birds. They usually
+consisted of spacious buildings,[1125] roofed over and furnished with
+windows closed by lattice work, made so close that neither a lizard nor
+a mouse could creep through them. In the floor were channels and basins
+of water, in which these delicate birds[1126] might wash and plume
+themselves, and adjoining was a chamber into which such as were required
+for sale, or the table, were enticed. Even jackdaws were kept about
+farmyards, and like common fowls had perches set up for them.[1127]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1117:
+
+ Schol. Aristoph. Acharn. 63. Petit. Leg. Att. p. 277. Geop. xiv. 18.
+ 1. Athen. xiv. 70. See the poetical description of this bird by Phile:
+ De Animal. Proprietat. c. 8. p. 32, sqq.
+
+Footnote 1118:
+
+ Geop. xiv. 19. Colum. viii. 12. Pallad. i. 28. Athen. ix. 37, seq.
+ Suid. v. φασιανοὶ. t. i. p. 1083. a. b. Aristoph. Nub. 109.
+
+Footnote 1119:
+
+ According to Diogenes Laertius, (i. iv. 51) both pheasants and
+ peacocks were familiar to the Greeks in the days of Solon.
+
+Footnote 1120:
+
+ Athen. xiv. 71. Ælian. De Nat. Anim. v. 27. Aristot. Hist. Anim. vi.
+ 2. A number of these birds were kept on the Acropolis of Athens.—Suid.
+ v. μελεαγρίδες. t. ii. p. 122. a.
+
+Footnote 1121:
+
+ Within the enclosure for these birds pellitory of the wall was
+ probably planted, as they loved to roll in and pluck it up.—Theoph.
+ Hist. Plant. i. 6. 11.
+
+Footnote 1122:
+
+ Cf. Pollux. ii. 24.
+
+Footnote 1123:
+
+ Geop. xiv. 24. 5, seq.
+
+Footnote 1124:
+
+ The king of Tuban, in Java, had formerly his bed surrounded by cages
+ of turtle-doves, which roosted on perches of various coloured
+ glass.—Voyage de La Compagnie des Indes, i. 533.
+
+Footnote 1125:
+
+ Varro. iii. 7. Columell. viii. 8. Pallad. i. 24.
+
+Footnote 1126:
+
+ For the food with which they were supplied, see Geopon. xiv. 1. 5.
+ Occasionally when the birds were permitted to fly abroad, their owners
+ sprinkled them with unguents, or gave them cumin seed to eat, in order
+ that they might attract and bring back with them flights of doves or
+ wild pigeons to their cells.—Id. xiv. 3. 1. So also Palladius:
+ Inducunt alias, si cumino pascantur assidue, vel hirci alarum balsami
+ liquore tangantur, i. 24. Cf. Plin. x. 52.
+
+Footnote 1127:
+
+ Schol. Aristoph. Vesp. 129.
+
+-----
+
+Much pains was taken by the ancients to improve the breed of
+animals.[1128] Polycrates, tyrant of Samos, introduced into that island
+the Molossian and Spartan dogs, goats from Scyros and Naxos, and sheep
+from Attica and Miletos.[1129] The fineness and beauty of Merinos were
+also known to the ancients, who purchased from Spain rams for breeding
+at a talent each, that is, about two hundred and forty-one pounds
+sterling.[1130]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1128:
+
+ Cf. Arist. Hist. Anim. vii. 6. 5.
+
+Footnote 1129:
+
+ Athen. xii. 57.
+
+Footnote 1130:
+
+ Strab. iii. 2. t. i. p. 231.
+
+-----
+
+Horses were at all times few, and, consequently, dear in Greece; they
+were, therefore, seldom employed in agriculture, but bred and kept
+chiefly for the army, for religious pomps and processions, and for the
+chariot races at Olympia. Originally, no doubt, the horse was introduced
+from Asia, and, up to a very late period, chargers of great beauty and
+spirit, continued to be imported from the shores of the Black Sea.[1131]
+Princes, in the Homeric age, appear to have obtained celebrity for the
+beauty of their steeds, as Laomedon, Tros, and Rhesos; and it was
+customary for them to possess studs of brood mares in the rich pasture
+lands on the sea-shore. That of Priam, for example, lay at Abydos, on
+the Hellespont.[1132]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1131:
+
+ Aristoph. Nub. 109. Suid. v. φασιανοὶ. t. ii. p. 1033. b. Thom.
+ Magist. v. φασιανοὶ. p. 885. Blancard. Of the commentators on
+ Aristophanes, however, some by the word φασιανοὶ understand horses,
+ and some pheasants. The probability is, that they imported both, and
+ that the poet means to play upon the word.
+
+Footnote 1132:
+
+ Iliad. δ. 500.
+
+-----
+
+The high estimation in which horses[1133] were held in remote antiquity,
+may be gathered from the numerous fables invented respecting them,—as
+that of the centaurs in Thessaly, of the winged courser of
+Bellerophontes, and the Muses, and of the marvellous steeds presented by
+Poseidon to Peleus on his marriage with Thetis. They were reckoned,
+likewise, among the most precious victims offered in sacrifice to the
+gods. Thus we find the Trojans plunging live horses into the whirlpool
+of the Scamander[1134] to deprecate the anger of that divinity. The
+Romans, likewise, in later times, sacrificed horses to the ocean;[1135]
+and, in many parts of Asia, it appears to have been customary in nearly
+all ages, to offer up, as anciently in Laconia,[1136] this magnificent
+animal on the altars of the sun.[1137] Thus, among the Armenians, whose
+breed, though smaller than that of the Persians, was far more spirited,
+this practice prevailed as it still does in Northern India, and
+Xenophon,[1138] a religious man, observes in the Anabasis, that he gave
+his steed, worn down with the fatigues of the march, to be fed and
+offered up by the Komarch, with whom he had been for some days a guest.
+From Homer’s account of Pandarus we may infer, that the possessors of
+fine horses often submitted to great personal inconvenience rather than
+hazard the well-being of their favourites. For this wealthy
+prince,[1139] who possessed eleven carriages and twenty-two steeds, came
+on foot to the assistance of Priam, lest they should not find a
+plentiful supply of provender at Troy.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1133:
+
+ See also Iliad, ε. 358. Wolf. Proleg. 80, seq.
+
+Footnote 1134:
+
+ Iliad φ. 132.
+
+Footnote 1135:
+
+ Fest. v. October, t. ii. p. 521, seq. v. Panibus, p. 555. Lomeier, de
+ Lustrat. cap. 23. p. 292, seq. Propert. iv. i. 20, with the note of
+ Frid. Jacob, in whose edition it is, v. i. 20.
+
+Footnote 1136:
+
+ Pausan. iii. 20. 4. Fest. v. October, t. ii. p. 520, tells us that
+ this horse was sacrificed to the winds.
+
+Footnote 1137:
+
+ Herod. i. 216. Brisson. de Regn. Pers. ii. 5. The reason why the horse
+ was selected as a victim to the sun, was that its swiftness appeared
+ to resemble that of the god:—ὡς τακύτατον τῷ τακύτατω. Bochart.
+ Hierozoic. pt. i. l. ii. c. 10. Olear. in Philost. Vit. Apoll. Tyan.
+ i. 31. p. 29. Justin. i. 10. Suid. v. μίθρου. t. ii. p. 162, f. This
+ practice is likewise mentioned by Ovid, (Fast. i. 385, seq.)
+
+ Placat equo Persis radiis Hyperiona cinctum,
+ Ne detur celeri victima tarda deo.
+
+ Cf. Vigenere, Images des Philostrates, p. 773. Par. 1627.
+
+Footnote 1138:
+
+ Anab. iv. 5. 35.
+
+Footnote 1139:
+
+ Iliad. ε. 192, seq.
+
+-----
+
+Several countries were famous[1140] for their breed of horses, as
+Cyrene, Egypt, Syria, Phrygia, and the Phasis.[1141] Thessaly, too,
+particularly the neighbourhood of Triccæ, abounded in barbs, as did
+likewise Bœotia. But one of the most remarkable races was that produced
+in Nisæon,[1142] a district of Media, which seems to have been white, or
+of a bright cream colour,[1143] and of extraordinary size and swiftness.
+On one of these Masistios[1144] was mounted during the expedition into
+Greece. Apollo, in an oracle is said to have spoken of the beauty of
+mares, alluding, perhaps, to those of Elis, which were remarkable for
+their lightness and elegance of form; and Aristotle celebrates a
+particular mare of Pharsatis, called Dicæa, which was famous for
+bringing colts resembling their sires.[1145] Among the Homeric chiefs,
+Achilles and Eumelos boasted the noblest coursers, as we learn from a
+picturesque and striking passage in the Catalogue:[1146] “And now, O
+Muse, declare, which of the leaders and their horses were most
+illustrious. Excepting those of Achilles, the finest steeds before Troy
+were those of Eumelos from Pheræ, swift as birds, alike in mane, in age,
+and so equal in size, that a rule would stand level on their backs. They
+were both bred by Apollo in Pieria, both mares, and they bore with them
+the dread of battle. Noblest of all, however, were the coursers of
+Achilles. But he, in his lunar-prowed, sea-passing ships remains
+incensed against Atreides, the shepherd of his people; his myrmidons
+amuse themselves on the sea-shore with pitching the quoit, launching the
+javelin, and drawing the bow; their horses, standing beside the
+chariots, feed upon lotus, trefoil and marsh parsley; and the chariots
+themselves, well covered with hangings, are drawn up in the tents of the
+chiefs, while the soldiers, sighing for the leading of their impetuous
+general, stroll carelessly through the camp without joining in the war.”
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1140:
+
+ Sch. Pind. Pyth. iv. 1.
+
+Footnote 1141:
+
+ Sch. Aristoph. Nub. 110.
+
+Footnote 1142:
+
+ Strab. xi. 13. p. 453. Τούς δὲ Νησαίους ἵππους, οἷς ἐχρῶντο οἱ
+ βασιλεῖς ἀρίστοις οὖσι καὶ μεγίστοις. Cf. Herod. i. 189, on the sacred
+ horses of Persia.
+
+Footnote 1143:
+
+ Suid. v. ἱππος Νισαῖος. t. i. p. 1271. d. who relates that, according
+ to some, the breed was found near the Erythrean Sea.
+
+Footnote 1144:
+
+ Herod. ix. 20. Cf. Il. ε. 583. δ. 142, seq. In Philostratus we find
+ mention made of a black Nisæan mare with white feet, large patch of
+ white on the breast, and white nostrils.—Icon. ii. 5. p. 816.
+
+Footnote 1145:
+
+ Hist. Anim. vii. 6.
+
+Footnote 1146:
+
+ Il. β. 760, sqq.
+
+-----
+
+The food of the Homeric horses,[1147] was little inferior to that of
+their masters, since, besides the natural delicacies of the meadows,
+they were indulged with sifted barley and the finest wheat.[1148] The
+halter with which, while feeding, they were tied to the manger seems
+usually to have been of leather. Aristotle,[1149] remarks, that horses
+are fattened less by their food than by what they drink, and that, like
+the camel,[1150] they delight in muddy water, on which account they
+usually trouble the stream before they taste it.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1147:
+
+ Iliad. θ. 560. Cf. ι. 123, seq. 265, 407. κ. 565, seq.
+
+Footnote 1148:
+
+ Il. ε. 196. On an ancient crystal engraved in Buonaroti a man with cap
+ and short breeches is represented feeding an ass with corn. Osserv.
+ Istorich. sop. alc. Medagl. Antich. p. 345.
+
+Footnote 1149:
+
+ Hist. Anim. viii. 10.
+
+Footnote 1150:
+
+ Phile applies the same observation to the elephant:
+
+ Ὕδωρ δὲ πίνει πλῆθος ἄφθονον πάνυ·
+ Πλὴν οὐ καθαρὸν, καὶ διειδὲς οὐ θέλει,
+ Ἀλλ’ οὖν ῥυπαρὸν καὶ κατεσπιλωμένον.
+
+ Iamb. de Animal. Proprietat. c. 39. p. 56, 165, seq.
+
+-----
+
+The Greek conception of equine beauty[1151] differed but little from our
+own, since they chiefly loved horses of those colours which are still
+the objects of admiration: as snow-white, with black eyes like those of
+Rhesos, which Plato thought the most beautiful; cream-coloured, light
+bay, chestnut, and smoky grey. They judged of the breeding of a horse by
+the shortness of its coat and the dusky prominence of its veins. As a
+fine large mane greatly augments the magnificent appearance of this
+animal, they were careful after washing to comb and oil it[1152] while
+they gathered up the forelock in a band of gilded leather.[1153] The
+floors of their stables were commonly pitched with round pebbles bound
+tight together by curbs of iron.[1154]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1151:
+
+ Geop. xvi. 2. Philost. Icon. i. 28. p. 804. Notwithstanding the
+ admiration of the Greeks for horses we do not find that they made any
+ attempt to naturalize among them those Shetlands of the ancient world
+ which, according to a very grave naturalist, were no larger than rams.
+ These diminutive steeds were found in India:—Παρά γε τοῖς ψύλλοις
+ καλουμένοις τῶν Ἰνδῶν, εἱσὶ γὰρ καὶ Λιβύων ἕτεροι, ἵπποι γίνονται τῶν
+ κριῶν οὐ μείζους. Ælian. de Animal. xvi. 37. Modern writers relate the
+ same thing of a certain breed of oxen in India: “Naturalists speak of
+ a diminutive breed of oxen in Ceylon, and the neighbourhood of Surat,
+ no larger than a Newfoundland dog, which, though fierce of aspect, are
+ trained to draw children in their little carts.” Hindoos, i. 23.
+
+Footnote 1152:
+
+ Iliad, χ. 281, seq.
+
+Footnote 1153:
+
+ Il. ε. 358.
+
+Footnote 1154:
+
+ Xenoph. de Re Equest. iv. 4.
+
+-----
+
+Horses were usually broken[1155] by professed grooms, who entered into a
+written agreement with the owners implicitly to follow their
+directions.[1156] The process was sufficiently simple. They began with
+the year-and-a-half colts,[1157] on which they put a halter when
+feeding, while a bridle was hung up close to the manger, that they might
+be accustomed to the touch of it, and not take fright at the jingling of
+the bit.[1158] The next step was to lead them into the midst of noisy
+and tumultuous crowds in order to discover whether or not they were bold
+enough to be employed in war.[1159] The operation was not completely
+finished till they were three years old. When, on the course or
+elsewhere, horses had been well sweated,[1160] they were led into a
+place set apart for the purpose, and, in order to dry themselves, made
+to roll in the sand. It was customary for owners to mark their horses
+with the Koppa,[1161] or other letter of the alphabet, whence they were
+sometimes called Koppatias, Samphoras, &c.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1155:
+
+ Plat. de Rep. t. vi. p. 158.
+
+Footnote 1156:
+
+ Xenoph. de Re Equest. ii. 2. Cf. Œconom. iii. 11. xiii. 7.
+
+Footnote 1157:
+
+ Geop. xvi. i. 11.
+
+Footnote 1158:
+
+ Xen. de Re Equest. 10. 6. Poll. viii. 184.
+
+Footnote 1159:
+
+ The swimming powers of the war-horse were probably augmented by
+ exercise, since we find them passing by swimming from Rhegium to
+ Sicily. Plut. Timol. § 19. This feat, however, was nothing to that of
+ the stags which swam from Syria to Cyprus! Ælian. De Nat. Anim. v. 56.
+
+Footnote 1160:
+
+ Sch. Aristoph. Nub. 32. Cf. 25, 28.
+
+Footnote 1161:
+
+ Aristoph. Eq. 601. Nub. 25. Spanh. in loc. Athen. xi. 30.
+
+-----
+
+The mule and the ass were much employed in rural labours, the former
+both at the cart and the plough, the latter in drawing small tumbrils,
+and in bearing wood[1162] or other produce of the farm to the
+city.[1163] The wild ass[1164] was sometimes resorted to for improving
+the breed of mules, which, in the Homeric age, were found in a state of
+nature among the mountains of Paphlagonia.[1165]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1162:
+
+ In carting wood from Mount Ida in the Troad oxen are at present
+ substituted for asses, and the bodies of the vehicles they draw, in
+ form resembling ancient cars, are constructed of wickerwork. Chandler,
+ i. 47.
+
+Footnote 1163:
+
+ Lucian. Luc. siv. Asin. § 43. Cf. Artemid. Oneirocrit. ii. 12. p. 97.
+
+Footnote 1164:
+
+ Geop. xvi. 21. Varro ii. 6. 3. To account for this care it may be
+ observed, that rich men sometimes rode, as they still do in the East,
+ on asses superbly caparisoned and adorned with bells. Lucian. Luc.
+ sive Asin. § 48.
+
+Footnote 1165:
+
+ Il. β. 852.
+
+-----
+
+But their cares extended even to swine, which, if King Ptolemy may be
+credited, were sometimes distinguished in Greece for their great size
+and beauty. He, in fact, observes in his Memoirs, that in the city of
+Assos he saw a milk-white hog two cubits and a half in length, and of
+equal height; and adds, that King Eumenes had given four thousand
+drachmæ, or nearly two hundred pounds sterling, for a boar of this
+enormous size, to improve the breed of pigs in his country.[1166] So
+that we perceive those great generals, whom posterity usually
+contemplates only in the cabinet or in the battle-field, were, at the
+same time, in their domestic policy, the rivals of the Earls Spencer and
+Leicester. Superstition, among the Cretans, prevented the improvement of
+bacon; for as a sow was said to have suckled the infant Jupiter, and
+defended his helpless infancy, they, in gratitude,[1167] abstained from
+hog’s flesh.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1166:
+
+ Athen. ix. 17. Cf. Steph. De Urb. 184. e.
+
+Footnote 1167:
+
+ Athen. ix. 18.
+
+-----
+
+In all farms the care of cattle necessarily formed a principal
+employment. The oxen[1168] were used in ploughing, treading out the
+corn, drawing manure to the fields, and bringing home the produce of the
+harvest. To prevent their being overcome by fatigue while engaged in
+their labours, the husbandmen of Greece had recourse to certain
+expedients, one of which was, to smear their hoofs with a composition of
+oil and terebinth, or wax, or warm pitch:[1169] while, to protect them
+from flies, their coats were anointed with their own saliva, or with a
+decoction of bruised laurel berries and oil.[1170] Their milch cows, in
+the selection of which much judgment was displayed,[1171] were commonly
+fed on cytisus and clover; and, still further to increase their milk,
+bunches of the herb dittany were sometimes tied about their flanks. The
+usual milking-times[1172] were, in the morning immediately after the
+breaking-up of the dawn, and in the evening about the close of twilight;
+though, occasionally, both cows, sheep, and goats were milked several
+times during the day. In weaning calves they made use of a species of
+muzzle,[1173] as the Arabs do in the case of young camels. Their pails,
+like our own, were of wood,[1174] but somewhat differently shaped, being
+narrow above, and spreading towards the bottom. When conveyed into the
+dairy the milk was poured into pans,[1175] on the form of which I have
+hitherto found no information.[1176] That they skimmed their milk is
+evident (whatever they may have done with the cream), from the mention
+of that thin pellicle which is found on it only when skimmed, whether
+scalded or not. “Here, drink this!” said Glycera to Menander, when he
+had returned one day in exceeding ill-humour from the theatre. “I don’t
+like the wrinkled skin,” replied the poet to the lady, whose beauty, it
+must be remembered, was at this time on the wane. “Blow it off,” replied
+she, immediately comprehending his meaning, “and take what is
+beneath.”[1177] Milk, in those warm latitudes, grows sour more rapidly
+than with us; but the ancients observed that it would keep three days
+when it had been scalded, and stirred until cold with a reed or
+ferula.[1178]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1168:
+
+ Scheffer, De Re Vehic. p. 80; et vid. Dickenson, Delph. Phænicizant.
+ c. 10. p. 116, seq. Heresbach. De Re Rust. p. 236, sqq.
+
+Footnote 1169:
+
+ Geop. xvii. 9, with the note of Niclas. Aristoph. Hist. Anim. viii. 7.
+ 23. Cato. De Re Rust. 72. Plin. xxviii. 81.
+
+Footnote 1170:
+
+ African. ap. Geop. xvii. 11.
+
+Footnote 1171:
+
+ Geop. xvii. 2. 8.
+
+Footnote 1172:
+
+ Buttm. Lexil. p. 86.
+
+Footnote 1173:
+
+ Hesych. v. πύσσαχος.
+
+Footnote 1174:
+
+ Eustath. ad Odyss. ε. p. 219. Their milk-cups were sometimes of ivy.
+ Eurip. Fragm. Androm. 27. Athen. xi. 53. Macrob. Sat. v. 21. Cf. on
+ the milk-pans and cheese-vats, Poll. x. 130; Theocrit. Eidyll. v. 87.
+ Milk-pails were sometimes called πέλλαι, ἀμολγοὶ, γαλακτοδόκα, and out
+ of these they sometimes drank. Schol. i. 25.
+
+Footnote 1175:
+
+ Cf. Il. π. 642, et Schol. Venet. Etym. Mag. 659. 41. Athen. xi. 91.
+
+Footnote 1176:
+
+ Even Philostratus, while mentioning these vessels, filled to the brim
+ with milk, on which the cream lies rich and shining, omits to furnish
+ any hint of their form:—ψυκτῆρες γάλακτος, οὐ λευκοῦ μόνον, ἀλλὰ καὶ
+ στιλπνοῦ· καὶ γὰρ στίβειν ἔοικεν, ὑπὸ τῆς ἐπιπολαζούσης αὐτῷ πιμελῆς.
+ Icon. i. 31. p. 809.
+
+Footnote 1177:
+
+ Athen. xiii. 49.
+
+Footnote 1178:
+
+ Geop. xviii. 19. 4.
+
+-----
+
+The Greeks of classical times appear to have made no use of
+butter,[1179] though so early as the age of Hippocrates they were well
+enough acquainted with its existence and properties.[1180] Even in the
+present day butter is much less used in Greece than in most European
+countries, its place being supplied by fine olive oil. For cheese,
+however, they seem to have entertained a partiality, though it is
+probable that the best they could manufacture would have lost very
+considerably in comparison with good Stilton or Cheshire, not to mention
+Parmasan. It was a favourite food, however, among soldiers in Attica,
+who during war used to supply themselves both with cheese and
+meal.[1181] Their cheese-lope or rennet in most cases resembled our own,
+consisting of the liquid substance found in the ruen of new-born
+animals, as calves, kids, or hares, which was considered superior to
+lamb’s rennet.[1182] Occasionally they employed for the same purpose
+burnt salt or vinegar, fowl’s crop or pepper, the flowers of bastard
+saffron, or the threads which grow on the head of the artichoke. For
+these again, was sometimes substituted the juice of the fig-tree;[1183]
+or a branch freshly cut[1184] was used in stirring the milk while
+warming on the fire. This cheese would seem, for the most part, to have
+been eaten while fresh and soft,[1185] like that of Neufchatel, though
+they were acquainted with various means of preserving it for a
+considerable space of time. Acidulated curds were kept soft by being
+wrapped in the leaves of the terebinth tree, or plunged in oil, or
+sprinkled with salt. When desirous of preserving their cheese for any
+length of time, they washed it in pure water, and, after drying it in
+the sun, laid it upon earthen jars with thyme and summer savory. Some
+other kinds were kept in a sort of pickle, composed of sweet vinegar or
+oxymel or sea-water, which was poured into the jars until it entirely
+penetrated and covered the whole mass. When they wished to communicate a
+peculiar whiteness to the cheese, they laid it up in brine. Dry cheese
+was rendered more solid and sharp-tasted by being placed within reach of
+the smoke. If from age it were hard or bitter, it was thrown into a
+preparation of barley-meal, then soaked in water, and what rose to the
+top was skimmed off.[1186]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1179:
+
+ See Beckman. Hist. of Inv. i. 372, seq. Butter is made at present in
+ Greece by filling a skin with cream and treading on it. Chandler, ii.
+ 245.
+
+Footnote 1180:
+
+ Foes, Œconom. Hippoc. v. πικέριον, p. 306.
+
+Footnote 1181:
+
+ Sch. Aristoph. Pac. 394.
+
+Footnote 1182:
+
+ Varro. De Re Rust. ii. 11. 4. Colum. vii. 8. Eustath ad Il. ε. p. 472.
+ Hesych. v. ὀπὸς.—Mœris: ὀπὸς Ἀττικοὶ, πυτία Ἕλληνες. p. 205. Cf.
+ Aristot. Hist. Anim. iv. 21.
+
+Footnote 1183:
+
+ The cheese made in this manner was called ὀπίας. Eurip. Cyclop. 136.
+ Athen. xiv. 76. Schol. Aristoph. Vesp. 353. Dioscor. i. 183. Plin.
+ xxiii. 63. Plut. Sympos. vi. 10.
+
+Footnote 1184:
+
+ Geop. xviii. 12. These cheeses were sometimes made in box-wood moulds.
+ Colum. vii. 8.
+
+Footnote 1185:
+
+ Philostratus describes one of these delicate little cheeses freshly
+ made and quivering like a slice of blanc-manger:—καὶ τρυφαλὶς ἐφ᾽
+ ἑτέρου φύλλου νεοπαγὴς, καὶ σαλέυουσα. Icon. i. 31. p. 809.
+
+Footnote 1186:
+
+ Geop. xviii. 19.
+
+-----
+
+That the milk-women in Greece understood all the arts of their
+profession may be gathered from the instructions which have been left us
+on the best methods of detecting the presence of water in milk. If you
+dip a sharp rush into milk, says Berytios, and it run off easily, there
+is water in it. And again, if you pour a few drops upon your thumb-nail,
+the pure milk will maintain its position, while the adulterated will
+immediately glide away![1187]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1187:
+
+ Geop. xviii. 20.
+
+-----
+
+Their mode of fattening cattle[1188] was as follows: first they fed them
+on cabbage chopped small and steeped in vinegar, to which succeeded
+chaff and gurgions during five days. This diet was then exchanged for
+barley, of which for nearly a week they were allowed four cotylæ a-day,
+the quantity being then gradually augmented for six other days. As of
+necessity the hinds were stirring early, the cattle began even in winter
+to be fed at cock-crowing; a second quantity of food was given them
+about dawn, when they were watered, and their remaining allowance
+towards evening. In summer their first meal commenced at day-break, the
+second at mid-day, and the third about sunset. They were at this time of
+the year suffered to drink at noon and night of water rendered somewhat
+tepid; in winter it was considerably warmer.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1188:
+
+ Geop. xvii. 12. Heresbach. p. 233. a.
+
+-----
+
+About Mossynos, in Thrace, cattle were sometimes fed upon fish, which
+was likewise given to horses, and even to sheep. Herodotus, who mentions
+a similar fact, calls food of this description χόρτος, “fodder,”[1189]
+though hay or dried straw was, doubtless, its original meaning. The
+provender of cattle in the district about Ænia appears to have been so
+wholesome, that the herds which fed upon it were never afflicted by the
+mange.[1190]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1189:
+
+ Herod. v. 16. Athen. vii. 72. Ælian. de Nat. Anim. v. 25. Cf. Sch.
+ Aristoph. Pac. 891.
+
+Footnote 1190:
+
+ Theoph. Hist. Plant. iv. 14. 3.
+
+-----
+
+Among the animals domesticated and rendered useful by the Greeks we
+must, doubtless, reckon bees,[1191] which, in the heroic ages, had not
+yet been confined in hives. For, whenever Homer describes them, it is
+either where they are streaming forth from a rock,[1192] or settling in
+bands and clusters on the spring flowers. So, likewise, in Virgil, they
+
+ Hunt the golden dew;
+ In summer time on tops of lilies feed,
+ And creep within their bells to suck the balmy seed.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1191:
+
+ Athen. iii. 59. Sch. Aristoph. Vesp. 107.
+
+Footnote 1192:
+
+ Il. β. 87. μ. 67. Odyss. ν. 106.
+
+-----
+
+In that Bœotian old savage, Hesiod,[1193] however, we undoubtedly find
+mention of the hive where he is uncourteously comparing women to drones—
+
+ As when within their well-roofed hives the bees
+ Maintain the mischief-working drones at ease,
+ Their task pursuing till the golden sun
+ Down to the western wave his course hath run,
+ Filling their shining combs, while snug within
+ Their fragrant cells, the drones, with idle din,
+ As princes revel o’er their unpaid bowls,
+ On others’ labours cheer their worthless souls.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1193:
+
+ Theogon. 594, seq.—Pro σίμβλοισι, quod præbet R. S., cæteri Mss.
+ σμήνεσσι. Schæferus tamen malebat σίμβλοισιν ἐπηρεφέεσι. Gœttling. But
+ Goguet, who has considered this passage, does not think that “hives”
+ are meant; because, if their use had been known in the times of
+ Hesiod, he would not have failed to leave us some directions on the
+ subject. Origine des Loix, t. iii. p. 399. Wolff, following in the
+ footsteps of Heyne, gets easily over the difficulty by pronouncing the
+ whole passage, v. 590–612, spurious. Gœttling, p. 55. Cf. Schol.
+ Aristoph. Nub. 937. Phile, de Animal. Proprietat. c. 28. p. 87, seq.
+
+-----
+
+As the honey of Attica constantly, in antiquity, enjoyed the reputation
+of being the finest in the world,[1194] the management of bees naturally
+formed in that country an important branch of rural economy. The natural
+history, moreover, of the bee was studied with singlar enthusiam by the
+Greeks in general. Aristomachos of Soli, devoted to it fifty-eight
+years, and Philiscos, the Thasian, who passed his life among bees in a
+desert, obtained on that account the name of the Wild Man. Both wrote on
+the subject.[1195]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1194:
+
+ The pasturage of Hymettos, however, was, by Pausanias, regarded as
+ second to that of the Alazones on the river Halys, where the bees were
+ tame, and worked in common in the fields. i. 32. 1.
+
+Footnote 1195:
+
+ Plin. Hist. Nat. xi. 9.
+
+-----
+
+This branch of rural economy was carried to very great perfection in
+Attica. The vocabulary[1196] connected with it was extensive, as every
+separate operation had its technical term, by the study of which,
+chiefly, an insight into their practice is obtained. Thus, from certain
+expressions employed by Aristotle[1197] and Pollux, it seems clear that
+bee-managers, whom we may occasionally call melitturgi, constituted a
+separate division among the industrious classes; and these, instructed
+by constant experience, probably anticipated most of the improvements
+imagined in modern times. For example, instead of destroying the
+valuable and industrious little insects for the purpose of obtaining
+possession of their spoils, they in some cases compelled them by smoke
+to retire temporarily from the hive, whence their treasures were to be
+taken; and in the mining districts about Laureion they understood the
+art, concerning which, however, no particulars are known, of procuring
+the virgin honey pure and unsmoked.[1198]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1196:
+
+ Poll. i. 254. Artemid. Oneirocrit. ii. 22. p. 109.
+
+Footnote 1197:
+
+ Hist. Anim. v. 22. ix. 40. Etym. Mag. 458. 44.
+
+Footnote 1198:
+
+ Τοῦ δὲ μέλιτος, ἀρίστου ὄντος τῶν πάντων τοῦ Ἀττικοῦ, πολὺ βέλτιστὸν
+ φάσι τὸ ἐν τοῖς ἀργυρέοις, ὁ καὶ ἀκαπνίστον καλοῦσιν ἀπὸ τοῦ τρόποῦ
+ τῆς σκευασίας. Strab. ix. 2. t. ii. p. 246.—Wheler describes the
+ modern method observed by the Athenians in taking honey without
+ destroying the bee, but in a style so lengthy and uncouth, that I must
+ content myself with a reference to his travels. Book vi. p. 412, seq.
+
+-----
+
+The grounds of a melitturgos or bee-keeper were chosen and laid out with
+peculiar care.[1199] In a sheltered spot, generally on the thymy slope
+of a hill, the hives were arranged in the midst of flowers and
+odoriferous shrubs. And if the necessary kinds had not by nature been
+scattered there, they were planted by the gardener. Experience soon
+taught them what blossoms and flowers yielded the best honey,[1200] and
+were most agreeable to the bees. These, in Attica, were supposed to be
+the wild pear-tree, the bean, clover, a pale-coloured vetch, the syria,
+myrtle, wild poppy, wild thyme, and the almond-tree.[1201] To which may
+be added the rose, balm gentle, the galingale or odoriferous rush, basil
+royal, and above all the cytisus,[1202] which begins to flower about the
+vernal equinox, and continues in bloom to the end of September.[1203] Of
+all the plants, however, affected by the bee, none is so grateful to it
+as the thyme, which so extensively abounds in Attica and Messenia[1204]
+as to perfume the whole atmosphere. In Sicily too, all the slopes and
+crests of its beautiful hills, from Palermo to Syracuse, are invested
+with a mantle of thyme,[1205] and other odoriferous shrubs, which,
+according to Varro, gives the superior flavour to the Sicilian honey.
+Box-wood abounded on mount Cytoros, in Galatia, and in the island of
+Corsica, on which account the honey of the latter country was
+bitter.[1206]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1199:
+
+ On the management of bees in Circassia and other countries on the
+ Black Sea, see Pallas, Travels in Southern Russia, ii. p. 204.
+
+Footnote 1200:
+
+ On the coast of the Black Sea bees sucked honey from the grape. Geop.
+ v. 2.
+
+Footnote 1201:
+
+ Arist. Hist. Anim. ix. 26, 27.
+
+Footnote 1202:
+
+ Geop. xv. 2. 6.
+
+Footnote 1203:
+
+ Varro, De Re Rust. iii. 16.
+
+Footnote 1204:
+
+ Sibthorpe in Walpole’s Memoirs, t. ii. p. 62. Geop. xv. 2. 5. Speaking
+ of Hymettos, Chandler observes, that it produces a succession of
+ aromatic plants, herbs, and flowers, calculated to supply the bee with
+ nourishment both in winter and summer, ii. p. 143. “Les montagnes (des
+ îles) sont couvertes de thym et de lavande. Les abeilles, qui y volent
+ par nuées, en tirent un miel qui est aussi transparent que notre
+ gelée.” Della Rocca, Traité sur les Abeilles, t. i. 6.
+
+Footnote 1205:
+
+ This plant in Greece flowers about midsummer, and those who kept bees
+ conjectured whether honey would be plentiful or not, according as it
+ was more or less luxuriant. Theoph. Hist. Plant. vi. 2, 3. The wild
+ thyme of Greece was a creeping plant which was sometimes trained on
+ poles or hedges, or even in pits, the sides of which it speedily
+ covered. Id. vi. 7. 5.
+
+Footnote 1206:
+
+ Theoph. Hist. Plant. iii. 15. 5. The honey of modern Crete is esteemed
+ of a good quality. Pashley, Travels, vol. i. p. 56.
+
+-----
+
+In selecting a spot for hives, the ancients observed a rule which I do
+not recollect to have been mentioned by modern bee-keepers, and that was
+to avoid the neighbourhood of an echo,[1207] which by repeating their
+own buzzing and murmuring suggested the idea perhaps of invisible
+rivals. Place them not, says Virgil,[1208]
+
+ Near hollow rocks that render back the sound,
+ And doubled images of voice rebound.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1207:
+
+ Echo, in the mythology, is said to have been beloved of Pan, by which
+ she seems tacitly to be connected with the generation of Panic Terrors
+ Polyæn. Stratagem. i. 2. 1. Offensive smells are often reckoned among
+ the aversions of bees, but I fear without good reason. At least they
+ have sometimes been found to select strange places wherein to deposit
+ their treasures of sweets. In the book of Judges, chap. xiv. ver. 8,
+ seq., it is related that, when Samson, on his way to Timnath, turned
+ aside to view the carcass of a young lion which he had a short time
+ previously slain, “behold, there was a swarm of bees and honey in the
+ carcass of the lion, and he took thereof in his hands and went on
+ eating, and came to his father and mother, and he gave them and they
+ did eat, but he told not them that he had taken the honey out of the
+ carcass of the lion.” Upon this passage the following may serve as a
+ note:—“Among this pretty collection of natural curiosities, (in the
+ cemetery of Algesiras,) one in particular attracted our attention;
+ this was the contents of a small uncovered coffin in which lay a
+ child, the cavity of the chest exposed and tenanted by an industrious
+ colony of bees. The comb was rapidly progressing, and I suppose,
+ according to the adage of the poet, they were adding sweets to the
+ sweet, if not perfume to the violet.” Napier, Excursions on the Shores
+ of the Mediterranean, v. i. 127.
+
+Footnote 1208:
+
+ Georg. iv. 50, with the commentaries of Servius and Philargyrius; and
+ Varro, De Re Rust. iii. 16.
+
+-----
+
+Care was taken to conduct near the hives small runnels of the purest
+water, not exceeding two or three inches in depth with shells or pebbles
+rising dry above the surface, whereon the bees might alight to
+drink.[1209] When of necessity the apiary was situated on the margin of
+lakes or larger streams other contrivances were had recourse to for the
+convenience of the airy labourers.
+
+ Then o’er the running stream or standing lake
+ A passage for thy weary people make,
+ With osier floats the standing water strow,
+ Of massy stones make bridges if it flow,
+ That basking in the sun thy bees may lie
+ And resting there their flaggy pinions dry,
+ When late returning home the laden host
+ By raging winds is wrecked upon the coast.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1209:
+
+ Cf. Geop. xv. 2, 3, 4.
+
+-----
+
+Their hives were of various kinds and shapes. Some, like the modern
+Circassians, they made with fine wicker-work, of a round form and
+carefully plastered on the inside with clay.[1210] Other hives were
+constructed of bark, especially that of the cork-tree, others of fig,
+oxya, beech, and pine-wood,[1211] others, as now in Spain, of the trunk
+of a hollow tree, others of earthenware, as is the practice in Russia;
+and others again of plaited cane of a square shape, three feet in length
+and about one in breadth, but so contrived that, should the honey
+materials prove scanty, they might be contracted, lest the bees should
+lose courage if surrounded by a large empty space. The wicker-hives were
+occasionally plastered both inside and outside with cow-dung to fill up
+the cavities and smooth the surface.[1212] A more beautiful species of
+hive was sometimes made with the lapis specularis,[1213] which, being
+almost as transparent as glass, enabled the curious owner to contemplate
+the movements and works of the bees.[1214] When finished, they were
+placed on projecting slabs, so as not to touch or be easily shaken.
+There were generally three rows of hives rising above each other like
+Egyptian tombs on the face of the wall, and there was a prejudice
+against adding a fourth.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1210:
+
+ Vir. Georg. iv. 34, seq. Varro, iii. 16. Colum. ix. 2–7. Sch.
+ Aristoph. Nub. 295. Vesp. 241. Callim. Hymn. i. 50. Cf. Wheler,
+ Travels into Greece. Book vi. p. 411.
+
+Footnote 1211:
+
+ Geop. xv. 2. 7. Cf. Theoph. Hist. Plant. iii. 10. 1.
+
+Footnote 1212:
+
+ Geop. xv. 2. 8. Varro, iii. 16. Colum. ix. 14. Pallad. vii. 8. Cato.
+ 81.
+
+Footnote 1213:
+
+ Plin. xxi. 47.
+
+Footnote 1214:
+
+ At present the hives, we are told, are set on the ground in rows
+ enclosed within a low wall. Chandler, ii. 143.
+
+-----
+
+The fences of apiaries were made high and strong to protect the inmates
+from the inroads of the bears,[1215] which would otherwise have
+overthrown the hives and devoured all the combs.[1216] Another enemy of
+the bee was the Merops,[1217] which makes its appearance about Hymettos
+towards the end of summer.[1218]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1215:
+
+ Phile gives a long list of the bees’ foes, which begins as follows:
+
+ Ὄφις, δὲ καὶ σφὴξ, καὶ χελιδὼν, καὶ φρύνος,
+ Μύρμηξ τε, καὶ σὴς, αἰγιθαλὴς, καὶ φάλαγξ,
+ Καὶ σαῦρος ὦχρὸς, καὶ φαγεῖν δεινὸς μέροψ,
+ Σμήνει μελισσῶν δυσμενεῖς ὁδοστάται.
+
+ Iamb. De Animal. Proprietat. c. 30, p. 104, seq.
+
+Footnote 1216:
+
+ Arist. Hist. Anim. viii. 5. Plin. Nat. Hist. viii. 54.
+
+Footnote 1217:
+
+ Besides this enemy the bees of America have another still more
+ audacious, that is to say, the monkey, which either carries off their
+ combs or crushes them for the purpose of dipping his tail in the
+ honey, which he afterwards sucks at his leisure. Schneider, Observ.
+ sur Ulloa, t. ii. p. 199.—See a very amusing chapter on the enemies of
+ the bee in Della Rocca, iii. 219, sqq.
+
+Footnote 1218:
+
+ Sibthorpe in Walp. Mem. i. 75. The practice, moreover, of stealing
+ hives was not unknown to the ancients. Plat. De Legg. t. viii. p. 104.
+
+-----
+
+There were, in ancient times, two entrances, one on either hand, and on
+the top a lid, which the Melitturgos could remove when he desired to
+take the honey, or inspect the condition of the bees. The best of these
+lids were made of bark, the worst of earthenware, which were cold in
+winter, and in summer exceedingly hot.[1219] It was considered necessary
+during spring and the succeeding season for the bee-keeper to inspect
+the hives thrice a month, to fumigate them slightly, and remove all
+filth and vermin. He was careful, likewise, to destroy the usurpers if
+there were more than one queen,[1220] since, in Varro’s[1221] opinion,
+they gave rise to sedition; but Aristotle thinks there ought to be
+several, lest one should die, and the hive along with it. Of the queen
+bees there are three kinds, the black, the ruddy, and the variegated;
+though Menecrates, who is good authority, speaks only of the black and
+variegated.[1222] Aristotle, however, describes the reddish queen bee as
+the best. Even among the working insects there are two kinds, the
+smaller, in form round, and variegated in colour, the larger, which is
+the tame bee, less active and beautiful. The former, or wild bee,[1223]
+frequents the mountains, forests, and other solitary places, labours
+indefatigably, and collects honey in great quantities; the latter, which
+feeds among gardens, and in man’s neighbourhood, fills its hive more
+slowly.[1224] With respect to the drones, or males, which the working
+bees generally expel at a certain time of the year, the Attic melitturgi
+got rid of them in a very ingenious manner. It was observed, that these
+gentlemen though no way inclined to work, would yet occasionally, on
+very fine days, go abroad for exercise, rushing forth in squadrons,
+mounting aloft into the air, and there wheeling, and sporting, and
+manœuvring in the sun.[1225] Taking advantage of their absence, they
+spread a fine net over the hive-entrance, the meshes of which, large
+enough to admit the bee, would exclude the drone. On returning,
+therefore, they found themselves, according to the old saying, “on the
+smooth side of the door,” and were compelled to seek fresh
+lodgings.[1226]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1219:
+
+ Colum. ix. 6. Della Rocca, however, considers this kind as equal to
+ any other, except that it is more fragile. t. ii. p. 17.
+
+Footnote 1220:
+
+ Geop. xv. 2. 15.
+
+Footnote 1221:
+
+ De Re Rust. iii. 16, 18. Colum. ix. 9. 6. Hist. Anim. v. 19, 22.
+ Xenoph. Œconom. vii. 32.
+
+Footnote 1222:
+
+ Cf. Geop. xv. 2, 6.
+
+Footnote 1223:
+
+ On the humble bee, see Sch. Aristoph. Acharn. 831.
+
+Footnote 1224:
+
+ Varro, De Re Rust. iii. 16.
+
+Footnote 1225:
+
+ Arist. Hist. Anim. ix. 27.
+
+Footnote 1226:
+
+ Arist. Hist. Anim. v. 21. Cf. Xenoph. Œcon. xvii. 14, seq.
+
+-----
+
+In late springs, or when there is a drought or blight, the bees breed
+very little, but make a great deal of honey, whereas in wet seasons they
+keep more at home, and attend to breeding. Swarms in Greece[1227]
+appeared about the ripening of the olive. Aristotle is of opinion, that
+honey is not manufactured by the bee, but falls perfectly formed from
+the atmosphere, more especially at the heliacal rising or setting of
+certain stars, and when the rainbow appears. He observes, too, that no
+honey is found before the rising of the Pleiades,[1228] which happens
+about the thirteenth of May.[1229] This opinion is in exact conformity
+with the fact, that at certain seasons of the year what is called the
+honey dew descends, covering thick the leaves of the oak, and several
+other trees, which at such times literally drop with honey. On these
+occasions the bees find little to do beyond the labour of conveying it
+to their cells, and, accordingly, have been known to fill the hive in
+one or two days. It has been observed, moreover, that autumn flowers,
+which yield very little fragrance, yield, also, little or no honey. In
+the kingdom of Pontos there was a race of white bees which made honey
+twice a month; and at Themiscyra there were those which built their
+combs both in hives and in the earth, producing very little wax, but a
+great deal of honey.[1230]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1227:
+
+ Cf. Sch. Aristoph. Vesp. 425. In the island of Cuba, where the tame
+ bee was originally introduced by the English, it has been found to
+ swarm and multiply with incredible rapidity, each hive sometimes
+ sending forth two swarms per month, so that the mountains are
+ absolutely filled with them. This rapid increase seems to have taken
+ place chiefly in the neighbourhood of the sugar plantations, which
+ they were long since supposed to deteriorate by extracting too much
+ honey from the cane. Don Ulloa, Memoires Philosophiques, &c., t. i. p.
+ 185. In North America where bees are known among the natives by the
+ name of the “English Flies,” they betray an invariable tendency for
+ migrating southward. Kalm. t. ii. 427. Schneider, Observ. sur Ulloa,
+ ii. 198.
+
+Footnote 1228:
+
+ Hist. Anim. v. 22. Orion rises on the 9th of July, Gœttling ad Hesiod.
+ Opp. et Dies, 598. Arcturus, 18th September. Id. 610.
+
+Footnote 1229:
+
+ A similar opinion has been sometimes maintained also by the
+ moderns:—“I have heard,” observes Lord Bacon, “from one that was
+ industrious in husbandry, that the labour of the bee is about the wax,
+ and that he hath known in the beginning of May, honey combs empty of
+ honey, and within a fortnight when the sweet dews fall filled like a
+ cellar.”—Sylva Sylvarum, 612.
+
+Footnote 1230:
+
+ Arist. Hist. Anim. v. 22. In the Crimea wild bees are found in great
+ abundance in the clefts and caverns of the mountains.—Pallas, Travels
+ in Southern Russia, iii. 324. Among the numerous species of wild bees
+ found in America there is one which pre-eminently deserves to be
+ introduced into Europe and brought under the dominion of man. This bee
+ does not, like the ordinary kind, deposit its honey in combs but in
+ separate waxen cells about the size and shape of a pigeon’s egg. As
+ the honey of this bee is of an excellent quality, many persons in
+ South America have been at the pains to tame its maker, whose labours
+ have proved extremely profitable.—Schneider, Observ. sur Ulloa, ii.
+ 200.
+
+-----
+
+When the time of year arrived for robbing the bee, some hives were found
+to produce five, others ten, others fifteen quarts of honey, still
+leaving sufficient for winter consumption.[1231] And in determining what
+quantity would suffice great judgment was required; for if too much
+remained the labourers grew indolent, if too little they lost their
+spirits. However, in this latter case the bee-keepers, having
+ascertained that they were in need of food, introduced a number of sweet
+figs, and other similar fruit into the hive, as now we do moist sugar in
+a split cane. Elsewhere the practice was to boil a number of rich figs
+in water[1232] till they were reduced to a jelly, which was then formed
+into cakes and set near the hive. Together with this, some bee-keepers
+placed honey-water, wherein they threw locks of purple wool, on which
+the bees might stand to drink.[1233] Certain melitturgi, desirous of
+distinguishing their own bees[1234] when spread over the meadows,
+sprinkled them with fine flour. Mention is made of a person who obtained
+five thousand pounds’ weight of honey annually; and Varro[1235] speaks
+of two soldiers who, with a small country house, and an acre of ground
+left them by their father, realised an independent fortune.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1231:
+
+ Arist. Hist. Anim. ix. 27. 24. In Attica, the honey was taken about
+ the summer solstice; at Rome about the festival of Vulcan, in the
+ month of August.—Winkelmann. Hist. de l’Art, i. 65. But commentators
+ are not at all agreed respecting the meaning of Pliny, whom this
+ writer relies upon. xi. 15. Cf. Sch. Aristoph. Eq. 797.
+
+Footnote 1232:
+
+ Arist. Hist. Anim. ix. 27. 19. Sch. Aristoph. Eq. 752. Cf. Meurs.
+ Græc. Ludib. p. 13.
+
+Footnote 1233:
+
+ Varro, de Re Rust. iii. 16.
+
+Footnote 1234:
+
+ A gentleman in Surrey desirous of knowing his own bees, when he should
+ chance to meet them in the fields, touched their wings with vermilion
+ as they were issuing from the hive. Being one fine day in summer on a
+ visit at Hampstead, he found them thickly scattered among the wild
+ flowers on the heath.
+
+Footnote 1235:
+
+ De Re Rust. iii. 16.
+
+-----
+
+Theophrastus, in a fragment[1236] of one of his lost works, speaks of
+three different kinds of honey, one collected from flowers, another
+which, according to his philosophy, descended pure from heaven, and a
+third produced from canes. This last, which was sometimes denominated
+Indian honey, is the sugar of modern times. There appear, likewise, to
+have been other kinds of sugar manufactured from different substances,
+as Tamarisk and Wheat.[1237] The honey-dew, on the production of which
+the ancients[1238] held many extraordinary opinions, was supposed to be
+superior to the nectar of the bee.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1236:
+
+ Preserved by Photius. Biblioth. cod. 278. p. 529. b.
+
+Footnote 1237:
+
+ Herod. vii. 31. Cf. iv. 194.
+
+Footnote 1238:
+
+ On the origin of the honeydew, see the Quarterly Journal of
+ Agriculture, No. XLIV. p. 499, sqq.
+
+-----
+
+Amyntas, in his Stations of Asia, cited by Athenæus, gives a curious
+account of this sort of honey which was collected in various parts of
+the East, particularly in Syria. In some cases they gathered the leaves
+of the tree, chiefly the linden and the oak, on which the dew was most
+abundantly[1239] found, and pressed them together like those masses of
+Syrian figs, which were called _palathè_. Others allowed it to drop from
+the leaves and harden into globules, which, when desirous of using, they
+broke, and, having poured water thereon in wooden bowls called
+_tabaitas_, drank the mixture. In the districts of Mount Lebanon[1240]
+the honey-dew fell plentifully several times during the year, and was
+collected by spreading skins under the trees, and shaking into them the
+liquid honey from the leaves; they then filled therewith numerous
+vessels, in which it was preserved for use. On these occasions, the
+peasants used to exclaim, “Zeus has been raining honey!”
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1239:
+
+ Theoph. Hist. Plant. iii. 7. 6. Cf. Hes. Opp. et Dies, 232. seq. Cf.
+ Lord Bacon, Sylva Sylvarum. 496.
+
+Footnote 1240:
+
+ Schneid. Comm. ad Theoph. Frag. t. iv. p. 822.
+
+-----
+
+
+
+
+ CHAPTER II.
+ GARDEN AND ORCHARD.
+
+
+Lord Bacon, who loved to be surrounded by plants and trees and flowers,
+delivers it as his opinion, that the scientific culture of gardens
+affords a surer mark of the advance of civilisation than any improvement
+in the science of architecture, since men, he observes, enjoyed the
+luxury of magnificent palaces before that of picturesque and
+well-ordered garden-grounds. This, likewise, was the conviction of the
+ancient Greeks,[1241] in whose literature we everywhere discover
+vestiges of a passion for that voluptuous solitude which men taste in
+artificial and secluded plantations, amid flower-beds and arbours and
+hanging vines and fountains and smooth shady walks. No full description,
+however, of an Hellenic garden has survived; even the poets have
+contented themselves with affording us glimpses of their “studious walks
+and shades.” We must, therefore, endeavour, by the aid of scattered
+hints, chance expressions, fragments, and a careful study of the natural
+and invariable productions of the country, to work out for ourselves a
+picture of what the gardens of Peisistratos, or Cimon, or Pericles, or
+Epicurus, whom Pliny[1242] denominates the _magister hortorum_, or any
+other Grecian gentleman, must in the best ages have been.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1241:
+
+ But see Dr. Nolan on the Grecian Rose, Trans. Roy. Soc. ii. p. 330,
+ and Poll. i. 229.
+
+Footnote 1242:
+
+ Hist. Nat. xix. 4. Dr. Nolan, p. 330. Nic. Caussin. De Eloquent. xi.
+ p. 727, seq. Cic. De Senect. § 17. Ælian. De Nat. Anim. xiii. 18, has
+ a brief but interesting description of the garden of the Indian kings,
+ with its evergreen groves, fish-ponds, and flights of peacocks,
+ pheasants, and parrots, reckoned sacred by the Brahmins. Cf. Xenoph.
+ Œconom. iv. 13, where he celebrates the fondness of the Persian kings
+ for gardens.
+
+-----
+
+That portion of the ground[1243] which was devoted to the culture of
+sweet-smelling shrubs and flowers, usually approached and projected
+inwards between the back wings of the house, so that from the windows
+the eye might alight upon the rich and variegated tints of the
+parterres[1244] intermingled with verdure, while the evening and morning
+breeze wafted clouds of fragrance into the apartments.[1245] The lawns,
+shrubberies, bosquets, thickets, arcades, and avenues, were, in most
+cases, laid out in a picturesque though artificial manner, the principal
+object appearing to have been to combine use with magnificence, and to
+enjoy all the blended hues and odours which the plants and trees
+acclimated in Hellas could afford. Protection, in summer, from the sun’s
+rays, is, in those southern latitudes, an almost necessary ingredient of
+pleasure, and, therefore, numerous trees, as the cedar,[1246] the
+cypress, the black and white poplar,[1247] the ash, the linden, the elm,
+and the platane, rose here and there in the grounds, in some places
+singly, elsewhere in clumps, uniting their branches above, and affording
+a cool and dense shade. Beneath these umbrageous arches the air was
+further refrigerated by splashing fountains,[1248] whose waters, through
+numerous fair channels, straight or winding, as the use demanded of them
+required,[1249] spread themselves over the whole garden, refreshing the
+eye and keeping up a perpetual verdure. Copses of myrtles, of roses, of
+agnus-castus,[1250] and other odoriferous shrubs intermingled,
+clustering round a pomegranate-tree, were usually placed on elevated
+spots,[1251] that, being thus exposed to the winds, they might the more
+freely diffuse their sweetness. The spaces between trees were sometimes
+planted with roses,[1252] and lilies, and violets, and golden
+crocuses;[1253] and sometimes presented a breadth of smooth, close,
+green sward, sprinkled with wild-flowers, as the violet and the blue
+veronica,[1254] the pink, and the pale primrose, the golden motherwort,
+the cowslip, the daisy, the pimpernel, and the periwinkle. In many
+gardens the custom was, to plant each kind of tree in separate groups,
+and each species of flower-bed also had, as now in Holland,[1255] a
+distinct space assigned to it; so that there were beds of white
+violets,[1256] of irises, of the golden cynosure,[1257] of hyacinths, of
+ranunculuses, of the blue campanula, or Canterbury bells, of white
+gilliflowers, carnations, and the branchy asphodel.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1243:
+
+ Here sometimes were grown both vegetables, as lettuces, radishes,
+ parsley, &c., and flowering shrubs, as the wild or rose-laurel, which
+ was supposed to be a deadly poison to horses and asses. Lucian. Luc.
+ siv. Asin. § 17.
+
+Footnote 1244:
+
+ Luc. Piscat. § 6.
+
+Footnote 1245:
+
+ Geop. x. 1. 1. xii. 2.
+
+Footnote 1246:
+
+ The cedar still grows wild on the promontory of Sunium. Chandler, ii.
+ 8.
+
+Footnote 1247:
+
+ Sibth. Flor. Græc. t. i. pl. 4.
+
+Footnote 1248:
+
+ Plato describes, though not in a garden, a fountain and a plane-tree,
+ in language so picturesque and harmonious, that it has captivated the
+ imagination of all succeeding writers, many of whom have sought to
+ express their admiration by imitating it in their own style:—Ἥ τε γὰρ
+ πλάτανος αὕτη μάλ’ ἀμφιλαφής τε καὶ ὑψηλή, τοῦ τε ἄγνου τὸ ὕψος καὶ τὸ
+ σύσκιον πάγκαλον, καὶ ὡς ἀγμὴν ἔχει τῆς ἀνθης, ὡς ἄν εὐωδέστατον
+ παρέχοι τὸν τόπον· ἥ τε αὖ πηγὴ χαριεστάτη ὑπο τῆς πλατάνου ῥεῖ μάλα
+ ψυχροῦ ὕδατος, ὥς τε γε τῷ ποδὶ τεκμήρασθαι· νυμφῶν τε τινων καὶ
+ Ἀχελώου ἱερὸν ἀπὸ τῶν κορῶν τε καὶ ἀγαλμάτων ἔοικεν εἶναι· εἰ δ᾽ αὖ
+ βούλει, τὸ εὔπνουν τοῦ τόπου ὡς ἀγαπητὸν καὶ σφόδρα ἡδὺ· θερινόν τε
+ καὶ λιγυρὸν ὑπηχεῖ τῷ τῶν τεττίγων χορῷ, πάντων δὲ κομψότατον τὸ τῆς
+ πόας ὅτι ἐν ἠρέμα προσάντει ἱκανὴ πέφυκε κατακλινέντι τὴν κεφαλὴν
+ παγκάλως ἔχειν. Phæd. t. i. p. 8, seq. The prevailing image in this
+ passage is thus expressed by Cicero: “Cur non imitamur Socratem illum,
+ qui est in Phædro Platonis; nam me hæc tua platanus admonuit, quæ non
+ minus ad opacandum hunc locum patulis est diffusa ramis, quam illa
+ cujus umbram secutus est Socrates quæ mihi videtur non tam ipsa
+ aquula, quæ describitur, quam Platonis oratione crevisse.” De Orat. i.
+ 7. The picture is slightly varied by Aristinætos, who introduces it
+ into a garden:—Ἡ δὲ πηγὴ χαριεστάτη ὑπὸ τῇ πλατάνῳ ῥεῖ ὕδατος εὖ μάλα
+ ψυχροῦ, ὥς γε τῷ ποδὶ τεκμήρασθαι, καὶ διαφανοῦς τοσοῦτον, ὥστε
+ συνεπινηχομένων καὶ διὰ διαυγὲς ὑδάτιον διαπλεκομένων ἐπαφροδίτως
+ ἀλλήλοις, ἅπαν ἡμῶν φανερῶς ἀποκαταφαίνεσθαι μέλος. Epist. Lib.i.
+ Epist. 3. p. 14. On the epithet ἀμφιλαφὴς, which Ruhnken (ad Tim. Lex.
+ p. 24) observes was almost exclusively appropriated by the ancients to
+ the Plane tree, see Apollon. Rhod. ii. 733. Wellauer. et schol.
+
+Footnote 1249:
+
+ Where running water was not to be obtained, they constructed two
+ gardens, the one for winter, which depended on the showers, the other
+ on a northern exposure, where a fresh, cool air was preserved
+ throughout the summer. Geop. xii. 5.
+
+Footnote 1250:
+
+ Used by rustics in crowns. Athen. xv. 12. Prometheus was crowned with
+ agnus-castus. 13.
+
+Footnote 1251:
+
+ Geop. xi. 7. Plin. xv. 18.
+
+Footnote 1252:
+
+ Geop. x. 1. 3.
+
+Footnote 1253:
+
+ Which delighted particularly in the edges of paths and trodden places.
+ Theoph. Hist. Plant. vi. 6.1.
+
+Footnote 1254:
+
+ Sibth. Flor. Græc. t. i. pl. 5, sqq.
+
+Footnote 1255:
+
+ Laing, Notes of a Traveller, p. 6.
+
+Footnote 1256:
+
+ Geop. xi. 21, 23, sqq.
+
+Footnote 1257:
+
+ Sibth. Flor. Græc. t. i. pl. 79. pl. 203. pl. 334, &c.
+
+-----
+
+One of the principal causes which induced the Greeks to attend to the
+culture of ornamental shrubs and flowers, was the perpetual use made of
+them in crowns and garlands.[1258] Nearly all their ceremonies, whether
+civil or religious, were performed by individuals wearing certain
+wreaths about their brow. Thus the Spartans, during the Promachian
+festival,[1259] shaded their foreheads with plaited tufts of
+reeds—priests and priestesses, soothsayers,[1260] prophets, and
+enchanters, appeared in their several capacities before the gods in
+temples or sacred groves with symbolical crowns encircling their heads,
+as the priests of Hera, at Samos, with laurel,[1261] and those of
+Aphrodite with myrtle,[1262] while the statues of the divinities
+themselves were often crowned with circlets of these “earthly stars.” In
+the festival of Europa, at Corinth, a crown of myrtle, thirty feet in
+circumference, was borne in procession through the city.[1263] The
+actors, dancers, and spectators of the theatre usually appeared crowned
+with flowers,[1264] as did every guest at an entertainment, while lovers
+suspended a profusion of garlands on the doors of their mistresses, as
+did the devout on the temples and altars of the gods.[1265]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1258:
+
+ Πρῶτον μὲν γὰρ ἀφ’ ὧν ζῶσιν οἱ ἄνθρωποι, ταῦτα ἡ γῆ φέρει
+ ἐργαζομένοις· καὶ ἀφ’ ὧν τοίνυν ἡδυπαθοῦσι προσεπιφέρει.—Ἔπειτα δὲ ὅσα
+ κοσμοῦσι βωμοὺς και ἀγάλματα, καὶ οἷς αὐτοὶ κοσμοῦνται, καὶ ταῦτα μετὰ
+ ἡδίστων ὀσμῶν καὶ θεαμάτων παρέχει. κ. τ. λ. Xenoph. Œconom. v. 2,
+ seq.
+
+ Pliny has a curious passage on the use of crowns among the Romans,
+ which Holland has thus translated: “Now when these garlands of flowers
+ were taken up and received commonly in all places for a certain time,
+ there came soon after into request those chaplets which are named
+ Egyptian; and after them, winter coronets, to wit, when the earth
+ affordeth no flowers to make them, and these consisted of horn
+ shavings dyed into sundry colours. And so in process of time, by
+ little and little crept into Rome, also the name of corolla, or as one
+ would say, petty garlands; for that these winter chaplets at first
+ were so pretty and small: and not long after them, the costly coronets
+ and others, corollaries, namely, when they are made of thin leaves and
+ plates and latten, either gilded or silvered over, or else set out
+ with golden and silvered spangles, and so presented.” xxi. 2. Pollux
+ affords a list of the principal flowers used in crowns by the Greeks:
+ τὰ δὲ ἐν τοῖς στεφάνοις ἄνθη, ῥόδα, ἴα, κρίνα, σισύμθρια, ἀνεμῶναι,
+ ἕρπυλος, κρόκος, ὑάκινθος, ἑλίχρυσος, ἡμεροκαλὲς, ἑλένειον, θρυαλὶς,
+ ἀνθρίσκος, νάρκισσος, μελίλωτον, ἀνθεμὶς, παρθενὶς, καὶ τἄλλα ὅσα τοῖς
+ ὀφθαλμοῖς τέρψιν, ἠῥισὶν ἡδεῖαν ὄσφρησιν ἔχει. Cratinus enumerates
+ among garland flowers, those of the smilax and the cosmosandalon.
+ Onomast. vi. 106. Athen. xv. 32. Cf. Theoph. Hist. Plant. vi. 1. 2–6.
+ 4. Persons returning from a voyage were sometimes crowned with
+ flowers. Plut. Thes. § 22. Soldiers also going to battle. Ages. § 19.
+ Cf Philost. Icon. i. 24. p. 799. Plut. Sympos. iii. 1.
+
+Footnote 1259:
+
+ Athen. xv. 15.
+
+Footnote 1260:
+
+ Id. xv. 16.
+
+Footnote 1261:
+
+ Id. xv. 13.
+
+Footnote 1262:
+
+ Id. xv. 18.
+
+Footnote 1263:
+
+ Id. xv. 22.
+
+Footnote 1264:
+
+ Id. xv. 26.
+
+Footnote 1265:
+
+ Athen. xv. 9.
+
+-----
+
+Most of the flowers cultivated, moreover, suggested poetical or
+mythological associations; for the religion of Greece combined itself
+with nearly every object in nature, more particularly with the
+beautiful, so that the Greek, as he strolled through his garden, had
+perpetually before his fancy a succession of fables connected with
+nymphs and goddesses and the old hereditary traditions of his county.
+Thus the laurel recalled the tale and transformation of Daphnè,[1266]
+the object of Apollo’s love—the cypresses or graces of the vegetable
+kingdom,[1267] were the everlasting representatives of Eteocles’
+daughters, visited by death because they dared to rival the goddesses in
+dancing—the myrtle[1268] was a most beautiful maiden of Attica, fairer
+than all her countrywomen, swifter and more patient of toil than the
+youth, who therefore slew her through envy—the pine[1269] was the tall
+and graceful mistress of Pan and Boreas—the mint that of Pluto—while the
+rose-campion sprung from the bath of Aphrodite, and the humble cabbage
+from the tears of Lycurgus, the enemy of Dionysos.[1270]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1266:
+
+ Geop. xi. 2. Ovid. Metam. 550.
+
+Footnote 1267:
+
+ Geop. xi. 4.
+
+Footnote 1268:
+
+ Geop. xi. 6.
+
+Footnote 1269:
+
+ Geop. xi. 10. Cf. Plut. Sympos. vol. iii. 1, where he assigns the
+ reason why the pine was sacred to Poseidon and Dionysos. The foliage
+ of the pine-forests was so dense in Bœotia as to permit neither snow
+ nor rain to penetrate through. Theoph. Hist. Plant. iii. 9. 6. The
+ shade of such trees, therefore, would be more especially coveted.
+
+Footnote 1270:
+
+ Sch. Aristoph. Eq. 537. Geop. xii. 17. 16.
+
+-----
+
+It has sometimes been supposed,[1271] that the flower which constitutes
+the greatest ornament of gardens was wholly unknown in the early ages of
+Greece. But this theory, imagined for the purpose of destroying the
+claims of the Anacreontic fragments to be considered genuine,[1272] is
+entirely overthrown by the testimony of several ancient writers, more
+particularly Herodotus,[1273] who speaks of the rose of sixty leaves, as
+found in the gardens of Midas in Thrace, at the foot of the snowy
+Bermios. Elswhere, too, he compares the flower of the red Niliac
+lotus[1274] to the rose; and Stesichoros,[1275] an older poet than
+Anacreon, distinctly mentions chaplets composed of this flower.
+
+ Many a yellow quince was there
+ Piled upon the regal chair,
+ Many a verdant myrtle-bough,
+ Many a rose-crown featly wreathed,
+ With twisted violets that grow
+ Where the breath of spring has breathed.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1271:
+
+ By Dr. Nolan. See his paper on the Grecian Rose. Trans. Roy. Soc. of
+ Lit. ii. 327, sqq.
+
+Footnote 1272:
+
+ Cf. Athen. xv. 11.
+
+Footnote 1273:
+
+ Οἱ δὲ, ἀπικόμενοι ἐς ἄλλην γῆν τῆς Μακεδόνιης, οἴκησαν πέλας τῶν κήπων
+ τῶν λεγομένων εἶναι Μίδεω τοῦ Γορδίεω. ἐν τοῖσι φύεται αὐτόματα ῥόδα,
+ ἕν ἕκαστον ἔχον ἑξήκοντα φύλλα ὀδμῆ δὲ ὑπερφέροντα τῶν ἀλλων· ἐν
+ τούτοισι καὶ ὁ Σιληνὸς τοῖσι κήποισι ἥλω, ὡς λέγεται ὑπὸ Μακεδόνων.
+ ὑπὲρ δὲ τῶν κήτων οὖρος κέεται, Βέρμιον οὔνομα, ἄβατον ὑπὸ χειμῶνος.
+ viii. 138. On the arts and manners of this Midas, who, together with
+ Orpheus and Eumolpos was the founder of the Hellenic religion, see J.
+ G. Voss. de Idololat. i. 24, and Bouhier, Dissert. sur Herod. ch. 80.
+
+Footnote 1274:
+
+ Cf. Theop. Hist. Plant. iv. 87.
+
+Footnote 1275:
+
+ Athen. iii. 21. Stesichoros lived before Christ about 632. Clint.
+ Fast. Hellen. ii. 5. Crowns of roses are mentioned by Cratinus who was
+ born 519 B. C. which shows that roses must have been largely
+ cultivated in his time. Athen. xv. 27.
+
+-----
+
+Homer,[1276] too, it is evident, was familiar with the rose, to whose
+fragrant petals he compares the fingers of the morning, and not, as has
+been imagined, to the blood-red flower of the wild pomegranate
+tree.[1277]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1276:
+
+ Il. α. 477. ι. 703. Cf. Hesiod. Opp. et Dies, 610. To place the matter
+ beyond dispute, Homer speaks of oils rendered fragrant by the perfume
+ of the rose:—ῥοδόεντι δὲ χρῖεν ἐλαίῳ. Il. ψ. 186.
+
+Footnote 1277:
+
+ Dioscor. i. 154.
+
+-----
+
+According, moreover, to a tradition preserved to later times, the
+seasons of the year, which in remote antiquity were but three, they
+symbolically represented by a rose, an ear of corn, and an apple.[1278]
+This division is thought to have been borrowed from the Egyptians, in
+whose country, however, the apple was never sufficiently naturalised to
+be taken as an emblem of one of the seasons of the year.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1278:
+
+ “Les Egyptiens, selon le département de leur Roy Horus, n’en mettaient
+ que trois (saisons): le printemps, l’esté, et l’automne: leur
+ attribuans quatre mois à chacune, et les figurans par une rose, une
+ espy, et une pomme, ou raisin.” Les Images de Platte Peinture des deux
+ Philostrates, par Vigenère, Paris, fol. 1627, p. 555.
+
+-----
+
+But, at whatever period the rose began to be cultivated, it evidently,
+as soon as known, shared with the violet the admiration of the Athenian
+people, whose extensive plantations of this most fragrant shrub recall
+to mind the rose gardens of the Fayoum, or Serinaghur. The secret,
+moreover, was early discovered of hastening or retarding their maturity,
+so as to obtain an abundant supply through every month in the
+year.[1279] Occasionally, too, numbers of rosebuds were laid among green
+barleystalks, plucked up by the roots, in unglazed amphoræ, to be
+brought forth and made to blow when wanted. Others deposited them
+between layers of the same material on the ground, or dipped them in the
+liquid dregs of olives. Another mode of preserving the rose was
+exceedingly curious,—cutting off the top of a large standing reed, and
+splitting it down a little way, they inserted a number of rosebuds in
+the hollow, and then bound it softly round and atop with papyrus in
+order to prevent their fragrance from exhaling.[1280] How many varieties
+of this flower[1281] were possessed by the ancients it is now, perhaps,
+impossible to determine; but they were acquainted with the common, the
+white, and the moss rose, the last, in Aristotle’s[1282] opinion, the
+sweetest, together with the rose of a hundred leaves,[1283] celebrated
+by the Persian poets. Even the wild rose was not wholly inodorous in
+Greece.[1284] Roses were artificially blanched by being exposed while
+unfolding to powerful and repeated fumigations with sulphur.[1285] The
+roses which grew on a dry soil were supposed to be the sweetest, while
+their fragrance was augmented by planting garlic near the root.[1286] To
+cause them to bloom in January, or in early spring (for even in the most
+southern parts of Greece the rose season only commences in April)[1287]
+various means were resorted to; sometimes, the bushes were watered twice
+a-day during the whole summer; on other occasions, a shallow trench was
+dug at a distance of about eighteen inches round the bush, into which
+warm water was poured morning and evening;[1288] while a third, and,
+perhaps, the surest, method was to plant them in pots, or baskets,
+which, during the winter months, were placed in sheltered sunny spots by
+day,[1289] and carried into the house at night; afterwards, when the
+season was sufficiently advanced, these portable gardens were buried in
+the earth.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1279:
+
+ Geop. xi. 18. A species of perpetual rose is said to have been
+ recently discovered in France, where “A Parisian florist, we are told,
+ has succeeded in producing a new hybrid rose from the Bourbon rose and
+ Gloire de Rosomène, the flowers of which he had fertilised with the
+ pollen of some Damask and hybrid China roses. The plant is extremely
+ beautiful, the colour bright crimson shaded with Maroon purple, and is
+ further enriched with a powerful fragrance.” TIMES, March 24th, 1841.
+
+Footnote 1280:
+
+ Geop. xi. 18. 12.
+
+Footnote 1281:
+
+ Plinius varia genera commemorat, Milesia ardentissimo colore,
+ Alabandica albicantibus foliis, Spermonia vilissima, Damascenæ albæ
+ distillandis aquis usurpantur. Differunt foliorum multitudine,
+ asperitate, lævore, colore, odore.—Heresbachius, de Re Rustica, lib.
+ ii. p. 121. a.
+
+Footnote 1282:
+
+ Problem. xii. 8. Theoph. Hist. Plant. vi. 6. 5.
+
+Footnote 1283:
+
+ Athen. xv. 29. Plin. xxi. 10. Cf. Theoph. Hist. Plant. vi. 6. 4.
+
+Footnote 1284:
+
+ As Dr. Nolan seems to suppose. On the Grecian Rose. Transact. Roy.
+ Soc. ii. 328. Though Theophrastus states the contrary very distinctly.
+ Hist. Plant. vi. 2. 1—6. 4—7. 5. The white rose appears at present to
+ be commonly cultivated in Attica.—Chandler, ii. 181.
+
+Footnote 1285:
+
+ Geop. xi. 18. 13.
+
+Footnote 1286:
+
+ Geop. xi. 18. 1.
+
+Footnote 1287:
+
+ Pashley, Trav. i. 8, who observes, that the rose is common in February
+ at Malta.
+
+Footnote 1288:
+
+ Geop. xi. 18. 5. Plin. xxi. 4. Pallad. iii. 21. 2.
+
+Footnote 1289:
+
+ Geop. xi. 18. 4. Cf. xii. 19. 3.
+
+-----
+
+Another favorite denizen of Hellenic gardens was the lily, which,
+probably, introduced from Suza or from Egypt, beheld the virginal snow
+of its bells compelled, by art, to put on various hues, as deep red and
+purple,[1290]—the former, by infusing, before planting, cinnabar into
+the bulb,—the latter, by steeping it in the lees of purple wine. This
+flower naturally begins to bloom[1291] just as the roses are fading;
+but, to produce a succession of lilies at different seasons, some were
+set near the surface, which grew up and blossomed immediately, while
+others were buried at different depths, according to the times at which
+they were required to flower.
+
+Along with these, about the dank borders of streams or fountains, grew
+the favourite flower of the Athenian people, purple, double, white, and
+gold,[1292]
+
+ “The violet dim,
+ But sweeter than the lids of Juno’s eyes,
+ Or Cytherea’s breath;”[1293]
+
+the pansy,[1294] “freaked with jet;” the purple cyperus, the iris, the
+water-mint,[1295] and hyacinth,[1296] and the narcissus,[1297] and the
+willow-herb, and the blue speedwell, and the marsh-marigold, or, brave
+bassinet, and the jacinth, and early daffodil,
+
+ “That come before the swallow dares, and take
+ The winds of March with beauty.”
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1290:
+
+ Geop. xi. 20. Heresbach. de Re Rust. p. 122. b. Theoph. Hist. Plant.
+ vi. 6. 4, 8.
+
+Footnote 1291:
+
+ Plin. xxi. 13.
+
+Footnote 1292:
+
+ Colum. De Cultu Hortorum, x. 102.
+
+Footnote 1293:
+
+ Winter’s Tale, iv. 5.
+
+Footnote 1294:
+
+ Sibth. Flor. Græc. t. i. tab. 222, tab. 318. Schol. Aristoph. Eq.
+ 1320. Theoph. Hist. Plant. vi. 6. 4. The finest violets, crocusses,
+ &c., in the ancient world, were supposed to be found in Cyrene. Id.
+ vi. 6. 5.
+
+Footnote 1295:
+
+ Dioscor. ii. 155.
+
+Footnote 1296:
+
+ On the birth of the Hyacinth, see Eudocia in the Anecdota Græca, i.
+ 408.
+
+Footnote 1297:
+
+ Theoph. Hist. Plant. vi. 6. 9. 8. 2. This flower flourishes after the
+ setting of Arcturus, about the autumnal equinox.—“We were ferried over
+ a narrow stream fringed with Agnus-Castus, into a garden belonging to
+ the convent. A number of vernal flowers now blossomed on its banks;
+ the garden anemone was crimsoned with an extraordinary glow of
+ colouring. The soil which was a sandy loam, was further enlivened with
+ the Ixia, the grass-leaved Iris, and the enamel-blue of a species of
+ speedwell, not noticed by the Swedish Naturalist.” Sibth. Walp. Mem.
+ i. 282, seq.
+
+-----
+
+A netting of wild thyme[1298] tufted with sweet mint, and
+marjoram,[1299] which, when crushed by the foot, yielded the most
+delicious fragrance, embraced the sunny hillocks, while here and there
+singly, or in beds, grew a profusion of other herbs and flowers, some
+prized for their medicinal virtues, others for their beauty, others for
+their delicate odour, as the geranium, the spike-lavender, the
+rosemary,[1300] with its purple and white flowers, the basil,[1301] the
+flower-gentle, the hyssop, the white privet, the cytisus, the sweet
+marjoram, the rose-campion, or columbine,[1302] the yellow amaryllis,
+and the celandine. Here, too,
+
+ “Their gem-like eyes
+ The Phrygian melilots disclose,”[1303]
+
+with the balm-gentle, the red, the purple, and the coronal
+anemone,[1304] the convolvulus, yellow, white, pale pink, and blue,
+together with our Lady’s-gloves, the flower of the Trinity,
+southernwood,[1305] and summer-savory,[1306] œnanthe,[1307] gith, the
+silver sage,[1308] Saint Mary’s thistle, and the amaranth, while high
+above all rose the dark pyramidal masses of the rhododendron,[1309] with
+its gigantic clusters of purple flowers.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1298:
+
+ This plant was brought from Mount Hymettos, to be cultivated in the
+ gardens of Athens. The Sicyonians, likewise, transplanted it to their
+ gardens from the mountains of Peloponnesos.—Theoph. Hist. Plant. vi.
+ 7. 2.
+
+Footnote 1299:
+
+ Theoph. Hist. Plant. vi. 7. 4.
+
+Footnote 1300:
+
+ Dioscor. iii. 89. Sibth. Flor. Græc. t. i. tab. 14, tab. 192, seq.
+ tab. 310, tab. 518, tab. 549. Column. x. De Cult. Hort. 96, sqq.
+
+Footnote 1301:
+
+ The basil-gentle was watered at noon, other plants morning and
+ evening.—Theoph. Hist. Plant. vii. 5. 2.
+
+Footnote 1302:
+
+ Dioscor. iii. 114.
+
+Footnote 1303:
+
+ Colum. x. 399, seq. Engl. Trans.
+
+Footnote 1304:
+
+ The anemone among other flowers beautifies the fields of Attica, so
+ early as the month of February.—Chandler, ii. 211. “Les campagnes et
+ les collines sont rouges d’anémones.”—Della Rocca, Traité sur les
+ Abeilles, t. i. p. 5.
+
+Footnote 1305:
+
+ Cultivated usually in pots, resembling the gardens of Adonis. Theoph.
+ Hist. Plant. vi. 7. 3. Thickets of this shrub constitute one of the
+ greatest beauties of the islands of the Archipelago. “Les lauriers
+ roses, que l’on conserve en France avec tant de soin, viennent à
+ l’aventure dans les prairies, et le long des ruisseaux qui en sont
+ bordés. Rien n’est plus agréable que de voir ces beaux arbres, de la
+ hauteur de douze à quinze pieds, variés de fleurs rouges et blanches,
+ se croiser par les branches d’en haut, sur un ruisseau ou sur le lit
+ d’une fontaine, et faire un berceau qui dure quelquefois un grand
+ quart de lieue.” Della Rocca, Traité Complet sur les Abeilles, t. i.
+ p. 6.
+
+Footnote 1306:
+
+ Schol. Aristoph. Acharn. 253.
+
+Footnote 1307:
+
+ Theoph. Hist. Plant. vi. 8. 2.
+
+Footnote 1308:
+
+ Sibth. Flor. Græc. t. i. tab. 27.
+
+Footnote 1309:
+
+ Known also by the names of νηρίον and ῥοδοδάφνη.—Dioscor. iv. 82.
+ Geop. ii. 42. 1.
+
+-----
+
+How many of the lovely evergreens[1310] that abound in Greece were
+usually cultivated in a single garden, we possess no means of
+ascertaining, though all appear occasionally to have been called in to
+diversify the picture. The myrtle,[1311] whose deep blue berries were
+esteemed a delicacy,[1312] in some places rose into a tree, while
+elsewhere it was planted thick, and bent and fashioned into
+bowers,[1313] which, when sprinkled with its snowy blossoms, combined,
+perhaps, with those of the jasmine, the eglantine, and the yellow tufts
+of the broad-leaved philyrea,[1314] constituted some of the most
+beautiful objects in a Greek paradise. Thickets of the tamarisk,[1315]
+the strawberry-tree,[1316] the juniper, the box, the bay, the styrax,
+the andrachne, and the white-flowered laurel, in whose dark leaves the
+morning dew collects and glistens in the sun like so many tiny mirrors
+of burnished silver, varied the surface of the lawn, connecting the
+bowers, and the copses, and the flower beds, and the grassy slopes with
+those loftier piles of verdure, consisting of the pine tree, the smilax,
+the cedar, the carob, the maple,[1317] the ash, the elm tree, the
+platane,[1318] and the evergreen oak which here and there towered in the
+grounds. In many places the vine shot up among the ranges of elms or
+platanes, and stretched its long twisted arm from trunk to trunk, like
+so many festoons of intermingled leaves and tendrils, and massive
+clusters of golden or purple grapes.[1319] Alternating, perhaps, with
+the lovely favourite of Dionysos, the blue and yellow clematis[1320]
+suspended their living garlands around the stems, or along the boughs of
+the trees, in union or contrast with the dodder, or the honeysuckle, or
+the delicate and slender briony. And, if perchance a silver fir, with
+its bright yellow flowers,[1321] formed part of the group, large pendant
+clusters of mistletoe, the food sometimes of the labouring ox,[1322]
+might frequently be seen swinging thick among its branches. In some
+grounds was probably cultivated the quercus suber,[1323] or cork tree,
+with bark four or five inches thick, triennially stripped off,[1324]
+after which it grows again with renewed vigour. Occasionally, where
+streams and rivulets[1325] found their way through the grounds, the
+black and white poplar, the willow, and the lentiscus, with a variety of
+tufted reeds, crowded about the margin, here and there shading and
+concealing the waters.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1310:
+
+ Theoph. Hist. Plant. i. 9. 3.
+
+Footnote 1311:
+
+ Cf. Clus. Hist. Rar. Plant. i. 43. p. 65.
+
+Footnote 1312:
+
+ Plat. De Rep. t. vi. p. 85. The berry, both of the myrtle and the
+ laurel, assumed, we are told, a black colour in the garden of
+ Antandros.—Theophrast. Hist. Plant. ii. 2. 6.
+
+Footnote 1313:
+
+ Hemsterhuis, Annot. ad Poll. ix. 49. p. 943. Cf. Dion. Chrysost. i.
+ 273.
+
+Footnote 1314:
+
+ Sibthorp. Flor. Græc. t. i. tab. 2, tab. 367, tab. 374, seq.
+
+Footnote 1315:
+
+ Theoph. Hist. Plant. i. 9. 3.
+
+Footnote 1316:
+
+ The strawberry-tree is found flourishing in great beauty and
+ perfection on Mount Helicon, and its fruit is said to be exceedingly
+ sweet.—Chandler, ii. 290.
+
+Footnote 1317:
+
+ Sibth. Flor. Græc. tab. 361.
+
+Footnote 1318:
+
+ Ἔνθα πλάτανος μὲν ἀμφιλαφής τε καὶ σύσκιος, πνεῦμα δὲ μέτριον, καὶ πόα
+ μαλθακὴ, ὥρα θέρους ἐπανθεῖν εἰωθυῖα. Aristænet. Epist. lib. i. Epist.
+ 3. p. 13. There was, according to Varro, an evergreen platane tree in
+ Crete, i. 7. The same platane is mentioned by Theophrastus, who
+ informs us, that it grew beside a fountain in the Gortynian territory
+ where Zeus first reclined on landing from the sea with Europa, i. 9.
+ 5. Near the city of Sybaris, there is said to have grown a common oak
+ which enjoyed the privilege of being undeciduous. Ibid.
+
+Footnote 1319:
+
+ Ἄμπελοι δὲ παμμήκεις σφόδρα τε ὑψηλαὶ περιελίττονται κυπαρίττους ὡς
+ ἀνακλᾷν ἡμᾶς ἐπὶ πολὺ τὸν αὐχενα πρὸς θέαν τῶν κύκλῳ συναιωρουμένων
+ βοτρών, ὧν οἱ μὲν ὀργῶσιν, οἱ δὲ περκάζουσιν οἱ δὲ ὄμφακες, οἱ δὲ
+ οἰνάνθαι δοκοῦσιν.—Aristænet. Epist. lib. i. Ep. 3. p. 13, seq.
+
+Footnote 1320:
+
+ Sibth. Flor. Græc. tab. 516.
+
+Footnote 1321:
+
+ Theophrast. Hist. Plant. i. 13. 1.
+
+Footnote 1322:
+
+ Dodwell, ii. 455. Sibth. in Walp. Mem. i. 283. There was a species of
+ mistletoe called the Cretan, which found equally congenial the
+ climates of Achaia and Media. Theoph. Hist. Plant. ix. 1. 3.
+
+Footnote 1323:
+
+ That is to say at a late period, for in the time of Theophrastus it
+ would seem not to have been common in Greece, if it had been at all
+ introduced. Hist. Plant. iii. 17. 1.
+
+Footnote 1324:
+
+ Dodwell, ii. 455.
+
+Footnote 1325:
+
+ Even the platane, also, delights in humid places. Theoph. Hist. Plant.
+ i. 4. 2. The black poplar was said to bear fruit in several parts of
+ Crete. iii. 3. 5.
+
+-----
+
+Proceeding now into the orchard we find, that, instead of walls, it was,
+sometimes at least, if it touched on the confines of another man’s
+grounds, surrounded by hedges[1326] of black and white thorn, brambles,
+and barberry bushes, as at present[1327] by impenetrable fences of the
+Indian cactus.[1328] On the banks of these hedges, both inside and out,
+were found, peculiar tribes of plants and wild flowers, in some places
+enamelling the smooth close turf, elsewhere flourishing thickly in dank
+masses of verdure, or climbing upwards and interlacing themselves with
+the lofty and projecting thorns, such as the enchanter’s nightshade, the
+euphorbia, the iris tuberosa, the red-flowered valerian, the
+ground-ivy,[1329] the physalis somnifera, with its coral red seeds in
+their inflated calyces,[1330] the globularia, the creeping heliotrope,
+the penny-cress,[1331] the bright yellow scorpion-flower, and the
+broad-leaved cyclamen or our Lady’s-seal, with pink flower, light green
+leaf, veined with white and yellow beneath. The ancient Parthians
+surrounded their gardens with hedges of a fragrant, creeping shrub
+denominated philadelphos or love-brother,[1332] whose long suckers they
+interwove into a kind of network forming a sufficient protection against
+man and beast. In mountainous districts, where rain-floods were to be
+guarded against, the enclosures frequently consisted of walls of loose
+stones,[1333] as is still the case in Savoy on the edge of mountain
+torrents.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1326:
+
+ Geop. v. 44. Cf. Artemid. Oneirocrit. ii. 24. p. 112.
+
+Footnote 1327:
+
+ Walp. Mem. i. 60.
+
+Footnote 1328:
+
+ The cactus, as most travellers will have remarked, flourishes
+ luxuriantly in Sicily even among the beds of lava where little else
+ will grow; it appears, however, to delight in a volcanic soil.
+ Spallanzani, Travels in the Two Sicilies, “i. 209. In the Æolian
+ Islands it thrives so well that it usually grows to the height of ten,
+ twelve, and sometimes fifteen feet, with a stem a foot or more in
+ diameter. The fruits, which are nearly as large as turkeys’ eggs, are
+ sweet and extremely agreeable to the palate. It is well-known that the
+ fruits grow at the edges of the leaves, the number on each leaf is not
+ constant, but they are frequently numerous, as I have counted two and
+ twenty on a single leaf.” iv. 97.
+
+Footnote 1329:
+
+ Sibth. Flor. Græc. t. i. tab. 29. tab. 157. tab. 185.
+
+Footnote 1330:
+
+ Sibth. in Walp. Trav. p. 73, seq. On the seasons of these wild flowers
+ see Theoph. Hist. Plant. vii. 9. 2.
+
+Footnote 1331:
+
+ Dioscor. ii. 186.
+
+Footnote 1332:
+
+ Athen. xv. 29.
+
+Footnote 1333:
+
+ Demosth. in Callicl. § 1. 3, seq.
+
+-----
+
+It was moreover the custom, both in Greece and Italy, to plant, on the
+boundary line of estates, rows of olives or other trees,[1334] which not
+only served to mark the limits of a man’s territory, but shed an air of
+beauty over the whole country. A proof of this practice prevailing in
+Attica, has with much ingenuity[1335] been brought forward from the
+“Frogs,” where Bacchos, addressing the poet Æschylus in the shades,
+observes “It will be all right provided your anger does not transport
+you beyond the olives.” It may likewise be remarked that in
+olive-grounds,[1336] the trees, excepting the sacred ones called
+_moriæ_, were always planted in straight lines, from twenty-five to
+thirty feet[1337] apart, because, in order to ripen the fruit,[1338] it
+is necessary that the wind should be able freely to play upon it from
+all sides. And further because they delight in a warm dry air like that
+of Libya, Cilicia,[1339] and Attica, the best olive-grounds were
+generally supposed to be those which occupied the rapid slopes of hills
+where the soil is naturally stony and light. The oil of the plains was
+commonly coarse and thick.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1334:
+
+ Cf. Varro. i. 15. Magii Miscellan. lib. iv. p. 187. b. As the
+ cotton-tree in modern times has been supposed not to thrive at a much
+ greater distance than twenty miles from the sea; so, among the
+ ancients, the olive was supposed not to flourish at a greater distance
+ than three hundred stadia. Theoph. Hist. Plant. vi. 2. 4. Both
+ opinions are probably erroneous, as the olive-tree is found in
+ perfection in the Fayoum, and the cotton-plant in Upper Egypt.
+
+Footnote 1335:
+
+ Vict. Var. Lect. p. 874. But the Scholiast (Aristoph. Ran. 1026) gives
+ a different though less probable interpretation to the passage.
+
+Footnote 1336:
+
+ Cf. Sibth. Flor. Græc. t. i. tab. 3.
+
+Footnote 1337:
+
+ Cato. De Re Rusticâ 6. They were sometimes also grafted, we are told,
+ on lentiscus stocks. Plut. Sympos. ii. 6. 1.
+
+Footnote 1338:
+
+ In Syria and some other warm countries the olive was said to produce
+ fruit in clusters. Theophrast. Hist. Plant. i. 11. 4. And when this
+ fruit was found chiefly on the upper branches, they augured a
+ productive year. id. i. 14. 2. Geop. ix. 2. 4. The ancients
+ entertained extraordinary ideas concerning the purity of the olive,
+ which they imagined bore more freely when cultivated by persons of
+ chaste minds. Thus the olive-grounds of Anazarbos, in Cilicia, were
+ thought to owe their extraordinary fertility to the reserved and
+ modest manners of the youths who cultivated them. Id. ix. 2. 6.
+
+Footnote 1339:
+
+ Geop. ix. 3. 1. Virg. Georg. ii. 179. The heads of olive-stocks when
+ freshly planted were covered with clay, which was protected from the
+ wet by a shell. Xenoph. Œconom. xix. 14. The pits for the planting of
+ the olive and other fruit-trees were of considerable depth and dug
+ long beforehand. Theoph. Hist. Plant. i. 6. 1.
+
+-----
+
+Among these olive grounds in summer, the song of the tettix[1340] is
+commonly heard; for this musical insect loves the olive, which, like the
+sant of the Arabian desert, yields but a thin and warm shade.[1341] The
+tettix, in fact, though never found in an unwooded country, as in the
+plains about Cyrene, equally avoids the dense shade of the woods.[1342]
+Here likewise[1343] are found the blackbird, the roller, and three
+distinct species of butcher-bird—the small grey, the ash-coloured, and
+the redheaded.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1340:
+
+ Cf. Hesiod. Opp. et Dies, 582, seq.
+
+Footnote 1341:
+
+ Οὐ γίνονται δὲ τέττιγες ὅπου μὴ δένδρα ἐστιν· διὸ καὶ ἐν Κυρήνη οὐ
+ γίνονται ἐν τῷ πεδίῳ, περὶ δὲ τὴν πόλιν πολλοί, μόλιστα δ᾽ οὗ ἐλαῖαι·
+ οὐ γὰρ γίνονται παλίν σκίοι. Aristot. Hist. Anim. v. 30. Cf. Phile, de
+ Animal. Proprietat. c. 25. p. 81.
+
+Footnote 1342:
+
+ In Spain, however, these insects exhibit a somewhat different taste,
+ being there found amid the foliage of the most leafy trees. “Every oak
+ in the cork-wood near Gibraltar was the abode if not of harmony, at
+ least of noise, and the concert kept up amidst the foliage by the
+ numerous grass or rather tree-hoppers was quite deafening.” Napier,
+ Excursions on the shores of the Mediterranean, ii. p. 2.
+
+Footnote 1343:
+
+ Sibth. in Walp. Mem. i. 75.
+
+-----
+
+In an Attic orchard were most of the trees reared in England, together
+with many which will not stand the rigour of our climate.—The
+apple,[1344] cultivated with peculiar care in the environs of Delphi and
+Corinth; the pear,[1345] the cherry from Cerasos on the southern shore
+of the Black Sea,[1346] which sometimes grew to the height of nearly
+forty feet,[1347] the damascene,[1348] and the common plum. Along with
+these were likewise to be found the quince,[1349] the apricot, the
+peach, the nectarine, the walnut, the chestnut, the filbert, introduced
+from Pontos,[1350] the hazel nut, the medlar, and the mulberry, which,
+according to Menander, is the earliest fruit of the year.[1351] With
+these were intermingled the fig, white, purple, and red, the
+pomegranate,[1352] from the northern shores of Africa, the orange,[1353]
+still planted under artificial shelter at Lemnos, the citron, the
+lemon,[1354] the date-palm,[1355] the pistachio, the almond, the
+service, and the cornel-tree.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1344:
+
+ On the cultivation of the apple see Theophrast. Hist. Plant. i. 3. 3.
+ Geop. xviii. 18.
+
+Footnote 1345:
+
+ Athen. xiv. 63. Etym. Mag. 122. 20.
+
+Footnote 1346:
+
+ Geop. x. 41. Plin. xv. 25. Athen. ii. 35.
+
+Footnote 1347:
+
+ Theoph. Hist. Plant. iii. 13. 1.
+
+Footnote 1348:
+
+ Etym. Mag. 211. 4, sqq.
+
+Footnote 1349:
+
+ Geop. x. 3. 73.
+
+Footnote 1350:
+
+ Geop. xiii. 19. Athen. ii. 38.
+
+Footnote 1351:
+
+ Athen. ii. 12. Vid. Cœl. Rhodigin. vii. 15. Bochart, Geog. Sac. col.
+ 629.
+
+Footnote 1352:
+
+ Theophrast. Hist. Plant. i. 3. 3. The fruit of the pomegranate-tree
+ lost much of its acidity in Egypt. Id. Hist. Plant. ii. 2. 7.
+
+Footnote 1353:
+
+ In Greece the orange-tree and the lemon blossom in June, Chandler, ii.
+ 238.
+
+Footnote 1354:
+
+ Cf. Chandler, ii. 250.
+
+Footnote 1355:
+
+ In Babylonia the palm-tree was by some thought to be propagated by
+ off-shoots. Theophrast. Hist. Plant. ii. 2. 2. In Greece, the fruit
+ seldom ripened completely. iii. 3. 5.
+
+-----
+
+As these gardens were arranged with a view no less to pleasure than to
+profit, the trees were planted in lines, which, when sufficiently close,
+formed a series of umbrageous avenues, opening here into the lawn and
+there into the vineyard, which generally formed part of a Greek
+gentleman’s grounds. And such an orchard decked in its summer pride with
+foliage of emerald and fruit, ruddy, purple, and gold, the notes of the
+thrush, the nightingale,[1356] the tettix, with the “amorous thrill of
+the green-finch,”[1357] floating through its boughs, and the perfume of
+the agnus-castus, the myrtle, the rose, and the violet, wafting richly
+on all sides, was a very paradise.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1356:
+
+ Ἔτι δὲ τὸ ἔμπνουν τῆς αὔρας λιγυρὸν ὑπηχεῖ τῷ μουσικῷ τῶν τεττίγων
+ χορῷ δι᾽ ἥν καὶ τὸ πνίγος τῆς μεσημβρίας ἠπιῶτερον ἐγεγόνει ἡδὺ καὶ
+ ἀηδόνει, περὶ πετόμεναι τὰ νάματα, μελωδοῦσιν. ἀλλὰ καὶ τῶν ἄλλων ἡδὺ
+ φώνῶν κατηκούομεν ὀρνίθων, ὥσπερ ἐμμελῶς ὁμιλούντων ανθρώποις.
+ Aristænet. Epist. lib. i. Ep. 3. p. 17.
+
+Footnote 1357:
+
+ “The amorous thrill of the green-finch was now heard distinctly. The
+ little owl hooted frequently round the walls of the convent. In the
+ river below, otters were frequently taken. On the sides of the banks
+ were the holes of the river-crabs; and the green-backed lizard was
+ sporting among the grass.” Sibth. in Walp. Trav. p. 76.
+
+-----
+
+Not unfrequently, common foot-paths traversed these orchards and
+vineyards, in which case the passers-by were customarily, if not by law,
+permitted to pick and eat the fruit,[1358] which seems also from the
+account of our Saviour to have been the practice in Judæa. The contrary
+is the case in modern Europe. In Burgundy and Switzerland, where
+pathways traverse vineyards, it is not uncommon to see the grapes
+smeared with something resembling white lime which children are assured
+is a deadly poison. This, while in the country, I regarded as a mere
+stratagem, intended to protect the vineyards from depredation, though
+there seems after all to be too much reason to believe the nefarious
+practice to exist in several localities. At least two children were
+recently killed at Foix by eating poisoned grapes on the way-side.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1358:
+
+ Plat. De Legg. t. viii. p. 107.
+
+-----
+
+The Greeks placed much of their happiness in spots like those we have
+been describing, as may be inferred from such of their fabulous
+traditions,[1359] as relate to the garden of the Hesperides,[1360] the
+gardens of Midas, with their magnificent roses, and those of
+Alcinoös,[1361] which still shed their fragrance over the pages of the
+Odyssey. From the East, no doubt, they obtained, along with their
+noblest fruit-trees, the art of cultivating them, and, perhaps, that
+sacred tradition of the Garden of Eden, preserved in the Scriptures,
+formed the basis of many a Hellenic legend.[1362] The Syrians acquired
+much celebrity among the ancients for their knowledge of gardening, in
+which, according to modern travellers, they still excel. Of the manner
+of cultivating fruit-trees in the earlier ages very little is known. No
+doubt they soon discovered that some will thrive better in certain soils
+and situations than in others, and profited by the discovery; but the
+art of properly training and grafting trees is comparatively
+modern.[1363]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1359:
+
+ Eudoc. Ionia. 434.
+
+Footnote 1360:
+
+ Plin. xix. 19. Athen. xi. 39.
+
+Footnote 1361:
+
+ Bœttig. Fragm. sur les Jar. des Anciens, in Magaz. Encycloped. Ann.
+ vii. t. i. p. 337. Cardinal Quirini, Primordia Corcyræ, c. vii. p. 60,
+ sqq.
+
+Footnote 1362:
+
+ See in Xenophon a brief description of the gardens of Cyrus. Œconom.
+ iv. 21. Upon this passage our countryman, Sir Thomas Browne, has
+ written an elaborate treatise.
+
+Footnote 1363:
+
+ On the various methods of propagating trees see Theophrast. Hist.
+ Plant. ii. 1. 2.
+
+-----
+
+No mention of it occurs in the Pentateuch, though Moses there gives
+directions how to manage an orchard. For the first three years the
+blossoms were not to be suffered to ripen into fruit, and even in the
+fourth all that came was sacred to the Lord. From the fifth year,
+onward, they might do with it what they pleased. Of these regulations
+the intention was to prevent the early exhaustion of the trees. Homer,
+also, is silent on the practice of grafting, nor does any mention of it
+occur in the extant works of Hesiod, though Manilius[1364] refers to his
+poems in proof of the antiquity of the practice. By degrees, however, it
+got into use;[1365] and, in the age of Aristotle,[1366] was already
+common, as at present almost everywhere, save in Greece,[1367] since no
+fruit was esteemed excellent unless the tree had been grafted. Some few
+of the rules they observed in this process may be briefly noticed.[1368]
+Trees with a thick rind were grafted in the ordinary way, and sometimes
+by inserting the graft between the bark and the wood, which was called
+infoliation.[1369] Inoculation, also, or introducing the bud of one tree
+into the rind of another, was common among Greek gardeners.[1370] They
+were extremely particular in their choice of stocks.[1371] Thus the fig
+was grafted only on the platane[1372] and the mulberry; the mulberry on
+the chestnut,[1373] the beech, the apple, the terebinth, the wild pear,
+the elm, and the white poplar, (whence white mulberries;) the pear on
+the pomegranate, the quince, the mulberry, (whence red pears,) the
+almond, and the terebinth; apples[1374] on all sorts of wild pears and
+quinces, (whence the finest apples called by the Athenians
+Melimela,)[1375] on damascenes, also, and _vice versâ_, and on the
+platane, (whence red apples.)[1376] Another method of communicating a
+blush to this fruit was to plant rose-bushes round the root of the
+tree.[1377] The walnut was grafted on the strawberry-tree only;[1378]
+the pomegranate on the myrtle[1379] and the willow; the laurel on the
+cherry[1380] and the ash; the white peach on the damascene and the
+almond; the damascene on the wild pear, the quince, and the apple;
+chestnuts on the walnut, the beech, and the oak;[1381] the cherry on the
+terebinth, and the peach; the quince on the oxyacanthus; the myrtle on
+the willow; and the apricot on the damascene, and the Thasian
+almond-tree. The vine, also, was grafted on a cherry and a myrtle-stock,
+which produced, in the first case, grapes in spring,[1382] in the
+second, a mixed fruit, between the myrtle-berry and the grape.[1383]
+When the gardener desired to obtain black citrons, he inserted a
+citron-graft into an apple-stock, and, if red, into a mulberry-stock.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1364:
+
+ Astronomicon, ii. p. 30. l. 4. Scalig. et not. p. 67.
+
+Footnote 1365:
+
+ Cf. Athen. xiv. 68.
+
+Footnote 1366:
+
+ De Plantis, ii. 6.
+
+Footnote 1367:
+
+ Hobhouse, Travels, i. 227. Thiersch, Etat Actuel de la Grèce, t. i. p.
+ 297.
+
+Footnote 1368:
+
+ Geop. iii. 3. 9. Clem. Alexand. Stromat. l. vi. Opera, t. ii. p. 800.
+ Venet. 1657.
+
+Footnote 1369:
+
+ Geop. xii. 75. x. 75. 19.
+
+Footnote 1370:
+
+ Geop. x. 77. Colum. v. 11. 1. Pallad. vii. 5. 2. Plin. xvii. 26. Cato.
+ 42. Virg. Georg. ii. 73, sqq.
+
+Footnote 1371:
+
+ Geop. x. 76.
+
+Footnote 1372:
+
+ Introduced by Dionysios the elder into Rhegium, where it attained,
+ however, no great size. Theoph. Hist. Plant. iv. 5. 6. The same
+ naturalist speaks of two plane trees, the one at Delphi, the other at
+ Caphyæ in Arcadia, said to have been planted by the hand of Agamemnon,
+ which were still flourishing in his own days, iv. 13. 2. This tree
+ attains a prodigious size in Peloponnesos. Chandler, Travels, ii. 308.
+ Our traveller was prevented from measuring the stem by the fear of
+ certain Albanian soldiers who lay asleep under it; but Theophrastus
+ gives us the dimensions of a large platane, at Antandros, whose trunk,
+ he says, could scarcely be embraced by four men, while its height
+ before the springing forth of the boughs was fifteen feet. Having
+ described the dimensions of the tree, he relates a very extraordinary
+ fact in natural history, namely, that this platane, having been blown
+ down by the winds and lightened of its branches by the axe, rose again
+ spontaneously during the night, put forth fresh boughs, and flourished
+ as before. The same thing is related of a white poplar in the museum
+ at Stagira, and of a large willow at Philippi. In this last city a
+ soothsayer counselled the inhabitants to offer sacrifice, and set a
+ guard about the tree, as a thing of auspicious omen. Theoph. Hist.
+ Plant. iv. 16. 2, seq. Cf. Plin. xvi. 57. In corroboration of the
+ narrative of Theophrastus, Palmerius relates, that, during the winter
+ of 1624–25, while Breda was besieged by Ambrosio Spinola, he himself
+ saw in Brabant an oak twenty-five feet high, and three feet in
+ circumference, overthrown by the wind, and recovering itself exactly
+ in the manner described by the great naturalist. The vulgar, who
+ regarded it as a miracle, preserved portions of its bark or branches
+ as amulets.—Excercitationes, p. 598.
+
+Footnote 1373:
+
+ Plut. Sympos. ii. 6. 7.
+
+Footnote 1374:
+
+ “It is reported,” observes Lord Bacon, “that, in the low countries,
+ they will graft an apple scion upon the stock of a colewort, and it
+ will bear a great flaggy apple, the kernel of which, if it be set,
+ will be a colewort and not an apple.” Sylva Sylvarum, 453.
+
+Footnote 1375:
+
+ Geop. x. 20. 1. Varro. i. 59. Mustea (mala) a celeritate mitescendi:
+ quæ nunc melimela dicuntur, a sapore melleo.—Plin. xv. 15. Dioscor. i.
+ 161.
+
+Footnote 1376:
+
+ Plut. Sympos. ii. 6. 1.
+
+Footnote 1377:
+
+ Geop. x. 19. 15, cum not. Niclas.
+
+Footnote 1378:
+
+ Inseritur vero ex fœtu uncis arbutus horrida. Virg. Georg. ii. 69,
+ with the note of Servius.
+
+Footnote 1379:
+
+ Plut. Sympos. ii. 6. 1.
+
+Footnote 1380:
+
+ Plin. xvii. 14.
+
+Footnote 1381:
+
+ Castanea inseritur in se, et in salice, sed ex salice tardius maturat,
+ et fit asperior in sapore. Pallad. xii. 7. 22. Cf. Virg. Georg. ii.
+ 71. Plutarch speaks of certain gardens on the banks of the Cephissos,
+ in Bœotia, in which he beheld pears growing on an oak-stock: ἦσαν δὲ
+ καὶ δρύες ἀπίους ἀγαθὰς ἐκφέρουσαι. Sympos. ii. 6. 1.
+
+Footnote 1382:
+
+ Geop. x. 41. 3. iv. 12. 5.
+
+Footnote 1383:
+
+ Geop. iv. 4.
+
+-----
+
+Citrons were likewise occasionally grafted on the pomegranate-tree. In
+the present day, the almond, the chestnut, the fig, the orange, and the
+citron, with many other species of fruit-trees, are no longer thought to
+require grafting.[1384]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1384:
+
+ Thiersch, Etat Actuel de la Grèce, t. i. p. 298.
+
+-----
+
+In illustration of the prolific virtue of the Hellenic soil it may be
+mentioned, that young branchless pear-trees, transplanted from Malta to
+the neighbourhood of Athens, in the autumn of 1830, were the next year
+covered thick with fruit, which hung even upon the trunk like hanks of
+onions.[1385]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1385:
+
+ Idem. t. i. p. 288. Speaking of the fertility of the islands, Della
+ Rocca remarks: “Le terroir y est si bon, et les arbres y viennent si
+ vîte, que j’ai vu à Naxie des pépins d’orange de Portugal pousser en
+ moins de huit ans de grands orangers, dont les fruits étoient les plus
+ délicieux du monde, et la tige de l’arbre si haute, qu’il falloit une
+ longue échelle pour y monter.”—Traité Complet des Abeilles, t. i. p.
+ 6.
+
+-----
+
+Notwithstanding the early season of the year at which Gaia distributes
+her gifts in Greece, numerous arts were resorted to for anticipating the
+productions of summer,[1386] though of most of them the nature is
+unknown. It is certain, however, that they possessed the means of
+ripening fruits throughout the winter, either by hothouses or other
+contrivances equally efficacious.[1387] During the festival celebrated
+in honour of the lover of Aphrodite, the seeds of flowers were sown in
+those silver pots, or baskets, called the gardens of Adonis,[1388] and
+with artificial heat and constant irrigation compelled to bloom in eight
+days. Among the modern Hindus corn is still forced to spring up in a few
+days, by a similar process, during the festival of Gouri.[1389] To
+produce rathe figs,[1390] a manure, composed of dove’s dung and pepper
+and oil, was laid about the roots of the tree. Another method was that
+which is still employed under the name of caprification, alluded to by
+Sophocles.[1391] For this purpose care was taken to rear, close at hand,
+several wild fig-trees, from which might be obtained the flies made use
+of in this process,[1392] performed by cutting off bunches of wild figs
+and suspending them amid the branches of the cultivated species,[1393]
+when a fly issuing from the former pricked the slowly ripening fruit and
+accelerated its maturity.[1394] In growing the various kinds of fig they
+were careful to plant the Chelidonian, the Erinean, or wild fig, the
+Leukerinean, and the Phibaleian[1395] on plains. The autumn-royals would
+grow anywhere. Each sort has its peculiar excellence. The following were
+the best: the colouroi, or truncated, the forminion, the diforoi, the
+Megaric, and the Laconian, which would bear abundantly if
+well-watered.[1396] Rhodes was famous for its excellent figs, which were
+even thought worthy to be compared with those of Attica.[1397] Athenæus,
+however, pretends that the best figs in the world were found at Rome.
+There were figs with a ruddy bloom in the island of Paros, the same in
+kind as the Lydian fig.[1398] The Leukerinean produced the white
+fig.[1399]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1386:
+
+ On the artificial ripening of dates, Theoph. ii. 8. 4.
+
+Footnote 1387:
+
+ Athen. iii. 19. Plut. Phoc. § 3. Xenoph. Vectigal. i. 3.
+
+Footnote 1388:
+
+ Ὁ νοῦν ἔχων γεωργός, ὧν σπερμάτων κήδοιτο καὶ ἔγκαρπα βούλοιτο
+ γενέσθαι, πότερα σπονδῇ ἂν θέρους εἰς ᾿Αδώνιδος κήπους ἀρῶν χαίροι
+ θεωρῶν καλοὺς ἐν ἡμέραισιν ὀκτὼ γιγνομένους.—Plat. Phœd. t. i. p.
+ 99. Suid. v. Ἀδώνιδ. κῆπ. t. i. p. 84. b. Theoph. Hist. Plant. v. 7.
+ 3. Caus. Plant. i. 12. 2. Eustath. ad Odyss. λ. p. 459. 4.
+
+Footnote 1389:
+
+ Tod, Annals of Rajast’han, vol. i. p. 570.
+
+Footnote 1390:
+
+ Cf. Athen. iii. 12. Theophrast. Hist. Plant. i. 3. 3. The fruit of the
+ Egyptian sycamore, or Pharaoh’s fig-tree, was eaten in antiquity as
+ now. Athenæus, who was a native of the Delta, says they used to rip
+ open the skin of the fruit with an iron claw, and leave it thus upon
+ the tree for three days. On the fourth it was eatable, and exhaled a
+ very agreeable odour. Deipnosoph. ii. 36. Theophrastus adds, that a
+ little oil was likewise poured on the fruit when opened by the iron.
+ De Caus. Plant. i. 17. 9. ii. 8. 4. In Malta figs are still sometimes
+ ripened by introducing a little olive oil into the eye of the fruit,
+ or by puncturing it with a straw or feather dipped in oil. Napier,
+ Excursions along the Shores of the Mediterranean, vol. ii. p. 144. Cf.
+ Lord Bacon, Sylva Sylvarum, 446.
+
+Footnote 1391:
+
+ Ap. Athen. iii. 10. Cf. Theoph. Hist. Plant. i. 8. 1.
+
+Footnote 1392:
+
+ Aristot. de Gen. Anim. t. i.
+
+Footnote 1393:
+
+ Suid. v. ερινεὸς. t. i. p. 1038. d.
+
+Footnote 1394:
+
+ Cf. Tournefort, t. ii. p. 23.
+
+Footnote 1395:
+
+ Schol. Aristoph. Acharn. 767
+
+Footnote 1396:
+
+ Athen. iii. 7. The Laconian fig-tree was not commonly planted in
+ Attica. Frag. Aristoph. Georg. 4. Brunck. This kind of fig requires
+ much watering, which was found to deteriorate the flavour of other
+ kinds. Theoph. Hist. Plant. i. 7. 1.
+
+Footnote 1397:
+
+ Athen. iii. 8.
+
+Footnote 1398:
+
+ Athen. iii. 9. In the fig-tree orchards of Asia Minor the spaces
+ between the trees are sown, as in vineyards, with corn, and the bushes
+ are often filled with nightingales.—Chandler, i. 244.
+
+Footnote 1399:
+
+ Athen. iii. 10. There was, also, a species which received its name
+ from resembling the crow in colour. Sch. Aristoph. Pac. 611. Philost.
+ Icon. i. 31. p. 809, where figs are enumerated in his elegant
+ description of the Xenia. Cf. Pausan. i. 37. Vitruv.
+
+-----
+
+The fancy of Hellenic gardeners amused itself with effecting numerous
+fantastic changes in the appearance and nature of fruit. Thus citrons,
+lemons, &c., were made, by the application of a clay mould, to assume
+the form of the human face, of birds and other animals.[1400]
+Occasionally, too, they were introduced, when small, into the neck of a
+bottle provided with breathing holes, the figure of which they assumed
+as they projected their growth into all its dimensions. We are assured,
+moreover, that, by a very simple process, they could produce peaches,
+almonds,[1401] &c., covered, as though by magic, with written
+characters. The mode of operation was this,—steeping the stone of the
+fruit in water for several days, they then carefully divided it, and
+taking out the kernel inscribed upon it with a brazen pen whatever words
+or letters they thought proper. This done, they again closed the stone
+over the kernel, bound it round with papyrus, and planted it; and the
+peaches or almonds which afterwards grew on that tree bore every one of
+them, _mirabile dictu!_ the legend inscribed upon the kernel. By similar
+arts[1402] they created stoneless peaches, walnuts without husks, figs
+white one side, and black the other, and converted bitter almonds into
+sweet.[1403]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1400:
+
+ Geop. x. 9. Clus. Rar. Plant. Hist. i. 4.
+
+Footnote 1401:
+
+ Geop. x. 14. 60. Pallad. ii. 15. 13.
+
+Footnote 1402:
+
+ Geop. x. 16. 53. 76.
+
+Footnote 1403:
+
+ Geop. x. 59. Theoph. Hist. Plant. ii. 8. 1. Caus. Plant. i. 9. 1.
+ Plin. xvii. 43. Pallad. ii. 15. 1l.
+
+-----
+
+The rules observed in the planting of fruit-trees were numerous.[1404]
+Some, they were of opinion, were best propagated by seed, others by
+suckers wrenched from the root of the parent stock,[1405] others, again,
+by branches selected from among the new wood on the topmost boughs. A
+rude practice, too, common enough in our own rural districts, appears to
+have been in much favour among them,—bending some long pendant bough to
+the ground, they covered a part of it with heavy clods, allowing,
+however, the extremity to appear above the earth. When it had taken root
+it was severed from the tree and transplanted to some proper situation.
+At other times, the points of boughs were drawn down and fixed in the
+ground, which even thus took root, and sent the juices backwards, after
+which the bough was cut off and a new stock produced. Trees generated by
+this method, as well as those planted during the waning moon,[1406] were
+supposed to spread and grow branchy, while those set during the waxing
+moon attained, though weaker, to a much greater height. It ought,
+perhaps, to be further added, that all seeds and plants were put into
+the ground while the moon was below the horizon.[1407] Those trees which
+it was customary to renew by seed were the pistachio, the filbert, the
+almond, the chestnut, the white peach, the damascene, the pine-tree, and
+the edible pine, the palm, the cypress, the laurel, the ash, the maple,
+and the fig. The apple,[1408] the cherry, the rhamnus jujuba, the common
+nut, the dwarf laurel, the myrtle, and the medlar, were propagated by
+suckers; while the quicker and surer mode of raising trees from boughs
+was frequently adopted in the case of the almond, the pear, the
+mulberry, the citron,[1409] the apple, the olive, the quince,[1410] the
+black and white poplar, the ivy, the jujube-tree, the myrtle, the
+chestnut, the vine, the willow, the box, and the cytisus.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1404:
+
+ Geop. x. 3. Cf. Xenoph. Œconom. xix. 3.
+
+Footnote 1405:
+
+ Plin. xvii. 13. When a tree was barren, or had lost its strength in
+ blooming, they split it at the root, and put a stone into the fissure
+ to keep it open, after which it was said to bear well. Theoph. Hist.
+ Plant. ii. 7. 6. It was customary, moreover, to wound the trunks of
+ almond, pear, and other trees, as the service-tree in Arcadia, in
+ order to render them fertile. 1d. ii. 7. 7. The berries of the cornel
+ and service-trees were sweeter and ripened earlier wild than when
+ cultivated, iii. 2. 1.
+
+Footnote 1406:
+
+ The ancients believed that the moon ripens fruit, promotes digestion,
+ and causes putrefaction in wood, and animal substances. Athen. vii. 3.
+ Cf. Plut. Sympos. iii. 10.
+
+Footnote 1407:
+
+ Geop. x. 2. 13.
+
+Footnote 1408:
+
+ Cf. Vigenère, Images des Philostrates, p. 48.
+
+Footnote 1409:
+
+ “Les orangers et les citronniers perfument l’air par la quantité
+ prodigieuse des fleurs dont ils sont chargés, et qui s’épanouissent
+ aux premières chaleurs.”—Della Rocca, Traité sur les Abeilles, t. i.
+ p. 5.
+
+Footnote 1410:
+
+ Originally of Crete. Pashley, i. 27. κοδύμαλον in the ancient dialect
+ of the country. Athen. iii. 2.
+
+-----
+
+But the thrifty people of Hellas seldom devoted the orchard-ground
+entirely to fruit-trees. The custom seems to have been to lay out the
+whole in beds and borders for the cultivation of vegetables, and to
+plant trees, at intervals, along the edges and at the corners. These
+beds, moreover, were often, as with us, edged with parsley and rue;
+whence the proverb,—“You have not proceeded beyond the rue,” for “You
+know nothing of the matter.”[1411]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1411:
+
+ Schol. Aristoph. Vesp. 480. Geop. xii. 1. 2.
+
+-----
+
+The rustics of antiquity, who put generally great faith in spells and
+talismans, possessed an extraordinary charm for ensuring unfailing
+fertility to their gardens; they buried an ass’s head deep in the middle
+of them, and sprinkled the ground with the juice of fenugreek and
+lotus.[1412] Somewhat greater efficacy, however, may be attributed to
+their laborious methods of manuring and irrigation.[1413]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1412:
+
+ Geop. xii. 6. Pallad. i. 35. 16.
+
+Footnote 1413:
+
+ Lucian. Luc. siv. Asin. § 43.
+
+-----
+
+The aspect of such a garden differed very little, except perhaps in
+luxuriance, from a similar plot of ground in Kent or Middlesex. Here you
+perceived beds of turnips, or cabbages, or onions; there, lettuces, or
+endive, or succory,[1414] in the process of blanching, or the delicate
+heads of asparagus, or broad-beans, or lentils, or peas, or
+kidney-beans, or artichokes. In the most sunny spots were ranges of
+boxes or baskets for forcing cucumbers.[1415] Near the brooks, where
+such existed, were patches of watermelons,[1416] the finest in the
+world; and here and there, clasping round the trunks of trees,[1417]
+and, suspending its huge leaves and spheres from among the branches, you
+might behold the gourd,[1418] as I have often seen it in the palm-groves
+of Nubia. It may be added, that the pumpkin, or common gourd, was eaten
+by the Greeks,[1419] as it is still in France and Asia Minor.[1420]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1414:
+
+ Geop. ii. 37. 40.
+
+Footnote 1415:
+
+ These were covered with plates of the lapis specularis, and furnished
+ with wheels, that they might the more easily be moved in and out from
+ under cover. Colum. De Re Rust. xi. 3. p. 461: see also Castell,
+ Villas of the Ancients, p. 4.
+
+Footnote 1416:
+
+ These are found growing at present even in the cemeteries. “Des melons
+ d’eau qui végètent çà et là sur ces tombes abandonnées, resemblent,
+ par leur forme et leur pâleur, à des crânes humains qu’on ne s’est pas
+ donné la peine d’ensèvelir.” Chateaub. Itin. i. 27. These fruit are
+ considered so innocent in the Levant as to be given to the sick in
+ fevers. Chandler, i. p. 77.
+
+Footnote 1417:
+
+ Colum. De Cult. Hortor. 234.
+
+Footnote 1418:
+
+ Sch. Aristoph. Acharn. 494.
+
+Footnote 1419:
+
+ Athen. iii. 1.
+
+Footnote 1420:
+
+ Chandler, i. 317.
+
+-----
+
+Lettuces[1421] were blanched by being tied a-top, or being buried up to
+a certain point in sand.[1422] They were, moreover, supposed to be
+rendered more rich and delicate by being watered with a mixture of wine
+and honey, as was the practice of the gourmand Aristoxenos, who having
+done so over-night, used next morning to cut them, and say they were so
+many green cakes sent him by mother Earth.[1423]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1421:
+
+ See Strattis’s Invocation to the Caterpillar. Athen. ii. 79. Theoph.
+ Hist. Plant. vii. 2. 4. 5. 4.
+
+Footnote 1422:
+
+ Geop. xii. 13. 3. Pallad. ii. 14. 2.
+
+Footnote 1423:
+
+ Athen. i. 12.
+
+-----
+
+The Greek gardeners appear to have delighted exceedingly in the
+production of monstrous vegetables. Thus, in the case of the cucumber,
+their principal object appears to have been to produce it without seed,
+or of some extraordinary shape.[1424] In the first case they diligently
+watched the appearance of the plant above ground, and then covering it
+over with fresh earth, and repeating the same operation three times, the
+cucumbers it bore were found to be seedless. The same effect was
+produced by steeping the seeds in sesamum-oil for three days before they
+were sown. They were made to grow to a great length by having vessels of
+water[1425] placed daily within a few inches of their points, which,
+exciting by attraction a sort of nisus in the fruit, drew them forward
+as far as the gardener thought necessary.[1426] They were made,
+likewise, to assume all sorts of forms by the use of light, fictile
+moulds,[1427] as in the case of the citron. Another method was, to take
+a large reed,[1428] split it, and clear out the pith; then introducing
+the young cucumber into the hollow, the sections of the reed were bound
+together, and the fruit projected itself through the tube until it
+acquired an enormous length. It is observed by Theophrastus, that if you
+steep the seeds of cucumbers in milk, or an infusion of honey, it will
+improve their flavour.[1429] They were, moreover, believed to expand in
+size at the full of the moon, like the sea-hedgehog.[1430] A fragrant
+smell was supposed to be communicated to melons[1431] by constantly
+keeping the seed in dry rose-leaves. To preserve the seed for any length
+of time, it was sprinkled with the juice of house-leek.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1424:
+
+ Geop. xii. 19. 1, sqq. Pallad. iv. 9. 8.
+
+Footnote 1425:
+
+ Plin. xix. 23. Pallad. iv. 9. 8.
+
+ At qui sub trichila manantem repit ad undam,
+ Labentemque sequens nimio tenuatur amore,
+ Candidus, effœtæ tremebundior ubere porcæ.
+
+ Colum. x. De Cult. Hortor. 394.
+
+Footnote 1426:
+
+ Lord Bacon, having noticed this fact, adds the following sage remark:
+ “If you set a stake or prop at a certain distance from it (the vine),
+ it will grow that way, which is far stranger than the other: for that
+ water may work by a sympathy of attraction; but this of the stake
+ seemeth to be a reasonable discourse.” Sylva Sylvarum, 462.
+
+Footnote 1427:
+
+ Theoph. Hist. Plant. vii. 3. 5. Plin. Hist. Nat. xix. 24.
+
+Footnote 1428:
+
+ Plin. xix. 23.
+
+Footnote 1429:
+
+ Cf. Athen. iii. 5.
+
+Footnote 1430:
+
+ Athen. iii. 2.
+
+Footnote 1431:
+
+ The best melons at present known in Greece are those of Cephalonia,
+ which lose their flavour if transplanted. Hobhouse, Trav. &c., i. 227.
+ Cf. Chandler, i. p. 14.
+
+-----
+
+The Megaréans, in whose country melons, gourds,[1432] and cucumbers were
+plentiful, were accustomed to heap dust about their roots during the
+prevalence of the Etesian winds, and found this answer of
+irrigation.[1433] It appears from the following proverb,—“The end of
+cucumbers and the beginning of pompions,”—that the former went out of
+season as the latter came in.[1434]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1432:
+
+ Schol. Aristoph. Acharn. 494.
+
+Footnote 1433:
+
+ Theoph. Hist. Plant. ii. 7. 5.
+
+Footnote 1434:
+
+ Schol. Aristoph. Pac. 966.
+
+-----
+
+To procure a plentiful crop of asparagus, they used to bury the shavings
+of a wild ram’s horn, and well water them.[1435] By banking up the
+stalks, moreover, immediately after cutting the heads, they caused new
+shoots to spring forth, and thus enjoyed a fresh supply throughout the
+year. This plant was probably obtained from Libya,[1436] where it was
+said to attain, in its wild state, the height of twelve, and sometimes
+even of thirty cubits;[1437] and on the slopes of Lebanon, in Syria, it
+has in our own clay been seen from twelve to fifteen feet high.
+
+Footnote 1435:
+
+ Geop. xii. 18. 2. Plin. xix. 42. Dioscor. ii. 152. The physician,
+ however, modestly professes his unbelief: ἔνιοι δὲ ἱστόρησαν, ὅτι ἐάν
+ τις κριοῦ κέρατα συγκόψας κατορύξῃ, φύεται ἀσπάραγος · ἐμοὶ δὲ
+ ἀπίθανον.
+
+Footnote 1436:
+
+ The asparagus, however, has been found, in modern times, growing wild
+ among the ruins of Epidauros. Chandler, ii. 249.
+
+Footnote 1437:
+
+ Athen. ii. 62.
+
+-----
+
+That kind of cabbage which we call savoys was supposed to flourish best
+in saline spots, on which account the gardeners used to sift pounded
+nitre[1438] over the beds where it was sown, as was the practice also in
+Egypt. In and about Alexandria,[1439] however, there was said to be some
+peculiar quality in the earth which communicated a bitter taste to the
+cabbage. To prevent this they imported cabbage-seed from the island of
+Rhodes, which produced good plants the first year, but experienced in
+the second the acrid influence of the soil.[1440] Kumè was celebrated
+for its fine cabbages, which, when full-grown, were of a yellowish green
+colour, like the new leather sole of a sandal. Broccoli and sea-kale and
+cauliflowers would appear to have been commonly cultivated in the
+gardens of the ancients. There was, likewise, among them a sort of
+cabbage supposed to have some connexion with the gift of prophecy;[1441]
+and by this, probably, it was, that certain comic personages used to
+swear, as Socrates by the dog, and Zeno by the caper-bush.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1438:
+
+ Geop. ii. 41.
+
+Footnote 1439:
+
+ Athen. ix. 9. Suid. v. κράμβη. t. i. p. 1518. b. Cf. Foës. Œconom.
+ Hippoc. v. κραμβίων. p. 214. Dioscorid. ii. 146.
+
+Footnote 1440:
+
+ Cf. Steph. Byzant. de Urb. p. 488. b.
+
+Footnote 1441:
+
+ Cf. Casaub. Animadv. in Athen. ix. 9. t. x. p. 24.
+
+-----
+
+Radishes[1442] were rendered sweet by steeping the seeds in wine and
+honey, or the fresh juice of grapes: Nicander speaks of preserved
+turnips.[1443] Parsley-seed was put into the earth in an old rag, or a
+wisp of straw,[1444] surrounded with manure, and well-watered, which
+made the plant grow large. Rue they sowed in warm and sunny spots,
+without manure.[1445] It was defended from the cold of winter by being
+surrounded with heaps of ashes,[1446] and was sometimes planted in pots,
+probably to be kept in apartments for the sake of its bright yellow
+flowers,[1447] and because, when smelt, it was said to cure the
+head-ache. The juice of wild rue, mixed with woman’s milk, sharpened the
+sight, in the opinion of the ancients.[1448] The juice of sweet mint,
+which was a garden herb, squeezed into milk,[1449] was supposed to
+prevent coagulation, even should rennet be afterwards thrown into it.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1442:
+
+ Theoph. Hist. Plant. vii. 1. 3.
+
+Footnote 1443:
+
+ Athen. iv. 11.
+
+Footnote 1444:
+
+ Theoph. Hist. Plant. vii. 4. 2. 6. 4. Aristoph. Concion. 355, et
+ schol.
+
+Footnote 1445:
+
+ Geop. xii. 1.
+
+Footnote 1446:
+
+ Geop. xii. 25. 1.
+
+Footnote 1447:
+
+ Cf. Sibth. Flor. Græc. tab. 368.
+
+Footnote 1448:
+
+ Dioscor. iii. 53. Geop. xii. 25. 4.
+
+Footnote 1449:
+
+ Geop. xii. 24.
+
+-----
+
+Both the root and bean of the nymphæa nelumbo or red lotus,[1450] were
+eaten in Egypt,[1451] where its crimson flowers were woven into crowns
+which diffused an agreeable odour, and were considered exceedingly
+refreshing in the heat of summer.[1452] This plant was by the Greeks of
+Naucratis denominated the melilotus, to distinguish it from the lotus
+with white flowers. Theophrastus[1453] observes, that it grows in the
+marshes to the height of four cubits, and has a striped root and stem.
+This lotus was also anciently found in Syria and Cilicia, but did not
+there ripen. In the environs of Toronè in Chalcidice,[1454] however, it
+was found in perfection in a small marsh.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1450:
+
+ The rose-coloured lotus was said by the poet Pancrates to have been
+ produced from the blood of the lion slain by the Emperor Adrian.
+ Athen. xv. 21.
+
+Footnote 1451:
+
+ Athen. iii. 1.
+
+Footnote 1452:
+
+ Nicander in Georgicis ap. Athen. iii. 1.
+
+ Σπείρειας κύαμον Αἰγύπτιον, ὄφρα θερείης
+ Ἅνθεα μὲν στεφάνους ἀνύῃς· τὰ δὲ πεπτηῶτα
+ Ἀκμαίου καρποῖο κιβώρια δαινυμένοισιν
+ Ἐς χέρας ἠΐθεοισι, πάλαι ποθέουσιν, ὀρέξης
+ Ῥίζας δ᾽ ἐν θοίνῃσιν ἀφεψήσας προτίθημι.
+
+ See the note of Schweighæuser, t. vii. 10.
+
+Footnote 1453:
+
+ Histor. Plant. iv. 10.
+
+Footnote 1454:
+
+ It was also found in Thesprotia. Athen. iii. 3.
+
+-----
+
+The lupin,[1455] and the caper-bush, probably cultivated for the beauty
+of its delicate white flowers,[1456] deteriorated in gardens,[1457] as
+did likewise the mallows,[1458] which, together with the beet, were said
+to acquire in gardens the height of a small tree.[1459] The stem of the
+mallows was sometimes used as a walking stick. Its large pale red flower
+which
+
+ Follows with its bending head the sun,[1460]
+
+constituted one of the ornaments of the garden.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1455:
+
+ Geop. ii. 39. Apuleius relates that the lupin-flower turned round with
+ the sun, even in cloudy weather, so that it served as a sort of rural
+ clock. Cf. Plin. xviii. 67.
+
+Footnote 1456:
+
+ The caper-bush blossoms in June. Chandler, ii. 275.
+
+Footnote 1457:
+
+ Theoph. Hist. Plant. i. 3. 6. Cf. Sibth. Flor. Græc. tab. 488.
+
+Footnote 1458:
+
+ Athen. ii. 52.
+
+Footnote 1459:
+
+ Theoph. Hist. Plant. i. 9. 2. Cf. vii. 3, 3. Hesiod reckons the mallow
+ and the asphodel among edible plants. Opp. et Dies, 41. Gœttling,
+ therefore, (in loc.) wonders Pythagoras should have prohibited the
+ mallow. Cf. Aristoph. Plut. 543. Suid. v. θύμος. t. 1. p. 1336. e.
+ Horat. Od. i. 32. 16.
+
+Footnote 1460:
+
+ Colum. de Cult. Hortor. 253. Cardan in his treatise De Subtilitate
+ having undertaken to assign the cause why certain flowers bend towards
+ the sun, his antagonist, J. C. Scaliger, remarks upon his philosophy
+ as follows:—“De floribus, qui ad Solem convertuntur non pessime ais:
+ tenue humidum ad Solis calorem, se habere, ut corii ad ignem. Cæterum
+ adhuc integra restat quæstio. Rosis enim tenuissimum esse humidum
+ testantur omnia. Non convertuntur tamen. Platonici flores quosdam
+ etiam Lunæ dicunt esse familiares: qui sane huic Sideri, sicut illi
+ suo canant hymnos, sed mortalibus ignotos auribus.” Exercit. 170, § 2.
+ “The cause (of the bowing of the heliotrope) is somewhat obscure; but
+ I take it to be no other, but that the part against which the sun
+ heateth, waxeth more faint and flaccid in the stalk, and thereby less
+ able to support the flower.” Bacon, Sylva Sylvarum § 493.
+
+-----
+
+Besides these the ancients usually cultivated in their grounds two
+species of cistus, one with pale red flowers now called the long rose,
+the other which about midsummer has on its leaves a sort of fatty dew,
+of which laudanum is made;[1461] together with the blue eringo,[1462]
+rocket, cresses, (which were planted in ridges,) bastard parsley,
+penny-royal, anis,[1463] water-mint, sea-onions, monk’s rhubarb,
+purslain, a leaf of which placed under the tongue quenched thirst,
+garden coriander, hellebore, yellow, red, and white, bush origany,[1464]
+with its pink cones, flame-coloured fox-glove, brank-ursine, or bear’s
+foot, admired for its vast pyramid of white flowers, chervil, skirwort,
+the mournful elecampane, giant fennel, dill, mustard and wake-robin,
+which was sown,
+
+ Soon as the punic tree, whose numerous grains,
+ When thoroughly ripe, a bright red covering hides,
+ Itself did with its bloody blossoms clothe.[1465]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1461:
+
+ Sibth. Flor. Græc. t. 1. tab. 258, seq.
+
+Footnote 1462:
+
+ Colum. x. de Cult. Hortor. 230, sqq. Sch. Aristoph. Nub. 235.
+
+Footnote 1463:
+
+ Theoph. Hist. Plant. i. 72. 2.
+
+Footnote 1464:
+
+ Schol. Aristoph. Acharn. 826, 837.
+
+Footnote 1465:
+
+ Colum. x. De Cult. Hortor. 374. English Translation. Theoph. Hist.
+ Plant. vii. 12. 1.
+
+-----
+
+Other garden herbs were the cumin, the seed of which was sown with abuse
+and curses,[1466] the sperage-berry, the dittander, or pepperwort,
+turnips,[1467] and parsnips, (found wild in Dalmatia,)[1468] with
+onions, garlic, and leeks.[1469] For these last Megara was famous, as
+Attica was for honey, which suggested to the Athenians an occasion of
+compliment to themselves,[1470] it having been a saying among them, that
+they were as superior to the Megareans as honey is to garlic and leeks.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1466:
+
+ Theoph. Hist. Plant. vii. 3. 3. Cf. Dioscor. iii. 68, seq.
+
+Footnote 1467:
+
+ Athen. iv. 11.
+
+Footnote 1468:
+
+ Athen. ix. 8.
+
+Footnote 1469:
+
+ Theoph. Hist. Plant. vii. 4. 7, 10, 11. Aristoph. Plut. 283, et schol.
+ Eq. 675. 494. Vesp. 680. Acharn. 166, 500. Plut. 283.
+
+Footnote 1470:
+
+ Schol. Aristoph. Pac. 246. 252.
+
+-----
+
+The cultivation of that species of leek called gethyllis was carried to
+great perfection at Delphi,[1471] where it was an established custom,
+evidently with a view to the improvement of gardening, that the person
+who, on the day of the Theoxenia,[1472] presented the largest vegetable
+of this kind to Leto should receive a portion from the holy table.[1473]
+Polemo, who relates this circumstance says, that he had seen on these
+occasions leeks nearly as large as turnips. The cause of this ceremony
+was said to be, that Leto when great with Apollo longed for a leek.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1471:
+
+ Cf. Schol. Aristoph. Eq. 675.
+
+Footnote 1472:
+
+ This passage has escaped the diligence of Meursius, Græc. Feriat. p.
+ 150.
+
+Footnote 1473:
+
+ Athen. ix. 13.
+
+-----
+
+Mushrooms[1474] were sedulously cultivated by the ancients, among whose
+methods of producing them were the following. They felled a
+poplar-tree[1475] and laying its trunk in the earth to rot, watered it
+assiduously, after which mushrooms, at the proper time sprung up.
+Another method was to irrigate the trunk of the fig-tree after having
+covered it all round with dung, though the best kind in the opinion of
+others were such as grew at the foot of elm and pine-trees.[1476] Those
+springing from the upper roots were reckoned of no value.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1474:
+
+ Dioscor. ii. 200, seq. Plin. xix. 11.
+
+Footnote 1475:
+
+ Athen. ii. 57. Schol. Aristoph. Nub. 189, 191. Eccles. 1092. Geop.
+ xii. 36.
+
+Footnote 1476:
+
+ A similar observation is made in France respecting the truffles, the
+ best of which are supposed to grow about the roots and under the
+ shadow of the oak. Trollope’s Summer in Western France, ii. 352.
+
+-----
+
+On other occasions[1477] they chose a light sandy soil accustomed to
+produce reeds, then burning brushwood, &c., when the air was in a state
+indicating rain, this ambiguous species of vegetable started forth from
+the earth with the first shower. The same effect was produced by
+watering the ground thus prepared, though this species was supposed to
+be inferior. In France, the most delicate sort of mushrooms are said to
+proceed from the decayed root of the Eryngium.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1477:
+
+ Geop. xii. 41. 2.
+
+-----
+
+This vegetable appears to have been a favourite dish among the ancients,
+together with the truffle,[1478] eaten both cooked and raw;[1479] and
+the morrille.[1480] That particular kind, called geranion, is the modern
+crane’s bill. The Misu, another sort of truffle,[1481] grew chiefly in
+the sandy plains about Cyrene, and, as well as the Iton,[1482] found in
+the lofty downs of Thrace, was said to exhale an agreeable odour
+resembling that of animal food. These fanciful luxuries, which were
+produced among the rains and thunders[1483] of autumn, continued to
+flourish in the earth during a whole year, but were thought to be in
+season in spring. Truffle-seed was usually imported from Megara, Lycia,
+and Getulia; but in Mytelene the inhabitants were spared this expense,
+their sandy shores being annually sown from the neighbouring coast by
+the winds and showers. It has been remarked, that neither truffles nor
+wild onions were found near the Hellespont.[1484]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1478:
+
+ Sch. Aristoph. Nub. 189.
+
+Footnote 1479:
+
+ This was more particularly the case on the Tauric Chersonese.—Theoph.
+ Hist. Plant. vii. 13. 8.
+
+Footnote 1480:
+
+ Theophrast. Hist. Plant. i. 10. 7.
+
+Footnote 1481:
+
+ Theoph. Hist. Plant. i. 6. 13.
+
+Footnote 1482:
+
+ Athen. ii. 62.
+
+Footnote 1483:
+
+ Plut. Sympos. iv. 2. 1. who relates that the ὕδνα attained to a very
+ large size in Elis.
+
+Footnote 1484:
+
+ Vid. Theoph. Hist. Plant. i. 6. 13.
+
+-----
+
+What methods the ancients employed for discovering the truffle, which
+grows without stem or leaf in a small cell beneath the surface of the
+earth, I have nowhere seen explained. At present[1485] their existence
+is said to be detected in Greece, not by the truffle hound, but by the
+divining rod. On the dry sandy downs of the Limousin, Gascogne,
+Angoumois, and Perigord, as well as in several parts of Italy,[1486]
+they are collected by the swineherds; for the hogs being extremely fond
+of them utter grunts of joy, and begin to turn up the earth as soon as
+they scent their odour, upon which the herdsmen beat the animals away,
+and carefully preserve the delicacy for the tables of the rich. At other
+times they are discovered in the following manner: the herdsmen stooping
+down, and looking horizontally along the surface of the Landes, observe
+here and there, on spots bare of grass and full of fissures, clouds of
+very diminutive flies hatched in the truffle, and still regaling
+themselves with its perfume. In some parts of Savoy they have been found
+two pounds in weight.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1485:
+
+ Walp. Mem. i. 284.
+
+Footnote 1486:
+
+ Valmont de Bomare, Dict. D’Hist. Nat. t. ii. p. 21, seq.
+
+-----
+
+
+
+
+ CHAPTER III.
+ VINEYARD, VINTAGE, ETC.
+
+
+One of the principal branches of husbandry[1487] in Greece was the
+culture of the vine, probably introduced from Phœnicia.[1488] Long
+before the historical age, however, it had spread itself through the
+whole country, together with several parts of Asia Minor, as may be
+inferred from the language of Homer,[1489] who frequently enumerates
+vineyards among the possessions of his heroes. Like most things the
+origin of which was unknown, the vine furnished the poets and common
+people with the subjects of numerous fables, some of which were reckoned
+of sufficient importance to be treasured up and transmitted to
+posterity. Thus, among the Ozolian Locrians, it was said[1490] to have
+sprung from a small piece of wood, brought forth in lieu of whelps by a
+bitch. Others supposed a spot near Olympia[1491] to have given birth to
+the vine, in proof of which the inhabitants affirmed a miracle was
+wrought annually among them during the Dionysiac festival. They took
+three empty brazen vessels, and having closely covered and sealed them
+in the presence of witnesses, again opened them after some interval of
+time, not stated, when they were found full of wine. According to other
+authorities, the environs of Plinthinè, in Egypt, had the honour of
+being the cradle of Dionysos, on which account the ancient Egyptians
+were by some accused of inebriety, though in the age of Herodotus[1492]
+there would appear to have been no vineyards in the whole valley of the
+Nile. In reality,[1493] the vine appears to be a native of all temperate
+climates, both in the old world and the new, and will even
+flourish[1494] and produce fine grapes in various situations within the
+tropics, where clusters in different stages of ripeness may be observed
+upon its branches at all seasons of the year.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1487:
+
+ The importance of this branch of cultivation in some countries may be
+ perceived from the fact, that in France it is said to afford
+ employment to 2,200,000 families, comprising a population of
+ 6,000,000, or nearly one-fifth of the population of the entire
+ kingdom. TIMES, Aug. 3, 1838. The quantity of land devoted to the
+ culture of the vine was estimated in 1823, at 4,270,000 acres, the
+ produce of which amounted to 920,721,088 gallons, 22,516,220_l._
+ 15_s._ sterling. Redding, Hist. of Modern Wines, chap. iv. p. 56. In
+ the Greek Budget of 1836, the tax on cattle produced 2,100,000
+ drachmas, on bees 35,000, olive-grounds 64,776, and on vineyards and
+ currant-grounds 58,269.—Parish, Diplomatic History of the Monarchy of
+ Greece, p. 175.
+
+Footnote 1488:
+
+ Or according to Athenæus, from the shores of the Red Sea. Deipnosoph.
+ xv. 17.
+
+Footnote 1489:
+
+ Iliad. β. 561. γ. 184. ι. 152, 294. Cf. Pind. Isth. viii. 108.
+
+Footnote 1490:
+
+ Paus. x. 38. 1.
+
+Footnote 1491:
+
+ Athen. i. 61.
+
+Footnote 1492:
+
+ ii. 77.
+
+Footnote 1493:
+
+ Cf. Redding History of Modern Wines, chap. i. p. 2. An interesting and
+ able work.
+
+Footnote 1494:
+
+ Nienhoff in Churchill’s Collection, ii. 264. Barbot. iii. 13. Ulloa,
+ Memoires Philosophiques, t. ii. p. 15. Voyages, t. i. p. 487, 491.
+
+-----
+
+The opinions of Grecian writers respecting the soil best suited to the
+cultivation of the vine, having been founded on experience, generally
+agree with those which prevail in modern times.[1495] They preferred for
+their vineyards the gentle acclivities of hills,[1496] where the soil
+was good, though light and porous, and abounding in springs at no great
+depth from the surface.[1497] A considerable degree of moisture was
+always supposed to be indispensable, on which account, in arid
+situations, large hollow sea-shells, and fragments of sandstone[1498]
+were buried in the soil, these being regarded as so many reservoirs of
+humidity.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1495:
+
+ Virg. Georg. ii. 276.
+
+Footnote 1496:
+
+ “Quòd colles Bacchus amaret.” Manil. Astronom. ii. p. 31. 6. Scalig.
+
+Footnote 1497:
+
+ Geop. v. 1.
+
+Footnote 1498:
+
+ Geop. v. 9. 8. Virg. Georg. ii. 348.
+
+-----
+
+By some the vine was even thought to delight in the rich alluvial soil
+of plains, such as is found in Egypt,[1499] where, in later times, the
+banks of the Nile, from Elephantinè to the sea, seem to have presented
+one vast succession of vineyards.[1500] But superior vines were produced
+on a few spots only, as at Koptos, and in the neighbourhood of Lake
+Mareotis, where showers of sand, pouring in from the desert or the
+sea-shore, diminished the fatness of the ground. With respect to Koptos,
+we possess, however, no precise information,[1501] but are expressly
+told, that the Mareotic vineyards covered a series of sandy swells,
+stretching eastward from the lake towards Rosetta.[1502] On the southern
+confines of Egypt, in the rocky and picturesque island of Elephantinè,
+the vine was said[1503] never to shed its leaves; but as none grow there
+at present, the traveller has no opportunity of deciding this question.
+In Greece the vineyards of the plains were generally appropriated to the
+production of the green grape, the purple being supposed to prefer the
+sides of hills, or even of mountains, provided it were not exposed to
+the furious winds upon their summits. Several sorts of white grape,
+also, as the Psillian, Corcyrean, and the Chlorian, delighted in
+elevated vineyards,[1504] though it was often judged necessary to
+reverse these rules, and compel the hill-nurslings to descend to the
+plains, while those of the plains were in their turn exposed to the
+climate of the mountains.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1499:
+
+ Καλλίστη δὲ γῆ καὶ ἑ ὑπὸ τῶν ῥεόντων ποταμῶν χωσθεῖσα, ὅθεν καὶ τὴν
+ Αἴγυπτον ἐπαινοῦμεν.—Florent. ap. Geop. v. 1. 4.
+
+Footnote 1500:
+
+ Jemaleddin. Maured Allatafet, p. 7. All these vines it will be
+ remembered were cut down by order of the Caliph Beamrillah, even in
+ the province of the Fayoum. Some vestiges, however, of vineyards were
+ here discovered by Pococke. “I observed,” says he, “about this lake
+ (Mœris) several roots in the ground, that seemed to me to be the
+ remains of vines, for which the country about the lake was formerly
+ famous. Where there is little moisture in the air, and it rains so
+ seldom, wood may remain sound a great while, though it is not known
+ how long these vineyards have been destroyed.” Vol. i. p. 65.
+
+Footnote 1501:
+
+ Though with regard to the nature of the wine itself we are told, that
+ it was so light as to be given to persons in fevers,—ὁ δὲ κατὰ τὴν
+ Θηβαΐδα, καὶ μάλιστα ὁ κατὰ τὴν Κόπτον πόλιν, οὕτως ἐστὶ λεπτὸς, καὶ
+ εὐανάδοτος, καὶ ταχέως πεπτικὸς, ὡς τοῖς πυρεταίνουσι διδόμενος μὴ
+ βλάπτειν. Athen. i. 60.
+
+Footnote 1502:
+
+ Athen. i. 60. Horat. Od. i. 37. 14. Strab. xvii. 1. t. iii. p. 425.
+
+Footnote 1503:
+
+ Theoph. Hist. Plant. i. 3. 5. Varro, i. 7.
+
+Footnote 1504:
+
+ Geop. v. 1. 15. Cf. Geop. iii. 2. “The shifting of ground is a means
+ to better the tree and fruit, but with this caution, that all things
+ do prosper best when they are advanced to the better.” Bacon, “Sylva
+ Sylvarum,” 439.
+
+-----
+
+Much judgment was thought to be required in selecting the site of a
+vineyard, though almost everything depended on the climate and general
+configuration of the district in which it was situated. Thus in warm
+countries, as in the Pentapolis of Cyrene, the vineyards sloped towards
+the north; in Laconia, they occupied the eastern face of Mount Taygetos,
+while in Attica and the islands, the hills often appear to have been
+encircled with vines. Upon the whole, however, those were most esteemed
+which looked towards the rising sun and enjoyed, without obstruction,
+the first rays of the morning.[1505] And this also is the case in the
+Côte d’Or, where the best wines, as the Chambertin, the Vin de Beaune,
+and that of the Clos Vougeot, are grown on eastern declivities. In some
+parts of Greece, the vine was strongly affected by the prevalence of
+certain winds, as those of the east and the west in Thessaly, which in
+the forty cold days of winter were attended by frost that killed its
+upper extremities, and sometimes the whole trunk. At Chalcis, in Eubœa
+likewise, the Olympias, a western wind, parched and shrivelled, or, as
+the Greeks express it, burnt up the leaves, sometimes completely
+destroying the shrub itself.[1506] In such situations it was accordingly
+found necessary to protect it by a covering[1507] during the prevalence
+of cold winds. At Methana, in Argolis, when the south-east in spring
+blew up the Saronic gulf,[1508] the inhabitants, to defend them from it,
+spread over their vines the invisible teguments of a spell; which was
+effected in the following manner: taking a milk-white cock, and cutting
+it in halves, two men seized each a part, and then, standing back to
+back, started off in opposite directions, made the tour of the vineyard,
+and, returning whence they had set out, buried the cock’s remains in the
+earth. After this the Libs might blow as it listed, since it possessed
+no power to injure any man’s property within the consecrated
+circle.[1509] The prevalence of the north wind during autumn was
+considered auspicious, as they supposed it to hasten the ripening of the
+fruit.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1505:
+
+ Geop. v. 4.1.
+
+Footnote 1506:
+
+ Theoph. Caus. Plant. v. 12. 5. Cf. Hist. Plant. iv. 14. 11. And yet
+ the neighbourhood of the sea was considered propitious to the vine.
+ Geop. v. 5.
+
+Footnote 1507:
+
+ Theoph. Caus. Plant. v. 12. 5.
+
+Footnote 1508:
+
+ On the prevalence of these winds in winter and spring, together with
+ the causes of the phenomenon, see Aristot. Problem. xxvi. 16.
+
+Footnote 1509:
+
+ Paus. ii. 34. 2. Chandler, Travels, ii. 248.
+
+-----
+
+When the husbandman had resolved on the formation of a new vineyard, he
+first, of course, encircled the spot with a hedge[1510] which was made
+both thick and strong for the purpose of repelling the flocks and herds,
+which, as well as goats, foxes, and soldiers, loved to prey upon the
+vine.[1511] His next care was to root up the hazel bush and the
+oleaster, the roots of the former being supposed to be inimical to the
+Dionysiac tree, while the oily bark of the latter rendered it peculiarly
+susceptible of taking fire, by which means vineyards would often appear
+to have been reduced to ashes. So at least says Virgil.[1512]
+
+ Root up wild olives from thy laboured lands,
+ For sparkling fire from hinds’ unwary hands
+ Is often scattered o’er their unctuous rinds,
+ And often spread abroad by raging winds;
+ For first the smouldering flame the trunk receives,
+ Ascending thence it crackles in the leaves;
+ At length victorious to the top aspires,
+ Involving all the wood in smoky fires.
+ But most when driven by winds the flaming storm
+ Of the long files destroys the beauteous form;
+ In ashes then the unhappy vineyard lies,
+ Nor will the blasted plants from ruin rise,
+ Nor will the withered stock be green again,
+ But the wild olive shoots, and shades th’ ungrateful plain.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1510:
+
+ Virg. Georg. ii. 371, sqq.
+
+Footnote 1511:
+
+ Aristoph. Eq. 1073, seq. Küst.
+
+Footnote 1512:
+
+ Georg. ii. 299, sqq. Dryden’s Translation.
+
+-----
+
+The next operation[1513] was to trench the ground and throw it into
+lofty ridges, which, by the operation of the summer sun, and the rain
+and winds and frosts of winter, were rendered mellow and genial.
+Occasionally a species of manure, composed[1514] of pounded acorns,
+lentils, and other vegetable substances, was dug in for the purpose of
+giving to the soil the warmth and fertility required by the vine.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1513:
+
+ Geop. iii. 4. Cf. Virg. Georg. ii. 259, seq. et Serv. ad loc.
+
+Footnote 1514:
+
+ Geop. v. 24.
+
+-----
+
+The ground having remained in this state during a whole year, its
+surface was levelled, and a series of shallow furrows traced for the
+slips by line, rather close, on rich alluvial plains, but diverging more
+and more[1515] in proportion to the elevation of the site. Generally the
+vine was propagated by slips of moderate length, planted sometimes
+upright or à l’aiguille,[1516] as the phrase is in Languedoc, sometimes
+obliquely,[1517] which was generally supposed to be the better fashion.
+Along with the slip a handfull of grape-stones was usually cast into the
+furrow,[1518] those of the green grape with the purple vine, and those
+of the purple with the green, in order to cause it the sooner to take
+root. With some the practice was always to set two slips together, so
+that if one missed the other might take, and when both grew, the weaker
+was cut off or removed. Several stones,[1519] about the size of the
+fist, were placed round the slip above whatever manure was used, the
+belief being, that they would aid in preventing the root from being
+scorched by the sun in the heats of summer.[1520] Some touched the lower
+point of the slip with cedar oil which prevented it from decaying, and
+likewise by its odour repelled vermin.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1515:
+
+ Virg. Georg. ii. 274, seq.
+
+Footnote 1516:
+
+ Skippon in Churchill, Collection of Voyages, vi. 730.
+
+Footnote 1517:
+
+ Πότερα δὲ ὅλον τὸ κλῆμα ὀρθὸν τιθεὶς πρὸς τὸν οὐρανὸν βλέπον ἡγῇ
+ μάλλον ἂν ῥιζοῦσθαι αὐτὸ, ἢ καὶ πλάγιόν τι ὑπὸ τῇ ὑποβεβλημένη γῇ
+ θείης ἂν, ὥστε κεῖσθαι ὥσπερ γάμμα ὕπτιον; οὕτω νὴ Δία· πλείονες γὰρ
+ ἂν οἱ ὀφθαλμοὶ κατὰ γῆς εἶεν· ἐκ δὲ τῶν ὀφθαλμῶν καὶ ἄνω ὁρῶ
+ βλαστάνοντα τὰ φυτὰ. Xenoph. Œconom. xix. 9, seq.
+
+Footnote 1518:
+
+ Geop. v. 9. This practice is noticed by Lord Bacon who advises
+ gardeners to extend the experiment by laying “good store” of other
+ kernels about the roots of trees of the same kind. Sylva Sylvarum, i.
+ 35.
+
+Footnote 1519:
+
+ Virg. Georg. ii. 348.
+
+Footnote 1520:
+
+ A similar remark is made by Lord Bacon: “It is an assured experience,”
+ he says, “that an heap of flint or stone laid about the bottom of a
+ wild tree, as an oak, elm, ash, &c., upon the first planting, doth
+ make it prosper double as much as without it. The cause is for that it
+ retaineth the moisture which falleth at any time upon the tree and
+ suffereth it not to be exhaled by the sun.” Sylva Sylvarum, 422.
+
+-----
+
+To produce grapes without stones the lower end of the slip was split,
+and the pith carefully extracted with an ear-pick.[1521] It was then
+bound round with a papyrus leaf, thrust into a sea-onion and thus
+planted. Vines producing medicinal grapes were created by withdrawing
+the pith from the lower part of the slip, but without splitting, and
+introducing certain drugs into the hollow,[1522] closing up the
+extremity with papyrus and thus setting it in the earth. The wine, the
+grape, the leaves, and even the ashes of such a vine were thought to be
+a remedy against the bite of serpents and dogs, though no security
+against hydrophobia. Another mode of producing stoneless grapes was to
+cut short all the branches of a vine already growing, extract the pith
+from the ends of them, and fill up the cavity once a-week with the juice
+of sylphion,[1523] binding them carefully to props that the liquor might
+not escape. A method was also in use of producing green and purple
+grapes on the same cluster.[1524] This was to take two slips as nearly
+as possible of the same size, the one of the white, the other of the
+black grape, and, having split them down the middle, carefully to fit
+the halves to their opposites, so that the buds, when divided, should
+exactly meet. They were then bound tight together with papyrus thread,
+and placed in the earth in a sea-onion,[1525] whose glutinous juice
+aided the growing together of the severed parts. Sometimes instead of
+slips, offshoots removed from the trunk of a large vine, with roots
+attached to them, were used. On other occasions the vine was grafted,
+like any other fruit-tree, on a variety of stocks,[1526] each modifying
+the quality and flavour of the grape. Thus a vine grafted on a
+myrtle-stock,[1527] produced fruit partaking of the character of the
+myrtle-berry. Grafted on a cherry-tree, its grapes underwent a different
+change, and ripened, like cherries, in the spring. As the clay
+encircling the junctures of these grafts grew dry, and somewhat cracked
+in hot summers, it was customary for gardeners to moisten them every
+evening with a sponge dipped in water.[1528]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1521:
+
+ Geop. iv. 7. Mention of the stoneless grapes of Persia occurs in many
+ travellers, and, by Mr. Fowler, one of the most recent, are enumerated
+ under the name of _kismis_, among the choicest fruits of that country.
+ Three Years in Persia, vol. i. p. 323. It may here be remarked, that
+ certain sorts of vines, among others the Capneion, produced sometimes
+ white clusters, sometimes purple. Theophrast. Hist. Plant. ii. 3. 2.
+ Cf. de Caus. Plant. v. 3. 1. κ. τ. λ.
+
+Footnote 1522:
+
+ Geop. iv. 8.
+
+Footnote 1523:
+
+ Geop. iv. 7.
+
+Footnote 1524:
+
+ Geop. iv. 14.
+
+Footnote 1525:
+
+ It has been remarked also by ancient naturalists that a fig-tree
+ planted in a sea-onion, grows quicker and is more free from vermin.
+ Theoph. Hist. Plant. i. 5. 5.
+
+Footnote 1526:
+
+ Colum. v. 11.
+
+ —Adultâ vitium propagine
+ Altas maritat populos,
+ Inutilesque falce ramos amputans
+ Feliciores inserit.
+ Horat. Epod. ii. 9, seq.
+
+Footnote 1527:
+
+ Geop. iv. 4, seq.
+
+Footnote 1528:
+
+ Geop. iv. 12.
+
+-----
+
+The husbandmen of antiquity were often somewhat fanciful in their
+practices. In order, when forming a nursery,[1529] to coax the young
+plants to grow, the beds to which they were transferred, were formed of
+a stratum of earth brought from the vineyard whence they also were
+taken. Another nicety was to take care, that they occupied precisely the
+same position with respect to the quarters of the heavens[1530] as when
+growing on the parent stock.[1531]
+
+ “Besides to plant it as it was they mark
+ The heaven’s four quarters on the tender bark,
+ And to the north or south restore the side
+ Which at their birth did heat or cold abide,
+ So strong is custom; such effects can use
+ In tender souls of pliant plants produce.”
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1529:
+
+ Virg. Georg. ii. 265, seq.
+
+Footnote 1530:
+
+ Lord Bacon gives this experiment a place in his philosophy, observing,
+ that “in all trees when they be removed (especially fruit-trees) care
+ ought to be taken that the sides of the trees be coasted (north and
+ south) and as they stood before.” Sylva Sylvarum, 471.
+
+Footnote 1531:
+
+ Virg. Georg. ii. 270, seq.
+
+-----
+
+When desirous of extending the plantation in an old vineyard, instead of
+the methods above described, they had recourse to another, which was to
+bend down[1532] the vine branch, and bury it up to the point in the
+earth, where it would take root, and send forth a new vine, and in this
+way a long series of leafy arcades[1533] may sometimes have been formed.
+At the foot of their vines some cultivators were in the habit of burying
+three goats’ horns[1534] with their points downwards, and the other end
+appearing above the soil. These they regarded as so many receptacles for
+receiving and gradually conveying water to the roots, and, consequently,
+an active cause of the vines’ fertility.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1532:
+
+ An analogous practice is observed in the pepper gardens of
+ Sumatra:—“When the vines originally planted to any of the chinkareens
+ (or props) are observed to fail or miss; instead of replacing them
+ with new plants, they frequently conduct one of the shoots, or
+ suckers, from a neighbouring vine, to the spot, through a trench made
+ in the ground, and there suffer it to rise up anew, often at the
+ distance of twelve or fourteen feet from the parent stock.” Marsden,
+ History of Sumatra, p. 111.
+
+Footnote 1533:
+
+ Virg. Georg. ii. 26. Serv. ad loc.
+
+Footnote 1534:
+
+ Geop. iv. 2. The nymphs are said to have been the nurses of Bacchos,
+ because water supplied moisture to the vine. The explanation of
+ Athenæus is forced and cold. ii. 2.
+
+-----
+
+Respecting the seasons of planting,[1535] opinions were divided, some
+preferring the close of autumn, immediately after the fall of the leaf,
+when the sap had forsaken the branches, and descended to the roots;
+others chose, for the time of this operation, the early spring, just
+before the sap mounted; while a third class delayed it until the buds
+began to swell, and the tokens of spring were evident. To these
+varieties of practice Virgil makes allusion,—
+
+ When winter frosts constrain the field with cold,
+ The fainty root can take no steady hold;
+ But when the golden spring reveals the year,
+ And the white bird returns whom serpents fear,
+ That season deem the best to plant thy vines;
+ Next that, is when autumnal warmth declines,
+ Ere heat is quite decayed, or cold begun,
+ Or Capricorn admits the winter sun.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1535:
+
+ Geop. v. 7, seq. Virg. Georg. ii. 323, sqq.
+
+-----
+
+But the above were not the only rules observed; for, besides the general
+march of the seasons, they took note of the phases of the moon,[1536]
+whose influence over vegetation all antiquity believed to be very
+powerful. Some planted during the four days immediately succeeding the
+birth of the new moon, while others extended their labours through the
+first two quarters. The act of pruning[1537] was performed when that
+planet was in its wane.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1536:
+
+ Geop. v. 10.
+
+Footnote 1537:
+
+ Geop. iii. 1.
+
+-----
+
+There were in Greece[1538] three remarkable varieties of the vine,
+created by difference in the mode of cultivation.[1539] The first
+consisted of plants always kept short, and supported on props, as in
+France; the second of tree-climbers, thence called Anadendrades; the
+third sort enjoyed neither of these advantages,[1540] but being grown
+chiefly in steep and stony places, spread their branches over the earth,
+as is still the fashion in Syra[1541] and other islands of the
+Archipelago.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1538:
+
+ Cf. Theoph. Caus. Plant. iv. 3. 6.
+
+Footnote 1539:
+
+ The low vines of Asia Minor are now pruned in a very particular
+ manner. “As we approached Vourla the little valleys were all green
+ with corn, or filled with naked vine-stocks in orderly arrangement,
+ about a foot and a half high. The people were working, many in a row,
+ turning the earth, or encircling the trunks with tar, to secure the
+ buds from grubs and worms. The shoots which bear the fruit are cut
+ down again in winter.” Chandler, i. 98.
+
+Footnote 1540:
+
+ On the cultivation of the Corinth grape, see Chandler, ii. 339.
+
+Footnote 1541:
+
+ Abbé Della Rocca, Traité Complet des Abeilles, i. 203. Lord Bacon, who
+ had heard of this manner of cultivating the vine, observes, that in
+ this state it was supposed to produce grapes of superior magnitude,
+ and advises to extend the practice to hops, ivy, woodbine, &c. Sylva
+ Sylvarum, 623.
+
+-----
+
+Vine-props[1542] appear to have commonly consisted of short reeds,
+which, accordingly, were extensively cultivated both in Hellas and its
+colonies of Northern Africa, where the musical cicada, whose excessive
+multiplication betokened a sickly year, bored through the rind, and laid
+its eggs in the hollow within.[1543] From an inconvenience attending the
+use of this kind of support came the rustic proverb, “The prop has
+defrauded the vine;”[1544] for these reeds sometimes took root, outgrew
+their clients, and monopolized the moisture of the soil.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1542:
+
+ Geop. v. 22. 27. Reeds delight in sunny spots, and are nourished by
+ the rain. They were cultivated for props, and, if thoroughly smoked,
+ the insects called ἶπες were killed, which would otherwise breed in
+ them, to the great injury of the vine, v. 53. Plin. xviii. 78. Cf.
+ Schol. Aristoph. Acharn. 1140. 983. Varro, i. 8. In the island of
+ Pandataria the vineyard was filled with traps, to protect the grapes
+ from the mice. Id. ib.
+
+Footnote 1543:
+
+ Aristoph. Hist. Anim. v. 24. 3.
+
+Footnote 1544:
+
+ Sch. Aristoph. Vesp. 1282. Cf. Thom. Magist. v. χάραξ. p. 911, seq.
+ Blancard. cum not. Stieber. et Oudendorp. Ammon. v. χάραξ. p. 145,
+ with the note of Valckenaer. Liban. Epist. 218. p. 104 seq. Wolf.
+
+-----
+
+In rich and level lands,[1545] particularly where the Aminian vine[1546]
+was cultivated, the props often rose to the height of five or six feet;
+but in hill-vineyards, where the soil was lighter and less nutritive,
+they were not suffered to exceed that of three feet. Where reeds were
+not procurable, ash-props[1547] were substituted, but they were always
+carefully barked, to prevent cantharides, and other insects hurtful to
+the vine, from making nests in them. Their price would appear to have
+been considerable, since we find a husbandman speaking of having laid
+out a hundred drachma in vine-props.[1548] To prevent their speedily
+decaying they were smeared a-top with pitch, and carefully, after the
+vintage, collected and laid up within doors.[1549]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1545:
+
+ Geop. v. 27.
+
+Footnote 1546:
+
+ Cf. Geop. iv. 1. Dioscor. v. 6. Virg. Georg. ii. 97. Servius, on the
+ authority of Aristotle, relates that the Aminian vines were
+ transplanted from Thessaly into Italy. Cf. Pier. ad loc.
+
+Footnote 1547:
+
+ Sch. Aristoph. Vesp. 1116. Acharn. 1177. In the Æolian islands the
+ vines are supported on a frame-work of poles and trees, over which
+ they spread themselves with extraordinary luxuriance. Spallanzani, iv.
+ 99.
+
+Footnote 1548:
+
+ Sch. Aristoph. Pac. 1262.
+
+Footnote 1549:
+
+ Virg. Georg. 408, seq.
+
+-----
+
+A vineyard, consisting wholly of Anadendrades,[1550] most common in
+Attica, presented, in spring and summer, a very picturesque appearance,
+especially when situated on the sharp declivity of a hill.[1551] The
+trees designed for the support of the vines,[1552] planted in straight
+lines, and rising behind each other, terrace above terrace, at intervals
+of three or four and twenty feet, were beautiful in form and varied in
+feature, consisting generally of the black poplar, the ash, the maple,
+the elm,[1553] and probably, also, the platane, which is still employed
+for this purpose in Crete.[1554] Though kept low in some situations,
+where the soil was scanty, they were, in others, allowed to run to
+thirty or forty, and sometimes, as in Bithynia, even to sixty feet in
+height.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1550:
+
+ Which were pruned in January (Geop. iii. 1), and esteemed the most
+ useful, iv. 1. The solidest and hardest vines were thought to bear the
+ least fruit. Theoph. Hist. Plant. v. 4. 1. Cf. Chandler, i. 98.
+
+Footnote 1551:
+
+ Dem. in Nicostrat. § 5.
+
+Footnote 1552:
+
+ “Vitem viduas ducit ad arbores.”
+ Hor. Carm. iv. 5. 30.
+
+Footnote 1553:
+
+ Virg. Georg. ii. 361, seq. An amictâ vitibus ulmo. Hor. Epist. i. 16.
+ 3.
+
+Footnote 1554:
+
+ Pashley, Travels, ii. 22. The oak is now used for the same purpose in
+ Asia Minor. Chandler, i. 114.
+
+-----
+
+The face of the tree along which the vine climbed was cut down sheer
+like a wall, against which the purple or golden clusters hung thickly
+suspended, while the young branches crept along the boughs, or over
+bridges of reeds,[1555] uniting tree with tree, and, when touched with
+the rich tints of autumn, delighting the eye by an extraordinary variety
+of foliage. As the lower boughs of these noble trees were carefully
+lopped away, a series of lofty arches was created, beneath which the
+breezes could freely play, abundant currents of pure air being regarded
+as no less essential to the perfect maturing of the grape[1556] than
+constant sunshine. Sometimes the vine, in its ascent, was suffered to
+wind round the trunk of its supporter, which, however, by the most
+judicious husbandmen, was considered prejudicial, since the profusion of
+ligatures which it threw out in its passage upwards was thought to
+exhaust too much of its strength, to prevent which wooden wedges[1557]
+were here and there inserted between the vine stem and the tree. In
+trailing the branches, moreover, along the boughs, care was taken to
+keep them as much as possible on the upper side, that they might enjoy a
+greater amount of sunshine, and be the more exposed to be agitated by
+the winds.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1555:
+
+ Gœttling ad Hesiod. Scut. Heracl. 298.
+
+Footnote 1556:
+
+ Another means of augmenting the fertility of the vine is noticed by
+ Lord Bacon, whose diligent study of antiquity was at least as
+ remarkable as his superior intellect. “It is strange, which is
+ observed by some of the ancients, that dust helpeth the fruitfulness
+ of trees and of vines by name; insomuch as they cast dust upon them of
+ purpose. It should seem that powdring when a shower cometh maketh a
+ kind of soiling to the tree, being earth and water finely laid on. And
+ they note that countries where the fields and waies are dusty bear the
+ best vines.” Sylva Sylvarum, 666.
+
+Footnote 1557:
+
+ Geop. iv. 1. 16.
+
+-----
+
+These Anadendrades,[1558] which were supposed to produce the best and
+most lasting wines, probably, as at present, ripened their produce much
+later than the other sorts of vines on account of the trees by which
+they were shaded. In modern Crete,[1559] where, however, they are never
+pruned, their grapes seldom ripen before November, and sometimes they
+furnish the bazaar of Khania with fresh supplies till Christmas. The
+same is the case also in Egypt.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1558:
+
+ These vines were likewise called ἁμαμάξυες. Aristoph. Vesp. 325, et
+ Schol. The rustics engaged in pruning them, feeling themselves secure
+ in their lofty station, used to pour their rough raillery and
+ invectives on the passers-by. Horace, Satir. i. 7. 29, seq.
+
+-----
+
+Occasionally, too, more especially in Cypros, the Anadendrades grew to
+an enormous size. At Populonium, in Etruria, there was a statue of
+Jupiter carved from a single vine; the pillars of the temple of Hera, at
+Metapontum, consisted of so many vines; and the whole staircase leading
+to the roof of the fane of Artemis, at Ephesos, was constructed with the
+timber of a single vine from Cypros. To render these things credible, we
+are informed, that, at Arambys, in Africa,[1560] there was a vine twelve
+feet in circumference, and modern travellers have found them of equal
+dimensions in other parts of the world.[1561] In France, for example,
+the celebrated Anne, Duc de Montmorenci, had a table made with a single
+slab of vinewood, which, two hundred years afterwards, Brotier[1562] saw
+preserved at the town of Ecouen.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1559:
+
+ On the vines of this island cf. Meurs. Cret. c. 9. p. 103.
+
+Footnote 1560:
+
+ Bochart. Geog. Sac. Pars Alt. l. i. c. 37. p. 712. Cf. Plin. Hist.
+ Nat. v. i.
+
+Footnote 1561:
+
+ Tozzeli, Viaggi. t. iv. p. 208.
+
+Footnote 1562:
+
+ Not. ad Plin. xiv. i. 1.
+
+-----
+
+To return, however: the wide spaces between the trees were not in this
+class of vineyards allowed to remain entirely idle, having been
+sometimes sown[1563] with corn, or planted with beans, and gourds, and
+cucumbers, and lentils.[1564] The cabbage[1565] was carefully
+excluded,[1566] as an enemy to Dionysos. In other cases these intervals
+were given up to the cultivation of fruit-trees, such as the
+pomegranate, the apple, the quince, and the olive. The fig-tree was
+regarded as pernicious, though often planted in rows on the outside of
+the vineyard.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1563:
+
+ Geop. iv. 1. v. 7, seq.
+
+Footnote 1564:
+
+ Barley and other grain are still in modern times sown between the
+ vines in Asia Minor. Chandler, i. 114. The same practice has been
+ partially introduced into the Æolian islands. Spallanzani, iv. 100.
+
+Footnote 1565:
+
+ Suid. v. κράμβη, t. i. p. 1518. b.—παρὰ ἀμπέλω οὐ φυέται Etym. Mag.
+ 534. 47.
+
+Footnote 1566:
+
+ So was the laurel. Theoph. Caus. Plant. ii. 18. 4.
+
+-----
+
+Respecting those vines which were cultivated without the aid of
+props,[1567] or trees, we possess little information, except that there
+were such. But, as they are still found in the country, it is probable,
+that the mode of dressing them now prevailing nearly resembles that of
+antiquity. They are generally, in Syria, planted along the steep sides
+of mountains, where they spread and rest upon the stones, and have their
+fruit early ripened by the heat reflected from the earth. Frequently,
+also, they are planted on more level ground, in which case, as soon as
+the grapes acquire any size, the husbandman passes through the vineyard
+with an armful of forked wooden props which he skilfully introduces
+beneath the branches and fixes firmly so as to keep the clusters from
+touching the mould. The reason for adopting this method is the furious
+winds which at certain seasons of the year prevail in many of the
+Grecian islands, preventing the growth of woods and prostrating the fig
+and every other fruit-tree to the earth. The spaces between the lines
+are turned up annually by a peculiar sort of plough[1568] drawn by oxen,
+in front of which a man advances, lifting up the vines and holding them
+aside while they pass. This destroys the weeds, and, at the same time,
+all the upper roots of the vine, which compels it to descend deeper into
+the earth, where it finds a cooler and more abundant nourishment. In
+this respect the practice of the Syrotes closely resembles that of their
+ancestors. Some husbandmen were careful, likewise, while weeding,[1569]
+to remove the larger stones, though they are often supposed, by
+preserving moisture, to do more good than harm.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1567:
+
+ This creeping vine, cultivated _sine ridicis_, was common in Spain.
+ Varro, i. 8.
+
+Footnote 1568:
+
+ Della Rocca, Traité Complet sur les Abeilles, t. i. p. 203, sqq. Cf.
+ Thiersch, Etat Actuel de la Grèce, t. i. p. 288. 296. Damm. Nov. Lex.
+ Græc. Etym. 1122.
+
+Footnote 1569:
+
+ Geop. v. 19.
+
+-----
+
+It is a peculiar feature in the character of the ancients that they
+loved to attribute to the inferior animals the first hints of various
+useful practices. Thus they maintained it was the ass that, by browsing
+on the extremities of the vine, which only made it bear the more
+luxuriantly, taught them the art of pruning as well perhaps as that of
+feeding on the tendrils and tender branches,[1570] which among them were
+esteemed a delicacy. To manifest their gratitude for this piece of
+instruction they erected at Nauplia,[1571] a marble statue in honour of
+this ill-used quadruped, who has seldom, I fear, from that day to this,
+been so well treated. The rules observed in pruning[1572] resembling
+those still in use, it is unnecessary to repeat them, though it may be
+worth mentioning, that the husbandman, who coveted an abundant vintage,
+was careful to lop his vines[1573] with his brows shaded by an ivy
+crown. They esteemed it a sign of a fruitful year when the fig-tree and
+the white vine put forth luxuriantly in spring,[1574] after which they
+had only to petition the gods against too much rain, or too much
+drought,[1575] and those terrible hailstorms which sometimes devastate
+whole districts. Against this calamity, however, they had a
+preservative, which was to bind an amulet in the shape of a thong of
+seal-hide or eagle’s wing, about one of the stocks,[1576] after which
+the whole vineyard was supposed to be secure from injury. The same
+effect was produced by striking a chalezite stone with a piece of iron
+on the approach of a storm, and by hanging up in the vineyard a picture
+of a bunch of grapes at the setting of the constellation of the
+Lyre.[1577] To repel the ascent of vermin along the trunk it was smeared
+with a thick coat of bitumen,[1578] imported from Cilicia, while to
+preserve the branches from wasps a little olive-oil was blown over
+them.[1579]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1570:
+
+ Theoph. Caus. Plant. vi. 12. 9. After the vintage the goat and the
+ camel, among the modern Asiatics, are sometimes let into the vineyard
+ to browse upon the vine. Chandler, i. 163.
+
+Footnote 1571:
+
+ Paus. ii. 38. 3. See, however, another interpretation of the passage
+ in the Tale of a Tub, where the author gravely insists, that, by Ass,
+ we are to understand a critic. Sect. iii. p. 96.
+
+Footnote 1572:
+
+ Cf. Plat. De Rep. t. vi. p. 53. Schol. Aristoph. Eq. 166. See an exact
+ representation of the pruninghook in the hand of Vertumnus. Mus.
+ Cortonens. pl. 36. This instrument was usually put into requisition
+ about the vespertinal rising of Arcturus. Hesiod. Opp. et Dies, 566,
+ sqq.
+
+Footnote 1573:
+
+ Geop. v. 24.
+
+Footnote 1574:
+
+ Theoph. Caus. Plant. i. 20. 5.
+
+Footnote 1575:
+
+ Sch. Aristoph. Nub. 1117. Küst.
+
+Footnote 1576:
+
+ Geop. i. 14. Cf. Sch. Aristoph. Nub. 1109. Husbandmen were accustomed
+ to nail the heads and feet of animals to the trunks of trees to
+ prevent their being withered by the operation of the evil eye. Sch.
+ Ran. 943.
+
+Footnote 1577:
+
+ Geop. ii. 14.
+
+Footnote 1578:
+
+ Theoph. De Lapid. § 49. Schneid. Cf. Sir John Hill, notes, p. 200. It
+ was likewise obtained from Seleucia Pieria in Syria. Strab. vii. 5. t.
+ ii. p. 106.
+
+Footnote 1579:
+
+ Geop. iv. 10.
+
+-----
+
+While the grapes were growing, the ancients, following in the track of
+nature, supposed them to need shade, since the leaves at that time put
+forth most abundantly, to screen the young fruit from the scorching sun;
+but when they began to don their gold or purple hues, observing the
+foliage shrivel and shrink from about them, in order to admit the warm
+rays to penetrate and pervade the fruit they then stripped the branches
+and hastened the vintage,[1580] plucking moreover the clusters as they
+ripened, lest they should drop off and be lost. But this partial
+gathering of the grapes could only take place in their gardens, or where
+the vine was trained about the house; for in the regular vineyards the
+season of the vintage was regulated by law,[1581] as in Burgundy and the
+south of France, in order to protect the public against the pernicious
+frauds which would otherwise be practised. This, in Attica, usually
+coincided with the heliacal rising of the constellation Arcturus.[1582]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1580:
+
+ Xenoph. Œcon. xix. 9.
+
+Footnote 1581:
+
+ Plat. De Legg. t. viii. 106. Geop. v. 45.
+
+Footnote 1582:
+
+ Cf. Geop. i. 9. 9.
+
+-----
+
+When the magistrate had declared that the season of the vintage[1583]
+was come, the servants of Bacchos hurried forth to the vine-clad hills,
+converting their labours into a pretext for superabundant mirth and
+revelry. The troops of vintagers, composed of youths and maidens, with
+crowns of ivy on their heads, and accompanied by rural performers on the
+flute or phorminx, moved forward with shout, and dance, and song, to the
+sacred enclosures of Dionysos, surrounded with plaited hedgerows, and
+blue streamlets.[1584] Here, where
+
+ “——the showering grapes
+ In Bacchanal profusion reel to earth
+ Purple and gushing,”
+
+they at once commenced their joyous task. With sharp pruning-hooks[1585]
+they separated the luxuriant clusters, gold or purple, from the vine,
+and piling them in plaited baskets of osier or reed, bore them on their
+shoulders to the wine-press. In this operation, as I have said, both men
+and women joined; but the press was trodden by men only,[1586] who, half
+intoxicated by pleasure,[1587] and the fumes of the young wine, chanted
+loudly their ancient national lays in praise of Bacchos.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1583:
+
+ Cf. Plut. Thes. § 22.
+
+Footnote 1584:
+
+ Il. σ. 561, sqq.
+
+Footnote 1585:
+
+ Scut. Heracl. 291, seq. On the modern modes of gathering the grapes,
+ see Redding Hist. of Modern Wines, chap. ii. 26, et seq.
+
+Footnote 1586:
+
+ The practice is still the same in the Levant:—“The vintage was now
+ begun, the black grapes being spread on the ground in beds exposed to
+ the sun to dry for raisins; while in another part, the juice was
+ expressed for wine, a man with feet and legs bare, treading the fruit
+ in a kind of cistern, with a hole or vent near the bottom, and a
+ vessel beneath it to receive the liquor.” Chandler, ii. p. 2.
+
+-----
+
+The wine-press, which stood under cover, sometimes consisted of two
+upright, and many cross beams,[1588] which, descending with great weight
+upon the grapes squeezed forth all their juices, and these falling
+through a species of strainer,[1589] upon an inclined slab, were poured
+through a small channel formed for the purpose, into a broad open vessel
+communicating with the vat. Into the process of wine-making[1590] it is
+unnecessary to enter. It will be sufficient, perhaps, to say that, when
+made, it was laid up in skins or large earthen jars until required for
+use. The wines of modern Attica and the Morea[1591] are preserved from
+becoming acid by a large infusion of resin.[1592]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1587:
+
+ Anacreon, Od. 52. See a representation of the whole process in the
+ Mus. Cortonens, pl. 9, where the vintagers are clad in skins; and Cf.
+ Zoëga, Bassi Rilievi, tav. 26.
+
+Footnote 1588:
+
+ Antich. di Ercol. t. i. tav. 35, p. 187.
+
+Footnote 1589:
+
+ Schol. Aristoph. Pac. 527.
+
+Footnote 1590:
+
+ For the making of the sweet wine (Βίβλινος οἶνος) which resembled,
+ perhaps, our Constantia or Malaga, and enjoyed extraordinary favour
+ among the ancients Hesiod gives particular directions. Opp. et Dies,
+ 611, sqq. Colum. xii. 39. Plin. Hist. Nat. xiv. 8. Pallad. xi. 19.
+
+Footnote 1591:
+
+ Sibth. in Walp. Mem. ii. 235. Chandler, ii. 251.
+
+Footnote 1592:
+
+ A few drops of the oil which ran from olives without pressing were
+ supposed by the ancients to render the wine stronger and more
+ lasting.—Geop. vii. 12. 20. On the boiled wine, σίραιον. Cf. Sch.
+ Aristoph. Vesp. 878.
+
+-----
+
+The sports,[1593] which took place during the vintage, were loud and
+frolicsome, and distinguished sometimes for their excessive licence.
+They brought forth a number of wine skins, filled tight, to the village
+green, and there smearing them liberally with oil the staggering rustics
+sought, each in his turn, to leap and stand upon one of them with his
+naked foot.[1594] The missing, slipping, and falling, the awkward figure
+they sometimes made upon the ground, the jokes, and shouts, and laughter
+of the bystanders, mingled with the twanging of rustic instruments, and
+the roar of Bacchanalian songs, constituted the charm of the rural
+Dionysia, out of which, through many changes and gradations, arose, as
+we have seen, the Greek drama. In order without shame to give the freer
+licence to their tongues, they sometimes covered their faces with masks,
+formed with the bark of trees, which, there can be no doubt, led to
+those afterwards employed in the theatre. Sometimes a sort of
+farce[1595] was acted, representing the search of the Athenians for the
+bodies of Icarios and Erygone. The former, according to tradition, was
+the person who taught the inhabitants of Attica the use of wine, with
+which on a certain occasion he regaled a number of shepherds. These
+demi-savages, observing their strength and their reason fail, imagined
+themselves to have been poisoned, and falling, in revenge, upon the
+donor, put him to death. His dog Mœra escaped, and leading Erygone to
+the spot where her father had been murdered, she immediately hung
+herself on the discovery of the corpse. Upon this they were all
+transported to the skies, and changed into so many constellations,
+namely Boötes,[1596] the Dog, and the Virgin, by whose brilliancy we are
+still rejoiced nightly. Soon afterwards the maidens of Attica were
+seized with madness and hung themselves in great numbers, upon which the
+oracle being consulted, commanded the Athenians to make search for the
+bodies of Icarios and Erygone. Being able to discover them nowhere on
+earth, they suspended ropes from the branches of lofty trees, by
+swinging to and fro on which they appeared to be conducting their search
+in the air; but many of these adventurous explorers receiving severe
+falls, they were afterwards contented with suspending to the ropes
+little images after their own likeness, which they sent hither and
+thither in the air as their substitutes.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1593:
+
+ Virg. Georg. ii. 580, sqq. Hes. Scut. Heracl. 291, sqq. Cf. Schol.
+ Theocrit. i. 48.
+
+Footnote 1594:
+
+ See Book ii. chapter 3.
+
+Footnote 1595:
+
+ Serv. ad Virg. Georg. ii. 389.
+
+Footnote 1596:
+
+ Æl. de Anim. vi. 25.
+
+-----
+
+But all the produce of the vineyards was not appropriated to the making
+of wine, great quantities of grapes[1597] being preserved for the table,
+or converted into raisins.[1598] The latter were sometimes made by being
+carefully gathered after the full moon, and put out to dry in the sun,
+about ten o’clock in the morning, when all the dew was evaporated. For
+this purpose, there was in every vineyard, garden, and orchard, a place
+called Theilopedon,[1599] which would seem to have been a smooth raised
+terrace, where not grapes only, but myrtle-berries, and every other kind
+of fruit, were exposed to the sun on fine hurdles. Here, likewise, the
+berries of the Palma Christi[1600] were prepared for the making of
+castor oil. Another method was to twist the stem of the cluster[1601]
+and allow the grapes to dry on the vine. They were then laid up in
+vessels among vine leaves, dried also in the sun, covered close with a
+stopper, and deposited in a cold room free from smoke.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1597:
+
+ Geop. iv. 15. Cato, 7. Colum. xii. 39. Pallad. 11. 22.
+
+Footnote 1598:
+
+ In the warm climate of Asia Minor grapes were sometimes turned into
+ raisins, on the stalk, by the sun.—Chandler, i. 77.
+
+Footnote 1599:
+
+ Eustath. ad Odyss. η. p. 276. Schol. Aristoph. Nub. 51. κρεμάθρα.
+ fruit-baskets, 219.
+
+Footnote 1600:
+
+ Dioscor. i. 38.
+
+Footnote 1601:
+
+ Geop. v. 52. This we find is still the practice in the islands of the
+ Archipelago, for the purpose of making sweet wine. M. l’ Abbé della
+ Rocca, who mentions it, enumerates at the same time the most delicious
+ sorts of grapes now cultivated in Greece—“On peut juger si les vins y
+ sont exquis, et si les anciens eurent raison d’appeller Naxie l’île de
+ Bacchus. Les raisins y sont monstrueux, et il arrive souvent que dans
+ un repas, on n’en sert qu’un seul pour le fruit; mais aussi
+ couvre-t-il toute la profondeur d’un grand bassin: les grains en sont
+ gros comme nos damas noirs. Il y a dans les îles des raisins de plus
+ de vingt sortes: les muscats de Ténédos et de Samos l’emportent sur
+ tous les autres; ceux de Ténédos sont plus ambrés; ceux de Samos, plus
+ délicats. Les Sentorinois, pour donner une saveur plus exquise à leurs
+ raisins, leur tordent la queue lorsqu’ils commencent à mûrir; après
+ quelques jours d’un soleil ardent, les raisins deviennent à demi
+ flétris, ce qui fait un vin dont ceux de la Cieutat et de
+ Saint-Laurent n’approchent pas. Les autres sortes de raisins sont
+ _l’aïdhoni_, petit raisin blanc qu’on mange vers la mi-juillet; le
+ _samia,_ gros raisin blanc qu’on fait sécher; le siriqui, ainsi nommé
+ parce qu’il a le goût de la cerise; _l’ætonychi_, qui a la figure de
+ l’ongle d’un aigle, et qui est très savoureux; le malvoisie, le muscat
+ violet, le corinthe, et plusieurs autres dont les noms me sont
+ échappés.” Traité sur les Abeilles, t. i. p. 6, seq. Speaking of the
+ prodigious productiveness of vines, Columella mentions one which bore
+ upwards of two thousand clusters, De Re Rust. iii. 3. A vine producing
+ a fifth of this quantity has been thought extraordinary in modern
+ Egypt: “Il n’est pas croyable combien rapporte un seul pied de vigne.
+ Il y en a un dans la maison Consulaire de France, qui a porté 436
+ grosses grappes de raisin, et qui en donne ordinairement 300.”—De
+ Maillet, Description de l’Egypte, p. 17.* In the Grecian Archipelago,
+ however, the vine has been known to yield still more abundantly than
+ in Egypt: “On a compté pendant trois ans consécutifs, cent
+ trente-quatre grappes de raisin sur une souche; et sur un autre cep de
+ vigne planté dans un terrain très-gras, on a compté jusqu’à quatre
+ cent quatre-vingts grappes; et l’intendant de l’évêché de notre île
+ m’a plus d’une fois assuré qu’on avoit fait soixante-quinze bouteilles
+ de vin, avec le raisin d’un seul cep.” Della Rocca, t. i. p. 65.
+
+-----
+
+To preserve the grapes fresh some cut off with a sharp pruninghook the
+clusters separately, others the branches on which they grew, after
+which, dipping the stem into pitch and removing the damaged grapes with
+a pair of scissors, they spread them in cool and shady rooms, on layers
+of pulse-halm, or hay, or straw.[1602] The halm of lentils was usually
+preferred, because it is hard and dry, and repels mice. On other
+occasions, the branches were kept suspended, having sometimes been
+previously dipped in sweet wine. Grapes were likewise preserved in
+pitched coffers, immersed in dry saw-dust of the pitch tree, or the
+silver fir, or the black poplar, or even in millet flour. Others plunged
+the bunches in boiling sea-water, or if this were not at hand, into a
+preparation of wine, salt, and water, and then laid them up in barley
+straw. Others boiled the ashes of the fig-tree, or the vine, with which
+they sprinkled the bunches. Others preserved grapes by suspending them
+in granaries, where the grain beneath was occasionally moved, for the
+dust rising from the corn settled on the outside of the clusters, and
+protected them from the air. Another method was to boil rain-water to a
+third, and then, after cooling it in the open air, and pouring it into a
+pitched vessel, to fill it with clusters perfectly cleansed. The vessel
+was then covered, luted with gypsum, and laid by in a cold place. The
+grapes in this way remained quite fresh, and the water itself acquiring
+a vinous taste was administered to sick persons in lieu of wine.
+Occasionally, also, grapes as well as apples were kept in honey.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1602:
+
+ Geop. iv. 15. 4.
+
+-----
+
+The most extraordinary, and perhaps the most effectual
+contrivance,[1603] however, was to dig near the vine a pit three feet
+deep, the bottom of which was covered with a layer of sand. A few short
+stakes were then fixed upright in it, and to these a number of vine
+branches laden with clusters were bent down and made fast. The whole was
+then closely roofed over so as completely to keep out the rain, and in
+this way the grapes would remain fresh till spring.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1603:
+
+ Geop. iv. 11. Pallad. xii. 12.
+
+-----
+
+The labours of the vintage being concluded, the husbandman next turned
+his attention to olive gathering and the making of oil. This, in Greece,
+was a matter of great importance. The olives, therefore,[1604] for all
+the better sorts of oil, were picked by hand, and not, as in Italy,
+suffered to fall. When as many were gathered as could conveniently be
+pressed during the following night and day, they were spread loosely on
+fine hurdles, and not heaped up lest they should heat and lose the
+delicacy of their flavour. They were, likewise, cleansed carefully from
+leaves and every particle of wood, these substances, it was supposed,
+impairing the quality and durability of the oil. Towards evening a
+little salt was sprinkled over the olives, which were then put into a
+clean mill,[1605] and so arranged that they could be bruised without
+crushing the stones, from the juice of which the oil contracted a bad
+taste. Having been sufficiently bruised, they were conveyed in small
+vessels to the press, where they were covered with hurdles of green
+willows, upon which, at first, was placed a moderate weight,—for that
+which flows from slight pressure is the sweetest and purest oil, on
+which account it was drawn off in clean leaden vessels,[1606] and
+preserved apart. Greater weight was then added, and the mass having been
+well writhen, the second runnings were laid up in separate vessels. The
+next step was to cause the precipitation of the lees, which was effected
+by mingling with the crude oil a little salt and nitre. It was then
+stirred with a piece of olive-wood, and left to settle, when the amurca
+or watery part sank to the bottom. The pure oil was then skimmed off
+with a shell, and laid up in glass vases, this substance having been
+preferred on account of its cold nature. In default of these,
+pickle-jars, glazed with gypsum, were used, which were deposited in cool
+cellars facing the north.[1607]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1604:
+
+ Geop. ix. 19. 2.
+
+Footnote 1605:
+
+ The fruit of the terebinth was ground, like the olive, in a mill, for
+ the making of oil. The kernels were used in feeding pigs, or for fuel.
+ Geop. ix. 18.
+
+Footnote 1606:
+
+ Cf. Cato, De Re Rust. 66. This clear pure oil, sometimes rendered
+ odoriferous by perfumes, (Il. ψ. 186,) was chiefly employed in
+ lubricating the body. Thus we find the virgin in Hesiod anointing her
+ limbs with olive-oil to defend herself from the winter’s cold. Opp. et
+ Dies, 519, sqq.
+
+Footnote 1607:
+
+ Vitruv. vi. 9.
+
+-----
+
+The Greeks had a variety of other oils besides that procured from the
+olive,[1608] as walnut-oil, oil of terebinth, oil of sesamum, oil of
+violets, oil of almonds, oil of Palma Christi, or castor-oil, oil of
+saffron, oil of Cnidian laurel, oil of datura, oil of lentisk, oil of
+mastic, oil of myrtle, and oil of mustard. They had, likewise,[1609] the
+green and wild-olive oil, and the double-refined oil of Sicyon, together
+with imitations of the Spanish and Italian oils.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1608:
+
+ Geop. ix. 18.
+
+Footnote 1609:
+
+ Geop. ix. 19, seq. iii. 13. Dioscor. i. 140.
+
+-----
+
+As fruit of all kinds was in great request among the Greeks, they had
+recourse to numerous contrivances[1610] for ensuring an unfailing supply
+throughout the year. At many of these our gardeners may, perhaps, smile,
+but they were, nevertheless, most of them ingenious, and, probably,
+effectual, though the fruit thus preserved may have been dear when
+brought to market. Into the details of all their methods it will be
+unnecessary to enter: the following were the principal and most curious.
+Walnuts, chestnuts, filberts, &c., were gathered and kept in the
+ordinary way. They understood the art of blanching almonds, which were
+afterwards dried in the sun. Medlars, service-berries, winter-apples,
+and the like, having been gathered carefully, were simply laid up in
+straw, whether on the loft-floor or in baskets. This, likewise, was
+sometimes the case with quinces, which, together with apples and pears,
+were, on other occasions, deposited in dry fig-leaves. For these, in the
+case of pears and apples, walnut-leaves were often substituted,
+sometimes piled under and over them in heaps, at other times wrapped and
+tied about the fruit, the hues and odours of which they were supposed
+greatly to improve.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1610:
+
+ Geop. x. 10–70. Cf. Mazois, Pal. de Scaurus, p. 182, seq.
+
+-----
+
+Citrons,[1611] pomegranates,[1612] apples, quinces, and pears, were
+preserved in heaps of sand, grapestones, oak, poplar, deal, or cedar
+sawdust, sometimes sprinkled with vinegar, chopped straw, wheat, or
+barley, or the seeds of plants, all of which sufficed equally to exclude
+the external air. Another method with apples[1613] was to lay them up
+surrounded with sea-weed in unbaked jars, which were then deposited in
+an upper room free from smoke and all bad smells. When sea-weed was not
+procurable they put each apple into a small separate jar closely covered
+up and luted. These apple-jars were often lined with a coating of wax.
+Figs were, in like manner, preserved green[1614] by being enclosed in so
+many small gourds. Citrons and pomegranates were often suffered to
+remain throughout the winter on the tree, defended from wet and wind by
+being capped with little fictile vases bound tightly to the branches to
+keep them steady. Others enclosed these fruits, as well as apples, in a
+thick coating of gypsum, preventing their falling off by binding the
+stem to the branches with packthread. Nor was it unusual, even when
+gathered, to envelope apples, quinces, and citrons, in a covering of the
+same material, or potter’s clay, or argillaceous earth, mixed with hair,
+sometimes interposing between the fruit and this crust a layer of
+fig-leaves, after which they were dried in the sun. When at the end,
+perhaps, of a whole year the above crust was broken and removed the
+fruit came forth perfect as when plucked from the bough. It is possible,
+therefore, that, in a similar manner, mangoes, mangusteens, and other
+frail and delicate fruit of the tropics, might be brought fresh to
+Europe, and that, too, in such abundance as to make them accessible to
+most persons. To render pears and pomegranates durable, their stems were
+dipped in pitch, after which they were hung up. In the case of the
+latter the fruit itself was sometimes thus dipped; and, at other times,
+immersed in hot sea-water, after which it was dried in the sun. One mode
+of preserving figs was to plunge them in honey so as neither to touch
+each other, nor the vessel in which they were contained; another, to
+cover a pile of them with an inverted vase of glass, or other pellucid
+substance, closely luted to the slab on which it stood. Cherries were
+gathered before sunrise, and put, with summer savory above and below,
+into a jar, or the hollow of a reed, which was then filled with sweet
+vinegar, and closely covered. Mulberries were preserved in their own
+juice, apples and quinces in pitched coffers, wrapped in clean locks of
+wool, pears by being placed in salt[1615] for five days, and afterwards
+dried in the sun, as were also figs, which were strung by the stalks to
+a piece of cord or willow twig, like so many hanks of onions[1616] as
+they are sold in modern times. Elsewhere they were preserved, as dates
+in Egypt, by being pressed together in square masses, like bricks.[1617]
+Damascenes were kept in must or sweet wine, as were also pears, adding
+sometimes a little salt and jujubes, with leaves, above and below. The
+same course was pursued with apples and quinces, which communicated to
+the liquor additional durability and the most exquisite fragrance.
+Quinces, whose sharp effluvia prevented their being placed with other
+fruit, were often put into closely-covered jars, and kept floating in
+wine to which they imparted a delicious perfume. The same custom was
+observed with respect to figs, which were cut off on the bearing branch
+a little before they were ripe, and hung, so as not to touch each other,
+in a square earthen jar. Upon the same principle apples were preserved
+in jars hermetically sealed, which, for the sake of coolness, were
+plunged in cisterns or deep wells.[1618]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1611:
+
+ Palladius, iv. 10.
+
+Footnote 1612:
+
+ We find mention in modern times of a species of pomegranate, the
+ kernels of which are without stones, peculiar apparently to the island
+ of Scio. “It is usual to bring them to table, in a plate, sprinkled
+ with rose-water.” Chandler, i. 58.
+
+Footnote 1613:
+
+ Cf. Philost. Icon. t. 31. p. 809. ii. 2. p. 812.
+
+Footnote 1614:
+
+ Ficus virides servari possunt vel in melle ordinatæ, ne se invicem
+ tangant, vel singulæ intra viridem cucurbitam clausæ, locis unicuique
+ cavatis, et item tessera, quæ secatur, inclusis, suspensa ea
+ cucurbita, ubi non sit ignis vel fumus. Pallad. iv. 10.
+
+Footnote 1615:
+
+ Cato, 7. Varro. i. 59. Colum. xii. 14.
+
+Footnote 1616:
+
+ Schol. Aristoph. Eq. 755. Sibth. in Walp. Mem. ii. 61.
+
+Footnote 1617:
+
+ Phot. ap. Brunckh. ad Aristoph. Pac. 574.
+
+Footnote 1618:
+
+ Pallad. iii. 25.
+
+-----
+
+It may, perhaps, be worth while to mention, in passing, that, like
+ourselves, the ancients possessed the art of extracting perry and
+cider[1619] from their pears and apples; and from pomegranates a species
+of wine which is said to have been of an extremely delicate flavour. The
+Egyptians, also, made wine from the fruit of the lotos.[1620]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1619:
+
+ Pallad. iii. 25. Colum. xii. 45.
+
+Footnote 1620:
+
+ Theoph. Hist. Plant. iv. 3. i.
+
+-----
+
+
+
+
+ CHAPTER IV.
+ STUDIES OF THE FARMER.
+
+
+In other branches of rural economy the country gentlemen of Attica
+exhibited no less enthusiasm or skill. Indeed, throughout Greece, there
+prevailed a similar taste. Every one was eager to instruct and be
+instructed; and so great in consequence was the demand for treatises on
+husbandry, theoretical and practical, that numerous writers, the names
+of fifty of whom are preserved by Varro,[1621] made it the object of
+their study. Others without committing the result of their experience to
+writing, devoted themselves wholly to its practical improvement. They
+purchased waste or ill-cultivated lands, and, by investigating the
+nature of the soil, skilfully adapting their crops to it, manuring,
+irrigating, and draining, converted a comparative desert into a
+productive estate.[1622] We can possibly, as Dr. Johnson insists,
+improve very little our knowledge of agriculture by erudite researches
+into the methods of the ancients; though Milton was of opinion, that
+even here some useful hints might be obtained. In describing, however,
+what the Greeks did, I am not pretending to enlighten the present age,
+but to enable it to enjoy its superiority by instituting a comparison
+with the ruder practices of antiquity.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1621:
+
+ De Re Rusticâ, i. 1. Cf. Colum. i. 1.
+
+Footnote 1622:
+
+ Xenoph. Œconom. xx. 22, sqq.
+
+-----
+
+Already in those times the men of experience and routine,[1623] had
+begun to vent their sneers against philosophers for their profound
+researches into the nature of soils,[1624] in which, however, they by no
+means designed to engage the husbandman, but only to present him, in
+brief and intelligible maxims, with the fruit of their labours.
+Nevertheless the practical husbandman went to work a shorter way. He
+observed his neighbour’s grounds,[1625] saw what throve in this soil,
+what in the other, what was bettered by irrigation, what in this respect
+might safely be left to the care of Heaven; and thus, in a brief space,
+acquired a rough theory wherewith to commence operations. An
+agriculturist, the Athenians thought, required no recondite erudition,
+though to his complete success the exercise of much good sense and
+careful observation was necessary. Every man would, doubtless, know in
+what seasons of the year he must plough and sow and reap, that lands
+exhausted by cultivation must be suffered to lie fallow, that change of
+crops is beneficial to the soil, and so on. But the great art consists
+in nicely adapting each operation to the varying march of the seasons,
+in converting accidents to use, in rendering the winds, the showers, the
+sunshine, subservient to your purposes, in mastering the signs of the
+weather, and guarding as far as possible against the injuries sustained
+from storms of rain or hail.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1623:
+
+ Cf. Plat. De Legg. t. vii. p. 111. t. viii. p. 103.
+
+Footnote 1624:
+
+ Xenoph. Œconom. xvi. 1, sqq.
+
+Footnote 1625:
+
+ The sight of a rich and thriving neighbour operated likewise as a spur
+ to his industry:—
+
+ Εἰς ἕτερον γάρ τίς τε ἰδὼν ἔργοιο χατίζων
+ Πλούσιον ὅς σπεύδει μέν ἀρόμμεναι ἠδὲ φυτεύειν,
+ Οἶκον τ᾽ εὖ θέσθαι· ζηλοῖ δὲ τε γείτονα γείτων
+ Εἰς ἄφενον σπεύδοντ᾽ ἀγαθὴ δ᾽
+ Ἔρις ἥδε βροτοῖσι.
+ Hesiod. Opp. et Dies, 21, sqq.
+
+-----
+
+There was in circulation among the Greeks a small body of precepts,
+addressed more especially to husbandmen, designed to promote the real
+object of civilisation. Quaint, no doubt, and ineffably commonplace,
+they will now appear, but they served, nevertheless, in early and rude
+times, to soften the manners and regulate the conduct of the rustic
+Hellenes. Who first began to collect and preserve them is, of course,
+unknown; they are thickly sprinkled through the works of Hesiod,[1626]
+and impart to them an air of moral dignity which relieves the monotony
+that would otherwise result from a mere string of agricultural maxims.
+The chief aim of the poet seems to be, to promote peace and good
+neighbourhood, to multiply among the inhabitants of the fields occasions
+of joining the “rough right hand,”[1627] to apply the sharp spur to
+industry, and thus to augment the stores, and, along with them, the
+contentment, of his native land. Be industrious, exclaims the poet, for
+famine is the companion of the idle. Labour confers fertility on flocks
+and herds, and is the parent of opulence. He who toils is beloved by
+gods[1628] and men, while the idle hand is the object of their aversion.
+The slothful man envies the prosperity of his neighbour; but glory is
+the reward of virtue. Prudence heaps up that which profligacy
+dissipates. Be hospitable to the stranger, for he who repels the
+suppliant from his door is no less guilty than the adulterer, than the
+despoiler of the orphan, or the wretch who blasphemes his aged parent on
+the brink of the grave: of such men the end is miserable, when Zeus
+rains down vengeance upon them in recompense for their evil actions. Be
+mindful that thou offer up victims to the gods with pure hands and holy
+thoughts,—to pour libations in their temples, adorn their altars, and
+render them propitious to thee in all things. When about to ascend thy
+couch to enjoy sweet sleep, and when the sacred light of the day-spring
+first appears, omit not to demand of heaven a pure heart and a cheerful
+mind, with the means of extending thy possessions, and protection from
+loss. When thou makest a feast, invite thy friends and thy neighbours,
+and in times of trouble they will run to thy assistance half-clad, while
+thy relations will tarry to buckle on their girdles. Borrow of thy
+neighbour, but, in repaying him, exceed rather than fall short of what
+is his due. Rise betimes. Every little makes a mickle. Store is no sore.
+Housed corn breaks no sleep. Drink largely the top and the bottom of the
+jar; be sparing of the middle:[1629] it is niggardly to stint your
+friends when the wine runs low. Do unto others as they do unto
+you.—These seeds of morality are simple, as I have said, and far from
+recondite; but they produced the warriors of Marathon and Platæa, and
+preserved for ages the freedom and the independence of Greece.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1626:
+
+ Opp. et Dies, 298, sqq.
+
+Footnote 1627:
+
+ Sch. Aristoph. Pac. 190.
+
+Footnote 1628:
+
+ Καὶ τ᾽ ἐργαζόμενος πολὺ φίλτερος ἀθανάτοισιν.
+ Ἔσσεαι ἠδὲ βροτοῖς· μάλα γὰρ στυγέουσιν ἀεργούς.
+ Opp. et Dies. 309, seq.
+
+Footnote 1629:
+
+ Cf. Plut. Sympos. vii. 3.
+
+-----
+
+The other branches of an Hellenic farmer’s studies comprehended
+something like the elements of natural philosophy,—the influence of the
+sun and moon, the rising and setting of the stars, the motion of the
+winds, the generation and effects of dews, clouds, meteors, showers and
+tempests, the origin of springs and fountains, and the migrations and
+habits of birds and other animals. In addition to these things, it was
+necessary that he should be acquainted with certain practices, prevalent
+from time immemorial in his country, and, probably, deriving their
+origin from ages beyond the utmost reach of tradition. The source of
+these we usually denominate superstition, though it would, perhaps, be
+more proper to regard them as the offspring of that lively and plastic
+fancy which gave birth to poetry and art, and inclined its possessors to
+create a sort of minor religion, based on a praiseworthy principle, but
+developing itself chiefly in observances almost always minute and
+trifling, and sometimes ridiculous. To describe all these at length
+would be beside my present purpose, which only requires that I mention
+by the way the more remarkable of those connected especially with
+agriculture.
+
+The knowledge of soil was called into play both in purchasing estates
+and in appropriating their several parts to different kinds of culture.
+According to their notions, which appear to have been founded on long
+experience, and in most points, I believe, agree with those which still
+prevail, a rich black mould, deep, friable, and porous,[1630] which
+would resist equally the effects of rain and drought, was, for all
+purposes, the best. Next to this they esteemed a yellow alluvial soil,
+and that sweet warm ground which best suited vines, corn, and trees. The
+red earth, also, they highly valued, except for timber.
+
+Their rules for detecting the character and qualities of the soil appear
+to have been judicious. Good land, they thought, might be known even
+from its appearance, since in drought it cracks not too much, and during
+heavy and continued showers becomes not miry, but suffers all the rain
+to sink into its bosom. That earth they considered inferior which in
+cold weather becomes baked, and is covered on the surface by a
+shell-like incrustation. They judged, likewise, of the virtue of the
+soil by the luxuriant or stunted character of its natural
+productions:[1631] thus they augured favourably of those tracts of
+country which were covered by vast and lofty timber-trees, while such as
+produced only a dwarfed vegetation, consisting of meagre bushes,
+scattered thickets, and hungry grass, they reckoned almost worthless.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1630:
+
+ Geop. ii. 9. In these rich loams, particularly on the banks of the
+ Stymphalian and Copaic lakes, wheat has been known to yield a return
+ of fifty-fold. Thiersch, Etat Act. de la Grèce. t. ii. p. 17.
+
+ Other spots, again, return thirty-fold. Sibth. in Walp. Mem. i. 60.
+
+Footnote 1631:
+
+ The pitch-pine indicated a light and hungry soil; the cypress, a
+ clayey soil. Philost. Icon. ii. 9. p. 775.
+
+-----
+
+Not content with the testimony of the eye, some husbandmen were
+accustomed to consult both the smell and the taste; for, digging a pit
+of some depth, they took thence a small quantity of earth, from the
+odour of which they drew an opinion favourable or otherwise. But to
+render surety doubly sure, they then threw it into a vase, and poured on
+it a quantity of potable water, which they afterwards tasted, inferring
+from the flavour the fertility or barrenness of the soil. This was the
+experiment most relied on; though many considered that soil sweet which
+produced the basket-rush, the reed, the lotos, and the bramble. On some
+occasions they employed another method, which was, to make a small
+excavation, and then, throwing back the earth into the opening whence it
+had been drawn, to observe whether or not it filled the whole
+cavity:[1632] if it did so, or left a surplus, the soil was judged to be
+excellent; if not, they regarded it as of little value. Soils possessing
+saline qualities were shunned by the ancients, who carefully avoided
+mingling salt with their manure, though lands of this description were
+rightly thought to be well adapted to the cultivation of
+palm-trees,[1633] which they produce in the greatest perfection,[1634]
+as in Phœnicia, Egypt, and the country round Babylon.[1635]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1632:
+
+ Geop. ii. 11.
+
+Footnote 1633:
+
+ The Grecian husbandman, therefore, when planting palm-trees in any
+ other than a sandy soil, sprinkled salt on the earth immediately
+ around. Theoph. Hist. Plant. i. 6. 2.
+
+Footnote 1634:
+
+ Geop. ii. 10.
+
+Footnote 1635:
+
+ Xenoph. Anab. ii. 3. 16. The doom-palm, generally, I believe, supposed
+ to be peculiar to Upper Egypt and the countries beyond the cataract,
+ was anciently cultivated also in Crete. Theoph. Hist. Plant. i. 6. 3.
+
+-----
+
+Another art in which the condition of the husbandman required him to be
+well versed was that of discovering the signs of latent springs,[1636]
+the existence of which it was necessary to ascertain before laying the
+foundation of a new farm. The investigation was complicated, and carried
+on in a variety of ways. First, and most obvious, was the inference
+drawn from plants and the nature of the soil itself; for those grounds,
+they thought, were intersected below by veins of water which bore upon
+their surface certain tribes of grasses and herbs and bushes, as the
+couch-grass, the broad-leaved plantain, the heliotrope, the red-grass,
+the agnus-castus, the bramble, the horse-tail, or shave-grass, ivy,
+bush-calamint, soft and slender reeds,[1637] maiden-hair, the melilot,
+ditch-dock, cinquefoil, or five leaf-grass, broad-leaved bloodwort, the
+rush, nightshade, mil-foil, colt’s-foot or foal’s-foot, trefoil or
+pond-weed, and the black thistle. Spring-heads were always supposed to
+lurk beneath fat and black loam, as, likewise, in a stony soil,
+especially where the rocks are dark and of a ferruginous colour. But in
+argillaceous districts, particularly where potter’s-clay abounds, or
+where there are many pebbles and pumice-stones,[1638] they are of rare
+occurrence.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1636:
+
+ Geop. ii. 4, sqq.
+
+Footnote 1637:
+
+ Philost. Icon. ii. 9. p. 775.
+
+Footnote 1638:
+
+ Spallanzani, in his scientific Travels in the Two Sicilies, describes
+ and explains the cause of the rarity of springs in volcanic countries.
+ In some districts among the roots of Ætna the female peasants are
+ compelled to travel ten miles, at certain seasons of the year, in
+ search of water, a jar of which costs, consequently, almost a day’s
+ journey. vol. i. p. 299, sqq. In another part of the same work he
+ investigates the origin of springs in the Æolian isles, which he
+ illustrates by the example of Stromboli. iv. 128. In this island there
+ are two fountains, one of slightly tepid water, at the foot of the
+ mountain, the other on its slope. “Je recontrai,” observes Monsieur
+ Dolomieu, “à moitié hauteur une source d’eau froide, douce, légère et
+ très bonne à boire, qui ne tarit jamais et qui est l’unique ressourse
+ des habitans lorsque leurs cîternes sont épuisées et lorsque les
+ chaleurs ont desséché une seconde source qui est au pied de la
+ montagne ce qui arrive tous les étés.” He then adds with reason:
+ “Cette petite fontaine dans ce lieu très élevé au milieu des cendres
+ volcaniques, est très remarquable, elle ne peut avoir son réservoir
+ que dans une pointe de montagne isolée, toute de sable et de pierres
+ poreuses, matières qui ne peuvent point retenir l’eau, puisqu’elles
+ sont perméables à la fumée.” Voyage aux Iles de Lipari, t. i. p. 120.
+ He then endeavours to account for its existence by evaporation. In the
+ island of Saline, among the same Æolian group, there is another
+ never-failing spring, which, as some years no rain falls in these
+ islands during the space of nine months, has greatly perplexed the
+ theories of naturalists. Spallanzani conceives, however, that the
+ phenomenon may be explained in the usual way: “It appears to me,” he
+ says, “extremely probable, that in the internal parts of an island
+ which, like this, is the work of fire, there may be immense caverns
+ that may be filled with water by the rains; and that in some of these
+ which are placed above the spring, the water may always continue at
+ nearly the same height.” Travels in the Two Sicilies, vol. iv. p. 136.
+
+-----
+
+To the above indications they were in most cases careful to add others.
+Ascending ere sunrise to a higher level than the spot under examination,
+they observed by the first rays and before the light thickened, whether
+they could detect the presence of any exhalations, which were held
+unerringly to indicate the presence of springs below. Sometimes
+inquisition was made during the bright and clear noon, when the
+subterraneous retreats of the Naiads were supposed in summer to be
+betrayed by cloudlets of thin silvery vapour, and in the winter season
+by curling threads of steam. In this way the natives of southern Africa
+discover the existence of hidden fountains in the desert.[1639] Swarms
+of gnats flitting hither and thither, or whirling round and ascending in
+a column, were regarded as another sign.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1639:
+
+ Le Vaillant, t. viii. p. 162. Even in the southern provinces of
+ France, the discovery of hidden springs is an art of no mean
+ importance; and the persons who possess it are regarded as public
+ benefactors. Thus, as I learn from my friend M. Louis Froment, of the
+ department of the Lot, M. Paramelle, a curé having a living in that
+ part of the country, is held in high estimation on account of the
+ power he possesses of discovering the lurking retreats of
+ spring-heads. He is able, from a certain distance, and without the
+ least hesitation, to point out the source of living water, determine
+ the depth at which it is to be found, say, without ever falling into
+ error, what is the quantity and what the quality of the water. Without
+ seeking to penetrate the plan, of which he keeps the secret, his
+ countrymen avail themselves of the advantages offered to them; and the
+ inhabitants of one village, situated on a calcareous tableland, have
+ discovered, by the assistance of M. Paramelle, a source in their
+ market-place, whilst before they were compelled to seek water at a
+ distance of five miles.
+
+-----
+
+When not entirely satisfied by any of the above means, they had recourse
+to the following experiment:[1640] sinking a pit to the depth of about
+four feet and a half, they took a hemispherical pan or lead basin, and
+having anointed it with oil, and fastened with wax a long flake of wool
+to the bottom, placed it inverted in the pit. It was then covered with
+earth about a foot deep, and left undisturbed during a whole night. On
+its being taken forth in the morning, if the inside of the vessel were
+covered thickly with globules, and the wool were dripping wet, it was
+concluded there were springs beneath, the depth of which they calculated
+from the scantiness or profusion of the moisture. A similar trial was
+made with a sponge covered with reeds.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1640:
+
+ Geop. ii. 4.
+
+-----
+
+Since most streams and rivers take their rise in lofty table-lands or
+mountains, which by the ancients were supposed to be richer in springs
+in proportion to the number of their peaks, it would seem to follow,
+that scarcely any country in Europe should be better supplied with water
+than Greece. Experience, however, shows, that this in modern times is
+not the fact, several rivers supposed to have been of great volume in
+antiquity, having now dwindled into mere brooks, and innumerable
+streamlets and fountains become altogether dry; on which account the
+credit of Greek writers is often impugned, it being supposed that the
+natural characteristics of the country must necessarily be invariable.
+But this is an error. For the existence of springs and rivulets depends
+less perhaps on the presence of mountains than on the prevalence of
+forests, as Democritos[1641] long ago observed. Now, from a variety of
+causes, still in active operation, the ridges and hills and lower
+eminences of modern Greece have been almost completely denuded of trees,
+along with which have necessarily disappeared the well-springs, and
+runnels, and cascades, and rills, and mountain tarns, which anciently
+shed beauty and fertility over the face of Hellas, whose highlands were
+once so densely clad with woods[1642] that the peasants requiring a
+short cut from one valley to another, were compelled to clear themselves
+a pathway with the axe.[1643] To restore to Greece, therefore, its
+waters, and the beauty and riches depending on them, the mountains must
+be again forested, and severe restraint put on the wantonness of those
+vagrant shepherds who constantly expose vast woods to the risk of entire
+destruction for the sake of procuring more delicate grass for their
+flocks.[1644]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1641:
+
+ Geop. ii. 6.
+
+Footnote 1642:
+
+ Cf. Hesiod. Opp. et Dies, 233, where he speaks of swarms of wild bees
+ on the slopes of the mountains.
+
+ In another passage this poet describes the ravages and devastation of
+ a hurricane amid the fountain forests:
+
+ Μῆνα δὲ Ληναιῶνα, κάκ᾽ ἤματα, βουδόρα πάντα,
+ τοῦτον ἀλεύασθαι, καὶ πηγάδας, αἵτ ἐπὶ γαῖαν
+ πνεύσαντος Βορέαο δυσηλεγέες τελέθουσιν,
+ ὅστε διὰ Θρῄκης ἱπποτρόφου ἐυρέϊ πόντῳ
+ ἐμπνεύσας ὤρινε· μέμυκε δὲ γαῖα καὶ ὕλη.
+ πολλὰς δὲ δρῦς ὑψικόμους ἐλάτας τε παχείας
+ οὔρεος ἐν βήσσῃς πιλνᾷ χθονὶ πουλυβοτείρῃ
+ ἐμπίπτων, καὶ πᾶσα βοᾷ τότε νήριτος ὕλη.
+ Opp. et Dies, 504, sqq.
+
+ The pine and pitch trees, it is related by Theophrastus, were often
+ uprooted by the winds in Arcadia. Hist. Plant. iii. 6. 4.
+
+Footnote 1643:
+
+ Theoph. Hist. Plant. iii. 3. 7. In all countries, small and great, the
+ progress of civilisation has been inimical to forests. Thus in the
+ little island of Stromboli, containing about a thousand inhabitants,
+ attempts were made towards the end of the eighteenth century to
+ enlarge the cultivable ground by clearing away the woods. Spallanzani,
+ Travels in the Two Sicilies, vol. iv. p. 126, seq. The difficulty of
+ extirpating trees is illustrated by Theophrastus who relates that, in
+ a spot near Pheneon in Arcadia, a well-wooded tract was overflowed by
+ the water and the trees destroyed. Next year, when the flood had
+ subsided and the mud dried, each kind of tree appeared in the
+ situation which it had formerly occupied. The willow, the elm, the
+ pine, and the fir, growing in its own place, doubtless from the roots
+ of the former trees. Hist. Plant. iii. 1. 2. Again: the Nessos, in the
+ territory of the Abderites, constantly changed its bed, and in the old
+ channels trees sprung up so rapidly that, in three years, they were so
+ many strips of forest. Id. iii. 1. 5.
+
+Footnote 1644:
+
+ Thiersch, Etat Actuel de la Grèce. t. i. p. 276. It is remarked by
+ Theophrastus, however, that pine forests, being destroyed by fire,
+ shot up again, as happened in Lesbos, on a mountain near Pyrrha. Hist.
+ Plant. iii. 9. 4.
+
+-----
+
+In Attica,[1645] both fields and gardens were chiefly irrigated by means
+of wells which, sometimes, in extremely long and dry summers, failed
+entirely, thus causing a scarcity of vegetables.[1646] The water, we
+find, was drawn up by precisely the same machinery as is still employed
+for the purpose. The invention of these conveniences of primary
+necessity having preceded the birth of tradition, has, by some writers,
+been attributed to Danaos, who is supposed to have emigrated from Egypt
+into Greece. Arriving, we are told, at Argos, he, upon the failure of
+spontaneous fountains, taught the inhabitants to dig wells, in
+consequence of which he was elected chief. But where was Danaos himself
+to have learned this art? He is said to have been an Egyptian, and Egypt
+is a country so entirely without springs, that two only exist within its
+limits, and of these but one was known to the ancients. Of wells they
+had none. Danaos could, therefore, if he was an Egyptian, have known
+nothing of springs or wells; and, if he had such knowledge, he must have
+come from some other land.[1647]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1645:
+
+ Cf. Chandler, i. p. 261. The apparatus now used in irrigation by the
+ Sciots exactly resembles that of the Egyptian Arabs. Id. i. 315.
+
+Footnote 1646:
+
+ Demosth. Adv. Polycl. § 16. On the supply of water to Athens we
+ possess little positive information, though we cannot doubt that all
+ possible advantage was taken of those pure sources which are still
+ found in its neighbourhood. “In no country necessity was more likely
+ to have created the hydragogic art than in Attica; and we have
+ evidence of the attention bestowed by the Athenians upon their canals
+ and fountains in the time of Themistocles, as well as in that of
+ Alexander the Great.” Col. Leake, on some disputed points in the
+ Topography of Athens. Trans. Lit. Soc. iii. 189. Cf. Aristoph. Av.
+ Schol. 998. Plut. Themist. § 31. Arist. Polit. vi. 8. vii. 12. We
+ find, from Theophrastus, that there was in his time, an aqueduct in
+ the Lyceum with a number of plane trees growing near it. Theoph. Hist.
+ Plant. i. 7. 1.
+
+Footnote 1647:
+
+ Mitford, i. 33, seq. In Bœotia, Babylonia, Egypt, and Cyrenaica,
+ the dew served instead of rain. Theoph. Hist. Plant. viii. 4. 6.
+
+-----
+
+Where there existed neither wells nor fountains, people were compelled
+to depend on rain-water, collected and preserved in cisterns.[1648] For
+this purpose troughs were in some farm-houses run along the eaves both
+of the stables, barns, and sheep-cotes, as well as of the dwelling of
+the family, while others used only that which ran from the last, the
+roof of which was kept scrupulously clean. The water was conveyed
+through wooden pipes[1649] to the cisterns, which appear to have been
+frequently situated in the front court.[1650] Bad water they purified in
+several ways: by casting into it a little coral powder,[1651] small
+linen bags of bruised barley, or a quantity of laurel leaves, or by
+pouring it into broad tubs and exposing it for a considerable time to
+the action of the sun and air. When there happened to be about the farms
+ponds of any magnitude, they introduced into them a number of eels or
+river crabs, which opened the veins of the earth and destroyed leeches.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1648:
+
+ Λακκοὶ. Machon. ap. Athen. xiii. 43.
+
+Footnote 1649:
+
+ Geop. ii. 7.
+
+Footnote 1650:
+
+ Sir W. Hamilton, Acc. of Discov. at Pompeii, p. 13.
+
+Footnote 1651:
+
+ Water was cooled by being suspended in vessels over the mouths of
+ wells; and sometimes boiled previously to render the process more
+ complete. For, according to the Peripatetics, πᾶν ὕδωρ προθερμανθὲν
+ ψύχεται μᾶλλον, ὥσπερ τὸ τοῖς βασιλεῦσι παρασκευαζόμενον, ὅταν ἑψηθῇ
+ μέχρι ζέσεως, περισωρεύουσι τῷ ἀγγείῳ χιόνα πολλὴν, καὶ γίνεται
+ ψυχρότερον. Plut. Sympos. vi. 4. 1.
+
+-----
+
+A scarcely less important branch of the farmer’s studies was that which
+related to the weather and the general march of the seasons.[1652] Above
+all things, it behoved him to observe diligently the rising and setting
+of the sun and moon. He was, likewise, carefully to note the state of
+the atmosphere at the disappearance of the Pleiades, since it was
+expected to continue the same until the winter solstice, after which a
+change sometimes immediately supervened, otherwise there was usually no
+alteration till the vernal equinox.[1653] Another variation then took
+place in the character of the weather, which afterwards remained fixed
+till the rising of the Pleiades, undergoing successively fresh mutations
+at the summer solstice and the autumnal equinox. According to their
+observations, moreover, a rainy winter[1654] was followed by a dry and
+raw spring, and the contrary; and a snowy winter by a year of abundance.
+But as nature by no means steadily follows this course, exhibiting many
+sudden and abrupt fluctuations, it was found necessary to subject her
+restless phenomena to a more rigid scrutiny, in order that rules might
+be obtained for foretelling the approach of rain, or tempests, or
+droughts, or a continuance of fair weather. Of these some, possibly,
+were founded on imperfect observation or casual coincidences, or a
+fanciful linking of causes and effects; while others, we cannot doubt,
+sprang from a practical familiarity with the subtler and more shifting
+elements of natural philosophy.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1652:
+
+ Geop. i. 2–4. 11. Theophrast. De Signis Pluviarum et de Ventis,
+ _passim_. Our own agriculturists, also, were formerly much addicted to
+ these studies. Thus, “The oke apples, if broken in sunder about the
+ time of their withering, do foreshewe the sequel of the yeare, as the
+ expert Kentish husbandmen have observed, by the living things found in
+ them: as, if they find an ant, they foretell plentie of graine to
+ insue; if a whole worm, like a gentill or maggot, then they
+ prognosticate murren of beasts and cattle; if a spider, then (saie
+ they) we shall have a pestilence or some such like sickness to followe
+ amongst men. These things the learned, also, have observed and noted:
+ for Mathiolus, writing upon Dioscorides saith, that before they have
+ an hole through them, they conteine in them either a flie, a spider,
+ or a worme; if a flie, then warre insueth; if a creeping worme, then
+ scarcitie of victuals; if a running spider, then followeth great
+ sickness and mortalitie.” Gerrard, Herball, Third Book, c. 29. p.
+ 1158. Cf. Lord Bacon, Sylva Sylvarum, 561.
+
+Footnote 1653:
+
+ Cf. Hesiod, Opp. et Dies, 486, seq.
+
+Footnote 1654:
+
+ Cf. Lord Bacon, Sylva Sylvarum, 675. 812.
+
+-----
+
+As nothing more obviously interests the husbandman than the seasonable
+arrival and departure of rains, everything connected with them, however
+remotely, was observed and treasured up with scrupulous accuracy. Of all
+the circumstances pre-signifying their approach the most certain was
+supposed to be the aspect of the morning; for if, before sunrise, beds
+of purpurescent clouds[1655] stretched along the verge of the horizon,
+rain was expected that day, or the day after the morrow. The same augury
+they drew, though with less confidence, from the appearance of the
+setting sun,[1656] especially if in winter or spring it went down
+through an accumulation of clouds or with masses of dusky rack on the
+left. Again, if, on rising, the sun looked pale, dull red, or
+spotted;[1657] or, if, previously, its rays were seen streaming
+upwards;[1658] or, if, immediately afterwards, a long band of clouds
+extended beneath it, intersecting its descending beams; or if the orient
+wore a sombre hue; or if piles of sable vapour towered into the welkin;
+or if the clouds were scattered loosely over the sky like fleeces of
+wool;[1659] or came waving up from the south in long sinuous streaks—the
+“mares’ tails” of our nautical vocabulary—the husbandman reckoned with
+certainty upon rain, floods, and tempestuous winds. Among the signs of
+showers peculiar to the site of Athens may be reckoned these following:
+if a rampart of white ground-fogs begirt at night the basis of Hymettos;
+or, if its summits were capped with vapour;[1660] or, if troops of mists
+settled in the hollow of the smaller mount, called the Springless; or,
+if a single cloud rested on the fane of Zeus at Ægina.[1661] The violent
+roaring of the sea upon the beach was the forerunner of a gale, and they
+were enabled to conjecture from what quarter it was to blow, by the
+movements of the waters, which retreated from the shore before a north
+wind; while, at the approach of the sirocco, they were piled up higher
+than usual against the cliffs. Elsewhere, in Attica, they supposed wet
+weather to be foretold by the summits of Eubœa rising clear, sharp, and
+unusually elevated through a dense floor of exhalations, which, when
+they mounted and gathered in blowing weather about the peaks of
+Caphareus,[1662] on the eastern shores of the island, presaged an
+impending storm of five days’ continuance. But here these signs
+concerned rather the mariner than the husbandman, since the cliffs that
+stretched along this coast are rugged and precipitous, and the
+approaches so dangerous that few vessels which are driven on it escape.
+Scarcely are the crews able to save themselves, unless their bark happen
+to be extremely light. Another portent of foul weather was the
+apparition of a circle about the moon, while, by the double reflection
+of its orb north and south, that luminary appeared to be multiplied into
+three. At night, also, if the nubecula,[1663] called the Manger, in the
+constellation of the Crab, shone less luminously, it betokened a similar
+state of the atmosphere. A like inference[1664] was drawn when the moon
+at three days old rose dusky; or, with blunt horns; or, with its rim, or
+whole disk, red; or blotted with black spots; or encircled by two
+halos.[1665]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1655:
+
+ Cf. Arato. Prognost. 102, sqq. But, on the other hand, “purus oriens,
+ atque non fervens, serenum diem nuntiat.” Plin. Hist. Nat. xviii. 78.
+ Aristot. Problem. xxvi. 8.
+
+Footnote 1656:
+
+ The sun-sets of the Mediterranean exhibit, as most travellers will
+ have observed, a variety of gorgeous phenomena, which, as betokening
+ certain states of the atmosphere serve as so many admonitions to the
+ husbandman. The sun before going down “assumed,” observes Dr.
+ Chandler, “a variety of fantastic shapes. It was surrounded, first,
+ with a golden glory of great extent, and flamed upon the surface of
+ the sea in a long column of fire. The lower half of the orb soon after
+ emerged in the horizon, the other portion remaining very large and
+ red, with half of a smaller orb beneath it, and separate, but in the
+ same direction, the circular rim approaching the line of its diameter.
+ These two, by degrees, united, and then changed rapidly into different
+ figures, until the resemblance was that of a capacious punch-bowl
+ inverted. The rim of the bottom extending upward, and the body
+ lengthening below it, became a mushroom on a stalk with a round head.
+ It was next metamorphosed into a flaming caldron, of which the lid,
+ rising up, swelled nearly into an orb and vanished. The other portion
+ put on several uncircular forms, and, after many twinklings and faint
+ glimmerings, slowly disappeared, quite red, leaving the clouds hanging
+ over the dark rocks on the Barbary shore finely tinged with a vivid
+ bloody hue.” Travels, i. p. 4. Appearances similar, though of inferior
+ brilliance and variety, are sometimes witnessed in the Western
+ Hemisphere. Describing the beauties of an evening on the Canadian
+ shore, Sir R. H. Bonnycastle observes: “First, there was a double sun
+ by reflection, each disk equally distinct; afterwards, when the orb
+ reached the mark x, a solid body of light, equal in breadth with the
+ sun itself, but of great length from the shore, shot down on the sea,
+ and remained like a broad fiery golden column, or bar, until the black
+ high land hid the luminary itself.” The Canadas in 1841. v. i. p. 34.
+
+Footnote 1657:
+
+ Ille ubi nascentem maculis variaverit ortum
+ Conditus in nubem, medioque refugerit orbe;
+ Suspecti tibi sint imbres.
+ Virg. Georg. i. 441, sqq.
+
+Footnote 1658:
+
+ Plin. Hist. Nat. xviii. 78. Aratus, Prognost. 137, sqq.
+
+Footnote 1659:
+
+ Cf. Plin. xviii. 82. “Si nubes ut vellera lanæ spargentur multæ ab
+ oriente, aquam in triduum præsagient;” and Virg. Georg, i. 397:
+
+ Tenuia nec lanæ per cœlum vellera ferri.
+
+Footnote 1660:
+
+ If the Mounts Parnes and Brylessus appeared enveloped in clouds, the
+ circumstance was thought to foretel a tempest. Theoph. de Sign. Pluv.
+ iii. 6. Cf. Strabo. ix. 11. t. ii. p. 253.
+
+Footnote 1661:
+
+ Pausan. ii. 30. 3. Pind. Nem. v. 10. Dissen.—Müll. Æginetica, § 5. p.
+ 19.
+
+Footnote 1662:
+
+ Dion. Chrysost. i. 222. Cf. Aristot. Prob. xxvi. 1.
+
+Footnote 1663:
+
+ This is explained by Lord Bacon. “The upper regions of the air,” he
+ observes, “perceive the collection of the matter of tempest and wind
+ before the air here below. And, therefore, the observing of the
+ smaller stars is a sign of tempests following.” Sylva Sylvarum, 812.
+
+Footnote 1664:
+
+ Similar observations have been made in most countries, as we find from
+ the signs of the weather collected by Erra Pater, and translated by
+ Lilly, Part iv. § 3–5.
+
+Footnote 1665:
+
+ Cf. Seneca. Quæst. Nat. i. c. 2.
+
+-----
+
+The phenomena of thunder and lightning, likewise, instructed the
+husbandman who was studious in the language of the heavens: thus, when
+thunder was heard in winter or in the morning, it betokened wind; in the
+evening or at noon, in summer, rain; when it lightened from every part
+of the heavens, both. Falling stars[1666] likewise denoted wind or rain,
+originating in that part of the heavens where they appeared.
+
+Among our own rustics the whole philosophy of rainbows has been
+compressed into a couple of distichs:
+
+ A rainbow at night
+ Is the shepherd’s delight.
+ A rainbow in the morning
+ Is the shepherd’s warning.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1666:
+
+ Aristot. Problem, xxvi. 24. Alexand. Aphrodis. Problem. i. 72. Plin.
+ xviii. 80. Virg. Georg. i. 365, sqq.
+
+ Sæpe etiam stellas, vento impendente, videbis
+ Præcipites cœlo labi, noctisque per umbram
+ Flammarum longos à tergo albescere tractus.
+
+-----
+
+And upon this subject,[1667] the peasants of Hellas had little more to
+say; their opinion having been that, in proportion to the number of
+rainbows, would be the fury and continuance of the showers with which
+they were threatened.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1667:
+
+ On the effects of the rainbow the ancients held a curious opinion,
+ which Lord Bacon thus expounds:—“It hath been observed by the
+ ancients, that where a rainbow seemeth to hang over or to touch, there
+ breathed forth a sweet smell. The cause is, for that this happeneth
+ but in certain matters which have in themselves some sweetness, which
+ the gentle dew of the rainbow doth draw forth, and the like to soft
+ showers, for they also make the ground sweet, but none are so delicate
+ as the dew of the rainbow where it falleth.” Sylva Sylvarum. 832. His
+ Lordship here, as in many other places, adopts the explanation of the
+ Peripatetics while he seems to be himself assigning the cause of the
+ phenomenon. Aristotle (Problem. 12. 3) enters fully into the subject,
+ which appears to have been brought under the notice of philosophers by
+ the shepherds who had observed that when certain thickets had been
+ laid in ashes the passing of a rainbow over the spot caused a sweet
+ odour to exhale from it. The same fact is noticed by Theophrastus, De
+ Caus. Plant. 6. 17. 7. Cf. Plin. Hist. Nat. 12. 52. 21. 18. 2. 60. To
+ many among the older philosophers that comparatively rare phenomenon,
+ the lunar rainbow, was unknown. (Arist. Meteor. iii. 2: νύκτωρ δ᾽ ἀπὸ
+ σελήνης ὡς μὲν οἱ ἀρχαῖοι ᾢοντο οὐκ ἐγίγνετο·) but in the time of
+ Aristotle it had been observed, and the cause of its pearly whiteness
+ investigated. Cf. Meteorol. iii. 4. 5. Senec. Quæst. Nat. i. 2, sqq.
+
+-----
+
+Other signs of mutation in the atmosphere they discovered in almost
+every part of nature; for example, when bubbles rose on the surface of a
+river they looked for a fall of rain; as also when small land-birds were
+seen drenching their plumage; when the crow was beheld washing his head
+upon the rocky beach,[1668] or the raven flapping his wings, while with
+his voice he imitated amidst his croaking the pattering of drops of
+rain; when the peasant was awakened in the morning by the cry of the
+passing crane,[1669] or the shrill note of the chaffinch within his
+dwelling. Flights of island birds flocking to the continent,[1670]
+preceded drought; as a number of jackdaws and ravens flying up and down,
+and imitating the scream of the hawk, did rain. The incessant shrieks of
+the screech-owl and the vehement cawing of the crow, heard during a
+serene night, foretold the approach of storms. The barn-door fowl and
+the house-dog also played the part of soothsayers, teaching their master
+to dread impending storms by rolling themselves in the dust. Of similar
+import was the flocking of geese with noise to their food, or the
+skimming of swallows along the surface of the water.[1671] Again, when
+troops of dolphins were seen rolling near the shore, or oxen licking
+their fore-hoofs, or looking southwards, or, with a suspicious air,
+snuffing the elements,[1672] or going bellowing to their stalls; when
+wolves approached the homesteads; when flies bit sharp,[1673] or frogs
+croaked vociferously, or the ruddock, or land-toad, crept into the
+water; when the salamander lizard appeared, and the note of the
+green-frog was heard in the trees, the rustic donned his capote, and
+prepared, like Anaxagoras at Olympia,[1674] for a shower. The flight of
+the storm-birds, kepphoi,[1675] was supposed to indicate a tempest from
+the point of the heavens towards which they flew. When in bright and
+windless weather clouds of cobwebs,[1676] floated through the air, the
+husbandman anticipated a drenching for his fields, as also when earthen
+pots and brass pans emitted sparks; when lamps spat; when the wick made
+mushrooms;[1677] when a halo encircled its flame,[1678] or when the
+flame itself was dusky. The housewife was forewarned of coming
+hail-storms, generally from the north, by a profusion of bright sparks
+appearing on the surface of her charcoal fire; when her feet swelled she
+knew that the wind would blow from the south.[1679] Heaps of clouds like
+burnished copper rising after rain in the west portended fine weather;
+as did likewise the tops of lofty mountains, as Athos, Ossa, and
+Olympos, appearing sharply defined against the sky; while an apparent
+augmentation in the height of promontories and the number of islands
+foreshowed wind.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1668:
+
+ Cf. Ælian. De Nat. Anim. vii. 7.
+
+Footnote 1669:
+
+ Φράζεσθαι δ᾽, εὖτ᾽ ἂν γεράνου φωνὴν ἐπακούσῃς
+ ὑψόθεν ἐκ νεφέων ἐνιαύσια κεκληγυίης·
+ ἥτ᾽ ἀρότοιο τε σῆμα φέρει, καὶ χείματος ὥρην
+ δεικνύει ομβρηροῦ· κραδίην δ᾽ ἔδακ’ ἀνδρὸς ἀβούτεω.
+ Hesiod. Opp. et Dies, 448, sqq.
+
+ To the same purpose, Homer:—Il. γ. 3, sqq.
+
+ Ἠΰτε περ κλαγγὴ γεράνων πέλει οὐρανόθι πρὸ,
+ αἵτ᾽ ἐπεὶ οὖν χειμῶνα φύγον καὶ ἀθέσφατον ὄμβρον,
+ κλαγγῇ ταίγε πέτονται ἐπ’ Ὠκεανοῖο ῥοάων.
+
+ And Aristophanes:—(Av. 710, sqq.)
+
+ Πρῶτα μὲν ὥρας φαίνομεν ἡμεῖς ἦρος, χειμῶνος, ὀπώρας ·
+ Σπείρειν μὲν, ὅταν γέρανος κρώζουσ᾽ ἐς τὴν Λιβύην μεταχωρῇ,
+ καὶ πηδάλιον τότε ναυκλήρῳ φράζει κρεμάσαντι καθεύδειν.
+
+Footnote 1670:
+
+ All birds which frequent the sea, more particularly those which fly
+ high, are observed to seek terra firma at the approach of foul
+ weather:—Ἀριστοτέλους ἀκούω λέγοντος, ὅτι ἄρα γέρανοι ἐκ τοὺς πελάγους
+ εἰς τὴν γῆν πετόμενοι, χειμῶνος ἀπειλὴν ἰσχουραὶ ὑποσημαίνουσι τῷ
+ συνιέντι. Ælian. De Nat. Anim. vii. 7. Before the great earthquake of
+ 1783, which shook the whole of Calabria and destroyed the city of
+ Messina, the mews and other aquatic birds were observed to forsake the
+ sea and take refuge in the mountains. Spallanzani, Travels in the Two
+ Sicilies, vol. iv. p. 158.
+
+Footnote 1671:
+
+ Aut arguta lacus circumvolitat hirundo. Virg. Georg. i. 377. “Hirundo
+ tam juxta aquam volitans, ut penna sæpe percutiat.” Plin. xviii. 87.
+
+Footnote 1672:
+
+ Plin. xviii. 88. Virg. Georg. i. 375.—Ælian, De Nat. Anim. vii. 8,
+ describes the ox before rain snuffing the earth, and adds: πρόβατα δὲ
+ ἐρυττοντα ταῖς ὁπλαῖς τὴν γῆν, ἔοικε σημαίνειν χιεμῶνα.
+
+Footnote 1673:
+
+ Cf. Ælian De Nat. Anim. viii. 8.
+
+Footnote 1674:
+
+ Diog. Laert. i. 3. 5. Ælian (De Nat. Anim. vii. 8) relates a curious
+ anecdote of Hipparchos who, from some change in the goatskin cloak he
+ wore, likewise foretold a rain storm to the great admiration of Nero.
+
+Footnote 1675:
+
+ Probably the storm-finch observed frequently on the wing flying along
+ the Ægean sea, particularly when it is troubled. Sibth. in Walp. Mem.
+ i. 76.
+
+Footnote 1676:
+
+ Cf. Aristot. Problem. xxvii. 63, where he investigates the causes of
+ the phenomenon; and Plin. Nat. Hist. xi. 28.
+
+Footnote 1677:
+
+ Vid. Aristoph. Vesp. 262. The Scholiast entertains a somewhat
+ different notion:—φασὶν ὅτι ὑετοῦ μέλλοντος γενέσθαι οἱ περὶ τὴν
+ θρυαλλίδα τοῦ λύχνου σπινθῆρες ἀποπηδῶσιν, οὓς μύκητας νῦν λέγει, ὡς
+ τοῦ λύχνου ἐναντιουμένου τῷ νοτερῷ ἀέρι· καὶ Ἄρατος “ἢ λύχνοιο μύκητες
+ ἐγείρονται περὶ μύξαν, νύκτα κατὰ νοτίην.”
+
+Footnote 1678:
+
+ Aristot. Meteorol. iii. 4. Seneca, Quæst. Nat. i. 2.
+
+Footnote 1679:
+
+ Cf. Aristot. Problem. xxvi. 17.
+
+-----
+
+
+
+
+ CHAPTER V.
+ THE VARIOUS PROCESSES OF AGRICULTURE.
+
+
+If we now pass to the actual labours of the farm, and the implements by
+which they were usually carried on, we shall find that the Grecian
+husbandman was no way deficient in invention, or in that ingenuity by
+which men have in all countries sought to diminish their toils. For the
+purpose of procuring at a cheap rate whatever was wanted for the use of
+the establishment,[1680] smiths, carpenters, and potters, were kept upon
+the land or in its immediate neighbourhood; by which means also the
+necessity was avoided of often sending the farm-servants to the
+neighbouring town, where it was observed they contracted bad habits, and
+were rendered more vicious and slothful.[1681] Waggons, therefore, and
+carts, and ploughs, and harrows, were constructed on the spot, though it
+was sometimes necessary perhaps to obtain from a distance the timber
+used for these implements, which was generally cut in winter-time. They
+exhibited much nicety in their choice of wood. Thus they would have the
+poplar or mulberry-tree for the felloes of their wheels; the ash, the
+ilex, and the oxya, for the axle-tree, and fine close-grained maple for
+the yokes of their oxen,[1682] sometimes carved in the form of serpents
+which seemed to wind round the necks of the animals, and project their
+heads on either side.[1683] Their harrows, it is probable, were formed
+like our own. The construction of the plough,[1684] always continued to
+be extremely simple. In the age of Hesiod[1685] it consisted of four
+parts, the handle, the socket, the coulter, and the beam; and very
+little alteration seems afterwards to have been made in its form or
+structure, till the introduction of the wheel-plough, which did not, it
+is believed, occur until after the age of Virgil. The more primitive
+instrument, however, would seem to have consisted originally of two
+parts only, one serving the purpose of handle, socket, and share, the
+other being the beam by which it was fastened to the yoke. In the
+antique implement[1686] the beam was sometimes made of laurel or elm,
+the socket of oak, and the handle of ilex.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1680:
+
+ Geop. ii. 49. Illustrating the wretched condition of a tyrant dwelling
+ in the midst of a nation that abhors him, Plato draws the picture of a
+ man being in a remote part of the country with his wife and children,
+ surrounded by a gang of fifty or sixty slaves, with scarcely a free
+ neighbour at hand to whom, in case of necessity, he might fly. In what
+ terror, he says, must this man live, lest his slaves should set upon
+ and murder him, with all his family! De Repub. t. vi. p. 439.
+
+Footnote 1681:
+
+ Carts were sometimes roofed with skins. Scheffer, De Re Vehic. p. 246,
+ seq. Justin, ii. 2.
+
+Footnote 1682:
+
+ Theoph. Hist. Plant. v. 7. 6.
+
+Footnote 1683:
+
+ Scheffer, De Re Vehic. p. 114.
+
+Footnote 1684:
+
+ Pollux, x. 128. Goguet, Orig. des Lois, i. 189, seq. Pallad. i. 43.
+ Colum. ii. 2.
+
+Footnote 1685:
+
+ Opp. et Dies, 467, seq. Vid. Gœttl. ad v. 431. Etym. Mag. 173, 16.
+ Poll. i. 252. The Syrians used a small plough, with which they turned
+ up extremely shallow furrows. Theoph. Hist. Plant. viii. 6. 3.
+
+Footnote 1686:
+
+ Hesiod, Opp. et Dies, 435, seq.
+
+-----
+
+Before mills were invented, the instrument by which they reduced corn
+into flour was a large mortar, scooped out of the trunk of a tree,
+furnished with a pestle upwards of four feet in length, exactly
+resembling that still in use among the Egyptian Arabs. To give the
+pestle greater effect it was fixed above in a cross-bar, seven feet
+long, and worked by two individuals.[1687] By this rude contrivance, it
+is possible to produce flour as fine as that proceeding from the most
+perfect boulting machine. In addition to these they possessed winnowing
+fans, scythes, sickles, pruning-hooks, fern or braken-scythes, saws and
+hand-saws, used in pruning and grafting, spades, shovels, rakes,
+pick-axes, hoes, mattocks,—one, two, and three pronged,—dibbles,
+fork-dibbles, and grubbing-axes.[1688] When rustics were clearing away
+underwood or cutting down brakes, they went clad in hooded skin-cloaks,
+leather gaiters, and long gloves.[1689]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1687:
+
+ Idem, 423, seq.
+
+Footnote 1688:
+
+ Poll. x. 129. Pallad. i. 51. Brunckh. not. ad Aristoph. Pac. 567. Cf.
+ Eurip. Bacch. 344. Sch. Aristoph. Pac, 558, seq. 620. Plat. de Repub.
+ t. vi. p. 81. Artemid. Oneirocrit. ii. 24. p. 111. Lutet.
+
+Footnote 1689:
+
+ Pallad. i. 43. Colum. i. 8.
+
+-----
+
+On the subject of manure[1690] the Greeks appear to have entertained
+very just notions, and have left behind them numerous rules for using
+and preparing it. In lean lands which required most the help of art,
+they were still careful to avoid excess in the employment of manure,
+spreading it frequently rather than copiously; for as, left to
+themselves, they would have been too cold, so, when over enriched by
+art, their prolific virtue was thought to be consumed by heat. In
+applying it to plants, they were careful to interpose a layer of earth
+lest their roots should be scorched. Of all kinds of manure they
+considered that of birds the best,[1691] except the aquatic species,
+which, when mixed, however, was not rejected. Most husbandmen set a
+peculiar value on the sweepings of dovecotes,[1692] which, in small
+quantities, were frequently scattered over the fields with the seed.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1690:
+
+ Geop. ii. 21, seq. Theoph. Hist. Plant. vii. 5. 1. i. 7. 4. To
+ exemplify the importance of manure, it is remarked by this writer,
+ that manured corn ripens twenty days earlier than that which wants
+ this advantage, viii. 7. 7.
+
+Footnote 1691:
+
+ Geop. ii. 21. 4. From a speech of the Earl of Radnor, in the House of
+ Lords, May 25, 1841, we learn that our own farmers have begun to make
+ experiments with this kind of manure on the lands of Great Britain,
+ and that ship-loads of bird’s dung have been imported for the purpose
+ from the Pacific. The rocks and smaller islands along the American
+ coast are sometimes white with this substance. Keppel, Life of Lord
+ Keppel, i. 48.
+
+Footnote 1692:
+
+ Geop. xii. 4. 3. v. 26. 3.
+
+-----
+
+On the preparation of manure-pits they bestowed much attention.[1693]
+Having sunk them sufficiently deep in places abundantly supplied with
+water, they cast therein large quantities of weeds, with all
+descriptions of manure, among which they reckoned even earth itself,
+when completely impregnated with humidity. When they had lain long
+enough to be entirely decayed, they were fit for use. To the above were
+sometimes added wood-ashes, the refuse of leather-dressers, the
+cleansing of stables, and cow-houses, with stubble, brambles, and thorns
+reduced to ashes. In maritime situations sea-weed,[1694] also, having
+been well washed in fresh water, was mingled in large proportion with
+other materials, and, where possible, a channel was made conducting the
+muck and puddle[1695] of the neighbouring road into the pit, which at
+once accelerated the putrescence of the manure and augmented it. The
+Attic husbandmen had a mode of enriching their lands[1696] somewhat
+expensive, and, as far as I know, peculiar to themselves; having sown a
+field, they allowed the corn to spring up and the blade to reach a
+considerable height, upon which they again ploughed it in as a kind of
+sacrifice to the earth. A practice, not altogether unlike, still
+prevails in the kingdom of Naples, where the husbandmen sometimes bury
+their beans and lupins, just before flowering, for manure.[1697]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1693:
+
+ Xenoph. Œconom. xx. 10. Cf. Artemid. Oneirocrit. ii. 26. p. 114.
+
+Footnote 1694:
+
+ Geopon. ii. 22.
+
+Footnote 1695:
+
+ The practice of mingling water with the manure was in great use among
+ the ancients, particularly in the island of Rhodes, in the cultivation
+ of the palm-trees. Theoph. Hist. Plant. i. 6. 3.
+
+Footnote 1696:
+
+ Xenoph. Œconom. xvii. 10. Cf. Earl of Aberdeen, Walp. Mem. i. 2.50. In
+ such lands the farmers suffered their cattle to eat down the young
+ corn to prevent its too great luxuriance. Theoph. Hist. Plant. viii.
+ 7. 3.
+
+Footnote 1697:
+
+ Swinburne, Letters from the Courts of Europe, i. 144.
+
+-----
+
+In ploughing there was great variety of practice, and in small farms,
+where the soil was light, they had recourse to what may be denominated
+spade husbandry. Most lands were ploughed thrice; first, immediately
+after the removal of the preceding crop; secondly, at a convenient
+interval of time; and, thirdly,[1698] in the sowing season, when the
+ploughman scattered the grain in the furrows as they were laid open
+while a lad followed at his heels with a hoe breaking the clods and
+covering the seed that it might not be devoured by the birds.[1699]
+Occasionally, in very hot weather, and in certain situations, the farmer
+ploughed all night;[1700] first, out of consideration to the oxen, whose
+health would have suffered from the sun; secondly, to preserve the
+moisture and richness of the soil; and, thirdly, by the aid of the dew,
+to render it more pliable. On these occasions, it was customary to
+employ two pair of oxen and a heavier share in order to produce the
+deeper furrows, and turn up the hidden fat of the earth. In choosing a
+ploughman they took care that he should be tall and powerful,[1701] that
+he might be able to thrust the share deeper into the ground and wield it
+generally with facility: and yet they would not, if possible, that he
+should be under forty years of age, lest, instead of attending to his
+duties, his eye should be glancing hither and thither, and his mind be
+roving after his companions.[1702] When in particular haste to complete
+his task, the ploughman often carried a long loaf under his arm, which,
+like the French peasants, he ate as he went along.[1703] In this
+department of rural labour it may be observed, mules were sometimes
+employed as well as oxen.[1704] Both were directed and kept in order by
+a sharp goad.[1705]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1698:
+
+ Cf. Xenoph. Œconom. xvi. 10, seq. Theoph. Hist. Plant. vi. 5. 1.
+
+Footnote 1699:
+
+ Hesiod. Opp. et Dies, 469, seq.
+
+Footnote 1700:
+
+ Geop. ii. 28.
+
+Footnote 1701:
+
+ Geop. ii. 2.
+
+Footnote 1702:
+
+ Hesiod. Opp. et Dies, 443, sqq.
+
+Footnote 1703:
+
+ Hesiod. Opp. et Dies, 442. “Vide Athenæum, quem Lanzius laudavit, iii.
+ p. 114. e. hæc ex Philemone referentem: βλωμιλίους ἄρτους ὀνομάζεσθαι
+ λέγει τοὺς ἔχοντας ἐντομάς, οὓς Ῥωμαῖοι, καδράτους λέγουσι. ὀκτάβλωμον
+ Spohnius intelligit de servo celeriter edente. Minime verò. Panes
+ rustici incisuras suas habent, ut servis omnibus æquas partes
+ frangendo possis dirimere. v. Philostrat. Imagg. p. 95. 16. Jacobs.”
+ Gœttling in loc. p. 173.
+
+Footnote 1704:
+
+ Hesiod. Opp. et Dies, 46. Dickinson. Delphi Phœnicizantes, c. 10. p.
+ 101, sqq.
+
+Footnote 1705:
+
+ Scheffer. de Re Vehic. 186, seq. Schol. Aristoph. Nub. 449. The necks
+ of these animals, when galled by the yoke, were cured by the leaves of
+ black briony steeped in wine. Dioscor. iv. 185.
+
+-----
+
+As the Greeks well understood the practice of fallowing, their lands
+were then, as now, suffered to regain their strength by lying for a time
+idle;[1706] and it seems to have been as much their custom as it is
+still of their descendants,[1707] for the poor, at least, to roam over
+these fallow grounds, collecting nettles,[1708] mallows, the sow-thistle
+or jagged lettuce,[1709] dandelions, sea-purslain, stoches, hartwort,
+briony sprouts, gentle-rocket, usually found in the environs of towns,
+and about the courts of houses, gardens, and ruins, with other wild
+herbs for salads, or to be eaten as vegetables.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1706:
+
+ Xenoph. Œconom. xvi. 13, seq. Cf. Schulz. Antiquitat. Rustic. § 7.
+
+Footnote 1707:
+
+ Sibthorpe, in Walp. Mem. v. i. p. 144.
+
+Footnote 1708:
+
+ Sch. Aristoph. Eq. 420. Hesiod alludes to this diet where he
+ celebrates the inferiority of the half to the whole:—
+
+ Νήπιοι, οὐδὲ ἴσασιν ὅσῳ πλέον ἥμισυ παντός,
+ Οὐδ᾽ ὅσον ἐν μαλάχῄ τε καὶ ἀσφοδέλῳ μεγ’ ὄνειαρ.
+ Opp. et Dies, 40, seq.
+
+ Cf. on the proverb in the first verse, Diog. Laert. i. 4. 2. Aristot.
+ Ethic. Nicom. i. 7. Ovid. Fast. v. 718.
+
+Footnote 1709:
+
+ Theoph. Hist. Plant. vi. 4. 8.
+
+-----
+
+The rules observed in sowing were numerous, and, in many instances, not
+a little curious. As a matter of course, they were careful to adapt the
+grain to the soil:[1710] thus rich plains were appropriated to wheat,
+and in the intervals cropped with vegetables; middling grounds to
+barley;[1711] while poor and hungry spots were given up to lentils,
+vetches, lupins, and such other pulse as were cultivated on a large
+scale. Beans and peas, however, were supposed to thrive best in fat and
+level lands. The principal sowing-time[1712] was in autumn; for, as soon
+as the equinoctial rains had moistened the earth, the sower immediately
+went forth to sow, committing to the ground the hopes of the future
+year. The best time for scattering wheat they placed somewhere in
+November, about the setting of the constellation called the Crown. They
+were careful in this operation to avoid the time when the south
+wind[1713] blew, and, generally, all cold and raw weather, as it
+rendered the earth ungenial, and little apt to fructify that which was
+entrusted to it. Great skill was supposed to be required in scattering
+the seed: in the first place, that it should be equally distributed;
+and, secondly, that none should fall between the horns of the oxen,
+superstition having taught them the belief that such grain, which they
+denominated Kerasbolos,[1714] if it sprang up at all, would produce corn
+which could neither be baked nor eaten. A favourite sowing sieve was
+made of wolf’s-hide, pierced with thirty holes as large as the tips of
+the fingers. In later ages much virtue was supposed to reside in the
+barbarous term Phriel,[1715] which they accordingly wrote on the plough.
+The choice of grains for sowing necessarily afforded much exercise[1716]
+to their ingenuity: seed wheat, they thought, should be of a rich gold
+colour, full, smooth, and solid; barley, white and heavy; both not
+exceeding one year old, for they quickly deteriorated, and, after the
+third year, would not they supposed grow. This, however, was an error,
+since barley has been known to preserve its vitality upwards of two
+thousand years.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1710:
+
+ Geop. ii. 12.
+
+Footnote 1711:
+
+ A fine kind of barley was cultivated on the plain of Marathon, which
+ obtained the name of Achillean, on account, as Dr. Chandler
+ conjectures, of its tallness. ii. 184. Attica, in fact, produced the
+ best barley known to the ancients. Theoph. Hist. Plant. viii. 8. 2.
+
+Footnote 1712:
+
+ Geop. ii. 14.—Ἐπειδὰν ὁ μετοπωρινὸς χρόνος ἔλθῃ, πάντες που οἱ
+ ἄνθρωποι πρὸς τὸν θεὸν ἀποβλέπουσιν, ὁπότε βρέξας τὴν γὴν ἀφήσει
+ αὐτοὺς σπείρειν. Xenoph. Œconom. xvii. 2. There was a second
+ sowing-time in the spring, and a third in summer for millet and
+ sesame. Theoph. Hist. Plant. viii. 1. 2, sqq. In Phocis, and other
+ cold parts of Greece, they sowed early, that the corn might be strong
+ before the winter came on. § 7. In ancient Italy corn was chiefly
+ committed to the ground in September and October; though in mild
+ seasons the work of sowing went on throughout the winter. Schulze,
+ Antiquitates Rusticæ, § 4. p. 6.
+
+Footnote 1713:
+
+ Cf. Aristot. Problem, xxvi. 3.
+
+Footnote 1714:
+
+ Plat. de Legg. t. viii. p. 119. Tim. Lex. Plat. p. 85. Ruhnk. Plut.
+ Sympos. vii. 2.
+
+Footnote 1715:
+
+ Geop. ii. 19.
+
+Footnote 1716:
+
+ Geop. ii. 16.
+
+-----
+
+It was customary often to renew seed by sowing the produce of mountains
+on plains; of dry places in moist, and the contrary.[1717] To try the
+comparative value of different qualities of grain[1718] they took a
+sample of each, and sowed the whole in separate patches of the same bed,
+a little before the rising of the Dog-star. If the produce of any of
+these samples withered, through the influence they supposed of Syrius,
+the wheat which it represented was rejected. As corn when committed to
+the earth is exposed to numerous enemies, they had recourse to a variety
+of contrivances for its preservation: to protect it from birds, mice,
+and ants,[1719] they steeped it in the juice of houseleeks, or mixed it
+with hellebore and cypress leaves, and scattered it out of a circle, or
+sprinkled it with water into which river crabs had been thrown for eight
+days, or with powdered hartshorn or ivory. Not satisfied with these
+precautions, they had likewise recourse to scarecrows,[1720] fixing up
+long reeds here and there in the fields, with dead birds suspended to
+them by the feet. This long list of contrivances they closed by a spell:
+taking a live toad, they carried it round the field by night, after
+which they shut it up carefully in a jar, which they buried in the
+middle of the grounds.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1717:
+
+ Geop. ii. 17.
+
+Footnote 1718:
+
+ Geop. ii. 15.
+
+Footnote 1719:
+
+ Geop. ii. 18. “The bunting, the yellow-hammer, and a species of
+ Emberiza, nearly related to it, frequent the low bushes in the
+ neighbourhood of corn-fields.” Sibth. in Walp. Mem. i. 77.
+
+Footnote 1720:
+
+ Among the husbandmen of Asia Minor people are employed to drive away
+ the birds as the corn ripens. Chandler, i. 100.
+
+-----
+
+When the corn began to spring up it was diligently weeded[1721] a first
+and a second time. They would not trust entirely, however, to the
+industry of their hands, but called in to their aid certain
+characteristic enchantments, some two or three of which may be worth
+describing. First, to subdue the growth of choke-weed they planted
+sprigs of rose-laurel, at the corner and in the middle of their fields,
+or set up a number of potsherds, upon which had been drawn with chalk
+the figure of Heracles strangling the lion. But the most effectual of
+all spells, was for a young woman, naked and with dishevelled hair, to
+take a live cock in her hands and bear him round the fields, upon which,
+not only would the choke-weed and the restharrow vanish,[1722] but all
+the produce of the land would turn out of a superior quality.[1723]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1721:
+
+ Geop. ii. 24. Cf. Xen. Œconom. xv. 1. 13, seq.
+
+Footnote 1722:
+
+ Cf. Schulz. Antiquit. Rustic. § vii.
+
+Footnote 1723:
+
+ Geop. ii. 42. Theoph. Hist. Plant. vi. 5. 3.
+
+-----
+
+As the ancients well understood the value of hay, they took much pains
+in the formation and management of meadows. In the first place, all
+stones, stumps, bushes, and brambles,[1724] were diligently removed,
+together with whatever else might interrupt the free play of the scythe
+in mowing. They avoided, moreover, letting into them their droves of
+hogs, which were found to turn up the soil and destroy the roots of the
+young grass. In moist lands, too, even the larger cattle were excluded,
+as the holes made by their hoofs[1725] in sinking broke up the fine
+level of the turf. Old hay fields, in districts where much rain fell,
+grew in time to be clothed with a coating of moss,[1726] which some
+farmers sought to remove by manuring the ground with ashes; but the more
+scientific agriculturists ploughed them up, and took precisely the same
+steps as in the formation of a new meadow, that is, they sowed the
+ground with beans, turnips, or rape-seed, which, in the second year,
+were succeeded by wheat; on the third it was thoroughly cleared out, and
+sown with hay-seed, mingled with vetches, after which the whole field
+was finely levelled by the harrow.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1724:
+
+ Colum. ii. 18. Varro, i. 49.
+
+Footnote 1725:
+
+ Cf. Hesiod. Opp. et Dies, 489.
+
+Footnote 1726:
+
+ Lord Bacon, Sylva Sylvarum, 539.
+
+-----
+
+The rules observed by them in the regulation of their hay harvest[1727]
+were, first, to mow before the grass or clover was withered, when it
+became less rich and nutritive; second, to beware in making the ricks,
+that it was neither too dry nor too damp, since in the former case it
+was little better than straw, and in the latter was liable to
+spontaneous combustion.[1728] It may be observed further, that
+clover[1729] was usually sown in March or April, and though commonly
+mown six, or at least five, times in the twelve months, did not require
+to be renewed in less than ten years.[1730]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1727:
+
+ Much hay was laid up in Eubœa for consumption during the winter
+ months.—Dion Chrysost. i. 225.
+
+Footnote 1728:
+
+ Colum. ii. 19.
+
+Footnote 1729:
+
+ Καὶ τὴν βοτάνην δὲ, τὴν μάλιστα τρέφουσαν τοὺς ἵππους ἀπὸ τοῦ
+ πλεονάζειν ἐνταῦθα ἰδίως Μηνδικὴν καλοῦμεν. Strab. xi. 13. t. ii. p.
+ 453.
+
+Footnote 1730:
+
+ Pallad. v. 1. Schol. Aristoph. Eq. 604.
+
+-----
+
+Harvest usually commenced in Greece about the rising of the
+Pleiades,[1731] when the corn had already acquired a deep gold colour,
+though not yet so ripe as to fall from the ear, which in barley happens
+earlier than in wheat, the grain having no hose.[1732] Among the Romans
+operations were preceded by the sacrifice[1733] of a young sow to Ceres,
+with libations of wine, the burning of frankincense, and the offering of
+a cake to Jove, Juno, and Janus. They, at the same time, addressed their
+prayers to the last-mentioned gods, nearly in the following words:—“O
+father Janus or Jupiter, in making an oblation of this cake I offer up
+my prayers that thou wouldst be propitious to me and my children, my
+house, and my family!”[1734]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1731:
+
+ Geop. ii. 25. Hesiod. Opp. et Dies, 383. xiv. cal. June. Cf. Plin.
+ Hist. Nat. xviii. 69.
+
+Footnote 1732:
+
+ Pallad. vii. 2.
+
+Footnote 1733:
+
+ The custom with which the modern Greeks hail the approach of summer is
+ picturesque and beautiful: “On the first of May at Athens, there is
+ not a door that is not crowned with a garland, and the youths of both
+ sexes, with the elasticity of spirits so characteristic of a Greek,
+ forget or brave their Turkish masters, while with guitars in their
+ hands, and crowns upon their heads,
+
+ ‘They lead the dance in honour of the May.’”
+
+ Douglas, p. 64.
+
+Footnote 1734:
+
+ Cato, 134.
+
+-----
+
+At Athens, as soon as the season for reaping[1735] had come round, those
+hardy citizens who lived by letting out their strength for hire,[1736]
+ranged themselves in bands in the agora, whither the farmers of the
+neighbourhood resorted in search of harvesters. They then, in
+consequence of the hot weather, proceeded half-naked[1737] to the
+fields, where, taking the sickle in hand, and separating into two
+divisions, they stationed themselves at either end of the piece of corn
+to be reaped, and began their work with vigour and emulation, each party
+striving to reach the centre of the field before their rivals.[1738] On
+other occasions they took advantage of the wind,[1739] moving along with
+it, whereby they were supposed to benefit considerably, avoiding the
+beard or chaff which it might have blown into their eyes, and having by
+its action the tall straw bent to their hand.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1735:
+
+ The harvest began earlier in Salamis than in the neighbourhood of
+ Athens. Theoph. Hist. Plant. viii. 2. 11. Chandler, vol. ii. p. 230.
+ In Egypt barley was reaped on the sixth month after sowing, and wheat
+ on the seventh. Theoph. Hist. Plant. viii. 2. 7. In Greece, barley
+ required seven or eight months to ripen; wheat still more. This latter
+ grain came to maturity more speedily in Sicily, and returned
+ thirty-fold. § 8. In a district in the island of Rhodes they reaped
+ barley twice in the year. § 9. Harvest was thirty days earlier in
+ Attica than in the Hellespont. 8. 10. There was a kind of wheat in
+ Eubœa which ripened very early; and there was introduced from Sicily
+ into Achaia another kind which was fit for the sickle in two months.
+ Id. viii. 4. 4. Wheat returned in Babylonia, even to negligent
+ husbandmen, fifty-fold, and to such as properly cultivated their
+ lands, a hundred-fold. Id. viii. 7. 4.
+
+Footnote 1736:
+
+ Dem. De Cor. § 16.
+
+Footnote 1737:
+
+ Or perhaps wholly so when they happened to be inhabitants of the warm
+ lowlands on the sea-shore and valleys. At least this is the opinion of
+ Hesiod who counsels the husbandman, γυμνὸν σπείρειν, γυμνὸν δὲ
+ βοωτεῖν, γυμνὸν δ᾽ ἀμάαν, εἴ χ’ ὥρια πάντ᾽ ἐθέλησθα ἔργα κομίζεσθαι
+ Δημήτερος. Opp. et Dies, 391, sqq.
+
+ Aristophanes alludes to the same custom. Lysist. 1175.
+
+ Ἥδη γεωργεῖν γυμνὸς, ἀποδὺς βούλομαι. And Virgil. “Nudus ara, sere
+ nudus,” Georg, i. 299, upon which Servius remarks: “Non dicit nudum
+ esse debere, quasi aliter non oporteat aut possit; sed sub tanta
+ serenitate dicit hæc agenda, ut et amictus possit contemni.” Be this,
+ however, as it may, the precept of Hesiod and Virgil is literally
+ observed in Egypt, where the rustics often perform their labour stark
+ naked.
+
+Footnote 1738:
+
+ Il. λ. 67, seq.
+
+Footnote 1739:
+
+ Πότερα οὖν τέμνεις, ἔφη, στὰς ἔνθα πνεῖ ἄνεμος, ἢ ἀντίος· οὐκ ἀντίος,
+ ἔφην, ἔγωγε· χαλεπὸν γὰρ, οἶμαι, καὶ τοῖς ὄμμασι καὶ ταῖς χερσὶ
+ γίγνεται, ἀντιον ἀχύρων καὶ ἀθέρων θερίζειν. Xenoph. Œconom. xviii. 1.
+
+-----
+
+In many parts of Greece, though the practice was not general, the women
+joined in these labours. The reapers, as they advanced, laid the corn
+behind them in long lines upon the stubble, and were followed by two
+other classes of harvesters, one of whom bound it into sheaves which the
+others bore back and piled up into mows. Of the whole of these
+operations, together with the plenteous feast which interrupted or
+terminated their toils, Homer has left us a graphic picture in the
+Iliad:[1740]
+
+ There in a field ’mid lofty corn, the lusty reapers stand,
+ Plying their task right joyously, with sickle each in hand.
+ Some strew in lines, as on they press, the handfuls thick behind,
+ While at their heels the heavy sheaves their merry comrades bind.
+ These to the mows a troop of boys next bear in haste away,
+ Piling upon the golden glebe the triumphs of the day.
+ Among them wrapped in silent joy, their sceptered king appears,
+ Beholding, in the swelling heaps, the stores of future years.
+ A mighty ox beneath an oak the busy heralds slay,
+ With grateful sacrifice to close the labours of the day.
+ While near, the husbandman’s repast the rustic maids prepare,
+ Sprinkling with flour the broiling cates whose savour fills the air.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1740:
+
+ σ. 550, seq.
+
+-----
+
+In these remote and unsettled times it behoved the rustic to keep a
+sharp look-out on the sheaves left behind him on the field, as there
+were usually prowlers,[1741] lurking amid the neighbouring woods and
+thickets, ready to pounce upon and carry off whatever they saw
+unguarded.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1741:
+
+ Ἡμερόκοιτοὶ ἀνδρες, an elegant euphonism for “thieves”. Hesiod. Opp.
+ et Dies, 605. Cf. the note of Gœttling on verse 375.
+
+-----
+
+The implement used in cutting wheat seems always to have been the
+sickle, while in the case of barley and other inferior grains, the
+scythe was commonly employed. In some parts of ancient Gaul, where no
+value was set upon the straw, corn was reaped by a sort of cart,[1742]
+armed in front with scythes, having the edges inclined upwards, which,
+as it was driven along by an ox, harnessed behind, cut off the ears of
+corn, which were received into the tumbril. In this manner the produce
+of a whole field might be got in easily in a day. Reaping among the
+ancient inhabitants of Italy[1743] was performed in three ways: first
+they reaped close, as in Umbria, and laid the handfuls carefully on the
+ground, after which the ears were separated from the straw, and borne in
+baskets to the threshing-floor. Elsewhere, as in Picenum, they made use
+of a ripple or serrated hook, having a long handle with which the ears
+only were cut off, leaving the straw standing to be afterwards collected
+and raked up into mows.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1742:
+
+ Pallad. vii. 2.
+
+Footnote 1743:
+
+ Varro. i. 50.
+
+-----
+
+In the neighbourhood of Rome they reaped with the common sickle, holding
+the upper part of the straw in their left hand, and cutting it off in
+the middle. This tall stubble was afterwards mown and carried off to be
+used as fodder or bedding for cattle. In Upper Egypt and Nubia, the
+dhoura stalks are left about two feet in height to support the crop of
+kidney-beans which succeeds next in order. Among the Athenians[1744]
+when the corn grew tall the stubble was suffered to remain to be burned
+for manure; but, when short, the value of the straw led them to reap
+close.
+
+Footnote 1744:
+
+ Καὶ ἀκροτομοίης δ᾽ἂν, ἔφη, ἢ παρὰ γῆν τέμνοις; ἢν μὲν βραχὺς ἦ ὁ
+ κάλαμος τοῦ σίτου, ἔγωγ’, ἔφην, κάτωθεν ἂν τέμνοιμι, ἵνα ἱκανὰ τὰ
+ ἄχυρα μᾶλλον γίγνηται. Ἐὰν δὲ ὑψηλὸς ᾖ, νομίζω ὀρθῶς ἂν ποιεῖν
+ μεσοτομῶν, ἵνα μήτε οἱ ἁλοῶντες μοχθῶσι περιττὸν πόνον, μήτε οἱ
+ λικμῶντες, ὧν οὐδὲν προσδέονται. Τὸ δὲ ἐv τῇ γῇ λειφθὲν ἡγοῦμαι καὶ
+ κατακαυθὲν συνωφελεῖν ἂν τὴν γῆν καὶ εις κοπρον ἐμβληθὲν τὴν κόπρον
+ συμπληθύνειν. Xenoph. Œconom. xviii. 2.
+
+-----
+
+In separating the grain from the straw the ancients made use of horses,
+oxen, and mules, which, passing round and round over the
+threshing-floor, trod out the corn. All the labourer had to do was to
+guide the movements of the cattle, and take care that no part of the
+sheaf remained untrodden.[1745] From a very humane law in the Old
+Testament we learn, that among some nations it was customary to tie up
+the mouths of such animals as they employed in this labour, which was
+forbidden the Israelites: “Thou shalt not,” says the Scripture, “muzzle
+the ox that treadeth out the corn.” Nor was it practised among the
+Greeks in the age of Homer,[1746] whom we find describing the oxen
+bellowing as they made their unwearied round. The threshing-floor, which
+was of a circular form,[1747] stood on a breezy eminence, in the open
+field, where, as at present, in modern Greece, and in the Crimea,[1748]
+a high pole was set up in the centre, to which the cattle were tied by a
+cord determining the extent of the circle they had to describe.[1749]
+The end being nailed, every turn made by the cattle coiled the rope
+about the pole and diminished their range, until, at length, they were
+brought quite close to the centre, after which, their heads were turned
+about, and by moving in an opposite direction the cord was unwound.
+Great pains were taken in the construction of this threshing-floor,
+which was somewhat elevated about the centre, in order, as Varro
+observes, that what rain fell might speedily run off. It was sometimes
+paved with stone, or pitched with flints, but more commonly coated with
+stucco, made level by a roller, and well soaked with the lees of oil
+which at once prevented the growth of weeds and grass, preserved it from
+cracking, and repelled the approach of mice, ants, and moles, to which
+oil-lees are destructive.[1750] Though some authorities advise that it
+should be situated under the master’s, or at least the steward’s, eye,
+it was generally thought advisable to keep it at a distance from the
+house and gardens, since the finer particles of chaff, borne thickly
+through the air, caused ophthalmia, and often blindness,[1751] and
+proved exceedingly injurious to all plants and pulpy fruits, more
+particularly grapes. In some parts of the ancient world, exposed to the
+chances of summer rains, the threshing-floor was covered; and, even in
+Italy, an umbracula,[1752] or shed, was always constructed close at
+hand, into which the corn could be removed in case of bad weather. But
+this in the sunnier climate of Greece was judged unnecessary. In
+obedience to a notion prevalent among Hellenic farmers, the sheaves were
+piled up with the straw towards the south, by which means they believed
+the grain was enlarged and loosened from the hose. When the farmer
+happened to be scant of cattle he made use of a threshing-machine,[1753]
+which consisted of a kind of heavy sledge, toothed below with sharp
+stones or iron. Occasionally, too, the flail[1754] was used, especially
+in the case of such corn as was laid up in the barn and threshed during
+winter.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1745:
+
+ Xenoph. Œconom. xviii. 4. The same custom still prevails in Southern
+ Europe and in the East. “Corn is trodden out in Granada in
+ circular-formed threshing-floors, in the open fields; the animals
+ employed are mules or oxen.” Napier, Excursions, &c., i. 156. Again,
+ in the Troad, “The oxen or horses being harnessed to a sort of sledge,
+ the bottom part of which is armed with sharp flints, are driven over
+ the corn, the person who guides the cattle balancing him or herself
+ with great dexterity whilst rapidly drawn round in revolving circles.”
+ Id. ii. 171. Cf. Fowler, Three Years in Persia, i. 173, and Chandler,
+ i. 320. ii. 234.
+
+Footnote 1746:
+
+ Iliad, υ. 495, seq. Hesiod. Opp. et Dies, 599.
+
+Footnote 1747:
+
+ Suid. v. ἁλωὰ t. i. p. 186. c. Philoch. Frag. Siebel. p. 86. Etym.
+ Mag. 73. 56, seq. Colum. ii. 20. Geop. ii. 26. Senec. Quæst. Nat. i.
+ 2.
+
+Footnote 1748:
+
+ Earl of Aberdeen in Walp. Mem. i. 150. Pallas, Trav. in South. Russia,
+ vol. iv. p. 148, seq.
+
+Footnote 1749:
+
+ Schneid. ad Xenoph, Œcon. xviii. 8.
+
+Footnote 1750:
+
+ Varro. de Re Rust. i. 51.
+
+Footnote 1751:
+
+ Geop. ii. 26.
+
+Footnote 1752:
+
+ Varro. i. 51. Pallad. i. 36.
+
+Footnote 1753:
+
+ Mathem. Vett. p. 85. Theoph. Hist. Plant. iii. 8.
+
+Footnote 1754:
+
+ Colum. ii. 21.
+
+-----
+
+In winnowing,[1755] when the breeze served, they simply threw the grain
+up into the air with a scoop, until the wind had completely cleared away
+the chaff. In serene days they had recourse to a winnowing machine,
+which, though turned by the hand, was of great power, as we may judge
+from its being employed in cleansing vetches, and even beans.[1756] To
+receive the chaff, which was too valuable to be lost, pits appear to
+have been sunk all round the threshing-floor, which, for the passage of
+the men and cattle, would appear to have been covered, save in the
+direction of the wind.[1757] When the corn was designed for immediate
+use, one winnowing was deemed sufficient; but that which was intended to
+be laid up in the granary[1758] underwent the operation a second time.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1755:
+
+ Plat. Tim. t. vii. p. 65. Xenoph. Œconom. xviii. 8.
+
+Footnote 1756:
+
+ Il. ν. 588.
+
+Footnote 1757:
+
+ Il. ε. 562.
+
+Footnote 1758:
+
+ See on the vessels in which the produce of the harvest was received,
+ Pollux. x. 129.
+
+-----
+
+On the building and preparation of granaries[1759] the ancients bestowed
+great pains. Every means which could communicate to grain firmness and
+durability appears to have been tried by them; and their success was
+answerable to their diligence, for, in their granaries, wheat was
+preserved in perfection fifty, and millet a hundred years.[1760] Their
+methods, however, were various; some laid up their grain in hollow rocks
+and caves, as in Thrace and Cappadocia; others sank deep pits in the
+earth[1761] where they found it to be perfectly free from humidity, as
+in Farther Spain, while others, as in Hither Spain, Apulia, and
+Greece,[1762] erected their granaries on lofty basements fronting the
+East, and with openings towards the north and west winds.[1763] There
+was usually a range of numerous diminutive windows near the roof, to
+supply free vent for the heated air, while the floor, in many cases,
+contained small apertures for the admission of the cool breezes beneath.
+The walls were built with suitable solidity, and having, together with
+the floor, been plastered with rough mortar,[1764] made commonly with
+hair, for which chaff was sometimes substituted, received a coat of fine
+stucco, on the preparation of which much care was bestowed. It was
+generally composed of lime, sand, and powdered marble, moistened with
+the lees of oil, the peculiar flavour and odour of which were supposed
+effectually to repel the approaches of mice,[1765] weevils, and ants.
+Instead of this a common stucco, formed of clay, was often used.
+Occasionally the grain was packed up in baskets or large jars,[1766]
+such, it may be presumed, as those still employed for the purpose in
+Africa, where they are commonly kept in a corner outside the door. Beans
+and other pulse were preserved in oil-jars rubbed with ashes.[1767]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1759:
+
+ Cf. Pallad. l. 19. Colum. i. 6. A granary, commonly σιτοφυλακεῖον,
+ was, by Menander, in his Eunuch, denominated σιτοβόλιον; among the
+ Siciliotes and Greek colonists of Italy ῥογος; as in the Busiris of
+ Epicharmos. Poll. ix. 45.
+
+Footnote 1760:
+
+ Varro. i. 57.
+
+Footnote 1761:
+
+ The same practice is still found in several of the Grecian islands.
+ “Ils font dans les champs un trou proportionné à la quantité de bled
+ qu’ils y veulent serrer; il est ordinairement de cinq pieds de
+ diamètre, sur deux ou trois de profondeur. On en tapisse l’intérieur
+ d’environ un demi-pied de paille brisée sous les pieds des bœufs;
+ on y serre ensuite le grain, de manière qu’il s’élève par dessus la
+ terre, à une hauteur à-peu-près égale à la profondeur du trou; on le
+ couvre avec un demi-pied de paille, sur laquelle on met trois ou
+ quatre pouces de terre.” Della Rocca, Traité Complet sur les Abeilles,
+ t. i. p. 198, seq.
+
+Footnote 1762:
+
+ Geop. ii. 27.
+
+Footnote 1763:
+
+ Cf. Lord Bacon. Hist. Life and Death, p. 5.
+
+Footnote 1764:
+
+ But, according to Theophrastus, corn kept best in granaries
+ unplastered with lime. Hist. Plant. viii. 10. 1. In a certain part of
+ Cappadocia called Petra, corn would keep fit for sowing forty years,
+ and for food sixty or seventy, although in that district cloths and
+ other articles decay rapidly. Id. viii. 10. 5.
+
+Footnote 1765:
+
+ Among tame animals designed to protect the farmstead from vermin, the
+ weasel was sometimes used. Hom. Batrachom. 52. Ovid. Met. ix. 323.
+ Luc. Timon. § 21. Perizon. ad Ælian. Var. Hist. xiv. 4. Muncker, ad
+ Anton. Liber. 29. Plin. Hist. Nat. xix. 16. Welcker. ad Simon. Amorg.
+ p. 43.
+
+Footnote 1766:
+
+ From which they carefully cleansed the spider’s webs: ἐκ δ᾽ ἀγγέων
+ ἐλάσειας ἀράχνια. Hesiod. Opp. et Dies, 475. Cf. 600. A similar method
+ still prevails in the islands of the Archipelago when the grain is
+ intended for the market: “Ceux qui veulent porter leurs grains à la
+ ville, les mettent dans des vases de terre cuite, qu’ils remplissent à
+ deux ou trois pouces près; ensuite ils étendent par dessus quelques
+ feuilles de figuier sauvage, appelé _orni_, et en Latin _caprificus_;
+ enfin ils achèvent de remplir les vases avec de la cendre, et les
+ couvrent d’une espèce d’ardoise, mais plus forte et plus épaisse que
+ celle dont on se sert en France pour couvrir les maisons.” Della
+ Rocca, Traité Complet sur les Abeilles, t. i. p. 200.
+
+Footnote 1767:
+
+ Varro. i. 57.
+
+-----
+
+Before the produce of the new year was carried in, the granaries, having
+been carefully swept, were smeared all over with oil-lees. Various other
+precautions were, likewise, taken to protect the sacred gifts of Demeter
+from depredation, such as drawing on the floor broad lines of
+chalk,[1768] or strewing handfuls of wild origany round the heaps, or
+sprinkling them with the ashes of oaken twigs or dry cow’s dung, or
+sprigs of wormwood and southernwood, or, in greater quantity, the leaves
+of the everlasting. Instead of these, in some cases, they made use of
+powdered clay[1769] or dry pomegranate leaves, rubbed small, and passed
+through a sieve, a chœnix of which was sprinkled over a bushel of corn.
+The favourite plan, however, seems to have been, to spread a layer of
+half-withered fleabane over the floor, on which were poured about ten
+bushels of wheat, then a layer of fleabane, and so on, until the granary
+was full.[1770] Wheat thus layed up was supposed not only to last many
+years, but also to preserve its weight in breadmaking. To render barley
+durable, they strewed over it laurel leaves, or the ashes of laurel
+wood, as, likewise, everlasting, calaminth, and gypsum, or placed a
+tightly-corked bottle of vinegar,[1771] in the middle of the heap. To
+communicate greater plumpness to all kinds of grain, they sprinkled over
+the piles a mixture composed of nitre,[1772] spume of nitre, and fine
+earth, which, likewise, acted as a preservative. To render flour more
+durable, they thrust into it small maple branches, stripped of their
+leaves, or little cakes of salt and cumin.[1773]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1768:
+
+ Geop. ii. 29.
+
+Footnote 1769:
+
+ This substance was brought from Olynthos and Cerinthos, in Eubœa. It
+ is said to have improved the appearance of the wheat, though it
+ deteriorated its quality as an article of food. Theoph. viii. 10. 7.
+
+Footnote 1770:
+
+ The granaries of the island of Syra, with the contrivance by which
+ corn is there preserved at the present day, are thus described by
+ Della Rocca:—“Les granges, appelées en Grec θεμονέα, ont communément
+ une vingtaine de pieds de long, sur huit à dix de hauteur et de
+ largeur. On les remplit jusqu’à la moitié de leur hauteur, de paille
+ bien foulée: on pratique un espace de trois ou quatre pieds, que l’on
+ remplit de grain. A côté on en forme un autre, que l’on remplit de
+ même, et ainsi de suite, selon l’étendue de la grange, et la quantité
+ de grain que l’on a; cela fait, par des ouvertures pratiquées dans la
+ couverture, on recouvre de paille tout le bled, jusqu’à ce que la
+ grange soit exactement remplie. Quand on veut en faire usage, on
+ commence par le tas le plus voisin de la porte; on enlève d’abord la
+ paille avec beaucoup de précaution: plus on approche, plus cette
+ précaution augmente; enfin, pour ôter les derniers brins de paille, on
+ se sert d’un balai de millepertuis ou d’autres plantes que l’on fait
+ sécher; et si malgré tous ces soins, la surface du monceau de grain
+ n’est pas bien nette, on achève d’en enlever toutes les menues pailles
+ en la vannant avec un chapeau car les paysans de nos îles portent
+ comme ici, dans les champs, des chapeaux ronds de feutre; ils en
+ portent aussi de paille, que l’on travaille avec beaucoup de
+ délicatesse à Sifanto.” Traité Complet sur les Abeilles. t. i. p. 199,
+ seq. Among the tribes of Northern Africa a more complete system of
+ preserving grain prevails. “The Arabs, in lieu of granaries, preserve
+ all their grain in pits: forty or fifty of these are made, each to
+ contain about a thousand bushels: the spot selected is a dry, sandy
+ soil, the hole being formed in the shape of a large earthen jug, the
+ sides are plastered with mortar about a foot in thickness, and the
+ wheat or grain filled up to the mouth, which is left just large enough
+ for a man to get in at, and is about three feet below the surface of
+ the ground; this is now plastered over also, and filled with the soil
+ around to the same level as the surrounding country. The earth taken
+ out in forming the pits is removed to a distance, and being scattered
+ abroad, in a month or two the grass grows over the surface, and no
+ one, unless those who have buried this treasure, would imagine that
+ there was anything beneath their feet. The grain thus buried preserves
+ for many years. I have eaten bread at the Esmailla made from wheat as
+ old as the Sultan, having been buried the year of his birth, and it
+ was as good as that made of flour from this year’s crop.” Colonel
+ Scott, Journal of a Residence in the Esmailla of Abd-el-Kader. p. 155,
+ seq. Mandelslo (lib. ii. c. iii.) found corn-vaults of similar
+ construction in the Azores; and most travellers who have visited the
+ island of Malta will have observed in the fortifications of Valetta
+ that series of curious and beautiful granaries excavated in the form
+ of a bottle in the solid rock.
+
+Footnote 1771:
+
+ Geop. ii. 30, seq.
+
+Footnote 1772:
+
+ Geop. ii. 28.
+
+Footnote 1773:
+
+ Geop. ii. 30.
+
+-----
+
+The fruits of the earth having been thus safely lodged within doors, the
+grateful husbandmen celebrated in honour of their rural gods, Demeter
+and Dionysos, a festival which may, perhaps, be denominated that of the
+Harvest Home. In Attica it took place in the great temple at Eleusis,
+and continued during several days. No bloody sacrifices were on this
+occasion offered up; but, in lieu of them, oblations of cakes and fruit
+with other rustic offerings, designed at once to express their gratitude
+for past blessings, and to render the gods propitious to them in future.
+The first loaf made from the new corn was probably eaten or offered up
+on this day, since it received the name of Thargelos, or Thalusios, from
+Thalusia, the denomination of the festival.[1774]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1774:
+
+ Vid. Theoc. Eidyll. vii. 3. Etym. Mag. 444. 13. Athen. xiii. 65. iii.
+ 80. Meurs. Græc. Fer. p. 15. p. 142. Dem. adv. Neær. § 27, with the
+ authorities collected by Taylor.
+
+-----
+
+Before we quit the farm, it may be observed, that the ancients kept a
+number of slaves, constituting a kind of rural police, whose occupation
+wholly consisted in guarding the boundaries of estates.[1775] These,
+among the Romans, were denominated rangers, or foresters. There were
+others to whom the care of the fruit was entrusted; and both these
+classes of persons were probably elderly men, remarkable for their
+diligence and fidelity, who were rewarded, by appointment to this more
+easy duty, for their honest discharge in youth of such as were more
+painful and laborious. Boys were sometimes set to keep watch over
+vineyards,[1776] as we may see in the first Eidyll of Theocritus, where
+he gives us a lively sketch of such a guardian plotted against by two
+foxes.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1775:
+
+ Such of these as had charge of the timber may be denominated
+ wood-reeves, a term which answers very well the Latin Saltuarius. The
+ slave-guards of forests, in Crete, were called Ergatones. Hesych. ap.
+ Meurs. Cret. p. 190.
+
+Footnote 1776:
+
+ Casaub. ad Theoph. Char. p. 223, seq. Theocrit. Eidyll. xxv. 27. Cf.
+ Feith. Antiq. Hom. iv. i. 276, sqq. Vineyards in Athens still require
+ guards. Speaking of his approach to Athens from the Peiræeus, Chandler
+ observes:—“In a tree was a kind of couch, sheltered with boughs,
+ belonging to a man employed to watch there during the vintage.” ii.
+ 27.
+
+-----
+
+
+
+
+ CHAPTER VI.
+ PASTORAL LIFE.
+
+
+But within the circle of Hellenic country life[1777] there was a kind of
+parenthetical existence, a remnant of the old nomadic habits, once
+common, perhaps, to the whole race,—I mean the pastoral life, of which
+we obtain so many glimpses through the leafy glades and grassy avenues
+of Greek poetry. No doubt, the fancy of imaginative men, thirsting for a
+degree of simplicity and happiness greater than they find around them in
+cities or villages, is apt to kindle and shed too glorious a light on
+approaching the tranquil solitudes, the pine forests, the mountain
+glens, the hidden lakes, the umbrageous streams that leap and frolic
+down the wild rocks of a country so rife with beauty as Greece.
+Nevertheless, adhering strictly to truth and reality, there is, in such
+regions, much about the pastoral life to delight the mind. In the first
+place, the occupations of an ancient shepherd left him great leisure,
+and he was generally, by habit no less than by inclination, led to prize
+that “dolce far niente” which, in all southern climates, constitutes the
+chief enjoyment of existence.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1777:
+
+ The charm of that repose and freedom from care supposed to be tasted
+ in the seclusion of the country, appears in all ages to have led to
+ the belief, that there is something more natural in fields and forests
+ than in cities, though it be quite as necessary that man should have
+ dwellings as that he should cultivate the ground. The paradox,
+ however, is thus expressed by Varro: Divina natura dedit agros, ars
+ humana ædificavit urbes. De Re Rust. iii. 1, which Cowper,
+ unconsciously perhaps, has thus translated,
+
+ God gave the country, but man made the town.
+
+-----
+
+And indeed all the world over, repose, both of mind and body, is sweet.
+But not entire repose. Accordingly the Grecian shepherd, whose flocks
+fed tranquilly, whose condition, assured, and pinched by no necessities,
+left him at liberty to consult his own tastes in his recreations, took
+refuge from idleness in music and song.[1778] At first, and perhaps
+always, their lays were rude; but nature, their only teacher, infused
+into them originality and passion, such as we find in the only poet of
+antiquity, save Homer, in whose verses the fragrance of the woods still
+breathes. Whether like Paris and Anchises they kept their own flocks or
+undertook the care for others, they were still on the mountains
+perfectly free. Their education was peculiar. Abroad much after
+dark,[1779] in a climate where the summer nights are soft and balmy
+beyond expression, and where the stars seem lovingly to crowd closer
+about the earth, they necessarily grew romantic and superstitious.[1780]
+Events occurring early in their own lives or handed down to them by
+tradition, long meditated on, were in the end invested with supernatural
+attributes. Under similar circumstances their national religion had
+probably been first formed. They in the same way, in every canton,
+created a local religion.[1781] Their very creed was poetry. Tree, rock,
+mountain, spring, every thing was instinct with divinity, not
+mystically, as in certain philosophical systems, but literally; and, as
+they believed, the immortal race, their invisible companions at all
+hours, could when they pleased put on visibility, or rather remove from
+their eyes the film which prevented their habitually beholding them.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1778:
+
+ Travellers find among the modern shepherds of the East much the same
+ tastes and habits. “The hills,” observed Dr. Chandler, speaking of
+ Lydia, “were enlivened by flocks of sheep and goats, and resounded
+ with the rude music of the lyre and of the pipe; the former a stringed
+ instrument resembling a guitar, and held much in the same manner, but
+ usually played on with a bow.” Chandler, i. p. 85. Cf. Theocrit.
+ Eidyll. i. 7. viii. 9.
+
+Footnote 1779:
+
+ The same habits still prevail: “We could discern fires on Lesbos as
+ before on several islands and capes, made chiefly by fishermen and
+ shepherds, who live much abroad in the air, to burn the strong stalks
+ of the Turkey wheat and the dry herbage on the mountains.” Chandler,
+ i. 11. Cf. p. 320.
+
+Footnote 1780:
+
+ Among other things we find them putting the strongest faith in
+ dreams—at least we may suppose the fishermen in Theocritus, who lay so
+ much stress on the visions of the night, to hold a creed pretty nearly
+ akin to that of shepherds. Eidyll. 21. v. 29. sqq.
+
+Footnote 1781:
+
+ The gods they principally worshiped were Pan, the Muses, and the
+ Nymphs. To the Nymphs and Pan they sacrificed as to gods presiding
+ over mountains, where they themselves usually wandered. Pan, moreover,
+ was skilled in the pipe, the instrument of their race. The Muses they
+ adored as the goddesses of poetry and music. Schol. Theoc. i. 6. In
+ verse 12 of the same Eidyll. the Nymphs are spoken of where the office
+ of the Muses is in contemplation, which may easily be explained. For
+ the Muses are properly the Nymphs of those fountains which inspire
+ poets with their lays. Cf. Voss. ad Virg. Eclog. iii. 84. By the
+ Lydians the Muses were denominated Nymphs. Schol. Theoc. Eidyll. vii.
+ 92. Cf. Eidyll. v. 140. Lyc. Cassand. 274. ibique Schol. et Potter.
+ Kiessl. ad Theocrit.
+
+-----
+
+It is well known that, in the present day, among the nomadic nations of
+Asia, the sons of the chiefs still follow their flocks in the
+wilderness. And this in the heroic ages was likewise the case in
+Greece,[1782] where youths of the noblest families watched over their
+fathers’ sheep and cattle. Thus Bucolion, son of Laomedon, led to
+pasture the flocks of his sire, and, in the solitudes of the Phrygian
+mountains, was met and loved by a nymph.[1783] Two sons also of Priam
+pursued the same occupation;[1784] and thus among the Hebrews, David,
+the son of Jesse, passes his youth in the sheepfold, and his manhood on
+a throne. In this secluded and solitary life the sights and sounds of
+nature became familiar to them, the voice of sudden torrents rushing
+from the mountains,[1785] the roar of lions springing on their folds, or
+the sweet moonlight silvering both mountain and valley. It is with the
+shepherd’s life that Homer connects that noble description of the night
+which Chapman has thus translated:
+
+ As when about the silver moon, when air is free from wind,[1786]
+ And stars shine clear,[1787] to whose sweet beams high prospects and the
+ brows
+ Of all steep hills and pinnacles thrust up themselves for shows,
+ And even the lonely valleys joy to glitter in their sight,
+ When the unmeasured firmament bursts to disclose her light,
+ And all the signs in heaven are seen, that glad the shepherd’s heart.
+
+The glimpses of pastoral life, albeit too few, are still frequent in
+Homer, who loves, whenever possible, to illustrate his subject by
+bringing before our minds the image of a shepherd. Thus Hector, lifting
+a large rock, is compared to a shepherd bearing a ram’s fleece.[1788]
+
+ As when the fleece, though large yet light, the careful shepherd rears,
+ With both hands plunged within its folds, so he the rock uptears.
+
+Footnote 1782:
+
+ Lycoph. Cassand. 91, seq. in common with Homer and the other ancient
+ poets, represent princes as shepherds. The guarding of flocks was
+ then, in fact, a regal occupation. Didymos, ad Odyss. ν. 223,
+ observes, that τὸ παλαιὸν καὶ οἱ τῶν βασιλέων παίδες πανάπαλοι (l.
+ παναίπολοι) ἐκαλοῦντο, καὶ ἐποίμαινον. Meurs. ad Lycoph. p. 1181.
+ Varr. De Re Rust. ii. 1.
+
+Footnote 1783:
+
+ Il. ζ. 25. Odyss. ο. 385, seq.
+
+Footnote 1784:
+
+ Il. δ. 106.
+
+Footnote 1785:
+
+ Iliad. δ. 452, seq. ε. 137. θ, 555.
+
+Footnote 1786:
+
+ The following picture by Milton almost seems to be designed to form a
+ contrast to the above:
+
+ As when from mountain-tops the dusky clouds
+ Ascending, while the north wind sleeps, o’erspread
+ Heaven’s cheerful face, the lowring element
+ Scowls o’er the darken’d landscape snow or shower;
+ If chance the radiant sun, with farewell sweet,
+ Extend his evening beam, the fields revive,
+ The birds their notes renew, and bleating herds
+ Attest their joy, that hill and valley rings.
+ Parad. Lost, ii. 488, sqq.
+
+ Iliad θ. 559, sqq. Here _shepherd_, observes the Scholiast, is used
+ for _herdsman_. Ποιμήν εἶπεν ἀντὶ τοῦ βουκόλος διὰ νυκτὸς γὰρ αἱ βόες
+ νέμονται, in loc. i. 238.
+
+Footnote 1787:
+
+ On this passage Ἀρίσταρχος τὴν κατὰ φύσιν λαμπρὰν λέγει κἂν μὴ
+ πλήθουσα ᾖ εἰ γὰρ πληροσέληνος ἦν, ἐκέκρυπτο ἄν μᾶλλον τὰ ἄστρα.
+ Schol. Bekker. t. i. 238. Cf. Eustath. in Iliad. θ. t. i. p. 621.
+
+Footnote 1788:
+
+ Iliad, μ. 451, seq.
+
+-----
+
+Again, the Trojan forces following their leader, Æneas, suggest to his
+mind the idea of innumerable flocks bounding after a ram to drink.[1789]
+
+ The people followed, as the flock the shaggy ram succeeds,
+ Who to the cooling streamlet’s bank the woolly nation leads
+ (While swells the shepherd’s heart with joy) from pasture on the meads.
+
+Elsewhere, he describes a troop of hungry wolves attacking the flocks on
+the mountains:—[1790]
+
+ As when the hungry wolves, on folds forsaken by the watch,
+ Descend, the kids and tender lambs by thievish force to snatch;
+ Or when the timid browsing crew are scattered far and wide,
+ And seized, by witless shepherds left upon the mountain side.
+
+But, in another place, they are represented contending with a lion by
+night for the body of one of their flock.[1791]
+
+ Thus the night-watching shepherds strive, but vainly, to repel
+ The angry lion, whom the stings of want and rage impel,
+ Upon the carcase fastens he: his heart no fear can quell.
+
+Where the number of the flock required the care of several men a chief
+shepherd ἐπιποιμὴν was appointed to overlook the rest.[1792] Among the
+ancients twenty sheep were thought to require the attention of a man and
+a boy;[1793] but, in modern times, three men and a boy, with four or
+five dogs, are sometimes entrusted with a flock of five hundred, of
+which two-thirds are ewes.[1794] The proportion of rams to ewes is at
+present as four to a hundred.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1789:
+
+ Iliad, ν. 491, sqq.
+
+Footnote 1790:
+
+ Iliad. π. 354, sqq.
+
+Footnote 1791:
+
+ Iliad. σ. 161, seq.
+
+Footnote 1792:
+
+ Odyss. μ. 131. The duties of this servant are described by Varro, who
+ likewise states the physical qualities required to be found in
+ shepherds. Contra, pernoctare ad suum quemque gregem esse omnes sub
+ uno magistro pecoris cum esse majorem natu potius quàm alios et
+ peritiorem quàm reliquos, quod iis qui ætate, et scientia præstant
+ animo æquiore reliquis parent. Ita tamen oportet ætate præstare ut ne
+ propter senectutem minus sustinere possit labores. Neque enim senes,
+ neque pueri callium difficultatem, ac montium arduitatem, atque
+ asperitatem facile ferunt: quod patiendum illis qui greges sequuntur
+ præsertim armenticios, ac caprinos quibus rupes ac silvæ ad pabulandi
+ cordi. De Re Rust, ii. 10. Cf. Colum. ii. 1.
+
+Footnote 1793:
+
+ Geop. xviii. 1. Yet we find mention in Demosthenes of a shepherd with
+ a flock of fifty sheep under his care. In Everg. et Mnes. § 15.
+
+Footnote 1794:
+
+ Leake, Travels in the Morea, vol. i. p. 17.
+
+-----
+
+From very remote ages shepherds had learned to avail themselves of the
+aid of dogs,[1795] which in farms were usually furnished with wooden
+collars.[1796] The breed generally employed in this service, in later
+ages at least, was the Molossian,[1797] which, though exceedingly
+powerful and fierce towards strangers, was by its masters found
+sufficiently gentle and tractable. The shepherd’s pipe,[1798] frequently
+made of the donax, or common river-reed,[1799] likewise used in
+thatching cottages, formed a no less necessary accompaniment. Another of
+their instruments of music was the flute crooked at the top, finely
+polished and rubbed with bees’ wax.[1800]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1795:
+
+ Plat. de Rep. iv. t. vi. p. 204. Columella describes with poetical
+ enthusiasm the character and qualities of the shepherd’s dog, which he
+ refuses to class among dumb animals, its bark being, according to him,
+ full of meaning: “Canis falso dicitur mutus custos nam quis hominum
+ clarius, aut tanta vociferatione bestiam vel furem prædicat quam iste
+ latratu? quis famulus amantior domini? quis fidelior comes? quis
+ custos incorruptior? quis excubitor inveniri potest vigilantior? quis
+ denique ultor aut vindex constantior? Quare vel in primis hoc animal
+ mercari tuerique debet agricola, quod et villam et fructus
+ familiamque, at pecora custodit.” De Re Rusticâ, 7. 12.
+
+Footnote 1796:
+
+ Sch. Aristoph. Vesp. 897.
+
+Footnote 1797:
+
+ Aristot. Hist. Animal. ix. 1.
+
+Footnote 1798:
+
+ Luc. Bis Accus. § 11.
+
+Footnote 1799:
+
+ Plat. Rep. iii. § 10. Stalb.
+
+Footnote 1800:
+
+ Theocrit. i. 129. Plat. de Rep. t. vi. p. 132. Mosch. Eidyll. iii. 54.
+
+-----
+
+As the Arcadians, descendants of the Pelasgians, derived one of their
+principal delights from music,[1801] it is reasonable to infer that the
+ancestral nation, preëminently pastoral, was likewise addicted to this
+science. The feeding of herds and flocks constituted the principal
+occupation of the Proselenoi,[1802] who were little devoted to
+agriculture, as may be inferred from their acorn-eating habits; for no
+nation ever continued to feed on mast after they could obtain bread. A
+report prevailed in the ancient world that the Arcadians were of a
+poetical temperament, to which Virgil alludes in the well-known verses—
+
+ Arcades ambo,
+ Et cantare pares et respondere parati.
+
+And as improvisatori they may possibly have excelled, though Greece knew
+nothing of an Arcadian literature. However, chiefly after the example of
+Virgil, the poets of modern times have always delighted to convert
+Arcadia into a kind of pastoral Utopia, which is done by Sannazaro,
+Tasso, Guarini, Sir Philip Sydney, Daniel, and many others. Palmerius à
+Grentmesnil[1803] discovers something like the descendants of the
+Arcadians among the Irish, whose pastoral taste for music he conceives
+to be commemorated by the triangular harp in the national insignia.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1801:
+
+ Athen. xiv. 22.
+
+Footnote 1802:
+
+ Etym. Mag. 690. 11.
+
+Footnote 1803:
+
+ “Sic et hodie audio Hibernos, qui pecuariam exercent, musicæ deditos,
+ et triangulari cithara (quam vocamus _harpe_) plerumque se oblectare
+ solere, unde aiunt insignia regni Hiberniæ fuisse olim et esse adhuc
+ tale musicum instrumentum.” Desc. Græc. Ant. p. 61.
+
+-----
+
+Their usual clothing consisted of diptheræ, or dressed sheepskins,[1804]
+just as at the present day among the Nubian shepherds, whom one may see
+thus clad, roaming through the sandy hollows of the Lybian desert. On
+the inside of these skins the traitor Hermion wrote the letters which
+betrayed the designs of his countrymen to the enemy in Laconia.[1805]
+Others wore goatskin cloaks, which they likewise used as a coverlet at
+night.[1806] Euripides introduces his chorus of satyrs complaining of
+this miserable costume.[1807]
+
+ “Much loved Bacchos where dost thou
+ Lonely dwell afar,
+ Shaking thy gold locks at eve
+ Like a blazing star?
+ While I thy minister am fain
+ To serve this one-eyed Cyclop swain,
+ A slave borne down by fortune’s stroke
+ In a wretched goatskin cloak.”
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1804:
+
+ Schol. Aristoph. Nub. 73. Cf. Vesp. 442. Küst.—Eq. 398. Bekk. Luc.
+ Tim. § 8. We find mention also made of a cloak of wolfskin.
+ Philostrat. Vit. Sophist. ii. 6.
+
+Footnote 1805:
+
+ Suidas. v. διφθέρα. t. i. p. 757. e.
+
+Footnote 1806:
+
+ Harless. ad Theocrit. v. 2.
+
+Footnote 1807:
+
+ Cyclop. 79, seq.
+
+-----
+
+And thus simple was ever their appearance in the East. But, as I have
+hinted above, their very great leisure,[1808] the accidents of their
+occupation, and the grand and regular march of natural phenomena in
+those countries, often ripened their intellects beyond what the
+condition of a modern heath-trotter renders credible. Thus, in the
+mountains of Chaldæa, astronomy and all its parasitical sciences took
+birth among the shepherd race. From temperament and circumstances, the
+inhabitants of thinly-peopled tracts, if unvexed by wars, are profoundly
+meditative. What they behold in serene indistraction gradually rouses
+their thoughts, and presenting itself again and again, attended always,
+as the phenomena of the heavens are, by the same accidents, compels them
+to study.[1809]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1808:
+
+ Lord Bacon considers the pastoral state preferable in some respects to
+ the agricultural:—“The two simplest and most primitive trades of life;
+ that of the shepherd (who by reason of his leisure, rests in a place,
+ and living in view of heaven, is a lively image of a contemplative
+ life) and that of the husbandman; where we see the favour of God went
+ to the shepherd and not to the tiller of the ground.”—Advancement of
+ Learning, p. 64. Shepherds made libations of milk to the Muses.
+ Theocrit. i. 143, seq.
+
+Footnote 1809:
+
+ Even yet we find the shepherds of Greece retain some smack of
+ classical learning: “After dinner I walked out with a shepherd’s boy
+ to herbarise; my pastoral botanist surprised me not a little with his
+ nomenclature; I traced the names of Dioscorides, and Theophrastus,
+ corrupted, indeed, in some degree by pronunciation, and by the long
+ _series annorum_, which had elapsed since the time of these
+ philosophers, but many of them were unmutilated, and their virtues
+ faithfully handed down in the oral traditions of the country. My
+ shepherd boy returned to his fold not less satisfied with some paras
+ that I had given him, than I was in finding in such a rustic a
+ repository of ancient science.”—Sibth. in Walp. i. 66, seq. There is
+ in Sir John Fortescue, De Laudibus Legum Angliæ, translated by Robert
+ Mulcaster, in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, a passage describing the
+ pastoral habits of our ancestors, and the intellectual superiority
+ they engendered, which appears to me so excellent, that I cannot
+ resist the temptation to introduce it here:—“England is so fertile and
+ fruitefull, that comparing quantity to quantity it surmounteth all
+ other landes in fruitefulnesse. Yea, it bringeth forth fruite of
+ itselfe, scant provoked by mann’s industrie and labour. For there the
+ landes, the fieldes, the groves, and the woodes, doe so aboundantlye
+ springe, that the same untilled doe commonly yield to their owners
+ more profite then tilled, though else they bee most fruitefull of
+ corne and graine. There also are fieldes of pasture inclosed with
+ hedges and ditches, with trees planted and growing uppon the same,
+ which are a defence to their heardes of sheepe and cattell, against
+ stormes and heate of the sunne; and the pastures are commonly watered,
+ so that cattell shutte and closed therein have no neede of keeping
+ neither by day, nor by night. For there bee no wolves, nor beares, nor
+ lyons, wherefore their sheepe lye by night in the fields, unkept
+ within their foldes wherewith their land is manured. By the meanes
+ whereof, the men of that countrie are scant troubled with any
+ painefull labour, wherefore they live more spiritually, as did the
+ ancient fathers, which did rather choose to keepe and feede cattell,
+ than to disturbe the quietnesse of the minde with care of husbandrie.
+ And heereof it cometh, that menne of this countrie are more apte and
+ fitte to discerne in doubtfull causes of great examination and triall,
+ than are menne whollye given to moyling in the ground; in whom that
+ rurall exercise engendereth rudeness of witte and minde.” chap. 29.
+
+-----
+
+But solitude is less surely the nurse of science than of superstition.
+The leaven, which in populous cities scarcely swells visibly in the
+breast, ferments unrestrainedly in the depths of woods, in the
+high-piled recesses of mountains, in the gloom of caverns, where nature
+invests itself with attributes which address themselves powerfully to
+the heart, and appears almost to hold communion with its offspring.
+Hence the wild mythologies of Nomadic races, which are not loose-hanging
+creeds, to be put off and on like a cloak, but a belief inwrought into
+their souls, a part of themselves, and perhaps the best part, since it
+is from this that springs the whole dignity and poetry of their lives.
+In all countries fables rise in the fields, to flow into and be lost in
+the cities. Observe the wild picture which Plato, in his Academic Dream,
+presents to us of a group of Lydian shepherds. It has all the poetical
+elements of an Arabian tale.
+
+Tradition, he says, represented Gyges the ancestor of Crœsus as a hired
+shepherd, who with many others guarded the imperial flocks in the
+remoter districts of the country. At this time happened a great
+earthquake, attended by floods of rain, which, in the parts where they
+were, opened up a vast chasm in the earth. Gyges arriving alone at the
+mouth of the gap stood amazed at its depth and magnitude, but observing
+a practicable descent went down, and roamed through its subterraneous
+passages. Many marvellous things, according to the mythos, did he there
+see, and among the rest a hollow brazen horse, with doors in its side,
+through which looking in, he beheld a colossal naked corpse, with a
+jewelled ring on its hand. Transferring this to his own finger Gyges
+departed.
+
+Shortly afterwards, still wearing the signet, he went to the assembly of
+shepherds, which met monthly, for the purpose of selecting a person to
+bear the usual report of the flocks to the king. Sitting down among the
+rest he happened to turn the beavil of his ring towards himself, upon
+which he became invisible to his companions,[1810] as he clearly
+discovered from their discourse, which proceeded as if about an absent
+man. Smitten with much wonder he returned the gem to its former position
+and again became visible. He made the experiment over and over and
+always with success; upon which, like another Macbeth, a vast scheme of
+ambition darkly shadowed itself upon his mind, and a crown tinged
+slightly with blood swam before him. It does not, however, appear that
+like the Thane of Cawdor he was perplexed with scruples. He does not
+say,—
+
+ “Why do I yield to that suggestion,
+ Whose horrid image doth unfix my hair,
+ And make my seated heart knock at my ribs,
+ Against the use of nature? Present facts
+ Are less than horrible imaginings.
+ My thought whose murder’s yet but phantasy,
+ Shakes so my single state of man, that function
+ Is smothered in surmise, and nothing is,
+ But what is not.”
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1810:
+
+ The reader will in this place perhaps remember the dream of Rousseau,
+ on the enjoyment which the possession of such a ring would have
+ afforded him; when after pushing his speculations as far as they could
+ go he determines that he was much better without it.—Rêveries du
+ Promeneur Solitaire, iii. 137.
+
+-----
+
+Gyges, with the ruthless resolution of an Oriental, forms his plan at
+once, and coolly works it out. He procures himself to be elected one of
+the mission to the king, and on arriving at the capital, dishonours the
+queen, murders his master, and ascends the throne.[1811]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1811:
+
+ Plat. Rep. ii. § 3. Cf. x. § 12. Stallb. Among the gods similar powers
+ were attributed to the helmet of Hades. Thus, in Homer, Athena is
+ concealed from Mars by the effect of this enchanted piece of
+ armour.—Iliad, ε. 845. Apollod. ii. 4. 2.
+
+-----
+
+This may be regarded as a specimen of the shepherds’ tales.[1812] But
+they moved for the most part in an atmosphere of superstition, had
+ceremonies of their own, a mythology of their own, and of the whole the
+pervading spirit was love. In communities highly civilised, this passion
+commonly degenerates into a plaything, despised when weak, and
+mischievous when strong. It is otherwise in the early stages of society.
+There, in proportion to their freedom from the aspirations and anxieties
+of ambition, men seek happiness in the cultivation of the affections.
+The society of women is to them all in all. And the evils that infest
+them, disturb their quiet, and engender crime, spring, too, from the
+same bitter-sweet fountain, which flows with honey or gall according to
+the temper of those who drink of it. Consequently, in contemplating the
+pastoral life of Greece, we must beware not to overlook the
+shepherdesses,[1813] those heroines of Bucolic poetry, whose freshness
+and nature still survive in Theocritus, and other fragments of
+antiquity, and may operate as an antidote to that insipid spawn whose
+loves and lamentations affect us like ipecacuanha in modern pastorals.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1812:
+
+ To the same class belongs that tradition of a brazen tablet thrown up
+ by a fountain in Lycia foretelling the overthrow of the Persian
+ monarchy by the Greeks.—Plut. Alexand. § 17.
+
+Footnote 1813:
+
+ Cf. Varr. De Re Rust. ii. 10.
+
+-----
+
+In these latitudes of society, at least, women enjoyed their freedom,
+and the glimpses presented to us of them as they there existed may be
+regarded among the chief charms of Greek poetry. Only, for example,
+observe the picture which Chæremon the Flower Poet, has delineated of a
+bevy of beautiful virgins sporting by moonlight:
+
+ “There one reclined apart I saw, within the moon’s pale light,
+ With bosom through her parted robe appearing snowy white;
+ Another danced, and floating free her garments in the breeze
+ She seemed as buoyant as the wave that leaps o’er summer seas.
+ While dusky shadows all around shrunk backward from the place,
+ Chased by the beaming splendour shed like sunshine from her face:
+ Beside this living picture stood a maiden passing fair
+ With soft round arms exposed; a fourth with free and graceful air,
+ Like Dian when the bounding hart she tracks through morning dew,
+ Bared through the opening of her robes her lovely limbs to view.
+ And oh! the image of her charms, as clouds in heaven above,
+ Mirrored by streams, left on my soul the stamp of hopeless love.
+ And slumbering near them others lay, on beds of sweetest flowers,
+ The dusky petaled violet, the rose of Paphian bowers.
+ The inula and saffron flower, which on their garments cast,
+ And veils, such hues as deck the sky when day is ebbing fast;
+ While far and near tall marjoram bedecked the fairy ground,
+ Loading with sweets the vagrant winds that frolicked all around.”[1814]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1814:
+
+ Athen. xiii. 87.
+
+-----
+
+In the ordinary bucolic poets women to be sure are sketched with a rude
+pencil, though coquettish as queens, of which we have an exemplification
+in the picture on the shepherd’s cup:[1815]
+
+ And there, by ivy shaded, sits a maid divinely wrought,
+ With veil and circlet on her brows, by two fond lovers sought.
+ Both beautiful with flowing hair, both sueing to be heard,
+ On this side one, the other there, but neither is preferred.
+ For now on this, on that anon, she pours her witching smile,
+ Like sunshine on the buds of hope, in falsehood all and guile,
+ Though ceaselessly, with swelling eyes, they seek her heart to move,
+ By every soft and touching art that wins a maiden’s love.[1816]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1815:
+
+ This was the κισσύβιον, a goblet or cup turned of ivy wood. It was
+ usually rubbed with wax and polished, for the purpose of bringing out
+ the beautiful carving which adorned it. Cf. Etym. Mag. 515. 33.
+
+Footnote 1816:
+
+ Theocrit. i. 32, sqq.
+
+-----
+
+There is here no straining after the ideal. Like Titian’s beauties,
+these shepherdesses are all creatures of this earth, filled with robust
+health, dark-eyed, warm, impassioned, and somewhat deficient in reserve.
+They understand well how to act their part in a dialogue. For every bolt
+shot at them they can return another as keen. Each bower and bosky
+bourne seems redolent of their smiles; their laughter awakens the
+echoes; their ruddy lips and pearly teeth hang like a vision over every
+bubbling spring and love-hiding thicket which they were wont to
+frequent. Hence the charm of Theocritus. And a still stronger charm
+perhaps would have belonged to the pages of him who should have painted
+the shepherd’s life of a remoter age,[1817] when none were above such an
+occupation, which therefore united at once all the dignity of lofty
+independence with the careless freedom of manners and unapprehensive
+enjoyment in which consists the secret source of all the pleasure which
+rustic pictures afford. Most of his creations, though not all, are in
+this respect wanting. Ideas of penury[1818] slip in, and, in the midst
+of rich poetry, check the developement of pleasurable feelings. For the
+musical swains, though apparently ambitious of nought but the reputation
+of song, permit us to discover, that they are but hirelings tending
+flocks not their own. The contrast between persons of this class and
+those who are owners of the sheep they tend, is forcibly pointed out in
+the sacred language of Christ: “I am the good shepherd: the good
+shepherd giveth his life for the sheep. But he that is an hireling and
+not the shepherd and whose own the sheep are not, seeth the wolf coming,
+and leaveth the sheep and fleeth, and the wolf catcheth them and
+scattereth the sheep. The hireling fleeth because he is a hireling, and
+careth not for the sheep. I am the good shepherd and know my sheep and
+am known of mine. As the Father knoweth me even so know I the Father;
+and I lay down my life for the sheep.”[1819] The same affectionate
+tenderness is attributed to shepherds in the prophetic writings: “he
+shall feed his flocks like a shepherd, he shall gather the lambs with
+his arm, and carry them in his bosom, and shall gently lead those that
+are with young.”[1820]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1817:
+
+ Though even here we detect the presence of hirelings; for Homer
+ observes, that, among the Læstrigons, such shepherds as could do with
+ little sleep received double wages. Odyss. κ. 84, seq.
+
+Footnote 1818:
+
+ In fact black slaves, from Africa, were sometimes employed as
+ shepherds, at least in Sicily. Theoc. i. 24.
+
+Footnote 1819:
+
+ John, x. 11, sqq.
+
+Footnote 1820:
+
+ Isaiah, xl. 11.
+
+-----
+
+In the matter of virtues and vices, the shepherds of antiquity were very
+much, no doubt, like other men. Their habits were such as grew naturally
+out of their position. Towards whatever their feelings led them they
+proceeded vehemently, and with that singleness of purpose which belongs
+to men of simple and decided character.[1821] They were too commonly
+creatures of mere impulse. From the peculiar form of their communion
+with nature, which, like the masses of Egyptian architecture, was
+continued and monotonous, they acquired a peculiarity of mental
+temperament, warm, as it were, in parts, and cold in parts. Every
+circumstance around them tended to rouse, pique, and inflame the passion
+of desire and its concomitants; the pairing of their flocks, of the
+birds, of the very wild beasts whose courage or ferocity they dreaded;
+their own leisure combined with the excess of health, the influence of
+climate, the solicitations of opportunity, impelled them into excess;
+and, accordingly, their morals in this respect sank to a low standard,
+and rendered them any thing but models of the golden age. The intellect
+of course was comparatively little cultivated; and there being no other
+check upon the feelings, suicides, murders of jealousy, and other
+evidences of ill-regulated passion would often occur.[1822]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1821:
+
+ It has been observed by Gibbon, who had diligently studied the
+ pastoral nations of Asia in their general habits and characteristics,
+ that ambition and the spirit of conquest are powerfully excited by the
+ shepherd’s manner of life. “The thrones of Asia have been repeatedly
+ overturned by the shepherds of the north, and their arms have spread
+ terror and devastation over the most fertile and warlike countries of
+ Europe. On this occasion, as well as on many others, the sober
+ historian is forcibly awakened from a pleasing vision and is compelled
+ with some reluctance to confess, that the pastoral manners which have
+ been adorned with the fairest attributes of peace and innocence are
+ much better adapted to the fierce and cruel habits of a military
+ life.” Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, iv. 348. Hippocrates in
+ his brief but vigorous manner has presented us with a picture of the
+ Scythian shepherd’s life in ancient times, (De Aër. et Loc. § 92,
+ sqq.) and from modern travellers we find that it differed very little
+ from that which they lead at the present day. See the travels of
+ Rubriquis in Hakluyt, i. 101, sqq. See also the notes of Coray on
+ Hippocrates, t. ii. 280, seq.
+
+Footnote 1822:
+
+ Theocritus describes Daphnis dying for love. Eidyll. i. 135.
+
+-----
+
+But, in proportion as we pierce further back into antiquity, these
+tragical incidents become fewer: not merely because our knowledge of
+those ages is more scanty, but that in ruder times morality is
+comparatively lax, and men’s taste less fastidious. The rigid laws of
+marriage were then little observed. Women passed from husband to husband
+without losing character or caste; and when they produced illegitimate
+offspring attributed the paternity to some god, and scarcely considered
+the circumstance a misfortune. Half the princes of the Homeric age were
+illegitimate; for this is what is always meant by saying they were
+descended from the gods. Æneas was the son of some young woman whom
+Anchises met on the mountains, where he pastured his father’s flocks and
+pretended to have been loved by Aphrodite.[1823] Persons so
+circumstanced were, doubtless, capable of much romance. Nymphs and
+goddesses peopled their imagination, and their imagination let loose its
+brood upon the woods. Poets afterwards, able to infuse a soul into these
+rustic traditions, gave a local habitation and a name to every beautiful
+legend they could collect. Hence that sunny picture, the interview of
+Aphrodite and Anchises amid the lofty recesses, the grassy slopes, the
+sparkling leaping brooks, and old umbrageous forests of Mount Ida.
+Already, however, the force of dress was known, which Montaigne
+afterwards celebrated; for the Homeric bard, about to record an
+interview between the goddess and her shepherd-lover, instead of
+supposing her to have been
+
+ “When unadorned, adorned the most,”
+
+describes all the arts of a luxurious toilette.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1823:
+
+ Hom. Hymn. ad Ven. 54, sqq.
+
+-----
+
+The picture, however, of pastoral life which he suggests rather than
+describes, is worked out with strokes of great simplicity. All the other
+herdsmen disperse in the execution of their several duties, leaving
+Anchises alone in the cattle-sheds,[1824] spacious in dimensions, and
+tastefully erected, where he amuses his solitary leisure with the music
+of the cithara. While thus engaged he beholds the approach of the
+goddess,[1825] and is at once struck with her beauty and the splendour
+of her raiment. At the unearthly vision his love is kindled; but the
+poet, skilled in the mysteries of the heart, chastens his passion by
+overmastering feelings of reverence, such as necessarily belong to
+unsophisticated youth. Anchises constitutes, indeed, the _beau idéal_ of
+an heroic shepherd, simple, high-minded, ingenuous, venturous and
+fearless in contests with man or beast, but in his intercourse with
+woman gentle, reverent,
+
+ “And of his port as meek as is a maid.”
+
+In fact, the gallant knights of romance seem rather to have been
+modelled after the heroic warriors of Greece, than from any realities
+supplied by the chivalrous ages. The author of the Hymn is careful in
+describing the shepherd’s couch, to insinuate with how great strength
+and courage he was endowed. He reclines, we are told, on skins of bears
+and lions slain by his own hand, though over these there were cast, for
+show, garments of the softest texture.[1826]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1824:
+
+ Compare Trollope, Notes on St. John, x. i.
+
+Footnote 1825:
+
+ Aleuas, the Thessalian, is said to have been favoured with the visits
+ of a very different mistress as he pastured his herds on Mount Ossa,
+ near the Hæmonian spring; for a dragon of enormous size, becoming
+ enamoured of his beauty and golden hair, frequently approached the
+ shepherd with presents of game of her own catching. Having laid her
+ gifts at his feet, she would kiss his locks and lick his face with her
+ tongue, which, as the fountain was so near it, may be hoped was a work
+ of supererogation. Ælian. De Nat. Animal. viii. 11.
+
+Footnote 1826:
+
+ Hymn. ad Vener. 158, sqq.
+
+-----
+
+Throughout this work it has been seen how the influence of climate and
+position concurred in the formation of the Greek character. We may
+ourselves put the doctrine to the proof by observing the effect upon our
+minds of those reflections of landscapes which appear in language; rude
+Boreal scenes exciting the spirit of contention and energy; while the
+soft valleys, groves, and odoriferous gardens of the South produce a
+calm upon our thoughts favourable to the more benevolent emotions.
+Hellenic shepherds, therefore, no other causes preventing, may upon the
+whole be supposed to have been humane.
+
+Indeed, the very curious adventures of a sophist,[1827] in the mountains
+of Eubœa, preserved among the literary wrecks of antiquity, open up to
+our view a picture of pastoral life which, in spite of much rudeness and
+indigence, exhibits the Greek character in its original roughness and
+simplicity, full of kindness, full of gentleness, full of hospitable
+propensities, which would do honour to the noblest Arab Sheikh. And the
+material scene itself, in every feature Grecian, harmonises exactly with
+the moral landscape.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1827:
+
+ Dion Chrysostom. Orat. vii. t. i. p. 219, sqq. Phot. 166. a. 24.
+
+-----
+
+The eastern shores of the island of Negropont, beetled over by Mount
+Caphareus,[1828] and indented by no creeks or harbours, were in
+antiquity infamous for shipwrecks, notwithstanding that they formed the
+principal station of the purple fishers.[1829] Cast away on this coast,
+the sophist Dion, for his eloquence surnamed of the golden-mouth, fell
+in with a pastoral hunter who, entertaining him generously, furnished at
+the same time a complete idea of the rude herdsman, who preserved in the
+vicinity of the highest civilisation known to the old world the
+simplicity of the Homeric Abantes.[1830] Nay, this wild sportsman,
+pursuing with his huge dogs a stag along the cliffs, powerful in limb,
+hale in colour, and with long hair streaming over his shoulders,
+appeared to be the natural descendant of those Heroic warriors.[1831]
+Armed with his hunting-knife, he flays and cuts up the stag upon the
+spot, and taking along with him the skin and choicest pieces of venison
+abandons the remainder on the beach. As they go along he displays the
+knowledge wherewith experience stores the rustic mind. He understands
+the signs of the weather, and from the clouds which cap the summits of
+Caphareus foretells how long the sea will continue unnavigable.[1832]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1828:
+
+ On this mountain and the mythological legends attached to it, see
+ Virg. Æn. xi. 260, with the note of Servius. Ovid. Metamorph. xiv.
+ 472. Cf. Propert. v. 115, sqq. Jacobs. Plin. iv. 21. An ancient
+ scholiast, quoted by Morell, thus relates the revenge of Nauplios:
+ Ναύπλιος τοῦ υἱέος δὴ τοῦ Παλαμήδους τοῦ φόνου ἀμυνόμενος τοὺς Ἕλλήνας
+ τοῦ ἀνέμου αὐτοῖς ἐνστάντος· ἐπεὶ τοῦτον διὰ θαλάττης ἐγέλων. αὐτὸς
+ οὗτος τὸν Καφηρέα καταλαβὼν εἶτα νυκτὸς πυρσεύων ἀπὸ τῶν ἐκεῖσε
+ πετρωδῶν πάγων, ἠπάτα προσχεῖν, ὡς δή τινι εὐπροσόδῳ ἀκτῆ τοῖς
+ ἀποτόμοις κρημνοῖς εἰς βάθος ἐῤῥιζωμένοις καὶ χοιράσι διειλημμένοις.
+ καὶ οὕτως ἀπρόοπτως ἀπωλόντο. Schediasm. &c., in Dion. t. ii. p. 580,
+ seq. Cf. Strab. viii. 6. t ii. p. 195. Apollodor. ii. i. 5. Orph.
+ Argonaut. 204, sqq.
+
+Footnote 1829:
+
+ On the purple fisheries of Eubœa, cf. Feder. Morell. Schediasm. &c.,
+ in Dion. ii. 576. Reiske. and Aristot. Hist. Animal. v. 15.
+
+Footnote 1830:
+
+ A life equally simple is led by the Albanian shepherds of the present
+ day. “They live on the mountains, in the vale or the plain, as the
+ varying seasons require, under arbours, or sheds, covered with boughs,
+ tending their flocks abroad, or milking the ewes and she-goats at the
+ fold, and making cheese and butter to supply the city.” Chandler, ii.
+ p. 135.
+
+Footnote 1831:
+
+ Iliad. β. 541. δ. 464. The long hair of these ancient warriors is thus
+ mentioned by the Homeric Scholiast: τὰ ὀπίσω μέρη τῆς κεφαλῆς κομῶντες
+ ἀνδρείας χάριν. ἴδιον δὲ τοῦτο τῆς τῶν Εὐβοέων κουρᾶς, τὸ ὄπισθεν τὰς
+ τρίχας βαθείας ἔχειν. t. i. p. 83. Bekker.
+
+Footnote 1832:
+
+ Cf. Theoph. De Sign. Pluv. i. 22.
+
+-----
+
+Rude as an American backwoodsman, he was precipitated, by the rare luck
+of meeting with a stranger, into equal inquisitiveness and garrulity. He
+put questions without waiting for an answer. He gossipped of his own
+concerns; explained without being asked the whole economy of his life;
+and exhibited all that enthusiasm of beneficence which belongs to human
+nature when uncorrupted by the thirst of gold. There is a rare truth in
+the description; far too much ever to have graced a sophist’s tale,
+unless nature had supplied the model.
+
+“There are two of us,” says he, “who inhabit together the same rude
+nook, having married sisters, by whom we have both sons and daughters.
+We derive our subsistence principally from the chase, paying but little
+attention to agriculture, since we have no land of our own. Nor were our
+fathers better off in this respect than ourselves; for, though freeborn
+citizens, they were poor, and by their condition constrained to tend the
+herds of another, a man of great property, owning vast droves of cattle,
+numerous horses and sheep, several beautiful estates, with many other
+possessions, and all these mountains as far as you can see. This
+opulence, however, became his ruin. For the emperor, casting a covetous
+eye upon his domains, put him to death, that he might have a pretext for
+seizing on them. Our few beasts went along with our master’s, and the
+wages due to us there was no one to pay.
+
+“Here, therefore, of necessity we remained[1833] where two or three huts
+were left us, with a slight wooden shed in which the calves had been
+housed in the summer nights.[1834] For, during winter, we had been used
+to descend for pasture to the plains where, in the proper season, stores
+of hay were also laid up; but with the re-appearance of summer we
+returned again to the mountains. The spot which had formed our principal
+station now became our fixed dwelling. Branching off on either hand is a
+deep and shady valley, having in the middle a rivulet so shallow as to
+be easily traversed, both by cattle and their young. This stream,
+flowing from a spring hard by, is pure and perennial and cooled by the
+summer wind blowing perpetually up the ravine. The encircling forests of
+oak stretch forth their boughs far above, over a carpet of soft verdure,
+which descends with a gentle slope into the stream, giving birth to a
+few gad-flies,[1835] or any other insect hurtful to herds. Extending
+around are numerous lovely meadows, dotted with lofty trees, where the
+grass is green and luxuriant throughout the year.”
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1833:
+
+ Had Bernardin de St. Pierre read this when he wrote his Indian
+ Cottage?
+
+Footnote 1834:
+
+ An equal degree of contentment to that which in this recital we find
+ exhibited by the Eubœan herdsmen, is still in our own times displayed
+ by the rough peasants of the Lipari islands, in the midst of far
+ greater privations:—“It is incredible at the same time how contented
+ these islanders are amid all their poverty. Ulysses perhaps cherished
+ not a greater love for his Ithaca than they bear to their Eolian rocks
+ which, wretched as they may appear, they would not exchange for the
+ Fortunate islands. Frequently have I entered their huts which seem
+ like the nests of birds hung to the cliffs. They are framed of pieces
+ of lava ill-joined together, equally destitute of ornament within and
+ without, and scarcely admitting a feeble uncertain light, like some
+ gloomy cavern.” Spallanzani, Travels in the Two Sicilies, iv. 147.
+
+Footnote 1835:
+
+ The absence of these tormentors of cattle was considered a matter of
+ great importance by the ancients. Virgil, where he is giving
+ directions respecting the best pastures suited to the youthful mothers
+ of the herds, celebrates the exploits of the gadfly:
+
+ Saltibus in vacuis pascant, et plena secundum
+ Flumina: muscus ubi, et viridissima gramine ripa,
+ Speluncæque tegant, et saxea procubet umbra.
+ Est lucos Silari circa, ilicibusque virentem
+ Plurimus Alburnum volitans, cui nomen asilo
+ Romanum est, œstrum Graii vertere vocantes:
+ Asper, acerba sonans: quo tota exterrita sylvis
+ Diffugiunt armenta; furit mugitibus æther
+ Concussus, sylvæque et sicci ripa Tanagri.
+ Georg. iii. 143, sqq.
+
+ See the note of Philargyrius in loc. Aristot. Hist. Animal, iv. 4. v.
+ 19.
+
+-----
+
+The eloquence of this description, I mean in the original, is not
+unworthy to be compared with that in the Phædrus[1836] which has given
+eternal bloom to the platane-tree and agnus castus on the banks of the
+Ilissos.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1836:
+
+ Plat. Opp. t. i. p. 9. To protect from pollution spots shaded by noble
+ trees they were accustomed to consecrate them to some god, and to
+ erect beneath the overhanging branches statues and altars. Id. ib. In
+ Crete the fountains are often shaded still by majestic plane-trees.
+ Pashley, ii. 31.
+
+-----
+
+The conversion of these herdsmen into hunters is narrated by Dion with a
+patient simplicity worthy of Defoe. An air of solitude, snatched from
+Robinson Crusoe’s island, seems to breathe at his bidding over Eubœa.
+The same education operates strange changes both in man and dog; and
+bringing them into hostile contact with wolves, wild boars, stags, and
+other large animals, gives the latter a taste for blood, and renders him
+fierce and destructive. Subsisting by the chase, they pursued it summer
+and winter, following both hares and fallow-deer by their tracks in the
+snow. In their intervals of leisure they strengthened and beautified
+their dwellings, saw their children intermarry and grow up to succeed
+them, without even once approaching any city or even village.
+
+The style of hospitality prevalent among such men in antiquity differs
+very little from that which one would now find in the hut of a
+good-natured Albanian.[1837] Their industry rendered them independent,
+and their independence rendered them generous. By degrees their rustic
+cottages were surrounded by a garden and fruit-trees, their court was
+walled in, and luxuriant vines hung their foliage and purple fruit over
+windows and porch. On the arrival of a stranger, the wife takes her
+station at table beside her husband. Their marriageable daughter, in the
+bloom and beauty of youth, aids her brothers in waiting at table, where
+host and guest recline on highly raised divans of leaves covered with
+the skins of beasts. The young maiden, like a rustic Hebe, pours out the
+wine, dark and fragrant, while the youths served up the dishes and then
+laid out a table for themselves and dined together. And the sophist,
+versed in the courts of satraps and kings, conceived these rude hunters
+of the mountains the happiest and most enviable of mankind.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1837:
+
+ Or even in the shed of a Turkish shepherd in Asia Minor. Dr. Chandler
+ has a passage illustrative of the hospitality of pastoral tribes,
+ which is at once so picturesque and concise that I am tempted to
+ transcribe it: “About two in the morning our whole attention was fixed
+ by the barking of dogs, which, as we advanced, became exceedingly
+ furious. Deceived by the light of the moon we now fancied we could see
+ a village, and were much mortified to find only a station of poor
+ goatherds without even a shed, and nothing for our horses to eat. They
+ were lying wrapped in their thick capotes or loose-coats by some
+ glimmering embers, among the bushes in a dale under a spreading tree
+ by the fold. They received us hospitably, heaping on fresh fuel and
+ producing caimac or sour curds and coarse bread which they toasted for
+ us on the coals. We made a scanty meal, sitting on the ground lighted
+ by the fire and by the moon, after which sleep suddenly overpowered
+ me. On waking I found my companions by my side, sharing in the
+ comfortable cover of the Janizary’s cloak which he had carefully
+ spread over us. I was now much struck with the wild appearance of the
+ spot. The tree was hung with rustic utensils, the she-goats in a pen
+ sneezed and bleated and rustled to and fro; the shrubs, by which our
+ horses stood, were leafless, and the earth bare; a black cauldron with
+ milk was simmering over the fire, and a figure more than gaunt or
+ savage close by us was struggling on the ground with a kid whose ears
+ he had slit, and was endeavouring to cauterise with a piece of red-hot
+ iron.” Chandler, vol. i. 180, seq.
+
+-----
+
+But a pastoral picture is incomplete without love. The youthful beauty
+of Caphareus, hidden, like another Nouronihar[1838] from the world, is
+accordingly beloved by her cousin, an adventurous hunter like her sire,
+who joins the family circle in the evening, accompanied by his father,
+bringing in his hand a hare as a present to his mistress. The old man
+salutes the guest, the youth offers his present with a kiss, and
+immediately undertakes the office of the girl, who thereupon resumes her
+place beside her mother.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1838:
+
+ History of the Caliph Vathek. p. 102.
+
+-----
+
+Observing this arrangement, the stranger inquires whether she is not
+soon to be married to some wealthy peasant, who might benefit the
+family, upon which the youth and maiden blush, and her father replies,
+
+“Nay, but she will take a husband, humble in rank, and like ourselves a
+hunter,” glancing at the same time at the lover.
+
+“How is it then that you wait?” inquired the stranger. “Do you expect
+him from the village?”
+
+“No,” answered the father, “he is not far off; and so soon as we can fix
+upon a fortunate day the nuptials will be celebrated.”
+
+“And by what do you judge of a fortunate day?”
+
+“The moon must be approaching the full, the weather fair, and the
+atmosphere transparent.”
+
+“And is the youth in reality an able hunter?”
+
+“I am,” said the young man, answering for himself, “in the chase of the
+stag or boar, as you yourself, if you please, shall judge to-morrow.”
+
+“And did you take this hare, my friend?”
+
+“I did,” replied he with a smile, “having set a gin for him by
+night;[1839] the weather being surpassing beautiful, and the moon larger
+than it ever was before.”
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1839:
+
+ Cf. Philost. Icon. ii. 26, p. 851.
+
+-----
+
+Upon this both the old men laughed, and the lover abashed held his
+peace.
+
+“But,” observed the father of the maiden, “it is no fault of mine that
+the solemnity is deferred; we only wait at your father’s desire, till a
+victim can be purchased; for a sacrifice must be offered to the gods.”
+
+“With respect to the victim,” interposed the maiden’s younger brother,
+“he has long provided one, and a noble one too, which is now feeding
+behind the cottage.”
+
+“And is it truly so?” demanded the old man.
+
+“It is,” replied the lad.
+
+“And where,” addressing the youth, “did you procure it?” inquired they.
+
+“When we took the wild sow,[1840] which was followed by her litter,”
+answered he, “and the greater number, swifter than hares, made their
+escape; I hit one with a stone, and my companions coming up threw a skin
+over him. This I secured, and exchanged in the village for a young
+domestic pig which has been fatted in a sty behind the house.”
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1840:
+
+ The wild hog is still one of the most common animals in the forests of
+ Greece and Asia Minor. Chandler, i. 77. Even wild bulls occasionally
+ make their appearance in the latter country. 176.
+
+-----
+
+“I now understand,” exclaimed the father, “the cause of your mother’s
+mirth when I would wonder what that grunting could be, and how the
+barley was disappearing so fast.”
+
+“Nevertheless,” observed the young man, “to be properly fatted our
+Eubœan swine require acorns.[1841] However, if you will just step this
+way I will show her to you.”
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1841:
+
+ To this best and most economical food for hogs, Homer makes allusion
+ where he introduces the goddess Circe attending to her sty, which she
+ had filled with the transformed companions of Odysseus:
+
+ τοῖσι δε Κίρκη
+ Πὰρ ῥ’ ἄκυλον, βάλανον τ᾽ ἔβαλεν, καρπόν τε κρανείης
+ Ἔδμεναι, οἷα σύες χαμαιευνάδες αἰὲν ἔδουσιν.
+ Od. κ. 241, sqq. Cf. ν. 409.
+
+ Ælian de Nat. Animal. v. 45, celebrates these Homeric dainties as the
+ food of the hog to which he elsewhere adds the fruit of the ash. viii.
+ 9.
+
+-----
+
+Upon which off they went, the boys quite at a run, and in vast glee.
+
+In the meantime, the maiden going into the other cottage, brought forth
+a quantity of split service-berries,[1842] medlars,[1843] and winter
+apples, and bunches of superb grapes, bursting ripe,[1844] and, brushing
+down the table, she spread them out there upon a layer of clean fern.
+Next moment the lads returned bringing in the pig, with much joking and
+shouts of laughter. Then came, too, the young man’s mother, with two of
+his little brothers, and they brought along with them nice white loaves,
+with boiled eggs in wooden salvers, with a quantity of parched peas.
+Having embraced her brother, with his wife and daughter, she sat down
+beside her husband, and said,
+
+“Behold the victim, which my son has long fed for his marriage, and the
+other things also are ready; both the barley-meal and the flour. A
+little wine, perhaps, may be wanting, but even this we can easily
+procure from the village.”
+
+And her son standing near her, fixed his eyes wistfully upon his
+father-in-law.
+
+The latter smilingly observed,—
+
+“All delay now is on the lover’s part, who, perhaps, is anxious to
+fatten his pig.”
+
+“As to her,” said the youth, “she is bursting with fat.”
+
+Upon this the sophist, willing to aid the lover, interposed, and
+remarked,—
+
+“But you must take care lest while the pig is fattening he himself grow
+thin.”
+
+“The stranger’s remark is just,” said his mother; “for already he is
+more meagre than he used to be; and I have of late observed him to be
+wakeful at night, and to go forth from the cottage.”
+
+“Oh! that,” said he, “was when the dogs barked, and I stepped out to see
+what was the matter.”
+
+“Not you!” said his mother,—“but went moping about. Let us, therefore,”
+continued she, “put him to no further trial.”
+
+And throwing her arms about her sister, the maiden’s mother, she kissed
+her; whereupon the latter, addressing her husband, said,—
+
+“Let us grant them their desire.”
+
+To which he agreed; and it was resolved, that the marriage should be
+solemnized in three days, the stranger being invited to remain and
+witness it, which he did.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1842:
+
+ Cf. Theoph. Hist. Plant. ii. 2. 10. ii. 7. 7—iii. 6. 5—vi. 3. 11.
+
+ Ὄα, ἀκροδρύων εἶδος μήλοις μικροῖς ἐμφερές
+
+ Tim. Lec. Platon. in voce with the note of Ruhnken.
+
+Footnote 1843:
+
+ On the three kinds of medlars, Theoph. Hist. Plant. iii. 12. 5.
+
+Footnote 1844:
+
+ Philost. Icon. i. 31, p. 809. ii. 26, p. 851.
+
+-----
+
+The above picture of an obscure herdsman’s life in its naked simplicity,
+void of all embellishment, will probably be thought more trustworthy
+than the elaborate descriptions of the poets, notwithstanding that, even
+in these, it is easy to separate the real from the fictitious.
+
+In the estimation of the Greeks the herdsman[1845] commonly ranked
+before the shepherd, and the latter before the goatherd,—for the dream
+of rank pursues mankind even amid the quiet of the fields,—and their
+manners are supposed to have corresponded. Pollux,[1846] however,
+reckons the goatherd next after the herdsman, and again inverts the
+order. Varro, on the other hand, gives precedence to the shepherd as the
+most ancient, the sheep, in his opinion, having been the animal earliest
+tamed.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1845:
+
+ Robust persons, with loud voices, were ordinarily chosen for herdsmen,
+ while goatherds were selected for their lightness and agility. Geop.
+ ii. 1. Shepherds obtained among the Greeks the name of ποιμένες; while
+ the keepers of other flocks and herds were termed αἰπόλοι. Schol.
+ Theoc. i. 6.
+
+Footnote 1846:
+
+ Onomast. i. 249.
+
+-----
+
+In point of utility the goat, in some parts of the ancient world,
+rivalled the sheep, producing fine hair which was shorn like wool.[1847]
+I may remark, too, in passing, that the large-tailed sheep still common
+in Asia Minor, as well as at the Cape, were anciently plentiful in
+Syria, where, according to the great naturalist,[1848] their tails
+attained a cubit in breadth. In some parts of Arabia another more
+curious breed was found, with tails three cubits in length, to carry
+which they were supplied by the ingenuity of the shepherds with wooden
+carriages.[1849]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1847:
+
+ Arist. Hist. Anim. viii. 27. 3. Things manufactured from the hair of
+ this animal were called κιλίκια. Etym. Mag. 513. 41.
+
+Footnote 1848:
+
+ Arist. Hist. Anim. viii. 27. 3. Speaking of the neighbourhood of
+ Smyrna,—The “sheep,” observed Dr. Chandler, “have broad tails, hanging
+ down like an apron, some weighing eight, ten, or more pounds. These
+ are eaten as a dainty, and the fat, before they are full-grown,
+ accounted as delicious as marrow.” Travels, i. 77. Of the broad-tailed
+ sheep mentioned by the ancients the most remarkable were those of
+ India, where, according to Ctesios, of veracious memory, both they and
+ the goats were larger than asses:—τὰ πρόβατα τῶν Ἰνδῶν καὶ αἱ αἶγες
+ μείζους ὄνων εἰσί, καὶ τίκτουσιν ἀνὰ τεσσάρων καὶ ἓξ ὡς ἐπὶ τὸ πολύ,
+ ἔχουσι δὲ οὐρὰς μεγάλας · διὸ τῶν τοκάδων ἀποτέμνουσιν ἵνα δύνωνται
+ ὀχεύεσθαι. Phot. Biblioth. Cod. 72. p. 46. b. Bekker. Ælian. de Nat.
+ Animal, iv. 32, relates, without any symptoms of incredulity,
+ precisely the same fact; and then adds a circumstance which may keep
+ in countenance the Abyssinian story of Bruce respecting the carving of
+ a rump-steak from a live cow,—for the Indians, observes Ælian, were in
+ the habit of cutting open the tails of the rams, extracting all the
+ fat, and then sowing them up again so dexterously that in a short time
+ no trace of the incision remained visible.
+
+Footnote 1849:
+
+ Herod. iii. 113. Ælian. Hist. Anim. x. 4.
+
+-----
+
+In most parts of Greece, as well as in the East, it was customary to
+bring home the sheep from pasture towards evening, and shut them up for
+the night in warm and roomy cotes, which were surrounded by wattled
+fences,[1850] strong and high, both to prevent them from leaping over,
+and to exclude the wild beasts which, in remoter ages, abounded in the
+mountains. They were carefully roofed over, and every other precaution
+was taken to render them perfectly dry, the floor being usually pitched
+with stones, and slightly inclined. Their bedding[1851] consisted of
+calaminth and asphodel and pennyroyal and polion (a sort of herb whose
+leaves appear white in the morning, of a purple colour at noon, and blue
+when the sun sets[1852]) and fleabane and southernwood and
+origany,[1853] all which repel vermin. The more completely to effect the
+same purpose, they were, likewise, in the habit of fumigating the cotes
+from time to time, by burning in them several locks of some
+shepherdess’s hair,[1854] together with gum ammoniac, hartshorn, the
+hoofs or hair of goats, bitumen, cassia, fleabane, or calaminth, for the
+smell of which serpents were thought to have a peculiar aversion.[1855]
+Their ordinary food, while in the folds, consisted of green clover and
+cytisus, fenugreek, oaten and barley straw, and vegetable stalks,[1856]
+which were supposed to be improved if sprinkled on the threshing-floor
+with brine, figs blown down by the wind, and dry leaves.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1850:
+
+ Bound together, probably, by wild succory or cneoron, as in modern
+ times by the withe-wind. Theoph. Hist. Plant. vii. 11. 3. vi. 2. 2.
+
+Footnote 1851:
+
+ Geop. xviii. 2.
+
+Footnote 1852:
+
+ Plin. xxi. 7.
+
+Footnote 1853:
+
+ Dioscor. iii. 32.
+
+Footnote 1854:
+
+ Geop. xviii. 2.
+
+Footnote 1855:
+
+ Aristoph. Eccles. 644. Geop. xviii. 2.4.
+
+Footnote 1856:
+
+ Geop. xviii. 2. Apropos of Cytisus, it is observed by Æschylides, in
+ Ælian. de Nat. Animal. xvi. 32, that the rustics of Cios, on account
+ of the aridity of the island, possessed few flocks. Those they had,
+ however, were fed entirely on the leaves of the cytisus, the fig-tree,
+ and the olive, mingled occasionally with the straw and halm of
+ vegetables. The lambs reared on this island were of singular beauty,
+ and sold at a higher price than those of most other parts. In Lydia
+ and Macedonia sheep were sometimes fattened upon fish, which must have
+ given the mutton of those countries a somewhat unsavoury odour. Ælian.
+ De Nat. Animal. xv. 5. Another favourite food of sheep was the leaves
+ of the white nymphæa, the tender shoots of which were eaten by swine,
+ while men themselves fed upon the fruit. Theoph. Hist. Plant. iv. 10.
+ 7. Children, too, it is said, regarded as a delicacy the stalks of the
+ phleos, the typha, and the butomos. The roots of this fruit were given
+ as food to cattle. Id. ibid.
+
+-----
+
+In the short and sharp days of winter,[1857] they were not led forth to
+pasture till both the dew and the hoar frost had disappeared; but in
+summer the shepherds were careful to be a-field with the dawn while the
+dew was still heavy on the grass. In Attica[1858] and the environs of
+Miletus, where was produced the finest and costliest wool in the ancient
+world, the sheep[1859] were protected from rain and dust and brambles
+and whatever else could damage their fleeces[1860] by housings of purple
+leather.[1861] The same practice prevailed also in the Megaris, where
+Diogenes beholding a flock of sheep[1862] thus clad, while the children,
+like those of the Egyptian peasants were suffered to run about naked,
+said, “It is better to be a Megarean’s ram than his son.” Ælian[1863]
+alludes to this saying for the purpose of noticing the ignorance and
+want of education prevalent among the Megareans. We find likewise in
+Plutarch[1864] another version of the anecdote taxing these Dorians with
+avarice and meanness. Augustus imitated the saying of Diogenes and
+applied it to Herod, hearing of whose cruelty to his family, he said,
+“It were better to be Herod’s hog than his son.”[1865] But if the
+Megareans lived poorly they built grandly: so that of them it was said,
+that they ate as if they were to die to-morrow, and built as if they
+were to live for ever.[1866]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1857:
+
+ Geop. xviii. 2.
+
+Footnote 1858:
+
+ Cf. Athen, v. 60. Hom. Il. β. 305, sqq.
+
+Footnote 1859:
+
+ Those of the neighbouring country of Bœotia are now, however, more
+ highly valued. “Flocks of sheep whose fleeces were of a remarkable
+ blackness were feeding on the plain; the breed was considerably
+ superior in beauty and size to that of Attica.” Sibth. in Walp. i. 65.
+ To dream of sheep of this colour was regarded by the ancients as
+ unlucky. Artemid. Oneirocrit. ii. 12. p. 96. The finest black sheep in
+ the ancient world were found in a district of Phrygia in the
+ neighbourhood of the cities of Colossè and Laodicea, the wool of which
+ not only exceeded that of Miletos in softness, but was of a glossy jet
+ colour like that of the raven’s wing. Φέρει δ᾽ ὁ περὶ τὴν Λαοδίκειαν
+ τόπος προβάτων ἀρετὰς, οὐκ εἰς μαλακότητας μόνον τῶν ἐρίων, ᾗ καὶ τῶν
+ Μιλησίων διαφέρει, ἀλλὰ καὶ εὶς τὴν κοραξὴν χρόαν ὥστε καὶ
+ προσοδεύονται χρόαν ὥστε καὶ προσοδεύονται λαμπρῶς ἀπ᾽ αὐτῶν· ὥσπερ
+ καὶ οἱ Κολοσσηνοὶ ἀπὸ τοῦ ὁμωνύμου χρώματος πλησίον οἰκοῦντες. Strab.
+ xii. 8. t. iii. p. 74. Plin. Nat. Hist. viii. 73. Cf. Chandler,
+ Travels in Greece and Asia Minor, i. 262. The country round Abydos
+ also was celebrated for its black flocks among which not a single
+ white sheep was to be discovered. Ælian de Nat. Animal. 3. 32.
+
+Footnote 1860:
+
+ Varro. de Re Rust. ii. 2.
+
+Footnote 1861:
+
+ Horace speaks of the “pellites oves Galesi.” Od. ii. 6. 10.
+
+Footnote 1862:
+
+ Diog. Laert. vi. 41. The practice is noticed also by Pliny who
+ says,—“Ovium summa genera duo, tectum et colonicum; illiud mollius,
+ hoc in pascuo delicatius, quippe quum tectum rubis vescatur.
+ Operimenta ei ex Arabicis præcipua.” Nat. Hist. viii. 72. Columella
+ also mentions these coverings:—“Molle vero pecus, etiam velamen quo
+ protegitur, amittit atque id non parvo sumptu reparatur.” vii. 3, seq.
+
+Footnote 1863:
+
+ Var. Hist. xii. 56.
+
+Footnote 1864:
+
+ De Cupiditate. § 7.
+
+Footnote 1865:
+
+ Macrob. Sat. ii. 4.
+
+Footnote 1866:
+
+ Tertull. in Apolog. ap. Menag. ad Laert. vi. 41. t. ii. p. 141. b. c.
+
+-----
+
+Sheep, as most persons familiar with the country will probably have
+observed, are wont in hot summer days to retire during the prevalence of
+the sun’s greatest heat beneath the shade of spreading trees,[1867] at
+which time a green sweep of uplands dotted with antique oaks or
+beeches,[1868] each with its stem encircled by some portion of the flock
+reposing upon their own fleeces, presents a picture of singular beauty
+and tranquillity. The picturesque features of the scene were in old
+times enhanced by the addition of several accompaniments now nowhere to
+be found, consisting of statues, altars, or chapels, erected in honour
+of the rural gods or nymphs.[1869] Fountains, moreover, of limpid
+water[1870] in many places gushed forth from beneath the trees, where
+there were usually a number of seats for the accommodation of the
+shepherds and shepherdesses. In these retreats they generally passed the
+sultry hours of the day, playing on the pastoral flute or the syrinx,
+chanting their wild lays, or amusing each other by the relation of those
+strange legends which inhabited the woods and lonely mountains of
+Greece.[1871] There prevailed among them a superstition against
+disturbing by their music or otherwise that hushed stillness which most
+persons must have observed to characterise the summer noon. At this hour
+of the day the God Pan,[1872] in the opinion of Greek shepherds, took
+his rest after the toils of the chase, reclining under a tree in the
+solitary forest;[1873] and, as he was held to be of a hasty choleric
+disposition, they abstained at that time from piping through fear of
+provoking his anger. The other Gods likewise were believed to enjoy a
+short sleep at this time, as we find in the case of the nymph Aura, in
+the Dionysiacs.[1874]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1867:
+
+ Geop. xviii. 2.
+
+Footnote 1868:
+
+ Nor in Asia Minor is the shade of trees always deemed sufficient. “We
+ came,” says Dr. Chandler, “to a shed formed with boughs round a tree,
+ to shelter the flocks and herds from the sun at noon.” Travels, i. 25.
+
+Footnote 1869:
+
+ Schol. Theoc. i. 21. Cf. Plat. Phædr. t. i. p. 9.
+
+Footnote 1870:
+
+ I cannot resist the temptation to introduce in this place the picture
+ in miniature of a Greek landscape from the picturesque and beautiful
+ journal of Dr. Sibthorpe: “We dined under a rock, from whose side
+ descended a purling spring among violets, primroses, and the starry
+ hyacinth, mixed with black Silyrium and different coloured orches. The
+ flowering ash hung from the sides of the mountain, under the shade of
+ which bloomed saxifrages, and the snowy Isopyrum, with the Campanula
+ Pyramidalis; this latter plant is now called χαρισονη; it yields
+ abundance of a sweet milky fluid, and was said to promote a secretion
+ of milk, a quality first attributed to it under the doctrine of
+ signatures. Our guide made nose-gays of the fragrant leaves of the
+ Fraxinella; the common nettle was not forgotten as a pot-herb, but the
+ Imperatoria seemed to be the favourite salad. Among the shrubs I
+ noticed our gooseberry-tree, and the Cellis Australis grew wild among
+ the rocks.” Walp. Mem. i. 63.
+
+Footnote 1871:
+
+ See Hesiod. Opp. et Dies, 582, sqq.
+
+Footnote 1872:
+
+ To dream of this god was considered auspicious by shepherds. Artemid.
+ Oneirocrit. ii. 42. p. 133.
+
+Footnote 1873:
+
+ Schol. Theoc. i. 15. Cal. Hymn. in. Lav. Poll. 72. ibique interp. Nem.
+ Eclog. iii. 3. Cf. Hom. Il. τ. 13. Od. ι. 9. The shepherd in the
+ Anthology (Jacob. t. ii. no. 227. p. 694) is not so religious as
+ Theocritus’ goatherd, for he boldly pipes in the morn and at noon χὡ
+ ποιμὴν ἐν ὄρεσσι μεσαμβρινὸν ἀγχόθι παγᾶς συρίσδων. Kiessling. ad
+ Theoc. i. 15.
+
+Footnote 1874:
+
+ Nonn. xlviii. 258, sqq. Cf. Philost. Icon. ii. 11. et J. B. Carpzov.
+ Disp. Phil. De Quiete Dei, p. 16, sqq.
+
+-----
+
+From a passage in St. John’s gospel it would appear, that the practice
+prevailed among the Oriental shepherds of distinguishing the several
+members of their flocks by separate names: “The sheep hear his voice,
+and he calleth his own sheep by name and leadeth them out. And when he
+putteth forth his own sheep he goeth before them, and the sheep follow
+him, for they know his voice.” We likewise find traces of the same
+custom in Sicily, Crete, and various other parts of Greece, where goats,
+and heifers, and sheep, enjoyed the privilege of a name, as Cynœtha,
+Amalthea, and others. In later times it was judged preferable, that the
+flock should follow their shepherds by the eye, for which reason they
+were accustomed to stuff their ears with wool.[1875] To prevent rams
+from butting, they used to bore a hole[1876] through their horns near
+the roots. Sheep were generally shorn[1877] during the month of May, and
+after the wool had been clipped, they were commonly anointed with wine,
+oil, and the juice of bitter lupins.[1878] In remoter ages the practice
+prevailed of plucking off the wool instead of shearing it; and this
+barbarous method, at once so painful to the sheep and so laborious to
+the shepherd, had not been entirely abandoned in the age of Pliny.[1879]
+It was a rule among the pastoral tribes, that the number of their flocks
+should be uneven.[1880] The shepherds of Greece bestowed the name of
+Sekitai,[1881] (from σηκος an enclosure) upon lambs taken early from the
+ewes, and fed by hand. They were usually kept in a cote apart from the
+other sheep.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1875:
+
+ Geop. xviii. 4.
+
+Footnote 1876:
+
+ Ferocia ejus cohibetur cornu juxta aurem terebrato. Plin. Nat. Hist.
+ vii. 72. Cf. Geopon. viii. 5. To the same purpose writes also
+ Columella:—Epicharmus Syracusanus qui pecudum medicinas diligentissime
+ conscripsit affirmat pugnacem arietem mitigari terebra secundum
+ auriculas foratis cornibus qua curvantur in flexu. Columell. vii. 3.
+
+Footnote 1877:
+
+ It is observed by the ancients that long lank wool indicated strength
+ in the sheep, curly wool the contrary. Geop. xviii. 1, seq.
+
+Footnote 1878:
+
+ Geop. xviii. 8.
+
+Footnote 1879:
+
+ Duerat quibusdam in locis vellendi mos. Plin. Nat. Hist, vii. 73.
+ Veliæ unde essent plures accepi caussas inquies quod ibi pastores
+ palatim ex ovibus ante tonsuram inventam vellere lanam sint soliti, ex
+ quo vellera dicuntur. Varr. de Ling. Lat. iv. Cf. De Re Rust. ii. 11.
+ Isidor. xix. 27.
+
+Footnote 1880:
+
+ Geop. xviii. 2.
+
+Footnote 1881:
+
+ Schol. Theoc. i. 9.
+
+-----
+
+As flocks, in most parts of Greece, were exposed to the rapacity of the
+wolf,[1882] the shepherds had recourse to an extraordinary contrivance,
+to destroy this fierce animal; kindling large charcoal fires in open
+spaces in the woods, they cast thereon the powder of certain diminutive
+fish, caught in great numbers along the grassy shores of Greece,
+together with small slices of lamb and kid. Attracted by the savour
+which they could snuff from a distance, the wolves flocked in great
+numbers towards the fires, round which they prowled with loud howlings,
+in expectation of sharing the prey, the odour of which had drawn them
+thither. Stupified at length by the fumes of the charcoal, they would
+drop upon the earth in a lethargic sleep, when the shepherds coming up
+knocked them on the head.[1883]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1882:
+
+ From the relations of travellers it would appear that the method
+ observed by the ancient Greeks in ridding themselves of the wolf is no
+ longer known to their descendants, though the apprehension of their
+ destructiveness and ferocity be as great as ever. Solon, it is well
+ known set a price in his laws on the head of a wolf, which appears to
+ have varied in different ages; (cf. Plut. Solon. § 23. Schol.
+ Aristoph. Av. 369;) but could never have amounted to the sum of two
+ talents. Whatever the ancient price may have been, however, it was
+ paid by the magistrates; but “the peasant now produces the skins in
+ the bazaar or market, and is recompensed by voluntary contributions.”
+ Chandler, ii. p. 145. Close by a khan on mount Parnes, which is
+ covered with pine trees, Sir George Wheler saw a very curious
+ fountain, to which the wolves, bears, and wild boars commonly descend
+ to drink. Id. p. 197.
+
+Footnote 1883:
+
+ Geop. xviii. 14. Nevertheless, when a wolf bit a sheep without killing
+ it, the flesh was supposed to be rendered more tender and delicate, an
+ effect which Plutarch attributes to the hot and fiery breath of the
+ beast. Sympos. ii. 9.
+
+-----
+
+ END OF THE SECOND VOLUME.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ LONDON:
+ Printed by S. & J. BENTLEY, WILSON, and FLEY,
+ Bangor House, Shoe Lane.
+
+------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+ Transcriber’s Note
+
+The printer employed the cursive forms of beta (ϐ) and theta (ϑ),
+sometimes in the same passage with the standard β and θ. These have been
+replaced with the standard forms.
+
+Hyphenated words sometimes also appear without hyphenation, e.g. ‘olive
+grounds’ and ‘olive-grounds’. Where there is a clear preponderance, the
+hyphen has either been retained or removed to following the preference.
+When there was none, they are left as printed.
+
+ Comments
+
+ 91.10 The original quotation marks (“Wretch, would you make
+ me a “Phaselitan for a farthing?”) have been properly
+ nested.
+
+ 355.n3.64 The asterisk seems to serve no purpose. It might have
+ referred to an internal footnote that was never
+ printed. It was retained, nonetheless.
+
+Minor punctation errors and inconsistencies in the footnote apparatus
+have been corrected with no further mention here.
+
+Those errors deemed most likely to be the printer’s have been corrected,
+and are noted here. The references are to the page and line in the
+original. Corrections within notes are denoted with ‘n’ and the original
+note number.
+
+ 36.n1 καὶ πᾶσαν τὴν ο[ἴκι]/ἰκίαν Replaced.
+ 61.15 to have been a comb[.] Added.
+ 63.31 The _Ægle[,]_ the _Pede_ and Added.
+ 65.11 in Lycia[,/.] Replaced.
+ 71.29 ran into the opposite extreme[,/.] Replaced.
+ 86.7 signi[ni]fies eggs) Removed.
+ 119.20 were most brilliantly reflected[,/.] Replaced.
+ 133.8 recal[l]s to mind Inserted.
+ 134.n3 Ἅλα[ ]λείχειν Space added.
+ 135.n3.10 Profluit.[”] Added.
+ 139.30 How much [my,/, my] friend, Transposed.
+ 163.31 The walnuts a[u/n]d chestnuts Inverted.
+ 164.20 [“]but we call it Added.
+ 185.37 roll about the room like a hoop[,/.] Replaced.
+ 201.31 to the frying[-]pan Inserted.
+ 209.n5.1 Sc[ol/h\. Aristoph. Nub. 1337, seq. Replaced.
+ 209.n6.1 Ilgen, De Sc[h]ol. Poes. p. 156. Removed.
+ 242.1 the friendship of Demosthenes[.] Added.
+ 242.34 the “Exile Hunter.[”] Added.
+ 249.n7.2 [‘/“]chez les anciens Atheniens Replaced.
+ 257.n5 Μ[ε/έ]σσοισιν Replaced.
+ 274.18 whose Penelope, the[ the] _beau idéal_ Removed.
+ 286.n8 and out [out ]of these they sometimes Repetition.
+ drank.
+ 290.n4 following in the foo[t]steps of Heyne Inserted.
+ 328.16 found this answer of[ of] irrigation. Removed.
+ 355.n3.38 le _samia_[,] gros raisin Added.
+ 385.15 hey would not, if po[s]ssible, Removed.
+ 423.38 shall judge to-morrow[.]” Added.
+ 429.n6.14 non parvo sumptu reparatur.[”] Added.
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE HISTORY OF THE MANNERS AND
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+<p style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of The History of the Manners and Customs of Ancient Greece Volume II (of III), by James Augustus St. John</p>
+<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
+most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
+whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
+of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online
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+country where you are located before using this eBook.
+</div>
+
+<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: The History of the Manners and Customs of Ancient Greece Volume II (of III)</p>
+<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: James Augustus St. John</p>
+<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: March 16, 2022 [eBook #67637]</p>
+<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</p>
+ <p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:left'>Produced by: KD Weeks, Turgut Dincer and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive)</p>
+<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE HISTORY OF THE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF ANCIENT GREECE VOLUME II (OF III) ***</div>
+
+<div class='pbb'>
+ <hr class='pb c000' />
+</div>
+<div class='tnotes'>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+ <div class='nf-center'>
+ <div>Transcriber’s Note:</div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c001'>Footnotes have been collected at the end of each chapter, and are
+linked for ease of reference.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Minor errors, attributable to the printer, have been corrected. Please
+see the transcriber’s <a href='#endnote'>note</a> at the end of this text
+for details regarding the handling of any textual issues encountered
+during its preparation.</p>
+
+<div class='htmlonly'>
+
+<p class='c001'>Any corrections are indicated using an <ins class='correction' title='original'>underline</ins>
+highlight. Placing the cursor over the correction will produce the
+original text in a small popup.</p>
+
+<div class='figcenter id001'>
+<img src='images/cover.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
+</div>
+
+</div>
+<div class='epubonly'>
+
+<p class='c001'>Any corrections are indicated as hyperlinks, which will navigate the
+reader to the corresponding entry in the corrections table in the
+note at the end of the text.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+</div>
+
+<div>
+ <h1 class='c002'><span class='large'>THE HISTORY</span> <br />OF THE <br /><span class='xlarge'>MANNERS AND CUSTOMS</span><br />OF<br /><span class='xlarge'>ANCIENT GREECE.</span></h1>
+</div>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c000'>
+ <div><span class='large'>BY J. A. ST. JOHN.</span></div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c003'>
+ <div>IN THREE VOLUMES.</div>
+ <div class='c000'>VOL. II.</div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c003'>
+ <div><span class='large'>LONDON:</span></div>
+ <div>RICHARD BENTLEY, NEW BURLINGTON STREET,</div>
+ <div><span class="blackletter">Publisher in Ordinary to Her Majesty.</span></div>
+ <div>1842.</div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c003'>
+ <div>LONDON:</div>
+ <div>Printed by <span class='sc'>S. & J. Bentley</span>, <span class='sc'>Wilson</span>, and <span class='sc'>Fley</span>,</div>
+ <div>Bangor House, Shoe Lane.</div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+ <span class='pageno' id='Page_iii'>iii</span>
+ <h2 class='c004'>CONTENTS <br /> OF THE SECOND VOLUME.</h2>
+</div>
+
+<hr class='c005' />
+
+<table class='table0' summary=''>
+<colgroup>
+<col width='11%' />
+<col width='80%' />
+<col width='7%' />
+</colgroup>
+ <tr>
+ <td class='c006' colspan='3'>BOOK III.</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr><td> </td></tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class='c007'><span class='small'>CHAPTER</span></td>
+ <td class='c008'> </td>
+ <td class='c009'><span class='small'>PAGE</span></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr><td> </td></tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class='c007'>IV.</td>
+ <td class='c008'>Marriage Ceremonies</td>
+ <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_1'>1</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class='c007'>V.</td>
+ <td class='c008'>Condition of Married Women</td>
+ <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_28'>28</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class='c007'>VI.</td>
+ <td class='c008'>Toilette, Dress, and Ornaments</td>
+ <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_50'>50</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr><td> </td></tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class='c006' colspan='3'>BOOK IV.</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr><td> </td></tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class='c007'>I.</td>
+ <td class='c008'>Private Dwellings</td>
+ <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_75'>75</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class='c007'>II.</td>
+ <td class='c008'>Household Furniture</td>
+ <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_97'>97</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class='c007'>III.</td>
+ <td class='c008'>Food of Homeric Times—Meat, Fish, &c.</td>
+ <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_125'>125</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class='c007'>IV.</td>
+ <td class='c008'>Poultry, Fruit, Wine, &c.</td>
+ <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_150'>150</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class='c007'>V.</td>
+ <td class='c008'>Entertainments</td>
+ <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_170'>170</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class='c007'>VI.</td>
+ <td class='c008'>Entertainments (<i>continued</i>)</td>
+ <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_197'>197</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class='c007'>VII.</td>
+ <td class='c008'>The Theatre</td>
+ <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_220'>220</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class='c007'>VIII.</td>
+ <td class='c008'>The Theatre (<i>continued</i>)</td>
+ <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_248'>248</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr><td> </td></tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class='c006' colspan='3'><span class='pageno' id='Page_iv'>iv</span>BOOK V.</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr><td> </td></tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class='c006' colspan='3'>RURAL LIFE.</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr><td> </td></tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class='c007'>I.</td>
+ <td class='c008'>The Villa and the Farmyard</td>
+ <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_269'>269</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class='c007'>II.</td>
+ <td class='c008'>Garden and Orchard</td>
+ <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_301'>301</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class='c007'>III.</td>
+ <td class='c008'>Vineyards, Vintage, &c.</td>
+ <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_335'>335</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class='c007'>IV.</td>
+ <td class='c008'>Studies of the Farmer</td>
+ <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_362'>362</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class='c007'>V.</td>
+ <td class='c008'>The Various Processes of Agriculture</td>
+ <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_381'>381</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class='c007'>VI.</td>
+ <td class='c008'>Pastoral Life</td>
+ <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_401'>401</a></td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c010'>
+ <div><span class='pageno' id='Page_1'>1</span>THE HISTORY</div>
+ <div>OF THE</div>
+ <div>MANNERS AND CUSTOMS</div>
+ <div>OF</div>
+ <div>ANCIENT GREECE.</div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+ <h2 class='c004'>BOOK III.</h2>
+</div>
+
+<h3 class='c002'>CHAPTER IV. <br /> MARRIAGE CEREMONIES.</h3>
+
+<p class='c011'>When marriage was determined on, whether love
+or interest prompted to it, the business part of the
+transaction, which in all countries is exceedingly
+unromantic, was delegated, as in China, to a female
+matchmaker,<a id='r1' /><a href='#f1' class='c012'><sup>[1]</sup></a> whose professional duties appear to
+have been considered important. She carried the
+lovers proposals to the family of his mistress, or
+rather, perhaps, broke the ice and paved the way
+for him. In the earlier ages men, no doubt, performed
+this delicate office themselves, or entrusted
+it to their parents; as in Homer we find Achilles
+declaring, that his father Peleus shall choose a wife
+for him. Earlier still, if we may credit certain prevalent
+traditions, men dispensed altogether with such
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_2'>2</span>preliminaries and lived <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">“more pecudum”</span> with the
+first females who came in their way; a state of barbarism
+from which it is said they were reclaimed
+by Cecrops.<a id='r2' /><a href='#f2' class='c012'><sup>[2]</sup></a> But, to whomsoever this fable may
+trace its origin, it is evidently unworthy of the
+slightest credit. Of times sunk in such an abyss
+of ignorance no record could remain, or even of
+many succeeding revolutions of manners touching
+close upon the orbit of civilisation. If, however,
+the tradition arose originally out of any real innovation
+in manners, it may refer to the partial abolition
+of polygamy, which, whether made by Cecrops
+or not, was an important step in the progress of
+the Greeks towards polished life.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>But if Cecrops ever lived, and should not be regarded
+as a mere mythological creation, we must
+still reject the comparatively modern tradition which
+fetches him from Egypt. Coming from the East,
+he would more probably have instituted polygamy
+than the contrary. In every point of view the tradition
+is absurd; for it at once represents the people
+of Attica as savages, and as having made considerable
+advances in the science of civil government.
+They have already emerged from the state of patriarchal
+rule, not by any means the lowest, and
+have arrived at the monarchical period in the history
+of society—for Cecrops marries the daughter of king
+Actæos—yet have not made the first step in refinement,<a id='r3' /><a href='#f3' class='c012'><sup>[3]</sup></a>
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_3'>3</span>have not passed the barrier dividing the rudest
+savage from even the barbarian,—had not made the
+discovery that, for the preservation of society, children
+must be cared for and maintained, which is
+impossible until they have other fathers than the
+community. We must, therefore, reject this Cecropian
+legend, and acknowledge that, from the earliest
+times of which any record remains, the people of
+Hellas married and were given in marriage.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Whatever the original practice of the Greeks may
+have been, traces of polygamy long continued discernible
+in their manners. Heracles maintained a
+seraglio worthy of an Ottoman sultan. His wives, indeed,
+like those of a wandering Brahmin, were scattered
+at convenient points over the country, that, whithersoever
+he roamed, he might find lodging and entertainment;
+but, as rumours of his different establishments
+travelled about, the jealousy of the ladies was
+at last excited and proved fatal to him. Ægeus, too,
+and his brother Pallas, old Priam, Agamemnon, Theseus,
+and nearly every public man in the heroic
+times, are represented as possessing a harem. Indeed,
+to judge by the practice of princes, it would seem
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_4'>4</span>as if polygamy were the law of every land; so habitual
+is it with them to transgress, in this point,
+against public opinion. A report, still current among
+certain writers, represents Socrates with two wives,
+the gentle nature of Xantippe encouraging him, perhaps,
+to venture on a second! But even that diligent
+retailer of scandal, Athenæus,<a id='r4' /><a href='#f4' class='c012'><sup>[4]</sup></a> rejects this story,
+which, no doubt, originated with some sophist, who
+owed the philosopher a grudge. If not in the son
+of Sophroniscos, however, at least in Philip of Macedon,
+the kings of heroic times found an exact imitator.
+This Pellæan fox, though he did not, like
+the Persian monarch, lead about with him an army
+of concubines in his military expeditions, yet, from
+policy or other motives, contracted numerous marriages,
+as many, perhaps, as Heracles. Satyros has
+bequeathed to us a curious account of his majesty’s
+matrimonial exploits. During his long reign, of
+from twenty to four-and-twenty years, the dishes of
+one nuptial feast had scarcely time to cool before
+a new one was in preparation. It was nothing but
+truffles and rich soup from June till June. I am
+unable to furnish a list of all the ladies who claimed,
+through Philip’s diffusive love, to be queens of Macedon;
+but it may be proper to name a few, to
+show how the morals of his subjects must have been
+improved by his example. The first lady whose
+landed attractions won Philip’s heart was <em>Andatè</em>,
+an Illyrian, by whom he had a daughter, called
+Cynna. To her succeeded <em>Phila</em>, sister of Derda and
+Macatè. His next wives were two Thessalian women,
+<em>Pherè</em> of Nikesipolis, mother of Thessalonia,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_5'>5</span>and <em>Philinna</em> of Larissa, mother of Aridæos. Had
+he sought merely the women these might have sufficed;
+but Philip had other views, and, finding marriage
+a still more expeditious method of extending
+his dominions even than conquest, he forthwith added
+to the list <em>Olympias</em>, who brought him the
+kingdom of Molossia in dowry, and, as every one
+knows, was mother of Alexander. Had the crafty
+prince stopped here, posterity, overlooking his immorality,
+might have applauded his prudence. But,
+elated by success, he proceeded to augment the
+number of his queens. To Olympias succeeded
+<em>Meda</em>, daughter of Cithalas, king of Thrace; and,
+lastly, <em>Cleopatra</em>, sister of Hippostratos, and niece
+of Attalos. By this time he was somewhat advanced
+in years, for Alexander, son of Olympias,
+approached manhood. At the feast given in honour
+of this new marriage, when the wine had
+circulated, as was customary among Macedonians,
+Attalos, who had probably drunk deep, observed,
+“At length we shall have legitimate princes, not
+bastards!” Alexander, who was present, in resentment
+of the affront, threw his goblet in the face
+of Attalos, who saluted him in the same way. Upon
+this, perceiving how matters were likely to proceed,
+Olympias fled to Molossia, Alexander into Illyria.
+Philip lived to have by Cleopatra one daughter,
+Europa; but, shortly afterwards, at the instigation,
+it is supposed of Olympias and Alexander, was
+murdered by Pausanias.<a id='r5' /><a href='#f5' class='c012'><sup>[5]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Ordinary individuals, however, were restrained
+from the commission of such immoralities by the
+laws, more particularly at Athens, where marriage
+was contemplated with all the reverence due to
+the great palladium of civilisation. As a necessary
+consequence, celibacy could be no other than disreputable,
+so that, to a man ambitious of public
+honour, the possession of a wife and children was
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_6'>6</span>no less indispensable than the means of living.<a id='r6' /><a href='#f6' class='c012'><sup>[6]</sup></a>
+Among the Spartans, bachelors were delivered over
+to the tender mercies of the women, and subjected
+to very heavy penalties. During the celebration of
+certain festivals they were seized by a crowd of petulant
+viragoes, each able to strangle an ox,<a id='r7' /><a href='#f7' class='c012'><sup>[7]</sup></a> and
+dragged in derision round the altars of the gods,
+receiving from the fists of their gentle tormentors
+such blows as the regular practice of boxing had
+taught the young ladies to inflict.<a id='r8' /><a href='#f8' class='c012'><sup>[8]</sup></a></p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>“And ladies sometimes hit exceeding hard.”</div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c014'>But we shall be the less inclined to judge uncharitably
+of this somewhat unfeminine custom, if
+we consider that, in the ancient world, no less than
+in the modern, unmarried and childless women were
+held but in slight esteem. And this feeling, which
+never for a moment slumbers in society, teaches
+better than the cant of a thousand sentimentalists
+what the true origin of love is.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Of the impediments to marriage arising, among
+ancient nations, from relationship or consanguinity,
+very little is with certainty known. In the heroic
+ages, all unions excepting those of parents with
+their children appear to have been lawful; for, in
+the Odyssey, we find the six sons of Æolos joined
+in marriage with their six sisters, the manners of
+the olden times, abandoned on earth, still lingering
+among the gods.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Iphidamos has to wife his mother’s sister,<a id='r9' /><a href='#f9' class='c012'><sup>[9]</sup></a> and
+Alcinoös, by no means a profligate or immoral prince,
+is united with his brother’s daughter;<a id='r10' /><a href='#f10' class='c012'><sup>[10]</sup></a> Deiphobos,
+after Paris’s death, takes possession of Helen,<a id='r11' /><a href='#f11' class='c012'><sup>[11]</sup></a> and
+Helenos, the seer, is united in wedlock with Andromache,
+the widow of his brother Hector.<a id='r12' /><a href='#f12' class='c012'><sup>[12]</sup></a> But
+without alleging any further examples, we may, from
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_7'>7</span>the practice imputed to the gods, among whom
+scarcely any degree of relationship was a bar to
+marriage, infer that, in very early ages, few scruples
+were entertained upon the subject. Later mythologists
+have even imputed to Zeus an illicit amour
+with his daughter Aphrodite,<a id='r13' /><a href='#f13' class='c012'><sup>[13]</sup></a> but libellously, and
+in contradiction to the best ancient authorities.<a id='r14' /><a href='#f14' class='c012'><sup>[14]</sup></a>
+Nature, indeed, has so peremptorily prohibited the
+union of parents with their own children, that positive
+laws forbidding connexions so nefarious, have
+in all ages been nearly unnecessary, though the superstition
+of the Magi<a id='r15' /><a href='#f15' class='c012'><sup>[15]</sup></a> in ancient, and the profligacy
+of popes and princes in modern times, have
+been accused of transgressing these natural boundaries.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Could we credit the sophist of Naucratis, there
+was likewise one distinguished person<a id='r16' /><a href='#f16' class='c012'><sup>[16]</sup></a> among the
+Athenians who coveted the reputation of equal guilt.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'><span class='pageno' id='Page_8'>8</span>The marriage of brothers with their own sisters
+was, in later ages, considered illegal; not so with respect
+to half sisters by the fathers’s side, whom no
+law forbade men to marry.<a id='r17' /><a href='#f17' class='c012'><sup>[17]</sup></a> Still the recorded examples
+of those who availed themselves of this privilege
+are few; but among them we find the great
+Cimon, son of Miltiades, who, from affection, observes
+Cornelius Nepos, and in perfect conformity with the
+manners of his country, took to wife his sister Elpinice.<a id='r18' /><a href='#f18' class='c012'><sup>[18]</sup></a>
+Plutarch, too, speaks of the union as public
+and legal, but Athenæus<a id='r19' /><a href='#f19' class='c012'><sup>[19]</sup></a> characteristically insinuates
+that Elpinice was merely her brother’s mistress.
+The Spartan law took a different view of
+what constitutes sisterhood. Here the father was
+everything, and therefore with an uterine sister, as
+no near relation, marriage might be contracted.<a id='r20' /><a href='#f20' class='c012'><sup>[20]</sup></a> All
+connexions in the direct line of ascent or descent
+were prohibited; but the prohibition extended not
+to the collateral branches,<a id='r21' /><a href='#f21' class='c012'><sup>[21]</sup></a> uncles being permitted
+to take to wife their nieces, and nephews their
+aunts.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The precise age at which an Athenian citizen
+might legally take upon him the burden of a
+family, is said, without proof, though not altogether
+without probability, to have been determined by
+Solon; for such matters were in those ages supposed
+to come within the legitimate scope of legislation.<a id='r22' /><a href='#f22' class='c012'><sup>[22]</sup></a>
+They attributed to the season of youth a much greater
+duration than comports with our notions. It was, in
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_9'>9</span>fact, thought to extend to the age of thirty-five or
+thirty-seven, more or less: when entering upon the
+less flowery domain of manhood, men would need
+the aid and consolation of a helpmate. But if there
+ever existed such a law it was often broken,<a id='r23' /><a href='#f23' class='c012'><sup>[23]</sup></a> for
+early marriages, though less common perhaps than
+in modern times, are constantly alluded to both by
+historians and poets. Apprehensions of the too great
+increase of population already led philosophers, even
+in those early ages, vainly to apply themselves to
+the discovery of checks, which the irresistible impulses
+of nature always render nugatory; and viewing
+in that light the regulation attributed to Solon,<a id='r24' /><a href='#f24' class='c012'><sup>[24]</sup></a>
+they, with some variation, adopt it in their political
+works. Plato,<a id='r25' /><a href='#f25' class='c012'><sup>[25]</sup></a> in accordance with Hesiod’s notion,
+fixes for the male, the marriageable age at
+thirty; but Aristotle, who chose on most points to
+differ from his master, allows his citizens seven years
+more of liberty. For women the proper age, he
+thought, is about eighteen. His reasons are, that
+the husband and wife will thus flourish and decay
+together; and, their offspring inheriting the bloom
+and highest vigour of their parents, be at once<a id='r26' /><a href='#f26' class='c012'><sup>[26]</sup></a>
+healthy in body and energetic in mind.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Winter, more particularly the month of January,
+thence called Gamelion, or the “Nuptial Month,”
+was regarded as the fittest season<a id='r27' /><a href='#f27' class='c012'><sup>[27]</sup></a> of the year for
+the celebration of marriage; and if the north wind
+happened to blow, as at that time of the year it
+often does, the circumstance was supposed to be
+peculiarly auspicious. For this notion several physiological
+reasons are assigned; as that, during the
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_10'>10</span>prevalence of that wind, the human frame is peculiarly
+nervous and full of energy; that the spirits
+are consequently light, and the temper and disposition
+sweet, cheerful, and flexible. Lingering sparks
+of ancient superstition may also have had their share
+in establishing this persuasion: towards that quarter
+of the heavens, as towards an universal <em>Kebleh</em>, all
+the civilised nations of antiquity turned as the
+home of their gods; in that direction point all the
+openings of the Egyptian pyramids; thither to the
+present moment turn the Chinese and Brahmins
+when they pray, and in the holy tabernacle of the
+Jews the Table of Shewbread<a id='r28' /><a href='#f28' class='c012'><sup>[28]</sup></a> likewise faced the
+north. Attention, too, was paid to the lunar influences;
+for, no other circumstance preventing it,
+it was usual to fix on the full of the moon, when
+the festival denominated <em>Theogamia</em>, or “Nuptials
+of the Gods” was celebrated, in order that religion
+itself, by its august and venerable ceremonies,
+might appear to sanctify the union of mortals
+effected under its auspices.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>To this practice there are several allusions in ancient
+writers. Agamemnon, in Euripides, when questioned
+by his wife respecting the time of Iphigenia’s
+marriage, replies, that it shall take place</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>“When the blest moon its silvery circle fills.”<a id='r29' /><a href='#f29' class='c012'><sup>[29]</sup></a></div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c015'>And Themis, adjudging Thetis to Peleus, to terminate
+the contentions of the gods, selects the same
+season for the solemnization of the nuptial rites.</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>“But when next that solemn eve</div>
+ <div class='line'>Duly doth the moon divide,</div>
+ <div class='line'>For the chieftain let her leave</div>
+ <div class='line'>Her lovely virgin zone aside.”<a id='r30' /><a href='#f30' class='c012'><sup>[30]</sup></a></div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c014'>Most ancient nations, as the Hebrews, Indians,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_11'>11</span>Thracians, Germans, and Gauls, regarded women as
+a marketable commodity; and, in this respect, the
+Greeks of early times perfectly agreed with them,
+buying and selling their females like cattle.<a id='r31' /><a href='#f31' class='c012'><sup>[31]</sup></a> But,
+by degrees, as manners grew more polished, this
+barbarous custom was discontinued, though, in remembrance
+of it, presents were still made both to
+the father and the bride, even in the most civilised
+periods. We must, nevertheless, beware that we
+infer not too much from these gifts; for equally
+primitive and prevalent was the custom imposing
+upon fathers the necessity of dowrying their daughters.<a id='r32' /><a href='#f32' class='c012'><sup>[32]</sup></a>
+In the case, too, of the husband’s death this
+matrimonial portion devolved to the children, so that
+if the widow chose,—as widows sometimes will,<a id='r33' /><a href='#f33' class='c012'><sup>[33]</sup></a>—to
+embark a second time on the connubial sea, her
+father was called upon to furnish a fresh outfit.
+But, if the husband grew tired of his better half,
+and would insist on a divorce, or if, after his death,
+the sons were sufficiently unnatural to chase their
+mother from the paternal roof, the right over the
+entire dowry reverted to her.<a id='r34' /><a href='#f34' class='c012'><sup>[34]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Parties were usually betrothed before marriage
+by their parents. And young women, whose parents
+no longer survived, were settled in marriage by
+their brothers, grandfathers, or guardians. Husbands
+on their deathbeds sometimes disposed of the hands
+of their wives, as in the case of Demosthenes’ father,
+who bequeathed Cleobula to Aphobos, whom
+he likewise appointed guardian of his children. In
+this instance, the widow had better have chosen for
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_12'>12</span>herself. Aphobos possessed himself of the dowry,
+and consented to fulfil the office of guardian, that
+he might plunder the children; but the marriage he
+declined. Another example occurs in the case of
+Phormio who, having been slave<a id='r35' /><a href='#f35' class='c012'><sup>[35]</sup></a> to an opulent
+citizen, and conducted himself with zeal and fidelity,
+received at once his freedom and the widow
+of his master. In all serious matters the Athenians
+were a very methodical people, and conducted
+everything, even to the betrothing or marrying
+of a wife, with an attention to form worthy the
+quaintest citizen of our own great city.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Potter observes, with great naïveté, that, before
+men married, it was customary to provide themselves
+with a house to live in. The custom was a
+good one, and the thrifty old poet of Ascra, undertaking
+to enlighten his countrymen in economics,
+is explicit on the point—</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>“First build your house and let the wife succeed:”<a id='r36' /><a href='#f36' class='c012'><sup>[36]</sup></a></div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c015'>which, no doubt, is better advice than if he had
+said “first marry a wife and next consider where
+you shall put her.” And we find that, even among
+pastoral, young ladies who, in modern poets, make
+their meat and drink of love, and hang up a rag or
+two of it to preserve them from the elements, in
+antiquity posed their lovers with interrogations about
+comforts. “You are very pressing, my dear Daphnis,
+and swear you love me; but that is not just now
+the question. Have you a house and harem to take
+me to?”<a id='r37' /><a href='#f37' class='c012'><sup>[37]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>But prudent as they may be considered, the Athenians
+were still more pious than thrifty. Before
+the virgin quitted her childhood’s home, and passed
+from the state she had tried, and in most cases, perhaps,
+found happy, to enter into one altogether unknown
+to her, custom demanded the performance, on
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_13'>13</span>the day before the marriage, of several religious ceremonies
+eminently significant and beautiful. Hitherto,
+in the poetical recesses of their thalamoi, they had
+been reckoned as so many nymphs attached to the
+train of the virgin goddess of the woods. About
+to become members of a noviciate more conformable
+to nature than that of the Catholic church,
+they deemed it incumbent on them to implore their
+Divinity’s permission to transfer their worship from
+her to Hymen; and, the more readily to obtain it,
+they approached her, in the simplicity of their hearts,
+with baskets full of offerings such as it became them
+to present and her to receive.<a id='r38' /><a href='#f38' class='c012'><sup>[38]</sup></a> Nor was Artemis
+the only deity sought, on this occasion, to be rendered
+auspicious by sacrifice and prayer. Offerings
+were likewise made to the Nymphs, those lovely
+creations with which the fancy of the Greeks peopled
+the streams and fountains of their native land.<a id='r39' /><a href='#f39' class='c012'><sup>[39]</sup></a>
+These rites performed, the future bride was conducted
+in pomp to the citadel, where solemn sacrifice
+was offered up to Athena, the tutelar goddess
+of the state, with prayers for happiness, peculiarly the
+gift of supreme wisdom.<a id='r40' /><a href='#f40' class='c012'><sup>[40]</sup></a> To Hera, also, and the
+Fates,<a id='r41' /><a href='#f41' class='c012'><sup>[41]</sup></a> as to the goddesses that watched over the
+connubial state and rigidly punished those who transgressed
+its sacred laws, were gifts presented, and
+vows preferred; and on one or all of their several
+altars did the maiden deposit a lock of her own
+hair, in remoter ages, perhaps, the whole of it, to
+intimate that, having obtained a husband, she must
+preserve him by other means than beauty, and the
+arts of the toilette.<a id='r42' /><a href='#f42' class='c012'><sup>[42]</sup></a> At Megara the young women
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_14'>14</span>devoted their severed locks to Iphinoë. Those of
+Delos to Hecaerga and Ops,<a id='r43' /><a href='#f43' class='c012'><sup>[43]</sup></a> while, like the Athenians,
+the maidens of Argos performed this rite in
+honour of Athena.<a id='r44' /><a href='#f44' class='c012'><sup>[44]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Having, by the performance of the above rites and
+others of similar significance, discharged their instant
+duties to the gods, and impressed on their own minds
+a deep sense of the sacred engagements they were
+about to contract, they proceeded to perform the
+nuptial ceremonies themselves, still intermingling the
+offices of religion with every portion of the transaction.
+An auspicious day having been fixed upon,
+the relations and friends of both parties assembled
+in magnificent apparel, at the house of the bride’s
+father, where all the ladies of the family were busily
+engaged in the recitation of prayers and presentation
+of offerings. These domestic ceremonies concluded,
+the bride, accompanied by her paranymph or
+bridesmaid, was led forth into the street by the
+bridegroom and one of his most intimate friends,<a id='r45' /><a href='#f45' class='c012'><sup>[45]</sup></a>
+who placed her between them in an open carriage.<a id='r46' /><a href='#f46' class='c012'><sup>[46]</sup></a>
+Their dresses, as was fitting, were of the richest and
+most splendid kind. Those of the bridegroom full,
+flowing, and of the gayest and brightest colours,<a id='r47' /><a href='#f47' class='c012'><sup>[47]</sup></a>
+glittered with golden ornaments, and diffused around,
+as he moved, a cloud of perfume. The bride herself,
+gifted with that unerring taste which distinguished
+her nation, appeared in a costume at once simple and
+magnificent—simple in its contour, its masses, its
+folds, magnificent from the brilliance of its hues
+and the superb and costly style of its ornaments.
+She was not, like some modern court dame, a blaze
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_15'>15</span>of precious stones tastelessly heaped upon each other;
+but through the snowy gauze of her veil flashed the
+jewelled fillet and coronet-like sphendone which, with
+a chaplet of flowers,<a id='r48' /><a href='#f48' class='c012'><sup>[48]</sup></a> adorned her dark tresses; and
+between the folds of her robe of gold-embroidered
+purple, appeared her gloveless fingers, with many
+rings glittering with gems. Strings of Red Sea
+pearls encircled her neck and arms; pendants, variously
+wrought and dropped with Indian jewels,
+twinkled in her ears; and her feet, partly concealed
+by the falling robe, displayed a portion of the golden
+thonged sandal, crusted with emeralds, rubies, or
+pearls. But all these ornaments often failed to distract
+the eye from those which she owed to nature.
+Her luxuriant hair, which in Eastern women often
+reaches the ground:</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>Her hair in hyacinthine flow,</div>
+ <div class='line'>When left to roll its folds below,</div>
+ <div class='line'>As ’midst her maidens in the ball</div>
+ <div class='line'>She stood superior to them all,</div>
+ <div class='line'>Hath swept the marble, where her feet</div>
+ <div class='line'>Gleamed whiter than the mountain sleet,</div>
+ <div class='line'>Ere from the cloud that gave it birth</div>
+ <div class='line'>It fell and caught one stain of earth;</div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c015'>her hair, I say, perfumed with delicate unguents,<a id='r49' /><a href='#f49' class='c012'><sup>[49]</sup></a>
+such as nard from Tarsos, œranthe from Cypros,
+essence of roses from Cyrene, of lilies from Ægina
+or Cilicia, fell loosely in a profusion of ringlets
+over her shoulders, while in front it was confined by
+the fillet and grasshoppers of gold.<a id='r50' /><a href='#f50' class='c012'><sup>[50]</sup></a> More perishable
+ornaments, in the shape of crowns of myrtle,
+wild thyme,<a id='r51' /><a href='#f51' class='c012'><sup>[51]</sup></a> poppy, white sesame, with other flowers
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_16'>16</span>and plants sacred to Aphrodite, adorned the heads
+of both bride and bridegroom.<a id='r52' /><a href='#f52' class='c012'><sup>[52]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The relations and friends followed, forming, in most
+cases, a long and stately procession, which, in the
+midst of crowds of spectators, moved slowly towards
+the temple, thousands strewing flowers or scattering
+perfume in their path, and in loud exclamations
+comparing the happy pair to the most impassioned
+and beautiful of their nymphs and gods.<a id='r53' /><a href='#f53' class='c012'><sup>[53]</sup></a> Meanwhile,
+a number of the bride’s friends, scattered
+among the multitude, were looking out anxiously
+for favourable omens, and desirous, in conjunction
+with every person present, to avert all such as superstition
+taught them to consider inauspicious. A
+crow appearing singly was supposed to betoken sorrow
+or separation, whereas, a couple of crows,<a id='r54' /><a href='#f54' class='c012'><sup>[54]</sup></a> issuing
+from the proper quarter of the heavens,
+presaged perfect union and happiness. A pair of
+turtle doves, of all omens, was esteemed the best.<a id='r55' /><a href='#f55' class='c012'><sup>[55]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>On reaching the temple, the bride and bridegroom
+were received at the door by a priest, who presented
+them with a small branch of ivy, as an emblem of
+the close ties by which they were about to be united
+for ever. They were then conducted to the
+altar,<a id='r56' /><a href='#f56' class='c012'><sup>[56]</sup></a> where the ceremonies commenced with the
+sacrifice of a heifer,<a id='r57' /><a href='#f57' class='c012'><sup>[57]</sup></a> after which Artemis, Athena,
+and other virgin goddesses, were solemnly invoked.
+Prayers were then addressed to Zeus and his consort,
+the supreme divinities of Olympos;<a id='r58' /><a href='#f58' class='c012'><sup>[58]</sup></a> nor, on this
+occasion, would they overlook the ancient gods, Ouranos
+and Gaia, whose union produces fertility and
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_17'>17</span>abundance,<a id='r59' /><a href='#f59' class='c012'><sup>[59]</sup></a>—the Graces, whose smile shed upon life
+its sweetest charm, and the Fates, who shorten or
+extend it at their pleasure, were next in order
+adored; and, lastly, Aphrodite, the mother of Love,
+and of all the host of Heaven, the most beautiful
+and beneficent to mortals.<a id='r60' /><a href='#f60' class='c012'><sup>[60]</sup></a> The victim having been
+opened, the gall was taken out and significantly
+cast behind the altar.<a id='r61' /><a href='#f61' class='c012'><sup>[61]</sup></a> Soothsayers skilled in divination
+then inspected the entrails, and if their appearance
+was alarming the nuptials were broken
+off, or deferred. When favourable, the rites proceeded
+as if hallowed by the smile of the gods.
+The bride now cut off one of her tresses, which,
+twisting round a spindle, she placed as an offering
+on the altar of Athena, while, in imitation of Theseus,
+the bridegroom made a similar oblation to
+Apollo, bound, as an emblem of his out-door life,
+round a handful of grass or herbs.<a id='r62' /><a href='#f62' class='c012'><sup>[62]</sup></a> All the other
+gods, protectors of marriage, were then, by the parents
+or friends, invoked in succession, and the rites
+thus completed, the virgin’s father, placing the hand
+of the bridegroom in that of the bride, said, “I bestow on
+thee my daughter, that thine eyes may
+be gladdened by legitimate offspring.”<a id='r63' /><a href='#f63' class='c012'><sup>[63]</sup></a> The oath
+of inviolable fidelity was now taken by both, and
+the ceremony concluded with fresh sacrifices.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The performance of rites so numerous generally
+consumed the whole day, so that the shades of evening
+were falling before the bride could be conducted
+to her future home. This hour, indeed, according
+to some, was chosen to conceal the blushes of the
+youthful wife.<a id='r64' /><a href='#f64' class='c012'><sup>[64]</sup></a> And now commenced the secular
+portion of the ceremony. Numerous attendants,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_18'>18</span>bearing lighted torches,<a id='r65' /><a href='#f65' class='c012'><sup>[65]</sup></a> ran in front of the procession,
+while bands of merry youths dancing, singing,
+or playing on musical instruments, surrounded the
+nuptial car. Similar in this respect was the practice
+throughout Greece, even so early as the time
+of Homer, who thus, in his description of the Shield,
+calls up before our imagination the lively picture of
+an heroic nuptial procession:</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>“Here sacred pomp and genial feasts delight,</div>
+ <div class='line'>And solemn dance and Hymeneal rite.</div>
+ <div class='line'>Along the streets the new-made brides are led,</div>
+ <div class='line'>With torches flaming, to the nuptial bed.</div>
+ <div class='line'>The youthful dancers in a circle bound</div>
+ <div class='line'>To the soft flute and cittern’s silver sound.<a id='r66' /><a href='#f66' class='c012'><sup>[66]</sup></a></div>
+ <div class='line'>Through the fair streets the matrons, in a row,</div>
+ <div class='line'>Stand in their porches and enjoy the show.”<a id='r67' /><a href='#f67' class='c012'><sup>[67]</sup></a></div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c014'>The song on this occasion sung received the name
+of the “Carriage Melody,” from the carriage in which
+the married pair rode while it was chaunted.<a id='r68' /><a href='#f68' class='c012'><sup>[68]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The house of the bridegroom, diligently prepared
+for their reception, was decorated profusely with garlands,
+and brilliantly lighted up. When, among the
+Bœotians, the lady, accompanied by her husband, had
+descended from the carriage, its axletree was burnt,
+to intimate that having found a home she would have
+no further use for it.<a id='r69' /><a href='#f69' class='c012'><sup>[69]</sup></a> The celebration of nuptial
+rites generally puts people in good temper, at least
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_19'>19</span>for the first day; and new-married women at Athens
+stood in full need of all they could muster to assist
+them through the crowd of ceremonies which beset
+the entrances to the houses of their husbands. Symbols
+of domestic labours, pestles, sieves,<a id='r70' /><a href='#f70' class='c012'><sup>[70]</sup></a> and so on,
+met the young wife’s eye on all sides. She herself,
+in all her pomp of dress, bore in her hands an earthen
+barley-parcher.<a id='r71' /><a href='#f71' class='c012'><sup>[71]</sup></a> But, to comfort her, very nice cakes
+of sesamum,<a id='r72' /><a href='#f72' class='c012'><sup>[72]</sup></a> with wine and fruit and other dainties
+innumerable, accompanied by gleeful and welcoming
+faces, appeared in the background beyond the sieves
+and pestles. The hymeneal lay,<a id='r73' /><a href='#f73' class='c012'><sup>[73]</sup></a> with sundry other
+songs, all redolent of “joy and youth,” resounded
+through halls now her own. Mirth and delight
+ushered her into the banqueting-room, where appeared
+a boy covered with thorn branches, and oaken boughs
+laden with acorns, who, when the epithalamium
+chaunters had ceased, recited an ancient hymn beginning
+with the words, “I have escaped the worse and
+found the better.”<a id='r74' /><a href='#f74' class='c012'><sup>[74]</sup></a> This hymn, constituting a portion
+of the divine service performed by the Athenians
+during a festival instituted in commemoration of the
+discovery of corn, by which men were delivered from
+acorn-eating, they introduced among the nuptial ceremonies
+to intimate, that wedlock is as much superior
+to celibacy as wheat is to mast. At the close of the
+recitation, there entered a troop of dancing girls
+crowned with myrtle-wreaths, and habited in light
+tunics reaching very little below the knee, just as
+we still behold them on antique gems and vases, who,
+by their varied, free, and somewhat wanton, movements,
+vividly represented all the warmth and energy
+of passion.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The feast which now ensued was, at Athens, to
+prevent useless extravagance, made liable to the inspection
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_20'>20</span>of certain magistrates. Both sexes partook
+of it; but, in conformity with the general spirit of their
+manners and institutions, the ladies, as in Egypt, sat
+at separate tables.<a id='r75' /><a href='#f75' class='c012'><sup>[75]</sup></a> At these entertainments we may
+infer that, among other good things, great quantities
+of sweetmeats were consumed, since the woman employed
+in kneading and preparing them, and in officiating
+at the nuptial sacrifices, was deemed of sufficient
+importance to possess a distinct appellation,
+(δημιουργὸς,)<a id='r76' /><a href='#f76' class='c012'><sup>[76]</sup></a> while the bride-cake, which doubtless
+was the crowning achievement of her art, received the
+name of Gamelios. The general arrangement of the
+banquet, however, they entrusted to the care of a sort
+of major-domo, who received the appellation of Trapezopoios.<a id='r77' /><a href='#f77' class='c012'><sup>[77]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Among the princes and grandees of Macedonia the
+nuptial banquet differed very widely, as might be expected,
+from the frugal entertainments of the Athenians;
+but as it may assist us in comprehending the
+changes introduced into Hellenic manners by the
+conquests of Alexander and his successors, I shall
+crave the reader’s permission to lay before him a description,
+bequeathed to us by antiquity, of the magnificent
+banquet<a id='r78' /><a href='#f78' class='c012'><sup>[78]</sup></a> given at the marriage of Caranos.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The guests, twenty in number, immediately on
+entering the mansion of the bridegroom, were crowned
+by his order with golden stlengides,<a id='r79' /><a href='#f79' class='c012'><sup>[79]</sup></a> each valued at
+five pieces of gold. They were then introduced into
+the banqueting-hall, where the first article set before
+them on taking their places at the board was, no
+doubt, exceedingly agreeable, consisting of a silver
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_21'>21</span>beaker presented to each as a gift, which, when they
+had drained off, they delivered to their attendant
+slaves, who, according to the custom of the country,
+stood behind their seats with large baskets intended
+to contain the presents to be bestowed on them by
+the master of the feast.<a id='r80' /><a href='#f80' class='c012'><sup>[80]</sup></a> There was then placed before
+every member of the company a bronze salver,
+of Corinthian workmanship, completely covered by a
+cake, on which were piled roast fowls and ducks and
+woodcocks, and a goose, together with other dainties
+in great abundance. These, likewise, followed the
+beakers into the corbels of the slaves, and were succeeded
+by numerous dishes, of which the guests were
+expected to partake on the spot. Next was brought
+in a capacious silver tray, also covered by a cake,
+whereon were heaped up geese, hares, kids, other
+cakes curiously wrought, pigeons, turtle-doves, partridges,
+with a variety of similar game, which, likewise,
+after they had been tasted, I presume, were
+handed to the servants.<a id='r81' /><a href='#f81' class='c012'><sup>[81]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>When the rage of hunger had been appeased, as
+it must soon have been, they washed their hands,
+after which crowns, wreathed from every kind of
+flower, were brought in, and along with them other
+golden stlengides, equal in weight to the former,
+were placed, for form’s sake, on the heads of the
+company, before they found their way to the baskets
+in the rear.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>While they were still in a sort of delirium of joy,
+occasioned by the munificence of the bridegroom,
+there entered to them a troop of female flute players,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_22'>22</span>singers, and Rhodian performers on the Sambukè,<a id='r82' /><a href='#f82' class='c012'><sup>[82]</sup></a>
+naked in the opinion of some, though others reported
+them to have worn a slight tunic. When these
+performers had given them a sufficient taste of their
+art, they retired to make way for other female slaves,
+bearing each a pair of perfume vases, containing
+the measure of a cotyla, the one of gold, the other
+of silver, and bound together by a golden thong.
+Of these every guest received a pair. In fact, the
+princely bridegroom, in order, as we suppose, that his
+friends might share with him the joy of his nuptials,
+bestowed upon every one of them a fortune
+instead of a supper; for immediately upon the heels
+of the gift above described came a number of silver
+dishes, each of sufficient dimensions to contain
+a large roast pig, laid upon its back, with its paunch
+thrown open, and stuffed with all sorts of delicacies
+which had been roasted with it, such as thrushes,
+metræ, and becaficoes, with the yolk of eggs poured
+around them, and oysters and cockles. Of these
+dishes every person present received one, with its
+contents, and, immediately afterwards, such another
+dish containing a kid hissing hot. Upon this, Caranos
+observing that their corbils were crammed,
+caused to be presented to them wicker panniers,
+and elegant bread-baskets, plaited with slips of ivory.<a id='r83' /><a href='#f83' class='c012'><sup>[83]</sup></a>
+Delighted by his generosity, the company loudly
+applauded the bridegroom, testifying their approbation
+by clapping their hands. Then followed other
+gifts, and perfume vases of gold and silver, presented
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_23'>23</span>to the company in pairs as before. The bustle
+having subsided, there suddenly rushed in a troop
+of performers worthy to have figured in the feast
+of the Chytræ,<a id='r84' /><a href='#f84' class='c012'><sup>[84]</sup></a> at Athens, and along with them ithyphalli,
+jugglers, and naked female wonder-workers,
+who danced upon their heads in circles of swords, and
+spouted fire from their mouths. These performances
+ended, they set themselves more earnestly and hotly
+to drink, from capacious golden goblets, their wines,
+now less mixed than before, being the Thasian, the
+Mendian, and the Lesbian. A glass dish, three feet
+in diameter, was next brought in upon a silver stand,
+on which were piled all kinds of fried fish. This
+was accompanied by silver bread-baskets, filled with
+Cappadocian rolls, some of which they ate, and delivered
+the rest to their slaves. They then washed
+their hands, and were crowned with golden crowns,
+double the weight of the former, and presented with
+a third pair of gold and silver vases filled with
+perfume. They by this time had become quite delirious
+with wine, and began a truly Macedonian
+contest, in which the winner was he who swallowed
+most; Proteas, grandson of him who was boon companion
+to Alexander the Great, drinking upwards
+of a gallon at a draught, and exclaiming—</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>“Most joy is in his soul</div>
+ <div class='line'>Who drains the largest bowl.”</div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c014'>The immense goblet was then given him by Caranos,
+who declared, that every man should reckon
+as his own property the bowl whose contents he
+could despatch. Upon this, nine valiant bacchanals
+started up at once, and sought each to empty the
+goblet before the others, while one unhappy wight
+among the company, envying them their good fortune,
+sat down and burst into tears because he
+should go cupless away. The master of the house,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_24'>24</span>however, unwilling that any should be dissatisfied,
+presented him with an empty bowl.<a id='r85' /><a href='#f85' class='c012'><sup>[85]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>A chorus of a hundred men now entered to chaunt
+the epithalamium; and after them dancing girls,
+dressed in the character of nymphs and nereids.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The drinking still proceeding, and the darkness of
+evening coming on, the circle of the hall appeared
+suddenly to dilate, a succession of white curtains,
+which had extended all round, and disguised its
+dimensions, being drawn up, while from numerous
+recesses in the wall, thrown open by concealed
+machinery, a blaze of torches flashed upon the guests,
+seeming to be borne by a troop of gods and goddesses,
+Hermes, Pan, Artemis, and the Loves, with numerous
+other divinities, each holding a flambeau and administering
+light to the assembled mortals.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>While every person was expressing his admiration
+of this contrivance, wild boars of true Erymanthean
+dimensions, transfixed with silver javelins, were
+brought in on square trays with golden rims, one of
+which was presented to each of the company. To
+the <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><i>bon vivants</i></span> themselves nothing appeared so worthy
+of commendation, as that, when anything wonderful
+was exhibited, they should all have been able to get
+upon their legs, and preserve the perpendicular, notwithstanding
+they were so top-heavy with wine.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>“Our slaves,” says one of the guests, “piled all the
+gifts we had received in our baskets; and the trumpet,
+according to the custom of the Macedonians,
+at length announced the termination of the repast.”
+Caranos next began that part of the potations in
+which small cups alone figured, and commanded the
+slaves to circulate the wine briskly; what they drank
+in this second bout being regarded as an antidote
+against that which they had swallowed before.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'><span class='pageno' id='Page_25'>25</span>They were now, as might be supposed, in the right
+trim to be amused, and there entered to them the
+buffoon Mandrogenes, a descendant, it was said, of
+Strato the Athenian. This professional gentleman
+for a long time shook their sides with laughter, and
+terminated his performances by dancing with his wife,
+an old woman, upwards of eighty.<a id='r86' /><a href='#f86' class='c012'><sup>[86]</sup></a> This fit of merriment
+would appear to have restored the edge of their
+appetites, and made them ready for those supplementary
+dainties which closed the achievements of the
+day. These consisted of a variety of sweetmeats,
+rendered more tempting by the little ivory-plaited
+corbels in which they nestled, delicate cakes from
+Crete, and Samos, and Attica, in the boxes in which
+they were imported.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Hippolochos, to whose enthusiasm for descriptions
+of good cheer, the reader is indebted for the above
+picturesque details, concludes his important narrative
+by observing, that, when they rose to depart, their
+anxiety respecting the wealth they had acquired
+sobered them completely. He then adds, addressing
+himself to his correspondent Lynceus, “Meanwhile
+you, my friend, remaining all alone at Athens, enjoy
+the lectures of Theophrastus with your thyme,
+rocket and delicate twists, mingling in the revels
+of the Linnean and Chytrean festivals. For our
+own part we are looking out, some for houses, others
+for estates, others for slaves, to be purchased by
+the riches which dropped into our baskets at the
+supper of Caranos.”</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The marriage feast having been thus concluded,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_26'>26</span>the bride was conducted to the harem by the light
+of flambeaux, round one of which, pre-eminently
+denominated the “Hymeneal Torch,” her mother,
+who was principal among the torch-bearers, twisted
+her hair-lace,<a id='r87' /><a href='#f87' class='c012'><sup>[87]</sup></a> unbound at the moment from her head.
+On retiring to the nuptial chamber the bride, in
+obedience to the laws, ate a quince, together with
+the bridegroom, to signify, we are told, that their
+first conversation should be full of sweetness and
+harmony.<a id='r88' /><a href='#f88' class='c012'><sup>[88]</sup></a> The guests continued their revels with
+music, dancing, and song, until far in the night.<a id='r89' /><a href='#f89' class='c012'><sup>[89]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>At daybreak on the following morning their friends
+re-assembled and saluted them with a new epithalamium,
+exhorting them to descend from their bower
+to enjoy the beauties of the dawn,<a id='r90' /><a href='#f90' class='c012'><sup>[90]</sup></a> which in that
+warm and genial climate are even in January equal
+to those of a May morning with us. On appearing in
+the presence of their congratulators, the wife, as a mark
+of affection, presented her husband with a rich woollen
+cloak,<a id='r91' /><a href='#f91' class='c012'><sup>[91]</sup></a> in part, at least, the production of her own
+fair hands. On the same occasion the father of the
+bride sent a number of costly gifts to the house of
+his son-in-law, consisting of cups, goblets, or vases
+of alabaster or gold, beds, couches, candelabra, or
+boxes for perfumes or cosmetics, combs, jewel-cases,
+costly sandals, or other articles of use or luxury.
+And, that so striking an instance of his wealth and
+generosity might not escape public observation, the
+whole was conveyed to the bridegroom’s house in
+great pomp by female slaves, before whom marched
+a boy clothed in white, and bearing a torch in
+his hand, accompanied by a youthful basket-bearer
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_27'>27</span>habited like a canephora in the sacred processions.<a id='r92' /><a href='#f92' class='c012'><sup>[92]</sup></a>
+Customs in spirit exactly similar still survive among
+the primitive mountaineers of Wales, where the newly-married
+couple, in the middle and lower ranks of
+life, have their houses completely furnished by the
+free-will offerings, not only of their parents but of
+their friends. It is, however, incumbent on the recipients
+to make proof in their turn of equal generosity
+when any member of the donor’s family ventures
+on the hazards of housekeeping.</p>
+
+<hr class='c016' />
+<div class='footnote' id='f1'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1'>1</a>. Προμνηστρία. Aristoph. Nub. 41. et Schol. Poll. iii. 41.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f2'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r2'>2</a>. Athen. xiii. 2. Mr. Mitford
+defers too much to “the traditions
+received in the polished
+ages” when, upon the authority
+of such traditions and of
+such writers as Justin (ii. 6.), he
+appears to conclude that, before
+the time of Cecrops, the people
+of Attica were in knowledge and
+civilisation inferior to the wildest
+savages. Hist, of Greece, i. 58.
+Upon legends and authors of this
+description no reliance can be
+placed. If society existed, everything
+“indispensable” to society
+also existed; therefore, if marriage
+be so, it could not be unknown.
+Besides, how happens it that this
+same Cecrops who instituted marriage
+did not likewise teach them
+to sow corn, which, if Egypt was,
+when he left it, a civilised country,
+must have been as familiar to him
+as matrimony? This most necessary
+acquisition, however, they
+were left to make many ages
+afterwards, during the reign of
+Erechtheus. Justin, ii. 6.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f3'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r3'>3</a>. Cf. Goguet, <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Origine des Lois</span>.
+iv. 394, where the learned author
+contends most chivalrously for the
+received theory. Apollodorus,
+however, represents Cecrops as
+an Autochthon, συμφύες ἔχων
+σῶμα ἀνδρὸς καὶ δράκοντος. iii.
+14. 1.—The reason why he was
+thus said to partake of two natures—half-man
+and half-snake—has
+been very variously and very
+fantastically explained. Diodorus
+Siculus, (i. p. 17,) derives his
+title to be considered half a
+man and half a beast, from his
+being, by choice a Greek, by nature
+a barbarian. Yet he conceives
+that it was the beast that
+civilised the man. Others explain
+διφυὴς somewhat differently
+to mean that he was of gigantic
+stature and understood two
+languages: διὰ μῆκος σώματος οὑτω
+καλούμενος, ὅς φήσιν ὁ Φιλόχορος,
+ἢ ὅτι Αἰγυπτίων τὰς δύο
+γλώσσας ἠπίστατο.—Euseb. No.
+460.—Eustathius, familiar with
+the fables of the mythology, turns
+the tables upon Cecrops, and
+conceives that he may have
+civilised himself, not the Athenians,
+by settling in Attica. He
+supposes him ἀπὸ ὄφεως εἰς ἀνθρωπὸν
+ἐλθειν, ἐπειδὴ ἐκεῖνος ἐλθὼν
+εἰς Ἑλλάδα καὶ τὸν βάρβαρον
+Αἰγυπτιασμὸν ἀφεις, χρηστοὺς
+ἀναλάβετο τρόπους πολιτικοὺς.—In
+Dionys. Peneg. p. 56.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f4'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r4'>4</a>. Deipnosoph. xiii. 2.—Compare
+the account in Diogenes
+Laertius, ii. 5. 10.—The conduct
+of Socrates, who married Xantippe
+to prove the goodness of his
+temper, was imitated, we are
+told, by a Christian lady, who
+“desired of St. Athanasius to
+procure for her, out of the widows
+fed from the ecclesiastical
+corban, an old woman morose,
+peevish, and impatient, that
+she might by the society of
+so ungentle a person have often
+occasion to exercise her patience,
+her forgiveness, and
+charity.”—Jeremy Taylor’s Life
+of Christ, i. 384.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f5'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r5'>5</a>. Athen. xiii. 5.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f6'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r6'>6</a>. Dinarch. in Demosth. § 11. Cf.
+Poll. viii. 40. Comm. p. 644.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f7'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r7'>7</a>. Aristoph. Lysistrat. 78, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f8'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r8'>8</a>. Athen. xiii. 2.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f9'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r9'>9</a>. Hom. Il. λ. 221, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f10'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r10'>10</a>. Hom. Odyss. η. 55, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f11'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r11'>11</a>. Keightley, Mythology, p. 490.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f12'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r12'>12</a>. Serv. ad Virg. Æn. iii. 297.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f13'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r13'>13</a>. Virg. Cir. 133.</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Sed malus ille puer, quem nec sua flectere mater,</span></div>
+ <div class='line'><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Iratum potuit, quem nec pater, atque avus idem</span></div>
+ <div class='line'><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Jupiter.</span></div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f14'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r14'>14</a>. For Valckernaer’s correction
+of Eurip. Hippol. 536, where for ὁ
+Δίος παῖς, he reads ὄλιγος παῖς,
+should, I think, be adopted. Diatrib.
+in Eurip. Perd. Dram. xv. p.
+159, c. His whole defence of
+Zeus on this <em>count</em> is triumphant.
+Still the notes of Monk, Beck,
+Musgrave, and the Classical Journal,
+vi. 80, should be compared.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f15'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r15'>15</a>. Diog. Laert. Proœm. § 6. To
+this practice Euripides probably alludes
+in the Andromache, v. 173,
+sqq., where Hermione describes,
+with scorn, the profligate manners
+of the barbarians. Catullus,
+inveighing against the impious
+depravity of a contemporary,
+observes—</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">“Nam Magus ex matre et gnato gignatur oportet,</span></div>
+ <div class='line'><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Si vera est Persarum <em>impia religio</em>.”</span></div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c014'>Epig. lxxxiii. 3, seq. Pope
+Alexander VI. and the Emperor
+Shah Jehan have, in modern
+times, been accused of similar
+crimes. Bayle, Dict. Hist. et Crit.
+Art. Alexandre VI. and Bernier,
+Voyages, t. i. On the prohibited
+degrees of consanguinity, see Sepulveda,
+de Ritu Nupt. et Dispens.
+i. § 20, where he says, that
+the Pope could authorize all unions,
+save those between parents
+and children. <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">“Et ideo hodiè non
+ligant, nisi quatenus ab ecclesia
+sunt assumptæ; ac propterea Papa
+dispensare potest cum omnibus
+personis, nisi cum matre et patre,
+ut matrimonium contrahant.”</span>
+Card. Cajetan. ap. Sepulved. ub.
+sup.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f16'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r16'>16</a>. Alcibiades. Athen. xii. 48.
+xiii. 34. Lysias, fr. p. 640.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f17'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r17'>17</a>. Sch. Aristoph. Nub. 1353.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f18'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r18'>18</a>. Corn. Nep. Vit. Cim. i. Plut.
+Cim. § 4, where we find this
+lady accused of an amour with
+the painter Polygnotos, who introduced
+her portrait among the Trojan
+ladies in the Stoa Pœcile.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f19'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r19'>19</a>. Deipnosophist. xiii. 56. Muretus,
+Var. Lect. vii. i. discusses the
+question, but without throwing
+much new light upon it.—Andocides
+cont. Alcibiad. § 9, assigns
+Cimon’s amour with Elpinice as
+the cause of his banishment. We
+find, however, Archeptolis, son
+of Themistocles, marrying his
+half-sister Mnesiptolema. Plut.
+Themistocl. § 32.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f20'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r20'>20</a>. Meurs. Themis Attica. i. 14.
+Philo. De Leg. Spec. ii. Eurip.
+Orest. 545. sqq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f21'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r21'>21</a>. Cf. Herod. v. 39. Pausan.
+iii. 3, 9.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f22'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r22'>22</a>. Censor. de Die Natal. 14.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f23'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r23'>23</a>. Thus Mantitheos, in Demosthenes,
+marries at the age of
+eighteen, in obedience to his
+father’s wishes.—Contr. Bœot. ii.
+§ 1.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f24'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r24'>24</a>. Aristot. Polit. ii. 7. vii. 14.
+Gœttling.—Cf. Malthus on Population,
+i. 9, 10.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f25'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r25'>25</a>. Repub. v. t. vi. p. 237. De
+Legg. vi. t. vii. p. 452. Hesiod,
+Opp. et Dies, 696. Gœttling.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f26'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r26'>26</a>. Polit. vii. 16. Hist. Anim.
+vii. 5, 6. Cf. Tac. de Mor. Germ.
+20. Just. Instit. t. x. Brisson.
+de Jur. Nupt. p. 99.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f27'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r27'>27</a>. Olympiod. in Meteor. c. 6.
+Meurs. Grec. Fer. v. 240.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f28'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r28'>28</a>. Exod. xl. 22.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f29'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r29'>29</a>. Iphigen. in Aul. 717.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f30'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r30'>30</a>. Pindar, Isth. Od. viii. 41, seq.
+Dissen.—Rev. H. F. Cary’s translation,
+admirable for its closeness
+and spirit, p. 212.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f31'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r31'>31</a>. Aristot. Polit. ii. 6. Tacit.
+de Mor. Germ. 18. Heracl. Pont.
+v. Θρακων. Leg. Salic. Art. 46.
+Hist. Gen. des Voy. vi. 144. Cf.
+Goguet, Orig. des Loix, i. 53.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f32'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r32'>32</a>. In cases where the fathers
+were unable to dowry them, we
+find daughters growing old in the
+paternal mansion. Demosth. in
+Steph. i. § 20. Dowries were
+frequently considerable, amounting
+sometimes to a hundred minæ.
+§ 18.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f33'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r33'>33</a>. On their anxiety to discover
+the designs of the Fates in this
+respect, see Schol. Aristoph. Lysist.
+597.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f34'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r34'>34</a>. Goguet, Orig. des Loix, iii.
+127, sqq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f35'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r35'>35</a>. Demosth. pro Phorm. § 8–10.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f36'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r36'>36</a>. Opera et Dies, 405.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f37'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r37'>37</a>. Theocrit. Eidyll. xxvii. 36.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f38'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r38'>38</a>. Theocrit. Eidyll. ii. 66, ibique
+Schol.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f39'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r39'>39</a>. Schol. Pind. Pyth. iv. ap.
+Meurs. Græc. Fer. p. 238.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f40'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r40'>40</a>. Suid. v. προτέλεια. t. ii. p.
+629. v. Æschyl. Eumen. 799.
+Cf. Cœl. Rhodig. xxviii. 24.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f41'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r41'>41</a>. Poll. iii. 38. Schol. Pind.
+Pyth. x. 31. Aristoph. Thesmoph.
+982. Kust.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f42'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r42'>42</a>. Poll. iii. 38. ibique Comm. p.
+529, seq. Cf. Spanh. Observ. in
+Callim. 149, 507. The youth
+usually cut off their hair on reaching
+the age of puberty. Athen.
+xiii. 83.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f43'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r43'>43</a>. Pausan. i. 43. 4. Callim. in
+Del. 292. Spanh. Observat. t. ii.
+p. 503, sqq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f44'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r44'>44</a>. Stat. Theb. ii. 255, with the
+ancient commentary of Lutatius.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f45'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r45'>45</a>. Πάροχος. Suid. v. Ζεῦγος
+ἡμιονικὸν. t. i. p. 1123, b.
+Eurip. Helen. 722, sqq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f46'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r46'>46</a>. This was the usual practice.
+When the bride was led home on
+foot she was called χαμαίπους a
+term of disrespect not far removed
+in meaning from our word <em>tramper</em>.
+Poll. iii. 40.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f47'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r47'>47</a>. Aristoph. Plut. 529, et Schol.
+Suid. v. βαπτά. t. i. p. 533, b.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f48'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r48'>48</a>. Eurip. Iphig. in Aul. 905.
+This chaplet was placed on the
+bride’s head by her mother.
+Hopfn. in loc.—<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">In Locrensibus
+usu erat, ut matronæ ex lectis
+floribus nectant coronas. Nam
+emptagestare serta, vitio dabatur.</span>
+Alex. ab Alexand. p. 58. b.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f49'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r49'>49</a>. Aristoph. Plut. 529. id. Pac.
+862.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f50'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r50'>50</a>. Thucyd. i. 60.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f51'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r51'>51</a>. Σισυμβρία. Dioscor. ii. 155.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f52'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r52'>52</a>. Schol. Aristoph. Av. 160.
+In Bœotia the bride was crowned
+with a reed of wild asparagus, a
+prickly but sweet plant. Plut.
+Conjug. Præcept. 2. Bion. Epitaph.
+Adon. 88. On Nuptial
+Crowns vide Paschal. De Coronis,
+lib. ii. c. 16. p. 126, sqq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f53'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r53'>53</a>. Charit. Char. et Callir.
+Amor. iii. 44.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f54'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r54'>54</a>. Orus Apollo Hieroglyph. viii.
+p. 6. b.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f55'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r55'>55</a>. <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Meziriac sur les Epitres
+d’Ovide</span>, p. 190, sqq. Ælian de
+Animal. Nat. iii. 9. Alex. ab
+Alexand. ii. 5, p. 57, b.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f56'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r56'>56</a>. Theod. Prodrom. de Rhodanth.
+et Dosicl. Amor. ix.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f57'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r57'>57</a>. Eurip. Iphig. in Aul. 1113.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f58'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r58'>58</a>. Poll. iii. 38.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f59'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r59'>59</a>. Procl. in Tim. t. v, Meziriac.
+p. 155.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f60'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r60'>60</a>. Etym. Mag. 220, 53. sqq. Cf.
+Plut. Conj. Præcept. proœm. t. i.
+p. 321. Tauchnitz.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f61'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r61'>61</a>. Plut. Conj. Precept. 27. Cœl.
+Rhodig. xxviii. 21.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f62'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r62'>62</a>. Meurs. Lect. Att. iii. 6, 106,
+sqq. Herod. iv. 34.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f63'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r63'>63</a>. Menand. ap. Clem. Alexand.
+Stromat. ii. p. 421, a. Heins.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f64'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r64'>64</a>. Potter, Arch. Græc. ii. 281.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f65'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r65'>65</a>. Eurip. Helen. 722. Hesiod,
+Scut. Heracl. 275, seq. where the
+torches are said to be borne by
+Dmoës.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f66'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r66'>66</a>. In Hesiod a troop of blooming
+virgins, playing on the phorminx,
+lead the procession. αἱ δ᾽ ὑπὸ φορμίγγων
+ἄναγον χορὸν ἱμερόεντα.
+A band of youths follow, playing
+on the syrinx. See the note of
+Gœttling on Scut. Heracl. 274,
+p. 117, sqq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f67'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r67'>67</a>. Iliad, σ. 490, sqq. Pope’s
+Translation.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f68'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r68'>68</a>. Ἁρμάτειον μέλος. Leisner, in
+his notes on Bos (Antiq. Græc.
+Pars. iv. c. ii. § 4.), observes, that
+in Suidas, Hesychius, and Eustathius
+(ad Il. χ. p. 1380. 5), these
+words have a different meaning
+from that which, with Bos and
+Potter (Antiq. Græc. ii. 282), I
+have adopted. But in the passage
+quoted by Henri de Valois
+(ad Harpocrat. p. 222), they
+would seem to bear the signification
+above given them.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f69'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r69'>69</a>. Plut. Quæst. Roman. xx. 19.
+Valckenaer ad Herodot. iv. 114.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f70'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r70'>70</a>. Poll. iii. 37.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f71'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r71'>71</a>. Poll. i. 246.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f72'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r72'>72</a>. Schol. Aristoph. Pac. 834.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f73'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r73'>73</a>. Athen. xiv. 10. Anac. Od.
+xviii. Schol. Hom. Il. σ. 493.
+Pind. Pyth. iii. 17. Dissen. Schol.
+ad v. 27.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f74'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r74'>74</a>. Suid. v. ἔφυγον κακὸν. t. i.
+p. 1113, d.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f75'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r75'>75</a>. Luc. Conviv. § 8. In the sepulchral
+grottoes of Eilithyia, in
+the Thebaid, we find a rough
+fresco representing a marriage-feast,
+at which the men and women
+sit as described in the text.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f76'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r76'>76</a>. Schol. Aristoph. Pac. 421.
+Poll. iii. 41. The water of the
+bath used on this occasion by the
+bride was, according to ancient
+custom, brought from the fountain
+of Enneakrounos. Etym.
+Mag. 568, 57, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f77'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r77'>77</a>. Poll. iv. 41.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f78'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r78'>78</a>. Athen. iv. 2, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f79'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r79'>79</a>. Cf. Schol. Aristoph. Eq. 578.
+Ἔστι τι στλεγγὶς, δέρμα κεχρυσωμένον,
+ὁ περὶ τὴν κεφαλὴν φοροῦσι.—Poll. vii. 179.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f80'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r80'>80</a>. When the host happened to
+be less rich or generous, people
+sometimes, in the corruption of
+later ages, endeavoured to steal
+what they could not obtain as a
+gift. Thus the sophist Dionysodoros
+is detected in Lucian with a
+cup stuffed into the breast of his
+mantle.—Conviv. seu Lapith.
+§ 46.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f81'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r81'>81</a>. This singular kind of liberality
+continued in fashion down
+to a very late period:—καὶ ἃμα
+εἰς ἐκικόμιστο ἡμῖν τὸ ἐντελὲς
+ὀνομαζόμενον δεῖπνον, μία ὄρνις
+ἑκάστω, καὶ κρέας ὑὸς, καὶ λαγῶα,
+καὶ ἰχθὺς ἐν ταγήνου, καὶ σησαμοῦντες,
+καὶ ὅσα ἐν τραγεῖν, καὶ
+ἐζῆν ἀποφέρεσθαι ταῦτα. Luc.
+Conviv. § 38.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f82'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r82'>82</a>. The Sambukè was a stringed
+instrument of triangular form, invented
+by the poet Ibycos. It
+was sometimes called Iambukè,
+because used by chaunters of
+Iambic verse.—Suid. in v. t. ii.
+p. 709, c. d. Poll. iv. 59.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f83'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r83'>83</a>. Casaubon is particular in his
+explanation of this passage, lest
+any one should fall into the singular
+mistake of supposing these
+nuptial bread-baskets to have
+been made with plaited thongs
+of elephant’s hide: “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la"><em>Lora elephantina</em>
+fortasse aliquis capiat
+de <em>corio elephanti</em>: sed ἱμάντας
+arbitror appellare Hippolochum
+<em>virgas subtiles ex ebore</em>, quibus
+ceu vimine utebantur in contexendis
+panariis istis.”</span>—Animadv.
+in Athen. t. vii. p. 392.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f84'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r84'>84</a>. Vid. Animadv. in Athen. t. vii. p. 393. Meurs. Græcia
+Feriata. i. p. 30, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f85'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r85'>85</a>. In like manner, Alexander,
+son of Philip, when he entertained
+nine thousand persons at
+a marriage feast at Susa, presented
+each of them with a
+golden goblet, and paid all their
+debts, amounting to nearly ten
+thousand talents.—Plut. Alexand.
+§ 70.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f86'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r86'>86</a>. If octogenarian dancers were
+held in admiration in England, it
+would, according to Lord Bacon,
+be easy to form an army of
+them; since “there is, he says,
+scarce a village with us, if it be
+any whit populous, but it affords
+some man or woman of fourscore
+years of age; nay, a few years
+since there was, in the county
+of Hereford, a May-game, or
+morrice-dance, consisting of eight
+men, whose age computed together,
+made up eight hundred
+years, inasmuch as what some
+of them wanted of an hundred,
+others exceeded as much.” History
+of Life and Death, p. 20.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f87'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r87'>87</a>. Senec. Thebais, Act. iv. 2,
+505.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f88'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r88'>88</a>. Plut. Conjug. Præcept. i. t.
+i. p. 321. Meurs. Them. Att. i.
+14, p. 39. Petit. Legg. Att. vi.
+i. p. 449.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f89'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r89'>89</a>. See Douglas, Essay on certain
+points of resemblance between
+the ancient and modern Greeks,
+p. 114, and Chandler, Travels, ii.
+152.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f90'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r90'>90</a>. Theocrit, Eidyll. xviii. 9.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f91'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r91'>91</a>. Ἀπαυλιστηρία. Poll. iii. 40.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f92'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r92'>92</a>. Etymol. Mag. 354. 1. sqq. Suid. v. ἐπαυλία, t. i. p. 964, e. sqq.</p>
+</div>
+<hr class='c016' />
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+ <span class='pageno' id='Page_28'>28</span>
+ <h3 class='c002'>CHAPTER V.<br /> CONDITION OF MARRIED WOMEN.</h3>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c011'>From the spirit pervading the foregoing ceremonies
+it will be seen, that married women enjoyed at
+Athens numerous external tokens of respect. We
+must now enter the harem, and observe how they
+lived there. Most, perhaps, of the misapprehensions
+which prevail on this subject arise out of one very
+obvious omission,—a neglect to distinguish between
+the exaggeration and satire of the comic poets, much
+of which, in all countries, has been levelled at women,
+and the sober truth of history, less startling, and therefore,
+less palatable. To comprehend the Athenians,
+however, we must be content to view them as they
+were, with many virtues and many vices, often sinning
+against their women, but never as a general
+rule treating them harshly. Indeed, according to
+no despicable testimony, their errors when they erred
+would appear to have lain in the contrary direction.<a id='r93' /><a href='#f93' class='c012'><sup>[93]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Certainly the mistress of a family at Athens was
+not placed above the necessity of extending her solicitude
+to the government of her household, though
+too many even there neglected it, degenerating into
+the resemblance of those mawkish, insipid, useless
+things, without heart or head, who often in our times
+fill fashionable drawing-rooms, and have their reputations
+translated to Doctors’ Commons. Of female
+education I have already spoken, together with the
+several acts and ceremonies, which conducted an
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_29'>29</span>Athenian woman to the highest and most honourable
+station her sex can fill on earth. In this new relation
+she shares with her husband that domestic patriarchal
+sovereignty, pictures of which abound in the Scriptures.
+How great soever might be the establishment,
+she was queen of every thing within doors. All the
+slaves, male and female, came under her control.<a id='r94' /><a href='#f94' class='c012'><sup>[94]</sup></a>
+To every one she distributed his task, and issued her
+commands; and when there were no children who
+required her care, she might often be seen sitting
+in the recesses of the harem, at the loom, encircled,
+like an Homeric princess, by her maids,<a id='r95' /><a href='#f95' class='c012'><sup>[95]</sup></a> laughing,
+chatting, or, along with them, exercising her sweet
+voice in songs,<a id='r96' /><a href='#f96' class='c012'><sup>[96]</sup></a> those natural bursts of melody which
+came spontaneously to the lips of a people whose
+every-day speech resembled the music of the nightingale.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Xenophon, in that interesting work, the Œconomics,
+introduces an Athenian gentleman laying open to
+Socrates the internal regulations of his family. In this
+picture, the wife occupies an important position in
+the foreground. She is, indeed, the principal figure
+around which the various circumstances of the composition
+are grouped with infinite delicacy and effect.
+Young and beautiful she comes forth hesitating and
+blushing at being detected in some slight economical
+blunders. The husband takes her by the hand; they
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_30'>30</span>converse in our presence, and while the interior arrangements
+of a Greek house are unreservedly laid
+open, we discover the exact footing on which husband
+and wife lived at Athens, and a state of more
+complete confidence, of greater mutual affection, of
+more considerate tenderness on the one side, or feminine
+reliance and love on the other, it would be difficult
+to conceive.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Ischomachos, I admit, is to be regarded as a favourable
+specimen; he unites in his character the
+qualities of an enterprising and enlightened country
+gentleman, with those of a politician and orator
+of no mean order, and his probity as a citizen infuses
+an air of mingled grandeur and sweetness into
+his domestic manners. Describing a conversation
+which, soon after their marriage, took place between
+him and his youthful wife, he observes:—“When
+we had together taken a view of our possessions
+I remarked to her that, without her constant care
+and superintendence, nothing of all she had seen
+would greatly profit us. And taking my illustration
+from the science of politics, I showed that, in
+well-regulated states, it is not deemed sufficient
+that good laws are enacted, but that proper persons
+are chosen to be guardians of those laws, who
+not only reward with praise such as yield them
+due obedience, but visit also their infraction with
+punishment. Now, my love,” said I, “you must
+consider yourself the guardian of our domestic
+commonwealth, and dispose of all its resources as
+the commander of a garrison disposes of the soldiers
+under his orders. With you it entirely rests
+to determine respecting the conduct of every individual
+in the household, and, like a queen, to
+bestow praise and reward on the dutiful and obedient,
+while you keep in check the refractory by
+punishment and reproof. Nor should this high
+charge appear burdensome to you; for though
+the duties of your station may seem to involve
+deeper solicitude and necessity for greater exertion
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_31'>31</span>than we require even from a domestic, these greater
+cares are rewarded by greater enjoyments; since,
+whatever ability they may display in the improving
+or protecting of their master’s property, the measure
+of their advantages still depends upon his
+will, while you, as its joint owner, enjoy the right
+of applying it to whatever use you please. It follows,
+therefore, that as the person most interested
+in its preservation you should cheerfully encounter
+superior difficulties.”</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Having listened attentively to the somewhat quaint
+discourse of the Economist, Socrates felt anxious,
+as well he might, to learn the result; for the lady,
+expected thus wisely “to queen it,” was as yet but
+fifteen. His faith, however, in womanhood was great;
+and Xenophon, who but reflects from a less brilliant
+mirror the Socratic wisdom, delivers, under the mask
+of Ischomachos, the mingled convictions both of the
+master and the pupil. The moral beauty of the dialogue,
+and its truth to nature, would have been lost
+had the lady at all shrunk from the duties of her
+high office. But her ambition was at once awakened.
+The obscurity to which, in the time of Pericles, women
+were, by the manners of the country, condemned,
+now no longer seemed desirable, and the love of fame
+was urged upon her as a motive to extraordinary
+exertions.<a id='r97' /><a href='#f97' class='c012'><sup>[97]</sup></a> Her reply is highly characteristic. Running,
+with the unerring tact of her sex, even in advance
+of her husband, she desired him to believe that
+he would have formed an extremely erroneous opinion
+of her character, had he for a moment supposed
+that the care of their common property could ever
+have proved burdensome to her: on the contrary,
+the really grievous thing would have been to require
+her to be neglectful of it!</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Men always conceive they are complimenting a
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_32'>32</span>woman when they attribute to her a masculine understanding,
+and they thus, in fact, do place her on the
+highest intellectual level known to them. Socrates
+adopted this style of compliment in speaking of the
+wife of Ischomachos. And I may here remark, that
+we need no other proof of how differently the Athenians
+felt on the subject of women from the Orientals
+with whom they have been compared, than the mere
+circumstance of their conversing openly with strangers
+respecting their wives. In the East, a greater affront
+could scarcely be offered a man than to inquire about
+his female establishment. The most an old friend
+does is to say, “Is your house well?”—whereas at
+Athens, women formed a never-failing theme in all
+companies; which proves them to have been there
+contemplated in a different light. In fact, the sentiments
+of Ischomachos, every way worthy the most
+chivalrous people of antiquity, could only have sprung
+up in a society where just and exalted notions of
+female virtue prevailed; for, under the word “high-mindedness,”
+we find him grouping every refined and
+estimable quality which a gentlewoman can possess.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>But, perhaps, the reader will not be displeased if
+we introduce dramatically upon the scene an Athenian
+married pair discussing in his presence a question
+closely connected with domestic happiness. There
+is little risk of exaggeration. The picture is by Xenophon,
+a writer whose subdued and sober colouring
+is calculated rather to diminish than otherwise the
+poetical features of his subject.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>By Heaven! exclaimed Socrates, according to this
+account, your wife’s understanding must be of a highly
+masculine character.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Nay, but suffer me, answered the husband, to place
+before you a convincing proof of her high-mindedness,
+by showing how, on a single representation, she
+yielded to me on a subject extremely important.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Proceed, cried the philosopher, (who had not found
+Xantippe thus manageable,) proceed; for, believe
+me, friend, I experience much greater delight in contemplating
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_33'>33</span>the active virtues of a living woman, than
+the most exquisite female form by the pencil of Zeuxis
+would afford me.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Observing, said Ischomachos, that my wife sought
+by cosmetics<a id='r98' /><a href='#f98' class='c012'><sup>[98]</sup></a> and other arts of the toilette to render
+herself fairer and ruddier than she had issued from
+the hands of Nature, and that she wore high-heeled
+shoes in order to add to her stature,—Tell me, wife,<a id='r99' /><a href='#f99' class='c012'><sup>[99]</sup></a>
+I began, would you now esteem me to be a worthy
+participator of your fortunes if, concealing the true
+state of my affairs, I aimed at appearing richer than
+I am, by exhibiting to you heaps of false money,
+necklaces of gilded wood for gold, and wardrobes of
+spurious for genuine purple?</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Nay, exclaimed my wife, interrupting me, put not
+the injurious supposition: it is what you could not be
+guilty of. For, were such your character I could
+never love you from my soul.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Well, by entering together into the bonds of marriage
+are we not mutually invested with a property in
+each other’s persons?</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>People say so.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>They say truly: and since this is the case shall I
+not more sincerely evince my esteem for you by
+watching sedulously over my own health and well-being,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_34'>34</span>and displaying to your gaze the natural hues
+of a manly complexion, than if, neglecting these, I
+presented myself with rouged cheeks, eyes encircled
+by paint, and my whole exterior false and hollow?</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Indeed, she replied, I prefer the native colour of
+your cheeks to any artificial bloom, and could never
+gaze with so much delight into any eyes as into
+yours—bright and sparkling with health.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Then believe no less of me, said I; but be well
+persuaded that, in my judgment, there are no tints
+so beautiful as those with which nature has adorned
+your cheeks. The same rule indeed holds universally.
+For, even in the inferior creation, every living
+thing delights most in individuals of its own species.
+And so it is with man whom nothing so truly pleases
+as to behold the image of his own nature mirrored
+in another and a fairer form of humanity. Besides,
+false beauties, though they may deceive the incurious
+glance of strangers,<a id='r100' /><a href='#f100' class='c012'><sup>[100]</sup></a> must inevitably be detected
+by persons living always together. Women
+necessarily appear undisguised when first rising in
+the morning, before they have undergone the renovation
+of the toilette; and perspiration, or tears, or
+the waters of the bath, will even at other times
+float away their artificial complexions.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>And what, in the name of all the gods, did she
+say to that? inquired Socrates.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>What? replied the husband. Why, that for the
+future she would abjure all meretricious ornaments,
+and consent to appear decked with that simple grace
+and beauty which she owed to nature.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>At Sparta married persons, as in France, occupied
+separate beds; but among the Athenians and in
+other parts of Greece a different custom prevailed.
+The same remark may be applied to the Heroic
+Ages. Odysseus and Penelope, Alcinoös and Arete,
+Paris and Helen, occupy the same chamber and the
+same couch. The women in the Lysistrata of Aristophanes
+appealed to this circumstance in justification
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_35'>35</span>of their late appearance at the female assembly
+held before day, and Euphiletos in the oration of
+Lysias on Eratosthenes’ murder, who admits us freely
+into the recesses of the harem, confirms this fact,
+except, that when the mother suckled her own child
+she usually slept with it in a separate bed. At
+Byzantium also the same practice prevailed, as we
+learn from a very amusing anecdote. Python an
+orator of that city who, like Falstaff, seems to have
+been somewhere about two yards in the waist, once
+quelled an insurrection by a jocular allusion to this
+part of domestic economy. “My dear fellow-citizens,”
+cried he to the enraged multitude, “you see
+how fat I am. Well! my wife is still fatter than
+I, yet when we agree one small bed will contain
+us both; but, if we once begin to quarrel, the
+whole house is too little to hold us.”<a id='r101' /><a href='#f101' class='c012'><sup>[101]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>We have seen above how absolute was the authority
+of women over their household, and this
+authority likewise extended to their children. The
+father no doubt could exercise, when he chose,
+considerable influence; but as most of his time was
+spent abroad, in business or politics, the chief charge
+of their early education, the first training of their
+intellect, the first rooting of their morals and shaping
+of their principles devolved upon the mother.<a id='r102' /><a href='#f102' class='c012'><sup>[102]</sup></a>
+There have been writers, indeed, to whom this has
+seemed a circumstance to be lamented. But their
+judgment probably was warped by theory. In the
+original discipline of the mind, great attainments
+and experience of the world are less needed than
+tact to discern, and patience to apply, those minute
+incentives to action which women discover with a
+truer sagacity than we do. In this task, ever pleasing
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_36'>36</span>to a true mother, the aid of nurses, however, was
+usually obtained; nor are we, as Cramer observes, on
+this account to blame the Athenian ladies, so long
+as they did not, as in after times was too much the
+fashion, consider their whole duty performed when
+they had delivered their children to the nurse.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>It will be evident from what has been said, that
+an Athenian lady who conscientiously discharged her
+duties was very little exposed to ennui. She arose
+in the morning with the lark, roused her slaves, distributed
+to all their tasks,<a id='r103' /><a href='#f103' class='c012'><sup>[103]</sup></a> superintended the operations
+of the nursery, and, on days frequently recurring,
+went abroad in the performance of rites specially allotted
+to her sex. But, one effect of democracy is
+to confer undue influence upon women.<a id='r104' /><a href='#f104' class='c012'><sup>[104]</sup></a> And this
+influence, where by education or otherwise they happen
+to be luxurious or vain, must infallibly prove
+pernicious to the state. At Athens, the number of
+this class of women, extremely limited in the beginning,
+augmented rapidly during the decline of
+the republic, and the comic poets substituting a
+part for the whole, invest their countrywomen generally
+with the qualities belonging exclusively to these.—But,
+the success of such writers depending generally
+on ingenious extravagance and exaggeration, we
+must be on our guard against their insinuations.
+Their faith in the existence of virtue, male or female,
+has, in all ages, if we are to judge by their
+works, been very lanksided. In their view, if there
+has been one good woman since the world began, it
+is as much as there has. Accordingly when these
+lively caricaturists describe the female <em>demos</em> as addicted
+extravagantly to wine<a id='r105' /><a href='#f105' class='c012'><sup>[105]</sup></a> and pawning their
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_37'>37</span>wardrobe to purchase it—as compelling the men by
+their intemperance to keep their cellars under lock
+and key, and still defeating them by manufacturing
+false ones—as forming illicit connexions, and having
+recourse to the boldest stratagems in furtherance of
+their intrigues, we must necessarily suppose them to
+have amused themselves at the expense of truth;
+though that, among the Athenians, there were examples
+enough of women of whom all this might
+be said, it would be absurd to deny.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>We know that where the minds of married dames
+are fixed chiefly upon dress and show their anxiety
+has often very little reference to their husbands.
+And if it be their object to excite admiration out
+of doors, it is simply as a means to an end, which
+end, in too many cases, is intrigue. Proofs exist
+that among the Athenian ladies there were numbers
+whose idle lives and luxurious habits produced
+their natural results—loose principles and dissolute
+manners. The beauty of Alcibiades drew them after
+him in crowds,<a id='r106' /><a href='#f106' class='c012'><sup>[106]</sup></a> though we do not read that, like
+another very handsome personage in a modern republic,
+the son of Cleinias found it necessary to carry
+about a club to defend himself from their importunities.
+They went abroad elaborately habited and
+adorned merely to attract the gaze of men,<a id='r107' /><a href='#f107' class='c012'><sup>[107]</sup></a> and
+having thus sown the first seeds of intrigue, they
+took care to cultivate and bring them to maturity.
+The felicitous invention of Falstaff’s friends, which
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_38'>38</span>got him safe out of Ford’s house in a buck-basket,
+was not so new as Shakspeare, perhaps, imagined.
+His predecessors on the Athenian stage had already
+discovered stratagems equally happy among their
+countrywomen, whose lovers we find made their way
+into the harem wrapped up in straw, like carp—or
+crept through holes made purposely by fair hands
+in the eaves—or scaled the envious walls by the
+help of those vulgar contrivances called ladders.<a id='r108' /><a href='#f108' class='c012'><sup>[108]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The laws of Athens, however, were more modest
+than its women. For, from the very interference
+of the laws, it is evident, that the example of the
+Spartan ladies, who enjoyed the privilege of exposing
+themselves indecently, found numerous imitators
+among the female democracy. To repress this unbecoming
+taste, it was enacted, that any woman detected
+in the streets in indecorous deshabille<a id='r109' /><a href='#f109' class='c012'><sup>[109]</sup></a> should
+be fined a thousand drachmæ, and, to add disgrace
+to pecuniary considerations, the name of the offender,
+with the amount of the fine, was inscribed on a tablet
+and suspended on a certain platane tree in the
+Cerameicos. However, what constituted <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><i>indecorous
+deshabille</i></span> in the opinion of Philippides, who procured
+the enactment of the law, it might be difficult to
+determine. Possibly it may have consisted in the
+too great exposure of the bosom, for the covering
+of which ladies in remoter ages appear to have depended
+very much on their veils. Thus in the interview
+of Helen with Aphrodite she saw, says the
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_39'>39</span>poet, her beautiful neck, desire-inflaming bosom, and
+eyes bright with liquid splendour. Her garments concealed
+the rest.<a id='r110' /><a href='#f110' class='c012'><sup>[110]</sup></a> Now, as it was customary for ladies
+to appear veiled in public, the object of the law of
+Philippides may simply have been to enforce the observance
+of this ancient practice. The magistrates
+who presided over this very delicate part of Athenian
+police were denominated “Regulators of the
+women,”<a id='r111' /><a href='#f111' class='c012'><sup>[111]</sup></a> an office which Sultan Mahmood in our
+day took upon himself. They were chosen by the
+twenty from among the wealthiest and most virtuous
+of the citizens, and in their office resembled
+the Roman Censors and similar magistrates in several
+other states.<a id='r112' /><a href='#f112' class='c012'><sup>[112]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The evil influence of women of this description,<a id='r113' /><a href='#f113' class='c012'><sup>[113]</sup></a>
+who, as Milton expresses it, would fain at any
+rate ride in their coach and six, was perceived and
+lamented by the philosophers. To their vain and
+frivolous notions might be traced, in part at least, the
+love of power, of trifling distinctions, of unmanly
+pleasures, which infected the Athenians towards the
+decline of their republic. By them the springs of
+education were poisoned, and the seeds sown of those
+inordinate artificial desires which convulse and overthrow
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_40'>40</span>states. In vain did philosophers inculcate
+temperance and moderation, while the youth were
+imbued with different opinions by their mothers.
+The lessons of the Academy were overgrown and
+checked in the harem. Such dames no doubt would
+grieve to find their husbands content with little<a id='r114' /><a href='#f114' class='c012'><sup>[114]</sup></a> (as
+was the case with Xantippe) and not numbered
+with the rulers, since their consequence among their
+own sex was thus lessened. They would have had
+them keen worshipers of Mammon, eagerly squabbling
+and wrangling in the law-courts or the ecclesiæ,
+not cultivators of domestic habits or philosophical
+tranquillity and content: and in conversing
+with their sons would be careful to recommend
+maxims the reverse of the father’s, with all the cant
+familiar to women of their character.<a id='r115' /><a href='#f115' class='c012'><sup>[115]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Our review of female society at Athens would
+be incomplete were we to overlook the Hetairæ
+who exerted so powerful an influence over the morals
+and destinies of the state. They occupied
+much the same position which the same class of
+females still do in modern communities, cultivated
+in mind, polished and elegant in manners, but scarcely
+deserving as a body to be viewed in the light
+in which a very distinguished historian has placed
+them.<a id='r116' /><a href='#f116' class='c012'><sup>[116]</sup></a> Their position, however, was anomalous, resembling
+rather that of kings’ mistresses in modern
+times, whose vices are tolerated on account of their
+rank, than that of plebeian sinners whose deficiencies
+in birth and fortune exclude them from good society.
+There is much difficulty in rightly apprehending
+the notions of the ancients on the subject
+of these women. At first sight we are shocked
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_41'>41</span>to find that, during one festival, they were permitted
+to enter the temples in company with modest
+ladies. But in what Christian country are they excluded
+from church?<a id='r117' /><a href='#f117' class='c012'><sup>[117]</sup></a> Again, behold in our theatres
+the matron and the courtezan in the same box,
+while at Athens even foreign women were not suffered
+to approach the space set apart for the female
+citizens. Nevertheless, though on this point
+so rigid, they were in their own houses permitted
+occasionally to visit them<a id='r118' /><a href='#f118' class='c012'><sup>[118]</sup></a> and receive instructions
+from their lips, as in Turkish harems ladies do from
+the Almè.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>It is not permitted here to lift the curtain from
+the manners of these ladies. But their position,
+pregnant with evil to the state through its contaminating
+influences on the minds of youth, must
+be comprehensively explained before a correct idea
+can be formed of the internal structure of the
+Athenian commonwealth, of the germs of dissolution
+which it concealed within its own bosom, or the
+premature blight which an unspiritual system of
+morals was mainly instrumental in producing. No
+doubt the question whether the existence of such
+a class of persons should be tolerated at all, is
+environed by difficulties almost insurmountable.
+They have always existed and therefore, perhaps,
+it is allowable to infer that they always will exist;
+but this does not seem to justify Solon for sanctioning,
+by legislative enactments, a modification of moral
+turpitude debasing to the individual, and consequently
+detrimental to the state. To do evil that good
+may come, is as much a solecism in politics as in
+ethics. On this point I miss the habitual wisdom
+of the Athenian legislator. Lycurgus himself could
+have enacted nothing more at variance with just
+principles, or more subversive of heroic sentiments.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'><span class='pageno' id='Page_42'>42</span>The Hetairæ,<a id='r119' /><a href='#f119' class='c012'><sup>[119]</sup></a> recognised by law and scarcely
+proscribed by public opinion, may be said to have
+constituted a sort of monarchical leaven in the very
+heart of the republic; they shared with the sophists,
+whom I have already depicted, the affections of the
+lax ambitious youths, panting at once for pleasure
+and distinction, fostered expensive tastes and luxurious
+habits, increased consequently their aptitude to indulge
+in peculation, shared with the unprincipled
+the spoils of the state, and vigorously paved the way
+for the battle of Chæronea. But if their existence
+was hurtful to the community, so was it often full
+of bitterness to themselves. In youth, no doubt,
+when beauty breathed its spell around them, they
+were puffed up and intoxicated with the incense of
+flattery<a id='r120' /><a href='#f120' class='c012'><sup>[120]</sup></a>—their conversation at once sprightly and
+learned seemed full of charms—their houses spacious
+as palaces and splendidly adorned were the
+resort of the gay, the witty, the powerful, nay, even
+of the wise—for Socrates did not disdain to converse
+with Theodota or to imbibe the maxims of
+eloquence from Aspasia. But when old age came
+on, what were they? It then appeared, that the
+lively repartees and grotesque extravagancies which
+had pleased when proceeding from beautiful lips,
+seemed vapid and poor from an old woman. The
+wrinkles which deformed their features were equally
+fatal to their wisdom that flitted from their dwellings,
+and became domiciliated with the last beautiful
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_43'>43</span>importation from Ionia. Thus deserted, the most
+celebrated Hetairæ became a butt for the satire even
+of the most clownish. The wit wont to set the
+table in a roar scarcely served to defend them
+against the jests of the agora.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>“How do you sell your beef?” said Laïs to a
+young butcher in the flesh-market.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>“Three obels the <em>Hag</em>,” answered the coxcomb.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>“And how dare you, said the faded beauty, here
+in Athens pretend to make use of barbarian weights?”</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The word in the original signifying an old woman
+and a Carian weight, it suited her purpose to understand
+him in the latter sense.<a id='r121' /><a href='#f121' class='c012'><sup>[121]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Worshiped and slighted alternately they adopted
+narrow and interested principles in self-defence. Besides,
+generally barbarians by birth, they brought along
+with them from their original homes the creed best
+suited to their calling—“Let us eat and drink for
+to-morrow we die.” They were often the lumber
+of Asia and hence known under the appellation of
+“strange women,” though it is very certain, that
+many female citizens were from time to time enrolled
+among their ranks, some through the pressure
+of adversity, others from a preference for that
+kind of life. Their education it must be conceded,
+however, was far more masculine than that of other
+women. They cultivated all the sciences but that
+of morals, and concealed their lack of modesty by
+the dazzling splendour of their wit. Hence among
+a people with whom intellect was almost everything
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_44'>44</span>their company was much sought after and highly
+valued, not habitually perhaps by statesmen, but by
+wits, poets, sophists, and young men of fashion.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Many of the <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><i>bons mots</i></span> uttered by those ladies
+have been preserved. One day at table Stilpo the
+philosopher accused Glycera of corrupting the manners
+of youth.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>“My friend,” said she, “we are both to blame;
+for you, in your turn, corrupt their minds by innumerable
+forms of sophistry and error. And if men be
+rendered unhappy, what signifies it whether a philosopher
+or a courtezan be the cause?”</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>It is to her that a joke, somewhat hackneyed but
+seldom attributed to its real author, was originally
+due. A gentleman presenting her with a very small
+jar of wine sought to enhance its value by pretending
+it was sixteen years old. “Then,” replied she, “it is
+extremely little for its age.” Gnathena too, another
+member of the sisterhood, sprinkled her conversation
+with sparkling wit, but too redolent of the profession
+to be retailed. Some of her sayings, however, will
+bear transplantation, though they must suffer by it.
+To stop the mouth of a babbler who observed that
+he had just arrived from the Hellespont—“And yet,”
+she remarked, “it is clear to me that you know
+nothing of one of its principal cities!” “Which
+city is that?”—“Sigeion,”<a id='r122' /><a href='#f122' class='c012'><sup>[122]</sup></a> (in which there appears
+to be a reference to the word Silence) answered
+Gnathena. Several noisy gallants, who being in her
+debt sought to terrify her by menaces, once saying
+they would pull her house down, and had pickaxes and
+mattocks ready, “I disbelieve it,” she replied, “for
+if you had, you would have pledged them to pay what
+you owe me.” A comic poet remarking to one of
+these ladies that the water of her cistern was delightfully
+cold—“It has always been so,” she replied,
+“since we have got into the habit of throwing
+your plays into it.” The repartee of Melitta
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_45'>45</span>to a conceited person who was said to have fled
+ignominiously from the field of battle is exceedingly
+keen. Happening to be eating of a hare which
+she seemed much to enjoy, our soldier, desirous of directing
+attention to her, inquired if she knew what
+was the fleetest animal in the world. “The runaway,”
+replied Melitta.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The same taste which induces many persons of
+rank in our own day to marry opera dancers and
+actresses, in antiquity favoured the ambition of the
+Hetairæ, many of whom rose from their state of
+humiliation to be the wives of satraps and princes.
+This was the case with Glycera, whom after the
+death of Pythionica, Harpalos sent for from Athens,
+and domiciliated within his royal palace at Tarsos.
+He required her to be saluted and considered as
+his queen, and refused to be crowned unless in
+conjunction with her. Nay, he had even the hardihood
+to erect in the city of Rossos, a brazen
+statue to her, beside his own.<a id='r123' /><a href='#f123' class='c012'><sup>[123]</sup></a> Herpyllis, one of
+the same sisterhood, won the heart of Aristotle, and
+was the mother of Nicomachos. She survived the
+philosopher, and was carefully provided for by his
+will.<a id='r124' /><a href='#f124' class='c012'><sup>[124]</sup></a> Even Plato, whose genius and virtue are still
+the admiration of mankind, succumbed to the charms
+of Archæanassa, an Hetaira of Colophon, whose beauty,
+which long survived her youth, he celebrated in
+an epigram still extant.<a id='r125' /><a href='#f125' class='c012'><sup>[125]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Of all these ladies, however, not even excepting
+Phryne, or the Sicilian Laïs,<a id='r126' /><a href='#f126' class='c012'><sup>[126]</sup></a> Aspasia<a id='r127' /><a href='#f127' class='c012'><sup>[127]</sup></a> has obtained
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_46'>46</span>the most widely extended fame. This illustrious
+woman, endowed by nature with a mind still more
+beautiful than her beautiful form, exercised over
+the fortunes of Athens an influence beyond the
+reach of the greatest queen. Her genius, unobserved
+for some time, by degrees drew around her all
+those whom the love of letters or ambition induced
+to cultivate their minds. Her house became a sort
+of club-room, where eloquence, politics, philosophy,
+mixed with badinage, were daily discussed, and
+whither even ladies of the highest rank resorted
+to acquire from Aspasia those accomplishments which
+were already beginning to be in fashion. From her
+Socrates professed to have in part acquired his knowledge
+of rhetoric, and it is extremely probable that
+he could trace to the habit of conversing with one
+so gifted by nature, so polished by rare society,
+something of that exquisite facility and lightness of
+manner which characterize his familiar dialectics.
+No doubt, we may attribute something of the reputation
+she acquired to the desire to disparage Pericles.
+It was thought that by appropriating many of his
+harangues to her they could bring him down nearer
+their own level. She was, in influence and celebrity,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_47'>47</span>the Madame Roland of Athens, though living in
+times somewhat less troubled.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The name of Phryne, though not so celebrated, is
+still familiar to every one, partly, perhaps, through
+the accusation brought against her in the court of
+Heliæa,<a id='r128' /><a href='#f128' class='c012'><sup>[128]</sup></a> by Euthios. She was a native of Thespiæ,
+but established at Athens, and beloved by
+the orator Hyperides, who undertook her defence.
+His pleading, it may therefore be presumed, was
+eloquent. Perceiving, however, he could make but
+little impression on the judges, he had her called
+into court, and, as if by accident, bared her bosom,<a id='r129' /><a href='#f129' class='c012'><sup>[129]</sup></a>
+the fairness and beauty of which heaving with anguish
+and terror—for it was a matter of life and
+death—so wrought upon the august judges that her
+acquittal immediately followed. The Heliasts, renowned
+for their upright decisions, were suspected
+on this occasion of undue commiseration, though
+the charge was probably grounded on some frivolous
+pretence of impiety; and, to prevent the recurrence
+of similar partiality in future, a decree was passed,
+rendering it illegal thus to extort the pity of the
+court, or, on any account, to introduce the accused,
+whether man or woman, into the presence of the
+judges. It was on her figure that Apelles chiefly
+relied in painting his Aphrodite rising from the
+sea, as Phryne herself rose before all Greece on the
+beach at Eleusis; and Praxiteles also wrought from
+the same model his Cnidean Aphrodite.<a id='r130' /><a href='#f130' class='c012'><sup>[130]</sup></a> This
+sculptor, who was the rival of Hyperides, and, indeed,
+of all Athens, in the affections of Phryne,
+permitted her one day to make choice for herself
+from two statues of his own workmanship—the
+Eros and the Satyr. Discovering, by a stratagem,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_48'>48</span>that he himself preferred the former, she was guided
+by his judgment, and dedicated the winged god in
+a temple of her native city. In admiration of
+her beauty, a number of gentlemen erected, by subscription,
+in her honour, a golden statue at Delphi.
+It was the work of Praxiteles, and stood on a
+pillar of white marble of Pentelicos, between the
+statues of Archidamos, king of Sparta, and Philip,
+son of Amyntas. The inscription ran simply thus:—</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>“Phryne, of Thespiæ, daughter of Epicles.”</div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c014'>On seeing this statue, Crates, the cynic, exclaimed,
+“Behold a trophy of Hellenic wantonness!”</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>It is not, of course, among women of this class,
+that we should expect to discover proofs of female
+truth or enduring attachment. But the human heart
+sometimes triumphs over adverse circumstances.<a id='r131' /><a href='#f131' class='c012'><sup>[131]</sup></a>
+History has preserved the memory of more than
+one act of heroism performed by an Hetaira, to
+show that woman doth not always put off her other
+virtues, though habitually trampling on the one which
+constitutes for her the boundary between honour
+and infamy.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Ptolemy, son of Philadelphos, while commanding
+the garrison of Ephesos, had along with him the
+courtezan, Irene, who, when his Thracian mercenaries
+rose in revolt, fled along with him to
+the temple of Artemis, where they fell together,
+sprinkling the altar with their blood.<a id='r132' /><a href='#f132' class='c012'><sup>[132]</sup></a> Alcibiades,
+too, of all his friends, found none adhere to him in
+his adversity but an Hetaira, who cheerfully exposed
+her life for his sake; and, when the assassins
+of Pharnabazos had achieved their task, performed,
+like another Antigone, the last duties over the ashes
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_49'>49</span>of the man she loved.<a id='r133' /><a href='#f133' class='c012'><sup>[133]</sup></a> Other anecdotes might be
+added equally honourable to their feelings and fidelity,
+but these will sufficiently illustrate their character
+and the estimation in which they were generally
+held.</p>
+
+<hr class='c016' />
+<div class='footnote' id='f93'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r93'>93</a>. For example, public opinion
+regarded it as more atrocious to
+kill a woman than a man.—Arist.
+Prob. xxix. 11.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f94'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r94'>94</a>. She wakes them in the morning.—Aristoph.
+Lysist. 18. This
+comic poet gives a concise sketch
+of an Athenian woman’s morning
+work, which rendered their going
+out difficult at such an hour:—Χαλεπή
+τε γυναικῶν ἔξοδος· ἠ
+μὲν γὰρ ἡμῶν περὶ τὸν ἀνδρ’
+ἐκύπτασεν· ἠ δ᾽ οἰκέτην ἤγειρεν· ἡ
+δὲ παιδίον κατέκλινεν· ἡ δ᾽ ἐλουσεν·
+ἠ δ᾽ ἐψώμισεν.—Lysist. 16, sqq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f95'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r95'>95</a>. Precisely the same picture is
+presented in the interior of Jason’s
+palace at Pheræ, where we find
+the tyrant’s mother at work in
+the midst of her handmaidens.—Polyæn.
+Stratag. vi. i. 5.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f96'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r96'>96</a>. Plat. de Legg. t. viii. p. 36.—Among
+the Thracians, and
+many other people, women were
+employed in agriculture, as they
+are in England and France, as
+herdswomen and shepherds, and
+every other laborious employment,
+like men.—Id. ib.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f97'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r97'>97</a>. That this passion led women
+to interfere too frequently with
+politics may be inferred from the
+remark of Theophrastus, that to be
+versed in the science of domestic
+economy was more honourable to
+them.—Stob. 85. 7. Gaisf.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f98'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r98'>98</a>. Xen. Œcon. x. ii. 60. Among
+the Orientals we find there existed
+a peculiar collyrium for the
+white of the eye. Bochart, Hieroz,
+Pt. ii. p. 120.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f99'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r99'>99</a>. Γύναι, a term of greatest endearment
+among the Greeks, as
+with the French <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">“ma femme.”</span>
+On this point our language is
+more sophisticated. The practice
+reprehended by Ischomachos, in
+the text, was generally prevalent
+in Greece, where certain classes
+of the community, who could
+afford nothing better, used, when
+they had painted the rest of their
+skin white, to dye the cheeks
+with mulberry-juice, and paint
+the eyelids black at the edge. In
+hot weather, therefore, dusky
+streamlets sometimes flowed from
+the corners of their eyes; and the
+roses melted from their cheeks,
+and dropped into their bosoms.
+They imitated old age, too, by
+covering their hair with white
+powder. (Athen. xiii. 6.) It was
+likewise, at one time, the fashion
+to bring forward their curls so as
+to conceal the forehead, as was
+the practice in France and England
+during a part of the eighteenth
+century.—Lucian, Dial.
+Meret. i. t. iv. p. 123.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f100'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r100'>100</a>. Cf. Lucian, Amor. § 42. Aristoph. Nub. 49.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f101'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r101'>101</a>. Athen. xii. 74.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f102'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r102'>102</a>. Xenoph. Œcon. vii. 12. 24.
+Cf. A. Cramer. de Educ. Puer. ap.
+Athen. 9. This writer acutely
+remarks, (p. 13,) that the words
+καὶ αὐτος ὁ πατὴρ in Plat. Protag.
+p. 325. d. show that it was seldom
+the father meddled with the matter.
+The mother, therefore, from
+early habit, was held in greater
+love and reverence than the father.
+Casaub. ad Theoph. Char.
+p. 187.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f103'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r103'>103</a>. Aristoph. Lysist. 18. Plato,
+who admired the practice, requires
+his airy female citizens to go and
+do likewise. Καὶ δὴ καὶ δέσποιναν
+ἐν οἰκίᾳ ὑπὸ θεραπαινίδων ἐγείρεσθαί
+τινων καὶ μὴ πρώτην αὐτὴν
+ἐγείρειν τὰς ἄλλας, αἰσχρὸν λέγειν
+χρὴ πρὸς αὑτοὺς δοῦλον τε
+καὶ δούλην καὶ παῖδα, καὶ εἴ πως
+ἦν οἷον τε, ὅλην καὶ πᾶσαν τὴν
+<a id='corr36.n1'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='οἴκιαν'>οἰκίαν</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_36.n1'><ins class='correction' title='οἴκιαν'>οἰκίαν</ins></a></span>. De Legg. vii. t. viii. p.
+40. Bekk.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f104'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r104'>104</a>. Cf. Plat. de Rep. t. vi. p. 102.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f105'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r105'>105</a>. Arist. Lysist. 113, seq. 205.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f106'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r106'>106</a>. Xenoph. Memor. i. 2. 24.
+Ἀλκιβιάδης δ᾽ αὖ διὰ μὲν κάλλος
+ὑπὸ πολλῶν καὶ σεμνῶν γυναικῶν
+θηρώμενος. κ. τ. λ.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f107'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r107'>107</a>. Aristoph. Nub. 60. Married
+ladies occasionally rode out in carriages
+with their husbands. Demosth.
+cont. Mid. § 44. Even
+at Sparta we find young ladies
+possessed of their carriages called
+Canathra, resembling in form
+griffins, or goat-stags, in which
+they rode abroad during religious
+processions. Plut. Ages. § 19.
+Cf. Xenoph. Ages. p. 73. Hutchin.
+cum not. et add. p. 89.
+Athen. iv. 16, cum annot. p. 449.
+Scheffer, de Re Vehic. i. 7. p. 68.
+The same custom prevailed in
+Thessaly and elsewhere. Athen.
+xii. 37. Luxurious ladies at
+Athens used to perfume even the
+soles of their feet. Their lapdogs
+lived in great state, and slept on
+carpets of Miletos. Athen. xii.
+78.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f108'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r108'>108</a>. Xenarch. ap. Athen. xiii. 24.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f109'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r109'>109</a>. Ἀκοσμοῦσαι. Harpocrat. v.
+ὅτι χίλιας. κ. τ. λ. Potter, Arch.
+Græc. ii. 309, understands his
+law to have meant, women who
+literally appeared <em>laconically</em> in
+the streets. “Undressed,” is his
+word. But will ἀκοσμοῦσαι
+which Meursius, Lect. Att. ii.
+5, 62, renders by “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">inornatius</span>,”
+bear such a signification? Κόσμος γυναικῶν
+does not, as Kühn
+observes, signify <span lang="la" xml:lang="la"><em>ornamentum mulierum</em></span>,
+nor ἀκοσμοῦσαι <span lang="la" xml:lang="la"><em>inornatius
+prodeuntes feminæ</em></span>; but κόσμος is
+εὐταξία and ἀκοσμοῦσαι means
+ἀτακτοῦσαι, that is, women who
+acted in any way whatever contrary
+to decorum and good manners,
+which persons appearing indecently
+dressed in public unquestionably
+do.—Ad. Poll. viii. 112. p. 763.
+On the manners of the Tyrrhenian
+women, Cf. Athen. xii. 14. sqq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f110'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r110'>110</a>. Il. γ. 396. sqq. Cf. 141.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f111'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r111'>111</a>. Γυναικόσμοι. Poll. viii. 112.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f112'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r112'>112</a>. Cf. Arist. Pol. iv. 15. 120.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f113'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r113'>113</a>. On the luxurious manners of
+the Syracusan women see Athen.
+xii. 20. In such disorders may
+be discovered the first germs of
+the decay of states; on which account
+prudent statesmen even in
+oligarchies have sought to restrain
+the licentious manners of women.
+Thus Fra Paolo: “Let the women
+be kept chaste, and in order
+to that, let them live retired
+from the world; it being certain
+that all open lewedness has had
+its first rise from a salutation,
+from a smile.”—i. § 20. To this
+let us add the opinion of the female
+Pythagorician Phintys: ἴδια
+δὲ γυναικὸς, τὸ οἰκουρὲν, καὶ ἔνδον
+μένεν καὶ ἐκδέχεσθαι καὶ θεραπεύεν
+τὸν ἄνδρα. Stob. Florileg., 74. 61.
+Both the philosophical lady, however,
+and the Venetian monk have
+their views corroborated by the
+authority of Pericles: τῆς τε γὰρ
+ὑπαρχούσης φύσεως μὴ χείροσι
+γενέσθαι, ὑμῖν μεγάλη ἡ δόξα, καὶ
+οἷς ἂν ἐπ’ ἄρσεσι κλέος ᾖ.
+Thucyd. ii. 45. Besides leading
+a retired life, ladies were likewise
+expected to cultivate the virtue of
+silence. Soph. Ajax, 293. Hom.
+Il. ζ. 410.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f114'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r114'>114</a>. Which, according to Plato,
+well-educated men generally are.
+De Repub. t. vi. p. 173.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f115'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r115'>115</a>. Plat. De Repub. viii. 5. t. ii.
+p. 182. Stallb.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f116'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r116'>116</a>. Mitford, Hist, of Greece, iii.
+4. sqq. It appears not to have
+been common for these women to
+rear the children they bore, more
+particularly when they were girls.
+They flew to the practice of infanticide
+that they might remain
+at liberty. Lucian, Hetair. Diall.
+ii. 5. iv. 124.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f117'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r117'>117</a>. Besides, from a passage in Lucian
+it appears that the ladies and
+the hetairæ frequented together
+the public baths.—Diall. Hetair.
+xii. 4.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f118'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r118'>118</a>. Cf. Antiphon. Nec. Venef. § 5.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f119'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r119'>119</a>. Vice is generally superstitious;
+and these ladies accordingly
+when they lost a lover,
+instead of attributing it to the
+superior beauty or accomplishments
+of their rivals, or the
+common love of novelty of mankind,
+always supposed that enchantments
+had been employed.—Luc.
+Diall. Hetair. i. t. iv.
+124.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f120'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r120'>120</a>. Statues, for example, were
+sometimes erected in their honour—Winkelm.
+iv. 3. 7. They
+were generally well educated, and
+there were none probably who
+could not read.—Drosè, in Lucian,
+complaining of the philosopher
+who kept away her lover, observes
+that his slave came in the
+evening bearing a note from his
+young master.—Diall. Hetair. x.
+2. 3.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f121'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r121'>121</a>. Athen. xiii. 43. where the
+word is κύβδα.—The Turkish
+practice of drowning female delinquents
+in sacks, is merely an
+imitation of what was performed
+by a tyrant of old, who disposed
+of wicked old women in this
+manner.—Idem. x. 60. In
+France likewise formerly it was
+customary to avoid the scandal
+of a public trial, for noblemen and
+gentlemen to be examined privately
+by the king who, when he
+could satisfy his conscience that
+they were guilty, ordered them to
+be “without any fashion of judgment
+put in a sack and in the
+night season, by the Marshall’s
+servants, hurled into a river and
+so drowned.” Fortescue, Laud,
+Legg. Angl. chap. 35. p. 82. b.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f122'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r122'>122</a>. Athen. xiii. 47.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f123'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r123'>123</a>. Athen. xiii. 50.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f124'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r124'>124</a>. Athen. xiii. 56.—Diog. Laert.
+v. 12.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f125'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r125'>125</a>. Diog. Laert. iii. 31.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f126'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r126'>126</a>. She was a native of Hyccara,
+but taken prisoner in childhood,
+and carried to Corinth, whence
+that city has generally the honor
+of being regarded as her birthplace.—Athen.
+xiii. 54.—Cf.
+Thucyd. vi. 62. Sch. Aristoph.
+Lysist. 179.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f127'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r127'>127</a>. Of the younger Aspasia, who
+had the reputation of being the
+loveliest woman of her time, we
+have the following sketch in Ælian:—“Her
+hair was auburn,
+and fell in slightly waving ringlets.
+She had large full eyes, a
+nose inclined to aquiline, (ἐπίγρυπος)
+and small delicate ears.
+Nothing could be softer than her
+skin, and her complexion was
+fresh as the rose; on which account
+the Phoceans called her
+Milto, or ‘the Blooming’. Her
+ruddy lips, opening, disclosed
+teeth whiter than snow. She,
+moreover, possessed the charm
+on which Homer so often dwells
+in his descriptions of beautiful
+women, of small, well-formed
+ankles. Her voice was so full of
+music and sweetness, that those
+to whom she spoke imagined
+they heard the songs of the
+Seirens. To crown all she was
+like Horace’s Pyrrha, simplex
+munditiis, abhorring superfluous
+pomp of ornament.”—Hist. Var.
+xii. 1. Some persons, however,
+would not have admired the nose
+of Milto:—thus, the youth in Terence
+(Heauton, v. 5. 17. seq.)
+“What? must I marry”</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">“Rufamne illam virginem</span></div>
+ <div class='line'><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cæsiam, sparso ore, adunco naso?</span></div>
+ <div class='line'><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Non possum, pater.”</span></div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c014'>Aristotle (Rhet. i. 2) does not undervalue
+the slightly aquiline nose;
+and Plato appears rather to have
+admired it in men.—Repub. v. §
+19. t. i. p. 392.—Stallb. where
+the philosopher calls it the Royal
+Nose.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f128'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r128'>128</a>. Poseidip. ap. Athen. xiii.
+60.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f129'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r129'>129</a>. Honest old Burton, whom
+few anecdotes of this description
+escaped, imagines this artifice to
+have been the only defence he
+made.—Anatomy of Melancholy,
+ii. 222.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f130'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r130'>130</a>. Athen. xiii. 59. seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f131'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r131'>131</a>. Athen. xiii. 59.—In the apprehension
+of Lucian, too, they
+were anything but mercenary;
+and stripped themselves cheerfully
+of all their personal ornaments
+to bestow them, like so
+many sisters, on the person they
+loved.—Diall. Hetair. vii. 1.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f132'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r132'>132</a>. Athen. xiii. 64.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f133'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r133'>133</a>. Plut. Alcib. § 39.</p>
+</div>
+<hr class='c016' />
+
+<div>
+ <span class='pageno' id='Page_50'>50</span>
+ <h3 class='c002'>CHAPTER VI. <br /> TOILETTE, DRESS, AND ORNAMENTS.</h3>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c011'>Having now described the condition and influence
+of women, it will be necessary to institute
+some inquiry into one of the principal means by
+which they achieved and maintained their empire.
+At first sight, perhaps, the disquisition may appear
+scarcely to deserve all the pains I have bestowed
+upon it; but, as the dress of the ancients is connected
+on the one hand with the progress of the
+useful arts, as spinning, weaving, dyeing, &c., and
+on the other with the forms and developement of
+sculpture, it can scarcely, when well considered, be
+reckoned among matters of trifling moment. Besides,
+the costume and ornaments of a people often
+afford important aid towards comprehending the national
+character, constituting, in fact, a sort of practical
+commentary on the mental habits, and tone
+and principles of morals, prevailing at any given
+period among them.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The raiment of the Grecian women, of which the
+public generally obtain some idea from the remaining
+monuments of ancient art, may be said to have
+been regulated by the same laws of taste which
+presided over the developement of the national genius
+in sculpture and painting. Every article of
+their habiliment appeared to harmonise exactly with
+the rest. Nothing of that grotesque extravagance
+which in some of the fleeting vagaries of fashion
+transforms our modern ladies, with their inflated
+balloon sleeves and painfully deformed waists, into
+so many whalebone and muslin hobgoblins, was
+ever allowed to disfigure the rich contour of a
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_51'>51</span>Greek woman. As she proceeded lovely from the
+hands of nature, her pride was to preserve that
+loveliness. Her garments, accordingly, were not
+fashioned with a view to disguise or conceal her
+form, but by graceful folds, flowing curves, ornaments
+rich and tastefully disposed, to afford as
+many indications of its matchless symmetry and
+perfection as might be compatible with her sex’s
+delicacy and the severity of public morals. Consequently
+the art of dress, like every other conversant
+with taste and beauty, reached in Greece its
+highest perfection. A woman draped according to
+the prevalent fashion in the best ages of the Athenian
+commonwealth, was an object not to be equalled
+for elegance or grace. From the snow white veil
+which probably shaded her countenance and ringlets
+of auburn or hyacinth, to the sandals of white satin
+and gold that ornamented her small ankle, the eye
+could detect nothing gaudy, affected, or out of keeping.
+There was magnificence without ostentation,
+brilliance of colours, but a brilliance that harmonised
+with whatever was brought in contact with
+it; the splendour of numerous jewels and trinkets
+of gold, but no appearance of display, or of a wish
+to dazzle. Everything appeared to stand where it
+did, because it was its proper place.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>But in Sparta where there existed little tendency
+towards art or refinement,<a id='r134' /><a href='#f134' class='c012'><sup>[134]</sup></a> a costume the antipodes
+of all this prevailed. That of the virgins differed
+in some respects from that of the matrons, and
+the difference arose out of a peculiar feature of
+manners, in which, if in nothing else, they resembled
+the English. In several Ionic countries, as
+at present on the continent, girls were previously
+to marriage guarded with much strictness. At
+Sparta, on the contrary, and among the Dorians
+generally,<a id='r135' /><a href='#f135' class='c012'><sup>[135]</sup></a> they were permitted, as in England, to
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_52'>52</span>walk abroad in company with young men, and, of
+course, to form attachments at their own discretion.
+In this, too, as in their dress, they only preserved
+the customs of antiquity; for in Homer we
+find the Trojan ladies making anxious inquiries of
+Hector respecting their relations and friends in the
+field, and going forth from their houses attended
+only by their maids. The married women led more
+retired lives, and when they went abroad fashion
+required that they should be veiled, as we learn
+from the following apophthegm of Charillos, who
+being asked why the maidens went abroad uncovered
+while the matrons concealed their faces, replied:
+“Because it is incumbent on the former to
+find themselves husbands, on the latter only to
+keep those they have.”<a id='r136' /><a href='#f136' class='c012'><sup>[136]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The principal, or, rather, the sole garment of the
+Dorian maidens was the chiton, or himation,<a id='r137' /><a href='#f137' class='c012'><sup>[137]</sup></a> made
+of woollen stuff, and without sleeves, but fastened
+on either shoulder by a large clasp, and gathered
+on the breast by a kind of brooch. This sleeveless
+robe, which seldom reached more than half way to
+the knee, was moreover left open up to a certain
+point on both sides,<a id='r138' /><a href='#f138' class='c012'><sup>[138]</sup></a> so that the skirts or wings,
+flying open as they walked, entirely exposed their
+limbs, closely resembling the shift of the Bedouin
+women,<a id='r139' /><a href='#f139' class='c012'><sup>[139]</sup></a> slit up to the arm-pit, but gathered tight
+by a girdle about the waist. When the girdle was
+removed it reached to the calves of the legs,<a id='r140' /><a href='#f140' class='c012'><sup>[140]</sup></a> and
+would then, but for the side-slits, have been quite
+as becoming as the blue chemise of the modern
+Egyptian women, which is open in front from the
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_53'>53</span>neck to the waist.<a id='r141' /><a href='#f141' class='c012'><sup>[141]</sup></a> When dressed in this single
+robe, their whole form breathing health, and modesty
+in their countenance, there was no doubt a simple
+elegance in their appearance, little less attractive,
+perhaps, than the exquisite and elaborate <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><i>mise</i></span> of
+an Ionian or an Attic girl. In this costume Melissa,
+daughter of Procles, of Epidaurus, was habited
+when, as she poured out wine to her father’s labourers,
+Periander, the Corinthian,<a id='r142' /><a href='#f142' class='c012'><sup>[142]</sup></a> beheld and loved
+her. The married women, however, did not make
+their appearance in public <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><i>en chemise</i></span>, but when
+going abroad donned a second garment which seems
+to have resembled pretty closely their husbands’
+himatia.<a id='r143' /><a href='#f143' class='c012'><sup>[143]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Of the simple wardrobe of a Doric lady, which
+in ancient times was that of all women of Hellenic
+race, exceedingly little can be said. It is altogether
+different with respect to that of the gentlewomen
+of Attica, where, though inferior in personal beauty
+to none, the women exhibited so much fertility in
+the matter of dress, that they appeared to depend
+on that alone for the establishment of their empire.
+For this reason it would be vain to pretend
+to describe all their vestments and ornaments, or the
+arts of the toilette by which they were adapted to
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_54'>54</span>their purposes. To do so properly would, in fact,
+require a volume. But all that can be crowded into
+one short chapter shall be given, since I am not
+deterred by any such scruples as formerly arrested
+the pen of a very learned writer, who apprehended
+that, if he proceeded, he might be supposed to have
+been rummaging the boudoir notes of an Athenian
+lady!<a id='r144' /><a href='#f144' class='c012'><sup>[144]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The primary garment,<a id='r145' /><a href='#f145' class='c012'><sup>[145]</sup></a> answering to the <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><i>chemise</i></span>
+of the moderns, was a white tunic reaching to the
+ground,<a id='r146' /><a href='#f146' class='c012'><sup>[146]</sup></a> in some instances sleeveless, and fastened
+on the shoulders with buttons, in others furnished
+with loose hanging sleeves descending to the wrist,
+and brought together at intervals upon the arm by
+silver or golden agraffes.<a id='r147' /><a href='#f147' class='c012'><sup>[147]</sup></a> It was gathered into
+close folds under the bosom by a girdle,<a id='r148' /><a href='#f148' class='c012'><sup>[148]</sup></a> or riband,
+sometimes fastened in front by a knot, sometimes
+by a clasp.<a id='r149' /><a href='#f149' class='c012'><sup>[149]</sup></a> This inner robe, made in the earlier
+ages of fine linen,<a id='r150' /><a href='#f150' class='c012'><sup>[150]</sup></a> manufactured in Attica, or imported
+from Tyre, Egypt, or Sidon, came, in after
+times, to be of muslin from Tarentum, or woven at
+home from Egyptian cotton. The use of linen, however,
+for this purpose was not wholly superseded.
+A very beautiful kind, from the island of Amorgos,<a id='r151' /><a href='#f151' class='c012'><sup>[151]</sup></a>
+one of the Cyclades, was often substituted down to
+a very late period in place of the byssos, or fine
+muslin of Egypt; and this insular fabric,<a id='r152' /><a href='#f152' class='c012'><sup>[152]</sup></a> whether
+snow-white or purple, would have rivalled the finest
+cambric, being of the most delicate texture and
+semi-transparent,<a id='r153' /><a href='#f153' class='c012'><sup>[153]</sup></a> like the Tarentine and Coan vests
+of the Roman ladies, the sandyx-coloured Lydian
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_55'>55</span>robe, or the silken chemises of the Turkish sultanas,
+described by Lady Montague.<a id='r154' /><a href='#f154' class='c012'><sup>[154]</sup></a> It is in a tunic of
+this linen that Lysistrata, in Aristophanes, advises
+the Athenian ladies to appear before their husbands
+in order to give full effect to the splendour of
+their charms.<a id='r155' /><a href='#f155' class='c012'><sup>[155]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Because the Amorginean linen was often, perhaps
+commonly, dyed purple, it has been inferred, that
+none purely white was produced; but this, as Bochart<a id='r156' /><a href='#f156' class='c012'><sup>[156]</sup></a>
+observes, is, probably, a mistake. At all events, it
+was of extraordinary fineness, superior, in the opinion
+of Suidas,<a id='r157' /><a href='#f157' class='c012'><sup>[157]</sup></a> even to the byssos and carbasos, or
+lawn of Cyprus, and appears to have been of a thin,
+gauze-like texture, like the drapery of “woven air”
+which Petronius<a id='r158' /><a href='#f158' class='c012'><sup>[158]</sup></a> throws around his female characters.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Over the chiton was worn a shorter robe not
+reaching below the knee, and confined above the
+loins by a broad riband. This also was, in some
+instances, furnished with sleeves, and of a rich purple
+or saffron colour, generally ornamented, like the
+chiton, with a broad border of variegated embroidery.
+To these, in order to complete the walking-dress,
+was added a magnificent mantle, generally
+purple, embroidered with gold, which, being thrown
+negligently over the shoulders,<a id='r159' /><a href='#f159' class='c012'><sup>[159]</sup></a> floated airily about
+the person, discovering the under garments exquisitely
+disposed for the purpose of displaying all the
+contours of the form, particularly of the waist and
+bosom. The Athenian ladies being, like our own,
+peculiarly jealous of possessing the reputation of a
+fine figure, and nature sometimes failing them, had
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_56'>56</span>recourse to art, and wore what, among milliners, I
+believe, are called <em>bustles</em>.<a id='r160' /><a href='#f160' class='c012'><sup>[160]</sup></a> I am sorry to be obliged
+to add, that there were, also, mothers at Athens
+who anticipated us in the absurdity of tight lacing,
+and invented corsets for the purpose of compressing
+the abdomen and otherwise reducing the figures of
+their daughters to some artificial standard which
+they had already begun to set up in defiance of
+nature.<a id='r161' /><a href='#f161' class='c012'><sup>[161]</sup></a> Some women, too, when apprehensive of
+growing fat, would collect on fine wool a quantity
+of summer dew, which they afterwards squeezed out
+and drank, this liquid having been supposed to be
+possessed of deleterious qualities, more particularly
+the ascending dew.<a id='r162' /><a href='#f162' class='c012'><sup>[162]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Like the eastern ladies of the present day, they
+seldom went abroad without their veil, which was
+a light fabric of transparent texture, white or purple,
+from Cos, or Laconia. It was thrown tastefully over
+the head, raised in front on the point of the sphendone,<a id='r163' /><a href='#f163' class='c012'><sup>[163]</sup></a>
+as in modern Italy by the comb, and hung
+waving on the shoulders and down the back in
+glittering folds. But this was not the only covering
+they made use of for their head. Those modern
+writers who have so thought are mistaken, since it
+is clear, both from contemporary testimony and numerous
+works of art still remaining, that very frequently
+they wore caps or bonnets. Several examples
+occur in Mr. Hope’s work, on the Costumes of
+the Ancients;<a id='r164' /><a href='#f164' class='c012'><sup>[164]</sup></a> and Mnesilochos, in Aristophanes,
+when putting on the disguise of a woman for the
+purpose of being present at the Festival of Demeter,
+like Clodius at that of the Bona Dea, desires
+to borrow from Agathon a net or mitre for the
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_57'>57</span>head. “Will you have my night-cap?” inquires the
+poet. “Exactly,” replies Euripides, “that is just
+what we want.”<a id='r165' /><a href='#f165' class='c012'><sup>[165]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>But we have hitherto scarcely entered upon the
+list of their wardrobe, in enumerating some of the
+articles of which, I must crave the reader’s permission
+to employ the original terms, our language,
+in most cases, furnishing us with no equivalent.
+And, first, following the order of Pollux, who observes
+no principle of classification, we have the
+<em>Epomis</em>, a robe with sleeves, opposed to the <em>Exomis</em>,
+which had none. The <em>Diploïdion</em>, an ample cloak,
+or mantle, capacious enough to be worn double.
+The <em>Hemidiploïdion</em>, a more scanty mantle; the
+<em>Katastiktos</em>, adorned with flowers or figures of animals,
+or richly marked with spots, the <em>Katagogis</em>,
+the <em>Epiblema</em>, or cloak, and the <em>Peplos</em>,<a id='r166' /><a href='#f166' class='c012'><sup>[166]</sup></a> a word of
+very equivocal character, used to signify a veil or
+mantle, a sofa-carpet, or a covering for a chariot.
+Generally, it seems to have designated a garment
+of double the necessary size, that, at pleasure, it
+might be put on, or cast, like a cloak, over the
+whole body, as appears from the Peplos of Athena.<a id='r167' /><a href='#f167' class='c012'><sup>[167]</sup></a>
+That the word sometimes was used to signify a
+tunic appears from Xenophon, who says “the peplos
+being rent above, the bosom appeared.”<a id='r168' /><a href='#f168' class='c012'><sup>[168]</sup></a> He, however,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_58'>58</span>considers it to have formed part of the male
+costume.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Another article of female dress was the <em>Zoma</em>, a
+short vest fitting close to the shape, and adorned at
+the bottom with fringe, as appears from a fragment
+of Æschylus in the Onomasticon. A character of Menander,
+too, exclaims,—“Don’t you perceive the nurse
+habited in her Zoma?”—for, adds Pollux, it was generally
+worn by old women. An elegant woollen dress,
+called <em>Parapechu</em>, white, but with purple sleeves, was
+imported from Corinth, and would appear to have
+been much worn by the Hetairæ.<a id='r169' /><a href='#f169' class='c012'><sup>[169]</sup></a> Other garments
+seem to have been affected by the middle class of
+citizens, who, being unable to dress in purple,<a id='r170' /><a href='#f170' class='c012'><sup>[170]</sup></a> the
+distinguishing colour of the wealthy and the noble,
+brought into fashion the <em>Paruphes</em> and <em>Paralourges</em>,
+robes adorned on either side with a purple stripe.
+As much dignity is supposed to belong to ample
+drapery, our citizen ladies took care not to be sparing
+of stuff, their dresses trailing to the ground, and
+displaying numerous folds, produced purposely at the
+extremity by a band passing round the edge. These
+garments were generally of linen; but when a lady,
+in Homer, is said to be wrapped in her shining mantle,
+the poet<a id='r171' /><a href='#f171' class='c012'><sup>[171]</sup></a> is supposed to intend a fine, light, woollen
+cloak, like the white burnooses of the Tunisian and
+Egyptian ladies.<a id='r172' /><a href='#f172' class='c012'><sup>[172]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Several sorts of dresses obtained their appellation
+from their colours; as the <em>Crocotos</em>, a saffron robe of
+ceremony, the <em>Crocotion</em>, a diminutive of the same;
+the <em>Omphakinon</em>, of the colour of unripe grapes,
+which, though prescriptively appropriated to women,
+was much affected by Alexander the Great. Modern
+ladies have delighted in flea-coloured dresses, and, in
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_59'>59</span>like manner, the ancients had theirs of asinine hue,
+called <em>Killios</em>, from a Doric name for the ass, and
+afterwards <em>Onagrinos</em>,<a id='r173' /><a href='#f173' class='c012'><sup>[173]</sup></a> which, if they really resembled
+the wild ass in hue, must have been exceedingly beautiful.
+There was a scarlet robe, with the appellation
+of <em>Coccobaphes</em>, the <em>Sisys</em>, a thick heavy cloak, likewise
+called <em>Hyphandron Himation</em>, resembling the
+<em>Amphimallos</em>, which had a double warp, and was hairy
+on both sides.<a id='r174' /><a href='#f174' class='c012'><sup>[174]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Not to extend this list of dresses beyond the patience
+of a milliner, we will now pass on to the principal
+ornaments for the head,<a id='r175' /><a href='#f175' class='c012'><sup>[175]</sup></a> in which the Greek
+ladies evinced extraordinary taste and invention.<a id='r176' /><a href='#f176' class='c012'><sup>[176]</sup></a>
+Among these one of the most elegant was the <em>Ampyx</em>,
+a fillet by which they confined their hair in front.
+It sometimes consisted of a piece of gold embroidery,
+the place of which was often supplied by a thin plate
+of pure gold, studded with jewels. Another Homeric
+ornament, the <em>Kekruphalos</em>,<a id='r177' /><a href='#f177' class='c012'><sup>[177]</sup></a> can only be alluded to as
+a critical puzzle which has baffled all the commentators,
+in which predicament the <em>Plekte anadesme</em><a id='r178' /><a href='#f178' class='c012'><sup>[178]</sup></a> also
+stands; all that we know being, that it found its place
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_60'>60</span>in the female head-dress, though whether as a mitre
+or a diadem Apollonios is unable to determine. It
+may possibly have been, under another appellation,
+that graceful wreath or garland, consisting of fragrant
+flowers interwoven or bound together by their stems,
+described among female ornaments by Pollux.<a id='r179' /><a href='#f179' class='c012'><sup>[179]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Another article of the same ambiguous character
+was the <em>Pylæon</em>, supposed to have derived its name
+from φύλον, <em>a leaf</em>. Athenæus,<a id='r180' /><a href='#f180' class='c012'><sup>[180]</sup></a> on a subject of this
+kind, perhaps, one of the best authorities, describes it
+as the crown which, during certain festivals, the Spartans
+placed upon the head of Hera. Doubtless, however,
+the most tasteful and elegant of this class of
+female ornaments was the <em>Kalyx</em>, a golden syrinx or
+reed, passed like a ring over each several tress to
+keep it separate.<a id='r181' /><a href='#f181' class='c012'><sup>[181]</sup></a> Eustathius describes it as a ring
+resembling a full-blown, but not expanded, rose; and
+this explanation will not be inconsistent with that of
+Hesychius, if we suppose the golden tubes to have
+terminated in the form of that flower. The <em>Strophion</em>
+was a band or fillet<a id='r182' /><a href='#f182' class='c012'><sup>[182]</sup></a> with which women confined
+their hair, as we discover from many ancient statues.
+Parrhasios the artist, who used to bind his luxuriant
+locks with a white strophion, was therefore accused
+of effeminacy.<a id='r183' /><a href='#f183' class='c012'><sup>[183]</sup></a> The name, however, appears to have
+been applied to any kind of band, even to the broad
+belt worn to support the bosom: “My strophion
+being untied the walnuts fell out,” says the girl in
+Aristophanes.<a id='r184' /><a href='#f184' class='c012'><sup>[184]</sup></a> There was also an ornament of the
+same name worn by priests.<a id='r185' /><a href='#f185' class='c012'><sup>[185]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'><span class='pageno' id='Page_61'>61</span>The <em>Opisthosphendone</em>,<a id='r186' /><a href='#f186' class='c012'><sup>[186]</sup></a> one of the female ornaments
+enumerated in a fragment of Aristophanes,
+was worn only on the stage. Its proper name <em>sphendone</em>
+it derived from its resemblance to a sling,
+being broad and elevated in front,<a id='r187' /><a href='#f187' class='c012'><sup>[187]</sup></a> and terminating
+in narrow points at the back of the head where it
+was tied. On the comic stage it was sometimes
+worn for sport with the fore part behind.<a id='r188' /><a href='#f188' class='c012'><sup>[188]</sup></a> The
+<em>Anadesma</em><a id='r189' /><a href='#f189' class='c012'><sup>[189]</sup></a> was a gilded fillet or diadem of gold,
+used like the <em>strophion</em> for encircling the forehead.
+What was the precise use or form of the <em>Xanion</em>,
+another golden ornament fashionable in remote antiquity,
+could not be ascertained in the age of Pollux,
+who says that many writers supposed it to have
+been a <a id='corr61.15'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='comb'>comb.</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_61.15'><ins class='correction' title='comb'>comb.</ins></a></span> Of this number are Hesychius,
+Suidas,<a id='r190' /><a href='#f190' class='c012'><sup>[190]</sup></a> and Phavorinus. But a learned modern
+conjectures with more probability, that it was some
+talismanic idol worn as a spell against the evil eye.<a id='r191' /><a href='#f191' class='c012'><sup>[191]</sup></a>
+In fact it is expressly observed in the Etymologicon
+Magnum,<a id='r192' /><a href='#f192' class='c012'><sup>[192]</sup></a> that the Hellenic women reckoned it
+among their phylacteries.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Of the ear-rings worn by Grecian women the
+variety was very great. The most ancient kind
+were called <em>Hermata</em>, of which mention occurs both
+in the Iliad and the Odyssey.<a id='r193' /><a href='#f193' class='c012'><sup>[193]</sup></a> They were usually
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_62'>62</span>adorned with three emerald drops,<a id='r194' /><a href='#f194' class='c012'><sup>[194]</sup></a> for which reason
+they were by the Athenians denominated <em>Triopia</em>
+or <em>Triopides</em>,<a id='r195' /><a href='#f195' class='c012'><sup>[195]</sup></a> and by the other Greeks <em>Triopthalma</em>
+or “the triple eye.” By this word, as an ancient
+grammarian informs us, some understood an animal
+like the beetle, supposed to have three eyes, whence
+a necklace with three hyaline or crystal eyes, depending
+from it in front, was likewise called by the
+same name. Pollux<a id='r196' /><a href='#f196' class='c012'><sup>[196]</sup></a> supposed the earrings of Hera
+to have been adorned with three diminutive figures
+in precious stones, or gold, probably of goddesses.
+The <em>Diopos</em> seems to have been an earring with two
+drops. The <em>Helix</em> appears in Homer<a id='r197' /><a href='#f197' class='c012'><sup>[197]</sup></a> rather to mean
+an earring than an armlet, and to have received its
+name from its circular shape or curvature; but the
+spiral gold rings round the walking-stick of Parrhasios
+are also called <em>Helices</em> by Athenæus.<a id='r198' /><a href='#f198' class='c012'><sup>[198]</sup></a> Another name
+for this sort of earring was <em>Heliktes</em>.<a id='r199' /><a href='#f199' class='c012'><sup>[199]</sup></a> In the Æolic
+dialect earrings were called <em>Siglai</em>, in the Doric <em>Artiala</em>.
+A particular kind denominated <em>Enclastridia</em>
+and <em>Strobelia</em>, by the comic poets, had gold drops in
+the form of a pine cone.<a id='r200' /><a href='#f200' class='c012'><sup>[200]</sup></a> Two very curious kinds
+of earrings were the <em>Caryatides</em>, and the <em>Hippocampia</em>,
+the former representing in miniature the architectural
+figures, so called, the latter little horses
+with tails ending in a fish. There were earrings,
+likewise, with drops in the forms of centaurs and
+other fantastic creations.<a id='r201' /><a href='#f201' class='c012'><sup>[201]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The names and figures of necklaces were scarcely
+less numerous.<a id='r202' /><a href='#f202' class='c012'><sup>[202]</sup></a> A jewelled collar fitting tight to
+the throat formed, under the name of <em>Peritrachelion</em>,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_63'>63</span>the principal of these ornaments, of which another
+was the <em>Perideraion</em>.<a id='r203' /><a href='#f203' class='c012'><sup>[203]</sup></a> The <em>Hypoderaion</em> was as its
+name imports a necklace that hung low on the
+bosom, and the same was the case with the <em>Hormos</em>.<a id='r204' /><a href='#f204' class='c012'><sup>[204]</sup></a>
+On the <em>Tantheuristos Hormos</em> little information can
+be obtained, for which reason the commentators
+would alter the text; but the most probable conjecture
+is, that it obtained its appellation from the
+flashing and glancing of the jewels depending from
+it upon the breast.<a id='r205' /><a href='#f205' class='c012'><sup>[205]</sup></a> The <em>Triopis</em> was a species of
+necklace distinguished for having three stars or eye-like
+gems depending from it as drops. This being
+the most fashionable necklace was known under a
+variety of names, as the <em>Kathema</em>, and <em>Katheter</em>, and
+<em>Mannos</em> or <em>Monnos</em>, among the Dorians.<a id='r206' /><a href='#f206' class='c012'><sup>[206]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Of armlets and bracelets there was likewise a
+great variety. Some worn above the elbow were
+denominated <em>Brachionia</em>, others called <em>Pericarpia</em>, or
+<em>Echinoi</em> encircled the wrists and were often in the
+form of twisted snakes of gold, which the woman-hater
+in Lucian would have converted into real serpents.<a id='r207' /><a href='#f207' class='c012'><sup>[207]</sup></a>
+The <em>Psellia</em> or chain bracelets were much
+worn; the <em>Clidones</em> adorned the rich and luxurious
+only. As stockings were not in common use, and
+shoes and sandals frequently dispensed with when
+within doors, fashion required that the feet and
+ankles should not remain unadorned. Ancient
+writers, accordingly, enumerate several kinds of
+anklets, or bangles, all of gold, and varying only
+in form, the distinction between which I have been
+unable to discover. The <em><a id='corr63.31'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='Ægle'>Ægle,</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_63.31'><ins class='correction' title='Ægle'>Ægle,</ins></a></span></em> the <em>Pede</em> and the
+<em>Periscelides</em> were so many ornaments for the instep
+or ankle.<a id='r208' /><a href='#f208' class='c012'><sup>[208]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'><span class='pageno' id='Page_64'>64</span>Among the ornaments for the bosom we find the
+<em>Ægis</em>, evidently like the ægis of Athena, a sort of
+rich covering with two hemispherical caps to receive
+the breasts, such as we find worn by the
+Bayadères of the Dekkan. Extending from this
+on either side, or passing over its lower edge was
+the <em>Maschalister</em>, a broad belt which covered the
+armpits, though in Herodotus the word merely signifies
+a sword-belt.<a id='r209' /><a href='#f209' class='c012'><sup>[209]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Like all other delicate and luxurious women, the
+Grecian ladies displayed upon their fingers a profusion
+of rings, of which some were set with signets, others
+with jewels remarkable for their colour and brilliance.
+To each of these their copious language supplied a
+distinct name.<a id='r210' /><a href='#f210' class='c012'><sup>[210]</sup></a> Other female ornaments are spoken
+of by the comic poets; but in their descriptions it is
+difficult to distinguish satire from information. Among
+these were the <em>Leroi</em>, golden drops attached to the
+tunic; the <em>Ochthoiboi</em>, which seem to have been a
+sort of rich tassels; the <em>Helleboroi</em>, ornaments shaped
+perhaps like the leaves or flowers of that plant; and
+the <em>Pompholuges</em>, which, though left unexplained by
+the commentators, probably signified a large clear
+kind of bead, as the word originally meant a “water-bubble,”
+which a transparent bead resembles.<a id='r211' /><a href='#f211' class='c012'><sup>[211]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The Athenian ladies, likewise, displayed their taste
+for luxury and splendour in their shoes and sandals.<a id='r212' /><a href='#f212' class='c012'><sup>[212]</sup></a>
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_65'>65</span>Like our own fashionable dames, they seldom contented
+themselves with articles of home manufacture,
+but imported whatever was considered most elegant
+or tasteful from the neighbouring countries. Sometimes,
+perhaps, the fashion only and the name were
+imported, as in the case of the Persian half-boot,
+fitting tight to the ankle.<a id='r213' /><a href='#f213' class='c012'><sup>[213]</sup></a> The same thing may
+probably be said of the Sicyonian slipper. But there
+was an elegant sandal, ornamented with gold, which,
+down to a very late period, continued to be imported
+from Patara, in <a id='corr65.11'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='Lycia,'>Lycia.</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_65.11'><ins class='correction' title='Lycia,'>Lycia.</ins></a></span><a id='r214' /><a href='#f214' class='c012'><sup>[214]</sup></a> Snow-white slippers of fine
+linen, flowered with needlework, were occasionally
+worn; and from many ancient statues it would seem,
+that something very like stockings had been already
+introduced. Short women, desirous of adding, if not
+a cubit, at least a few inches to their stature, adopted
+the use of <em>baukides</em> with high cork heels, and soles of
+great thickness.<a id='r215' /><a href='#f215' class='c012'><sup>[215]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>An Athenian beauty usually spent the whole morning
+in the important business of the toilette.<a id='r216' /><a href='#f216' class='c012'><sup>[216]</sup></a> The
+crowd of maids who attended on these occasions appears
+to have exceeded in number the assistants at
+similar rites in a modern dressing-room, the principle
+of the division of labour having been pushed to its
+greatest extent. Like Hera, who was said by mythologists
+to renew her virgin charms as often as she
+bathed in the fountain of Canathos,<a id='r217' /><a href='#f217' class='c012'><sup>[217]</sup></a> the Attic lady
+appeared to undergo diurnal rejuvenescence under the
+hands of her maids.<a id='r218' /><a href='#f218' class='c012'><sup>[218]</sup></a> Her lovely face grew tenfold
+more lovely by their arts. Clustering in interesting
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_66'>66</span>groups around her, some held the silver basin and
+ewer, others the boxes of tooth-powder, or black
+paint for the eyebrows, the rouge pots or the blanching
+varnish, the essence-bottles or the powder for
+the head, the jewel-cases or the mirrors.<a id='r219' /><a href='#f219' class='c012'><sup>[219]</sup></a> But on
+nothing was so much care bestowed as on the hair.<a id='r220' /><a href='#f220' class='c012'><sup>[220]</sup></a>
+Auburn, the colour of Aphrodite’s tresses<a id='r221' /><a href='#f221' class='c012'><sup>[221]</sup></a> in Homer,
+being considered most beautiful,<a id='r222' /><a href='#f222' class='c012'><sup>[222]</sup></a> drugs were invented
+in which the hair being dipped, and exposed
+to the noon-day sun, it acquired the coveted hue,
+and fell in golden curls over their shoulders.<a id='r223' /><a href='#f223' class='c012'><sup>[223]</sup></a> Others,
+contented with their own black hair, exhausted their
+ingenuity in augmenting its rich gloss, steeping it in
+oils and essences, till all the fragrance of Arabia
+seemed to breathe around them. Those waving ringlets
+which we admire in their sculpture were often
+the creation of art, being produced by curling-irons
+heated in ashes;<a id='r224' /><a href='#f224' class='c012'><sup>[224]</sup></a> after which, by the aid of jewelled
+fillets and golden pins, they were brought forward
+over the smooth white forehead,<a id='r225' /><a href='#f225' class='c012'><sup>[225]</sup></a> which they sometimes
+shaded to the eyebrows, leaving a small ivory
+space in the centre, while behind they floated in
+shining profusion down the back. When decked in
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_67'>67</span>this manner, and dressed for the harem<a id='r226' /><a href='#f226' class='c012'><sup>[226]</sup></a> in their light
+flowered sandals and semi-transparent robes already
+described, they were scarcely farther removed from
+the state of nature than the Spartan maids themselves.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Contrary to the fashion prevalent in modern times
+the bosom, however, was always closely covered, because
+being extremely full shaped it began very early
+to lose its firmness and beauty.<a id='r227' /><a href='#f227' class='c012'><sup>[227]</sup></a> Earrings, set with
+Red-Sea pearls of great price, depended from their
+ears, and an orbicular crown studded with Indian
+jewels surmounted and contrasted strikingly with their
+dark locks. Add to these the jewelled throat bands,
+and costly and glittering necklaces. Their cheeks
+though sometimes pale by nature, blushed with rouge,<a id='r228' /><a href='#f228' class='c012'><sup>[228]</sup></a>
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_68'>68</span>and they even possessed the art to superinduce over
+this artificial complexion that peach-like purple
+bloom which belongs to the very earliest, dewiest
+dawn of beauty. To the tint of the rose they
+could likewise add that of the lily. White paint
+was in common use,<a id='r229' /><a href='#f229' class='c012'><sup>[229]</sup></a> not merely among unmarried
+women, and ladies of equivocal reputation, but with
+matrons the chastest and most prudent in Athens,
+for we find that pattern of an Attic gentlewoman,
+the wife of Ischomachos, practising after marriage
+every delusive art of the toilette.<a id='r230' /><a href='#f230' class='c012'><sup>[230]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>It by no means follows that all this attention<a id='r231' /><a href='#f231' class='c012'><sup>[231]</sup></a>
+to dress had any other object than to please their
+husbands; for the Turkish Sultanas who pass their
+lives in the most rigid seclusion are no less sumptuous
+in their apparel; but we know that at Athens,
+as in London, much of this care was designed to
+excite admiration out of doors. For it is highly
+erroneous to transfer to Athens the ideas of female
+seclusion acquired from travellers in the East, where
+no such rigid seclusion was ever known. Husbands,
+indeed, who had cause, or supposed they had, to be
+jealous, might be put on the rack by beholding the
+crowds of admirers who flocked around their wives
+the moment they issued into the streets. But there
+was no remedy. The laws and customs of the country
+often forced the women abroad to assist at processions
+and perform their devotions at the shrines
+of various goddesses.<a id='r232' /><a href='#f232' class='c012'><sup>[232]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'><span class='pageno' id='Page_69'>69</span>The dress of men included many of the garments
+worn by women; for example, the chiton of which
+there were several kinds, some with and some without
+sleeves. Among the latter was the <em>Exomis</em>,<a id='r233' /><a href='#f233' class='c012'><sup>[233]</sup></a>
+a short tunic worn by aged men and slaves, but
+the name was sometimes applied to a garment
+thrown loosely round the body, and to the chiton
+with one sleeve.<a id='r234' /><a href='#f234' class='c012'><sup>[234]</sup></a> Over this in Homeric times was
+worn as a defence against the cold, the <em>Chlaina</em><a id='r235' /><a href='#f235' class='c012'><sup>[235]</sup></a> a
+cloak strongly resembling a highlander’s tartan, or
+the burnoose of the Bedouin Arab. It was, in fact,
+a square piece of cloth, occasionally with the corners
+rounded off, which, passing over the left shoulder, and
+under the right arm, was again thrown over the left
+shoulder, leaving the spear arm free.<a id='r236' /><a href='#f236' class='c012'><sup>[236]</sup></a> This is what
+the poet means where he terms the <em>Chlaina</em> double.
+It was wrapped twice round the breast, and fastened
+over the left shoulder by a brooch.<a id='r237' /><a href='#f237' class='c012'><sup>[237]</sup></a> Even
+this, however, was not deemed sufficient in very
+cold weather, and a cloak of skins sown together
+with thongs was wrapped about the body as a defence
+against the rain or snow. Some persons appear
+to have worn skin-cloaks all the year round,
+for we find Anaxagoras, in the midst of summer at
+Olympia, putting on his when he foresaw there
+would be rain.<a id='r238' /><a href='#f238' class='c012'><sup>[238]</sup></a> Rustics also appear to have considered
+a tunic and skin-cloak necessary to complete
+their costume.<a id='r239' /><a href='#f239' class='c012'><sup>[239]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'><span class='pageno' id='Page_70'>70</span>The Dorian style of dress formed the point of
+transition from the simple elegance of the Homeric
+period to the elaborate splendour of the historic age
+at Athens. In this mode of clothing, a modern
+author remarks, a peculiar taste was displayed, an
+antique simplicity “equally removed from the splendour
+of Asiatics, and the uncleanliness of barbarians.”<a id='r240' /><a href='#f240' class='c012'><sup>[240]</sup></a>
+They preserved the use of the Homeric
+chiton, or woollen shirt, and over this wore also
+the <em>Chlaina</em> or <em>Himation</em>, in the manner described
+above. To these was added the <em>Chlamys</em>, which, as
+the Spartan laws prohibited dyeing, was universally
+white, and denominated <em>Hololeukos</em>.<a id='r241' /><a href='#f241' class='c012'><sup>[241]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>It was of Thessalian or Macedonian origin, of an
+oblong form, the points meeting on the right shoulder,
+where they were fastened with a clasp. This
+garment was not in use in the heroic ages, and the
+earliest mention of it occurs in Sappho;<a id='r242' /><a href='#f242' class='c012'><sup>[242]</sup></a> but when
+once introduced, it quickly grew fashionable, at first
+among the young men, afterwards as a military
+cloak. At Athens it was regarded as a mark of
+effeminacy, and was fastened with a gold or jewelled
+brooch on the breast.<a id='r243' /><a href='#f243' class='c012'><sup>[243]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The men of Sparta, though less thinly clad than
+the women, still went abroad very scantily covered.
+Their <em>Tribon</em>, a variety of the himation,<a id='r244' /><a href='#f244' class='c012'><sup>[244]</sup></a> like the
+cloak of the poor Spanish gentleman, was clipped
+so close that it would barely enclose their persons,
+like a case, but was thick and heavy, and calculated
+to last. Accordingly, the youth were allowed only
+one of these per annum, so that, in warm weather, it
+is probable that, with an eye to saving it for winter,
+they exchanged it for that more lasting coat with
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_71'>71</span>which nature had furnished them.<a id='r245' /><a href='#f245' class='c012'><sup>[245]</sup></a> In the towns,
+however, and as often as they thought proper to put
+on the appearance of extreme modesty, the young
+Spartans drew close their cloaks around them so
+as to conceal their hands,<a id='r246' /><a href='#f246' class='c012'><sup>[246]</sup></a> the exhibiting of which
+has always been regarded as a mark of vulgarity.
+Hence the use of gloves, and the affectation of soft
+white hands in modern times. The same notions
+prevail even among the Turks, who, like Laertes in
+Homer, wear long sleeves to their pelisses for the
+purpose of defending the hand, to have which white
+and well-shaped is among them a mark of noble
+blood.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The Spartans had the good taste to suffer their
+beards and hair to grow long, and were at much
+pains to render them glossy and shining. Even in
+the field, contrary to the practice at Athens, they
+preserved this natural ornament of their heads, and
+we find them busy in combing and putting it in
+order on the very eve of battle.<a id='r247' /><a href='#f247' class='c012'><sup>[247]</sup></a> It was usually
+parted at the top, and was, in fact, the most becoming
+covering imaginable. But they set little
+value on cleanliness, and bathed and perfumed themselves
+seldom, being evidently of opinion,<a id='r248' /><a href='#f248' class='c012'><sup>[248]</sup></a> that a
+brave man ought not to be too spruce. However,
+having no object to gain by aping the exterior of
+mendicants, they eschewed the wearing of ragged
+cloaks, which, indeed, was forbidden by law.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>But the Athenians ran into the opposite <a id='corr71.29'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='extreme,'>extreme.</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_71.29'><ins class='correction' title='extreme,'>extreme.</ins></a></span>
+Wealthy, and fond of show, they delighted in a
+style of dress in the highest degree curious and
+magnificent, appearing abroad in flowing robes of
+the finest linen, dyed with purple and other brilliant
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_72'>72</span>colours.<a id='r249' /><a href='#f249' class='c012'><sup>[249]</sup></a> Beneath these they wore tunics of
+various kinds, which, though the fashion afterwards
+changed, were at first sleeveless, since we find the
+women, in Aristophanes, suffering the hair to grow
+under their arm-pits to avoid being discovered when,
+disguised as their husbands, they should hold up
+their hands to vote in the assembly.<a id='r250' /><a href='#f250' class='c012'><sup>[250]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Like the women, they affected much variety and
+splendour in their rings, which were sometimes set
+with a stone with the portrait engraved thereon of
+some friend or benefactor, as Athenion wore on one
+of his the portrait of Mithridates.<a id='r251' /><a href='#f251' class='c012'><sup>[251]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>In his girdle and shoes,<a id='r252' /><a href='#f252' class='c012'><sup>[252]</sup></a> too, the Athenian betrayed
+his love of splendour. The hair worn long
+like that of the ladies,<a id='r253' /><a href='#f253' class='c012'><sup>[253]</sup></a> was curled or braided and
+built up in glossy masses on the crown of the head,
+or arranged artfully along the forehead by golden
+grasshoppers.<a id='r254' /><a href='#f254' class='c012'><sup>[254]</sup></a> But as all this pile of ringlets could
+not be thrust into the helmet, it was customary in
+time of war to cut the hair short, which the fashionable
+young men reckoned among its most serious
+hardships. Hats<a id='r255' /><a href='#f255' class='c012'><sup>[255]</sup></a> were not habitually worn, though
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_73'>73</span>on journeys or promenades undertaken during hot
+weather they formed a necessary part of the costume.
+Above all things the Athenian citizen affected
+extreme cleanliness and neatness in his person,
+and the same taste descended even to the slaves who
+in the streets could scarcely be distinguished by dress,
+hair, or ornaments, from their masters.<a id='r256' /><a href='#f256' class='c012'><sup>[256]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Even the philosophers, after holding out a long
+time, yielded to the influence of fashion, and, lest
+their profession should suffer, became exquisites in
+its defence. Your truly wise man, says an unexceptionable
+witness in a matter of this kind, has his
+hair closely shaved, (this was an eastern innovation,)
+but suffers his magnificent beard to fall in wavy
+curls over his breast. His shoes, fitting tight as
+wax, are supported by a net-work of thongs, disposed
+at equal distances up the small of the leg.
+A chlamys puffed out effeminately at the breast conceals
+his figure, and like a foreigner he leans contemplatively
+upon his staff.<a id='r257' /><a href='#f257' class='c012'><sup>[257]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>But the art of dress appears to have received its
+greatest improvements in Ionia, where, according to
+Democritos, the Ephesian, both the garments, at one
+time in fashion, and the stuffs of which they consisted,
+were varied with a skill and fertility of invention
+worthy of a polished people. Some persons,
+he says, appeared in robes of a violet, others of a
+purple, others of a saffron colour, sprinkled with
+dusky lozenges. As at Athens, much attention was
+bestowed on the hair, which they adorned with small
+ornamental figures. Their vests were yellow, like
+a ripe quince, or purple, or crimson, or pure white.
+Even their tunics, imported from Corinth, were of
+the finest texture, and of the richest dyes, hyacinthine
+or violet, flame-coloured or deep sea-green.
+Others adopted the Persian <em>calasiris</em>,<a id='r258' /><a href='#f258' class='c012'><sup>[258]</sup></a> of all tunics
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_74'>74</span>the most superb, and there were those among the
+opulent who even affected the Persian <em>actœa</em>, a shawl-mantle
+of the costliest and most gorgeous appearance.
+It was formed of a close-woven, but light
+stuff, bedropped with golden beads in the form of
+millet-seed, which were connected with the tissue
+by slender eyes passing through the stuff and fastened
+by a purple thread.<a id='r259' /><a href='#f259' class='c012'><sup>[259]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Duris, on the authority of the poet Asios, draws
+a scarcely less extravagant picture of the luxury
+and magnificence of the Samians, who, on certain
+festivals, appeared in public adorned, like women,
+with glittering bracelets, their hair floating on their
+shoulders, skilfully braided into tresses. The words
+of Asios preserved in the Deipnosophist are as follow:
+“Thus proceed they to the fane of Hera,
+clothed in magnificent robes, with snowy pelisses,
+trailing behind them on the ground. Glistening
+ornaments of gold, like grasshoppers, surmount the
+crown of their heads, while their luxuriant tresses
+float behind in the wind, intermingled with golden
+chains. Bracelets of variegated workmanship adorn
+their arms, as the warrior is adorned by his shield
+thongs.”<a id='r260' /><a href='#f260' class='c012'><sup>[260]</sup></a> This excess of effeminate luxury, attended
+as everywhere else by enervating vices, terminated
+in the ruin of Samos. Similar manners in
+the Colophonians drew upon them a similar fate,
+and so in every other Grecian community; for men
+never learn wisdom by the example of others, but
+hurry on in the career of indulgence as if in the
+hope that Providence might overlook them, or set
+aside, in their favour, its eternal laws.</p>
+
+<hr class='c016' />
+<div class='footnote' id='f134'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r134'>134</a>. Cf. Montaigne, Essais, t. iv.
+p. 214, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f135'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r135'>135</a>. See above, chapter ii.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f136'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r136'>136</a>. Plut. Apophtheg. Lacon.
+Charill. 2. t. i. p. 161.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f137'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r137'>137</a>. Herod. v. 87. Duris. ap.
+Schol. Eurip. Hecub. 922. Æl.
+Dionys. ap. Eustath. ad Il. p.
+963. 17. ed. Basil. Æl. Var.
+Hist. i. 18. Cf. Spanh. Observ.
+in Hymn. in Apoll. 32. t. ii.
+p. 63. Schol. Pind. Nem. i. 74.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f138'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r138'>138</a>. Poll. vii. 54. seq. Mus. Chiaramont.
+pl. 35. Antich. di Ercol.
+t. iv. tav. 24.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f139'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r139'>139</a>. Castellan, Mœurs des Ottomans,
+vi. 47.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f140'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r140'>140</a>. Schol. Eurip. Hecub. 922.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f141'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r141'>141</a>. Suidas, however, supposes
+these garments to have been less
+becoming when the girdle was
+removed, and adds ἐν Σπαρτῇ
+δὲ καὶ τάς κόρας γυμνὰς φαίνεσθαι.—v. δωριάζειν. t. i. p. 772.
+Montaigne observes, that the ancient
+Gauls made little use of
+clothing; and that the same thing
+might be said of the Irish of his
+time, t. iv. p. 214.—The French
+ladies, also, of his own day,
+affected a costume in no respect
+less indelicate than that of the
+Spartan girls: <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">“nos dames, ainsi
+molles et delicates qu’elles sont,
+elles s’en vont tantôt entre ouvertes
+jusques au nombril.”</span>—Essais,
+II. xii. t. iv. p. 213.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f142'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r142'>142</a>. Athen. xiii. 56.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f143'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r143'>143</a>. Cf. Il. ε. 425.—In the life of
+Pyrrhus, the difference between
+the dress of married women and
+that of the virgins is distinctly
+pointed out:—ἀρχομένοις δὲ
+ταῦτα πράττειν, ἧκον αὐτοις τῶν
+παρθενῶν καὶ γυναικῶν, αἱ μὲν ἐν
+ἱματίοις, καταζωσάμεναι τοὺς
+χιτωνίσκους, αἱ δὲ μονοχίτωνες,
+συναργασόμεναι τοῖς πρεσβυτέροις.
+Plut. Pyrrh. § 27.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f144'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r144'>144</a>. Taylor ad Demosth.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f145'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r145'>145</a>. Athen. xii. 5. 29. Boeckh. i.
+141. Aristoph. Lysist. 43. sqq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f146'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r146'>146</a>. Ἐκ δὲ λίνου, λινοῦς χιτὼν, ὃν
+Ἀθηναῖοι ἔφορουν ποδήρη.—Poll.
+vii. 71.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f147'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r147'>147</a>. Ælian. V. H. i. 8.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f148'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r148'>148</a>. On the ζῶνη, Cf. Il. ξ. 181.
+Odyss. τ. 231. Damm. 988.
+On the Cestus Il. ξ. 214. Aristoph.
+Lysist. 72. βαθυχζώνοι. Æschyl.
+Pers. 155. et Schol.—Bœttig.
+Les Furies, p. 34.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f149'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r149'>149</a>. Achilles Tatius. ii. cap. xi.
+p. 33, seq. Jacobs.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f150'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r150'>150</a>. Thucyd. i. 6.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f151'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r151'>151</a>. Aristoph. Lysist. 150. 735,
+et Schol.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f152'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r152'>152</a>. Poll. vii. 75.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f153'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r153'>153</a>. Aristoph. Lysist. 48. Poll.
+vii. 57. 74.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f154'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r154'>154</a>. Works, ii. 191.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f155'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r155'>155</a>. Aristoph. Lysist. 48.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f156'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r156'>156</a>. Chanaan. I. 14. p. 449.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f157'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r157'>157</a>. Corrected by Bochart, who
+reads ἔστι δὲ σφόδρα λεπτὸν ὑπὲρ
+τὴν βύσσον ἢ τὴν κάρπασον.
+Cf. Suid. v. Ἀμοργ. t. i. p. 204.
+c. Etym. Mag. 85. 15.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f158'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r158'>158</a>. Satyricon. cap. 55. p. 273.
+Burmann.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f159'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r159'>159</a>. We find, from ancient monuments,
+that persons likewise wore
+over their shoulders an article of
+dress exactly resembling the modern
+cape or tippet.—Mus. Cortonens.
+tab. 58.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f160'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r160'>160</a>. Athen. xiii. 23. Alex. Frag.
+v. 13, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f161'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r161'>161</a>. Victor. Var. Lect. ii. 6. 32.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f162'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r162'>162</a>. Plut. Quæst. Nat. § 6. t. v.
+p. 321.—Coray sur Hippocrate,
+t. II. p. 82, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f163'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r163'>163</a>. See an exact representation
+of it in the Mus. Chiaramont. pl.
+8, where we likewise find an example
+of the sleeves closed with
+agraffes.—Cf. pl. 16.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f164'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r164'>164</a>. Plates. Nos. 98. 108. 131.
+162. 172.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f165'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r165'>165</a>. Aristoph. Thesmoph. 256.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f166'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r166'>166</a>. Poll. vii. 49, seq.—The <em>peploma</em>
+of Pindar (Pyth. ix. 219)
+is now paploma. Wordsworth,
+Athens and Attica, p. 32. Cf.
+Iliad. ε. 315.—The peplos was
+sometimes embroidered with figures.—Il.
+ζ. 289–295.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f167'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r167'>167</a>. Sch. Aristoph. Eq. 564.
+Poll. vii. 50.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f168'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r168'>168</a>. Poll. vii. 50. Cf. Cyrop. iii.
+1. 13.-3. 67. In Homer, Iliad,
+γ. 385, &c. the word, ἑανὸς, signifying
+a richly-wrought vest or
+robe, is synonymous, as Pollux remarks,
+with πέπλος vii. 51. This
+is, likewise, the opinion of Buttmann,
+who, however, supposes
+it to mean a “flexibly soft garment.”—Lexil.
+Art. 41. Others
+draw a distinction between ἑανὸς
+and πέπλος, the former, they say,
+being employed to signify a veil
+unwrought and purely white, the
+latter, one which was variegated
+with colours and embroidery.
+Passow considers it to be a mere
+adjective signifying “clear, light,”
+and says, that εἷμα or ἱμάτιον is
+always understood with it.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f169'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r169'>169</a>. Poll. vii. 53. <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Jam παράπηχυ
+ λήδιον vel ἱμάτιον, collatis
+Hesychii et Pollucis interpretationibus,
+intelligi videtur dictam
+fuisse vestem albam cui manicæ
+adpositæ essent purpureæ.</span>—Schweig.
+ad Athen. xiii. 45.
+t. xii. p. 146.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f170'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r170'>170</a>. Athen. xiii. 45. Poll. <span lang="la" xml:lang="la"><i>ubi
+supra</i></span>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f171'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r171'>171</a>. Iliad, γ. 141.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f172'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r172'>172</a>. Poll. vii. 54.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f173'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r173'>173</a>. Among the Dorians the ass
+(ὄνος) was called κίλλος, and an
+ass-driver (ὀνηλάτης) κιλλακτὴρ.
+Poll. vii. 56.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f174'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r174'>174</a>. Poll. vii. 56, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f175'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r175'>175</a>. Cf. Winkelmann, iv. 2. 76.
+Alex. Pædag. ii. 12.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f176'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r176'>176</a>. Theoc. Eidyll. i. 33. Æmil.
+Port. Lex. Dor. in voce.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f177'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r177'>177</a>. Iliad. χ. 469. Heyne in loc.
+Pollux. v. 95, enumerates the
+ἄμπυξ among female ornaments,
+but without giving any description
+of it. Cf. Pind. Olymp. vii.
+118. Dissen. Comm. ad v. 64.
+Bœttiger. Pictur. Vascul. i. 87.—The
+κεκρύφαλος, or κροκύφαντος,,
+which occurs once in the Iliad,
+was a female ornament for the
+head, unknown to the later Greeks.
+The scholiast describes it as κόσμος
+τὶς περὶ κεφαλήν; and Damm
+observes that, it was <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">“redimiculam
+<em>vel</em> reticulam quo mulieres
+crines coërcent.”</span>—1158. Heyne
+is equally unsatisfactory. The
+commentators on Pollux. v. 95,
+avoid the subject altogether. Cf.
+Foës. Œcon. Hippoc. p. 202.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f178'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r178'>178</a>. Iliad, χ. 469. Πλεκτὴ ἀναδέσμη·
+οἱ μὲν διάδημα, says Apollonios,
+οἱ δὲ μίτραν. Πλὴν κοσμου
+εἶδος περὶ τὴν κεφαλὴν. This
+is the basis of Hesychius’ article.
+The Leyden scholia say:—ἀναδέσμη
+λέγεται, σειρὰ, ἥν περὶ
+τοὺς κροτάφους ἀναδοῦνται· καλεῖται
+δ᾽ ὑπ’ ἑνίων καλανδάκη.
+(In which Heyne imagines we
+may detect <em>calantica</em>, “a hood,
+hurlet, or coif.”) Κρήδεμνον δὲ
+πάλιν τὸ μαφόριον.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f179'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r179'>179</a>. Poll. v. 96. Iliad. σ. 595.
+In Homer the epithet, however,
+is not πλεκτὴ but καλὴ. Hemsterhuis
+ad Poll. t. iv. p. 998.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f180'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r180'>180</a>. Deipnosoph. xv. 22. Cf. Poll.
+v. 96.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f181'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r181'>181</a>. Cœl. Rhodig. xxvii. 27, imagines
+it to mean a female head-dress,
+or a parasol. Jungermann.
+ad Poll. v. 96. Eustath. ad Iliad.
+β. 401.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f182'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r182'>182</a>. On a mask, engraved among
+the Gemm. Antich. of Agostini,
+we find an exact representation of
+the modern feronet, pl. 24.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f183'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r183'>183</a>. Athen. xii. 62. Pollux. v. 96.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f184'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r184'>184</a>. Poll. vii. 67. 95.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f185'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r185'>185</a>. Plut. Arat. § 58.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f186'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r186'>186</a>. Clem. Alexand. Pædag. ii. 12.
+Winkelmann, Histoire de l’Art. iv.
+2. 75. note 6, and i. 2. 18. See
+also Cabinet Pio Clement, t. i. pl.
+2, with the observations of Visconti.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f187'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r187'>187</a>. Cf. Mus. Chiaramont, pl. 20.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f188'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r188'>188</a>. Poll. v. 96. vii. 95. Eustath.
+ad Dion. Perieg, v. 7. Comment.
+ad Poll. iv. 999. On the κάλαμος,
+named but not described by Pollux,
+v. 96, see Eustath. ad Il.
+τ. p. 1248. Phavor. et Hesych.
+<span lang="la" xml:lang="la"><i>in voce</i></span> καλαμις. What the
+ἔντροπον was, Jungermann confesses
+he does not know; nor do
+I, though it appears probable that
+it may have been the golden or
+gilt ornament with which the
+hair when gathered on the top of
+the head was bound together.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f189'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r189'>189</a>. Damm. 444. Aristoph. Plut.
+589. Poll. v. 96.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f190'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r190'>190</a>. This lexicographer speaks of
+it as follows:—κτένιον. ὁ φοροῦσιν
+αἱ γυναῖκες ἐν τοῖς ἀναδέμασιν,
+οἷς κόσμος χρυσοῦς ἐπὶ
+κεφαλῆς. t. ii. p. 252. b.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f191'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r191'>191</a>. 612, 23, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f192'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r192'>192</a>. Hemsterhuis. ad Poll. t. iv.
+p. 1000.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f193'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r193'>193</a>. Il. ξ. 182. Odys. σ. 296.
+Ælian. Var. Hist. i. 18.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f194'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r194'>194</a>. Fabri. Thes. v. auris.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f195'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r195'>195</a>. Damm. 2195, reads τριότταια,
+and τριοττίδες, in the passage of
+Eustathius, which forms the basis
+of my text; but Kuhn and Jungermann
+ad Poll. t. iv. p. 1003,
+correct as above.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f196'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r196'>196</a>. Onomast. v. 97.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f197'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r197'>197</a>. Il. σ. 401. Cf. Eustath. ad
+Odyss. ω. 49.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f198'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r198'>198</a>. Deipnosoph. xii. 62.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f199'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r199'>199</a>. Poll. v. 97.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f200'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r200'>200</a>. Jungermann ad Poll. t. iv.
+1001.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f201'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r201'>201</a>. Poll. v. 95.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f202'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r202'>202</a>. Odyss. σ. 290. Hymn, in
+Ven. ii. 11, seq. Necklaces of
+gilded wood. Xen. Œcon. x. 3.
+61.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f203'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r203'>203</a>. Plut. Mar. § 17. Bulenger,
+De Spoliis Bellicis, c. 12.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f204'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r204'>204</a>. Sch. Aristoph. Vesp. 677.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f205'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r205'>205</a>. Comment. ad Poll. v. 98 p.
+1003.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f206'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r206'>206</a>. Theocrit. xi. 41. Casaub.
+Lect. Theocrit. c. 13.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f207'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r207'>207</a>. Amor. § 41.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f208'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r208'>208</a>. Poll. v. 100. Golden periscelides
+are enumerated by Longus
+l. i. among the possessions of the
+young Lesbian girl; and Horace,
+Epist. i. xvii. 56, speaks of the
+periscelis being snatched away
+from a courtezan. Here Dr.
+Bentley understands the word to
+mean <em>tibialia</em>, and observes,—<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">“delicatulæ
+fasciolis involvebant
+sibi crura et femora.”</span>
+But Gesner ad Horat. p. 503,
+seq. rather supposes <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">“compedes
+mulierum,”</span> to be intended, and
+he is probably right. Cf. Petron.
+Sat. c. 67.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f209'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r209'>209</a>. Cf. Mus. Chiaram. pl. 14.
+pl. 18.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f210'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r210'>210</a>. Poll. v. 101. Rhodig. vi. 12.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f211'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r211'>211</a>. Poll. v. 101. Cf. Schol. Aristoph.
+Ran. 249. Bergler ad loc.
+renders it by <em>bulla</em>, which, among
+the Romans, signified “a golden
+ornament worn about the neck,
+or at the breast of children,
+fashioned like a heart, and hollow
+within, which they wore until
+they were fourteen years old, and
+then hung up to the household
+gods.”—Porphyr. in Horat. vid. et
+Fab. Thes. in v.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f212'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r212'>212</a>. Diog. Laert. ii. 37. c. Sch.
+Aristoph. Lysist. 417. Wooden
+shoes were worn in Thessaly.
+With these the women killed Lais
+in the temple of Aphrodite—Athen.
+xiii. 55. There was a
+species of shoes peculiar to female
+slaves called peribarides.—Poll.
+vii. 87. Aristoph. Lysist. 47.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f213'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r213'>213</a>. Sch. Aristoph. Nub. 152. See
+in Antich. di Ercol. t. vi. p. 11,
+a representation of half-boots open
+in front.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f214'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r214'>214</a>. Lucian, Diall. Meret. xiv. 3.
+ἐκ Πατάρων σανδάλια ἐπίχρυσα.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f215'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r215'>215</a>. Athen. xiii. 23. Poll. vii.
+94.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f216'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r216'>216</a>. Their perfumes and essences
+were kept in alabaster boxes from
+Phœnicia, some of which cost no
+more than two drachmæ.—Lucian,
+Diall. Meret. xiv. 2.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f217'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r217'>217</a>. Paus. ii. 37, 38.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f218'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r218'>218</a>. Aristoph. Concion. 732, et
+Schol.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f219'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r219'>219</a>. Pignor. de Serv. p. 195.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f220'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r220'>220</a>. Cf. Suid. v. κομᾷ. t. i. p.
+1489. b.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f221'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r221'>221</a>. See Pashley, i. 247. Pignor.
+de Serv. 193.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f222'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r222'>222</a>. “The beautiful colour we
+call auburn, and which the ancients
+expressed by the term
+golden, is the most common
+among the Greeks; and they
+have gilt wire and various other
+ornaments (among which might
+yet perhaps be recognised the
+Athenian grasshopper) in ringlets,
+which they allow to float
+over their shoulders, or bind
+their hair in long tresses that
+hang upon the back.”—Douglas,
+Essay, &c. p. 147, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f223'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r223'>223</a>. This is beautifully described
+by Lucian:—Γυναικὶ δὲ ἀεὶ πάσῃ
+ἡ τοῦ δαψιλεῖς μὲν ἀπὸ τῶν βοστρύχων
+τῆς κεφαλῆς ἕλικες, ὑακίνθοις
+τὸ καλὸν ἀνθοῦσιν ὅμοια
+πορφύροντες· οἱ μὲν, ἐπινώτιοι
+κέχυνται μεταφρένων κόσμος, οἱ
+δε παρ’ ὦτα καὶ κροτάφους, πολὺ
+τῶν ἐν λειμῶνι οὐλότερον σελίνων·
+τὸ δ᾽ ἄλλο σῶμα, μηδ᾽ ἀκαρῆ
+τριχὸς αὐταῖς ὑποφυομένης ἠλέκτρου,
+φάσιν, ἢ Σιδωνίας ὑέλου
+διαφεγγέστιρον ἀπαστραπται.—Amor.
+§ 26.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f224'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r224'>224</a>. Pignor. de Serv. 194, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f225'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r225'>225</a>. The young lady, in Lucian,
+describes thin hair drawn back
+so as to expose the forehead as a
+great deformity.—Diall. Meret. i.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f226'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r226'>226</a>. A taste not greatly dissimilar
+presides over the in-door dress of
+the modern Greek women. “In
+the gynecæum,” says Chandler,
+“the girl, like Thetis, treading on
+a soft carpet, has her white and
+delicate feet naked; the nails
+tinged with red. Her trowsers,
+which in winter are of red cloth,
+and in summer of fine calico or
+thin gauze, descend from the hip
+to the ankle, hanging loosely
+about her limbs, the lower portion
+embroidered with flowers,
+and appearing beneath the shift,
+which has the sleeves wide and
+open, and the seams and edges
+curiously adorned with needlework.
+Her vest is of silk, exactly
+fitted to the form of the
+bosom and the shape of the
+body, which it rather covers
+than conceals, and is shorter
+than the shift. The sleeves
+button occasionally to the hand,
+and are lined with red or yellow
+satin. A rich zone encompasses
+her waist, and is fastened
+before by clasps of silver
+gilded, or of gold, set with precious
+stones. Over the vest is
+a robe, in summer lined with
+ermine, and in cold weather
+with fur. The head-dress is a
+skull-cap, red or green, with
+pearls; a stay under the chin,
+and a yellow fore-head cloth,
+She has bracelets of gold on
+her wrists; and, like Aurora,
+is rosy-fingered, the tips being
+stained. Her necklace is a
+string of zechins, a species of
+gold coin, or of the pieces called
+Byzantines. At her cheeks is
+a lock of hair made to curl toward
+the face; and down her
+back falls a profusion of tresses,
+spreading over her shoulders.”—ii.
+140.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f227'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r227'>227</a>. Lucian. Amor. § 41. Homer
+in numerous passages celebrates
+the deep bosoms of his country
+women, and Anacreon, also,
+touches more than once on the
+same topic.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f228'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r228'>228</a>. Anchusa. Theoph. Hist.
+Plant. vii. 8. 3. Dion. Chrysost.
+i. 262. Poll. vii. 95. Aristoph.
+Lysist. 46. et Schol. Muret.
+Not. in Xen. Cyrop. p. 743, seq.
+Xen. Cyrop. i. 3. 2.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f229'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r229'>229</a>. Poll. v. 101, vii. 95.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f230'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r230'>230</a>. Xenoph. Œconom. x. 2, 60.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f231'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r231'>231</a>. Cf. Xen. de Vect. iv. 8.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f232'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r232'>232</a>. Luc. Amor. § 41, seq. Cf.
+Casaub. ad Theoph. Char. p. 339.
+Aristoph. Plut. 1015, et schol.
+Plut. Vit. x. Orat. Lycurg. In
+the country, too, women went
+often abroad, and evidently led
+a very comfortable life; their
+habits, in fact, greatly resembled
+those of English country ladies;
+the wives of men whose estates
+lay contiguous freely visiting and
+gossiping with each other. Thus
+in the action on the damage
+caused by the torrent, we find
+the wife of Tisias and the mother
+of Callicles discussing the
+spoiling of the barley and the
+barley meal, and meeting, evidently,
+as often as they thought
+proper. In fact, before the quarrel,
+the footpath across the field
+was clearly well worn.—Demosth.
+in Call. § 7.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f233'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r233'>233</a>. Aristoph. Lysist. 662.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f234'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r234'>234</a>. Poll. vii. 49.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f235'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r235'>235</a>. If the appearance of a ghost
+can be regarded as good testimony,
+it may be concluded that
+the Thessalians wore the chlamys,
+since Achilles when called up by
+Apollonios of Tyana, presented
+himself in that garment.—Philost.
+Vit. Apoll. iv. 16.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f236'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r236'>236</a>. Müll. Dor. ii. 283. Diog.
+Laert. ii. 47. Clothes were suspended
+in the house on pegs.—Odyss.
+α. 440.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f237'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r237'>237</a>. Il. ω. 230. Poll. vii. 49.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f238'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r238'>238</a>. Diog. Laert. ii. iii. 5. Cum
+not. Menag. t. ii. p. 49.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f239'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r239'>239</a>. Dion, Chrysost. i. 231.
+Reiske. On the dress of the Arcadians,
+Polyæn. Stratagem. iv. 14.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f240'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r240'>240</a>. Müller. Hist. Dor. ii. 277.
+See the picturesque description
+which Hesiod gives of the rustic
+winter costume of Bœotia. Opp.
+et Dies, 534, sqq. Goettl.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f241'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r241'>241</a>. Poll. vii. 46.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f242'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r242'>242</a>. Σαπφὼ πρώτη γὰρ μέμνηται
+τῆς χλαμύδος.—Ammonius, p.
+147. Valcken.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f243'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r243'>243</a>. Heliodor. i. and ii.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f244'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r244'>244</a>. Sch. Aristoph. Nub. 415. Cf.
+Vesp. 116, 475.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f245'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r245'>245</a>. Plut. Lyc. § 16. Inst. Lac.
+§ 5.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f246'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r246'>246</a>. Xenoph. de Rep. Laced. iii.
+4. Of Phocion, an imitator of
+Spartan manners, the same thing
+is related.—Plut Phoc. § 4.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f247'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r247'>247</a>. Herod. vii. 208, with the
+notes of Valckenaar and Wesseling.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f248'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r248'>248</a>. Plut. Instit. Lacon. § 5.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f249'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r249'>249</a>. Thucyd. i. 6. Plat. de Rep. t.
+vi. p. 167. Tim. Lex. 188.
+Aristoph. Eccles. 332. Sch. Aristoph.
+Eq. 879. Lucian. Amor.
+§ 3.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f250'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r250'>250</a>. Aristoph. Concion. 60, et
+Schol.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f251'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r251'>251</a>. Athen. v. 49.—Even slaves
+were in the habit of wearing rings
+set with precious stones, sometimes
+of three colours, of which
+several specimens are found in
+the British Museum. Thus, in
+Lucian, we find Parmenon, the
+servant of Polemon, with a ring
+of this kind on his little finger.—Diall.
+Meret. ix. 2. Cf. Hemster.
+ad Poll. ix. 96. t. vi. p. 1193.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f252'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r252'>252</a>. Poll. vii. 92, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f253'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r253'>253</a>. Casaub. ad Theoph. Char. p.
+329.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f254'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r254'>254</a>. Athen. xii. 5. Sch. Aristoph.
+Eq. 1328. Nub. 971.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f255'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r255'>255</a>. It is very clear from a passage
+in Demosthenes (De Fals. Leg. §
+72), that hats or caps were sometimes
+worn in the city. There
+are those indeed who suppose
+the word to mean a wig; but
+Brodæus disposes of this by
+inquiring whether sick persons
+would be likely to go to bed with
+their wigs on as men did with
+their πιλίδια. Miscell. i. 13.
+However, I must confess their
+wearing hats in bed is still less
+likely. The Bœotians appeared
+in winter with caps which covered
+the ears. Hesiod. Opp. et Dies,
+545. On the form of which, see
+Theoph. Hist. Plant. iii. 9. 6,
+with the note of Schneid. t. iii.
+p. 191.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f256'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r256'>256</a>. Xenoph. de Rep. Athen. i. 10.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f257'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r257'>257</a>. Athen. xi. 120. On the
+gorgeous dress of the painter
+Parrhasios. xii. 62.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f258'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r258'>258</a>. We find mention made of
+Persian dresses variegated with
+the figures of animals. Philost.
+Icon. ii. 32.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f259'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r259'>259</a>. Athen. xii. 29.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f260'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r260'>260</a>. Athen. xii. 30.</p>
+</div>
+<hr class='c016' />
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+ <span class='pageno' id='Page_75'>75</span>
+ <h2 class='c004'>BOOK IV.</h2>
+</div>
+
+<h3 class='c002'>CHAPTER I. <br /> PRIVATE DWELLINGS.</h3>
+
+<p class='c011'>The opinion appears to prevail among certain
+writers, that the private dwellings of the Hellenes,
+or at least of the Athenians, were always mean and
+insignificant.<a id='r261' /><a href='#f261' class='c012'><sup>[261]</sup></a> This imaginary fact they account for
+by supposing, that nobles and opulent citizens were
+deterred from indulging in the luxuries of architecture
+by the form of government and the envious
+jealousy of the common people. But such a view of
+the matter is inconsistent with the testimony of history.
+At Athens, as everywhere else, things followed
+their natural course. In the early ages of the commonwealth,
+when manners were simple, the houses
+of the greatest men in the state differed very little
+from those of their neighbours. As wealth, however,
+and luxury increased, together with the developement
+of the democratic principle, individuals erected themselves
+mansions vying in extent and splendour with
+the public edifices of the state;<a id='r262' /><a href='#f262' class='c012'><sup>[262]</sup></a> and as the polity
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_76'>76</span>degenerated more and more into ochlocracy, the dwellings
+of the rich<a id='r263' /><a href='#f263' class='c012'><sup>[263]</sup></a> increased in size and grandeur, until
+they at length outstripped the very temples of the
+gods. A similar process took place at Sparta, where
+shortly after the Peloponnesian war, the more distinguished
+citizens possessed suburban villas, which
+seem to have been of spacious dimensions and filled
+with costly furniture.<a id='r264' /><a href='#f264' class='c012'><sup>[264]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Upon these points, however, I dwell, not from any
+belief that they are honourable to the Greek character,
+but because they are true. It would have
+been more satisfactory to find them preserving, in
+every period of their history, the stern and lofty
+simplicity of republican manners, far outshining in
+the eyes of the philosopher the palaces of Oriental
+kings glittering with gold and ivory and jewels, insomuch
+that the cottage of Socrates, erected in the
+humblest style of Athenian domestic architecture,
+would be an object, were it still in existence, of
+far deeper interest to the genuine lover of antiquity
+than the mansions of Meidias or Callias, or even
+than the imperial abodes of Semiramis, Darius, and
+Artaxerxes.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Nevertheless, wherever there exists opulence, it
+will exhibit itself in the erection of stately dwellings;
+and accordingly we find that, prior even to
+the Trojan war,<a id='r265' /><a href='#f265' class='c012'><sup>[265]</sup></a> commerce and increasing luxury had
+already inspired the Greeks with a taste for splendour
+and magnificence, which displayed itself especially
+in the architecture and ornaments of their
+palaces and houses of the great.<a id='r266' /><a href='#f266' class='c012'><sup>[266]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Homer, minute and graphic in his descriptions,
+delineates a very flattering picture of Greek domestic
+architecture in his time, when the chiefs
+and nobles had already begun to enshrine themselves
+in spacious edifices, elaborately ornamented
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_77'>77</span>with, and surrounded by, all the circumstances of
+pomp known to their age.<a id='r267' /><a href='#f267' class='c012'><sup>[267]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>In those days the greatest men did not disdain
+to apply themselves to agriculture, to have their
+dwellings surrounded by the signs and implements
+of the pursuit in which they were engaged.<a id='r268' /><a href='#f268' class='c012'><sup>[268]</sup></a> And
+as in southern Italy the ancient nobles erected shops
+in front of their palaces or villas, in which the produce
+of their land was disposed of, so in the Homeric
+houses the same space was occupied by the
+farm-yard enclosed by strong and lofty walls, surrounded
+by battlements, within which were their
+heaps of manure, harrows, ploughs, carts, and waggons,
+and stacks of hay and corn;<a id='r269' /><a href='#f269' class='c012'><sup>[269]</sup></a> and hither, too,
+in the evening were driven in their numerous flocks
+and herds, to protect them from the nightly marauders.
+The great entrance gates were in the heroic
+ages guarded by ban dogs,<a id='r270' /><a href='#f270' class='c012'><sup>[270]</sup></a> which afterwards made
+way for porters,<a id='r271' /><a href='#f271' class='c012'><sup>[271]</sup></a> and in still later times were succeeded
+by eunuchs.<a id='r272' /><a href='#f272' class='c012'><sup>[272]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Occasionally for the canine doorkeepers were substituted
+in commercial states gold and silver representations,
+more likely to attract than repel thieves;
+for example, at the entrance to Alcinoös’s palace
+were groups of this description, attributed to the
+wonder-working Hephæstos.<a id='r273' /><a href='#f273' class='c012'><sup>[273]</sup></a> A coarse imitation of
+this practice prevailed among the Romans, for we find
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_78'>78</span>in Petronius that Trimalchio had his court guarded
+by a painted mastiff, over which in good square characters
+were the words “Beware of the dog.”<a id='r274' /><a href='#f274' class='c012'><sup>[274]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Along the walls of this enclosure the cattle-sheds
+would in remoter ages appear to have been ranged,
+where afterwards stood suites of chambers for the
+domestics, or piazzas, or colonades, to serve as covered
+walks in extremely hot or bad weather. Within,
+on either side the gateway,<a id='r275' /><a href='#f275' class='c012'><sup>[275]</sup></a> chiefly among the Dorians,
+rose a pillar of conical shape, sometimes an
+obelisk, in honour of Apollo or of Dionysos, or,
+according to others, of both, while in the centre
+was an altar of Zeus Herceios, on which family sacrifices
+were offered up.<a id='r276' /><a href='#f276' class='c012'><sup>[276]</sup></a> At its inner extremity
+you beheld a spacious portico, adjoining the entrance
+to the house, where in warm weather the young men
+often slept. From the descriptions of the poet, however,
+it would appear to have been something more
+than a common portico, resembling rather the porches
+of our old English houses, roofed over and extending
+like a recess into the body of the house itself.
+In the dwellings of the great, this part of the
+building, adorned with numerous statues, was probably
+of marble finely polished if not sculptured,
+and being merely a chamber open in front could
+not in those fine climates be by any means an unpleasant
+bedroom, particularly as it usually faced
+the south and caught the early rays of the sun.
+Here Odysseus<a id='r277' /><a href='#f277' class='c012'><sup>[277]</sup></a> slept during his stay with Alcinoös,
+as did likewise Priam and the Trojan Herald while
+guests of Achilles in his military hut.<a id='r278' /><a href='#f278' class='c012'><sup>[278]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>In this porch were seats of handsome polished
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_79'>79</span>stone, as in the palace of Nestor at Pylos, which,
+to render them more shining, would appear to have
+been rubbed with oil.<a id='r279' /><a href='#f279' class='c012'><sup>[279]</sup></a> Similar seats are found to
+this day before the houses of the wealthy at Cairo
+and other cities of the East, where in the cool of
+the evening old men habitually take their station,
+and are joined for the purpose of gossip by their
+neighbours. In the larger towns of Nubia an open
+space planted with dates, palms, or the Egyptian
+fig-tree, more shady and spreading than the oak,
+and furnished with wooden seats, collects together
+the elders, who there enjoy what the Englishman
+seeks in his club, and the Greek found in his lesche—the
+pleasure of comparing his opinions with those
+of his neighbours.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>When, in after times, this plain porch had been
+succeeded by a magnificent peristyle or colonnade,
+the primitive custom of sleeping in the open air was
+abandoned; but here the master of the house with
+his guests took their early walk to enjoy the morning
+sun. It was customary among all ranks at Athens
+to rise betimes, as it generally is still in the warm
+countries of the South. Socrates and his young
+friend, the sophist-hunter,<a id='r280' /><a href='#f280' class='c012'><sup>[280]</sup></a> coming to the house of
+Callias, soon after day-break, find its owner taking
+the air with several of his guests in the colonnade,
+the young men moving in the train of their elders,
+and making way for them as they turn round to retrace
+their steps. There was usually at Athens a
+similar peristyle on both sides of the house—one
+for summer the other for winter, and a door generally
+opened from the women’s apartment into that
+communicating with the garden, where the ladies
+enjoyed the cool air in the midst of laurel copses,
+fountains, and patches of green sward,<a id='r281' /><a href='#f281' class='c012'><sup>[281]</sup></a> interspersed
+with rose-trees, violet-beds, and other sweet shrubs
+and flowers.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'><span class='pageno' id='Page_80'>80</span>The town-houses of Homeric times had generally
+no aulè, but the porch opened directly into the street,
+since it is here that, in the description of the shield,
+we find the women standing to behold the dancers
+and enjoy the music of the nuptial procession.<a id='r282' /><a href='#f282' class='c012'><sup>[282]</sup></a> Afterwards,
+as the taste for magnificence advanced, the
+whole façade of the corps de logis<a id='r283' /><a href='#f283' class='c012'><sup>[283]</sup></a> was richly ornamented,
+while the outer gates were purposely left
+open, that the passers-by might witness the splendour
+of the owner. Occasionally, likewise, the great
+door, leading from the portico into the house, was
+concealed by costly purple hangings,<a id='r284' /><a href='#f284' class='c012'><sup>[284]</sup></a> which, being
+passed, you entered a broad passage, having on either
+side, doors<a id='r285' /><a href='#f285' class='c012'><sup>[285]</sup></a> leading into the apartments on the ground
+floor, and conducting to an inner court, surrounded
+by a peristyle, where the gynæconitis,<a id='r286' /><a href='#f286' class='c012'><sup>[286]</sup></a> or harem, commenced.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The apartments of palaces displayed, even in very
+early times, the taste of the Greeks for splendour
+and magnificence. The walls were covered with
+wainscoting inlaid with gold and ivory, as we still
+find in the East whole chambers lined with mother-of-pearl.<a id='r287' /><a href='#f287' class='c012'><sup>[287]</sup></a>
+At first, the gold was laid on in thin plates,
+which, in process of time, led to the idea of gilding.<a id='r288' /><a href='#f288' class='c012'><sup>[288]</sup></a>
+Even Phocion, who affected great simplicity and
+plainness, had the walls of his house adorned with
+laminæ of copper,<a id='r289' /><a href='#f289' class='c012'><sup>[289]</sup></a> probably in the same style as that
+subterraneous chamber discovered, during the last
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_81'>81</span>century, in the excavations made at Rome. It appears,
+too, that, occasionally, the walls of the apartments
+at Athens, as at Herculaneum and Pompeii
+were decorated with paintings in bright colours,<a id='r290' /><a href='#f290' class='c012'><sup>[290]</sup></a>
+probably in the same style, though as much superior
+in beauty and delicacy of execution, as art, in
+the age of Pericles, was superior to art in the days
+of Nero. Still the paintings discovered in the excavated
+Italian cities,—sometimes<a id='r291' /><a href='#f291' class='c012'><sup>[291]</sup></a> grotesque and extravagant,
+as where we behold the pigmies making
+war upon the cranes, winged geniuses at work in a
+carpenter’s or shoemaker’s shop, or an ass laden with
+hampers of wine, rushing forward to engage a crocodile,
+whilst his master pulls him back by the tail—sometimes
+rural and elegant, consisting of a series
+of wild landscapes, mountains dotted with cottages,
+sea-shores, harbours, and baths, Nymphs and Cupids
+angling on the borders of lakes, beneath trees of the
+softest and most exquisite foliage,—may enable us
+to form some conception of the landscapes with
+which Agelarcos<a id='r292' /><a href='#f292' class='c012'><sup>[292]</sup></a> adorned the house of Alcibiades.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The halls and saloons on the ground-floor were
+paved with marble or mosaic work,<a id='r293' /><a href='#f293' class='c012'><sup>[293]</sup></a> which often, if
+we may judge from the specimens left us by their
+imitators, represented pictures of the greatest elegance,
+containing, among other things, likenesses of
+the loveliest divinities of Olympos.<a id='r294' /><a href='#f294' class='c012'><sup>[294]</sup></a> These mosaics
+were wrought with minute shards of precious marbles
+of various colours, interspersed with pieces of
+amber,<a id='r295' /><a href='#f295' class='c012'><sup>[295]</sup></a> and, probably, also, of glass, as was the
+fashion in Italy, where whole hyaline floors have
+been found consisting either of one piece or of
+squares so finely joined together, that the sutures
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_82'>82</span>were invisible to the naked eye. No mention, I believe,
+is made in Greek authors of lining the walls
+of apartments with glass, or even of glass windows,<a id='r296' /><a href='#f296' class='c012'><sup>[296]</sup></a>
+which, however, were common in the cities of Magna
+Græcia in the age immediately succeeding that of
+our Saviour. It is extremely probable, however,
+that as the Greeks were as well acquainted as the
+Romans with the properties of the lapis specularis;<a id='r297' /><a href='#f297' class='c012'><sup>[297]</sup></a>
+they likewise made use of thin plates of this stone,
+or talc, or gypsum, as they still do in Egypt for
+window-panes. So much, indeed, seems inferable
+from a passage of Plutarch,<a id='r298' /><a href='#f298' class='c012'><sup>[298]</sup></a> as, also, that transparent
+squares of horn were employed for the same
+purpose, as oyster-shells and oiled paper still are
+in China. Previously, however, the windows<a id='r299' /><a href='#f299' class='c012'><sup>[299]</sup></a> (sometimes
+square and situated high in the wall, sometimes
+reaching from the ceiling to the floor) were
+closed with lattice-work<a id='r300' /><a href='#f300' class='c012'><sup>[300]</sup></a> in iron, bronze, or wood,
+over which, in bad weather, blinds of hair-cloth or
+prepared leather were usually drawn.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The ceilings at first consisted merely of the beams,
+rafters, and planks, forming the roof, and supporting
+the layers of earth or straw that covered it; but, by
+degrees, the wood-work was carefully painted, and
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_83'>83</span>arranged so as to form a succession of coffers and
+deep sunken panels. Sometimes the whole ceiling
+consisted of chamfered, or fretted cedar work,<a id='r301' /><a href='#f301' class='c012'><sup>[301]</sup></a> or
+of cypress wood, or was covered with paintings in
+blue and gold, and supported on columns<a id='r302' /><a href='#f302' class='c012'><sup>[302]</sup></a> lofty and
+deeply fluted for the purpose, as has been ingeniously
+conjectured,<a id='r303' /><a href='#f303' class='c012'><sup>[303]</sup></a> of receiving spears into the semi-cylindrical
+cavities thus formed. If this idea be well
+founded, we have a very satisfactory reason of the
+origin of fluting columns, and it appears to be perfectly
+consistent with Homer’s account of Odysseus’s
+chamber, where a number of lances are spoken of
+standing round a pillar.<a id='r304' /><a href='#f304' class='c012'><sup>[304]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The principal apartments, according to the fashion
+still prevailing in the East, were furnished with
+divans,<a id='r305' /><a href='#f305' class='c012'><sup>[305]</sup></a> or broad immovable seats, running along the
+walls, which are now stuffed soft atop with cotton,
+and covered with scarlet or purple, bordered by gold
+fringe a foot deep. In the Homeric age they would
+appear to have been of carved wood, inlaid with
+ivory and gold, and studded with silver nails.<a id='r306' /><a href='#f306' class='c012'><sup>[306]</sup></a> For
+these divans they had a variety of coverings, sometimes
+skins, at others purple carpets, in addition to
+which they, as now, piled up, as a rest for the back
+or elbow, heaps of cushions, purple above, and of
+white linen beneath.<a id='r307' /><a href='#f307' class='c012'><sup>[307]</sup></a> By degrees, these seats became
+movable and were converted into couches or
+sofas, manufactured of bronze, or silver, or precious
+woods, veneered with tortoiseshell.<a id='r308' /><a href='#f308' class='c012'><sup>[308]</sup></a> In the palaces
+of oriental sultans they are sometimes made of
+alabaster, encrusted with jewels. Somewhere in the
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_84'>84</span>more retired parts of the Domos were the picture-gallery
+and library, of neither of which have we any
+exact description. The former, however, faced the
+north, and the latter the west. If the libraries of
+the Greeks at all resembled in form and dimensions
+those found at Pompeii, they were by no means
+spacious; neither, in fact, was a great deal of room
+necessary, as the manuscripts of the ancients stowed
+away much closer than our modern books,<a id='r309' /><a href='#f309' class='c012'><sup>[309]</sup></a> and were
+sometimes kept in circular boxes, of elegant form,
+with covers of turned wood. The volumes consisted
+of rolls of parchment, sometimes purple at the back,<a id='r310' /><a href='#f310' class='c012'><sup>[310]</sup></a>
+or papyrus, about twelve or fourteen inches in breadth,
+and as many feet long as the subject required.
+The pages formed a number of transverse compartments,
+commencing at the left, and proceeding in
+order to the other extremity, and the reader, holding
+in either hand one end of the manuscript, unrolled
+and rolled it up<a id='r311' /><a href='#f311' class='c012'><sup>[311]</sup></a> as he read. Occasionally
+these books were placed on shelves, in piles, with
+the ends outwards, adorned with golden bosses,<a id='r312' /><a href='#f312' class='c012'><sup>[312]</sup></a> the
+titles of the various treatises being written on pendant
+labels.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>If we proceed now to the court<a id='r313' /><a href='#f313' class='c012'><sup>[313]</sup></a> dividing the Domos
+from the Thalamos we shall perceive, on both sides
+of the door leading out of the Andron, flights of
+steps ascending to the upper chambers where, in
+the heroic ages, the young men and strangers of
+distinction usually slept. Thus, in the palace of
+Ithaca, Telemachos had a bed-chamber on the second
+story, whence the poet is careful to observe he enjoyed
+a good prospect.<a id='r314' /><a href='#f314' class='c012'><sup>[314]</sup></a> In later times, however,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_85'>85</span>there were, on the ground floor, suites of apartments,
+denominated Xenon, appropriated to the use of guests,
+who there lived freely and at ease as in their own
+houses.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>At the further extremity of the interior court a
+steep flight of steps led to an elevated basement and
+doorway, which formed the entrance into the thalamos.<a id='r315' /><a href='#f315' class='c012'><sup>[315]</sup></a>
+This part of the house would appear to
+have been laid out in a peculiar manner, consisting,
+first, of a lofty and spacious apartment,<a id='r316' /><a href='#f316' class='c012'><sup>[316]</sup></a> where all
+the females of the family usually sat while engaged
+in embroidery or other needlework.<a id='r317' /><a href='#f317' class='c012'><sup>[317]</sup></a> It likewise
+formed the nursery, and, at its inner extremity, in a
+deep recess, the bed of the mistress of the family
+appears to have stood, on either side of which were
+doors leading to flights of steps into the garden,
+set apart for the use of the women.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>It has by many been supposed, that the Thalamos
+was a chamber particularly appropriated to the use
+of young unmarried ladies; but, since we find Helen
+and Penelope inhabiting the Thalamos, it may be presumed
+that it was common to all the females of the
+house. Hector, in his visit to Paris, finds him in the
+Thalamos, turning about and polishing his arms, as
+if he meant to use them, while, close at hand, are
+Helen and her maids engaged in weaving or embroidery.
+The word was often used in the same
+signification as Gynæconitis,<a id='r318' /><a href='#f318' class='c012'><sup>[318]</sup></a> or “the harem;” and,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_86'>86</span>therefore, when Theocritus<a id='r319' /><a href='#f319' class='c012'><sup>[319]</sup></a> speaks of a “maiden
+from the Thalamus,” and Phocylides, with the suspicious
+caution of a more vicious age, advises that young
+women be kept in “well-locked Thalamoi,” it is clear
+that the female apartments generally are meant.
+These were, in Sparta, called οα̈ (which, as is well
+known, in the common language of Greece, <a id='corr86.7'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='signinifies'>signifies</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_86.7'><ins class='correction' title='signinifies'>signifies</ins></a></span>
+eggs), whence, according to Clearchos,<a id='r320' /><a href='#f320' class='c012'><sup>[320]</sup></a> the
+fable which describes Helen proceeding from an egg,
+because born and educated in the chambers so called.
+Throughout the Iliad and the Odyssey we find the
+poet speaking of this part of the house as inhabited
+by women. Here lived Penelope,<a id='r321' /><a href='#f321' class='c012'><sup>[321]</sup></a> far from the
+brawls of the suitors who crowded the halls of the
+Domos; and here Ares pressed his suit with success
+to Astyoche and Polymela, who both became the
+mothers of valiant sons.<a id='r322' /><a href='#f322' class='c012'><sup>[322]</sup></a> From which, among many
+other circumstances, it is manifest that, in those
+ages, the sexes met easily, even the entrance to the
+harem not being impracticable to a lover.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The bedchambers of the young unmarried women
+appear to have flanked the great central hall of the
+Thalamos, and here the female slaves likewise slept,
+apparently in recesses, near the chamber-doors of
+their mistresses, as we find particularly remarked
+in the case of Nausicaa and her maids. At Athens,
+the door of communication between the Andron<a id='r323' /><a href='#f323' class='c012'><sup>[323]</sup></a> and
+the Gynæconitis was kept carefully barred and locked
+to prevent all intercourse between the male and
+female slaves, the keys being entrusted solely to
+the mistress of the house.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>As these apartments were less exposed than any
+other portion of the building, and far more carefully
+guarded, it became customary, as in the East
+it still is, to lay up in the Thalamos, more especially
+in the dark basement story, much valuable
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_87'>87</span>property, such as arms, gold, silver, the wardrobe
+of both sexes, and even oil and wine. Among the
+Romans, or, indeed, among the Greeks, of a later
+age,<a id='r324' /><a href='#f324' class='c012'><sup>[324]</sup></a> this step would scarcely have been taken, lest
+the ladies should have grown too assiduous in their
+attention to the skins. But in remoter ages these
+sordid fears had no existence. Accordingly, we find
+the prudent Odysseus, who apprehended, perhaps,
+the tricks of his domestics, stowing away his casks
+of choice old wine in the Thalamos, doubtless, considering
+it safer there, under the keeping of Euryclea,
+than it would have been anywhere else in the
+palace.<a id='r325' /><a href='#f325' class='c012'><sup>[325]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>In later and more civilized ages, the Thalamos
+was still used for the same purposes; for, in the
+establishment of Ischomachos, a pattern of Attic
+economy, we find that the more valuable portion of
+the family wardrobe, with the plate and other costly
+utensils, was there deposited. Corn, according to the
+suggestions of common sense, they laid up in the
+driest rooms, wine in the coolest. The apartments
+into which most sunshine found its way were appropriated
+to such employments and to the display
+of such furniture as required much light.<a id='r326' /><a href='#f326' class='c012'><sup>[326]</sup></a> Their
+dining-rooms, where, also, the men usually sat when
+at home, they carefully contrived so as to be cool
+in summer and warm in winter, though, in severe
+weather, a good fire was often found necessary.<a id='r327' /><a href='#f327' class='c012'><sup>[327]</sup></a>
+The same judicious principle commonly regulated
+the erection of their habitations, which were divided
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_88'>88</span>into two sets of apartments, suited to the two great
+divisions of the year. As we have already remarked,
+the principal front looked towards the south, that
+it might catch the rays of the wintry sun, whose
+more vertical summer beams were excluded by broad
+verandahs, or colonnades.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>In what part of the edifice stood the bathing-room
+(βαλανεῖον, so called from its having, in remoter ages,
+been heated with acorns, βάλανοι)<a id='r328' /><a href='#f328' class='c012'><sup>[328]</sup></a> I have been unable
+to discover, though it appears certain that,
+even so far back as the heroic ages, a chamber
+was always set apart for the bath. At first, doubtless,
+they were content with cold water; but that
+this was soon succeeded by warm water<a id='r329' /><a href='#f329' class='c012'><sup>[329]</sup></a> may be conjectured
+from the tradition ascribing the first use
+of it to Heracles, whence warm baths were ever
+afterwards called the Baths of Heracles.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The form of the Puelos,<a id='r330' /><a href='#f330' class='c012'><sup>[330]</sup></a> or vessel in which they
+bathed, appears occasionally to have resembled an
+Egyptian sarcophagus, and to have been sometimes
+round, and constructed of white or green marble,
+or glass, or bronze, or common stone, or wood,<a id='r331' /><a href='#f331' class='c012'><sup>[331]</sup></a> in
+which case it would seem to have been portable. In
+the baths of Pompeii the marble basins, whether
+parallelogramatic or circular, were of spacious dimensions,
+and raised two or three feet above the pavement.
+A step for the convenience of the bathers
+extends round it on the inside, and at the bottom are
+marble cushions upon which they rested. In the labra
+of the Grecian female baths rose a smooth cippus in
+the form of a truncated cone, denominated omphalos,
+on which the ladies sat while chatting with their female
+companions.<a id='r332' /><a href='#f332' class='c012'><sup>[332]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>When once the warm bath came into use, people
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_89'>89</span>employed it to excess, bathing as frequently as five
+or six times a day, and in water so hot as to half
+scald themselves.<a id='r333' /><a href='#f333' class='c012'><sup>[333]</sup></a> Immediately afterwards, to prevent
+the skin from chapping, they anointed their
+bodies with oils and perfumed unguents.<a id='r334' /><a href='#f334' class='c012'><sup>[334]</sup></a> Occasionally,
+instead of plunging into the water, they sat upright,
+as is still the custom in the hammāms of the
+East, while the water was poured with a sort of ladle
+on their head and shoulders.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The public baths, of which no full description referring
+to very ancient times remains, were numerous
+in all Hellenic cities, more particularly at Athens,
+where they were surmounted with domes,<a id='r335' /><a href='#f335' class='c012'><sup>[335]</sup></a> and received
+their light from above. These establishments
+were frequented by all classes of women who could
+afford to pay for such luxury, rich, poor, honourable,
+and dishonourable.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The attendants, in later and more corrupt times
+at least, were men, whose sole clothing consisted of
+a leathern apron about the loins, while the ladies, who
+undressed in the Apodyterion, went through the various
+processes of the bath in the same primitive
+clothing. It was, however, customary for them to
+enter the water together in crowds,<a id='r336' /><a href='#f336' class='c012'><sup>[336]</sup></a> so that they kept
+each other in countenance. Here the matrons who
+had sons to marry studied the form and character of
+the young ladies who frequented the baths; and as
+all the defects both of person and features were necessarily
+revealed, it was next to impossible for any lady,
+not sufficiently opulent to keep up a bathing establishment
+in her own house, to retain for any length of
+time an undeserved celebrity for beauty. In the
+baths of the East, the bodies of the bathers are
+cleansed by small bags of camel-hair, woven rough,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_90'>90</span>and passed over the hand of the attendant; or with
+a handful of the fine fibres of the Mekka palm-tree
+combed soft, and filled with fragrant and saponaceous
+earths, which are rubbed on the skin till the whole
+body is covered with froth. Similar means were
+employed in the baths of Greece, and the whole was
+afterwards cleansed off the skin by gold or silver stlengides,
+or blunt scrapers somewhat curved towards the
+point.<a id='r337' /><a href='#f337' class='c012'><sup>[337]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The architectural arrangements of these baths,<a id='r338' /><a href='#f338' class='c012'><sup>[338]</sup></a> if
+we may draw any analogy from similar establishments
+in a later age, were nearly as follows:—Entering
+the building by a lofty and spacious portico, you
+found yourself in a large hall, paved with marble and
+adorned with columns, from which, through a side-door,
+you passed into the Apodyterion, or undressing-room;
+next, into a chamber where was the cold water
+in basins of porphyry or green jasper; immediately
+contiguous lay the Tepidarium, to which succeeded
+the Sudarium, a vaulted apartment furnished with
+basins of warm water, and where the heat was excessive;
+from this, moving forward, you successively traversed
+saloons of various degrees of temperature and
+dimensions, until you found yourself in the dressing-room,
+whither your garments had been carried by
+your domestic, or the attendants on the baths.<a id='r339' /><a href='#f339' class='c012'><sup>[339]</sup></a> These
+establishments were likewise provided with water-closets,<a id='r340' /><a href='#f340' class='c012'><sup>[340]</sup></a>
+placed in a retired part of the building, and
+furnished with wooden seats, basin and water-pipe, as
+in modern times.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>To diminish the chances of being robbed, stealing
+from a bath was at Athens made a capital
+offence;<a id='r341' /><a href='#f341' class='c012'><sup>[341]</sup></a> so that the persons who frequented them
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_91'>91</span>ran very little risk. The price was usually moderate,
+though in some cities, as for example at Phaselis,
+they were in the habit of doubling their
+charges to foreigners, which drew from a witty sophist
+a very cutting remark; for his slave disputing
+with the keeper of the bath, and contending that
+his master ought not to be charged more than
+other persons, the sophist, who overheard the dispute,
+exclaimed, <a id='corr91.10'></a><a href='#c_91.10'><ins class='correction' title='See comment.'>“Wretch</ins></a>, would you make me a
+‘Phaselitan for a farthing?’”<a id='r342' /><a href='#f342' class='c012'><sup>[342]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The roofs of the more ancient Greek houses were
+generally flat,<a id='r343' /><a href='#f343' class='c012'><sup>[343]</sup></a> not sloping upwards to a point, as
+was afterwards the fashion.<a id='r344' /><a href='#f344' class='c012'><sup>[344]</sup></a> In Egypt and Syria,
+and almost throughout the East, the same taste
+still obtains; and as palm trees, loftier than the
+buildings, often grow beside the walls, and extend
+their beautiful pendulous branches over a great part
+of the roof, nothing can be more delightful on a
+mild serene evening than to sit aloft on those
+breezy eminences sipping coffee, gazing over the
+green rice fields, or watching the stars as they put
+forth their golden lamps through the violet skirts
+of day. But there a parapet usually preserves him
+who enjoys the scene from falling. It was otherwise
+of old in Greece. The roof consisted simply
+of a number of beams laid close together and covered
+with cement, so that, as was proved by the fate
+of Elpenor,<a id='r345' /><a href='#f345' class='c012'><sup>[345]</sup></a> the practice of sleeping there in warm
+weather, quite common throughout the country, was
+not wholly without danger.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>On the construction of the kitchen,<a id='r346' /><a href='#f346' class='c012'><sup>[346]</sup></a> which in
+Greek houses was sometimes a separate little building
+erected in the court-yard, our information is
+extremely imperfect. It is certain, however, contrary
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_92'>92</span>to the common opinion, that it was furnished
+with a chimney,<a id='r347' /><a href='#f347' class='c012'><sup>[347]</sup></a> and that the smoke was not permitted
+to find its way through an aperture in the
+roof. Thus much might be inferred from a passage
+in the Wasps, when the old dicast, in love
+with the courts of law, is endeavouring to escape
+from the restraint imposed on him by his son, by
+climbing out through the chimney. It is clear that
+he has got into some aperture, where he is hidden
+from sight, for hearing a noise in the wall, his son
+Bdelycleon, cries out, “What is that?” upon which
+the old man replies, “I am only the smoke.” It
+is plain, that he would not, like a Hindù Yoghi,
+be balancing himself in the air, otherwise the young
+man must have beheld him sailing up towards the
+roof. But the matter is set entirely at rest by the
+Scholiast, who observes, that the καπνοδόχη was a
+narrow channel like a pipe through which the smoke
+ascended from the kitchen. This explanation has
+been confirmed by the discoveries of Colonel Leake,<a id='r348' /><a href='#f348' class='c012'><sup>[348]</sup></a>
+who on the rocky slopes of the hill of the Museion
+and Pnyx, found the remains of a house
+partly excavated in the rock, in which the chimney
+still remained.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The same convenience, also, existed in the Roman
+kitchens,<a id='r349' /><a href='#f349' class='c012'><sup>[349]</sup></a> though they would appear to have been
+unskilfully constructed in both countries, since the
+cooks complain of the smoke being borne hither
+and thither by the wind, and interfering with their
+operations. However, this may have arisen from
+the numerous small furnaces which, as in France,
+were ranged along the wall for the purpose of cooking
+several dishes at once. The chimneys having
+been perpendicular, as in our old farm-houses, were
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_93'>93</span>furnished with stoppers to keep out the rain in bad
+weather.<a id='r350' /><a href='#f350' class='c012'><sup>[350]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>That the kitchens were sometimes not sufficiently
+airy and comfortable may be inferred from the practice
+of a philosophical cook in Damoxenos, who used
+to take his station immediately outside the door, and
+from thence give his orders to the inferior operatives.
+Great care was nevertheless taken that it
+should be well lighted, and that the door should
+be so situated as to be as little exposed as possible
+to whirling gusts of wind.<a id='r351' /><a href='#f351' class='c012'><sup>[351]</sup></a> From a passage in the
+Scholiast on the Wasps, and the existence of drains
+in the excavations on the hill of the Museion, it is
+clear that the Athenian houses were furnished with
+sinks,<a id='r352' /><a href='#f352' class='c012'><sup>[352]</sup></a> though in the Italian kitchens there seem
+merely to have been little channels running along
+the walls to carry off the water. The floor, too, was
+constructed in both countries with a view at once
+to dryness and elegance,<a id='r353' /><a href='#f353' class='c012'><sup>[353]</sup></a> being formed of several
+layers of various materials all porous though binding,
+so that it allowed whatever water was spilt to sink
+through instantaneously. The upper layer, about
+six inches thick, consisted of a cement composed of
+lime, sand, and pounded charcoal or ashes, the surface
+of which, being polished with pumice-stone,
+presented to the eye the appearance of a fine black
+marble. The roof in early times was no doubt of
+wood,<a id='r354' /><a href='#f354' class='c012'><sup>[354]</sup></a> though afterwards it came to be vaulted or
+run up in the form of a cupola. The walls were
+sometimes decorated with rude paintings.<a id='r355' /><a href='#f355' class='c012'><sup>[355]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The street-door of a Grecian house, usually, when
+single, opened outwards, but when there were folding
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_94'>94</span>doors they opened inwards as with us.<a id='r356' /><a href='#f356' class='c012'><sup>[356]</sup></a> In the
+former case it was customary when any one happened
+to be going forth, to knock, or call, or ring
+a bell, in order to warn passengers to make way.<a id='r357' /><a href='#f357' class='c012'><sup>[357]</sup></a>
+These doors were constructed of various materials,<a id='r358' /><a href='#f358' class='c012'><sup>[358]</sup></a>
+according to the taste and circumstances of the
+owner, sometimes of oak, or fir, or maple, or elm;
+and afterwards as luxury advanced they were made
+of cedar, cyprus, or even of citron wood, inlaid as
+in the East, with plates of brass or gold.<a id='r359' /><a href='#f359' class='c012'><sup>[359]</sup></a> Mention
+is likewise made of doors entirely composed of
+the precious metals; of iron also, and bronze and
+ivory.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The jambs were generally of wood;<a id='r360' /><a href='#f360' class='c012'><sup>[360]</sup></a> but likewise
+sometimes of brass or marble. The doors were fastened
+at first by long bars passing into the wall on both
+sides;<a id='r361' /><a href='#f361' class='c012'><sup>[361]</sup></a> and by degrees smaller bolts, hasps, latches,
+and locks and keys succeeded. For example the
+outer door of the Thalamos in Homer was secured
+by a silver hasp, and a leathern thong passed round
+the handle and tied, perhaps, in a curious knot.<a id='r362' /><a href='#f362' class='c012'><sup>[362]</sup></a>
+Doors were not usually suspended on hinges, but
+turned, as they still do in the East, upon pivots
+inserted above into the lintel and below into the
+threshhold.<a id='r363' /><a href='#f363' class='c012'><sup>[363]</sup></a> In many houses there were in addition
+small half-doors of open wood-work,<a id='r364' /><a href='#f364' class='c012'><sup>[364]</sup></a> which
+alone were commonly closed by day, in order to
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_95'>95</span>keep the children from running out, or dogs or pigs
+from entering. The doors usually consisted of a
+frame-work, with four or six sunken panels, as with
+us; but at Sparta, so long as the laws of Lycurgus
+prevailed, they were made of simple planks fashioned
+with the hatchet.<a id='r365' /><a href='#f365' class='c012'><sup>[365]</sup></a> In the great Dorian capital the
+custom was for persons desirous of entering a house
+to shout aloud at the door,<a id='r366' /><a href='#f366' class='c012'><sup>[366]</sup></a> which, at Athens,<a id='r367' /><a href='#f367' class='c012'><sup>[367]</sup></a> was
+always furnished with an elegant knocker.<a id='r368' /><a href='#f368' class='c012'><sup>[368]</sup></a> Door-handles,
+too, of costly materials and curious workmanship,<a id='r369' /><a href='#f369' class='c012'><sup>[369]</sup></a>
+bespoke even in that trifling matter the
+taste of the Greeks.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The materials commonly used in the erection of
+a house were stones and bricks. In the manufacture
+of the latter<a id='r370' /><a href='#f370' class='c012'><sup>[370]</sup></a> the ancients exhibited more
+skill and care than we; they had bricks of a very
+large size, and half bricks for filling up spaces,
+which prevented the necessity of shortening them
+with the trowel. Of these some were simply dried
+in the sun, used chiefly in building the dwellings of
+the poor.<a id='r371' /><a href='#f371' class='c012'><sup>[371]</sup></a> At Utica in Africa there were public
+inspectors of brick-kilns,<a id='r372' /><a href='#f372' class='c012'><sup>[372]</sup></a> to prevent any from being
+used which had not been made five years. In several
+cities on the Mediterranean bricks were manufactured
+of a porous earth, which when baked and
+painted, as it may be conjectured, on the outside,
+were so light that they would swim in water.<a id='r373' /><a href='#f373' class='c012'><sup>[373]</sup></a> To
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_96'>96</span>diminish the weight of bricks, straw was introduced
+into them in Syria and Egypt, which was altogether
+consumed in the baking. In roofing such of their
+houses as were not terraced they employed slates,
+tiles, and reed-thatch.<a id='r374' /><a href='#f374' class='c012'><sup>[374]</sup></a> Possibly, also, the wealthy
+may have tiled their houses with those elegant
+thin flakes of marble, with which the roofs of temples
+were occasionally covered.</p>
+
+<hr class='c016' />
+<div class='footnote' id='f261'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r261'>261</a>. But even from a fragment of
+Bacchylides we may infer the
+magnificence of Grecian houses;
+for the poor man who drinks wine,
+he says, sees his house blazing
+with gold and ivory:</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>χρυσῷ δ᾽ ἐλεφαντί τε</div>
+ <div class='line'>μαρμαίρουσιν οἶκοι.</div>
+ <div class='line in10'>Athen. ii. 10.</div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c014'>Men had by this time advanced
+considerably from the state in
+which they are supposed to have
+built their huts in imitation of
+the swallow’s nest. Vitruv. ii. 1.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f262'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r262'>262</a>. Plat. Repub. iv. t. vi. p. 165.
+Dion Chrysost. i. 262. ii. 459.
+Dem. cont. Mid. § 44.—Lucian.
+Amor. § 34.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f263'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r263'>263</a>. Dem. Olynth. iii. § 9. De
+Rep. Ord. § 10.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f264'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r264'>264</a>. Xenoph. Hellen. vi. 5. 27.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f265'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r265'>265</a>. Cf. Athen. i. 28.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f266'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r266'>266</a>. Cf. Müll. Dor. ii. 272.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f267'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r267'>267</a>. Il. β. 657, sqq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f268'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r268'>268</a>. A similar taste prevailed
+among the Merovingian princes
+of France: “The mansion of
+the long-haired kings was surrounded
+with convenient yards
+and stables for the cattle and
+the poultry; the garden was
+planted with useful vegetables;
+the various trades, the labours
+of agriculture, and even the
+arts of hunting and fishing were
+exercised by servile hands for
+the emolument of the sovereign;
+his magazines were filled with
+corn and wine, either for sale
+or consumption, and the whole
+administration was conducted
+by the strictest maxims of private
+economy.”—Gibbon, Decline
+and Fall of the Roman Empire,
+ii. 356.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f269'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r269'>269</a>. Hesych. v. αὐλῆς.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f270'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r270'>270</a>. Feith. Antiq. Hom. iii. 10.
+p. 242.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f271'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r271'>271</a>. Casaub. ad Theoph. Char.
+p. 145.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f272'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r272'>272</a>. Plat. Protag. t. i. p. 159. Cf.
+Aristid. t. i. p. 518. Jebb.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f273'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r273'>273</a>. Odyss. η. 93.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f274'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r274'>274</a>. Satyr, c. 29. p. 74. Hellenop.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f275'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r275'>275</a>. Sch. Aristoph. Vesp. 875.
+Here the Romans sacrificed to
+Janus, the Greeks to Apollo.
+Macrob. Saturn. l. i. c. 9. Poll.
+iv. 123. Comm. p. 790.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f276'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r276'>276</a>. Eustath ad Od. χ. 376. p.
+790. Cf. Poll. i. 22, seq. Muret.
+in Plat. de Rep. p. 635. Soph.
+Œdip. Tyr. 16.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f277'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r277'>277</a>. Odyss. η. 345. Cf. Il. ζ.
+243. Hesych. v. πρόδομος.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f278'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r278'>278</a>. Il. ω. 673, sqq. Cf. Feith.
+Antiq. Hom. iii. 10. p. 244.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f279'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r279'>279</a>. Odyss. γ. 406, sqq. Cf. π.
+343, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f280'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r280'>280</a>. Plat. Protag. t. i. p. 160.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f281'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r281'>281</a>. Plat. Epist. t. viii. p. 403.
+Athen. v. 25. Poll. ix. 466.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f282'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r282'>282</a>. Il. σ. 496. Cf. Sch. Aristoph.
+Nub. 93.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f283'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r283'>283</a>. Hesych. v. ἐνώπια. Casaub.
+ad Theoph. Char. p. 380. Compare
+the whole character of the
+“Vain Man,” pp. 57–59. Etym.
+Mag. 346. 10.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f284'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r284'>284</a>. Athen. v. 25. Hesych. v.
+αυλεία. Suid. in v. t. i. p. 491. d.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f285'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r285'>285</a>. “The doors (at Tanjeers) are
+richly carved, and placed in
+arches shaped like an ace of
+spades, a form so completely
+oriental, that there is no mistaking
+its origin; these, when
+they opened on the verandah,
+were further ornamented with
+curtains of rich crimson silk.”—Napier,
+Excursions along the
+Shores of the Mediterranean, i.
+p. 264.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f286'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r286'>286</a>. Hesych. v. γυναικωνίτις.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f287'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r287'>287</a>. Lady Montague’s Works,
+ii. 234.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f288'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r288'>288</a>. Plin. xxxiii. 18. Cf. Dion.
+Chrysost. t. i. p. 262. t. ii. p. 259.
+Pignor. de Serv. p. 214.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f289'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r289'>289</a>. Plut. Phoc. § 18.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f290'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r290'>290</a>. As, <span lang="la" xml:lang="la"><i>minium</i></span>, Dioscor. v. 109.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f291'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r291'>291</a>. Antich. di Ercol. t. i. tav. 34.
+p. 181. tav. 35. p. 187. tav. 36.
+p. 191. tav. 48. pp. 253, 257. t.
+ii. tav. 39. p. 273. Cf. Poll. x.
+34.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f292'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r292'>292</a>. Andocid. cont. Alcib. § 7.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f293'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r293'>293</a>. Plin. xxxvi. 60. Poll. vii.
+121. Cf. Sir W. Hamilton, Acc.
+of Discov. at Pomp. p. 7, seq. pl. 5.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f294'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r294'>294</a>. Galen, in Protrept, § 8. t. i.
+p. 19.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f295'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r295'>295</a>. Hom. Eires. 10. p. 199.
+Franke.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f296'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r296'>296</a>. See the authorities collected
+by Nixon, Phil. Trans, t. i. p.
+126, sqq. Seneca speaks of glass
+windows as a new invention,
+Epist. 90. Sir William Hamilton,
+however, in his Account of
+Discoveries made at Pompeii,
+observes:—“Below stairs is a
+room with a large bow-window;
+fragments of large panes of
+glass were found here, shewing
+that the ancients knew well
+the use of glass for windows.”—p.
+13. Cf. Caylus, Rec.
+d’Ant. t. 2. p. 293. Mazois,
+Pal. de Scaur. p. 97. Castell.
+Villas of the Ancients, p. 4.
+Vitruv. vii. 3.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f297'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r297'>297</a>. In lieu of the lapis specularis,
+they make use in Persia of thin slabs
+of Tabreez marble for the windows
+of baths, and other buildings
+requiring a soft subdued light.—See
+Fowler, Three Years in
+Persia, where the growth of this
+stone is curiously described.—i.
+228, sqq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f298'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r298'>298</a>. De Plac, Phil. iii. 5, ed. Corsin.
+Flor. 1750, p. 81. Cf. Plin.
+Hist. Nat. xi. 37.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f299'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r299'>299</a>. Sir W. Hamilt. Acc. of Discov.
+at Pomp. p. 7, seq. Antich.
+di Ercolano. t. i. tav. i. p. 1.
+tav. 3. p. 11. Cf. Schol. Aristoph.
+Eq. 996.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f300'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r300'>300</a>. Mazois, Pal. de Scaur. p. 98.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f301'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r301'>301</a>. Athen. ix. 67. Plat. de Rep.
+t. vi. p. 353. Cf. Gog. Origine
+des Loix, t. v. p. 443. Poll.
+Onom. x. 84. Comm. p. 1552.
+Maz. Pal. de Scau. p. 102. Tibull.
+iii. 3. 16. Luc. de Dea
+Syr. § 30. Cynic, § 9. Eurip.
+Orest. 1361.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f302'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r302'>302</a>. Odyss. δ. 45, seq. Luc.
+Somn. seu Gall. § 29.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f303'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r303'>303</a>. By Payne Knight, Prolegg.
+ad Hom. § 47. Cf. Feith. Antiq.
+Homer, iii. 11. 6.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f304'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r304'>304</a>. Odyss. α. 127, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f305'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r305'>305</a>. Id. η. 95, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f306'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r306'>306</a>. Id. θ. 65. π. 32.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f307'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r307'>307</a>. Id. κ. 352, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f308'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r308'>308</a>. Lucian, Luc. siv. Asin. § 53.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f309'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r309'>309</a>. Antich. di Ercol. t. ii. tav. 2. p.
+13.—Books were preserved from
+the moth by cedar-oil.—Geopon.
+v. 9.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f310'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r310'>310</a>. Luc. de Merced. Conduct. §
+41.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f311'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r311'>311</a>. Luc. Imag. § 9.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f312'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r312'>312</a>. Luc. de Merced. Conduct.
+41.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f313'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r313'>313</a>. Similar courts in the houses
+of Magna Græcia are described
+as having had in the middle a
+square tank where the rain-water
+was collected, and ran into a
+reservoir beneath.—Sir W. Hamilt.
+Acc. of Discov. at Pomp.
+p. 13.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f314'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r314'>314</a>. Odyss. α. 425. seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f315'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r315'>315</a>. Eustath. ad Odyss. χ. p. 776.—These
+female apartments were
+sometimes hired out and inhabited
+by men.—Antiph. Nec.
+Venef. § 3.—Mr. Fosbroke’s account
+is curious:—“The thalamos
+was an apartment where
+the <em>mothers of families</em> worked
+in embroidery, in tapestry, and
+other works, <em>with their wives</em>,
+or their friends.”—Encyclop.
+of Ant. i. 50.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f316'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r316'>316</a>. Sometimes, at least, roofed
+with cypress-wood, as we learn
+from Mnesimachos, in his Horsebreeder:
+βαίν’ ἐκ θαλάμων
+κυπαρισσορόφων ἔξω, Μάνη.—Athen.
+ix. 67.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f317'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r317'>317</a>. We find ladies, however,
+sometimes dining with their children
+in the Aulè.—Demosth. in
+Ev. et Mnes. § 16.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f318'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r318'>318</a>. Hesych, v. γυναίκ. p. 866.
+Cyrill. Lex. Ms. Bren. Bret. ad
+Hesych. l. c.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f319'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r319'>319</a>. Eidyll. ii. 136. Phocyl. v.
+198.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f320'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r320'>320</a>. Athen. ii. 50. Cf. Sch. Aristoph.
+Vesp. 68.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f321'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r321'>321</a>. Odyss. ο. 516.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f322'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r322'>322</a>. Il. β. 514. π. 184.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f323'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r323'>323</a>. Cf. Poll. vi. 7. Cœl. Rhodig.
+xvii. 24.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f324'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r324'>324</a>. Plut. Paral. Vit. § 3.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f325'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r325'>325</a>. Odyss. β. 337, 345. χ. 442.
+Schol. 459. 466. Poll. vii. 397.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f326'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r326'>326</a>. Xen. Memorab. iii. 8, 9.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f327'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r327'>327</a>. Anaxand. ap. Athen. ii. 29.—So
+also thought Socrates, who
+observes, that in winter every one
+will have a fire who can get
+wood. And, though he himself
+wore the same garments all the
+year round, he considered it, apparently,
+a judicious practice in
+others to put on warm clothing.—Xen.
+Œcon. xvii. 3. Sch.
+Aristoph. Acharn. 716. When
+the dining-room was not furnished
+with a chimney, braziers
+were kindled outside the door,
+and carried in when the worst
+fumes of the charcoal had evaporated.—Plut.
+Symp. vi. 7.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f328'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r328'>328</a>. Etym. Mag. 186, 8. Athen.
+i. 18. Phot. Bib. 60. b. Hesiod.
+Frag. 53. Baths, at Sparta, were
+common to both sexes.—Goguet,
+v. 428. Cf. Pashley, Travels. i.
+183.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f329'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r329'>329</a>. Baccius, de Thermis, p. 365.
+Schol. Aristoph. Nub. 1034.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f330'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r330'>330</a>. Cf. Etymol. Mag. 151, 52,
+seq. Schol. Aristoph. Eq. 1055.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f331'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r331'>331</a>. Baccius, de Therm. p. 399.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f332'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r332'>332</a>. Athen. xi. 104.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f333'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r333'>333</a>. Schol. Aristoph. Nub. 1034.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f334'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r334'>334</a>. Plut. Alexand. § 40.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f335'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r335'>335</a>. Athen. xi. 104.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f336'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r336'>336</a>. Victor. ad Aristot. Ethic. p.
+214. There was a set of vicious
+fellows, called τρίβαλλοι, who
+passed their lives disorderly in
+the baths.—Etym. Mag. 765. 55.
+Aristophanes bestows the name
+on certain barbarian divinities.—Aves.
+1528.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f337'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r337'>337</a>. Xenoph. Anab. i. 2. 10. See
+one of these stlengides in Zoëga,
+Bassi Rilievi, tav. 29.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f338'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r338'>338</a>. Cf. Etymol. Mag. 384. 10.
+Poll. vii. 166, and Plut. Alexand.
+§ 20, where he describes the luxurious
+baths of Darius.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f339'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r339'>339</a>. Lucian. Hippias. § 5, sqq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f340'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r340'>340</a>. Sir W. Hamilton’s Acc. of
+Discov. at Pompeii, p. 41. Cf.
+Casaub. ad Theoph. Char. p.
+269.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f341'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r341'>341</a>. Aristot. Problem. xix. 14.
+Casaub. ad Theoph. Char. p. 215.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f342'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r342'>342</a>. Athen. viii. 45.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f343'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r343'>343</a>. Æsch. Agam. 3, sqq. We
+find, however, an allusion to the
+pointed roof in Iliad. ψ. 712,
+seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f344'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r344'>344</a>. Antich. di Erc. tav. 3,
+p. 11.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f345'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r345'>345</a>. Odyss. κ. 559. Eustath. ad
+loc. p. 1669, l. 15. Feith. Ant.
+Hom. iii. 10, p. 249.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f346'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r346'>346</a>. Cf. Athen. ix. 22. iii. 60.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f347'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r347'>347</a>. Cf. Sch. Aristoph. Nub. 91.
+Vesp. 139, 147.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f348'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r348'>348</a>. Topog. of Athens, p. 361.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f349'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r349'>349</a>. Cf. Perrault, sur Vitruv. vi.
+9. Mazois, Pal. de Scaur. p.
+178. On the interior of a Roman
+house, see Pet. Bellori,
+Frag. Vet. Rom. p. 31.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f350'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r350'>350</a>. Schol. Aristoph. Vesp. 148.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f351'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r351'>351</a>. Athen. iii. 60 ix. 22.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f352'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r352'>352</a>. Leake, Topog. of Ath. p. 361.
+Yet we find them sometimes
+throwing the water out of the
+window, crying, Stand out of the
+way. Schol. Aristoph. Acharn.
+592.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f353'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r353'>353</a>. Vitruv. viii. 4.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f354'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r354'>354</a>. Mazois, Palais de Scaurus,
+p. 177.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f355'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r355'>355</a>. Representing, for example,
+a sacrifice to Fornax. Mazois,
+p. 177.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f356'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r356'>356</a>. Cf. Antich. di Ercol. t. i. tav.
+34. pp. 175, 181. Sagittar. de
+Januis Veterum. p. 23.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f357'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r357'>357</a>. Plut. Poplic. § 20.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f358'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r358'>358</a>. Sagitt. de Jan. Vet. p. 152,
+seq. Plin. xvi. 40. Theoph. Hist.
+Plant. v. 4. 2. iii. 14. 1. Martial.
+xiv. 89, ii. 43. Lucian. l. ix.
+Tertull. de Pall. c. 5. Plin. xiii.
+15. Ovid. Metamorph. iv. 487.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f359'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r359'>359</a>. Aristoph. Acharn. 1072.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f360'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r360'>360</a>. Sagitt. de Jan. Vet. p. 29, sqq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f361'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r361'>361</a>. Sagitt. de Jan. p. 67.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f362'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r362'>362</a>. Odyss. α. 441. Schol. et
+Eustath. ad loc.—δ. 862. ρ. 186.
+Cf. Schol. Aristoph. Vesp. 155.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f363'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r363'>363</a>. Sagitt. de Jan. Vet. p. 41.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f364'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r364'>364</a>. Antich. di Ercol. t. i. tav. 3.
+p. 11. It should perhaps be remarked,
+that when houses were
+built on a solid basement the
+door was sometimes approached
+by a movable pair of steps. Id.
+ibid. tav. 8. p. 39. tav. 43.
+p. 228.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f365'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r365'>365</a>. Plut. Lycurg. § 13. Agesil.
+§ 19.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f366'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r366'>366</a>. Plut. Inst. Lac. § 30. Cf.
+Theocrit. Eidyll. xxix. 39.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f367'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r367'>367</a>. Schol. Aristoph. Nub. 133.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f368'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r368'>368</a>. Sometimes in form of a crow.
+Poll. i. 77.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f369'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r369'>369</a>. See Donaldson’s Collection of
+Doorways, pl. 8.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f370'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r370'>370</a>. Winkelm. Hist. de l’Art.
+ii. 544. Cf. Xen. Memor. iii.
+17. Cyropæd. vi. 3. 25. Plin.
+xxxv. 14. Polyb. x. 22. Plat.
+de Repub. t. vi. p. 15.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f371'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r371'>371</a>. Sanchon. ap. Euseb. Præp.
+Evang. i. 10. p. 35.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f372'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r372'>372</a>. Vitruv. ii. 3.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f373'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r373'>373</a>. Id. ibid. 3. In lieu of these
+light bricks, pumice stones are
+now frequently used on the shores
+of the Mediterranean, more particularly
+in turning arches. They
+are, consequently, cut into parallelopipeds,
+and exported in great
+quantities from the Lipari islands.—Spallanzani,
+Travels in the
+Two Sicilies, &c. vol. ii. pp. 298,
+302, sqq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f374'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r374'>374</a>. Poll. x. 170. Luc. Contemplant. § 6. Schol. Aristoph.
+Nub. 174.</p>
+</div>
+<hr class='c016' />
+
+<div>
+ <span class='pageno' id='Page_97'>97</span>
+ <h3 class='c002'>CHAPTER II. <br /> HOUSEHOLD FURNITURE.</h3>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c011'>The movables in a Grecian house were divided
+into classes after a very characteristic manner. First,
+as a mark of the national piety, everything used in
+domestic sacrifices was set apart. The second division,
+placing women immediately after the gods,
+comprehended the whole apparatus of female ornaments<a id='r375' /><a href='#f375' class='c012'><sup>[375]</sup></a>
+worn on solemn festivals. Next were classed
+the sacred robes and military uniforms of the men;
+then came the hangings, bed-furniture, and ornaments
+of the harem; afterwards those of the men’s
+apartments. Another division consisted of the shoes,
+sandals, slippers, &c., of the family, from which we
+pass to the arms and implements of war, mixed up
+familiarly in a Greek house with looms, cards, spinning-wheels,
+and embroidery-frames, just, as Homer
+describes them in the Thalamos of Paris at Troy.
+Even yet we have not reached the end of our inventory
+in mere classification. The baking, cooking,
+washing, and bathing vessels formed a separate
+class, and so did the breakfast and dinner services,
+the porcelain, the plate of silver and gold, the
+mirrors, the candelabra, and all those curious articles
+made use of in the toilette of the ladies.<a id='r376' /><a href='#f376' class='c012'><sup>[376]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>In well-regulated families a second division took
+place, a separation being made of such articles as
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_98'>98</span>might be required for daily use, from those brought
+forward only when routs and large parties were
+given. The movables of all kinds having been
+thus arranged in their classes, the next step was
+to deposit every thing in its proper place.<a id='r377' /><a href='#f377' class='c012'><sup>[377]</sup></a> The
+more ordinary utensils were generally laid up in a
+spacious store-room, called <em>tholos</em>,<a id='r378' /><a href='#f378' class='c012'><sup>[378]</sup></a> a circular building
+detached from the house, and usually terminating
+in a pointed roof, whence in after ages a
+sharp-crowned hat obtained among the people the
+name of Tholos. When a gentleman first commenced
+housekeeping, or got a new set of domestics,
+he delivered into the care of the proper individuals
+his kneading troughs, his kitchen utensils,
+his cards, looms, spinning wheels, and so on; and,
+pointing out the places where all these, when not
+in use, should be placed, committed them to their
+custody.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Of the holiday, or show articles, more account
+was made. These, being brought forward only on
+solemn festivals, or in honour of some foreign guest,
+were entrusted to the immediate care of the housekeeper,
+a complete list of everything having first been
+taken; and it was part of her duty, when she delivered
+any of these articles to the inferior domestics,
+to make a note of what she gave out, and take care
+they were duly returned into her keeping.<a id='r379' /><a href='#f379' class='c012'><sup>[379]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>But the above comprehensive glance over the articles
+of furniture made use of in an Athenian gentleman’s
+establishment, though it may give some notion
+of the careful and economical habits of the people,
+affords no conception of the splendour and magnificence
+often found in a Grecian house: for, as we
+have already seen, their opinions are highly erroneous
+who imagine that in the Attic democracy the rich
+were by any prudential or political considerations
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_99'>99</span>restrained from indulging their love of ostentation
+by the utmost display they could make of wealth.<a id='r380' /><a href='#f380' class='c012'><sup>[380]</sup></a>
+In fact, not content with outstripping their neighbours
+in the grandeur of their dwellings, furniture,
+and dress, these persons had often the ludicrous vanity,
+when they gave a large party, to excite the envy of
+such dinnerless rogues as might pass, by throwing out
+the feathers of game and poultry before their doors.<a id='r381' /><a href='#f381' class='c012'><sup>[381]</sup></a>
+Indeed, since the Athenians exactly resembled other
+men, the exhibition of magnificence tended but too
+strongly to dazzle them; so that, among the arts of
+designing politicians, one generally was, to create a
+popular persuasion that they possessed the means of
+conferring important favours on all who obliged them.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>To proceed, however, with the furniture. Though
+the principal value of many articles arose from the exquisite
+taste displayed in the design and workmanship,
+the materials themselves, too, were often extremely
+rare and costly. Porcelain, glass, crystal, ivory, amber,<a id='r382' /><a href='#f382' class='c012'><sup>[382]</sup></a>
+gold, silver, and bronze, with numerous varieties
+of precious woods, were wrought up with inimitable
+taste and fancy into various articles of use or luxury.
+Among the decorations of the dining-room was the
+side-board, which, though sometimes of iron, was more
+frequently of carved wood, bronze, or wrought silver,
+ornamented with the heads of satyrs and oxen.<a id='r383' /><a href='#f383' class='c012'><sup>[383]</sup></a> Their
+tables, in the Homeric age, were generally of wood,
+of variegated colours, finely polished, and with ornamented
+feet. Myrleanos, an obscure writer in Athenæus,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_100'>100</span>imagines<a id='r384' /><a href='#f384' class='c012'><sup>[384]</sup></a> they were round, that they might
+resemble the disc of the sun and moon; but from
+the passage in the Odyssey,<a id='r385' /><a href='#f385' class='c012'><sup>[385]</sup></a> and the interpretation
+of Eustathius, they may be inferred to have been narrow
+parallelograms,<a id='r386' /><a href='#f386' class='c012'><sup>[386]</sup></a> like our own dining-tables. The
+luxury of table-cloths being unknown, the wine spilled,
+&c., was cleansed away with sponges.<a id='r387' /><a href='#f387' class='c012'><sup>[387]</sup></a> But the poet
+had witnessed a superior degree of magnificence, for
+he already, in the Odyssey,<a id='r388' /><a href='#f388' class='c012'><sup>[388]</sup></a> makes mention of tables
+of silver. The poor were, of course, content with the
+commonest wood. But as civilisation proceeded, the
+tables of the wealthy became more and more costly
+in materials, and more elegant in form.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>It grew to be an object of commerce, to import
+from foreign countries the most curious kinds of
+wood,<a id='r389' /><a href='#f389' class='c012'><sup>[389]</sup></a> to be wrought into tables, which originally
+supported on four legs, rested afterwards on three,
+fancifully formed, or on a pillar and claws of ivory,
+or silver, as with us. There was a celebrated species
+of table manufactured in the island of Rhenea;<a id='r390' /><a href='#f390' class='c012'><sup>[390]</sup></a>
+the great, among the Persians, delighted in maple
+tables with ivory feet, and, in fact, the knotted
+maple appears at one time to have been regarded
+as the most rare and beautiful of woods.<a id='r391' /><a href='#f391' class='c012'><sup>[391]</sup></a> But
+the rage for sumptuous articles of furniture of this
+kind did not reach its full height until Roman
+times, when a single table of citron wood</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line in16'>(Gorgeous feasts</div>
+ <div class='line'>On citron tables or Atlantic stone)<a id='r392' /><a href='#f392' class='c012'><sup>[392]</sup></a></div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c015'><span class='pageno' id='Page_101'>101</span>sometimes cost six or seven thousand pounds sterling.
+Already, however, in the best ages of Greece,
+their tables were inlaid with silver, brass, or ivory,
+with feet in the form of lions, leopards, or other
+wild beasts.<a id='r393' /><a href='#f393' class='c012'><sup>[393]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>In more early times, before the effeminate Oriental
+habit of reclining at meals obtained,<a id='r394' /><a href='#f394' class='c012'><sup>[394]</sup></a> the
+Greeks made use of chairs which were of various
+kinds, some being formed of more, others of less
+costly materials, but all beautiful and elegant in
+form, as we may judge from those which adorn our
+own drawing-rooms, entirely fashioned after Grecian
+models. The thrones of the gods represented in
+works of art, however richly ornamented, are simply
+arm-chairs with upright backs, an example of which
+occurs in a carnelian in the Orleans Collection,<a id='r395' /><a href='#f395' class='c012'><sup>[395]</sup></a>
+where Apollo is represented playing on the seven-stringed
+lyre. This chair has four legs with tigers’
+feet, a very high upright back, and is ornamented
+with a sculptured car and horses. They had no
+Epicurean notions of their deities, and never presented
+them to the eye of the public lounging in
+an easy chair, which would have suggested the idea
+of infirmity. On the contrary, they are full of force
+and energy, and sit erect on their thrones, as ready
+to succour their worshipers at a moment’s warning.
+In the Homeric age these were richly carved, like
+the divans, adorned with silver studs, and so high
+that they required a footstool.<a id='r396' /><a href='#f396' class='c012'><sup>[396]</sup></a> The throne of the
+Persian kings was of massive gold, and stood beneath
+a purple canopy, supported by four slender
+golden columns thickly crusted with jewels.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'><span class='pageno' id='Page_102'>102</span>Bedsteads were generally of common wood such as
+deal,<a id='r397' /><a href='#f397' class='c012'><sup>[397]</sup></a> bottomed sometimes with planks, pierced to
+admit air, sometimes with ox-hide thongs,<a id='r398' /><a href='#f398' class='c012'><sup>[398]</sup></a> which
+in traversing each other left numerous open spaces
+between them. Odysseus’s bedstead, which the hero
+was sufficient joiner to manufacture with his own
+hands, was made of olive-wood, inlaid with silver,
+gold, and ivory. Sometimes the bed was supported
+by a sort of netting of strong cord, stretched across
+the bedstead, and made fast all round.<a id='r399' /><a href='#f399' class='c012'><sup>[399]</sup></a> Later
+ages witnessed far greater luxury,—bedsteads of
+solid silver,<a id='r400' /><a href='#f400' class='c012'><sup>[400]</sup></a> or ivory embossed with figures wrought
+with infinite art and delicacy,<a id='r401' /><a href='#f401' class='c012'><sup>[401]</sup></a> or of precious woods
+carved, with feet of ivory or amber.<a id='r402' /><a href='#f402' class='c012'><sup>[402]</sup></a> Occasionally,
+also, they were veneered with Indian tortoiseshell,
+inlaid with gold.<a id='r403' /><a href='#f403' class='c012'><sup>[403]</sup></a> This taste would appear to have
+flowed from the East, where among the kings of
+Persia still greater magnificence was witnessed even
+in very early times. Thus, speaking of the royal
+feast celebrated at Susa, the Scripture says, there
+were in the court of the garden of the king’s
+palace “white, green, and blue hangings, fastened
+with cords of fine linen and purple to silver
+rings, and pillars of marble. The beds were of
+gold and silver, upon a pavement of red, and
+blue, and white, and black marble.” A similar
+style of grandeur is attributed by Hellenic writers
+to the Persian king, who, according to Chares,<a id='r404' /><a href='#f404' class='c012'><sup>[404]</sup></a> reclined
+in his palace on a couch shaded by a spreading
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_103'>103</span>golden vine, the grape clusters of which were
+imitated by jewels of various colours.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Four-post bedsteads were in use in remoter ages,
+as appears from a white sardonyx in the Orleans
+Collection,<a id='r405' /><a href='#f405' class='c012'><sup>[405]</sup></a> representing the surprisal of Ares and
+Aphrodite, by Hephæstos. There is a low floating
+vallance fastened up in festoons, the tester is roof-shaped,
+and the pillars terminate in fanciful capitals.
+The figure of an eagle adorns the corners of the
+bedstead below. From a painting on the walls of
+Pompeii we discover, that the peculiar sort of bedstead
+at present found almost universally in France
+was likewise familiar to the ancients, made exactly
+after the same fashion, and raised about the same
+height above the floor. With regard to the beds
+themselves they were at different times manufactured
+from very different materials, and those of
+some parts of Greece enjoyed a peculiar reputation.
+From a phrase in Homer,<a id='r406' /><a href='#f406' class='c012'><sup>[406]</sup></a> it would appear that, in
+his times, beds were stuffed in Thessaly with very
+fine grass. Those of Chios and Miletos were famous<a id='r407' /><a href='#f407' class='c012'><sup>[407]</sup></a>
+throughout Greece. In other parts of the country,
+persons of peculiar effeminacy slept on beds of sponge.<a id='r408' /><a href='#f408' class='c012'><sup>[408]</sup></a>
+Sicily was famous for its pillows, as were also several
+other Doric countries. At Athens the rich were accustomed
+to sleep upon very soft beds, placed on
+bedsteads considerably above the floor;<a id='r409' /><a href='#f409' class='c012'><sup>[409]</sup></a> and sometimes,
+it has been supposed, adorned with coverlets
+of dressed peacocks’ skins with the feathers on.<a id='r410' /><a href='#f410' class='c012'><sup>[410]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>But the Greeks appear to have consulted their
+ease, and sunk more completely into softness and
+effeminacy, in proportion as they approached the
+East. Among the Peloponnesians most persons lived
+hard and lay hard; greater refinement and luxury
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_104'>104</span>prevailed in Attica; but in Ionia and many of the
+Ægæan isles the great—although there were exceptions
+as in the case of Attalos—fell little short in
+self-indulgence of Median or Persian satraps. Some
+idea may be formed of their habits in this respect
+from the description of a Paphian prince’s bed by
+Clearchos of Soli.<a id='r411' /><a href='#f411' class='c012'><sup>[411]</sup></a> Over the soft mattresses supported
+by a silver-footed bedstead, was flung a short
+grained Sardian carpet of the most expensive kind.
+A coverlet of downy texture succeeded, and upon
+this was cast a costly counterpane of Amorginian
+purple. Cushions, striped or variegated with the
+richest purple, supported his head, while two soft
+Dorian pillows<a id='r412' /><a href='#f412' class='c012'><sup>[412]</sup></a> of pale pink gently raised his feet.
+In this manner habited in a milk-white chlamys the
+prince reclined. Their bolsters in form resembled
+our own;<a id='r413' /><a href='#f413' class='c012'><sup>[413]</sup></a> but the pillows were usually square, as
+in France, though occasionally rounded off at both
+ends, and covered with richly chequered or variegated
+muslins. To prevent the fine wool or whatever
+else they were stuffed with from getting into
+heaps, mattresses were sewn through as now, and
+carefully tufted that the packthread might not break
+through the ticking.<a id='r414' /><a href='#f414' class='c012'><sup>[414]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Among the Orientals it is common at present for
+persons to sleep in their day apparel; but even in
+the heroic ages it was already customary in Greece
+to undress on going to bed. When Agamemnon
+is roused before dawn by the delusive dream, the
+whole process of the morning toilette is described.
+First, says the poet, he donned his soft chiton which
+was new and very handsome; next his pelisse; after
+which he bound on his elegant sandals and suspended
+his silver-hilted sword from his shoulder. Thus
+accoutred he issued forth, sceptre in hand, towards
+the ships.<a id='r415' /><a href='#f415' class='c012'><sup>[415]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'><span class='pageno' id='Page_105'>105</span>In Syria, children luxuriously educated are said to
+have been rocked in their cradles wrapped in coverlets
+of Milesian wool.<a id='r416' /><a href='#f416' class='c012'><sup>[416]</sup></a> The sheep of Miletos were, in
+fact, the Merinos of antiquity; and their wool being
+celebrated for its fineness and softness, it was not
+only employed in manufacturing the best cloths, but
+also in stuffing the mattresses of kings and other
+great personages who thought much of their ease.
+And as the vulgar imagine they become great by
+habiting themselves in garments similar to those of
+their princes, like the honest man who sought wisdom
+through reading by Epictetus’ lamp, the stuffs,
+couches, and coverlets of Miletos got into great vogue
+among the ancients. Virgil, Cicero, Servius, Columella,
+and many other writers speak accordingly of
+their excellence, and their testimonies have, with
+wonderful industry, been collected by the learned
+Bochart.<a id='r417' /><a href='#f417' class='c012'><sup>[417]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>But though Miletos had a reputation for this kind
+of manufacture, it by no means enjoyed a monopoly.
+The scarlet coverings of Sardis, and the variegated
+stuffs of Cyprus, produced by the famous weaver Akesas
+and his son Helicon,<a id='r418' /><a href='#f418' class='c012'><sup>[418]</sup></a> appear in many instances to
+have obtained a preference over all others. Pathymias,
+too, the Egyptian, distinguished himself in the
+same line.<a id='r419' /><a href='#f419' class='c012'><sup>[419]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>All these bed-coverings were commonly perfumed
+with fragrant essences,<a id='r420' /><a href='#f420' class='c012'><sup>[420]</sup></a> for which reason the voluptuous
+poets of antiquity dwell with a sort of rapture
+on the pleasure of rolling about in bed. Ephippos
+exclaims:—</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line in20'>“How I delight</div>
+ <div class='line'>To spring upon the dainty coverlets;</div>
+ <div class='line'>Breathing the perfume of the rose, and steeped</div>
+ <div class='line'>In tears of myrrh!”</div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c014'><span class='pageno' id='Page_106'>106</span>Aristophanes, likewise, and Sophron, the mimographer,
+make mention of these fragrant counterpanes,
+which were extremely costly, and inwrought, according
+to the latter, with figures of birds.<a id='r421' /><a href='#f421' class='c012'><sup>[421]</sup></a> Elsewhere
+Athenæus relates that the Persian carpets contained
+representations of men, animals, and monsters.<a id='r422' /><a href='#f422' class='c012'><sup>[422]</sup></a> Their
+blankets, like our own, were plain white; but even
+so far back as the heroic ages, the upper coverings, as
+being partly designed for show, were of rich and various
+colours.<a id='r423' /><a href='#f423' class='c012'><sup>[423]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>There seems to be good ground for believing, that
+if the Greeks did not borrow their philosophy from
+the East, they at least derived from them many of the
+vain and luxurious habits which at length rendered
+that philosophy of none effect. No one appears to
+have paid a single visit to Persia, or Syria, or Egypt,
+without bringing back along with him some pestilent
+new freak in the matter of dress or furniture, wholly
+at variance with republican simplicity. We might
+adduce numerous anecdotes in proof of this. For the
+present we confine ourselves to the following. Among
+the Persians, renowned in all ages for sensual indulgences,
+it was judged of so much importance to
+enjoy soft and elegantly arranged beds, that in great
+houses persons were employed who attended only to
+this. An anecdote in illustration has been preserved
+by Athenæus. Timagoras, or, according to Phanias,
+Entimos of Gortyna, envying Themistocles his reception
+at the court of Persia, undertook himself a toad-eating
+expedition to that country. Artaxerxes, whose
+ear could tolerate more flatterers than one, took the
+Cretan into favour, and made him a present of a
+superb marquee, a silver-footed bedstead, with costly
+furniture, and, along with them, sent a slave, as a
+Turkish pasha would send a cook or a pipe-lighter,
+because, in his opinion, the Greeks who prepared
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_107'>107</span>sleeping-places for so many Persians at Marathon and
+Platæa, understood nothing of bed-making.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Entimos evidently excelled the great Athenian
+in the arts of a courtier. In fact, he was the very
+prototype of Hajji Baba, and enjoyed even still greater
+influence over the Shah than the illustrious barber’s
+son of Ispahan. Charmed by his cajolery, Artaxerxes
+invited him to his private table, where, usually,
+none but princes of the blood were admitted,<a id='r424' /><a href='#f424' class='c012'><sup>[424]</sup></a> an
+honour, as Phanias assures us, which no other Greek
+ever enjoyed. For, though Timagoras of Athens
+performed <em>kou-tou</em> before the throne,<a id='r425' /><a href='#f425' class='c012'><sup>[425]</sup></a> whereby he
+obtained great consideration among a nation of slaves,
+and was hanged when he got home, he was not invited
+to hob-and-nob with his majesty, but only
+enjoyed the distinction of having certain dishes sent
+him from the king’s table. To Antalcidas, the Spartan,
+Artaxerxes sent his crown dipped in liquid perfume,
+an agreeable compliment, but which he more
+than once paid to Entimos, whose extraordinary favour
+at court in the long run, however, awakened
+the envy of the Persians. The canopy of the marquee
+presented to this Cretan was spangled with
+bright flowers, and, among the other articles of which
+the imperial gift consisted, were a throne of massive
+silver, a gilded parasol, several golden cups crusted
+with jewels, a hundred maple-tables with ivory feet,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_108'>108</span>a hundred goblets of silver, several vases of the same
+precious metal, a hundred female slaves, an equal
+number of youths, with six thousand pieces of gold,
+besides what was furnished him for his daily expenditure.<a id='r426' /><a href='#f426' class='c012'><sup>[426]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>A gentleman travelling in Ireland witnessed the
+ingenuity of that ready-witted people in applying the
+same thing to various uses: first, he saw the tablecloth,
+on which he had eaten a good supper, transferred
+as a sheet to his bed, and, next morning, his
+kind hostess, offering her services to put him in the
+right way, converted the same article into a mantle,
+which she wrapped about her shoulders. The Greeks
+were almost equally ingenious. With them what
+was a cloak by day became sometimes a counterpane
+at night,<a id='r427' /><a href='#f427' class='c012'><sup>[427]</sup></a> in addition, perhaps, to the ordinary
+bed-clothes; for it is clear they loved to be
+warm, from the somewhat reproachful allusion of
+Strepsiades in the “Clouds” to the five <em>sisyræ</em>,<a id='r428' /><a href='#f428' class='c012'><sup>[428]</sup></a> rolled
+snugly up in which, his son, Pheidippides, could
+sleep while thoughts of his debts bit the old man
+like so many bugs, and roused him hours before
+day to consult his ledgers. All kinds of stromata
+were, in Plato’s time, divided into two classes, first,
+coverings for the body, such as cloaks, mantles, and
+so on; secondly, bed-clothes, properly so called.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The walls of their chambers were frequently hung
+with Milesian tapestry, a custom to which Amphis
+alludes in his Odysseus:</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>A. Milesian hangings line your walls, you scent</div>
+ <div class='line'>Your limbs with sweetest perfume, royal myndax<a id='r429' /><a href='#f429' class='c012'><sup>[429]</sup></a></div>
+ <div class='line'>Piled on the burning censor, fills the air</div>
+ <div class='line'>With costly fragrance.</div>
+ </div>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>B. Mark you that, my friend!</div>
+ <div class='line'>Knew you before of such a fumigation?<a id='r430' /><a href='#f430' class='c012'><sup>[430]</sup></a></div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c015'><span class='pageno' id='Page_109'>109</span>Mention is likewise made among the ancients of
+purple tapestry, inwrought with pearls and gold.<a id='r431' /><a href='#f431' class='c012'><sup>[431]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Carthage enjoyed celebrity for its manufacture of
+carpets and variegated pillows,<a id='r432' /><a href='#f432' class='c012'><sup>[432]</sup></a> a piece of luxury
+which, as we have seen above, had already been
+introduced in the heroic ages; for Homer, in innumerable
+passages, speaks of rare and costly carpets,
+and these were not only spread over couches and
+seats, but over the floor likewise.<a id='r433' /><a href='#f433' class='c012'><sup>[433]</sup></a> Rolled up, they
+would occasionally appear to have served for pillows.
+The manufacture of carpets had, moreover, been carried
+to considerable perfection, for the poet speaks
+of some with a soft pile on both sides, which were
+evidently very splendid.<a id='r434' /><a href='#f434' class='c012'><sup>[434]</sup></a> Theocritus,<a id='r435' /><a href='#f435' class='c012'><sup>[435]</sup></a> too, in his
+Adoniazusæ, enumerates, among the luxuries of the
+youthful God,</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>Carpets of purple, <em>softer far than sleep</em>,<a id='r436' /><a href='#f436' class='c012'><sup>[436]</sup></a></div>
+ <div class='line'>Woven in Milesian looms.</div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c014'>But in nothing did the Greeks display a more gorgeous
+or costly taste than in what may be termed
+their <em>plate</em>, which was not only fabricated of the rarest
+materials, but wrought likewise with all the elaborateness
+and delicacy and richness of design within
+the reach of art. Among the Macedonians, after
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_110'>110</span>their Eastern conquests, gold plate appears not to
+have been uncommon; for at the grand supper described
+by Hippolochos in his letter to Lynceus, every
+guest is said to have used it.<a id='r437' /><a href='#f437' class='c012'><sup>[437]</sup></a> The predilection for
+this sort of magnificence they acquired in Asia, where,
+at a banquet given to Alexander, the whole dessert
+was brought in tastefully covered with gold-leaf.<a id='r438' /><a href='#f438' class='c012'><sup>[438]</sup></a> In
+the reign of his father, Philip, the precious metals
+were rare in Macedonia. Indeed, that crafty old
+monarch, possessing but one gold cup in the world,
+had so good an opinion of his courtiers that, to prevent
+their thieving it, he slept every night with it
+under his pillow.<a id='r439' /><a href='#f439' class='c012'><sup>[439]</sup></a> Gold was, more early, plentiful in
+Attica. Alcibiades, with tastes and habits unsuited
+to a democracy, carried so far his love of display as
+to make use of thuribles, or censers, and wash-hand
+basins of pure gold.<a id='r440' /><a href='#f440' class='c012'><sup>[440]</sup></a> But the ostentatious son of
+Clinias, though extravagant, was in this respect only
+a type of his nation. Every rich citizen of Athens
+aimed at the same degree of splendour; and, in describing
+his town-house or favourite villa, might, with
+little alteration, have adopted the language of the
+poet:—</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line in6'>——“My house within the city</div>
+ <div class='line'>Is richly furnished with plate and gold,</div>
+ <div class='line'>Basins and ewers to lave her dainty hands:</div>
+ <div class='line'>My hangings all of Tyrian tapestry.</div>
+ <div class='line'>In ivory coffers have I stuffed my crowns;</div>
+ <div class='line'>In cypress chests my arras, counterpanes,</div>
+ <div class='line'>Costly apparel, tents, and canopies,</div>
+ <div class='line'>Fine linen, Turkey cushions bossed with pearl,</div>
+ <div class='line'>Vallance of Venice, gold in needle-work,</div>
+ <div class='line'>Pewter and brass, and all things that belong</div>
+ <div class='line'>To house or housekeeping.”</div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c014'>Socrates, in the Republic, speaking of what the
+prevailing fashion required to be found in a city,
+makes out a list of good things, not much inferior
+upon the whole to Shakspeare’s,—beds, tables, and
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_111'>111</span>other furniture; dainties of all kinds; perfumes, unguents,
+sauces, &c.; to which the philosopher adds
+apparel, shoes, pictures, tapestry, ivory, and gold:<a id='r441' /><a href='#f441' class='c012'><sup>[441]</sup></a>
+and these rare materials, as farther on he observes,
+were wrought into utensils for domestic purposes.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>One of the most plentifully furnished departments
+of a Greek house was the <em>Kulikeion</em>, or “cupboard,”
+usually closed in front with a curtain,<a id='r442' /><a href='#f442' class='c012'><sup>[442]</sup></a> where they
+kept their goblets, cups, and drinking-horns, under
+the protection of a statue of Hermes, who, as god
+of thieves, would, it was supposed, be respected by
+his children. The form and workmanship of these
+materials varied, no doubt, according to the taste and
+means of the possessor; but they were in general distinguished
+for the elegance of their outline, the grace
+and originality of the sculpture, the fineness, delicacy,
+and minute finish of the execution. It is well
+known, as an able antiquarian<a id='r443' /><a href='#f443' class='c012'><sup>[443]</sup></a> has remarked, to what
+an excess the luxury of the table was carried among
+the ancients, and how much they surpassed us in the
+dimensions, the massiveness, the workmanship, the
+quality, and the variety of their drinking apparatus.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Many persons, however, seem chiefly to have valued
+their plate as a mark of their wealth and magnificence;
+among whom may be reckoned Pythias of
+Phigaleia, who, when dying, commanded the following
+epitaph to be inscribed upon his tomb:—</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line in4'>Here jolly Pythias lies,</div>
+ <div class='line in4'>A right honest man, and wise,</div>
+ <div class='line'>Who of goblets had very great store,</div>
+ <div class='line in4'>Of amber, silver, gold,</div>
+ <div class='line in4'>All glorious to behold,</div>
+ <div class='line'>In number ne’er equalled before.<a id='r444' /><a href='#f444' class='c012'><sup>[444]</sup></a></div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c014'>Amber goblets not being, I believe, in fashion
+among the modern nations of Europe, some doubt
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_112'>112</span>may be experienced respecting the veracity of our
+friend of Phigaleia; but the ancients had other gobletary
+legends to bring forward in support of it. Helen,<a id='r445' /><a href='#f445' class='c012'><sup>[445]</sup></a>
+it is said, justly proud of her beautiful bosom, dedicated
+in one of the temples of Rhodes, as a votive
+offering, an amber goblet, exactly of the size and
+shape of one of her breasts, which, had it come down
+to posterity, might have furnished artists with a perfect
+model of that part of the female form. However
+this may be, the ancients, in remote ages, set a great
+value on their cups, particularly such as were considered
+heir-looms in the family, and laid apart to be
+used only on extraordinary occasions. Hence Œdipos,
+in the old Cyclic poet, is seized with fierce anger at
+his son, who had, contrary to his will, brought forth
+his old hereditary goblets to be used at an ordinary
+entertainment.</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'><span class='pageno' id='Page_113'>113</span>Then Polyneices of the golden locks,</div>
+ <div class='line'>Sprung from the Gods, before his father placed</div>
+ <div class='line'>A table all of silver, which had once</div>
+ <div class='line'>Been Cadmus’s, next filled the golden bowl</div>
+ <div class='line'>With richest wine. At this old Œdipos,</div>
+ <div class='line'>Seeing the honoured relics of his sire</div>
+ <div class='line'>Profaned to vulgar uses, roused to anger,</div>
+ <div class='line'>Pronounced fierce imprecations, wished his sons</div>
+ <div class='line'>Might live no more in amity together,</div>
+ <div class='line'>But plunge in feuds and slaughters, and contend</div>
+ <div class='line'>For their inheritance: and the Furies heard.<a id='r446' /><a href='#f446' class='c012'><sup>[446]</sup></a></div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c014'>Agathocles, tyrant of Sicily, appears to have been
+an amateur of cups, and would sometimes while exhibiting
+his collection to his friends make a good-humoured
+allusion to his original occupation. “These
+golden vessels,” said he, “have been made out of those
+earthenware ones which I formerly manufactured.”<a id='r447' /><a href='#f447' class='c012'><sup>[447]</sup></a>
+Drinking-bowls in fact made no inconsiderable figure
+in ancient times. They were bestowed as the prizes
+in gymnastic contests, and in Greece men boxed and
+wrestled for the cup as horses run for it in England.
+Parasites, like the jester of Louis XIV., used
+sometimes to carry home the cups and dishes set
+before them at dinner; but the tables were often
+turned when the subject gave and the prince pocketed
+the dole.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>A curious legend has been preserved to us connected
+with the subject of cups. Several princes
+uniting, in remote times, to send a colony to Lesbos,
+were commanded by an oracle to cast a virgin,
+during their voyage, into the sea, as a sacrifice
+to Poseidon. Obedience, in those superstitious ages,
+was seldom refused to such injunctions. The maiden
+was precipitated into the waves, but Enallos, one of
+the chiefs, in whom love had quenched the reverence
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_114'>114</span>for oracles, immediately plunged in to save her. Neither
+the chief, however, nor the virgin appeared again,
+and the fleet proceeded. The remainder of the tradition
+may be illustrated by an event said to have
+taken place in the Tonga islands.<a id='r448' /><a href='#f448' class='c012'><sup>[448]</sup></a> They were probably
+near some uninhabited isle, and instead of
+rising to the surface of the sea, emerged into a
+cavern elevated considerably above its level, and
+opening perhaps upon the land. “God tempers the
+wind to the shorn lamb,” says a modern writer, and
+so Enallos found it. By means unrevealed in the
+ancient narrative, the hero and his bride continued
+to subsist on the rock, and many years afterwards,
+when the colony was already flourishing, he one
+day presented himself before his old friends at Methymna,
+and entertained them with a very romantic
+account of his residence among the Nereids at the
+bottom of the sea, where he was honoured with the
+care of Poseidon’s horses when sent out to grass.
+At length, however, getting on the back of a large
+wave it bore him upwards and he escaped from the
+deep, bearing in his hand a golden cup, the metal
+of which was so marvellously beautiful that in comparison
+ordinary gold appeared no better than brass.<a id='r449' /><a href='#f449' class='c012'><sup>[449]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Even the loftiest and least worldly-minded of the
+Homeric heroes, Achilles, set great value on a favourite
+drinking-cup, which he preserved for his own
+particular use, and for pouring out libations to Zeus
+alone. Priam<a id='r450' /><a href='#f450' class='c012'><sup>[450]</sup></a> was careful to include a rare goblet
+in the ransom of Hector’s body, and a similar gift
+aided in alluring Alcmena from the paths of virtue.<a id='r451' /><a href='#f451' class='c012'><sup>[451]</sup></a>
+But the most famous bowl of antiquity was that of
+Heracles, which, more capacious than the barber’s
+basin in Don Quixote, served its illustrious owner in
+the double capacity of a drinking-cup and a canoe;
+for when he had quenched his thirst, he could set
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_115'>115</span>his bowl afloat, and, leaping into it, steer to any part
+of the world he pleased. Some, indeed, speak of it
+as a borrowed article, belonging originally to the
+Sun, and in which the god used nightly to traverse
+the ocean from West to East.<a id='r452' /><a href='#f452' class='c012'><sup>[452]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>To pass, however, over the goblets of mythology.
+It was fashionable to possess plate of this kind finely
+sculptured with historical arguments; and history has
+preserved the names of Cimon and Athenocles, two
+artists who excelled in this style of engraving. These
+cups were sometimes of silver gilt, sometimes of massive
+gold crusted with jewels.<a id='r453' /><a href='#f453' class='c012'><sup>[453]</sup></a> In addition to the
+two artists named above, we may enumerate Crates,
+Stratonicos, Myrmecides of Miletos, Callicrates the
+Lacedemonian, and Mys, whose “Cup of Heracles,”
+celebrated in antiquity, had represented upon it the
+storming of Ilion, with this inscription,</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>Troy’s lofty towers by Grecians sacked behold!</div>
+ <div class='line'>Parrhasios’ draught, by Mys engraved in gold.<a id='r454' /><a href='#f454' class='c012'><sup>[454]</sup></a></div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c014'>The names by which the ancients distinguished
+their several kinds of goblets are too numerous to
+be here given. Some were curious—“Amalthea’s
+Horn,” “The Year,” &c. Rustics made use of two-handled
+wooden bowls in which, when thirsty, they
+drew fresh milk from the cow in the fields.<a id='r455' /><a href='#f455' class='c012'><sup>[455]</sup></a> There
+was a big-bellied cup with a narrow neck which
+being shaped like a purse, participated with this
+very necessary article in the name of Aryballos.<a id='r456' /><a href='#f456' class='c012'><sup>[456]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Glass cups of much beauty were manufactured in
+great abundance at Alexandria. Among these was
+the <em>Baucalis</em>, mentioned by Sopater the parodist, who
+says:—</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'><span class='pageno' id='Page_116'>116</span>’Tis sweet in early morn to cool the lips</div>
+ <div class='line'>With pure fresh water from the gushing fount,</div>
+ <div class='line'>Mingled with honey in the Baucalis,</div>
+ <div class='line'>When one o’er night has made too free with wine,</div>
+ <div class='line'>And feels sharp thirst.<a id='r457' /><a href='#f457' class='c012'><sup>[457]</sup></a></div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c014'>The glass-workers of Alexandria procured earthenware
+vessels from all parts of the world, which they
+used as models for their cups. Even the great
+sculptor Lysippos did not disdain to employ his genius
+in the invention of a new kind of vase. Having
+made a collection of vessels of many various shapes,
+and diligently studied the whole, he hit upon a form
+entirely new, and presented the model to Cassander,
+who having just then founded the city of Cassandria,
+was ambitious of originating an invention of this
+kind. He was desirous, perhaps, of recommending
+by the elegance of his drinking-cups the Mendæan
+wine exported in great quantities from his city.<a id='r458' /><a href='#f458' class='c012'><sup>[458]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>There was a peculiar kind of cup called Grammateion,
+from the letters of gold chased upon its
+exterior.<a id='r459' /><a href='#f459' class='c012'><sup>[459]</sup></a> Alexis mentions one of this sort in the
+following lines:</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>A. But let me first describe the cup; ’twas round,</div>
+ <div class='line in3'>Old, broken-eared, and precious small besides,</div>
+ <div class='line in3'>Having indeed some letters on’t.</div>
+ </div>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>B. Yes letters;</div>
+ <div class='line in3'>Eleven, and all of gold, forming the name</div>
+ <div class='line in3'>Of Saviour Zeus.</div>
+ </div>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>A. Tush! no, some other god.<a id='r460' /><a href='#f460' class='c012'><sup>[460]</sup></a></div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c014'>A very handsome sort of cup was imported from
+Sidon. It had two handles, and was ornamented with
+small figures in relief. Drinking-vases were also
+formed from the large horns of the Molossian and
+Pœonian oxen; and these articles were commonly
+rimmed with silver or gold.<a id='r461' /><a href='#f461' class='c012'><sup>[461]</sup></a> Small cups were made
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_117'>117</span>little account of. There was even one kind of bowl
+which, for its enormous capacity, was called the Elephant.</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>A. If this hold not enough, see the boy comes</div>
+ <div class='line in3'>Bearing the Elephant!</div>
+ </div>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>B. Immortal gods!</div>
+ <div class='line in3'>What thing is that?</div>
+ </div>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>A. A double-fountained cup,</div>
+ <div class='line in3'>The workmanship of Alcon; it contains</div>
+ <div class='line in3'>Only three gallons.<a id='r462' /><a href='#f462' class='c012'><sup>[462]</sup></a></div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c014'>A very celebrated cup among the Athenians was
+the Thericlean,<a id='r463' /><a href='#f463' class='c012'><sup>[463]</sup></a> originally invented by Thericles, a
+Corinthian potter, contemporary with Aristophanes.
+This ware was black, highly varnished, with gilt
+edges;<a id='r464' /><a href='#f464' class='c012'><sup>[464]</sup></a> but the name came afterwards to be applied
+to any vessel of the same form from whatever
+materials manufactured. There were accordingly
+Thericlea of gold with wooden stands. The cups
+of this kind, made at Athens, being very expensive,
+an inferior sort, in imitation, was produced at Rhodes,
+which, as far more economical, had a great run among
+the humbler classes. The Thericlean was a species
+of deep chalice with two handles, and bulging but
+little at the sides. Theophrastus<a id='r465' /><a href='#f465' class='c012'><sup>[465]</sup></a> speaks of Thericlea
+turned from the Syrian Turpentine tree, the
+wood of which being black and taking a fine polish,
+it was impossible at a glance to distinguish them
+from those of earthenware. The paintings on these
+utensils appear to have been various. Sometimes
+a single wreath of ivy encircled them immediately beneath
+the golden rim; but it seems occasionally to
+have been covered with representations of animals,
+which gave rise to a forced and false etymology of
+the name.<a id='r466' /><a href='#f466' class='c012'><sup>[466]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'><span class='pageno' id='Page_118'>118</span>We have already observed, that the use of drinking-horns<a id='r467' /><a href='#f467' class='c012'><sup>[467]</sup></a>
+was not unknown to the ancients. In fact,
+it seems, in very remote ages, to have been customary
+to convert bulls’ horns into cups with very little
+preparation; and the practice of quaffing wine from
+this rude kind of goblet had by some been supposed
+to have suggested the idea to artists of representing
+Bacchos with horns, and to poets the epithet of the
+Bull Dionysos. He was moreover worshiped at
+Cyzicos under the form of a bull. Afterwards, as
+taste and luxury advanced, these simple vessels were
+exchanged for horns of silver, which Pindar attributes
+to the Centaurs.<a id='r468' /><a href='#f468' class='c012'><sup>[468]</sup></a> Xenophon<a id='r469' /><a href='#f469' class='c012'><sup>[469]</sup></a> found drinking-horns
+among the Paphlagonians, and afterwards even
+in the palace of the Thracian king Seuthes. Æschylus
+speaks of silver horns, with lids of gold, in use
+among the Perrhæbians, and Sophocles, in his Pandora,
+makes mention of drinking-horns of massive
+gold. Philip of Macedon was accustomed among
+his friends to drink from the common horn. Golden
+horns were found among the inhabitants of Cythera.
+Horns of silver were in use at Athens; and, among
+the articles enumerated as sold at a public auction,
+mention is made of one of these vessels of a twisted
+form.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Mirrors constituted another article of Hellenic
+luxury. These were sometimes of brass,<a id='r470' /><a href='#f470' class='c012'><sup>[470]</sup></a> whence
+the proverb:</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>As forms by brass, so minds by wine are mirrored.<a id='r471' /><a href='#f471' class='c012'><sup>[471]</sup></a></div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c014'>The best, however, until those of glass came into
+use, were made of silver or of a mixed metal, the exact
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_119'>119</span>composition of which is not now known. Another
+kind was fashioned from a species of carbuncle found
+near the city of Orchomenos,<a id='r472' /><a href='#f472' class='c012'><sup>[472]</sup></a> in Arcadia. Glass
+mirrors<a id='r473' /><a href='#f473' class='c012'><sup>[473]</sup></a> also came early into use, chiefly manufactured,
+at the outset, by the Phœnicians of Sidon.
+The hand-mirrors were usually circular,<a id='r474' /><a href='#f474' class='c012'><sup>[474]</sup></a> and set in
+costly frames. To prevent their being speedily tarnished
+they were, when not in use, carefully enclosed
+in cases.<a id='r475' /><a href='#f475' class='c012'><sup>[475]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>There were mirrors, too, of polished silver, fashioned
+so as to magnify immensely the objects they reflected.<a id='r476' /><a href='#f476' class='c012'><sup>[476]</sup></a>
+They invented also large cups containing within
+many diminutive mirrors, so that when any one looked
+into them, his eye was met by a multitude of faces
+all resembling his own.<a id='r477' /><a href='#f477' class='c012'><sup>[477]</sup></a> In a temple of Hera in
+Arcadia, was a mirror fixed in the wall, wherein
+the spectator could at first scarcely, if at all, discern
+his own image, while the throne of the goddess and
+the statues of the other deities ranged around were
+most brilliantly <a id='corr119.20'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='reflected,'>reflected.</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_119.20'><ins class='correction' title='reflected,'>reflected.</ins></a></span><a id='r478' /><a href='#f478' class='c012'><sup>[478]</sup></a> Many sorts of mirrors
+appear to have been made for the purpose of playing
+off practical jokes. For example, looking in one
+of these, a handsome woman would find her visage
+transformed into that of a Gorgon, so as to appear
+terrible even to herself. Others again were so very
+flattering, that a half-starved barber, viewing his
+figure therein, appeared to be gifted with the thewes
+of a Heracles. Another sort distorted the countenance,
+or inverted it, or showed merely the half.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Religion was the nurse of the fine arts, and first
+gave rise, not only to sculpture and painting, but
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_120'>120</span>also to those private collections of statues and pictures<a id='r479' /><a href='#f479' class='c012'><sup>[479]</sup></a>
+in which we discover the germs of our modern
+galleries<a id='r480' /><a href='#f480' class='c012'><sup>[480]</sup></a> and museums. The first step was
+made towards these when the Greek set up the
+images of his household gods upon his hearth.
+Thence, step by step, he proceeded, improving the
+appearance, enriching the materials, increasing the
+number of his domestic deities, with which niche
+after niche was filled, till his private dwelling became
+in some sort a temple. The religious feeling,
+no doubt, made way, in many cases, for a
+passion for show, or a nascent taste for the beautiful;
+so that rude figures in terra-cotta, wood, or
+stone, were gradually replaced by exquisite statues
+in ivory, gold, or silver,<a id='r481' /><a href='#f481' class='c012'><sup>[481]</sup></a> or the fairest marble,
+breathing beauty and life, with eyes of gems, and
+clothed with majesty as with a garment. Hence
+flowed the passion for mimetic representations and
+all the plastic arts. The gods were transferred from
+the fireside to the temple, to the agora, to the
+senate-house, to the innumerable porticoes everywhere
+abounding in Greece.<a id='r482' /><a href='#f482' class='c012'><sup>[482]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>On their superb candelabra,<a id='r483' /><a href='#f483' class='c012'><sup>[483]</sup></a> &c., matter for a
+curious volume might be collected. The lamps in
+common use,<a id='r484' /><a href='#f484' class='c012'><sup>[484]</sup></a> though sometimes very beautiful in
+shape, were of course fictile,<a id='r485' /><a href='#f485' class='c012'><sup>[485]</sup></a> such as we find in
+great numbers among the ruins of Greek cities, both
+in the mother-country, and in their Egyptian and
+other colonies. Sometimes, however, they were of
+bronze, silver, or massive gold. A very beautiful
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_121'>121</span>specimen in this last metal was found, by Lord
+Belmore, among the ruins of an Egyptian temple, a
+short time before my visit to the Nile. In many
+houses were magnificent chandeliers, suspended from
+the ceiling, with numerous branches, which filled
+the apartments<a id='r486' /><a href='#f486' class='c012'><sup>[486]</sup></a> with a flood of light. The most
+remarkable article of this kind which I remember
+was that set up as a votive offering to Hestia, in
+the Prytaneion of Tarentum, by Dionysios the
+Younger, which held as many lamps as there are
+days in the year.<a id='r487' /><a href='#f487' class='c012'><sup>[487]</sup></a> Among people of humble condition
+wooden chandeliers, or candlesticks, were in
+use.<a id='r488' /><a href='#f488' class='c012'><sup>[488]</sup></a> In remoter ages they burned slips of pine-branches,
+the bark of various trees, &c., instead of
+lamps. They were acquainted with the use of horn
+and wicker lanterns.<a id='r489' /><a href='#f489' class='c012'><sup>[489]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Another kind of decoration of Greek houses we
+must not overlook,—their armour and implements
+of war,<a id='r490' /><a href='#f490' class='c012'><sup>[490]</sup></a> with which the poet Alcæos<a id='r491' /><a href='#f491' class='c012'><sup>[491]</sup></a> loved to adorn
+his chambers, though, like Paris, he cared little to
+make any other use of them. “My spacious mansion,”
+exclaims he, “gleams throughout with brazen
+arms. Even along the ceiling are ranged
+the ornaments of Ares, glittering helmets, surmounted
+by white nodding plumes; greaves of polished
+brass are suspended on the walls, with cuirasses
+of linen, while, here and there, about my
+apartments, are scattered hollow shields. Elsewhere,
+you behold scimitars of Chalcis, and baldricks,
+and the short vest which we wear beneath our
+armour.”<a id='r492' /><a href='#f492' class='c012'><sup>[492]</sup></a> Besides the articles enumerated by the
+poet, there were shield-cases, sheaths for their spears,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_122'>122</span>quivers curiously adorned, feathered arrows, and bows
+of polished horn, tipped at either end with gold.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>From these gorgeous and costly commodities the
+reader, we fear, will be reluctant to accompany us
+into the kitchen, where we must pick our way among
+kneading-troughs, pots and pans, Delphian cutlery<a id='r493' /><a href='#f493' class='c012'><sup>[493]</sup></a>
+and honey-jars.<a id='r494' /><a href='#f494' class='c012'><sup>[494]</sup></a> But as without these the warriors,
+as Homer himself acknowledges, could make but
+little use of their weapons, it is absolutely necessary
+we should inquire into their cooking conveniences.
+To commence, however, we must allow<a id='r495' /><a href='#f495' class='c012'><sup>[495]</sup></a> Clearchos
+of Soli, to enumerate a few of the articles found
+among the furniture of this important part of the
+house. There was, first, says he, a three-legged
+table, then a chytra, or earthen pot, which, as in
+France, was always preferred for making soup. It
+was not, however, of coarse brown ware, as with
+us; for, Socrates, in his conversation with Hippias
+on the Beautiful, observes that, when properly made,
+round, smooth, and well-baked, the chytra was very
+handsome, particularly that large sort which contained
+upwards of seven gallons. It had two
+handles, and was evidently glazed.<a id='r496' /><a href='#f496' class='c012'><sup>[496]</sup></a> In stirring the
+chytra while boiling, the Attic cook made choice
+of a ladle turned from the wood of the fig-tree,
+which, it is said, communicated an agreeable flavour
+to the soup, and, in Socrates’s opinion, was preferable
+to one of gold which, being very weighty,
+might chance to crack the pot, spill the broth, and
+extinguish the fire.<a id='r497' /><a href='#f497' class='c012'><sup>[497]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>There was used in the kitchen a sort of candelabrum,
+or lamp-stand, which Clearchos merely names.
+Then followed the mortar, the stool, the sponge,
+the cauldron, the kneading-trough, the mug, the oil-flask,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_123'>123</span>the rush-basket, the large knife, the cleaver,<a id='r498' /><a href='#f498' class='c012'><sup>[498]</sup></a>
+the wooden platter, the bowl, and the larding-pin.<a id='r499' /><a href='#f499' class='c012'><sup>[499]</sup></a>
+Pollux, who had, doubtless, served an apprenticeship
+to Marcus Aurelius’s cook, gives a formidable
+list of culinary utensils, from which we must be content
+to select the most remarkable. First, however,
+we shall show how important a piece of sponge was
+to an Athenian cook. It often saved him his dinner;
+for, if any of his stewpans, crocks, or kettles,
+had suffered from the embraces of Hephæstos,
+in other words, had got a hole burnt in them, a
+bit of sponge was drawn into the aperture, and on
+went the cooking operations as before.<a id='r500' /><a href='#f500' class='c012'><sup>[500]</sup></a> In some
+houses culinary utensils were regarded as a nuisance,
+the presence of which was not to be constantly endured,
+and, accordingly, when the master desired to
+treat his friends, cookey was despatched early in
+the morning to hire pots and kettles of a broker.
+To this custom Alexis alludes in his Exile:</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>How fertile in new tricks is Chæriphon,</div>
+ <div class='line'>To sup scot-free and everywhere find welcome!</div>
+ <div class='line'>Spies he a broker’s door with pots to let?</div>
+ <div class='line'>There from the earliest dawn he takes his stand,</div>
+ <div class='line'>To see whose cook arrives; from him he learns</div>
+ <div class='line'>Who ’tis that gives the feast,—flies to the house,</div>
+ <div class='line'>Watches his time, and, when the yawning door</div>
+ <div class='line'>Gapes for the guests, glides in among the first.<a id='r501' /><a href='#f501' class='c012'><sup>[501]</sup></a></div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c014'>But we must not pass over the Pyreion or Trypanon,<a id='r502' /><a href='#f502' class='c012'><sup>[502]</sup></a>
+the clumsy contrivance which supplied the
+place of our lucifers, phosphorus, and tinder-boxes.
+This was a hollow piece of wood, in which another
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_124'>124</span>piece was turned rapidly till sparks of fire flew out.<a id='r503' /><a href='#f503' class='c012'><sup>[503]</sup></a>
+Soldiers carried these fire-kindlers along with them
+as a necessary part of their kit.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The ordinary fuel of the Greeks consisted chiefly
+of wood and charcoal,<a id='r504' /><a href='#f504' class='c012'><sup>[504]</sup></a> (kept in rush or wicker baskets,)
+though the use of mineral coal was not altogether
+unknown to them.<a id='r505' /><a href='#f505' class='c012'><sup>[505]</sup></a> In Attica, where wood was always
+scarce, they economically made use of vine-cuttings,<a id='r506' /><a href='#f506' class='c012'><sup>[506]</sup></a>
+and even the green branches of the fig tree
+with the leaves on.<a id='r507' /><a href='#f507' class='c012'><sup>[507]</sup></a> The charcoal of Acharnæ, the
+best probably in the country, was sometimes prepared
+from the scarlet oak.<a id='r508' /><a href='#f508' class='c012'><sup>[508]</sup></a> To prevent the wood,
+used in their saloons, halls, and drawing-rooms from
+smoking, it was often boiled<a id='r509' /><a href='#f509' class='c012'><sup>[509]</sup></a> in water or steeped in
+dregs of oil. The use of the bellows<a id='r510' /><a href='#f510' class='c012'><sup>[510]</sup></a> was known
+in Hellas from the remotest antiquity. They had
+likewise a kind of osier flap, with a handle, and
+shaped like a fan, which at times supplied the place
+of a pair of bellows.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>There were chopping-blocks<a id='r511' /><a href='#f511' class='c012'><sup>[511]</sup></a> both of wood and
+stone, mortars,<a id='r512' /><a href='#f512' class='c012'><sup>[512]</sup></a> fish-kettles, frying-pans, and spits of
+all dimensions,<a id='r513' /><a href='#f513' class='c012'><sup>[513]</sup></a> some being so diminutive that thrushes
+and other small birds could be roasted on them.
+Their ends in the heroic ages rested on stone hobs,
+but afterwards andirons were invented, probably of
+fanciful shape as in modern France. Occasionally
+they would appear to have been manufactured of
+lead. To these we may add the ovens, the bean
+and barley-roasters, the sieves of bronze and other
+materials, the wine-strainers in the form of colanders,
+the crate for earthern-ware, and the chafing-dish.<a id='r514' /><a href='#f514' class='c012'><sup>[514]</sup></a></p>
+
+<hr class='c016' />
+<div class='footnote' id='f375'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r375'>375</a>. This profusion of wearing
+apparel was laid up in trunks
+and <em>mallekins</em> of wickerwork.
+The former were called κιβωτοὶ,
+the latter κίσται.—Casaub. ad
+Theoph. Char. p. 233. Clem.
+Alexand. Pæd. iii. Hesych. v.
+v. κιβωτὸς—κίστη. Mention is
+also made of presses.—Mazois,
+Pal. de Scaur. p. 120.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f376'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r376'>376</a>. Xenoph. Œconom. ix. 6, sqq.
+Aristot. Œconom. i. 6.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f377'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r377'>377</a>. Cicero ap. Columell. De Re
+Rust. xii. 3.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f378'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r378'>378</a>. Odysseus had a storehouse
+of this kind in his palace at
+Ithaca.—Odyss. χ. 442, 459,
+466.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f379'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r379'>379</a>. Xen. Œconom. ix. 10. 57.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f380'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r380'>380</a>. That the sycophants were
+sometimes troublesome, however,
+is certain; that is to say, in later
+ages. Speaking of the time of
+his youth, Isocrates says:—Οὐδεὶς
+οὔτ᾽ ἀπεκρύπτετο τὴν οὐσίαν
+οὔτ᾽ ὤκνει συμβάλλειν. κ. τ. λ.—Areop.
+§ 12. Cf. Bergmann. in
+loc. p. 362. But their persecution
+must always have been confined
+to a very few individuals,
+as people generally continued to
+display whatever they possessed
+down to the final overthrow of
+the state.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f381'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r381'>381</a>. Aristoph. Acharn. 398.—<cite>Mitchell.</cite>
+The learned editor fails
+to remark how little this custom
+harmonizes with the fears which
+he imagines rich people felt at
+Athens.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f382'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r382'>382</a>. On the attractive power of
+this substance, see Plat. Tim. t.
+vii. p. 118.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f383'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r383'>383</a>. Athen. v. 45. Lys. Frag.
+46. Orat. Att. t. ii. p. 647.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f384'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r384'>384</a>. Deipnosoph. xi. 78.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f385'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r385'>385</a>. α. 111. 138.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f386'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r386'>386</a>. This is also the opinion of
+Potter, ii. 376, 377; and Damm.
+in v. τράπεζα, col. 1822.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f387'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r387'>387</a>. Odyss. τ. 259. Pind. Olymp.
+i. 26.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f388'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r388'>388</a>. κ. 354, seq. 361, seq. In
+the letters attributed to Plato we
+find mention made of silver tables.
+t. viii. p. 397. Sometimes, also,
+of brass. Athen. ix. 75.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f389'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r389'>389</a>. Plin. Nat. Hist. xvi. 27.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f390'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r390'>390</a>. Athen. xi. 27.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f391'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r391'>391</a>. Athen. ii. 31.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f392'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r392'>392</a>. Paradise Regained, iv. 114,
+seq. where see Mitford’s curious
+and learned note. ii. 350, seq. and
+cf. Plin. v. 1. t. ii. p. 259. Hard.
+not. a. 261. xiii. 29. t. iv. p. 746,
+sqq. Petronius speaks of the
+“citrea mensa,” p. 157. Erhard.
+Symbol. ad Petron. 709, seq.
+shows that Numidian marble was
+in use at Rome.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f393'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r393'>393</a>. Potter, ii. 377.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f394'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r394'>394</a>. In the Antichita di Ercolano,
+we have the representation of a
+very handsome armed chair, with
+upright back, beautifully turned
+legs, and thick and soft cushions,
+with low footstool, t. i. tav. 29.
+p. 155. Athen. xi. 72.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f395'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r395'>395</a>. Pierres Gravées, du Cabinet
+du Duc d’Orleans, t. i. No. 46.
+Cf. No. 7, representing Zeus thus
+seated.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f396'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r396'>396</a>. Odyss. η. 162. Il. σ. 390, 422.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f397'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r397'>397</a>. Athen. xi. 48. i. 60. ii. 29.
+Plat. de Rep. t. vi. p. 468. Cf.
+Xenoph. Memor. ii. 1, 30.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f398'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r398'>398</a>. This bedstead was called
+δέμνιον; (Odyss. η. 336, seq.)
+when heaped with soft mattresses
+it was πυκινὸν λέχος (345);
+εὐνὴ was the term applied to the
+whole, bed and bedstead. Iliad.
+ω. 644. Odyss. δ. 297, &c. Pind.
+Nem. i. 3.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f399'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r399'>399</a>. Odyss. ψ. 189, seq. Schol. ad
+Il. γ. 448.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f400'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r400'>400</a>. Plat. de Legg. t. viii. p. 397.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f401'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r401'>401</a>. Athen. vi. 67. ii. 30.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f402'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r402'>402</a>. Schol. Aristoph. Eq. 530.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f403'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r403'>403</a>. Lucian. Luc., sive Asin. §
+53. Bedsteads of solid gold are
+spoken of in scripture.—Esther i.
+6. Bochart. Geog. Sac. i. 6. 30.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f404'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r404'>404</a>. Athen. xii. 9, 55.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f405'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r405'>405</a>. No. 34.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f406'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r406'>406</a>. Il. β. 697. δ. 383.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f407'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r407'>407</a>. Athen. xi. 72.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f408'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r408'>408</a>. Athen. i. 32.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f409'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r409'>409</a>. Xen. Mem. ii. 1. 30.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f410'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r410'>410</a>. Palm. Exercit. in Auct. Græc.
+p. 191. We find mention in ancient
+authors of certain tribes who
+went clad in garments covered
+with the feathers of birds. Senec.
+Epist. 90.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f411'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r411'>411</a>. Athen. vi. 37.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f412'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r412'>412</a>. Athen. ii. 29, sqq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f413'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r413'>413</a>. Gitone, Nozze di Ulisse è Penelope,
+Il Costume, &c. tav. 67.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f414'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r414'>414</a>. See the mattress on which the
+statue of Hermaphroditos reclines
+in the Louvre.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f415'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r415'>415</a>. Il. β. 42, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f416'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r416'>416</a>. Esther i. 6. Lament, iv. 5.
+Bochart. Geograph. Sac. i. 6. 30.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f417'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r417'>417</a>. Geog. Sac. i. 6. 28, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f418'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r418'>418</a>. Eustath. ad Odyss. α. p. 32.
+30.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f419'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r419'>419</a>. Athen. ii. 30.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f420'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r420'>420</a>. In old times the whole bedroom
+was sometimes perfumed.—Iliad,
+γ. 382.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f421'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r421'>421</a>. Athen. ii. 30. Aristoph.
+Frag. incert. 2. Brunck.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f422'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r422'>422</a>. Deipnosoph. xi. 55. Casaub.
+ad Theoph. Char. p. 172.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f423'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r423'>423</a>. Feith. Antiq. Homer, iii. 8.
+4.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f424'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r424'>424</a>. Very nearly the same customs
+prevail in Persia at the present
+day, except that the rules of
+etiquette seem to be still more
+rigidly observed. “It is a general
+custom with the kings of
+Persia to eat in solitary grandeur.
+The late Shah, however,
+would sometimes have
+select portions of his family to
+breakfast with him.” On which
+occasion, “they used to squat
+round him in the form of a
+crescent, of which he was the
+centre, and were all placed
+scrupulously according to rank.”—Fowler,
+i. 48.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f425'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r425'>425</a>. Athen. vi. 58. Vales. not.
+in Maussac. p. 282, where he corrects
+the old reading of the text.
+Cf. Xenoph. Hellen. vii. 1. 38.
+Plut. Pelop. § 30. Artax. § 22.
+Valer. Max. vi. 3. extern. 2.
+Demosth. de Fals. Leg. § 42,
+where the orator accuses Timagoras
+of having received a bribe
+of forty talents.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f426'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r426'>426</a>. Athen. ii. 31.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f427'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r427'>427</a>. Xen. Anab. i. 5. 5.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f428'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r428'>428</a>. Nub. 10. Cf. Av. 122.
+Concionat. 838. ibique not. Pollux,
+vii. 382, seq. x. 542.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f429'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r429'>429</a>. Cf. Poll. vi. 105.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f430'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r430'>430</a>. Athen. xv. 42. Cf. Meineke.
+Curæ Crit. in Com. Frag. p. 7.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f431'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r431'>431</a>. Mazois, Pal. de Scaur, p.
+103. Tibull. iii. 3, 17, seq.
+Athen. iv. 29.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f432'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r432'>432</a>. Athen. i. 49.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f433'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r433'>433</a>. Il. ι. 200.—The use of mats
+first prevailed, (Festus, in v.
+Scirpus.) but, as luxury increased,
+superb carpets were substituted.—Æschyl.
+Agam. 842. Tryphiod.
+Ἅλωσις Ἴλιου. 343, seq.
+Hemster. Comm. in Poll. viii.
+133. p. 287. Cf. Klausen.
+Comm. in Æschyl. Agam. p.
+197, sqq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f434'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r434'>434</a>. Il. π. 224. Poll. vi. 2. Synes.
+Epist. 61.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f435'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r435'>435</a>. Eidyll, xv. 125.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f436'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r436'>436</a>. A beautiful simile, which
+Virgil has imitated—</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">“Muscosi fontes, et <em>somno mollior herba</em>.”</span>—Eclog. vii. 45.</div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c014'>Shakespeare, too, has, without
+imitation, struck upon a similar
+thought, where the amorous Troilus
+thus describes himself:—</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>“But I am weaker than a woman’s tear,</div>
+ <div class='line'><em>Tamer than sleep</em>, fonder than ignorance.”</div>
+ <div class='line in24'>Troilus & Cressida, i. 1.</div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f437'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r437'>437</a>. Athen. iv. 2, sqq. Cf. iii. 100.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f438'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r438'>438</a>. Athen. iv. 42.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f439'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r439'>439</a>. Deipnosoph. <span lang="la" xml:lang="la"><i>ut sup.</i></span></p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f440'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r440'>440</a>. Athen. ix. 75.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f441'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r441'>441</a>. Plat. De Rep. i. t. vi. p. 86.
+Cf. Tim. t. vii. p. 77.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f442'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r442'>442</a>. Athen. xi. 3. Poll. x. 122.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f443'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r443'>443</a>. Le Comte de Caylus, Mem.
+de l’Acad. des Inscrip, t. xxiii. p.
+353.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f444'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r444'>444</a>. Athen. xi. 14. Among the
+Egyptians were vases of papyrus.
+Bochart. Geog. Sac. i. 240.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f445'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r445'>445</a>. Bruyerin, De Re Cibaria, l.
+iii. c. 9. This goblet could by no
+means have been a diminutive
+one, if Helen resembled her countrywomen
+generally, who were
+celebrated for their large bosoms:
+βαθύκολποι.—Anacr. v. 14.
+Bruyerin’s authority is Plin. Hist.
+Nat. xxxii. 23. <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">“Minervæ templum
+habet Lindos, insula Rhodiorum,
+in quo Helena sacravit
+calycem ex electro. Adjicit historia,
+mammæ suæ mensura.”</span>
+This, I suppose, is what Rousseau
+calls <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">“Cette coupe célèbre à qui le
+plus beau sein du monde servit
+de moule.”</span>—Nouv. Heloise,
+1<sup>re</sup> partie. Lett. 23. t. i. p. 144,—though,
+I confess, I am not acquainted
+with the authors by
+whom it has been celebrated. Several
+votive offerings, representing
+the female breast, may be seen
+in the British Museum, among
+the Elgin Marbles. But the most
+curious relic of the ancient female
+form is mentioned in the following
+passage: “In the street just
+out of the gate of this villa I
+lately saw a skeleton dug out;
+and by desiring the labourers
+to remove the skull and bones
+gently, I perceived distinctly
+the perfect mould of every feature
+of the face, and that the
+eyes had been shut. I also saw
+distinctly the impression of the
+large folds of the drapery of the
+toga, and some of the cloth itself
+sticking to the earth. The
+city was first covered by a
+shower of hot pumice-stones and
+ashes, and then by a shower of
+small ashes mixed with water.
+It was in the latter stratum
+that the skeleton above described
+was found. In the Museum
+at Portici a piece of this
+sort of hardened mud is preserved;
+it is stamped with
+the impression of the breast
+of a woman, with a thin drapery
+over it. The skeleton I
+saw dug out was not above five
+feet from the surface. It is
+very extraordinary that the impression
+of the body and face
+should have remained from the
+year 79 to this day, especially
+as I found the earth so little
+hardened that it separated upon
+the least touch.”—Sir W. Hamilton,
+Acc. of Discov. at Pompeii,
+p. 15.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f446'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r446'>446</a>. Athen. xi. 14.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f447'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r447'>447</a>. Athen. xi. 15. Polyb. xii.
+15. 6. xv. 35. 2.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f448'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r448'>448</a>. See ariner’s Account, chap. 9.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f449'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r449'>449</a>. Athen. xi. 15.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f450'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r450'>450</a>. Iliad. ω. 234.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f451'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r451'>451</a>. Athen. xi. 16.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f452'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r452'>452</a>. Bentley, Dissert. on Phal. i.
+175, sqq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f453'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r453'>453</a>. Plin. xxxiii. 2. Juven. v. 42.
+Athen. iv. 29.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f454'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r454'>454</a>. Athen. xi. 19.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f455'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r455'>455</a>. Athen. xi. 25, states this from
+Philetas: but Kayser, in his edition
+of that author’s fragments,
+seems to have overlooked this
+passage.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f456'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r456'>456</a>. Athen. xi. 36. On the Cantharos,
+see § 48.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f457'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r457'>457</a>. Athen. xi. 28.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f458'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r458'>458</a>. Athen. xi. 28.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f459'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r459'>459</a>. We find in Winkelmann,
+Hist. de l’Art t. i. p. 23, the representation
+of a glass grammateion,
+on which are the words:
+Bibe Vivas Multis Annis. See a
+detailed description of this vase
+by the Marquis Trivulsi, p. 46.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f460'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r460'>460</a>. Athen. xi. 30.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f461'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r461'>461</a>. Theopomp. ap. Athen. xi. 34.
+51.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f462'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r462'>462</a>. Athen. xi. 35.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f463'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r463'>463</a>. Cf. Bentley on the Epist. of
+Phalaris i. 169–189.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f464'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r464'>464</a>. Alexis, ap. Athen. xi. 42.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f465'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r465'>465</a>. Hist. Plant. v. 4. 2. cum not.
+Schnei. t. iii. p. 426.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f466'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r466'>466</a>. Athen. xi. 41. ἄλλοι δὲ ἱστοροῦσι,
+θηρίκλειον ὀνομασθῆναι τὸ
+ποτήριον διὰ τὸ δορὰς θηρίων αὐτῷ
+ἐντετυπῶσθαι.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f467'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r467'>467</a>. Bœckh. Pub. Econ. of Athens,
+ii. 254.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f468'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r468'>468</a>. Pind. Frag. Incert. 44. i. 244.
+Dissen. Comm. ii. 659. Jacob.
+Anthol. vii. 336. Athen. xi. 51.
+Cf. Damm. v. κέρας.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f469'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r469'>469</a>. Anab. vi. 1. 4. vii. 3. 24, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f470'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r470'>470</a>. Xen. Conv. vii. 4. They were
+sometimes square and washed
+with silver. Caylus, Rec. d’Antiq.
+t. vi. p. 398. Cf. Cœl. Rhodig.
+xv. 12, 13. Plat. Tim. t. vii. 52,
+seq. 61. Lucian. Amor. § 39. Ter.
+Adelph. ii. 3. 61. Cicero in Pison.
+c. 29. Poll. vii. 95. x. 126, 164.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f471'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r471'>471</a>. Athen. x. 31.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f472'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r472'>472</a>. Theoph. de Lapid. §. 33.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f473'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r473'>473</a>. It is to be observed, that before
+the application of quicksilver
+in the construction of these glasses
+(which I presume is of no great
+antiquity) the reflection of images
+by such specula must have been
+effected by their being besmeared
+behind, or tinged through with
+some dark colour, especially black,
+which would obstruct the refraction
+of the rays of light. Nixon
+in Philosoph. Trans, t. iv. p. 602.
+Cf. Plin. xxxvi. 26. § 67.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f474'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r474'>474</a>. Sch. Aristoph. Nub. 742.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f475'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r475'>475</a>. Sch. Aristoph. Nub. 741.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f476'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r476'>476</a>. Plaut. in Mostell. i. 3. 101.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f477'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r477'>477</a>. Plin. xxxiii. 45. Senec.
+Quæst. Nat. i. 4.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f478'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r478'>478</a>. Paus. viii. 37. 7.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f479'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r479'>479</a>. Plat. de Rep. t. vi. p. 86.
+Plin. Hist. Nat. vii. 39. xxxv.
+36. xxxiii. 56.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f480'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r480'>480</a>. Athen. xi. 3. Menage, Observat.
+in Diog. Laert. vi. 32.
+p. 138. a. b.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f481'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r481'>481</a>. Poll. i. 28.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f482'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r482'>482</a>. Plat. de Rep. t. vi. p. 86.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f483'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r483'>483</a>. An elegant candelabrum, ornamented
+with the figure of a
+twisted serpent, and a flight of
+birds resting here and there on
+the branches, is found in the
+Mus. Cortonens. tab. 80.—They
+were sometimes of gilt wood.—Winkelmann,
+i. 34.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f484'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r484'>484</a>. Poll. ii. 72. vi. 103. x. 115.
+Soph. Ajax. 285, sqq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f485'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r485'>485</a>. Poll. x. 192.—On the brazen
+ladle (ἀρύταινα) for filling lamps
+with oil, see Sch. Aristoph. Eq.
+1087.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f486'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r486'>486</a>. Athen. xi. 48.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f487'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r487'>487</a>. Id. xv. 60.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f488'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r488'>488</a>. Id xv. 61.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f489'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r489'>489</a>. Id. xv. 59.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f490'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r490'>490</a>. The custom, also, in Lydia.
+Herod. i. 34.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f491'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r491'>491</a>. Alcæi Frag. vi. p. 95. Anacr.
+ed. Glasg.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f492'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r492'>492</a>. Κύπασσις of which Pollux furnishes
+us with an exact description:
+ὁ δὲ κύπασσις, λίνου πεποίητο,
+σμικρὸς χιτωνίσκος, ἄχρι μέσου
+μηροῦ, ὡς Ἴων φησὶ, βραχὺς λίνου
+κύπασσις, ἐς μηρὸν μέσον ἐσταλμένος.
+(vii. 60) That is, “the <em>kupassis</em>
+is a small linen chiton,
+reaching mid-thigh, according to
+Ion, who says, ‘a short linen
+kupassis, descending to the middle
+of the thigh.’”</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f493'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r493'>493</a>. Hesych. v. Δελφικὴ μάχαιρα.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f494'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r494'>494</a>. Athen. xi. 50, ὀξίνη, a vinegar
+cruet.—Sch. Aristoph. Eq.
+1301. ὑρχη, a pickle-jar.—Vesp.
+676.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f495'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r495'>495</a>. Athen. xiv. 60.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f496'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r496'>496</a>. Plat. Hipp. Maj. t. v. p. 425,
+sqq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f497'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r497'>497</a>. Plat. Opp. t. v. p. 429. seq.
+Schol. Aristoph. Acharn. 244.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f498'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r498'>498</a>. See a figure, probably, of that
+instrument in Mus. Chiaramont.
+tav. 21.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f499'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r499'>499</a>. Athen. xiv. 60. Poll. x. 95,
+sqq.—We find mention, also, of
+the cheese-rasp.—Schol. Aristoph.
+Pac. 251.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f500'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r500'>500</a>. Aristoph. Acharn. 439. Brunck
+is vastly scandalised at the idea
+of the Scholiast, that any man
+should have been so poor in Attica
+as to be driven to mend his
+pots in the way commemorated
+in the text; but a German commentator,
+who had looked more
+into kitchens, is satisfied that
+the practice prevailed, and was
+perfectly rational. In fact, similar
+contrivances are still resorted
+to, even in England.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f501'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r501'>501</a>. Athen. iv. 58.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f502'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r502'>502</a>. Theoph. Histor. Plant. v. 9. 7.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f503'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r503'>503</a>. Plat. de Rep. iv. t. vi. p. 194.
+Pollux. x. 146. vii. 113.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f504'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r504'>504</a>. Cf. Schol. Aristoph. Acharn.
+34, 302, 314. Plat. de Legg. t.
+viii. 116.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f505'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r505'>505</a>. Theoph. de Lap. § 16.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f506'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r506'>506</a>. Schol. Aristoph. Lysist. 308.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f507'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r507'>507</a>. Schol. Aristoph. Acharn. 312.
+Cf. Schol. Vesp. 145, 326.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f508'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r508'>508</a>. Sch. Aristoph. Acharn. 587.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f509'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r509'>509</a>. Plin. Hist. Nat. xv. 8.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f510'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r510'>510</a>. Schol. Aristoph. Acharn. 853.
+Athen. ii. 71.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f511'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r511'>511</a>. Schol. Aristoph. Acharn. 319.
+Vesp. 238. κρεάγρα a flesh-hook.
+Sch. Eq. 769.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f512'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r512'>512</a>. Schol. Aristoph. Vesp. 924.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f513'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r513'>513</a>. Schol. Aristoph. Nub. 179.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f514'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r514'>514</a>. Aristoph. Acharn. 34. Cooks’
+tables were made of wicker-work
+or olive-wood. Etym. Mag. 298.
+36, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<hr class='c016' />
+
+<div>
+ <span class='pageno' id='Page_125'>125</span>
+ <h3 class='c002'>CHAPTER III. <br /> FOOD OF HOMERIC TIMES—MEAT, FISH, ETC.</h3>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c011'>Having described the implements with which a
+Greek meal was prepared, let us next inquire of
+what materials it consisted, and how it was eaten.
+There will be no occasion in pursuing this investigation
+to adhere to any very strict method. It will probably
+be sufficient to make a few broad divisions and
+a flexible outline which we can fill up as the materials
+fall in our way.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>What the original inhabitants of Hellas ate might
+no doubt be satisfactorily inferred from the accounts
+we possess of nations still existing in the same state
+of civilisation. But it is nevertheless curious to examine
+their traditions relating to the subject. Ælian,
+who has preserved many notices of remote antiquity,
+gives a list of various kinds of food, which, as
+he would appear to think, constituted the chief, if
+not the whole, sustenance of several ancient nations.
+The Arcadians lived, he says, upon acorns; the Argives
+upon pears, the Athenians upon figs;<a id='r515' /><a href='#f515' class='c012'><sup>[515]</sup></a> the wild
+pear-tree furnished the Tirynthians with their favourite
+food; a sort of cane was the chief dainty of the
+Indians; of the Karamanians<a id='r516' /><a href='#f516' class='c012'><sup>[516]</sup></a> the date; millet of
+the Mæotæ and Sauromatæ; while the Persians<a id='r517' /><a href='#f517' class='c012'><sup>[517]</sup></a> delighted
+chiefly in cardamums and pistachio nuts.<a id='r518' /><a href='#f518' class='c012'><sup>[518]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'><span class='pageno' id='Page_126'>126</span>The tradition that while some degree of civilisation
+already existed in the East, many tribes of
+Hellas still subsisted upon acorns, has given rise
+to much curious disquisition. It is abundantly clear,
+however, that the fruit of our English oak is not
+what is meant; for, upon this, no one who has
+made the experiment will for one moment imagine
+that man could subsist; but every kind of production
+comprehended by the Greeks under the term
+“acorn,” (βάλανος). Gerard, an old English botanist,
+enumerates chestnuts among acorns, and Xenophon
+calls dates “the acorns of the palm-tree.” The
+mast, however, of a tree common in Greece, would,
+as Mitford thinks, afford a not unwholesome nourishment,
+though he is quite right in supposing that
+it could not have been a favourite food in more
+civilised times.<a id='r519' /><a href='#f519' class='c012'><sup>[519]</sup></a> While upon the subject of acorns,
+this ingenious and able writer appears disposed to
+make somewhat merry with a certain project of
+Socrates. If we rightly comprehend him, which
+very possibly we do not, he means to accuse the
+philosopher of reducing the citizens of his airy republic
+to very short commons indeed,<a id='r520' /><a href='#f520' class='c012'><sup>[520]</sup></a> nothing but
+a little beech-mast, and a few myrtle-berries. This
+borders strongly on the notion of the comic writer,
+who describes the Athenians as living on air and
+hope. But though abstemious enough, Socrates
+was not so unreasonable as to require even his Utopians
+to fight and philosophise upon a diet so scanty.
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_127'>127</span>Before he comes to the mast and the myrtle-berries,
+we find him enumerating wheaten and barley bread,
+salt, olives, cheese, and truffles, together with pulse
+and all such herbs as the fields spontaneously produce.
+For a dessert he would indulge them with
+figs, chickpeas, and beans, myrtle-berries, and beech-mast,
+or chestnuts roasted in the fire. Plato was
+aware how the luxurious wits of his time would
+turn up their noses at such primitive diet, and therefore
+brings in Glaucon inquiring,—“If you were
+founding a polity of swine, what other food would
+you provide for them?”<a id='r521' /><a href='#f521' class='c012'><sup>[521]</sup></a> Pausanias remarks, however,
+that acorns long continued to be a common
+article of food in Arcadia,<a id='r522' /><a href='#f522' class='c012'><sup>[522]</sup></a> but only those of the
+fagus.<a id='r523' /><a href='#f523' class='c012'><sup>[523]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>If we may credit some writers the ancient inhabitants
+of Hellas made use of food much more
+revolting than acorns, having been, in fact, cannibals
+who devoured each other. There, no doubt,
+existed among the Greeks of later times traditions
+of a state of society in which human flesh was
+eaten by certain fierce and lawless individuals, such
+as Polyphemos, but nothing in their literature can
+authorise us to infer that the practice was ever
+general. Superstition seems on very extraordinary
+occasions to have impelled them into the guilt of
+human sacrifice, when the officiating priests, and,
+perhaps, some few others, probably tasted of the
+entrails, and Galen had conversed with individuals
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_128'>128</span>who had been led by mere curiosity to sup on man’s
+flesh, and found its flavour to resemble that of tender
+beef.<a id='r524' /><a href='#f524' class='c012'><sup>[524]</sup></a> But instances of this kind prove nothing;
+for how often does it not happen that mariners are
+even now driven by distressful circumstances to
+slaughter and eat their companions at sea! And
+yet shall we on this account pass for anthropophagi
+with posterity?</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The Greeks, however, were not content with one
+set of traditions, or upon the whole inclined to give
+currency to the most gloomy. On the contrary,
+their poets casting backward the light of their imagination,
+and kindling up the landscapes of the far
+past, called up the vision of the golden age, when
+neither the domestic hearth<a id='r525' /><a href='#f525' class='c012'><sup>[525]</sup></a> nor the altars of the
+gods were stained with blood, and the fruits of the
+field,—milk, honey, cheese, and butter sufficed to
+sustain life. But we must escape from these shadowy
+times, and come down to the age of beef
+and mutton.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Food is, with great precision, divided by Aristotle
+into moist and dry, that is, into meat and drink.<a id='r526' /><a href='#f526' class='c012'><sup>[526]</sup></a>
+A classification, the credit of which, as Feith contends,
+belongs to Homer.<a id='r527' /><a href='#f527' class='c012'><sup>[527]</sup></a> In this poet, bread (σίτος),
+the principal article of provision, is made indiscriminately
+both from wheat and barley, though the
+latter grain is thought to have been first in use.<a id='r528' /><a href='#f528' class='c012'><sup>[528]</sup></a>
+Herodotus found, in the matter of bread, a peculiar
+taste among the Egyptians; barley and wheat they
+despised, though in no country are finer produced
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_129'>129</span>than in Egypt; giving, very strangely, the preference
+to the <em>olyra</em>, by some supposed to be the
+spelt, but more probably Syrian <em>dhourra</em>, ears of
+which I observed sculptured on the interior of
+the pronaos of Leto’s temple at Esneh. Bread, in
+the Homeric age, was brought to table in a reed
+basket, the use of silver bread-baskets, or trays, not
+having been then, as Donatus thinks, introduced.
+But in this the learned commentator is mistaken;
+or, if they had no silver trays, at least they had
+them of brass and gold, to match their tables of
+massive silver.<a id='r529' /><a href='#f529' class='c012'><sup>[529]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Next to bread, flesh, in the heroic ages, was the
+greatest stay-stomach, particularly beef, kid, mutton,
+and pork. They had not, however, as yet discovered
+many ways of cooking it. Nearly all their
+culinary ingenuity reduced itself in fact to roasting
+and boiling, a circumstance which led Athenæus,<a id='r530' /><a href='#f530' class='c012'><sup>[530]</sup></a>
+and the president Goguet to look back with great
+pity and concern on these unhappy ages when even
+princes, generally gourmands, were deprived of the
+supreme felicity of dining on ragouts, soups, and
+boiled brains. Servius,<a id='r531' /><a href='#f531' class='c012'><sup>[531]</sup></a> too, and Varro are inclined
+to participate in this feeling of commiseration, and
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_130'>130</span>the latter observes, that among their own ancestors
+people were originally compelled to dine on roast
+meat, though in the course of time the arts of boiling
+and soup-making were introduced.<a id='r532' /><a href='#f532' class='c012'><sup>[532]</sup></a> With regard
+to Homer’s heroes, however, our sympathies
+are somewhat relieved by finding, that learned men
+have overrated the extent of their misfortunes.
+They were not altogether ignorant of the art of
+boiling, as Athenæus himself admits, where he mentions
+the boiled shin of beef which one of the
+drunken suitors flung at Odysseus’s head.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The flesh of young animals was not habitually
+eaten in those early ages, so that in denominating
+them public devourers of kids and lambs, Priam
+accuses his sons of scandalous luxury.<a id='r533' /><a href='#f533' class='c012'><sup>[533]</sup></a> In fact,
+with the design of preventing a scarcity of animal
+food, a law was enacted at Athens prohibiting the
+slaughter of an unshorn lamb, and from the same
+motive the Emperor Valens forbade the use of
+veal.<a id='r534' /><a href='#f534' class='c012'><sup>[534]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>But there was nothing beyond the difficulty of
+catching it, to prevent the Homeric heroes from
+making free with game, such as venison, and the
+flesh of the wild goat;<a id='r535' /><a href='#f535' class='c012'><sup>[535]</sup></a> and from a passage in
+the Iliad, Feith infers, that even birds were not
+spared.<a id='r536' /><a href='#f536' class='c012'><sup>[536]</sup></a> We trust, however, that they feathered
+and cooked them, and did not devour them <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><i>au naturel</i></span>,
+as certain Hindùs do their sheep, wool and
+all. The Egyptians had a very peculiar taste in
+ornithophagy, and actually ate some kinds of birds
+quite raw, as they likewise did several species of
+fish; and this not in those early ages when Isis
+and Osiris had not reclaimed the bogs of the Nile,
+but in times quite modern, when Herodotus travelled
+in their country, and heard their vain priests
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_131'>131</span>lay claim to having civilised Hellas. Both birds
+and fish, indeed, underwent a certain sort of preparation.
+Of the latter some were dried in the sun,
+others preserved in pickle, and the same process
+was applied to ducks, quails, and many other species
+of birds, after which they were eaten raw. We
+recommend the practice to our gourmands, and have
+no doubt they would find a pickled owl or jackdaw,
+devoured in the Egyptian style, altogether as wholesome
+as diseased goose’s liver. It must not, however,
+be dissembled, that many critics, concerned
+for the gastronomic reputation of the Egyptians,
+contend that, by the word which we translate “to
+pickle,”<a id='r537' /><a href='#f537' class='c012'><sup>[537]</sup></a> Herodotus must have meant some kind
+of cookery; to which Wesseling replies, that, without
+designing to impugn the taste of those gentlemen,
+he must yet refuse to accept of their interpretation,
+since by observing that they roasted or
+boiled all other species of birds and fish, such as
+were sacred excepted, the historian evidently intends
+to say, that these were eaten raw. The
+learned editor might have added, that Herodotus
+uses the same term in treating of the process of
+embalming,<a id='r538' /><a href='#f538' class='c012'><sup>[538]</sup></a> and we nowhere learn that the mummies
+were cooked before they were deposited in
+the tombs.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>But to return to the Homeric warriors; it seems
+extremely<a id='r539' /><a href='#f539' class='c012'><sup>[539]</sup></a> probable, notwithstanding the opinions
+of several writers of great authority, both ancient
+and modern, that the demi-gods, and heroes before
+Troy, admitted that effeminate dainty called <em>fish</em>
+to their warlike tables. At all events the common
+people understood the value of this kind of
+food,<a id='r540' /><a href='#f540' class='c012'><sup>[540]</sup></a> and it may safely be inferred that their betters,
+never slow in appropriating delicacies to their
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_132'>132</span>own use, soon perceived that fish is no bad eating.
+Hunger would at least reconcile them to the flavour
+of broiled salmon, as we find by the example of
+Odysseus’s companions, who devoured both fish and
+fowl.<a id='r541' /><a href='#f541' class='c012'><sup>[541]</sup></a> This is acknowledged by Athenæus;<a id='r542' /><a href='#f542' class='c012'><sup>[542]</sup></a> but
+Plutarch contends, that they could have been driven
+to it only by extreme necessity. At all
+other times he imagines they temperately abstained
+from food of so exciting a kind,<a id='r543' /><a href='#f543' class='c012'><sup>[543]</sup></a> though Homer
+describes the Hellespont as abounding in fish,<a id='r544' /><a href='#f544' class='c012'><sup>[544]</sup></a> and
+more than once alludes to the practice of drawing
+it thence with hook and line.<a id='r545' /><a href='#f545' class='c012'><sup>[545]</sup></a> Thus we find that
+angling can trace back its pedigree to the heroic
+ages; and the disciple of the rod as he trudges
+with Izaak in his pocket through bog and mire in
+search of a good bite, may solace his imagination
+with reminiscences of Troy and the Hellespont. But
+the good people of those days did not wholly rely
+for a supply of fish on this very tedious and inefficient
+process; they had discovered the use of nets,
+which Homer describes the fisherman casting on
+the sea shore.<a id='r546' /><a href='#f546' class='c012'><sup>[546]</sup></a> Though the poet, however, had
+omitted all allusion to this kind of food, its use
+might, nevertheless, have been confidently inferred,
+as may that of milk, common to all nations, though
+Homer mentions it only, I believe, in the case of
+the Hippomolgians,<a id='r547' /><a href='#f547' class='c012'><sup>[547]</sup></a> and the cannibal Polyphemus,
+who understood also the luxury of cheese.<a id='r548' /><a href='#f548' class='c012'><sup>[548]</sup></a> Circe,
+too, who being a goddess may be supposed to have
+been a connoisseur in dainties, presents her paramour
+Odysseus with a curious mixture, consisting
+of cheese, honey, flour, and wine,<a id='r549' /><a href='#f549' class='c012'><sup>[549]</sup></a> very savoury, no
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_133'>133</span>doubt, and by old Nestor considered of salutary nature,
+since Hecamedè, at his order, prepares a plentiful
+supply of it for the wounded Machaon. Along with
+this posset, garlic was eaten as a relish.<a id='r550' /><a href='#f550' class='c012'><sup>[550]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Fruits and potherbs, as may be supposed, were
+already in use.<a id='r551' /><a href='#f551' class='c012'><sup>[551]</sup></a> Garlic we have mentioned above;
+and Odysseus, after all his wars and wanderings,
+<a id='corr133.8'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='recals'>recalls</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_133.8'><ins class='correction' title='recals'>recalls</ins></a></span> to mind with a quite natural pleasure the
+apple and pear trees which his father, Laertes, had
+given him when a boy.<a id='r552' /><a href='#f552' class='c012'><sup>[552]</sup></a> Alcinoös possessed a fine
+orchard, where, though the process of grafting is
+supposed to have been then unknown, we find a
+variety of beautiful fruits, as pears, apples, pomegranates,
+delicious figs, olives, and grapes; and in
+his kitchen-garden were all kinds of vegetables.<a id='r553' /><a href='#f553' class='c012'><sup>[553]</sup></a>
+And the shadowy boughs of a similar orchard, covered
+with golden fruit, wave over Tantalos in
+Hades, but are blown back by the wind whenever
+the wretched old sinner stretches forth his hand
+towards them.<a id='r554' /><a href='#f554' class='c012'><sup>[554]</sup></a> From this circumstance Athenæus,
+with much ingenuity, infers that fruit was actually
+in use before the Trojan war! Apples seem then,
+as now, to have constituted a favourite portion of
+the dessert, though among the Homeric warriors they
+seem sometimes to have formed a principal part of
+the meal; for Servius<a id='r555' /><a href='#f555' class='c012'><sup>[555]</sup></a> describes the primitive repasts
+as consisting of two courses, of which the first
+was animal food, and apples the second.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Salt was in great use in the Homeric age, and by
+the poet sometimes called divine.<a id='r556' /><a href='#f556' class='c012'><sup>[556]</sup></a> Plato, also, in the
+Timæos,<a id='r557' /><a href='#f557' class='c012'><sup>[557]</sup></a> speaks of salt as a thing acceptable to the
+gods, an expression which Plutarch quotes with manifest
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_134'>134</span>approbation in a passage where he grows quite
+eloquent in praise of this article, which he denominates
+the condiment of condiments, adding, that of
+some it was numbered among the Graces.<a id='r558' /><a href='#f558' class='c012'><sup>[558]</sup></a> By the
+most ancient Greeks salt was, for this reason, always
+spoken of in conjunction with the table, as in the old
+proverb, where men were advised “never to pass by salt
+or a table,” that is, not to neglect a good dinner.<a id='r559' /><a href='#f559' class='c012'><sup>[559]</sup></a> Poor
+men, who probably had no other seasoning for their
+food, were contemptuously denominated “salt-lickers.”<a id='r560' /><a href='#f560' class='c012'><sup>[560]</sup></a>
+But, in Homer’s time, there existed certain Hellenic
+tribes who had not yet arrived at a knowledge of this
+luxury; among whom, accordingly, even the most aristocratic
+personages were compelled to go without salt
+to their porridge.<a id='r561' /><a href='#f561' class='c012'><sup>[561]</sup></a> The poet has, indeed, omitted to
+mention their names; but Pausanias supposes him to
+have alluded to the more inland clans of Epeirots,
+many of which had not yet, in those ages, acquired
+a knowledge of salt, or even of the sea.<a id='r562' /><a href='#f562' class='c012'><sup>[562]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>It appears to be agreed on all hands, that the primitive
+races of men were mere water-drinkers. Accordingly
+they had neither poets nor inn-keepers, nor
+excisemen,—three classes of persons who never flourish
+but where wine, or at least beer, is found.
+Homer more than once alludes to this vicious habit
+of the old world, where, with a sly insinuation of
+contempt,—for he was himself partial to the blood-red
+wine,—he tells us that this or that nation drank,
+like so many oxen or crocodiles, of the waters of
+such or such a river. Thus, when enumerating the
+allies of Ilion, he describes the Zeleians as those who
+sipped the black waters of the Æsepos.<a id='r563' /><a href='#f563' class='c012'><sup>[563]</sup></a> Pindar, too,
+in the hope of obtaining a reputation for sobriety,
+says, he was accustomed to drink the waters of
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_135'>135</span>Thebes, which, in his opinion, were very delicious,<a id='r564' /><a href='#f564' class='c012'><sup>[564]</sup></a>
+though Hippocrates would unquestionably have been
+of a totally different way of thinking. The Persian,
+and afterwards the Parthian kings, appear in many
+cases to have entertained a temperate predilection
+for the water of certain streams, of which Milton
+has given eternal celebrity to one:—</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line in8'>“Choaspes, amber stream,</div>
+ <div class='line'>The drink of none but kings.”<a id='r565' /><a href='#f565' class='c012'><sup>[565]</sup></a></div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c015'>But evidently through mistake; for though historians
+pretend that the Parthian monarchs would drink of
+no water save that of the Choaspes, to which Pliny<a id='r566' /><a href='#f566' class='c012'><sup>[566]</sup></a>
+adds the Eulæus, it is by no means said that they
+enjoyed a monopoly of those streams. Perhaps our
+great poet confounded the Choaspes with those Golden
+Waters which, in Athenæus, are said to have
+been wholly reserved for the use of the king and
+his eldest son.<a id='r567' /><a href='#f567' class='c012'><sup>[567]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Wine, however, was invented very early in the
+history of the world; and the virtue of sobriety was
+born along with it; for, until then, it had been no
+merit to be sober. With whomsoever its use began,
+wine was well known to Homer’s heroes, one of whom
+speaks of it, in conjunction with bread, as the chief
+root of man’s strength and vigour.<a id='r568' /><a href='#f568' class='c012'><sup>[568]</sup></a> Yet the warriors
+of those ages by no means exhibited that selfish parsimony
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_136'>136</span>which led the Romans to debar their matrons
+the use of wine.<a id='r569' /><a href='#f569' class='c012'><sup>[569]</sup></a> In Homer we find women, even
+while very young, permitted the enjoyment of it:
+for example, Nausicaa and her companions, who, in
+setting forth on their washing excursion, are furnished
+by the queen herself with a plentiful supply
+of provisions, and a skin of wine.<a id='r570' /><a href='#f570' class='c012'><sup>[570]</sup></a> Boys, likewise,
+in the heroic ages, met with similar indulgence; for
+Phœnix is represented permitting Achilles to join
+him in his potations before the little urchin knew
+how to drink without spilling it over himself.<a id='r571' /><a href='#f571' class='c012'><sup>[571]</sup></a> This
+practice, however, is very properly condemned by
+Plato, who considered that no person under eighteen
+should be allowed to taste of wine, and even then
+but sparingly.<a id='r572' /><a href='#f572' class='c012'><sup>[572]</sup></a> After thirty, more discretion might,
+he thought, be granted them; though he recommended
+sobriety at all times, save, perhaps, on the anniversary
+festival of Dionysos, and certain other divinities, when
+a merry bowl was judged in keeping with the other
+ceremonies of the day.<a id='r573' /><a href='#f573' class='c012'><sup>[573]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>We shall now pass from the primitive aliments of
+the heroic times to those almost infinite varieties of
+good things which the ingenuity of later ages brought
+into use. The reader, not already familiar with the
+gastronomic fragments of ancient literature, will probably
+be surprised at the omniverous character of
+the Greeks, to whom nothing seems to have come
+amiss, from the nettle-top to the peach, from the
+sow’s metra to the most delicate bird, from the shark
+to the small semi-transparent aphyæ, caught along
+the shores of Attica.<a id='r574' /><a href='#f574' class='c012'><sup>[574]</sup></a> Through this ocean of dainties
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_137'>137</span>we shall endeavour to make our way on the following
+plan:—first, it will be our “hint to speak”
+of the more solid kinds of food, as beef, mutton, pork,
+veal; we shall then make a transition to the soups,
+fowls, and fish; next the fruit will claim our attention;
+and, lastly, the several varieties of wines.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>It has already been observed, that in the earliest
+ages men wholly abstained from animal food.<a id='r575' /><a href='#f575' class='c012'><sup>[575]</sup></a> Afterwards
+when they began to cast “wolfish eyes” upon
+their mute companions on the globe, the hog is said
+to have been the first creature whose character emboldened
+them to make free with him. They saw
+it endued with less intelligence than other animals;
+and, from its stupidity, inferred that it ought to be
+eaten, its soul merely serving during life, as salt, to
+keep the flesh from putrefying.<a id='r576' /><a href='#f576' class='c012'><sup>[576]</sup></a> The determining
+reason, however, appears to have been, that they
+could make no other use of him, since he would
+neither plough like the ox, nor be saddled and mounted
+like the horse or ass, nor become a pleasant companion,
+or guard the house, like the dog.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>It was long before men in any country slew the
+ox for food; his great utility was his protection,
+and in some parts of the East the well-meaning
+priesthood at length compassed him round with the
+armour of superstition, which outlasted the occasion,
+and in India has come down in nearly all its
+strength to our own day. It was otherwise in
+Greece. There common sense quickly dissipated
+the illusion, which, while it was necessary, had
+guarded the ox, and beef became the favourite food
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_138'>138</span>of its hardy and active inhabitants, who likewise
+fed indiscriminately on sheep, goats, deer, hares,
+and almost every other animal, wild or tame.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>It has been seen that in remote ages fish did
+not constitute any great part of the sustenance of
+the Greeks. But public opinion afterwards underwent
+a very considerable change. From having
+been held in so little estimation as to be left
+chiefly to the use of the poor, in the historical
+ages it became their greatest luxury.<a id='r577' /><a href='#f577' class='c012'><sup>[577]</sup></a> And there
+arose among gourmands, those ancient St. Simonians,
+whose god was their belly, a kind of enthusiastic
+rivalry as to who should be first in the
+morning at the fish-market, and bear away, as in
+triumph, the largest Copaic eels, the finest pair of
+soles, or the freshest <em>anthias</em>.<a id='r578' /><a href='#f578' class='c012'><sup>[578]</sup></a> On this subject,
+therefore, our details must be somewhat more elaborate
+than on beef and mutton. And first, we
+shall take the reader along with us to the market,
+whither it will be advisable that he carry as little
+money as possible, since, according to the comic
+poets, your Athenian fishmonger, not content with
+being a mere rogue, dealt a little also in the
+assassin’s trade.<a id='r579' /><a href='#f579' class='c012'><sup>[579]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The first thing which a rich gourmand inquired
+in the morning was, which way the wind blew.
+If from the north, and there was anything like a
+sea, he remained sullenly at home, for no fishing
+smacks could in that case make the Peiræeus;<a id='r580' /><a href='#f580' class='c012'><sup>[580]</sup></a>
+but if the wind sat in any other quarter, out he
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_139'>139</span>went eagerly and stealthily with a slave and basket<a id='r581' /><a href='#f581' class='c012'><sup>[581]</sup></a>
+at his heels, casting about anxious looks to discover
+whether any other impassioned fish-eater had got
+the start of him on his way to the Agora, who
+might clear the stalls of the best anthias or thunny
+before he could reach the spot.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The unmoneyed rogue, however, whose ambitious
+taste soared to these expensive dainties, approached
+the market with a rueful countenance. Thus we
+find a poor fellow describing, in Antiphanes, his
+morning’s pilgrimage in search of a pair of soles:</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>I once believed the Gorgons fabulous:</div>
+ <div class='line'>But in the agora quickly changed my creed,</div>
+ <div class='line'>And turned almost to stone, the pests beholding</div>
+ <div class='line'>Standing behind the fish stalls. Forced I am</div>
+ <div class='line'>To look another way when I accost them,</div>
+ <div class='line'>Lest if I saw the fish they ask so much for,</div>
+ <div class='line'>I should at once grow marble.<a id='r582' /><a href='#f582' class='c012'><sup>[582]</sup></a></div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c014'>Amphis, another comic poet, supplies us with
+further details respecting the hardships encountered
+by those who had to deal with fishmongers at
+Athens. Much of his wit is, I fear, intransferable,
+depending in a great measure on the vernacular clipping
+of Greek common in the market-place. But
+the sense, at least, may perhaps be given:</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>“Ten thousand times more easy ’tis to gain</div>
+ <div class='line'>Admission to a haughty general’s tent,</div>
+ <div class='line'>And have discourse of him, than in the market</div>
+ <div class='line'>Audience to get of a cursed fishmonger.</div>
+ <div class='line'>If you draw near and say, How much<a id='corr139.30'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title=' my,'>, my</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_139.30'><ins class='correction' title=' my,'>, my</ins></a></span> friend,</div>
+ <div class='line'>Costs <em>this</em> or <em>that</em>?—No answer. Deaf you think</div>
+ <div class='line'>The rogue must be, or stupid; for he heeds not</div>
+ <div class='line'>A syllable you say, but o’er his fish</div>
+ <div class='line'>Bends silently like Telephos (and with good reason,</div>
+ <div class='line'>For his whole race he knows are cut-throats all).</div>
+ <div class='line'>Another minding not, or else not hearing,</div>
+ <div class='line'><span class='pageno' id='Page_140'>140</span>Pulls by the legs a polypus.<a id='r583' /><a href='#f583' class='c012'><sup>[583]</sup></a> A third</div>
+ <div class='line'>With saucy carelessness replies, ‘Four oboli,</div>
+ <div class='line'>That’s just the price. For this no less than eight.</div>
+ <div class='line'>Take it or leave it!’”<a id='r584' /><a href='#f584' class='c012'><sup>[584]</sup></a></div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c014'>Alexis, too, that most comic of comic writers,
+seems to have imagined, that the humour of his
+pieces would be incomplete without a spice of the
+fishmonger. Commencing, like Amphis, with an
+allusion to the haughty airs of military men, he
+glides into his subject as follows:—</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>However, this is still endurable.</div>
+ <div class='line'>But when a paltry fishfag will look big,</div>
+ <div class='line'>Cast down his eyes affectedly, or bend</div>
+ <div class='line'>His eyebrows upwards like a fullstrained bow,</div>
+ <div class='line'>I burst with rage. Demand what price he asks</div>
+ <div class='line'>For—say two mullets; and he answers straight</div>
+ <div class='line'>“Ten obols”—“Ten? That’s dear: will you take eight?”</div>
+ <div class='line'>“Yes, if one fish will serve you.”—“Friend, no jokes;</div>
+ <div class='line'>I am no subject for your mirth.”—“Pass on, Sir!</div>
+ <div class='line'>And buy elsewhere.”—Now tell me is not this</div>
+ <div class='line'>Bitterer than gall?<a id='r585' /><a href='#f585' class='c012'><sup>[585]</sup></a></div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c014'>But if the reader should be disposed to infer from
+these testimonies that the fishmongering race were
+saucy only at Athens, he will be in danger of falling
+into error. Throughout the ancient world they
+were the same, and we fear that should any poor
+devil from Grub-street, or the <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><i>Quartier Latin</i></span>, presume
+to dispute respecting the price of salmon with
+one of their cockney or Parisian descendants, he
+would meet with little more politeness. At all
+events their manners had not improved in the Eternal
+city,<a id='r586' /><a href='#f586' class='c012'><sup>[586]</sup></a> for it is <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><i>a propos</i></span> of the Roman fishfags
+that Athenæus brings forward his examples of like
+insolence elsewhere. The poet Diphilos would appear,
+like Archestratos, to have travelled in search
+of good fish and civil fishmongers, but his labours
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_141'>141</span>were fruitless; he might as well have peregrinated
+the world in the hope of finding that island where
+soles are caught ready-fried in the sea. Such at
+least is the tenour of his own complaint:</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>Troth, in my greener days I had some notion</div>
+ <div class='line'>That here at Athens only, rogues sold fish;</div>
+ <div class='line'>But everywhere, it seems, like wolf or fox,</div>
+ <div class='line'>The race is treacherous by nature found.</div>
+ <div class='line'>However, we have one scamp in the agora</div>
+ <div class='line'>Who beats all others hollow. On his head</div>
+ <div class='line'>A most portentous fell of hair nods thick</div>
+ <div class='line'>And shades his brow. Observing your surprise,</div>
+ <div class='line'>He has his reasons pat; it grows forsooth</div>
+ <div class='line'>To form, when shorn, an offering to some god!</div>
+ <div class='line'>But that’s a feint, ’tis but to hide the scars</div>
+ <div class='line'>Left by the branding iron upon his forehead.</div>
+ <div class='line'>But, passing that, you ask perchance the price</div>
+ <div class='line'>Of a sea-wolf—“Ten oboli”—very good.</div>
+ <div class='line'>You count the money. “Oh not those,” he cries,</div>
+ <div class='line'>“Æginetan I meant.” Still you comply.</div>
+ <div class='line'>But if you trust him with a larger piece,</div>
+ <div class='line'>And there be change to give; mark how the knave</div>
+ <div class='line'>Now counts in Attic coin, and thus achieves</div>
+ <div class='line'>A two-fold robbery in the same transaction!<a id='r587' /><a href='#f587' class='c012'><sup>[587]</sup></a></div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c014'>Xenarchos paints a little scene of ingenious roguery
+with a comic extravagance altogether Shakespearian,
+and incidentally throws light on a curious law of
+Athens, enacted to protect the citizens against stinking
+fish.<a id='r588' /><a href='#f588' class='c012'><sup>[588]</sup></a> The power of invention, he observes—willing
+to kill two birds with one stone—had totally
+deserted the poets in order to take up with
+the fishmongers; for while the former merely hashed
+up old ideas, the latter were always hitting upon
+new contrivances to poison the Demos:</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>Commend me for invention to the rogue</div>
+ <div class='line'>Who sells fish in the agora. He knows</div>
+ <div class='line'><span class='pageno' id='Page_142'>142</span>In fact there’s no mistaking,—that the law</div>
+ <div class='line'>Clearly and formally forbids the trick</div>
+ <div class='line'>Of reconciling stale fish to the nose</div>
+ <div class='line'>By constant watering. But if some poor wight</div>
+ <div class='line'>Detect him in the fact, forthwith he picks</div>
+ <div class='line'>A quarrel, and provokes his man to blows.</div>
+ <div class='line'>He wheels meanwhile about his fish, looks sharp</div>
+ <div class='line'>To catch the nick of time, reels, feigns a hurt:</div>
+ <div class='line'>And prostrate falls, just in the right position.</div>
+ <div class='line'>A friend placed there on purpose, snatches up</div>
+ <div class='line'>A pot of water, sprinkles a drop or two,</div>
+ <div class='line'>For form’s sake on his face, but by mistake,</div>
+ <div class='line'>As you must sure believe, pours all the rest</div>
+ <div class='line'>Full on the fish, so that almost you might</div>
+ <div class='line'>Consider them fresh caught.<a id='r589' /><a href='#f589' class='c012'><sup>[589]</sup></a></div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c014'>By a law passed at the instance of the wealthy
+Aristonicos, himself no doubt an ichthyophagos, the
+penalty of imprisonment was decreed against all
+those who, having named a price for their fish,
+should take less, in order that they might at once
+demand what was just and no more. In consequence
+of this enactment, an old woman or a child
+might be sent to the fish-market, without danger
+of being cheated. According to another provision
+of this Golden Law, as it is termed by Alexis, fishmongers
+were compelled to stand at their stalls and
+not to sit as had previously been the custom. The
+comic poet, in the fulness of his charity, expresses
+a hope that they might be all <em>suspended</em> aloft on
+the following year, by which means, he says, they
+would get a quicker sight of their customers, and
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_143'>143</span>carry on their dealings with mankind from a machine
+like the gods of tragedy.<a id='r590' /><a href='#f590' class='c012'><sup>[590]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>In consequence no doubt of the perpetually increasing
+demand, fish was extremely dear at Athens.
+Accordingly Diphilos, addressing himself to Poseidon,
+who, as god of the sea, was god also of its
+inhabitants, informs him that, could he but secure
+the tithe of fish, he would soon become the wealthiest
+divinity in Olympos. Among those who distinguished
+themselves in this business in the agora,
+and apparently became rich, it is probable that many
+were metoiki, such as Hermæos, the Egyptian, and
+Mikion, who, though his country is not mentioned,
+was probably not an Athenian. In proportion as
+they grew opulent, the gourmands on whom they
+preyed became poor, and doubtless there was too
+much truth in the satire which represented men
+dissipating their whole fortunes in the frying-pan.
+There were those also it seems who spent their evenings
+on the highway, in order to furnish their daily
+table with such dainties. For this fact we have the
+satisfactory testimony of Alexis in his Heiress:</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>Mark you a fellow who, however scant</div>
+ <div class='line'>In all things else, hath still wherewith to purchase</div>
+ <div class='line'>Cod, eel, or anchovies, be sure i’ the dark</div>
+ <div class='line'>He lies about the road in wait for travellers.</div>
+ <div class='line'>If therefore you’ve been robbed o’ernight, just go</div>
+ <div class='line'>At peep of dawn to th’ agora and seize</div>
+ <div class='line'>The first athletic, ragged vagabond</div>
+ <div class='line'>Who cheapens eels of Mikion. He, be sure,</div>
+ <div class='line'>And none but he’s the thief: to prison with him!<a id='r591' /><a href='#f591' class='c012'><sup>[591]</sup></a></div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c014'>They had at Corinth a pretty strict police regulation
+on this subject. When any person was observed
+habitually to purchase fish, he was interrogated
+by the authorities respecting his means. If
+found to be a man of property they suffered him
+to do what he pleased with his own; but, in the
+contrary event, he received a gentle hint that the
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_144'>144</span>state had its eye upon him. The neglect of this
+admonition was followed, in the first place, by a fine,
+and ultimately, if persevered in, by a punishment
+equivalent to the treadmill.<a id='r592' /><a href='#f592' class='c012'><sup>[592]</sup></a> These matters were in
+Athens submitted to the cognizance of two or three
+magistrates, called Opsonomoi, nominated by the Senate.<a id='r593' /><a href='#f593' class='c012'><sup>[593]</sup></a>
+With respect to the purchase of this class
+of viands, everywhere attended with peculiar difficulties,
+it may be said, that the ancients had considerably
+the advantage of us; since in Lynceus of
+Samos’s “Fish-buyer’s Manual,” they possessed a sure
+guide through all the intricacies of bargaining in the
+agora.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>But before we proceed further with this part of
+our subject, we will demand permission of Lynceus
+to hear what Hesiod has to say of saltfish, on
+which Euthydemos, the Athenian, composed a separate
+treatise. According to this poet, who boldly
+speaks of cities erected long after his death, immense
+quantities of fish were salted on the Bosporos,
+sometimes entire, as in modern times,<a id='r594' /><a href='#f594' class='c012'><sup>[594]</sup></a> sometimes
+cut into gobbets of a moderate size. Among
+these were the oxyrinchos whose taste proved often
+fatal, the thunny, and the mackerel. The little city
+of Parion furnished the best kolias (a kind of mackerel),
+and the Tarentine merchants brought to Athens
+pickled orcynos from Cadiz, cut into small triangular
+pieces, in jars.<a id='r595' /><a href='#f595' class='c012'><sup>[595]</sup></a> Physicians, indeed, inveighed
+against these relishes; but the gourmands would consult
+only their palates and preferred a short life with
+pickled thunny to that of Saturn himself on beef
+and mutton.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>But the Hesiod of Euthydemos (a creation probably
+of his own) is but very poor authority compared
+with Archestratos, who made the pilgrimage
+of the world in search of good cheer, and afterwards,
+for the benefit of posterity, treasured up his experience
+in a grand culinary epic. In his opinion a
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_145'>145</span>slice of Sicilian thunny was a rare delicacy, while
+the saperda, though brought from the Pontos Euxinos,
+he held as cheap as those who boasted of it.<a id='r596' /><a href='#f596' class='c012'><sup>[596]</sup></a>
+The scombros, by some supposed to be a species of
+thunny, though others understand by it the common
+mackerel, stood high in the estimation of this connoisseur.
+He directs that it be left in salt three
+days, and eaten before it begins to melt into brine.<a id='r597' /><a href='#f597' class='c012'><sup>[597]</sup></a>
+In his estimation the horaion<a id='r598' /><a href='#f598' class='c012'><sup>[598]</sup></a> of Byzantium was
+likewise a great delicacy, which he advises the traveller,
+who might pass through that city, to taste
+by all means. It seems to have been there what
+macaroni is at Naples.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Alexis, in one of his comedies, introduces the Symposiarch
+of an Eranos (president of a picnic) accounting
+with one of the subscribers who comes to demand
+back his ring, and in the course of the dialogue,
+where something like Falstaff’s tavern-bill is
+discussed, we find the prices of several kinds of salt-fish.
+An omotarichos (shoulder piece of thunny) is
+charged at five chalci; a dish of sea-mussels, seven
+chalci, of sea-urchins, an obol, a slice of kybion,
+three obols, a conger eel, ten, and another plate of
+broiled fish, a drachma. This comic writer<a id='r599' /><a href='#f599' class='c012'><sup>[599]</sup></a> rates
+the fish of the Nile very low, and he is quite right,
+for they are generally muddy and ill-tasted, though
+the Copts, who have considerable experience during
+Lent, contrive, by the application of much Archestratic
+skill, to render some kinds of them palatable.
+Sophocles, in a fragment of his lost drama of Phineus,
+speaks of salt-fish embalmed like an Egyptian
+mummy.<a id='r600' /><a href='#f600' class='c012'><sup>[600]</sup></a> Stock-fish, as I know to my cost,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_146'>146</span>is still a fashionable dish in the Mediterranean, especially
+on board ship, and from a proverb preserved
+by Athenæus we find it was likewise in use among
+the Athenians.<a id='r601' /><a href='#f601' class='c012'><sup>[601]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The passion of this refined people for salt-fish furnished
+them with an occasion of showing their gratitude
+publicly. They bestowed the rights of citizenship
+on the sons of Chæriphilos, a metoikos who
+first introduced among them a knowledge of this sort
+of food.<a id='r602' /><a href='#f602' class='c012'><sup>[602]</sup></a> A similar feeling prompted the Dutch to
+erect a statue to G. Bukel, the man who taught
+them to salt herrings.<a id='r603' /><a href='#f603' class='c012'><sup>[603]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Without enumerating a tenth part of the other
+species eaten among the Greeks, we pass to the shell-fish,
+of which they were likewise great amateurs.
+Epicharmos, in his marriage of Hebe, supplies a curious
+list, which, however, might be extended almost
+ad infinitum. Among these were immense limpets,
+the buccinum, the cecibalos, the tethynakion, the
+sea-acorn, the purple fish, oysters hard to open but
+easy to swallow, mussels, sea-snails or periwinkles,
+skiphydria sweet to taste but prickly to touch, large
+shelled razor-fish, the black conch, and the amathitis.
+The conch was also called tellinè as the same
+poet in his Muses observes. Alcæos wrote a song
+to the limpet beginning with</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>“Child of the rock and hoary sea.”<a id='r604' /><a href='#f604' class='c012'><sup>[604]</sup></a></div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c014'>Boys used to make a sort of whistle of tortoise
+and mussel shells. These mussels were usually
+broiled on the coals, and Aristophanes, very ingenious
+in his similes, compares a gaping silly fellow
+to a mussel in the act of being cooked.<a id='r605' /><a href='#f605' class='c012'><sup>[605]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Like the sepia, of which excellent pilaus are made
+at Alexandria, the porphyra or purple fish was very
+good eating, and thickened the liquor in which it
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_147'>147</span>was boiled.<a id='r606' /><a href='#f606' class='c012'><sup>[606]</sup></a> There was a small delicate shell-fish
+caught on the island of Pharos and adjacent coasts
+of Egypt, which they called Aphrodite’s ear,<a id='r607' /><a href='#f607' class='c012'><sup>[607]</sup></a> and
+there is still found on the same coast near Canopos
+a diminutive and beautiful rose-coloured conch
+called Venus’s nipple. On the same shore, about
+the rise of the Nile, that species of mussel called
+tellinè was caught in great abundance, but the best-tasted
+were said to be found in the river itself. A
+still finer kind were in season about autumn in the
+vicinity of Ephesos. The echinos, or sea-chestnut,<a id='r608' /><a href='#f608' class='c012'><sup>[608]</sup></a>
+cooked with oxymel, parsley, and mint, was esteemed
+good and wholesome eating. Those caught about
+Cephalonia, Icaria, and Achaia were bitterish, those
+of Sicily laxative; the best were the red and the
+quince coloured. A laughable anecdote is told of
+a Spartan, who being invited to dine where sea-chestnuts
+were brought to table, took one upon his plate,
+and not knowing how they were eaten put it into
+his mouth, shell and all. Finding it exceedingly
+unmanageable, he turned it about for some time,
+seeking slowly and cautiously to discover the knack
+of eating it. But the rough and prickly shell still
+resisting his efforts, his temper grew ruffled: crunching
+it fiercely he exclaimed, “Detestable beast!
+Well! I will not let thee go now, after having
+thus ground thee to pieces; but assuredly I will
+never touch thee again.”</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Oysters were esteemed good when boiled with
+mallows, or monks’ rhubarb.<a id='r609' /><a href='#f609' class='c012'><sup>[609]</sup></a> In general, however,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_148'>148</span>the physicians of antiquity considered them hard of
+digestion. But lest the shelled-fish should usurp
+more space than is their due, we shall conclude
+with Archestratos’ list, in which he couples with
+each the name of the place where the best were
+caught:</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>For mussels you must go to Ænos; oysters</div>
+ <div class='line'>You’ll find best at Abydos. Parion</div>
+ <div class='line'>Rejoices in its urchins; but if cockles</div>
+ <div class='line'>Gigantic and sweet-tasted you would eat,</div>
+ <div class='line'>A voyage must be made to Mitylene,</div>
+ <div class='line'>Or the Ambracian Gulf, where they abound</div>
+ <div class='line'>With many other dainties. At Messina,</div>
+ <div class='line'>Near to the Faro, are pelorian conchs,</div>
+ <div class='line'>Nor are those bad you find near Ephesos;</div>
+ <div class='line'>For Tethyan oysters, go to Chalcedon;</div>
+ <div class='line'>But for the Heralds,<a id='r610' /><a href='#f610' class='c012'><sup>[610]</sup></a> may Zeus overwhelm them</div>
+ <div class='line'>Both in the sea and in the agora!</div>
+ <div class='line'>Aye, all except my old friend Agathon,</div>
+ <div class='line'>Who in the midst of Lesbian vineyards dwells.<a id='r611' /><a href='#f611' class='c012'><sup>[611]</sup></a></div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c014'>We have already mentioned the magnificent eels
+of Lake Copais,<a id='r612' /><a href='#f612' class='c012'><sup>[612]</sup></a> in Bœotia, a longing for which
+appears to have been Aristophanes’s chief motive
+for desiring an end to the Peloponnesian war.
+Next in excellence were those caught in the river
+Strymon, and the Faro of Messina.<a id='r613' /><a href='#f613' class='c012'><sup>[613]</sup></a> The ellops, by
+some supposed to be the sword-fish,<a id='r614' /><a href='#f614' class='c012'><sup>[614]</sup></a> was found
+in greatest perfection near Syracuse; at least, in
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_149'>149</span>the opinion of Archestratos; but Varro and Pliny
+give the preference to that of Rhodes, and others
+to that of the Pamphylian sea.<a id='r615' /><a href='#f615' class='c012'><sup>[615]</sup></a> The red mullet,
+the hepsetos, the hepatos, the elacaten, the thunny,
+the hippouros, the hippos, or sea-horse, found in
+perfection on the shores<a id='r616' /><a href='#f616' class='c012'><sup>[616]</sup></a> of Phœnicia, the ioulis,
+the kichlè, or sea-thrush, the sea-boar, the citharos,
+the kordylos, the river cray-fish, the shark, which
+was eaten when young, the mullet, the coracinos,
+the carp, the gudgeon, the sea-cuckoo, the sea-wolf,
+the latos, the leobatos, or smooth ray, the
+lamprey,<a id='r617' /><a href='#f617' class='c012'><sup>[617]</sup></a> the myræna, the anchovy,<a id='r618' /><a href='#f618' class='c012'><sup>[618]</sup></a> the black tail,
+the torpedo, the mormyros, the orphos, the onos,
+the polypus, the crab, the sea-perch, the physa, or
+sea-tench, the raphis, the sea-dog,<a id='r619' /><a href='#f619' class='c012'><sup>[619]</sup></a> the scaros, the
+sparos, the scorpios, the salpe, or stock-fish, the synodon,
+the sauros, the scepinos, or halibut, the
+sciaina, the syagris, the sphyræna, the sepia, the
+tœnia, the skate, the cuttle-fish, the hyca, the
+phagros, the perca cabrilla, the chromis, the gilthead,
+the trichidon, the thratta, and the turbot;<a id='r620' /><a href='#f620' class='c012'><sup>[620]</sup></a>
+such is a list of the fish in common use among
+the Greeks. The species it will be seen has not
+in many cases been ascertained.</p>
+
+<hr class='c016' />
+<div class='footnote' id='f515'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r515'>515</a>. Cf. Plut. Quæst. Græc. 51.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f516'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r516'>516</a>. Cf. Dion. Perieg. 1082.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f517'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r517'>517</a>. These people were great eaters,
+and held none in estimation
+but those who resembled them.
+Aristoph. Acharn. 74. sqq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f518'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r518'>518</a>. Ælian. Var. Hist. iii. 39.
+Perizonius in his note on this
+passage observes, that ἄπιος and
+ἀχράς are but different names
+for the same thing, both signifying
+“the pear,” the former term
+prevailing among the Argives, the
+latter among the Tirynthians and
+Laconians. By the other Greeks
+both words were used promiscuously,
+though ἄπιος was the more
+common. This able commentator
+objects to the assertion of his
+author, that the Hindoos lived on
+cane, since they also ate millet,
+rice, &c. But Ælian could really
+have intended nothing more
+than that the articles he enumerates
+were in common use among
+the nations spoken of. Otherwise
+the whole must be regarded as a
+mere fable. The canes, mentioned
+by Ælian, are those from
+which sugar has been from very
+remote antiquity extracted.</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Quique bibunt tenerâ dulces ab arundine succos.</span></div>
+ <div class='line in32'>Lucan. Pharsal. iii. 237.</div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f519'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r519'>519</a>. See Goguet, i. 160, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f520'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r520'>520</a>. Hist. of Greece, i. 9, note.
+Cf. Anab. ii. 3.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f521'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r521'>521</a>. Plat. de Rep. t. vi. p. 85.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f522'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r522'>522</a>. Cf. Polluc. i. 234.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f523'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r523'>523</a>. Paus. viii. 1. 6. Pliny observes
+that the fruit of the fagus is
+sweet “dulcissima omnium glans
+fagi.” Hist. Nat. xvii. 6. Cf.
+Lucian. Amor. § 33. Theophrast.
+Hist. Plant. iii. 8, 2. This
+Arcadian dainty is still eaten
+in Spain. “In some parts (of
+Navarre) the mountains are girt
+at their base by forests of chestnut
+trees or of the Spanish oak called
+<em>encina</em>, whose acorn roasted, is
+as palatable as the chestnut.” (A
+Campaign with Zumalacarregui, i.
+40.) The same writer observes,
+that the fruit of the ever-green
+arbutus, in shape like a cherry,
+though insipid and intoxicating
+in its effects, is also eaten by the
+omniverous Spaniards, p. 51. See
+also Laborde’s Itinerary of Spain,
+iv. 80, and Capell Brooke’s Travels,
+ii. 72.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f524'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r524'>524</a>. See Bochart. Geog. Sac. i.
+309.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f525'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r525'>525</a>. Cf. Plat. De Legg. vi. t. vii.
+p. 471.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f526'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r526'>526</a>. Problem. x. 56, 58.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f527'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r527'>527</a>. Iliad. α. 496. β. 432, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f528'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r528'>528</a>. Iliad. ε. 196, et 341. The
+scholiast on this verse, observes
+that, before the invention of mills,
+men used to eat the raw grain.
+(Cf. on Iliad. α. 449, and Etym.
+Magn. v. οὐλόχυται, 641, 29.)
+But this is merely an absurd conjecture;
+for they could, at least,
+have roasted the young ear as in
+the East they still do, while it is
+full of juice, and have eaten it thus
+with salt, when it is both pleasant
+and nutritive. Besides, some
+means of reducing the grain to
+meal appears to have been known
+almost from the beginning.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f529'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r529'>529</a>. Iliad. λ. 629. Odyss. κ. 355.
+See, too, Theocrit. Eidyll. xxiv.
+135, sqq. Virgil. Æneid. i. 705.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f530'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r530'>530</a>. Deipnosoph. i. 15. <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Origine
+des Loix,</span> ii. 306. <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">“J’ai dit que
+la simplicité faisoit le caractère
+distinctif de ses premiers âges. La
+manière dont on se nourissoit
+alors en fait preuve. On ne voit
+paroître ni sauce ni ragoût, ni
+même de gibier, dans la description
+que l’Ecriture fait du repas
+donné par Abraham aux trois anges
+qui lui apparurent dans la
+vallée de Membré. Ce Patriarche
+leur sert un veau roti, ou, pour
+mieux dire, grillé; du lait de
+beurre, et du pain frais cuit sous
+la cendre. Voilà tout le festin.
+Ce fait montre que les repas alors
+étoient plus solides que délicats.
+Abraham avoit certainement intention
+de traiter ses hôtes du
+mieux qu’il lui étoit possible, et il
+faut observer que ce Patriarche
+possédoit de très-grandes richesses
+en or, en argent, en troupeaux et
+en esclaves. On peut donc regarder
+le repas qu’il donne aux
+trois anges, comme le modèle
+d’un festin magnifique, et juger
+en conséquence quelle étoit de
+son tems la manière de traiter
+splendidement.”</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f531'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r531'>531</a>. Comm. ad Æneid. i. 710.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f532'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r532'>532</a>. Feith, Antiq. Homer, iii. 1, 3.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f533'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r533'>533</a>. Il. ω. 262.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f534'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r534'>534</a>. Hieron adv. Jovian. ii. 75.
+a. Diosc. ap. Athen. ix. 17. Eustath.
+ad Il. ω. p. 1481. 12.
+Schweigh, Animad. in Athen. t.
+vi. p. 96, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f535'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r535'>535</a>. Od. ι. 185. κ. 180.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f536'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r536'>536</a>. Iliad. ψ. 852, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f537'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r537'>537</a>. Προταριχεύειν. Herod. ii.
+77, edit. Wessel.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f538'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r538'>538</a>. Herod. i. 77, seq. ii. 15. ix.
+80.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f539'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r539'>539</a>. Plato, among others, remarks
+that, in the military messes of his
+heroes, Homer introduces neither
+fish nor boiled meat. De Rep.
+iii. t. vi. p. 141.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f540'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r540'>540</a>. Odyss. τ. 113.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f541'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r541'>541</a>. Odyss. μ. 330. sqq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f542'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r542'>542</a>. Deipnosoph. i. 47.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f543'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r543'>543</a>. Plut. Sympos. viii. 8.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f544'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r544'>544</a>. Il. ι. 360.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f545'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r545'>545</a>. Il. π. 407.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f546'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r546'>546</a>. Od. χ. 364, sqq. Eustathius,
+however, on this passage
+observes, that though nets are
+spoken of in the Iliad, (ε. 487,)
+this is the only place where the
+poet distinctly mentions their
+being used in taking fish.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f547'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r547'>547</a>. Il. ο. 6.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f548'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r548'>548</a>. Od. ι. 236, 246. Theoc.
+Eidyll. xi. 35.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f549'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r549'>549</a>. Od. κ. 234, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f550'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r550'>550</a>. Il. λ. 623, sqq. This mixture
+called κυκεὼν, is more than once
+mentioned by Plato—De Rep.
+iii. t. vi. p. 148.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f551'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r551'>551</a>. Cf. Hom. Il. λ. 629, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f552'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r552'>552</a>. Od. ω. 339.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f553'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r553'>553</a>. Od. η. 115, sqq. Plut. Sympos.
+v. 8.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f554'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r554'>554</a>. Od. λ. 587, sqq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f555'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r555'>555</a>. Ad Æneid. i. 727.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f556'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r556'>556</a>. Il. ι. 214. In later times it
+was customary to bruise thyme
+small, and mingle it with salt to
+give it a finer flavour. Aristoph.
+Acharn. 772. Suid. v. θυμιτίδων ἁλῶν.
+t. i. p. 1336. b.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f557'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r557'>557</a>. Opera, t. vii. p. 80.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f558'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r558'>558</a>. Sympos. v. 9.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f559'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r559'>559</a>. Erasm. Adag. Chil. i. Cent.
+vi. Adag. 10.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f560'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r560'>560</a>. <a id='corr134.n3'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='Ἅλαλείχειν'>Ἅλα λείχειν</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_134.n3'><ins class='correction' title='Ἅλαλείχειν'>Ἅλα λείχειν</ins></a></span>. Erasm. Adag.
+iii. vi. 33, or, as Persius expresses
+it, “digito terebrare salinum.”
+Sat. v. 138.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f561'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r561'>561</a>. Od. λ. 122.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f562'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r562'>562</a>. Paus. i. 1. 12.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f563'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r563'>563</a>. Il. β. 824, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f564'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r564'>564</a>. Pind. Olymp. vi. 85.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f565'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r565'>565</a>. Paradise Regained, iii. 288,
+seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f566'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r566'>566</a>. Hist. Nat. xxxi. 21. <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">“Parthorum
+reges,”</span> says this writer,
+<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">“ex Choaspe et Eulæo tantum
+bibunt; et eæ quamvis in longinqua
+comitatur eos.”</span> Hence
+Tibullus has the following verses
+in his Panegyric of Messala, iv. 1.
+142:</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">“Nec quâ vel Nilus vel <em>regia lympha</em> Choaspes</span></div>
+ <div class='line'><span lang="la" xml:lang="la"><a id='corr135.n3.10'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='Profluit.'>Profluit.”</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_135.n3.10'><ins class='correction' title='Profluit.'>Profluit.”</ins></a></span></span></div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c014'>Herod. i. 188. Æl. Var. Hist. xii.
+40. Cf. Strabo. 1. xv. c. 3. t. iii.
+p. 318.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f567'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r567'>567</a>. Athen. xii. 9. Ἀγαθοκλῆς
+δ᾽, ἐν τρίτῳ Περὶ Κυζίκου, ἐν Πέρσαις
+φησὶν εἶναι καὶ χρυσοῦν
+καλούμενον ὕδωρ. εἶναι δὲ τοῦτο
+λιβάδας ἑβδομήκοντα, καὶ μηδὲνα
+πίνειν ἀπ’ αὐτοῦ ἢ μόνον βασιλέα,
+καὶ τὸν πρεσβύτατον αὐτοῦ τῶν
+παίδων. τῶν δ᾽ ἄλλων ἐάν τις πίῃ,
+θάνατος ἡ ζημία.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f568'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r568'>568</a>. Iliad, ι. 702. τ. 161.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f569'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r569'>569</a>. Athen. x. 33.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f570'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r570'>570</a>. Od. ζ. 77, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f571'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r571'>571</a>. Iliad. ι. 487.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f572'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r572'>572</a>. Montaigne, whom few things
+of this kind had escaped, reads
+<em>forty</em>, and thinks that men
+might lawfully get drunk after
+that age. Essais, ii. 2. t. iii. p.
+278.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f573'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r573'>573</a>. De Legg. ii. t. vii. p. 258, sqq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f574'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r574'>574</a>. Ass’s flesh was commonly
+eaten by the Athenians. Poll.
+ix. 48, et Comment. t. vi. p. 938,
+seq. Their neighbours the Persians,
+however, enjoyed one dainty
+not known, I believe, to the
+Greeks; that is to say, a camel,
+which, we are told, they sometimes
+roasted whole. Herod. i.
+123. Athen. iv. 6. In the opinion
+of Aristotle the flesh of this
+animal was singularly good: ἔχει
+δὲ καὶ τὰ κρέα καὶ τὸ γάλα ἥδιστα
+πάντων.—Hist. Anim. vi. 26. It
+was this passage, perhaps, that
+first induced Heliogabalus to try
+a camel’s foot, which he appears
+afterwards to have much affected.
+Lamprid. Vit. Anton. Heliogab.
+§ 19. Hist. Aug. Script. p. 195.
+The same emperor also tried the
+taste of an ostrich, whose eggs anciently
+constituted an article of
+food among certain nations of Africa.
+Lucian. de Dipsad. § 7.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f575'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r575'>575</a>. Plato, De Legg. vi. t. vii. p.
+471.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f576'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r576'>576</a>. Cicero, De Natura Deorum,
+ii. 64. Dion. Chrysost. i. 280,
+cum not. Reisk.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f577'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r577'>577</a>. The Pythagoreans, however,
+must be excluded from this category
+since they abstained from
+fish because they kept perpetual
+silence like themselves.—Athen.
+vii. 80. Another and a better
+reason, perhaps, may be discovered
+in a passage of Archestratos,
+who, observing that the sea-dog is
+delicious eating, proceeds to dispose
+of the objection that it feeds
+on human flesh, by saying, that
+all fish do the same. Id. vii. 85.
+From this fact the Pythagoreans
+esteemed fish-eaters no better
+than cannibals at second-hand.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f578'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r578'>578</a>. Cf. Schol. Aristoph. Acharn.
+525.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f579'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r579'>579</a>. Amphis ap. Athen. vi. 5.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f580'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r580'>580</a>. Athen. viii. 81. Cf. Xenoph.
+Hellen. v. i. 23.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f581'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r581'>581</a>. This basket was usually of
+rushes, in form like a basin, and
+with a handle passing over the
+top.—Antich. di Ercol. tav. 21.
+tom. i. p. 111.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f582'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r582'>582</a>. Athen. vi. 4.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f583'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r583'>583</a>. Cf. Chandler, ii. 143. Plin.
+Hist. Nat. ix. 45, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f584'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r584'>584</a>. Athen. vi. 5.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f585'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r585'>585</a>. Athen. vi. 5.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f586'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r586'>586</a>. Deipnosoph. vi. 4.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f587'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r587'>587</a>. Athen. vi. 6.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f588'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r588'>588</a>. The longer to preserve fish
+fresh, the Orientals sometimes
+cover them with a coating of wax.
+Mullets, caught at Damietta, are
+sent, thus preserved, throughout
+the Turkish Empire, as well as to
+different parts of Europe. Pococke’s
+Description of the East.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f589'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r589'>589</a>. Our readers will probably remember
+the good old Italian marchioness,
+who having, perhaps,
+been cajoled, by the blarney of
+some Hibernian peripatetic, into
+the purchase of a pair of strong-odoured
+soles, recommended to
+our magistrates the adoption of
+an ordinance passed, as she affirmed,
+by his grace of Tuscany.
+In that prince’s territories, she
+assured their worships, the man
+who has fish to sell, must transact
+business standing on one leg in
+a bucket of hot water, a practice
+undoubtedly calculated to induce
+despatch and prevent haggling.
+This Tuscan enactment might
+evidently have been adopted with
+great advantage at Athens, where,
+however, legislation proceeded on
+exactly the same principles, and
+attained in this point an almost
+equal degree of perfection.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f590'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r590'>590</a>. Athen. vi. 8.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f591'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r591'>591</a>. Athen. vi. 10. 12.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f592'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r592'>592</a>. Diphilos apud Athen. vi. 12.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f593'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r593'>593</a>. Athen. vi. 72.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f594'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r594'>594</a>. Herod. iv. 53.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f595'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r595'>595</a>. Athen. iii. 84.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f596'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r596'>596</a>. Athen. iii. 85.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f597'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r597'>597</a>. Athen. iii. 85. The Scomber
+Pelamys or mackerel of Pallas,
+caught in the Black Sea, is
+pickled in casks and not eaten
+for a twelvemonth. Travels in
+Southern Russia, iv. 242.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f598'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r598'>598</a>. <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Poterant ὡραῖα nominari, ut
+<em>vere</em> vel initio æstatis salita, quo
+tempore minus pinguis totus piscis
+esset.</span> Schweigh. Animadv.
+in Athen. iii. 85. t. vii. 313. Cf.
+Plin. Nat. Hist. xxxii. 53. Gesner,
+De Salsamentis.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f599'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r599'>599</a>. Ap. Athen. iii. 86. Cf. Herod.
+ii. 77.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f600'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r600'>600</a>. Athen. iii. 86.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f601'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r601'>601</a>. Deipnosoph. iii. 89.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f602'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r602'>602</a>. Athen. iii. 90.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f603'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r603'>603</a>. Goguet, Origine des Loix, i.
+254.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f604'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r604'>604</a>. Athen. iii. 30, 31. Cf. Scheigh.
+Animadv. t. vii. p. 68, sqq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f605'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r605'>605</a>. Fragm. Babylon. 2. Brunck.
+Athen. iii. 33.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f606'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r606'>606</a>. Athen. iii. 30. During their
+long fasts the modern Greeks also
+eat the cuttle-fish, snails, &c.
+Chandler, ii. 143.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f607'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r607'>607</a>. Athen. iii. 35.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f608'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r608'>608</a>. Athen. iii. 40. The taking
+of this fish at Sunium is thus described
+by Chandler: “Meanwhile
+our sailors, except two or three
+who accompanied us, stripped
+to their drawers to bathe, all
+of them swimming and diving
+remarkably well; some running
+about on the sharp rocks with
+their naked feet, as if devoid of
+feeling, and some examining the
+bottom of the clear water for
+the Echinus or sea-chestnut, a
+species of shell-fish common on
+this coast, and now in perfection,
+the moon being nearly
+at the full.” Vol. ii. p. 8.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f609'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r609'>609</a>. Demet. Scep. ap. Athen. iii.
+41.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f610'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r610'>610</a>. The κήρυξ, ceryx, so called
+because the Heralds (κήρυκες)
+used its shell instead of a trumpet,
+when making proclamation
+of any decree in the agora.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f611'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r611'>611</a>. Athen. iii. 44. Cf. Polluc.
+vi. 47. The ancients made the
+most of their fish in every way.
+They were hawked about the
+streets in rush-baskets, as with
+us.—Athen. vii. 72.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f612'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r612'>612</a>. Sch. Aristoph. Acharn. 845.
+Lysist. 36. There were in the
+fountain at Arethusa, as we are
+told by the philosophical Plutarch,
+eels that understood their own
+names.—Solert. Anim. § 23.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f613'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r613'>613</a>. Archestratos gives the preference
+over all other eels to those
+caught in the Faro of Messina.
+Athen. vii. 53. Very excellent
+and large eels are taken in the
+lake of Korion, in Crete, according
+to the testimony of Buondelmonte.
+Pashley, i. 72.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f614'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r614'>614</a>. On the sword-fish fishery in
+the Strait of Messina, see Spallanzani’s
+Travels in the Two Sicilies,
+vol. iv. p. 331, sqq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f615'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r615'>615</a>. Athen. vii. 57. Animadv. t.
+ix. p. 220.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f616'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r616'>616</a>. The finest prawns were taken
+at Minturnæ, on the coast of
+Campania, exceeding in size
+those of Smyrna, and the crabs
+(ἀστακοὶ) of Alexandria.—Athen.
+i. 12.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f617'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r617'>617</a>. See on Crassus’s lamprey.
+Plut. Solert. Animal. § 23.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f618'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r618'>618</a>. Esteemed a delicacy cooked
+with leeks. Aristoph. Vesp. 494.
+Cf. Acharn. 901. Av. 76.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f619'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r619'>619</a>. See Spallanzani’s Travels in
+the Two Sicilies, vol. iv. p. 343,
+sqq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f620'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r620'>620</a>. Athen. vii. 16–39. Aristot.
+Hist. Anim. iv. 2–6. viii. 3, 4,
+5, 16.</p>
+</div>
+<hr class='c016' />
+
+<div>
+ <span class='pageno' id='Page_150'>150</span>
+ <h3 class='c002'>CHAPTER IV. <br /> POULTRY, FRUIT, WINE, ETC.</h3>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c011'>The reader by this time will, probably, be willing
+to escape from fish, though it would be easy
+to treat him to many new kinds, and along with
+us take a slice of Greek pheasant, or the breast
+of an Egyptian quail. In other words, he will
+hear what we have to say on Hellenic poultry.
+Chrysippos, in his treatise on things desirable in
+themselves, appears to have reckoned Athenian cocks
+and hens among the number, and reprehends the
+people of Attica for importing, at great expense,
+barn-door fowls from the shores of the Adriatic,
+though of smaller size, and much inferior to their
+own; while the inhabitants of those countries, on
+the other hand, were anxious to possess Attic poultry.<a id='r621' /><a href='#f621' class='c012'><sup>[621]</sup></a>
+Matron, the parodist, who furnishes an amusing
+description of an Athenian repast, observes,
+that excellent wild ducks were brought to town
+from Salamis, where they grew fat in great numbers
+on the borders of the sacred Lake.<a id='r622' /><a href='#f622' class='c012'><sup>[622]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The thrush,<a id='r623' /><a href='#f623' class='c012'><sup>[623]</sup></a> reckoned among the greatest delicacies
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_151'>151</span>of the ancients, generally at grand entertainments
+formed part of the propoma, or first
+course, and was eaten with little cakes, called
+ametiskoi. If we may credit Epicharmos, a decided
+preference was given to such as fed on the
+olive. Aristotle divides the thrush into three species,
+the first and largest of which he denominates
+Ixophagos, or the “mistletoe-eater;” it was of the
+size of a magpie. The second, equal in bigness
+to the black bird, he calls Trichas,<a id='r624' /><a href='#f624' class='c012'><sup>[624]</sup></a> and the third,
+and smallest kind, which was named Ilas or Tulas,
+according to Alexander, the Myndian, went in
+flocks, and built its nest like the swallow.<a id='r625' /><a href='#f625' class='c012'><sup>[625]</sup></a> Next
+in excellence to the thrush was a bird known by
+a variety of names, elaios, pirias, sycalis,<a id='r626' /><a href='#f626' class='c012'><sup>[626]</sup></a> the beccafico
+of the moderns, which was thought to be
+in season when the figs were ripe. They likewise
+ate the turtle and the ringdove,<a id='r627' /><a href='#f627' class='c012'><sup>[627]</sup></a> which are excellent
+in Egypt; the chaffinch, to whose qualities
+I cannot bear testimony; and the blackbird. Nor
+did they spare the starling, the jackdaw, or the
+strouthanion, a small bird for which modern languages
+cannot afford a name. Brains were thought
+by the ancient philosophers an odious and cannibal-like
+food, because they are the fountain of all
+sensation; but this did not prevent the gourmands
+from converting pigs’ brains into a dainty dish,<a id='r628' /><a href='#f628' class='c012'><sup>[628]</sup></a> and
+their taste has maintained its ground in Italy. Partridges,
+wood-pigeons, geese, quails, jays, are also
+enumerated among the materials of an Hellenic
+banquet.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'><span class='pageno' id='Page_152'>152</span>Goose’s liver was in extreme request both at
+Rome and Athens.<a id='r629' /><a href='#f629' class='c012'><sup>[629]</sup></a> Another dainty was a cock
+served up with a rich sauce, containing much vinegar.
+Aristophanes speaks of the pheasant in his
+comedy of the Birds; and, again, in the Clouds,
+Athenæus rightly supposes him to mean this bird,
+where others imagine he alludes to the horses of
+the Phasis. Mnesilochos, a writer of the middle
+comedy, classes a plucked pheasant with <em>hen’s milk</em>,
+among things equally difficult to be met with, which
+shows that the bird had not then become common.
+It obtained its name from being found in immense
+numbers about the embouchure of the Phasis, and
+the bird was evidently propagated very slowly in
+Greece and Egypt, since we find Ptolemy Philadelphos,
+in a grand public festival at Alexandria, exhibiting
+it, among other rarities, such as parroquets,
+peacocks, guinea-fowl, and Ethiopian birds
+in cages.<a id='r630' /><a href='#f630' class='c012'><sup>[630]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Among the favourite game of the Athenian gourmands
+was the Attagas,<a id='r631' /><a href='#f631' class='c012'><sup>[631]</sup></a> or francolin, a little larger
+than the partridge, variegated with numerous spots,
+and of common tile colour, somewhat inclining to
+red. It is said to have been introduced from Lydia
+into Greece, and was found in extraordinary abundance
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_153'>153</span>in the Megaris. Another of their favourites
+was the porphyrion, a bird which might with great
+advantage be introduced into many countries of modern
+Europe, since it was exceedingly domestic, and
+kept strict watch over the married women, whose
+<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><i>faux pas</i></span> it immediately detected and revealed to
+their husbands, after which, knowing the revengeful
+spirit of ladies so situated, it very prudently hung
+itself. It is no wonder, therefore, that the breed
+has long been extinct, or that the remnant surviving
+has taken refuge in some remote region, where wives
+require no such vigilant guardians. In the matter
+of eating it agreed exactly with Lord Byron, loving
+to feast alone, and in retired nooks, where none
+could observe. Aristotle describes this half fabulous
+bird as unwebfooted, of blue colour, with long legs,
+and red beak. The porphyrion was about the size
+of a cock, and originally a native of Libya, where
+it was esteemed sacred.<a id='r632' /><a href='#f632' class='c012'><sup>[632]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Another bird common in Greece, but now no
+longer known, was the porphyris, by some confounded
+with the foregoing. Of the partridge, common
+throughout Europe, we need merely remark,
+that both the gray and the red (the <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><i>bartavelle</i></span> of
+the French) were common in Greece.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>If we pass from the poultry to puddings and
+soups,<a id='r633' /><a href='#f633' class='c012'><sup>[633]</sup></a> we shall find that the Athenians were not ill-provided
+with these dainties. They even converted
+gruel into a delicacy,<a id='r634' /><a href='#f634' class='c012'><sup>[634]</sup></a> and it is said, that the best
+was made at Megara. They had bean soup, flour
+soup, ptisans made with pearl-barley or groats.<a id='r635' /><a href='#f635' class='c012'><sup>[635]</sup></a>
+We hear, also, of a delicately-powdered dish or soup
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_154'>154</span>which was sprinkled over with fine flour and olives.
+The polphos, evidently <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><i>soupe à la julienne</i></span>, is said,
+by some, to have been composed of scraped roots,
+vegetables, and flour. Others take it to mean a
+sort of made-dish, resembling macaroni or vermicelli.
+Another kind of soup was the <em>kidron</em>, which,
+according to Pollux,<a id='r636' /><a href='#f636' class='c012'><sup>[636]</sup></a> they made of green wheat,
+roasted and reduced to powder.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>There was one dish fashionable among the ancient
+Greeks mistaken by our neighbours, the French,
+for plum-pudding, which is still found in perfection
+in the Levant, where I have many times eaten of
+it. Julius Pollux<a id='r637' /><a href='#f637' class='c012'><sup>[637]</sup></a> has preserved the recipe for
+making it, and we can assure our gourmands, that
+nothing more exquisite was ever tasted, even in
+the best café of the Palais Royal. They took a certain
+quantity of the finest clarified lard, and, mixing
+it up with milk until it was quite thick, added
+an equal portion of new cheese, yolks of eggs, and
+the finest flour. The whole rolled up tight in a
+fragrant fig-leaf, was then cooked in chicken-broth,
+or soup made with kid’s flesh. When they considered
+it well done, the leaf was removed and the
+pudding soused in boiling honey. It was then served
+up hissing-hot. All the ingredients were used in
+equal proportions, excepting the yolks of eggs, of
+which there was somewhat more than of anything
+else, in order to give firmness and consistency to
+the whole.<a id='r638' /><a href='#f638' class='c012'><sup>[638]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Black puddings, made with blood, suet, and the
+other materials now used were also common at
+Athens.<a id='r639' /><a href='#f639' class='c012'><sup>[639]</sup></a> Mushrooms and snails were great favourites;
+and Poliochos speaks of going out in the
+dewy mornings in search of these luxuries.<a id='r640' /><a href='#f640' class='c012'><sup>[640]</sup></a> In
+spring, before the arrival of the swallow, the nettle
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_155'>155</span>was collected and eaten, it being then young and
+tender.<a id='r641' /><a href='#f641' class='c012'><sup>[641]</sup></a> Leeks, onions, garlic, were in much request,
+the last particularly, which grew in great plenty
+in the Megarean territory, and hence, perhaps, the
+inhabitants were accounted hot and quarrelsome,
+garlic being supposed to inspire game, even in
+fighting cocks, to which it was accordingly given
+in great quantities.<a id='r642' /><a href='#f642' class='c012'><sup>[642]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Among the herbs eaten by his countrymen, Hesiod
+enumerates the mallow,<a id='r643' /><a href='#f643' class='c012'><sup>[643]</sup></a> and the asphodel, which
+are likewise said by Aristophanes to have constituted
+a great part of the food of the early Greeks. Gœttling,
+therefore, not without reason, wonders that Pythagoras
+should have prohibited the use of the mallow.
+Lupines, pomegranates, horse-radish, the dregs
+of grapes and olives, all of which entered into the
+material of an Attic entertainment, were commonly
+cried about the streets of Athens.<a id='r644' /><a href='#f644' class='c012'><sup>[644]</sup></a> But these edible
+lupines, (θέρμοι) still eaten by the Egyptian peasantry
+and the poor generally throughout the Levant, must
+be distinguished from the common species. An
+anecdote of Zeno, of Cittion, will illustrate the
+character of this kind of pulse, with which the
+philosopher was evidently familiar. Being one day
+asked why, though naturally morose, he became
+quite affable when half-seas-over: “I am like the
+lupine,” he replied, “which, when dry, is very bitter,
+but perfectly sweet and agreeable after it has been
+well soaked.”<a id='r645' /><a href='#f645' class='c012'><sup>[645]</sup></a> Kidney-beans, too, were in much
+request, and pickled olives, slightly flavoured with
+fennel.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The radish<a id='r646' /><a href='#f646' class='c012'><sup>[646]</sup></a> was esteemed a great delicacy, particularly
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_156'>156</span>that of Thasos and Bœotia. And the seeds
+of the ground-pine,<a id='r647' /><a href='#f647' class='c012'><sup>[647]</sup></a> still eaten as a dessert in Italy,
+entered, in Greece, also into the list of edible fruits.<a id='r648' /><a href='#f648' class='c012'><sup>[648]</sup></a>
+The tree, I am informed, has been introduced into
+England, but I have nowhere seen its fruit brought
+among pears, walnuts, and apples, to table. Hen’s
+milk has already been spoken of among the good
+things of Hellas;<a id='r649' /><a href='#f649' class='c012'><sup>[649]</sup></a> but lest the reader should suspect
+us of amusing him with fables, it should be
+explained, that the white of an egg was so called
+by Anaxagoras.<a id='r650' /><a href='#f650' class='c012'><sup>[650]</sup></a> Eggs of all kinds were much esteemed.
+Sometimes they were boiled hard, and cut
+in two with a hair; but, many writers, confounding
+ὄα, the berries of the service-tree, with ὠὰ, eggs,
+have imagined that the Athenians, in the capriciousness
+of their culinary taste, actually ate pickled
+eggs, an idea which stirs to the bottom the erudite
+bile of David Ruhnken.<a id='r651' /><a href='#f651' class='c012'><sup>[651]</sup></a> Generally, eggs were eaten
+soft, as with us, or swallowed quite raw. Those
+of the pea-hen were considered the most delicate;
+next to these, the eggs of the chenalopex bergander,
+or Egyptian goose, and, lastly, those of the hen.
+This, at least, is the opinion of Epicrates and Heracleides,
+of Syracuse, in their treatises on cookery.<a id='r652' /><a href='#f652' class='c012'><sup>[652]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>As when an entertainment was given the host necessarily
+expected his guests to make a good dinner,
+they usually commenced the business of the day with
+an antecœnium or whet, consisting of herbs of the
+sharpest taste. At Athens, the articles which generally
+composed this course were colewort, eggs, oysters,
+œnomel—a mixture of honey and wine—all supposed
+to create appetite.<a id='r653' /><a href='#f653' class='c012'><sup>[653]</sup></a> To these even in later
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_157'>157</span>times were added the mallow and the asphodel,
+king’s-spear or day-lily, gourds,<a id='r654' /><a href='#f654' class='c012'><sup>[654]</sup></a> melons, cucumbers.
+The melons of Greece are still delicious, and famous
+as ever in the Levant. Antioch was celebrated for
+its cucumbers, Smyrna for its lettuces. Mushrooms
+were always a favourite dish;<a id='r655' /><a href='#f655' class='c012'><sup>[655]</sup></a> and they had receipts
+for producing them, which even now, perhaps, may
+not be wholly unworthy of attention.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The use, however, of this kind of food was always
+attended with great danger, there being comparatively
+few species that could be safely eaten. Persons
+were frequently poisoned by them, and a pretty
+epigram of Euripides has been preserved, commemorating
+a mother and three children who had been
+thus cut off, in the island of Icaros:</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>Bright wanderer through the eternal way,</div>
+ <div class='line'>Has sight so sad as that which now</div>
+ <div class='line'>Bedims the splendour of thy ray,</div>
+ <div class='line'>E’er bid the streams of sorrow flow?</div>
+ <div class='line'>Here, side by side, in death are laid</div>
+ <div class='line'>Two darling boys, their mother’s care;</div>
+ <div class='line'>And here their sister, youthful maid,</div>
+ <div class='line'>Near her who nursed and thought them fair.<a id='r656' /><a href='#f656' class='c012'><sup>[656]</sup></a></div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c014'>Diodes, of Carystos, enumerates among wholesome
+vegetables the red beet, the mallow, the dock, the
+nettle, orach, the bolbos, or truffle, and the mushroom,
+of which the best kinds were supposed to
+grow at the foot of elm and pine trees.<a id='r657' /><a href='#f657' class='c012'><sup>[657]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The sion<a id='r658' /><a href='#f658' class='c012'><sup>[658]</sup></a> (sium latifolium), another of their vegetables,
+is a plant found in marshes and meadows,
+with the smallage.<a id='r659' /><a href='#f659' class='c012'><sup>[659]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Another plant, of far greater celebrity, was the
+Silphion,<a id='r660' /><a href='#f660' class='c012'><sup>[660]</sup></a> once extremely plentiful in Cyrenaica, as
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_158'>158</span>also, though of an inferior quality, in Syria, Armenia,
+and Media, but afterwards so rare as to be thought
+extinct. Besides being used in seasoning soups and
+sauces, and mixed with salt for giving a superior
+flavour to meat, its juice occupied a high place among
+the materia medica.<a id='r661' /><a href='#f661' class='c012'><sup>[661]</sup></a> A single plant was discovered
+in the reign of Nero, and sent to Rome as a present
+to the Emperor. Its seed, according to Pollux,<a id='r662' /><a href='#f662' class='c012'><sup>[662]</sup></a> was
+called magudaris, its root silphion, the stem caulos,
+and the leaf maspeton. Be this as it may, it communicated
+to the sauces in which it was infused a
+pungent and somewhat bitter taste, and was in no
+favour with Archestratos.<a id='r663' /><a href='#f663' class='c012'><sup>[663]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>We come now to the fruit,<a id='r664' /><a href='#f664' class='c012'><sup>[664]</sup></a> and shall begin with
+that which was the pride of Attica, the fig.<a id='r665' /><a href='#f665' class='c012'><sup>[665]</sup></a> According
+to traditions fully credited in Athens, figs were first
+produced on a spot near the city, on the road to Eleusis,
+thence called <em>Hiera Sukè</em>, “the sacred fig-tree.”<a id='r666' /><a href='#f666' class='c012'><sup>[666]</sup></a>
+Like its men, the figs of Attica were esteemed the
+best in the world, and to secure an abundant supply
+for the use of the inhabitants it was forbidden to export
+them. As might have been expected, however,
+this decree was habitually contravened, and the informers
+against the delinquents were called sycophants,
+that is, “revealers of figs,”<a id='r667' /><a href='#f667' class='c012'><sup>[667]</sup></a> a word which has
+been adopted by most modern languages to signify
+mean-souled, dastardly persons, such as informers always
+are. The fig-tree of Laconia was a dwarfed
+species, and its fruit, according to Aristophanes,<a id='r668' /><a href='#f668' class='c012'><sup>[668]</sup></a> savoured
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_159'>159</span>of hatred and tyranny, like the people themselves.</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line in8'>There is no kind of fig,</div>
+ <div class='line in8'>Whether little or big,</div>
+ <div class='line'>Save the Spartan, which here does not grow;</div>
+ <div class='line in8'>But this, though quite small,</div>
+ <div class='line in8'>Swells with hatred and gall,</div>
+ <div class='line'>A stern foe to the Demos, I trow.<a id='r669' /><a href='#f669' class='c012'><sup>[669]</sup></a></div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c015'>Aristophanes, in Athenæus, speaking of fruit, couples
+myrtle-berries with Phibaleian figs.<a id='r670' /><a href='#f670' class='c012'><sup>[670]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>According to the ancients, there were certain sorts
+of fig-trees that bore twice, thrice, and even four times,
+in the year. Sosibios, the Laconian, attributing the
+discovery of the fig to Bacchos, observes, that for this
+reason the god was, at Sparta, worshiped under the
+name of <em>Sukites</em>. Andriscos, however, and Agasthenes,
+relate that this divinity obtained the name of
+Meilichios, “the gracious,” among the Naxians because
+he taught them the use of figs. To eat figs
+at noon was regarded as unwholesome; and they were
+at all times supposed to be highly prejudicial to the
+voice, for which reason singers should carefully eschew
+them.<a id='r671' /><a href='#f671' class='c012'><sup>[671]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The apples of Delphi enjoyed great celebrity, and
+probably, therefore, were mild, since these were thought
+superior, or at least more wholesome, than sharp ones.
+Quinces they esteemed still more salubrious than apples,
+and, during certain public rejoicings, this fruit,
+handfuls of myrtle-leaves, crowns of roses and violets,
+were cast before the cars of their princes and other
+great men.<a id='r672' /><a href='#f672' class='c012'><sup>[672]</sup></a> The Greeks loved to connect something
+of the marvellous with whatever they admired. To
+the quince they attributed the honour of being a
+powerful antidote, observing that even the Phariac
+poison, though of extremely rapid operation, lost its
+virulence if poured into any vessel which had held
+quinces and retained their odour.<a id='r673' /><a href='#f673' class='c012'><sup>[673]</sup></a> According to
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_160'>160</span>Hermon, in his Cretic Glossaries, the quince was called
+Kodumala, in Crete. Sidoüs, a village of Corinthia,
+was famous for its fine apples; and even Corinth
+itself, the “windy Ephyrè” of Homer, produced them
+in great perfection.</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>“O where is the maiden, sweeter far</div>
+ <div class='line'>Than the ruddy fruits of Ephyrè are?</div>
+ <div class='line'>When the winds of summer have o’er them blown,</div>
+ <div class='line'>And their cheeks with autumn’s gold have been strown!”<a id='r674' /><a href='#f674' class='c012'><sup>[674]</sup></a></div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c014'>Another favourite fruit was the peach, introduced
+from Persia into Greece.<a id='r675' /><a href='#f675' class='c012'><sup>[675]</sup></a> The citron, too, though
+supposed by some not to have been known to the
+ancient inhabitants of Hellas, perfumed in later
+ages the tables of the Greeks with its delicious
+fragrance. This is the fruit which, according to
+King Juba, was called in Africa “the apple of the
+Hesperides,” a name bestowed by Timachidas on
+a rich and fragrant kind of pear called <em>epimelis</em>.
+The oldest Greek writer who has described the citron
+tree is Theophrastus,<a id='r676' /><a href='#f676' class='c012'><sup>[676]</sup></a> who says it was found
+in Persia and Media. Its leaf, he observes, resembled
+that of the laurel, the strawberry tree, or
+the walnut. Like the wild pear tree, and the oxyacanthos,
+it has sharp, smooth, and very strong
+prickles. The fruit is not eaten, but together with
+the leaves exhales a sweet odour, and laid with
+cloths in coffers protects them from the moth. The
+citron tree, is always covered with fruit, some ripe
+and fit to be gathered, others green, with patches
+of gold; and, in the midst of these, are other
+branches covered thick with blossoms. It now
+forms the fairest ornaments of the gardens of Heliopolis,
+where it shades the Fountain of the Sun.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'><span class='pageno' id='Page_161'>161</span>Antiphanes observes, in his Bœotian, that it had
+only recently been introduced into Attica:</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>A. ’Twould be absurd to speak of what’s to eat,</div>
+ <div class='line in3'>As if you thought of such things; but, fair maid,</div>
+ <div class='line in3'>Take of these apples.</div>
+ </div>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>B. Oh, how beautiful!</div>
+ </div>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>A. They are, indeed, since hither they but lately</div>
+ <div class='line in3'>Have come from the great king.</div>
+ </div>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>B. By Phosphoros!</div>
+ <div class='line in3'>I could have thought them from the Hesperian bowers,</div>
+ <div class='line in3'>Where th’ apples are of gold.</div>
+ </div>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>A. There are but three.</div>
+ </div>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>B. The beautiful is no where plentiful.<a id='r677' /><a href='#f677' class='c012'><sup>[677]</sup></a></div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c014'>Athenæus, after quoting the testimony of poets,
+relates a curious anecdote <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><i>à propos</i></span> of citrons,
+which I shall here repeat: it has, probably, some
+reference to the secret of the Psylli. An opinion,
+it seems, prevailed in Egypt, that a citron eaten
+the first thing in the morning was an antidote
+against all kinds of poison, whether taken into the
+stomach, or introduced by puncture into the blood,
+and the notion arose out of the following circumstance.
+A governor of Egypt, in the time of the
+Emperors, had condemned two criminals to be executed,
+in obedience to custom, by the bite of an
+asp. They were, accordingly, led in the morning
+towards the place of execution, and on the way
+the landlady of an inn, who happened to be eating
+citrons, compassionating their condition, gave them
+some which they ate. Shortly afterwards they
+were exposed to the hungry serpents, which immediately
+bit them, but instead of exhibiting the
+usual symptoms followed by death, they remained
+uninjured. At this the governor marvelled much,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_162'>162</span>and at length demanded of the soldier who guarded
+them, whether they had taken anything previously
+to their arrival. Learning what had happened
+he put off the execution to the following day, and
+ordering a citron to be given to one and not
+to the other, they were once more exposed to the
+bite of the asp. The wretch who had eaten nothing
+died soon after he was bitten, but the other
+experienced no inconvenience. Similar experiments
+were several times afterwards made by others, until
+it was at length ascertained that this exquisite
+fruit is really an antidote against poisons.<a id='r678' /><a href='#f678' class='c012'><sup>[678]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Another fruit of which great use was made, was
+the damascene plum, sometimes confounded with
+the brabylon. The cherry,<a id='r679' /><a href='#f679' class='c012'><sup>[679]</sup></a> introduced into Italy
+by Lucullus, was known to the Greeks<a id='r680' /><a href='#f680' class='c012'><sup>[680]</sup></a> at a much
+earlier period, and is described by Theophrastus.
+The wild service berry,<a id='r681' /><a href='#f681' class='c012'><sup>[681]</sup></a> the dwarf cherry, the arbutus
+fruit, and the mulberry, formed part of their
+dessert. Even the blackberry, when perfectly ripe,
+was not disdained.<a id='r682' /><a href='#f682' class='c012'><sup>[682]</sup></a> In fact, both the mulberry
+and blackberry were esteemed a preventive of gout,
+and an ancient writer relates, that this kind of
+fruit having failed during a period of twenty years,
+that disease prevailed like an epidemic, attacking
+persons of both sexes and all ages, and extending
+its ravages even to the sheep and cattle.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Filberts, walnuts, and almonds,<a id='r683' /><a href='#f683' class='c012'><sup>[683]</sup></a> deservedly held
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_163'>163</span>a high place in the estimation of the ancients. Of
+almonds, the island of Naxos had the reputation of
+producing very excellent ones, and those of Cypros
+also enjoyed considerable reputation. These latter
+were longer in form than the former; like pickled
+olives they were eaten at the commencement of a
+repast, for the purpose of producing thirst; and
+bitter almonds were considered a preservative against
+intoxication, as we learn from an anecdote of Tiberius’s
+physician, who could encounter three bottles
+when thus fortified, but easily succumbed if deprived
+of his almonds. This fruit being extremely
+common in Greece, they had their almond-crackers,
+as we have our nut-crackers, which at Sparta were
+called <em>moucerobatos</em> but <em>amygdalocatactes</em> in the rest
+of Greece.<a id='r684' /><a href='#f684' class='c012'><sup>[684]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The larger kind of chestnut, sometimes denominated
+the “acorns of Zeus,” appears to have been
+introduced into Greece from the countries round the
+Pontos Euxinos, where they were produced in
+great abundance, particularly in the environs of Heraclea.
+There was, likewise, a sort of chestnut imported
+from Persia, and another from the neighbourhood
+of Sardes, in Lydia. Both these and the
+walnut were considered indigestible; but not so the
+almond, of which it was thought great quantities
+might be eaten with impunity.<a id='r685' /><a href='#f685' class='c012'><sup>[685]</sup></a> The best kinds
+were produced in Thasos and Cypros, and, when
+freshly gathered, the almonds of the south are, undoubtedly,
+of all fruit, the most delicate. The
+walnuts <a id='corr163.31'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='aud'>and</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_163.31'><ins class='correction' title='aud'>and</ins></a></span> chestnuts of Eubœa, in the opinion
+of Mnestheos, were difficult of digestion, but fattening;
+and no one can have frequented the eastern
+shores of the Mediterranean without observing what
+an important article of food, and how nourishing,
+they are.<a id='r686' /><a href='#f686' class='c012'><sup>[686]</sup></a> The pistachio nut, produced from a tree
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_164'>164</span>resembling the almond-tree, was imported from Syria
+and Arabia.<a id='r687' /><a href='#f687' class='c012'><sup>[687]</sup></a> The <em>persea</em>, now no longer known,
+but supposed to be represented on the walls of the
+Memnonium,<a id='r688' /><a href='#f688' class='c012'><sup>[688]</sup></a> at Thebes, is, also, said, by Poseidonios,
+the stoic, to have grown in Arabia and Syria,
+and I brought home a quantity of leaves, preserved
+in an Egyptian coffin, which are, probably, those
+of this tree. Pears, which were brought to table
+floating in water,<a id='r689' /><a href='#f689' class='c012'><sup>[689]</sup></a> and service-berries, were grown
+in great perfection in the island of Ceos, and Bœotia
+was famous for its pomegranates.<a id='r690' /><a href='#f690' class='c012'><sup>[690]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Speaking of this fruit, which the Bœotians call
+<em>sidè</em>, Agatharchides relates the following anecdote:
+A dispute arising between the Athenians and Bœotians,
+respecting a spot called <em>Sidè</em>, situated on the
+borders, Epaminondas, in order to decide the question,
+took out a pomegranate from under his robe,
+and demanded of the Athenians, what they called
+it. “<em>Rhoa</em>” they replied. “Very good,” said Epaminondas;
+<a id='corr164.20'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='but'>“but</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_164.20'><ins class='correction' title='but'>“but</ins></a></span> we call it <em>Sidè</em>, and, as the place
+derives its name from the fruit which grows there
+in abundance, it is clear the land must belong to
+us.” And it was decided in favour of the Bœotians.<a id='r691' /><a href='#f691' class='c012'><sup>[691]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'><span class='pageno' id='Page_165'>165</span>We have already observed, that the palm-tree
+flourished and produced dates in Greece, particularly
+in Attica and Delos;<a id='r692' /><a href='#f692' class='c012'><sup>[692]</sup></a> but it is clear, from a
+remark of Xenophon, that these dates were small
+and of an inferior quality; for, speaking of the productions
+of Mesopotamia, he says, that they set
+aside for the slaves such dates as resembled those
+produced in Greece, while the larger and finer kinds,<a id='r693' /><a href='#f693' class='c012'><sup>[693]</sup></a>
+which were like amber in colour, they selected for
+their own use. They were also dried, as they still
+are in the East, to be eaten as a dessert, at other
+seasons of the year. From which we learn, that
+the black date, which is larger and finer than the
+yellow, was not then cultivated in Persia. But
+neither dates, nor any other fruit, could compare
+with the grape, which is found in perfection in almost
+every part of Greece, where, as in Burgundy and, I
+presume, in the rest of France, the law regulated
+the period of the vintage, prohibiting individuals
+from gathering their grapes earlier under a heavy
+penalty.<a id='r694' /><a href='#f694' class='c012'><sup>[694]</sup></a> The best kind of grape in Attica, like
+that of the <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><i>Clos Vougeot</i></span> in Burgundy, was the <em>Nikostrateios</em>,
+supposed to be unrivalled for excellence,
+though the Rhodians pretended, in their <em>Hipponion</em>,
+to possess its equal.<a id='r695' /><a href='#f695' class='c012'><sup>[695]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>From the grape we pass naturally to wine, which
+has of itself formed the subject of many treatises.
+It will not, therefore, be expected that we should
+enter into very minute details; though, if we are
+sparing, it will certainly not be for want of materials.
+D’Herbelot<a id='r696' /><a href='#f696' class='c012'><sup>[696]</sup></a> relates an oriental tradition which attributes
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_166'>166</span>the invention of wine to the ancient Persian
+monarch Giamshid; and Bochart, with some
+show of ingenuity, attributes to Bacchos, the Grecian
+inventor and god of wine, an origin which
+would confound him with the founder of Babylon.<a id='r697' /><a href='#f697' class='c012'><sup>[697]</sup></a>
+A very celebrated wine, called <em>nectar</em>, is said to
+have been produced in the neighbourhood of that
+city.<a id='r698' /><a href='#f698' class='c012'><sup>[698]</sup></a> But, according to Theopompos, it was the
+inhabitants of Chios who first planted and cultivated
+the vine, and from them the knowledge was transmitted
+to the other Greeks.<a id='r699' /><a href='#f699' class='c012'><sup>[699]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Theophrastus<a id='r700' /><a href='#f700' class='c012'><sup>[700]</sup></a> relates that, in the territory of
+Heraclea, in Arcadia, there was a wine which rendered
+men insane and women prolific.<a id='r701' /><a href='#f701' class='c012'><sup>[701]</sup></a> In the
+environs of Cerynia, in Achaia, grew a vine, the
+wine of which blasted the fruit of the womb, nay,
+the very grapes were said to possess a similar quality.<a id='r702' /><a href='#f702' class='c012'><sup>[702]</sup></a>
+At Thasos were two kinds of wine, of which
+the one caused stupefaction, while the other was in
+the highest degree exhilarating.<a id='r703' /><a href='#f703' class='c012'><sup>[703]</sup></a> The wine called
+anthosmias,<a id='r704' /><a href='#f704' class='c012'><sup>[704]</sup></a> according to Phanias of Eresos, was
+produced by mixing one part of salt-water with
+fifty parts of wine, and it was considered best when
+made with the grapes of young vines. The comic
+poets are eloquent in praise of the wines of Thasos,
+particularly of that mixed sort, of most agreeable
+flavour, which was drunk in their Prytaneion. Theophrastus<a id='r705' /><a href='#f705' class='c012'><sup>[705]</sup></a>
+gives the recipe for making it. They threw,
+he says, into the jars, a small quantity of flour
+kneaded with honey, the latter to impart a sweet
+odour to the wine, the former mildness. A similar
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_167'>167</span>effect was produced by mixing up hard inodorous
+wine with one which was oily and fragrant.<a id='r706' /><a href='#f706' class='c012'><sup>[706]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The wines of Cos, Myndos, and Halicarnassos, being
+thought to temper the crudity of rain and well-water,
+were, therefore, like all others containing a quantity
+of salt-water, in great request at Athens and Sicyon,
+where the springs were harsh. The Mareotic wine<a id='r707' /><a href='#f707' class='c012'><sup>[707]</sup></a>
+was made from vineyards on the banks of the lake
+Mareotis, where the present Pasha has his gardens,
+in the vicinity of Marea, once a place of considerable
+importance, but now a small village. Attempts, however,
+have been made by M. Abro, an Armenian, once
+more to cover the ancient sites with vineyards, several
+acres of ground being planted with cuttings imported
+from the great nursery grounds at Chambéry, in Savoy.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The town of Marea derived its name, according to
+tradition, from Maron,<a id='r708' /><a href='#f708' class='c012'><sup>[708]</sup></a> a person who accompanied
+Bacchos in his military expedition, and, in honour of
+its founder, surrounded itself with the fruit-tree most
+agreeable to that god. The grapes here produced
+were delicious, and the wine, slightly astringent and
+aromatic, had an exquisite flavour. The Mareotic
+was white, of delicate taste, light, sparkling, and by
+no means heady. The best sort was the Tæniotic,
+so called from the <em>tænia</em>, “sandy eminences,” on which
+the vineyards were situated. This wine, in its pure
+state, had a greenish tinge, like the Johanisberg, and
+was rich and unctuous; but, mingled with water, it
+assumed the colour of Attic honey. By degrees the
+vine grew to be cultivated along the whole course
+of the Nile,<a id='r709' /><a href='#f709' class='c012'><sup>[709]</sup></a> but its produce differed greatly in different
+places, both in colour and quality. Among the
+best was that of Antylla, a city near Alexandria,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_168'>168</span>the revenues arising from which the ancient kings of
+Egypt, and afterwards those of Persia, settled on their
+queens for their girdle. The wines of the Thebaid,
+particularly those made about Koptos, were so extremely
+light as to be given even in fevers, as, moreover,
+they passed quickly, and greatly promoted digestion.<a id='r710' /><a href='#f710' class='c012'><sup>[710]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>According to Nicander of Colophon, the word οἶνος,
+“wine,” was derived from the name of <em>Oineus</em>, who
+having squeezed out the juice of the grape into vases,
+called it, after his own name, <em>wine</em>. Diphilos,<a id='r711' /><a href='#f711' class='c012'><sup>[711]</sup></a> the
+comic poet, gives us, however, something better than
+etymologies in that burst of Bacchic enthusiasm in
+which, in verses fragrant as Burgundy, he celebrates
+the praises of the gift of Dionysos:</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>“Oh! friend to the wise, to the children of song,</div>
+ <div class='line'>Take me with thee, thou wisest and sweetest, along;</div>
+ <div class='line'>To the humble, the lowly, proud thoughts dost thou bring,</div>
+ <div class='line'>For the wretch who has thee is as blythe as a king:</div>
+ <div class='line'>From the brows of the sage, in thy humorous play,</div>
+ <div class='line'>Thou dost smooth every furrow, every wrinkle away;</div>
+ <div class='line'>To the weak thou giv’st strength, to the mendicant gold,</div>
+ <div class='line'>And a slave warmed by thee as a lion is bold.”</div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c014'>Nectar, the poetical drink of the gods, was a
+sort of wine made near Olympos in Lydia, by mingling
+with the juice of the grape a little pure
+honey and flowers of delicate fragrance. Anaxandrides,
+indeed, regards the nectar as the food of
+the immortals, and ambrosia as their wine; in which
+opinion he is upheld by Alcman and Sappho. But
+Homer and Ibycos take an opposite view of the
+matter.<a id='r712' /><a href='#f712' class='c012'><sup>[712]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Alexis speaks of those who are half-seas-over
+as much addicted to reasoning. Nicænetus<a id='r713' /><a href='#f713' class='c012'><sup>[713]</sup></a> considers
+wine as the Pegasus of a poet, mounted on
+the wings of which like Trygæos on his beetle he
+soars “to the bright heaven of invention.” At the
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_169'>169</span>port of Munychia, too, good wine was held in high
+estimation; indeed, the honest folks of this borough,
+with small respect for the water nymphs,
+paid particular honour to the hero <em>Acratopotes</em>, that
+is, in plain English, “one who drinks unmixed
+wine.” Even among the Spartans,<a id='r714' /><a href='#f714' class='c012'><sup>[714]</sup></a> in spite of their
+cothons, and black broth, certain culinary artistes
+set up in the Phydition, or common dining-hall,
+statues in honour of the heroes <em>Matton</em> and <em>Keraon</em>,
+that is, the genii of eating and drinking. In
+Achaia, too, much reverence was paid to <em>Deipneus</em>,
+or the god who presides over good suppers.<a id='r715' /><a href='#f715' class='c012'><sup>[715]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>As the Greeks had a marvellous respect for wine
+they, like the German paper enthusiast, almost appeared
+to imagine it could be made out of a stone.
+They had, accordingly, fig wine,<a id='r716' /><a href='#f716' class='c012'><sup>[716]</sup></a> root wine, palm
+wine, and so on; and their made or mixed wines
+were without number. There was scarcely an
+island or city in the Mediterranean that did not
+export its wines to Athens: they had the Lesbian,
+the Eubœan, the Peparethian, the Chalybonian, the
+Thasian, the Pramnian, and the Port wine. We
+have already observed, that wine was drunk mixed
+with flour,<a id='r717' /><a href='#f717' class='c012'><sup>[717]</sup></a> and in the island of Theræ it was
+thickened with the yolk of an egg. In the Megaris
+they prepared with raisins or dried grapes<a id='r718' /><a href='#f718' class='c012'><sup>[718]</sup></a>
+a wine called <em>passon</em>, in taste resembling the Ægosthenic
+sweet wine, or the Cretan malmsey. But,
+however exquisite the wines themselves, it was not
+thought enough in the summer months unless they
+were brought to table cooled with ice or snow,<a id='r719' /><a href='#f719' class='c012'><sup>[719]</sup></a>
+which was accordingly the practice.</p>
+
+<hr class='c016' />
+<div class='footnote' id='f621'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r621'>621</a>. Athen. vii. 23.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f622'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r622'>622</a>. Athen. iv. 23.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f623'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r623'>623</a>. The solitary sparrow inhabits
+the cliffs of Delphi, and the song-thrush
+is heard in the pine woods
+of Parnassus. Above these, when
+the heights of the mountain are
+covered with snow, is seen the
+Emberiza Nivalis, inhabitant alike
+of the frozen Spitzbergen, and of
+the Grecian Alp.—Sibthorpe in
+Walp. Mem. i. 76, seq. Homer
+is said to have written a poem
+called Ἐπικιχλίδες, because when
+he sung it to the boys they rewarded
+him with thrushes. In
+consequence of the estimation in
+which these birds were held
+κιχλίζω “to feed on thrushes,”
+came to signify “to live luxuriously.”—Payne
+Knight, Prolegg.
+ad Hom. p. 8.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f624'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r624'>624</a>. The red-winged thrush, well
+known to sportsmen in hard
+weather.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f625'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r625'>625</a>. Athen. ii. 68.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f626'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r626'>626</a>. Arist. Hist. Anim. viii. 3. p.
+221. ix. 49. p. 305. Bekk.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f627'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r627'>627</a>. The turtle and the wood-pigeon
+are found in the woods and
+thickets. Among the larks, I
+observed the crested lark to be
+the most frequent species, with a
+small sort, probably the alauda
+campestris of Linnæus. Blackbirds
+frequent the olive grounds
+of Pendeli.—Sibth. in Walp.
+Mem. i. 76.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f628'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r628'>628</a>. Athen. ii. 69–72.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f629'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r629'>629</a>. See the fragment of Eubulos’s
+Garland-Seller, in Athen. ix. 33.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f630'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r630'>630</a>. Athen. ix. 38.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f631'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r631'>631</a>. No bird appears to have
+puzzled commentators more than
+the <em>attagas</em>, some supposing it to
+be the <em>francolin</em>, or grouse, which
+is Schneider’s opinion; others, as
+Passow, the <em>hazel-hen</em>; others,
+again, as Ainsworth, consider it
+to have been a delicious bird, resembling
+our wood-cock, or snipe.
+Mr. Mitchell’s edit. of the Acharnæ
+of Aristophanes, 783.—This
+learned writer professes not to
+understand what Schneider means
+by <em>francolin</em>. The word in Italian
+is <span lang="it" xml:lang="it"><em>francolino</em></span>, as appears from
+Bellon. v. 6: <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Les Italiens ont
+nommé cet oiseau Francolin, que
+parcequ’il est franc dans ce pays,
+c’est-à-dire, qu’il est defendu au
+peuple d’en tuer: il n’y a que les
+princes qui aient cette prérogative.</span>—Valmont
+de Bomare, ii.
+739.—Hardouin thinks, that the
+Attagas is the <span lang="la" xml:lang="la"><i>gallina rustica</i></span>, or
+<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><i>gelinotte de bois</i></span>, which Laveaux
+explains to be a sort of partridge.—Cf.
+Dict. Franç. in voce, and
+Plin. Hist. Nat. xi. 68. ed. Franz.
+Cf. Schol. Aristoph. Vesp. 257.
+This bird was plentiful about Marathon,
+Pac. 249.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f632'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r632'>632</a>. Athen. ix. 40. Aristoph.
+Hist. Anim. i. 17. viii. 6.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f633'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r633'>633</a>. Schol. Aristoph. Eq. 103.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f634'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r634'>634</a>. Schol. Aristoph. Eq. 803.—It
+was thought, also, to deserve a
+place among the offerings to Asclepios,
+especially by pious old
+women, who, having lost their
+teeth, could eat nothing else. In
+lieu of the classical name of ἀθάρα,
+this gruel obtained, in the dialect
+of the common people, the more
+homely designation of κουρκούτη.
+Schol. Plut. 673.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f635'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r635'>635</a>. Athen. iii. 101. iv. 30.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f636'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r636'>636</a>. Onomast. vi. 62.—Made usually
+from panic seed in Caria.—Schol.
+Aristoph. Pac. 580, et Eq.
+803. Cf. Goguet, Origine des
+Loix, i. 212.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f637'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r637'>637</a>. Onomast. i. 237. vi. 57, 69.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f638'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r638'>638</a>. Vid. Schol. Arist. Eq. 949.
+Acharn. 1066.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f639'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r639'>639</a>. Aristoph. Eq. 208.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f640'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r640'>640</a>. Athen. ii. 19.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f641'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r641'>641</a>. Aristoph. Eq. 422. Brunck.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f642'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r642'>642</a>. Aristoph. Pac. 503.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f643'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r643'>643</a>. Cf. Lucian. Amor. § 33.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f644'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r644'>644</a>. Cf. Arist. Acharn. 166. Eq.
+493. Athen. xiii. 22.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f645'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r645'>645</a>. This is as good as the reply
+of an English labourer who, being
+reproached for babbling in his
+drink, replied, “Sir, I am like a
+hedgehog—when I’m wet I
+open.”</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f646'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r646'>646</a>. Hesiod. Oper. et Dies, 41. ed.
+Gœttling. Aristoph. Plut. 543.
+Brunck.—Lobeck. Aglaoph. p.
+899.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f647'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r647'>647</a>. The kernels of the stone-pine
+are brought to table in Turkey.
+They are very common in the
+kitchens of Aleppo.—Russell ap.
+Walp. Mem. i. 236.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f648'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r648'>648</a>. Tim. Lex. Platon. v. στέμφυλα,
+p. 239. Ruhnken. Athen.
+ii. 45.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f649'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r649'>649</a>. Schol. Aristoph. Vesp. 505.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f650'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r650'>650</a>. Athen. ix. 37.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f651'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r651'>651</a>. Not. ad Timæi Lex. Plat.
+p. 189. Cf. Platon. Conviv.
+Oper. iv. 404. Bekk. Athen.
+ii. 50.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f652'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r652'>652</a>. Athen. ii. 50.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f653'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r653'>653</a>. Potter, Archæol. Græc. iv.
+20. Stuck. Antiq. Conviv. iii. 11.
+Petron. Satyr. § 31. 33.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f654'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r654'>654</a>. The σίκυα or long Indian
+gourd, so called because the seed
+was first brought from India to
+Greece. Athen. ii. 53.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f655'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r655'>655</a>. Schol. Aristoph. Nub. 189.
+191. Eccles. 1092. Theoph. Hist.
+Plant. vii. 13. 8. Dioscor. ii.
+200, seq. Athen. xii. 44. 70.
+Plin. Hist. Nat. xix. 11.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f656'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r656'>656</a>. Athen. ii. 57.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f657'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r657'>657</a>. Athen. ii. 57. 59.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f658'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r658'>658</a>. Plin. Hist. Nat. xix. 11.
+Schol. Aristoph. Nub. 191. 199.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f659'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r659'>659</a>. Dioscorid. ii. 154.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f660'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r660'>660</a>. Sch. Aristoph. Eq. 891.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f661'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r661'>661</a>. It is called <em>laser</em>, Plin. Hist.
+Nat. xix. 15. Hard. But Philoxenos,
+in his Glossary, writes
+λάσαριον. Idem. See Dioscorid.
+iii. 76; and Strabo, xi. 13. t. ii.
+p. 452. Cf. Ezek. Spanh. Diss.
+iv. De Usu et Præstant. Numism.
+p. 253, sqq. Brotier, in
+his notes on Pliny, observes, on
+the authority of Le Maire, that
+the Silphion is still found in the
+neighbourhood of Derné, where it
+is called <em>cefie</em> or <em>zerra</em>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f662'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r662'>662</a>. Onomast. vi. 67.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f663'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r663'>663</a>. Ap. Athen. ii. 64.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f664'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r664'>664</a>. Plat. Tim. t. vii. p. 119. Bruyerin.
+de Re Cib. 1. xi. p. 447,
+sqq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f665'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r665'>665</a>. At present the green fig is
+esteemed insipid in Greece. Hobhouse,
+Travels, i. 227.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f666'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r666'>666</a>. Athen. iii. 6. Meurs. Lect.
+Att. v. 16. p. 274.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f667'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r667'>667</a>. Athen. iii. 6.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f668'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r668'>668</a>. Fragm. Γεωργ. iv. t. ii. p.
+268. Bekk.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f669'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r669'>669</a>. Athen. iii. 7.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f670'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r670'>670</a>. See Schol. Aristoph. Acharn.
+707.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f671'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r671'>671</a>. Athen. iii. 19.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f672'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r672'>672</a>. Stesich. ap. Athen. iii. 20.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f673'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r673'>673</a>. Athen. iii. 21.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f674'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r674'>674</a>. Antigonos Carystios, ap.
+Athen. iii. 22.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f675'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r675'>675</a>. Vict. Var. Lect. p. 892.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f676'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r676'>676</a>. Hist. Plantarum, iv. 4. 2. The
+orange attains great perfection in
+Crete. Mr. Pashley speaks of
+twelve different kinds, and nearly
+as many sorts of lemons. Travels,
+i. 96, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f677'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r677'>677</a>. Ap. Athen. iii. 27. Mitford,
+Hist. Greece, i. 154, note 59, misled
+by Barthelemy (Anacharsis,
+ch. 59) confounds Antiphanes,
+the comic poet, born B. C. 407
+(Clinton, Fast. Hellen. ii. 81) with
+Antiphon, the master of Thucydides,
+born B. C. 479, and who
+died in the year 411, four years
+before the birth of Antiphanes.—Clinton,
+ii. 31, 37.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f678'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r678'>678</a>. Athen. iii. 28.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f679'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r679'>679</a>. Theoph. Hist. Plant. iii. 13, 1.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f680'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r680'>680</a>. It was spoken of by Xenophanes
+in his treatise περὶ φύσεως.
+Poll. vi. 46. Now this philosopher
+was born about the 40th
+Olympiad, 620 B. C.—Clinton,
+Fast. Hellen. ii. sub an. 477.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f681'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r681'>681</a>. The berry of the cedar, about
+the same size as that of the
+myrtle, had a pleasant taste, and
+was commonly eaten.—Theoph.
+Hist. Plant. iii. 12. 3.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f682'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r682'>682</a>. Athen. ii. 33–37. A dainty
+of a very peculiar character is
+sometimes seen on the tables of
+the modern Greeks. “We were
+served also with some φασκομῆλια,
+or sage apples, the inflated
+tumours formed upon a species of
+sage, and the effect of the puncture
+of a cynops.”—Sibth. in
+Walp. Mem. t. i. p. 62. Cf. Sibth.
+Flor. Græc. t. i. pl. 15.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f683'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r683'>683</a>. Theoph. Hist. Plant. i. 11. 2.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f684'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r684'>684</a>. Athen. ii. 40.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f685'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r685'>685</a>. Dioscorid. i. 176. Athen. ii.
+42. Cf. Hippocrat. de Morb. ii.
+p. 484. Foës.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f686'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r686'>686</a>. Athen. ii. 43.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f687'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r687'>687</a>. Athen. xiv. 61.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f688'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r688'>688</a>. We find that the Persea
+grew, likewise, in the island of
+Rhodes, but there, though flowers
+came, it produced no fruit.—Theoph.
+Hist. Plant. iii. 3, 5.
+For a full description of the tree
+see iv. 2, 5, and Cf. Caus. Plant.
+ii. 3, 7.—In its original country,
+Persia, the fruit of this tree is
+said to have been poisonous, for
+which reason the companions of
+Cambyses carried along with
+them numerous young trees,
+which they planted in various
+parts of Egypt, that the inhabitants,
+eating of the fruit, might
+perish. But, through the influence
+of soil and climate, the
+nature of the Persea was wholly
+changed, and, instead of a harsh
+and fatal berry, produced delicious
+fruit.—Ælian. de Nat.
+Animal. ap. Schneid. ad Theoph.
+Hist. Plant. iv. 2, 5. t. iii. p.
+284.—Cf. Athen. xiv. 61.—Schweigh.
+Animadv. t. xii. p. 585.
+Plin. xv. 13. xvi. 46.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f689'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r689'>689</a>. Athen. xiv. 63.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f690'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r690'>690</a>. The best pomegranates, however,
+were grown in Egypt and
+Cilicia.—Theoph. Caus. Plant.
+ii. 13. 4.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f691'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r691'>691</a>. Athen. xiv. 64.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f692'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r692'>692</a>. Theoph. Char. pp. 33, 233.
+Casaub. A very fine palm-tree
+is at present growing in one of
+the principal streets of Athens.—Blackwood’s
+Magazine, April,
+1838.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f693'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r693'>693</a>. Pollux, i. 73. Herod. i. 28,
+172, 193. ii. 156. iv. 172, 183.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f694'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r694'>694</a>. Plato de Legg. t. viii. p. 106.
+Bekk. Athen. xiv. 68.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f695'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r695'>695</a>. Athen. xiv. 68. Cf. Bruyerin.
+de Re Cibaria, xi. 447, sqq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f696'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r696'>696</a>. Biliothèque Orientale, Article
+Giamschid.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f697'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r697'>697</a>. Geog. Sacr. I. ii. 13.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f698'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r698'>698</a>. Chæreas. ap. Athen. i. 58.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f699'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r699'>699</a>. Athen. i. 47.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f700'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r700'>700</a>. Hist. Plant. ix. 18. 10, seq.
+In Athenæus, instead of Heraclea,
+we find Heræa, i. 57. Cf.
+Ælian. Var. Hist. xiii. 6.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f701'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r701'>701</a>. The same effect was attributed
+to the waters of a fountain
+flowing near a temple of Aphrodite
+upon Mount Hymettos.—Chandler,
+ii. 164.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f702'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r702'>702</a>. Plin. Hist. Nat. xiv. 18.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f703'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r703'>703</a>. Athen. i. 57.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f704'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r704'>704</a>. Ὁ ἀνθέων ὀσμὴν ἔχων οἶνος.—Etym.
+Mag. 108. 41. Cf.
+Suid. v. ἀνθοσμίας. t. i. p. 289.
+b. Aristoph. Plut. 808. Ran.
+1181.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f705'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r705'>705</a>. De Odor. 51.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f706'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r706'>706</a>. Athen. i. 56.—Cydonia, in
+Crete, is conjectured, by Mr.
+Pashley, to have produced a
+good wine.—Travels in Crete, i.
+23, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f707'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r707'>707</a>. Athen. i. 59.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f708'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r708'>708</a>. Idem, i. 60. Horat. Carm.
+i. 37. 14.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f709'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r709'>709</a>. The cultivation of the vine
+appears to have flourished in
+Egypt down to the reign of the
+Caliph Beamrillah, who commanded
+all the vineyards both in
+the valley of the Nile and in
+Syria to be utterly destroyed.
+Maured Allatafet Jemaleddini,
+p. 7.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f710'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r710'>710</a>. Athen. i. 60.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f711'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r711'>711</a>. Idem, ii. 1, where are collected
+many other etymologies
+and curious fables.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f712'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r712'>712</a>. Athen. ii. 8.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f713'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r713'>713</a>. Or Nicarchos. Anthol. Græc.
+xiii. 29. Athen. ii. 9.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f714'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r714'>714</a>. Athen. ii. 9.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f715'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r715'>715</a>. Athen. ii. 9. Cf. x. 9.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f716'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r716'>716</a>. Damm. 2224. βρύτον. Athen.
+x. 67. Plato de Rep. t. vi. p.
+144. Xenoph. Anab. p. 54. 138.
+Cyrop. p. 522. Plin. Hist. Nat.
+xiii. 4. Diod. Sic. ii. 136. On
+the οἶνος συκίτης vid. Foës. Œcon.
+Hip. in v. Dioscorid. v.
+40. Lotus wine. Theoph. Hist.
+Plant, iv. 3. 1. Herod, iv. 177.
+Athen. vii. 9–13.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f717'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r717'>717</a>. Plato de Repub. t. vi. p.
+144. Bekk. Athen. viii. 1. On
+the Pramnian cf. Athen. 1, 17.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f718'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r718'>718</a>. Athen. x. 41.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f719'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r719'>719</a>. Athen. x. 56.</p>
+</div>
+<hr class='c016' />
+
+<div>
+ <span class='pageno' id='Page_170'>170</span>
+ <h3 class='c002'>CHAPTER V. <br /> ENTERTAINMENTS.</h3>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c011'>Having now gone rapidly through the materials
+of which Grecian repasts consisted, it will next be
+necessary to describe the manner in which all these
+good things were disposed of, first to maintain the
+energy of the frame, and secondly, for mere pleasure
+and pastime. Locke, with many other modern
+philosophers, erroneously supposes the Greeks of remote
+antiquity to have been so abstemious as to
+content themselves with one meal per diem. But
+experience appears to have led all mankind on this
+point to much the same conclusion; viz., that
+health and comfort require men to eat at least
+thrice in the day,<a id='r720' /><a href='#f720' class='c012'><sup>[720]</sup></a> which accordingly was the practice
+of the ancient Greeks, though Philemon and
+others enumerate four repasts. Our own ancestors,
+before the introduction of tea and coffee, appear
+to have been very well content with beer or ale
+for their morning’s meal, so that we could not pity
+the Greeks even though it should be found that
+they had nothing better<a id='r721' /><a href='#f721' class='c012'><sup>[721]</sup></a> than hot rolls, muffins,
+or crumpets, with strawberries, grapes, pears, and
+a flask of Chian or Falernian. But they soon found
+the necessity of some warm beverage; and though
+it does not appear how it was prepared, they had
+a substitute for tea,<a id='r722' /><a href='#f722' class='c012'><sup>[722]</sup></a> in use at Athens, in Eubœa,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_171'>171</span>in Crete, and, no doubt, in all other parts
+of Greece. This meal, of whatever it consisted,
+was called <em>acratisma</em>, or <em>ariston</em>, and eaten at break
+of day.<a id='r723' /><a href='#f723' class='c012'><sup>[723]</sup></a> Homer’s heroes, whose business was fighting,
+just snatched a hasty meal, and hurried to the
+field; but at Athens, where people had other employments,
+they breakfasted early, to allow themselves
+ample time for despatching their affairs in
+the city, if they had any, and afterwards at their
+neighbouring farms or villas.<a id='r724' /><a href='#f724' class='c012'><sup>[724]</sup></a> The second repast,
+<em>deipnon</em>, or dinner, seems to have been eaten about
+eleven or twelve o’clock: the <em>hesperisma</em>,<a id='r725' /><a href='#f725' class='c012'><sup>[725]</sup></a> equivalent
+to our tea, late in the afternoon, and the
+<em>dorpon</em>, or supper, the last thing in the evening.
+But of these meals two only were serious affairs,
+and the <em>hesperisma</em> was often dispensed with altogether.
+In fact, Athenæus, a great authority
+on this subject, considers it perfectly absurd to
+suppose, that the frugal ancients could have
+thought of eating so often as three times in one
+day.<a id='r726' /><a href='#f726' class='c012'><sup>[726]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>As the greater includes the less, instead of confining
+ourselves to the ordinary daily dinner of a
+Greek, we shall in preference describe their grand
+entertainments, introducing remarks on the former
+by the way. These repasts were divided into three
+classes, the public dinner, the pic-nic, and the marriage
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_172'>172</span>feast. The last, so far as it had any peculiar
+features, has been described among the circumstances
+attending matrimony. We have, therefore, for
+the present, to do with two only; and, as the
+Greek contrived to throw much of his ingenuity
+into all matters connected with feasting and merry-making,
+the discussion of this part of our subject
+should savour strongly of mirth and jollity.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The grand dinner,<a id='r727' /><a href='#f727' class='c012'><sup>[727]</sup></a> which they called <em>eilapinè</em>, was
+generally given at the expense of an individual, and
+its sumptuousness knew no limit but the means of
+the host. Other kinds of feasts there were at which
+all the members of a tribe, a borough, or a fraternity,
+were entertained, not to speak for the present of the
+common tables of the Cretans, Spartans, or Prytanes
+of Athens. We now confine ourselves to those jovial
+assemblages of private citizens whose object in meeting
+was not so much the dinner, though that was
+not overlooked, as the elevation of animal spirits and
+flow of soul produced by the union of a thousand
+different circumstances.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>When a rich man desired to see his friends around
+him at his board, he delivered to his <em>deipnocletor</em><a id='r728' /><a href='#f728' class='c012'><sup>[728]</sup></a>
+a domestic kept for this purpose, a tablet, or as we
+should say, a card, whereon the names of the persons
+to be invited, with the day and hour fixed
+upon for the banquet, were inscribed. With brothers
+and other very near relations this ceremony was
+thought unnecessary.<a id='r729' /><a href='#f729' class='c012'><sup>[729]</sup></a> They came without invitation.
+So likewise did another class of men, who,
+living at large upon the public and lighting unbidden
+upon any sport to which they were attracted by the
+savour of a good dinner, were denominated<a id='r730' /><a href='#f730' class='c012'><sup>[730]</sup></a> <span class='sc'>Flies</span>,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_173'>173</span>and occasionally <span class='sc'>Shades</span> or <span class='sc'>Parasites</span>. There was
+at one time a law at Athens, which a good deal
+nonplussed these gentlemen. It was decreed, that
+not more than thirty persons should meet at a marriage
+feast, and a wealthy citizen, desirous of “going
+the whole hog,” had invited the full complement.
+An honest Fly, however, who respected no law that
+interfered with his stomach, contrived to introduce
+himself, and took his station at the lower end of
+the table. Presently the magistrate appointed for the
+purpose, entered, and espying his man at a glance,
+began counting the guests, commencing on the other
+side and ending with the parasite. “Friend,” said
+he, “you must retire. I find there is one person
+more than the law allows.” “It is quite a mistake,
+sir,” replied the Fly, “as you will find if you
+will have the goodness to count again, beginning
+<em>on this side</em>.”<a id='r731' /><a href='#f731' class='c012'><sup>[731]</sup></a> Among the Egyptians, who shrouded
+all their poetry in hieroglyphics, <em>a fly</em> was the emblem
+of impudence, which necessarily formed the
+principal qualification of a Parasite, and in Hume’s<a id='r732' /><a href='#f732' class='c012'><sup>[732]</sup></a>
+opinion is no bad possession to any man who would
+make his way in the world.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Archbishop Potter,<a id='r733' /><a href='#f733' class='c012'><sup>[733]</sup></a> in his account of Grecian entertainments,
+observes, upon the authority of Cicero
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_174'>174</span>and Cornelius Nepos, that women were never invited
+with the men.<a id='r734' /><a href='#f734' class='c012'><sup>[734]</sup></a> But in this, as has been
+shown in the proper place, he was misled by those
+learned Romans; for, in many cities and colonies of
+Greece, no banquet was given at which they were
+not present. Even at Athens, where women of
+character thought it unbecoming to mingle in the
+convivial revelries of the men,<a id='r735' /><a href='#f735' class='c012'><sup>[735]</sup></a> in which wine constantly
+overleaps the boundaries of decorum, their
+place was supplied by hetairæ, whose polished manners,
+ready wit, and enlarged and enlightened understandings,
+recommended them to their companions,
+and caused the laxity of their morals to be forgotten.<a id='r736' /><a href='#f736' class='c012'><sup>[736]</sup></a>
+To proceed, however, with our feast: it will
+readily be supposed, that gentlemen invited out to
+dinner were careful to apparel themselves elegantly,
+to shave clean, and arrange their beards and moustachios
+after the most approved fashion of the day.
+Even Socrates, who cared as little as most people
+for external appearances, bathed, put on a pair of
+new shoes, brushed his chlamys, and otherwise spruced
+himself up when going to sup at Agathon’s with
+Phædros, Aristophanes, Eryximachos, and other exquisites.
+Even in Homeric times the bath was
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_175'>175</span>among the preliminaries to dinner, and guests arriving
+from a distance were attended through all the
+operations of the toilette by female slaves.<a id='r737' /><a href='#f737' class='c012'><sup>[737]</sup></a> But
+this general ablution was not considered sufficient.
+On sitting down to table water was again presented
+to every guest in silver<a id='r738' /><a href='#f738' class='c012'><sup>[738]</sup></a> lavers or ewers of gold.
+And since they ate with their fingers, as still is
+the practice in the Levant, it was moreover customary
+to wash the hands between every course,<a id='r739' /><a href='#f739' class='c012'><sup>[739]</sup></a> and
+wipe them,<a id='r740' /><a href='#f740' class='c012'><sup>[740]</sup></a> in remoter ages, with soft bread, which
+was thrown to the dogs, and in aftertimes with napkins.
+The Arcadians, however, about whose mountains
+all the old superstitions of Hellas clung like
+bats, found a very different use for the cakes with
+which they wiped their fingers. They supposed
+them to acquire some mystic powers by the operation,
+and preserved them as a charm against ghosts.<a id='r741' /><a href='#f741' class='c012'><sup>[741]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>But we are proceeding too fast, for the guests
+are scarcely within doors, and our imagination has
+jumped to the conclusion. To return then. Immediately
+on entering, and when the host had welcomed
+and shaken hands with all, such gentlemen as possessed
+beards<a id='r742' /><a href='#f742' class='c012'><sup>[742]</sup></a> had them perfumed over burning censers
+of frankincense, as ladies have their tresses on
+visiting a Turkish harem. The hands, too, after each
+lavation, were scented.<a id='r743' /><a href='#f743' class='c012'><sup>[743]</sup></a> Before sitting down to table,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_176'>176</span>and while the cooks were peppering the soup, frying
+the fish, or giving the roast-meat another turn,
+politeness required the guests to take a stroll<a id='r744' /><a href='#f744' class='c012'><sup>[744]</sup></a> in
+the picture-gallery and admire the exquisite taste
+of their entertainer in articles of <span lang="la" xml:lang="la"><i>virtu</i></span>.<a id='r745' /><a href='#f745' class='c012'><sup>[745]</sup></a> Here while
+the scent of the savoury viands found its way through
+every apartment, and set the bowels of the hungry
+parasites croaking, the rogues who had lunched well
+at home leisurely discussed the merits of Zeuxis or
+Parrhasios, of Pheidias or Polygnotos, or opened
+wide their eyes at the microscopic creations of
+that Spartan artist whose chisel produced a chariot
+and four that could be hidden under the wing of
+a fly. At length, however, the connoisseurs were interrupted
+in their learned disquisitions by the entrance
+of Xanthos, Davos, or Lydos, with the welcome intelligence
+that dinner was on the table.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>But the appetites of the gourmands had still to
+encounter another trial.<a id='r746' /><a href='#f746' class='c012'><sup>[746]</sup></a> The Greeks were above
+all things a pious people, and regarded every banquet,
+nay, every meal, in the light of a sacrifice, at
+which the first and best portion should be offered
+as an oblation to the gods,<a id='r747' /><a href='#f747' class='c012'><sup>[747]</sup></a> with invocations and
+prayer, after which it was considered lawful to attend
+to their own appetites. An altar, accordingly,
+of Zeus stood in the midst of every dining-room,
+on which these ceremonies were performed, and libations
+of pure wine poured.<a id='r748' /><a href='#f748' class='c012'><sup>[748]</sup></a> This done, the guests
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_177'>177</span>took their places, in the earlier ages on chairs, but
+afterwards, when they had become familiar with the
+East, on rich sofas, arranged round the board.<a id='r749' /><a href='#f749' class='c012'><sup>[749]</sup></a> Occasionally,
+however, even so late as the age of Alexander,<a id='r750' /><a href='#f750' class='c012'><sup>[750]</sup></a>
+princes and other great men chose to adopt
+the ancient custom, and, on one occasion, that conqueror
+himself entertained four hundred of his officers,
+when seats of wrought silver, covered with
+purple carpets, were provided for all.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The manner of reclining on the divans was not
+a little ludicrous. For, at the outset, while the appetite
+was keen, they stretched themselves flat upon
+their stomachs, in order, I presume, to command
+the use of both hands, and putting forward their
+mouths towards the table looked like so many sparrows
+with their open bills projecting over the nest.
+But this they could conveniently do only when they
+had a large space to themselves. When packed
+close, as usually they were, one man, the chief in
+dignity, throwing off his shoes,<a id='r751' /><a href='#f751' class='c012'><sup>[751]</sup></a> placed himself on
+the upper end of the divan, that is, next the host,
+reclining on one elbow supported by soft cushions.
+The head of the next man reached nearly to his
+breast,—whence in Scripture, the beloved disciple
+is said to recline on the bosom of Christ,<a id='r752' /><a href='#f752' class='c012'><sup>[752]</sup></a>—while
+the feet of the first extended down behind him.
+The third guest occupied the same position with
+respect to the second, and so on until five individuals
+sometimes crowded each other on the same
+sofa.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>As the heaven of the poets was but a colossal
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_178'>178</span>picture of earth, we may, from the practice of the
+gods, infer what took place among mortals, even
+where supported by no direct testimony. Now, in
+Homer, we find gods and goddesses mingling freely
+together at the feast. Zeus takes the head of
+the table, next him sits his daughter Athena, while
+the imperial Hera, as Queen of Heaven, takes precedence
+of all the she Olympians, by placing herself
+at the head of the secondary divinities, directly
+opposite her husband. On one occasion we find
+Athena, the type of hospitality and politeness, yielding
+up her seat of honour to Thetis, because, as an
+Oceanid, she was somewhat of a stranger in Olympos.<a id='r753' /><a href='#f753' class='c012'><sup>[753]</sup></a>
+Potter has discussed, with more learning than
+perspicuity, the question of precedence at table.
+To render the matter perfectly intelligible would
+require a plan of the dining-room; but wanting this,
+it may be observed, that in Persia the king, or host
+of whatever rank, sat in the middle, while the guests
+ranged themselves equally on both sides of him.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>In Greece, the bottom of the table was the end
+next the door. Here no one sat, it being left open
+for the servants to bring in and remove the dishes.
+From this point, on either side, the seats augmented
+in value, and consequently the post of greatest
+honour was the middle of the other extremity.<a id='r754' /><a href='#f754' class='c012'><sup>[754]</sup></a>
+There were those, however, who made no account
+of these matters, but suffered their guests to seat
+themselves as they pleased. This was the case with
+Timon, who, having invited a very miscellaneous
+party, would not be at the pains to settle the question
+of precedence between them; but a pompous
+individual of aristocratic pretensions, dressed like an
+actor, arriving late with a large retinue, and surveying
+the company from the door, went away again,
+observing, there was no fit place left for him. Upon
+which the guests, who, as Plutarch remarks, were
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_179'>179</span>far gone in their cups, burst into shouts of laughter,
+and bade him make the best of his way home.<a id='r755' /><a href='#f755' class='c012'><sup>[755]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Some persons observed a very different order in
+arranging their guests, grouping those together whom
+they considered suited by age or temper to each
+other, in order by this contrivance to produce general
+harmony,—the vehement and impetuous being
+placed beside the meek and gentle, the silent beside
+the talkative, the ripe and full and expansive
+minds beside those who were ready to receive instruction.
+But very often, as at Agathon’s, those
+sat next each other, who were most intimately acquainted
+or united together by friendship; for thus
+the greatest freedom of intercourse with the brightest
+sallies of convivial wit were likely to be produced.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>At length, however, we must imagine the guests
+in their places and every thing in proper train. The
+servants bring in first one well-covered table, then
+a second, then a third, till the whole room is filled
+with dainties. Brilliant lamps and chandeliers poured
+a flood of light over the crowned heads of the guests,
+over the piled sweetmeats, over the shining dishes,
+and all the baits with which the appetite is caught.
+Then, on silver pateræ, cakes whiter than snow were
+served round. To these succeeded eggs, pungent
+herbs, oysters, and thrushes.<a id='r756' /><a href='#f756' class='c012'><sup>[756]</sup></a> Next several dishes
+of rich eels, brown and crisp, sprinkled thickly with
+salt, followed by a delicious conger dressed with
+every rare device of cookery, calculated to delight
+the palate of the gods. Then came the belly of a
+large ray, round as a hoop; dishes, containing, one
+some slices of a sea-dog, another garnished with a
+sparos, a third with a cuttle-fish, or smoking polypus
+whose legs were tender as a chicken. While the
+sight of these dainties was feasting the eyes of the
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_180'>180</span>guests, the noses of the experienced informed them
+of the approach of a synodon,<a id='r757' /><a href='#f757' class='c012'><sup>[757]</sup></a> which perfumed the
+passages all the way from the kitchen, and, flanked
+with calamaries, covered the whole table. Shrimps
+too were there in their yellow cuirasses, sweet in
+flavour as honey, with delicious varieties of puff pastry
+bordered with fresh green foliage.<a id='r758' /><a href='#f758' class='c012'><sup>[758]</sup></a> The teeth
+of the parasites watered at the sight. But while
+deeply engaged in the discussion of these good things,
+in came some smoking slices of broiled thunny, a mullet
+fresh from the fish-kettle, with the teats of a
+young sow cooked <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><i>en ragoût</i></span>.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Pleasure of all kinds being supposed to promote
+digestion, female singers, flute-players and dancers,
+were meanwhile exercising their several arts for the
+entertainment of the guests. But as they paid very
+little attention to them till the rage of hunger was
+appeased, we shall imitate their example, and proceed
+with the gourmandize. One of the greatest accomplishments
+a boon companion could possess, was the
+power to seize with the fingers, and swallow hissing-hot,
+slices of grilled fish or morsels of lamb or veal
+broiled like kabobs, so as to be slightly burnt and
+cracking externally, while all the juice and flavour
+of the meat remained within. And the acquirement
+being highly important, great pains were taken
+to become masters of it. For this purpose some
+accustomed themselves daily to play with hot pokers,
+others case-hardened their fingers by repeatedly
+dipping them in water as hot as they could bear,
+and gargled their throats with the same, while one
+famous gourmand, more inventive than the rest, hit
+upon the ingenious device of wearing metallic fingerlings
+with which he could have seized a kabob
+even from the gridiron. These proficients in the art
+of eating, an art practised indeed by all, but possessed
+in perfection by very few, enjoyed great advantages
+over the ignorant and uninitiated. And
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_181'>181</span>accordingly, when invited out, they generally succeeded
+in bribing the cook to send in all his dishes hot as
+Phlegethon, that, while the more modest and inexperienced
+guests sat gazing on, they might secure
+the best cuts, and come again before the others
+could venture on a mouthful.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Among the articles served up in this scorching state
+were calf’s pluck, pig’s harslet, with the chine, the
+kidneys, and a variety of small hors-d’œuvre. To
+these may be added the head of a sucking-kid which
+had tasted nothing but milk, baked between two
+dishes well luted together; giblets boiled; small,
+delicate hams with their white sward unbroken; pigs’
+snouts and feet swimming in white sauce, which the
+gourmand Philoxenos thought a rare invention.
+Roast kid and lamb’s chitterlings, or the same viands
+boiled, formed a supplement to the dishes above enumerated,
+and were usually done so exactly to a turn,
+that even the gods, Bacchos for example, and Hermes,
+the parasites of Olympos, might have descended expressly
+to wag their beards over them. But the Levantines
+have always been enamoured of variety in cookery.
+Lady Wortley Montague counted fifty dishes
+served up in succession at the Sultana Hafiten’s table;
+and this she-barbarian, with all her wealth, could
+never rival the variety of invention of an ancient Eleian
+or Sicilian cook, who usually closed the list of his
+dainties with hare, chickens roasted to the gold-colour
+celebrated by Aristophanes, partridges, pheasants,
+wood-pigeons or turtle-doves, which your true gourmand
+should eat in the Thebaid, immediately after
+the close of harvest. But the dinner was not yet
+over. There still remained the dessert to be disposed
+of, consisting of pure honey from the district of the
+silver mines, curdled cream, cheese-tarts, and all
+that profusion of southern fruit of which we have
+already spoken.<a id='r759' /><a href='#f759' class='c012'><sup>[759]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>It is a well-known rule among modern gourmands,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_182'>182</span>that no man should utter a syllable at table till the
+first course is removed, and precisely the same regulation
+prevailed among the ancients. Silence, however,
+was sometimes interrupted by the arrival of some
+wandering buffoon, who, after long roaming about in
+search of a dinner, happened, perhaps, to be attracted
+thither by the wings and feathers ostentatiously scattered
+before the door. This sort of gentry required
+no introduction: they had only to knock and announce
+themselves to ensure a ready welcome; for
+most men would willingly part with a share of their
+supper to be made merry over the remainder. The
+Athenian demos was pre-eminently of this humour.
+No king, in fact, ever kept up so large an establishment
+of fools by profession, or, which is much the
+same thing, of wits,—fellows who grind their understandings
+into pointed jests to tickle the risible muscles
+and expand the mouths of sleek junketters, who
+esteem nothing beyond eating and grinning.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>At a feast given by Callias, the famous jester,
+Philip, a-kin in spirit, I trow, to him of Macedon, presented
+himself in this way, and, on being admitted,—“Gentlemen,”
+said he, “you know my profession and
+its privileges, relying on which I am come uninvited,
+being a foe to all ceremony, and desiring to
+spare you the trouble of a formal invitation.”—“Take
+your place,” replied the host; “your company
+was much needed, for our friends appear to be
+plunged up to the chin in gravity, and would be
+greatly benefited by a hearty laugh.”<a id='r760' /><a href='#f760' class='c012'><sup>[760]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>In fact, the heads of the honest people were filled
+with very serious meditations, being all in love, and endeavouring
+to discover how each might excel the other
+in absurdity. Philip began to fear, therefore, that he
+had carried his jests to a bad market, and, in reality,
+made many vain attempts to kindle the spirit of
+mirth, and call home the imaginations of persons who
+had evidently suffered them to stray as far as the
+clouds. Aware that success on this point was indispensable
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_183'>183</span>to his subsistence, the jester grew piqued
+at the indifference of his hearers, and breaking off
+in the midst of his supper, wrapped up his head in
+his chlamys, and lay down like one about to die.
+“What, now!” cried Callias. “Has any sudden panic
+seized on thee, friend?”—“The worst possible, by
+Zeus!” replied Philip; “for, since laughter, like
+justice, has taken its leave of earth, my occupation
+is gone. Hitherto I have enjoyed some celebrity
+in this way, living at the public expense, like the
+guests of the Prytaneion, because my drollery was
+effective, and could set the table in a roar. But it
+is all over, I see, with me now, for I might as soon
+hope to render myself immortal as acquire serious
+habits.” All this he uttered in a pouting, desponding
+tone, as if about to shed tears. The company, to
+humour the joke, undertook to comfort him, and the
+effect of their mock condolences, and assurances that
+they would laugh if he continued his supper, was so
+irresistibly ludicrous, that Autolychos, a youthful
+friend of Callias, was at length unable to restrain
+his merriment; upon which the jester took courage,
+and apostrophising his soul, informed it very gravely,
+that there would be no necessity for them to part
+company yet.<a id='r761' /><a href='#f761' class='c012'><sup>[761]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The Greeks had, properly speaking, no drawing-rooms,
+so that, instead of retreating to another
+part of the house, they had the tables themselves
+removed immediately after dinner. Libations were
+then poured out to Zeus Teleios, and having sung
+a hymn to Phœbos Apollo, the amusements of the
+evening commenced. Professional singers and musicians
+were always hired on these occasions. They
+were female slaves, selected in childhood for their
+beauty and budding talents, and carefully educated
+by their owners.<a id='r762' /><a href='#f762' class='c012'><sup>[762]</sup></a> When not already engaged, they
+stood in blooming bevies in the agora, waiting, like
+the Labourers of Scripture, until some one should
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_184'>184</span>hire them, upon which they proceeded, dressed and
+ornamented with great elegance, to the house of
+feasting. But, besides these, there were other <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><i>artistes</i></span>
+who contributed to the entertainment of the
+demos, persons that, like our Indian jugglers, performed
+wonderful feats by way of interlude between
+the regular exhibitions of the damsels from the agora.<a id='r763' /><a href='#f763' class='c012'><sup>[763]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Xenophon introduces into that living picture of
+Greek manners called the Banquet, a company of
+this kind. Finding Philip’s jokes dull things, he
+brings upon the scene a strolling Syracusan, with
+a beautiful female flute-player, a dancing girl who
+could perform surpassing feats of activity, and a
+handsome boy, who, besides performing on the cithara,
+was likewise able, on occasion, to sport the toe like
+his female companions.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>But, where philosophers were present, amusements
+of this kind were not allowed to occupy their whole
+attention. Every thing that occurred was made a
+handle for conversation, so that discussions, more or
+less lively, according to the temperament or ability
+of the interlocutors, formed the solid ground-work
+upon which the flowers of gaiety and laughter were
+spread. It was usual, immediately after supper, to
+perfume the guests, and great was the variety of
+unguents, essences, and odorous oils, made use of
+by the rich and vain upon these occasions; but when
+Callias proposed conforming to the mode in this
+particular, Socrates objected, observing, that the
+odour of honourable toil was perfume enough for a
+man.<a id='r764' /><a href='#f764' class='c012'><sup>[764]</sup></a> Women, indeed, to whom every thing sweet
+and beautiful naturally belongs, might, he admitted,
+make use of perfume, and they did so most lavishly
+as we have already shown, when we entered their
+dressing-room and assisted at their toilette.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The Greeks, however, were careful not to convert
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_185'>185</span>their pleasure-parties into a mere arena for the exhibition
+of dialectic power. They from time to time
+glanced at philosophy, but only by the way, in the
+moments of transition from one variety of recreation
+to another. Their conversation was now and then
+brought to a pause by the rising of dancing girls,<a id='r765' /><a href='#f765' class='c012'><sup>[765]</sup></a>
+robed elegantly, as we behold them still on vases
+and on bas-reliefs, in drapery adapted to display
+all the beauty of their forms. Hoops were brought
+them, and while musicians of their own sex called
+forth thrilling harmonies from the flute, they executed
+a variety of graceful movements, in part
+pantomimic,—now casting up the hoops, now catching
+them as they fell, keeping time exactly with the
+cadences of the flute. Their skill in this accomplishment
+was so great, that many were enabled to
+keep up twelve hoops in the air at the same time,
+while others made use of poniards.<a id='r766' /><a href='#f766' class='c012'><sup>[766]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>When the novelty of this exhibition was worn
+off a little, other different feats followed. A hoop
+stuck all round with upright swords was placed in
+the midst of the apartment, into which one of the
+dancing girls threw herself head foremost, and while
+standing on her head balanced the lower part of
+her body round over the naked points, to the infinite
+terror of the spectators. She would then dart
+forth between the swords, and, with a single bound,
+regain her footing without the circle.<a id='r767' /><a href='#f767' class='c012'><sup>[767]</sup></a> To add to
+the entertainment of the company, some parasitical
+buffoon would at times undertake to exhibit his
+awkwardness as a foil to the grace of the dancers,
+frisking about with the clumsy heaviness of a bear,
+and exaggerating his own ignorance of orchestics to
+excite a laugh. Sometimes the female dancer, like
+our own fair tumblers, would throw back her head
+till it reached her heels, and then putting herself
+in motion, roll about the room like a <a id='corr185.37'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='hoop'>hoop.</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_185.37'><ins class='correction' title='hoop'>hoop.</ins></a></span><a id='r768' /><a href='#f768' class='c012'><sup>[768]</sup></a> To
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_186'>186</span>these, as a relief and a change, would succeed, perhaps,
+a youth with fine rich voice, who accompanied
+himself on the lyre with a song.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>But nothing could entirely restrain the Greeks
+from indulging in the pleasure of listening to their
+own voices. The buzz of conversation would soon
+be heard in different parts of the room, which,
+when Socrates was present, sometimes provoked
+from him a sarcastic reproof. For example, at
+Callias’s dinner, observing the company broken up
+into knots, each labouring at some particular question
+in dialectics, and filling the apartment with a
+babel of confused murmurs; “As we talk all at
+once,” said he, “we may as well sing all at
+once;” and without further ceremony he pitched
+his voice and began a song.<a id='r769' /><a href='#f769' class='c012'><sup>[769]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>But when professed jugglers happened to be present,
+gentlemen were not long abandoned to their
+own resources for amusement. Trick followed trick
+in rapid succession. To the pantomimic dances, and
+the sword circle, succeeded the exhibition of the
+potter’s wheel, in which a young girl seated on this
+machine, like a little Nubian at a cow’s-tail in a
+<em>sakia</em>, was whirled round with great velocity,<a id='r770' /><a href='#f770' class='c012'><sup>[770]</sup></a> but
+retained so much self-possession as to be able both
+to write and to read. These, however, were merely
+sources of momentary wonder. Other amusements
+succeeded capable of exciting superior delight, such
+for example, as the mimetic dance, which, like that
+of the ghawazi, could tell a whole story of love, of
+adventure, of war, of religious frenzy and enthusiasm,
+transporting by vivid representations the fancy
+of the spectators to warmer or wilder scenes, calling
+up images and reminiscences of times long past, or
+steeping the thoughts in poetical dreams, filled with
+the caverned nymphs, the merry Seileni, the frisking
+satyrs, Bacchos, Pan, the Hours, the Graces, sporting
+by moonlit fountains, through antique woods,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_187'>187</span>or on the shelled and sand-ribbed margin of the
+ocean.<a id='r771' /><a href='#f771' class='c012'><sup>[771]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>On some occasions a slight dramatic scene was
+represented. Clearing the centre of the banqueting
+hall, the guests ranged themselves in order as at
+the theatre. A throne was then set up in the open
+space, and a female actor, representing Ariadne, entering,
+took her seat upon it, decked and habited
+like a bride, and supposed to be in her Thalamos at
+Naxos. Dionysos, who has been dining with Zeus,
+comes flushed with Olympian nectar into the harem
+to the sound of the Bacchic flute, while the nymph
+who has heard his approaching footsteps makes it
+manifest by her behaviour that her soul is filled
+with joy, though she neither advances nor rises to
+meet him, but restrains her feelings with difficulty,
+and remains apparently tranquil. The god, drawing
+near with impassioned looks, and dancing all the
+while, now seats himself, and places the fair one on
+his knee. Then, in imitation of mortal lovers, he
+embraces and kisses her, nothing loth; for, though
+she hangs down her head, and would wish to appear
+out of countenance, her arms find their way
+round his neck and return his embrace. At this
+the company, we may be sure, clapped and shouted.
+The god, encouraged by their plaudits, then stood
+up with his bride, and going through the whole
+pantomime of courtship, not coldly and insipidly,
+but as one whose heart was touched, at length
+demanded of Ariadne if in truth she loved him.
+Sometimes the mimic scene concealed beneath it
+all the reality of passion. From personating enamoured
+characters, the youthful actor and his partner
+learned in reality to love; and what was amusement
+to others contained a deep and serious meaning
+for them. This, Xenophon says, was the case with
+the youth and maiden who enlivened the banquet
+of Callias. Absorbed in the earnestness of their
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_188'>188</span>feelings, they seem to have forgotten the presence
+of spectators, and instead of a stage representation,
+gave them a scene from real life, where every impassioned
+look and gesture were genuine, and every
+fiery glance was kindled at the heart.<a id='r772' /><a href='#f772' class='c012'><sup>[772]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>This, however, may be considered a serious amusement,
+and something like broad farce was necessary
+to awaken the guests from the reverie into which
+the love scene had plunged them. Jesters were,
+therefore, put in requisition; and, as even they
+sometimes failed to raise a laugh, their more humorous
+brethren the wits and jesters of the forests,
+or, in the language of mortals, monkeys were called
+upon to dissipate the clouds of seriousness. These
+were the favourite buffoons of the Scythian Anacharsis,—not
+the Abbé Barthélemy’s,—who said,
+he could laugh at a monkey’s tricks, because his
+tricks were natural, but that he found no amusement
+in a man who made a trade of it.<a id='r773' /><a href='#f773' class='c012'><sup>[773]</sup></a> Nor
+could Euripides at all relish punsters and manufacturers
+of jokes, whom he considered, with some
+reason, as a species of animal distinct from mankind.</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>Many there be who exercise their wits</div>
+ <div class='line'>In giving birth, by cutting jests, to laughter.</div>
+ <div class='line'>I hate the knaves whose rude unbridled tongues</div>
+ <div class='line'>Sport with the wise; and cannot for my life</div>
+ <div class='line'>Think they are men, though laughter doth become them,</div>
+ <div class='line'>And they have houses filled with treasured stores</div>
+ <div class='line'>From distant lands.<a id='r774' /><a href='#f774' class='c012'><sup>[774]</sup></a></div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c014'>But if Euripides found nothing desirable in laughter,
+there were those who had a clean contrary creed,
+and lamented nothing so much as the loss of their
+risible faculties. On this subject Semos has a story
+quite <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><i>à propos</i></span>. Parmeniscos, the Metapontine, having
+descended, he says, into the cave of Trophonios,
+became so extremely grave, that with all the appliances,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_189'>189</span>and means to boot, furnished by wealth,
+and they were not a few, he thereafter found himself
+quite unable to screw up his muscles into a
+smile; which taking much to heart, as was natural,
+he made a pilgrimage to Delphi, to inquire by what
+means he might rid himself of the blue devils. Somewhat
+puzzled at the strangeness of the inquiry, the
+Pythoness replied,—</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>Poor mortal unmerry, who seekest to know</div>
+ <div class='line'>What will bid thy brow soften, thy quips and cranks flow,</div>
+ <div class='line'>To the house of the mother I bid thee repair—</div>
+ <div class='line'>Thou wilt find, if she’s pleased, what thy heart covets, there.</div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c014'>Upon this, Parmeniscos hastened homeward, hoping
+soon to enjoy a good laugh as the reward of his industry;
+but, finding his features remain fixed as cast-iron,
+he began to suspect the oracle had deceived him.
+Some time after, being at Delos, he beheld with admiration
+the several wonders of the island, and, lastly,
+proceeded to the temple of Leto, expecting to find in
+the mother of Apollo something worthy of so great
+a divinity. But, on entering and perceiving, instead,
+a grotesque and smoky old figure in wood, he burst
+into an immoderate fit of laughter, whereupon the
+response of the oracle recurred to his mind, and he
+understood it; and, being thus delivered from his
+infirmity, he ever after held the goddess in extremest
+reverence.<a id='r775' /><a href='#f775' class='c012'><sup>[775]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Even from this story, therefore, it will be seen
+how highly “broad grins” were estimated in antiquity,
+particularly at Athens, where there was a
+regular “Wits’ Club,” consisting of threescore members,
+who assembled during the Diomeia,<a id='r776' /><a href='#f776' class='c012'><sup>[776]</sup></a> in the
+temple of Heracles. The names of several of these
+jovial mortals have come down to us; Mandrogenes,
+for example, and Strato, Callimedon, who,
+for some particular quality of mind or body, obtained
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_190'>190</span>the <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><i>sobriquet</i></span> of the <em>Lobster</em>, Deinias, Mnasigeiton,
+and Menæchmos. The reputation of these
+gentlemen spread rapidly through the city, and,
+when a good thing had a run among the small wits,
+it was remarked, that “the Sixty had said <em>that</em>.”
+Or, if a man of talent were asked, whence he came,
+he would answer, “From the Sixty.” This was in
+the time of Demosthenes, when, unhappily, jesters
+were in more request in Athens than soldiers; and
+Philip of Macedon, himself no mean buffoon, learning
+the excellent quality of their <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><i>bon mots</i></span>, sent them
+a present of a talent of gold, with a request that,
+as public business prevented his joining the sittings
+of the club, they would make for his use a collection
+in writing of all their smart sayings, which
+was, probably, the first step towards those repositories
+for stray wit, called “Joe Millers,” that form
+so indispensable a portion of a bon vivant’s library.<a id='r777' /><a href='#f777' class='c012'><sup>[777]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>But we are all this while detaining the company
+from their wine, and those other recreations which
+the fertile genius of the Greeks invented to make
+the wheels of life move smoothly. Though the tables,
+according to the fashion of the times, were removed
+with the solid viands, others were brought in to replace
+them, on which the censers, the goblets, the
+silver or golden ladles for filling the smaller cups,
+were arranged in order.<a id='r778' /><a href='#f778' class='c012'><sup>[778]</sup></a> The chairman, or, as he
+was then called, the king of the feast,<a id='r779' /><a href='#f779' class='c012'><sup>[779]</sup></a> enjoyed absolute
+power over his subjects, and could determine
+better than their own palates, how much and
+how often each man should drink. This important
+functionary was not always identical with the entertainer,
+but sometimes his substitute, sometimes
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_191'>191</span>a person chosen by lot.<a id='r780' /><a href='#f780' class='c012'><sup>[780]</sup></a> Capacious bowls of wine,<a id='r781' /><a href='#f781' class='c012'><sup>[781]</sup></a>
+mingled with water, were placed on a sideboard,
+whence cup-bearers, sometimes of one, sometimes
+of the other sex, but always selected for their youth
+and beauty, filled, with ladles,<a id='r782' /><a href='#f782' class='c012'><sup>[782]</sup></a> the goblets of the
+guests, which, when the froth rose above the brim,
+were, by an obvious metaphor, said to be crowned.<a id='r783' /><a href='#f783' class='c012'><sup>[783]</sup></a>
+Among the Doric Greeks, female cup-bearers seem
+to have been always preferred; the Ptolemies of
+Egypt cherished the same taste; and the people
+of Tarentum, themselves of Doric race, passing
+successively through every stage of luxury, came,
+at length, to be served at table by beautiful young
+women without a vestige of clothing. In most
+cases, these maidens were slaves, but, in some countries,
+and everywhere, in remoter ages, the performance
+of such offices was not regarded as any way
+derogatory to persons of noble or princely blood.
+But, whatever might be their birth, beauty of form
+and countenance constituted their chief recommendation.
+For there is a language in looks and gestures,
+there is a fountain of joy and delight concealed
+deep in the physical structure, and its waters
+laugh to the eye of intellect, and reflect into the
+hearts of those who behold it a sunniness and exhilaration
+greater than we derive from gazing on the
+summer sea. Hence, Hebe and Ganymede were
+chosen to minister at the tables of the gods, even
+Zeus himself<a id='r784' /><a href='#f784' class='c012'><sup>[784]</sup></a> not disdaining to taste of the pleasures
+to be derived from basking in the irradiations
+of beauty.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>When the goblets were all crowned with the
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_192'>192</span>nectar of earth, the Master of the Feast<a id='r785' /><a href='#f785' class='c012'><sup>[785]</sup></a> set the
+example of good-fellowship by drinking to his guests,
+beginning with the most distinguished.<a id='r786' /><a href='#f786' class='c012'><sup>[786]</sup></a> Originally,
+custom required him who drank to the health of
+another to drain off his cup while his comrade did
+the same; but, in after ages, they sipped only a portion
+of the wine, and, as they still do in the East,
+presented the remainder to their friend. The latter,
+by the rules of politeness, was bound to finish the
+goblet, or, where the antique fashion prevailed, to
+drink one of equal size.<a id='r787' /><a href='#f787' class='c012'><sup>[787]</sup></a> The Macedonians, who,
+probably, excelled the Greeks in drinking, if in nothing
+else, disdained small cups as supplying a very
+roundabout way to intoxication, and plunged into
+Lethe at once by the aid of most capacious bowls.
+It was customary, when the practice of passing round
+the goblet had been introduced, for the king of the
+feast to drink to the next man on his right hand,
+who, in his turn, drank to the next, and so on till
+the bowl had circulated round the board. But different
+customs prevailed in the different parts of
+Greece. At Athens, small cups, like our wine-glasses,
+were in use; among the Chians, Thracians,
+and Thessalians, nations more prone to sensual indulgences,
+the goblets were of larger dimensions;
+but, at Sparta, where sobriety and frugality long
+flourished, the practice was to drink from diminutive
+vessels, which, as often as required, were replenished
+by the attendants.<a id='r788' /><a href='#f788' class='c012'><sup>[788]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Isocrates, in his exhortation to Demonicos, marks
+the distinction between the true and false friend,
+by observing, that, while the latter thinks only of
+those around him, the former remembers the absent,
+and makes his affection triumph over time and distance.
+And the Greeks generally had this merit.
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_193'>193</span>Amid the enjoyments of the festive board, they recalled
+to mind the friends of other days; and, having
+first performed libations to the gods, those best and
+purest of friends, drank to the health and prosperity
+of former associates, now far removed by circumstances,<a id='r789' /><a href='#f789' class='c012'><sup>[789]</sup></a>
+and this they did not in the mixed beverage
+which formed their habitual potations, but in
+pure wine.<a id='r790' /><a href='#f790' class='c012'><sup>[790]</sup></a> There was something extremely delicate
+in this idea, for tacitly it intimated, that their
+love placed the objects of it almost on a level with
+their divinities, in whose honour, also, on these occasions,
+a small portion of the wine was spilt in
+libations<a id='r791' /><a href='#f791' class='c012'><sup>[791]</sup></a> upon the earth. The young, in whose
+hearts a mistress held the first place,<a id='r792' /><a href='#f792' class='c012'><sup>[792]</sup></a> drank deeply
+in honour of their beloved, sometimes equalling
+the number of cups to that of the letters forming
+her name,<a id='r793' /><a href='#f793' class='c012'><sup>[793]</sup></a> which, if the custom prevailed so early,
+would account for Ægisthos’s being a sot. Sometimes,
+however, taking the hint from the number of the
+Graces, they were satisfied with three goblets; but,
+when an excuse for drinking “pottle deep” was
+sought, they chose the Muses for their patrons, and
+honoured their mistresses’ names with three times
+three.<a id='r794' /><a href='#f794' class='c012'><sup>[794]</sup></a> This is the number of cheers with which
+favourite political toasts are received at our public
+dinners, though every one who fills his bumper, and
+cries “hip, hip, hip, hurrah!” on these occasions,
+is, probably, not conscious that he is keeping up an
+old pagan custom in honour of the Muses.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The number four was in no favour at the drinking-table,
+not because it was an even number, for they
+sometimes drank ten, but because some old superstition
+had brought discredit on it. Our very fox-hunters,
+however, exhibit an inferior capacity to many
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_194'>194</span>of the ancients in affairs of the bottle, though when
+it is the poets who perform the feat, we may safely
+consider them to be simply regaling their fancies on
+“air-drawn” goblets, which cost nothing, and leave
+no head-aches behind them. On this subject there
+is a very pretty song in the Anthology, which Potter,
+following some old edition, completely misrepresents.<a id='r795' /><a href='#f795' class='c012'><sup>[795]</sup></a>
+It deserves to be well translated, and I would translate
+it well if I could. The following at least preserves
+the meaning:</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>Pour out ten cups of the purple wine,</div>
+ <div class='line'>To crown Lycidicè’s charms divine;</div>
+ <div class='line'>One for Euphrantè, young and fair,</div>
+ <div class='line'>With the sparkling eye and the raven hair.</div>
+ <div class='line'>Then I love Lycidicè more, you say?</div>
+ <div class='line'>By this foaming goblet I say ye nay.</div>
+ <div class='line'>More valued than ten is Euphrantè to me,</div>
+ <div class='line'>For, as when the heavens unclouded be,</div>
+ <div class='line'>And the stars are crowding far and nigh</div>
+ <div class='line'>On the deep deep blue of the midnight sky,</div>
+ <div class='line'>The moon is still brighter and lovelier far</div>
+ <div class='line'>Than the loveliest planet or brightest star;</div>
+ <div class='line'>So, ’mid the stars of this earthly sphere,</div>
+ <div class='line'>None are so lovely or half so dear</div>
+ <div class='line'>As to me is Euphrantè young and fair,</div>
+ <div class='line'>With the sparkling eye and the raven hair.<a id='r796' /><a href='#f796' class='c012'><sup>[796]</sup></a></div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c014'>But the Macedonians entertained no respect for
+poetical goblets: they loved to scent their moustachios
+with the aroma of the real rosy wine when it sparkled
+in the cup,—when it moved itself aright, as the wise
+king of Judah expresses it. Plutarch describes briefly
+one of their drinking-bouts which took place on the
+evening of the day wherein old Kalanos, the Hindù
+Yoghi, burnt himself alive to escape the colic.
+Alexander, on returning from the funeral pile, invited
+a number of his friends and generals to sup
+with him, and, proposing a drinking contest, appointed
+a crown for the victor. Prodigious efforts were made
+by all present to achieve so enviable a triumph; but
+the man who proved himself to possess the most
+capacious interior was Promachos, who is said to have
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_195'>195</span>swallowed upwards of two gallons. He obtained
+the prize, which was a golden crown, valued at a
+talent, but died within three days.<a id='r797' /><a href='#f797' class='c012'><sup>[797]</sup></a> Chares, the Mitylenian,
+relates the matter somewhat differently. According
+to him, Alexander celebrated funeral games
+in honour of Kalanos, at his barrow, where horseraces
+and gymnastic contests took place,<a id='r798' /><a href='#f798' class='c012'><sup>[798]</sup></a> and a poetical
+encomium was pronounced upon the Yoghi, who,
+like the rest of his countrymen, was, doubtless, a
+great toper, and thence the drinking-match instituted
+in the evening. Chares says there were three prizes;
+the first, in value, a talent; the second, thirty minæ,
+or about a hundred and twenty pounds sterling; the
+third, three minæ. The number of aspirants is not
+stated, but thirty-five (Plutarch says forty-one) perished
+in cold shiverings on the spot, and six more died
+shortly after in the tents.<a id='r799' /><a href='#f799' class='c012'><sup>[799]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Numbers have celebrated the military genius of
+Alexander; but Athenæus alone has given him due
+credit for his truly royal power of drinking. Like
+his father, Philip, who, in his jolly humour, ruffled
+the Athenian dead at Chæronea, where he could
+safely beard the fallen republicans, Alexander delighted
+to spend his evenings among drunken roysterers,
+whose chief ambition consisted in making a butt of
+their bowels. One of these worthies was Proteas,
+the Macedonian mentioned by Ephippos, in his work
+on the sepulture of Alexander and Hephæstion. He
+was a man of iron constitution, on which wine, whatever
+quantity he drank, appeared to make no impression.
+Alexander, knowing this, loved to pledge
+him in huge bowls, such as none, perhaps, but themselves
+could cope with. This he did even at Babylon,
+where the climate suffers few excesses to be
+indulged in with impunity. Taking a goblet more
+like a pail than a drinking-cup, Alexander caused it
+to be crowned with wine, which, having tasted, he
+presented the bowl to Proteas. The veteran immediately
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_196'>196</span>drained it off, to the great amusement of
+the company, and presently afterwards, desiring to
+pledge the king, he filled it up again, and sipping
+a little, according to custom, passed the bowl to
+Alexander, who, not to be outdone by a subject,
+forthwith drank the whole. But if he possessed
+the courage, he wanted the physical strength of
+Proteas: the goblet dropped from his hand, his
+head sank on a pillow, and a fever ensued of which
+the conqueror of Persia, and the rival of Proteas
+in drinking, died in a few days.<a id='r800' /><a href='#f800' class='c012'><sup>[800]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>But to return from these barbarians: as the
+presence of sober persons must always be felt by
+hard drinkers to be a tacit reproach, it was one
+of the rules of good fellowship, that all such as
+joined not in the common potations should depart.
+“Drink, or begone!” said the law, and a good
+one in Cicero’s opinion it was, for if men experienced
+no disposition to join in the mirth and
+enjoyment of the company, what had they to do
+there?<a id='r801' /><a href='#f801' class='c012'><sup>[801]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>From the existence of these rules, however, an
+inference has been drawn unfavourable to the Greek
+character, as if, because some were merry, the nation
+generally must of necessity have been wine-bibbers.<a id='r802' /><a href='#f802' class='c012'><sup>[802]</sup></a>
+But this is scarcely more logical than the
+reasoning of a writer, who, because the comic poets
+speak chiefly of the mirth and lighter enjoyments
+of the Athenians, very gravely concludes that they
+busied themselves about little else. The truth
+is, that like all ardent and energetic people, they
+threw their whole souls into the affair, whether
+serious or otherwise, in which they happened to
+be engaged; and besides, while the careful and industrious
+applied themselves to business, there was
+always an abundance of light and trifling people
+to whom eating and drinking constituted a serious
+occupation.</p>
+
+<hr class='c016' />
+<div class='footnote' id='f720'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r720'>720</a>. Æschyl. Palamed. fr. 168.
+Klausen. Comm. in Agamemnon.
+p. 136.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f721'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r721'>721</a>. In modern times a breakfast
+in the Troad often consists
+of grapes, figs, white honey in
+the comb, and coffee.—Chandler,
+i. p. 37.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f722'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r722'>722</a>. Athen. xi. 26, 50. Pollux,
+ix. 67, sqq. Schol. Aristoph.
+Acharn. 643. Cf. Bœckh. Pub.
+Econ. of Athens, i. 140.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f723'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r723'>723</a>. Which we may infer from a
+passage of Aristotle, Hist. Anim.
+vi. 8. where describing the habits
+of birds, he says, τῶν δὲ φαβῶν
+ἡ μὲν θήλεια ἀπὸ δείλης ἀρξαμένη
+τὴν τε νύχθ᾽ ὅλην ἐπῳάζει καὶ
+ἕως ἀκρατίσματος ὥρας, ὁ δ᾽
+ἄῤῥην τὸ λοιπὸν τοῦ χρόνου.—One
+of the Homeric scholiasts is
+more explicit:—καὶ τὴν μὲν
+πρώτην ἐκάλουν ἄριστον, ἣν ἐλάμβανον
+πρωΐας σχεδὸν ἔτι σκοτίας
+οὔσης.—In Iliad β. 381. Cf.
+Athen. i. 19.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f724'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r724'>724</a>. Xenoph. Œcon. xi. 14.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f725'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r725'>725</a>. Philemon, ap. Athen. i. 19.
+Suid. v. δεῖπνον t. i. p. 671. a. b.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f726'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r726'>726</a>. Deipnosoph v. 20.—τρισὶ δὲ
+οὐδέποτε οὔτε μνηστῆρες οὔτε μὴν
+κύκλωψ ἐχρῶντο τροφαῖς.—Schol.
+Il. β. 381. Yet Athenæus i. 19.
+speaks in one place of a fourth
+repast in Homeric times.—τῆς δὲ
+τετάρτης τροφῆς οὔτως Ὅμηρος
+μέμνηται—“σὺ δ᾽ ἔρχεο δειελιήσας.”
+ὁ καλοῦσι τινες δειλινὸν, ὁ
+ἐστι μεταξὺ τοῦ ὑφ’ ἡμῶν λεγομένου
+ἀρίστου καὶ δείπνου.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f727'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r727'>727</a>. On the subject of dining see
+Pollux, vi. 9, seq. with the notes
+of Jungermann, Kuhn, Hemsterhuis.
+&c.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f728'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r728'>728</a>. Athen. iv. 70. Aristoph.
+Concion. 648, et Schol.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f729'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r729'>729</a>. For a further account of the
+persons usually invited, see Athen.
+v. 4.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f730'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r730'>730</a>. Plut. Sympos. vii. 6. Each
+guest was also followed by a
+footman who stood behind his
+master’s chair and waited on him.
+Casaub. ad Theoph. Char. p. 219.
+To persons of this description the
+guests delivered the presents that
+were made them, or if they happened
+to be bad characters, what
+they stole. Athen. iv. 2. Plut.
+Anton. § 28. Lucian. Conviv.
+seu Lapith. § 46. Rich men
+then as now were usually haunted
+by flatterers who would pluck off
+the burrs from their cloaks or
+the chaff which the wind wafted
+into their beards, and try to
+screw a joke out of the circumstance
+by saying, they were grown
+grey! Theoph. Char. c. ii. p. 7.
+If the patron joked, they would
+stuff their chlamys into their
+mouths as if they were dying of
+laughter. In the street they
+would say to the person they met,
+“Stand aside, friend, and allow
+this gentleman to pass!” They
+would bring apples and pears in
+their pocket for his little ones and
+be sure to give them in his sight,
+with great praise both of father
+and children.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f731'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r731'>731</a>. Athen. vi. 45, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f732'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r732'>732</a>. Nothing, says this philosopher,
+carries a man through the
+world like a true genuine natural
+impudence. Essays, p. 9, quarto.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f733'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r733'>733</a>. Antiq. iv. 19.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f734'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r734'>734</a>. Plato giving directions for a
+marriage feast, observes, that five
+male and five female friends should
+be invited; along with these, five
+male and five female relations,
+who with the bride and bridegroom,
+with their parents, grandfathers,
+&c., would amount to 28.
+De Legg. vi. t. vii. Schweigh. ad
+Athen. t. vi. p. 60. Among the
+ancient Etruscans, who, if not
+Greeks, had many Greek customs,
+the women reclined at table with
+the men, under the same cover.
+Athen. i. 42.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f735'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r735'>735</a>. Isæus, De Pyrrh. Hered. § 2.
+That among the more simple and
+old-fashioned citizens of Athens,
+however, men and women, when
+of the same family or clan, dined
+together, we have the testimony
+of Menander to prove. He introduces
+one of his characters,
+apparently a fop, observing that it
+was a bore to be at a family party,
+where the father, holding the
+goblet in his hand, first made a
+speech, abounding with exhortations:
+the mother followed, and
+then the grandmother prated a
+little. Afterwards stood up her
+father, hoarse with age, and his
+wife, calling him her dearest;
+while he mean time nodded to all
+present. Athen. ii. 86.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f736'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r736'>736</a>. Athen. v. 6.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f737'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r737'>737</a>. Odyss. δ. 48, sqq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f738'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r738'>738</a>. Athen. ix. 27. In some luxurious
+houses wine mingled with
+spices was presented to the guests
+in lavers for the purpose of washing
+their feet. Plut. Phoc. § 20.
+In the palace of Trimalchio we find
+Egyptian servants pouring water,
+cooled with snow, on the hands of
+the guests. Petron. Satyr. p. 76.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f739'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r739'>739</a>. Schol. Aristoph. Eq. 412.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f740'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r740'>740</a>. Rich purple napkins were
+sometimes used. Sappho in
+Deipnosoph. ix. 79. These articles
+are still in the Levant elaborately
+embroidered.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f741'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r741'>741</a>. Athen. iv. 31.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f742'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r742'>742</a>. Hom. Odyss. γ. 33, seq.
+Athen. xv. 23. Similar customs
+still prevail in the Levant:
+“When we visited the Turks
+we were received with cordiality
+and treated with distinction.
+Sweet gums were burned in the
+middle of the room to scent the
+air, or scattered on coals before
+us while sitting on the sofa, to
+perfume our moustachios and
+garments, and at the door, at
+our departure, we were sprinkled
+with rose-water.” Chandler,
+ii. 150.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f743'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r743'>743</a>. Athen. ix. 77.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f744'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r744'>744</a>. Cf. Hom. Odyss. δ. 43, sqq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f745'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r745'>745</a>. Aristoph. Vesp. 1208. Athen.
+v. 6, where the splendid roofs
+and ornaments of the court are
+mentioned. These ornaments,
+κρεκάδια, whatever they were,
+must have been worth looking at.
+See the note of Casaubon, Animadv.
+in Athen. t. viii. p. 27, seq.
+Consult likewise the note on
+Aristophanes in Bekker’s edition,
+t. iii. p. 606.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f746'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r746'>746</a>. Athen. v. 7. Cf. Plat. Symp.
+t. iv. p. 376, et Xenoph. Conviv.
+ii. 1. Schweigh. Animadv. in
+Athen. viii. p. 26, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f747'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r747'>747</a>. Casaubon mentions this as a
+thing <span lang="la" xml:lang="la"><i>nota eruditis</i></span>. Ad Theoph.
+Charact. p. 232; but we must not
+on that account pass it over.
+Alexis poetically deplores the
+miseries of the half-hour before
+dinner. Athen. i. 42.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f748'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r748'>748</a>. There was in great houses
+a person whose duty it was to
+assign each guest his place at
+table, ὀνομακλήτωρ, or nomenclator.
+Athen. ii. 29.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f749'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r749'>749</a>. Plin. xxxiii. 51. xxxiv. 8.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f750'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r750'>750</a>. At most sumptuous entertainments
+<em>tasters</em> were employed
+who, as in the East, made trial
+of the dishes before the guests,
+lest they should be poisoned.
+These persons were called ἐδέατροι
+and προτένθαι. Athen. iv.
+71.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f751'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r751'>751</a>. Schol. Aristoph. Eq. 825.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f752'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r752'>752</a>. John, xiii. 23. On the cushions,
+of which there was a great
+variety, see Pollux, vi. 9, where
+he reckons among them the ὑπηρέσιον,
+which Mitford confounds
+with the ἄσκωμα, or leathern
+bags which closed the row-port of
+war-galleys round the oar, to prevent
+the influx of sea-water.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f753'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r753'>753</a>. Iliad, ω. 100.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f754'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r754'>754</a>. Cf. Plut. Conv. Quæst. i. 3.
+Pet. Ciacon, De Triclin. p. 44.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f755'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r755'>755</a>. Sympos. i. 2. 1.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f756'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r756'>756</a>. Probably also the myttotos,
+a dish flavoured with garlic and
+rich spices, formed a part of this
+course. Schol. Aristoph. Acharn.
+173. Vesp. 62.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f757'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r757'>757</a>. Athen. i. 8. vii. 46. 68. 119.
+Arist. Hist. Anim. v. 5.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f758'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r758'>758</a>. Pollux, vi. 77.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f759'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r759'>759</a>. Athen. iv. 28. There was a
+kind of cheese, apparently much
+in use, imported from Gythion,
+in Laconia. Lucian. Diall. Hetair.
+xiv. 2.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f760'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r760'>760</a>. Xenoph. Conv. i. 13, 14.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f761'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r761'>761</a>. Xenoph. Conviv. i. 15. 16.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f762'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r762'>762</a>. Cf. Luc. Amor. § 10. Schol.
+Aristoph. Acharn. 1058.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f763'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r763'>763</a>. The Indian jugglers themselves
+became known to the
+Greeks in the age of Alexander.
+Ælian. Var. Hist. viii. 7.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f764'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r764'>764</a>. Xen. Conv. ii. 4.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f765'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r765'>765</a>. Lucian. Amor. § 10.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f766'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r766'>766</a>. Artemid. Oneirocrit. i. 68.
+Xen. Conviv. ii. 8.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f767'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r767'>767</a>. Poll. iii. 134.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f768'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r768'>768</a>. Xen. Conviv. ii. 22.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f769'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r769'>769</a>. Xen. Conviv. vii. 1.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f770'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r770'>770</a>. Xen. Conviv. vii. 3.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f771'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r771'>771</a>. Plat. de Legg. vii. t. viii. p. 55. Bekk. Xen. Conv. vii. 5.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f772'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r772'>772</a>. Xen. Conviv. ix. 1–7.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f773'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r773'>773</a>. Athen. xiv. 2.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f774'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r774'>774</a>. Eurip. Fragm. Melanipp. 20.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f775'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r775'>775</a>. Athen. xiv. 2.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f776'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r776'>776</a>. Eustath. ad Iliad. δ. p. 337.
+53. Etym. Mag. 277. 24.
+Meurs. Græc. Feriat. ii. 96.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f777'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r777'>777</a>. Athen. xiv. 3.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f778'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r778'>778</a>. Among the Etruscans these
+ladles were of bronze, and of extremely
+elegant form, the point
+ending in a swan’s or duck’s
+head.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f779'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r779'>779</a>. The proceedings of this person
+were governed by a code of
+laws, the making and reformation
+of which employed the wits of no
+less personages than Xenophanes,
+Spensippos, and Aristotle. Athen.
+i. 5.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f780'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r780'>780</a>. Horat. Od. ii. 7. 25.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f781'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r781'>781</a>. Schol. Aristoph. Eq. 1183.
+Vesp. 1005.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f782'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r782'>782</a>. Eustath. ad Iliad, γ. p. 333.
+Schol. Aristoph. Vesp. 855.—A
+specimen of these ladles (ἀρύταιναι)
+occurs in Mus. Chiaramont.
+pl. 2.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f783'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r783'>783</a>. Virgil actually wreaths the
+bowls with garlands.—Æneid.
+iii. 525.—Homer, however,
+crowns his bowls only with
+wine.-Il. ε. 471.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f784'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r784'>784</a>. Homer. Iliad. δ. 2. γ. 232.
+β. 813. Odyss. ο. 327. Juven.
+Sat. v. 60. Cf. Philo. Jud. de
+Vit. Contempl. t. ii. p. 479.
+Mangey.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f785'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r785'>785</a>. There were certain barbarians,
+who, to cement their
+friendships, drank wine tinged
+with each other’s blood.—Athen.
+xv. 47.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f786'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r786'>786</a>. Plut. Symp. i. 2. 2. The first
+cup was drunk to the Agathodemon.—Schol.
+Aristoph. Eq. 85.
+Athen. xv. 47.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f787'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r787'>787</a>. Athen. v. 20.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f788'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r788'>788</a>. Athen. x. 39. Plut. Cleom.
+§ 13.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f789'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r789'>789</a>. Theoc. Eidyll. vii. 69.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f790'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r790'>790</a>. Cicero in Verr. Act. ii. Orat.
+i. § 26, and Ascon. Pedan. in
+loc.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f791'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r791'>791</a>. Antiphon. Acc. Nec. Ven.
+§ 3.—The third libation was in
+honour of Zeus.—Scol. Pind. Isth.
+vi. 22.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f792'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r792'>792</a>. Theocrit. Eidyll. xiv. 18, et
+Schol.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f793'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r793'>793</a>. Mart. Epig. i. 78.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f794'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r794'>794</a>. Horat. Od. iii. 19. 11, sqq.
+Lambinus in loc. p. 143.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f795'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r795'>795</a>. Antiq. ii. 394, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f796'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r796'>796</a>. Marc. Argent. ap. Anthol. Græc. v. 110.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f797'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r797'>797</a>. Plut. Alexand. Magn. §§ 69, 70.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f798'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r798'>798</a>. Ælian. Var. Hist. ii. 41. Periz.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f799'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r799'>799</a>. Athen. x. 49.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f800'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r800'>800</a>. Athen. x. 44.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f801'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r801'>801</a>. Tuscul. Quæst. ii. 41.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f802'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r802'>802</a>. Potter, ii. 396.</p>
+</div>
+<hr class='c016' />
+
+<div>
+ <span class='pageno' id='Page_197'>197</span>
+ <h3 class='c002'>CHAPTER VI. <br /> ENTERTAINMENTS.</h3>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c011'>The man upon the creations of whose art the
+principal enjoyments of Greek gourmands were based
+was the cook,<a id='r803' /><a href='#f803' class='c012'><sup>[803]</sup></a> whose character and achievements
+ought not perhaps to be entirely passed over. We
+are, indeed, chiefly indebted for our information to
+the comic poets; but, in spite of some little exaggeration,
+the likeness they have bequeathed to us
+is probably upon the whole pretty exact.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The Athenian cook was a singularly heterogeneous
+being, something between the parasite and the professed
+jester; he was usually a poor citizen, with
+all the pride of autochthoneïty about him, who
+considered it indispensable to acquire, besides his
+culinary lore, a smattering of many other kinds of
+knowledge, not only for the purpose of improving
+his soups or ragouts, but in order, by the orations
+he pronounced in praise of himself, to dazzle and
+allure such persons as came to the agora in search
+of an artist of his class. Of course the principal
+source of his oratory lay among pots and frying-pans,
+and the wonders effected by his art. Philemon
+hits off with great felicity one of these worthies,
+who desires to convey a lofty opinion of himself,—</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>“How strong is my desire ’fore earth and heaven,</div>
+ <div class='line'>To tell how daintily I cooked his dinner</div>
+ <div class='line'>’Gainst his return! By all Athena’s owls!</div>
+ <div class='line'><span class='pageno' id='Page_198'>198</span>’Tis no unpleasant thing to hit the mark</div>
+ <div class='line'>On all occasions. What a fish had I—</div>
+ <div class='line'>And ah! how nicely fried! Not all bedevilled</div>
+ <div class='line'>With cheese, or browned atop, but though well done,</div>
+ <div class='line'>Looking alive, in its rare beauty dressed.</div>
+ <div class='line'>With skill so exquisite the fire I tempered,</div>
+ <div class='line'>It seemed a joke to say that it was cooked.</div>
+ <div class='line'>And then, just fancy now you see a hen</div>
+ <div class='line'>Gobbling a morsel much too big to swallow;</div>
+ <div class='line'>With bill uplifted round and round she runs</div>
+ <div class='line'>Half choking; while the rest are at her heels</div>
+ <div class='line'>Clucking for shares. Just so ’twas with my soldiers;</div>
+ <div class='line'>The first who touched the dish upstarted he</div>
+ <div class='line'>Whirling round in a circle like the hen,</div>
+ <div class='line'>Eating and running; but his jolly comrades,</div>
+ <div class='line'>Each a fish worshiper, soon joined the dance,</div>
+ <div class='line'>Laughing and shouting, snatching some a bit,</div>
+ <div class='line'>Some missing, till like smoke the whole had vanished.</div>
+ <div class='line'>Yet were they merely mud-fed river dabs:</div>
+ <div class='line'>But had some splendid scaros graced my pan,</div>
+ <div class='line'>Or Attic glaucisk, or, O saviour Zeus!</div>
+ <div class='line'>Kapros from Argos, or the conger eel,</div>
+ <div class='line'>Which old Poseidon exports to Olympos,</div>
+ <div class='line'>To be the food of gods, why then my guests</div>
+ <div class='line'>Had rivalled those above. I have, in fact,</div>
+ <div class='line'>The power to lavish immortality</div>
+ <div class='line'>On whom I please, or, by my potent art,</div>
+ <div class='line'>To raise the dead, if they but snuff my dishes!”<a id='r804' /><a href='#f804' class='c012'><sup>[804]</sup></a></div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c014'>This honest fellow, in the opinion of Athenæus,
+exceeded in boasting even that Menecrates of Syracuse,
+who for his pride obtained the surname of
+Zeus; he was a physician, and used vauntingly to
+call himself the arbiter of life to mankind. He
+is supposed to have possessed some specific against
+epilepsy; but being afflicted with a vanity at least
+equal to his skill, he would undertake no one’s
+cure unless he first entered into an agreement to
+follow him round the country ever after as his
+slave, which great numbers actually did. Nicostratos,
+of Argos, one of the persons so restored,
+travelled in his train habited and equipped like
+Heracles; others personated Asclepios, and Apollo,
+while Menecrates himself enacted in this fantastic
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_199'>199</span>masquerade the part of Zeus; and, as the actors
+say, he dressed the character well, wearing a purple
+robe, a golden crown upon his head, sandals of the
+most magnificent description, and bearing a sceptre
+in his hand.<a id='r805' /><a href='#f805' class='c012'><sup>[805]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>But whatever might have been the conceit of
+our Syracusan physician, there were those among
+the cooking race, who certainly lagged not far behind
+him. They usually stunned such as came to
+hire them with reciting their own praises, laying
+claim to as much science and philosophy as would
+have sufficed to set up two or three sophists. In
+fact, to take them at their word, there was nothing
+which they did not know, nothing which they
+could not do. Painting they professed to comprehend
+as profound connoisseurs, and, no doubt, the
+soles they fried tasted all the better for the accomplishment.
+In astronomy, medicine, and geometry,
+they appear to have made a still greater proficiency
+than Hudibras, notwithstanding that—</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>“In mathematics he was greater</div>
+ <div class='line'>Than Tycho Brahe, or Erra Pater;</div>
+ <div class='line'>For he by geometric scale</div>
+ <div class='line'>Could take the size of pots of ale;</div>
+ <div class='line'>Discern by sines and tangents strait</div>
+ <div class='line'>If bread and butter wanted weight;</div>
+ <div class='line'>And wisely tell what hour o’ the day</div>
+ <div class='line'>The clock does strike by algebra.”</div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c014'>In all this he was a fool to the Athenian cooks;
+for, by the help of astronomy, they could tell when
+mackerel was in season, and at what time of the
+year a haddock is better than a salmon. From
+geometry they borrowed the art of laying out a
+kitchen to the best advantage, and how to hang
+up the gridiron in one place, and the porridge-pot
+in another. To medicine it is easy to see how
+deeply they must have been indebted, since it not
+only taught them what meats are wholesome, and
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_200'>200</span>what not, but also enabled them by some sleight of
+art to diminish the appetite of those voracious parasites,
+who when they dined out appeared to have
+stomachs equal in capacity to the great tun of
+Heidelberg.<a id='r806' /><a href='#f806' class='c012'><sup>[806]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Many individuals, half guests, half parasites, used
+to extract considerable matter for merriment out
+of the dinner materials, that they might render
+themselves agreeable, and be invited again. Thus
+Charmos, the Syracusan, used to convert every dish
+served at table into an occasion for reciting poetical
+quotations or old proverbs, and sometimes, perhaps,
+suffered the fish to cool while he was displaying
+his erudition. He had always civil things to
+say both to shell-fish and tripe, so that a person
+fond of flattery might have coveted to be roasted,
+in order that his shade might be soothed with this
+kind of incense, which even Socrates allowed was
+not an illiberal enjoyment. It was, however, a
+common custom among parasites to make extracts
+from the poets and carry them in portfolios to the
+tables of their patrons, where they recited all such
+as appeared to be <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><i>à propos</i></span>. In this way the above
+Charmos obtained among the people of Messina the
+reputation of a learned man, and Calliphanes,<a id='r807' /><a href='#f807' class='c012'><sup>[807]</sup></a> son
+of Parabrycon,<a id='r808' /><a href='#f808' class='c012'><sup>[808]</sup></a> succeeded no less ingeniously by
+copying out the first verses of various poems, and
+reciting them, so that it might be supposed he
+knew the whole.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Cleanthes, of Tarentum, always spoke at table
+in verse, so likewise did the Sicilian Pamphilos;
+and these parasites, travelling about with wallets
+of poetry on their backs, were everywhere welcomed
+and entertained, which might with great
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_201'>201</span>propriety have been adduced by Ilgen<a id='r809' /><a href='#f809' class='c012'><sup>[809]</sup></a> among
+his other proofs of the imaginative character of the
+Greeks.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Archestratos, the Syracusan, belonged no doubt to
+this class. He composed an epic poem on good eating,
+which commenced with recommending that no company,
+assembled for convivial enjoyment, should ever
+exceed four,<a id='r810' /><a href='#f810' class='c012'><sup>[810]</sup></a> or at most five, otherwise he said
+they would rather resemble a troop of banditti than
+gentlemen. It had probably escaped him, that there
+were twenty-eight guests at Plato’s banquet. Antiphanes,
+after observing that the parasites had lynx’s
+eyes to discover a good dinner though never invited,
+immediately adds, that the republic ought to get up
+an entertainment for them, upon the same principle
+that during the games an ox<a id='r811' /><a href='#f811' class='c012'><sup>[811]</sup></a> was slaughtered some
+distance from the course at Olympia, to feast the
+flies, and prevent them from devouring the spectators.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Besides Archestratos, there were several other celebrated
+gastronomers among the ancients. Of these
+the principal were Timachidas, of Rhodes, who wrote
+a poem in eleven books on good eating,<a id='r812' /><a href='#f812' class='c012'><sup>[812]</sup></a> Noumenios,
+of Heraclea, pupil to the physician Dieuches,
+Metreas, of Pitana, the parodist Hegemon, of Thasos,
+surnamed the <em>Lentil</em>, by some reckoned among the
+poets of the old comedy, Philoxenos, of Leucadia,
+and a second Philoxenos, of Cythera, who composed
+his work in hexameter verse. The former, after
+chaunting the eulogium of the kettle, comes nevertheless
+to the conclusion at last, that superior merit
+belongs to the <a id='corr201.31'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='fryingpan'>frying-pan</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_201.31'><ins class='correction' title='fryingpan'>frying-pan</ins></a></span>. He earnestly recommended
+truffles to lovers, but would not have them touch the
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_202'>202</span>barbel. His anger burst forth with great vehemence
+against those who cut in pieces fish which should
+be served up whole; and, though he admits that a
+polypus may occasionally be boiled, it was much
+better, he says, to fry it. From this man the Philoxenian
+cakes derived their name; and he it is whom
+Chrysippos reproaches with half scalding his fingers
+in the warm bath and gargling his throat with hot
+water, in order that he might be able to swallow
+kabobs hissing from the coals.<a id='r813' /><a href='#f813' class='c012'><sup>[813]</sup></a> He likewise used,
+at the houses of his friends, to bribe the cooks to
+bring up everything fiery hot, that he might help
+himself before any one else could touch them. A
+kindred gourmand, in the poet Krobylos, exclaims:
+“My fingers are insensible to fire like the Dactyls
+of Mount Ida. And ah! how delightful it is to
+refresh my throat with the crackling flakes of
+broiled fish! Oh I am in fact an oven, not a
+man!”</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>According to Clearchos it was this same Philoxenos,
+who used to maraud about rich men’s houses,
+followed by a number of slaves laden with wine,
+vinegar, oil, and other seasonings. Wherever he
+smelled the best dinner he dropped in unasked, and
+slipping slily among the cooks, obtained their permission
+to season the dishes they were preparing, after
+which he took his place among the guests where he
+fed like a Cyclops. Arriving once at Ephesos, by
+sea, he found, upon inquiry in the market, that all
+the best fish had been secured for a wedding feast.
+Forthwith he bathed, and repairing to the house of
+the bridegroom, demanded permission to sing the
+Epithalamium. Every one was delighted; they could
+do no less than invite him to dinner. And “Will
+you come again to-morrow?” inquired the generous
+host. “If there be no fish in the market,” replied
+Philoxenos. It was this gourmand who wished
+nature had bestowed on man the neck of the
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_203'>203</span>crane that the pleasure of swallowing might be prolonged.<a id='r814' /><a href='#f814' class='c012'><sup>[814]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Pithyllos, another parasite, surnamed “the Dainty,”
+not content with the membrane which nature has
+spread over the tongue, superinduced artificially a
+sort of mucous covering, which retained for a considerable
+time the flavour of what he ate.<a id='r815' /><a href='#f815' class='c012'><sup>[815]</sup></a> To prolong
+his luxurious enjoyment as much as possible,
+he afterwards scraped away this curious coating with
+a fish. Of all ancient gourmands he alone is said
+to have made use of artificial finger-points, that he
+might be enabled to seize upon the hottest morsels.
+An anecdote so good as to have given rise
+to many modern imitations, is related of Philoxenos,
+of Cythera. Dining one day with Dionysios, of Syracuse,
+he observed a large barbel served up to the
+prince, while a very diminutive one was placed before
+him. Upon this, taking up the little fish, he
+held it to his ear and appeared to be listening attentively.
+Dionysios, expecting some humorous extravagance,
+made a point of inquiring the meaning
+of this movement, and Philoxenos replied, that
+happening just then to think of his Galatea,<a id='r816' /><a href='#f816' class='c012'><sup>[816]</sup></a> he
+was questioning the barbel respecting her. But as
+it makes no answer, said he, I imagine they have
+taken him too young and that he does not understand
+me. I am persuaded, however, that the old
+fellow they have placed before your majesty must
+know all about it. The king, amused by his ingenuity,
+immediately sent him the larger fish which
+he soon questioned effectually.<a id='r817' /><a href='#f817' class='c012'><sup>[817]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>But the Athenians were not reduced to depend
+for amusement at table upon the invention of these
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_204'>204</span>humble companions. They knew how, when occasion
+required, to entertain themselves, and, in the
+exuberance of their hilarity, descended for this purpose
+to contrivances almost infantine. They posed
+each other with charades, enigmas, conundrums, and,
+sometimes, in the lower classes of society, related
+stories of witches, lamias, mormos, and other hobgoblins
+believed in by the vulgar of all nations.
+Among persons engaged in public affairs the excitement
+of political discussion was often, of course,
+intermingled with their more quiet pleasures.<a id='r818' /><a href='#f818' class='c012'><sup>[818]</sup></a> But
+with this we have, just now, nothing to do, nor
+with the enigmas which we shall describe anon.
+There was another and more elegant practice observed
+by the Greeks at convivial meetings, which,
+though not peculiar to them, has nowhere else, perhaps,
+prevailed to the same extent,—I mean the introduction
+of music and the singing of songs,<a id='r819' /><a href='#f819' class='c012'><sup>[819]</sup></a> light,
+graceful, and instinct with wit and gaiety, to the
+barbitos or the lyre.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Among the Greeks, generally, the love of music
+and poetry seemed to be a spontaneous impulse of
+nature. Almost every act of life was accompanied
+by a song,—the weaver at his loom, the baker at
+his kneading-trough, the reaper, the “spinners and the
+knitters in the sun,” the drawer of water, even the
+hard-working wight who toiled at the mill, had his
+peculiar song, by the chaunting of which he lightened
+his labour. The mariner, too, like the Venetian
+gondolier, sang at the oar, and the shepherd and
+the herdsman, the day-labourer and the swineherd,
+the vintager and the husbandman, the attendant
+in the baths, and the nurse beside the cradle. It
+might, in fact, be said, that from an Hellenic village
+music arose as from a brake in spring. Their
+sensibilities were tremblingly alive to pleasure.
+There was elasticity, there was balm in their atmosphere,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_205'>205</span>and joy and freedom in their souls.—How
+could they do other than sing?</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>But, if music and poetry thus diffused their delights
+over the industry of the laborious, it was
+quite natural that where men met solely for enjoyment,
+these best handmaids of enjoyment should not
+be absent. Accordingly, we find that while the
+goblet circulated, kindling the imagination, and unbending
+the mind, the lyre was brought in and a
+song called for. Nor was the custom of recent
+date. It prevailed equally in the heroic ages, and,
+like many other features of Greek manners, derived
+its origin from religion. For, in early times, men
+rarely met at a numerous banquet, except on occasion
+of some sacrifice, when hymns in honour of the
+gods constituted an important part of the ceremonies.
+Thus Homer, describing the grand expiatory
+rites by which the Achæan host sought to avert the
+wrath of Apollo, observes, that they made great
+feasts, and celebrated the praises of the god amid
+their flowing goblets.<a id='r820' /><a href='#f820' class='c012'><sup>[820]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Yet, though the theme of those primitive songs
+may have been at first serious, it was, probably, not
+long before topics better adapted to festive meetings
+obtained the preference. At all events, they
+soon came to be in fashion. The first step appears
+to have been from the gods to the heroes, whose
+achievements, being sometimes tinged with the ludicrous,
+opened the door to much gay and lively description.
+And these convivial pleasures,<a id='r821' /><a href='#f821' class='c012'><sup>[821]</sup></a> so highly
+valued on earth, were, with great consistency, transferred
+to Olympos, where the immortals themselves
+were thought to heighten their enjoyments by songs
+and merriment.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>In the ages following, the art of enhancing thus the
+delights of social intercourse, so far from falling into
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_206'>206</span>neglect, grew to be more than ever cultivated. Even
+the greatest men, beginning from the Homeric Achilles,
+disdained not to sing. They did not, says a judicious
+and learned writer, consider it sufficient to perform
+deeds worthy of immortality, or to be the theme of
+poets and musicians, or so far to cultivate their minds
+as to be able to relish and appreciate the songs of
+others, but included music within the circle of their
+own studies, as an accomplishment without which no
+man could pretend to be liberally educated. For this
+reason it was objected by Stesimbrotos, as a reproach
+to Cimon, that he was ignorant of music, and every
+other gentlemanly accomplishment held in estimation
+among the Greeks;<a id='r822' /><a href='#f822' class='c012'><sup>[822]</sup></a> and even Themistocles himself
+incurred the charge of rusticity, because, when challenged
+at a party, he refused to play on the cithara.<a id='r823' /><a href='#f823' class='c012'><sup>[823]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>A different theory of manners prevailed among the
+Romans, who, like the modern Turks, considered it
+unbecoming a gentleman to sing. But to the Greeks,
+a people replete with gaiety and ardour, and whose
+amusements always partook largely of poetry, music
+presented itself under a wholly different aspect, and
+was so far from appearing a mean or sordid study,
+that no branch of education was held in higher honour,
+or esteemed more efficacious in promoting tranquillity
+of mind, or polish and refinement of manners. The
+lyre is accordingly said, by Homer, to be a divine
+gift, designed to be the companion and friend of
+feasts, where it proved the source of numerous advantages.
+In the first place, persons too much addicted
+to the bottle found in this instrument an ally against
+their own failing, for, whether playing or listening,
+a cessation from drinking was necessarily effected.
+Rudeness also and violence, and that unbridled audacity
+commonly inspired by wine, were checked by
+music, which, in their stead, inspired a pleasing exaltation
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_207'>207</span>of mind, and joy free from all admixture of
+passion.<a id='r824' /><a href='#f824' class='c012'><sup>[824]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>It has already been observed that the convivial
+song soon divested itself of its religious and sombre
+character; for, as parties are made up of persons differing
+extremely in taste and temperament, it necessarily
+happened that when each was required to sing,
+much variety would be found in the lays, which generally
+assumed a festive and jocund air. Hymns in
+honour of the gods were more sparingly introduced,<a id='r825' /><a href='#f825' class='c012'><sup>[825]</sup></a>
+nor was much stress laid on the praises of heroes;<a id='r826' /><a href='#f826' class='c012'><sup>[826]</sup></a>
+the spirit of joviality moulded itself into</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>Quips and cranks, and wanton wiles;</div>
+ <div class='line'>Nods and becks, and wreathed smiles.</div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c014'>Every one poured forth what the whim of the moment
+inspired,—jokes, love-songs, or biting satires,
+with the freedom and fertility of an improvisatore.<a id='r827' /><a href='#f827' class='c012'><sup>[827]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>These convivial songs were divided by the ancients
+into several kinds, with reference sometimes to their
+nature, sometimes to the manner in which they were
+chaunted: the most remarkable they denominated Scolia,
+or zig-zag songs,<a id='r828' /><a href='#f828' class='c012'><sup>[828]</sup></a> for a reason somewhat difficult of
+explanation. Several of the later Greek writers appear
+to have been greatly at a loss to account for
+the appellation, which is, no doubt, a singular one;
+but the learning and diligence of Ilgen<a id='r829' /><a href='#f829' class='c012'><sup>[829]</sup></a> may be
+said to have fully resolved this curious question.
+After determining the antiquity of the Scolion, which
+Pindar<a id='r830' /><a href='#f830' class='c012'><sup>[830]</sup></a> supposes to have been an invention of Terpander,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_208'>208</span>or, at least, the verses of the song, but which
+Ilgen dates as far back as the heroic period, he observes,
+that the name itself was known in very remote
+ages, since they formed a separate class among the
+works of Pindar, and are mentioned by Aristophanes
+and Plato,<a id='r831' /><a href='#f831' class='c012'><sup>[831]</sup></a> and that, like the Cyclic chorus, it arose
+out of the circumstances under which it was sung.
+For as this chorus was called Cyclic, or circular, because
+chaunted by persons moving in a circle round
+the altar of Bacchos, so the Scolion, or zig-zag song,<a id='r832' /><a href='#f832' class='c012'><sup>[832]</sup></a>
+received its name from the myrtle branch, or the
+cithara, to which it was sung, being passed from one
+guest to another in a zig-zag<a id='r833' /><a href='#f833' class='c012'><sup>[833]</sup></a> fashion, just as those
+who possessed the requisite skill happened to sit at table.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>To render this explanation perfectly intelligible,
+it will, perhaps, be necessary to describe succinctly
+the whole process of singing in company. At first,
+it has been conjectured, when manners were rude,
+and the language still in its infancy, singing, like
+dancing, required no great art, and was little more
+than those wild bursts of melody still common among
+the improvisatori of Arabia and other Eastern countries,
+but that from these humble beginnings lyrical
+poetry took its rise, preserving still the freedom of
+its original state, and rising, unshackled by the rigid
+laws of metre, to heights of sublimity and grandeur
+beyond which no human composition ever soared.
+By degrees some complex forms of verse obtained
+the preference,—such, for example, as those of Sappho
+and Alcæos,—and fixed and definite laws of metre
+were established.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'><span class='pageno' id='Page_209'>209</span>The Scolion, however, always preserved something
+of its original spontaneous character, at least in appearance,
+and the same thing may be predicated of
+all their festive lays. But before they gave loose to
+their gaiety, the deep religious sentiment which pervaded
+the whole nation required a pæan, or hymn,
+to be sung in honour of the gods, and in this every
+person present joined.<a id='r834' /><a href='#f834' class='c012'><sup>[834]</sup></a> While thus engaged, each
+guest, it is supposed, held in his hand a branch of
+laurel, the tree sacred to Apollo.<a id='r835' /><a href='#f835' class='c012'><sup>[835]</sup></a> To the pæan succeeded
+another air, which all present sang in their turn,
+holding this time a branch of myrtle,<a id='r836' /><a href='#f836' class='c012'><sup>[836]</sup></a> which, like
+the laurel bough mentioned above, was called æsakos,
+or the “branch of song.”<a id='r837' /><a href='#f837' class='c012'><sup>[837]</sup></a> The singing commenced
+with the principal guest, to whom the symposiarch
+or host delivered the Cithara<a id='r838' /><a href='#f838' class='c012'><sup>[838]</sup></a> and æsakos, demanding
+a song, which, according to the laws of the table, no
+one could refuse. Having performed his part, the
+singer was, in turn, entitled to call upon his neighbour,
+beginning on the right hand, and delivering to
+him the Cithara and the myrtle branch. The second,
+when he had sung, handed it then to the
+third, the third to the fourth, and so on until the
+whole circle of the company had been made. It
+sometimes happened, though not often, that among
+the guests an individual, unskilled in instrumental
+music, was found, and, in this case, he sang without
+accompaniment, holding the æsakos in his hand.<a id='r839' /><a href='#f839' class='c012'><sup>[839]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The poets who had the honour thus to cheer the
+convivial hours of the Greeks were, in remoter times,
+Simonides and Stesichoros, and, probably, Anacreon,
+with others of the same grade;<a id='r840' /><a href='#f840' class='c012'><sup>[840]</sup></a> and, if we may
+credit Aristophanes, songs were also selected from
+the plays of Æschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides, as
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_210'>210</span>among ourselves from Shakespeare, Beaumont and
+Fletcher, or Ben Jonson. It may even be inferred
+that passages from Homer himself<a id='r841' /><a href='#f841' class='c012'><sup>[841]</sup></a> were sung on
+these occasions; or, if not sung, they were certainly
+recited by rhapsodists introduced for the purpose into
+the assembly, who, holding a laurel branch while thus
+engaged, probably gave rise to the practice of passing
+round the myrtle bough. This branch, therefore,
+whether of myrtle or laurel,<a id='r842' /><a href='#f842' class='c012'><sup>[842]</sup></a> constituted a part of a
+singer’s apparatus. The latter was originally chosen
+as sacred to Apollo, the patron of music, and because
+it was also believed to be endowed with something
+of prophetic power, the Pythoness eating its leaves
+before she ascended the tripod, while it was the symbol
+of ever-during song. Instead of the laurel,
+myrtle was afterwards introduced, on account, probably,
+of its being sacred to Aphrodite, whose praises
+were celebrated in those amatory songs common at
+feasts. It may, likewise, have been considered an
+emblem of republican virtue, since Harmodios and
+Aristogeiton concealed their swords in a myrtle
+wreath.<a id='r843' /><a href='#f843' class='c012'><sup>[843]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>To proceed, however, with the Scolia. These
+lays, like the rest, made the circle of the company,
+though not by passing in an unbroken series from
+man to man, but, as has already been said, from one
+skilful singer to another. In fact, the chanting of the
+scolia was a kind of contest which took place when all
+the other songs were concluded.<a id='r844' /><a href='#f844' class='c012'><sup>[844]</sup></a> The person who
+occupied the seat of honour chanted to the Cithara
+a song containing the praises of some mortal or
+immortal, or the developement of some moral precept
+or erotic subject, which was comprehended in
+a small number of verses. When he had finished,
+he handed the Cithara and myrtle, at his own discretion,
+to some other among the guests, and the
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_211'>211</span>person thus challenged, who could not refuse without
+passing for an illiterate clown, must at once take
+up the same subject, and, without delay or premeditation,
+break forth into a song in the same metre
+and number of verses, if possible; and if unfamiliar
+with the Cithara, he could sing to the myrtle. The
+second singer now exercised his privilege and called
+upon a third, who was expected to do as he had
+done; so that very often the same idea underwent
+five or six transformations in the course of the evening.
+When the first argument had thus made the
+circle of the company, he who concluded had the
+right to start a new theme, which received the same
+treatment as the first; so that sometimes, when people
+were in a singing humour, air followed air, until
+eight or ten subjects had received all the poetical
+ornaments which the invention of those present could
+bestow upon them.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>But to sing without wine would have been insipid.
+I have said the chanting of the scolia
+was a sort of contest, and, as he who contends and
+obtains the victory looks naturally for a reward, so
+the successful performer aspired to his, which, it
+must be owned, was not inappropriate, consisting
+of a brimming bowl, called <em>odos</em>, or the “cup of
+song,” at once a mark of honour and a reward of
+skill.<a id='r845' /><a href='#f845' class='c012'><sup>[845]</sup></a> All these particulars are inferable from the
+examples of the scolion, which still remain; and
+Aristophanes in the “Wasps,” presents something
+like an outline, though dim and obscure, both of
+the argument and the mode of execution. He imagines
+a company of jolly fellows,<a id='r846' /><a href='#f846' class='c012'><sup>[846]</sup></a> such as Theoros,
+Æschines, Phanos, Cleon, Acestor, and a foreigner
+of the same kidney, and represents them as engaged in
+performing certain scolia for their own entertainment.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>But the idea we should form of this kind of song
+from the very comic passage in the “Wasps” differs
+materially from the theoretic view of Ilgen, since
+Philocleon constantly interrupts his son, terminating
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_212'>212</span>each sentence for him in a manner wholly unexpected,
+and of course calculated to excite laughter.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>But though musical, the Greeks would not imitate
+the grasshoppers,<a id='r847' /><a href='#f847' class='c012'><sup>[847]</sup></a> who are said to sing till they
+starve; but, having accomplished the circle above-mentioned,
+proceeded to other amusements which,
+though too numerous to be described at length, must
+not be altogether passed over. In the heroic ages
+the discovery had not been made that rest after
+meals is necessary to digestion, which in later times
+was a received maxim, and accordingly we find
+from the practice of the Phæacians,<a id='r848' /><a href='#f848' class='c012'><sup>[848]</sup></a> who, if an after-dinner
+nap had been customary, would certainly have
+taken it, that the men of those times, instead of
+indulging in indolent repose out of compliment to
+their stomachs, sallied forth to leap, to run, to wrestle,
+and engage in other athletic sports, which by no means
+appear to have impaired their health or their prowess.
+As civilisation advances, however, excuses are found
+for laying aside the habits of violent exercise. Science,
+in too many cases, fosters indolence and pronounces
+what is fashionable to be wise. But to
+the race-course and the wrestling-ring, sedentary,
+or at least indoor, pastimes succeed, and, instead
+of overthrowing their antagonists on the palæstra-floor
+or the greensward, men seek to subdue them
+at Kottabos, or on the chess-board, or to ruin them
+at the card-table or in the billiard-room.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The play of Kottabos,<a id='r849' /><a href='#f849' class='c012'><sup>[849]</sup></a> invented in Sicily, soon
+propagated itself, as such inventions do, throughout
+the whole of Greece, and got into great vogue at
+Athens, where the lively temperament of the people
+inclined them to indulge immoderately in whatever
+was convivial and gay. The most usual form of
+the game was this,—a piece of wood like the upright
+of a balance having been fixed in the floor
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_213'>213</span>or upon a stable basis, a small cross-beam was
+placed on the top of it with a shallow vessel like
+the basin of a pair of scales, at either end.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Under each of these vessels stood a broad-mouthed
+vase, filled with water, with a gilt bronze statue,
+called Manes, fixed upright in its centre. The persons
+who played at the game, standing at some
+little distance, cast, in turn, their wine, from a
+drinking-cup into one of the pensile basins, which
+descending with the weight, struck against the head
+of the statue, which resounded with the blow. The
+victor was he who spilled least wine during the
+throw, and elicited most noise from the brazen
+head. It was, in fact, in its origin a species of
+divination, the object being to discover by the
+greater or less success obtained, the place occupied
+by the player in his mistress’s affections. By an
+onomatopœa the sound created by the wine in its
+projection was called <em>latax</em>, and the wine itself
+<em>latagè</em>. Both the act of throwing and the cup
+used were called <em>ankula</em>, from the word which expresses
+the dexterous turn of the hand with which
+the skilful player cast his wine into the scales.<a id='r850' /><a href='#f850' class='c012'><sup>[850]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Our learned Archbishop Potter, who has not unskilfully
+abridged the account of Athenæus, confounds
+the above with the <em>kottabos katactos</em>, another
+form of the game described both by Pollux and
+Athenæus.<a id='r851' /><a href='#f851' class='c012'><sup>[851]</sup></a> In this the apparatus was suspended
+like a chandelier from the roof. It was formed of
+brass, and a brazen vessel, called the skiff, was
+placed beneath it. The player, standing at a little
+distance, with a long wand, struck one end of the
+kottabos, which descending came in contact with
+the skiff, or rather the manes within, and produced
+a hollow sound. Occasionally the small vessels at
+the extremity of the kottabos were brought down,
+as in the former game, by having wine cast into
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_214'>214</span>them. Another variety required the skiff to be
+filled with water, upon which floated a ball, an instrument
+like the tongue of a balance, a manes,
+three myrtle boughs, and as many phials. In this
+the great art consisted in striking some one of these
+with the kottabos, and whoever could sink most of
+them won the game. The prize, on these occasions,
+was usually one of those cakes called <em>pyramos</em><a id='r852' /><a href='#f852' class='c012'><sup>[852]</sup></a> or
+something similar; but instead of these it was sometimes
+agreed, when women were present, that the
+prize should be a kiss, as in our game of forfeits.
+Another kind of kottabos, chiefly practised on those
+occasions which resembled our christenings, when on
+the tenth day the child received its name, was a
+contention of wakefulness, when the person who
+longest resisted sleep, won the prize. Properly, however,
+kottabos was the amusement first described;
+and so fashionable did it become, that persons erected
+circular rooms expressly for the purpose, in order
+that the players might take their stand at equal
+distances from the apparatus which stood in the
+centre.<a id='r853' /><a href='#f853' class='c012'><sup>[853]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>It might, without any authority, be presumed that
+when people met together for enjoyment they would
+derive the greater portion of it from conversation,
+which would, of course, vary and slide</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>“From grave to gay, from lively to severe,”</div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c014'>according to the character or fluctuating humour of
+the company. The Spartans, like all military people,
+were grievously addicted to jokes, which among them
+supplied the place of that elegant badinage, alternating
+with profound or impassioned discourse, familiar
+to the more intellectual Athenians. The latter, however,
+though free from the coarseness, possessed more
+than the mirthfulness of the Dorians, and in the
+midst of their habits of business and application to
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_215'>215</span>philosophy, knew better than any people how, amidst
+wine and good-eating, to unbend and enjoy the luxury
+of careless trifling and an unwrinkled brow.
+While some therefore retired to the kottabos-room,
+which occupied the place of our billiard-room, others
+still sat clustered round the table, extracting amusement
+from each other. Among these of course would
+be found all such as excelled in the art of small
+talk, who could tell a good story or anecdote, scatter
+around showers of witticisms, or give birth to a
+pun. Some, like the Spartans, had a Welsh passion
+for genealogies, and loved to run back over the history
+of the “Landed Gentry” of old Hellas, to the
+time of Deucalion or higher; others coined their wisdom
+and experience into fables, for which they exhibited
+an almost Oriental fondness; while the greater
+number, like the princes in the Arabian Nights,
+exercised their wits in propounding and resolving
+difficult questions, enigmas, charades, anagrams, and
+conundrums.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>But the principal classes into which these contrivances
+were divided were two: <em>enigmas</em> and <em>griphoi</em>,<a id='r854' /><a href='#f854' class='c012'><sup>[854]</sup></a>
+the former comprehending all those terminating in
+mere pleasure, the latter such questions and riddles
+as involved within themselves the kernel of wisdom
+or knowledge,<a id='r855' /><a href='#f855' class='c012'><sup>[855]</sup></a> supposed to have been a dull and serious
+affair. Casaubon,<a id='r856' /><a href='#f856' class='c012'><sup>[856]</sup></a> however, vindicates it stoutly
+from this charge, affirming that in the griphos the
+<em>utile</em> was mingled with the <em>dulce</em> in due proportion;
+so that it must, according to Horace’s opinion, have
+borne away the palm from most literary inventions.
+In point of antiquity, too, the riddle may justly
+boast; for, if to be old is to be noble, it has “more
+of birth and better blood” even than the hungry
+Dorians of the Peloponnesos, whom Mr. Mitchell
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_216'>216</span>prefers, on this account, before all nations of Ionic
+race. Like everything good also it comes from the
+East. The earliest mention of the riddle occurs in
+the book of Judges,<a id='r857' /><a href='#f857' class='c012'><sup>[857]</sup></a> where Samson, during his
+marriage-feast at Timnath, perplexes his guests with
+the following riddle:</p>
+
+<div class='quote'>
+
+<p class='c001'>“Out of the eater came forth meat, and out of the strong came
+forth sweetness;”</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p class='c001'>To which they, being instructed by his wife, replied:</p>
+
+<div class='quote'>
+
+<p class='c001'>“What is sweeter than honey? and what is stronger than a
+lion?”</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p class='c001'>The word griphos, in its original acceptation, signified
+a fishing-net, and hence by translation was
+employed to describe a captious or cunningly contrived
+question, in which the wits of people were
+entangled.<a id='r858' /><a href='#f858' class='c012'><sup>[858]</sup></a> As the ancients delighted in this sort
+of intellectual trifling they were at the pains to be
+very methodical about it, dividing the riddle into
+several kinds, which Clearchos of Soli<a id='r859' /><a href='#f859' class='c012'><sup>[859]</sup></a> made the
+subject of a separate work. This writer, a sort of
+Greek D’Israeli, defines the griphos to mean “a
+sportive problem proposed for solution on condition,
+that the discovery of the sense should be
+attended by a reward, and failure with punishment.”
+His description of the seven classes could
+scarcely be rendered intelligible, and certainly not
+interesting to the modern reader. It will be more
+to the purpose to introduce two or three specimens,
+prefacing them by a few remarks.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>It has been above observed, that philosophical
+truths were often wrapped up in these sportive problems,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_217'>217</span>which purposely obscured, so as to afford but
+dim and distant glimpses of the forms within, necessarily
+exercised and sharpened the wit and induced
+keen and persevering habits of investigation.
+The reward also and the penalty had the same tendency.
+A crown, an extra junket, and the applause
+of the company, cheered the successful Œdipos, while
+the lackwit who beat about the bush without catching
+the owl, had to make wry faces over a cup of
+brine or pickle. Theodectes, the sophist, a man distinguished
+for the excellence of his memory, obtained
+reputation as a riddle-solver, and denominated
+such questions the “springs of memory.”<a id='r860' /><a href='#f860' class='c012'><sup>[860]</sup></a> But whatever
+the interrogatories themselves may have been,
+the reward, to which their solution often led, was
+rather a source of forgetfulness, consisting of a goblet
+of wine which, when no interpreter could be found,
+passed to the propounder.<a id='r861' /><a href='#f861' class='c012'><sup>[861]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The riddle was of course a mine of wealth to the
+comic poets, who could not be supposed to forego
+the use of so admirable a contrivance to raise expectation
+and beget surprise. But it is clear, from
+the examples still preserved, that they oftener missed
+than hit. Antiphanes’s griphoi on “bringing and not
+bringing;” on the “porridge-pot;” on a “tart,” &c.,
+are poor things; but the following from the “Dream”
+of Alexis is good:</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>A. A thing exists which nor immortal is,</div>
+ <div class='line'>Nor mortal, but to both belongs, and lives</div>
+ <div class='line'>As neither god nor man does. Every day,</div>
+ <div class='line'>’Tis born anew and dies. No eye can see it,</div>
+ <div class='line'>And yet to all ’tis known.</div>
+ </div>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>B. A plague upon you!</div>
+ <div class='line'>you bore me with your riddles.</div>
+ </div>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>A. Still, all this</div>
+ <div class='line'>Is plain and easy.</div>
+ </div>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>B. What then can it be?</div>
+ </div>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>A. <span class='sc'>Sleep</span>—that puts all our cares and pains to flight.<a id='r862' /><a href='#f862' class='c012'><sup>[862]</sup></a></div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c014'><span class='pageno' id='Page_218'>218</span>The following from Eubulos is not amiss:</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>A. What is it that, while young, is plump and heavy,</div>
+ <div class='line'>But, being full grown, is light, and wingless mounts</div>
+ <div class='line'>Upon the courier winds, and foils the sight?</div>
+ </div>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>B. The <span class='sc'>Thistle’s Beard</span>; for this at first sticks fast</div>
+ <div class='line'>To the green seed, which, ripe and dry, falls off</div>
+ <div class='line'>Upon the cradling breeze, or, upwards puffed</div>
+ <div class='line'>By playful urchins, sails along the air.</div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c014'>Antiphanes, in his Sappho, introduces a very ingenious
+riddle, partly for the purpose of offering a
+sarcastic explanation directed against the orators:</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>There is a female which within her bosom</div>
+ <div class='line'>Carries her young, that, mute, in fact, yet speak,</div>
+ <div class='line'>And make their voice heard on the howling waves,</div>
+ <div class='line'>Or wildest continent. They will converse</div>
+ <div class='line'>Even with the absent, and inform the deaf.<a id='r863' /><a href='#f863' class='c012'><sup>[863]</sup></a></div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c014'>The poet introduces the “Lesbian maid,” explaining
+the riddle, and this passage of the Athenian
+comic writer may be regarded as the original of
+those fine lines in Ovid, which Pope has so elegantly
+translated:</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>Heaven first taught <span class='fss'>LETTERS</span> for some wretch’s aid,</div>
+ <div class='line'>Some banish’d lover, or some captive maid,</div>
+ <div class='line'>They live, they speak, they breathe what love inspires,</div>
+ <div class='line'>Warm from the soul, and faithful to its fires,</div>
+ <div class='line'>The virgin’s wish without her fears impart,</div>
+ <div class='line'>Excuse the blush and pour out all the heart,</div>
+ <div class='line'>Speed the soft intercourse from soul to soul,</div>
+ <div class='line'>And waft a sigh from Indus to the pole.</div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c014'>By this time, however, the reader will probably
+be of opinion, that we have lingered long enough
+about the dinner-table and its attendant pastimes.
+We shall therefore hasten the departure of the
+guests, who after burning the tongues of the animals
+that had been sacrificed, to intimate that whatever
+had been uttered was to be kept secret, offered
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_219'>219</span>libations to Zeus, Hermes, and other gods, and took
+their leave, in ancient times before sunset; but afterwards,
+as luxury and extravagance increased, the
+morning sun often enabled them to dispense with
+link-boys. Examples, indeed, of similar perversions
+of the night occur in Homer and Virgil, but always
+among the reckless or effeminate in the palaces of
+princes, whence, in all ages, the stream of immorality
+has flowed downward upon society to disturb
+and pollute it. The company assembled at Agathon’s,
+also, sit up all night in Plato; and Aristophanes
+represents drunken men reeling home through
+the agora by daylight.</p>
+
+<hr class='c016' />
+<div class='footnote' id='f803'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r803'>803</a>. On famous Cooks see Max. Tyr. Dissert. v. 60. 83. Pollux,
+vi. 70, seq. Athen. iii. 60.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f804'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r804'>804</a>. Athen. vii. 32.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f805'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r805'>805</a>. Athen. vii. 33.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f806'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r806'>806</a>. Athen. vii. 37.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f807'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r807'>807</a>. Suidas in v. t. i. p. 1361. c.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f808'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r808'>808</a>. Athen. i. 6. <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">“Sic ut παράσιτος,
+et παραμασήτης vel παραμασύντης
+convivam denotat invocatum,
+qui absque symbola
+ad convivium venit; sic nomen
+παραβρύκων (à verbo βρύκω,
+mordeo, rodo, deglutio) eumdem
+habet significatum.”</span>—Scheigh.
+Animadv. t. vi. p. 54.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f809'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r809'>809</a>. De Scol. Poes. p. 8.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f810'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r810'>810</a>. Athen. i. 7.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f811'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r811'>811</a>. Athen. i. 7. This ox was
+sacrificed to Zeus the Fly-Chaser,
+in order to prevail on him to drive
+the swarms of insects, by which
+the spectators were incommoded,
+beyond the Alpheios. Cf. Plin.
+Nat. Hist. x. 40. ix. 34. Pausan.
+v. 14. i. viii. 26. 7. Ælian.
+De Nat. Animal. v. 17. xi.
+8.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f812'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r812'>812</a>. Athen. i. 8. Suidas. v. Τιμαχίδας.
+t. i. p. 899, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f813'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r813'>813</a>. Athen. i. 9.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f814'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r814'>814</a>. Suid. in v. Φιλοξ. t. ii. p. 1058.
+c. Athen. i. 10.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f815'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r815'>815</a>. Athen. i. 10. Suid. v. Πιθυλλ.
+t. ii. p. 526. c.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f816'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r816'>816</a>. Making allusion perhaps to
+his love for Galatea, the mistress
+of Dionysios. Athen. i. 11.
+Ælian. Var. Hist. xii. 44. Schol.
+Aristoph. Plut. 290.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f817'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r817'>817</a>. Athen. i. 11. See another
+anecdote of this gourmand in
+Ælian. Var. Hist. x. 9.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f818'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r818'>818</a>. Aristoph. Aves. 1189, sqq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f819'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r819'>819</a>. Sch. Aristoph. Eq. 403.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f820'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r820'>820</a>. Iliad, α. 492, sqq. Ilgen,
+Disq. de Scol. Poes. p. 55.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f821'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r821'>821</a>. Conf. Odyss. θ 72, sqq. α.
+154. 350.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f822'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r822'>822</a>. Plut. Cim. § 4. Afterwards, however, we find Cimon represented
+as singing with great skill. § 9.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f823'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r823'>823</a>. Cicero, Tuscul. Quæst. i. 2. Cf. Ilgen. De Scol. Poes. p. 62.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f824'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r824'>824</a>. Athen. xiv. 24. Ilgen, Disq.
+De Scol. Poes. p. 64.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f825'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r825'>825</a>. The hymn, for example, in
+honour of Pallas was, in all ages,
+sung. Sch. Aristoph. Nub. 954.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f826'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r826'>826</a>. Of Harmodios, for example,
+and Aristogeiton. Sch. Aristoph.
+Acharn. 942. See Ilgen, Disq. de
+Scol. Poes. p. 69.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f827'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r827'>827</a>. Conf. Hom. Hymn. in Herm.
+52, sqq. Pind. Olymp. i. 24.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f828'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r828'>828</a>. Poll. vi. 108, with the notes
+of Seber and Jungermann, t. v. p.
+142.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f829'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r829'>829</a>. Who has published a collection
+of these songs, accompanied
+by very interesting and instructive
+notes. Σκολια· hoc est, Carmina
+Convivalia Græcorum. Jenæ,
+1798.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f830'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r830'>830</a>. Apud Plut. de Musica, § 28.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f831'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r831'>831</a>. Pind. Fragm. Dissen. t. i. p.
+234, with the Commentary, t. ii.
+p.639, sqq. Aristoph. Vesp. 1222,
+1240. Acharn. 532. Pac. 1302.
+Plat. Gorg. t. iii. p. 13. Bekk.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f832'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r832'>832</a>. Suidas, v. σκολίον, t. ii. p.
+759, e. sqq. Etym. Mag. 718,
+35, sqq. Eustath. ad Odyss. η.
+276, 49.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f833'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r833'>833</a>. Mr. Müller, however, disapproves
+of this etymology. “It
+is much more likely,” he says,
+“that in the melody to which
+the scolia were sung, certain
+liberties and irregularities were
+permitted, by which the extempore
+execution of the song
+was facilitated.”—History of
+Greek Literature, pt. i. chap. xiii.
+§ 16, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f834'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r834'>834</a>. Plut. Symp. i. 1. Athen. xiv.
+24.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f835'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r835'>835</a>. Hesych. v. ᾄσακος, ap. Ilgen.
+De Scol. Poes. p. 154.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f836'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r836'>836</a>. Sch. Aristoph. Nub. 1339,
+1346.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f837'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r837'>837</a>. Potter, Antiq. ii. 403.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f838'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r838'>838</a>. <a id='corr209.n5.1'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='Scol.'>Sch.</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_209.n5.1'><ins class='correction' title='Scol.'>Sch.</ins></a></span> Aristoph. Nub. 1337, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f839'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r839'>839</a>. Ilgen, De <a id='corr209.n6.1'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='Schol.'>Scol.</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_209.n6.1'><ins class='correction' title='Schol.'>Scol.</ins></a></span> Poes. p. 156.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f840'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r840'>840</a>. Aristoph. Nub. 1358. Conf.
+Schol. ad Vesp. 1222.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f841'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r841'>841</a>. Schol. Aristoph. Nub. 1367.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f842'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r842'>842</a>. Dresig. de Rhapsodis. p. 7.
+sqq. ap. Ilgen, De Scol. Poes.
+p. 157. Pind. Isthm. iv. 63.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f843'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r843'>843</a>. Ilgen, De Scol. Poes. p.
+159.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f844'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r844'>844</a>. Athen. xv. 49.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f845'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r845'>845</a>. Athen. xi. 110.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f846'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r846'>846</a>. Vesp. 1220.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f847'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r847'>847</a>. Plato Phædr. t. i. p. 65.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f848'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r848'>848</a>. Homer. Odyss. θ. 97, sqq.
+Eustath. p. 295, 43.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f849'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r849'>849</a>. Athen. xv. 2, sqq. xi. 22, 58,
+75.—Suidas, v. κοταβίζειν. t. i. p.
+1504, b. seq. Etym. Mag. 538.
+13, sqq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f850'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r850'>850</a>. Potter, ii. 405, 406.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f851'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r851'>851</a>. Pollux. vi. 100, sqq. Athen.
+xv. 4. Cf. Flor. Christian ad
+Aristoph. Pac. 343.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f852'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r852'>852</a>. Pollux. vi. 101.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f853'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r853'>853</a>. Athen. xv. 7.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f854'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r854'>854</a>. Vid. Clem. Alexan. Protrep.
+i. 1. Diog. Laert. ii. 33.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f855'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r855'>855</a>. Pollux. vi. 107.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f856'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r856'>856</a>. Animadv. in Athen. x. 15.
+Cf. Scaliger, Poet. iii. 84, where
+the distinction made by Pollux is
+explained.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f857'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r857'>857</a>. Chap. xiv. vv. 14. 18. Chytræus,
+in his note on this passage,
+has several excellent and learned
+remarks on the subject. Vid.
+Seber. ad Poll. t. v. p. 141.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f858'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r858'>858</a>. Pollux. vi. 108. Scalig.
+Poet. iii. 84.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f859'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r859'>859</a>. Schol. Aristoph. Vesp. 20.
+Athen. x. 69.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f860'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r860'>860</a>. Pollux. vi. 108.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f861'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r861'>861</a>. Etym. Mag. 341, 35, sqq.
+Suidas. v. γρῖφος, t. i. p. 628,
+seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f862'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r862'>862</a>. Athen. x. 71.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f863'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r863'>863</a>. Athen. x. 73.</p>
+</div>
+<hr class='c016' />
+
+<div>
+ <span class='pageno' id='Page_220'>220</span>
+ <h3 class='c002'>CHAPTER VII. <br /> THE THEATRE.</h3>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c011'>It is far from being my purpose to repeat the
+information which may be obtained from a hundred
+authors on the rise and progress of scenic representation
+in Greece. I shall, on the contrary, confine
+myself chiefly to those parts of the subject which
+others have either altogether neglected, or treated
+in a concise and unsatisfactory manner. It would,
+nevertheless, be beside my purpose to attempt the
+clearing up of all such difficulties as occur in the
+accounts transmitted to us of the Hellenic drama;
+and, in fact, notwithstanding the laborious investigations
+into which I have been compelled to enter,
+I feel that there are many points upon which I can
+throw no new light, and which appear likely for
+ever to baffle the ingenuity of architects and
+scholars.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Dionysos, being a deity connected with agriculture,
+his worship naturally took its rise, and for a
+long time prevailed chiefly, in the country. His
+festivals were celebrated with merriment; and, the
+power of mimicry being natural to man, the rustics,
+when congregated to set forth the praise of their
+tutelar god, easily glided into the enactment of a
+farcical show. And dramatic exhibitions at the
+outset were little superior to the feats of Punch,
+though, so great was their suitableness to the national
+character, that, in the course of time, every
+town of note had its own theatre, as it had of old
+its own dithyrambic bard;<a id='r864' /><a href='#f864' class='c012'><sup>[864]</sup></a> and dramatic writers were
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_221'>221</span>multiplied incomparably beyond what they have been
+in any other country.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Both tragedy and comedy,<a id='r865' /><a href='#f865' class='c012'><sup>[865]</sup></a> properly so called,
+took their rise in Attica, and there only, in the
+ancient world, flourished and grew up to perfection.
+The theatre, in fact, formed at length a part of the
+constitution, and, probably, the worst part, its tendency
+being to foster personal enmities, to stir the
+sources of malice, and, while pretending to purge
+off the dross of the passions by the channels of
+sorrow and mirth, to induce habits of idleness and
+political apathy, by affording in the brilliant recesses
+of a mock world a facile refuge from the toils
+and duties of the real one. Nevertheless, it may
+be curious to open up a view into that universe of
+shadows wherein the vast creations of Æschylus, of
+Sophocles, of Euripides, of Aristophanes, and Menander
+displayed themselves before the eyes of the
+Athenians, with a costly grandeur and magnificence
+never equalled save in imperial Rome.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>It has been already remarked, that to the Dionysiac
+theatre of Athens the architectural speculations
+of Vitruvius on dramatic edifices apply, this building
+having constituted the model on which similar
+structures were afterwards erected.<a id='r866' /><a href='#f866' class='c012'><sup>[866]</sup></a> By carefully
+studying its details, therefore, we shall be enabled
+to form a tolerably just conception of all the theatres
+once found in Greece, though each, perhaps, may
+have been slightly modified in plan, general arrangement,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_222'>222</span>and decorations, by the peculiarities of the
+site, and the science or taste of its architect.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The great theatre of Bacchos, partly scooped out
+of the rock on the face of the hill at the south-eastern
+angle of the Acropolis, stretched forth, on
+solid piers of masonry, a considerable distance into
+the plain, and was capable of containing upwards
+of thirty thousand people. The diameter, accordingly,
+if it did not exceed, could have fallen little
+short of five hundred feet.<a id='r867' /><a href='#f867' class='c012'><sup>[867]</sup></a> For we are not to suppose
+that, while Sparta,<a id='r868' /><a href='#f868' class='c012'><sup>[868]</sup></a> and Argos, and Megalopolis,
+cities comparatively insignificant, possessed theatres
+of such dimensions, Athens, incomparably the largest
+and most beautiful of Hellenic capitals, would have
+been content with one of inferior magnitude.<a id='r869' /><a href='#f869' class='c012'><sup>[869]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>To determine accurately the various parts of the
+theatre, and thus affix a distinct meaning to every
+term connected with it, has exercised the ingenuity
+of critics and architects for the last three hundred
+years, still leaving many difficulties to be overcome.
+I can scarcely hope in every case to succeed where
+they have failed. But the following explanation
+may, perhaps, convey of its interior an idea sufficiently
+exact for all practical purposes.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Supposing ourselves to be standing at the foot
+of the Katatomè,<a id='r870' /><a href='#f870' class='c012'><sup>[870]</sup></a> a smooth wall of rock, rising
+perpendicularly from the back of the theatre to the
+superimpending fortifications of the Acropolis, we
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_223'>223</span>behold on either hand, surmounted by porticoes,
+lofty piers of masonry projecting like horns down
+the rocky slope into the plain and united at their
+extremities by a wall of equal height, running in
+a straight line from one point of the horseshoe to
+the other. The space thus enclosed is divided into
+three principal parts,—the amphitheatre for the
+spectators, the orchestra,<a id='r871' /><a href='#f871' class='c012'><sup>[871]</sup></a> filling all the space occupied
+by the modern pit, for the chorus, and the
+stage, properly so called, for the actors. Each of
+these parts was again subdivided. Looking down
+still from the Katatomè, we behold the benches
+of white marble, sweeping round the whole semicircle
+of the theatre, descend like steps to the
+level of the orchestra, and intersected at intervals
+by narrow straight passages converging towards
+a point below.<a id='r872' /><a href='#f872' class='c012'><sup>[872]</sup></a> A number of the upper seats,
+cut off, by an open space extending round the
+whole semicircle, from the rest, was set apart
+for the women. Other divisions were appropriated
+to other classes of the population, as the tier of
+seats immediately overlooking the orchestra to the
+senators, or dicasts, another portion to the youth,
+another to foreigners and the guests of the state,
+while the remainder was occupied by the dense mass
+of citizens of all ages,<a id='r873' /><a href='#f873' class='c012'><sup>[873]</sup></a> with crowns of flowers on
+their heads.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Above the level of the most elevated range of
+seats, and stretching round the whole sweep of the
+edifice,<a id='r874' /><a href='#f874' class='c012'><sup>[874]</sup></a> arose a spacious portico,<a id='r875' /><a href='#f875' class='c012'><sup>[875]</sup></a> designed to afford
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_224'>224</span>shelter to the spectators during the continuance of
+a sudden shower. Another range of porticoes extended
+along the small lawn or grove within the
+limits of the theatre, at the back of the stage, so
+that there was little necessity for the Athenian
+people to take refuge, as some have imagined, from
+the weather in the public buildings, sacred or civil,
+in the vicinity.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>It would appear from an expression in Pollux,<a id='r876' /><a href='#f876' class='c012'><sup>[876]</sup></a>
+that the lower seats of the theatre, appropriated to
+persons of distinction, were covered with wood,<a id='r877' /><a href='#f877' class='c012'><sup>[877]</sup></a>
+notwithstanding which, it was usual, in the later
+ages of the commonwealth, for rich persons to have
+cushions brought for them to the theatre by their
+domestics,<a id='r878' /><a href='#f878' class='c012'><sup>[878]</sup></a> together with purple carpets for their
+feet. Theophrastus, accordingly, whom few striking
+traits of manners escaped, represents his flatterer
+snatching this theatrical cushion from the slave, and
+adjusting and obsequiously smoothing it for his patron.<a id='r879' /><a href='#f879' class='c012'><sup>[879]</sup></a>
+To render their devotion to Dionysos still less
+irksome, it was customary to hand round cakes and
+wine during the representation, though, like Homer’s
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_225'>225</span>heroes, they were careful to fortify themselves
+with a good meal before they ventured abroad. We
+are informed, moreover, that when the actors were
+bad there was a greater consumption of confectionary,
+the good people being determined to make
+up in one kind of enjoyment what they lost in
+another. Full cups, moreover, were habitually
+drained on the entrance and exit of the chorus.<a id='r880' /><a href='#f880' class='c012'><sup>[880]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The orchestra, being considerably below the level
+of the stage, had in the middle of it a small square
+platform, called the Thymele,<a id='r881' /><a href='#f881' class='c012'><sup>[881]</sup></a> sometimes regarded
+as a bema on which the leader of the chorus mounted
+when engaged in dialogue with the actors; sometimes
+as an altar on which sacrifice was offered up to
+Dionysos. That part of the orchestra which lay between
+the Thymele and the stage was denominated
+the Dromos, while the name of Parodoi was bestowed
+on those two spacious side-passages,<a id='r882' /><a href='#f882' class='c012'><sup>[882]</sup></a> the
+one from the east, the other from the west, at the
+extremities of the tiers of seats which afforded the
+chorus ample room for marching in and out in rank
+and file, in the quadrangular form it usually affected.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>At the extremity of the orchestra a pier of masonry
+called the Hyposcenion, adorned with columns
+and statues, rose to the level of the stage, where
+a most intricate system of machinery and decoration
+represented all that was tangible to sense in
+the creations of the poet. The stage was divided
+into two parts; first, the Ocribas or Logeion,<a id='r883' /><a href='#f883' class='c012'><sup>[883]</sup></a>
+floored with boards, and hollow beneath, for the
+purpose of reverberating the voice; second, the
+Proscenion,<a id='r884' /><a href='#f884' class='c012'><sup>[884]</sup></a> a broader parallelogram of solid stonework,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_226'>226</span>necessary to support the vast apparatus of
+machinery and decoration required by the character
+of the Grecian drama. The descent from the stage<a id='r885' /><a href='#f885' class='c012'><sup>[885]</sup></a>
+into the orchestra was by two flights of steps situated
+at either extremity of the Logeion, at the
+point where the Parodoi touched upon the Dromos.
+Beyond the Proscenion arose the Scene,<a id='r886' /><a href='#f886' class='c012'><sup>[886]</sup></a> properly
+so called, the aspect of which was constantly varied,
+to suit the requirements of each successive piece.
+In most cases, however, it represented the front of
+three different edifices, of which the central one,
+communicating with the stage by a broad and lofty
+portal, was generally a palace. Sometimes, as in
+the Philoctetes, this portal was converted into the
+mouth of a cavern,<a id='r887' /><a href='#f887' class='c012'><sup>[887]</sup></a> opening upon the view, amid
+the rocks and solitudes of Lemnos, while in other
+plays it formed the entrance to the mansion of some
+private person of distinction, but was always appropriated
+to the principal actor. The building on
+the right assumed in comedy the appearance of an
+inn, through the door of which the second actor
+issued upon the stage, while the portal on the left
+led into a ruined temple, or uninhabited house. In
+tragedy the right hand entrance was appropriated
+to strangers, while on the left was that of the female
+apartments, or of a prison.<a id='r888' /><a href='#f888' class='c012'><sup>[888]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Upon the stage, in front of the doors, stood an
+altar of Apollo Aguieus, and a table covered with
+cakes and confectionary,<a id='r889' /><a href='#f889' class='c012'><sup>[889]</sup></a> which appears sometimes
+to have been regarded as the representative of that
+ancient table, on which, in the simplicity of Prothespian
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_227'>227</span>times, the solitary actor mounted when
+engaged in dialogue with the chorus.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>When the stage was fitted up for the performance
+of comedy, there stood near the house a painted scene
+representing a large cattle-shed, with capacious double
+gates, for the admission of waggons and sumpter oxen,
+with herds and droves of asses, when returning from
+the field. In the Akestriæ of Antiphanes,<a id='r890' /><a href='#f890' class='c012'><sup>[890]</sup></a> this rustic
+building was converted into a workshop. Beyond
+each of the side-doors on the right and left were two
+machines,<a id='r891' /><a href='#f891' class='c012'><sup>[891]</sup></a> one on either hand, upon which the extremity
+of the periactoi abutted. The scene on the
+right represented rural landscapes, that on the left
+prospects in the environs of the city, particularly
+views of the harbour. On these periactoi,<a id='r892' /><a href='#f892' class='c012'><sup>[892]</sup></a> were represented
+the marine deities riding on the waves,
+and generally all such objects as could not be introduced
+by machinery. By turning the periactoi
+on the right, the situation was changed, but when
+both were turned a wholly new landscape was placed
+before the eye. Of the parodoi, or side-passages,
+that on the right led from the fields, from the harbour,
+or from the city, as the necessities of the play
+required, while those arriving on foot from any
+other part entered by the opposite passage, and,
+traversing a portion of the orchestra, ascended the
+stage by the flights of steps before mentioned.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The machinery<a id='r893' /><a href='#f893' class='c012'><sup>[893]</sup></a> by which the dumb economy of
+the play was developed consisted of numerous parts,
+highly complicated and curious. To avoid labour,
+and, perhaps, some tediousness, these might be passed
+over with such a remark as the above, but this would
+be to escape from difficulties not to diminish them.
+I shall descend to particulars.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>First, and most remarkable, was that machine called
+an Eccyclema,<a id='r894' /><a href='#f894' class='c012'><sup>[894]</sup></a> much used by the ancients when
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_228'>228</span>scenes within-doors were to be brought to view.
+It consisted of a wooden structure, moved on wheels,
+and represented the interior of an apartment. In
+order to pass forth through the doors, it was formed
+less deep than broad, and rolled forth sideways, turning
+round afterwards, and concealing the front of the
+building from which it had issued. The channels
+in the floor, which were traversed by the wheels,
+doubtless concealed beneath the lofty basis, received
+the name of Eiscyclema.<a id='r895' /><a href='#f895' class='c012'><sup>[895]</sup></a> Sometimes, as in the Agamemnon,
+it presented to view “the royal bathing
+apartment with the silver laver, the corpse enveloped
+in the fatal garment, and Clytemnestra, besprinkled
+with blood, and holding in her hand the
+reeking weapon, still standing with haughty mien
+over her murdered victim.”<a id='r896' /><a href='#f896' class='c012'><sup>[896]</sup></a> On other occasions a
+throne, a corpse, the interior of a tent, the summit
+of a building, were exhibited; and in the Clouds of
+Aristophanes the interior of Socrates’ house was laid
+open to the spectators, containing a number of masks,
+gaunt and pale, the natural fruit of philosophy.<a id='r897' /><a href='#f897' class='c012'><sup>[897]</sup></a> It
+should be remarked that the Eccyclema issued through
+any of the doors, as the piece required the cells of
+a prison, the halls of a palace, or the chambers of an
+inn, to be placed before the eyes of the audience.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>That peculiar machine in which the gods made
+their appearance,<a id='r898' /><a href='#f898' class='c012'><sup>[898]</sup></a> or such heroes as enjoyed the privilege
+of travelling through the air,—Bellerophon,
+for example, and Perseus,—stood near the left side-entrance,
+and, in height, exceeded the stone skreen
+at the back of the stage. This, in tragedy, was
+denominated Mechanè, and Kradè in comedy,<a id='r899' /><a href='#f899' class='c012'><sup>[899]</sup></a>—in
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_229'>229</span>this case resembling a fig-tree, which the Athenians
+called Kradè. The watch-tower, the battlements, and
+the turret, were constructed for the use of those
+watchmen, such as the old man in the Agamemnon,
+who looked out for signals, or indications of the coming
+foe. The Phructorion<a id='r900' /><a href='#f900' class='c012'><sup>[900]</sup></a> was a pharos, or beacon-tower.
+Another portion of the stage was the Distegia,
+a building two stories high in palaces, from
+the top of which, in the Phœnissœ of Euripides,<a id='r901' /><a href='#f901' class='c012'><sup>[901]</sup></a> Antigone
+beholds the army. It was roofed with tiles,
+(and thence called Keramos,) which they sometimes
+cast down upon the enemy. In comedy, libertines
+and old women, or ladies of equivocal character, were
+represented prying into the street for prey from such
+buildings.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The Keraunoskopeion<a id='r902' /><a href='#f902' class='c012'><sup>[902]</sup></a> was a lofty triangular column,
+which appears to have been hollow, and furnished
+with narrow fissures, extending in right lines
+from top to bottom. Within seem to have been a
+number of lamps, on stationary bases, from which, as
+the periactos whirled round, sheets of mimic lightning
+flashed upon the stage from behind the scenes.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The construction of the Bronteion,<a id='r903' /><a href='#f903' class='c012'><sup>[903]</sup></a> or thunder magazine,
+I imagine to have been nearly as follows:—a
+number of brazen plates, arranged one below another,
+like stairs, descended through a steep, vaulted
+passage behind the scene, into the bottom of a tower,
+terminating in a vast brazen caldron. From the
+edge of this, a series of metallic apertures,<a id='r904' /><a href='#f904' class='c012'><sup>[904]</sup></a> probably
+spiral, pierced the tower wall, and opened without
+in funnels, like the mouths of trumpets.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>When some deity was required to descend to earth
+in the midst of lightning and sudden thunder, the
+Keraunoskopeion was instantaneously put in motion,
+and showers of pebbles from the sea-shore were hurled
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_230'>230</span>down the mouth of the Bronteion, and, rolling over
+the brazen receptacles, produced a terrific crash,
+which, with innumerable reverberations, was poured
+forth by the Echeia upon the theatre.<a id='r905' /><a href='#f905' class='c012'><sup>[905]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>In a lofty gallery called the Theologeion, extending
+over the marble skreen at the back of the stage,
+appeared the gods, when the drama required their
+presence; and hence, I imagine, the Hebrew colony
+which makes its appearance nightly near the roof
+of our own theatres have obtained the name of gods.
+Here Zeus, and the other deities of Olympos, were
+assembled in that very extraordinary drama of Æschylus,
+the Psychostasia, or weighing in the balance the
+souls of Achilles and Hector.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>They employed in the theatre the machine called
+a Crane,<a id='r906' /><a href='#f906' class='c012'><sup>[906]</sup></a> the point of which being lowered, snatched
+up whatever it was designed to bear aloft into the
+air. By means of this contrivance, Eos, goddess of
+the dawn, descended and bore away the body of
+Memnon, slain by Achilles before Troy. At other
+times strong cords, so disposed as to resemble swings,
+were let down from the roof, to support the gods
+or heroes who seemed to be borne through the air.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Though by turning the Periactoi three changes of
+scene could be produced, many more were sometimes
+required, and, when this was the case, new landscapes
+were dropped, like hangings, or slided in frames in
+front of those painted columns. These usually represented
+views of the sea, or mountain scenery, or the
+course of some river winding along through solitary
+vales, or other prospects of similar character, according
+to the spirit of the drama.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The position of the Hemicycle is more difficult
+to comprehend. It appears to have been a retreating
+semicircular scene, placed facing the orchestra,
+and masking the marble buildings at the back of
+the stage, when a view was to be opened up into
+some distant part of the city, or shipwrecked mariners
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_231'>231</span>were to be exhibited buffeting with the waves.
+Not very dissimilar was the Stropheion,<a id='r907' /><a href='#f907' class='c012'><sup>[907]</sup></a> which
+brought to view heroes translated to Olympos, or
+on the ocean, or in battle slain, where change of
+position with respect to the spectator was produced
+by the rotatory motion of the machine.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The position of the Charonian staircase,<a id='r908' /><a href='#f908' class='c012'><sup>[908]</sup></a> by which
+spectres and apparitions ascended from the nether
+world, is exceedingly difficult to be determined; but
+that it was somewhere on the stage appears to me
+certain, notwithstanding the seeming testimony of
+Pollux to the contrary. The hypothesis which
+makes the ghosts issue from a door immediately
+beneath the seats of the spectators, and rush along
+the whole depth of the orchestra, among the chorus
+and musicians, is, at any rate, absurd. It must
+have been somewhere towards the back of the
+stage, near the altar of Loxios, the table of shew-bread
+and those sacred and antique images which in
+certain dramas were there exhibited. Here, likewise,
+was the trap-door, through which river-gods
+issued from the earth, while the other trap-door,
+appropriated to the Furies, seems to have been situated
+in the boards of the Logeion, near one of the
+flights of steps leading down into the orchestra.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The above synopsis of the machinery and decorations
+employed by the Greeks in their theatrical
+shows may, possibly, from its imperfection, suggest
+the idea of a rude and clumsy apparatus. But, as
+the arts of poetry, sculpture, painting, and architecture
+reached in Greece the highest perfection, and,
+as this perfection was coëtaneous with the flourishing
+state of the drama, it is impossible to escape
+the conviction, that the art of scene-painting
+and the manufacturing of stage machinery, likewise,
+underwent all the improvements of which by their
+nature they are susceptible. For, in the first place,
+it is not easy to suppose, that a people, so fastidious
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_232'>232</span>as were the Athenians, would have tolerated in the
+theatre displays of ignorance and want of skill which
+everywhere else they are known to have overwhelmed
+with contempt and derision; more especially
+as, in the first place, the landscapes and objects
+represented were usually those with which they
+were most familiar, though the fancy of the poet
+sometimes ventured to transport them to the most
+elevated and inaccessible recesses of Mount Caucasus,
+to the summit of the celestial Olympos, to the
+palaces and harems of Persia, to the wilds of the
+Tauric Chersonese,<a id='r909' /><a href='#f909' class='c012'><sup>[909]</sup></a> or even to the dim and dreary
+regions of the dead. The names, nevertheless, of
+few scene-painters, besides Agatharchos,<a id='r910' /><a href='#f910' class='c012'><sup>[910]</sup></a> have come
+down to us, though it is known, that, in their own
+day, they sometimes divided with the poet the admiration
+of the audience, and, on other occasions,
+enabled poets of inferior merit to bear away the
+prize from their betters.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The character, however, of stage-scenery differed
+very widely in tragedy, comedy, and satyric pieces,<a id='r911' /><a href='#f911' class='c012'><sup>[911]</sup></a>
+usually consisting, in the first, of façades of palaces,
+with colonnades, architraves, cornices, niches, statues,
+&c.; in comedy, of the fronts or courts of ordinary
+houses, with windows, balconies, porticoes, &c.;
+while, in the satyric drama, the fancy of the painter
+and decorator was allowed to develope before the
+audience scenes of rural beauty remote from cities,
+as the hollows of mountains shaded with forests,
+winding valleys, plains, rivers, caverns, and sacred
+groves.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Of the Grecian actors,<a id='r912' /><a href='#f912' class='c012'><sup>[912]</sup></a> whose business and profession
+next require to be noticed, too little by far
+is known, considering the curious interest of the
+subject. Their art, however, would appear to have
+sprung from that of the rhapsodists, who chanted
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_233'>233</span>in temples, during religious festivals, and afterwards
+in the theatres, the heroic lays of Greece. To a
+certain extent, indeed, the rhapsodist was himself
+an actor. His art required him to enter deeply
+into the spirit of the poetry he recited, to suit to
+the passion brought into play the modulations and
+inflexions of his voice, his tone, his looks, his gesture,
+so as vividly to paint to the imagination the
+picture designed by the poet, and sway the whole
+theatre by the powerful wand of sympathy through
+all the gradations of sorrow, indignation, and joy.<a id='r913' /><a href='#f913' class='c012'><sup>[913]</sup></a>
+By some writers, accordingly, the rhapsodist is apparently
+confounded with the actor, that is, he is
+considered an actor of epics,<a id='r914' /><a href='#f914' class='c012'><sup>[914]</sup></a> though in reality his
+imitations of character were partial and imperfect.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Actors formed at Athens part of a guild, or company,
+called the Dionysiac artificers,<a id='r915' /><a href='#f915' class='c012'><sup>[915]</sup></a> among whom
+were also comprehended rhapsodists, citharœdi, citharistæ,
+musicians, jugglers, and other individuals<a id='r916' /><a href='#f916' class='c012'><sup>[916]</sup></a>
+connected with the theatre. These persons, though
+for the most part held in little estimation, were yet
+somewhat more respectable than at Rome, where to
+appear on the stage was infamous.<a id='r917' /><a href='#f917' class='c012'><sup>[917]</sup></a> Like the rhapsodists,
+they generally led a wandering life, sometimes
+appearing at Athens,<a id='r918' /><a href='#f918' class='c012'><sup>[918]</sup></a> sometimes at Corinth,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_234'>234</span>or Sicyon, or Epidauros, or Thebes, after the fashion
+approved among the strollers of our own day. In
+the course of these wanderings they now and then
+fell in with rare adventures, as in the case of that
+company of comedians which, on returning from
+Messenia towards the Isthmus, was met by king
+Cleomenes and the Spartan army near Megalopolis.<a id='r919' /><a href='#f919' class='c012'><sup>[919]</sup></a>
+To exhibit the superiority of his power and his contempt
+for the enemy, Cleomenes threw up, probably
+with turf and boards, a temporary theatre, where
+he and his army sat all day enjoying the jokes and
+wild merriment of the stage, after which, he bestowed,
+as a prize, upon the principal performers, the
+sum of forty minæ, or about one hundred and sixty
+pounds sterling.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>About this period, however, it was usual for the
+armies of Greece, republican as well as royal, to be
+followed by companies of strollers, jugglers, dancing
+girls, and musicians.<a id='r920' /><a href='#f920' class='c012'><sup>[920]</sup></a> Even in the army of Alexander,
+when proceeding on the Persian expedition,
+the “flatterers of Dionysos”<a id='r921' /><a href='#f921' class='c012'><sup>[921]</sup></a> were not forgotten;
+in fact, the son of Philip set a high value upon
+the performances of these gentlemen, and with truly
+royal munificence allowed them to enjoy their full
+share of the plunder of the East. Thus, when Nicocreon,
+king of Salamis, and Pasicrates, king of Soli,<a id='r922' /><a href='#f922' class='c012'><sup>[922]</sup></a>
+played the part of Choregi in Cyprus, in getting up
+certain tragedies there performed for the amusement
+of Alexander, and the actors, Thessalos, and Athenodoros
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_235'>235</span>the Athenian, contended for the prize; he
+was piqued at the victory of the Athenian, and,
+though he commended the judges for bestowing the
+prize on him whom they regarded as the best performer,
+said, he would have given a part of his
+kingdom rather than have beheld Thessalos overcome
+by a rival.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Afterwards, when Athenodoros was fined by his
+countrymen for absenting himself from Athens during
+the Dionysiac festival, evidently contrary to the statutes
+in that case made and provided, Alexander paid
+the fine for his humble friend, though he refused
+to make application to the people for its remission.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>An anecdote related of Lycon of Scarphe, also
+shows the high value set by the Macedonian prince
+upon the amusements of the stage, and the influence
+exercised over his mind by the Dionysiac artificers,
+though, according to Antiphanes, he wanted
+the taste to discriminate between a good play and
+a bad one. The Scarpheote being one day in want
+of money, as actors sometimes are, introduced into
+the piece he was performing a line of his own
+making, beseeching the conqueror to bestow on him
+ten talents; Alexander, amused by his extravagance,
+or captivated perhaps, by the flattery which accompanied
+it, at once granted his request, and thus
+upwards of two thousand four hundred pounds of
+the public money were expended for the momentary
+gratification of a prince.<a id='r923' /><a href='#f923' class='c012'><sup>[923]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The philosophers, almost of necessity, thought
+and spoke of these wandering performers with extreme
+contempt. Plato observes, that they went
+about from city to city collecting together thoughtless
+crowds, and, by their beautiful, sonorous, and
+persuasive voices, converting republics into tyrannies
+and aristocracies. Aristotle endeavoured to
+account for their evil character and agency.<a id='r924' /><a href='#f924' class='c012'><sup>[924]</sup></a> They
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_236'>236</span>were worthless, he says, because of all men they
+profited least by the lessons of reason and philosophy,
+their whole lives being consumed by the study
+of their professional arts, or passed in intemperance
+and difficulties.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Nevertheless, even among them there were different
+grades, some aiming at the higher walks of
+tragedy and comedy; while others were content
+to declaim rude, low songs, seated on waggons like
+mountebanks during the Lenæan festival.<a id='r925' /><a href='#f925' class='c012'><sup>[925]</sup></a> Nor
+must this fashion be at all regarded as Prothespian,
+since it prevailed down to a very late period.
+And as in every thing the Greeks aimed at excellence
+and distinction, so even here we find that
+there was a contest between the poets who wrote
+the comic songs sung by these humble performers
+from their waggons.<a id='r926' /><a href='#f926' class='c012'><sup>[926]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The various classes of actors known to the ancients
+were numerous. Among the lower grades were the
+Magodos, and the Lysiodos,<a id='r927' /><a href='#f927' class='c012'><sup>[927]</sup></a> who though confounded
+by some, appear clearly to have been distinct; the
+former personating both male and female characters;
+the latter female characters only, though disguised
+in male costume. But the songs, and every other
+characteristic of their performances, were the same.
+The spirit of the coarse satirical farces they acted
+forbids my explaining their nature fully.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>There were even several authors who attained a
+“bad eminence” in this department of literature,
+which especially affected the Ionic dialect, as Alexander,
+the Ætolian,<a id='r928' /><a href='#f928' class='c012'><sup>[928]</sup></a> Pyretos of Miletos, a city noted
+for its dissolute characters, and Alexos, who obtained
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_237'>237</span>on this account an opprobrious sobriquet. The most
+remarkable, however, of this vicious brood would appear
+to have been Sotades<a id='r929' /><a href='#f929' class='c012'><sup>[929]</sup></a> the Maronite, and his
+son Apollonios who wrote a work on his father’s
+poems. Sotades was probably the original imitated
+by Pietro Aretino, who obtained in modern times a
+like reputation, though timely penitence may have
+snatched him from a similar end. The ancient libeller,
+enacting the part of Thersites, fastened with
+peculiar delight on the vices of princes, not from
+aversion to their manners, but because such scandal
+paved the way to notoriety. Thus at Alexandria,
+he covered Lysimachos with obloquy, which, when
+at the court of Lysimachos, he heaped upon Ptolemy
+Philadelphos. His punishment, however, exceeded
+the measure of his offences. Being overtaken in
+the island of Caunos by Patrocles, one of Ptolemy’s
+generals, the obsequious mercenary caused him to
+be enclosed in a leaden box and cast into the sea.<a id='r930' /><a href='#f930' class='c012'><sup>[930]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The Magodos, then, was a wandering farce actor,
+not unlike the tumbling mountebanks one sometimes
+sees in France and southern Europe. He
+travelled about with an apparatus of drums, cymbals,
+and female disguises, sometimes impersonating
+women, sometimes adulterers or the mean servants
+of vice; and the style of his dancing and performances
+corresponded with the low walk he selected,
+being wholly destitute of beauty or decorum. It
+seems necessary, therefore, to adopt the opinion of
+Aristoxenos, who considered the art of the Hilarodos
+as a serious imitation of tragedy; that of the Magodos
+as a comic parody, brought down to the level
+of the grossly vulgar. The latter art would appear
+to have derived its name from the charms, spells,
+or magical songs chanted by the mountebanks who
+likewise pretended to develope the secrets of pharmaceutics.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'><span class='pageno' id='Page_238'>238</span>Superior in every way to the Magodos and Lysiodos
+was the Hilarodos,<a id='r931' /><a href='#f931' class='c012'><sup>[931]</sup></a> who, though a wandering
+singer like the Italians and Savoyards of modern
+Europe, affected no little state, and was evidently
+treated with some respect. His costume, in conformity
+with the popular taste, displayed considerable
+magnificence, consisting of a golden crown, white
+stole and costly sandals, though in earlier ages he
+appeared in shoes. He was usually accompanied by
+a youth or maiden who touched the lyre as he sung.
+The style of his performances was decorous and manly.
+When a crown was given him in token of approbation
+by the audience, it was bestowed on the
+Hilarodos himself, not on the musician.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>A class of actors existed, also from very remote
+times, among the Spartans. They were called Deikelistæ,<a id='r932' /><a href='#f932' class='c012'><sup>[932]</sup></a>
+and their style of performing showed the
+little value set upon the drama at Sparta. The
+poetry of the piece, if poetry it could be called, was
+extempore and of the rudest description, and the
+characters were altogether conformable. Sometimes
+the interest of the play turned upon a man robbing
+an orchard, or on the broken Greek of an outlandish
+physician, whom people respected for his gibberish.
+This weakness, prevalent of course at Athens also,
+is wittily satirised by Alexis in his Female Opium
+Eater.</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line in16'>“Now if a native</div>
+ <div class='line'>Doctor prescribe, ‘Give him a porringer</div>
+ <div class='line'>Of ptisan in the morning,’ we despise him.</div>
+ <div class='line'>But in some <em>brogue</em> disguised ’tis admirable.</div>
+ <div class='line'>Thus he who speaks of <em>Beet</em> is slighted, while</div>
+ <div class='line'>We prick our ears if he but mention <em>Bate</em>,</div>
+ <div class='line'>As if <em>Bate</em> knew some virtue not in <em>Beet</em>.”<a id='r933' /><a href='#f933' class='c012'><sup>[933]</sup></a></div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c014'><span class='pageno' id='Page_239'>239</span>The Deikelistæ, however, were not confined to
+Laconia, but, under various names were known
+in most other parts of Greece. Thus, at Sicyon,
+they obtained the appellation of Phallophori, elsewhere
+they were called Autocabdali, or Improvisator;
+while in Italy, (that is, among the Greek colonists,<a id='r934' /><a href='#f934' class='c012'><sup>[934]</sup></a>)
+they were known by the name of Phlyakes.<a id='r935' /><a href='#f935' class='c012'><sup>[935]</sup></a>
+By the common people they were called
+the wise men (σοφίσται), upon the same principle that
+actors in France are known by the name of <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><i>artistes</i></span>.
+The Thebans, renowned for the havoc they made in
+the language of Greece, denominated them the Voluntaries,
+alluding proleptically perhaps to the “voluntary
+principle.” Semos, the Delian, draws an
+amusing picture of these Improvisatori. Those performers,
+he says, who are called Autocabdali made
+their appearance on the stage, crowned with ivy,
+and poured forth their verse extempore. The name
+of Iambi was afterwards bestowed, both on them
+and their poems. Another class who were called
+Ithyphalli,<a id='r936' /><a href='#f936' class='c012'><sup>[936]</sup></a> wore those masks, which on the stage
+were appropriated to drunkards, with crowns of
+ivy and flowered gloves upon their hands. Their
+chitons were striped with white, and over these,
+bound by a girdle at the loins, they wore a Tarentine
+pelisse descending to the ankle. They entered
+upon the stage by the great door appropriated
+to royal personages, and, advancing in silence
+across the stage, turned towards the audience
+and exclaimed,—</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>“Make way there, a wide space</div>
+ <div class='line'>Yield to the god;</div>
+ <div class='line'>For Dionysos has a mind to walk</div>
+ <div class='line'>Bolt upright through your midst.”</div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c014'><span class='pageno' id='Page_240'>240</span>The Phallophori made their appearance unmasked,
+shading their face with a drooping garland of wild
+thyme, intermingled with acanthus-leaves, and surmounted
+by an ample crown of ivy, with violets
+appearing between its glossy dark foliage. Their
+costume was the caunacè. Of these actors, some
+entered through the side-passages, others through
+the central door, advancing with measured tread,
+and saying,—</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>“Bacchos, to thee our muse belongs,</div>
+ <div class='line in2'>Of simple chant, and varied lays;</div>
+ <div class='line'>Nor fit for virgin ears our songs,</div>
+ <div class='line in2'>Nor handed down from ancient days:</div>
+ <div class='line'>Fresh flows the strain we pour to thee,</div>
+ <div class='line'>Patron of joy and minstrelsy!”</div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c014'>After which, skipping forward, they made a halt
+and showered their sarcasms indiscriminately on
+whomsoever they pleased, while the leader of the
+troop moved slowly about, his face bedaubed with
+soot.<a id='r937' /><a href='#f937' class='c012'><sup>[937]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The superior classes of performers, whether actors
+or musicians, seem to have been held in much estimation,
+and to have been still more extravagantly
+paid than in our own day. Thus Amœbæos, the
+Citharœdos, who lived near the Odeion at Athens,
+received, but at what period of the republic is not
+known, an Attic talent a day, as often as he played
+in public.<a id='r938' /><a href='#f938' class='c012'><sup>[938]</sup></a> Music, however, was always in high
+estimation in Greece, where the greatest men, though
+they did not seek to rival regular professors in skill,
+yet learned to amuse their leisure with it. Thus
+the Homeric Achilles plays on the lyre, the sounds
+of which could not only cure diseases of the mind
+but of the body. A similar belief existed among
+the Israelites, as we learn from the example of
+Saul.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Though talent must have been always respected
+in an actor, it appears to me that anciently they
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_241'>241</span>made comparatively little figure, while there were
+great poets to excite admiration. But, afterwards,
+when dramatic literature had sunk very low, the
+actor usurped the consideration due to the poet, as
+has long been the case in this country. They then
+contended for the prize in the tragic contests,<a id='r939' /><a href='#f939' class='c012'><sup>[939]</sup></a> and
+began to entertain a high opinion of their own
+merits. In fact, the ignorant being better calculated
+to feel than to judge, the actors often obtained
+the first prizes in the games, and were held
+in higher estimation than the poets themselves.<a id='r940' /><a href='#f940' class='c012'><sup>[940]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Thus persuaded of their own importance, they gradually
+exercised over the poor devils who composed
+plays for them, much the same tyranny as that in
+our own age complained of by the poetical servants
+of the theatre. That is, they despotically interfered
+with the framing of the plot, with the succession
+of the scenes, and procured episodes to be introduced,
+in order that they might show off their
+peculiar abilities. This is evident from a passage
+in Aristotle’s Politics,<a id='r941' /><a href='#f941' class='c012'><sup>[941]</sup></a> where he observes that the
+celebrated actor Theodoros would allow no inferior
+performer to appear before him on the stage, knowing
+the force of first impressions; from which it is
+evident that the author was compelled to yield to
+his caprice.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Antiquity has preserved the names of many celebrated
+actors, of whom several played a conspicuous
+though sometimes a dishonourable part in the great
+theatre of the world. Thus Aristodemos, who performed
+the first character alternately with Theodoros,
+became afterwards a traitor and betrayed the state
+to Philip. Such too was the case with Philocrates
+and Æschines, both actors,<a id='r942' /><a href='#f942' class='c012'><sup>[942]</sup></a> and both rogues. Satyros,
+a comedian of the same period, appears to
+have been a man of high character and honour, who
+in consequence obtained the friendship of <a id='corr242.1'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='Demosthenes'>Demosthenes.</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_242.1'><ins class='correction' title='Demosthenes'>Demosthenes.</ins></a></span>
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_242'>242</span>But the Garrick of that age seems to have
+been Theocrines,<a id='r943' /><a href='#f943' class='c012'><sup>[943]</sup></a> who by many, however, is supposed
+to have afterwards degenerated into a sycophant.
+Callipedes is chiefly known to us from the anecdote
+which describes the check his vanity received
+from Agesilaos. Having acquired great reputation
+as a tragic actor, he appears to have considered himself
+as equal at least to any king, and therefore,
+meeting one day with Agesilaos, he ostentatiously
+put himself forward, mingled with the courtiers and
+took much pains to attract his notice. Finding all
+these efforts useless, his pride was wounded, and
+going up directly to the Spartan, he said,</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>“Dost thou not know me, king?”</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>“Why,” replied Agesilaos, “art thou not Callipedes,
+the stage-buffoon?”<a id='r944' /><a href='#f944' class='c012'><sup>[944]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The account transmitted to us of Æsopos is somewhat
+puzzling; he is described as one of the actors<a id='r945' /><a href='#f945' class='c012'><sup>[945]</sup></a>
+who performed in the tragedies of Æschylus, but is
+said to have been at the same time a fellow of infinite
+merriment who turned everything into a jest,
+a sort I suppose of comic Macbeth. Œagros obtained
+celebrity in the part of Niobe,<a id='r946' /><a href='#f946' class='c012'><sup>[946]</sup></a> in the tragedy
+of Æschylus or Sophocles; and Aristophanes
+enumerates among the pleasures of Dicasts the power,
+should such an actor appear before them in a court
+of justice, of requiring him by way of pleading his
+own cause, to give them a few choice speeches of
+his favourite tragic queen.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Among the most celebrated actors of antiquity was
+Polos, a native of Ægina, who studied the art of
+stage-declamation under Archias, known in his own
+age by the infamous surname of Phugadotheras, or
+the “Exile <a id='corr242.34'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='Hunter.'>Hunter.”</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_242.34'><ins class='correction' title='Hunter.'>Hunter.”</ins></a></span><a id='r947' /><a href='#f947' class='c012'><sup>[947]</sup></a> This miscreant it was, who,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_243'>243</span>under the orders of Antipater, pursued Demosthenes
+to the temple of Poseidon in Calauria, where, to escape
+the cruelty of the Macedonians, the orator put
+a period to his own life.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Polos appears to have risen speedily to that eminence
+which he maintained to the last. A striking
+anecdote is related of the means by which he worked
+upon his own feelings, in order the more vehemently
+to stir those of his audience. On one occasion,<a id='r948' /><a href='#f948' class='c012'><sup>[948]</sup></a>
+having to perform the part of Electra, he took along
+with him to the theatre an urn containing the ashes
+of a beloved son, whom he had recently lost, and thus,
+instead of shedding, under the mask of the heroic
+princess, feigned tears over the supposed remains of
+Orestes, he sprinkled the urn which he bore upon
+the stage with the dews of genuine and deep sorrow.
+He eclipsed in reputation all the actors of
+his time, and was in tragedy what Theocrines, in
+the preceding age, had been in comedy. His salary,
+accordingly, was very great, amounting at one
+time to half a talent per day, out of which, to be
+sure, he was required to pay the third actor.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>He must have led, moreover, a life of much temperance,
+otherwise he would scarcely have been able
+to accomplish what is related of him by Philochoros,
+who says, that, at seventy years of age, a little before
+his death, he performed the principal parts of eight
+tragedies in four days. His devotion to his art did
+not, however, carry him so far as that of the comic
+poets, Philemon and Alexis, who breathed their last
+upon the stage at the moment that the crown of
+victory was placed upon their heads, and so were
+literally dismissed for the last time from the scene
+amidst the shouts and acclamations of the admiring
+multitude.<a id='r949' /><a href='#f949' class='c012'><sup>[949]</sup></a> But the passion of the Greeks for the
+arts of imitation did not confine itself to the enacting
+of human character and human feelings. Every
+species of mimicry found its patrons among them.
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_244'>244</span>There were, for example, persons who, by whistling,
+could imitate the notes of the nightingale; and
+Agesilaos, being once invited to witness the performances
+of one of these artists, replied somewhat
+contemptuously, “I have heard the nightingale herself.”<a id='r950' /><a href='#f950' class='c012'><sup>[950]</sup></a>
+Others, as Parmenion, could counterfeit to
+perfection the grunt of a pig,<a id='r951' /><a href='#f951' class='c012'><sup>[951]</sup></a> though it is probable,
+that actors of smaller dimensions were called upon
+to perform in the comedy of Aristophanes, where
+the Megarean<a id='r952' /><a href='#f952' class='c012'><sup>[952]</sup></a> brings on the stage his daughters in
+a sack, and disposes of them as porkers, having first
+carefully instructed them in the proper style of
+squeaking. Other actors obtained celebrity<a id='r953' /><a href='#f953' class='c012'><sup>[953]</sup></a> through
+their power of imitating by their voice the grating
+or rumbling of wheels, the creaking of axletrees,
+the whistling of winds, the blasts of trumpets, the
+modulations of flutes, or pipes, or the sounds of
+other instruments. It was customary, too, among
+this class of performers, to mimic, doubtless, in pastoral
+scenes, the bleating of sheep, and the bark
+of the shepherd’s dog, the neighing of horses, and
+the deep bellowing of bulls. They could imitate,
+moreover, but by what means is uncertain, the pattering
+of hail-storms, the dash and breaking of
+water in rivers or seas, with other natural phenomena.
+It was customary, likewise, as in modern
+times, to introduce boats and galleys rowed along
+the mimic waters of the stage, an example of which
+occurs on an Etruscan Chalcidone, where we behold
+a little vessel of extraordinary form, with a mariner
+at bow and stern, paddled along a bank adorned
+with flowers, while on a platform, occupying the
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_245'>245</span>boat’s waist, two naked dancers are exhibiting their
+saltatorial powers.<a id='r954' /><a href='#f954' class='c012'><sup>[954]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Very singular figures were also introduced upon
+the stage, as wasps, frogs, and birds, of sufficiently
+large dimensions to be enacted by men; and still
+stranger personages occasionally made their appearance,
+as where, in a kind of practical parody of the
+story of Andromeda,<a id='r955' /><a href='#f955' class='c012'><sup>[955]</sup></a> a whale emerges on the sea
+beach to snap off an old woman. In another drama
+the transformation of Argos was represented, after
+which this luckless male duenna strutted like a peacock
+before the audience. Io, moreover, was changed
+into a cow, and Euippe, in Euripides, into a mare.
+What there was peculiar in the appearance of Amymone
+it is not easy to conjecture; but she was, possibly,
+represented in the act of withdrawing the trident of
+Poseidon from the rock, from which gushed forth
+three fountains. The rivers, and mountains, and cities
+introduced<a id='r956' /><a href='#f956' class='c012'><sup>[956]</sup></a> were, doubtless, personifications, such as
+we still find in many works of art. The giants
+were simply, in all probability, huge figures of men,
+made to stalk about the stage, like elephants, with
+an actor in each leg; and the Indians, Tritons, Gorgons,
+Centaurs, with other personages of terrible or
+fantastic aspect, owed their existence, perhaps, to
+masks, if we may so speak, representing the whole
+figures.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>In what form the Seasons, the Pleiades,<a id='r957' /><a href='#f957' class='c012'><sup>[957]</sup></a> or the
+nymphs of Mithakos, made their appearance on the
+stage, we are, I believe, nowhere told, though we
+possess some information respecting the costume and
+figure of those other strange persons of the drama,
+the Clouds,<a id='r958' /><a href='#f958' class='c012'><sup>[958]</sup></a> which came floating in through the Parodoi,
+enveloped, some in masses of white fleecy gauze,
+like vapour, others in azure, or many-tinted robes,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_246'>246</span>or in drapery like piled-up flocks of wool, to represent
+the various aspects of the skies; while a hazy
+atmosphere was probably diffused around them, as
+around the other gods, by the smoke of styrax or
+frankincense, burnt in profusion on the altars of the
+theatre. Here and there, through these piles of
+drapery, a mask with ruddy pendant nose, like the
+tail of a lobster, peered forth, and a human voice
+was heard chanting in richest cadence and modulation
+the lively anapæsts of the chorus.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>In the tragedy of Alcestis, the grim, spectral figure
+of Death was beheld gliding to and fro through the
+darkness, in front of the palace of Admetos, while
+personifications still, if possible, more strange and
+wild, made their appearance in other dramas,—as Justice,
+Madness, Frenzy, Strength, Violence, Deceit,
+Drunkenness, Laziness, Envy.<a id='r959' /><a href='#f959' class='c012'><sup>[959]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Plato, who entertained peculiar notions<a id='r960' /><a href='#f960' class='c012'><sup>[960]</sup></a> respecting
+the dignity of human nature, banished the theatre
+from his Republic, because he thought it unbecoming
+a brave man, who had political rights to watch over
+and defend, to demean himself by low stage impersonations;
+and, from his account of what he would
+not have his citizens do, we learn what by others was
+done. Sometimes, he observes, the actor was required
+to imitate a woman, (though this task often
+devolved upon eunuchs,) whether young or old, reviling
+her husband, railing at and expressing contempt
+for the gods, either puffed up by the supposed stableness
+of her felicity, or stung to desperation by the
+severity of her misfortunes and sorrows. Other female
+characters were to be represented, toiling, or in love,
+or in the pangs of labour; which shows that there
+was scarcely an act or passage in human life not
+occasionally imitated on the stage.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Slaves of course performed an important part in
+the mimic world of the theatre; and with these,
+Plato, by some unaccountable association of ideas,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_247'>247</span>classes smiths, and madmen, and vagabonds, and low
+artificers of every kind, and the rowers of galleys, and
+rogues, and cowards, below which his imagination
+could discover nothing in human nature.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>But it was these very characters, with their low
+wit, buffoonery, and appropriate actions, that constituted
+the most effective materials of the comic poet,
+whose creed was, that</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Les fous sont ici-bas pour nos menus plaisirs.</span></div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c014'>They accordingly hesitated at no degree of grotesque
+buffoonery and extravagance, introducing not
+only low sausage-sellers with their trays of black-puddings
+and chitterlings suspended on their paunches,<a id='r961' /><a href='#f961' class='c012'><sup>[961]</sup></a>
+and drunkards lisping, hiccuping, and reeling about
+the stage,<a id='r962' /><a href='#f962' class='c012'><sup>[962]</sup></a> but even libertines and profligates carrying
+on their intrigues in the view of the spectators.
+An example of this kind of scene occurs on an
+Etruscan bronze seal dug up near Cortona, which
+represents an adulterer in conference with his mistress,
+together with the Leno who brought them
+together.<a id='r963' /><a href='#f963' class='c012'><sup>[963]</sup></a></p>
+
+<hr class='c016' />
+<div class='footnote' id='f864'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r864'>864</a>. Schol. Aristoph. Av. 1404.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f865'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r865'>865</a>. See Bentley, Dissert. on Phal.
+i. 251.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f866'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r866'>866</a>. On the form and construction
+of ancient theatres, see Chandler,
+Travels, &c., who describes the
+ruins of the theatre of Teos. i.
+110; of Ephesos, 138; of Miletos,
+(457 feet in length,) 168;
+of Myos, 191; of Stratonica,
+222; of Nysa, built with a blue-veined
+marble, 245; of Laodicea,
+262; of Ægina, ii. 16; of Athens,
+113; of Eleusis, 215; on
+the theatre of Syracuse, see Antiq.
+of Athens, &c. Supplementary to
+Stuart, by Cockerel, Donaldson,
+&c. p. 38.—See a plan of the theatre
+in the grove of Asclepios at
+Epidauros, pl. 1. p. 53, and another
+of that of Dramysos, near
+Joannina, pl. 3.—(Compare on the
+Dionysiac Theatre, Leake, Topog.
+of Athens, p. 53, sqq.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f867'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r867'>867</a>. Even a provincial theatre is
+compared by the rustic in Dion
+Chrysostom to a large hollow
+valley, i. 229; what then could
+the Abbé Dubos be thinking of
+when he wrote, <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">“Il étoit impossible
+que les altérations du
+visage que le masque cache furent
+aperçûes distinctment des
+spectateurs, dont plusieurs étoient
+éloignes <em>de plus de douze
+toises</em> du comédien qui récitoit!”</span>—Reflex.
+Crit. i. 609.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f868'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r868'>868</a>. Scalig. Poet. i. 21.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f869'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r869'>869</a>. Colonel Leake, Topog. of Ath.
+p. 59. Cf. Wordsworth’s Athens
+and Attica, p. 29. The conjecture
+of Hemsterhuis on the passage
+of Dicæarchos cannot be
+adopted. The words must apply
+to the theatre; for he says the
+Parthenon charmed the spectators.
+But this could not apply to the
+Odeion, which was roofed.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f870'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r870'>870</a>. Poll. iv. 123.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f871'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r871'>871</a>. Tim. Lex. Platon. in v. ὀρχήστρα.
+p. 104. Poll. iv. 123.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f872'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r872'>872</a>. Poll. iv. 123.—The Cunei,
+for greater convenience, had particular
+marks, numbers, or names
+to distinguish them: the podium
+of the diazoma of the theatre at
+Syracuse has an inscription cut
+on the fascia of the cornice to
+each cuneus.—Antiq. of Ath.
+&c. Supplem. to Stuart, &c., by
+Cockerel, Kinnaird, Donaldson,
+&c., p. 38.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f873'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r873'>873</a>. For the children, see Plat. de
+Rep. t. vi. p. 128. Athen. xi.
+13. Cf. Aristid. t. i. p. 505.
+Jebb.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f874'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r874'>874</a>. Vitruv. v. 9. Donaldson,
+Theatre of the Greeks, p. 139.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f875'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r875'>875</a>. Among the Romans it was
+customary to carry along with
+them, as a defence against rain,
+thick cloaks, rockets, or mandilions.
+Buleng. de Theat. i. 15.—The
+theatre of Regilla, built
+by Herodes Atticus in honour of
+his wife, was roofed with cedar.—Philost.
+Vit. Sophist. ii. 1. 5.—In
+later ages a velarium appears
+to have been extended over the
+great Dionysiac theatre, as was
+the custom at Rome.—Wordsworth,
+Athens and Attica, p. 90.
+Cf. Dion. Cass. xliii. p. 226. a.
+Hanov. 1606.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f876'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r876'>876</a>. Onomast. iv. 122.—To kick
+the seats with the heel was called
+πτερνοκοπεῖν, which they did
+when they wanted to drive away
+an actor, id. ibid. Cf. Diog.
+Laert. ii. 8. 4.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f877'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r877'>877</a>. On the old wooden theatre see
+Hesych. v. ἰκρία. Suid. v. ἰκρία,
+t. i. p. 1234. d. Sch. Aristoph.
+Thesm. 395.—This theatre fell
+down whilst a play of Pratinas
+was acting.—Suid. v. Πρατίνας,
+t. ii. 585. d.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f878'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r878'>878</a>. Upon this practice Dr. Chandler
+has an ingenious conjecture.
+After attentively viewing the
+seats of several ancient theatres,
+and “considering their height,
+width, and manner of arrangement,
+I am inclined to believe
+that the ancient Asiatics sate
+at their plays and public spectacles,
+like the modern, with
+under them, and, it is probable,
+upon carpets.”—Travels, &c.
+i. 269.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f879'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r879'>879</a>. Charact. c. ii. p. 10. Casaub.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f880'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r880'>880</a>. Philoch. Frag. Sieb. p. 85.
+Aristot. Ethic. Nic. 5. Athen. xi.
+13.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f881'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r881'>881</a>. Etym. Mag. 653. 7. Cf.
+458. 30. 743. 30. et Suid. v.
+σκηνὴ t. ii. p. 753, seq. Cf.
+Thom. Magist. in v. θυμέλη, p.
+458, seq. Blancard. Scalig. Poet.
+i. 21. Poll. iv. 123.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f882'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r882'>882</a>. Sch. Aristoph. Acharn. 8. Cf.
+Vesp. 270.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f883'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r883'>883</a>. Plat. Conviv. t. iv. 411. Tim.
+Lex. v. ὀκρίβας, p. 102. Etym.
+Mag. 620. 52. Poll. iv. 123.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f884'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r884'>884</a>. Poll. iv. 123.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f885'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r885'>885</a>. It is impossible to adopt Genelli’s
+idea on these flights of
+steps, by the injudicious position
+of which in his plan, he entirely
+breaks up and destroys the
+beauty of the Hyposcenion, especially
+as the Scholiast on Aristophanes
+positively states, that
+they led from the Parodoi to the
+Logeion.—Sch. Aristoph. Eq. 149.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f886'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r886'>886</a>. On the stage and scenery,
+see Casalius.—De Trag. et Com.
+c. i. ap. Gronov. Thesaur. t. viii.
+p. 1603.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f887'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r887'>887</a>. Cf. Sch. Aristoph. Av. i.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f888'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r888'>888</a>. Vid. Scalig. de Art. Poet.
+i. 21.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f889'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r889'>889</a>. Poll. iv. 123. Vid. Spanh.
+ad Callim. t. ii. p. 228, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f890'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r890'>890</a>. Scalig. reads Antipho. De
+Art. Poet. i. 21.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f891'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r891'>891</a>. Μηχαναὶ for μία. Cf. Annot.
+Poll. iv. 126.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f892'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r892'>892</a>. Poll. iv. 126, 130, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f893'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r893'>893</a>. Vid. Buleng. De Theat. c. 21.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f894'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r894'>894</a>. Poll. iv. 127, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f895'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r895'>895</a>. Poll. iv. 128.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f896'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r896'>896</a>. Müller, Dissert. on the Eumenid.
+p. 91.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f897'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r897'>897</a>. Sch. Aristoph. Nub. 185.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f898'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r898'>898</a>. Ξενοκλῆς ὁ Καρκίνου δοκεῖ
+μηχανὰς καὶ τερατείας εἰσάγειν
+ν τοῖς δράμασι. Πλάτων Σοφισταῖς·
+Ξενοκλῆς ὁ δωδεκαμήχανος
+ὁ Καρκίνου παῖς τοῦ θαλαττίου·
+μηχανοδίφας δὲ εἶπεν
+αὐτοὺς, ἐπειδὴ πολλάκις ὡς τραγῳδοὶ
+μηχανὰς προσέφερον, ἡνίκα
+Θεοὺς ἐμιμοῦντο ἀνερχομένους ἢ
+κατερχομένους ἐκ τοῦ οὐρανοῦ ἢ
+ἄλλοτι τοιοῦτον. Schol. Aristoph.
+Pac. 769.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f899'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r899'>899</a>. Poll. iv. 129. Etym. Mag.
+465. 56. 534. 39.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f900'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r900'>900</a>. Aristoph. Av. 1161, et Schol.
+Cf. Herod. ap. Const. in v. φρυκτώριον.
+Poll. iv. 127.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f901'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r901'>901</a>. Phæn. 688, cum not. et
+Schol. Bekk. Poll. iv. 127, 129.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f902'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r902'>902</a>. Poll. iv. 127, 130.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f903'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r903'>903</a>. Idem, Ibid.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f904'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r904'>904</a>. These were called ἠχεῖα.
+Schol. Aristoph. Nub. 292.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f905'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r905'>905</a>. Schol. Aristoph. Nub. 292, 294.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f906'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r906'>906</a>. Poll. iv. 130.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f907'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r907'>907</a>. Poll. iv. 131.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f908'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r908'>908</a>. Id. iv. 132.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f909'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r909'>909</a>. Cf. Æsch. Prom. 2.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f910'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r910'>910</a>. Vitruv. Præfat. lib. vii. Plut.
+Alcib. § 16.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f911'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r911'>911</a>. Vitruv. v. 8. Etym. Mag.
+763. 27.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f912'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r912'>912</a>. Vid. Casal. c. 2.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f913'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r913'>913</a>. Plat. Ion. t. ii. p. 183, seq.
+Wolf. Proleg. p. 95. Cf. S. F.
+Dresig. Comment. Lips. 1734.
+Gillies, Hist. of Greece, vol. i. c. 6.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f914'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r914'>914</a>. Diod. Sic. xiv. 109. xv. 7.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f915'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r915'>915</a>. Philost. Vit. Soph. ii. 16.
+Vit. Apoll. Tyan. v. 7. Vandale,
+Dissert. 380, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f916'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r916'>916</a>. Casaub. ad Theoph. Char. p.
+121. Athen. v. 49. Animadv.
+t. viii. p. 196.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f917'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r917'>917</a>. Vandale. Dissert, v. p. 383.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f918'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r918'>918</a>. Plat. de Rep. viii. t. ii. p.
+229, seq. Athen. xiii. 44. In
+Roman times we find an actor
+travelling from the capital to
+Seville in Spain, where with
+his lofty cothurni, strange dress,
+and gaping mask, he frightened
+the natives out of the theatre.—Philost.
+Vit. Apoll. Tyan.
+v. 9. Cf. Luc. de Saltat. § 27.
+A taste for the amusements of
+the Grecian stage was diffused
+far and wide through the ancient
+world, so that we find the princes
+of Persia and Armenia not only
+enjoying the representation of
+Greek tragedies, but themselves,
+likewise, in some instances, aspiring
+to rival the dramatic poets
+of Hellas. Thus Artavasdes, the
+Armenian prince, is said to have
+written tragedies, as well as histories
+and orations, some of which
+still existed in the age of Plutarch.
+The Parthian court was
+engaged in beholding the Bacchæ
+of Euripides, in which Jason of
+Tralles was the principal performer,
+when Sillaces brought in
+the head of Marcus Crassus,
+upon which both king and nobles
+delivered themselves up to immoderate
+joy, and the actor, seizing
+upon the Roman’s head, exchanged
+the part of Pentheus for
+that of his mother, who appears
+upon the stage bearing a bleeding
+head upon her thyrsus; for this
+he received a present of a talent
+from the king.—Plut. Crass. §
+33. Polyæan. vii. 41. 1.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f919'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r919'>919</a>. Plut. Cleom. § 12.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f920'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r920'>920</a>. Plut. ubi supra.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f921'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r921'>921</a>. Διονυσοκόλακες. Athen. vi.
+56.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f922'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r922'>922</a>. Plut. Alex. § 29.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f923'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r923'>923</a>. Plut. Alex. § 29.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f924'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r924'>924</a>. Prob. xxx. 10. They were
+likewise corrupted by their profession,
+since, in female parts,
+they frequently indulged in immodest
+gestures, as is particularly
+related of Callipedes. Id. Poet. v.
+2. Cf. Macrob. Saturnal. l. ii. c. 10.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f925'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r925'>925</a>. Occasionally, as among ourselves,
+jugglers were introduced
+upon the stage, swallowing swords
+and performing other fantastic
+tricks.—Plut. Lycurg. § 19.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f926'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r926'>926</a>. Schol. Aristoph. Eq. 545.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f927'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r927'>927</a>. Athen. iv. 80. v. 47. vi. 61.
+Cf. Eustath. ad Odyss. ψ. p. 106,
+sub fin.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f928'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r928'>928</a>. Suid. v. φλύακες, t. ii. p.
+1073. b.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f929'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r929'>929</a>. Cf. Fabric. Bib. Græc. ii. p.
+495, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f930'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r930'>930</a>. Athen. xiv. 13.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f931'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r931'>931</a>. Cf. Athen. iv. 57. Salm.
+Exercit. Plin. p. 76. Voss. Institut.
+Poet. ii. 21. Rhinthon
+was the inventor of the Hilaro-tragœdi.
+i. e. Tragi-comedy.
+Suid. v. Ῥίνθων, t. ii. p. 685. b.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f932'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r932'>932</a>. Schol. Apoll. Rhod. i. 746.
+Plut. Ages. 21. Athen. xiv. 15.
+Etym. Mag. 260. 42.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f933'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r933'>933</a>. I have substituted this joke,
+à la Smollett, “for the miserable
+joke in the original.” Beet, Atticé
+σευτλίον, became τεύτλιον in the
+Doric brogue. Athen. xiv. 15.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f934'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r934'>934</a>. Among the mimics of this
+part of Italy, the most celebrated
+was Cleon, surnamed the Mimaulos,
+who dispensed with the
+use of a mask.—Athen. x. 78.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f935'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r935'>935</a>. Athen. xiv. 15. Cf. Suid. in
+φλύακες, t. ii. p. 1073. b.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f936'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r936'>936</a>. Vid. Harpocrat. in v. ἰθύφαλλοι.
+Mauss. p. 152.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f937'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r937'>937</a>. Athen. xiv. 16.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f938'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r938'>938</a>. Athen. xiv. 17.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f939'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r939'>939</a>. Aristot. Ethic. Nicom. iii. 4.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f940'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r940'>940</a>. Aristot. Rhet. iii. 1.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f941'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r941'>941</a>. Polit. vii. 17.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f942'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r942'>942</a>. Dem. de Fal. Leg. § 58.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f943'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r943'>943</a>. Dem. de Coron. § 97.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f944'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r944'>944</a>. Δεικηλίκτας. Plut. Ages.
+§ 21. Apothegm. Lac. Ages. 57.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f945'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r945'>945</a>. Sch. Aristoph. Vesp. 566.
+Flor. Christ. ad loc. In Plato’s
+time there were few or no actors
+who excelled at the same time in
+tragedy and comedy. Plat. de
+Rep. t. vi. p. 123.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f946'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r946'>946</a>. Sch. Aristoph. Vesp. 579.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f947'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r947'>947</a>. Plut. Dem. § 28. Vit. x.
+Orat. 8. Another actor obtained
+the name of the Partridge. Athen.
+iii. 82.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f948'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r948'>948</a>. Aulus Gellius, vii. 5.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f949'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r949'>949</a>. Plut. An. Seni. § 3.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f950'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r950'>950</a>. Plut. Ages. § 21.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f951'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r951'>951</a>. Etym. Mag. 607. 25.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f952'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r952'>952</a>. Acharn. 834.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f953'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r953'>953</a>. Plut. de Aud. Poet. § 3.
+Plat. de Rep. t. vi. pp. 125–127.
+This philosopher, it is
+clear, entertained a less elevated
+idea of art than some modern
+writers, who define it as follows:
+“Art is a representation (μίμησις),
+i. e. an energy by means
+of which a subject becomes an
+object,”—(Müller, cited by Mr.
+Donaldson, Theatre of the Greeks,
+p. 4,)—in other words, by which
+a nominative becomes an accusative.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f954'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r954'>954</a>. Mus. Cortonens. tab. 60.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f955'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r955'>955</a>. Schol. Aristoph. Nub. 548.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f956'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r956'>956</a>. See the figure of Alexandria
+in the Gemme Antiche Figurate
+of Agostini.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f957'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r957'>957</a>. Poll. iv. 142.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f958'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r958'>958</a>. Vid. Schol. Aristoph. Nub.
+289. 343. 442.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f959'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r959'>959</a>. Poll. iv. 141, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f960'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r960'>960</a>. De Rep. t. vi. p. 125.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f961'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r961'>961</a>. Sch. Aristoph. Eq. 150.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f962'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r962'>962</a>. Athen. x. 33.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f963'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r963'>963</a>. Mus. Cortonens. tabb. 18, 19.
+Cf. p. 26, seq. 1750. Rom.</p>
+</div>
+<hr class='c016' />
+
+<div>
+ <span class='pageno' id='Page_248'>248</span>
+ <h3 class='c002'>CHAPTER VIII.<br /> THEATRE (<i>continued</i>).</h3>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c011'>Into the various questions which have been raised
+respecting the origin and constitution of the chorus
+it is not my intention to enter. It undoubtedly appears,
+however, to have arisen amid the festivities
+of the vintage, when, after the grapes were brought
+home and pressed and the principal labours of the
+season concluded,<a id='r964' /><a href='#f964' class='c012'><sup>[964]</sup></a> the rustics delivered themselves
+up to wild joy and merriment, chanting hymns and
+performing dances in honour of Dionysos, the protecting
+god of the vine. At first the number of
+the persons engaged in these dances could not have
+been fixed, since it is probable that all the vintagers,
+both male and female, joined in the sports,
+as they had previously joined in the labour. And
+this free and unformal character the Dithyrambic or
+Dionysiac chorus must have preserved, as long as it
+remained a mere village pastime. But when afterwards,
+advancing from one step to another, it assumed
+something of an artificial form and several chorusses
+arose which contended with each other for a prize,
+the performers must have undergone some kind of
+training,<a id='r965' /><a href='#f965' class='c012'><sup>[965]</sup></a> both in singing and dancing, and then
+the number of the individuals constituting the chorus
+was possibly fixed. There appears to be some
+reason for thinking, that these exhibitions were more
+ancient than the congregation of the Athenians in
+one city, and that originally every tribe had its own
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_249'>249</span>chorus,<a id='r966' /><a href='#f966' class='c012'><sup>[966]</sup></a> since we find that afterwards, when all the
+inhabitants of Attica came to regard themselves as
+one people, the Choreutæ were chosen from every
+tribe five.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>By what gradations, however, the village chorus
+was transformed into the Dithyrambic, the Dithyrambic
+into the Satyric, and the Satyric again into
+the Tragic, it now appears impossible to ascertain;
+but it seems to be quite clear,<a id='r967' /><a href='#f967' class='c012'><sup>[967]</sup></a> that in many ancient
+tragedies the number of the chorus was fifty,<a id='r968' /><a href='#f968' class='c012'><sup>[968]</sup></a>
+as, for example, in the “Judgment of the Arms,”
+by Æschylus, in which silver-footed Thetis appeared
+upon the stage accompanied by a train of fifty
+Nereids.<a id='r969' /><a href='#f969' class='c012'><sup>[969]</sup></a> Again, according to certain ancient authors,<a id='r970' /><a href='#f970' class='c012'><sup>[970]</sup></a>
+in the Eumenides of Æschylus, the chorus
+of Furies at first amounted to fifty, which, rushing
+tumultuously, with frightful gestures and horrid
+masks,<a id='r971' /><a href='#f971' class='c012'><sup>[971]</sup></a> into the orchestra, struck so great a terror
+into the people, particularly the women<a id='r972' /><a href='#f972' class='c012'><sup>[972]</sup></a> and children,
+that their number was afterwards reduced by
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_250'>250</span>law. I am aware that several distinguished scholars
+think very differently on this subject; some maintaining,
+that the chorus of Furies always consisted
+of fifteen, while others reduce their number to three.
+But, though both these opinions have been supported
+with much learning and ingenuity, it seems difficult
+to admit either the one or the other. In the
+first place, since every thing connected with the
+stage was in a state of perpetual fluctuation, since
+the masks and costume were repeatedly altered,
+since the number of the actors was augmented,
+since almost every arrangement of the theatre, and
+every characteristic of the poetry, underwent numerous
+modifications; the chorus, also, it is probable,
+submitted to the same alterations or reforms till
+it settled in that tetragonal figure<a id='r973' /><a href='#f973' class='c012'><sup>[973]</sup></a> and determinate
+number which it afterwards preserved, as long
+as the legitimate drama existed in Greece.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>In one point of view the history of the chorus
+is extremely remarkable. At first, and for some
+time, it constituted in itself the whole of the spectacle
+exhibited at the Dionysiac festivals, where its
+songs and dances, accompanied by such rude music
+as the times afforded, satisfied the demands of the
+popular taste, and were consequently supposed to
+be everything that the god required. By degrees,
+as experience suggested improvements either in the
+music, in the manner of dancing, or in the materials
+and composition of the odes, the movements,
+singing, and appearance of the Chorus, assumed a
+more artificial form, which was necessarily carried
+forward many steps in the career of amelioration
+by the institution of rival bodies of Choreutæ, who,
+from the natural principle of emulation, endeavoured
+to excel each other. Next, a detached member
+of its own body, mounted on a table, enacted the
+part of a stranger or messenger come to announce
+something which it imported the servants of Dionysos
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_251'>251</span>to know. This table was doubtless placed
+directly in front of the altar of Bacchos, on the
+steps of which the leader of the chorus was probably
+mounted in after ages, to hold communication
+with the stranger; and, as this altar ripened
+through many gradations into the Thymele, so the
+aforesaid table rose through innumerable changes
+into the Logeion. It may be remarked, moreover,
+that the slope of a hill,<a id='r974' /><a href='#f974' class='c012'><sup>[974]</sup></a> when any such existed
+near the village, would naturally be chosen on such
+occasions to afford the peasants an opportunity of
+standing behind each other on ascending levels, and
+thus, without inconvenience, beholding the show;
+and where such natural aid did not present itself,
+they probably threw up embankments of turf in the
+semicircular form, which experience proved to be
+most convenient, and, out of this rude contrivance,
+grew those vast and magnificent structures, which
+afterwards constituted one of the noblest ornaments
+of Greece.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The single actor, detached in the manner we have
+said from the Chorus, speedily acquired greater importance,
+and the aid of poetry was called in to
+frame and adorn his recitals; and as, during the
+songs and dances of the Chorus, he necessarily remained
+idle, the idea soon suggested itself that a
+second actor<a id='r975' /><a href='#f975' class='c012'><sup>[975]</sup></a> would be an improvement, upon which
+dialogue and the regular drama sprang into existence.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Among the principal duties of the Chorus was the
+performance of certain dances, simple enough at the
+outset, but, in process of time, refined and rendered
+so intricate by art, that it required no little learning
+and ability to execute all their varied movements
+with dignity and grace. Somewhat to assist the eye
+and memory, the whole pattern, as it were, of the
+dance seems to have been chalked out on the floor
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_252'>252</span>of the orchestra;<a id='r976' /><a href='#f976' class='c012'><sup>[976]</sup></a> while the greatest possible pains
+were taken in drilling the Choreutæ to open, file
+off, and wheel through their labyrinthine evolutions,
+without confusion. The manner in which these persons
+usually entered the orchestra, that is to say,
+ranged in a square body, three in front and five
+deep, or five in front and three deep, has suggested
+to some the notion that they represented a military
+Lochos;<a id='r977' /><a href='#f977' class='c012'><sup>[977]</sup></a> but besides that this is inconsistent with
+their Dionysiac origin, they did not always preserve
+this arrangement, but, on some occasions, came rushing
+in confusedly, while on others they traversed the
+Parodos in Indian file.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The musicians,<a id='r978' /><a href='#f978' class='c012'><sup>[978]</sup></a> in the Greek theatre, took their
+station upon and about the steps of the Thymele,
+which answers as nearly as possible to the position
+of the orchestra in our own theatres. Here, also,
+stood the Rhabduchi,<a id='r979' /><a href='#f979' class='c012'><sup>[979]</sup></a> or vergers of the theatre, whose
+business it was to see that order was preserved among
+the spectators.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>With respect to the dances<a id='r980' /><a href='#f980' class='c012'><sup>[980]</sup></a> performed by the
+Chorus, they were so numerous, long, and intricate,
+that it would be here impossible to enumerate and
+describe the whole. They appear to have conceived
+the idea of representing almost every passion and
+action in human life by that combination of movements
+and gestures which the term pantomime, borrowed
+from their own language, expresses much better
+than our word dancing.<a id='r981' /><a href='#f981' class='c012'><sup>[981]</sup></a> A taste, in some respects
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_253'>253</span>similar, still prevails among the Orientals,
+whose Ghawazi and Bayadères, though relying rather
+upon routine and impulse than on the resources of
+art, perform at festivals and marriages, and before
+the ladies of the harem, little love-pieces and pastoral
+scenes, which evidently belong to the class of mimetic
+dances described by ancient authors.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>In tragedy, such as it existed in the polished ages
+of Greece, the movements were slow and solemn,
+and, no doubt, full of dignity. The spirit of comedy
+required brisk and lively, and frequently tolerated,
+audaciously wanton dances; while the Chorus of the
+Satyric Drama would appear to have been rude and
+clownish rather than indecent, indulging in grotesque
+movements, ludicrous and extravagant gestures, and
+that rustic and farcical style of mimicry which may
+be supposed to have prevailed among the rough
+peasantry of Hellas.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>In classing the various dances, it will, perhaps, be
+sufficient if we divide them into lively and serious,<a id='r982' /><a href='#f982' class='c012'><sup>[982]</sup></a>
+joining with the latter all such as attempted to
+embody a symbol or an allegory.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>In certain dramas of Phrynichos the Chorus represented
+a company of wrestlers,<a id='r983' /><a href='#f983' class='c012'><sup>[983]</sup></a> who contrived by the
+quick, flexible, and varied movements of the dance,
+to imitate all the accidents of the palæstra. Sometimes
+they personated a party of scouts in the active
+look-out for the enemy, each with his right hand curved
+above the brow: this was one form of the Scops.<a id='r984' /><a href='#f984' class='c012'><sup>[984]</sup></a> On
+other occasions the dancer mimicked the habits of the
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_254'>254</span>Scops, or mocking-owl, twirling about the head, and
+appearing to be absorbed in an ecstasy of imitation, until
+taken by the fowler. The performance of a piece like
+this, by a numerous Chorus, sometimes breaking off
+into a brisk gallopade, sometimes maintaining the same
+position, jigging, pirouetting, and ducking the crest,
+must, no doubt, have appeared infinitely comic; and
+yet it could have been nothing in comparison with
+the Morphasmos,<a id='r985' /><a href='#f985' class='c012'><sup>[985]</sup></a> in which, not the characteristic peculiarities
+of a single owl, but those of the whole
+animal creation were “taken off.” Thus we may
+suppose that the Hegemon of the Chorus started as
+a baboon, his next-door neighbour as a hog, a third
+as a lion, a fourth as an ass, and so on, each man
+accommodating his voice to the character he had,
+pro tempore, assumed, and gibbering, grunting, roaring,
+braying, as he leaped, or gamboled, or bounded,
+or scampered about the orchestra. Anon the frisky
+foresters were transformed into slaves, who would seem
+to have been introduced to the audience pounding
+something, perhaps onions and garlick, in a mortar.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The Oclasma,<a id='r986' /><a href='#f986' class='c012'><sup>[986]</sup></a> a dance borrowed from the Persians,
+reminds one strongly of the performances of the negroes
+in the interior of Africa, the whole Chorus
+alternately crouching upon its heels, and springing
+aloft, like the frogs of Aristophanes about the fens
+of Acheron. Not, perhaps, un-akin to this, were
+those three frenzied dances, alluded to rather than
+described by the ancients,—that is to say, the
+Thermaustris,<a id='r987' /><a href='#f987' class='c012'><sup>[987]</sup></a> which seems to have consisted of a
+series of violent bounds, like the performances of
+the Hurons and Iroquois;<a id='r988' /><a href='#f988' class='c012'><sup>[988]</sup></a> the Mongas, which, from
+the name, probably represented the friskings and caracollings
+of a jackass; and the Kernophoros,<a id='r989' /><a href='#f989' class='c012'><sup>[989]</sup></a> or dance
+of the first-fruits, wherein the Chorus appeared upon
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_255'>255</span>the stage, some bearing censers, others fruit-baskets,
+evidently in a character resembling that of Bacchanals.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>To this species of dance belonged, also, the Hecaterides,
+in which the performer interpreted his desires
+or passion by furious gestures of the hands. The
+Eclactisma was a female dance,<a id='r990' /><a href='#f990' class='c012'><sup>[990]</sup></a> requiring the exertion
+of great force and agility, its characteristics
+consisting in flinging the heels backwards above the
+level of the shoulders. Corresponding, in some measure,
+to the Eclactisma, was the Skistas,<a id='r991' /><a href='#f991' class='c012'><sup>[991]</sup></a> in which
+the dancer bounded aloft, crossing his legs several
+times while in the air. There was a dance, evidently
+of a very extraordinary description, which they performed
+to an air called Thyrocopicon,<a id='r992' /><a href='#f992' class='c012'><sup>[992]</sup></a> or “knocking
+at doors,” possibly representing the frolics of such
+wild youths as anticipated the scape-graces of our
+own day. The Mothon was a loose dance, common
+among sailors; the Baukismos, Bactriasmos, Apokinos,
+Aposeisis, and Sobas,<a id='r993' /><a href='#f993' class='c012'><sup>[993]</sup></a> were laughable, but
+lewd dances,<a id='r994' /><a href='#f994' class='c012'><sup>[994]</sup></a> resembling the Bolero and Fandango
+of the Spaniards.<a id='r995' /><a href='#f995' class='c012'><sup>[995]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The Heducomos was a dance expressive of the
+outbreaks of joy, and the Knismos,<a id='r996' /><a href='#f996' class='c012'><sup>[996]</sup></a> represented the
+pinching, struggling, and quarrels of lovers. The
+Deimalea was a Laconian dance performed by Satyrs
+and Seileni, skipping and jumping about in a
+circle.<a id='r997' /><a href='#f997' class='c012'><sup>[997]</sup></a> Another Spartan dance<a id='r998' /><a href='#f998' class='c012'><sup>[998]</sup></a> was the Bryallika,
+of a ludicrous and licentious character, performed
+by women in grotesque masks, whence a courtezan
+at Sparta was denominated, Bryallika. The name
+of Hypogypones,<a id='r999' /><a href='#f999' class='c012'><sup>[999]</sup></a> was bestowed on certain performers
+who imitated old men, flourishing their sticks about
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_256'>256</span>the stage, as we are informed they did in the
+play of Simermnos.<a id='r1000' /><a href='#f1000' class='c012'><sup>[1000]</sup></a> Akin in spirit to these were
+the Gypones,<a id='r1001' /><a href='#f1001' class='c012'><sup>[1001]</sup></a> who made their appearance in transparent
+Tarentine robes, and mounted on stilts probably
+in the form of goats’ feet, to give them a
+resemblance to the Ægipanes, worshipped as gods
+of the woods. A peculiar dance in honour of Artemis
+took its rise in the village of Carya in Laconia,
+where its invention was attributed to Castor and
+Polydeukes. No description of it, so far as I know,
+has come down to us; but the maidens by whom it
+was performed probably bore, and steadied with one
+hand, a basket of flowers on their heads, thus forming
+the model of those architectural figures, still
+from them called Caryatides.<a id='r1002' /><a href='#f1002' class='c012'><sup>[1002]</sup></a> The representation
+of this performance was, doubtless, a favourite subject
+among Spartan artists or such as were employed
+by the Spartans, as may perhaps be fairly inferred
+from the circumstance, that the device on the ring,
+which, in return for a comb, was presented by Clearchus
+to Ctesias to be shown to his friends at Lacedæmon,
+was a dance of Caryatides.<a id='r1003' /><a href='#f1003' class='c012'><sup>[1003]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Amid the laxity of morals which prevailed in the
+later ages of Greece, the Pyrrhic,<a id='r1004' /><a href='#f1004' class='c012'><sup>[1004]</sup></a> once supposed to
+be peculiar to warriors, degenerated into a dance of
+Bacchanals, with thyrsi instead of spears, or carrying
+torches in one hand, while with the other they
+sportively cast light reeds at one another. The story
+told in this mimetic performance referred to remote
+antiquity, and was both curiously and elaborately
+intricate, comprehending all the adventures of Bacchos
+and his merry crew during the Indian expedition,
+and assuming towards the conclusion a tragical
+form, developing the sad story of Pentheus.<a id='r1005' /><a href='#f1005' class='c012'><sup>[1005]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Among the dances of a grave character are enumerated
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_257'>257</span>the Gingra performed like the Podismos
+to slow and solemn music, the Lion and the Tetracomos,<a id='r1006' /><a href='#f1006' class='c012'><sup>[1006]</sup></a>
+a warlike measure performed in honour of
+Heracles and supposed in its origin to have had
+some connexion with the Tetracomoi of Attica, that
+is, the Peiræeus, Phaleron, Oxypeteones, and Thymotadæ.<a id='r1007' /><a href='#f1007' class='c012'><sup>[1007]</sup></a>
+We read, moreover, of dances in which the performers
+represented certain historic or mythological
+personages, such as Rhodope, Phædra, or Parthenope.<a id='r1008' /><a href='#f1008' class='c012'><sup>[1008]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The Anthema,<a id='r1009' /><a href='#f1009' class='c012'><sup>[1009]</sup></a> or Flower-dance, appears to have
+been chiefly performed in private parties by women,
+who acted certain characters and chanted, as they
+moved, the following verses:</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>Where is my lovely parsley, say?</div>
+ <div class='line'>My violets, roses, where are they?</div>
+ <div class='line'>My parsley, roses, violets fair,</div>
+ <div class='line'>are my flowers? Tell me where.</div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c014'>The Athenians, however, seem to have imagined
+that there was nothing in nature which might not
+be imitated in the dance, by the turns and mazes
+of which they accordingly sought to represent the
+movements of the stars.<a id='r1010' /><a href='#f1010' class='c012'><sup>[1010]</sup></a> A similar fancy, if Lucian
+may be credited, possessed the Indian Yoghis,
+who every morning and evening before their doors
+saluted the sun, at his rising and setting, with a
+dance resembling his own,<a id='r1011' /><a href='#f1011' class='c012'><sup>[1011]</sup></a> which, as that luminary
+no otherwise dances than by turning on its axis,
+must have been a performance resembling that of
+the whirling derwishes, whose broad symbolical petticoats
+are meant, I presume, to represent the disk of
+the sun. But the dance most difficult of comprehension
+is that upon which they bestowed the name of
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_258'>258</span>κόσμου εκπύρωσις,<a id='r1012' /><a href='#f1012' class='c012'><sup>[1012]</sup></a> or the “Conflagration of the World.”
+Of the figure and character of this performance antiquity,
+I believe, has left us no account, though it probably
+represented, by a train of allegorical personages
+and movements, the principal events which, according
+to the Stoics, are to precede the delivering up of the
+Universe to fire.<a id='r1013' /><a href='#f1013' class='c012'><sup>[1013]</sup></a> Scaliger,<a id='r1014' /><a href='#f1014' class='c012'><sup>[1014]</sup></a> who does not attempt to
+explain this strange exhibition, observes, however,
+pertinently, that it was a dance in which Nero might
+have figured, his burning of Rome deserving in some
+sort to be regarded as a rehearsal of this piece.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>There existed among the Spartans<a id='r1015' /><a href='#f1015' class='c012'><sup>[1015]</sup></a> an elegant
+dance denominated Hormos, or the Necklace, performed
+by a chorus of youths and virgins who moved
+through the requisite evolutions in a row. The line
+was headed by a young man who executed his part
+in the firm and vigorous steps proper to his age,
+and which he would afterwards be expected to preserve
+in the field of battle. A maiden immediately
+followed, but, instead of imitating his masculine manner,
+confined herself to the modest graceful paces and
+gestures of her sex, and this alternation and interweaving,
+as it were, of force and beauty, suggesting
+the idea of a necklace composed of many coloured
+gems, gave rise to the appellation.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The dance of the Crane,<a id='r1016' /><a href='#f1016' class='c012'><sup>[1016]</sup></a> among the Athenians,
+in some respects resembled the above. It was, according
+to tradition, first invented by Theseus, who
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_259'>259</span>landing at Delos on his return from Crete, offered
+sacrifice to Apollo and dedicated the statue of Aphrodite
+which he had received from Ariadne, after which
+he joined the young men and women whom he had
+delivered, in performing a joyous dance<a id='r1017' /><a href='#f1017' class='c012'><sup>[1017]</sup></a> about the
+altar of Horns erected by Apollo, from the spoils
+of his sister’s bow. The Choreutæ, engaged in executing
+the Geranos, or Crane, formed themselves
+into one long line with a leader in van and rear,
+and then, guided by the design on the floor of
+the orchestra, described by their movements the
+various mazes and involutions of the Cretan labyrinth,
+until, having traversed all its intricate passages,
+they emerged at once, like their great countryman
+and his companions, into light and safety. Other
+dances there were, which, however curious they may
+have been, cannot now be described from the scanty
+materials left us: such were the dance of Heralds,
+or Messengers, the dance of the Lily,<a id='r1018' /><a href='#f1018' class='c012'><sup>[1018]</sup></a> the Chitonea,
+the Pinakides, the dance of the Graces,<a id='r1019' /><a href='#f1019' class='c012'><sup>[1019]</sup></a> and that
+of the Hours, in which the performers floated about
+with a circle of light drapery held over the head by
+both hands.<a id='r1020' /><a href='#f1020' class='c012'><sup>[1020]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>If from the dances we now pass to the Choreutæ,<a id='r1021' /><a href='#f1021' class='c012'><sup>[1021]</sup></a>
+by whom they were performed, we shall
+find that they generally made their appearance in
+the orchestra with golden crowns upon their heads,
+and habited in gorgeous raiment, frequently interwoven
+or embroidered with gold.<a id='r1022' /><a href='#f1022' class='c012'><sup>[1022]</sup></a> The Chorus,
+however, like the actors, must have constantly varied
+its costume, to suit the exigencies of the
+drama; sometimes to perform the part of senators,
+sometimes of Nereids, sometimes of female suppliants,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_260'>260</span>sometimes of urn-bearers, sometimes of clouds,
+or wasps, or birds. When in the tragedy of Æschylus
+they were required to personate the Furies,
+their exterior was the most frightful that can well
+be imagined,—their long but scanty robes consisting,
+as has been conjectured, of black lamb-skins,
+slit up below and exposing their tawny withered
+limbs to sight, while their blood-stained eyes, livid
+tongue hanging out, and hair like a mass of knotted
+serpents, easily accredited the belief of their being
+infernal existences. Thus habited, with fingers terminating
+in black claws,<a id='r1023' /><a href='#f1023' class='c012'><sup>[1023]</sup></a> and grasping a burning
+torch, they burst upon the view of the spectators,
+like so many hideous phantoms conjured up by an
+imagination diseased with terror.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The costume of the actors,<a id='r1024' /><a href='#f1024' class='c012'><sup>[1024]</sup></a> which some modern
+writers suppose to have been extremely monotonous,<a id='r1025' /><a href='#f1025' class='c012'><sup>[1025]</sup></a>
+was in reality, however, as rich, varied, and
+characteristic as the masks of which we shall presently
+have to speak. Gods, heroes, kings, chiefs,
+soothsayers, heralds, rustics, the hetairæ, and their
+mothers; gay youths, flatterers, libertines, procurers,
+cooks, satyrs, slaves, &c., had each and all their
+appropriate dresses and ornaments, modified, no
+doubt, from time to time by the change in public
+taste, and the fancy of the poets. The divinities
+had almost to be wholly framed by the Dionysiac
+artificers. Conceived to be of superhuman stature,
+it was necessary that the actors who represented
+them should, in the first place, be lifted up on Cothurni,<a id='r1026' /><a href='#f1026' class='c012'><sup>[1026]</sup></a>
+or half-boots, the soles of which were many
+inches high,<a id='r1027' /><a href='#f1027' class='c012'><sup>[1027]</sup></a> their limbs and bodies were enlarged
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_261'>261</span>by padding, their arms lengthened by gloves, while
+their countenances, which might be ignoble or even
+ugly, were concealed by masks of exquisite ideal
+beauty, rising above the stately forehead in a mass
+of curls, which at once corresponded with the nobleness
+of their features and augmented their colossal
+height: add to all this robes of purple, or
+scarlet, or azure, or saffron, or cloth of gold, floating
+about the person in graceful folds, and training
+along the floor, and we have some faint idea of
+the celestial personages who with gemmed sceptres
+and glittering crowns made their appearance on the
+Grecian stage.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The queens and heroes,<a id='r1028' /><a href='#f1028' class='c012'><sup>[1028]</sup></a> who were constantly beheld
+grouped in converse, or in action, with these
+sublime dwellers of Olympos, were clad in a costume
+scarcely less majestic; the former, for example,
+in times of prosperity, issued forth from their palaces
+in white garments, with loose sleeves reaching
+to the elbow, and closed on the upper part of the
+arm by a succession of jewelled agraffes,<a id='r1029' /><a href='#f1029' class='c012'><sup>[1029]</sup></a> their
+tresses confined in front by a golden sphendone, or
+fillet, crusted with gems, while their robes terminated
+below in long sweeping trains of purple.<a id='r1030' /><a href='#f1030' class='c012'><sup>[1030]</sup></a> But
+when their houses were visited by misfortune, the
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_262'>262</span>milk-white pelisse was exchanged for one quince-coloured
+or blue, while the purple train was converted
+into black. The costume of the kings,<a id='r1031' /><a href='#f1031' class='c012'><sup>[1031]</sup></a> likewise
+varied by circumstances, consisted usually of
+an ample robe of purple, or scarlet, or dark green,
+descending to the feet, a rich cloak of cloth of
+gold, or of some delicate colour, adorned with gold
+embroidery, and a lofty mitre on the head.<a id='r1032' /><a href='#f1032' class='c012'><sup>[1032]</sup></a> When
+any of these characters, as Tydeus or Meleager, was
+engaged in hunting or war, he wore the scarlet or
+purple mantle called Ephaptis,<a id='r1033' /><a href='#f1033' class='c012'><sup>[1033]</sup></a> which in action was
+wrapped about the left arm. Athenæus, in describing
+the horsemen of Antiochos, observes, that these
+Ephaptides<a id='r1034' /><a href='#f1034' class='c012'><sup>[1034]</sup></a> were embroidered with gold and adorned
+with the figures of animals. Bacchanals and soothsayers,
+like Teiresias, generally appeared upon the
+stage in an extraordinary garment, denominated
+Agrenon,<a id='r1035' /><a href='#f1035' class='c012'><sup>[1035]</sup></a> formed of a reticular fabric of wool of
+various colours. Dionysos himself,<a id='r1036' /><a href='#f1036' class='c012'><sup>[1036]</sup></a> in whose honour
+the theatre with all its shows was created,
+descended from Olympos in a saffron-coloured robe
+compressed below the bosom by a broad flowered
+belt, and bearing a thyrsus in his hand.<a id='r1037' /><a href='#f1037' class='c012'><sup>[1037]</sup></a> This girdle,
+in the case of other gods, or heroes, was sometimes
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_263'>263</span>replaced by one of gold.<a id='r1038' /><a href='#f1038' class='c012'><sup>[1038]</sup></a> Persons overtaken by
+calamity, especially exiles, wore garments dirty-white,
+or sad-coloured, or black, or quince-coloured,
+or bluish. The costume of Philoctetes, Telephos,
+Œneus, Phœnix, Bellerophontes, was ragged. The
+Seileni appeared in a shaggy Chiton, and the other
+personages of the Satyric drama in the skins of
+fawns, or goats, or sheep, or pards, and, sometimes,
+in the Theraion or Dionysiac garment, and a flowered
+cloak and a scarlet Himation. Old men were distinguished
+by the Exomis,<a id='r1039' /><a href='#f1039' class='c012'><sup>[1039]</sup></a> a white Chiton of mean
+appearance, having no seam or arm-hole on the
+left side—young men by the Campulè,<a id='r1040' /><a href='#f1040' class='c012'><sup>[1040]</sup></a> a scarlet or
+deep purple Himation,—the parasites by bearing
+the Stlengis and flask (as country people by the
+Lagobalon) and by black or sad-coloured robes, except
+in the play of the Sicyonians, where a person
+of this class, being about to be married, sported a
+white garment,—the cook by an Himation double
+and unfulled,—priestesses by white robes,—comic
+old women by such as were quince-coloured or dusky,
+like a cloudy morning sky in autumn,—the mothers
+of the hetairæ wore a purple fillet about the head,—the
+dresses of young women were white and delicate,—of
+heiresses the same with fringes. Pornoboski
+wore garments of various colours, with flowered
+cloaks, and carried a straight wand, called ἀρéσκος.<a id='r1041' /><a href='#f1041' class='c012'><sup>[1041]</sup></a>
+There were, likewise, female characters which wore
+the Parapechu and the Symmetria, a chiton reaching
+to the feet, with a border of marine purple.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>We now come to the masks,<a id='r1042' /><a href='#f1042' class='c012'><sup>[1042]</sup></a> a subject upon which
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_264'>264</span>much has been written, though very little has been
+explained. The primary difficulty connected with
+them is, to determine whether they were so constructed
+as to resemble a speaking-trumpet,<a id='r1043' /><a href='#f1043' class='c012'><sup>[1043]</sup></a> which,
+by narrowing the stream, and compressing, as it were,
+the particles of the voice, cast it forth condensed
+and corroborated upon the theatre,<a id='r1044' /><a href='#f1044' class='c012'><sup>[1044]</sup></a> which it was thus
+enabled to penetrate and fill, even to its utmost
+extremities. My own opinion, after bestowing much
+attention upon the subject, is, that the mask was in
+reality so constructed as to communicate additional
+force and intensity to the voice; but whether by
+roofing or encircling the artificial mouth by metallic
+plates, or thin laminæ of the stone called Chalcophonos,<a id='r1045' /><a href='#f1045' class='c012'><sup>[1045]</sup></a>
+it is now scarcely possible to determine.
+Be this, however, as it may, there existed in some
+theatres other contrivances for conveying and augmenting
+the volume of the actor’s voice; these were
+the Echeia,<a id='r1046' /><a href='#f1046' class='c012'><sup>[1046]</sup></a> vases generally of metal, finely toned,
+and arranged according to the musical scale, in a
+succession of domed cells,<a id='r1047' /><a href='#f1047' class='c012'><sup>[1047]</sup></a> running in diverging lines
+up the hollow face of the theatre. They rested with
+one edge upon a smooth and polished pavement, the
+mouth outward, and the external edge reposing on the
+summit of a small, blunt obelisk,<a id='r1048' /><a href='#f1048' class='c012'><sup>[1048]</sup></a> while a low opening
+in each cell enabled the resonances, or echoes,
+thus created, to issue forth, and fill the air with
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_265'>265</span>sound,<a id='r1049' /><a href='#f1049' class='c012'><sup>[1049]</sup></a> which, however the fact may be accounted
+for, produced no isolated reverberations, no confusion.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The materials wherewith the masks were constructed
+varied, no doubt, considerably in different ages;<a id='r1050' /><a href='#f1050' class='c012'><sup>[1050]</sup></a>
+but that they were ever manufactured of bronze or
+copper is scarcely credible, if we reflect upon the
+weight of so voluminous an apparatus, covering the
+entire head and neck, composed of either of those
+metals. Such metallic specimens as have come down
+to us are to be regarded simply as model-masks,
+or as works of art, designed by the statuary as ornaments.
+The intention, at first, of this disguise being
+to give additional boldness and self-confidence to the
+actor, by concealing from his neighbours the shamefacedness
+which a raw performer would sometimes
+naturally feel while strutting about in imperial robes,
+and pouring forth the <span lang="la" xml:lang="la"><i>sesquipedalia verba</i></span> of Pelias
+and Telephos, they were contented to cover the face
+with a piece of linen, having openings for the eyes
+and a breathing-place.<a id='r1051' /><a href='#f1051' class='c012'><sup>[1051]</sup></a> To this appears to have
+succeeded a mask manufactured from the flexible
+bark of certain trees,<a id='r1052' /><a href='#f1052' class='c012'><sup>[1052]</sup></a> shaped, of course, and coloured
+to resemble the human countenance. The next step
+was to employ wood, some kinds of which, while
+possessing the advantage of extreme lightness, might
+be wrought with all the delicacy and fineness of a
+statue, while, better than any other material, it would
+receive that smooth and polished enamel by which
+were represented the texture<a id='r1053' /><a href='#f1053' class='c012'><sup>[1053]</sup></a> and complexion of
+the skin. Specimens of masks of this kind have been
+found among nations in a very rude state; among the
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_266'>266</span>inhabitants, for example, of Nootka Sound, whose dress,
+we are told,<a id='r1054' /><a href='#f1054' class='c012'><sup>[1054]</sup></a> “is accompanied by a mask representing
+the head of some animal: it is made of wood,
+with the eyes, teeth, &c., and is a work of considerable
+ingenuity. Of these masks they have a
+great variety, which are applicable to certain circumstances
+and occasions. Those, for example,
+which represent the head of the otter or any other
+marine animals, are used only when they go to
+hunt them. In their war expeditions, but at no
+other time, they cover the whole of their dress
+with large bear-skins.”</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>But while the above improvements were going
+on in the national theatre,<a id='r1055' /><a href='#f1055' class='c012'><sup>[1055]</sup></a> the rustic drama continued
+to preserve its original simplicity, the actors
+to prevent their being recognised, shading their brows
+with thick projecting crowns of leaves, and daubing
+their faces<a id='r1056' /><a href='#f1056' class='c012'><sup>[1056]</sup></a> with lees of wine. Thus disguised they
+chanted their songs upon the public roads, sitting
+in a waggon,<a id='r1057' /><a href='#f1057' class='c012'><sup>[1057]</sup></a> whence the proverb, “he speaks as
+from the waggon,” <i>i. e.</i> he is shamelessly abusive,
+which was in fact the case with the comic poets.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The masks were divided into three kinds, the
+Tragic, the Comic, and the Satyric. Those belonging
+to Tragedy were again subdivided into numerous
+classes, representing every marked variety
+of character, and every stage of human life from
+childhood to extreme old age. In the highly varied
+range of countenances thus brought into play, the
+mask-maker enjoyed abundant opportunities of exhibiting
+his skill. The hair, of course, was real and
+adjusted on the mask like a wig,<a id='r1058' /><a href='#f1058' class='c012'><sup>[1058]</sup></a> differently fashioned
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_267'>267</span>and coloured according to the age, habits,
+and complexion of the wearer. In some cases it
+was gathered together and piled up on the forehead,<a id='r1059' /><a href='#f1059' class='c012'><sup>[1059]</sup></a>
+in a triangular figure,<a id='r1060' /><a href='#f1060' class='c012'><sup>[1060]</sup></a> adding many inches
+to the actor’s stature; at other times it was combed
+smoothly downwards, from the crown, twisted round
+a fillet and disposed like a wreath about the head
+as we sometimes find it in the figures of Asclepios
+and the philosopher Archytas. Some characters were
+represented wholly bald, with a garland of vine-leaves
+or ivy wreathed about the brow,<a id='r1061' /><a href='#f1061' class='c012'><sup>[1061]</sup></a> others were
+simply bald in front, while a third class exhibited
+a bushy fell of hair, something like a lion’s mane.
+Young ladies displayed a profusion of pendant curls,
+kept in order by the fillet or sphendone, or gathered
+up in nets, or twisted about the head in braided
+tresses. In representing certain characters the eye-sockets
+were left open, so that the actor’s eyes
+could be seen moving and flashing within;<a id='r1062' /><a href='#f1062' class='c012'><sup>[1062]</sup></a> but on
+other occasions, when the part of a squinter was to
+be acted by a performer who did not squint or
+vice versa, as in the case of Roscius Gallus, the
+mask-maker must have represented the eyes by
+glass or some other transparent substance, through
+which the actor could see his way. This was necessarily
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_268'>268</span>the case in the part of the poet Thamyris,<a id='r1063' /><a href='#f1063' class='c012'><sup>[1063]</sup></a>
+who, like our own Chatterton, had eyes of different
+colours, one blue, the other black, which, as Aristotle
+informs us, was common among the horses of
+Greece.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The time of acting, as is well-known, was during
+the Dionysiac and Lenæan festivals, in the
+spring and autumn.<a id='r1064' /><a href='#f1064' class='c012'><sup>[1064]</sup></a> The theatres being national establishments,
+in the proper sense of the word, were
+therefore open, free of expense, to all the citizens,
+who were not called together as with us by playbills,<a id='r1065' /><a href='#f1065' class='c012'><sup>[1065]</sup></a>
+but for the most part knew nothing of what
+they were going to see till they were seated in the
+theatre, and the herald<a id='r1066' /><a href='#f1066' class='c012'><sup>[1066]</sup></a> commanded the chorus of
+such and such a poet to advance. Previously to the
+commencement of the performance the theatre was
+purified by the sacrifice of a young hog, the blood
+of which was sprinkled on the earth.<a id='r1067' /><a href='#f1067' class='c012'><sup>[1067]</sup></a></p>
+
+<hr class='c016' />
+<div class='footnote' id='f964'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r964'>964</a>. Cf. Ficorini, Degli Masch.
+Scen. p. 15.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f965'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r965'>965</a>. On the importance afterwards
+attached to the training of the
+chorus, see the substance of an
+inscription in Chandler, ii. 72.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f966'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r966'>966</a>. Sch. Aristoph. Av. 1404.
+Schneid. de Orig. Trag. Græc. c. i.
+p. 2. The Dithyrambic ode was
+said to have been invented by
+Arion at Corinth. Schol. Pind.
+Olymp. xiii. 25, seq. The first
+choral songs were improvisations.
+Max. Tyr. Dissert. xxi. p. 249.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f967'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r967'>967</a>. Poll. iv. 108. Sch. Aristoph.
+Acharn. 210.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f968'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r968'>968</a>. Cf. Schol. ad Æschin. Tim.
+Orator. Att. t. xii. p. 376. Tzetz.
+ad Lycoph. p. 251, sqq. See also
+Müller, Dissert. on the Eumenides
+of Æschylus, p. 54. Schol. Aristoph.
+Eq. 587.—<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">“Nous savons
+que sur les Théâtres Grecs les
+femmes dansaient dans les
+chœurs.”</span>—Winkel. Mon. Ined.
+iii. p. 86. I have found no
+proof in any ancient author that
+this was the practice among the
+Greeks.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f969'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r969'>969</a>. Sch. Aristoph. Acharn. 848.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f970'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r970'>970</a>. Vit. Æschyl. p. vi.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f971'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r971'>971</a>. Bœttiger, Furies, p. 2. Poll.
+iv. 110. Schol. Aristoph. Av.
+298. Eq. 586.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f972'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r972'>972</a>. According to Mr. Bœttiger,
+however, <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><a id='corr249.n7.2'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='‘chez'>“chez</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_249.n7.2'><ins class='correction' title='‘chez'>“chez</ins></a></span> les anciens Atheniens
+les femmes n’ont jamais
+assisté aux représentations théatrales.”</span>—Furies,
+p. 3, note.
+But, in addition to the proofs of
+the contrary, accumulated in the
+preceding book, the reader may
+consult the testimony of Aristides,
+who severely blames his
+countrymen for allowing their
+wives and children to frequent
+the theatres, t. i. p. 518, cf. p.
+507.—Jebb. He speaks, indeed,
+more particularly of the Smyrniotes;
+but Smyrna was an Ionian
+colony.—Herod. i. 149.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f973'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r973'>973</a>. Cf. Schol. Aristoph. Acharn. 209.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f974'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r974'>974</a>. Cf. Scalig. Poet, i. 21. Leroy,
+Ruines des plus beaux Monumens
+de la Grèce, p. 14.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f975'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r975'>975</a>. Cf. Hesych. v. νέμησις ὑποκριτῶν.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f976'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r976'>976</a>. This, however, I merely conjecture
+from the practice of marking
+with lines the station of the
+chorus. Hesych. v. γραμμαί.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f977'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r977'>977</a>. When making their exit, it
+is said they were preceded by a
+flute-player. Sch. Aristoph. Vesp.
+582. These musicians wore, while
+playing, straps of leather called
+φορβείαι, bound over their mouth
+in order to regulate the quantity
+of air transmitted into the pipe.
+Id. ibid. See Burney, Hist. of
+Music, i. 279.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f978'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r978'>978</a>. Cf. Torrent. in Suet. Domit.
+Com. p. 390. a. The best auletæ
+were those of Thebes. Dion Chrysost.
+i. 263.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f979'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r979'>979</a>. Suidas, v. ῥαβδοῦχοι, t. ii. p.
+672. f. Scalig. Poet. i. 21.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f980'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r980'>980</a>. See Cahusac, Traité Historique
+de la Dance, ii. i. t. i. p.
+61, sqq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f981'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r981'>981</a>. It is said that certain ancient
+poets were called orchestic,—as
+Thespis, Phrynichos, Pratinas,
+Carcinos,—not only because they
+adapted the subjects of their pieces
+to the dances of the chorusses,
+but, also, because they instructed
+in dancing the chorusses of other
+dramatic writers. Athen. i. 39.
+The above poet, Carcinos, was likewise
+celebrated for being the father
+of three sons who danced in the
+tragic chorusses, and, from their
+extremely diminutive stature, obtained
+the name of Quails. Schol.
+Aristoph. Pac. 761.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f982'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r982'>982</a>. Hesych. v. ἐμμέλεια. Sch.
+Aristoph. Nub. 532. Poll. iv.
+99. Athen. xiv. 27, seq. Luc. de
+Saltat. § 22. 26. Plut. Symposiac.
+ix. 15. 1.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f983'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r983'>983</a>. Suid. v. Φρυνίχου πάλαισμα,
+t. ii. p. 1092. b. c. d.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f984'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r984'>984</a>. Poll. iv. 103. Athen. xiv.
+27.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f985'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r985'>985</a>. Poll. iv. 103. Cf. Xenoph.
+Conviv. vi. 4.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f986'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r986'>986</a>. Poll. vi. 99.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f987'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r987'>987</a>. Pfeiffer. Antiq. Græc. ii. 58.
+p. 382.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f988'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r988'>988</a>. Cf. Dodwell, Classical Tour
+in Greece, vol. i. p. 133, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f989'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r989'>989</a>. Athen. xiv. 27. Poll. iv.
+104.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f990'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r990'>990</a>. Poll. iv. 10. 2. Aristoph. Vesp.
+1492. 1495, et Schol.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f991'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r991'>991</a>. Poll. iv. 105. See, in the
+Mus. Cortonens. tab. 60, the representation
+of a group of dancers
+on a platform in a boat, on the
+margin of the sea.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f992'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r992'>992</a>. Athen. xiv. 9.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f993'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r993'>993</a>. Athen. xiv. 27.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f994'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r994'>994</a>. On the character of the old
+comedy, which tolerated these
+dances, see Plut. Lucull. § 39.
+Demet. § 12. Pericl. § 5.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f995'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r995'>995</a>. Poll. iv. 99.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f996'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r996'>996</a>. Id. ib.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f997'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r997'>997</a>. Poll. iv. 104.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f998'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r998'>998</a>. See Müller. ii. 354.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f999'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r999'>999</a>. Poll. iv. 104.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1000'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1000'>1000</a>. Schol. Aristoph. Nub. 534.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1001'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1001'>1001</a>. Poll. iv. 104.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1002'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1002'>1002</a>. Vitruv. i. 1.—Poll. iv. 104.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1003'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1003'>1003</a>. Plut. Artaxerx. § 18.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1004'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1004'>1004</a>. Duport. ad Theoph. Char. c.
+6. p. 305, sqq. Poll. iv. 99.—Athen.
+xiv. 29. On the Cretan
+warlike dances Orsites and Epicredios,
+id. xiv. 26.—Luc. de Saltat.
+§ 9.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1005'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1005'>1005</a>. Athen xiv. 29.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1006'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1006'>1006</a>. Poll. iv. 99.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1007'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1007'>1007</a>. Poll. iv. 105.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1008'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1008'>1008</a>. Luc. de Saltat. § 2.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1009'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1009'>1009</a>. Athen. xiv. 27.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1010'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1010'>1010</a>. It may possibly have been in
+this dance that Eumelos or Arctinos,
+an old Corinthian poet, introduced
+Zeus himself sporting
+the toe:—</p>
+
+<p class='c001'><a id='corr257.n5'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='Μεσσοισιν'>Μέσσοισιν</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_257.n5'><ins class='correction' title='Μεσσοισιν'>Μέσσοισιν</ins></a></span> δ᾽ ὠρχεῖτο πατὴρ
+ἀνδοῶν τε θεῶν τε. Athen. i. 40.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Cf. Plut. Sympos. ix. 15.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1011'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1011'>1011</a>. Luc. de Saltat. § 17.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1012'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1012'>1012</a>. Athen. xiv. 27.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1013'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1013'>1013</a>. Cf. Lips. Physiolog. Stoic. ii.
+22. t. iv. p. 955.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1014'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1014'>1014</a>. De Poet. i. 18.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1015'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1015'>1015</a>. Luc. de Saltat. § 12.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1016'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1016'>1016</a>. Poll. iv. 101. Spanh. ad
+Callim. t. ii. p. 513. Plut. Thes.
+§ 21. Cf. Douglas, Essay on some
+points of Resemblance, &c., p. 123.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>“One of the dances still performed
+by the Athenians has
+been supposed that which was
+called the Crane, and was said
+to have been invented by Theseus,
+after his escape from the
+labyrinth of Crete. The peasants
+perform it yearly in the
+street of the Frank convent at
+the conclusion of the vintage;
+joining hands and preceding
+their mules and asses, which
+are laden with grapes in panniers,
+in a very curved and intricate
+figure; the leader waving
+a handkerchief, which has been
+imagined to denote the clue
+given by Ariadne.” Chandler,
+ii. 151.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1017'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1017'>1017</a>. Like the Cyclic Chorus. Vid.
+Izetzes ad Lycoph. i. p. 251, sqq.
+Sch. Aristoph. Nub. 311.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1018'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1018'>1018</a>. Athen. iii. 82. xiv. 27.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1019'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1019'>1019</a>. Poll. iv. 93. Xenoph. Conviv.
+vii. 5. Plat. De Legg. vii. t. viii.
+p. 55. Cf. Herm. Comment. ad
+Arist. Poet. xxvii. 3. p. 190, sqq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1020'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1020'>1020</a>. Scalig. Poet. i. 18.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1021'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1021'>1021</a>. Cf. Buleng. de Theat. c. 55.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1022'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1022'>1022</a>. Dem. cont. Mid. § 7, seq.
+Athen. iii. 62. Animadv. t. vii.
+p. 215.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1023'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1023'>1023</a>. Bœttiger, Furies, p. 28, sqq.
+and pl. ii. Casaub. ad Athen. xii.
+2. Aristoph. Plut. 423.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1024'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1024'>1024</a>. On the actors’ wardrobe, see
+Poll. iv. 113, sqq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1025'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1025'>1025</a>. Müller, Dissert. on the Eumenides,
+p. 100. Mr. Donaldson,
+Theatre of the Greeks, p. 132,
+adopts this opinion.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1026'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1026'>1026</a>. Luc. Jup. Tragœd. § 41.
+Cf. Xen. Cyrop. viii. 8, 17.
+Poll. ii. 151. vii. 62.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1027'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1027'>1027</a>. See Winkel. Monum. Ined.
+t. iii. p. 84. c. ix. § 1. <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Les extrémités
+des Cothurnes étoient
+ronds et quelquefois un peu aigues;
+mais on n’en vit jamais
+de carrés, comme aux gravés sur
+l’estampe,</span> de Vasali. p. 85. Cf.
+Luc. de Saltat. § 27. Their
+height depended first upon the
+stature of the actor, second, upon
+that of the character represented.
+Sometimes they were satisfied
+with attributing four cubits even
+to the heroes.—Aristoph. Ran.
+1046. Cf. Athen. v. 27. But
+the ghost of Achilles when it appeared
+to Apollonios of Tyana,
+rose five cubits in height, and, no
+doubt, the spectre was careful to
+accommodate itself to public opinion.—Philost.
+Vit. Apoll. Tyan.
+iv. 16. Aul. Gell. iii. 10. See,
+also, Scalig. Poet. i. 13. Scaliger
+relates <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><i>à propos</i></span> of the Cothurnus
+a facetious remark of his father:
+<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">“Italas mulieres altissimis soccis
+usas vidimus; quamvis diminutiva
+dicant voce Socculos. Patris
+mei perfacetum dictum
+memini. Ejusmodi uxorum
+dimidio tantùm in lectis frui
+maritos, alter dimidio cum
+soccis deposito,”</span> p. 53.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1028'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1028'>1028</a>. Poll. iv. 119.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1029'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1029'>1029</a>. Cf. Mus. Chiaramont. tavv.
+3. 7. 16.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1030'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1030'>1030</a>. Poll. vii. 60. Bœttiger, Furies,
+p. 32. Luc. Jup. Tragoed.
+§ 41.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1031'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1031'>1031</a>. <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">On voit parmi les plus belles
+peintures d’Herculaneum un de
+ces premiers acteurs, ou protagonistes,
+avec une large ceinture de
+couleur d’or, une sceptre dans une
+main, et l’épée au côté.</span>—Winkelmann.
+Monum. Ined. t. iii. p. 84.
+Pitt. Ercol. i. 4. i. 41.—Plutarch
+observes, that, together with their
+royal garments, actors assumed
+the very strut of kings.—Vit.
+Demet. § 18.—Demetrius moreover,
+is said to have resembled a
+tragic actor, because he went clad
+in cloth of purple and gold, and
+wore sandals of purple and gold
+tissue. § 41.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1032'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1032'>1032</a>. Aristoph. Av. 512, et Schol.
+Nub. 70. Poll. iv. 115. Suid.
+v. Ξυστὶς. t. ii. p. 264. e.—The
+actor who personated Heracles
+made his appearance with club
+and lion’s skin.—Luc. de Saltat.
+§ 27.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1033'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1033'>1033</a>. Poll. iv. 116, 117. Aristoph.
+Nub. 71, et Schol. Lysist. 1189.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1034'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1034'>1034</a>. Deipnosoph. v. 22.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1035'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1035'>1035</a>. Poll. iv. 117. Hesych. v.
+ἀγρηνὸν.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1036'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1036'>1036</a>. Poll. iv. 118.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1037'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1037'>1037</a>. It behoved the actors, however,
+to take care of their gold and
+jewels, since it would appear that
+thieves found their way even to
+the stage.—Aristoph. Acharn.
+258.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1038'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1038'>1038</a>. Poll. iv. 118.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1039'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1039'>1039</a>. Dion. Chrysost. i. 231. Scalig.
+Poet. i. 13.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1040'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1040'>1040</a>. Poll. iv. 119, sqq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1041'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1041'>1041</a>. Scalig. Poet. i. 13.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1042'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1042'>1042</a>. When actors displeased the
+audience they were sometimes
+compelled to take off their masks
+and face those who hissed them,
+which was regarded as a serious
+punishment. Duport. ad Theoph.
+Char. p. 308. We ought, perhaps,
+to understand Lucian <span lang="la" xml:lang="la"><i>cum grano</i></span>,
+when he informs us that actors
+who performed their parts ill
+were scourged. Piscator, § 33.
+On the derivation of the word
+<em>persona</em>, Aul. Gell. v. 7. Cf.
+Aristoph. Poet. c. 5. Scalig. Poet.
+i. 13, on the derivation of πρόσωπον.
+Etym. Mag. 691. 1.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1043'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1043'>1043</a>. Vid. Cassiod. iv. 51. Plin.
+xlvii. 10. Solin. cxxxvii. Lucian.
+de Saltat. § 27. De Gymnast.
+§ 23. A tragic poet,
+Hieronymos, exposed himself to
+ridicule by introducing into one
+of his pieces a mask of frightful
+aspect. Aristoph. Acharn. 390.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1044'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1044'>1044</a>. Cf. Suid. v. φλοιός. t. ii. p.
+1073. Diog. Laert. iv. p. 27.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1045'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1045'>1045</a>. Plin. xxxvii. 56.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1046'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1046'>1046</a>. See Burney’s Hist. of Music,
+i. 153. sqq. Scalig. Poet. i. 21.
+Antiq. of Athens, &c., Supplementary
+to Stuart, by Cockerell,
+Kinnaird, Donaldson, &c. p. 39.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1047'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1047'>1047</a>. Vitruv. v. 6. Antiq. of Ath.
+by Cockerell, Donaldson, &c. p.
+39. <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Tectum porticus quod est
+in summa gradatione, respondet
+Sienæ altitudinem, ut vox crescens
+æqualiter ad summas gradationes
+et tectum perveniat.</span>
+Buleng. de Theat. c. 17.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1048'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1048'>1048</a>. Marinus’s edition of Vitruv.
+t. iv. tab. 81.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1049'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1049'>1049</a>. Empty pots were built into
+the walls of certain public edifices
+to augment the sound of the
+voice. Aristot. Prob. xi. 8. i. 1. v.
+5. The orchestra was sometimes
+strewed with chaff, which was
+found to deaden the voice. 25.
+Plin. ii. 51.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1050'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1050'>1050</a>. Scalig. Poet. i. 14. Poll. iv.
+143.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1051'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1051'>1051</a>. Suid. in θέσπις, p. 1315. d.
+Poll. x. 167.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1052'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1052'>1052</a>. Virg. Georg. ii. 387.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1053'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1053'>1053</a>. Vid. Horat. de Art. Poet.
+278. Athen. xiv. 77. Suid. v.
+χοιρίλλος, t. ii. p. 1160. f. Etym.
+Mag. 376. 47. Poll. iv. 133,
+sqq. Schol. Soph. Œdip. Tyr.
+80.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1054'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1054'>1054</a>. Meare’s Voyage, p. 254.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1055'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1055'>1055</a>. On the Roman Stage the
+actors appeared in hats up to the
+age of Livius Andronicus. Roscius
+Gallus was the first who put
+on a mask, which he did on account
+of his squinting. Ficorini,
+Masch. Scen. p. 15. On the origin
+of the Mask see Paccichelli
+De Larvis, Capillamentis, et Chirothecis.
+Neap. 1693.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1056'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1056'>1056</a>. Schol. Aristoph. Nub. 29.
+Scalig. Poet. i. 13.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1057'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1057'>1057</a>. Schol. Aristoph. Eq. 545.
+Nub. 29.—Demosth. De Coron.
+§ 37. Ulp. in. § 5.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1058'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1058'>1058</a>. Scalig. Poet. i. 13.—Poll. iv.
+133, sqq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1059'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1059'>1059</a>. Cf. Thucyd. i. 6, et Schol.
+Ælian. Var. Hist. iv. 22.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1060'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1060'>1060</a>. See a beautiful head of Aphrodite
+with a pole of curls. (ὄγκος)
+Mus. Chiaramont. tav. 27. Cf. a
+tragic female mask, with the hair
+bound by a fillet, in the Cabinet
+d’ Orleans, pl. 52.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1061'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1061'>1061</a>. It may be remarked that persons
+ridiculed upon the stage
+were introduced with masks exactly
+resembling their countenances.
+They seized, however,
+upon the ludicrous features, which
+any one happened to possess, as
+the eyebrows of Chærephon, and
+the baldness of Socrates. Sch.
+Aristoph. Nub. 147, 224. This
+applies to living characters. The
+dead were protected from ridicule
+by the laws. Sch. Pac. 631. The
+Comic mask was said to have been
+invented by Mason. Athen. xiv.
+77. The Comte de Caylus, however,
+attributes the invention of
+masks to the Etruscans. Recueil
+d’ Antiq. i. 147, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1062'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1062'>1062</a>. Cic. de Orat. ii. 46. See in
+Agostini Gemme Antiche, pl. 17,
+a representation of one of these
+masks. For examples of hideous
+masks see Mus. Florent. t. i. pp.
+45–51.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1063'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1063'>1063</a>. Poll. iv. 141. Dubos, Reflex.
+Crit. sur la Poes. et sur la Peint.
+i. 603.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1064'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1064'>1064</a>. Schol. Aristoph. Eq. 545.
+Acharn. 336. Cf. Dem. cont.
+Mid. § 4, et annot. Plut. Vit.
+x. Rhet. Lycurg.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1065'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1065'>1065</a>. Winkelmann, however, supposes
+they had a kind of playbill,
+Monum. Ined. iii. p. 86,
+founding his opinion upon a misinterpretation
+of Pollux, iv. 131.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1066'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1066'>1066</a>. Aristoph. Acharn. 10, sqq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1067'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1067'>1067</a>. Sch. Æschin. Tim. p. 17.
+Orator. Att. t. xiii. p. 377. Vales.
+ad Harpoc. 99, 296. Suid.
+v. καθάρσιον, t. i. p. 1346. a. Poll.
+viii. 104.</p>
+</div>
+<hr class='c016' />
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+ <span class='pageno' id='Page_269'>269</span>
+ <h2 class='c004'>BOOK V. <br /> RURAL LIFE.</h2>
+</div>
+
+<h3 class='c002'>CHAPTER I. <br /> THE VILLA AND THE FARMYARD.</h3>
+
+<p class='c011'>If we now, for a moment, quit the city and its
+amusements, and observe the tone and character
+of Hellenic rural life, we shall find, perhaps, that
+there existed in antiquity a still greater contrast
+between town and country than in modern times.
+From the poetry of Athens, rife with sylvan imagery,
+we, no less than from its history, discover
+how deeply they loved the sunshine and calm and
+quiet of their fields. The rustic population confined
+to the city during the Peleponnesian war almost
+perished of nostalgia within sight of their village
+homes. Half the metaphors in their language are of
+country growth. The bee murmurs, the partridge
+whirrs, the lark, the nightingale, the thrush, pour
+their music through the channels of verse and
+prose. The odours of ripe fruit, of new wine “purple
+and gushing,” the fresh invigorating morning
+breeze from harvest fields, from clover meadows
+dotted with kine, the scent of milk-pails, of honey,
+and the honey-comb, still breathe sweetly over the
+Attic page, and prove how smitten with home delights
+the Athenian people were,</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>“With plesaunce of the breathing fields yfed.”</div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c014'>This their manly and healthful taste, however,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_270'>270</span>constantly, in time of war, exposed them to the
+malice of their enemies. For the valleys and
+grassy uplands of Attica, being thickly covered
+with villas and farmhouses,<a id='r1068' /><a href='#f1068' class='c012'><sup>[1068]</sup></a> the first act of an invading
+army was to lay all those beautiful homesteads
+in ashes. Thus the Persians, in their two
+invasions, destroyed the whole with fire and sword.
+But the gentlemen, immediately on their return,
+rebuilt their dwellings<a id='r1069' /><a href='#f1069' class='c012'><sup>[1069]</sup></a> with greater taste and magnificence,
+so that, before the breaking out of the Peloponnesian
+war, it is probable that, as a scene of
+unambitious affluence, taste, high cultivation, and
+rustic contentment, nothing was ever beheld to
+compare with Attica. Here and there, throughout
+the land, perched on rocks, or shaded by trees,
+were small rustic chapels dedicated to the nymphs,
+or rural gods.<a id='r1070' /><a href='#f1070' class='c012'><sup>[1070]</sup></a> On the mountains, and in solitary
+glens, and wherever springs gushed from the cliffs,
+caverns were scooped out by the hands of the leisurely
+shepherds,<a id='r1071' /><a href='#f1071' class='c012'><sup>[1071]</sup></a> and consecrated by association
+with mythology. Fountains, also, and water-courses,
+altars, statues,<a id='r1072' /><a href='#f1072' class='c012'><sup>[1072]</sup></a> and sacred groves,<a id='r1073' /><a href='#f1073' class='c012'><sup>[1073]</sup></a> protected at once
+by religion and the laws,<a id='r1074' /><a href='#f1074' class='c012'><sup>[1074]</sup></a> imprinted on the landscape
+features of poetry and elegance.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Another cause which, in the eyes of the Athenians,
+imparted sanctity to their lands, was the practice
+of burying in them their dead. The spot selected
+for this sacred purpose seems usually to have
+been the orchard, where, amid fig-trees and trailing
+vines,<a id='r1075' /><a href='#f1075' class='c012'><sup>[1075]</sup></a> often near the boundaries of the estate, might
+be seen the ancient and venerable monuments of
+the dead. All Attica, therefore, in their eyes, appeared
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_271'>271</span>holy as a sepulchre; and, as every one guarded
+his own ancestral ashes, to sell a farm cost a man’s
+feelings more than in countries where people inter
+those they love in public cemeteries; and this circumstance
+with many would operate like a law of
+entail.<a id='r1076' /><a href='#f1076' class='c012'><sup>[1076]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>But it is easy thus to present to the imagination
+a general picture of the country. What we want
+is to thrust aside the impediments, to dissipate the
+obscurity of two thousand years, and lift the latch
+of a Greek farmhouse, such as it existed in the days
+of Pericles.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>In the first place it was common in Attica to
+erect country-houses in the midst of a grove of silver
+firs,<a id='r1077' /><a href='#f1077' class='c012'><sup>[1077]</sup></a> which in winter protect from cold, and in
+summer attract the breezes that imitate in their
+branches the sound of trickling runnels, or the distant
+murmur of the sea. Towards the centre of the
+grove, with a spacious court in front and a garden
+behind, stood the house,<a id='r1078' /><a href='#f1078' class='c012'><sup>[1078]</sup></a> sometimes with flat, sometimes
+with pointed roof, ornamented with a picturesque
+porch, and surrounded with verandahs or
+colonnades. Occasionally opulent persons had on the
+south front of their houses large citron trees,<a id='r1079' /><a href='#f1079' class='c012'><sup>[1079]</sup></a> growing
+in pots, on either side the door, where they
+were well watered and carefully covered during winter.<a id='r1080' /><a href='#f1080' class='c012'><sup>[1080]</sup></a>
+In the plainer class of dwellings, numerous
+outhouses, as stables, sheds for cattle,<a id='r1081' /><a href='#f1081' class='c012'><sup>[1081]</sup></a> henroosts,
+pigstyes, &c., extended round the court, while the
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_272'>272</span>back-front, generally in the East the principal, opened
+upon the garden or orchard.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Much pains was usually taken in selecting the site
+of a farmhouse,<a id='r1082' /><a href='#f1082' class='c012'><sup>[1082]</sup></a> though opinions of course varied
+according to the peculiar range of experience on
+which they were based. In general such positions
+were considered most favourable as neighboured the
+sea, or occupied the summits or the slopes of mountains,<a id='r1083' /><a href='#f1083' class='c012'><sup>[1083]</sup></a>
+more especially if looking towards the north.<a id='r1084' /><a href='#f1084' class='c012'><sup>[1084]</sup></a>
+The vicinity of swamps and marshes, and as much
+as possible of rivers, was avoided, together with
+coombs, or hollow valleys, and declivities facing the
+south or the setting sun. If necessitated by the
+nature of the ground to build near the banks of a
+stream, the front of the dwelling was carefully turned
+away from it, inasmuch as its waters communicated
+an additional rigour to the winds in winter, and in
+summer filled the atmosphere with unwholesome
+vapours. The favourite exposure was towards the
+east whence the most salubrious breezes were supposed
+to blow, while the cheerful beams of the sun,
+as soon as they streamed above the horizon, dissipated
+the dank fogs and murkiness of the air. Notwithstanding
+the warmth of the climate, moreover,
+they loved such situations as were all day long illuminated
+by the sun, whilst every care was taken
+to fence out the sirocco, a moist and pestilential
+wind, blowing across the Mediterranean from the
+deserts of Africa. In Italy, nevertheless, the farmer
+often selected for the site of his mansion the
+southern roots of mountains, further defended from
+Alpine blasts by a sweep of lofty woods.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>According to the fashion prevailing in antiquity,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_273'>273</span>farmhouses were built high, large, and roomy, though
+Cato<a id='r1085' /><a href='#f1085' class='c012'><sup>[1085]</sup></a> shrewdly advises, that their magnitude should
+bear some relation to that of the domain, lest the
+villa should have to seek for the farm, or the farm
+for the villa.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Much, however, would depend upon the taste of
+the individual; but in a plain farmhouse more attention
+appears to have been paid to substantial comfort,
+and something like rough John-Bullism, than to
+that cold finical elegance which certain persons are
+fond of associating with whatever is classical. An
+Attic farmer of the true old republican school was
+anything but a fine gentleman. He scorned none
+of the occupations or productions by which he lived.
+On entering his dwelling you found no small difficulty
+in steering between bags of corn,<a id='r1086' /><a href='#f1086' class='c012'><sup>[1086]</sup></a> piles of
+cheeses, hurdles of dried figs<a id='r1087' /><a href='#f1087' class='c012'><sup>[1087]</sup></a> or raisins, while the
+racks groaned with hams<a id='r1088' /><a href='#f1088' class='c012'><sup>[1088]</sup></a> and bacon flitches. If
+they resembled their descendants,<a id='r1089' /><a href='#f1089' class='c012'><sup>[1089]</sup></a> too, even their
+bedchambers were invaded by some species of provisions,
+for there in the present day you often behold
+long strings of melons suspended like festoons
+from the rafters. In one corner of the ground-floor
+stood a corbel filled with olive-dregs, recently pressed,
+in another a wool-sack or a pile of dressed skins.<a id='r1090' /><a href='#f1090' class='c012'><sup>[1090]</sup></a>
+Yonder in the room looking into the garden, with
+the honey-suckle twining about the open lattice,
+were madam’s loom and spinning-wheel, and carding
+apparatus, and work-baskets; and there with the
+lark<a id='r1091' /><a href='#f1091' class='c012'><sup>[1091]</sup></a> might you see her, serene and happy, suckling
+her young democrat, and rocking the cradle of a
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_274'>274</span>second with her foot, thriftily giving directions the
+while to Thratta, Xanthia or “the neat-handed”
+Phillis.<a id='r1092' /><a href='#f1092' class='c012'><sup>[1092]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The kitchen must sometimes have been in fine
+disorder; geese and ducks waddling across the floor,
+picking up the spilled grain, or snatching away the
+piece of bread and honey which my young master
+had just put down on the stool to play at a game
+of romps with Thratta. Up in the dusky corner
+there, behind a huge armchair or settle, you may
+discern a very suspicious looking enclosure, from
+which, at intervals, issues a suppressed grunt; it
+is the pigsty.<a id='r1093' /><a href='#f1093' class='c012'><sup>[1093]</sup></a> But be not offended; the practice
+is classical; and pigs, in my apprehension, are as
+pleasant company as geese and many other animals.
+Now, that geese were fed even about palaces, we
+have the testimony of Homer, whose Penelope, <a id='corr274.18'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='the'>the</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_274.18'><ins class='correction' title='the'>the</ins></a></span>
+<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><i>beau idéal</i></span> of a good housewife, says—</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>“Full twenty geese have we at home, that feed</div>
+ <div class='line'>On wheat in water steeped.”<a id='r1094' /><a href='#f1094' class='c012'><sup>[1094]</sup></a></div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c014'>But the whole economy of geese-feeding<a id='r1095' /><a href='#f1095' class='c012'><sup>[1095]</sup></a> has
+been transmitted to us; in the first place, the birds
+usually preferred were those most remarkable for
+their size and whiteness.<a id='r1096' /><a href='#f1096' class='c012'><sup>[1096]</sup></a> The ancients esteemed
+the variegated, or spotted, as of inferior value. The
+same rule applied to fowls. The chenoboscion,<a id='r1097' /><a href='#f1097' class='c012'><sup>[1097]</sup></a> or
+enclosure in which the geese were kept, was commonly
+situated near ponds or freshes,<a id='r1098' /><a href='#f1098' class='c012'><sup>[1098]</sup></a> abounding
+with rich grass and aquatic plants. Geese, it was
+observed, are not nice in the article of food, but
+devour eagerly nearly all kinds of plants, though
+the chick-pea, and the couch-grass, the laurel and
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_275'>275</span>the laurel-rose,<a id='r1099' /><a href='#f1099' class='c012'><sup>[1099]</sup></a> were by the ancients supposed to
+be hurtful to them. Of their eggs some were
+hatched by hens, but such as were designed to be
+sitten on by the goose herself, (who, during the
+period of incubation<a id='r1100' /><a href='#f1100' class='c012'><sup>[1100]</sup></a> was fed on barley steeped
+in water,) were marked by writing or otherwise,
+to distinguish them from the eggs of their neighbours,
+which it was thought she would not be at
+the pains to hatch. For the first ten days after
+they had broken the shell the young goslings were
+kept within-doors, where they were fed on wheat
+steeped in water, <em>polenta</em> a preparation of barley-meal
+dried at the fire, and chopped cresses. This
+period over, they were driven out to feed and afterwards
+to water; they who tended them taking great
+care that they should not be stung by nettles, or
+pricked by thorns, or swallow the hair<a id='r1101' /><a href='#f1101' class='c012'><sup>[1101]</sup></a> of pigs or
+kids, which they imagined to be fatal to them.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>When full-grown geese were intended to be fattened,
+the custom was, to confine them in dark and
+extremely warm cells.<a id='r1102' /><a href='#f1102' class='c012'><sup>[1102]</sup></a> Their food was scientifically
+varied and regulated, proceeding from less to more
+nutritious, until they were judged fit for the table.
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_276'>276</span>At first their diet consisted of a preparation composed
+of two parts <em>polenta</em>, and four parts bran boiled
+in water. Of this they were permitted to eat as
+much as they pleased three times a day, and once
+again at midnight, while water was furnished them
+in abundance. When they had continued on this
+regimen for some time, they were indulged with a
+more luxurious table,—nothing less than the most
+exquisite dried figs, which, being chopped small, and
+dissolved in water, were served up as a sort of jelly
+for twenty days, after which the pampered animal
+itself was ready for the spit.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Occasionally that delicate and humane device, for
+the practice of which Germany has, in modern times,
+obtained so enviable a celebrity, of enlarging preternaturally
+the dimensions of the liver, was resorted
+to by the ancients,<a id='r1103' /><a href='#f1103' class='c012'><sup>[1103]</sup></a> whose mode of proceeding was
+as follows: during five-and-twenty days, being cooped
+up as before in a place of high temperature, the
+geese were fed with wheat and barley steeped in
+water, the former of which fattened, while the latter
+rendered their flesh delicately white. For the next
+five days certain cakes or balls, denominated collyria,<a id='r1104' /><a href='#f1104' class='c012'><sup>[1104]</sup></a>
+the composition of which is not exactly known,
+were given them at the rate of seven per day, after
+which the number was gradually augmented to fifteen,
+which constituted their whole allowance for other
+twenty days. To this succeeded the most extraordinary
+dish of all, consisting of bolusses of leavened
+dough, steeped in a warm decoction of mallows, by
+which they were puffed up for four days. Their
+drink, meanwhile, was still more delicious than their
+food, being nothing less than hydromel,<a id='r1105' /><a href='#f1105' class='c012'><sup>[1105]</sup></a> or water
+mingled with honey. During the last six days dried
+figs, chopped fine, were added to their leaven, and
+the process being thus brought to a conclusion, the
+gourmands for whom they were intended, feasted on
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_277'>277</span>the tenderest geese and the largest livers in the
+world. It should be added, however, that before
+being cooked the liver was thrown into a basin of
+warm water, which the <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><i>artistes</i></span> several times changed.
+Geese, adds the ingenious gastronomer to whom we
+are indebted for these details, are, both for flesh and
+liver, much inferior to ganders. The Greeks did
+not, however, like the Romans and the moderns,
+select young geese for this species of culinary apotheosis,
+but birds of a mature age and of the largest
+size, from two to four years old, which only proves
+the superior strength and keenness of their teeth.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Ducks were kept in ponds, carefully enclosed, and,
+perhaps, covered over that they might not fly away.
+In the centre were certain green islets,<a id='r1106' /><a href='#f1106' class='c012'><sup>[1106]</sup></a> planted with
+couch-grass, which the ancients considered as beneficial
+to ducks as it was hurtful to geese. Their usual
+food, which was cast in the water encircling the
+islets, consisted of wheat, millet, barley, sometimes
+mixed with grape-stones and grape-skins. Occasionally
+they were indulged with locusts, prawns, shrimps,<a id='r1107' /><a href='#f1107' class='c012'><sup>[1107]</sup></a>
+and whatever else aquatic birds habitually feed
+on. Persons desirous of possessing tame ducks were
+accustomed to beat about the lakes and marshes<a id='r1108' /><a href='#f1108' class='c012'><sup>[1108]</sup></a>
+for the nest of the wild bird. Giving the eggs
+to a hen to sit on, they obtained a brood of ducklings
+perfectly domesticated.<a id='r1109' /><a href='#f1109' class='c012'><sup>[1109]</sup></a> Wild ducks were
+sometimes caught by pouring red wine, or the lees
+of wine, into the springs whither they came to
+drink.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>With respect to barn-door fowl, originally introduced
+from India and Media into Greece, the
+greatest care appears to have been taken to vary
+and improve the breeds. For this purpose cocks
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_278'>278</span>and hens were imported<a id='r1110' /><a href='#f1110' class='c012'><sup>[1110]</sup></a> from the shores of the
+Adriatic, from Italy, Sicily, Numidia, and Egypt,
+while those of Attica were occasionally exported
+to other countries. There appears to have been
+a prejudice against keeping more than fifty fowls<a id='r1111' /><a href='#f1111' class='c012'><sup>[1111]</sup></a>
+about one farmyard, some traces of which may
+also be discovered in the practice of the Arabs.<a id='r1112' /><a href='#f1112' class='c012'><sup>[1112]</sup></a>
+The fowl-house furnished with roosts,<a id='r1113' /><a href='#f1113' class='c012'><sup>[1113]</sup></a> as with us,
+was so contrived and situated as to receive from
+the kitchen a tolerable supply of smoke, which was
+supposed to be agreeable to these Median strangers.
+The food of fowls<a id='r1114' /><a href='#f1114' class='c012'><sup>[1114]</sup></a> being much the same all the
+world over, it is unnecessary to observe more than
+that the green leaves of the Cytisus were supposed
+to render them prolific. To preserve them from
+vermin, the juice of rue, by way I suppose of
+charm, was sprinkled over their feathers.<a id='r1115' /><a href='#f1115' class='c012'><sup>[1115]</sup></a> The
+proportion of male birds was one to six. Hens
+were usually put to sit about the vernal equinox,
+during the first quarter of the moon, in nests carefully
+constructed of boards, and strewed with fresh
+clean straw, into which, as a sort of talisman against
+thunder, they threw an iron nail, heads of garlic, and
+sprigs of laurel.<a id='r1116' /><a href='#f1116' class='c012'><sup>[1116]</sup></a> During the period of incubation,
+the eggs which had previously been kept in bran
+were turned every day.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The other inhabitants of the farmyard were peacocks,<a id='r1117' /><a href='#f1117' class='c012'><sup>[1117]</sup></a>
+commonly confined in beautiful artificial islands
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_279'>279</span>provided with elegant sheds; pheasants<a id='r1118' /><a href='#f1118' class='c012'><sup>[1118]</sup></a> from the
+shores of the Black Sea;<a id='r1119' /><a href='#f1119' class='c012'><sup>[1119]</sup></a> guinea-fowls from Numidia,<a id='r1120' /><a href='#f1120' class='c012'><sup>[1120]</sup></a>
+though according to other authors they were
+originally found in Ætolia;<a id='r1121' /><a href='#f1121' class='c012'><sup>[1121]</sup></a> partridges, quails, and
+the attagas. Thrushes were bred in warm rooms
+with slight perches projecting from the walls, and
+laurel boughs or other evergreens fixed in the corners.<a id='r1122' /><a href='#f1122' class='c012'><sup>[1122]</sup></a>
+Over the clean floor was strewed their food,
+dried figs, which had been steeped in water, and
+mixed with flour or barley meal, together with the
+berries of the myrtle; the lentiscus, the ivy, the
+laurel, and the olive. They were fattened with millet,
+panic, and pure water.<a id='r1123' /><a href='#f1123' class='c012'><sup>[1123]</sup></a> Other still smaller birds
+were reared, and fattened in like manner. Every
+farmhouse had, moreover, its columbary and dove-cotes,<a id='r1124' /><a href='#f1124' class='c012'><sup>[1124]</sup></a>
+sometimes so large as to contain five thousand
+birds. They usually consisted of spacious buildings,<a id='r1125' /><a href='#f1125' class='c012'><sup>[1125]</sup></a>
+roofed over and furnished with windows closed
+by lattice work, made so close that neither a lizard
+nor a mouse could creep through them. In the
+floor were channels and basins of water, in which
+these delicate birds<a id='r1126' /><a href='#f1126' class='c012'><sup>[1126]</sup></a> might wash and plume themselves,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_280'>280</span>and adjoining was a chamber into which such
+as were required for sale, or the table, were enticed.
+Even jackdaws were kept about farmyards,
+and like common fowls had perches set up for
+them.<a id='r1127' /><a href='#f1127' class='c012'><sup>[1127]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Much pains was taken by the ancients to improve
+the breed of animals.<a id='r1128' /><a href='#f1128' class='c012'><sup>[1128]</sup></a> Polycrates, tyrant of
+Samos, introduced into that island the Molossian
+and Spartan dogs, goats from Scyros and Naxos,
+and sheep from Attica and Miletos.<a id='r1129' /><a href='#f1129' class='c012'><sup>[1129]</sup></a> The fineness
+and beauty of Merinos were also known to the ancients,
+who purchased from Spain rams for breeding
+at a talent each, that is, about two hundred
+and forty-one pounds sterling.<a id='r1130' /><a href='#f1130' class='c012'><sup>[1130]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Horses were at all times few, and, consequently,
+dear in Greece; they were, therefore, seldom employed
+in agriculture, but bred and kept chiefly for
+the army, for religious pomps and processions, and
+for the chariot races at Olympia. Originally, no
+doubt, the horse was introduced from Asia, and, up
+to a very late period, chargers of great beauty and
+spirit, continued to be imported from the shores of
+the Black Sea.<a id='r1131' /><a href='#f1131' class='c012'><sup>[1131]</sup></a> Princes, in the Homeric age, appear
+to have obtained celebrity for the beauty of
+their steeds, as Laomedon, Tros, and Rhesos; and
+it was customary for them to possess studs of brood
+mares in the rich pasture lands on the sea-shore.
+That of Priam, for example, lay at Abydos, on the
+Hellespont.<a id='r1132' /><a href='#f1132' class='c012'><sup>[1132]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The high estimation in which horses<a id='r1133' /><a href='#f1133' class='c012'><sup>[1133]</sup></a> were held
+in remote antiquity, may be gathered from the numerous
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_281'>281</span>fables invented respecting them,—as that of
+the centaurs in Thessaly, of the winged courser of
+Bellerophontes, and the Muses, and of the marvellous
+steeds presented by Poseidon to Peleus on his
+marriage with Thetis. They were reckoned, likewise,
+among the most precious victims offered in
+sacrifice to the gods. Thus we find the Trojans
+plunging live horses into the whirlpool of the Scamander<a id='r1134' /><a href='#f1134' class='c012'><sup>[1134]</sup></a>
+to deprecate the anger of that divinity.
+The Romans, likewise, in later times, sacrificed horses
+to the ocean;<a id='r1135' /><a href='#f1135' class='c012'><sup>[1135]</sup></a> and, in many parts of Asia, it appears
+to have been customary in nearly all ages, to
+offer up, as anciently in Laconia,<a id='r1136' /><a href='#f1136' class='c012'><sup>[1136]</sup></a> this magnificent
+animal on the altars of the sun.<a id='r1137' /><a href='#f1137' class='c012'><sup>[1137]</sup></a> Thus, among the
+Armenians, whose breed, though smaller than that
+of the Persians, was far more spirited, this practice
+prevailed as it still does in Northern India, and
+Xenophon,<a id='r1138' /><a href='#f1138' class='c012'><sup>[1138]</sup></a> a religious man, observes in the Anabasis,
+that he gave his steed, worn down with the
+fatigues of the march, to be fed and offered up by
+the Komarch, with whom he had been for some
+days a guest. From Homer’s account of Pandarus
+we may infer, that the possessors of fine horses
+often submitted to great personal inconvenience
+rather than hazard the well-being of their favourites.
+For this wealthy prince,<a id='r1139' /><a href='#f1139' class='c012'><sup>[1139]</sup></a> who possessed eleven carriages
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_282'>282</span>and twenty-two steeds, came on foot to the
+assistance of Priam, lest they should not find a plentiful
+supply of provender at Troy.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Several countries were famous<a id='r1140' /><a href='#f1140' class='c012'><sup>[1140]</sup></a> for their breed of
+horses, as Cyrene, Egypt, Syria, Phrygia, and the
+Phasis.<a id='r1141' /><a href='#f1141' class='c012'><sup>[1141]</sup></a> Thessaly, too, particularly the neighbourhood
+of Triccæ, abounded in barbs, as did likewise
+Bœotia. But one of the most remarkable races
+was that produced in Nisæon,<a id='r1142' /><a href='#f1142' class='c012'><sup>[1142]</sup></a> a district of Media,
+which seems to have been white, or of a bright
+cream colour,<a id='r1143' /><a href='#f1143' class='c012'><sup>[1143]</sup></a> and of extraordinary size and swiftness.
+On one of these Masistios<a id='r1144' /><a href='#f1144' class='c012'><sup>[1144]</sup></a> was mounted during
+the expedition into Greece. Apollo, in an oracle
+is said to have spoken of the beauty of mares,
+alluding, perhaps, to those of Elis, which were remarkable
+for their lightness and elegance of form;
+and Aristotle celebrates a particular mare of Pharsatis,
+called Dicæa, which was famous for bringing
+colts resembling their sires.<a id='r1145' /><a href='#f1145' class='c012'><sup>[1145]</sup></a> Among the Homeric
+chiefs, Achilles and Eumelos boasted the noblest
+coursers, as we learn from a picturesque and striking
+passage in the Catalogue:<a id='r1146' /><a href='#f1146' class='c012'><sup>[1146]</sup></a> “And now, O Muse,
+declare, which of the leaders and their horses were
+most illustrious. Excepting those of Achilles, the
+finest steeds before Troy were those of Eumelos
+from Pheræ, swift as birds, alike in mane, in
+age, and so equal in size, that a rule would stand
+level on their backs. They were both bred by
+Apollo in Pieria, both mares, and they bore with
+them the dread of battle. Noblest of all, however,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_283'>283</span>were the coursers of Achilles. But he, in
+his lunar-prowed, sea-passing ships remains incensed
+against Atreides, the shepherd of his
+people; his myrmidons amuse themselves on the
+sea-shore with pitching the quoit, launching the
+javelin, and drawing the bow; their horses, standing
+beside the chariots, feed upon lotus, trefoil and
+marsh parsley; and the chariots themselves, well
+covered with hangings, are drawn up in the tents
+of the chiefs, while the soldiers, sighing for the
+leading of their impetuous general, stroll carelessly
+through the camp without joining in the war.”</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The food of the Homeric horses,<a id='r1147' /><a href='#f1147' class='c012'><sup>[1147]</sup></a> was little inferior
+to that of their masters, since, besides the
+natural delicacies of the meadows, they were indulged
+with sifted barley and the finest wheat.<a id='r1148' /><a href='#f1148' class='c012'><sup>[1148]</sup></a>
+The halter with which, while feeding, they were tied
+to the manger seems usually to have been of leather.
+Aristotle,<a id='r1149' /><a href='#f1149' class='c012'><sup>[1149]</sup></a> remarks, that horses are fattened less by
+their food than by what they drink, and that, like
+the camel,<a id='r1150' /><a href='#f1150' class='c012'><sup>[1150]</sup></a> they delight in muddy water, on which
+account they usually trouble the stream before
+they taste it.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The Greek conception of equine beauty<a id='r1151' /><a href='#f1151' class='c012'><sup>[1151]</sup></a> differed
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_284'>284</span>but little from our own, since they chiefly loved
+horses of those colours which are still the objects of
+admiration: as snow-white, with black eyes like those
+of Rhesos, which Plato thought the most beautiful;
+cream-coloured, light bay, chestnut, and smoky grey.
+They judged of the breeding of a horse by the shortness
+of its coat and the dusky prominence of its
+veins. As a fine large mane greatly augments the
+magnificent appearance of this animal, they were
+careful after washing to comb and oil it<a id='r1152' /><a href='#f1152' class='c012'><sup>[1152]</sup></a> while they
+gathered up the forelock in a band of gilded leather.<a id='r1153' /><a href='#f1153' class='c012'><sup>[1153]</sup></a>
+The floors of their stables were commonly pitched
+with round pebbles bound tight together by curbs
+of iron.<a id='r1154' /><a href='#f1154' class='c012'><sup>[1154]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Horses were usually broken<a id='r1155' /><a href='#f1155' class='c012'><sup>[1155]</sup></a> by professed grooms,
+who entered into a written agreement with the
+owners implicitly to follow their directions.<a id='r1156' /><a href='#f1156' class='c012'><sup>[1156]</sup></a> The
+process was sufficiently simple. They began with
+the year-and-a-half colts,<a id='r1157' /><a href='#f1157' class='c012'><sup>[1157]</sup></a> on which they put a halter
+when feeding, while a bridle was hung up close to
+the manger, that they might be accustomed to the
+touch of it, and not take fright at the jingling of
+the bit.<a id='r1158' /><a href='#f1158' class='c012'><sup>[1158]</sup></a> The next step was to lead them into the
+midst of noisy and tumultuous crowds in order to
+discover whether or not they were bold enough to
+be employed in war.<a id='r1159' /><a href='#f1159' class='c012'><sup>[1159]</sup></a> The operation was not completely
+finished till they were three years old. When,
+on the course or elsewhere, horses had been well
+sweated,<a id='r1160' /><a href='#f1160' class='c012'><sup>[1160]</sup></a> they were led into a place set apart for
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_285'>285</span>the purpose, and, in order to dry themselves, made
+to roll in the sand. It was customary for owners
+to mark their horses with the Koppa,<a id='r1161' /><a href='#f1161' class='c012'><sup>[1161]</sup></a> or other letter
+of the alphabet, whence they were sometimes
+called Koppatias, Samphoras, &c.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The mule and the ass were much employed in
+rural labours, the former both at the cart and the
+plough, the latter in drawing small tumbrils, and in
+bearing wood<a id='r1162' /><a href='#f1162' class='c012'><sup>[1162]</sup></a> or other produce of the farm to the
+city.<a id='r1163' /><a href='#f1163' class='c012'><sup>[1163]</sup></a> The wild ass<a id='r1164' /><a href='#f1164' class='c012'><sup>[1164]</sup></a> was sometimes resorted to
+for improving the breed of mules, which, in the
+Homeric age, were found in a state of nature among
+the mountains of Paphlagonia.<a id='r1165' /><a href='#f1165' class='c012'><sup>[1165]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>But their cares extended even to swine, which, if
+King Ptolemy may be credited, were sometimes
+distinguished in Greece for their great size and
+beauty. He, in fact, observes in his Memoirs, that
+in the city of Assos he saw a milk-white hog two
+cubits and a half in length, and of equal height;
+and adds, that King Eumenes had given four thousand
+drachmæ, or nearly two hundred pounds sterling,
+for a boar of this enormous size, to improve the
+breed of pigs in his country.<a id='r1166' /><a href='#f1166' class='c012'><sup>[1166]</sup></a> So that we perceive
+those great generals, whom posterity usually contemplates
+only in the cabinet or in the battle-field, were,
+at the same time, in their domestic policy, the rivals
+of the Earls Spencer and Leicester. Superstition,
+among the Cretans, prevented the improvement of
+bacon; for as a sow was said to have suckled the
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_286'>286</span>infant Jupiter, and defended his helpless infancy, they,
+in gratitude,<a id='r1167' /><a href='#f1167' class='c012'><sup>[1167]</sup></a> abstained from hog’s flesh.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>In all farms the care of cattle necessarily formed
+a principal employment. The oxen<a id='r1168' /><a href='#f1168' class='c012'><sup>[1168]</sup></a> were used in
+ploughing, treading out the corn, drawing manure to
+the fields, and bringing home the produce of the
+harvest. To prevent their being overcome by fatigue
+while engaged in their labours, the husbandmen of
+Greece had recourse to certain expedients, one of
+which was, to smear their hoofs with a composition
+of oil and terebinth, or wax, or warm pitch:<a id='r1169' /><a href='#f1169' class='c012'><sup>[1169]</sup></a> while,
+to protect them from flies, their coats were anointed
+with their own saliva, or with a decoction of bruised
+laurel berries and oil.<a id='r1170' /><a href='#f1170' class='c012'><sup>[1170]</sup></a> Their milch cows, in the
+selection of which much judgment was displayed,<a id='r1171' /><a href='#f1171' class='c012'><sup>[1171]</sup></a>
+were commonly fed on cytisus and clover; and, still
+further to increase their milk, bunches of the herb
+dittany were sometimes tied about their flanks. The
+usual milking-times<a id='r1172' /><a href='#f1172' class='c012'><sup>[1172]</sup></a> were, in the morning immediately
+after the breaking-up of the dawn, and in
+the evening about the close of twilight; though,
+occasionally, both cows, sheep, and goats were milked
+several times during the day. In weaning calves
+they made use of a species of muzzle,<a id='r1173' /><a href='#f1173' class='c012'><sup>[1173]</sup></a> as the Arabs
+do in the case of young camels. Their pails, like
+our own, were of wood,<a id='r1174' /><a href='#f1174' class='c012'><sup>[1174]</sup></a> but somewhat differently
+shaped, being narrow above, and spreading towards
+the bottom. When conveyed into the dairy the milk
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_287'>287</span>was poured into pans,<a id='r1175' /><a href='#f1175' class='c012'><sup>[1175]</sup></a> on the form of which I have
+hitherto found no information.<a id='r1176' /><a href='#f1176' class='c012'><sup>[1176]</sup></a> That they skimmed
+their milk is evident (whatever they may have done
+with the cream), from the mention of that thin
+pellicle which is found on it only when skimmed,
+whether scalded or not. “Here, drink this!” said
+Glycera to Menander, when he had returned one
+day in exceeding ill-humour from the theatre. “I
+don’t like the wrinkled skin,” replied the poet to
+the lady, whose beauty, it must be remembered,
+was at this time on the wane. “Blow it off,” replied
+she, immediately comprehending his meaning, “and
+take what is beneath.”<a id='r1177' /><a href='#f1177' class='c012'><sup>[1177]</sup></a> Milk, in those warm latitudes,
+grows sour more rapidly than with us; but
+the ancients observed that it would keep three days
+when it had been scalded, and stirred until cold with
+a reed or ferula.<a id='r1178' /><a href='#f1178' class='c012'><sup>[1178]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The Greeks of classical times appear to have made
+no use of butter,<a id='r1179' /><a href='#f1179' class='c012'><sup>[1179]</sup></a> though so early as the age of Hippocrates
+they were well enough acquainted with its
+existence and properties.<a id='r1180' /><a href='#f1180' class='c012'><sup>[1180]</sup></a> Even in the present day
+butter is much less used in Greece than in most
+European countries, its place being supplied by fine
+olive oil. For cheese, however, they seem to have
+entertained a partiality, though it is probable that
+the best they could manufacture would have lost
+very considerably in comparison with good Stilton
+or Cheshire, not to mention Parmasan. It was a
+favourite food, however, among soldiers in Attica,
+who during war used to supply themselves both with
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_288'>288</span>cheese and meal.<a id='r1181' /><a href='#f1181' class='c012'><sup>[1181]</sup></a> Their cheese-lope or rennet in
+most cases resembled our own, consisting of the
+liquid substance found in the ruen of new-born
+animals, as calves, kids, or hares, which was considered
+superior to lamb’s rennet.<a id='r1182' /><a href='#f1182' class='c012'><sup>[1182]</sup></a> Occasionally they
+employed for the same purpose burnt salt or vinegar,
+fowl’s crop or pepper, the flowers of bastard
+saffron, or the threads which grow on the head of
+the artichoke. For these again, was sometimes substituted
+the juice of the fig-tree;<a id='r1183' /><a href='#f1183' class='c012'><sup>[1183]</sup></a> or a branch freshly
+cut<a id='r1184' /><a href='#f1184' class='c012'><sup>[1184]</sup></a> was used in stirring the milk while warming
+on the fire. This cheese would seem, for the most
+part, to have been eaten while fresh and soft,<a id='r1185' /><a href='#f1185' class='c012'><sup>[1185]</sup></a> like
+that of Neufchatel, though they were acquainted
+with various means of preserving it for a considerable
+space of time. Acidulated curds were kept
+soft by being wrapped in the leaves of the terebinth
+tree, or plunged in oil, or sprinkled with salt.
+When desirous of preserving their cheese for any
+length of time, they washed it in pure water, and,
+after drying it in the sun, laid it upon earthen jars
+with thyme and summer savory. Some other kinds
+were kept in a sort of pickle, composed of sweet
+vinegar or oxymel or sea-water, which was poured
+into the jars until it entirely penetrated and covered
+the whole mass. When they wished to communicate
+a peculiar whiteness to the cheese, they laid
+it up in brine. Dry cheese was rendered more
+solid and sharp-tasted by being placed within reach
+of the smoke. If from age it were hard or bitter,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_289'>289</span>it was thrown into a preparation of barley-meal,
+then soaked in water, and what rose to the top
+was skimmed off.<a id='r1186' /><a href='#f1186' class='c012'><sup>[1186]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>That the milk-women in Greece understood all the
+arts of their profession may be gathered from the
+instructions which have been left us on the best methods
+of detecting the presence of water in milk. If
+you dip a sharp rush into milk, says Berytios, and
+it run off easily, there is water in it. And again,
+if you pour a few drops upon your thumb-nail, the
+pure milk will maintain its position, while the adulterated
+will immediately glide away!<a id='r1187' /><a href='#f1187' class='c012'><sup>[1187]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Their mode of fattening cattle<a id='r1188' /><a href='#f1188' class='c012'><sup>[1188]</sup></a> was as follows:
+first they fed them on cabbage chopped small and
+steeped in vinegar, to which succeeded chaff and gurgions
+during five days. This diet was then exchanged
+for barley, of which for nearly a week they were
+allowed four cotylæ a-day, the quantity being then
+gradually augmented for six other days. As of necessity
+the hinds were stirring early, the cattle began
+even in winter to be fed at cock-crowing; a second
+quantity of food was given them about dawn, when
+they were watered, and their remaining allowance
+towards evening. In summer their first meal commenced
+at day-break, the second at mid-day, and
+the third about sunset. They were at this time of
+the year suffered to drink at noon and night of
+water rendered somewhat tepid; in winter it was
+considerably warmer.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>About Mossynos, in Thrace, cattle were sometimes
+fed upon fish, which was likewise given to horses,
+and even to sheep. Herodotus, who mentions a
+similar fact, calls food of this description χόρτος,
+“fodder,”<a id='r1189' /><a href='#f1189' class='c012'><sup>[1189]</sup></a> though hay or dried straw was, doubtless,
+its original meaning. The provender of cattle
+in the district about Ænia appears to have been
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_290'>290</span>so wholesome, that the herds which fed upon it
+were never afflicted by the mange.<a id='r1190' /><a href='#f1190' class='c012'><sup>[1190]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Among the animals domesticated and rendered
+useful by the Greeks we must, doubtless, reckon
+bees,<a id='r1191' /><a href='#f1191' class='c012'><sup>[1191]</sup></a> which, in the heroic ages, had not yet been
+confined in hives. For, whenever Homer describes
+them, it is either where they are streaming forth
+from a rock,<a id='r1192' /><a href='#f1192' class='c012'><sup>[1192]</sup></a> or settling in bands and clusters on
+the spring flowers. So, likewise, in Virgil, they</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line in22'>Hunt the golden dew;</div>
+ <div class='line'>In summer time on tops of lilies feed,</div>
+ <div class='line'>And creep within their bells to suck the balmy seed.</div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c014'>In that Bœotian old savage, Hesiod,<a id='r1193' /><a href='#f1193' class='c012'><sup>[1193]</sup></a> however, we
+undoubtedly find mention of the hive where he is
+uncourteously comparing women to drones—</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>As when within their well-roofed hives the bees</div>
+ <div class='line'>Maintain the mischief-working drones at ease,</div>
+ <div class='line'>Their task pursuing till the golden sun</div>
+ <div class='line'>Down to the western wave his course hath run,</div>
+ <div class='line'>Filling their shining combs, while snug within</div>
+ <div class='line'>Their fragrant cells, the drones, with idle din,</div>
+ <div class='line'>As princes revel o’er their unpaid bowls,</div>
+ <div class='line'>On others’ labours cheer their worthless souls.</div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c014'>As the honey of Attica constantly, in antiquity,
+enjoyed the reputation of being the finest in the
+world,<a id='r1194' /><a href='#f1194' class='c012'><sup>[1194]</sup></a> the management of bees naturally formed in
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_291'>291</span>that country an important branch of rural economy.
+The natural history, moreover, of the bee was studied
+with singlar enthusiam by the Greeks in general.
+Aristomachos of Soli, devoted to it fifty-eight
+years, and Philiscos, the Thasian, who passed
+his life among bees in a desert, obtained on that
+account the name of the Wild Man. Both wrote
+on the subject.<a id='r1195' /><a href='#f1195' class='c012'><sup>[1195]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>This branch of rural economy was carried to very
+great perfection in Attica. The vocabulary<a id='r1196' /><a href='#f1196' class='c012'><sup>[1196]</sup></a> connected
+with it was extensive, as every separate
+operation had its technical term, by the study of
+which, chiefly, an insight into their practice is obtained.
+Thus, from certain expressions employed
+by Aristotle<a id='r1197' /><a href='#f1197' class='c012'><sup>[1197]</sup></a> and Pollux, it seems clear that bee-managers,
+whom we may occasionally call melitturgi,
+constituted a separate division among the
+industrious classes; and these, instructed by constant
+experience, probably anticipated most of the improvements
+imagined in modern times. For example,
+instead of destroying the valuable and industrious
+little insects for the purpose of obtaining possession
+of their spoils, they in some cases compelled them
+by smoke to retire temporarily from the hive, whence
+their treasures were to be taken; and in the mining
+districts about Laureion they understood the art,
+concerning which, however, no particulars are known,
+of procuring the virgin honey pure and unsmoked.<a id='r1198' /><a href='#f1198' class='c012'><sup>[1198]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The grounds of a melitturgos or bee-keeper were
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_292'>292</span>chosen and laid out with peculiar care.<a id='r1199' /><a href='#f1199' class='c012'><sup>[1199]</sup></a> In a sheltered
+spot, generally on the thymy slope of a hill,
+the hives were arranged in the midst of flowers and
+odoriferous shrubs. And if the necessary kinds had
+not by nature been scattered there, they were planted
+by the gardener. Experience soon taught them what
+blossoms and flowers yielded the best honey,<a id='r1200' /><a href='#f1200' class='c012'><sup>[1200]</sup></a> and
+were most agreeable to the bees. These, in Attica,
+were supposed to be the wild pear-tree, the bean,
+clover, a pale-coloured vetch, the syria, myrtle, wild
+poppy, wild thyme, and the almond-tree.<a id='r1201' /><a href='#f1201' class='c012'><sup>[1201]</sup></a> To which
+may be added the rose, balm gentle, the galingale
+or odoriferous rush, basil royal, and above all the
+cytisus,<a id='r1202' /><a href='#f1202' class='c012'><sup>[1202]</sup></a> which begins to flower about the vernal
+equinox, and continues in bloom to the end of September.<a id='r1203' /><a href='#f1203' class='c012'><sup>[1203]</sup></a>
+Of all the plants, however, affected by the
+bee, none is so grateful to it as the thyme, which
+so extensively abounds in Attica and Messenia<a id='r1204' /><a href='#f1204' class='c012'><sup>[1204]</sup></a> as
+to perfume the whole atmosphere. In Sicily too,
+all the slopes and crests of its beautiful hills, from
+Palermo to Syracuse, are invested with a mantle of
+thyme,<a id='r1205' /><a href='#f1205' class='c012'><sup>[1205]</sup></a> and other odoriferous shrubs, which, according
+to Varro, gives the superior flavour to the Sicilian
+honey. Box-wood abounded on mount Cytoros,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_293'>293</span>in Galatia, and in the island of Corsica, on which
+account the honey of the latter country was bitter.<a id='r1206' /><a href='#f1206' class='c012'><sup>[1206]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>In selecting a spot for hives, the ancients observed
+a rule which I do not recollect to have been mentioned
+by modern bee-keepers, and that was to avoid
+the neighbourhood of an echo,<a id='r1207' /><a href='#f1207' class='c012'><sup>[1207]</sup></a> which by repeating
+their own buzzing and murmuring suggested the idea
+perhaps of invisible rivals. Place them not, says
+Virgil,<a id='r1208' /><a href='#f1208' class='c012'><sup>[1208]</sup></a></p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>Near hollow rocks that render back the sound,</div>
+ <div class='line'>And doubled images of voice rebound.</div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c014'>Care was taken to conduct near the hives small
+runnels of the purest water, not exceeding two or
+three inches in depth with shells or pebbles rising
+dry above the surface, whereon the bees might alight
+to drink.<a id='r1209' /><a href='#f1209' class='c012'><sup>[1209]</sup></a> When of necessity the apiary was situated
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_294'>294</span>on the margin of lakes or larger streams other contrivances
+were had recourse to for the convenience
+of the airy labourers.</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>Then o’er the running stream or standing lake</div>
+ <div class='line'>A passage for thy weary people make,</div>
+ <div class='line'>With osier floats the standing water strow,</div>
+ <div class='line'>Of massy stones make bridges if it flow,</div>
+ <div class='line'>That basking in the sun thy bees may lie</div>
+ <div class='line'>And resting there their flaggy pinions dry,</div>
+ <div class='line'>When late returning home the laden host</div>
+ <div class='line'>By raging winds is wrecked upon the coast.</div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c014'>Their hives were of various kinds and shapes.
+Some, like the modern Circassians, they made with
+fine wicker-work, of a round form and carefully plastered
+on the inside with clay.<a id='r1210' /><a href='#f1210' class='c012'><sup>[1210]</sup></a> Other hives were
+constructed of bark, especially that of the cork-tree,
+others of fig, oxya, beech, and pine-wood,<a id='r1211' /><a href='#f1211' class='c012'><sup>[1211]</sup></a> others, as
+now in Spain, of the trunk of a hollow tree, others
+of earthenware, as is the practice in Russia; and
+others again of plaited cane of a square shape, three
+feet in length and about one in breadth, but so contrived
+that, should the honey materials prove scanty,
+they might be contracted, lest the bees should lose
+courage if surrounded by a large empty space. The
+wicker-hives were occasionally plastered both inside
+and outside with cow-dung to fill up the cavities
+and smooth the surface.<a id='r1212' /><a href='#f1212' class='c012'><sup>[1212]</sup></a> A more beautiful species
+of hive was sometimes made with the lapis specularis,<a id='r1213' /><a href='#f1213' class='c012'><sup>[1213]</sup></a>
+which, being almost as transparent as glass,
+enabled the curious owner to contemplate the movements
+and works of the bees.<a id='r1214' /><a href='#f1214' class='c012'><sup>[1214]</sup></a> When finished, they
+were placed on projecting slabs, so as not to touch
+or be easily shaken. There were generally three
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_295'>295</span>rows of hives rising above each other like Egyptian
+tombs on the face of the wall, and there was a prejudice
+against adding a fourth.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The fences of apiaries were made high and strong
+to protect the inmates from the inroads of the bears,<a id='r1215' /><a href='#f1215' class='c012'><sup>[1215]</sup></a>
+which would otherwise have overthrown the hives
+and devoured all the combs.<a id='r1216' /><a href='#f1216' class='c012'><sup>[1216]</sup></a> Another enemy of the
+bee was the Merops,<a id='r1217' /><a href='#f1217' class='c012'><sup>[1217]</sup></a> which makes its appearance
+about Hymettos towards the end of summer.<a id='r1218' /><a href='#f1218' class='c012'><sup>[1218]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>There were, in ancient times, two entrances,
+one on either hand, and on the top a lid, which
+the Melitturgos could remove when he desired to
+take the honey, or inspect the condition of the bees.
+The best of these lids were made of bark, the worst
+of earthenware, which were cold in winter, and in
+summer exceedingly hot.<a id='r1219' /><a href='#f1219' class='c012'><sup>[1219]</sup></a> It was considered necessary
+during spring and the succeeding season
+for the bee-keeper to inspect the hives thrice a
+month, to fumigate them slightly, and remove
+all filth and vermin. He was careful, likewise, to
+destroy the usurpers if there were more than one
+queen,<a id='r1220' /><a href='#f1220' class='c012'><sup>[1220]</sup></a> since, in Varro’s<a id='r1221' /><a href='#f1221' class='c012'><sup>[1221]</sup></a> opinion, they gave rise to
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_296'>296</span>sedition; but Aristotle thinks there ought to be
+several, lest one should die, and the hive along
+with it. Of the queen bees there are three kinds,
+the black, the ruddy, and the variegated; though
+Menecrates, who is good authority, speaks only of
+the black and variegated.<a id='r1222' /><a href='#f1222' class='c012'><sup>[1222]</sup></a> Aristotle, however, describes
+the reddish queen bee as the best. Even
+among the working insects there are two kinds, the
+smaller, in form round, and variegated in colour,
+the larger, which is the tame bee, less active and
+beautiful. The former, or wild bee,<a id='r1223' /><a href='#f1223' class='c012'><sup>[1223]</sup></a> frequents the
+mountains, forests, and other solitary places, labours
+indefatigably, and collects honey in great quantities;
+the latter, which feeds among gardens, and in man’s
+neighbourhood, fills its hive more slowly.<a id='r1224' /><a href='#f1224' class='c012'><sup>[1224]</sup></a> With
+respect to the drones, or males, which the working
+bees generally expel at a certain time of the year,
+the Attic melitturgi got rid of them in a very ingenious
+manner. It was observed, that these gentlemen
+though no way inclined to work, would yet
+occasionally, on very fine days, go abroad for exercise,
+rushing forth in squadrons, mounting aloft into
+the air, and there wheeling, and sporting, and manœuvring
+in the sun.<a id='r1225' /><a href='#f1225' class='c012'><sup>[1225]</sup></a> Taking advantage of their
+absence, they spread a fine net over the hive-entrance,
+the meshes of which, large enough to
+admit the bee, would exclude the drone. On returning,
+therefore, they found themselves, according
+to the old saying, “on the smooth side of the door,”
+and were compelled to seek fresh lodgings.<a id='r1226' /><a href='#f1226' class='c012'><sup>[1226]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>In late springs, or when there is a drought or
+blight, the bees breed very little, but make a great
+deal of honey, whereas in wet seasons they keep
+more at home, and attend to breeding. Swarms in
+Greece<a id='r1227' /><a href='#f1227' class='c012'><sup>[1227]</sup></a> appeared about the ripening of the olive.
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_297'>297</span>Aristotle is of opinion, that honey is not manufactured
+by the bee, but falls perfectly formed from
+the atmosphere, more especially at the heliacal rising
+or setting of certain stars, and when the rainbow
+appears. He observes, too, that no honey is found
+before the rising of the Pleiades,<a id='r1228' /><a href='#f1228' class='c012'><sup>[1228]</sup></a> which happens
+about the thirteenth of May.<a id='r1229' /><a href='#f1229' class='c012'><sup>[1229]</sup></a> This opinion is in
+exact conformity with the fact, that at certain seasons
+of the year what is called the honey dew descends,
+covering thick the leaves of the oak, and
+several other trees, which at such times literally
+drop with honey. On these occasions the bees find
+little to do beyond the labour of conveying it to
+their cells, and, accordingly, have been known to
+fill the hive in one or two days. It has been observed,
+moreover, that autumn flowers, which yield
+very little fragrance, yield, also, little or no honey.
+In the kingdom of Pontos there was a race of white
+bees which made honey twice a month; and at
+Themiscyra there were those which built their combs
+both in hives and in the earth, producing very little
+wax, but a great deal of honey.<a id='r1230' /><a href='#f1230' class='c012'><sup>[1230]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'><span class='pageno' id='Page_298'>298</span>When the time of year arrived for robbing the
+bee, some hives were found to produce five, others
+ten, others fifteen quarts of honey, still leaving sufficient
+for winter consumption.<a id='r1231' /><a href='#f1231' class='c012'><sup>[1231]</sup></a> And in determining
+what quantity would suffice great judgment was required;
+for if too much remained the labourers grew
+indolent, if too little they lost their spirits. However,
+in this latter case the bee-keepers, having ascertained
+that they were in need of food, introduced
+a number of sweet figs, and other similar fruit into
+the hive, as now we do moist sugar in a split cane.
+Elsewhere the practice was to boil a number of
+rich figs in water<a id='r1232' /><a href='#f1232' class='c012'><sup>[1232]</sup></a> till they were reduced to a jelly,
+which was then formed into cakes and set near the
+hive. Together with this, some bee-keepers placed
+honey-water, wherein they threw locks of purple
+wool, on which the bees might stand to drink.<a id='r1233' /><a href='#f1233' class='c012'><sup>[1233]</sup></a>
+Certain melitturgi, desirous of distinguishing their
+own bees<a id='r1234' /><a href='#f1234' class='c012'><sup>[1234]</sup></a> when spread over the meadows, sprinkled
+them with fine flour. Mention is made of a person
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_299'>299</span>who obtained five thousand pounds’ weight of honey
+annually; and Varro<a id='r1235' /><a href='#f1235' class='c012'><sup>[1235]</sup></a> speaks of two soldiers who,
+with a small country house, and an acre of ground
+left them by their father, realised an independent
+fortune.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Theophrastus, in a fragment<a id='r1236' /><a href='#f1236' class='c012'><sup>[1236]</sup></a> of one of his lost
+works, speaks of three different kinds of honey, one
+collected from flowers, another which, according to
+his philosophy, descended pure from heaven, and a
+third produced from canes. This last, which was
+sometimes denominated Indian honey, is the sugar
+of modern times. There appear, likewise, to have
+been other kinds of sugar manufactured from different
+substances, as Tamarisk and Wheat.<a id='r1237' /><a href='#f1237' class='c012'><sup>[1237]</sup></a> The
+honey-dew, on the production of which the ancients<a id='r1238' /><a href='#f1238' class='c012'><sup>[1238]</sup></a>
+held many extraordinary opinions, was supposed to
+be superior to the nectar of the bee.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Amyntas, in his Stations of Asia, cited by Athenæus,
+gives a curious account of this sort of honey
+which was collected in various parts of the East,
+particularly in Syria. In some cases they gathered
+the leaves of the tree, chiefly the linden and the
+oak, on which the dew was most abundantly<a id='r1239' /><a href='#f1239' class='c012'><sup>[1239]</sup></a> found,
+and pressed them together like those masses of Syrian
+figs, which were called <em>palathè</em>. Others allowed
+it to drop from the leaves and harden into globules,
+which, when desirous of using, they broke,
+and, having poured water thereon in wooden bowls
+called <em>tabaitas</em>, drank the mixture. In the districts
+of Mount Lebanon<a id='r1240' /><a href='#f1240' class='c012'><sup>[1240]</sup></a> the honey-dew fell plentifully
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_300'>300</span>several times during the year, and was collected
+by spreading skins under the trees, and shaking
+into them the liquid honey from the leaves; they
+then filled therewith numerous vessels, in which it
+was preserved for use. On these occasions, the
+peasants used to exclaim, “Zeus has been raining
+honey!”</p>
+
+<hr class='c016' />
+<div class='footnote' id='f1068'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1068'>1068</a>. Demosth. in Ev. et Mnes. § 15.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1069'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1069'>1069</a>. Thucyd. ii. 65.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1070'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1070'>1070</a>. In the neighbourhood of the
+Isthmus the shepherds of the
+present day often pass the winter
+months in mountain caverns.—Chandler,
+ii. p. 261.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1071'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1071'>1071</a>. Theocrit. i. 143, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1072'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1072'>1072</a>. Cf. Iliad. β. 305, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1073'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1073'>1073</a>. On the wild olive and other
+trees, of which these groves were
+composed, the eye of the passenger
+usually beheld suspended a
+number of votive offerings.—Sch.
+Aristoph. Ran. 943.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1074'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1074'>1074</a>. Cf. Plat. Phæd. t. i. p. 9.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1075'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1075'>1075</a>. Eurip. Bacch. 10, seq. Cf.
+Kirch. de Funer. Rom. iii. 17.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1076'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1076'>1076</a>. Demosth. in Callicl. § 4.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1077'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1077'>1077</a>. Schol. Aristoph. Eq. 406.
+On the music of the pine-groves,
+the Schol. on Theocritus, i. 1, has
+an amusing passage: ἡ πίτυς ἐκείνη,
+ἡδὺ τι μελουργεῖ, κατὰ τὸ
+ψιθύρισμα. κ. τ. λ.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1078'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1078'>1078</a>. Called in Latin pagus from
+πηγὴ, a fountain. Serv. ad Virg.
+Georg. 182. See also the note of
+Gibbon, t. iii. p. 410.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1079'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1079'>1079</a>. Geop. x. 7. 11. These pots,
+like those in which the palm-tree
+was cultivated, were pierced at
+the bottom like our own. Theoph.
+Hist. Plant. iv. 4. 3.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1080'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1080'>1080</a>. As the orange-tree is still in
+Lemnos. Walp. Mem. i. 280.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1081'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1081'>1081</a>. The stalls for cattle were built
+as often as convenient, near the
+kitchen and facing the east, because
+when exposed to light and
+heat they became smooth-coated.
+Vitruv. vi. 9. Cf. Varro. i. 13.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1082'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1082'>1082</a>. Geop. ii. 3. Cf. Vitruv. i. 4.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1083'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1083'>1083</a>. <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Petatur igitur aer calore et
+frigore temperatus, quem fere medius
+obtinet collis, quod neque
+depressus hieme pruinis torpet,
+aut torret æstute vaporibus, neque
+elatus in summa montium perexiguis
+ventorum motibus, aut
+pluviis omni tempore anni sævit.
+Columell.</span> De Re Rust. i. 4.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1084'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1084'>1084</a>. The same opinion is held by
+Hippocrates, De Morbo Sacro. cap.
+7. p. 308, ed. Foes. Ὁ Βορέης
+ὑγιεινότατος ἐστι τῶν ἀνέμων.
+Cf. Plin. ii. 48. Varro. i. 12.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1085'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1085'>1085</a>. De Re Rust. 3. <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">“Ita ædifices,
+ne villa fundum quærat,
+neve fundus villam.”</span> Cf. Colum.
+De Re Rust. i. 4. It
+may here by the way be observed
+that, during the flourishing
+periods of Roman agriculture,
+farms were generally rather small
+than large. Plin. Hist. Nat. viii.
+21. Schulz. Antiq. Rustic. § vii.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1086'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1086'>1086</a>. Schol. Aristoph. Nub. 45.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1087'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1087'>1087</a>. Philost. Icon. ii. 26. p. 851.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1088'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1088'>1088</a>. Cf. Athen. iv. 38.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1089'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1089'>1089</a>. Walp. Mem. i. 281.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1090'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1090'>1090</a>. Aristoph. Nub. 45, seq. et
+Schol.—Schol. Eq. 803.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1091'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1091'>1091</a>. Plat. De Legg. vii. t. viii. p.
+40. Aristoph. Lysist. 18, sqq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1092'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1092'>1092</a>. Aristoph. Acharn. 272. Vesp.
+824. Pac. 1138. Thesm. 286,
+seq. Suid. v. Θρᾶττα. t. p. 1330. a.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1093'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1093'>1093</a>. Ἐπὶ τῆς ἑστίας τρέφουσι χοίρους.—Schol.
+Aristoph. Vesp.
+844. Lysist. 1073, Poll. ix. 16.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1094'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1094'>1094</a>. Odyss. τ. 536.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1095'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1095'>1095</a>. Cf. Vict. Var. Lect. p. 891.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1096'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1096'>1096</a>. Geop. xiv. 22. Varro. iii.
+10. Colum. viii. 14.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1097'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1097'>1097</a>. Poll. ix. 16. Heresbach.
+De Re Rust. lib. iv. p. 285. a.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1098'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1098'>1098</a>. Cf. Pallad. i. 30. Plin. x. 79.
+Plaut. Trucul. ii. 1. 41.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1099'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1099'>1099</a>. Ælian. De Nat. Anim. v. 29.
+This ingenious writer, anxious to
+remove from geese the reputation
+of folly, relates that, when traversing
+Mount Taurus, conscious
+of their disposition to cackling,
+they carry stones in their bills,
+and thus frequently escape the
+eagles which inhabit that lofty
+ridge of mountains. This the poet
+Phile undertakes to confirm in
+verse:—</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>Λίθον δὲ τῷ στόματι μὴ κλάγξῃ στέγων</div>
+ <div class='line'>Ὅνπερ καλοῦσι Ταῦρον, ἀμείβει πάγον</div>
+ <div class='line'>Τοὺς ἀετοὺς γὰρ φασὶ τοὺς χηνοσκόπους,</div>
+ <div class='line'>Ἐκεῖσε δεινῶς ἐλλοχᾷν πρὸ τοῦ ψύχους.</div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c015'>Iamb. De Animal. Proprietat.
+c. 15. p. 62.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1100'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1100'>1100</a>. Which according to Aristotle
+was thirty days.—-Hist. Anim.
+vii. 6.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1101'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1101'>1101</a>. Pallad. i. 30. Cavendum est
+etiam, ne pulli eorum setas glutiant.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1102'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1102'>1102</a>. The Quintilian Brothers, ap.
+Geop. xiv. 22. For the fate of
+these illustrious authors, Maximus
+and Condianus, see Gibbon,
+i. 142. <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">“Sint calido et tenebroso
+loco: quæres ad creandas
+adipes multum conferunt.”</span> Colum.
+viii. 14.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1103'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1103'>1103</a>. Eupolis, ap. Athen. ix. 32.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1104'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1104'>1104</a>. Cf. Suid. v. κολλύρα. t. i. p.
+1489. a. Poll. i. 248. Etym.
+Mag. 526. 26. Schol. Aristoph.
+Pac. 122.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1105'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1105'>1105</a>. Cf. Dioscor. v. 30.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1106'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1106'>1106</a>. Geop. xiv. 23. Varro, iii. 11.
+Ælian. De Nat. Anim. v. 33.
+Aristot. De Hist. Anim. viii.
+3. Athen. ix. 52. Phile, De
+Anim. Proprietat. c. 14. p. 59.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1107'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1107'>1107</a>. Athen. iii. 64. Κουρίδες·
+καρίδες, ἢ τὰς μικρ`ας ἐγχλώρας,
+τὰς δὲ ἐρυθρὰς καμμάρους. Hesych.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1108'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1108'>1108</a>. Cf. Philost. Icon. i. 9. p. 776.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1109'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1109'>1109</a>. Colum. viii. 15. Heresbach.
+De Re Rust. lib. iv. p. 288. a.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1110'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1110'>1110</a>. Athen. vii. 23. Of these
+birds the black were esteemed
+less than the white. ix. 15. On
+the fighting cocks. Plin. x. 24.
+Æsch. Eum. 864, 869. Schol.
+ad Æsch. Tim. Orat. Attic. t.
+xii. p. 379. Schol. Aristoph. Eq.
+492.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1111'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1111'>1111</a>. Geop. xiv. 7, 9.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1112'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1112'>1112</a>. Arabian Nights, Story of the
+Ass, the Ox, and the Labourer,
+vol. 1. p. 23.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1113'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1113'>1113</a>. Ταῤῥοὶ. Sch. Aristoph. Nub.
+227.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1114'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1114'>1114</a>. Beans, however, were eschewed
+as they were supposed to
+prevent them from laying.—Geoponic.
+ii. 35. But cocks were suffered
+to feed on them, at least when
+they belonged to poor men.—Luc.
+Mycill. § 4.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1115'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1115'>1115</a>. Dioscor. iii. 52.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1116'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1116'>1116</a>. Geop. xiv. 7. 11. Colum.
+viii. 5.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1117'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1117'>1117</a>. Schol. Aristoph. Acharn. 63.
+Petit. Leg. Att. p. 277. Geop.
+xiv. 18. 1. Athen. xiv. 70. See
+the poetical description of this
+bird by Phile: De Animal. Proprietat.
+c. 8. p. 32, sqq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1118'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1118'>1118</a>. Geop. xiv. 19. Colum. viii.
+12. Pallad. i. 28. Athen. ix.
+37, seq. Suid. v. φασιανοὶ. t. i.
+p. 1083. a. b. Aristoph. Nub.
+109.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1119'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1119'>1119</a>. According to Diogenes Laertius,
+(i. iv. 51) both pheasants
+and peacocks were familiar to the
+Greeks in the days of Solon.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1120'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1120'>1120</a>. Athen. xiv. 71. Ælian. De
+Nat. Anim. v. 27. Aristot. Hist.
+Anim. vi. 2. A number of these
+birds were kept on the Acropolis
+of Athens.—Suid. v. μελεαγρίδες.
+t. ii. p. 122. a.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1121'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1121'>1121</a>. Within the enclosure for these
+birds pellitory of the wall was
+probably planted, as they loved
+to roll in and pluck it up.—Theoph.
+Hist. Plant. i. 6. 11.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1122'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1122'>1122</a>. Cf. Pollux. ii. 24.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1123'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1123'>1123</a>. Geop. xiv. 24. 5, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1124'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1124'>1124</a>. The king of Tuban, in Java,
+had formerly his bed surrounded
+by cages of turtle-doves, which
+roosted on perches of various coloured
+glass.—Voyage de La
+Compagnie des Indes, i. 533.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1125'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1125'>1125</a>. Varro. iii. 7. Columell. viii.
+8. Pallad. i. 24.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1126'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1126'>1126</a>. For the food with which
+they were supplied, see Geopon.
+xiv. 1. 5. Occasionally when
+the birds were permitted to fly
+abroad, their owners sprinkled
+them with unguents, or gave
+them cumin seed to eat, in
+order that they might attract
+and bring back with them flights
+of doves or wild pigeons to their
+cells.—Id. xiv. 3. 1. So also
+Palladius: Inducunt alias, si
+cumino pascantur assidue, vel
+hirci alarum balsami liquore tangantur,
+i. 24. Cf. Plin. x. 52.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1127'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1127'>1127</a>. Schol. Aristoph. Vesp. 129.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1128'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1128'>1128</a>. Cf. Arist. Hist. Anim. vii.
+6. 5.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1129'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1129'>1129</a>. Athen. xii. 57.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1130'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1130'>1130</a>. Strab. iii. 2. t. i. p. 231.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1131'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1131'>1131</a>. Aristoph. Nub. 109. Suid.
+v. φασιανοὶ. t. ii. p. 1033.
+b. Thom. Magist. v. φασιανοὶ.
+p. 885. Blancard. Of the commentators
+on Aristophanes, however,
+some by the word φασιανοὶ
+understand horses, and some
+pheasants. The probability is,
+that they imported both, and
+that the poet means to play upon
+the word.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1132'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1132'>1132</a>. Iliad. δ. 500.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1133'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1133'>1133</a>. See also Iliad, ε. 358. Wolf.
+Proleg. 80, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1134'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1134'>1134</a>. Iliad φ. 132.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1135'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1135'>1135</a>. Fest. v. October, t. ii. p. 521,
+seq. v. Panibus, p. 555. Lomeier,
+de Lustrat. cap. 23. p. 292, seq.
+Propert. iv. i. 20, with the note
+of Frid. Jacob, in whose edition
+it is, v. i. 20.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1136'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1136'>1136</a>. Pausan. iii. 20. 4. Fest.
+v. October, t. ii. p. 520, tells us
+that this horse was sacrificed to
+the winds.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1137'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1137'>1137</a>. Herod. i. 216. Brisson. de
+Regn. Pers. ii. 5. The reason why
+the horse was selected as a victim
+to the sun, was that its swiftness
+appeared to resemble that of the
+god:—ὡς τακύτατον τῷ τακύτατω.
+Bochart. Hierozoic. pt. i. l. ii.
+c. 10. Olear. in Philost. Vit.
+Apoll. Tyan. i. 31. p. 29. Justin.
+i. 10. Suid. v. μίθρου. t. ii.
+p. 162, f. This practice is likewise
+mentioned by Ovid, (Fast.
+i. 385, seq.)</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Placat equo Persis radiis Hyperiona cinctum,</span></div>
+ <div class='line'><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ne detur celeri victima tarda deo.</span></div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c014'>Cf. Vigenere, Images des Philostrates,
+p. 773. Par. 1627.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1138'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1138'>1138</a>. Anab. iv. 5. 35.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1139'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1139'>1139</a>. Iliad. ε. 192, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1140'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1140'>1140</a>. Sch. Pind. Pyth. iv. 1.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1141'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1141'>1141</a>. Sch. Aristoph. Nub. 110.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1142'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1142'>1142</a>. Strab. xi. 13. p. 453. Τούς
+δὲ Νησαίους ἵππους, οἷς ἐχρῶντο
+οἱ βασιλεῖς ἀρίστοις οὖσι καὶ μεγίστοις.
+Cf. Herod. i. 189, on
+the sacred horses of Persia.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1143'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1143'>1143</a>. Suid. v. ἱππος Νισαῖος. t. i.
+p. 1271. d. who relates that, according
+to some, the breed was
+found near the Erythrean Sea.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1144'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1144'>1144</a>. Herod. ix. 20. Cf. Il. ε.
+583. δ. 142, seq. In Philostratus
+we find mention made of a
+black Nisæan mare with white
+feet, large patch of white on the
+breast, and white nostrils.—Icon.
+ii. 5. p. 816.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1145'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1145'>1145</a>. Hist. Anim. vii. 6.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1146'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1146'>1146</a>. Il. β. 760, sqq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1147'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1147'>1147</a>. Iliad. θ. 560. Cf. ι. 123, seq.
+265, 407. κ. 565, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1148'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1148'>1148</a>. Il. ε. 196. On an ancient
+crystal engraved in Buonaroti a
+man with cap and short breeches
+is represented feeding an ass with
+corn. Osserv. Istorich. sop. alc.
+Medagl. Antich. p. 345.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1149'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1149'>1149</a>. Hist. Anim. viii. 10.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1150'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1150'>1150</a>. Phile applies the same observation
+to the elephant:</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>Ὕδωρ δὲ πίνει πλῆθος ἄφθονον πάνυ·</div>
+ <div class='line'>Πλὴν οὐ καθαρὸν, καὶ διειδὲς οὐ θέλει,</div>
+ <div class='line'>Ἀλλ’ οὖν ῥυπαρὸν καὶ κατεσπιλωμένον.</div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c017'>Iamb. de Animal. Proprietat.
+c. 39. p. 56, 165, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1151'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1151'>1151</a>. Geop. xvi. 2. Philost. Icon.
+i. 28. p. 804. Notwithstanding
+the admiration of the Greeks for
+horses we do not find that they
+made any attempt to naturalize
+among them those Shetlands of
+the ancient world which, according
+to a very grave naturalist,
+were no larger than rams. These
+diminutive steeds were found in
+India:—Παρά γε τοῖς ψύλλοις
+καλουμένοις τῶν Ἰνδῶν, εἱσὶ γὰρ
+καὶ Λιβύων ἕτεροι, ἵπποι γίνονται
+τῶν κριῶν οὐ μείζους.
+Ælian. de Animal. xvi. 37.
+Modern writers relate the same
+thing of a certain breed of oxen
+in India: “Naturalists speak of
+a diminutive breed of oxen in
+Ceylon, and the neighbourhood
+of Surat, no larger than a Newfoundland
+dog, which, though
+fierce of aspect, are trained to
+draw children in their little
+carts.” Hindoos, i. 23.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1152'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1152'>1152</a>. Iliad, χ. 281, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1153'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1153'>1153</a>. Il. ε. 358.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1154'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1154'>1154</a>. Xenoph. de Re Equest. iv. 4.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1155'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1155'>1155</a>. Plat. de Rep. t. vi. p. 158.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1156'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1156'>1156</a>. Xenoph. de Re Equest. ii. 2.
+Cf. Œconom. iii. 11. xiii. 7.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1157'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1157'>1157</a>. Geop. xvi. i. 11.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1158'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1158'>1158</a>. Xen. de Re Equest. 10. 6.
+Poll. viii. 184.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1159'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1159'>1159</a>. The swimming powers of the
+war-horse were probably augmented
+by exercise, since we find
+them passing by swimming from
+Rhegium to Sicily. Plut. Timol.
+§ 19. This feat, however,
+was nothing to that of the stags
+which swam from Syria to Cyprus!
+Ælian. De Nat. Anim. v. 56.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1160'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1160'>1160</a>. Sch. Aristoph. Nub. 32. Cf.
+25, 28.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1161'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1161'>1161</a>. Aristoph. Eq. 601. Nub. 25.
+Spanh. in loc. Athen. xi. 30.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1162'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1162'>1162</a>. In carting wood from Mount
+Ida in the Troad oxen are at present
+substituted for asses, and
+the bodies of the vehicles they
+draw, in form resembling ancient
+cars, are constructed of wickerwork.
+Chandler, i. 47.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1163'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1163'>1163</a>. Lucian. Luc. siv. Asin. §
+43. Cf. Artemid. Oneirocrit. ii.
+12. p. 97.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1164'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1164'>1164</a>. Geop. xvi. 21. Varro ii. 6.
+3. To account for this care it
+may be observed, that rich men
+sometimes rode, as they still do
+in the East, on asses superbly
+caparisoned and adorned with
+bells. Lucian. Luc. sive Asin.
+§ 48.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1165'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1165'>1165</a>. Il. β. 852.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1166'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1166'>1166</a>. Athen. ix. 17. Cf. Steph. De
+Urb. 184. e.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1167'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1167'>1167</a>. Athen. ix. 18.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1168'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1168'>1168</a>. Scheffer, De Re Vehic. p. 80;
+et vid. Dickenson, Delph. Phænicizant.
+c. 10. p. 116, seq.
+Heresbach. De Re Rust. p. 236,
+sqq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1169'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1169'>1169</a>. Geop. xvii. 9, with the note
+of Niclas. Aristoph. Hist. Anim.
+viii. 7. 23. Cato. De Re Rust.
+72. Plin. xxviii. 81.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1170'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1170'>1170</a>. African. ap. Geop. xvii. 11.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1171'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1171'>1171</a>. Geop. xvii. 2. 8.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1172'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1172'>1172</a>. Buttm. Lexil. p. 86.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1173'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1173'>1173</a>. Hesych. v. πύσσαχος.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1174'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1174'>1174</a>. Eustath. ad Odyss. ε. p. 219.
+Their milk-cups were sometimes
+of ivy. Eurip. Fragm. Androm.
+27. Athen. xi. 53. Macrob. Sat.
+v. 21. Cf. on the milk-pans and
+cheese-vats, Poll. x. 130; Theocrit.
+Eidyll. v. 87. Milk-pails
+were sometimes called πέλλαι,
+ἀμολγοὶ, γαλακτοδόκα, and <a id='corr286.n8'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='out out'>out</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_286.n8'><ins class='correction' title='out out'>out</ins></a></span>
+of these they sometimes drank.
+Schol. i. 25.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1175'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1175'>1175</a>. Cf. Il. π. 642, et Schol. Venet.
+Etym. Mag. 659. 41. Athen.
+xi. 91.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1176'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1176'>1176</a>. Even Philostratus, while
+mentioning these vessels, filled to
+the brim with milk, on which
+the cream lies rich and shining,
+omits to furnish any hint of their
+form:—ψυκτῆρες γάλακτος, οὐ
+λευκοῦ μόνον, ἀλλὰ καὶ στιλπνοῦ·
+καὶ γὰρ στίβειν ἔοικεν, ὑπὸ
+τῆς ἐπιπολαζούσης αὐτῷ πιμελῆς.
+Icon. i. 31. p. 809.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1177'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1177'>1177</a>. Athen. xiii. 49.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1178'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1178'>1178</a>. Geop. xviii. 19. 4.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1179'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1179'>1179</a>. See Beckman. Hist. of Inv. i.
+372, seq. Butter is made at
+present in Greece by filling a skin
+with cream and treading on it.
+Chandler, ii. 245.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1180'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1180'>1180</a>. Foes, Œconom. Hippoc. v.
+πικέριον, p. 306.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1181'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1181'>1181</a>. Sch. Aristoph. Pac. 394.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1182'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1182'>1182</a>. Varro. De Re Rust. ii. 11. 4.
+Colum. vii. 8. Eustath ad Il. ε.
+p. 472. Hesych. v. ὀπὸς.—Mœris:
+ὀπὸς Ἀττικοὶ, πυτία Ἕλληνες.
+p. 205. Cf. Aristot. Hist.
+Anim. iv. 21.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1183'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1183'>1183</a>. The cheese made in this manner
+was called ὀπίας. Eurip.
+Cyclop. 136. Athen. xiv. 76.
+Schol. Aristoph. Vesp. 353.
+Dioscor. i. 183. Plin. xxiii. 63.
+Plut. Sympos. vi. 10.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1184'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1184'>1184</a>. Geop. xviii. 12. These cheeses
+were sometimes made in box-wood
+moulds. Colum. vii. 8.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1185'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1185'>1185</a>. Philostratus describes one of
+these delicate little cheeses freshly
+made and quivering like a slice of
+blanc-manger:—καὶ τρυφαλὶς ἐφ᾽
+ἑτέρου φύλλου νεοπαγὴς, καὶ σαλέυουσα.
+Icon. i. 31. p. 809.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1186'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1186'>1186</a>. Geop. xviii. 19.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1187'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1187'>1187</a>. Geop. xviii. 20.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1188'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1188'>1188</a>. Geop. xvii. 12. Heresbach.
+p. 233. a.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1189'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1189'>1189</a>. Herod. v. 16. Athen. vii. 72.
+Ælian. de Nat. Anim. v. 25.
+Cf. Sch. Aristoph. Pac. 891.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1190'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1190'>1190</a>. Theoph. Hist. Plant. iv. 14. 3.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1191'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1191'>1191</a>. Athen. iii. 59. Sch. Aristoph.
+Vesp. 107.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1192'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1192'>1192</a>. Il. β. 87. μ. 67. Odyss.
+ν. 106.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1193'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1193'>1193</a>. Theogon. 594, seq.—Pro σίμβλοισι,
+quod præbet R. S., cæteri
+Mss. σμήνεσσι. Schæferus tamen
+malebat σίμβλοισιν ἐπηρεφέεσι.
+Gœttling. But Goguet, who has
+considered this passage, does not
+think that “hives” are meant;
+because, if their use had been
+known in the times of Hesiod,
+he would not have failed to leave
+us some directions on the subject.
+Origine des Loix, t. iii. p. 399.
+Wolff, following in the <a id='corr290.n4'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='foosteps'>footsteps</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_290.n4'><ins class='correction' title='foosteps'>footsteps</ins></a></span>
+of Heyne, gets easily over the
+difficulty by pronouncing the
+whole passage, v. 590–612,
+spurious. Gœttling, p. 55. Cf.
+Schol. Aristoph. Nub. 937.
+Phile, de Animal. Proprietat. c.
+28. p. 87, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1194'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1194'>1194</a>. The pasturage of Hymettos,
+however, was, by Pausanias, regarded
+as second to that of the
+Alazones on the river Halys,
+where the bees were tame, and
+worked in common in the fields.
+i. 32. 1.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1195'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1195'>1195</a>. Plin. Hist. Nat. xi. 9.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1196'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1196'>1196</a>. Poll. i. 254. Artemid. Oneirocrit.
+ii. 22. p. 109.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1197'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1197'>1197</a>. Hist. Anim. v. 22. ix. 40.
+Etym. Mag. 458. 44.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1198'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1198'>1198</a>. Τοῦ δὲ μέλιτος, ἀρίστου ὄντος
+τῶν πάντων τοῦ Ἀττικοῦ, πολὺ
+βέλτιστὸν φάσι τὸ ἐν τοῖς ἀργυρέοις,
+ὁ καὶ ἀκαπνίστον καλοῦσιν ἀπὸ
+τοῦ τρόποῦ τῆς σκευασίας.
+Strab. ix. 2. t. ii. p. 246.—Wheler
+describes the modern
+method observed by the Athenians
+in taking honey without
+destroying the bee, but in a style
+so lengthy and uncouth, that I
+must content myself with a reference
+to his travels. Book vi.
+p. 412, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1199'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1199'>1199</a>. On the management of bees
+in Circassia and other countries
+on the Black Sea, see Pallas,
+Travels in Southern Russia, ii.
+p. 204.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1200'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1200'>1200</a>. On the coast of the Black Sea
+bees sucked honey from the grape.
+Geop. v. 2.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1201'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1201'>1201</a>. Arist. Hist. Anim. ix. 26, 27.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1202'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1202'>1202</a>. Geop. xv. 2. 6.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1203'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1203'>1203</a>. Varro, De Re Rust. iii. 16.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1204'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1204'>1204</a>. Sibthorpe in Walpole’s Memoirs,
+t. ii. p. 62. Geop. xv. 2.
+5. Speaking of Hymettos, Chandler
+observes, that it produces a
+succession of aromatic plants,
+herbs, and flowers, calculated to
+supply the bee with nourishment
+both in winter and summer, ii. p.
+143. <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">“Les montagnes (des îles)
+sont couvertes de thym et de
+lavande. Les abeilles, qui y
+volent par nuées, en tirent un
+miel qui est aussi transparent
+que notre gelée.”</span> Della Rocca,
+Traité sur les Abeilles, t. i. 6.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1205'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1205'>1205</a>. This plant in Greece flowers
+about midsummer, and those who
+kept bees conjectured whether
+honey would be plentiful or not,
+according as it was more or less
+luxuriant. Theoph. Hist. Plant.
+vi. 2, 3. The wild thyme of
+Greece was a creeping plant which
+was sometimes trained on poles or
+hedges, or even in pits, the sides
+of which it speedily covered. Id.
+vi. 7. 5.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1206'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1206'>1206</a>. Theoph. Hist. Plant. iii. 15. 5.
+The honey of modern Crete is esteemed
+of a good quality. Pashley,
+Travels, vol. i. p. 56.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1207'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1207'>1207</a>. Echo, in the mythology, is
+said to have been beloved of Pan,
+by which she seems tacitly to be
+connected with the generation of
+Panic Terrors Polyæn. Stratagem.
+i. 2. 1. Offensive smells are
+often reckoned among the aversions
+of bees, but I fear without
+good reason. At least they have
+sometimes been found to select
+strange places wherein to deposit
+their treasures of sweets. In the
+book of Judges, chap. xiv. ver. 8,
+seq., it is related that, when Samson,
+on his way to Timnath,
+turned aside to view the carcass
+of a young lion which he had a
+short time previously slain, “behold,
+there was a swarm of bees
+and honey in the carcass of the
+lion, and he took thereof in his
+hands and went on eating, and
+came to his father and mother,
+and he gave them and they
+did eat, but he told not them
+that he had taken the honey
+out of the carcass of the lion.”
+Upon this passage the following
+may serve as a note:—“Among
+this pretty collection
+of natural curiosities, (in the
+cemetery of Algesiras,) one in
+particular attracted our attention;
+this was the contents of a
+small uncovered coffin in which
+lay a child, the cavity of the
+chest exposed and tenanted by
+an industrious colony of bees.
+The comb was rapidly progressing,
+and I suppose, according to
+the adage of the poet, they were
+adding sweets to the sweet, if
+not perfume to the violet.”
+Napier, Excursions on the Shores
+of the Mediterranean, v. i. 127.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1208'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1208'>1208</a>. Georg. iv. 50, with the commentaries
+of Servius and Philargyrius;
+and Varro, De Re Rust.
+iii. 16.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1209'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1209'>1209</a>. Cf. Geop. xv. 2, 3, 4.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1210'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1210'>1210</a>. Vir. Georg. iv. 34, seq. Varro,
+iii. 16. Colum. ix. 2–7.
+Sch. Aristoph. Nub. 295. Vesp.
+241. Callim. Hymn. i. 50. Cf.
+Wheler, Travels into Greece.
+Book vi. p. 411.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1211'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1211'>1211</a>. Geop. xv. 2. 7. Cf. Theoph.
+Hist. Plant. iii. 10. 1.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1212'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1212'>1212</a>. Geop. xv. 2. 8. Varro, iii. 16.
+Colum. ix. 14. Pallad. vii. 8.
+Cato. 81.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1213'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1213'>1213</a>. Plin. xxi. 47.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1214'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1214'>1214</a>. At present the hives, we are
+told, are set on the ground in
+rows enclosed within a low wall.
+Chandler, ii. 143.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1215'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1215'>1215</a>. Phile gives a long list of the
+bees’ foes, which begins as follows:</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>Ὄφις, δὲ καὶ σφὴξ, καὶ χελιδὼν, καὶ φρύνος,</div>
+ <div class='line'>Μύρμηξ τε, καὶ σὴς, αἰγιθαλὴς, καὶ φάλαγξ,</div>
+ <div class='line'>Καὶ σαῦρος ὦχρὸς, καὶ φαγεῖν δεινὸς μέροψ,</div>
+ <div class='line'>Σμήνει μελισσῶν δυσμενεῖς ὁδοστάται.</div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c014'>Iamb. De Animal. Proprietat.
+c. 30, p. 104, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1216'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1216'>1216</a>. Arist. Hist. Anim. viii. 5.
+Plin. Nat. Hist. viii. 54.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1217'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1217'>1217</a>. Besides this enemy the bees
+of America have another still
+more audacious, that is to say, the
+monkey, which either carries off
+their combs or crushes them for
+the purpose of dipping his tail in
+the honey, which he afterwards
+sucks at his leisure. Schneider,
+Observ. sur Ulloa, t. ii. p. 199.—See
+a very amusing chapter on
+the enemies of the bee in Della
+Rocca, iii. 219, sqq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1218'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1218'>1218</a>. Sibthorpe in Walp. Mem. i.
+75. The practice, moreover, of
+stealing hives was not unknown
+to the ancients. Plat. De Legg.
+t. viii. p. 104.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1219'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1219'>1219</a>. Colum. ix. 6. Della Rocca,
+however, considers this kind as
+equal to any other, except that
+it is more fragile. t. ii. p. 17.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1220'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1220'>1220</a>. Geop. xv. 2. 15.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1221'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1221'>1221</a>. De Re Rust. iii. 16, 18.
+Colum. ix. 9. 6. Hist. Anim. v.
+19, 22. Xenoph. Œconom. vii.
+32.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1222'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1222'>1222</a>. Cf. Geop. xv. 2, 6.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1223'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1223'>1223</a>. On the humble bee, see Sch.
+Aristoph. Acharn. 831.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1224'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1224'>1224</a>. Varro, De Re Rust. iii. 16.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1225'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1225'>1225</a>. Arist. Hist. Anim. ix. 27.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1226'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1226'>1226</a>. Arist. Hist. Anim. v. 21.
+Cf. Xenoph. Œcon. xvii. 14, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1227'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1227'>1227</a>. Cf. Sch. Aristoph. Vesp. 425.
+In the island of Cuba, where the
+tame bee was originally introduced
+by the English, it has been
+found to swarm and multiply
+with incredible rapidity, each
+hive sometimes sending forth two
+swarms per month, so that the
+mountains are absolutely filled
+with them. This rapid increase
+seems to have taken place chiefly
+in the neighbourhood of the sugar
+plantations, which they were long
+since supposed to deteriorate by
+extracting too much honey from
+the cane. Don Ulloa, Memoires
+Philosophiques, &c., t. i. p. 185.
+In North America where bees are
+known among the natives by the
+name of the “English Flies,”
+they betray an invariable tendency
+for migrating southward.
+Kalm. t. ii. 427. Schneider,
+Observ. sur Ulloa, ii. 198.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1228'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1228'>1228</a>. Hist. Anim. v. 22. Orion
+rises on the 9th of July, Gœttling
+ad Hesiod. Opp. et Dies, 598.
+Arcturus, 18th September. Id.
+610.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1229'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1229'>1229</a>. A similar opinion has been
+sometimes maintained also by the
+moderns:—“I have heard,” observes
+Lord Bacon, “from one
+that was industrious in husbandry,
+that the labour of the
+bee is about the wax, and that
+he hath known in the beginning
+of May, honey combs empty
+of honey, and within a fortnight
+when the sweet dews
+fall filled like a cellar.”—Sylva
+Sylvarum, 612.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1230'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1230'>1230</a>. Arist. Hist. Anim. v. 22. In
+the Crimea wild bees are found
+in great abundance in the clefts
+and caverns of the mountains.—Pallas,
+Travels in Southern Russia,
+iii. 324. Among the numerous
+species of wild bees found in
+America there is one which pre-eminently
+deserves to be introduced
+into Europe and brought
+under the dominion of man. This
+bee does not, like the ordinary
+kind, deposit its honey in combs
+but in separate waxen cells about
+the size and shape of a pigeon’s
+egg. As the honey of this bee is
+of an excellent quality, many
+persons in South America have
+been at the pains to tame its
+maker, whose labours have proved
+extremely profitable.—Schneider,
+Observ. sur Ulloa, ii. 200.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1231'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1231'>1231</a>. Arist. Hist. Anim. ix. 27.
+24. In Attica, the honey was
+taken about the summer solstice;
+at Rome about the festival of
+Vulcan, in the month of August.—Winkelmann.
+Hist. de l’Art,
+i. 65. But commentators are
+not at all agreed respecting the
+meaning of Pliny, whom this
+writer relies upon. xi. 15. Cf.
+Sch. Aristoph. Eq. 797.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1232'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1232'>1232</a>. Arist. Hist. Anim. ix. 27.
+19. Sch. Aristoph. Eq. 752. Cf.
+Meurs. Græc. Ludib. p. 13.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1233'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1233'>1233</a>. Varro, de Re Rust. iii. 16.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1234'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1234'>1234</a>. A gentleman in Surrey desirous
+of knowing his own bees,
+when he should chance to meet
+them in the fields, touched their
+wings with vermilion as they
+were issuing from the hive. Being
+one fine day in summer on
+a visit at Hampstead, he found
+them thickly scattered among the
+wild flowers on the heath.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1235'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1235'>1235</a>. De Re Rust. iii. 16.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1236'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1236'>1236</a>. Preserved by Photius. Biblioth.
+cod. 278. p. 529. b.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1237'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1237'>1237</a>. Herod. vii. 31. Cf. iv. 194.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1238'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1238'>1238</a>. On the origin of the honeydew,
+see the Quarterly Journal
+of Agriculture, No. XLIV. p.
+499, sqq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1239'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1239'>1239</a>. Theoph. Hist. Plant. iii. 7.
+6. Cf. Hes. Opp. et Dies, 232.
+seq. Cf. Lord Bacon, Sylva
+Sylvarum. 496.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1240'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1240'>1240</a>. Schneid. Comm. ad Theoph.
+Frag. t. iv. p. 822.</p>
+</div>
+<hr class='c016' />
+
+<div>
+ <span class='pageno' id='Page_301'>301</span>
+ <h3 class='c002'>CHAPTER II. <br /> GARDEN AND ORCHARD.</h3>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c011'>Lord Bacon, who loved to be surrounded by plants
+and trees and flowers, delivers it as his opinion,
+that the scientific culture of gardens affords a surer
+mark of the advance of civilisation than any improvement
+in the science of architecture, since men, he
+observes, enjoyed the luxury of magnificent palaces
+before that of picturesque and well-ordered garden-grounds.
+This, likewise, was the conviction of the
+ancient Greeks,<a id='r1241' /><a href='#f1241' class='c012'><sup>[1241]</sup></a> in whose literature we everywhere
+discover vestiges of a passion for that voluptuous
+solitude which men taste in artificial and secluded
+plantations, amid flower-beds and arbours and hanging
+vines and fountains and smooth shady walks.
+No full description, however, of an Hellenic garden
+has survived; even the poets have contented
+themselves with affording us glimpses of their “studious
+walks and shades.” We must, therefore, endeavour,
+by the aid of scattered hints, chance expressions,
+fragments, and a careful study of the natural
+and invariable productions of the country, to work
+out for ourselves a picture of what the gardens of
+Peisistratos, or Cimon, or Pericles, or Epicurus,
+whom Pliny<a id='r1242' /><a href='#f1242' class='c012'><sup>[1242]</sup></a> denominates the <span lang="la" xml:lang="la"><i>magister hortorum</i></span>, or
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_302'>302</span>any other Grecian gentleman, must in the best ages
+have been.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>That portion of the ground<a id='r1243' /><a href='#f1243' class='c012'><sup>[1243]</sup></a> which was devoted
+to the culture of sweet-smelling shrubs and flowers,
+usually approached and projected inwards between
+the back wings of the house, so that from the windows
+the eye might alight upon the rich and variegated
+tints of the parterres<a id='r1244' /><a href='#f1244' class='c012'><sup>[1244]</sup></a> intermingled with verdure,
+while the evening and morning breeze wafted
+clouds of fragrance into the apartments.<a id='r1245' /><a href='#f1245' class='c012'><sup>[1245]</sup></a> The lawns,
+shrubberies, bosquets, thickets, arcades, and avenues,
+were, in most cases, laid out in a picturesque though
+artificial manner, the principal object appearing to
+have been to combine use with magnificence, and
+to enjoy all the blended hues and odours which the
+plants and trees acclimated in Hellas could afford.
+Protection, in summer, from the sun’s rays, is, in those
+southern latitudes, an almost necessary ingredient
+of pleasure, and, therefore, numerous trees, as the
+cedar,<a id='r1246' /><a href='#f1246' class='c012'><sup>[1246]</sup></a> the cypress, the black and white poplar,<a id='r1247' /><a href='#f1247' class='c012'><sup>[1247]</sup></a> the
+ash, the linden, the elm, and the platane, rose here
+and there in the grounds, in some places singly, elsewhere
+in clumps, uniting their branches above, and
+affording a cool and dense shade. Beneath these
+umbrageous arches the air was further refrigerated
+by splashing fountains,<a id='r1248' /><a href='#f1248' class='c012'><sup>[1248]</sup></a> whose waters, through numerous
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_303'>303</span>fair channels, straight or winding, as the use
+demanded of them required,<a id='r1249' /><a href='#f1249' class='c012'><sup>[1249]</sup></a> spread themselves over
+the whole garden, refreshing the eye and keeping
+up a perpetual verdure. Copses of myrtles, of roses,
+of agnus-castus,<a id='r1250' /><a href='#f1250' class='c012'><sup>[1250]</sup></a> and other odoriferous shrubs intermingled,
+clustering round a pomegranate-tree, were
+usually placed on elevated spots,<a id='r1251' /><a href='#f1251' class='c012'><sup>[1251]</sup></a> that, being thus
+exposed to the winds, they might the more freely
+diffuse their sweetness. The spaces between trees
+were sometimes planted with roses,<a id='r1252' /><a href='#f1252' class='c012'><sup>[1252]</sup></a> and lilies, and
+violets, and golden crocuses;<a id='r1253' /><a href='#f1253' class='c012'><sup>[1253]</sup></a> and sometimes presented
+a breadth of smooth, close, green sward,
+sprinkled with wild-flowers, as the violet and the blue
+veronica,<a id='r1254' /><a href='#f1254' class='c012'><sup>[1254]</sup></a> the pink, and the pale primrose, the golden
+motherwort, the cowslip, the daisy, the pimpernel,
+and the periwinkle. In many gardens the custom
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_304'>304</span>was, to plant each kind of tree in separate groups,
+and each species of flower-bed also had, as now in
+Holland,<a id='r1255' /><a href='#f1255' class='c012'><sup>[1255]</sup></a> a distinct space assigned to it; so that
+there were beds of white violets,<a id='r1256' /><a href='#f1256' class='c012'><sup>[1256]</sup></a> of irises, of the
+golden cynosure,<a id='r1257' /><a href='#f1257' class='c012'><sup>[1257]</sup></a> of hyacinths, of ranunculuses, of
+the blue campanula, or Canterbury bells, of white
+gilliflowers, carnations, and the branchy asphodel.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'><span class='pageno' id='Page_305'>305</span>One of the principal causes which induced the
+Greeks to attend to the culture of ornamental shrubs
+and flowers, was the perpetual use made of them in
+crowns and garlands.<a id='r1258' /><a href='#f1258' class='c012'><sup>[1258]</sup></a> Nearly all their ceremonies,
+whether civil or religious, were performed by individuals
+wearing certain wreaths about their brow.
+Thus the Spartans, during the Promachian festival,<a id='r1259' /><a href='#f1259' class='c012'><sup>[1259]</sup></a>
+shaded their foreheads with plaited tufts of reeds—priests
+and priestesses, soothsayers,<a id='r1260' /><a href='#f1260' class='c012'><sup>[1260]</sup></a> prophets, and enchanters,
+appeared in their several capacities before
+the gods in temples or sacred groves with symbolical
+crowns encircling their heads, as the priests of
+Hera, at Samos, with laurel,<a id='r1261' /><a href='#f1261' class='c012'><sup>[1261]</sup></a> and those of Aphrodite
+with myrtle,<a id='r1262' /><a href='#f1262' class='c012'><sup>[1262]</sup></a> while the statues of the divinities themselves
+were often crowned with circlets of these
+“earthly stars.” In the festival of Europa, at Corinth,
+a crown of myrtle, thirty feet in circumference,
+was borne in procession through the city.<a id='r1263' /><a href='#f1263' class='c012'><sup>[1263]</sup></a> The actors,
+dancers, and spectators of the theatre usually
+appeared crowned with flowers,<a id='r1264' /><a href='#f1264' class='c012'><sup>[1264]</sup></a> as did every guest
+at an entertainment, while lovers suspended a profusion
+of garlands on the doors of their mistresses,
+as did the devout on the temples and altars of the
+gods.<a id='r1265' /><a href='#f1265' class='c012'><sup>[1265]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Most of the flowers cultivated, moreover, suggested
+poetical or mythological associations; for the
+religion of Greece combined itself with nearly every
+object in nature, more particularly with the beautiful,
+so that the Greek, as he strolled through his
+garden, had perpetually before his fancy a succession
+of fables connected with nymphs and goddesses and
+the old hereditary traditions of his county. Thus
+the laurel recalled the tale and transformation
+of Daphnè,<a id='r1266' /><a href='#f1266' class='c012'><sup>[1266]</sup></a> the object of Apollo’s love—the cypresses
+or graces of the vegetable kingdom,<a id='r1267' /><a href='#f1267' class='c012'><sup>[1267]</sup></a> were the everlasting
+representatives of Eteocles’ daughters, visited
+by death because they dared to rival the goddesses
+in dancing—the myrtle<a id='r1268' /><a href='#f1268' class='c012'><sup>[1268]</sup></a> was a most beautiful maiden
+of Attica, fairer than all her countrywomen, swifter
+and more patient of toil than the youth, who therefore
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_306'>306</span>slew her through envy—the pine<a id='r1269' /><a href='#f1269' class='c012'><sup>[1269]</sup></a> was the tall
+and graceful mistress of Pan and Boreas—the mint
+that of Pluto—while the rose-campion sprung from
+the bath of Aphrodite, and the humble cabbage from
+the tears of Lycurgus, the enemy of Dionysos.<a id='r1270' /><a href='#f1270' class='c012'><sup>[1270]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>It has sometimes been supposed,<a id='r1271' /><a href='#f1271' class='c012'><sup>[1271]</sup></a> that the flower
+which constitutes the greatest ornament of gardens
+was wholly unknown in the early ages of Greece.
+But this theory, imagined for the purpose of destroying
+the claims of the Anacreontic fragments to
+be considered genuine,<a id='r1272' /><a href='#f1272' class='c012'><sup>[1272]</sup></a> is entirely overthrown by
+the testimony of several ancient writers, more particularly
+Herodotus,<a id='r1273' /><a href='#f1273' class='c012'><sup>[1273]</sup></a> who speaks of the rose of sixty
+leaves, as found in the gardens of Midas in Thrace,
+at the foot of the snowy Bermios. Elswhere, too,
+he compares the flower of the red Niliac lotus<a id='r1274' /><a href='#f1274' class='c012'><sup>[1274]</sup></a> to
+the rose; and Stesichoros,<a id='r1275' /><a href='#f1275' class='c012'><sup>[1275]</sup></a> an older poet than Anacreon,
+distinctly mentions chaplets composed of this flower.</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>Many a yellow quince was there</div>
+ <div class='line'>Piled upon the regal chair,</div>
+ <div class='line'><span class='pageno' id='Page_307'>307</span>Many a verdant myrtle-bough,</div>
+ <div class='line'>Many a rose-crown featly wreathed,</div>
+ <div class='line'>With twisted violets that grow</div>
+ <div class='line'>Where the breath of spring has breathed.</div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c014'>Homer,<a id='r1276' /><a href='#f1276' class='c012'><sup>[1276]</sup></a> too, it is evident, was familiar with the
+rose, to whose fragrant petals he compares the
+fingers of the morning, and not, as has been imagined,
+to the blood-red flower of the wild pomegranate
+tree.<a id='r1277' /><a href='#f1277' class='c012'><sup>[1277]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>According, moreover, to a tradition preserved to
+later times, the seasons of the year, which in remote
+antiquity were but three, they symbolically represented
+by a rose, an ear of corn, and an apple.<a id='r1278' /><a href='#f1278' class='c012'><sup>[1278]</sup></a>
+This division is thought to have been borrowed
+from the Egyptians, in whose country, however, the
+apple was never sufficiently naturalised to be taken
+as an emblem of one of the seasons of the year.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>But, at whatever period the rose began to be
+cultivated, it evidently, as soon as known, shared
+with the violet the admiration of the Athenian people,
+whose extensive plantations of this most fragrant
+shrub recall to mind the rose gardens of the Fayoum,
+or Serinaghur. The secret, moreover, was early
+discovered of hastening or retarding their maturity,
+so as to obtain an abundant supply through every
+month in the year.<a id='r1279' /><a href='#f1279' class='c012'><sup>[1279]</sup></a> Occasionally, too, numbers of
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_308'>308</span>rosebuds were laid among green barleystalks, plucked
+up by the roots, in unglazed amphoræ, to be brought
+forth and made to blow when wanted. Others deposited
+them between layers of the same material
+on the ground, or dipped them in the liquid dregs
+of olives. Another mode of preserving the rose was
+exceedingly curious,—cutting off the top of a large
+standing reed, and splitting it down a little way,
+they inserted a number of rosebuds in the hollow,
+and then bound it softly round and atop with papyrus
+in order to prevent their fragrance from exhaling.<a id='r1280' /><a href='#f1280' class='c012'><sup>[1280]</sup></a>
+How many varieties of this flower<a id='r1281' /><a href='#f1281' class='c012'><sup>[1281]</sup></a> were
+possessed by the ancients it is now, perhaps, impossible
+to determine; but they were acquainted
+with the common, the white, and the moss rose,
+the last, in Aristotle’s<a id='r1282' /><a href='#f1282' class='c012'><sup>[1282]</sup></a> opinion, the sweetest, together
+with the rose of a hundred leaves,<a id='r1283' /><a href='#f1283' class='c012'><sup>[1283]</sup></a> celebrated
+by the Persian poets. Even the wild rose was not
+wholly inodorous in Greece.<a id='r1284' /><a href='#f1284' class='c012'><sup>[1284]</sup></a> Roses were artificially
+blanched by being exposed while unfolding to
+powerful and repeated fumigations with sulphur.<a id='r1285' /><a href='#f1285' class='c012'><sup>[1285]</sup></a>
+The roses which grew on a dry soil were supposed
+to be the sweetest, while their fragrance
+was augmented by planting garlic near the root.<a id='r1286' /><a href='#f1286' class='c012'><sup>[1286]</sup></a>
+To cause them to bloom in January, or in early
+spring (for even in the most southern parts of
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_309'>309</span>Greece the rose season only commences in April)<a id='r1287' /><a href='#f1287' class='c012'><sup>[1287]</sup></a>
+various means were resorted to; sometimes, the
+bushes were watered twice a-day during the whole
+summer; on other occasions, a shallow trench was
+dug at a distance of about eighteen inches round
+the bush, into which warm water was poured
+morning and evening;<a id='r1288' /><a href='#f1288' class='c012'><sup>[1288]</sup></a> while a third, and, perhaps,
+the surest, method was to plant them in pots, or
+baskets, which, during the winter months, were
+placed in sheltered sunny spots by day,<a id='r1289' /><a href='#f1289' class='c012'><sup>[1289]</sup></a> and carried
+into the house at night; afterwards, when the season
+was sufficiently advanced, these portable gardens
+were buried in the earth.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Another favorite denizen of Hellenic gardens was
+the lily, which, probably, introduced from Suza or
+from Egypt, beheld the virginal snow of its bells compelled,
+by art, to put on various hues, as deep red
+and purple,<a id='r1290' /><a href='#f1290' class='c012'><sup>[1290]</sup></a>—the former, by infusing, before planting,
+cinnabar into the bulb,—the latter, by steeping it
+in the lees of purple wine. This flower naturally
+begins to bloom<a id='r1291' /><a href='#f1291' class='c012'><sup>[1291]</sup></a> just as the roses are fading; but,
+to produce a succession of lilies at different seasons,
+some were set near the surface, which grew up and
+blossomed immediately, while others were buried at
+different depths, according to the times at which
+they were required to flower.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Along with these, about the dank borders of
+streams or fountains, grew the favourite flower of
+the Athenian people, purple, double, white, and gold,<a id='r1292' /><a href='#f1292' class='c012'><sup>[1292]</sup></a></p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line in22'>“The violet dim,</div>
+ <div class='line'>But sweeter than the lids of Juno’s eyes,</div>
+ <div class='line'>Or Cytherea’s breath;”<a id='r1293' /><a href='#f1293' class='c012'><sup>[1293]</sup></a></div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c014'><span class='pageno' id='Page_310'>310</span>the pansy,<a id='r1294' /><a href='#f1294' class='c012'><sup>[1294]</sup></a> “freaked with jet;” the purple cyperus,
+the iris, the water-mint,<a id='r1295' /><a href='#f1295' class='c012'><sup>[1295]</sup></a> and hyacinth,<a id='r1296' /><a href='#f1296' class='c012'><sup>[1296]</sup></a> and the
+narcissus,<a id='r1297' /><a href='#f1297' class='c012'><sup>[1297]</sup></a> and the willow-herb, and the blue speedwell,
+and the marsh-marigold, or, brave bassinet, and
+the jacinth, and early daffodil,</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>“That come before the swallow dares, and take</div>
+ <div class='line'>The winds of March with beauty.”</div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c014'>A netting of wild thyme<a id='r1298' /><a href='#f1298' class='c012'><sup>[1298]</sup></a> tufted with sweet mint,
+and marjoram,<a id='r1299' /><a href='#f1299' class='c012'><sup>[1299]</sup></a> which, when crushed by the foot,
+yielded the most delicious fragrance, embraced the
+sunny hillocks, while here and there singly, or in
+beds, grew a profusion of other herbs and flowers,
+some prized for their medicinal virtues, others for
+their beauty, others for their delicate odour, as the
+geranium, the spike-lavender, the rosemary,<a id='r1300' /><a href='#f1300' class='c012'><sup>[1300]</sup></a> with
+its purple and white flowers, the basil,<a id='r1301' /><a href='#f1301' class='c012'><sup>[1301]</sup></a> the flower-gentle,
+the hyssop, the white privet, the cytisus, the
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_311'>311</span>sweet marjoram, the rose-campion, or columbine,<a id='r1302' /><a href='#f1302' class='c012'><sup>[1302]</sup></a>
+the yellow amaryllis, and the celandine. Here, too,</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>“Their gem-like eyes</div>
+ <div class='line'>The Phrygian melilots disclose,”<a id='r1303' /><a href='#f1303' class='c012'><sup>[1303]</sup></a></div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c015'>with the balm-gentle, the red, the purple, and the
+coronal anemone,<a id='r1304' /><a href='#f1304' class='c012'><sup>[1304]</sup></a> the convolvulus, yellow, white, pale
+pink, and blue, together with our Lady’s-gloves, the
+flower of the Trinity, southernwood,<a id='r1305' /><a href='#f1305' class='c012'><sup>[1305]</sup></a> and summer-savory,<a id='r1306' /><a href='#f1306' class='c012'><sup>[1306]</sup></a>
+œnanthe,<a id='r1307' /><a href='#f1307' class='c012'><sup>[1307]</sup></a> gith, the silver sage,<a id='r1308' /><a href='#f1308' class='c012'><sup>[1308]</sup></a> Saint Mary’s
+thistle, and the amaranth, while high above all rose
+the dark pyramidal masses of the rhododendron,<a id='r1309' /><a href='#f1309' class='c012'><sup>[1309]</sup></a> with
+its gigantic clusters of purple flowers.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>How many of the lovely evergreens<a id='r1310' /><a href='#f1310' class='c012'><sup>[1310]</sup></a> that abound
+in Greece were usually cultivated in a single garden,
+we possess no means of ascertaining, though all appear
+occasionally to have been called in to diversify
+the picture. The myrtle,<a id='r1311' /><a href='#f1311' class='c012'><sup>[1311]</sup></a> whose deep blue berries
+were esteemed a delicacy,<a id='r1312' /><a href='#f1312' class='c012'><sup>[1312]</sup></a> in some places rose into
+a tree, while elsewhere it was planted thick, and bent
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_312'>312</span>and fashioned into bowers,<a id='r1313' /><a href='#f1313' class='c012'><sup>[1313]</sup></a> which, when sprinkled
+with its snowy blossoms, combined, perhaps, with
+those of the jasmine, the eglantine, and the yellow
+tufts of the broad-leaved philyrea,<a id='r1314' /><a href='#f1314' class='c012'><sup>[1314]</sup></a> constituted some
+of the most beautiful objects in a Greek paradise.
+Thickets of the tamarisk,<a id='r1315' /><a href='#f1315' class='c012'><sup>[1315]</sup></a> the strawberry-tree,<a id='r1316' /><a href='#f1316' class='c012'><sup>[1316]</sup></a> the
+juniper, the box, the bay, the styrax, the andrachne,
+and the white-flowered laurel, in whose dark leaves
+the morning dew collects and glistens in the sun like
+so many tiny mirrors of burnished silver, varied the
+surface of the lawn, connecting the bowers, and the
+copses, and the flower beds, and the grassy slopes
+with those loftier piles of verdure, consisting of the
+pine tree, the smilax, the cedar, the carob, the
+maple,<a id='r1317' /><a href='#f1317' class='c012'><sup>[1317]</sup></a> the ash, the elm tree, the platane,<a id='r1318' /><a href='#f1318' class='c012'><sup>[1318]</sup></a> and
+the evergreen oak which here and there towered
+in the grounds. In many places the vine shot up
+among the ranges of elms or platanes, and stretched
+its long twisted arm from trunk to trunk, like
+so many festoons of intermingled leaves and tendrils,
+and massive clusters of golden or purple
+grapes.<a id='r1319' /><a href='#f1319' class='c012'><sup>[1319]</sup></a> Alternating, perhaps, with the lovely favourite
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_313'>313</span>of Dionysos, the blue and yellow clematis<a id='r1320' /><a href='#f1320' class='c012'><sup>[1320]</sup></a>
+suspended their living garlands around the stems,
+or along the boughs of the trees, in union or contrast
+with the dodder, or the honeysuckle, or the
+delicate and slender briony. And, if perchance a
+silver fir, with its bright yellow flowers,<a id='r1321' /><a href='#f1321' class='c012'><sup>[1321]</sup></a> formed part
+of the group, large pendant clusters of mistletoe,
+the food sometimes of the labouring ox,<a id='r1322' /><a href='#f1322' class='c012'><sup>[1322]</sup></a> might frequently
+be seen swinging thick among its branches.
+In some grounds was probably cultivated the quercus
+suber,<a id='r1323' /><a href='#f1323' class='c012'><sup>[1323]</sup></a> or cork tree, with bark four or five
+inches thick, triennially stripped off,<a id='r1324' /><a href='#f1324' class='c012'><sup>[1324]</sup></a> after which
+it grows again with renewed vigour. Occasionally,
+where streams and rivulets<a id='r1325' /><a href='#f1325' class='c012'><sup>[1325]</sup></a> found their way through
+the grounds, the black and white poplar, the willow,
+and the lentiscus, with a variety of tufted reeds,
+crowded about the margin, here and there shading
+and concealing the waters.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Proceeding now into the orchard we find, that,
+instead of walls, it was, sometimes at least, if it
+touched on the confines of another man’s grounds,
+surrounded by hedges<a id='r1326' /><a href='#f1326' class='c012'><sup>[1326]</sup></a> of black and white thorn,
+brambles, and barberry bushes, as at present<a id='r1327' /><a href='#f1327' class='c012'><sup>[1327]</sup></a> by impenetrable
+fences of the Indian cactus.<a id='r1328' /><a href='#f1328' class='c012'><sup>[1328]</sup></a> On the
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_314'>314</span>banks of these hedges, both inside and out, were
+found, peculiar tribes of plants and wild flowers, in
+some places enamelling the smooth close turf, elsewhere
+flourishing thickly in dank masses of verdure,
+or climbing upwards and interlacing themselves with
+the lofty and projecting thorns, such as the enchanter’s
+nightshade, the euphorbia, the iris tuberosa, the
+red-flowered valerian, the ground-ivy,<a id='r1329' /><a href='#f1329' class='c012'><sup>[1329]</sup></a> the physalis
+somnifera, with its coral red seeds in their inflated
+calyces,<a id='r1330' /><a href='#f1330' class='c012'><sup>[1330]</sup></a> the globularia, the creeping heliotrope, the
+penny-cress,<a id='r1331' /><a href='#f1331' class='c012'><sup>[1331]</sup></a> the bright yellow scorpion-flower, and
+the broad-leaved cyclamen or our Lady’s-seal, with
+pink flower, light green leaf, veined with white and
+yellow beneath. The ancient Parthians surrounded
+their gardens with hedges of a fragrant, creeping
+shrub denominated philadelphos or love-brother,<a id='r1332' /><a href='#f1332' class='c012'><sup>[1332]</sup></a>
+whose long suckers they interwove into a kind of
+network forming a sufficient protection against man
+and beast. In mountainous districts, where rain-floods
+were to be guarded against, the enclosures
+frequently consisted of walls of loose stones,<a id='r1333' /><a href='#f1333' class='c012'><sup>[1333]</sup></a> as is
+still the case in Savoy on the edge of mountain
+torrents.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>It was moreover the custom, both in Greece and
+Italy, to plant, on the boundary line of estates, rows
+of olives or other trees,<a id='r1334' /><a href='#f1334' class='c012'><sup>[1334]</sup></a> which not only served to
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_315'>315</span>mark the limits of a man’s territory, but shed an
+air of beauty over the whole country. A proof of
+this practice prevailing in Attica, has with much
+ingenuity<a id='r1335' /><a href='#f1335' class='c012'><sup>[1335]</sup></a> been brought forward from the “Frogs,”
+where Bacchos, addressing the poet Æschylus in
+the shades, observes “It will be all right provided
+your anger does not transport you beyond the olives.”
+It may likewise be remarked that in olive-grounds,<a id='r1336' /><a href='#f1336' class='c012'><sup>[1336]</sup></a>
+the trees, excepting the sacred ones called <em>moriæ</em>,
+were always planted in straight lines, from twenty-five
+to thirty feet<a id='r1337' /><a href='#f1337' class='c012'><sup>[1337]</sup></a> apart, because, in order to ripen
+the fruit,<a id='r1338' /><a href='#f1338' class='c012'><sup>[1338]</sup></a> it is necessary that the wind should be
+able freely to play upon it from all sides. And
+further because they delight in a warm dry air like
+that of Libya, Cilicia,<a id='r1339' /><a href='#f1339' class='c012'><sup>[1339]</sup></a> and Attica, the best olive-grounds
+were generally supposed to be those which
+occupied the rapid slopes of hills where the soil is
+naturally stony and light. The oil of the plains was
+commonly coarse and thick.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Among these olive grounds in summer, the song
+of the tettix<a id='r1340' /><a href='#f1340' class='c012'><sup>[1340]</sup></a> is commonly heard; for this musical
+insect loves the olive, which, like the sant of the
+Arabian desert, yields but a thin and warm shade.<a id='r1341' /><a href='#f1341' class='c012'><sup>[1341]</sup></a>
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_316'>316</span>The tettix, in fact, though never found in an unwooded
+country, as in the plains about Cyrene,
+equally avoids the dense shade of the woods.<a id='r1342' /><a href='#f1342' class='c012'><sup>[1342]</sup></a> Here
+likewise<a id='r1343' /><a href='#f1343' class='c012'><sup>[1343]</sup></a> are found the blackbird, the roller, and
+three distinct species of butcher-bird—the small grey,
+the ash-coloured, and the redheaded.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>In an Attic orchard were most of the trees reared
+in England, together with many which will not stand
+the rigour of our climate.—The apple,<a id='r1344' /><a href='#f1344' class='c012'><sup>[1344]</sup></a> cultivated
+with peculiar care in the environs of Delphi and
+Corinth; the pear,<a id='r1345' /><a href='#f1345' class='c012'><sup>[1345]</sup></a> the cherry from Cerasos on the
+southern shore of the Black Sea,<a id='r1346' /><a href='#f1346' class='c012'><sup>[1346]</sup></a> which sometimes
+grew to the height of nearly forty feet,<a id='r1347' /><a href='#f1347' class='c012'><sup>[1347]</sup></a> the damascene,<a id='r1348' /><a href='#f1348' class='c012'><sup>[1348]</sup></a>
+and the common plum. Along with these
+were likewise to be found the quince,<a id='r1349' /><a href='#f1349' class='c012'><sup>[1349]</sup></a> the apricot,
+the peach, the nectarine, the walnut, the chestnut,
+the filbert, introduced from Pontos,<a id='r1350' /><a href='#f1350' class='c012'><sup>[1350]</sup></a> the hazel nut,
+the medlar, and the mulberry, which, according to
+Menander, is the earliest fruit of the year.<a id='r1351' /><a href='#f1351' class='c012'><sup>[1351]</sup></a> With
+these were intermingled the fig, white, purple, and
+red, the pomegranate,<a id='r1352' /><a href='#f1352' class='c012'><sup>[1352]</sup></a> from the northern shores of
+Africa, the orange,<a id='r1353' /><a href='#f1353' class='c012'><sup>[1353]</sup></a> still planted under artificial shelter
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_317'>317</span>at Lemnos, the citron, the lemon,<a id='r1354' /><a href='#f1354' class='c012'><sup>[1354]</sup></a> the date-palm,<a id='r1355' /><a href='#f1355' class='c012'><sup>[1355]</sup></a>
+the pistachio, the almond, the service, and
+the cornel-tree.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>As these gardens were arranged with a view no
+less to pleasure than to profit, the trees were planted
+in lines, which, when sufficiently close, formed
+a series of umbrageous avenues, opening here into
+the lawn and there into the vineyard, which generally
+formed part of a Greek gentleman’s grounds.
+And such an orchard decked in its summer pride
+with foliage of emerald and fruit, ruddy, purple, and
+gold, the notes of the thrush, the nightingale,<a id='r1356' /><a href='#f1356' class='c012'><sup>[1356]</sup></a> the
+tettix, with the “amorous thrill of the green-finch,”<a id='r1357' /><a href='#f1357' class='c012'><sup>[1357]</sup></a>
+floating through its boughs, and the perfume of the
+agnus-castus, the myrtle, the rose, and the violet,
+wafting richly on all sides, was a very paradise.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Not unfrequently, common foot-paths traversed
+these orchards and vineyards, in which case the
+passers-by were customarily, if not by law, permitted
+to pick and eat the fruit,<a id='r1358' /><a href='#f1358' class='c012'><sup>[1358]</sup></a> which seems also
+from the account of our Saviour to have been the
+practice in Judæa. The contrary is the case in
+modern Europe. In Burgundy and Switzerland,
+where pathways traverse vineyards, it is not uncommon
+to see the grapes smeared with something
+resembling white lime which children are assured
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_318'>318</span>is a deadly poison. This, while in the country, I
+regarded as a mere stratagem, intended to protect
+the vineyards from depredation, though there seems
+after all to be too much reason to believe the nefarious
+practice to exist in several localities. At
+least two children were recently killed at Foix by
+eating poisoned grapes on the way-side.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The Greeks placed much of their happiness in
+spots like those we have been describing, as may
+be inferred from such of their fabulous traditions,<a id='r1359' /><a href='#f1359' class='c012'><sup>[1359]</sup></a>
+as relate to the garden of the Hesperides,<a id='r1360' /><a href='#f1360' class='c012'><sup>[1360]</sup></a>
+the gardens of Midas, with their magnificent roses,
+and those of Alcinoös,<a id='r1361' /><a href='#f1361' class='c012'><sup>[1361]</sup></a> which still shed their fragrance
+over the pages of the Odyssey. From the
+East, no doubt, they obtained, along with their noblest
+fruit-trees, the art of cultivating them, and,
+perhaps, that sacred tradition of the Garden of
+Eden, preserved in the Scriptures, formed the basis
+of many a Hellenic legend.<a id='r1362' /><a href='#f1362' class='c012'><sup>[1362]</sup></a> The Syrians acquired
+much celebrity among the ancients for their knowledge
+of gardening, in which, according to modern
+travellers, they still excel. Of the manner of cultivating
+fruit-trees in the earlier ages very little is
+known. No doubt they soon discovered that some
+will thrive better in certain soils and situations than
+in others, and profited by the discovery; but the
+art of properly training and grafting trees is comparatively
+modern.<a id='r1363' /><a href='#f1363' class='c012'><sup>[1363]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>No mention of it occurs in the Pentateuch, though
+Moses there gives directions how to manage an orchard.
+For the first three years the blossoms were
+not to be suffered to ripen into fruit, and even in
+the fourth all that came was sacred to the Lord.
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_319'>319</span>From the fifth year, onward, they might do with
+it what they pleased. Of these regulations the intention
+was to prevent the early exhaustion of the
+trees. Homer, also, is silent on the practice of
+grafting, nor does any mention of it occur in the
+extant works of Hesiod, though Manilius<a id='r1364' /><a href='#f1364' class='c012'><sup>[1364]</sup></a> refers to
+his poems in proof of the antiquity of the practice.
+By degrees, however, it got into use;<a id='r1365' /><a href='#f1365' class='c012'><sup>[1365]</sup></a> and, in the
+age of Aristotle,<a id='r1366' /><a href='#f1366' class='c012'><sup>[1366]</sup></a> was already common, as at present
+almost everywhere, save in Greece,<a id='r1367' /><a href='#f1367' class='c012'><sup>[1367]</sup></a> since no fruit
+was esteemed excellent unless the tree had been
+grafted. Some few of the rules they observed in
+this process may be briefly noticed.<a id='r1368' /><a href='#f1368' class='c012'><sup>[1368]</sup></a> Trees with a
+thick rind were grafted in the ordinary way, and
+sometimes by inserting the graft between the bark
+and the wood, which was called infoliation.<a id='r1369' /><a href='#f1369' class='c012'><sup>[1369]</sup></a> Inoculation,
+also, or introducing the bud of one tree into
+the rind of another, was common among Greek gardeners.<a id='r1370' /><a href='#f1370' class='c012'><sup>[1370]</sup></a>
+They were extremely particular in their
+choice of stocks.<a id='r1371' /><a href='#f1371' class='c012'><sup>[1371]</sup></a> Thus the fig was grafted only on
+the platane<a id='r1372' /><a href='#f1372' class='c012'><sup>[1372]</sup></a> and the mulberry; the mulberry on
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_320'>320</span>the chestnut,<a id='r1373' /><a href='#f1373' class='c012'><sup>[1373]</sup></a> the beech, the apple, the terebinth,
+the wild pear, the elm, and the white poplar,
+(whence white mulberries;) the pear on the pomegranate,
+the quince, the mulberry, (whence red
+pears,) the almond, and the terebinth; apples<a id='r1374' /><a href='#f1374' class='c012'><sup>[1374]</sup></a> on
+all sorts of wild pears and quinces, (whence the
+finest apples called by the Athenians Melimela,)<a id='r1375' /><a href='#f1375' class='c012'><sup>[1375]</sup></a>
+on damascenes, also, and <span lang="la" xml:lang="la"><i>vice versâ</i></span>, and on the
+platane, (whence red apples.)<a id='r1376' /><a href='#f1376' class='c012'><sup>[1376]</sup></a> Another method of
+communicating a blush to this fruit was to plant
+rose-bushes round the root of the tree.<a id='r1377' /><a href='#f1377' class='c012'><sup>[1377]</sup></a> The walnut
+was grafted on the strawberry-tree only;<a id='r1378' /><a href='#f1378' class='c012'><sup>[1378]</sup></a> the pomegranate
+on the myrtle<a id='r1379' /><a href='#f1379' class='c012'><sup>[1379]</sup></a> and the willow; the laurel
+on the cherry<a id='r1380' /><a href='#f1380' class='c012'><sup>[1380]</sup></a> and the ash; the white peach on
+the damascene and the almond; the damascene on
+the wild pear, the quince, and the apple; chestnuts
+on the walnut, the beech, and the oak;<a id='r1381' /><a href='#f1381' class='c012'><sup>[1381]</sup></a> the cherry
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_321'>321</span>on the terebinth, and the peach; the quince on the
+oxyacanthus; the myrtle on the willow; and the
+apricot on the damascene, and the Thasian almond-tree.
+The vine, also, was grafted on a cherry and
+a myrtle-stock, which produced, in the first case,
+grapes in spring,<a id='r1382' /><a href='#f1382' class='c012'><sup>[1382]</sup></a> in the second, a mixed fruit, between
+the myrtle-berry and the grape.<a id='r1383' /><a href='#f1383' class='c012'><sup>[1383]</sup></a> When the
+gardener desired to obtain black citrons, he inserted
+a citron-graft into an apple-stock, and, if red, into
+a mulberry-stock.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Citrons were likewise occasionally grafted on the
+pomegranate-tree. In the present day, the almond,
+the chestnut, the fig, the orange, and the citron,
+with many other species of fruit-trees, are no longer
+thought to require grafting.<a id='r1384' /><a href='#f1384' class='c012'><sup>[1384]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>In illustration of the prolific virtue of the Hellenic
+soil it may be mentioned, that young branchless
+pear-trees, transplanted from Malta to the neighbourhood
+of Athens, in the autumn of 1830, were the
+next year covered thick with fruit, which hung
+even upon the trunk like hanks of onions.<a id='r1385' /><a href='#f1385' class='c012'><sup>[1385]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Notwithstanding the early season of the year at
+which Gaia distributes her gifts in Greece, numerous
+arts were resorted to for anticipating the productions
+of summer,<a id='r1386' /><a href='#f1386' class='c012'><sup>[1386]</sup></a> though of most of them the nature
+is unknown. It is certain, however, that they
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_322'>322</span>possessed the means of ripening fruits throughout
+the winter, either by hothouses or other contrivances
+equally efficacious.<a id='r1387' /><a href='#f1387' class='c012'><sup>[1387]</sup></a> During the festival celebrated
+in honour of the lover of Aphrodite, the seeds of
+flowers were sown in those silver pots, or baskets,
+called the gardens of Adonis,<a id='r1388' /><a href='#f1388' class='c012'><sup>[1388]</sup></a> and with artificial
+heat and constant irrigation compelled to bloom in
+eight days. Among the modern Hindus corn is still
+forced to spring up in a few days, by a similar
+process, during the festival of Gouri.<a id='r1389' /><a href='#f1389' class='c012'><sup>[1389]</sup></a> To produce
+rathe figs,<a id='r1390' /><a href='#f1390' class='c012'><sup>[1390]</sup></a> a manure, composed of dove’s dung
+and pepper and oil, was laid about the roots of the
+tree. Another method was that which is still employed
+under the name of caprification, alluded to
+by Sophocles.<a id='r1391' /><a href='#f1391' class='c012'><sup>[1391]</sup></a> For this purpose care was taken to
+rear, close at hand, several wild fig-trees, from which
+might be obtained the flies made use of in this process,<a id='r1392' /><a href='#f1392' class='c012'><sup>[1392]</sup></a>
+performed by cutting off bunches of wild figs
+and suspending them amid the branches of the cultivated
+species,<a id='r1393' /><a href='#f1393' class='c012'><sup>[1393]</sup></a> when a fly issuing from the former
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_323'>323</span>pricked the slowly ripening fruit and accelerated its
+maturity.<a id='r1394' /><a href='#f1394' class='c012'><sup>[1394]</sup></a> In growing the various kinds of fig they
+were careful to plant the Chelidonian, the Erinean, or
+wild fig, the Leukerinean, and the Phibaleian<a id='r1395' /><a href='#f1395' class='c012'><sup>[1395]</sup></a> on
+plains. The autumn-royals would grow anywhere.
+Each sort has its peculiar excellence. The following
+were the best: the colouroi, or truncated, the forminion,
+the diforoi, the Megaric, and the Laconian,
+which would bear abundantly if well-watered.<a id='r1396' /><a href='#f1396' class='c012'><sup>[1396]</sup></a>
+Rhodes was famous for its excellent figs, which
+were even thought worthy to be compared with
+those of Attica.<a id='r1397' /><a href='#f1397' class='c012'><sup>[1397]</sup></a> Athenæus, however, pretends that
+the best figs in the world were found at Rome.
+There were figs with a ruddy bloom in the island
+of Paros, the same in kind as the Lydian fig.<a id='r1398' /><a href='#f1398' class='c012'><sup>[1398]</sup></a>
+The Leukerinean produced the white fig.<a id='r1399' /><a href='#f1399' class='c012'><sup>[1399]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The fancy of Hellenic gardeners amused itself
+with effecting numerous fantastic changes in the
+appearance and nature of fruit. Thus citrons, lemons,
+&c., were made, by the application of a clay
+mould, to assume the form of the human face, of
+birds and other animals.<a id='r1400' /><a href='#f1400' class='c012'><sup>[1400]</sup></a> Occasionally, too, they were
+introduced, when small, into the neck of a bottle
+provided with breathing holes, the figure of which
+they assumed as they projected their growth into
+all its dimensions. We are assured, moreover, that,
+by a very simple process, they could produce
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_324'>324</span>peaches, almonds,<a id='r1401' /><a href='#f1401' class='c012'><sup>[1401]</sup></a> &c., covered, as though by magic,
+with written characters. The mode of operation
+was this,—steeping the stone of the fruit in water for
+several days, they then carefully divided it, and taking
+out the kernel inscribed upon it with a brazen pen
+whatever words or letters they thought proper. This
+done, they again closed the stone over the kernel,
+bound it round with papyrus, and planted it; and
+the peaches or almonds which afterwards grew on
+that tree bore every one of them, <span lang="la" xml:lang="la"><i>mirabile dictu!</i></span>
+the legend inscribed upon the kernel. By similar
+arts<a id='r1402' /><a href='#f1402' class='c012'><sup>[1402]</sup></a> they created stoneless peaches, walnuts without
+husks, figs white one side, and black the other, and
+converted bitter almonds into sweet.<a id='r1403' /><a href='#f1403' class='c012'><sup>[1403]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The rules observed in the planting of fruit-trees
+were numerous.<a id='r1404' /><a href='#f1404' class='c012'><sup>[1404]</sup></a> Some, they were of opinion, were
+best propagated by seed, others by suckers wrenched
+from the root of the parent stock,<a id='r1405' /><a href='#f1405' class='c012'><sup>[1405]</sup></a> others, again, by
+branches selected from among the new wood on the
+topmost boughs. A rude practice, too, common
+enough in our own rural districts, appears to have
+been in much favour among them,—bending some
+long pendant bough to the ground, they covered
+a part of it with heavy clods, allowing, however, the
+extremity to appear above the earth. When it had
+taken root it was severed from the tree and transplanted
+to some proper situation. At other times,
+the points of boughs were drawn down and fixed
+in the ground, which even thus took root, and sent
+the juices backwards, after which the bough was
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_325'>325</span>cut off and a new stock produced. Trees generated
+by this method, as well as those planted during
+the waning moon,<a id='r1406' /><a href='#f1406' class='c012'><sup>[1406]</sup></a> were supposed to spread and
+grow branchy, while those set during the waxing
+moon attained, though weaker, to a much greater
+height. It ought, perhaps, to be further added,
+that all seeds and plants were put into the ground
+while the moon was below the horizon.<a id='r1407' /><a href='#f1407' class='c012'><sup>[1407]</sup></a> Those trees
+which it was customary to renew by seed were the
+pistachio, the filbert, the almond, the chestnut, the
+white peach, the damascene, the pine-tree, and the
+edible pine, the palm, the cypress, the laurel, the
+ash, the maple, and the fig. The apple,<a id='r1408' /><a href='#f1408' class='c012'><sup>[1408]</sup></a> the cherry,
+the rhamnus jujuba, the common nut, the dwarf
+laurel, the myrtle, and the medlar, were propagated
+by suckers; while the quicker and surer mode of
+raising trees from boughs was frequently adopted
+in the case of the almond, the pear, the mulberry,
+the citron,<a id='r1409' /><a href='#f1409' class='c012'><sup>[1409]</sup></a> the apple, the olive, the quince,<a id='r1410' /><a href='#f1410' class='c012'><sup>[1410]</sup></a> the
+black and white poplar, the ivy, the jujube-tree,
+the myrtle, the chestnut, the vine, the willow, the
+box, and the cytisus.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>But the thrifty people of Hellas seldom devoted
+the orchard-ground entirely to fruit-trees. The custom
+seems to have been to lay out the whole in
+beds and borders for the cultivation of vegetables,
+and to plant trees, at intervals, along the edges and
+at the corners. These beds, moreover, were often,
+as with us, edged with parsley and rue; whence the
+proverb,—“You have not proceeded beyond the rue,”
+for “You know nothing of the matter.”<a id='r1411' /><a href='#f1411' class='c012'><sup>[1411]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'><span class='pageno' id='Page_326'>326</span>The rustics of antiquity, who put generally great
+faith in spells and talismans, possessed an extraordinary
+charm for ensuring unfailing fertility to their
+gardens; they buried an ass’s head deep in the middle
+of them, and sprinkled the ground with the juice
+of fenugreek and lotus.<a id='r1412' /><a href='#f1412' class='c012'><sup>[1412]</sup></a> Somewhat greater efficacy,
+however, may be attributed to their laborious methods
+of manuring and irrigation.<a id='r1413' /><a href='#f1413' class='c012'><sup>[1413]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The aspect of such a garden differed very little,
+except perhaps in luxuriance, from a similar plot of
+ground in Kent or Middlesex. Here you perceived
+beds of turnips, or cabbages, or onions; there, lettuces,
+or endive, or succory,<a id='r1414' /><a href='#f1414' class='c012'><sup>[1414]</sup></a> in the process of blanching,
+or the delicate heads of asparagus, or broad-beans,
+or lentils, or peas, or kidney-beans, or artichokes.
+In the most sunny spots were ranges of
+boxes or baskets for forcing cucumbers.<a id='r1415' /><a href='#f1415' class='c012'><sup>[1415]</sup></a> Near the
+brooks, where such existed, were patches of watermelons,<a id='r1416' /><a href='#f1416' class='c012'><sup>[1416]</sup></a>
+the finest in the world; and here and there,
+clasping round the trunks of trees,<a id='r1417' /><a href='#f1417' class='c012'><sup>[1417]</sup></a> and, suspending
+its huge leaves and spheres from among the branches,
+you might behold the gourd,<a id='r1418' /><a href='#f1418' class='c012'><sup>[1418]</sup></a> as I have often seen
+it in the palm-groves of Nubia. It may be added,
+that the pumpkin, or common gourd, was eaten by
+the Greeks,<a id='r1419' /><a href='#f1419' class='c012'><sup>[1419]</sup></a> as it is still in France and Asia Minor.<a id='r1420' /><a href='#f1420' class='c012'><sup>[1420]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Lettuces<a id='r1421' /><a href='#f1421' class='c012'><sup>[1421]</sup></a> were blanched by being tied a-top, or
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_327'>327</span>being buried up to a certain point in sand.<a id='r1422' /><a href='#f1422' class='c012'><sup>[1422]</sup></a> They
+were, moreover, supposed to be rendered more rich
+and delicate by being watered with a mixture of
+wine and honey, as was the practice of the gourmand
+Aristoxenos, who having done so over-night, used
+next morning to cut them, and say they were so
+many green cakes sent him by mother Earth.<a id='r1423' /><a href='#f1423' class='c012'><sup>[1423]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The Greek gardeners appear to have delighted
+exceedingly in the production of monstrous vegetables.
+Thus, in the case of the cucumber, their principal
+object appears to have been to produce it without
+seed, or of some extraordinary shape.<a id='r1424' /><a href='#f1424' class='c012'><sup>[1424]</sup></a> In the first
+case they diligently watched the appearance of the
+plant above ground, and then covering it over with
+fresh earth, and repeating the same operation three
+times, the cucumbers it bore were found to be seedless.
+The same effect was produced by steeping the
+seeds in sesamum-oil for three days before they were
+sown. They were made to grow to a great length
+by having vessels of water<a id='r1425' /><a href='#f1425' class='c012'><sup>[1425]</sup></a> placed daily within a
+few inches of their points, which, exciting by attraction
+a sort of nisus in the fruit, drew them forward
+as far as the gardener thought necessary.<a id='r1426' /><a href='#f1426' class='c012'><sup>[1426]</sup></a> They
+were made, likewise, to assume all sorts of forms by
+the use of light, fictile moulds,<a id='r1427' /><a href='#f1427' class='c012'><sup>[1427]</sup></a> as in the case of
+the citron. Another method was, to take a large
+reed,<a id='r1428' /><a href='#f1428' class='c012'><sup>[1428]</sup></a> split it, and clear out the pith; then introducing
+the young cucumber into the hollow, the
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_328'>328</span>sections of the reed were bound together, and the
+fruit projected itself through the tube until it acquired
+an enormous length. It is observed by Theophrastus,
+that if you steep the seeds of cucumbers
+in milk, or an infusion of honey, it will improve
+their flavour.<a id='r1429' /><a href='#f1429' class='c012'><sup>[1429]</sup></a> They were, moreover, believed to expand
+in size at the full of the moon, like the sea-hedgehog.<a id='r1430' /><a href='#f1430' class='c012'><sup>[1430]</sup></a>
+A fragrant smell was supposed to be
+communicated to melons<a id='r1431' /><a href='#f1431' class='c012'><sup>[1431]</sup></a> by constantly keeping the
+seed in dry rose-leaves. To preserve the seed for
+any length of time, it was sprinkled with the juice
+of house-leek.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The Megaréans, in whose country melons, gourds,<a id='r1432' /><a href='#f1432' class='c012'><sup>[1432]</sup></a>
+and cucumbers were plentiful, were accustomed to
+heap dust about their roots during the prevalence of
+the Etesian winds, and found this answer <a id='corr328.16'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='of of'>of</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_328.16'><ins class='correction' title='of of'>of</ins></a></span>
+irrigation.<a id='r1433' /><a href='#f1433' class='c012'><sup>[1433]</sup></a> It appears from the following proverb,—“The
+end of cucumbers and the beginning of pompions,”—that
+the former went out of season as the
+latter came in.<a id='r1434' /><a href='#f1434' class='c012'><sup>[1434]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>To procure a plentiful crop of asparagus, they used
+to bury the shavings of a wild ram’s horn, and well
+water them.<a id='r1435' /><a href='#f1435' class='c012'><sup>[1435]</sup></a> By banking up the stalks, moreover,
+immediately after cutting the heads, they caused new
+shoots to spring forth, and thus enjoyed a fresh supply
+throughout the year. This plant was probably
+obtained from Libya,<a id='r1436' /><a href='#f1436' class='c012'><sup>[1436]</sup></a> where it was said to attain,
+in its wild state, the height of twelve, and sometimes
+even of thirty cubits;<a id='r1437' /><a href='#f1437' class='c012'><sup>[1437]</sup></a> and on the slopes of Lebanon,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_329'>329</span>in Syria, it has in our own clay been seen from twelve
+to fifteen feet high.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>That kind of cabbage which we call savoys was
+supposed to flourish best in saline spots, on which
+account the gardeners used to sift pounded nitre<a id='r1438' /><a href='#f1438' class='c012'><sup>[1438]</sup></a>
+over the beds where it was sown, as was the practice
+also in Egypt. In and about Alexandria,<a id='r1439' /><a href='#f1439' class='c012'><sup>[1439]</sup></a> however,
+there was said to be some peculiar quality in
+the earth which communicated a bitter taste to the
+cabbage. To prevent this they imported cabbage-seed
+from the island of Rhodes, which produced good
+plants the first year, but experienced in the second
+the acrid influence of the soil.<a id='r1440' /><a href='#f1440' class='c012'><sup>[1440]</sup></a> Kumè was celebrated
+for its fine cabbages, which, when full-grown,
+were of a yellowish green colour, like the new leather
+sole of a sandal. Broccoli and sea-kale and cauliflowers
+would appear to have been commonly cultivated
+in the gardens of the ancients. There was,
+likewise, among them a sort of cabbage supposed to
+have some connexion with the gift of prophecy;<a id='r1441' /><a href='#f1441' class='c012'><sup>[1441]</sup></a>
+and by this, probably, it was, that certain comic
+personages used to swear, as Socrates by the dog,
+and Zeno by the caper-bush.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Radishes<a id='r1442' /><a href='#f1442' class='c012'><sup>[1442]</sup></a> were rendered sweet by steeping the
+seeds in wine and honey, or the fresh juice of grapes:
+Nicander speaks of preserved turnips.<a id='r1443' /><a href='#f1443' class='c012'><sup>[1443]</sup></a> Parsley-seed
+was put into the earth in an old rag, or a wisp of
+straw,<a id='r1444' /><a href='#f1444' class='c012'><sup>[1444]</sup></a> surrounded with manure, and well-watered,
+which made the plant grow large. Rue they sowed in
+warm and sunny spots, without manure.<a id='r1445' /><a href='#f1445' class='c012'><sup>[1445]</sup></a> It was defended
+from the cold of winter by being surrounded
+with heaps of ashes,<a id='r1446' /><a href='#f1446' class='c012'><sup>[1446]</sup></a> and was sometimes planted in
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_330'>330</span>pots, probably to be kept in apartments for the sake
+of its bright yellow flowers,<a id='r1447' /><a href='#f1447' class='c012'><sup>[1447]</sup></a> and because, when smelt,
+it was said to cure the head-ache. The juice of wild
+rue, mixed with woman’s milk, sharpened the sight,
+in the opinion of the ancients.<a id='r1448' /><a href='#f1448' class='c012'><sup>[1448]</sup></a> The juice of sweet
+mint, which was a garden herb, squeezed into milk,<a id='r1449' /><a href='#f1449' class='c012'><sup>[1449]</sup></a>
+was supposed to prevent coagulation, even should
+rennet be afterwards thrown into it.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Both the root and bean of the nymphæa nelumbo
+or red lotus,<a id='r1450' /><a href='#f1450' class='c012'><sup>[1450]</sup></a> were eaten in Egypt,<a id='r1451' /><a href='#f1451' class='c012'><sup>[1451]</sup></a> where its crimson
+flowers were woven into crowns which diffused
+an agreeable odour, and were considered exceedingly
+refreshing in the heat of summer.<a id='r1452' /><a href='#f1452' class='c012'><sup>[1452]</sup></a> This plant was
+by the Greeks of Naucratis denominated the melilotus,
+to distinguish it from the lotus with white
+flowers. Theophrastus<a id='r1453' /><a href='#f1453' class='c012'><sup>[1453]</sup></a> observes, that it grows in the
+marshes to the height of four cubits, and has a
+striped root and stem. This lotus was also anciently
+found in Syria and Cilicia, but did not there
+ripen. In the environs of Toronè in Chalcidice,<a id='r1454' /><a href='#f1454' class='c012'><sup>[1454]</sup></a>
+however, it was found in perfection in a small marsh.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The lupin,<a id='r1455' /><a href='#f1455' class='c012'><sup>[1455]</sup></a> and the caper-bush, probably cultivated
+for the beauty of its delicate white flowers,<a id='r1456' /><a href='#f1456' class='c012'><sup>[1456]</sup></a> deteriorated
+in gardens,<a id='r1457' /><a href='#f1457' class='c012'><sup>[1457]</sup></a> as did likewise the mallows,<a id='r1458' /><a href='#f1458' class='c012'><sup>[1458]</sup></a>
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_331'>331</span>which, together with the beet, were said to acquire
+in gardens the height of a small tree.<a id='r1459' /><a href='#f1459' class='c012'><sup>[1459]</sup></a> The stem
+of the mallows was sometimes used as a walking
+stick. Its large pale red flower which</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>Follows with its bending head the sun,<a id='r1460' /><a href='#f1460' class='c012'><sup>[1460]</sup></a></div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c015'>constituted one of the ornaments of the garden.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Besides these the ancients usually cultivated in
+their grounds two species of cistus, one with pale
+red flowers now called the long rose, the other which
+about midsummer has on its leaves a sort of fatty
+dew, of which laudanum is made;<a id='r1461' /><a href='#f1461' class='c012'><sup>[1461]</sup></a> together with
+the blue eringo,<a id='r1462' /><a href='#f1462' class='c012'><sup>[1462]</sup></a> rocket, cresses, (which were planted
+in ridges,) bastard parsley, penny-royal, anis,<a id='r1463' /><a href='#f1463' class='c012'><sup>[1463]</sup></a> water-mint,
+sea-onions, monk’s rhubarb, purslain, a leaf
+of which placed under the tongue quenched thirst,
+garden coriander, hellebore, yellow, red, and white,
+bush origany,<a id='r1464' /><a href='#f1464' class='c012'><sup>[1464]</sup></a> with its pink cones, flame-coloured
+fox-glove, brank-ursine, or bear’s foot, admired for
+its vast pyramid of white flowers, chervil, skirwort,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_332'>332</span>the mournful elecampane, giant fennel, dill, mustard
+and wake-robin, which was sown,</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>Soon as the punic tree, whose numerous grains,</div>
+ <div class='line'>When thoroughly ripe, a bright red covering hides,</div>
+ <div class='line'>Itself did with its bloody blossoms clothe.<a id='r1465' /><a href='#f1465' class='c012'><sup>[1465]</sup></a></div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c014'>Other garden herbs were the cumin, the seed
+of which was sown with abuse and curses,<a id='r1466' /><a href='#f1466' class='c012'><sup>[1466]</sup></a> the sperage-berry,
+the dittander, or pepperwort, turnips,<a id='r1467' /><a href='#f1467' class='c012'><sup>[1467]</sup></a> and
+parsnips, (found wild in Dalmatia,)<a id='r1468' /><a href='#f1468' class='c012'><sup>[1468]</sup></a> with onions, garlic,
+and leeks.<a id='r1469' /><a href='#f1469' class='c012'><sup>[1469]</sup></a> For these last Megara was famous,
+as Attica was for honey, which suggested to the
+Athenians an occasion of compliment to themselves,<a id='r1470' /><a href='#f1470' class='c012'><sup>[1470]</sup></a>
+it having been a saying among them, that they were
+as superior to the Megareans as honey is to garlic
+and leeks.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The cultivation of that species of leek called gethyllis
+was carried to great perfection at Delphi,<a id='r1471' /><a href='#f1471' class='c012'><sup>[1471]</sup></a>
+where it was an established custom, evidently with
+a view to the improvement of gardening, that the
+person who, on the day of the Theoxenia,<a id='r1472' /><a href='#f1472' class='c012'><sup>[1472]</sup></a> presented
+the largest vegetable of this kind to Leto should
+receive a portion from the holy table.<a id='r1473' /><a href='#f1473' class='c012'><sup>[1473]</sup></a> Polemo, who
+relates this circumstance says, that he had seen on
+these occasions leeks nearly as large as turnips. The
+cause of this ceremony was said to be, that Leto
+when great with Apollo longed for a leek.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Mushrooms<a id='r1474' /><a href='#f1474' class='c012'><sup>[1474]</sup></a> were sedulously cultivated by the ancients,
+among whose methods of producing them
+were the following. They felled a poplar-tree<a id='r1475' /><a href='#f1475' class='c012'><sup>[1475]</sup></a> and
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_333'>333</span>laying its trunk in the earth to rot, watered it assiduously,
+after which mushrooms, at the proper time
+sprung up. Another method was to irrigate the
+trunk of the fig-tree after having covered it all round
+with dung, though the best kind in the opinion of
+others were such as grew at the foot of elm and pine-trees.<a id='r1476' /><a href='#f1476' class='c012'><sup>[1476]</sup></a>
+Those springing from the upper roots were
+reckoned of no value.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>On other occasions<a id='r1477' /><a href='#f1477' class='c012'><sup>[1477]</sup></a> they chose a light sandy soil
+accustomed to produce reeds, then burning brushwood,
+&c., when the air was in a state indicating
+rain, this ambiguous species of vegetable started
+forth from the earth with the first shower. The
+same effect was produced by watering the ground
+thus prepared, though this species was supposed to
+be inferior. In France, the most delicate sort of
+mushrooms are said to proceed from the decayed
+root of the Eryngium.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>This vegetable appears to have been a favourite
+dish among the ancients, together with the truffle,<a id='r1478' /><a href='#f1478' class='c012'><sup>[1478]</sup></a>
+eaten both cooked and raw;<a id='r1479' /><a href='#f1479' class='c012'><sup>[1479]</sup></a> and the morrille.<a id='r1480' /><a href='#f1480' class='c012'><sup>[1480]</sup></a>
+That particular kind, called geranion, is the modern
+crane’s bill. The Misu, another sort of truffle,<a id='r1481' /><a href='#f1481' class='c012'><sup>[1481]</sup></a>
+grew chiefly in the sandy plains about Cyrene, and,
+as well as the Iton,<a id='r1482' /><a href='#f1482' class='c012'><sup>[1482]</sup></a> found in the lofty downs of
+Thrace, was said to exhale an agreeable odour resembling
+that of animal food. These fanciful luxuries,
+which were produced among the rains and
+thunders<a id='r1483' /><a href='#f1483' class='c012'><sup>[1483]</sup></a> of autumn, continued to flourish in the
+earth during a whole year, but were thought to be
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_334'>334</span>in season in spring. Truffle-seed was usually imported
+from Megara, Lycia, and Getulia; but in
+Mytelene the inhabitants were spared this expense,
+their sandy shores being annually sown from the
+neighbouring coast by the winds and showers. It
+has been remarked, that neither truffles nor wild
+onions were found near the Hellespont.<a id='r1484' /><a href='#f1484' class='c012'><sup>[1484]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>What methods the ancients employed for discovering
+the truffle, which grows without stem or leaf
+in a small cell beneath the surface of the earth, I
+have nowhere seen explained. At present<a id='r1485' /><a href='#f1485' class='c012'><sup>[1485]</sup></a> their
+existence is said to be detected in Greece, not by
+the truffle hound, but by the divining rod. On the
+dry sandy downs of the Limousin, Gascogne, Angoumois,
+and Perigord, as well as in several parts
+of Italy,<a id='r1486' /><a href='#f1486' class='c012'><sup>[1486]</sup></a> they are collected by the swineherds;
+for the hogs being extremely fond of them utter
+grunts of joy, and begin to turn up the earth as
+soon as they scent their odour, upon which the
+herdsmen beat the animals away, and carefully preserve
+the delicacy for the tables of the rich. At
+other times they are discovered in the following
+manner: the herdsmen stooping down, and looking
+horizontally along the surface of the Landes, observe
+here and there, on spots bare of grass and
+full of fissures, clouds of very diminutive flies hatched
+in the truffle, and still regaling themselves with
+its perfume. In some parts of Savoy they have
+been found two pounds in weight.</p>
+
+<hr class='c016' />
+<div class='footnote' id='f1241'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1241'>1241</a>. But see Dr. Nolan on the
+Grecian Rose, Trans. Roy. Soc.
+ii. p. 330, and Poll. i. 229.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1242'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1242'>1242</a>. Hist. Nat. xix. 4. Dr. Nolan,
+p. 330. Nic. Caussin. De Eloquent.
+xi. p. 727, seq. Cic. De
+Senect. § 17. Ælian. De Nat.
+Anim. xiii. 18, has a brief but
+interesting description of the garden
+of the Indian kings, with its
+evergreen groves, fish-ponds, and
+flights of peacocks, pheasants, and
+parrots, reckoned sacred by the
+Brahmins. Cf. Xenoph. Œconom.
+iv. 13, where he celebrates
+the fondness of the Persian kings
+for gardens.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1243'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1243'>1243</a>. Here sometimes were grown
+both vegetables, as lettuces, radishes,
+parsley, &c., and flowering
+shrubs, as the wild or rose-laurel,
+which was supposed to be a deadly
+poison to horses and asses.
+Lucian. Luc. siv. Asin. § 17.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1244'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1244'>1244</a>. Luc. Piscat. § 6.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1245'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1245'>1245</a>. Geop. x. 1. 1. xii. 2.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1246'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1246'>1246</a>. The cedar still grows wild
+on the promontory of Sunium.
+Chandler, ii. 8.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1247'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1247'>1247</a>. Sibth. Flor. Græc. t. i. pl. 4.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1248'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1248'>1248</a>. Plato describes, though not
+in a garden, a fountain and a
+plane-tree, in language so picturesque
+and harmonious, that it
+has captivated the imagination of
+all succeeding writers, many of
+whom have sought to express
+their admiration by imitating it
+in their own style:—Ἥ τε γὰρ
+πλάτανος αὕτη μάλ’ ἀμφιλαφής
+τε καὶ ὑψηλή, τοῦ τε ἄγνου τὸ
+ὕψος καὶ τὸ σύσκιον πάγκαλον,
+καὶ ὡς ἀγμὴν ἔχει τῆς ἀνθης, ὡς
+ἄν εὐωδέστατον παρέχοι τὸν τόπον·
+ἥ τε αὖ πηγὴ χαριεστάτη
+ὑπο τῆς πλατάνου ῥεῖ μάλα ψυχροῦ
+ὕδατος, ὥς τε γε τῷ ποδὶ
+τεκμήρασθαι· νυμφῶν τε τινων καὶ
+Ἀχελώου ἱερὸν ἀπὸ τῶν κορῶν τε
+καὶ ἀγαλμάτων ἔοικεν εἶναι· εἰ
+δ᾽ αὖ βούλει, τὸ εὔπνουν τοῦ
+τόπου ὡς ἀγαπητὸν καὶ σφόδρα
+ἡδὺ· θερινόν τε καὶ λιγυρὸν ὑπηχεῖ
+τῷ τῶν τεττίγων χορῷ, πάντων
+δὲ κομψότατον τὸ τῆς πόας ὅτι
+ἐν ἠρέμα προσάντει ἱκανὴ πέφυκε
+κατακλινέντι τὴν κεφαλὴν παγκάλως
+ἔχειν. Phæd. t. i. p. 8,
+seq. The prevailing image in
+this passage is thus expressed by
+Cicero: <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">“Cur non imitamur Socratem
+illum, qui est in Phædro
+Platonis; nam me hæc tua
+platanus admonuit, quæ non
+minus ad opacandum hunc locum
+patulis est diffusa ramis,
+quam illa cujus umbram secutus
+est Socrates quæ mihi videtur
+non tam ipsa aquula,
+quæ describitur, quam Platonis
+oratione crevisse.”</span> De Orat. i.
+7. The picture is slightly varied
+by Aristinætos, who introduces
+it into a garden:—Ἡ δὲ
+πηγὴ χαριεστάτη ὑπὸ τῇ πλατάνῳ
+ῥεῖ ὕδατος εὖ μάλα ψυχροῦ,
+ὥς γε τῷ ποδὶ τεκμήρασθαι, καὶ
+διαφανοῦς τοσοῦτον, ὥστε συνεπινηχομένων
+καὶ διὰ διαυγὲς ὑδάτιον
+διαπλεκομένων ἐπαφροδίτως
+ἀλλήλοις, ἅπαν ἡμῶν φανερῶς
+ἀποκαταφαίνεσθαι μέλος. Epist.
+Lib.i. Epist. 3. p. 14. On the epithet
+ἀμφιλαφὴς, which Ruhnken
+(ad Tim. Lex. p. 24) observes
+was almost exclusively appropriated
+by the ancients to the
+Plane tree, see Apollon. Rhod. ii.
+733. Wellauer. et schol.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1249'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1249'>1249</a>. Where running water was not
+to be obtained, they constructed
+two gardens, the one for winter,
+which depended on the showers,
+the other on a northern exposure,
+where a fresh, cool air was preserved
+throughout the summer.
+Geop. xii. 5.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1250'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1250'>1250</a>. Used by rustics in crowns.
+Athen. xv. 12. Prometheus was
+crowned with agnus-castus. 13.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1251'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1251'>1251</a>. Geop. xi. 7. Plin. xv. 18.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1252'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1252'>1252</a>. Geop. x. 1. 3.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1253'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1253'>1253</a>. Which delighted particularly
+in the edges of paths and trodden
+places. Theoph. Hist. Plant. vi. 6.1.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1254'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1254'>1254</a>. Sibth. Flor. Græc. t. i. pl. 5,
+sqq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1255'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1255'>1255</a>. Laing, Notes of a Traveller,
+p. 6.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1256'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1256'>1256</a>. Geop. xi. 21, 23, sqq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1257'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1257'>1257</a>. Sibth. Flor. Græc. t. i. pl. 79.
+pl. 203. pl. 334, &c.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1258'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1258'>1258</a>. Πρῶτον μὲν γὰρ ἀφ’ ὧν ζῶσιν
+οἱ ἄνθρωποι, ταῦτα ἡ γῆ φέρει ἐργαζομένοις·
+καὶ ἀφ’ ὧν τοίνυν ἡδυπαθοῦσι
+προσεπιφέρει.—Ἔπειτα
+δὲ ὅσα κοσμοῦσι βωμοὺς και ἀγάλματα,
+καὶ οἷς αὐτοὶ κοσμοῦνται,
+καὶ ταῦτα μετὰ ἡδίστων ὀσμῶν
+καὶ θεαμάτων παρέχει. κ. τ. λ.
+Xenoph. Œconom. v. 2, seq.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Pliny has a curious passage on
+the use of crowns among the Romans,
+which Holland has thus
+translated: “Now when these
+garlands of flowers were taken
+up and received commonly in all
+places for a certain time, there
+came soon after into request
+those chaplets which are named
+Egyptian; and after them,
+winter coronets, to wit, when
+the earth affordeth no flowers
+to make them, and these consisted
+of horn shavings dyed
+into sundry colours. And so
+in process of time, by little and
+little crept into Rome, also the
+name of corolla, or as one would
+say, petty garlands; for that
+these winter chaplets at first
+were so pretty and small: and
+not long after them, the costly
+coronets and others, corollaries,
+namely, when they are
+made of thin leaves and plates
+and latten, either gilded or silvered
+over, or else set out with
+golden and silvered spangles,
+and so presented.” xxi. 2. Pollux
+affords a list of the principal
+flowers used in crowns by the
+Greeks: τὰ δὲ ἐν τοῖς στεφάνοις
+ἄνθη, ῥόδα, ἴα, κρίνα, σισύμθρια,
+ἀνεμῶναι, ἕρπυλος, κρόκος, ὑάκινθος,
+ἑλίχρυσος, ἡμεροκαλὲς, ἑλένειον,
+θρυαλὶς, ἀνθρίσκος, νάρκισσος,
+μελίλωτον, ἀνθεμὶς, παρθενὶς,
+καὶ τἄλλα ὅσα τοῖς ὀφθαλμοῖς
+τέρψιν, ἠῥισὶν ἡδεῖαν ὄσφρησιν
+ἔχει. Cratinus enumerates
+among garland flowers, those of
+the smilax and the cosmosandalon.
+Onomast. vi. 106. Athen. xv. 32.
+Cf. Theoph. Hist. Plant. vi. 1. 2–6.
+4. Persons returning from a
+voyage were sometimes crowned
+with flowers. Plut. Thes. § 22.
+Soldiers also going to battle.
+Ages. § 19. Cf Philost. Icon. i.
+24. p. 799. Plut. Sympos. iii. 1.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1259'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1259'>1259</a>. Athen. xv. 15.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1260'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1260'>1260</a>. Id. xv. 16.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1261'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1261'>1261</a>. Id. xv. 13.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1262'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1262'>1262</a>. Id. xv. 18.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1263'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1263'>1263</a>. Id. xv. 22.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1264'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1264'>1264</a>. Id. xv. 26.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1265'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1265'>1265</a>. Athen. xv. 9.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1266'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1266'>1266</a>. Geop. xi. 2. Ovid. Metam.
+550.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1267'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1267'>1267</a>. Geop. xi. 4.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1268'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1268'>1268</a>. Geop. xi. 6.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1269'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1269'>1269</a>. Geop. xi. 10. Cf. Plut. Sympos.
+vol. iii. 1, where he assigns
+the reason why the pine was sacred
+to Poseidon and Dionysos.
+The foliage of the pine-forests
+was so dense in Bœotia as to permit
+neither snow nor rain to penetrate
+through. Theoph. Hist.
+Plant. iii. 9. 6. The shade of
+such trees, therefore, would be
+more especially coveted.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1270'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1270'>1270</a>. Sch. Aristoph. Eq. 537. Geop.
+xii. 17. 16.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1271'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1271'>1271</a>. By Dr. Nolan. See his paper
+on the Grecian Rose. Trans. Roy.
+Soc. of Lit. ii. 327, sqq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1272'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1272'>1272</a>. Cf. Athen. xv. 11.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1273'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1273'>1273</a>. Οἱ δὲ, ἀπικόμενοι ἐς ἄλλην
+γῆν τῆς Μακεδόνιης, οἴκησαν πέλας
+τῶν κήπων τῶν λεγομένων
+εἶναι Μίδεω τοῦ Γορδίεω. ἐν τοῖσι
+φύεται αὐτόματα ῥόδα, ἕν ἕκαστον
+ἔχον ἑξήκοντα φύλλα ὀδμῆ δὲ
+ὑπερφέροντα τῶν ἀλλων· ἐν τούτοισι
+καὶ ὁ Σιληνὸς τοῖσι κήποισι
+ἥλω, ὡς λέγεται ὑπὸ Μακεδόνων.
+ὑπὲρ δὲ τῶν κήτων οὖρος κέεται,
+Βέρμιον οὔνομα, ἄβατον ὑπὸ χειμῶνος.
+viii. 138. On the arts
+and manners of this Midas, who,
+together with Orpheus and Eumolpos
+was the founder of the Hellenic
+religion, see J. G. Voss. de
+Idololat. i. 24, and Bouhier, Dissert.
+sur Herod. ch. 80.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1274'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1274'>1274</a>. Cf. Theop. Hist. Plant. iv. 87.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1275'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1275'>1275</a>. Athen. iii. 21. Stesichoros
+lived before Christ about 632.
+Clint. Fast. Hellen. ii. 5. Crowns
+of roses are mentioned by Cratinus
+who was born 519 <span class='fss'>B. C.</span> which
+shows that roses must have been
+largely cultivated in his time.
+Athen. xv. 27.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1276'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1276'>1276</a>. Il. α. 477. ι. 703. Cf. Hesiod.
+Opp. et Dies, 610. To
+place the matter beyond dispute,
+Homer speaks of oils rendered
+fragrant by the perfume of the
+rose:—ῥοδόεντι δὲ χρῖεν ἐλαίῳ.
+Il. ψ. 186.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1277'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1277'>1277</a>. Dioscor. i. 154.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1278'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1278'>1278</a>. <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">“Les Egyptiens, selon le département
+de leur Roy Horus,
+n’en mettaient que trois (saisons):
+le printemps, l’esté, et
+l’automne: leur attribuans
+quatre mois à chacune, et les
+figurans par une rose, une
+espy, et une pomme, ou raisin.”
+Les Images de Platte
+Peinture des deux Philostrates,
+par Vigenère,</span> Paris, fol. 1627,
+p. 555.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1279'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1279'>1279</a>. Geop. xi. 18. A species of
+perpetual rose is said to have
+been recently discovered in France,
+where “A Parisian florist, we are
+told, has succeeded in producing
+a new hybrid rose from the
+Bourbon rose and Gloire de
+Rosomène, the flowers of which
+he had fertilised with the pollen
+of some Damask and hybrid
+China roses. The plant
+is extremely beautiful, the colour
+bright crimson shaded with
+Maroon purple, and is further
+enriched with a powerful fragrance.”
+<span class='sc'>Times</span>, March 24th,
+1841.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1280'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1280'>1280</a>. Geop. xi. 18. 12.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1281'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1281'>1281</a>. <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Plinius varia genera commemorat,
+Milesia ardentissimo colore,
+Alabandica albicantibus foliis,
+Spermonia vilissima, Damascenæ
+albæ distillandis aquis
+usurpantur. Differunt foliorum
+multitudine, asperitate, lævore,
+colore, odore.</span>—Heresbachius, <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">de
+Re Rustica</span>, lib. ii. p. 121. a.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1282'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1282'>1282</a>. Problem. xii. 8. Theoph. Hist.
+Plant. vi. 6. 5.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1283'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1283'>1283</a>. Athen. xv. 29. Plin. xxi.
+10. Cf. Theoph. Hist. Plant.
+vi. 6. 4.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1284'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1284'>1284</a>. As Dr. Nolan seems to suppose.
+On the Grecian Rose.
+Transact. Roy. Soc. ii. 328.
+Though Theophrastus states the
+contrary very distinctly. Hist.
+Plant. vi. 2. 1—6. 4—7. 5. The
+white rose appears at present to
+be commonly cultivated in Attica.—Chandler,
+ii. 181.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1285'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1285'>1285</a>. Geop. xi. 18. 13.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1286'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1286'>1286</a>. Geop. xi. 18. 1.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1287'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1287'>1287</a>. Pashley, Trav. i. 8, who
+observes, that the rose is common
+in February at Malta.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1288'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1288'>1288</a>. Geop. xi. 18. 5. Plin. xxi.
+4. Pallad. iii. 21. 2.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1289'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1289'>1289</a>. Geop. xi. 18. 4. Cf. xii.
+19. 3.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1290'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1290'>1290</a>. Geop. xi. 20. Heresbach.
+de Re Rust. p. 122. b. Theoph.
+Hist. Plant. vi. 6. 4, 8.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1291'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1291'>1291</a>. Plin. xxi. 13.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1292'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1292'>1292</a>. Colum. De Cultu Hortorum,
+x. 102.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1293'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1293'>1293</a>. Winter’s Tale, iv. 5.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1294'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1294'>1294</a>. Sibth. Flor. Græc. t. i. tab.
+222, tab. 318. Schol. Aristoph.
+Eq. 1320. Theoph. Hist. Plant.
+vi. 6. 4. The finest violets, crocusses,
+&c., in the ancient world,
+were supposed to be found in
+Cyrene. Id. vi. 6. 5.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1295'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1295'>1295</a>. Dioscor. ii. 155.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1296'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1296'>1296</a>. On the birth of the Hyacinth,
+see Eudocia in the Anecdota
+Græca, i. 408.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1297'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1297'>1297</a>. Theoph. Hist. Plant. vi. 6.
+9. 8. 2. This flower flourishes
+after the setting of Arcturus,
+about the autumnal equinox.—“We
+were ferried over a narrow
+stream fringed with Agnus-Castus,
+into a garden belonging
+to the convent. A number of
+vernal flowers now blossomed
+on its banks; the garden anemone
+was crimsoned with an
+extraordinary glow of colouring.
+The soil which was a
+sandy loam, was further enlivened
+with the Ixia, the grass-leaved
+Iris, and the enamel-blue
+of a species of speedwell,
+not noticed by the Swedish
+Naturalist.” Sibth. Walp. Mem.
+i. 282, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1298'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1298'>1298</a>. This plant was brought from
+Mount Hymettos, to be cultivated
+in the gardens of Athens.
+The Sicyonians, likewise, transplanted
+it to their gardens from
+the mountains of Peloponnesos.—Theoph.
+Hist. Plant. vi. 7. 2.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1299'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1299'>1299</a>. Theoph. Hist. Plant. vi. 7. 4.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1300'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1300'>1300</a>. Dioscor. iii. 89. Sibth. Flor.
+Græc. t. i. tab. 14, tab. 192, seq.
+tab. 310, tab. 518, tab. 549. Column.
+x. De Cult. Hort. 96, sqq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1301'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1301'>1301</a>. The basil-gentle was watered
+at noon, other plants morning
+and evening.—Theoph. Hist.
+Plant. vii. 5. 2.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1302'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1302'>1302</a>. Dioscor. iii. 114.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1303'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1303'>1303</a>. Colum. x. 399, seq. Engl.
+Trans.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1304'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1304'>1304</a>. The anemone among other
+flowers beautifies the fields of
+Attica, so early as the month of
+February.—Chandler, ii. 211.
+<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">“Les campagnes et les collines
+sont rouges d’anémones.”—Della
+Rocca, Traité sur les Abeilles,</span>
+t. i. p. 5.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1305'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1305'>1305</a>. Cultivated usually in pots,
+resembling the gardens of Adonis.
+Theoph. Hist. Plant. vi. 7. 3.
+Thickets of this shrub constitute
+one of the greatest beauties of
+the islands of the Archipelago.
+<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">“Les lauriers roses, que l’on conserve
+en France avec tant de
+soin, viennent à l’aventure dans
+les prairies, et le long des ruisseaux
+qui en sont bordés.
+Rien n’est plus agréable que
+de voir ces beaux arbres, de
+la hauteur de douze à quinze
+pieds, variés de fleurs rouges et
+blanches, se croiser par les
+branches d’en haut, sur un
+ruisseau ou sur le lit d’une
+fontaine, et faire un berceau
+qui dure quelquefois un grand
+quart de lieue.” Della Rocca,
+Traité Complet sur les Abeilles,</span>
+t. i. p. 6.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1306'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1306'>1306</a>. Schol. Aristoph. Acharn. 253.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1307'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1307'>1307</a>. Theoph. Hist. Plant. vi. 8. 2.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1308'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1308'>1308</a>. Sibth. Flor. Græc. t. i. tab.
+27.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1309'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1309'>1309</a>. Known also by the names of
+νηρίον and ῥοδοδάφνη.—Dioscor.
+iv. 82. Geop. ii. 42. 1.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1310'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1310'>1310</a>. Theoph. Hist. Plant. i. 9. 3.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1311'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1311'>1311</a>. Cf. Clus. Hist. Rar. Plant.
+i. 43. p. 65.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1312'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1312'>1312</a>. Plat. De Rep. t. vi. p. 85.
+The berry, both of the myrtle
+and the laurel, assumed, we are
+told, a black colour in the garden
+of Antandros.—Theophrast. Hist.
+Plant. ii. 2. 6.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1313'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1313'>1313</a>. Hemsterhuis, Annot. ad
+Poll. ix. 49. p. 943. Cf. Dion.
+Chrysost. i. 273.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1314'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1314'>1314</a>. Sibthorp. Flor. Græc. t. i.
+tab. 2, tab. 367, tab. 374, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1315'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1315'>1315</a>. Theoph. Hist. Plant. i. 9. 3.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1316'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1316'>1316</a>. The strawberry-tree is found
+flourishing in great beauty and
+perfection on Mount Helicon, and
+its fruit is said to be exceedingly
+sweet.—Chandler, ii. 290.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1317'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1317'>1317</a>. Sibth. Flor. Græc. tab. 361.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1318'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1318'>1318</a>. Ἔνθα πλάτανος μὲν ἀμφιλαφής
+τε καὶ σύσκιος, πνεῦμα δὲ
+μέτριον, καὶ πόα μαλθακὴ, ὥρα
+θέρους ἐπανθεῖν εἰωθυῖα. Aristænet.
+Epist. lib. i. Epist. 3. p.
+13. There was, according to
+Varro, an evergreen platane tree
+in Crete, i. 7. The same platane
+is mentioned by Theophrastus,
+who informs us, that it grew beside
+a fountain in the Gortynian
+territory where Zeus first reclined
+on landing from the sea with
+Europa, i. 9. 5. Near the city
+of Sybaris, there is said to have
+grown a common oak which enjoyed
+the privilege of being undeciduous.
+Ibid.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1319'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1319'>1319</a>. Ἄμπελοι δὲ παμμήκεις σφόδρα
+τε ὑψηλαὶ περιελίττονται
+κυπαρίττους ὡς ἀνακλᾷν ἡμᾶς
+ἐπὶ πολὺ τὸν αὐχενα πρὸς θέαν
+τῶν κύκλῳ συναιωρουμένων βοτρών,
+ὧν οἱ μὲν ὀργῶσιν, οἱ δὲ
+περκάζουσιν οἱ δὲ ὄμφακες, οἱ δὲ
+οἰνάνθαι δοκοῦσιν.—Aristænet.
+Epist. lib. i. Ep. 3. p. 13, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1320'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1320'>1320</a>. Sibth. Flor. Græc. tab. 516.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1321'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1321'>1321</a>. Theophrast. Hist. Plant. i.
+13. 1.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1322'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1322'>1322</a>. Dodwell, ii. 455. Sibth. in
+Walp. Mem. i. 283. There was
+a species of mistletoe called the
+Cretan, which found equally congenial
+the climates of Achaia and
+Media. Theoph. Hist. Plant. ix.
+1. 3.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1323'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1323'>1323</a>. That is to say at a late period,
+for in the time of Theophrastus
+it would seem not to
+have been common in Greece, if
+it had been at all introduced.
+Hist. Plant. iii. 17. 1.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1324'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1324'>1324</a>. Dodwell, ii. 455.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1325'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1325'>1325</a>. Even the platane, also, delights
+in humid places. Theoph.
+Hist. Plant. i. 4. 2. The black
+poplar was said to bear fruit in
+several parts of Crete. iii. 3. 5.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1326'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1326'>1326</a>. Geop. v. 44. Cf. Artemid.
+Oneirocrit. ii. 24. p. 112.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1327'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1327'>1327</a>. Walp. Mem. i. 60.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1328'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1328'>1328</a>. The cactus, as most travellers
+will have remarked, flourishes luxuriantly
+in Sicily even among the
+beds of lava where little else will
+grow; it appears, however, to delight
+in a volcanic soil. Spallanzani,
+Travels in the Two Sicilies,
+“i. 209. In the Æolian Islands it
+thrives so well that it usually
+grows to the height of ten,
+twelve, and sometimes fifteen
+feet, with a stem a foot or more
+in diameter. The fruits, which
+are nearly as large as turkeys’
+eggs, are sweet and extremely
+agreeable to the palate. It is
+well-known that the fruits grow
+at the edges of the leaves, the
+number on each leaf is not constant,
+but they are frequently
+numerous, as I have counted
+two and twenty on a single
+leaf.” iv. 97.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1329'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1329'>1329</a>. Sibth. Flor. Græc. t. i. tab. 29.
+tab. 157. tab. 185.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1330'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1330'>1330</a>. Sibth. in Walp. Trav. p. 73,
+seq. On the seasons of these
+wild flowers see Theoph. Hist.
+Plant. vii. 9. 2.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1331'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1331'>1331</a>. Dioscor. ii. 186.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1332'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1332'>1332</a>. Athen. xv. 29.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1333'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1333'>1333</a>. Demosth. in Callicl. § 1. 3,
+seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1334'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1334'>1334</a>. Cf. Varro. i. 15. Magii Miscellan.
+lib. iv. p. 187. b. As the
+cotton-tree in modern times has
+been supposed not to thrive at a
+much greater distance than twenty
+miles from the sea; so, among
+the ancients, the olive was supposed
+not to flourish at a greater
+distance than three hundred stadia.
+Theoph. Hist. Plant. vi. 2. 4. Both
+opinions are probably erroneous,
+as the olive-tree is found in perfection
+in the Fayoum, and the
+cotton-plant in Upper Egypt.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1335'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1335'>1335</a>. Vict. Var. Lect. p. 874.
+But the Scholiast (Aristoph. Ran.
+1026) gives a different though less
+probable interpretation to the passage.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1336'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1336'>1336</a>. Cf. Sibth. Flor. Græc. t. i.
+tab. 3.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1337'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1337'>1337</a>. Cato. De Re Rusticâ 6. They
+were sometimes also grafted, we
+are told, on lentiscus stocks. Plut.
+Sympos. ii. 6. 1.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1338'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1338'>1338</a>. In Syria and some other
+warm countries the olive was said
+to produce fruit in clusters. Theophrast.
+Hist. Plant. i. 11. 4. And
+when this fruit was found chiefly
+on the upper branches, they augured
+a productive year. id. i. 14.
+2. Geop. ix. 2. 4. The ancients
+entertained extraordinary ideas
+concerning the purity of the olive,
+which they imagined bore more
+freely when cultivated by persons
+of chaste minds. Thus the olive-grounds
+of Anazarbos, in Cilicia,
+were thought to owe their extraordinary
+fertility to the reserved
+and modest manners of the youths
+who cultivated them. Id. ix. 2. 6.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1339'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1339'>1339</a>. Geop. ix. 3. 1. Virg. Georg. ii.
+179. The heads of olive-stocks
+when freshly planted were covered
+with clay, which was protected
+from the wet by a shell. Xenoph.
+Œconom. xix. 14. The pits for
+the planting of the olive and other
+fruit-trees were of considerable
+depth and dug long beforehand.
+Theoph. Hist. Plant. i. 6. 1.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1340'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1340'>1340</a>. Cf. Hesiod. Opp. et Dies,
+582, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1341'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1341'>1341</a>. Οὐ γίνονται δὲ τέττιγες ὅπου
+μὴ δένδρα ἐστιν· διὸ καὶ ἐν Κυρήνη
+οὐ γίνονται ἐν τῷ πεδίῳ, περὶ δὲ
+τὴν πόλιν πολλοί, μόλιστα δ᾽ οὗ
+ἐλαῖαι· οὐ γὰρ γίνονται παλίν
+σκίοι. Aristot. Hist. Anim. v. 30.
+Cf. Phile, de Animal. Proprietat.
+c. 25. p. 81.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1342'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1342'>1342</a>. In Spain, however, these insects
+exhibit a somewhat different
+taste, being there found amid the
+foliage of the most leafy trees.
+“Every oak in the cork-wood
+near Gibraltar was the abode if
+not of harmony, at least of noise,
+and the concert kept up amidst
+the foliage by the numerous
+grass or rather tree-hoppers was
+quite deafening.” Napier, Excursions
+on the shores of the
+Mediterranean, ii. p. 2.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1343'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1343'>1343</a>. Sibth. in Walp. Mem. i. 75.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1344'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1344'>1344</a>. On the cultivation of the apple
+see Theophrast. Hist. Plant. i.
+3. 3. Geop. xviii. 18.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1345'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1345'>1345</a>. Athen. xiv. 63. Etym. Mag.
+122. 20.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1346'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1346'>1346</a>. Geop. x. 41. Plin. xv. 25.
+Athen. ii. 35.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1347'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1347'>1347</a>. Theoph. Hist. Plant. iii. 13. 1.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1348'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1348'>1348</a>. Etym. Mag. 211. 4, sqq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1349'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1349'>1349</a>. Geop. x. 3. 73.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1350'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1350'>1350</a>. Geop. xiii. 19. Athen. ii. 38.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1351'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1351'>1351</a>. Athen. ii. 12. Vid. Cœl.
+Rhodigin. vii. 15. Bochart, Geog.
+Sac. col. 629.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1352'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1352'>1352</a>. Theophrast. Hist. Plant. i. 3.
+3. The fruit of the pomegranate-tree
+lost much of its acidity in
+Egypt. Id. Hist. Plant. ii. 2. 7.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1353'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1353'>1353</a>. In Greece the orange-tree
+and the lemon blossom in June,
+Chandler, ii. 238.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1354'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1354'>1354</a>. Cf. Chandler, ii. 250.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1355'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1355'>1355</a>. In Babylonia the palm-tree
+was by some thought to be propagated
+by off-shoots. Theophrast.
+Hist. Plant. ii. 2. 2. In Greece,
+the fruit seldom ripened completely.
+iii. 3. 5.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1356'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1356'>1356</a>. Ἔτι δὲ τὸ ἔμπνουν τῆς αὔρας
+λιγυρὸν ὑπηχεῖ τῷ μουσικῷ
+τῶν τεττίγων χορῷ δι᾽ ἥν καὶ τὸ πνίγος
+τῆς μεσημβρίας ἠπιῶτερον
+ἐγεγόνει ἡδὺ καὶ ἀηδόνει, περὶ
+πετόμεναι τὰ νάματα, μελωδοῦσιν.
+ἀλλὰ καὶ τῶν ἄλλων ἡδὺ φώνῶν
+κατηκούομεν ὀρνίθων, ὥσπερ
+ἐμμελῶς ὁμιλούντων ανθρώποις.
+Aristænet. Epist. lib. i. Ep. 3.
+p. 17.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1357'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1357'>1357</a>. “The amorous thrill of the
+green-finch was now heard distinctly.
+The little owl hooted
+frequently round the walls of
+the convent. In the river below,
+otters were frequently
+taken. On the sides of the
+banks were the holes of the
+river-crabs; and the green-backed
+lizard was sporting among
+the grass.” Sibth. in Walp.
+Trav. p. 76.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1358'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1358'>1358</a>. Plat. De Legg. t. viii. p. 107.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1359'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1359'>1359</a>. Eudoc. Ionia. 434.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1360'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1360'>1360</a>. Plin. xix. 19. Athen. xi. 39.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1361'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1361'>1361</a>. Bœttig. Fragm. sur les Jar. des
+Anciens, in Magaz. Encycloped.
+Ann. vii. t. i. p. 337. Cardinal
+Quirini, Primordia Corcyræ, c.
+vii. p. 60, sqq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1362'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1362'>1362</a>. See in Xenophon a brief description
+of the gardens of Cyrus.
+Œconom. iv. 21. Upon this passage
+our countryman, Sir Thomas
+Browne, has written an elaborate
+treatise.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1363'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1363'>1363</a>. On the various methods of
+propagating trees see Theophrast.
+Hist. Plant. ii. 1. 2.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1364'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1364'>1364</a>. Astronomicon, ii. p. 30. l. 4.
+Scalig. et not. p. 67.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1365'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1365'>1365</a>. Cf. Athen. xiv. 68.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1366'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1366'>1366</a>. De Plantis, ii. 6.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1367'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1367'>1367</a>. Hobhouse, Travels, i. 227.
+Thiersch, Etat Actuel de la
+Grèce, t. i. p. 297.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1368'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1368'>1368</a>. Geop. iii. 3. 9. Clem. Alexand.
+Stromat. l. vi. Opera, t. ii.
+p. 800. Venet. 1657.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1369'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1369'>1369</a>. Geop. xii. 75. x. 75. 19.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1370'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1370'>1370</a>. Geop. x. 77. Colum. v. 11.
+1. Pallad. vii. 5. 2. Plin. xvii.
+26. Cato. 42. Virg. Georg. ii.
+73, sqq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1371'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1371'>1371</a>. Geop. x. 76.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1372'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1372'>1372</a>. Introduced by Dionysios the
+elder into Rhegium, where it
+attained, however, no great size.
+Theoph. Hist. Plant. iv. 5. 6.
+The same naturalist speaks of
+two plane trees, the one at Delphi,
+the other at Caphyæ in Arcadia,
+said to have been planted
+by the hand of Agamemnon,
+which were still flourishing in
+his own days, iv. 13. 2. This
+tree attains a prodigious size in
+Peloponnesos. Chandler, Travels,
+ii. 308. Our traveller was
+prevented from measuring the
+stem by the fear of certain Albanian
+soldiers who lay asleep under
+it; but Theophrastus gives
+us the dimensions of a large platane,
+at Antandros, whose trunk,
+he says, could scarcely be embraced
+by four men, while its
+height before the springing forth
+of the boughs was fifteen feet.
+Having described the dimensions
+of the tree, he relates a very extraordinary
+fact in natural history,
+namely, that this platane,
+having been blown down by the
+winds and lightened of its branches
+by the axe, rose again spontaneously
+during the night, put forth
+fresh boughs, and flourished as
+before. The same thing is related
+of a white poplar in the
+museum at Stagira, and of a large
+willow at Philippi. In this last
+city a soothsayer counselled the
+inhabitants to offer sacrifice, and
+set a guard about the tree, as a
+thing of auspicious omen. Theoph.
+Hist. Plant. iv. 16. 2, seq.
+Cf. Plin. xvi. 57. In corroboration
+of the narrative of Theophrastus,
+Palmerius relates, that,
+during the winter of 1624–25,
+while Breda was besieged by
+Ambrosio Spinola, he himself
+saw in Brabant an oak twenty-five
+feet high, and three feet in
+circumference, overthrown by the
+wind, and recovering itself exactly
+in the manner described by
+the great naturalist. The vulgar,
+who regarded it as a miracle,
+preserved portions of its
+bark or branches as amulets.—Excercitationes,
+p. 598.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1373'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1373'>1373</a>. Plut. Sympos. ii. 6. 7.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1374'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1374'>1374</a>. “It is reported,” observes
+Lord Bacon, “that, in the low
+countries, they will graft an apple
+scion upon the stock of a
+colewort, and it will bear a
+great flaggy apple, the kernel
+of which, if it be set, will be a
+colewort and not an apple.”
+Sylva Sylvarum, 453.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1375'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1375'>1375</a>. Geop. x. 20. 1. Varro. i.
+59. Mustea (mala) a celeritate
+mitescendi: quæ nunc melimela
+dicuntur, a sapore melleo.—Plin.
+xv. 15. Dioscor. i. 161.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1376'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1376'>1376</a>. Plut. Sympos. ii. 6. 1.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1377'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1377'>1377</a>. Geop. x. 19. 15, cum not.
+Niclas.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1378'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1378'>1378</a>. Inseritur vero ex fœtu uncis
+arbutus horrida. Virg. Georg.
+ii. 69, with the note of Servius.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1379'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1379'>1379</a>. Plut. Sympos. ii. 6. 1.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1380'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1380'>1380</a>. Plin. xvii. 14.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1381'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1381'>1381</a>. <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Castanea inseritur in se, et
+in salice, sed ex salice tardius
+maturat, et fit asperior in sapore.</span>
+Pallad. xii. 7. 22. Cf. Virg.
+Georg. ii. 71. Plutarch speaks
+of certain gardens on the banks
+of the Cephissos, in Bœotia, in
+which he beheld pears growing
+on an oak-stock: ἦσαν δὲ καὶ
+δρύες ἀπίους ἀγαθὰς ἐκφέρουσαι.
+Sympos. ii. 6. 1.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1382'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1382'>1382</a>. Geop. x. 41. 3. iv. 12. 5.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1383'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1383'>1383</a>. Geop. iv. 4.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1384'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1384'>1384</a>. Thiersch, <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Etat Actuel de la
+Grèce,</span> t. i. p. 298.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1385'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1385'>1385</a>. Idem. t. i. p. 288. Speaking of
+the fertility of the islands, Della
+Rocca remarks: <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">“Le terroir y
+est si bon, et les arbres y viennent
+si vîte, que j’ai vu à
+Naxie des pépins d’orange de
+Portugal pousser en moins de
+huit ans de grands orangers,
+dont les fruits étoient les plus
+délicieux du monde, et la tige
+de l’arbre si haute, qu’il falloit
+une longue échelle pour y monter.”—Traité
+Complet des
+Abeilles,</span> t. i. p. 6.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1386'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1386'>1386</a>. On the artificial ripening of
+dates, Theoph. ii. 8. 4.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1387'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1387'>1387</a>. Athen. iii. 19. Plut. Phoc.
+§ 3. Xenoph. Vectigal. i. 3.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1388'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1388'>1388</a>. Ὁ νοῦν ἔχων γεωργός, ὧν
+σπερμάτων κήδοιτο καὶ ἔγκαρπα
+βούλοιτο γενέσθαι, πότερα σπονδῇ ἂν
+θέρους εἰς ᾿Αδώνιδος κήπους
+ἀρῶν χαίροι θεωρῶν καλοὺς
+ἐν ἡμέραισιν ὀκτὼ γιγνομένους.—Plat.
+Phœd. t. i. p. 99. Suid.
+v. Ἀδώνιδ. κῆπ. t. i. p. 84. b.
+Theoph. Hist. Plant. v. 7. 3.
+Caus. Plant. i. 12. 2. Eustath.
+ad Odyss. λ. p. 459. 4.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1389'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1389'>1389</a>. Tod, Annals of Rajast’han,
+vol. i. p. 570.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1390'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1390'>1390</a>. Cf. Athen. iii. 12. Theophrast.
+Hist. Plant. i. 3. 3. The
+fruit of the Egyptian sycamore,
+or Pharaoh’s fig-tree, was eaten
+in antiquity as now. Athenæus,
+who was a native of the Delta,
+says they used to rip open the
+skin of the fruit with an iron
+claw, and leave it thus upon the
+tree for three days. On the
+fourth it was eatable, and exhaled
+a very agreeable odour.
+Deipnosoph. ii. 36. Theophrastus
+adds, that a little oil was
+likewise poured on the fruit when
+opened by the iron. De Caus.
+Plant. i. 17. 9. ii. 8. 4. In Malta
+figs are still sometimes ripened
+by introducing a little olive oil
+into the eye of the fruit, or by
+puncturing it with a straw or
+feather dipped in oil. Napier,
+Excursions along the Shores of
+the Mediterranean, vol. ii. p. 144.
+Cf. Lord Bacon, Sylva Sylvarum,
+446.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1391'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1391'>1391</a>. Ap. Athen. iii. 10. Cf.
+Theoph. Hist. Plant. i. 8. 1.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1392'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1392'>1392</a>. Aristot. de Gen. Anim. t. i.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1393'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1393'>1393</a>. Suid. v. ερινεὸς. t. i. p.
+1038. d.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1394'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1394'>1394</a>. Cf. Tournefort, t. ii. p. 23.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1395'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1395'>1395</a>. Schol. Aristoph. Acharn. 767</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1396'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1396'>1396</a>. Athen. iii. 7. The Laconian
+fig-tree was not commonly planted
+in Attica. Frag. Aristoph. Georg.
+4. Brunck. This kind of fig requires
+much watering, which was
+found to deteriorate the flavour
+of other kinds. Theoph. Hist.
+Plant. i. 7. 1.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1397'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1397'>1397</a>. Athen. iii. 8.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1398'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1398'>1398</a>. Athen. iii. 9. In the fig-tree
+orchards of Asia Minor the
+spaces between the trees are
+sown, as in vineyards, with corn,
+and the bushes are often filled
+with nightingales.—Chandler, i.
+244.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1399'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1399'>1399</a>. Athen. iii. 10. There was,
+also, a species which received its
+name from resembling the crow
+in colour. Sch. Aristoph. Pac.
+611. Philost. Icon. i. 31. p.
+809, where figs are enumerated
+in his elegant description of the
+Xenia. Cf. Pausan. i. 37. Vitruv.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1400'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1400'>1400</a>. Geop. x. 9. Clus. Rar. Plant.
+Hist. i. 4.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1401'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1401'>1401</a>. Geop. x. 14. 60. Pallad. ii.
+15. 13.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1402'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1402'>1402</a>. Geop. x. 16. 53. 76.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1403'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1403'>1403</a>. Geop. x. 59. Theoph. Hist.
+Plant. ii. 8. 1. Caus. Plant. i. 9. 1.
+Plin. xvii. 43. Pallad. ii. 15. 1l.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1404'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1404'>1404</a>. Geop. x. 3. Cf. Xenoph.
+Œconom. xix. 3.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1405'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1405'>1405</a>. Plin. xvii. 13. When a tree
+was barren, or had lost its
+strength in blooming, they split
+it at the root, and put a stone
+into the fissure to keep it open,
+after which it was said to bear
+well. Theoph. Hist. Plant. ii.
+7. 6. It was customary, moreover,
+to wound the trunks of
+almond, pear, and other trees,
+as the service-tree in Arcadia, in
+order to render them fertile. 1d.
+ii. 7. 7. The berries of the cornel
+and service-trees were sweeter
+and ripened earlier wild than
+when cultivated, iii. 2. 1.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1406'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1406'>1406</a>. The ancients believed that
+the moon ripens fruit, promotes
+digestion, and causes putrefaction
+in wood, and animal substances.
+Athen. vii. 3. Cf. Plut. Sympos.
+iii. 10.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1407'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1407'>1407</a>. Geop. x. 2. 13.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1408'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1408'>1408</a>. Cf. Vigenère, Images des Philostrates,
+p. 48.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1409'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1409'>1409</a>. <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">“Les orangers et les citronniers
+perfument l’air par la
+quantité prodigieuse des fleurs
+dont ils sont chargés, et qui
+s’épanouissent aux premières
+chaleurs.”</span>—Della Rocca, <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Traité
+sur les Abeilles,</span> t. i. p. 5.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1410'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1410'>1410</a>. Originally of Crete. Pashley,
+i. 27. κοδύμαλον in the ancient
+dialect of the country. Athen.
+iii. 2.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1411'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1411'>1411</a>. Schol. Aristoph. Vesp. 480.
+Geop. xii. 1. 2.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1412'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1412'>1412</a>. Geop. xii. 6. Pallad. i. 35. 16.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1413'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1413'>1413</a>. Lucian. Luc. siv. Asin. § 43.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1414'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1414'>1414</a>. Geop. ii. 37. 40.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1415'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1415'>1415</a>. These were covered with
+plates of the <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">lapis specularis</span>, and
+furnished with wheels, that they
+might the more easily be moved
+in and out from under cover.
+Colum. De Re Rust. xi. 3. p.
+461: see also Castell, Villas of
+the Ancients, p. 4.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1416'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1416'>1416</a>. These are found growing at
+present even in the cemeteries.
+<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">“Des melons d’eau qui végètent
+çà et là sur ces tombes abandonnées,
+resemblent, par leur
+forme et leur pâleur, à des
+crânes humains qu’on ne s’est
+pas donné la peine d’ensèvelir.”
+Chateaub.</span> Itin. i. 27.
+These fruit are considered so innocent
+in the Levant as to be
+given to the sick in fevers. Chandler,
+i. p. 77.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1417'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1417'>1417</a>. Colum. De Cult. Hortor. 234.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1418'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1418'>1418</a>. Sch. Aristoph. Acharn. 494.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1419'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1419'>1419</a>. Athen. iii. 1.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1420'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1420'>1420</a>. Chandler, i. 317.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1421'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1421'>1421</a>. See Strattis’s Invocation to
+the Caterpillar. Athen. ii. 79.
+Theoph. Hist. Plant. vii. 2. 4.
+5. 4.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1422'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1422'>1422</a>. Geop. xii. 13. 3. Pallad. ii.
+14. 2.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1423'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1423'>1423</a>. Athen. i. 12.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1424'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1424'>1424</a>. Geop. xii. 19. 1, sqq. Pallad.
+iv. 9. 8.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1425'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1425'>1425</a>. Plin. xix. 23. Pallad. iv.
+9. 8.</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">At qui sub trichila manantem repit ad undam,</span></div>
+ <div class='line'><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Labentemque sequens nimio tenuatur amore,</span></div>
+ <div class='line'><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Candidus, effœtæ tremebundior ubere porcæ.</span></div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c014'>Colum. x. De Cult. Hortor. 394.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1426'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1426'>1426</a>. Lord Bacon, having noticed this
+fact, adds the following sage remark:
+“If you set a stake or prop
+at a certain distance from it (the
+vine), it will grow that way,
+which is far stranger than the
+other: for that water may work
+by a sympathy of attraction; but
+this of the stake seemeth to be
+a reasonable discourse.” Sylva
+Sylvarum, 462.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1427'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1427'>1427</a>. Theoph. Hist. Plant. vii. 3.
+5. Plin. Hist. Nat. xix. 24.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1428'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1428'>1428</a>. Plin. xix. 23.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1429'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1429'>1429</a>. Cf. Athen. iii. 5.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1430'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1430'>1430</a>. Athen. iii. 2.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1431'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1431'>1431</a>. The best melons at present
+known in Greece are those of
+Cephalonia, which lose their flavour
+if transplanted. Hobhouse,
+Trav. &c., i. 227. Cf. Chandler, i.
+p. 14.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1432'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1432'>1432</a>. Schol. Aristoph. Acharn. 494.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1433'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1433'>1433</a>. Theoph. Hist. Plant. ii. 7.
+5.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1434'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1434'>1434</a>. Schol. Aristoph. Pac. 966.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1435'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1435'>1435</a>. Geop. xii. 18. 2. Plin. xix.
+42. Dioscor. ii. 152. The physician,
+however, modestly professes
+his unbelief: ἔνιοι δὲ ἱστόρησαν,
+ὅτι ἐάν τις κριοῦ κέρατα συγκόψας
+κατορύξῃ, φύεται ἀσπάραγος · ἐμοὶ
+δὲ ἀπίθανον.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1436'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1436'>1436</a>. The asparagus, however, has
+been found, in modern times,
+growing wild among the ruins of
+Epidauros. Chandler, ii. 249.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1437'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1437'>1437</a>. Athen. ii. 62.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1438'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1438'>1438</a>. Geop. ii. 41.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1439'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1439'>1439</a>. Athen. ix. 9. Suid. v. κράμβη.
+t. i. p. 1518. b. Cf. Foës. Œconom.
+Hippoc. v. κραμβίων. p. 214.
+Dioscorid. ii. 146.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1440'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1440'>1440</a>. Cf. Steph. Byzant. de Urb.
+p. 488. b.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1441'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1441'>1441</a>. Cf. Casaub. Animadv. in
+Athen. ix. 9. t. x. p. 24.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1442'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1442'>1442</a>. Theoph. Hist. Plant. vii. 1. 3.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1443'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1443'>1443</a>. Athen. iv. 11.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1444'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1444'>1444</a>. Theoph. Hist. Plant. vii. 4.
+2. 6. 4. Aristoph. Concion. 355,
+et schol.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1445'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1445'>1445</a>. Geop. xii. 1.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1446'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1446'>1446</a>. Geop. xii. 25. 1.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1447'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1447'>1447</a>. Cf. Sibth. Flor. Græc. tab.
+368.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1448'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1448'>1448</a>. Dioscor. iii. 53. Geop. xii.
+25. 4.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1449'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1449'>1449</a>. Geop. xii. 24.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1450'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1450'>1450</a>. The rose-coloured lotus was
+said by the poet Pancrates to
+have been produced from the
+blood of the lion slain by the
+Emperor Adrian. Athen. xv. 21.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1451'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1451'>1451</a>. Athen. iii. 1.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1452'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1452'>1452</a>. Nicander in Georgicis ap.
+Athen. iii. 1.</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>Σπείρειας κύαμον Αἰγύπτιον, ὄφρα θερείης</div>
+ <div class='line'>Ἅνθεα μὲν στεφάνους ἀνύῃς· τὰ δὲ πεπτηῶτα</div>
+ <div class='line'>Ἀκμαίου καρποῖο κιβώρια δαινυμένοισιν</div>
+ <div class='line'>Ἐς χέρας ἠΐθεοισι, πάλαι ποθέουσιν, ὀρέξης</div>
+ <div class='line'>Ῥίζας δ᾽ ἐν θοίνῃσιν ἀφεψήσας προτίθημι.</div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c018'>See the note of Schweighæuser, t. vii. 10.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1453'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1453'>1453</a>. Histor. Plant. iv. 10.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1454'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1454'>1454</a>. It was also found in Thesprotia.
+Athen. iii. 3.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1455'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1455'>1455</a>. Geop. ii. 39. Apuleius relates
+that the lupin-flower turned
+round with the sun, even in cloudy
+weather, so that it served as
+a sort of rural clock. Cf. Plin.
+xviii. 67.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1456'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1456'>1456</a>. The caper-bush blossoms in
+June. Chandler, ii. 275.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1457'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1457'>1457</a>. Theoph. Hist. Plant. i. 3. 6.
+Cf. Sibth. Flor. Græc. tab. 488.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1458'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1458'>1458</a>. Athen. ii. 52.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1459'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1459'>1459</a>. Theoph. Hist. Plant. i. 9. 2.
+Cf. vii. 3, 3. Hesiod reckons the
+mallow and the asphodel among
+edible plants. Opp. et Dies, 41.
+Gœttling, therefore, (in loc.) wonders
+Pythagoras should have prohibited
+the mallow. Cf. Aristoph.
+Plut. 543. Suid. v. θύμος. t. 1.
+p. 1336. e. Horat. Od. i. 32. 16.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1460'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1460'>1460</a>. Colum. de Cult. Hortor. 253.
+Cardan in his treatise De Subtilitate
+having undertaken to assign
+the cause why certain flowers
+bend towards the sun, his antagonist,
+J. C. Scaliger, remarks upon
+his philosophy as follows:—<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">“De
+floribus, qui ad Solem convertuntur
+non pessime ais: tenue
+humidum ad Solis calorem, se habere,
+ut corii ad ignem. Cæterum
+adhuc integra restat quæstio.
+Rosis enim tenuissimum esse humidum
+testantur omnia. Non
+convertuntur tamen. Platonici
+flores quosdam etiam Lunæ dicunt
+esse familiares: qui sane
+huic Sideri, sicut illi suo canant
+hymnos, sed mortalibus ignotos
+auribus.”</span> Exercit. 170, § 2.
+“The cause (of the bowing of the
+heliotrope) is somewhat obscure;
+but I take it to be no other, but
+that the part against which the
+sun heateth, waxeth more faint
+and flaccid in the stalk, and
+thereby less able to support the
+flower.” Bacon, Sylva Sylvarum
+§ 493.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1461'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1461'>1461</a>. Sibth. Flor. Græc. t. 1. tab.
+258, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1462'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1462'>1462</a>. Colum. x. de Cult. Hortor.
+230, sqq. Sch. Aristoph. Nub. 235.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1463'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1463'>1463</a>. Theoph. Hist. Plant. i. 72. 2.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1464'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1464'>1464</a>. Schol. Aristoph. Acharn. 826,
+837.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1465'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1465'>1465</a>. Colum. x. De Cult. Hortor.
+374. English Translation. Theoph.
+Hist. Plant. vii. 12. 1.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1466'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1466'>1466</a>. Theoph. Hist. Plant. vii. 3. 3.
+Cf. Dioscor. iii. 68, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1467'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1467'>1467</a>. Athen. iv. 11.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1468'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1468'>1468</a>. Athen. ix. 8.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1469'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1469'>1469</a>. Theoph. Hist. Plant. vii. 4.
+7, 10, 11. Aristoph. Plut. 283,
+et schol. Eq. 675. 494. Vesp.
+680. Acharn. 166, 500. Plut.
+283.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1470'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1470'>1470</a>. Schol. Aristoph. Pac. 246.
+252.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1471'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1471'>1471</a>. Cf. Schol. Aristoph. Eq. 675.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1472'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1472'>1472</a>. This passage has escaped the
+diligence of Meursius, Græc. Feriat.
+p. 150.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1473'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1473'>1473</a>. Athen. ix. 13.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1474'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1474'>1474</a>. Dioscor. ii. 200, seq. Plin.
+xix. 11.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1475'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1475'>1475</a>. Athen. ii. 57. Schol. Aristoph.
+Nub. 189, 191. Eccles. 1092.
+Geop. xii. 36.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1476'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1476'>1476</a>. A similar observation is made
+in France respecting the truffles,
+the best of which are supposed to
+grow about the roots and under
+the shadow of the oak. Trollope’s
+Summer in Western France, ii.
+352.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1477'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1477'>1477</a>. Geop. xii. 41. 2.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1478'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1478'>1478</a>. Sch. Aristoph. Nub. 189.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1479'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1479'>1479</a>. This was more particularly
+the case on the Tauric Chersonese.—Theoph.
+Hist. Plant. vii.
+13. 8.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1480'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1480'>1480</a>. Theophrast. Hist. Plant. i.
+10. 7.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1481'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1481'>1481</a>. Theoph. Hist. Plant. i. 6.
+13.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1482'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1482'>1482</a>. Athen. ii. 62.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1483'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1483'>1483</a>. Plut. Sympos. iv. 2. 1. who
+relates that the ὕδνα attained to
+a very large size in Elis.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1484'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1484'>1484</a>. Vid. Theoph. Hist. Plant. i.
+6. 13.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1485'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1485'>1485</a>. Walp. Mem. i. 284.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1486'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1486'>1486</a>. Valmont de Bomare, Dict.
+D’Hist. Nat. t. ii. p. 21, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<hr class='c016' />
+
+<div>
+ <span class='pageno' id='Page_335'>335</span>
+ <h3 class='c002'>CHAPTER III. <br /> VINEYARD, VINTAGE, ETC.</h3>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c011'>One of the principal branches of husbandry<a id='r1487' /><a href='#f1487' class='c012'><sup>[1487]</sup></a> in
+Greece was the culture of the vine, probably introduced
+from Phœnicia.<a id='r1488' /><a href='#f1488' class='c012'><sup>[1488]</sup></a> Long before the historical
+age, however, it had spread itself through the whole
+country, together with several parts of Asia Minor,
+as may be inferred from the language of Homer,<a id='r1489' /><a href='#f1489' class='c012'><sup>[1489]</sup></a>
+who frequently enumerates vineyards among the
+possessions of his heroes. Like most things the
+origin of which was unknown, the vine furnished
+the poets and common people with the subjects of
+numerous fables, some of which were reckoned of
+sufficient importance to be treasured up and transmitted
+to posterity. Thus, among the Ozolian Locrians,
+it was said<a id='r1490' /><a href='#f1490' class='c012'><sup>[1490]</sup></a> to have sprung from a small
+piece of wood, brought forth in lieu of whelps by
+a bitch. Others supposed a spot near Olympia<a id='r1491' /><a href='#f1491' class='c012'><sup>[1491]</sup></a> to
+have given birth to the vine, in proof of which the
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_336'>336</span>inhabitants affirmed a miracle was wrought annually
+among them during the Dionysiac festival. They
+took three empty brazen vessels, and having closely
+covered and sealed them in the presence of witnesses,
+again opened them after some interval of
+time, not stated, when they were found full of
+wine. According to other authorities, the environs
+of Plinthinè, in Egypt, had the honour of being
+the cradle of Dionysos, on which account the ancient
+Egyptians were by some accused of inebriety,
+though in the age of Herodotus<a id='r1492' /><a href='#f1492' class='c012'><sup>[1492]</sup></a> there would appear
+to have been no vineyards in the whole valley
+of the Nile. In reality,<a id='r1493' /><a href='#f1493' class='c012'><sup>[1493]</sup></a> the vine appears to be a
+native of all temperate climates, both in the old
+world and the new, and will even flourish<a id='r1494' /><a href='#f1494' class='c012'><sup>[1494]</sup></a> and produce
+fine grapes in various situations within the
+tropics, where clusters in different stages of ripeness
+may be observed upon its branches at all seasons
+of the year.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The opinions of Grecian writers respecting the
+soil best suited to the cultivation of the vine, having
+been founded on experience, generally agree
+with those which prevail in modern times.<a id='r1495' /><a href='#f1495' class='c012'><sup>[1495]</sup></a> They
+preferred for their vineyards the gentle acclivities
+of hills,<a id='r1496' /><a href='#f1496' class='c012'><sup>[1496]</sup></a> where the soil was good, though light and
+porous, and abounding in springs at no great depth
+from the surface.<a id='r1497' /><a href='#f1497' class='c012'><sup>[1497]</sup></a> A considerable degree of moisture
+was always supposed to be indispensable, on
+which account, in arid situations, large hollow sea-shells,
+and fragments of sandstone<a id='r1498' /><a href='#f1498' class='c012'><sup>[1498]</sup></a> were buried in
+the soil, these being regarded as so many reservoirs
+of humidity.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'><span class='pageno' id='Page_337'>337</span>By some the vine was even thought to delight in
+the rich alluvial soil of plains, such as is found in
+Egypt,<a id='r1499' /><a href='#f1499' class='c012'><sup>[1499]</sup></a> where, in later times, the banks of the Nile,
+from Elephantinè to the sea, seem to have presented
+one vast succession of vineyards.<a id='r1500' /><a href='#f1500' class='c012'><sup>[1500]</sup></a> But superior
+vines were produced on a few spots only, as at
+Koptos, and in the neighbourhood of Lake Mareotis,
+where showers of sand, pouring in from the desert
+or the sea-shore, diminished the fatness of the
+ground. With respect to Koptos, we possess, however,
+no precise information,<a id='r1501' /><a href='#f1501' class='c012'><sup>[1501]</sup></a> but are expressly told,
+that the Mareotic vineyards covered a series of sandy
+swells, stretching eastward from the lake towards
+Rosetta.<a id='r1502' /><a href='#f1502' class='c012'><sup>[1502]</sup></a> On the southern confines of Egypt, in
+the rocky and picturesque island of Elephantinè, the
+vine was said<a id='r1503' /><a href='#f1503' class='c012'><sup>[1503]</sup></a> never to shed its leaves; but as none
+grow there at present, the traveller has no opportunity
+of deciding this question. In Greece the vineyards
+of the plains were generally appropriated to
+the production of the green grape, the purple being
+supposed to prefer the sides of hills, or even of
+mountains, provided it were not exposed to the
+furious winds upon their summits. Several sorts of
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_338'>338</span>white grape, also, as the Psillian, Corcyrean, and
+the Chlorian, delighted in elevated vineyards,<a id='r1504' /><a href='#f1504' class='c012'><sup>[1504]</sup></a> though
+it was often judged necessary to reverse these rules,
+and compel the hill-nurslings to descend to the plains,
+while those of the plains were in their turn exposed
+to the climate of the mountains.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Much judgment was thought to be required in
+selecting the site of a vineyard, though almost everything
+depended on the climate and general configuration
+of the district in which it was situated. Thus
+in warm countries, as in the Pentapolis of Cyrene,
+the vineyards sloped towards the north; in Laconia,
+they occupied the eastern face of Mount Taygetos,
+while in Attica and the islands, the hills often appear
+to have been encircled with vines. Upon the
+whole, however, those were most esteemed which
+looked towards the rising sun and enjoyed, without
+obstruction, the first rays of the morning.<a id='r1505' /><a href='#f1505' class='c012'><sup>[1505]</sup></a> And
+this also is the case in the Côte d’Or, where the
+best wines, as the Chambertin, the Vin de Beaune,
+and that of the Clos Vougeot, are grown on eastern
+declivities. In some parts of Greece, the vine was
+strongly affected by the prevalence of certain winds,
+as those of the east and the west in Thessaly, which in
+the forty cold days of winter were attended by frost
+that killed its upper extremities, and sometimes the
+whole trunk. At Chalcis, in Eubœa likewise, the
+Olympias, a western wind, parched and shrivelled,
+or, as the Greeks express it, burnt up the leaves,
+sometimes completely destroying the shrub itself.<a id='r1506' /><a href='#f1506' class='c012'><sup>[1506]</sup></a>
+In such situations it was accordingly found necessary
+to protect it by a covering<a id='r1507' /><a href='#f1507' class='c012'><sup>[1507]</sup></a> during the prevalence
+of cold winds. At Methana, in Argolis, when
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_339'>339</span>the south-east in spring blew up the Saronic gulf,<a id='r1508' /><a href='#f1508' class='c012'><sup>[1508]</sup></a>
+the inhabitants, to defend them from it, spread over
+their vines the invisible teguments of a spell; which
+was effected in the following manner: taking a milk-white
+cock, and cutting it in halves, two men seized
+each a part, and then, standing back to back, started
+off in opposite directions, made the tour of the vineyard,
+and, returning whence they had set out, buried
+the cock’s remains in the earth. After this the Libs
+might blow as it listed, since it possessed no power
+to injure any man’s property within the consecrated
+circle.<a id='r1509' /><a href='#f1509' class='c012'><sup>[1509]</sup></a> The prevalence of the north wind during
+autumn was considered auspicious, as they supposed
+it to hasten the ripening of the fruit.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>When the husbandman had resolved on the formation
+of a new vineyard, he first, of course, encircled
+the spot with a hedge<a id='r1510' /><a href='#f1510' class='c012'><sup>[1510]</sup></a> which was made both
+thick and strong for the purpose of repelling the
+flocks and herds, which, as well as goats, foxes, and
+soldiers, loved to prey upon the vine.<a id='r1511' /><a href='#f1511' class='c012'><sup>[1511]</sup></a> His next
+care was to root up the hazel bush and the oleaster,
+the roots of the former being supposed to be
+inimical to the Dionysiac tree, while the oily bark
+of the latter rendered it peculiarly susceptible of
+taking fire, by which means vineyards would often
+appear to have been reduced to ashes. So at least
+says Virgil.<a id='r1512' /><a href='#f1512' class='c012'><sup>[1512]</sup></a></p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>Root up wild olives from thy laboured lands,</div>
+ <div class='line'>For sparkling fire from hinds’ unwary hands</div>
+ <div class='line'>Is often scattered o’er their unctuous rinds,</div>
+ <div class='line'>And often spread abroad by raging winds;</div>
+ <div class='line'>For first the smouldering flame the trunk receives,</div>
+ <div class='line'>Ascending thence it crackles in the leaves;</div>
+ <div class='line'><span class='pageno' id='Page_340'>340</span>At length victorious to the top aspires,</div>
+ <div class='line'>Involving all the wood in smoky fires.</div>
+ <div class='line'>But most when driven by winds the flaming storm</div>
+ <div class='line'>Of the long files destroys the beauteous form;</div>
+ <div class='line'>In ashes then the unhappy vineyard lies,</div>
+ <div class='line'>Nor will the blasted plants from ruin rise,</div>
+ <div class='line'>Nor will the withered stock be green again,</div>
+ <div class='line'>But the wild olive shoots, and shades th’ ungrateful plain.</div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c014'>The next operation<a id='r1513' /><a href='#f1513' class='c012'><sup>[1513]</sup></a> was to trench the ground and
+throw it into lofty ridges, which, by the operation
+of the summer sun, and the rain and winds and
+frosts of winter, were rendered mellow and genial.
+Occasionally a species of manure, composed<a id='r1514' /><a href='#f1514' class='c012'><sup>[1514]</sup></a> of pounded
+acorns, lentils, and other vegetable substances,
+was dug in for the purpose of giving to the soil
+the warmth and fertility required by the vine.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The ground having remained in this state during
+a whole year, its surface was levelled, and a series
+of shallow furrows traced for the slips by line, rather
+close, on rich alluvial plains, but diverging
+more and more<a id='r1515' /><a href='#f1515' class='c012'><sup>[1515]</sup></a> in proportion to the elevation of
+the site. Generally the vine was propagated by
+slips of moderate length, planted sometimes upright
+or à l’aiguille,<a id='r1516' /><a href='#f1516' class='c012'><sup>[1516]</sup></a> as the phrase is in Languedoc, sometimes
+obliquely,<a id='r1517' /><a href='#f1517' class='c012'><sup>[1517]</sup></a> which was generally supposed to
+be the better fashion. Along with the slip a handfull
+of grape-stones was usually cast into the furrow,<a id='r1518' /><a href='#f1518' class='c012'><sup>[1518]</sup></a>
+those of the green grape with the purple vine,
+and those of the purple with the green, in order
+to cause it the sooner to take root. With some
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_341'>341</span>the practice was always to set two slips together, so
+that if one missed the other might take, and when
+both grew, the weaker was cut off or removed.
+Several stones,<a id='r1519' /><a href='#f1519' class='c012'><sup>[1519]</sup></a> about the size of the fist, were
+placed round the slip above whatever manure was
+used, the belief being, that they would aid in preventing
+the root from being scorched by the sun
+in the heats of summer.<a id='r1520' /><a href='#f1520' class='c012'><sup>[1520]</sup></a> Some touched the lower
+point of the slip with cedar oil which prevented it
+from decaying, and likewise by its odour repelled
+vermin.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>To produce grapes without stones the lower end
+of the slip was split, and the pith carefully extracted
+with an ear-pick.<a id='r1521' /><a href='#f1521' class='c012'><sup>[1521]</sup></a> It was then bound round
+with a papyrus leaf, thrust into a sea-onion and
+thus planted. Vines producing medicinal grapes
+were created by withdrawing the pith from the
+lower part of the slip, but without splitting, and
+introducing certain drugs into the hollow,<a id='r1522' /><a href='#f1522' class='c012'><sup>[1522]</sup></a> closing
+up the extremity with papyrus and thus setting it
+in the earth. The wine, the grape, the leaves, and
+even the ashes of such a vine were thought to be
+a remedy against the bite of serpents and dogs,
+though no security against hydrophobia. Another
+mode of producing stoneless grapes was to cut short
+all the branches of a vine already growing, extract
+the pith from the ends of them, and fill up the
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_342'>342</span>cavity once a-week with the juice of sylphion,<a id='r1523' /><a href='#f1523' class='c012'><sup>[1523]</sup></a> binding
+them carefully to props that the liquor might
+not escape. A method was also in use of producing
+green and purple grapes on the same cluster.<a id='r1524' /><a href='#f1524' class='c012'><sup>[1524]</sup></a> This
+was to take two slips as nearly as possible of the
+same size, the one of the white, the other of the
+black grape, and, having split them down the middle,
+carefully to fit the halves to their opposites,
+so that the buds, when divided, should exactly
+meet. They were then bound tight together with
+papyrus thread, and placed in the earth in a sea-onion,<a id='r1525' /><a href='#f1525' class='c012'><sup>[1525]</sup></a>
+whose glutinous juice aided the growing together
+of the severed parts. Sometimes instead of
+slips, offshoots removed from the trunk of a large
+vine, with roots attached to them, were used. On
+other occasions the vine was grafted, like any other
+fruit-tree, on a variety of stocks,<a id='r1526' /><a href='#f1526' class='c012'><sup>[1526]</sup></a> each modifying
+the quality and flavour of the grape. Thus a vine
+grafted on a myrtle-stock,<a id='r1527' /><a href='#f1527' class='c012'><sup>[1527]</sup></a> produced fruit partaking
+of the character of the myrtle-berry. Grafted on a
+cherry-tree, its grapes underwent a different change,
+and ripened, like cherries, in the spring. As the
+clay encircling the junctures of these grafts grew dry,
+and somewhat cracked in hot summers, it was customary
+for gardeners to moisten them every evening
+with a sponge dipped in water.<a id='r1528' /><a href='#f1528' class='c012'><sup>[1528]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The husbandmen of antiquity were often somewhat
+fanciful in their practices. In order, when forming
+a nursery,<a id='r1529' /><a href='#f1529' class='c012'><sup>[1529]</sup></a> to coax the young plants to grow, the
+beds to which they were transferred, were formed
+of a stratum of earth brought from the vineyard
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_343'>343</span>whence they also were taken. Another nicety was
+to take care, that they occupied precisely the same
+position with respect to the quarters of the heavens<a id='r1530' /><a href='#f1530' class='c012'><sup>[1530]</sup></a>
+as when growing on the parent stock.<a id='r1531' /><a href='#f1531' class='c012'><sup>[1531]</sup></a></p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>“Besides to plant it as it was they mark</div>
+ <div class='line'>The heaven’s four quarters on the tender bark,</div>
+ <div class='line'>And to the north or south restore the side</div>
+ <div class='line'>Which at their birth did heat or cold abide,</div>
+ <div class='line'>So strong is custom; such effects can use</div>
+ <div class='line'>In tender souls of pliant plants produce.”</div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c014'>When desirous of extending the plantation in an
+old vineyard, instead of the methods above described,
+they had recourse to another, which was to bend
+down<a id='r1532' /><a href='#f1532' class='c012'><sup>[1532]</sup></a> the vine branch, and bury it up to the point
+in the earth, where it would take root, and send forth
+a new vine, and in this way a long series of leafy
+arcades<a id='r1533' /><a href='#f1533' class='c012'><sup>[1533]</sup></a> may sometimes have been formed. At the
+foot of their vines some cultivators were in the habit
+of burying three goats’ horns<a id='r1534' /><a href='#f1534' class='c012'><sup>[1534]</sup></a> with their points downwards,
+and the other end appearing above the soil.
+These they regarded as so many receptacles for receiving
+and gradually conveying water to the roots,
+and, consequently, an active cause of the vines’ fertility.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'><span class='pageno' id='Page_344'>344</span>Respecting the seasons of planting,<a id='r1535' /><a href='#f1535' class='c012'><sup>[1535]</sup></a> opinions were
+divided, some preferring the close of autumn, immediately
+after the fall of the leaf, when the sap
+had forsaken the branches, and descended to the
+roots; others chose, for the time of this operation,
+the early spring, just before the sap mounted; while
+a third class delayed it until the buds began to swell,
+and the tokens of spring were evident. To these
+varieties of practice Virgil makes allusion,—</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>When winter frosts constrain the field with cold,</div>
+ <div class='line'>The fainty root can take no steady hold;</div>
+ <div class='line'>But when the golden spring reveals the year,</div>
+ <div class='line'>And the white bird returns whom serpents fear,</div>
+ <div class='line'>That season deem the best to plant thy vines;</div>
+ <div class='line'>Next that, is when autumnal warmth declines,</div>
+ <div class='line'>Ere heat is quite decayed, or cold begun,</div>
+ <div class='line'>Or Capricorn admits the winter sun.</div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c014'>But the above were not the only rules observed;
+for, besides the general march of the seasons, they took
+note of the phases of the moon,<a id='r1536' /><a href='#f1536' class='c012'><sup>[1536]</sup></a> whose influence
+over vegetation all antiquity believed to be very
+powerful. Some planted during the four days immediately
+succeeding the birth of the new moon, while
+others extended their labours through the first two
+quarters. The act of pruning<a id='r1537' /><a href='#f1537' class='c012'><sup>[1537]</sup></a> was performed when
+that planet was in its wane.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>There were in Greece<a id='r1538' /><a href='#f1538' class='c012'><sup>[1538]</sup></a> three remarkable varieties
+of the vine, created by difference in the mode of
+cultivation.<a id='r1539' /><a href='#f1539' class='c012'><sup>[1539]</sup></a> The first consisted of plants always
+kept short, and supported on props, as in France;
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_345'>345</span>the second of tree-climbers, thence called Anadendrades;
+the third sort enjoyed neither of these advantages,<a id='r1540' /><a href='#f1540' class='c012'><sup>[1540]</sup></a>
+but being grown chiefly in steep and stony
+places, spread their branches over the earth, as is still
+the fashion in Syra<a id='r1541' /><a href='#f1541' class='c012'><sup>[1541]</sup></a> and other islands of the Archipelago.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Vine-props<a id='r1542' /><a href='#f1542' class='c012'><sup>[1542]</sup></a> appear to have commonly consisted of
+short reeds, which, accordingly, were extensively cultivated
+both in Hellas and its colonies of Northern
+Africa, where the musical cicada, whose excessive
+multiplication betokened a sickly year, bored through
+the rind, and laid its eggs in the hollow within.<a id='r1543' /><a href='#f1543' class='c012'><sup>[1543]</sup></a>
+From an inconvenience attending the use of this kind
+of support came the rustic proverb, “The prop has
+defrauded the vine;”<a id='r1544' /><a href='#f1544' class='c012'><sup>[1544]</sup></a> for these reeds sometimes took
+root, outgrew their clients, and monopolized the moisture
+of the soil.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>In rich and level lands,<a id='r1545' /><a href='#f1545' class='c012'><sup>[1545]</sup></a> particularly where the
+Aminian vine<a id='r1546' /><a href='#f1546' class='c012'><sup>[1546]</sup></a> was cultivated, the props often rose
+to the height of five or six feet; but in hill-vineyards,
+where the soil was lighter and less nutritive,
+they were not suffered to exceed that of three feet.
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_346'>346</span>Where reeds were not procurable, ash-props<a id='r1547' /><a href='#f1547' class='c012'><sup>[1547]</sup></a> were
+substituted, but they were always carefully barked,
+to prevent cantharides, and other insects hurtful to
+the vine, from making nests in them. Their price
+would appear to have been considerable, since we
+find a husbandman speaking of having laid out a
+hundred drachma in vine-props.<a id='r1548' /><a href='#f1548' class='c012'><sup>[1548]</sup></a> To prevent their
+speedily decaying they were smeared a-top with pitch,
+and carefully, after the vintage, collected and laid
+up within doors.<a id='r1549' /><a href='#f1549' class='c012'><sup>[1549]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>A vineyard, consisting wholly of Anadendrades,<a id='r1550' /><a href='#f1550' class='c012'><sup>[1550]</sup></a>
+most common in Attica, presented, in spring and
+summer, a very picturesque appearance, especially
+when situated on the sharp declivity of a hill.<a id='r1551' /><a href='#f1551' class='c012'><sup>[1551]</sup></a> The
+trees designed for the support of the vines,<a id='r1552' /><a href='#f1552' class='c012'><sup>[1552]</sup></a> planted
+in straight lines, and rising behind each other, terrace
+above terrace, at intervals of three or four and twenty
+feet, were beautiful in form and varied in feature,
+consisting generally of the black poplar, the ash,
+the maple, the elm,<a id='r1553' /><a href='#f1553' class='c012'><sup>[1553]</sup></a> and probably, also, the platane,
+which is still employed for this purpose in Crete.<a id='r1554' /><a href='#f1554' class='c012'><sup>[1554]</sup></a>
+Though kept low in some situations, where the soil
+was scanty, they were, in others, allowed to run to
+thirty or forty, and sometimes, as in Bithynia, even
+to sixty feet in height.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The face of the tree along which the vine climbed
+was cut down sheer like a wall, against which the
+purple or golden clusters hung thickly suspended,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_347'>347</span>while the young branches crept along the boughs,
+or over bridges of reeds,<a id='r1555' /><a href='#f1555' class='c012'><sup>[1555]</sup></a> uniting tree with tree,
+and, when touched with the rich tints of autumn,
+delighting the eye by an extraordinary variety of
+foliage. As the lower boughs of these noble trees
+were carefully lopped away, a series of lofty arches
+was created, beneath which the breezes could freely
+play, abundant currents of pure air being regarded
+as no less essential to the perfect maturing of the
+grape<a id='r1556' /><a href='#f1556' class='c012'><sup>[1556]</sup></a> than constant sunshine. Sometimes the vine,
+in its ascent, was suffered to wind round the trunk
+of its supporter, which, however, by the most judicious
+husbandmen, was considered prejudicial, since
+the profusion of ligatures which it threw out in its
+passage upwards was thought to exhaust too much
+of its strength, to prevent which wooden wedges<a id='r1557' /><a href='#f1557' class='c012'><sup>[1557]</sup></a>
+were here and there inserted between the vine stem
+and the tree. In trailing the branches, moreover,
+along the boughs, care was taken to keep them as
+much as possible on the upper side, that they might
+enjoy a greater amount of sunshine, and be the more
+exposed to be agitated by the winds.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>These Anadendrades,<a id='r1558' /><a href='#f1558' class='c012'><sup>[1558]</sup></a> which were supposed to produce
+the best and most lasting wines, probably, as at
+present, ripened their produce much later than the
+other sorts of vines on account of the trees by which
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_348'>348</span>they were shaded. In modern Crete,<a id='r1559' /><a href='#f1559' class='c012'><sup>[1559]</sup></a> where, however,
+they are never pruned, their grapes seldom
+ripen before November, and sometimes they furnish
+the bazaar of Khania with fresh supplies till Christmas.
+The same is the case also in Egypt.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Occasionally, too, more especially in Cypros, the
+Anadendrades grew to an enormous size. At Populonium,
+in Etruria, there was a statue of Jupiter
+carved from a single vine; the pillars of the temple
+of Hera, at Metapontum, consisted of so many vines;
+and the whole staircase leading to the roof of the
+fane of Artemis, at Ephesos, was constructed with
+the timber of a single vine from Cypros. To render
+these things credible, we are informed, that, at
+Arambys, in Africa,<a id='r1560' /><a href='#f1560' class='c012'><sup>[1560]</sup></a> there was a vine twelve feet
+in circumference, and modern travellers have found
+them of equal dimensions in other parts of the
+world.<a id='r1561' /><a href='#f1561' class='c012'><sup>[1561]</sup></a> In France, for example, the celebrated
+Anne, Duc de Montmorenci, had a table made
+with a single slab of vinewood, which, two hundred
+years afterwards, Brotier<a id='r1562' /><a href='#f1562' class='c012'><sup>[1562]</sup></a> saw preserved at the town
+of Ecouen.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>To return, however: the wide spaces between the
+trees were not in this class of vineyards allowed to
+remain entirely idle, having been sometimes sown<a id='r1563' /><a href='#f1563' class='c012'><sup>[1563]</sup></a>
+with corn, or planted with beans, and gourds, and
+cucumbers, and lentils.<a id='r1564' /><a href='#f1564' class='c012'><sup>[1564]</sup></a> The cabbage<a id='r1565' /><a href='#f1565' class='c012'><sup>[1565]</sup></a> was carefully
+excluded,<a id='r1566' /><a href='#f1566' class='c012'><sup>[1566]</sup></a> as an enemy to Dionysos. In other cases
+these intervals were given up to the cultivation of
+fruit-trees, such as the pomegranate, the apple, the
+quince, and the olive. The fig-tree was regarded as
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_349'>349</span>pernicious, though often planted in rows on the outside
+of the vineyard.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Respecting those vines which were cultivated without
+the aid of props,<a id='r1567' /><a href='#f1567' class='c012'><sup>[1567]</sup></a> or trees, we possess little information,
+except that there were such. But, as they
+are still found in the country, it is probable, that
+the mode of dressing them now prevailing nearly
+resembles that of antiquity. They are generally, in
+Syria, planted along the steep sides of mountains,
+where they spread and rest upon the stones, and
+have their fruit early ripened by the heat reflected
+from the earth. Frequently, also, they are planted
+on more level ground, in which case, as soon as
+the grapes acquire any size, the husbandman passes
+through the vineyard with an armful of forked
+wooden props which he skilfully introduces beneath
+the branches and fixes firmly so as to keep the
+clusters from touching the mould. The reason for
+adopting this method is the furious winds which
+at certain seasons of the year prevail in many of
+the Grecian islands, preventing the growth of woods
+and prostrating the fig and every other fruit-tree to
+the earth. The spaces between the lines are turned
+up annually by a peculiar sort of plough<a id='r1568' /><a href='#f1568' class='c012'><sup>[1568]</sup></a> drawn by
+oxen, in front of which a man advances, lifting up
+the vines and holding them aside while they pass.
+This destroys the weeds, and, at the same time, all
+the upper roots of the vine, which compels it to
+descend deeper into the earth, where it finds a
+cooler and more abundant nourishment. In this
+respect the practice of the Syrotes closely resembles
+that of their ancestors. Some husbandmen were
+careful, likewise, while weeding,<a id='r1569' /><a href='#f1569' class='c012'><sup>[1569]</sup></a> to remove the
+larger stones, though they are often supposed, by
+preserving moisture, to do more good than harm.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'><span class='pageno' id='Page_350'>350</span>It is a peculiar feature in the character of the
+ancients that they loved to attribute to the inferior
+animals the first hints of various useful practices.
+Thus they maintained it was the ass that, by browsing
+on the extremities of the vine, which only made
+it bear the more luxuriantly, taught them the art
+of pruning as well perhaps as that of feeding on
+the tendrils and tender branches,<a id='r1570' /><a href='#f1570' class='c012'><sup>[1570]</sup></a> which among them
+were esteemed a delicacy. To manifest their gratitude
+for this piece of instruction they erected at
+Nauplia,<a id='r1571' /><a href='#f1571' class='c012'><sup>[1571]</sup></a> a marble statue in honour of this ill-used
+quadruped, who has seldom, I fear, from that day
+to this, been so well treated. The rules observed
+in pruning<a id='r1572' /><a href='#f1572' class='c012'><sup>[1572]</sup></a> resembling those still in use, it is unnecessary
+to repeat them, though it may be worth
+mentioning, that the husbandman, who coveted an
+abundant vintage, was careful to lop his vines<a id='r1573' /><a href='#f1573' class='c012'><sup>[1573]</sup></a> with
+his brows shaded by an ivy crown. They esteemed
+it a sign of a fruitful year when the fig-tree and
+the white vine put forth luxuriantly in spring,<a id='r1574' /><a href='#f1574' class='c012'><sup>[1574]</sup></a> after
+which they had only to petition the gods against
+too much rain, or too much drought,<a id='r1575' /><a href='#f1575' class='c012'><sup>[1575]</sup></a> and those
+terrible hailstorms which sometimes devastate whole
+districts. Against this calamity, however, they had
+a preservative, which was to bind an amulet in the
+shape of a thong of seal-hide or eagle’s wing, about
+one of the stocks,<a id='r1576' /><a href='#f1576' class='c012'><sup>[1576]</sup></a> after which the whole vineyard
+was supposed to be secure from injury. The same
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_351'>351</span>effect was produced by striking a chalezite stone
+with a piece of iron on the approach of a storm,
+and by hanging up in the vineyard a picture of a
+bunch of grapes at the setting of the constellation
+of the Lyre.<a id='r1577' /><a href='#f1577' class='c012'><sup>[1577]</sup></a> To repel the ascent of vermin along
+the trunk it was smeared with a thick coat of bitumen,<a id='r1578' /><a href='#f1578' class='c012'><sup>[1578]</sup></a>
+imported from Cilicia, while to preserve the
+branches from wasps a little olive-oil was blown
+over them.<a id='r1579' /><a href='#f1579' class='c012'><sup>[1579]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>While the grapes were growing, the ancients, following
+in the track of nature, supposed them to need
+shade, since the leaves at that time put forth most
+abundantly, to screen the young fruit from the scorching
+sun; but when they began to don their gold or
+purple hues, observing the foliage shrivel and shrink
+from about them, in order to admit the warm rays
+to penetrate and pervade the fruit they then stripped
+the branches and hastened the vintage,<a id='r1580' /><a href='#f1580' class='c012'><sup>[1580]</sup></a> plucking
+moreover the clusters as they ripened, lest they
+should drop off and be lost. But this partial gathering
+of the grapes could only take place in their
+gardens, or where the vine was trained about the
+house; for in the regular vineyards the season of
+the vintage was regulated by law,<a id='r1581' /><a href='#f1581' class='c012'><sup>[1581]</sup></a> as in Burgundy
+and the south of France, in order to protect the
+public against the pernicious frauds which would
+otherwise be practised. This, in Attica, usually coincided
+with the heliacal rising of the constellation
+Arcturus.<a id='r1582' /><a href='#f1582' class='c012'><sup>[1582]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>When the magistrate had declared that the season
+of the vintage<a id='r1583' /><a href='#f1583' class='c012'><sup>[1583]</sup></a> was come, the servants of Bacchos
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_352'>352</span>hurried forth to the vine-clad hills, converting
+their labours into a pretext for superabundant mirth
+and revelry. The troops of vintagers, composed of
+youths and maidens, with crowns of ivy on their
+heads, and accompanied by rural performers on the
+flute or phorminx, moved forward with shout, and
+dance, and song, to the sacred enclosures of Dionysos,
+surrounded with plaited hedgerows, and blue
+streamlets.<a id='r1584' /><a href='#f1584' class='c012'><sup>[1584]</sup></a> Here, where</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line in2'>“——the showering grapes</div>
+ <div class='line'>In Bacchanal profusion reel to earth</div>
+ <div class='line'>Purple and gushing,”</div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c015'>they at once commenced their joyous task. With
+sharp pruning-hooks<a id='r1585' /><a href='#f1585' class='c012'><sup>[1585]</sup></a> they separated the luxuriant
+clusters, gold or purple, from the vine, and piling
+them in plaited baskets of osier or reed, bore them
+on their shoulders to the wine-press. In this operation,
+as I have said, both men and women joined;
+but the press was trodden by men only,<a id='r1586' /><a href='#f1586' class='c012'><sup>[1586]</sup></a> who, half
+intoxicated by pleasure,<a id='r1587' /><a href='#f1587' class='c012'><sup>[1587]</sup></a> and the fumes of the young
+wine, chanted loudly their ancient national lays in
+praise of Bacchos.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The wine-press, which stood under cover, sometimes
+consisted of two upright, and many cross
+beams,<a id='r1588' /><a href='#f1588' class='c012'><sup>[1588]</sup></a> which, descending with great weight upon
+the grapes squeezed forth all their juices, and these
+falling through a species of strainer,<a id='r1589' /><a href='#f1589' class='c012'><sup>[1589]</sup></a> upon an inclined
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_353'>353</span>slab, were poured through a small channel
+formed for the purpose, into a broad open vessel
+communicating with the vat. Into the process
+of wine-making<a id='r1590' /><a href='#f1590' class='c012'><sup>[1590]</sup></a> it is unnecessary to enter. It
+will be sufficient, perhaps, to say that, when made,
+it was laid up in skins or large earthen jars until
+required for use. The wines of modern Attica and
+the Morea<a id='r1591' /><a href='#f1591' class='c012'><sup>[1591]</sup></a> are preserved from becoming acid by
+a large infusion of resin.<a id='r1592' /><a href='#f1592' class='c012'><sup>[1592]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The sports,<a id='r1593' /><a href='#f1593' class='c012'><sup>[1593]</sup></a> which took place during the vintage,
+were loud and frolicsome, and distinguished sometimes
+for their excessive licence. They brought
+forth a number of wine skins, filled tight, to the
+village green, and there smearing them liberally with
+oil the staggering rustics sought, each in his turn,
+to leap and stand upon one of them with his naked
+foot.<a id='r1594' /><a href='#f1594' class='c012'><sup>[1594]</sup></a> The missing, slipping, and falling, the awkward
+figure they sometimes made upon the ground,
+the jokes, and shouts, and laughter of the bystanders,
+mingled with the twanging of rustic instruments,
+and the roar of Bacchanalian songs, constituted
+the charm of the rural Dionysia, out of which,
+through many changes and gradations, arose, as we
+have seen, the Greek drama. In order without
+shame to give the freer licence to their tongues,
+they sometimes covered their faces with masks,
+formed with the bark of trees, which, there can
+be no doubt, led to those afterwards employed in
+the theatre. Sometimes a sort of farce<a id='r1595' /><a href='#f1595' class='c012'><sup>[1595]</sup></a> was acted,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_354'>354</span>representing the search of the Athenians for the
+bodies of Icarios and Erygone. The former, according
+to tradition, was the person who taught the inhabitants
+of Attica the use of wine, with which on
+a certain occasion he regaled a number of shepherds.
+These demi-savages, observing their strength and
+their reason fail, imagined themselves to have been
+poisoned, and falling, in revenge, upon the donor,
+put him to death. His dog Mœra escaped, and
+leading Erygone to the spot where her father had
+been murdered, she immediately hung herself on
+the discovery of the corpse. Upon this they were
+all transported to the skies, and changed into so
+many constellations, namely Boötes,<a id='r1596' /><a href='#f1596' class='c012'><sup>[1596]</sup></a> the Dog, and
+the Virgin, by whose brilliancy we are still rejoiced
+nightly. Soon afterwards the maidens of Attica
+were seized with madness and hung themselves
+in great numbers, upon which the oracle being consulted,
+commanded the Athenians to make search
+for the bodies of Icarios and Erygone. Being able
+to discover them nowhere on earth, they suspended
+ropes from the branches of lofty trees, by swinging
+to and fro on which they appeared to be conducting
+their search in the air; but many of these adventurous
+explorers receiving severe falls, they were
+afterwards contented with suspending to the ropes
+little images after their own likeness, which they
+sent hither and thither in the air as their substitutes.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>But all the produce of the vineyards was not appropriated
+to the making of wine, great quantities
+of grapes<a id='r1597' /><a href='#f1597' class='c012'><sup>[1597]</sup></a> being preserved for the table, or converted
+into raisins.<a id='r1598' /><a href='#f1598' class='c012'><sup>[1598]</sup></a> The latter were sometimes
+made by being carefully gathered after the full
+moon, and put out to dry in the sun, about ten
+o’clock in the morning, when all the dew was evaporated.
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_355'>355</span>For this purpose, there was in every
+vineyard, garden, and orchard, a place called Theilopedon,<a id='r1599' /><a href='#f1599' class='c012'><sup>[1599]</sup></a>
+which would seem to have been a smooth
+raised terrace, where not grapes only, but myrtle-berries,
+and every other kind of fruit, were exposed
+to the sun on fine hurdles. Here, likewise,
+the berries of the Palma Christi<a id='r1600' /><a href='#f1600' class='c012'><sup>[1600]</sup></a> were prepared
+for the making of castor oil. Another method was
+to twist the stem of the cluster<a id='r1601' /><a href='#f1601' class='c012'><sup>[1601]</sup></a> and allow the
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_356'>356</span>grapes to dry on the vine. They were then laid
+up in vessels among vine leaves, dried also in the
+sun, covered close with a stopper, and deposited in
+a cold room free from smoke.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>To preserve the grapes fresh some cut off with
+a sharp pruninghook the clusters separately, others
+the branches on which they grew, after which, dipping
+the stem into pitch and removing the damaged
+grapes with a pair of scissors, they spread them in
+cool and shady rooms, on layers of pulse-halm, or
+hay, or straw.<a id='r1602' /><a href='#f1602' class='c012'><sup>[1602]</sup></a> The halm of lentils was usually
+preferred, because it is hard and dry, and repels
+mice. On other occasions, the branches were kept
+suspended, having sometimes been previously dipped
+in sweet wine. Grapes were likewise preserved in
+pitched coffers, immersed in dry saw-dust of the
+pitch tree, or the silver fir, or the black poplar,
+or even in millet flour. Others plunged the bunches
+in boiling sea-water, or if this were not at hand,
+into a preparation of wine, salt, and water, and then
+laid them up in barley straw. Others boiled the
+ashes of the fig-tree, or the vine, with which they
+sprinkled the bunches. Others preserved grapes by
+suspending them in granaries, where the grain beneath
+was occasionally moved, for the dust rising
+from the corn settled on the outside of the clusters,
+and protected them from the air. Another
+method was to boil rain-water to a third, and then,
+after cooling it in the open air, and pouring it into
+a pitched vessel, to fill it with clusters perfectly
+cleansed. The vessel was then covered, luted with
+gypsum, and laid by in a cold place. The grapes
+in this way remained quite fresh, and the water
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_357'>357</span>itself acquiring a vinous taste was administered to
+sick persons in lieu of wine. Occasionally, also,
+grapes as well as apples were kept in honey.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The most extraordinary, and perhaps the most effectual
+contrivance,<a id='r1603' /><a href='#f1603' class='c012'><sup>[1603]</sup></a> however, was to dig near the
+vine a pit three feet deep, the bottom of which
+was covered with a layer of sand. A few short
+stakes were then fixed upright in it, and to these
+a number of vine branches laden with clusters were
+bent down and made fast. The whole was then
+closely roofed over so as completely to keep out
+the rain, and in this way the grapes would remain
+fresh till spring.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The labours of the vintage being concluded, the
+husbandman next turned his attention to olive gathering
+and the making of oil. This, in Greece, was
+a matter of great importance. The olives, therefore,<a id='r1604' /><a href='#f1604' class='c012'><sup>[1604]</sup></a>
+for all the better sorts of oil, were picked by hand,
+and not, as in Italy, suffered to fall. When as many
+were gathered as could conveniently be pressed during
+the following night and day, they were spread loosely
+on fine hurdles, and not heaped up lest they should heat
+and lose the delicacy of their flavour. They were, likewise,
+cleansed carefully from leaves and every particle
+of wood, these substances, it was supposed, impairing
+the quality and durability of the oil. Towards evening
+a little salt was sprinkled over the olives, which
+were then put into a clean mill,<a id='r1605' /><a href='#f1605' class='c012'><sup>[1605]</sup></a> and so arranged
+that they could be bruised without crushing the
+stones, from the juice of which the oil contracted
+a bad taste. Having been sufficiently bruised, they
+were conveyed in small vessels to the press, where
+they were covered with hurdles of green willows,
+upon which, at first, was placed a moderate weight,—for
+that which flows from slight pressure is the
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_358'>358</span>sweetest and purest oil, on which account it was
+drawn off in clean leaden vessels,<a id='r1606' /><a href='#f1606' class='c012'><sup>[1606]</sup></a> and preserved
+apart. Greater weight was then added, and the mass
+having been well writhen, the second runnings were
+laid up in separate vessels. The next step was to
+cause the precipitation of the lees, which was effected
+by mingling with the crude oil a little salt and nitre.
+It was then stirred with a piece of olive-wood, and
+left to settle, when the amurca or watery part sank
+to the bottom. The pure oil was then skimmed off
+with a shell, and laid up in glass vases, this substance
+having been preferred on account of its cold
+nature. In default of these, pickle-jars, glazed with
+gypsum, were used, which were deposited in cool
+cellars facing the north.<a id='r1607' /><a href='#f1607' class='c012'><sup>[1607]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The Greeks had a variety of other oils besides that
+procured from the olive,<a id='r1608' /><a href='#f1608' class='c012'><sup>[1608]</sup></a> as walnut-oil, oil of terebinth,
+oil of sesamum, oil of violets, oil of almonds,
+oil of Palma Christi, or castor-oil, oil of saffron, oil
+of Cnidian laurel, oil of datura, oil of lentisk, oil
+of mastic, oil of myrtle, and oil of mustard. They
+had, likewise,<a id='r1609' /><a href='#f1609' class='c012'><sup>[1609]</sup></a> the green and wild-olive oil, and the
+double-refined oil of Sicyon, together with imitations
+of the Spanish and Italian oils.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>As fruit of all kinds was in great request among
+the Greeks, they had recourse to numerous contrivances<a id='r1610' /><a href='#f1610' class='c012'><sup>[1610]</sup></a>
+for ensuring an unfailing supply throughout
+the year. At many of these our gardeners may,
+perhaps, smile, but they were, nevertheless, most of
+them ingenious, and, probably, effectual, though the
+fruit thus preserved may have been dear when brought
+to market. Into the details of all their methods it
+will be unnecessary to enter: the following were the
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_359'>359</span>principal and most curious. Walnuts, chestnuts,
+filberts, &c., were gathered and kept in the ordinary
+way. They understood the art of blanching almonds,
+which were afterwards dried in the sun. Medlars,
+service-berries, winter-apples, and the like, having
+been gathered carefully, were simply laid up in straw,
+whether on the loft-floor or in baskets. This, likewise,
+was sometimes the case with quinces, which,
+together with apples and pears, were, on other occasions,
+deposited in dry fig-leaves. For these, in the case
+of pears and apples, walnut-leaves were often substituted,
+sometimes piled under and over them in
+heaps, at other times wrapped and tied about the
+fruit, the hues and odours of which they were supposed
+greatly to improve.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Citrons,<a id='r1611' /><a href='#f1611' class='c012'><sup>[1611]</sup></a> pomegranates,<a id='r1612' /><a href='#f1612' class='c012'><sup>[1612]</sup></a> apples, quinces, and pears,
+were preserved in heaps of sand, grapestones, oak,
+poplar, deal, or cedar sawdust, sometimes sprinkled
+with vinegar, chopped straw, wheat, or barley, or
+the seeds of plants, all of which sufficed equally to
+exclude the external air. Another method with
+apples<a id='r1613' /><a href='#f1613' class='c012'><sup>[1613]</sup></a> was to lay them up surrounded with sea-weed
+in unbaked jars, which were then deposited
+in an upper room free from smoke and all bad
+smells. When sea-weed was not procurable they
+put each apple into a small separate jar closely
+covered up and luted. These apple-jars were
+often lined with a coating of wax. Figs were, in
+like manner, preserved green<a id='r1614' /><a href='#f1614' class='c012'><sup>[1614]</sup></a> by being enclosed
+in so many small gourds. Citrons and pomegranates
+were often suffered to remain throughout the winter
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_360'>360</span>on the tree, defended from wet and wind by being
+capped with little fictile vases bound tightly to the
+branches to keep them steady. Others enclosed
+these fruits, as well as apples, in a thick coating
+of gypsum, preventing their falling off by binding
+the stem to the branches with packthread. Nor
+was it unusual, even when gathered, to envelope
+apples, quinces, and citrons, in a covering of the
+same material, or potter’s clay, or argillaceous earth,
+mixed with hair, sometimes interposing between the
+fruit and this crust a layer of fig-leaves, after which
+they were dried in the sun. When at the end,
+perhaps, of a whole year the above crust was broken
+and removed the fruit came forth perfect as when
+plucked from the bough. It is possible, therefore,
+that, in a similar manner, mangoes, mangusteens, and
+other frail and delicate fruit of the tropics, might
+be brought fresh to Europe, and that, too, in such
+abundance as to make them accessible to most persons.
+To render pears and pomegranates durable,
+their stems were dipped in pitch, after which they
+were hung up. In the case of the latter the fruit
+itself was sometimes thus dipped; and, at other times,
+immersed in hot sea-water, after which it was dried in
+the sun. One mode of preserving figs was to plunge
+them in honey so as neither to touch each other,
+nor the vessel in which they were contained; another,
+to cover a pile of them with an inverted vase of
+glass, or other pellucid substance, closely luted to
+the slab on which it stood. Cherries were gathered
+before sunrise, and put, with summer savory above
+and below, into a jar, or the hollow of a reed, which
+was then filled with sweet vinegar, and closely covered.
+Mulberries were preserved in their own juice,
+apples and quinces in pitched coffers, wrapped in
+clean locks of wool, pears by being placed in salt<a id='r1615' /><a href='#f1615' class='c012'><sup>[1615]</sup></a>
+for five days, and afterwards dried in the sun, as
+were also figs, which were strung by the stalks to
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_361'>361</span>a piece of cord or willow twig, like so many hanks
+of onions<a id='r1616' /><a href='#f1616' class='c012'><sup>[1616]</sup></a> as they are sold in modern times. Elsewhere
+they were preserved, as dates in Egypt, by
+being pressed together in square masses, like bricks.<a id='r1617' /><a href='#f1617' class='c012'><sup>[1617]</sup></a>
+Damascenes were kept in must or sweet wine, as
+were also pears, adding sometimes a little salt and
+jujubes, with leaves, above and below. The same
+course was pursued with apples and quinces, which
+communicated to the liquor additional durability and
+the most exquisite fragrance. Quinces, whose sharp
+effluvia prevented their being placed with other fruit,
+were often put into closely-covered jars, and kept
+floating in wine to which they imparted a delicious
+perfume. The same custom was observed with respect
+to figs, which were cut off on the bearing
+branch a little before they were ripe, and hung, so
+as not to touch each other, in a square earthen
+jar. Upon the same principle apples were preserved
+in jars hermetically sealed, which, for the sake of
+coolness, were plunged in cisterns or deep wells.<a id='r1618' /><a href='#f1618' class='c012'><sup>[1618]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>It may, perhaps, be worth while to mention, in
+passing, that, like ourselves, the ancients possessed
+the art of extracting perry and cider<a id='r1619' /><a href='#f1619' class='c012'><sup>[1619]</sup></a> from their
+pears and apples; and from pomegranates a species
+of wine which is said to have been of an extremely
+delicate flavour. The Egyptians, also, made wine
+from the fruit of the lotos.<a id='r1620' /><a href='#f1620' class='c012'><sup>[1620]</sup></a></p>
+
+<hr class='c016' />
+<div class='footnote' id='f1487'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1487'>1487</a>. The importance of this branch
+of cultivation in some countries
+may be perceived from the fact,
+that in France it is said to afford
+employment to 2,200,000 families,
+comprising a population of
+6,000,000, or nearly one-fifth of
+the population of the entire kingdom.
+<span class='sc'>Times</span>, Aug. 3, 1838.
+The quantity of land devoted to
+the culture of the vine was estimated
+in 1823, at 4,270,000
+acres, the produce of which amounted
+to 920,721,088 gallons,
+22,516,220<i>l.</i> 15<i>s.</i> sterling. Redding,
+Hist. of Modern Wines,
+chap. iv. p. 56. In the Greek
+Budget of 1836, the tax on cattle
+produced 2,100,000 drachmas,
+on bees 35,000, olive-grounds
+64,776, and on vineyards and
+currant-grounds 58,269.—Parish,
+Diplomatic History of the Monarchy
+of Greece, p. 175.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1488'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1488'>1488</a>. Or according to Athenæus,
+from the shores of the Red Sea.
+Deipnosoph. xv. 17.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1489'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1489'>1489</a>. Iliad. β. 561. γ. 184. ι.
+152, 294. Cf. Pind. Isth. viii.
+108.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1490'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1490'>1490</a>. Paus. x. 38. 1.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1491'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1491'>1491</a>. Athen. i. 61.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1492'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1492'>1492</a>. ii. 77.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1493'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1493'>1493</a>. Cf. Redding History of Modern
+Wines, chap. i. p. 2. An
+interesting and able work.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1494'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1494'>1494</a>. Nienhoff in Churchill’s Collection,
+ii. 264. Barbot. iii.
+13. Ulloa, Memoires Philosophiques,
+t. ii. p. 15. Voyages,
+t. i. p. 487, 491.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1495'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1495'>1495</a>. Virg. Georg. ii. 276.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1496'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1496'>1496</a>. <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">“Quòd colles Bacchus amaret.”</span>
+Manil. Astronom. ii. p.
+31. 6. Scalig.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1497'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1497'>1497</a>. Geop. v. 1.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1498'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1498'>1498</a>. Geop. v. 9. 8. Virg. Georg.
+ii. 348.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1499'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1499'>1499</a>. Καλλίστη δὲ γῆ καὶ ἑ ὑπὸ
+τῶν ῥεόντων ποταμῶν χωσθεῖσα,
+ὅθεν καὶ τὴν Αἴγυπτον ἐπαινοῦμεν.—Florent.
+ap. Geop. v. 1. 4.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1500'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1500'>1500</a>. Jemaleddin. Maured Allatafet,
+p. 7. All these vines it will
+be remembered were cut down
+by order of the Caliph Beamrillah,
+even in the province of the
+Fayoum. Some vestiges, however,
+of vineyards were here discovered
+by Pococke. “I observed,”
+says he, “about this lake
+(Mœris) several roots in the
+ground, that seemed to me to
+be the remains of vines, for
+which the country about the
+lake was formerly famous.
+Where there is little moisture
+in the air, and it rains so seldom,
+wood may remain sound
+a great while, though it is not
+known how long these vineyards
+have been destroyed.”
+Vol. i. p. 65.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1501'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1501'>1501</a>. Though with regard to the
+nature of the wine itself we are
+told, that it was so light as to be
+given to persons in fevers,—ὁ δὲ
+κατὰ τὴν Θηβαΐδα, καὶ μάλιστα
+ὁ κατὰ τὴν Κόπτον πόλιν, οὕτως
+ἐστὶ λεπτὸς, καὶ εὐανάδοτος, καὶ
+ταχέως πεπτικὸς, ὡς τοῖς πυρεταίνουσι
+διδόμενος μὴ βλάπτειν.
+Athen. i. 60.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1502'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1502'>1502</a>. Athen. i. 60. Horat. Od. i.
+37. 14. Strab. xvii. 1. t. iii. p.
+425.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1503'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1503'>1503</a>. Theoph. Hist. Plant. i. 3. 5.
+Varro, i. 7.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1504'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1504'>1504</a>. Geop. v. 1. 15. Cf. Geop.
+iii. 2. “The shifting of ground
+is a means to better the tree
+and fruit, but with this caution,
+that all things do prosper best
+when they are advanced to the
+better.” Bacon, “Sylva Sylvarum,”
+439.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1505'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1505'>1505</a>. Geop. v. 4.1.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1506'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1506'>1506</a>. Theoph. Caus. Plant. v. 12. 5.
+Cf. Hist. Plant. iv. 14. 11. And
+yet the neighbourhood of the sea
+was considered propitious to the
+vine. Geop. v. 5.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1507'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1507'>1507</a>. Theoph. Caus. Plant. v. 12. 5.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1508'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1508'>1508</a>. On the prevalence of these
+winds in winter and spring, together
+with the causes of the phenomenon,
+see Aristot. Problem.
+xxvi. 16.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1509'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1509'>1509</a>. Paus. ii. 34. 2. Chandler,
+Travels, ii. 248.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1510'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1510'>1510</a>. Virg. Georg. ii. 371, sqq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1511'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1511'>1511</a>. Aristoph. Eq. 1073, seq.
+Küst.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1512'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1512'>1512</a>. Georg. ii. 299, sqq. Dryden’s
+Translation.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1513'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1513'>1513</a>. Geop. iii. 4. Cf. Virg. Georg.
+ii. 259, seq. et Serv. ad loc.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1514'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1514'>1514</a>. Geop. v. 24.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1515'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1515'>1515</a>. Virg. Georg. ii. 274, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1516'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1516'>1516</a>. Skippon in Churchill, Collection
+of Voyages, vi. 730.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1517'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1517'>1517</a>. Πότερα δὲ ὅλον τὸ κλῆμα
+ὀρθὸν τιθεὶς πρὸς τὸν οὐρανὸν
+βλέπον ἡγῇ μάλλον ἂν ῥιζοῦσθαι
+αὐτὸ, ἢ καὶ πλάγιόν τι ὑπὸ τῇ
+ὑποβεβλημένη γῇ θείης ἂν, ὥστε
+κεῖσθαι ὥσπερ γάμμα ὕπτιον;
+οὕτω νὴ Δία· πλείονες γὰρ ἂν οἱ
+ὀφθαλμοὶ κατὰ γῆς εἶεν· ἐκ δὲ
+τῶν ὀφθαλμῶν καὶ ἄνω ὁρῶ
+βλαστάνοντα τὰ φυτὰ. Xenoph.
+Œconom. xix. 9, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1518'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1518'>1518</a>. Geop. v. 9. This practice is
+noticed by Lord Bacon who advises
+gardeners to extend the experiment
+by laying “good store”
+of other kernels about the roots
+of trees of the same kind. Sylva
+Sylvarum, i. 35.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1519'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1519'>1519</a>. Virg. Georg. ii. 348.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1520'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1520'>1520</a>. A similar remark is made
+by Lord Bacon: “It is an assured
+experience,” he says,
+“that an heap of flint or stone
+laid about the bottom of a wild
+tree, as an oak, elm, ash, &c.,
+upon the first planting, doth
+make it prosper double as much
+as without it. The cause is
+for that it retaineth the moisture
+which falleth at any time
+upon the tree and suffereth it
+not to be exhaled by the sun.”
+Sylva Sylvarum, 422.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1521'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1521'>1521</a>. Geop. iv. 7. Mention of the
+stoneless grapes of Persia occurs
+in many travellers, and, by Mr.
+Fowler, one of the most recent,
+are enumerated under the name of
+<em>kismis</em>, among the choicest fruits
+of that country. Three Years in
+Persia, vol. i. p. 323. It may
+here be remarked, that certain
+sorts of vines, among others the
+Capneion, produced sometimes
+white clusters, sometimes purple.
+Theophrast. Hist. Plant. ii. 3. 2.
+Cf. de Caus. Plant. v. 3. 1. κ. τ. λ.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1522'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1522'>1522</a>. Geop. iv. 8.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1523'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1523'>1523</a>. Geop. iv. 7.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1524'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1524'>1524</a>. Geop. iv. 14.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1525'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1525'>1525</a>. It has been remarked also by
+ancient naturalists that a fig-tree
+planted in a sea-onion, grows
+quicker and is more free from
+vermin. Theoph. Hist. Plant. i.
+5. 5.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1526'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1526'>1526</a>. Colum. v. 11.</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">—Adultâ vitium propagine</span></div>
+ <div class='line in4'><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Altas maritat populos,</span></div>
+ <div class='line in2'><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Inutilesque falce ramos amputans</span></div>
+ <div class='line in4'><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Feliciores inserit.</span></div>
+ <div class='line in20'>Horat. Epod. ii. 9, seq.</div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1527'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1527'>1527</a>. Geop. iv. 4, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1528'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1528'>1528</a>. Geop. iv. 12.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1529'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1529'>1529</a>. Virg. Georg. ii. 265, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1530'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1530'>1530</a>. Lord Bacon gives this experiment
+a place in his philosophy,
+observing, that “in all trees
+when they be removed (especially
+fruit-trees) care ought to
+be taken that the sides of the
+trees be coasted (north and
+south) and as they stood before.”
+Sylva Sylvarum, 471.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1531'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1531'>1531</a>. Virg. Georg. ii. 270, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1532'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1532'>1532</a>. An analogous practice is observed
+in the pepper gardens of
+Sumatra:—“When the vines
+originally planted to any of the
+chinkareens (or props) are observed
+to fail or miss; instead
+of replacing them with new
+plants, they frequently conduct
+one of the shoots, or suckers,
+from a neighbouring vine, to
+the spot, through a trench
+made in the ground, and there
+suffer it to rise up anew, often
+at the distance of twelve or
+fourteen feet from the parent
+stock.” Marsden, History of
+Sumatra, p. 111.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1533'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1533'>1533</a>. Virg. Georg. ii. 26. Serv. ad
+loc.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1534'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1534'>1534</a>. Geop. iv. 2. The nymphs
+are said to have been the nurses
+of Bacchos, because water supplied
+moisture to the vine. The
+explanation of Athenæus is forced
+and cold. ii. 2.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1535'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1535'>1535</a>. Geop. v. 7, seq. Virg. Georg.
+ii. 323, sqq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1536'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1536'>1536</a>. Geop. v. 10.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1537'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1537'>1537</a>. Geop. iii. 1.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1538'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1538'>1538</a>. Cf. Theoph. Caus. Plant. iv.
+3. 6.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1539'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1539'>1539</a>. The low vines of Asia Minor
+are now pruned in a very particular
+manner. “As we approached
+Vourla the little valleys
+were all green with corn, or
+filled with naked vine-stocks in
+orderly arrangement, about a
+foot and a half high. The people
+were working, many in a
+row, turning the earth, or
+encircling the trunks with tar,
+to secure the buds from grubs
+and worms. The shoots which
+bear the fruit are cut down
+again in winter.” Chandler, i.
+98.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1540'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1540'>1540</a>. On the cultivation of the Corinth
+grape, see Chandler, ii. 339.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1541'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1541'>1541</a>. <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Abbé Della Rocca, Traité
+Complet des Abeilles,</span> i. 203.
+Lord Bacon, who had heard of
+this manner of cultivating the
+vine, observes, that in this state
+it was supposed to produce grapes
+of superior magnitude, and advises
+to extend the practice to
+hops, ivy, woodbine, &c. Sylva
+Sylvarum, 623.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1542'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1542'>1542</a>. Geop. v. 22. 27. Reeds delight
+in sunny spots, and are
+nourished by the rain. They
+were cultivated for props, and,
+if thoroughly smoked, the insects
+called ἶπες were killed, which
+would otherwise breed in them,
+to the great injury of the vine,
+v. 53. Plin. xviii. 78. Cf.
+Schol. Aristoph. Acharn. 1140.
+983. Varro, i. 8. In the island
+of Pandataria the vineyard was
+filled with traps, to protect the
+grapes from the mice. Id. ib.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1543'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1543'>1543</a>. Aristoph. Hist. Anim. v. 24.
+3.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1544'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1544'>1544</a>. Sch. Aristoph. Vesp. 1282.
+Cf. Thom. Magist. v. χάραξ. p.
+911, seq. Blancard. cum not.
+Stieber. et Oudendorp. Ammon.
+v. χάραξ. p. 145, with the note
+of Valckenaer. Liban. Epist. 218.
+p. 104 seq. Wolf.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1545'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1545'>1545</a>. Geop. v. 27.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1546'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1546'>1546</a>. Cf. Geop. iv. 1. Dioscor. v.
+6. Virg. Georg. ii. 97. Servius,
+on the authority of Aristotle, relates
+that the Aminian vines were
+transplanted from Thessaly into
+Italy. Cf. Pier. ad loc.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1547'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1547'>1547</a>. Sch. Aristoph. Vesp. 1116.
+Acharn. 1177. In the Æolian
+islands the vines are supported
+on a frame-work of poles and
+trees, over which they spread
+themselves with extraordinary
+luxuriance. Spallanzani, iv. 99.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1548'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1548'>1548</a>. Sch. Aristoph. Pac. 1262.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1549'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1549'>1549</a>. Virg. Georg. 408, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1550'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1550'>1550</a>. Which were pruned in January
+(Geop. iii. 1), and esteemed
+the most useful, iv. 1. The solidest
+and hardest vines were thought
+to bear the least fruit. Theoph.
+Hist. Plant. v. 4. 1. Cf. Chandler,
+i. 98.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1551'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1551'>1551</a>. Dem. in Nicostrat. § 5.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1552'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1552'>1552</a>. </p>
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>“Vitem viduas ducit ad arbores.”</div>
+ <div class='line in18'>Hor. Carm. iv. 5. 30.</div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1553'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1553'>1553</a>. Virg. Georg. ii. 361, seq.
+An amictâ vitibus ulmo. Hor.
+Epist. i. 16. 3.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1554'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1554'>1554</a>. Pashley, Travels, ii. 22. The
+oak is now used for the same
+purpose in Asia Minor. Chandler,
+i. 114.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1555'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1555'>1555</a>. Gœttling ad Hesiod. Scut.
+Heracl. 298.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1556'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1556'>1556</a>. Another means of augmenting
+the fertility of the vine is
+noticed by Lord Bacon, whose
+diligent study of antiquity was
+at least as remarkable as his
+superior intellect. “It is strange,
+which is observed by some of
+the ancients, that dust helpeth
+the fruitfulness of trees and of
+vines by name; insomuch as
+they cast dust upon them of
+purpose. It should seem that
+powdring when a shower cometh
+maketh a kind of soiling to the
+tree, being earth and water
+finely laid on. And they note
+that countries where the fields
+and waies are dusty bear the
+best vines.” Sylva Sylvarum,
+666.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1557'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1557'>1557</a>. Geop. iv. 1. 16.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1558'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1558'>1558</a>. These vines were likewise
+called ἁμαμάξυες. Aristoph.
+Vesp. 325, et Schol. The rustics
+engaged in pruning them,
+feeling themselves secure in their
+lofty station, used to pour their
+rough raillery and invectives on
+the passers-by. Horace, Satir. i.
+7. 29, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1559'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1559'>1559</a>. On the vines of this island
+cf. Meurs. Cret. c. 9. p. 103.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1560'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1560'>1560</a>. Bochart. Geog. Sac. Pars
+Alt. l. i. c. 37. p. 712. Cf. Plin.
+Hist. Nat. v. i.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1561'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1561'>1561</a>. Tozzeli, Viaggi. t. iv. p. 208.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1562'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1562'>1562</a>. Not. ad Plin. xiv. i. 1.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1563'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1563'>1563</a>. Geop. iv. 1. v. 7, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1564'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1564'>1564</a>. Barley and other grain are
+still in modern times sown between
+the vines in Asia Minor.
+Chandler, i. 114. The same
+practice has been partially introduced
+into the Æolian islands.
+Spallanzani, iv. 100.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1565'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1565'>1565</a>. Suid. v. κράμβη, t. i. p. 1518.
+b.—παρὰ ἀμπέλω οὐ φυέται
+Etym. Mag. 534. 47.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1566'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1566'>1566</a>. So was the laurel. Theoph.
+Caus. Plant. ii. 18. 4.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1567'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1567'>1567</a>. This creeping vine, cultivated
+<span lang="la" xml:lang="la"><i>sine ridicis</i></span>, was common in Spain.
+Varro, i. 8.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1568'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1568'>1568</a>. Della Rocca, <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Traité Complet
+sur les Abeilles,</span> t. i. p. 203, sqq.
+Cf. Thiersch, <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Etat Actuel de la
+Grèce,</span> t. i. p. 288. 296. Damm.
+Nov. Lex. Græc. Etym. 1122.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1569'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1569'>1569</a>. Geop. v. 19.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1570'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1570'>1570</a>. Theoph. Caus. Plant. vi. 12.
+9. After the vintage the goat
+and the camel, among the modern
+Asiatics, are sometimes let into
+the vineyard to browse upon the
+vine. Chandler, i. 163.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1571'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1571'>1571</a>. Paus. ii. 38. 3. See, however,
+another interpretation of the passage
+in the Tale of a Tub, where
+the author gravely insists, that,
+by Ass, we are to understand a
+critic. Sect. iii. p. 96.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1572'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1572'>1572</a>. Cf. Plat. De Rep. t. vi. p. 53.
+Schol. Aristoph. Eq. 166. See
+an exact representation of the
+pruninghook in the hand of Vertumnus.
+Mus. Cortonens. pl.
+36. This instrument was usually
+put into requisition about the
+vespertinal rising of Arcturus.
+Hesiod. Opp. et Dies, 566, sqq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1573'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1573'>1573</a>. Geop. v. 24.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1574'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1574'>1574</a>. Theoph. Caus. Plant. i. 20. 5.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1575'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1575'>1575</a>. Sch. Aristoph. Nub. 1117.
+Küst.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1576'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1576'>1576</a>. Geop. i. 14. Cf. Sch. Aristoph.
+Nub. 1109. Husbandmen
+were accustomed to nail the heads
+and feet of animals to the trunks
+of trees to prevent their being
+withered by the operation of the
+evil eye. Sch. Ran. 943.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1577'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1577'>1577</a>. Geop. ii. 14.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1578'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1578'>1578</a>. Theoph. De Lapid. § 49.
+Schneid. Cf. Sir John Hill, notes,
+p. 200. It was likewise obtained
+from Seleucia Pieria in Syria.
+Strab. vii. 5. t. ii. p. 106.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1579'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1579'>1579</a>. Geop. iv. 10.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1580'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1580'>1580</a>. Xenoph. Œcon. xix. 9.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1581'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1581'>1581</a>. Plat. De Legg. t. viii. 106.
+Geop. v. 45.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1582'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1582'>1582</a>. Cf. Geop. i. 9. 9.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1583'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1583'>1583</a>. Cf. Plut. Thes. § 22.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1584'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1584'>1584</a>. Il. σ. 561, sqq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1585'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1585'>1585</a>. Scut. Heracl. 291, seq. On
+the modern modes of gathering
+the grapes, see Redding Hist.
+of Modern Wines, chap. ii. 26,
+et seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1586'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1586'>1586</a>. The practice is still the same
+in the Levant:—“The vintage
+was now begun, the black
+grapes being spread on the
+ground in beds exposed to the
+sun to dry for raisins; while
+in another part, the juice was
+expressed for wine, a man with
+feet and legs bare, treading the
+fruit in a kind of cistern, with
+a hole or vent near the bottom,
+and a vessel beneath it to receive
+the liquor.” Chandler, ii.
+p. 2.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1587'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1587'>1587</a>. Anacreon, Od. 52. See a
+representation of the whole process
+in the Mus. Cortonens, pl. 9,
+where the vintagers are clad in
+skins; and Cf. Zoëga, Bassi Rilievi,
+tav. 26.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1588'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1588'>1588</a>. Antich. di Ercol. t. i. tav. 35,
+p. 187.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1589'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1589'>1589</a>. Schol. Aristoph. Pac. 527.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1590'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1590'>1590</a>. For the making of the sweet
+wine (Βίβλινος οἶνος) which resembled,
+perhaps, our Constantia
+or Malaga, and enjoyed extraordinary
+favour among the ancients
+Hesiod gives particular directions.
+Opp. et Dies, 611, sqq. Colum.
+xii. 39. Plin. Hist. Nat. xiv. 8.
+Pallad. xi. 19.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1591'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1591'>1591</a>. Sibth. in Walp. Mem. ii.
+235. Chandler, ii. 251.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1592'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1592'>1592</a>. A few drops of the oil which
+ran from olives without pressing
+were supposed by the ancients to
+render the wine stronger and
+more lasting.—Geop. vii. 12. 20.
+On the boiled wine, σίραιον. Cf.
+Sch. Aristoph. Vesp. 878.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1593'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1593'>1593</a>. Virg. Georg. ii. 580, sqq.
+Hes. Scut. Heracl. 291, sqq. Cf.
+Schol. Theocrit. i. 48.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1594'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1594'>1594</a>. See Book ii. chapter 3.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1595'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1595'>1595</a>. Serv. ad Virg. Georg. ii. 389.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1596'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1596'>1596</a>. Æl. de Anim. vi. 25.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1597'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1597'>1597</a>. Geop. iv. 15. Cato, 7. Colum.
+xii. 39. Pallad. 11. 22.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1598'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1598'>1598</a>. In the warm climate of Asia
+Minor grapes were sometimes
+turned into raisins, on the stalk,
+by the sun.—Chandler, i. 77.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1599'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1599'>1599</a>. Eustath. ad Odyss. η. p. 276.
+Schol. Aristoph. Nub. 51. κρεμάθρα.
+fruit-baskets, 219.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1600'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1600'>1600</a>. Dioscor. i. 38.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1601'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1601'>1601</a>. Geop. v. 52. This we find
+is still the practice in the islands
+of the Archipelago, for the purpose
+of making sweet wine. M. l’
+Abbé della Rocca, who mentions
+it, enumerates at the same time
+the most delicious sorts of grapes
+now cultivated in Greece—<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">“On
+peut juger si les vins y sont
+exquis, et si les anciens eurent
+raison d’appeller Naxie l’île de
+Bacchus. Les raisins y sont
+monstrueux, et il arrive souvent
+que dans un repas, on n’en
+sert qu’un seul pour le fruit;
+mais aussi couvre-t-il toute la
+profondeur d’un grand bassin:
+les grains en sont gros comme
+nos damas noirs. Il y a dans
+les îles des raisins de plus de
+vingt sortes: les muscats de
+Ténédos et de Samos l’emportent
+sur tous les autres; ceux
+de Ténédos sont plus ambrés;
+ceux de Samos, plus délicats.
+Les Sentorinois, pour donner
+une saveur plus exquise à leurs
+raisins, leur tordent la queue
+lorsqu’ils commencent à mûrir;
+après quelques jours d’un soleil
+ardent, les raisins deviennent
+à demi flétris, ce qui fait un
+vin dont ceux de la Cieutat et
+de Saint-Laurent n’approchent
+pas. Les autres sortes de raisins
+sont <em>l’aïdhoni</em>, petit raisin
+blanc qu’on mange vers la mi-juillet;
+le <i><a id='corr355.n3.38'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='samia'>samia,</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_355.n3.38'><ins class='correction' title='samia'>samia,</ins></a></span></i> gros raisin
+blanc qu’on fait sécher; le
+siriqui, ainsi nommé parce qu’il
+a le goût de la cerise; <em>l’ætonychi</em>,
+qui a la figure de l’ongle
+d’un aigle, et qui est très savoureux;
+le malvoisie, le muscat
+violet, le corinthe, et plusieurs
+autres dont les noms
+me sont échappés.”</span> <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Traité
+sur les Abeilles,</span> t. i. p. 6, seq.
+Speaking of the prodigious productiveness
+of vines, Columella
+mentions one which bore upwards
+of two thousand clusters, De Re
+Rust. iii. 3. A vine producing
+a fifth of this quantity has been
+thought extraordinary in modern
+Egypt: <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">“Il n’est pas croyable
+combien rapporte un seul pied
+de vigne. Il y en a un dans
+la maison Consulaire de France,
+qui a porté 436 grosses grappes
+de raisin, et qui en donne ordinairement
+300.”</span>—De Maillet,
+<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Description de l’Egypte</span>, p.
+17.<a id='corr355.n3.64'></a><a href='#c_355.n3.64'><ins class='correction' title='See comment.'>*</ins></a> In the Grecian Archipelago,
+however, the vine has
+been known to yield still more
+abundantly than in Egypt: <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">“On
+a compté pendant trois ans
+consécutifs, cent trente-quatre
+grappes de raisin sur une
+souche; et sur un autre cep
+de vigne planté dans un terrain
+très-gras, on a compté jusqu’à
+quatre cent quatre-vingts
+grappes; et l’intendant de
+l’évêché de notre île m’a plus
+d’une fois assuré qu’on avoit
+fait soixante-quinze bouteilles
+de vin, avec le raisin d’un seul
+cep.”</span> Della Rocca, t. i. p. 65.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1602'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1602'>1602</a>. Geop. iv. 15. 4.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1603'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1603'>1603</a>. Geop. iv. 11. Pallad. xii.
+12.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1604'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1604'>1604</a>. Geop. ix. 19. 2.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1605'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1605'>1605</a>. The fruit of the terebinth
+was ground, like the olive, in a
+mill, for the making of oil. The
+kernels were used in feeding pigs,
+or for fuel. Geop. ix. 18.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1606'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1606'>1606</a>. Cf. Cato, De Re Rust. 66.
+This clear pure oil, sometimes
+rendered odoriferous by perfumes,
+(Il. ψ. 186,) was chiefly employed
+in lubricating the body.
+Thus we find the virgin in Hesiod
+anointing her limbs with
+olive-oil to defend herself from
+the winter’s cold. Opp. et Dies,
+519, sqq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1607'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1607'>1607</a>. Vitruv. vi. 9.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1608'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1608'>1608</a>. Geop. ix. 18.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1609'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1609'>1609</a>. Geop. ix. 19, seq. iii. 13.
+Dioscor. i. 140.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1610'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1610'>1610</a>. Geop. x. 10–70. Cf. Mazois,
+Pal. de Scaurus, p. 182, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1611'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1611'>1611</a>. Palladius, iv. 10.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1612'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1612'>1612</a>. We find mention in modern
+times of a species of pomegranate,
+the kernels of which are without
+stones, peculiar apparently to the
+island of Scio. “It is usual to
+bring them to table, in a plate,
+sprinkled with rose-water.”
+Chandler, i. 58.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1613'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1613'>1613</a>. Cf. Philost. Icon. t. 31. p.
+809. ii. 2. p. 812.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1614'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1614'>1614</a>. Ficus virides servari possunt
+vel in melle ordinatæ, ne se invicem
+tangant, vel singulæ intra
+viridem cucurbitam clausæ, locis
+unicuique cavatis, et item tessera,
+quæ secatur, inclusis, suspensa ea
+cucurbita, ubi non sit ignis vel
+fumus. Pallad. iv. 10.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1615'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1615'>1615</a>. Cato, 7. Varro. i. 59. Colum. xii. 14.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1616'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1616'>1616</a>. Schol. Aristoph. Eq. 755.
+Sibth. in Walp. Mem. ii. 61.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1617'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1617'>1617</a>. Phot. ap. Brunckh. ad Aristoph.
+Pac. 574.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1618'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1618'>1618</a>. Pallad. iii. 25.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1619'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1619'>1619</a>. Pallad. iii. 25. Colum. xii.
+45.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1620'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1620'>1620</a>. Theoph. Hist. Plant. iv. 3. i.</p>
+</div>
+<hr class='c016' />
+
+<div>
+ <span class='pageno' id='Page_362'>362</span>
+ <h3 class='c002'>CHAPTER IV. <br /> STUDIES OF THE FARMER.</h3>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c011'>In other branches of rural economy the country
+gentlemen of Attica exhibited no less enthusiasm
+or skill. Indeed, throughout Greece, there prevailed
+a similar taste. Every one was eager to instruct
+and be instructed; and so great in consequence
+was the demand for treatises on husbandry,
+theoretical and practical, that numerous writers, the
+names of fifty of whom are preserved by Varro,<a id='r1621' /><a href='#f1621' class='c012'><sup>[1621]</sup></a>
+made it the object of their study. Others without
+committing the result of their experience to writing,
+devoted themselves wholly to its practical improvement.
+They purchased waste or ill-cultivated lands,
+and, by investigating the nature of the soil, skilfully
+adapting their crops to it, manuring, irrigating, and
+draining, converted a comparative desert into a productive
+estate.<a id='r1622' /><a href='#f1622' class='c012'><sup>[1622]</sup></a> We can possibly, as Dr. Johnson
+insists, improve very little our knowledge of agriculture
+by erudite researches into the methods of
+the ancients; though Milton was of opinion, that
+even here some useful hints might be obtained.
+In describing, however, what the Greeks did, I am
+not pretending to enlighten the present age, but
+to enable it to enjoy its superiority by instituting a
+comparison with the ruder practices of antiquity.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Already in those times the men of experience
+and routine,<a id='r1623' /><a href='#f1623' class='c012'><sup>[1623]</sup></a> had begun to vent their sneers against
+philosophers for their profound researches into the
+nature of soils,<a id='r1624' /><a href='#f1624' class='c012'><sup>[1624]</sup></a> in which, however, they by no means
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_363'>363</span>designed to engage the husbandman, but only to
+present him, in brief and intelligible maxims, with
+the fruit of their labours. Nevertheless the practical
+husbandman went to work a shorter way. He
+observed his neighbour’s grounds,<a id='r1625' /><a href='#f1625' class='c012'><sup>[1625]</sup></a> saw what throve
+in this soil, what in the other, what was bettered
+by irrigation, what in this respect might safely be
+left to the care of Heaven; and thus, in a brief
+space, acquired a rough theory wherewith to commence
+operations. An agriculturist, the Athenians
+thought, required no recondite erudition, though to
+his complete success the exercise of much good sense
+and careful observation was necessary. Every man
+would, doubtless, know in what seasons of the year
+he must plough and sow and reap, that lands exhausted
+by cultivation must be suffered to lie fallow,
+that change of crops is beneficial to the soil, and so
+on. But the great art consists in nicely adapting
+each operation to the varying march of the seasons,
+in converting accidents to use, in rendering the
+winds, the showers, the sunshine, subservient to your
+purposes, in mastering the signs of the weather, and
+guarding as far as possible against the injuries sustained
+from storms of rain or hail.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>There was in circulation among the Greeks a
+small body of precepts, addressed more especially to
+husbandmen, designed to promote the real object of
+civilisation. Quaint, no doubt, and ineffably commonplace,
+they will now appear, but they served,
+nevertheless, in early and rude times, to soften the
+manners and regulate the conduct of the rustic Hellenes.
+Who first began to collect and preserve them
+is, of course, unknown; they are thickly sprinkled
+through the works of Hesiod,<a id='r1626' /><a href='#f1626' class='c012'><sup>[1626]</sup></a> and impart to them
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_364'>364</span>an air of moral dignity which relieves the monotony
+that would otherwise result from a mere string of
+agricultural maxims. The chief aim of the poet
+seems to be, to promote peace and good neighbourhood,
+to multiply among the inhabitants of the fields
+occasions of joining the “rough right hand,”<a id='r1627' /><a href='#f1627' class='c012'><sup>[1627]</sup></a> to apply
+the sharp spur to industry, and thus to augment
+the stores, and, along with them, the contentment,
+of his native land. Be industrious, exclaims the
+poet, for famine is the companion of the idle. Labour
+confers fertility on flocks and herds, and is the
+parent of opulence. He who toils is beloved by
+gods<a id='r1628' /><a href='#f1628' class='c012'><sup>[1628]</sup></a> and men, while the idle hand is the object
+of their aversion. The slothful man envies the prosperity
+of his neighbour; but glory is the reward of
+virtue. Prudence heaps up that which profligacy
+dissipates. Be hospitable to the stranger, for he
+who repels the suppliant from his door is no less
+guilty than the adulterer, than the despoiler of the
+orphan, or the wretch who blasphemes his aged
+parent on the brink of the grave: of such men the
+end is miserable, when Zeus rains down vengeance
+upon them in recompense for their evil actions. Be
+mindful that thou offer up victims to the gods with
+pure hands and holy thoughts,—to pour libations in
+their temples, adorn their altars, and render them
+propitious to thee in all things. When about to
+ascend thy couch to enjoy sweet sleep, and when
+the sacred light of the day-spring first appears, omit
+not to demand of heaven a pure heart and a cheerful
+mind, with the means of extending thy possessions,
+and protection from loss. When thou makest
+a feast, invite thy friends and thy neighbours, and
+in times of trouble they will run to thy assistance
+half-clad, while thy relations will tarry to buckle
+on their girdles. Borrow of thy neighbour, but, in
+repaying him, exceed rather than fall short of what
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_365'>365</span>is his due. Rise betimes. Every little makes a
+mickle. Store is no sore. Housed corn breaks no
+sleep. Drink largely the top and the bottom of the
+jar; be sparing of the middle:<a id='r1629' /><a href='#f1629' class='c012'><sup>[1629]</sup></a> it is niggardly to
+stint your friends when the wine runs low. Do unto
+others as they do unto you.—These seeds of morality
+are simple, as I have said, and far from recondite;
+but they produced the warriors of Marathon and
+Platæa, and preserved for ages the freedom and the
+independence of Greece.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The other branches of an Hellenic farmer’s studies
+comprehended something like the elements of natural
+philosophy,—the influence of the sun and moon, the
+rising and setting of the stars, the motion of the
+winds, the generation and effects of dews, clouds,
+meteors, showers and tempests, the origin of springs
+and fountains, and the migrations and habits of
+birds and other animals. In addition to these things,
+it was necessary that he should be acquainted with
+certain practices, prevalent from time immemorial in
+his country, and, probably, deriving their origin from
+ages beyond the utmost reach of tradition. The source
+of these we usually denominate superstition, though it
+would, perhaps, be more proper to regard them as
+the offspring of that lively and plastic fancy which
+gave birth to poetry and art, and inclined its possessors
+to create a sort of minor religion, based on a
+praiseworthy principle, but developing itself chiefly
+in observances almost always minute and trifling, and
+sometimes ridiculous. To describe all these at length
+would be beside my present purpose, which only requires
+that I mention by the way the more remarkable
+of those connected especially with agriculture.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The knowledge of soil was called into play both
+in purchasing estates and in appropriating their several
+parts to different kinds of culture. According to
+their notions, which appear to have been founded
+on long experience, and in most points, I believe,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_366'>366</span>agree with those which still prevail, a rich black
+mould, deep, friable, and porous,<a id='r1630' /><a href='#f1630' class='c012'><sup>[1630]</sup></a> which would resist
+equally the effects of rain and drought, was, for all
+purposes, the best. Next to this they esteemed a
+yellow alluvial soil, and that sweet warm ground
+which best suited vines, corn, and trees. The red
+earth, also, they highly valued, except for timber.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Their rules for detecting the character and qualities
+of the soil appear to have been judicious.
+Good land, they thought, might be known even from
+its appearance, since in drought it cracks not too
+much, and during heavy and continued showers becomes
+not miry, but suffers all the rain to sink
+into its bosom. That earth they considered inferior
+which in cold weather becomes baked, and is covered
+on the surface by a shell-like incrustation. They
+judged, likewise, of the virtue of the soil by the luxuriant
+or stunted character of its natural productions:<a id='r1631' /><a href='#f1631' class='c012'><sup>[1631]</sup></a>
+thus they augured favourably of those tracts
+of country which were covered by vast and lofty
+timber-trees, while such as produced only a dwarfed
+vegetation, consisting of meagre bushes, scattered
+thickets, and hungry grass, they reckoned almost
+worthless.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Not content with the testimony of the eye, some
+husbandmen were accustomed to consult both the
+smell and the taste; for, digging a pit of some depth,
+they took thence a small quantity of earth, from the
+odour of which they drew an opinion favourable or
+otherwise. But to render surety doubly sure, they
+then threw it into a vase, and poured on it a quantity
+of potable water, which they afterwards tasted,
+inferring from the flavour the fertility or barrenness
+of the soil. This was the experiment most relied
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_367'>367</span>on; though many considered that soil sweet which
+produced the basket-rush, the reed, the lotos, and
+the bramble. On some occasions they employed another
+method, which was, to make a small excavation,
+and then, throwing back the earth into the
+opening whence it had been drawn, to observe whether
+or not it filled the whole cavity:<a id='r1632' /><a href='#f1632' class='c012'><sup>[1632]</sup></a> if it did so, or
+left a surplus, the soil was judged to be excellent;
+if not, they regarded it as of little value. Soils
+possessing saline qualities were shunned by the ancients,
+who carefully avoided mingling salt with their
+manure, though lands of this description were rightly
+thought to be well adapted to the cultivation of
+palm-trees,<a id='r1633' /><a href='#f1633' class='c012'><sup>[1633]</sup></a> which they produce in the greatest perfection,<a id='r1634' /><a href='#f1634' class='c012'><sup>[1634]</sup></a>
+as in Phœnicia, Egypt, and the country round
+Babylon.<a id='r1635' /><a href='#f1635' class='c012'><sup>[1635]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Another art in which the condition of the husbandman
+required him to be well versed was that
+of discovering the signs of latent springs,<a id='r1636' /><a href='#f1636' class='c012'><sup>[1636]</sup></a> the existence
+of which it was necessary to ascertain before
+laying the foundation of a new farm. The investigation
+was complicated, and carried on in a variety
+of ways. First, and most obvious, was the inference
+drawn from plants and the nature of the soil itself; for
+those grounds, they thought, were intersected below by
+veins of water which bore upon their surface certain
+tribes of grasses and herbs and bushes, as the couch-grass,
+the broad-leaved plantain, the heliotrope, the
+red-grass, the agnus-castus, the bramble, the horse-tail,
+or shave-grass, ivy, bush-calamint, soft and slender
+reeds,<a id='r1637' /><a href='#f1637' class='c012'><sup>[1637]</sup></a> maiden-hair, the melilot, ditch-dock, cinquefoil,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_368'>368</span>or five leaf-grass, broad-leaved bloodwort, the
+rush, nightshade, mil-foil, colt’s-foot or foal’s-foot, trefoil
+or pond-weed, and the black thistle. Spring-heads
+were always supposed to lurk beneath fat and black
+loam, as, likewise, in a stony soil, especially where
+the rocks are dark and of a ferruginous colour. But
+in argillaceous districts, particularly where potter’s-clay
+abounds, or where there are many pebbles and
+pumice-stones,<a id='r1638' /><a href='#f1638' class='c012'><sup>[1638]</sup></a> they are of rare occurrence.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>To the above indications they were in most cases
+careful to add others. Ascending ere sunrise to a
+higher level than the spot under examination, they
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_369'>369</span>observed by the first rays and before the light thickened,
+whether they could detect the presence of any
+exhalations, which were held unerringly to indicate
+the presence of springs below. Sometimes inquisition
+was made during the bright and clear noon,
+when the subterraneous retreats of the Naiads were
+supposed in summer to be betrayed by cloudlets of
+thin silvery vapour, and in the winter season by
+curling threads of steam. In this way the natives
+of southern Africa discover the existence of hidden
+fountains in the desert.<a id='r1639' /><a href='#f1639' class='c012'><sup>[1639]</sup></a> Swarms of gnats flitting
+hither and thither, or whirling round and ascending
+in a column, were regarded as another sign.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>When not entirely satisfied by any of the above
+means, they had recourse to the following experiment:<a id='r1640' /><a href='#f1640' class='c012'><sup>[1640]</sup></a>
+sinking a pit to the depth of about four feet
+and a half, they took a hemispherical pan or lead
+basin, and having anointed it with oil, and fastened
+with wax a long flake of wool to the bottom, placed
+it inverted in the pit. It was then covered with
+earth about a foot deep, and left undisturbed during
+a whole night. On its being taken forth in
+the morning, if the inside of the vessel were covered
+thickly with globules, and the wool were dripping
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_370'>370</span>wet, it was concluded there were springs beneath,
+the depth of which they calculated from the scantiness
+or profusion of the moisture. A similar trial
+was made with a sponge covered with reeds.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Since most streams and rivers take their rise in
+lofty table-lands or mountains, which by the ancients
+were supposed to be richer in springs in proportion
+to the number of their peaks, it would seem
+to follow, that scarcely any country in Europe
+should be better supplied with water than Greece.
+Experience, however, shows, that this in modern
+times is not the fact, several rivers supposed to
+have been of great volume in antiquity, having
+now dwindled into mere brooks, and innumerable
+streamlets and fountains become altogether dry; on
+which account the credit of Greek writers is often
+impugned, it being supposed that the natural characteristics
+of the country must necessarily be invariable.
+But this is an error. For the existence of
+springs and rivulets depends less perhaps on the
+presence of mountains than on the prevalence of
+forests, as Democritos<a id='r1641' /><a href='#f1641' class='c012'><sup>[1641]</sup></a> long ago observed. Now,
+from a variety of causes, still in active operation,
+the ridges and hills and lower eminences of modern
+Greece have been almost completely denuded
+of trees, along with which have necessarily
+disappeared the well-springs, and runnels, and cascades,
+and rills, and mountain tarns, which anciently
+shed beauty and fertility over the face of Hellas,
+whose highlands were once so densely clad with
+woods<a id='r1642' /><a href='#f1642' class='c012'><sup>[1642]</sup></a> that the peasants requiring a short cut from
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_371'>371</span>one valley to another, were compelled to clear themselves
+a pathway with the axe.<a id='r1643' /><a href='#f1643' class='c012'><sup>[1643]</sup></a> To restore to
+Greece, therefore, its waters, and the beauty and
+riches depending on them, the mountains must be
+again forested, and severe restraint put on the wantonness
+of those vagrant shepherds who constantly
+expose vast woods to the risk of entire destruction
+for the sake of procuring more delicate grass for
+their flocks.<a id='r1644' /><a href='#f1644' class='c012'><sup>[1644]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>In Attica,<a id='r1645' /><a href='#f1645' class='c012'><sup>[1645]</sup></a> both fields and gardens were chiefly
+irrigated by means of wells which, sometimes, in
+extremely long and dry summers, failed entirely,
+thus causing a scarcity of vegetables.<a id='r1646' /><a href='#f1646' class='c012'><sup>[1646]</sup></a> The water,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_372'>372</span>we find, was drawn up by precisely the same machinery
+as is still employed for the purpose.
+The invention of these conveniences of primary
+necessity having preceded the birth of tradition,
+has, by some writers, been attributed to Danaos,
+who is supposed to have emigrated from Egypt into
+Greece. Arriving, we are told, at Argos, he, upon
+the failure of spontaneous fountains, taught the inhabitants
+to dig wells, in consequence of which he
+was elected chief. But where was Danaos himself
+to have learned this art? He is said to have been
+an Egyptian, and Egypt is a country so entirely
+without springs, that two only exist within its limits,
+and of these but one was known to the ancients.
+Of wells they had none. Danaos could, therefore,
+if he was an Egyptian, have known nothing of
+springs or wells; and, if he had such knowledge, he
+must have come from some other land.<a id='r1647' /><a href='#f1647' class='c012'><sup>[1647]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Where there existed neither wells nor fountains,
+people were compelled to depend on rain-water, collected
+and preserved in cisterns.<a id='r1648' /><a href='#f1648' class='c012'><sup>[1648]</sup></a> For this purpose
+troughs were in some farm-houses run along the
+eaves both of the stables, barns, and sheep-cotes, as
+well as of the dwelling of the family, while others
+used only that which ran from the last, the roof of
+which was kept scrupulously clean. The water was
+conveyed through wooden pipes<a id='r1649' /><a href='#f1649' class='c012'><sup>[1649]</sup></a> to the cisterns,
+which appear to have been frequently situated in
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_373'>373</span>the front court.<a id='r1650' /><a href='#f1650' class='c012'><sup>[1650]</sup></a> Bad water they purified in several
+ways: by casting into it a little coral powder,<a id='r1651' /><a href='#f1651' class='c012'><sup>[1651]</sup></a> small
+linen bags of bruised barley, or a quantity of laurel
+leaves, or by pouring it into broad tubs and exposing
+it for a considerable time to the action of
+the sun and air. When there happened to be about
+the farms ponds of any magnitude, they introduced
+into them a number of eels or river crabs, which
+opened the veins of the earth and destroyed leeches.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>A scarcely less important branch of the farmer’s
+studies was that which related to the weather and
+the general march of the seasons.<a id='r1652' /><a href='#f1652' class='c012'><sup>[1652]</sup></a> Above all things,
+it behoved him to observe diligently the rising and
+setting of the sun and moon. He was, likewise,
+carefully to note the state of the atmosphere at the
+disappearance of the Pleiades, since it was expected
+to continue the same until the winter solstice, after
+which a change sometimes immediately supervened,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_374'>374</span>otherwise there was usually no alteration till the
+vernal equinox.<a id='r1653' /><a href='#f1653' class='c012'><sup>[1653]</sup></a> Another variation then took place
+in the character of the weather, which afterwards
+remained fixed till the rising of the Pleiades, undergoing
+successively fresh mutations at the summer
+solstice and the autumnal equinox. According to
+their observations, moreover, a rainy winter<a id='r1654' /><a href='#f1654' class='c012'><sup>[1654]</sup></a> was
+followed by a dry and raw spring, and the contrary;
+and a snowy winter by a year of abundance. But
+as nature by no means steadily follows this course,
+exhibiting many sudden and abrupt fluctuations, it
+was found necessary to subject her restless phenomena
+to a more rigid scrutiny, in order that rules
+might be obtained for foretelling the approach of
+rain, or tempests, or droughts, or a continuance of
+fair weather. Of these some, possibly, were founded
+on imperfect observation or casual coincidences, or
+a fanciful linking of causes and effects; while others,
+we cannot doubt, sprang from a practical familiarity
+with the subtler and more shifting elements of natural
+philosophy.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>As nothing more obviously interests the husbandman
+than the seasonable arrival and departure of
+rains, everything connected with them, however remotely,
+was observed and treasured up with scrupulous
+accuracy. Of all the circumstances pre-signifying
+their approach the most certain was supposed
+to be the aspect of the morning; for if, before sunrise,
+beds of purpurescent clouds<a id='r1655' /><a href='#f1655' class='c012'><sup>[1655]</sup></a> stretched along
+the verge of the horizon, rain was expected that
+day, or the day after the morrow. The same augury
+they drew, though with less confidence, from the appearance
+of the setting sun,<a id='r1656' /><a href='#f1656' class='c012'><sup>[1656]</sup></a> especially if in winter
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_375'>375</span>or spring it went down through an accumulation
+of clouds or with masses of dusky rack on the left.
+Again, if, on rising, the sun looked pale, dull red,
+or spotted;<a id='r1657' /><a href='#f1657' class='c012'><sup>[1657]</sup></a> or, if, previously, its rays were seen
+streaming upwards;<a id='r1658' /><a href='#f1658' class='c012'><sup>[1658]</sup></a> or, if, immediately afterwards,
+a long band of clouds extended beneath it, intersecting
+its descending beams; or if the orient wore a
+sombre hue; or if piles of sable vapour towered into
+the welkin; or if the clouds were scattered loosely
+over the sky like fleeces of wool;<a id='r1659' /><a href='#f1659' class='c012'><sup>[1659]</sup></a> or came waving
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_376'>376</span>up from the south in long sinuous streaks—the
+“mares’ tails” of our nautical vocabulary—the husbandman
+reckoned with certainty upon rain, floods,
+and tempestuous winds. Among the signs of showers
+peculiar to the site of Athens may be reckoned these
+following: if a rampart of white ground-fogs begirt
+at night the basis of Hymettos; or, if its summits
+were capped with vapour;<a id='r1660' /><a href='#f1660' class='c012'><sup>[1660]</sup></a> or, if troops of mists
+settled in the hollow of the smaller mount, called
+the Springless; or, if a single cloud rested on the
+fane of Zeus at Ægina.<a id='r1661' /><a href='#f1661' class='c012'><sup>[1661]</sup></a> The violent roaring of the
+sea upon the beach was the forerunner of a gale,
+and they were enabled to conjecture from what
+quarter it was to blow, by the movements of the
+waters, which retreated from the shore before a north
+wind; while, at the approach of the sirocco, they
+were piled up higher than usual against the cliffs.
+Elsewhere, in Attica, they supposed wet weather
+to be foretold by the summits of Eubœa rising clear,
+sharp, and unusually elevated through a dense floor
+of exhalations, which, when they mounted and gathered
+in blowing weather about the peaks of Caphareus,<a id='r1662' /><a href='#f1662' class='c012'><sup>[1662]</sup></a>
+on the eastern shores of the island, presaged
+an impending storm of five days’ continuance.
+But here these signs concerned rather the mariner
+than the husbandman, since the cliffs that stretched
+along this coast are rugged and precipitous, and
+the approaches so dangerous that few vessels which
+are driven on it escape. Scarcely are the crews
+able to save themselves, unless their bark happen
+to be extremely light. Another portent of foul weather
+was the apparition of a circle about the moon,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_377'>377</span>while, by the double reflection of its orb north and
+south, that luminary appeared to be multiplied into
+three. At night, also, if the nubecula,<a id='r1663' /><a href='#f1663' class='c012'><sup>[1663]</sup></a> called the
+Manger, in the constellation of the Crab, shone
+less luminously, it betokened a similar state of the
+atmosphere. A like inference<a id='r1664' /><a href='#f1664' class='c012'><sup>[1664]</sup></a> was drawn when
+the moon at three days old rose dusky; or, with
+blunt horns; or, with its rim, or whole disk, red;
+or blotted with black spots; or encircled by two
+halos.<a id='r1665' /><a href='#f1665' class='c012'><sup>[1665]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The phenomena of thunder and lightning, likewise,
+instructed the husbandman who was studious
+in the language of the heavens: thus, when thunder
+was heard in winter or in the morning, it betokened
+wind; in the evening or at noon, in summer,
+rain; when it lightened from every part of
+the heavens, both. Falling stars<a id='r1666' /><a href='#f1666' class='c012'><sup>[1666]</sup></a> likewise denoted
+wind or rain, originating in that part of the heavens
+where they appeared.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Among our own rustics the whole philosophy of
+rainbows has been compressed into a couple of distichs:</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>A rainbow at night</div>
+ <div class='line'>Is the shepherd’s delight.</div>
+ <div class='line'>A rainbow in the morning</div>
+ <div class='line'>Is the shepherd’s warning.</div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c014'>And upon this subject,<a id='r1667' /><a href='#f1667' class='c012'><sup>[1667]</sup></a> the peasants of Hellas
+had little more to say; their opinion having been
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_378'>378</span>that, in proportion to the number of rainbows, would
+be the fury and continuance of the showers with
+which they were threatened.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Other signs of mutation in the atmosphere they
+discovered in almost every part of nature; for example,
+when bubbles rose on the surface of a river
+they looked for a fall of rain; as also when small
+land-birds were seen drenching their plumage; when
+the crow was beheld washing his head upon the
+rocky beach,<a id='r1668' /><a href='#f1668' class='c012'><sup>[1668]</sup></a> or the raven flapping his wings, while
+with his voice he imitated amidst his croaking the
+pattering of drops of rain; when the peasant was
+awakened in the morning by the cry of the passing
+crane,<a id='r1669' /><a href='#f1669' class='c012'><sup>[1669]</sup></a> or the shrill note of the chaffinch within
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_379'>379</span>his dwelling. Flights of island birds flocking to the
+continent,<a id='r1670' /><a href='#f1670' class='c012'><sup>[1670]</sup></a> preceded drought; as a number of jackdaws
+and ravens flying up and down, and imitating
+the scream of the hawk, did rain. The
+incessant shrieks of the screech-owl and the vehement
+cawing of the crow, heard during a serene
+night, foretold the approach of storms. The
+barn-door fowl and the house-dog also played the
+part of soothsayers, teaching their master to dread
+impending storms by rolling themselves in the dust.
+Of similar import was the flocking of geese with
+noise to their food, or the skimming of swallows
+along the surface of the water.<a id='r1671' /><a href='#f1671' class='c012'><sup>[1671]</sup></a> Again, when troops
+of dolphins were seen rolling near the shore, or oxen
+licking their fore-hoofs, or looking southwards, or,
+with a suspicious air, snuffing the elements,<a id='r1672' /><a href='#f1672' class='c012'><sup>[1672]</sup></a> or
+going bellowing to their stalls; when wolves approached
+the homesteads; when flies bit sharp,<a id='r1673' /><a href='#f1673' class='c012'><sup>[1673]</sup></a> or
+frogs croaked vociferously, or the ruddock, or land-toad,
+crept into the water; when the salamander lizard
+appeared, and the note of the green-frog was
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_380'>380</span>heard in the trees, the rustic donned his capote,
+and prepared, like Anaxagoras at Olympia,<a id='r1674' /><a href='#f1674' class='c012'><sup>[1674]</sup></a> for a
+shower. The flight of the storm-birds, kepphoi,<a id='r1675' /><a href='#f1675' class='c012'><sup>[1675]</sup></a>
+was supposed to indicate a tempest from the point
+of the heavens towards which they flew. When
+in bright and windless weather clouds of cobwebs,<a id='r1676' /><a href='#f1676' class='c012'><sup>[1676]</sup></a>
+floated through the air, the husbandman anticipated
+a drenching for his fields, as also when earthen pots
+and brass pans emitted sparks; when lamps spat;
+when the wick made mushrooms;<a id='r1677' /><a href='#f1677' class='c012'><sup>[1677]</sup></a> when a halo encircled
+its flame,<a id='r1678' /><a href='#f1678' class='c012'><sup>[1678]</sup></a> or when the flame itself was dusky.
+The housewife was forewarned of coming hail-storms,
+generally from the north, by a profusion of bright
+sparks appearing on the surface of her charcoal fire;
+when her feet swelled she knew that the wind would
+blow from the south.<a id='r1679' /><a href='#f1679' class='c012'><sup>[1679]</sup></a> Heaps of clouds like burnished
+copper rising after rain in the west portended
+fine weather; as did likewise the tops of
+lofty mountains, as Athos, Ossa, and Olympos, appearing
+sharply defined against the sky; while an
+apparent augmentation in the height of promontories
+and the number of islands foreshowed wind.</p>
+
+<hr class='c016' />
+<div class='footnote' id='f1621'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1621'>1621</a>. De Re Rusticâ, i. 1. Cf.
+Colum. i. 1.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1622'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1622'>1622</a>. Xenoph. Œconom. xx. 22,
+sqq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1623'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1623'>1623</a>. Cf. Plat. De Legg. t. vii. p. 111.
+t. viii. p. 103.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1624'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1624'>1624</a>. Xenoph. Œconom. xvi. 1,
+sqq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1625'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1625'>1625</a>. The sight of a rich and thriving
+neighbour operated likewise
+as a spur to his industry:—</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>Εἰς ἕτερον γάρ τίς τε ἰδὼν ἔργοιο χατίζων</div>
+ <div class='line'>Πλούσιον ὅς σπεύδει μέν ἀρόμμεναι ἠδὲ φυτεύειν,</div>
+ <div class='line'>Οἶκον τ᾽ εὖ θέσθαι· ζηλοῖ δὲ τε γείτονα γείτων</div>
+ <div class='line'>Εἰς ἄφενον σπεύδοντ᾽ ἀγαθὴ δ᾽</div>
+ <div class='line in5'>Ἔρις ἥδε βροτοῖσι.</div>
+ <div class='line in26'>Hesiod. Opp. et Dies, 21, sqq.</div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1626'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1626'>1626</a>. Opp. et Dies, 298, sqq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1627'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1627'>1627</a>. Sch. Aristoph. Pac. 190.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1628'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1628'>1628</a>. </p>
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>Καὶ τ᾽ ἐργαζόμενος πολὺ φίλτερος ἀθανάτοισιν.</div>
+ <div class='line'>Ἔσσεαι ἠδὲ βροτοῖς· μάλα γὰρ στυγέουσιν ἀεργούς.</div>
+ <div class='line in24'>Opp. et Dies. 309, seq.</div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1629'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1629'>1629</a>. Cf. Plut. Sympos. vii. 3.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1630'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1630'>1630</a>. Geop. ii. 9. In these rich
+loams, particularly on the banks
+of the Stymphalian and Copaic
+lakes, wheat has been known to
+yield a return of fifty-fold. Thiersch,
+<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Etat Act. de la Grèce.</span> t. ii.
+p. 17.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Other spots, again, return thirty-fold.
+Sibth. in Walp. Mem. i. 60.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1631'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1631'>1631</a>. The pitch-pine indicated a
+light and hungry soil; the cypress,
+a clayey soil. Philost.
+Icon. ii. 9. p. 775.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1632'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1632'>1632</a>. Geop. ii. 11.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1633'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1633'>1633</a>. The Grecian husbandman,
+therefore, when planting palm-trees
+in any other than a sandy
+soil, sprinkled salt on the earth
+immediately around. Theoph.
+Hist. Plant. i. 6. 2.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1634'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1634'>1634</a>. Geop. ii. 10.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1635'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1635'>1635</a>. Xenoph. Anab. ii. 3. 16. The
+doom-palm, generally, I believe,
+supposed to be peculiar to Upper
+Egypt and the countries beyond
+the cataract, was anciently cultivated
+also in Crete. Theoph.
+Hist. Plant. i. 6. 3.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1636'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1636'>1636</a>. Geop. ii. 4, sqq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1637'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1637'>1637</a>. Philost. Icon. ii. 9. p. 775.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1638'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1638'>1638</a>. Spallanzani, in his scientific
+Travels in the Two Sicilies, describes
+and explains the cause of
+the rarity of springs in volcanic
+countries. In some districts
+among the roots of Ætna the female
+peasants are compelled to
+travel ten miles, at certain seasons
+of the year, in search of
+water, a jar of which costs, consequently,
+almost a day’s journey. vol.
+i. p. 299, sqq. In another part of
+the same work he investigates the
+origin of springs in the Æolian
+isles, which he illustrates by the
+example of Stromboli. iv. 128.
+In this island there are two fountains,
+one of slightly tepid water,
+at the foot of the mountain, the
+other on its slope. <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">“Je recontrai,”</span>
+observes Monsieur Dolomieu,
+<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">“à moitié hauteur une
+source d’eau froide, douce, légère
+et très bonne à boire, qui ne
+tarit jamais et qui est l’unique
+ressourse des habitans
+lorsque leurs cîternes sont épuisées
+et lorsque les chaleurs ont
+desséché une seconde source qui
+est au pied de la montagne
+ce qui arrive tous les étés.”</span>
+He then adds with reason: <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">“Cette
+petite fontaine dans ce lieu très
+élevé au milieu des cendres
+volcaniques, est très remarquable,
+elle ne peut avoir son réservoir
+que dans une pointe
+de montagne isolée, toute de
+sable et de pierres poreuses, matières
+qui ne peuvent point
+retenir l’eau, puisqu’elles sont
+perméables à la fumée.” Voyage
+aux Iles de Lipari,</span> t. i. p.
+120. He then endeavours to account
+for its existence by evaporation.
+In the island of Saline,
+among the same Æolian group,
+there is another never-failing
+spring, which, as some years no
+rain falls in these islands during
+the space of nine months, has
+greatly perplexed the theories of
+naturalists. Spallanzani conceives,
+however, that the phenomenon
+may be explained in the usual
+way: “It appears to me,” he
+says, “extremely probable, that
+in the internal parts of an
+island which, like this, is the
+work of fire, there may be immense
+caverns that may be filled
+with water by the rains;
+and that in some of these which
+are placed above the spring,
+the water may always continue
+at nearly the same height.”
+Travels in the Two Sicilies, vol.
+iv. p. 136.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1639'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1639'>1639</a>. Le Vaillant, t. viii. p. 162.
+Even in the southern provinces of
+France, the discovery of hidden
+springs is an art of no mean importance;
+and the persons who
+possess it are regarded as public
+benefactors. Thus, as I learn
+from my friend M. Louis Froment,
+of the department of the
+Lot, M. Paramelle, a curé having
+a living in that part of the
+country, is held in high estimation
+on account of the power
+he possesses of discovering the
+lurking retreats of spring-heads.
+He is able, from a certain distance,
+and without the least hesitation,
+to point out the source of
+living water, determine the depth
+at which it is to be found, say,
+without ever falling into error,
+what is the quantity and what
+the quality of the water. Without
+seeking to penetrate the plan,
+of which he keeps the secret, his
+countrymen avail themselves of
+the advantages offered to them;
+and the inhabitants of one village,
+situated on a calcareous tableland,
+have discovered, by the
+assistance of M. Paramelle, a
+source in their market-place,
+whilst before they were compelled
+to seek water at a distance of five
+miles.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1640'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1640'>1640</a>. Geop. ii. 4.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1641'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1641'>1641</a>. Geop. ii. 6.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1642'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1642'>1642</a>. Cf. Hesiod. Opp. et Dies, 233,
+where he speaks of swarms of wild
+bees on the slopes of the mountains.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>In another passage this poet
+describes the ravages and devastation
+of a hurricane amid the
+fountain forests:</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>Μῆνα δὲ Ληναιῶνα, κάκ᾽ ἤματα, βουδόρα πάντα,</div>
+ <div class='line'>τοῦτον ἀλεύασθαι, καὶ πηγάδας, αἵτ ἐπὶ γαῖαν</div>
+ <div class='line'>πνεύσαντος Βορέαο δυσηλεγέες τελέθουσιν,</div>
+ <div class='line'>ὅστε διὰ Θρῄκης ἱπποτρόφου ἐυρέϊ πόντῳ</div>
+ <div class='line'>ἐμπνεύσας ὤρινε· μέμυκε δὲ γαῖα καὶ ὕλη.</div>
+ <div class='line'>πολλὰς δὲ δρῦς ὑψικόμους ἐλάτας τε παχείας</div>
+ <div class='line'>οὔρεος ἐν βήσσῃς πιλνᾷ χθονὶ πουλυβοτείρῃ</div>
+ <div class='line'>ἐμπίπτων, καὶ πᾶσα βοᾷ τότε νήριτος ὕλη.</div>
+ <div class='line in21'>Opp. et Dies, 504, sqq.</div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c014'>The pine and pitch trees, it is
+related by Theophrastus, were
+often uprooted by the winds in
+Arcadia. Hist. Plant. iii. 6. 4.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1643'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1643'>1643</a>. Theoph. Hist. Plant. iii. 3.
+7. In all countries, small and
+great, the progress of civilisation
+has been inimical to forests. Thus
+in the little island of Stromboli,
+containing about a thousand inhabitants,
+attempts were made
+towards the end of the eighteenth
+century to enlarge the cultivable
+ground by clearing away the
+woods. Spallanzani, Travels in
+the Two Sicilies, vol. iv. p. 126,
+seq. The difficulty of extirpating
+trees is illustrated by Theophrastus
+who relates that, in a spot
+near Pheneon in Arcadia, a well-wooded
+tract was overflowed by
+the water and the trees destroyed.
+Next year, when the flood had
+subsided and the mud dried, each
+kind of tree appeared in the situation
+which it had formerly occupied.
+The willow, the elm, the
+pine, and the fir, growing in its
+own place, doubtless from the
+roots of the former trees. Hist.
+Plant. iii. 1. 2. Again: the
+Nessos, in the territory of the
+Abderites, constantly changed its
+bed, and in the old channels trees
+sprung up so rapidly that, in three
+years, they were so many strips
+of forest. Id. iii. 1. 5.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1644'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1644'>1644</a>. Thiersch, Etat Actuel de la
+Grèce. t. i. p. 276. It is remarked
+by Theophrastus, however, that
+pine forests, being destroyed by
+fire, shot up again, as happened
+in Lesbos, on a mountain near
+Pyrrha. Hist. Plant. iii. 9. 4.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1645'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1645'>1645</a>. Cf. Chandler, i. p. 261.
+The apparatus now used in irrigation
+by the Sciots exactly
+resembles that of the Egyptian
+Arabs. Id. i. 315.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1646'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1646'>1646</a>. Demosth. Adv. Polycl. §
+16. On the supply of water to
+Athens we possess little positive
+information, though we cannot
+doubt that all possible advantage
+was taken of those pure sources
+which are still found in its neighbourhood.
+“In no country necessity
+was more likely to have
+created the hydragogic art
+than in Attica; and we have
+evidence of the attention bestowed
+by the Athenians upon
+their canals and fountains in
+the time of Themistocles, as
+well as in that of Alexander
+the Great.” Col. Leake, on
+some disputed points in the Topography
+of Athens. Trans. Lit.
+Soc. iii. 189. Cf. Aristoph. Av.
+Schol. 998. Plut. Themist. § 31.
+Arist. Polit. vi. 8. vii. 12. We
+find, from Theophrastus, that there
+was in his time, an aqueduct in
+the Lyceum with a number of
+plane trees growing near it.
+Theoph. Hist. Plant. i. 7. 1.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1647'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1647'>1647</a>. Mitford, i. 33, seq. In Bœotia,
+Babylonia, Egypt, and Cyrenaica,
+the dew served instead
+of rain. Theoph. Hist. Plant.
+viii. 4. 6.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1648'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1648'>1648</a>. Λακκοὶ. Machon. ap. Athen.
+xiii. 43.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1649'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1649'>1649</a>. Geop. ii. 7.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1650'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1650'>1650</a>. Sir W. Hamilton, Acc. of
+Discov. at Pompeii, p. 13.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1651'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1651'>1651</a>. Water was cooled by being
+suspended in vessels over the
+mouths of wells; and sometimes
+boiled previously to render the
+process more complete. For, according
+to the Peripatetics, πᾶν
+ὕδωρ προθερμανθὲν ψύχεται μᾶλλον,
+ὥσπερ τὸ τοῖς βασιλεῦσι
+παρασκευαζόμενον, ὅταν ἑψηθῇ
+μέχρι ζέσεως, περισωρεύουσι τῷ
+ἀγγείῳ χιόνα πολλὴν, καὶ γίνεται
+ψυχρότερον. Plut. Sympos.
+vi. 4. 1.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1652'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1652'>1652</a>. Geop. i. 2–4. 11. Theophrast.
+<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">De Signis Pluviarum et de Ventis,
+<em>passim</em></span>. Our own agriculturists,
+also, were formerly much
+addicted to these studies. Thus,
+“The oke apples, if broken in
+sunder about the time of their
+withering, do foreshewe the sequel
+of the yeare, as the expert
+Kentish husbandmen have
+observed, by the living things
+found in them: as, if they
+find an ant, they foretell plentie
+of graine to insue; if a
+whole worm, like a gentill or
+maggot, then they prognosticate
+murren of beasts and cattle;
+if a spider, then (saie they)
+we shall have a pestilence or
+some such like sickness to followe
+amongst men. These
+things the learned, also, have
+observed and noted: for Mathiolus,
+writing upon Dioscorides
+saith, that before they
+have an hole through them,
+they conteine in them either
+a flie, a spider, or a worme;
+if a flie, then warre insueth; if
+a creeping worme, then scarcitie
+of victuals; if a running spider,
+then followeth great sickness
+and mortalitie.” Gerrard,
+Herball, Third Book, c.
+29. p. 1158. Cf. Lord Bacon,
+Sylva Sylvarum, 561.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1653'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1653'>1653</a>. Cf. Hesiod, Opp. et Dies,
+486, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1654'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1654'>1654</a>. Cf. Lord Bacon, Sylva Sylvarum,
+675. 812.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1655'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1655'>1655</a>. Cf. Arato. Prognost. 102, sqq.
+But, on the other hand, “purus
+oriens, atque non fervens, serenum
+diem nuntiat.” Plin.
+Hist. Nat. xviii. 78. Aristot.
+Problem. xxvi. 8.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1656'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1656'>1656</a>. The sun-sets of the Mediterranean
+exhibit, as most travellers
+will have observed, a variety of
+gorgeous phenomena, which, as
+betokening certain states of the
+atmosphere serve as so many admonitions
+to the husbandman.
+The sun before going down “assumed,”
+observes Dr. Chandler,
+“a variety of fantastic shapes.
+It was surrounded, first, with
+a golden glory of great extent,
+and flamed upon the surface of
+the sea in a long column of
+fire. The lower half of the
+orb soon after emerged in the
+horizon, the other portion remaining
+very large and red,
+with half of a smaller orb beneath
+it, and separate, but in
+the same direction, the circular
+rim approaching the line of its
+diameter. These two, by degrees,
+united, and then changed
+rapidly into different figures,
+until the resemblance was that
+of a capacious punch-bowl inverted.
+The rim of the bottom
+extending upward, and
+the body lengthening below
+it, became a mushroom on a
+stalk with a round head. It
+was next metamorphosed into
+a flaming caldron, of which
+the lid, rising up, swelled
+nearly into an orb and vanished.
+The other portion put
+on several uncircular forms,
+and, after many twinklings and
+faint glimmerings, slowly disappeared,
+quite red, leaving the
+clouds hanging over the dark
+rocks on the Barbary shore finely
+tinged with a vivid bloody
+hue.” Travels, i. p. 4. Appearances
+similar, though of inferior
+brilliance and variety, are
+sometimes witnessed in the Western
+Hemisphere. Describing the
+beauties of an evening on the Canadian
+shore, Sir R. H. Bonnycastle
+observes: “First, there
+was a double sun by reflection,
+each disk equally distinct;
+afterwards, when the
+orb reached the mark x, a solid
+body of light, equal in breadth
+with the sun itself, but of great
+length from the shore, shot
+down on the sea, and remained
+like a broad fiery golden column,
+or bar, until the black
+high land hid the luminary
+itself.” The Canadas in 1841.
+v. i. p. 34.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1657'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1657'>1657</a>. </p>
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>Ille ubi nascentem maculis variaverit ortum</div>
+ <div class='line'>Conditus in nubem, medioque refugerit orbe;</div>
+ <div class='line'>Suspecti tibi sint imbres.</div>
+ <div class='line in21'>Virg. Georg. i. 441, sqq.</div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1658'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1658'>1658</a>. Plin. Hist. Nat. xviii. 78.
+Aratus, Prognost. 137, sqq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1659'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1659'>1659</a>. Cf. Plin. xviii. 82. <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">“Si
+nubes ut vellera lanæ spargentur
+multæ ab oriente, aquam
+in triduum præsagient;”</span> and
+Virg. Georg, i. 397:</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Tenuia nec lanæ per cœlum vellera ferri.</span></div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1660'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1660'>1660</a>. If the Mounts Parnes and
+Brylessus appeared enveloped in
+clouds, the circumstance was
+thought to foretel a tempest.
+Theoph. de Sign. Pluv. iii. 6.
+Cf. Strabo. ix. 11. t. ii. p. 253.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1661'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1661'>1661</a>. Pausan. ii. 30. 3. Pind.
+Nem. v. 10. Dissen.—Müll.
+Æginetica, § 5. p. 19.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1662'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1662'>1662</a>. Dion. Chrysost. i. 222. Cf.
+Aristot. Prob. xxvi. 1.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1663'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1663'>1663</a>. This is explained by Lord
+Bacon. “The upper regions of
+the air,” he observes, “perceive
+the collection of the matter of
+tempest and wind before the air
+here below. And, therefore, the
+observing of the smaller stars is
+a sign of tempests following.”
+Sylva Sylvarum, 812.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1664'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1664'>1664</a>. Similar observations have
+been made in most countries, as
+we find from the signs of the
+weather collected by Erra Pater,
+and translated by Lilly, Part iv.
+§ 3–5.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1665'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1665'>1665</a>. Cf. Seneca. Quæst. Nat. i.
+c. 2.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1666'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1666'>1666</a>. Aristot. Problem, xxvi. 24.
+Alexand. Aphrodis. Problem. i.
+72. Plin. xviii. 80. Virg. Georg.
+i. 365, sqq.</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>Sæpe etiam stellas, vento impendente, videbis</div>
+ <div class='line'>Præcipites cœlo labi, noctisque per umbram</div>
+ <div class='line'>Flammarum longos à tergo albescere tractus.</div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1667'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1667'>1667</a>. On the effects of the rainbow
+the ancients held a curious
+opinion, which Lord Bacon thus
+expounds:—“It hath been observed
+by the ancients, that
+where a rainbow seemeth to
+hang over or to touch, there
+breathed forth a sweet smell.
+The cause is, for that this happeneth
+but in certain matters
+which have in themselves some
+sweetness, which the gentle dew
+of the rainbow doth draw forth,
+and the like to soft showers, for
+they also make the ground
+sweet, but none are so delicate as
+the dew of the rainbow where
+it falleth.” Sylva Sylvarum.
+832. His Lordship here, as in
+many other places, adopts the
+explanation of the Peripatetics
+while he seems to be himself
+assigning the cause of the phenomenon.
+Aristotle (Problem.
+12. 3) enters fully into the
+subject, which appears to have
+been brought under the notice
+of philosophers by the shepherds
+who had observed that when certain
+thickets had been laid in
+ashes the passing of a rainbow
+over the spot caused a sweet
+odour to exhale from it. The
+same fact is noticed by Theophrastus,
+De Caus. Plant. 6. 17.
+7. Cf. Plin. Hist. Nat. 12. 52.
+21. 18. 2. 60. To many among
+the older philosophers that comparatively
+rare phenomenon, the
+lunar rainbow, was unknown.
+(Arist. Meteor. iii. 2: νύκτωρ
+δ᾽ ἀπὸ σελήνης ὡς μὲν οἱ ἀρχαῖοι
+ᾢοντο οὐκ ἐγίγνετο·) but in the
+time of Aristotle it had been observed,
+and the cause of its pearly
+whiteness investigated. Cf. Meteorol.
+iii. 4. 5. Senec. Quæst.
+Nat. i. 2, sqq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1668'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1668'>1668</a>. Cf. Ælian. De Nat. Anim.
+vii. 7.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1669'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1669'>1669</a>. </p>
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>Φράζεσθαι δ᾽, εὖτ᾽ ἂν γεράνου φωνὴν ἐπακούσῃς</div>
+ <div class='line'>ὑψόθεν ἐκ νεφέων ἐνιαύσια κεκληγυίης·</div>
+ <div class='line'>ἥτ᾽ ἀρότοιο τε σῆμα φέρει, καὶ χείματος ὥρην</div>
+ <div class='line'>δεικνύει ομβρηροῦ· κραδίην δ᾽ ἔδακ’ ἀνδρὸς ἀβούτεω.</div>
+ <div class='line in22'>Hesiod. Opp. et Dies, 448, sqq.</div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c014'>To the same purpose, Homer:—Il.
+γ. 3, sqq.</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>Ἠΰτε περ κλαγγὴ γεράνων πέλει οὐρανόθι πρὸ,</div>
+ <div class='line'>αἵτ᾽ ἐπεὶ οὖν χειμῶνα φύγον καὶ ἀθέσφατον ὄμβρον,</div>
+ <div class='line'>κλαγγῇ ταίγε πέτονται ἐπ’ Ὠκεανοῖο ῥοάων.</div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c014'>And Aristophanes:—(Av. 710,
+sqq.)</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>Πρῶτα μὲν ὥρας φαίνομεν ἡμεῖς ἦρος, χειμῶνος, ὀπώρας ·</div>
+ <div class='line'>Σπείρειν μὲν, ὅταν γέρανος κρώζουσ᾽ ἐς τὴν Λιβύην μεταχωρῇ,</div>
+ <div class='line'>καὶ πηδάλιον τότε ναυκλήρῳ φράζει κρεμάσαντι καθεύδειν.</div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1670'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1670'>1670</a>. All birds which frequent the
+sea, more particularly those which
+fly high, are observed to seek
+terra firma at the approach of
+foul weather:—Ἀριστοτέλους
+ἀκούω λέγοντος, ὅτι ἄρα γέρανοι
+ἐκ τοὺς πελάγους εἰς τὴν γῆν πετόμενοι,
+χειμῶνος ἀπειλὴν ἰσχουραὶ
+ὑποσημαίνουσι τῷ συνιέντι.
+Ælian. De Nat. Anim. vii. 7.
+Before the great earthquake of
+1783, which shook the whole of
+Calabria and destroyed the city
+of Messina, the mews and other
+aquatic birds were observed to
+forsake the sea and take refuge
+in the mountains. Spallanzani,
+Travels in the Two Sicilies, vol.
+iv. p. 158.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1671'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1671'>1671</a>. <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aut arguta lacus circumvolitat
+hirundo.</span> Virg. Georg. i. 377.
+<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">“Hirundo tam juxta aquam volitans,
+ut penna sæpe percutiat.”</span>
+Plin. xviii. 87.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1672'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1672'>1672</a>. Plin. xviii. 88. Virg. Georg.
+i. 375.—Ælian, De Nat. Anim.
+vii. 8, describes the ox before
+rain snuffing the earth, and adds:
+πρόβατα δὲ ἐρυττοντα ταῖς ὁπλαῖς
+τὴν γῆν, ἔοικε σημαίνειν χιεμῶνα.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1673'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1673'>1673</a>. Cf. Ælian De Nat. Anim.
+viii. 8.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1674'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1674'>1674</a>. Diog. Laert. i. 3. 5. Ælian
+(De Nat. Anim. vii. 8) relates a
+curious anecdote of Hipparchos
+who, from some change in the
+goatskin cloak he wore, likewise
+foretold a rain storm to the great
+admiration of Nero.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1675'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1675'>1675</a>. Probably the storm-finch observed
+frequently on the wing
+flying along the Ægean sea, particularly
+when it is troubled.
+Sibth. in Walp. Mem. i. 76.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1676'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1676'>1676</a>. Cf. Aristot. Problem. xxvii.
+63, where he investigates the
+causes of the phenomenon; and
+Plin. Nat. Hist. xi. 28.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1677'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1677'>1677</a>. Vid. Aristoph. Vesp. 262.
+The Scholiast entertains a somewhat
+different notion:—φασὶν
+ὅτι ὑετοῦ μέλλοντος γενέσθαι οἱ
+περὶ τὴν θρυαλλίδα τοῦ λύχνου
+σπινθῆρες ἀποπηδῶσιν, οὓς μύκητας
+νῦν λέγει, ὡς τοῦ λύχνου ἐναντιουμένου
+τῷ νοτερῷ ἀέρι· καὶ Ἄρατος “ἢ λύχνοιο
+μύκητες ἐγείρονται περὶ μύξαν, νύκτα
+κατὰ νοτίην.”</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1678'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1678'>1678</a>. Aristot. Meteorol. iii. 4. Seneca,
+Quæst. Nat. i. 2.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1679'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1679'>1679</a>. Cf. Aristot. Problem. xxvi.
+17.</p>
+</div>
+<hr class='c016' />
+
+<div>
+ <span class='pageno' id='Page_381'>381</span>
+ <h3 class='c002'>CHAPTER V. <br /> THE VARIOUS PROCESSES OF AGRICULTURE.</h3>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c011'>If we now pass to the actual labours of the farm,
+and the implements by which they were usually carried
+on, we shall find that the Grecian husbandman
+was no way deficient in invention, or in that ingenuity
+by which men have in all countries sought to
+diminish their toils. For the purpose of procuring
+at a cheap rate whatever was wanted for the use
+of the establishment,<a id='r1680' /><a href='#f1680' class='c012'><sup>[1680]</sup></a> smiths, carpenters, and potters,
+were kept upon the land or in its immediate neighbourhood;
+by which means also the necessity was
+avoided of often sending the farm-servants to the
+neighbouring town, where it was observed they contracted
+bad habits, and were rendered more vicious
+and slothful.<a id='r1681' /><a href='#f1681' class='c012'><sup>[1681]</sup></a> Waggons, therefore, and carts, and
+ploughs, and harrows, were constructed on the spot,
+though it was sometimes necessary perhaps to obtain
+from a distance the timber used for these implements,
+which was generally cut in winter-time. They exhibited
+much nicety in their choice of wood. Thus
+they would have the poplar or mulberry-tree for the
+felloes of their wheels; the ash, the ilex, and the
+oxya, for the axle-tree, and fine close-grained maple
+for the yokes of their oxen,<a id='r1682' /><a href='#f1682' class='c012'><sup>[1682]</sup></a> sometimes carved in
+the form of serpents which seemed to wind round
+the necks of the animals, and project their heads
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_382'>382</span>on either side.<a id='r1683' /><a href='#f1683' class='c012'><sup>[1683]</sup></a> Their harrows, it is probable, were
+formed like our own. The construction of the
+plough,<a id='r1684' /><a href='#f1684' class='c012'><sup>[1684]</sup></a> always continued to be extremely simple.
+In the age of Hesiod<a id='r1685' /><a href='#f1685' class='c012'><sup>[1685]</sup></a> it consisted of four parts,
+the handle, the socket, the coulter, and the beam;
+and very little alteration seems afterwards to have
+been made in its form or structure, till the introduction
+of the wheel-plough, which did not, it is
+believed, occur until after the age of Virgil. The
+more primitive instrument, however, would seem to
+have consisted originally of two parts only, one
+serving the purpose of handle, socket, and share, the
+other being the beam by which it was fastened to
+the yoke. In the antique implement<a id='r1686' /><a href='#f1686' class='c012'><sup>[1686]</sup></a> the beam was
+sometimes made of laurel or elm, the socket of oak,
+and the handle of ilex.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Before mills were invented, the instrument by
+which they reduced corn into flour was a large
+mortar, scooped out of the trunk of a tree, furnished
+with a pestle upwards of four feet in length,
+exactly resembling that still in use among the Egyptian
+Arabs. To give the pestle greater effect it was
+fixed above in a cross-bar, seven feet long, and
+worked by two individuals.<a id='r1687' /><a href='#f1687' class='c012'><sup>[1687]</sup></a> By this rude contrivance,
+it is possible to produce flour as fine as that
+proceeding from the most perfect boulting machine.
+In addition to these they possessed winnowing fans,
+scythes, sickles, pruning-hooks, fern or braken-scythes,
+saws and hand-saws, used in pruning and grafting,
+spades, shovels, rakes, pick-axes, hoes, mattocks,—one,
+two, and three pronged,—dibbles, fork-dibbles, and
+grubbing-axes.<a id='r1688' /><a href='#f1688' class='c012'><sup>[1688]</sup></a> When rustics were clearing away
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_383'>383</span>underwood or cutting down brakes, they went clad
+in hooded skin-cloaks, leather gaiters, and long
+gloves.<a id='r1689' /><a href='#f1689' class='c012'><sup>[1689]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>On the subject of manure<a id='r1690' /><a href='#f1690' class='c012'><sup>[1690]</sup></a> the Greeks appear
+to have entertained very just notions, and have left
+behind them numerous rules for using and preparing
+it. In lean lands which required most the help
+of art, they were still careful to avoid excess in
+the employment of manure, spreading it frequently
+rather than copiously; for as, left to themselves,
+they would have been too cold, so, when over enriched
+by art, their prolific virtue was thought to
+be consumed by heat. In applying it to plants,
+they were careful to interpose a layer of earth lest
+their roots should be scorched. Of all kinds of manure
+they considered that of birds the best,<a id='r1691' /><a href='#f1691' class='c012'><sup>[1691]</sup></a> except
+the aquatic species, which, when mixed, however,
+was not rejected. Most husbandmen set a peculiar
+value on the sweepings of dovecotes,<a id='r1692' /><a href='#f1692' class='c012'><sup>[1692]</sup></a> which, in small
+quantities, were frequently scattered over the fields
+with the seed.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>On the preparation of manure-pits they bestowed
+much attention.<a id='r1693' /><a href='#f1693' class='c012'><sup>[1693]</sup></a> Having sunk them sufficiently
+deep in places abundantly supplied with water, they
+cast therein large quantities of weeds, with all descriptions
+of manure, among which they reckoned
+even earth itself, when completely impregnated with
+humidity. When they had lain long enough to be
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_384'>384</span>entirely decayed, they were fit for use. To the above
+were sometimes added wood-ashes, the refuse of
+leather-dressers, the cleansing of stables, and cow-houses,
+with stubble, brambles, and thorns reduced
+to ashes. In maritime situations sea-weed,<a id='r1694' /><a href='#f1694' class='c012'><sup>[1694]</sup></a> also,
+having been well washed in fresh water, was mingled
+in large proportion with other materials, and,
+where possible, a channel was made conducting
+the muck and puddle<a id='r1695' /><a href='#f1695' class='c012'><sup>[1695]</sup></a> of the neighbouring road
+into the pit, which at once accelerated the putrescence
+of the manure and augmented it. The Attic
+husbandmen had a mode of enriching their lands<a id='r1696' /><a href='#f1696' class='c012'><sup>[1696]</sup></a>
+somewhat expensive, and, as far as I know, peculiar
+to themselves; having sown a field, they allowed
+the corn to spring up and the blade to reach a
+considerable height, upon which they again ploughed
+it in as a kind of sacrifice to the earth. A practice,
+not altogether unlike, still prevails in the kingdom
+of Naples, where the husbandmen sometimes bury
+their beans and lupins, just before flowering, for manure.<a id='r1697' /><a href='#f1697' class='c012'><sup>[1697]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>In ploughing there was great variety of practice,
+and in small farms, where the soil was light, they
+had recourse to what may be denominated spade
+husbandry. Most lands were ploughed thrice; first,
+immediately after the removal of the preceding crop;
+secondly, at a convenient interval of time; and, thirdly,<a id='r1698' /><a href='#f1698' class='c012'><sup>[1698]</sup></a>
+in the sowing season, when the ploughman scattered
+the grain in the furrows as they were laid
+open while a lad followed at his heels with a hoe
+breaking the clods and covering the seed that it might
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_385'>385</span>not be devoured by the birds.<a id='r1699' /><a href='#f1699' class='c012'><sup>[1699]</sup></a> Occasionally, in very
+hot weather, and in certain situations, the farmer
+ploughed all night;<a id='r1700' /><a href='#f1700' class='c012'><sup>[1700]</sup></a> first, out of consideration to the
+oxen, whose health would have suffered from the
+sun; secondly, to preserve the moisture and richness
+of the soil; and, thirdly, by the aid of the dew,
+to render it more pliable. On these occasions, it
+was customary to employ two pair of oxen and a
+heavier share in order to produce the deeper furrows,
+and turn up the hidden fat of the earth. In
+choosing a ploughman they took care that he should
+be tall and powerful,<a id='r1701' /><a href='#f1701' class='c012'><sup>[1701]</sup></a> that he might be able to
+thrust the share deeper into the ground and wield
+it generally with facility: and yet they would not,
+if <a id='corr385.15'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='posssible'>possible</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_385.15'><ins class='correction' title='posssible'>possible</ins></a></span>, that he should be under forty years of
+age, lest, instead of attending to his duties, his eye
+should be glancing hither and thither, and his mind
+be roving after his companions.<a id='r1702' /><a href='#f1702' class='c012'><sup>[1702]</sup></a> When in particular
+haste to complete his task, the ploughman often
+carried a long loaf under his arm, which, like the
+French peasants, he ate as he went along.<a id='r1703' /><a href='#f1703' class='c012'><sup>[1703]</sup></a> In this
+department of rural labour it may be observed, mules
+were sometimes employed as well as oxen.<a id='r1704' /><a href='#f1704' class='c012'><sup>[1704]</sup></a> Both
+were directed and kept in order by a sharp goad.<a id='r1705' /><a href='#f1705' class='c012'><sup>[1705]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>As the Greeks well understood the practice of fallowing,
+their lands were then, as now, suffered to
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_386'>386</span>regain their strength by lying for a time idle;<a id='r1706' /><a href='#f1706' class='c012'><sup>[1706]</sup></a> and
+it seems to have been as much their custom as it
+is still of their descendants,<a id='r1707' /><a href='#f1707' class='c012'><sup>[1707]</sup></a> for the poor, at least,
+to roam over these fallow grounds, collecting nettles,<a id='r1708' /><a href='#f1708' class='c012'><sup>[1708]</sup></a>
+mallows, the sow-thistle or jagged lettuce,<a id='r1709' /><a href='#f1709' class='c012'><sup>[1709]</sup></a> dandelions,
+sea-purslain, stoches, hartwort, briony sprouts,
+gentle-rocket, usually found in the environs of towns,
+and about the courts of houses, gardens, and ruins,
+with other wild herbs for salads, or to be eaten as
+vegetables.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The rules observed in sowing were numerous, and,
+in many instances, not a little curious. As a matter
+of course, they were careful to adapt the grain to
+the soil:<a id='r1710' /><a href='#f1710' class='c012'><sup>[1710]</sup></a> thus rich plains were appropriated to wheat,
+and in the intervals cropped with vegetables; middling
+grounds to barley;<a id='r1711' /><a href='#f1711' class='c012'><sup>[1711]</sup></a> while poor and hungry
+spots were given up to lentils, vetches, lupins, and
+such other pulse as were cultivated on a large scale.
+Beans and peas, however, were supposed to thrive
+best in fat and level lands. The principal sowing-time<a id='r1712' /><a href='#f1712' class='c012'><sup>[1712]</sup></a>
+was in autumn; for, as soon as the equinoctial
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_387'>387</span>rains had moistened the earth, the sower
+immediately went forth to sow, committing to the
+ground the hopes of the future year. The best
+time for scattering wheat they placed somewhere in
+November, about the setting of the constellation
+called the Crown. They were careful in this operation
+to avoid the time when the south wind<a id='r1713' /><a href='#f1713' class='c012'><sup>[1713]</sup></a> blew,
+and, generally, all cold and raw weather, as it rendered
+the earth ungenial, and little apt to fructify
+that which was entrusted to it. Great skill was
+supposed to be required in scattering the seed: in
+the first place, that it should be equally distributed;
+and, secondly, that none should fall between the
+horns of the oxen, superstition having taught them
+the belief that such grain, which they denominated
+Kerasbolos,<a id='r1714' /><a href='#f1714' class='c012'><sup>[1714]</sup></a> if it sprang up at all, would produce
+corn which could neither be baked nor eaten. A
+favourite sowing sieve was made of wolf’s-hide, pierced
+with thirty holes as large as the tips of the fingers.
+In later ages much virtue was supposed to reside
+in the barbarous term Phriel,<a id='r1715' /><a href='#f1715' class='c012'><sup>[1715]</sup></a> which they accordingly
+wrote on the plough. The choice of grains
+for sowing necessarily afforded much exercise<a id='r1716' /><a href='#f1716' class='c012'><sup>[1716]</sup></a> to their
+ingenuity: seed wheat, they thought, should be of
+a rich gold colour, full, smooth, and solid; barley,
+white and heavy; both not exceeding one year old,
+for they quickly deteriorated, and, after the third
+year, would not they supposed grow. This, however,
+was an error, since barley has been known to preserve
+its vitality upwards of two thousand years.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>It was customary often to renew seed by sowing
+the produce of mountains on plains; of dry places
+in moist, and the contrary.<a id='r1717' /><a href='#f1717' class='c012'><sup>[1717]</sup></a> To try the comparative
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_388'>388</span>value of different qualities of grain<a id='r1718' /><a href='#f1718' class='c012'><sup>[1718]</sup></a> they took
+a sample of each, and sowed the whole in separate
+patches of the same bed, a little before the rising
+of the Dog-star. If the produce of any of these
+samples withered, through the influence they supposed
+of Syrius, the wheat which it represented was
+rejected. As corn when committed to the earth is
+exposed to numerous enemies, they had recourse to
+a variety of contrivances for its preservation: to
+protect it from birds, mice, and ants,<a id='r1719' /><a href='#f1719' class='c012'><sup>[1719]</sup></a> they steeped
+it in the juice of houseleeks, or mixed it with hellebore
+and cypress leaves, and scattered it out of a
+circle, or sprinkled it with water into which river
+crabs had been thrown for eight days, or with powdered
+hartshorn or ivory. Not satisfied with these
+precautions, they had likewise recourse to scarecrows,<a id='r1720' /><a href='#f1720' class='c012'><sup>[1720]</sup></a>
+fixing up long reeds here and there in the
+fields, with dead birds suspended to them by the
+feet. This long list of contrivances they closed by
+a spell: taking a live toad, they carried it round
+the field by night, after which they shut it up carefully
+in a jar, which they buried in the middle of
+the grounds.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>When the corn began to spring up it was diligently
+weeded<a id='r1721' /><a href='#f1721' class='c012'><sup>[1721]</sup></a> a first and a second time. They
+would not trust entirely, however, to the industry of
+their hands, but called in to their aid certain characteristic
+enchantments, some two or three of which
+may be worth describing. First, to subdue the
+growth of choke-weed they planted sprigs of rose-laurel,
+at the corner and in the middle of their
+fields, or set up a number of potsherds, upon which
+had been drawn with chalk the figure of Heracles
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_389'>389</span>strangling the lion. But the most effectual of
+all spells, was for a young woman, naked and with
+dishevelled hair, to take a live cock in her hands
+and bear him round the fields, upon which, not only
+would the choke-weed and the restharrow vanish,<a id='r1722' /><a href='#f1722' class='c012'><sup>[1722]</sup></a>
+but all the produce of the land would turn out of
+a superior quality.<a id='r1723' /><a href='#f1723' class='c012'><sup>[1723]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>As the ancients well understood the value of hay,
+they took much pains in the formation and management
+of meadows. In the first place, all stones,
+stumps, bushes, and brambles,<a id='r1724' /><a href='#f1724' class='c012'><sup>[1724]</sup></a> were diligently removed,
+together with whatever else might interrupt
+the free play of the scythe in mowing. They avoided,
+moreover, letting into them their droves of hogs,
+which were found to turn up the soil and destroy
+the roots of the young grass. In moist lands, too,
+even the larger cattle were excluded, as the holes
+made by their hoofs<a id='r1725' /><a href='#f1725' class='c012'><sup>[1725]</sup></a> in sinking broke up the fine
+level of the turf. Old hay fields, in districts where
+much rain fell, grew in time to be clothed with a
+coating of moss,<a id='r1726' /><a href='#f1726' class='c012'><sup>[1726]</sup></a> which some farmers sought to remove
+by manuring the ground with ashes; but the
+more scientific agriculturists ploughed them up, and
+took precisely the same steps as in the formation of
+a new meadow, that is, they sowed the ground with
+beans, turnips, or rape-seed, which, in the second year,
+were succeeded by wheat; on the third it was thoroughly
+cleared out, and sown with hay-seed, mingled
+with vetches, after which the whole field was
+finely levelled by the harrow.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The rules observed by them in the regulation of
+their hay harvest<a id='r1727' /><a href='#f1727' class='c012'><sup>[1727]</sup></a> were, first, to mow before the
+grass or clover was withered, when it became less
+rich and nutritive; second, to beware in making the
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_390'>390</span>ricks, that it was neither too dry nor too damp,
+since in the former case it was little better than
+straw, and in the latter was liable to spontaneous
+combustion.<a id='r1728' /><a href='#f1728' class='c012'><sup>[1728]</sup></a> It may be observed further, that
+clover<a id='r1729' /><a href='#f1729' class='c012'><sup>[1729]</sup></a> was usually sown in March or April, and
+though commonly mown six, or at least five, times
+in the twelve months, did not require to be renewed
+in less than ten years.<a id='r1730' /><a href='#f1730' class='c012'><sup>[1730]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Harvest usually commenced in Greece about the
+rising of the Pleiades,<a id='r1731' /><a href='#f1731' class='c012'><sup>[1731]</sup></a> when the corn had already
+acquired a deep gold colour, though not yet so ripe
+as to fall from the ear, which in barley happens
+earlier than in wheat, the grain having no hose.<a id='r1732' /><a href='#f1732' class='c012'><sup>[1732]</sup></a>
+Among the Romans operations were preceded by
+the sacrifice<a id='r1733' /><a href='#f1733' class='c012'><sup>[1733]</sup></a> of a young sow to Ceres, with libations
+of wine, the burning of frankincense, and the
+offering of a cake to Jove, Juno, and Janus. They,
+at the same time, addressed their prayers to the
+last-mentioned gods, nearly in the following words:—“O
+father Janus or Jupiter, in making an oblation
+of this cake I offer up my prayers that thou
+wouldst be propitious to me and my children, my
+house, and my family!”<a id='r1734' /><a href='#f1734' class='c012'><sup>[1734]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>At Athens, as soon as the season for reaping<a id='r1735' /><a href='#f1735' class='c012'><sup>[1735]</sup></a> had
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_391'>391</span>come round, those hardy citizens who lived by letting
+out their strength for hire,<a id='r1736' /><a href='#f1736' class='c012'><sup>[1736]</sup></a> ranged themselves
+in bands in the agora, whither the farmers of the
+neighbourhood resorted in search of harvesters. They
+then, in consequence of the hot weather, proceeded
+half-naked<a id='r1737' /><a href='#f1737' class='c012'><sup>[1737]</sup></a> to the fields, where, taking the sickle in
+hand, and separating into two divisions, they stationed
+themselves at either end of the piece of corn to be
+reaped, and began their work with vigour and emulation,
+each party striving to reach the centre of
+the field before their rivals.<a id='r1738' /><a href='#f1738' class='c012'><sup>[1738]</sup></a> On other occasions
+they took advantage of the wind,<a id='r1739' /><a href='#f1739' class='c012'><sup>[1739]</sup></a> moving along with
+it, whereby they were supposed to benefit considerably,
+avoiding the beard or chaff which it might
+have blown into their eyes, and having by its action
+the tall straw bent to their hand.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'><span class='pageno' id='Page_392'>392</span>In many parts of Greece, though the practice was
+not general, the women joined in these labours. The
+reapers, as they advanced, laid the corn behind them
+in long lines upon the stubble, and were followed
+by two other classes of harvesters, one of whom
+bound it into sheaves which the others bore back
+and piled up into mows. Of the whole of these
+operations, together with the plenteous feast which
+interrupted or terminated their toils, Homer has
+left us a graphic picture in the Iliad:<a id='r1740' /><a href='#f1740' class='c012'><sup>[1740]</sup></a></p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>There in a field ’mid lofty corn, the lusty reapers stand,</div>
+ <div class='line'>Plying their task right joyously, with sickle each in hand.</div>
+ <div class='line'>Some strew in lines, as on they press, the handfuls thick behind,</div>
+ <div class='line'>While at their heels the heavy sheaves their merry comrades bind.</div>
+ <div class='line'>These to the mows a troop of boys next bear in haste away,</div>
+ <div class='line'>Piling upon the golden glebe the triumphs of the day.</div>
+ <div class='line'>Among them wrapped in silent joy, their sceptered king appears,</div>
+ <div class='line'>Beholding, in the swelling heaps, the stores of future years.</div>
+ <div class='line'>A mighty ox beneath an oak the busy heralds slay,</div>
+ <div class='line'>With grateful sacrifice to close the labours of the day.</div>
+ <div class='line'>While near, the husbandman’s repast the rustic maids prepare,</div>
+ <div class='line'>Sprinkling with flour the broiling cates whose savour fills the air.</div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c014'>In these remote and unsettled times it behoved
+the rustic to keep a sharp look-out on the sheaves
+left behind him on the field, as there were usually
+prowlers,<a id='r1741' /><a href='#f1741' class='c012'><sup>[1741]</sup></a> lurking amid the neighbouring woods and
+thickets, ready to pounce upon and carry off whatever
+they saw unguarded.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The implement used in cutting wheat seems always
+to have been the sickle, while in the case of barley
+and other inferior grains, the scythe was commonly
+employed. In some parts of ancient Gaul, where
+no value was set upon the straw, corn was reaped
+by a sort of cart,<a id='r1742' /><a href='#f1742' class='c012'><sup>[1742]</sup></a> armed in front with scythes,
+having the edges inclined upwards, which, as it was
+driven along by an ox, harnessed behind, cut off
+the ears of corn, which were received into the tumbril.
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_393'>393</span>In this manner the produce of a whole field
+might be got in easily in a day. Reaping among
+the ancient inhabitants of Italy<a id='r1743' /><a href='#f1743' class='c012'><sup>[1743]</sup></a> was performed in
+three ways: first they reaped close, as in Umbria,
+and laid the handfuls carefully on the ground, after
+which the ears were separated from the straw,
+and borne in baskets to the threshing-floor. Elsewhere,
+as in Picenum, they made use of a ripple
+or serrated hook, having a long handle with
+which the ears only were cut off, leaving the
+straw standing to be afterwards collected and raked
+up into mows.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>In the neighbourhood of Rome they reaped with
+the common sickle, holding the upper part of the
+straw in their left hand, and cutting it off in the
+middle. This tall stubble was afterwards mown and
+carried off to be used as fodder or bedding for cattle.
+In Upper Egypt and Nubia, the dhoura stalks are
+left about two feet in height to support the crop
+of kidney-beans which succeeds next in order.
+Among the Athenians<a id='r1744' /><a href='#f1744' class='c012'><sup>[1744]</sup></a> when the corn grew tall
+the stubble was suffered to remain to be burned
+for manure; but, when short, the value of the straw
+led them to reap close.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>In separating the grain from the straw the ancients
+made use of horses, oxen, and mules, which, passing
+round and round over the threshing-floor, trod out
+the corn. All the labourer had to do was to guide
+the movements of the cattle, and take care that
+no part of the sheaf remained untrodden.<a id='r1745' /><a href='#f1745' class='c012'><sup>[1745]</sup></a> From
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_394'>394</span>a very humane law in the Old Testament we
+learn, that among some nations it was customary
+to tie up the mouths of such animals as they employed
+in this labour, which was forbidden the Israelites:
+“Thou shalt not,” says the Scripture, “muzzle
+the ox that treadeth out the corn.” Nor was
+it practised among the Greeks in the age of Homer,<a id='r1746' /><a href='#f1746' class='c012'><sup>[1746]</sup></a>
+whom we find describing the oxen bellowing as
+they made their unwearied round. The threshing-floor,
+which was of a circular form,<a id='r1747' /><a href='#f1747' class='c012'><sup>[1747]</sup></a> stood on a
+breezy eminence, in the open field, where, as at
+present, in modern Greece, and in the Crimea,<a id='r1748' /><a href='#f1748' class='c012'><sup>[1748]</sup></a> a
+high pole was set up in the centre, to which the
+cattle were tied by a cord determining the extent
+of the circle they had to describe.<a id='r1749' /><a href='#f1749' class='c012'><sup>[1749]</sup></a> The end being
+nailed, every turn made by the cattle coiled the
+rope about the pole and diminished their range, until,
+at length, they were brought quite close to the
+centre, after which, their heads were turned about,
+and by moving in an opposite direction the cord
+was unwound. Great pains were taken in the construction
+of this threshing-floor, which was somewhat
+elevated about the centre, in order, as Varro
+observes, that what rain fell might speedily run off.
+It was sometimes paved with stone, or pitched with
+flints, but more commonly coated with stucco, made
+level by a roller, and well soaked with the lees of
+oil which at once prevented the growth of weeds
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_395'>395</span>and grass, preserved it from cracking, and repelled
+the approach of mice, ants, and moles, to which oil-lees
+are destructive.<a id='r1750' /><a href='#f1750' class='c012'><sup>[1750]</sup></a> Though some authorities advise
+that it should be situated under the master’s,
+or at least the steward’s, eye, it was generally
+thought advisable to keep it at a distance from
+the house and gardens, since the finer particles of
+chaff, borne thickly through the air, caused ophthalmia,
+and often blindness,<a id='r1751' /><a href='#f1751' class='c012'><sup>[1751]</sup></a> and proved exceedingly
+injurious to all plants and pulpy fruits, more particularly
+grapes. In some parts of the ancient
+world, exposed to the chances of summer rains,
+the threshing-floor was covered; and, even in Italy,
+an umbracula,<a id='r1752' /><a href='#f1752' class='c012'><sup>[1752]</sup></a> or shed, was always constructed close
+at hand, into which the corn could be removed in
+case of bad weather. But this in the sunnier climate
+of Greece was judged unnecessary. In obedience
+to a notion prevalent among Hellenic farmers,
+the sheaves were piled up with the straw towards
+the south, by which means they believed the grain
+was enlarged and loosened from the hose. When
+the farmer happened to be scant of cattle he made
+use of a threshing-machine,<a id='r1753' /><a href='#f1753' class='c012'><sup>[1753]</sup></a> which consisted of a
+kind of heavy sledge, toothed below with sharp
+stones or iron. Occasionally, too, the flail<a id='r1754' /><a href='#f1754' class='c012'><sup>[1754]</sup></a> was
+used, especially in the case of such corn as was
+laid up in the barn and threshed during winter.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>In winnowing,<a id='r1755' /><a href='#f1755' class='c012'><sup>[1755]</sup></a> when the breeze served, they simply
+threw the grain up into the air with a scoop,
+until the wind had completely cleared away the chaff.
+In serene days they had recourse to a winnowing
+machine, which, though turned by the hand, was of
+great power, as we may judge from its being employed
+in cleansing vetches, and even beans.<a id='r1756' /><a href='#f1756' class='c012'><sup>[1756]</sup></a> To receive
+the chaff, which was too valuable to be lost, pits
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_396'>396</span>appear to have been sunk all round the threshing-floor,
+which, for the passage of the men and cattle,
+would appear to have been covered, save in the
+direction of the wind.<a id='r1757' /><a href='#f1757' class='c012'><sup>[1757]</sup></a> When the corn was designed
+for immediate use, one winnowing was deemed sufficient;
+but that which was intended to be laid up
+in the granary<a id='r1758' /><a href='#f1758' class='c012'><sup>[1758]</sup></a> underwent the operation a second
+time.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>On the building and preparation of granaries<a id='r1759' /><a href='#f1759' class='c012'><sup>[1759]</sup></a> the
+ancients bestowed great pains. Every means which
+could communicate to grain firmness and durability
+appears to have been tried by them; and their success
+was answerable to their diligence, for, in their
+granaries, wheat was preserved in perfection fifty,
+and millet a hundred years.<a id='r1760' /><a href='#f1760' class='c012'><sup>[1760]</sup></a> Their methods, however,
+were various; some laid up their grain in hollow
+rocks and caves, as in Thrace and Cappadocia;
+others sank deep pits in the earth<a id='r1761' /><a href='#f1761' class='c012'><sup>[1761]</sup></a> where they found
+it to be perfectly free from humidity, as in Farther
+Spain, while others, as in Hither Spain, Apulia, and
+Greece,<a id='r1762' /><a href='#f1762' class='c012'><sup>[1762]</sup></a> erected their granaries on lofty basements
+fronting the East, and with openings towards the
+north and west winds.<a id='r1763' /><a href='#f1763' class='c012'><sup>[1763]</sup></a> There was usually a range of
+numerous diminutive windows near the roof, to supply
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_397'>397</span>free vent for the heated air, while the floor, in many
+cases, contained small apertures for the admission of
+the cool breezes beneath. The walls were built with
+suitable solidity, and having, together with the floor,
+been plastered with rough mortar,<a id='r1764' /><a href='#f1764' class='c012'><sup>[1764]</sup></a> made commonly
+with hair, for which chaff was sometimes substituted,
+received a coat of fine stucco, on the preparation
+of which much care was bestowed. It was generally
+composed of lime, sand, and powdered marble, moistened
+with the lees of oil, the peculiar flavour and
+odour of which were supposed effectually to repel
+the approaches of mice,<a id='r1765' /><a href='#f1765' class='c012'><sup>[1765]</sup></a> weevils, and ants. Instead
+of this a common stucco, formed of clay, was often
+used. Occasionally the grain was packed up in baskets
+or large jars,<a id='r1766' /><a href='#f1766' class='c012'><sup>[1766]</sup></a> such, it may be presumed, as those
+still employed for the purpose in Africa, where they
+are commonly kept in a corner outside the door.
+Beans and other pulse were preserved in oil-jars
+rubbed with ashes.<a id='r1767' /><a href='#f1767' class='c012'><sup>[1767]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Before the produce of the new year was carried
+in, the granaries, having been carefully swept, were
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_398'>398</span>smeared all over with oil-lees. Various other precautions
+were, likewise, taken to protect the sacred
+gifts of Demeter from depredation, such as drawing
+on the floor broad lines of chalk,<a id='r1768' /><a href='#f1768' class='c012'><sup>[1768]</sup></a> or strewing handfuls
+of wild origany round the heaps, or sprinkling
+them with the ashes of oaken twigs or dry cow’s
+dung, or sprigs of wormwood and southernwood, or,
+in greater quantity, the leaves of the everlasting.
+Instead of these, in some cases, they made use of
+powdered clay<a id='r1769' /><a href='#f1769' class='c012'><sup>[1769]</sup></a> or dry pomegranate leaves, rubbed
+small, and passed through a sieve, a chœnix of which
+was sprinkled over a bushel of corn. The favourite
+plan, however, seems to have been, to spread a layer
+of half-withered fleabane over the floor, on which
+were poured about ten bushels of wheat, then a layer
+of fleabane, and so on, until the granary was full.<a id='r1770' /><a href='#f1770' class='c012'><sup>[1770]</sup></a>
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_399'>399</span>Wheat thus layed up was supposed not only to last
+many years, but also to preserve its weight in breadmaking.
+To render barley durable, they strewed over
+it laurel leaves, or the ashes of laurel wood, as, likewise,
+everlasting, calaminth, and gypsum, or placed
+a tightly-corked bottle of vinegar,<a id='r1771' /><a href='#f1771' class='c012'><sup>[1771]</sup></a> in the middle of
+the heap. To communicate greater plumpness to
+all kinds of grain, they sprinkled over the piles a
+mixture composed of nitre,<a id='r1772' /><a href='#f1772' class='c012'><sup>[1772]</sup></a> spume of nitre, and fine
+earth, which, likewise, acted as a preservative. To
+render flour more durable, they thrust into it small
+maple branches, stripped of their leaves, or little
+cakes of salt and cumin.<a id='r1773' /><a href='#f1773' class='c012'><sup>[1773]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The fruits of the earth having been thus safely
+lodged within doors, the grateful husbandmen celebrated
+in honour of their rural gods, Demeter and
+Dionysos, a festival which may, perhaps, be denominated
+that of the Harvest Home. In Attica it took
+place in the great temple at Eleusis, and continued
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_400'>400</span>during several days. No bloody sacrifices were on this
+occasion offered up; but, in lieu of them, oblations
+of cakes and fruit with other rustic offerings, designed
+at once to express their gratitude for past blessings,
+and to render the gods propitious to them in future.
+The first loaf made from the new corn was probably
+eaten or offered up on this day, since it received
+the name of Thargelos, or Thalusios, from Thalusia,
+the denomination of the festival.<a id='r1774' /><a href='#f1774' class='c012'><sup>[1774]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Before we quit the farm, it may be observed,
+that the ancients kept a number of slaves, constituting
+a kind of rural police, whose occupation
+wholly consisted in guarding the boundaries of estates.<a id='r1775' /><a href='#f1775' class='c012'><sup>[1775]</sup></a>
+These, among the Romans, were denominated rangers,
+or foresters. There were others to whom the care
+of the fruit was entrusted; and both these classes of
+persons were probably elderly men, remarkable for
+their diligence and fidelity, who were rewarded, by
+appointment to this more easy duty, for their honest
+discharge in youth of such as were more painful and
+laborious. Boys were sometimes set to keep watch
+over vineyards,<a id='r1776' /><a href='#f1776' class='c012'><sup>[1776]</sup></a> as we may see in the first Eidyll of
+Theocritus, where he gives us a lively sketch of such
+a guardian plotted against by two foxes.</p>
+
+<hr class='c016' />
+<div class='footnote' id='f1680'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1680'>1680</a>. Geop. ii. 49. Illustrating the
+wretched condition of a tyrant
+dwelling in the midst of a nation
+that abhors him, Plato draws the
+picture of a man being in a remote
+part of the country with his
+wife and children, surrounded by
+a gang of fifty or sixty slaves,
+with scarcely a free neighbour at
+hand to whom, in case of necessity,
+he might fly. In what terror,
+he says, must this man live,
+lest his slaves should set upon
+and murder him, with all his family!
+De Repub. t. vi. p. 439.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1681'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1681'>1681</a>. Carts were sometimes roofed
+with skins. Scheffer, De Re Vehic.
+p. 246, seq. Justin, ii. 2.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1682'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1682'>1682</a>. Theoph. Hist. Plant. v. 7. 6.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1683'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1683'>1683</a>. Scheffer, De Re Vehic. p. 114.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1684'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1684'>1684</a>. Pollux, x. 128. Goguet,
+Orig. des Lois, i. 189, seq. Pallad.
+i. 43. Colum. ii. 2.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1685'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1685'>1685</a>. Opp. et Dies, 467, seq. Vid.
+Gœttl. ad v. 431. Etym. Mag.
+173, 16. Poll. i. 252. The
+Syrians used a small plough, with
+which they turned up extremely
+shallow furrows. Theoph. Hist.
+Plant. viii. 6. 3.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1686'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1686'>1686</a>. Hesiod, Opp. et Dies, 435, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1687'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1687'>1687</a>. Idem, 423, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1688'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1688'>1688</a>. Poll. x. 129. Pallad. i. 51.
+Brunckh. not. ad Aristoph. Pac.
+567. Cf. Eurip. Bacch. 344.
+Sch. Aristoph. Pac, 558, seq. 620.
+Plat. de Repub. t. vi. p. 81. Artemid.
+Oneirocrit. ii. 24. p. 111.
+Lutet.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1689'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1689'>1689</a>. Pallad. i. 43. Colum. i. 8.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1690'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1690'>1690</a>. Geop. ii. 21, seq. Theoph.
+Hist. Plant. vii. 5. 1. i. 7. 4.
+To exemplify the importance of
+manure, it is remarked by this
+writer, that manured corn ripens
+twenty days earlier than that
+which wants this advantage,
+viii. 7. 7.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1691'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1691'>1691</a>. Geop. ii. 21. 4. From a
+speech of the Earl of Radnor, in
+the House of Lords, May 25,
+1841, we learn that our own
+farmers have begun to make experiments
+with this kind of manure
+on the lands of Great Britain,
+and that ship-loads of bird’s
+dung have been imported for the
+purpose from the Pacific. The
+rocks and smaller islands along
+the American coast are sometimes
+white with this substance. Keppel,
+Life of Lord Keppel, i. 48.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1692'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1692'>1692</a>. Geop. xii. 4. 3. v. 26. 3.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1693'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1693'>1693</a>. Xenoph. Œconom. xx. 10.
+Cf. Artemid. Oneirocrit. ii. 26.
+p. 114.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1694'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1694'>1694</a>. Geopon. ii. 22.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1695'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1695'>1695</a>. The practice of mingling water
+with the manure was in great
+use among the ancients, particularly
+in the island of Rhodes, in
+the cultivation of the palm-trees.
+Theoph. Hist. Plant. i. 6. 3.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1696'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1696'>1696</a>. Xenoph. Œconom. xvii. 10.
+Cf. Earl of Aberdeen, Walp. Mem.
+i. 2.50. In such lands the farmers
+suffered their cattle to eat down
+the young corn to prevent its too
+great luxuriance. Theoph. Hist.
+Plant. viii. 7. 3.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1697'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1697'>1697</a>. Swinburne, Letters from the
+Courts of Europe, i. 144.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1698'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1698'>1698</a>. Cf. Xenoph. Œconom. xvi.
+10, seq. Theoph. Hist. Plant.
+vi. 5. 1.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1699'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1699'>1699</a>. Hesiod. Opp. et Dies, 469,
+seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1700'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1700'>1700</a>. Geop. ii. 28.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1701'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1701'>1701</a>. Geop. ii. 2.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1702'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1702'>1702</a>. Hesiod. Opp. et Dies, 443,
+sqq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1703'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1703'>1703</a>. Hesiod. Opp. et Dies, 442.
+<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">“Vide Athenæum, quem Lanzius
+laudavit, iii. p. 114. e. hæc ex
+Philemone referentem: βλωμιλίους
+ἄρτους ὀνομάζεσθαι λέγει
+τοὺς ἔχοντας ἐντομάς, οὓς Ῥωμαῖοι,
+καδράτους λέγουσι. ὀκτάβλωμον
+Spohnius intelligit de
+servo celeriter edente. Minime
+verò. Panes rustici incisuras
+suas habent, ut servis omnibus
+æquas partes frangendo possis dirimere.</span>
+v. Philostrat. Imagg. p.
+95. 16. Jacobs.” Gœttling in loc.
+p. 173.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1704'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1704'>1704</a>. Hesiod. Opp. et Dies, 46.
+Dickinson. Delphi Phœnicizantes,
+c. 10. p. 101, sqq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1705'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1705'>1705</a>. Scheffer. de Re Vehic. 186,
+seq. Schol. Aristoph. Nub. 449.
+The necks of these animals, when
+galled by the yoke, were cured
+by the leaves of black briony
+steeped in wine. Dioscor. iv.
+185.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1706'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1706'>1706</a>. Xenoph. Œconom. xvi. 13,
+seq. Cf. Schulz. Antiquitat.
+Rustic. § 7.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1707'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1707'>1707</a>. Sibthorpe, in Walp. Mem. v.
+i. p. 144.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1708'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1708'>1708</a>. Sch. Aristoph. Eq. 420. Hesiod
+alludes to this diet where he
+celebrates the inferiority of the
+half to the whole:—</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>Νήπιοι, οὐδὲ ἴσασιν ὅσῳ πλέον ἥμισυ παντός,</div>
+ <div class='line'>Οὐδ᾽ ὅσον ἐν μαλάχῄ τε καὶ ἀσφοδέλῳ μεγ’ ὄνειαρ.</div>
+ <div class='line in32'>Opp. et Dies, 40, seq.</div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c014'>Cf. on the proverb in the first
+verse, Diog. Laert. i. 4. 2. Aristot.
+Ethic. Nicom. i. 7. Ovid.
+Fast. v. 718.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1709'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1709'>1709</a>. Theoph. Hist. Plant. vi. 4.
+8.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1710'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1710'>1710</a>. Geop. ii. 12.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1711'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1711'>1711</a>. A fine kind of barley was
+cultivated on the plain of Marathon,
+which obtained the name
+of Achillean, on account, as Dr.
+Chandler conjectures, of its tallness.
+ii. 184. Attica, in fact,
+produced the best barley known
+to the ancients. Theoph. Hist.
+Plant. viii. 8. 2.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1712'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1712'>1712</a>. Geop. ii. 14.—Ἐπειδὰν ὁ
+μετοπωρινὸς χρόνος ἔλθῃ, πάντες
+που οἱ ἄνθρωποι πρὸς τὸν θεὸν
+ἀποβλέπουσιν, ὁπότε βρέξας τὴν
+γὴν ἀφήσει αὐτοὺς σπείρειν. Xenoph.
+Œconom. xvii. 2. There
+was a second sowing-time in the
+spring, and a third in summer
+for millet and sesame. Theoph.
+Hist. Plant. viii. 1. 2, sqq. In
+Phocis, and other cold parts of
+Greece, they sowed early, that
+the corn might be strong before
+the winter came on. § 7. In ancient
+Italy corn was chiefly committed
+to the ground in September
+and October; though in mild
+seasons the work of sowing went
+on throughout the winter. Schulze,
+Antiquitates Rusticæ, § 4. p. 6.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1713'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1713'>1713</a>. Cf. Aristot. Problem, xxvi. 3.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1714'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1714'>1714</a>. Plat. de Legg. t. viii. p. 119.
+Tim. Lex. Plat. p. 85. Ruhnk.
+Plut. Sympos. vii. 2.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1715'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1715'>1715</a>. Geop. ii. 19.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1716'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1716'>1716</a>. Geop. ii. 16.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1717'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1717'>1717</a>. Geop. ii. 17.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1718'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1718'>1718</a>. Geop. ii. 15.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1719'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1719'>1719</a>. Geop. ii. 18. “The bunting,
+the yellow-hammer, and a species
+of Emberiza, nearly related
+to it, frequent the low bushes
+in the neighbourhood of corn-fields.”
+Sibth. in Walp. Mem.
+i. 77.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1720'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1720'>1720</a>. Among the husbandmen of
+Asia Minor people are employed
+to drive away the birds as the
+corn ripens. Chandler, i. 100.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1721'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1721'>1721</a>. Geop. ii. 24. Cf. Xen. Œconom.
+xv. 1. 13, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1722'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1722'>1722</a>. Cf. Schulz. Antiquit. Rustic.
+§ vii.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1723'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1723'>1723</a>. Geop. ii. 42. Theoph. Hist.
+Plant. vi. 5. 3.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1724'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1724'>1724</a>. Colum. ii. 18. Varro, i. 49.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1725'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1725'>1725</a>. Cf. Hesiod. Opp. et Dies, 489.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1726'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1726'>1726</a>. Lord Bacon, Sylva Sylvarum,
+539.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1727'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1727'>1727</a>. Much hay was laid up in
+Eubœa for consumption during
+the winter months.—Dion Chrysost.
+i. 225.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1728'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1728'>1728</a>. Colum. ii. 19.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1729'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1729'>1729</a>. Καὶ τὴν βοτάνην δὲ, τὴν
+μάλιστα τρέφουσαν τοὺς ἵππους
+ἀπὸ τοῦ πλεονάζειν ἐνταῦθα
+ἰδίως Μηνδικὴν καλοῦμεν. Strab.
+xi. 13. t. ii. p. 453.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1730'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1730'>1730</a>. Pallad. v. 1. Schol. Aristoph.
+Eq. 604.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1731'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1731'>1731</a>. Geop. ii. 25. Hesiod. Opp.
+et Dies, 383. xiv. cal. June.
+Cf. Plin. Hist. Nat. xviii. 69.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1732'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1732'>1732</a>. Pallad. vii. 2.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1733'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1733'>1733</a>. The custom with which the
+modern Greeks hail the approach
+of summer is picturesque and
+beautiful: “On the first of May
+at Athens, there is not a door
+that is not crowned with a garland,
+and the youths of both
+sexes, with the elasticity of
+spirits so characteristic of a
+Greek, forget or brave their
+Turkish masters, while with
+guitars in their hands, and
+crowns upon their heads,</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>‘They lead the dance in honour of the May.’”</div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c014'>Douglas, p. 64.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1734'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1734'>1734</a>. Cato, 134.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1735'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1735'>1735</a>. The harvest began earlier in
+Salamis than in the neighbourhood
+of Athens. Theoph. Hist.
+Plant. viii. 2. 11. Chandler, vol.
+ii. p. 230. In Egypt barley was
+reaped on the sixth month after
+sowing, and wheat on the seventh.
+Theoph. Hist. Plant. viii. 2. 7.
+In Greece, barley required seven
+or eight months to ripen; wheat
+still more. This latter grain came
+to maturity more speedily in Sicily,
+and returned thirty-fold. § 8.
+In a district in the island of
+Rhodes they reaped barley twice
+in the year. § 9. Harvest was
+thirty days earlier in Attica than
+in the Hellespont. 8. 10. There
+was a kind of wheat in Eubœa
+which ripened very early; and
+there was introduced from Sicily
+into Achaia another kind which
+was fit for the sickle in two
+months. Id. viii. 4. 4. Wheat
+returned in Babylonia, even to
+negligent husbandmen, fifty-fold,
+and to such as properly cultivated
+their lands, a hundred-fold. Id.
+viii. 7. 4.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1736'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1736'>1736</a>. Dem. De Cor. § 16.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1737'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1737'>1737</a>. Or perhaps wholly so when
+they happened to be inhabitants
+of the warm lowlands on the sea-shore
+and valleys. At least this
+is the opinion of Hesiod who
+counsels the husbandman, γυμνὸν
+σπείρειν, γυμνὸν δὲ βοωτεῖν, γυμνὸν
+δ᾽ ἀμάαν, εἴ χ’ ὥρια πάντ᾽
+ἐθέλησθα ἔργα κομίζεσθαι Δημήτερος.
+Opp. et Dies, 391, sqq.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Aristophanes alludes to the
+same custom. Lysist. 1175.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Ἥδη γεωργεῖν γυμνὸς, ἀποδὺς
+βούλομαι. And Virgil. “Nudus
+ara, sere nudus,” Georg, i. 299,
+upon which Servius remarks:
+<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">“Non dicit nudum esse debere,
+quasi aliter non oporteat aut
+possit; sed sub tanta serenitate
+dicit hæc agenda, ut et amictus
+possit contemni.”</span> Be this, however,
+as it may, the precept of
+Hesiod and Virgil is literally observed
+in Egypt, where the rustics
+often perform their labour stark
+naked.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1738'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1738'>1738</a>. Il. λ. 67, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1739'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1739'>1739</a>. Πότερα οὖν τέμνεις, ἔφη, στὰς
+ἔνθα πνεῖ ἄνεμος, ἢ ἀντίος· οὐκ
+ἀντίος, ἔφην, ἔγωγε· χαλεπὸν γὰρ,
+οἶμαι, καὶ τοῖς ὄμμασι καὶ ταῖς
+χερσὶ γίγνεται, ἀντιον ἀχύρων
+καὶ ἀθέρων θερίζειν. Xenoph.
+Œconom. xviii. 1.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1740'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1740'>1740</a>. σ. 550, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1741'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1741'>1741</a>. Ἡμερόκοιτοὶ ἀνδρες, an elegant
+euphonism for “thieves”.
+Hesiod. Opp. et Dies, 605. Cf.
+the note of Gœttling on verse 375.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1742'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1742'>1742</a>. Pallad. vii. 2.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1743'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1743'>1743</a>. Varro. i. 50.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1744'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1744'>1744</a>. Καὶ ἀκροτομοίης δ᾽ἂν, ἔφη, ἢ
+παρὰ γῆν τέμνοις; ἢν μὲν βραχὺς
+ἦ ὁ κάλαμος τοῦ σίτου, ἔγωγ’,
+ἔφην, κάτωθεν ἂν τέμνοιμι, ἵνα
+ἱκανὰ τὰ ἄχυρα μᾶλλον γίγνηται.
+Ἐὰν δὲ ὑψηλὸς ᾖ, νομίζω ὀρθῶς
+ἂν ποιεῖν μεσοτομῶν, ἵνα μήτε οἱ
+ἁλοῶντες μοχθῶσι περιττὸν πόνον,
+μήτε οἱ λικμῶντες, ὧν οὐδὲν προσδέονται.
+Τὸ δὲ ἐv τῇ γῇ λειφθὲν
+ἡγοῦμαι καὶ κατακαυθὲν συνωφελεῖν
+ἂν τὴν γῆν καὶ εις κοπρον
+ἐμβληθὲν τὴν κόπρον συμπληθύνειν.
+Xenoph. Œconom. xviii. 2.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1745'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1745'>1745</a>. Xenoph. Œconom. xviii. 4.
+The same custom still prevails in
+Southern Europe and in the East.
+“Corn is trodden out in Granada
+in circular-formed threshing-floors,
+in the open fields; the
+animals employed are mules
+or oxen.” Napier, Excursions,
+&c., i. 156. Again, in the Troad,
+“The oxen or horses being harnessed
+to a sort of sledge, the
+bottom part of which is armed
+with sharp flints, are driven
+over the corn, the person
+who guides the cattle balancing
+him or herself with great dexterity
+whilst rapidly drawn
+round in revolving circles.” Id.
+ii. 171. Cf. Fowler, Three Years
+in Persia, i. 173, and Chandler,
+i. 320. ii. 234.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1746'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1746'>1746</a>. Iliad, υ. 495, seq. Hesiod.
+Opp. et Dies, 599.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1747'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1747'>1747</a>. Suid. v. ἁλωὰ t. i. p. 186. c.
+Philoch. Frag. Siebel. p. 86. Etym.
+Mag. 73. 56, seq. Colum.
+ii. 20. Geop. ii. 26. Senec.
+Quæst. Nat. i. 2.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1748'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1748'>1748</a>. Earl of Aberdeen in Walp.
+Mem. i. 150. Pallas, Trav. in
+South. Russia, vol. iv. p. 148,
+seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1749'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1749'>1749</a>. Schneid. ad Xenoph, Œcon.
+xviii. 8.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1750'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1750'>1750</a>. Varro. de Re Rust. i. 51.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1751'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1751'>1751</a>. Geop. ii. 26.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1752'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1752'>1752</a>. Varro. i. 51. Pallad. i. 36.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1753'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1753'>1753</a>. Mathem. Vett. p. 85. Theoph.
+Hist. Plant. iii. 8.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1754'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1754'>1754</a>. Colum. ii. 21.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1755'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1755'>1755</a>. Plat. Tim. t. vii. p. 65.
+Xenoph. Œconom. xviii. 8.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1756'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1756'>1756</a>. Il. ν. 588.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1757'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1757'>1757</a>. Il. ε. 562.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1758'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1758'>1758</a>. See on the vessels in which
+the produce of the harvest was
+received, Pollux. x. 129.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1759'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1759'>1759</a>. Cf. Pallad. l. 19. Colum.
+i. 6. A granary, commonly σιτοφυλακεῖον,
+was, by Menander, in
+his Eunuch, denominated σιτοβόλιον;
+among the Siciliotes and
+Greek colonists of Italy ῥογος;
+as in the Busiris of Epicharmos.
+Poll. ix. 45.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1760'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1760'>1760</a>. Varro. i. 57.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1761'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1761'>1761</a>. The same practice is still
+found in several of the Grecian
+islands. <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">“Ils font dans les champs
+un trou proportionné à la quantité
+de bled qu’ils y veulent
+serrer; il est ordinairement de
+cinq pieds de diamètre, sur
+deux ou trois de profondeur.
+On en tapisse l’intérieur
+d’environ un demi-pied de paille
+brisée sous les pieds des bœufs;
+on y serre ensuite le grain, de
+manière qu’il s’élève par dessus
+la terre, à une hauteur
+à-peu-près égale à la profondeur
+du trou; on le couvre avec
+un demi-pied de paille, sur laquelle
+on met trois ou quatre
+pouces de terre.”</span> Della Rocca,
+<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Traité Complet sur les Abeilles</span>,
+t. i. p. 198, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1762'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1762'>1762</a>. Geop. ii. 27.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1763'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1763'>1763</a>. Cf. Lord Bacon. Hist. Life
+and Death, p. 5.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1764'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1764'>1764</a>. But, according to Theophrastus,
+corn kept best in granaries
+unplastered with lime. Hist.
+Plant. viii. 10. 1. In a certain
+part of Cappadocia called Petra,
+corn would keep fit for sowing
+forty years, and for food sixty or
+seventy, although in that district
+cloths and other articles decay
+rapidly. Id. viii. 10. 5.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1765'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1765'>1765</a>. Among tame animals designed
+to protect the farmstead from
+vermin, the weasel was sometimes
+used. Hom. Batrachom. 52. Ovid.
+Met. ix. 323. Luc. Timon. § 21.
+Perizon. ad Ælian. Var. Hist. xiv.
+4. Muncker, ad Anton. Liber. 29.
+Plin. Hist. Nat. xix. 16. Welcker.
+ad Simon. Amorg. p. 43.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1766'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1766'>1766</a>. From which they carefully
+cleansed the spider’s webs: ἐκ δ᾽ ἀγγέων
+ἐλάσειας ἀράχνια. Hesiod.
+Opp. et Dies, 475. Cf. 600. A similar
+method still prevails in the
+islands of the Archipelago when
+the grain is intended for the market:
+<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">“Ceux qui veulent porter
+leurs grains à la ville, les mettent
+dans des vases de terre
+cuite, qu’ils remplissent à deux
+ou trois pouces près; ensuite
+ils étendent par dessus quelques
+feuilles de figuier sauvage, appelé
+<em>orni</em>, et en Latin <em>caprificus</em>;
+enfin ils achèvent de remplir
+les vases avec de la cendre,
+et les couvrent d’une espèce
+d’ardoise, mais plus forte et plus
+épaisse que celle dont on se
+sert en France pour couvrir les
+maisons.” Della Rocca, Traité
+Complet sur les Abeilles,</span> t. i. p.
+200.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1767'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1767'>1767</a>. Varro. i. 57.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1768'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1768'>1768</a>. Geop. ii. 29.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1769'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1769'>1769</a>. This substance was brought
+from Olynthos and Cerinthos, in
+Eubœa. It is said to have improved
+the appearance of the wheat,
+though it deteriorated its quality
+as an article of food. Theoph.
+viii. 10. 7.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1770'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1770'>1770</a>. The granaries of the island
+of Syra, with the contrivance by
+which corn is there preserved at
+the present day, are thus described
+by Della Rocca:—<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">“Les granges,
+appelées en Grec θεμονέα, ont
+communément une vingtaine
+de pieds de long, sur huit à dix
+de hauteur et de largeur. On
+les remplit jusqu’à la moitié
+de leur hauteur, de paille bien
+foulée: on pratique un espace
+de trois ou quatre pieds, que
+l’on remplit de grain. A côté
+on en forme un autre, que l’on
+remplit de même, et ainsi de
+suite, selon l’étendue de la
+grange, et la quantité de grain
+que l’on a; cela fait, par des
+ouvertures pratiquées dans la
+couverture, on recouvre de paille
+tout le bled, jusqu’à ce que la
+grange soit exactement remplie.
+Quand on veut en faire usage,
+on commence par le tas le plus
+voisin de la porte; on enlève
+d’abord la paille avec beaucoup
+de précaution: plus on
+approche, plus cette précaution
+augmente; enfin, pour ôter les
+derniers brins de paille, on se
+sert d’un balai de millepertuis
+ou d’autres plantes que
+l’on fait sécher; et si malgré
+tous ces soins, la surface du
+monceau de grain n’est pas bien
+nette, on achève d’en enlever
+toutes les menues pailles en
+la vannant avec un chapeau
+car les paysans de nos îles portent
+comme ici, dans les champs,
+des chapeaux ronds de feutre;
+ils en portent aussi de paille,
+que l’on travaille avec beaucoup
+de délicatesse à Sifanto.”
+Traité Complet sur les Abeilles.</span>
+t. i. p. 199, seq. Among the tribes
+of Northern Africa a more complete
+system of preserving grain
+prevails. “The Arabs, in lieu
+of granaries, preserve all their
+grain in pits: forty or fifty of
+these are made, each to contain
+about a thousand bushels:
+the spot selected is a dry,
+sandy soil, the hole being formed
+in the shape of a large earthen
+jug, the sides are plastered
+with mortar about a foot in
+thickness, and the wheat or
+grain filled up to the mouth,
+which is left just large enough
+for a man to get in at, and
+is about three feet below the
+surface of the ground; this
+is now plastered over also, and
+filled with the soil around
+to the same level as the surrounding
+country. The earth
+taken out in forming the pits
+is removed to a distance, and
+being scattered abroad, in a
+month or two the grass grows
+over the surface, and no one,
+unless those who have buried
+this treasure, would imagine
+that there was anything beneath
+their feet. The grain
+thus buried preserves for many
+years. I have eaten bread at
+the Esmailla made from wheat
+as old as the Sultan, having
+been buried the year of his
+birth, and it was as good as
+that made of flour from this
+year’s crop.” Colonel Scott,
+Journal of a Residence in the
+Esmailla of Abd-el-Kader. p. 155,
+seq. Mandelslo (lib. ii. c. iii.) found
+corn-vaults of similar construction
+in the Azores; and most travellers
+who have visited the island
+of Malta will have observed in
+the fortifications of Valetta that
+series of curious and beautiful
+granaries excavated in the form
+of a bottle in the solid rock.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1771'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1771'>1771</a>. Geop. ii. 30, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1772'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1772'>1772</a>. Geop. ii. 28.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1773'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1773'>1773</a>. Geop. ii. 30.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1774'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1774'>1774</a>. Vid. Theoc. Eidyll. vii. 3.
+Etym. Mag. 444. 13. Athen.
+xiii. 65. iii. 80. Meurs. Græc.
+Fer. p. 15. p. 142. Dem. adv.
+Neær. § 27, with the authorities
+collected by Taylor.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1775'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1775'>1775</a>. Such of these as had charge
+of the timber may be denominated
+wood-reeves, a term which answers
+very well the Latin Saltuarius.
+The slave-guards of forests,
+in Crete, were called Ergatones.
+Hesych. ap. Meurs. Cret. p.
+190.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1776'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1776'>1776</a>. Casaub. ad Theoph. Char. p.
+223, seq. Theocrit. Eidyll. xxv. 27.
+Cf. Feith. Antiq. Hom. iv. i. 276,
+sqq. Vineyards in Athens still require
+guards. Speaking of his approach
+to Athens from the Peiræeus,
+Chandler observes:—“In a
+tree was a kind of couch, sheltered
+with boughs, belonging to a
+man employed to watch there
+during the vintage.” ii. 27.</p>
+</div>
+<hr class='c016' />
+
+<div>
+ <span class='pageno' id='Page_401'>401</span>
+ <h3 class='c002'>CHAPTER VI. <br /> PASTORAL LIFE.</h3>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c011'>But within the circle of Hellenic country life<a id='r1777' /><a href='#f1777' class='c012'><sup>[1777]</sup></a>
+there was a kind of parenthetical existence, a
+remnant of the old nomadic habits, once common,
+perhaps, to the whole race,—I mean the pastoral
+life, of which we obtain so many glimpses
+through the leafy glades and grassy avenues of Greek
+poetry. No doubt, the fancy of imaginative men,
+thirsting for a degree of simplicity and happiness
+greater than they find around them in cities or
+villages, is apt to kindle and shed too glorious a
+light on approaching the tranquil solitudes, the pine
+forests, the mountain glens, the hidden lakes, the
+umbrageous streams that leap and frolic down the
+wild rocks of a country so rife with beauty as Greece.
+Nevertheless, adhering strictly to truth and reality,
+there is, in such regions, much about the pastoral
+life to delight the mind. In the first place, the
+occupations of an ancient shepherd left him great
+leisure, and he was generally, by habit no less than
+by inclination, led to prize that “dolce far niente”
+which, in all southern climates, constitutes the chief
+enjoyment of existence.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'><span class='pageno' id='Page_402'>402</span>And indeed all the world over, repose, both of
+mind and body, is sweet. But not entire repose.
+Accordingly the Grecian shepherd, whose flocks fed
+tranquilly, whose condition, assured, and pinched by
+no necessities, left him at liberty to consult his own
+tastes in his recreations, took refuge from idleness
+in music and song.<a id='r1778' /><a href='#f1778' class='c012'><sup>[1778]</sup></a> At first, and perhaps always,
+their lays were rude; but nature, their only teacher,
+infused into them originality and passion, such as
+we find in the only poet of antiquity, save Homer,
+in whose verses the fragrance of the woods still
+breathes. Whether like Paris and Anchises they
+kept their own flocks or undertook the care for
+others, they were still on the mountains perfectly
+free. Their education was peculiar. Abroad much
+after dark,<a id='r1779' /><a href='#f1779' class='c012'><sup>[1779]</sup></a> in a climate where the summer nights
+are soft and balmy beyond expression, and where
+the stars seem lovingly to crowd closer about the
+earth, they necessarily grew romantic and superstitious.<a id='r1780' /><a href='#f1780' class='c012'><sup>[1780]</sup></a>
+Events occurring early in their own lives or
+handed down to them by tradition, long meditated
+on, were in the end invested with supernatural attributes.
+Under similar circumstances their national
+religion had probably been first formed. They in
+the same way, in every canton, created a local religion.<a id='r1781' /><a href='#f1781' class='c012'><sup>[1781]</sup></a>
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_403'>403</span>Their very creed was poetry. Tree, rock,
+mountain, spring, every thing was instinct with divinity,
+not mystically, as in certain philosophical
+systems, but literally; and, as they believed, the immortal
+race, their invisible companions at all hours,
+could when they pleased put on visibility, or rather
+remove from their eyes the film which prevented
+their habitually beholding them.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>It is well known that, in the present day, among
+the nomadic nations of Asia, the sons of the chiefs
+still follow their flocks in the wilderness. And this
+in the heroic ages was likewise the case in Greece,<a id='r1782' /><a href='#f1782' class='c012'><sup>[1782]</sup></a>
+where youths of the noblest families watched over
+their fathers’ sheep and cattle. Thus Bucolion, son
+of Laomedon, led to pasture the flocks of his sire,
+and, in the solitudes of the Phrygian mountains, was
+met and loved by a nymph.<a id='r1783' /><a href='#f1783' class='c012'><sup>[1783]</sup></a> Two sons also of
+Priam pursued the same occupation;<a id='r1784' /><a href='#f1784' class='c012'><sup>[1784]</sup></a> and thus
+among the Hebrews, David, the son of Jesse, passes
+his youth in the sheepfold, and his manhood on a
+throne. In this secluded and solitary life the sights
+and sounds of nature became familiar to them, the
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_404'>404</span>voice of sudden torrents rushing from the mountains,<a id='r1785' /><a href='#f1785' class='c012'><sup>[1785]</sup></a>
+the roar of lions springing on their folds, or the sweet
+moonlight silvering both mountain and valley. It
+is with the shepherd’s life that Homer connects
+that noble description of the night which Chapman
+has thus translated:</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>As when about the silver moon, when air is free from wind,<a id='r1786' /><a href='#f1786' class='c012'><sup>[1786]</sup></a></div>
+ <div class='line'>And stars shine clear,<a id='r1787' /><a href='#f1787' class='c012'><sup>[1787]</sup></a> to whose sweet beams high prospects and the brows</div>
+ <div class='line'>Of all steep hills and pinnacles thrust up themselves for shows,</div>
+ <div class='line'>And even the lonely valleys joy to glitter in their sight,</div>
+ <div class='line'>When the unmeasured firmament bursts to disclose her light,</div>
+ <div class='line'>And all the signs in heaven are seen, that glad the shepherd’s heart.</div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c014'>The glimpses of pastoral life, albeit too few, are
+still frequent in Homer, who loves, whenever possible,
+to illustrate his subject by bringing before our
+minds the image of a shepherd. Thus Hector, lifting
+a large rock, is compared to a shepherd bearing
+a ram’s fleece.<a id='r1788' /><a href='#f1788' class='c012'><sup>[1788]</sup></a></p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>As when the fleece, though large yet light, the careful shepherd rears,</div>
+ <div class='line'>With both hands plunged within its folds, so he the rock uptears.</div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c014'><span class='pageno' id='Page_405'>405</span>Again, the Trojan forces following their leader,
+Æneas, suggest to his mind the idea of innumerable
+flocks bounding after a ram to drink.<a id='r1789' /><a href='#f1789' class='c012'><sup>[1789]</sup></a></p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>The people followed, as the flock the shaggy ram succeeds,</div>
+ <div class='line'>Who to the cooling streamlet’s bank the woolly nation leads</div>
+ <div class='line'>(While swells the shepherd’s heart with joy) from pasture on the meads.</div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c015'>Elsewhere, he describes a troop of hungry wolves
+attacking the flocks on the mountains:—<a id='r1790' /><a href='#f1790' class='c012'><sup>[1790]</sup></a></p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>As when the hungry wolves, on folds forsaken by the watch,</div>
+ <div class='line'>Descend, the kids and tender lambs by thievish force to snatch;</div>
+ <div class='line'>Or when the timid browsing crew are scattered far and wide,</div>
+ <div class='line'>And seized, by witless shepherds left upon the mountain side.</div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c015'>But, in another place, they are represented contending
+with a lion by night for the body of one
+of their flock.<a id='r1791' /><a href='#f1791' class='c012'><sup>[1791]</sup></a></p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>Thus the night-watching shepherds strive, but vainly, to repel</div>
+ <div class='line'>The angry lion, whom the stings of want and rage impel,</div>
+ <div class='line'>Upon the carcase fastens he: his heart no fear can quell.</div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c015'>Where the number of the flock required the care
+of several men a chief shepherd ἐπιποιμὴν was appointed
+to overlook the rest.<a id='r1792' /><a href='#f1792' class='c012'><sup>[1792]</sup></a> Among the ancients
+twenty sheep were thought to require the attention
+of a man and a boy;<a id='r1793' /><a href='#f1793' class='c012'><sup>[1793]</sup></a> but, in modern times, three
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_406'>406</span>men and a boy, with four or five dogs, are sometimes
+entrusted with a flock of five hundred, of
+which two-thirds are ewes.<a id='r1794' /><a href='#f1794' class='c012'><sup>[1794]</sup></a> The proportion of rams
+to ewes is at present as four to a hundred.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>From very remote ages shepherds had learned
+to avail themselves of the aid of dogs,<a id='r1795' /><a href='#f1795' class='c012'><sup>[1795]</sup></a> which in
+farms were usually furnished with wooden collars.<a id='r1796' /><a href='#f1796' class='c012'><sup>[1796]</sup></a>
+The breed generally employed in this service, in
+later ages at least, was the Molossian,<a id='r1797' /><a href='#f1797' class='c012'><sup>[1797]</sup></a> which, though
+exceedingly powerful and fierce towards strangers,
+was by its masters found sufficiently gentle and
+tractable. The shepherd’s pipe,<a id='r1798' /><a href='#f1798' class='c012'><sup>[1798]</sup></a> frequently made
+of the donax, or common river-reed,<a id='r1799' /><a href='#f1799' class='c012'><sup>[1799]</sup></a> likewise used
+in thatching cottages, formed a no less necessary
+accompaniment. Another of their instruments of
+music was the flute crooked at the top, finely polished
+and rubbed with bees’ wax.<a id='r1800' /><a href='#f1800' class='c012'><sup>[1800]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>As the Arcadians, descendants of the Pelasgians,
+derived one of their principal delights from music,<a id='r1801' /><a href='#f1801' class='c012'><sup>[1801]</sup></a>
+it is reasonable to infer that the ancestral nation,
+preëminently pastoral, was likewise addicted to this
+science. The feeding of herds and flocks constituted
+the principal occupation of the Proselenoi,<a id='r1802' /><a href='#f1802' class='c012'><sup>[1802]</sup></a>
+who were little devoted to agriculture, as may be
+inferred from their acorn-eating habits; for no nation
+ever continued to feed on mast after they
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_407'>407</span>could obtain bread. A report prevailed in the ancient
+world that the Arcadians were of a poetical
+temperament, to which Virgil alludes in the well-known
+verses—</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line in18'><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Arcades ambo,</span></div>
+ <div class='line'><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Et cantare pares et respondere parati.</span></div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c015'>And as improvisatori they may possibly have excelled,
+though Greece knew nothing of an Arcadian
+literature. However, chiefly after the example
+of Virgil, the poets of modern times have always
+delighted to convert Arcadia into a kind of pastoral
+Utopia, which is done by Sannazaro, Tasso,
+Guarini, Sir Philip Sydney, Daniel, and many others.
+Palmerius à Grentmesnil<a id='r1803' /><a href='#f1803' class='c012'><sup>[1803]</sup></a> discovers something like
+the descendants of the Arcadians among the Irish,
+whose pastoral taste for music he conceives to be
+commemorated by the triangular harp in the national
+insignia.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Their usual clothing consisted of diptheræ, or
+dressed sheepskins,<a id='r1804' /><a href='#f1804' class='c012'><sup>[1804]</sup></a> just as at the present day
+among the Nubian shepherds, whom one may see
+thus clad, roaming through the sandy hollows of
+the Lybian desert. On the inside of these skins
+the traitor Hermion wrote the letters which betrayed
+the designs of his countrymen to the enemy in Laconia.<a id='r1805' /><a href='#f1805' class='c012'><sup>[1805]</sup></a>
+Others wore goatskin cloaks, which they
+likewise used as a coverlet at night.<a id='r1806' /><a href='#f1806' class='c012'><sup>[1806]</sup></a> Euripides introduces
+his chorus of satyrs complaining of this
+miserable costume.<a id='r1807' /><a href='#f1807' class='c012'><sup>[1807]</sup></a></p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'><span class='pageno' id='Page_408'>408</span>“Much loved Bacchos where dost thou</div>
+ <div class='line'>Lonely dwell afar,</div>
+ <div class='line'>Shaking thy gold locks at eve</div>
+ <div class='line'>Like a blazing star?</div>
+ <div class='line'>While I thy minister am fain</div>
+ <div class='line'>To serve this one-eyed Cyclop swain,</div>
+ <div class='line'>A slave borne down by fortune’s stroke</div>
+ <div class='line'>In a wretched goatskin cloak.”</div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c014'>And thus simple was ever their appearance in
+the East. But, as I have hinted above, their very
+great leisure,<a id='r1808' /><a href='#f1808' class='c012'><sup>[1808]</sup></a> the accidents of their occupation, and
+the grand and regular march of natural phenomena
+in those countries, often ripened their intellects beyond
+what the condition of a modern heath-trotter
+renders credible. Thus, in the mountains of Chaldæa,
+astronomy and all its parasitical sciences took
+birth among the shepherd race. From temperament
+and circumstances, the inhabitants of thinly-peopled
+tracts, if unvexed by wars, are profoundly meditative.
+What they behold in serene indistraction
+gradually rouses their thoughts, and presenting itself
+again and again, attended always, as the phenomena
+of the heavens are, by the same accidents, compels
+them to study.<a id='r1809' /><a href='#f1809' class='c012'><sup>[1809]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'><span class='pageno' id='Page_409'>409</span>But solitude is less surely the nurse of science
+than of superstition. The leaven, which in populous
+cities scarcely swells visibly in the breast, ferments
+unrestrainedly in the depths of woods, in the
+high-piled recesses of mountains, in the gloom of
+caverns, where nature invests itself with attributes
+which address themselves powerfully to the heart,
+and appears almost to hold communion with its
+offspring. Hence the wild mythologies of Nomadic
+races, which are not loose-hanging creeds, to be put
+off and on like a cloak, but a belief inwrought
+into their souls, a part of themselves, and perhaps
+the best part, since it is from this that springs the
+whole dignity and poetry of their lives. In all
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_410'>410</span>countries fables rise in the fields, to flow into and
+be lost in the cities. Observe the wild picture
+which Plato, in his Academic Dream, presents to
+us of a group of Lydian shepherds. It has all the
+poetical elements of an Arabian tale.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Tradition, he says, represented Gyges the ancestor
+of Crœsus as a hired shepherd, who with many
+others guarded the imperial flocks in the remoter
+districts of the country. At this time happened a
+great earthquake, attended by floods of rain, which,
+in the parts where they were, opened up a vast
+chasm in the earth. Gyges arriving alone at the
+mouth of the gap stood amazed at its depth and
+magnitude, but observing a practicable descent went
+down, and roamed through its subterraneous passages.
+Many marvellous things, according to the
+mythos, did he there see, and among the rest a
+hollow brazen horse, with doors in its side, through
+which looking in, he beheld a colossal naked corpse,
+with a jewelled ring on its hand. Transferring this
+to his own finger Gyges departed.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Shortly afterwards, still wearing the signet, he
+went to the assembly of shepherds, which met
+monthly, for the purpose of selecting a person to
+bear the usual report of the flocks to the king.
+Sitting down among the rest he happened to turn
+the beavil of his ring towards himself, upon which
+he became invisible to his companions,<a id='r1810' /><a href='#f1810' class='c012'><sup>[1810]</sup></a> as he clearly
+discovered from their discourse, which proceeded as
+if about an absent man. Smitten with much wonder
+he returned the gem to its former position and
+again became visible. He made the experiment
+over and over and always with success; upon which,
+like another Macbeth, a vast scheme of ambition
+darkly shadowed itself upon his mind, and a crown
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_411'>411</span>tinged slightly with blood swam before him. It
+does not, however, appear that like the Thane of
+Cawdor he was perplexed with scruples. He does
+not say,—</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>“Why do I yield to that suggestion,</div>
+ <div class='line'>Whose horrid image doth unfix my hair,</div>
+ <div class='line'>And make my seated heart knock at my ribs,</div>
+ <div class='line'>Against the use of nature? Present facts</div>
+ <div class='line'>Are less than horrible imaginings.</div>
+ <div class='line'>My thought whose murder’s yet but phantasy,</div>
+ <div class='line'>Shakes so my single state of man, that function</div>
+ <div class='line'>Is smothered in surmise, and nothing is,</div>
+ <div class='line'>But what is not.”</div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c014'>Gyges, with the ruthless resolution of an Oriental,
+forms his plan at once, and coolly works it out.
+He procures himself to be elected one of the mission
+to the king, and on arriving at the capital,
+dishonours the queen, murders his master, and ascends
+the throne.<a id='r1811' /><a href='#f1811' class='c012'><sup>[1811]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>This may be regarded as a specimen of the shepherds’
+tales.<a id='r1812' /><a href='#f1812' class='c012'><sup>[1812]</sup></a> But they moved for the most part in
+an atmosphere of superstition, had ceremonies of
+their own, a mythology of their own, and of the
+whole the pervading spirit was love. In communities
+highly civilised, this passion commonly degenerates
+into a plaything, despised when weak, and
+mischievous when strong. It is otherwise in the
+early stages of society. There, in proportion to
+their freedom from the aspirations and anxieties of
+ambition, men seek happiness in the cultivation of
+the affections. The society of women is to them
+all in all. And the evils that infest them, disturb
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_412'>412</span>their quiet, and engender crime, spring, too, from
+the same bitter-sweet fountain, which flows with
+honey or gall according to the temper of those who
+drink of it. Consequently, in contemplating the
+pastoral life of Greece, we must beware not to
+overlook the shepherdesses,<a id='r1813' /><a href='#f1813' class='c012'><sup>[1813]</sup></a> those heroines of Bucolic
+poetry, whose freshness and nature still survive
+in Theocritus, and other fragments of antiquity,
+and may operate as an antidote to that insipid
+spawn whose loves and lamentations affect us
+like ipecacuanha in modern pastorals.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>In these latitudes of society, at least, women enjoyed
+their freedom, and the glimpses presented to
+us of them as they there existed may be regarded
+among the chief charms of Greek poetry. Only,
+for example, observe the picture which Chæremon
+the Flower Poet, has delineated of a bevy of beautiful
+virgins sporting by moonlight:</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>“There one reclined apart I saw, within the moon’s pale light,</div>
+ <div class='line'>With bosom through her parted robe appearing snowy white;</div>
+ <div class='line'>Another danced, and floating free her garments in the breeze</div>
+ <div class='line'>She seemed as buoyant as the wave that leaps o’er summer seas.</div>
+ <div class='line'>While dusky shadows all around shrunk backward from the place,</div>
+ <div class='line'>Chased by the beaming splendour shed like sunshine from her face:</div>
+ <div class='line'>Beside this living picture stood a maiden passing fair</div>
+ <div class='line'>With soft round arms exposed; a fourth with free and graceful air,</div>
+ <div class='line'>Like Dian when the bounding hart she tracks through morning dew,</div>
+ <div class='line'>Bared through the opening of her robes her lovely limbs to view.</div>
+ <div class='line'>And oh! the image of her charms, as clouds in heaven above,</div>
+ <div class='line'>Mirrored by streams, left on my soul the stamp of hopeless love.</div>
+ <div class='line'>And slumbering near them others lay, on beds of sweetest flowers,</div>
+ <div class='line'>The dusky petaled violet, the rose of Paphian bowers.</div>
+ <div class='line'>The inula and saffron flower, which on their garments cast,</div>
+ <div class='line'>And veils, such hues as deck the sky when day is ebbing fast;</div>
+ <div class='line'>While far and near tall marjoram bedecked the fairy ground,</div>
+ <div class='line'>Loading with sweets the vagrant winds that frolicked all around.”<a id='r1814' /><a href='#f1814' class='c012'><sup>[1814]</sup></a></div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c014'>In the ordinary bucolic poets women to be sure
+are sketched with a rude pencil, though coquettish
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_413'>413</span>as queens, of which we have an exemplification in
+the picture on the shepherd’s cup:<a id='r1815' /><a href='#f1815' class='c012'><sup>[1815]</sup></a></p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>And there, by ivy shaded, sits a maid divinely wrought,</div>
+ <div class='line'>With veil and circlet on her brows, by two fond lovers sought.</div>
+ <div class='line'>Both beautiful with flowing hair, both sueing to be heard,</div>
+ <div class='line'>On this side one, the other there, but neither is preferred.</div>
+ <div class='line'>For now on this, on that anon, she pours her witching smile,</div>
+ <div class='line'>Like sunshine on the buds of hope, in falsehood all and guile,</div>
+ <div class='line'>Though ceaselessly, with swelling eyes, they seek her heart to move,</div>
+ <div class='line'>By every soft and touching art that wins a maiden’s love.<a id='r1816' /><a href='#f1816' class='c012'><sup>[1816]</sup></a></div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c014'>There is here no straining after the ideal. Like
+Titian’s beauties, these shepherdesses are all creatures
+of this earth, filled with robust health, dark-eyed,
+warm, impassioned, and somewhat deficient in
+reserve. They understand well how to act their
+part in a dialogue. For every bolt shot at them
+they can return another as keen. Each bower and
+bosky bourne seems redolent of their smiles; their
+laughter awakens the echoes; their ruddy lips and
+pearly teeth hang like a vision over every bubbling
+spring and love-hiding thicket which they were wont
+to frequent. Hence the charm of Theocritus. And
+a still stronger charm perhaps would have belonged
+to the pages of him who should have painted the
+shepherd’s life of a remoter age,<a id='r1817' /><a href='#f1817' class='c012'><sup>[1817]</sup></a> when none were
+above such an occupation, which therefore united
+at once all the dignity of lofty independence with
+the careless freedom of manners and unapprehensive
+enjoyment in which consists the secret source of all
+the pleasure which rustic pictures afford. Most of
+his creations, though not all, are in this respect wanting.
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_414'>414</span>Ideas of penury<a id='r1818' /><a href='#f1818' class='c012'><sup>[1818]</sup></a> slip in, and, in the midst of
+rich poetry, check the developement of pleasurable
+feelings. For the musical swains, though apparently
+ambitious of nought but the reputation of song, permit
+us to discover, that they are but hirelings tending
+flocks not their own. The contrast between persons
+of this class and those who are owners of the sheep
+they tend, is forcibly pointed out in the sacred language
+of Christ: “I am the good shepherd: the
+good shepherd giveth his life for the sheep. But
+he that is an hireling and not the shepherd and
+whose own the sheep are not, seeth the wolf
+coming, and leaveth the sheep and fleeth, and
+the wolf catcheth them and scattereth the sheep.
+The hireling fleeth because he is a hireling, and
+careth not for the sheep. I am the good shepherd
+and know my sheep and am known of mine.
+As the Father knoweth me even so know I the
+Father; and I lay down my life for the sheep.”<a id='r1819' /><a href='#f1819' class='c012'><sup>[1819]</sup></a>
+The same affectionate tenderness is attributed to
+shepherds in the prophetic writings: “he shall feed
+his flocks like a shepherd, he shall gather the
+lambs with his arm, and carry them in his bosom,
+and shall gently lead those that are with young.”<a id='r1820' /><a href='#f1820' class='c012'><sup>[1820]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>In the matter of virtues and vices, the shepherds
+of antiquity were very much, no doubt, like other
+men. Their habits were such as grew naturally out
+of their position. Towards whatever their feelings led
+them they proceeded vehemently, and with that singleness
+of purpose which belongs to men of simple
+and decided character.<a id='r1821' /><a href='#f1821' class='c012'><sup>[1821]</sup></a> They were too commonly
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_415'>415</span>creatures of mere impulse. From the peculiar form of
+their communion with nature, which, like the masses
+of Egyptian architecture, was continued and monotonous,
+they acquired a peculiarity of mental temperament,
+warm, as it were, in parts, and cold in
+parts. Every circumstance around them tended to
+rouse, pique, and inflame the passion of desire and
+its concomitants; the pairing of their flocks, of
+the birds, of the very wild beasts whose courage or
+ferocity they dreaded; their own leisure combined
+with the excess of health, the influence of climate,
+the solicitations of opportunity, impelled them into
+excess; and, accordingly, their morals in this respect
+sank to a low standard, and rendered them any
+thing but models of the golden age. The intellect
+of course was comparatively little cultivated; and
+there being no other check upon the feelings, suicides,
+murders of jealousy, and other evidences of
+ill-regulated passion would often occur.<a id='r1822' /><a href='#f1822' class='c012'><sup>[1822]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>But, in proportion as we pierce further back into
+antiquity, these tragical incidents become fewer: not
+merely because our knowledge of those ages is more
+scanty, but that in ruder times morality is comparatively
+lax, and men’s taste less fastidious. The
+rigid laws of marriage were then little observed.
+Women passed from husband to husband without
+losing character or caste; and when they produced
+illegitimate offspring attributed the paternity to some
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_416'>416</span>god, and scarcely considered the circumstance a misfortune.
+Half the princes of the Homeric age were
+illegitimate; for this is what is always meant by
+saying they were descended from the gods. Æneas
+was the son of some young woman whom Anchises
+met on the mountains, where he pastured his father’s
+flocks and pretended to have been loved by
+Aphrodite.<a id='r1823' /><a href='#f1823' class='c012'><sup>[1823]</sup></a> Persons so circumstanced were, doubtless,
+capable of much romance. Nymphs and goddesses
+peopled their imagination, and their imagination
+let loose its brood upon the woods. Poets
+afterwards, able to infuse a soul into these rustic
+traditions, gave a local habitation and a name to
+every beautiful legend they could collect. Hence
+that sunny picture, the interview of Aphrodite and
+Anchises amid the lofty recesses, the grassy slopes,
+the sparkling leaping brooks, and old umbrageous
+forests of Mount Ida. Already, however, the force
+of dress was known, which Montaigne afterwards
+celebrated; for the Homeric bard, about to record
+an interview between the goddess and her shepherd-lover,
+instead of supposing her to have been</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>“When unadorned, adorned the most,”</div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c015'>describes all the arts of a luxurious toilette.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The picture, however, of pastoral life which he
+suggests rather than describes, is worked out with
+strokes of great simplicity. All the other herdsmen
+disperse in the execution of their several duties,
+leaving Anchises alone in the cattle-sheds,<a id='r1824' /><a href='#f1824' class='c012'><sup>[1824]</sup></a>
+spacious in dimensions, and tastefully erected, where
+he amuses his solitary leisure with the music of the
+cithara. While thus engaged he beholds the approach
+of the goddess,<a id='r1825' /><a href='#f1825' class='c012'><sup>[1825]</sup></a> and is at once struck with
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_417'>417</span>her beauty and the splendour of her raiment. At
+the unearthly vision his love is kindled; but the
+poet, skilled in the mysteries of the heart, chastens
+his passion by overmastering feelings of reverence,
+such as necessarily belong to unsophisticated youth.
+Anchises constitutes, indeed, the <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><i>beau idéal</i></span> of an
+heroic shepherd, simple, high-minded, ingenuous,
+venturous and fearless in contests with man or
+beast, but in his intercourse with woman gentle, reverent,</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>“And of his port as meek as is a maid.”</div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c015'>In fact, the gallant knights of romance seem rather
+to have been modelled after the heroic warriors of
+Greece, than from any realities supplied by the chivalrous
+ages. The author of the Hymn is careful
+in describing the shepherd’s couch, to insinuate with
+how great strength and courage he was endowed.
+He reclines, we are told, on skins of bears and
+lions slain by his own hand, though over these
+there were cast, for show, garments of the softest
+texture.<a id='r1826' /><a href='#f1826' class='c012'><sup>[1826]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Throughout this work it has been seen how the influence
+of climate and position concurred in the formation
+of the Greek character. We may ourselves
+put the doctrine to the proof by observing the effect
+upon our minds of those reflections of landscapes which
+appear in language; rude Boreal scenes exciting the
+spirit of contention and energy; while the soft valleys,
+groves, and odoriferous gardens of the South
+produce a calm upon our thoughts favourable to the
+more benevolent emotions. Hellenic shepherds,
+therefore, no other causes preventing, may upon
+the whole be supposed to have been humane.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'><span class='pageno' id='Page_418'>418</span>Indeed, the very curious adventures of a sophist,<a id='r1827' /><a href='#f1827' class='c012'><sup>[1827]</sup></a>
+in the mountains of Eubœa, preserved among the
+literary wrecks of antiquity, open up to our view
+a picture of pastoral life which, in spite of much
+rudeness and indigence, exhibits the Greek character
+in its original roughness and simplicity, full of
+kindness, full of gentleness, full of hospitable propensities,
+which would do honour to the noblest
+Arab Sheikh. And the material scene itself, in
+every feature Grecian, harmonises exactly with the
+moral landscape.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The eastern shores of the island of Negropont,
+beetled over by Mount Caphareus,<a id='r1828' /><a href='#f1828' class='c012'><sup>[1828]</sup></a> and indented by
+no creeks or harbours, were in antiquity infamous
+for shipwrecks, notwithstanding that they formed
+the principal station of the purple fishers.<a id='r1829' /><a href='#f1829' class='c012'><sup>[1829]</sup></a> Cast
+away on this coast, the sophist Dion, for his eloquence
+surnamed of the golden-mouth, fell in with
+a pastoral hunter who, entertaining him generously,
+furnished at the same time a complete idea of the
+rude herdsman, who preserved in the vicinity of the
+highest civilisation known to the old world the simplicity
+of the Homeric Abantes.<a id='r1830' /><a href='#f1830' class='c012'><sup>[1830]</sup></a> Nay, this wild
+sportsman, pursuing with his huge dogs a stag along
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_419'>419</span>the cliffs, powerful in limb, hale in colour, and with
+long hair streaming over his shoulders, appeared to
+be the natural descendant of those Heroic warriors.<a id='r1831' /><a href='#f1831' class='c012'><sup>[1831]</sup></a>
+Armed with his hunting-knife, he flays and cuts up
+the stag upon the spot, and taking along with him
+the skin and choicest pieces of venison abandons the
+remainder on the beach. As they go along he displays
+the knowledge wherewith experience stores
+the rustic mind. He understands the signs of the
+weather, and from the clouds which cap the summits
+of Caphareus foretells how long the sea will
+continue unnavigable.<a id='r1832' /><a href='#f1832' class='c012'><sup>[1832]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Rude as an American backwoodsman, he was precipitated,
+by the rare luck of meeting with a stranger,
+into equal inquisitiveness and garrulity. He put
+questions without waiting for an answer. He gossipped
+of his own concerns; explained without being
+asked the whole economy of his life; and exhibited
+all that enthusiasm of beneficence which belongs to
+human nature when uncorrupted by the thirst of
+gold. There is a rare truth in the description; far
+too much ever to have graced a sophist’s tale, unless
+nature had supplied the model.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>“There are two of us,” says he, “who inhabit together
+the same rude nook, having married sisters,
+by whom we have both sons and daughters. We
+derive our subsistence principally from the chase,
+paying but little attention to agriculture, since we
+have no land of our own. Nor were our fathers
+better off in this respect than ourselves; for, though
+freeborn citizens, they were poor, and by their condition
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_420'>420</span>constrained to tend the herds of another,
+a man of great property, owning vast droves of
+cattle, numerous horses and sheep, several beautiful
+estates, with many other possessions, and all
+these mountains as far as you can see. This opulence,
+however, became his ruin. For the emperor,
+casting a covetous eye upon his domains, put him
+to death, that he might have a pretext for seizing
+on them. Our few beasts went along with our
+master’s, and the wages due to us there was no
+one to pay.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>“Here, therefore, of necessity we remained<a id='r1833' /><a href='#f1833' class='c012'><sup>[1833]</sup></a> where
+two or three huts were left us, with a slight wooden
+shed in which the calves had been housed in the summer
+nights.<a id='r1834' /><a href='#f1834' class='c012'><sup>[1834]</sup></a> For, during winter, we had been used to
+descend for pasture to the plains where, in the proper
+season, stores of hay were also laid up; but
+with the re-appearance of summer we returned again
+to the mountains. The spot which had formed our
+principal station now became our fixed dwelling.
+Branching off on either hand is a deep and shady
+valley, having in the middle a rivulet so shallow as
+to be easily traversed, both by cattle and their young.
+This stream, flowing from a spring hard by, is pure
+and perennial and cooled by the summer wind blowing
+perpetually up the ravine. The encircling forests
+of oak stretch forth their boughs far above, over a
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_421'>421</span>carpet of soft verdure, which descends with a gentle
+slope into the stream, giving birth to a few gad-flies,<a id='r1835' /><a href='#f1835' class='c012'><sup>[1835]</sup></a>
+or any other insect hurtful to herds. Extending
+around are numerous lovely meadows, dotted with
+lofty trees, where the grass is green and luxuriant
+throughout the year.”</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The eloquence of this description, I mean in the
+original, is not unworthy to be compared with that
+in the Phædrus<a id='r1836' /><a href='#f1836' class='c012'><sup>[1836]</sup></a> which has given eternal bloom to
+the platane-tree and agnus castus on the banks of
+the Ilissos.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The conversion of these herdsmen into hunters
+is narrated by Dion with a patient simplicity worthy
+of Defoe. An air of solitude, snatched from Robinson
+Crusoe’s island, seems to breathe at his bidding
+over Eubœa. The same education operates strange
+changes both in man and dog; and bringing them
+into hostile contact with wolves, wild boars, stags,
+and other large animals, gives the latter a taste for
+blood, and renders him fierce and destructive. Subsisting
+by the chase, they pursued it summer and
+winter, following both hares and fallow-deer by their
+tracks in the snow. In their intervals of leisure
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_422'>422</span>they strengthened and beautified their dwellings,
+saw their children intermarry and grow up to succeed
+them, without even once approaching any city
+or even village.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The style of hospitality prevalent among such men
+in antiquity differs very little from that which one
+would now find in the hut of a good-natured Albanian.<a id='r1837' /><a href='#f1837' class='c012'><sup>[1837]</sup></a>
+Their industry rendered them independent,
+and their independence rendered them generous. By
+degrees their rustic cottages were surrounded by a
+garden and fruit-trees, their court was walled in,
+and luxuriant vines hung their foliage and purple
+fruit over windows and porch. On the arrival of a
+stranger, the wife takes her station at table beside
+her husband. Their marriageable daughter, in the
+bloom and beauty of youth, aids her brothers in
+waiting at table, where host and guest recline on
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_423'>423</span>highly raised divans of leaves covered with the skins of
+beasts. The young maiden, like a rustic Hebe, pours
+out the wine, dark and fragrant, while the youths
+served up the dishes and then laid out a table for
+themselves and dined together. And the sophist,
+versed in the courts of satraps and kings, conceived
+these rude hunters of the mountains the happiest
+and most enviable of mankind.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>But a pastoral picture is incomplete without love.
+The youthful beauty of Caphareus, hidden, like
+another Nouronihar<a id='r1838' /><a href='#f1838' class='c012'><sup>[1838]</sup></a> from the world, is accordingly
+beloved by her cousin, an adventurous hunter like
+her sire, who joins the family circle in the evening,
+accompanied by his father, bringing in his hand a hare
+as a present to his mistress. The old man salutes
+the guest, the youth offers his present with a kiss,
+and immediately undertakes the office of the girl,
+who thereupon resumes her place beside her mother.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Observing this arrangement, the stranger inquires
+whether she is not soon to be married to some
+wealthy peasant, who might benefit the family,
+upon which the youth and maiden blush, and her
+father replies,</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>“Nay, but she will take a husband, humble in
+rank, and like ourselves a hunter,” glancing at the
+same time at the lover.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>“How is it then that you wait?” inquired the
+stranger. “Do you expect him from the village?”</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>“No,” answered the father, “he is not far off;
+and so soon as we can fix upon a fortunate day
+the nuptials will be celebrated.”</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>“And by what do you judge of a fortunate day?”</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>“The moon must be approaching the full, the
+weather fair, and the atmosphere transparent.”</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>“And is the youth in reality an able hunter?”</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>“I am,” said the young man, answering for himself,
+“in the chase of the stag or boar, as you
+yourself, if you please, shall judge <a id='corr423.38'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='to-morrow”'>to-morrow.”</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_423.38'><ins class='correction' title='to-morrow”'>to-morrow.”</ins></a></span></p>
+
+<p class='c001'><span class='pageno' id='Page_424'>424</span>“And did you take this hare, my friend?”</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>“I did,” replied he with a smile, “having set a
+gin for him by night;<a id='r1839' /><a href='#f1839' class='c012'><sup>[1839]</sup></a> the weather being surpassing
+beautiful, and the moon larger than it
+ever was before.”</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Upon this both the old men laughed, and the
+lover abashed held his peace.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>“But,” observed the father of the maiden, “it
+is no fault of mine that the solemnity is deferred;
+we only wait at your father’s desire, till a victim
+can be purchased; for a sacrifice must be offered
+to the gods.”</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>“With respect to the victim,” interposed the
+maiden’s younger brother, “he has long provided
+one, and a noble one too, which is now feeding
+behind the cottage.”</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>“And is it truly so?” demanded the old man.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>“It is,” replied the lad.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>“And where,” addressing the youth, “did you
+procure it?” inquired they.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>“When we took the wild sow,<a id='r1840' /><a href='#f1840' class='c012'><sup>[1840]</sup></a> which was followed
+by her litter,” answered he, “and the greater
+number, swifter than hares, made their escape; I
+hit one with a stone, and my companions coming
+up threw a skin over him. This I secured, and
+exchanged in the village for a young domestic
+pig which has been fatted in a sty behind the
+house.”</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>“I now understand,” exclaimed the father, “the
+cause of your mother’s mirth when I would wonder
+what that grunting could be, and how the
+barley was disappearing so fast.”</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>“Nevertheless,” observed the young man, “to be
+properly fatted our Eubœan swine require acorns.<a id='r1841' /><a href='#f1841' class='c012'><sup>[1841]</sup></a>
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_425'>425</span>However, if you will just step this way I will
+show her to you.”</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Upon which off they went, the boys quite at a
+run, and in vast glee.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>In the meantime, the maiden going into the
+other cottage, brought forth a quantity of split service-berries,<a id='r1842' /><a href='#f1842' class='c012'><sup>[1842]</sup></a>
+medlars,<a id='r1843' /><a href='#f1843' class='c012'><sup>[1843]</sup></a> and winter apples, and bunches
+of superb grapes, bursting ripe,<a id='r1844' /><a href='#f1844' class='c012'><sup>[1844]</sup></a> and, brushing down
+the table, she spread them out there upon a layer
+of clean fern. Next moment the lads returned
+bringing in the pig, with much joking and shouts
+of laughter. Then came, too, the young man’s mother,
+with two of his little brothers, and they brought
+along with them nice white loaves, with boiled eggs
+in wooden salvers, with a quantity of parched peas.
+Having embraced her brother, with his wife and
+daughter, she sat down beside her husband, and
+said,</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>“Behold the victim, which my son has long fed
+for his marriage, and the other things also are
+ready; both the barley-meal and the flour. A
+little wine, perhaps, may be wanting, but even
+this we can easily procure from the village.”</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>And her son standing near her, fixed his eyes
+wistfully upon his father-in-law.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The latter smilingly observed,—</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>“All delay now is on the lover’s part, who, perhaps,
+is anxious to fatten his pig.”</p>
+
+<p class='c001'><span class='pageno' id='Page_426'>426</span>“As to her,” said the youth, “she is bursting with
+fat.”</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Upon this the sophist, willing to aid the lover,
+interposed, and remarked,—</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>“But you must take care lest while the pig is
+fattening he himself grow thin.”</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>“The stranger’s remark is just,” said his mother;
+“for already he is more meagre than he used to be;
+and I have of late observed him to be wakeful at
+night, and to go forth from the cottage.”</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>“Oh! that,” said he, “was when the dogs barked,
+and I stepped out to see what was the matter.”</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>“Not you!” said his mother,—“but went moping
+about. Let us, therefore,” continued she, “put him
+to no further trial.”</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>And throwing her arms about her sister, the maiden’s
+mother, she kissed her; whereupon the latter,
+addressing her husband, said,—</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>“Let us grant them their desire.”</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>To which he agreed; and it was resolved, that the
+marriage should be solemnized in three days, the
+stranger being invited to remain and witness it, which
+he did.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>The above picture of an obscure herdsman’s life
+in its naked simplicity, void of all embellishment,
+will probably be thought more trustworthy than the
+elaborate descriptions of the poets, notwithstanding
+that, even in these, it is easy to separate the real
+from the fictitious.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>In the estimation of the Greeks the herdsman<a id='r1845' /><a href='#f1845' class='c012'><sup>[1845]</sup></a>
+commonly ranked before the shepherd, and the latter
+before the goatherd,—for the dream of rank pursues
+mankind even amid the quiet of the fields,—and
+their manners are supposed to have corresponded.
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_427'>427</span>Pollux,<a id='r1846' /><a href='#f1846' class='c012'><sup>[1846]</sup></a> however, reckons the goatherd next after
+the herdsman, and again inverts the order. Varro,
+on the other hand, gives precedence to the shepherd
+as the most ancient, the sheep, in his opinion, having
+been the animal earliest tamed.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>In point of utility the goat, in some parts of the
+ancient world, rivalled the sheep, producing fine hair
+which was shorn like wool.<a id='r1847' /><a href='#f1847' class='c012'><sup>[1847]</sup></a> I may remark, too, in
+passing, that the large-tailed sheep still common in
+Asia Minor, as well as at the Cape, were anciently
+plentiful in Syria, where, according to the great
+naturalist,<a id='r1848' /><a href='#f1848' class='c012'><sup>[1848]</sup></a> their tails attained a cubit in breadth.
+In some parts of Arabia another more curious breed
+was found, with tails three cubits in length, to carry
+which they were supplied by the ingenuity of the
+shepherds with wooden carriages.<a id='r1849' /><a href='#f1849' class='c012'><sup>[1849]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>In most parts of Greece, as well as in the East,
+it was customary to bring home the sheep from pasture
+towards evening, and shut them up for the night
+in warm and roomy cotes, which were surrounded by
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_428'>428</span>wattled fences,<a id='r1850' /><a href='#f1850' class='c012'><sup>[1850]</sup></a> strong and high, both to prevent
+them from leaping over, and to exclude the wild
+beasts which, in remoter ages, abounded in the mountains.
+They were carefully roofed over, and every
+other precaution was taken to render them perfectly
+dry, the floor being usually pitched with stones, and
+slightly inclined. Their bedding<a id='r1851' /><a href='#f1851' class='c012'><sup>[1851]</sup></a> consisted of calaminth
+and asphodel and pennyroyal and polion (a
+sort of herb whose leaves appear white in the morning,
+of a purple colour at noon, and blue when the
+sun sets<a id='r1852' /><a href='#f1852' class='c012'><sup>[1852]</sup></a>) and fleabane and southernwood and origany,<a id='r1853' /><a href='#f1853' class='c012'><sup>[1853]</sup></a>
+all which repel vermin. The more completely
+to effect the same purpose, they were, likewise, in
+the habit of fumigating the cotes from time to time,
+by burning in them several locks of some shepherdess’s
+hair,<a id='r1854' /><a href='#f1854' class='c012'><sup>[1854]</sup></a> together with gum ammoniac, hartshorn, the
+hoofs or hair of goats, bitumen, cassia, fleabane, or
+calaminth, for the smell of which serpents were
+thought to have a peculiar aversion.<a id='r1855' /><a href='#f1855' class='c012'><sup>[1855]</sup></a> Their ordinary
+food, while in the folds, consisted of green clover and
+cytisus, fenugreek, oaten and barley straw, and vegetable
+stalks,<a id='r1856' /><a href='#f1856' class='c012'><sup>[1856]</sup></a> which were supposed to be improved
+if sprinkled on the threshing-floor with brine, figs
+blown down by the wind, and dry leaves.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'><span class='pageno' id='Page_429'>429</span>In the short and sharp days of winter,<a id='r1857' /><a href='#f1857' class='c012'><sup>[1857]</sup></a> they were
+not led forth to pasture till both the dew and
+the hoar frost had disappeared; but in summer
+the shepherds were careful to be a-field with the
+dawn while the dew was still heavy on the grass.
+In Attica<a id='r1858' /><a href='#f1858' class='c012'><sup>[1858]</sup></a> and the environs of Miletus, where was
+produced the finest and costliest wool in the ancient
+world, the sheep<a id='r1859' /><a href='#f1859' class='c012'><sup>[1859]</sup></a> were protected from rain
+and dust and brambles and whatever else could
+damage their fleeces<a id='r1860' /><a href='#f1860' class='c012'><sup>[1860]</sup></a> by housings of purple leather.<a id='r1861' /><a href='#f1861' class='c012'><sup>[1861]</sup></a>
+The same practice prevailed also in the Megaris,
+where Diogenes beholding a flock of sheep<a id='r1862' /><a href='#f1862' class='c012'><sup>[1862]</sup></a> thus
+clad, while the children, like those of the Egyptian
+peasants were suffered to run about naked,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_430'>430</span>said, “It is better to be a Megarean’s ram
+than his son.” Ælian<a id='r1863' /><a href='#f1863' class='c012'><sup>[1863]</sup></a> alludes to this saying for
+the purpose of noticing the ignorance and want of
+education prevalent among the Megareans. We
+find likewise in Plutarch<a id='r1864' /><a href='#f1864' class='c012'><sup>[1864]</sup></a> another version of the
+anecdote taxing these Dorians with avarice and
+meanness. Augustus imitated the saying of Diogenes
+and applied it to Herod, hearing of whose
+cruelty to his family, he said, “It were better to be
+Herod’s hog than his son.”<a id='r1865' /><a href='#f1865' class='c012'><sup>[1865]</sup></a> But if the Megareans
+lived poorly they built grandly: so that of them it
+was said, that they ate as if they were to die to-morrow,
+and built as if they were to live for ever.<a id='r1866' /><a href='#f1866' class='c012'><sup>[1866]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Sheep, as most persons familiar with the country
+will probably have observed, are wont in hot summer
+days to retire during the prevalence of the sun’s
+greatest heat beneath the shade of spreading trees,<a id='r1867' /><a href='#f1867' class='c012'><sup>[1867]</sup></a>
+at which time a green sweep of uplands dotted
+with antique oaks or beeches,<a id='r1868' /><a href='#f1868' class='c012'><sup>[1868]</sup></a> each with its stem
+encircled by some portion of the flock reposing upon
+their own fleeces, presents a picture of singular beauty
+and tranquillity. The picturesque features of the
+scene were in old times enhanced by the addition
+of several accompaniments now nowhere to be found,
+consisting of statues, altars, or chapels, erected in
+honour of the rural gods or nymphs.<a id='r1869' /><a href='#f1869' class='c012'><sup>[1869]</sup></a> Fountains,
+moreover, of limpid water<a id='r1870' /><a href='#f1870' class='c012'><sup>[1870]</sup></a> in many places gushed
+forth from beneath the trees, where there were usually
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_431'>431</span>a number of seats for the accommodation of
+the shepherds and shepherdesses. In these retreats
+they generally passed the sultry hours of the
+day, playing on the pastoral flute or the syrinx,
+chanting their wild lays, or amusing each other
+by the relation of those strange legends which inhabited
+the woods and lonely mountains of Greece.<a id='r1871' /><a href='#f1871' class='c012'><sup>[1871]</sup></a>
+There prevailed among them a superstition against
+disturbing by their music or otherwise that hushed
+stillness which most persons must have observed
+to characterise the summer noon. At this hour of
+the day the God Pan,<a id='r1872' /><a href='#f1872' class='c012'><sup>[1872]</sup></a> in the opinion of Greek
+shepherds, took his rest after the toils of the chase,
+reclining under a tree in the solitary forest;<a id='r1873' /><a href='#f1873' class='c012'><sup>[1873]</sup></a> and,
+as he was held to be of a hasty choleric disposition,
+they abstained at that time from piping through
+fear of provoking his anger. The other Gods likewise
+were believed to enjoy a short sleep at this
+time, as we find in the case of the nymph Aura, in
+the Dionysiacs.<a id='r1874' /><a href='#f1874' class='c012'><sup>[1874]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c001'>From a passage in St. John’s gospel it would
+appear, that the practice prevailed among the Oriental
+shepherds of distinguishing the several members
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_432'>432</span>of their flocks by separate names: “The sheep
+hear his voice, and he calleth his own sheep by
+name and leadeth them out. And when he putteth
+forth his own sheep he goeth before them,
+and the sheep follow him, for they know his voice.”
+We likewise find traces of the same custom in
+Sicily, Crete, and various other parts of Greece,
+where goats, and heifers, and sheep, enjoyed the
+privilege of a name, as Cynœtha, Amalthea, and
+others. In later times it was judged preferable,
+that the flock should follow their shepherds by the
+eye, for which reason they were accustomed to stuff
+their ears with wool.<a id='r1875' /><a href='#f1875' class='c012'><sup>[1875]</sup></a> To prevent rams from butting,
+they used to bore a hole<a id='r1876' /><a href='#f1876' class='c012'><sup>[1876]</sup></a> through their horns
+near the roots. Sheep were generally shorn<a id='r1877' /><a href='#f1877' class='c012'><sup>[1877]</sup></a> during
+the month of May, and after the wool had been
+clipped, they were commonly anointed with wine,
+oil, and the juice of bitter lupins.<a id='r1878' /><a href='#f1878' class='c012'><sup>[1878]</sup></a> In remoter ages
+the practice prevailed of plucking off the wool instead
+of shearing it; and this barbarous method, at
+once so painful to the sheep and so laborious to
+the shepherd, had not been entirely abandoned in
+the age of Pliny.<a id='r1879' /><a href='#f1879' class='c012'><sup>[1879]</sup></a> It was a rule among the
+pastoral tribes, that the number of their flocks
+should be uneven.<a id='r1880' /><a href='#f1880' class='c012'><sup>[1880]</sup></a> The shepherds of Greece bestowed
+the name of Sekitai,<a id='r1881' /><a href='#f1881' class='c012'><sup>[1881]</sup></a> (from σηκος an enclosure)
+upon lambs taken early from the ewes, and
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_433'>433</span>fed by hand. They were usually kept in a cote
+apart from the other sheep.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>As flocks, in most parts of Greece, were exposed
+to the rapacity of the wolf,<a id='r1882' /><a href='#f1882' class='c012'><sup>[1882]</sup></a> the shepherds had recourse
+to an extraordinary contrivance, to destroy
+this fierce animal; kindling large charcoal fires in
+open spaces in the woods, they cast thereon the
+powder of certain diminutive fish, caught in great
+numbers along the grassy shores of Greece, together
+with small slices of lamb and kid. Attracted by
+the savour which they could snuff from a distance,
+the wolves flocked in great numbers towards the
+fires, round which they prowled with loud howlings,
+in expectation of sharing the prey, the odour of
+which had drawn them thither. Stupified at length
+by the fumes of the charcoal, they would drop upon
+the earth in a lethargic sleep, when the shepherds
+coming up knocked them on the head.<a id='r1883' /><a href='#f1883' class='c012'><sup>[1883]</sup></a></p>
+
+<hr class='c016' />
+<div class='footnote' id='f1777'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1777'>1777</a>. The charm of that repose
+and freedom from care supposed
+to be tasted in the seclusion of
+the country, appears in all ages
+to have led to the belief, that
+there is something more natural
+in fields and forests than in cities,
+though it be quite as necessary
+that man should have dwellings
+as that he should cultivate the
+ground. The paradox, however,
+is thus expressed by Varro: Divina
+natura dedit agros, ars humana
+ædificavit urbes. De Re
+Rust. iii. 1, which Cowper, unconsciously
+perhaps, has thus
+translated,</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>God gave the country, but man made the town.</div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1778'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1778'>1778</a>. Travellers find among the
+modern shepherds of the East
+much the same tastes and habits.
+“The hills,” observed Dr. Chandler,
+speaking of Lydia, “were
+enlivened by flocks of sheep and
+goats, and resounded with the
+rude music of the lyre and of
+the pipe; the former a stringed
+instrument resembling a guitar,
+and held much in the same
+manner, but usually played on
+with a bow.” Chandler, i. p.
+85. Cf. Theocrit. Eidyll. i. 7.
+viii. 9.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1779'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1779'>1779</a>. The same habits still prevail:
+“We could discern fires on Lesbos
+as before on several islands and
+capes, made chiefly by fishermen
+and shepherds, who live much
+abroad in the air, to burn the
+strong stalks of the Turkey wheat
+and the dry herbage on the mountains.”
+Chandler, i. 11. Cf. p.
+320.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1780'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1780'>1780</a>. Among other things we find
+them putting the strongest faith
+in dreams—at least we may suppose
+the fishermen in Theocritus,
+who lay so much stress on the
+visions of the night, to hold a
+creed pretty nearly akin to that
+of shepherds. Eidyll. 21. v. 29.
+sqq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1781'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1781'>1781</a>. The gods they principally
+worshiped were Pan, the Muses,
+and the Nymphs. To the
+Nymphs and Pan they sacrificed
+as to gods presiding over mountains,
+where they themselves
+usually wandered. Pan, moreover,
+was skilled in the pipe, the
+instrument of their race. The
+Muses they adored as the goddesses
+of poetry and music. Schol.
+Theoc. i. 6. In verse 12 of the
+same Eidyll. the Nymphs are
+spoken of where the office of the
+Muses is in contemplation, which
+may easily be explained. For
+the Muses are properly the
+Nymphs of those fountains which
+inspire poets with their lays. Cf.
+Voss. ad Virg. Eclog. iii. 84.
+By the Lydians the Muses were
+denominated Nymphs. Schol.
+Theoc. Eidyll. vii. 92. Cf. Eidyll.
+v. 140. Lyc. Cassand. 274.
+ibique Schol. et Potter. Kiessl. ad
+Theocrit.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1782'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1782'>1782</a>. Lycoph. Cassand. 91, seq. in
+common with Homer and the
+other ancient poets, represent
+princes as shepherds. The guarding
+of flocks was then, in fact, a
+regal occupation. Didymos, ad
+Odyss. ν. 223, observes, that τὸ
+παλαιὸν καὶ οἱ τῶν βασιλέων παίδες
+πανάπαλοι (l. παναίπολοι)
+ἐκαλοῦντο, καὶ ἐποίμαινον. Meurs.
+ad Lycoph. p. 1181. Varr. De
+Re Rust. ii. 1.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1783'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1783'>1783</a>. Il. ζ. 25. Odyss. ο. 385, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1784'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1784'>1784</a>. Il. δ. 106.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1785'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1785'>1785</a>. Iliad. δ. 452, seq. ε. 137.
+θ, 555.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1786'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1786'>1786</a>. The following picture by
+Milton almost seems to be designed
+to form a contrast to the
+above:</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>As when from mountain-tops the dusky clouds</div>
+ <div class='line'>Ascending, while the north wind sleeps, o’erspread</div>
+ <div class='line'>Heaven’s cheerful face, the lowring element</div>
+ <div class='line'>Scowls o’er the darken’d landscape snow or shower;</div>
+ <div class='line'>If chance the radiant sun, with farewell sweet,</div>
+ <div class='line'>Extend his evening beam, the fields revive,</div>
+ <div class='line'>The birds their notes renew, and bleating herds</div>
+ <div class='line'>Attest their joy, that hill and valley rings.</div>
+ <div class='line in26'>Parad. Lost, ii. 488, sqq.</div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c014'>Iliad θ. 559, sqq. Here <em>shepherd</em>,
+observes the Scholiast, is
+used for <em>herdsman</em>. Ποιμήν εἶπεν
+ἀντὶ τοῦ βουκόλος διὰ νυκτὸς γὰρ
+αἱ βόες νέμονται, in loc. i. 238.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1787'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1787'>1787</a>. On this passage Ἀρίσταρχος
+τὴν κατὰ φύσιν λαμπρὰν λέγει
+κἂν μὴ πλήθουσα ᾖ εἰ γὰρ
+πληροσέληνος ἦν, ἐκέκρυπτο ἄν μᾶλλον
+τὰ ἄστρα. Schol. Bekker.
+t. i. 238. Cf. Eustath. in Iliad.
+θ. t. i. p. 621.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1788'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1788'>1788</a>. Iliad, μ. 451, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1789'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1789'>1789</a>. Iliad, ν. 491, sqq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1790'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1790'>1790</a>. Iliad. π. 354, sqq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1791'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1791'>1791</a>. Iliad. σ. 161, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1792'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1792'>1792</a>. Odyss. μ. 131. The duties
+of this servant are described by
+Varro, who likewise states the
+physical qualities required to
+be found in shepherds. <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Contra,
+pernoctare ad suum quemque
+gregem esse omnes sub
+uno magistro pecoris cum esse
+majorem natu potius quàm alios
+et peritiorem quàm reliquos, quod
+iis qui ætate, et scientia præstant
+animo æquiore reliquis parent.
+Ita tamen oportet ætate
+præstare ut ne propter senectutem
+minus sustinere possit labores.
+Neque enim senes, neque
+pueri callium difficultatem, ac
+montium arduitatem, atque asperitatem
+facile ferunt: quod patiendum
+illis qui greges sequuntur
+præsertim armenticios, ac caprinos
+quibus rupes ac silvæ ad
+pabulandi cordi.</span> De Re Rust,
+ii. 10. Cf. Colum. ii. 1.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1793'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1793'>1793</a>. Geop. xviii. 1. Yet we find
+mention in Demosthenes of a
+shepherd with a flock of fifty
+sheep under his care. In Everg.
+et Mnes. § 15.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1794'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1794'>1794</a>. Leake, Travels in the Morea,
+vol. i. p. 17.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1795'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1795'>1795</a>. Plat. de Rep. iv. t. vi. p.
+204. Columella describes with
+poetical enthusiasm the character
+and qualities of the shepherd’s
+dog, which he refuses to
+class among dumb animals, its
+bark being, according to him, full
+of meaning: <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">“Canis falso dicitur
+mutus custos nam quis hominum
+clarius, aut tanta vociferatione
+bestiam vel furem prædicat
+quam iste latratu? quis
+famulus amantior domini? quis
+fidelior comes? quis custos incorruptior?
+quis excubitor inveniri
+potest vigilantior? quis denique
+ultor aut vindex constantior?
+Quare vel in primis hoc animal
+mercari tuerique debet agricola,
+quod et villam et fructus familiamque,
+at pecora custodit.”</span>
+De Re Rusticâ, 7. 12.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1796'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1796'>1796</a>. Sch. Aristoph. Vesp. 897.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1797'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1797'>1797</a>. Aristot. Hist. Animal. ix. 1.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1798'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1798'>1798</a>. Luc. Bis Accus. § 11.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1799'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1799'>1799</a>. Plat. Rep. iii. § 10. Stalb.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1800'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1800'>1800</a>. Theocrit. i. 129. Plat. de
+Rep. t. vi. p. 132. Mosch. Eidyll.
+iii. 54.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1801'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1801'>1801</a>. Athen. xiv. 22.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1802'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1802'>1802</a>. Etym. Mag. 690. 11.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1803'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1803'>1803</a>. <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">“Sic et hodie audio Hibernos,
+qui pecuariam exercent, musicæ
+deditos, et triangulari cithara
+(quam vocamus <em>harpe</em>) plerumque
+se oblectare solere, unde
+aiunt insignia regni Hiberniæ
+fuisse olim et esse adhuc tale
+musicum instrumentum.”</span> Desc.
+Græc. Ant. p. 61.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1804'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1804'>1804</a>. Schol. Aristoph. Nub. 73.
+Cf. Vesp. 442. Küst.—Eq. 398.
+Bekk. Luc. Tim. § 8. We find
+mention also made of a cloak of
+wolfskin. Philostrat. Vit. Sophist.
+ii. 6.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1805'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1805'>1805</a>. Suidas. v. διφθέρα. t. i. p.
+757. e.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1806'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1806'>1806</a>. Harless. ad Theocrit. v. 2.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1807'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1807'>1807</a>. Cyclop. 79, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1808'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1808'>1808</a>. Lord Bacon considers the
+pastoral state preferable in some
+respects to the agricultural:—“The
+two simplest and most
+primitive trades of life; that
+of the shepherd (who by reason
+of his leisure, rests in a place,
+and living in view of heaven,
+is a lively image of a contemplative
+life) and that of the
+husbandman; where we see the
+favour of God went to the
+shepherd and not to the tiller
+of the ground.”—Advancement
+of Learning, p. 64. Shepherds
+made libations of milk to the
+Muses. Theocrit. i. 143, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1809'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1809'>1809</a>. Even yet we find the shepherds
+of Greece retain some
+smack of classical learning:
+“After dinner I walked out
+with a shepherd’s boy to herbarise;
+my pastoral botanist
+surprised me not a little with
+his nomenclature; I traced the
+names of Dioscorides, and Theophrastus,
+corrupted, indeed, in
+some degree by pronunciation,
+and by the long <span lang="la" xml:lang="la"><i>series annorum</i></span>,
+which had elapsed since the
+time of these philosophers, but
+many of them were unmutilated,
+and their virtues faithfully
+handed down in the oral traditions
+of the country. My shepherd
+boy returned to his fold
+not less satisfied with some
+paras that I had given him,
+than I was in finding in such
+a rustic a repository of ancient
+science.”—Sibth. in Walp. i.
+66, seq. There is in Sir John
+Fortescue, De Laudibus Legum
+Angliæ, translated by Robert
+Mulcaster, in the reign of Queen
+Elizabeth, a passage describing
+the pastoral habits of our ancestors,
+and the intellectual superiority
+they engendered, which
+appears to me so excellent, that
+I cannot resist the temptation
+to introduce it here:—“England
+is so fertile and fruitefull, that
+comparing quantity to quantity
+it surmounteth all other landes
+in fruitefulnesse. Yea, it bringeth
+forth fruite of itselfe, scant
+provoked by mann’s industrie
+and labour. For there the
+landes, the fieldes, the groves,
+and the woodes, doe so aboundantlye
+springe, that the same
+untilled doe commonly yield to
+their owners more profite then
+tilled, though else they bee
+most fruitefull of corne and
+graine. There also are fieldes
+of pasture inclosed with hedges
+and ditches, with trees planted
+and growing uppon the same,
+which are a defence to their
+heardes of sheepe and cattell,
+against stormes and heate of
+the sunne; and the pastures are
+commonly watered, so that cattell
+shutte and closed therein
+have no neede of keeping neither
+by day, nor by night.
+For there bee no wolves, nor
+beares, nor lyons, wherefore
+their sheepe lye by night in
+the fields, unkept within their
+foldes wherewith their land is
+manured. By the meanes
+whereof, the men of that countrie
+are scant troubled with
+any painefull labour, wherefore
+they live more spiritually, as
+did the ancient fathers, which
+did rather choose to keepe and
+feede cattell, than to disturbe
+the quietnesse of the minde with
+care of husbandrie. And heereof
+it cometh, that menne of
+this countrie are more apte and
+fitte to discerne in doubtfull
+causes of great examination
+and triall, than are menne
+whollye given to moyling in
+the ground; in whom that
+rurall exercise engendereth
+rudeness of witte and minde.”
+chap. 29.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1810'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1810'>1810</a>. The reader will in this place
+perhaps remember the dream of
+Rousseau, on the enjoyment
+which the possession of such a
+ring would have afforded him;
+when after pushing his speculations
+as far as they could go he
+determines that he was much
+better without it.—Rêveries du
+Promeneur Solitaire, iii. 137.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1811'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1811'>1811</a>. Plat. Rep. ii. § 3. Cf. x.
+§ 12. Stallb. Among the gods
+similar powers were attributed to
+the helmet of Hades. Thus, in
+Homer, Athena is concealed from
+Mars by the effect of this enchanted
+piece of armour.—Iliad,
+ε. 845. Apollod. ii. 4. 2.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1812'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1812'>1812</a>. To the same class belongs
+that tradition of a brazen tablet
+thrown up by a fountain in Lycia
+foretelling the overthrow of
+the Persian monarchy by the
+Greeks.—Plut. Alexand. § 17.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1813'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1813'>1813</a>. Cf. Varr. De Re Rust. ii. 10.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1814'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1814'>1814</a>. Athen. xiii. 87.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1815'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1815'>1815</a>. This was the κισσύβιον, a
+goblet or cup turned of ivy wood.
+It was usually rubbed with wax
+and polished, for the purpose of
+bringing out the beautiful carving
+which adorned it. Cf. Etym.
+Mag. 515. 33.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1816'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1816'>1816</a>. Theocrit. i. 32, sqq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1817'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1817'>1817</a>. Though even here we detect
+the presence of hirelings; for Homer
+observes, that, among the
+Læstrigons, such shepherds as
+could do with little sleep received
+double wages. Odyss. κ. 84, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1818'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1818'>1818</a>. In fact black slaves, from
+Africa, were sometimes employed
+as shepherds, at least in Sicily.
+Theoc. i. 24.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1819'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1819'>1819</a>. John, x. 11, sqq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1820'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1820'>1820</a>. Isaiah, xl. 11.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1821'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1821'>1821</a>. It has been observed by Gibbon,
+who had diligently studied
+the pastoral nations of Asia in
+their general habits and characteristics,
+that ambition and the
+spirit of conquest are powerfully
+excited by the shepherd’s manner
+of life. “The thrones of Asia
+have been repeatedly overturned
+by the shepherds of the north,
+and their arms have spread terror
+and devastation over the
+most fertile and warlike countries
+of Europe. On this occasion,
+as well as on many others,
+the sober historian is forcibly
+awakened from a pleasing vision
+and is compelled with some reluctance
+to confess, that the
+pastoral manners which have
+been adorned with the fairest
+attributes of peace and innocence
+are much better adapted
+to the fierce and cruel habits of
+a military life.” Decline and
+Fall of the Roman Empire, iv. 348.
+Hippocrates in his brief but vigorous
+manner has presented us
+with a picture of the Scythian
+shepherd’s life in ancient times,
+(De Aër. et Loc. § 92, sqq.) and
+from modern travellers we find
+that it differed very little from
+that which they lead at the present
+day. See the travels of Rubriquis
+in Hakluyt, i. 101, sqq.
+See also the notes of Coray on
+Hippocrates, t. ii. 280, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1822'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1822'>1822</a>. Theocritus describes Daphnis
+dying for love. Eidyll. i. 135.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1823'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1823'>1823</a>. Hom. Hymn. ad Ven. 54,
+sqq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1824'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1824'>1824</a>. Compare Trollope, Notes on
+St. John, x. i.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1825'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1825'>1825</a>. Aleuas, the Thessalian, is
+said to have been favoured with
+the visits of a very different mistress
+as he pastured his herds on
+Mount Ossa, near the Hæmonian
+spring; for a dragon of
+enormous size, becoming enamoured
+of his beauty and golden
+hair, frequently approached the
+shepherd with presents of game
+of her own catching. Having
+laid her gifts at his feet, she
+would kiss his locks and lick his
+face with her tongue, which, as
+the fountain was so near it, may
+be hoped was a work of supererogation.
+Ælian. De Nat. Animal.
+viii. 11.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1826'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1826'>1826</a>. Hymn. ad Vener. 158, sqq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1827'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1827'>1827</a>. Dion Chrysostom. Orat. vii.
+t. i. p. 219, sqq. Phot. 166. a. 24.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1828'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1828'>1828</a>. On this mountain and the
+mythological legends attached to
+it, see Virg. Æn. xi. 260, with
+the note of Servius. Ovid. Metamorph.
+xiv. 472. Cf. Propert.
+v. 115, sqq. Jacobs. Plin. iv. 21.
+An ancient scholiast, quoted by
+Morell, thus relates the revenge
+of Nauplios: Ναύπλιος τοῦ υἱέος
+δὴ τοῦ Παλαμήδους τοῦ φόνου
+ἀμυνόμενος τοὺς Ἕλλήνας τοῦ
+ἀνέμου αὐτοῖς ἐνστάντος· ἐπεὶ τοῦτον
+διὰ θαλάττης ἐγέλων. αὐτὸς
+οὗτος τὸν Καφηρέα καταλαβὼν
+εἶτα νυκτὸς πυρσεύων ἀπὸ τῶν
+ἐκεῖσε πετρωδῶν πάγων, ἠπάτα
+προσχεῖν, ὡς δή τινι εὐπροσόδῳ
+ἀκτῆ τοῖς ἀποτόμοις κρημνοῖς εἰς
+βάθος ἐῤῥιζωμένοις καὶ χοιράσι
+διειλημμένοις. καὶ οὕτως ἀπρόοπτως
+ἀπωλόντο. Schediasm.
+&c., in Dion. t. ii. p. 580, seq.
+Cf. Strab. viii. 6. t ii. p. 195.
+Apollodor. ii. i. 5. Orph. Argonaut.
+204, sqq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1829'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1829'>1829</a>. On the purple fisheries of
+Eubœa, cf. Feder. Morell. Schediasm.
+&c., in Dion. ii. 576.
+Reiske. and Aristot. Hist. Animal.
+v. 15.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1830'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1830'>1830</a>. A life equally simple is led
+by the Albanian shepherds of the
+present day. “They live on the
+mountains, in the vale or the
+plain, as the varying seasons
+require, under arbours, or
+sheds, covered with boughs,
+tending their flocks abroad, or
+milking the ewes and she-goats
+at the fold, and making cheese
+and butter to supply the city.”
+Chandler, ii. p. 135.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1831'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1831'>1831</a>. Iliad. β. 541. δ. 464. The
+long hair of these ancient warriors
+is thus mentioned by the
+Homeric Scholiast: τὰ ὀπίσω
+μέρη τῆς κεφαλῆς κομῶντες ἀνδρείας
+χάριν. ἴδιον δὲ τοῦτο τῆς
+τῶν Εὐβοέων κουρᾶς, τὸ ὄπισθεν
+τὰς τρίχας βαθείας ἔχειν. t. i.
+p. 83. Bekker.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1832'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1832'>1832</a>. Cf. Theoph. De Sign. Pluv.
+i. 22.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1833'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1833'>1833</a>. Had Bernardin de St. Pierre
+read this when he wrote his Indian
+Cottage?</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1834'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1834'>1834</a>. An equal degree of contentment
+to that which in this recital
+we find exhibited by the Eubœan
+herdsmen, is still in our own
+times displayed by the rough peasants
+of the Lipari islands, in the
+midst of far greater privations:—“It
+is incredible at the same time
+how contented these islanders
+are amid all their poverty. Ulysses
+perhaps cherished not a
+greater love for his Ithaca than
+they bear to their Eolian rocks
+which, wretched as they may
+appear, they would not exchange
+for the Fortunate islands.
+Frequently have I entered their
+huts which seem like the nests
+of birds hung to the cliffs. They
+are framed of pieces of lava ill-joined
+together, equally destitute
+of ornament within and
+without, and scarcely admitting
+a feeble uncertain light, like
+some gloomy cavern.” Spallanzani,
+Travels in the Two Sicilies,
+iv. 147.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1835'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1835'>1835</a>. The absence of these tormentors
+of cattle was considered a
+matter of great importance by the
+ancients. Virgil, where he is
+giving directions respecting the
+best pastures suited to the youthful
+mothers of the herds, celebrates
+the exploits of the gadfly:</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Saltibus in vacuis pascant, et plena secundum</span></div>
+ <div class='line'><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Flumina: muscus ubi, et viridissima gramine ripa,</span></div>
+ <div class='line'><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Speluncæque tegant, et saxea procubet umbra.</span></div>
+ <div class='line'><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Est lucos Silari circa, ilicibusque virentem</span></div>
+ <div class='line'><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Plurimus Alburnum volitans, cui nomen asilo</span></div>
+ <div class='line'><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Romanum est, œstrum Graii vertere vocantes:</span></div>
+ <div class='line'><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Asper, acerba sonans: quo tota exterrita sylvis</span></div>
+ <div class='line'><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Diffugiunt armenta; furit mugitibus æther</span></div>
+ <div class='line'><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Concussus, sylvæque et sicci ripa Tanagri.</span></div>
+ <div class='line in34'>Georg. iii. 143, sqq.</div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c014'>See the note of Philargyrius in
+loc. Aristot. Hist. Animal, iv. 4.
+v. 19.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1836'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1836'>1836</a>. Plat. Opp. t. i. p. 9. To protect
+from pollution spots shaded
+by noble trees they were accustomed
+to consecrate them to some
+god, and to erect beneath the overhanging
+branches statues and altars.
+Id. ib. In Crete the fountains
+are often shaded still by majestic
+plane-trees. Pashley, ii. 31.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1837'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1837'>1837</a>. Or even in the shed of a
+Turkish shepherd in Asia Minor.
+Dr. Chandler has a passage illustrative
+of the hospitality of pastoral
+tribes, which is at once so
+picturesque and concise that I am
+tempted to transcribe it: “About
+two in the morning our whole
+attention was fixed by the
+barking of dogs, which, as we
+advanced, became exceedingly
+furious. Deceived by the light
+of the moon we now fancied we
+could see a village, and were
+much mortified to find only a
+station of poor goatherds without
+even a shed, and nothing
+for our horses to eat. They
+were lying wrapped in their
+thick capotes or loose-coats by
+some glimmering embers, among
+the bushes in a dale under a
+spreading tree by the fold.
+They received us hospitably,
+heaping on fresh fuel and producing
+caimac or sour curds
+and coarse bread which they
+toasted for us on the coals.
+We made a scanty meal, sitting
+on the ground lighted by the
+fire and by the moon, after
+which sleep suddenly overpowered
+me. On waking I found
+my companions by my side,
+sharing in the comfortable cover
+of the Janizary’s cloak which
+he had carefully spread over us.
+I was now much struck with
+the wild appearance of the spot.
+The tree was hung with rustic
+utensils, the she-goats in a pen
+sneezed and bleated and rustled
+to and fro; the shrubs, by which
+our horses stood, were leafless,
+and the earth bare; a black
+cauldron with milk was simmering
+over the fire, and a
+figure more than gaunt or savage
+close by us was struggling
+on the ground with a kid whose
+ears he had slit, and was endeavouring
+to cauterise with a
+piece of red-hot iron.” Chandler,
+vol. i. 180, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1838'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1838'>1838</a>. History of the Caliph Vathek. p. 102.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1839'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1839'>1839</a>. Cf. Philost. Icon. ii. 26, p.
+851.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1840'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1840'>1840</a>. The wild hog is still one of
+the most common animals in the
+forests of Greece and Asia Minor.
+Chandler, i. 77. Even wild bulls
+occasionally make their appearance
+in the latter country. 176.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1841'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1841'>1841</a>. To this best and most economical
+food for hogs, Homer
+makes allusion where he introduces
+the goddess Circe attending
+to her sty, which she had filled
+with the transformed companions
+of Odysseus:</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line in21'>τοῖσι δε Κίρκη</div>
+ <div class='line'>Πὰρ ῥ’ ἄκυλον, βάλανον τ᾽ ἔβαλεν, καρπόν τε κρανείης</div>
+ <div class='line'>Ἔδμεναι, οἷα σύες χαμαιευνάδες αἰὲν ἔδουσιν.</div>
+ <div class='line in17'>Od. κ. 241, sqq. Cf. ν. 409.</div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c015'>Ælian de Nat. Animal. v. 45,
+celebrates these Homeric dainties
+as the food of the hog to which
+he elsewhere adds the fruit of the
+ash. viii. 9.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1842'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1842'>1842</a>. Cf. Theoph. Hist. Plant. ii.
+2. 10. ii. 7. 7—iii. 6. 5—vi. 3. 11.</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c013'>
+ <div class='linegroup'>
+ <div class='group'>
+ <div class='line'>Ὄα, ἀκροδρύων εἶδος μήλοις μικροῖς ἐμφερές</div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c015'>Tim. Lec. Platon. in voce with
+the note of Ruhnken.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1843'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1843'>1843</a>. On the three kinds of medlars,
+Theoph. Hist. Plant. iii. 12. 5.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1844'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1844'>1844</a>. Philost. Icon. i. 31, p. 809.
+ii. 26, p. 851.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1845'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1845'>1845</a>. Robust persons, with loud
+voices, were ordinarily chosen for
+herdsmen, while goatherds were
+selected for their lightness and
+agility. Geop. ii. 1. Shepherds
+obtained among the Greeks the
+name of ποιμένες; while the
+keepers of other flocks and herds
+were termed αἰπόλοι. Schol.
+Theoc. i. 6.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1846'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1846'>1846</a>. Onomast. i. 249.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1847'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1847'>1847</a>. Arist. Hist. Anim. viii. 27. 3.
+Things manufactured from the
+hair of this animal were called
+κιλίκια. Etym. Mag. 513. 41.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1848'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1848'>1848</a>. Arist. Hist. Anim. viii. 27.
+3. Speaking of the neighbourhood
+of Smyrna,—The “sheep,”
+observed Dr. Chandler, “have
+broad tails, hanging down like
+an apron, some weighing eight,
+ten, or more pounds. These
+are eaten as a dainty, and the
+fat, before they are full-grown,
+accounted as delicious as marrow.”
+Travels, i. 77. Of the
+broad-tailed sheep mentioned by
+the ancients the most remarkable
+were those of India, where,
+according to Ctesios, of veracious
+memory, both they and the goats
+were larger than asses:—τὰ πρόβατα
+τῶν Ἰνδῶν καὶ αἱ αἶγες μείζους
+ὄνων εἰσί, καὶ τίκτουσιν
+ἀνὰ τεσσάρων καὶ ἓξ ὡς ἐπὶ τὸ
+πολύ, ἔχουσι δὲ οὐρὰς μεγάλας · διὸ
+τῶν τοκάδων ἀποτέμνουσιν ἵνα
+δύνωνται ὀχεύεσθαι. Phot. Biblioth.
+Cod. 72. p. 46. b. Bekker.
+Ælian. de Nat. Animal, iv.
+32, relates, without any symptoms
+of incredulity, precisely the
+same fact; and then adds a circumstance
+which may keep in
+countenance the Abyssinian story
+of Bruce respecting the carving of
+a rump-steak from a live cow,—for
+the Indians, observes Ælian,
+were in the habit of cutting
+open the tails of the rams, extracting
+all the fat, and then sowing
+them up again so dexterously
+that in a short time no trace of
+the incision remained visible.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1849'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1849'>1849</a>. Herod. iii. 113. Ælian. Hist.
+Anim. x. 4.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1850'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1850'>1850</a>. Bound together, probably, by
+wild succory or cneoron, as in modern
+times by the withe-wind.
+Theoph. Hist. Plant. vii. 11. 3.
+vi. 2. 2.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1851'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1851'>1851</a>. Geop. xviii. 2.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1852'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1852'>1852</a>. Plin. xxi. 7.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1853'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1853'>1853</a>. Dioscor. iii. 32.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1854'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1854'>1854</a>. Geop. xviii. 2.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1855'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1855'>1855</a>. Aristoph. Eccles. 644. Geop.
+xviii. 2.4.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1856'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1856'>1856</a>. Geop. xviii. 2. Apropos of
+Cytisus, it is observed by Æschylides,
+in Ælian. de Nat. Animal.
+xvi. 32, that the rustics of
+Cios, on account of the aridity
+of the island, possessed few flocks.
+Those they had, however, were
+fed entirely on the leaves of the
+cytisus, the fig-tree, and the olive,
+mingled occasionally with the
+straw and halm of vegetables.
+The lambs reared on this island
+were of singular beauty, and sold
+at a higher price than those of
+most other parts. In Lydia and
+Macedonia sheep were sometimes
+fattened upon fish, which must
+have given the mutton of those
+countries a somewhat unsavoury
+odour. Ælian. De Nat. Animal.
+xv. 5. Another favourite food
+of sheep was the leaves of the
+white nymphæa, the tender shoots
+of which were eaten by swine,
+while men themselves fed upon
+the fruit. Theoph. Hist. Plant.
+iv. 10. 7. Children, too, it is
+said, regarded as a delicacy the
+stalks of the phleos, the typha,
+and the butomos. The roots of
+this fruit were given as food to
+cattle. Id. ibid.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1857'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1857'>1857</a>. Geop. xviii. 2.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1858'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1858'>1858</a>. Cf. Athen, v. 60. Hom. Il.
+β. 305, sqq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1859'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1859'>1859</a>. Those of the neighbouring
+country of Bœotia are now, however,
+more highly valued. “Flocks
+of sheep whose fleeces were of a
+remarkable blackness were feeding
+on the plain; the breed
+was considerably superior in
+beauty and size to that of Attica.”
+Sibth. in Walp. i. 65.
+To dream of sheep of this colour
+was regarded by the ancients as
+unlucky. Artemid. Oneirocrit. ii.
+12. p. 96. The finest black sheep
+in the ancient world were found
+in a district of Phrygia in the
+neighbourhood of the cities of
+Colossè and Laodicea, the wool of
+which not only exceeded that of
+Miletos in softness, but was of a
+glossy jet colour like that of the
+raven’s wing. Φέρει δ᾽ ὁ περὶ
+τὴν Λαοδίκειαν τόπος προβάτων
+ἀρετὰς, οὐκ εἰς μαλακότητας μόνον
+τῶν ἐρίων, ᾗ καὶ τῶν Μιλησίων
+διαφέρει, ἀλλὰ καὶ εὶς τὴν κοραξὴν
+χρόαν ὥστε καὶ προσοδεύονται
+χρόαν ὥστε καὶ προσοδεύονται
+λαμπρῶς ἀπ᾽ αὐτῶν· ὥσπερ καὶ
+οἱ Κολοσσηνοὶ ἀπὸ τοῦ ὁμωνύμου
+χρώματος πλησίον οἰκοῦντες.
+Strab. xii. 8. t. iii. p. 74. Plin. Nat.
+Hist. viii. 73. Cf. Chandler, Travels
+in Greece and Asia Minor, i. 262.
+The country round Abydos also
+was celebrated for its black flocks
+among which not a single white
+sheep was to be discovered. Ælian
+de Nat. Animal. 3. 32.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1860'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1860'>1860</a>. Varro. de Re Rust. ii. 2.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1861'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1861'>1861</a>. Horace speaks of the “pellites
+oves Galesi.” Od. ii. 6. 10.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1862'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1862'>1862</a>. Diog. Laert. vi. 41. The
+practice is noticed also by Pliny
+who says,—<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">“Ovium summa genera
+duo, tectum et colonicum;
+illiud mollius, hoc in pascuo
+delicatius, quippe quum tectum
+rubis vescatur. Operimenta ei
+ex Arabicis præcipua.”</span> Nat.
+Hist. viii. 72. Columella also mentions
+these coverings:—<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">“Molle
+vero pecus, etiam velamen
+quo protegitur, amittit atque
+id non parvo sumptu <a id='corr429.n6.14'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='reparatur'>reparatur.”</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_429.n6.14'><ins class='correction' title='reparatur'>reparatur.”</ins></a></span></span>
+vii. 3, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1863'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1863'>1863</a>. Var. Hist. xii. 56.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1864'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1864'>1864</a>. De Cupiditate. § 7.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1865'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1865'>1865</a>. Macrob. Sat. ii. 4.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1866'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1866'>1866</a>. Tertull. in Apolog. ap. Menag.
+ad Laert. vi. 41. t. ii. p. 141.
+b. c.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1867'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1867'>1867</a>. Geop. xviii. 2.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1868'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1868'>1868</a>. Nor in Asia Minor is the
+shade of trees always deemed
+sufficient. “We came,” says Dr.
+Chandler, “to a shed formed
+with boughs round a tree, to shelter
+the flocks and herds from the
+sun at noon.” Travels, i. 25.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1869'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1869'>1869</a>. Schol. Theoc. i. 21. Cf. Plat.
+Phædr. t. i. p. 9.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1870'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1870'>1870</a>. I cannot resist the temptation
+to introduce in this place
+the picture in miniature of a
+Greek landscape from the picturesque
+and beautiful journal of
+Dr. Sibthorpe: “We dined under
+a rock, from whose side descended
+a purling spring among
+violets, primroses, and the starry
+hyacinth, mixed with black Silyrium
+and different coloured orches.
+The flowering ash hung
+from the sides of the mountain,
+under the shade of which bloomed
+saxifrages, and the snowy Isopyrum,
+with the Campanula Pyramidalis;
+this latter plant is now
+called χαρισονη; it yields abundance
+of a sweet milky fluid, and
+was said to promote a secretion
+of milk, a quality first attributed
+to it under the doctrine of signatures.
+Our guide made nose-gays
+of the fragrant leaves of the
+Fraxinella; the common nettle
+was not forgotten as a pot-herb,
+but the Imperatoria seemed to be
+the favourite salad. Among the
+shrubs I noticed our gooseberry-tree,
+and the Cellis Australis grew
+wild among the rocks.” Walp.
+Mem. i. 63.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1871'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1871'>1871</a>. See Hesiod. Opp. et Dies,
+582, sqq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1872'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1872'>1872</a>. To dream of this god was
+considered auspicious by shepherds.
+Artemid. Oneirocrit. ii.
+42. p. 133.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1873'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1873'>1873</a>. Schol. Theoc. i. 15. Cal.
+Hymn. in. Lav. Poll. 72. ibique
+interp. Nem. Eclog. iii. 3. Cf.
+Hom. Il. τ. 13. Od. ι. 9. The shepherd
+in the Anthology (Jacob. t.
+ii. no. 227. p. 694) is not so religious
+as Theocritus’ goatherd, for
+he boldly pipes in the morn and
+at noon χὡ ποιμὴν ἐν ὄρεσσι
+μεσαμβρινὸν ἀγχόθι παγᾶς συρίσδων.
+Kiessling. ad Theoc. i. 15.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1874'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1874'>1874</a>. Nonn. xlviii. 258, sqq. Cf.
+Philost. Icon. ii. 11. et J. B. Carpzov.
+Disp. Phil. De Quiete Dei,
+p. 16, sqq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1875'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1875'>1875</a>. Geop. xviii. 4.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1876'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1876'>1876</a>. Ferocia ejus cohibetur cornu
+juxta aurem terebrato. Plin. Nat.
+Hist. vii. 72. Cf. Geopon. viii.
+5. To the same purpose writes
+also Columella:—<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Epicharmus Syracusanus
+qui pecudum medicinas
+diligentissime conscripsit affirmat
+pugnacem arietem mitigari
+terebra secundum auriculas foratis
+cornibus qua curvantur in
+flexu.</span> Columell. vii. 3.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1877'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1877'>1877</a>. It is observed by the ancients
+that long lank wool indicated
+strength in the sheep, curly wool
+the contrary. Geop. xviii. 1, seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1878'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1878'>1878</a>. Geop. xviii. 8.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1879'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1879'>1879</a>. <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Duerat quibusdam in locis
+vellendi mos. Plin. Nat. Hist,
+vii. 73. Veliæ unde essent plures
+accepi caussas inquies quod ibi
+pastores palatim ex ovibus ante
+tonsuram inventam vellere lanam
+sint soliti, ex quo vellera dicuntur.
+Varr. de Ling. Lat. iv.</span> Cf. De
+Re Rust. ii. 11. Isidor. xix. 27.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1880'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1880'>1880</a>. Geop. xviii. 2.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1881'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1881'>1881</a>. Schol. Theoc. i. 9.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1882'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1882'>1882</a>. From the relations of travellers
+it would appear that the
+method observed by the ancient
+Greeks in ridding themselves of
+the wolf is no longer known to
+their descendants, though the apprehension
+of their destructiveness
+and ferocity be as great as ever.
+Solon, it is well known set a
+price in his laws on the head of a
+wolf, which appears to have varied
+in different ages; (cf. Plut.
+Solon. § 23. Schol. Aristoph.
+Av. 369;) but could never have
+amounted to the sum of two
+talents. Whatever the ancient
+price may have been, however, it
+was paid by the magistrates;
+but “the peasant now produces
+the skins in the bazaar or market,
+and is recompensed by voluntary
+contributions.” Chandler,
+ii. p. 145. Close by a
+khan on mount Parnes, which is
+covered with pine trees, Sir
+George Wheler saw a very curious
+fountain, to which the
+wolves, bears, and wild boars
+commonly descend to drink. Id.
+p. 197.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f1883'>
+<p class='c001'><a href='#r1883'>1883</a>. Geop. xviii. 14. Nevertheless,
+when a wolf bit a sheep
+without killing it, the flesh was
+supposed to be rendered more
+tender and delicate, an effect
+which Plutarch attributes to the
+hot and fiery breath of the beast.
+Sympos. ii. 9.</p>
+</div>
+<hr class='c016' />
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+ <div class='nf-center'>
+ <div>END OF THE SECOND VOLUME.</div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+<div class='nf-center c003'>
+ <div><span class='pageno' id='Page_434'>434</span>LONDON:</div>
+ <div>Printed by S. & J. <span class='sc'>Bentley</span>, <span class='sc'>Wilson</span>, and <span class='sc'>Fley</span>,</div>
+ <div>Bangor House, Shoe Lane.</div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='pbb'>
+ <hr class='pb c000' />
+</div>
+<p class='c001'><a id='endnote'></a></p>
+<div class='tnotes'>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+ <div class='nf-center'>
+ <div><span class='large'>Transcriber’s Note</span></div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c001'>The printer employed the cursive forms of beta (ϐ) and theta (ϑ),
+sometimes in the same passage with the standard β and θ. These have
+been replaced with the standard forms.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Hyphenated words sometimes also appear without hyphenation, e.g.
+‘olive grounds’ and ‘olive-grounds’. Where there is a clear
+preponderance, the hyphen has either been retained or removed to
+following the preference. When there was none, they are left as
+printed.</p>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c0'>
+ <div class='nf-center'>
+ <div>Comments</div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+<table class='table0' summary=''>
+<colgroup>
+<col width='15%' />
+<col width='84%' />
+</colgroup>
+ <tr>
+ <td class='c019'><a id='c_91.10'></a><a href='#corr91.10'>91.10</a></td>
+ <td class='c020'>The original quotation marks (“Wretch, would you make me a “Phaselitan for a farthing?”) have been properly nested.</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class='c019'><a id='c_355.n3.64'></a><a href='#corr355.n3.64'>355.n3.64</a></td>
+ <td class='c020'>The asterisk seems to serve no purpose. It might have referred to an internal footnote that was never printed. It was retained, nonetheless.</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class='c001'>Minor punctation errors and inconsistencies in the footnote apparatus
+have been corrected with no further mention here.</p>
+
+<p class='c001'>Those errors deemed most likely to be the printer’s have been corrected, and
+are noted here. The references are to the page and line in the original.
+Corrections within notes are denoted with ‘n’ and the original note
+number.</p>
+
+<table class='table1' summary=''>
+<colgroup>
+<col width='14%' />
+<col width='57%' />
+<col width='28%' />
+</colgroup>
+ <tr>
+ <td class='c019'><a id='c_36.n1'></a><a href='#corr36.n1'>36.n1</a></td>
+ <td class='c008'>καὶ πᾶσαν τὴν ο[ἴκι]/ἰκίαν</td>
+ <td class='c020'>Replaced.</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class='c019'><a id='c_61.15'></a><a href='#corr61.15'>61.15</a></td>
+ <td class='c008'>to have been a comb[.]</td>
+ <td class='c020'>Added.</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class='c019'><a id='c_63.31'></a><a href='#corr63.31'>63.31</a></td>
+ <td class='c008'>The <i>Ægle[,]</i> the <i>Pede</i> and</td>
+ <td class='c020'>Added.</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class='c019'><a id='c_65.11'></a><a href='#corr65.11'>65.11</a></td>
+ <td class='c008'>in Lycia[,/.]</td>
+ <td class='c020'>Replaced.</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class='c019'><a id='c_71.29'></a><a href='#corr71.29'>71.29</a></td>
+ <td class='c008'>ran into the opposite extreme[,/.]</td>
+ <td class='c020'>Replaced.</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class='c019'><a id='c_86.7'></a><a href='#corr86.7'>86.7</a></td>
+ <td class='c008'>signi[ni]fies eggs)</td>
+ <td class='c020'>Removed.</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class='c019'><a id='c_119.20'></a><a href='#corr119.20'>119.20</a></td>
+ <td class='c008'>were most brilliantly reflected[,/.]</td>
+ <td class='c020'>Replaced.</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class='c019'><a id='c_133.8'></a><a href='#corr133.8'>133.8</a></td>
+ <td class='c008'>recal[l]s to mind</td>
+ <td class='c020'>Inserted.</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class='c019'><a id='c_134.n3'></a><a href='#corr134.n3'>134.n3</a></td>
+ <td class='c008'>Ἅλα[ ]λείχειν</td>
+ <td class='c020'>Space added.</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class='c019'><a id='c_135.n3.10'></a><a href='#corr135.n3.10'>135.n3.10</a></td>
+ <td class='c008'>Profluit.[”]</td>
+ <td class='c020'>Added.</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class='c019'><a id='c_139.30'></a><a href='#corr139.30'>139.30</a></td>
+ <td class='c008'>How much [my,/, my] friend,</td>
+ <td class='c020'>Transposed.</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class='c019'><a id='c_163.31'></a><a href='#corr163.31'>163.31</a></td>
+ <td class='c008'>The walnuts a[u/n]d chestnuts</td>
+ <td class='c020'>Inverted.</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class='c019'><a id='c_164.20'></a><a href='#corr164.20'>164.20</a></td>
+ <td class='c008'>[“]but we call it</td>
+ <td class='c020'>Added.</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class='c019'><a id='c_185.37'></a><a href='#corr185.37'>185.37</a></td>
+ <td class='c008'>roll about the room like a hoop[,/.]</td>
+ <td class='c020'>Replaced.</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class='c019'><a id='c_201.31'></a><a href='#corr201.31'>201.31</a></td>
+ <td class='c008'>to the frying[-]pan</td>
+ <td class='c020'>Inserted.</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class='c019'><a id='c_209.n5.1'></a><a href='#corr209.n5.1'>209.n5.1</a></td>
+ <td class='c008'>Sc[ol/h\. Aristoph. Nub. 1337, seq.</td>
+ <td class='c020'>Replaced.</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class='c019'><a id='c_209.n6.1'></a><a href='#corr209.n6.1'>209.n6.1</a></td>
+ <td class='c008'>Ilgen, De Sc[h]ol. Poes. p. 156.</td>
+ <td class='c020'>Removed.</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class='c019'><a id='c_242.1'></a><a href='#corr242.1'>242.1</a></td>
+ <td class='c008'>the friendship of Demosthenes[.]</td>
+ <td class='c020'>Added.</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class='c019'><a id='c_242.34'></a><a href='#corr242.34'>242.34</a></td>
+ <td class='c008'>the “Exile Hunter.[”]</td>
+ <td class='c020'>Added.</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class='c019'><a id='c_249.n7.2'></a><a href='#corr249.n7.2'>249.n7.2</a></td>
+ <td class='c008'>[‘/“]chez les anciens Atheniens</td>
+ <td class='c020'>Replaced.</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class='c019'><a id='c_257.n5'></a><a href='#corr257.n5'>257.n5</a></td>
+ <td class='c008'>Μ[ε/έ]σσοισιν</td>
+ <td class='c020'>Replaced.</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class='c019'><a id='c_274.18'></a><a href='#corr274.18'>274.18</a></td>
+ <td class='c008'>whose Penelope, the[ the] <i>beau idéal</i></td>
+ <td class='c020'>Removed.</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class='c019'><a id='c_286.n8'></a><a href='#corr286.n8'>286.n8</a></td>
+ <td class='c008'>and out [out ]of these they sometimes drank.</td>
+ <td class='c020'>Repetition.</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class='c019'><a id='c_290.n4'></a><a href='#corr290.n4'>290.n4</a></td>
+ <td class='c008'>following in the foo[t]steps of Heyne</td>
+ <td class='c020'>Inserted.</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class='c019'><a id='c_328.16'></a><a href='#corr328.16'>328.16</a></td>
+ <td class='c008'>found this answer of[ of] irrigation.</td>
+ <td class='c020'>Removed.</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class='c019'><a id='c_355.n3.38'></a><a href='#corr355.n3.38'>355.n3.38</a></td>
+ <td class='c008'>le <i>samia</i>[,] gros raisin</td>
+ <td class='c020'>Added.</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class='c019'><a id='c_385.15'></a><a href='#corr385.15'>385.15</a></td>
+ <td class='c008'>hey would not, if po[s]ssible,</td>
+ <td class='c020'>Removed.</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class='c019'><a id='c_423.38'></a><a href='#corr423.38'>423.38</a></td>
+ <td class='c008'>shall judge to-morrow[.]”</td>
+ <td class='c020'>Added.</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class='c019'><a id='c_429.n6.14'></a><a href='#corr429.n6.14'>429.n6.14</a></td>
+ <td class='c008'>non parvo sumptu reparatur.[”]</td>
+ <td class='c020'>Added.</td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+
+</div>
+
+<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE HISTORY OF THE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF ANCIENT GREECE VOLUME II (OF III) ***</div>
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