1 files changed, 29362 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/old/67629-0.txt b/old/67629-0.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f24d0bb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/67629-0.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,29362 @@
+The Project Gutenberg eBook of An Illustrated Dictionary of Words
+used in Art and Archaeology, by J. W. Mollett
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
+most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
+whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
+of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
+www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you
+will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before
+using this eBook.
+
+Title: An Illustrated Dictionary of Words used in Art and Archaeology
+       Explaining terms frequently used in works on architecture, arms,
+       bronzes, Christian art, colour, costume, decoration, devices,
+       emblems, heraldry, lace, personal ornaments, pottery, painting,
+       sculpture, &c., with their derivations.
+
+Author: J. W. Mollett
+
+Release Date: March 14, 2022 [eBook #67629]
+
+Language: English
+
+Produced by: Richard Tonsing and the Online Distributed Proofreading
+             Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from
+             images generously made available by The Internet Archive)
+
+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AN ILLUSTRATED DICTIONARY OF
+WORDS USED IN ART AND ARCHAEOLOGY ***
+
+
+
+
+
+                       AN ILLUSTRATED DICTIONARY
+                            OF WORDS USED IN
+                          ART AND ARCHÆOLOGY.
+
+
+
+
+                        [_All rights reserved._]
+
+
+ PRINTED BY GILBERT AND RIVINGTON, LIMITED, ST. JOHN’S SQUARE, LONDON.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  APSE OF THE BASILICA OF ST. PAUL-WITHOUT-THE-WALLS, ROME.
+
+  [_See_ BASILICA, _p. 37_.
+]
+
+
+
+
+                       AN ILLUSTRATED DICTIONARY
+                            OF WORDS USED IN
+                          ART AND ARCHÆOLOGY.
+    EXPLAINING TERMS FREQUENTLY USED IN WORKS ON ARCHITECTURE, ARMS,
+ BRONZES, CHRISTIAN ART, COLOUR, COSTUME, DECORATION, DEVICES, EMBLEMS,
+ HERALDRY, LACE, PERSONAL ORNAMENTS, POTTERY, PAINTING, SCULPTURE, &C.,
+                        WITH THEIR DERIVATIONS.
+
+
+                         By J. W. MOLLETT, B.A.
+
+             _Officier de l’Instruction Publique (France)_;
+ AUTHOR OF THE LIVES OF “REMBRANDT” AND “WILKIE” IN THE “GREAT ARTISTS”
+                                SERIES.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+                                London:
+              SAMPSON LOW, MARSTON, SEARLE, AND RIVINGTON,
+                  CROWN BUILDINGS, 188, FLEET STREET.
+                                 1883.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+                                PREFACE.
+
+
+This Dictionary was commenced as an amended edition of that written by
+M. Ernest Bosc, architect of Paris, and contains the 450 engravings
+published in the French work, to which about 250 more have been added.
+Little or nothing, however, of the text of M. Bosc’s work has been left
+standing; his definitions having, in the process of revision under
+reference to original works, almost entirely disappeared. The whole
+work, as it now stands, has been drawn from, or carefully corrected by,
+the best authorities in each of its special branches. Considerable
+prominence has been given to ARCHITECTURE, from the French original
+corrected from English writers; to CHRISTIAN ANTIQUITIES from
+_Martigny_, and the Dictionary of _Dr. Smith and Professor Cheetham_,
+and other authorities; to MEDIÆVAL ARMOUR, and terms of CHIVALRY,
+chiefly from _Meyrick’s Ancient Armour_; to COSTUME from _Planché_ and
+_Fairholt_; to HERALDRY from _Boutell’s_ and _Mrs. Bury Palliser’s_
+works; to POTTERY, the substance of the articles on this subject being
+derived from _M. Jacquemart’s_ work; to NEEDLEWORK, IVORIES, MUSICAL
+INSTRUMENTS, GOLDSMITHS’ WORK, PAINTERS’ MATERIALS AND PROCESSES ANCIENT
+AND MODERN, COLOUR, &c., with references to the several authorities
+referred to.
+
+The GREEK AND ROMAN ANTIQUITIES, which are the principal part of M.
+Bosc’s work, have been in this volume reduced to the smallest possible
+compass: the Dictionaries of Dr. Smith and Rich must be referred to by
+those who require fuller definitions upon this subject, which would of
+itself fill ten such books as the present.
+
+A few INDIAN, CHINESE, and JAPANESE TERMS, which have come into ordinary
+use in art, have been sought out and inserted: in the first-mentioned
+_Dr. Birdwood’s Handbooks_ have been a most useful guide. Finally, it is
+necessary to state, that many words essential to the completeness of the
+work would have been in danger of omission, if I had not had before me
+_Mr. Fairholt’s_ admirable _Dictionary of Art Terms_, which, occupying a
+more restricted ground than this, is so thorough and accurate in dealing
+with all that it professes to include, that the only _raison d’être_ of
+this work is the very much wider and different ground that it covers,
+and the greater condensation of its definitions. Obviously the substance
+of every statement in the work is borrowed from some previous writer on
+the subject, and it is evident that a Dictionary of Reference is not a
+convenient vehicle for theory or invention.
+
+The appended list of CLASSIFIED CATALOGUES which have been prepared by
+direction of the authorities of the South Kensington Museum, will have
+the additional use of referring the reader to the fountain-head at which
+he can verify and amplify the condensed information that this work
+supplies.
+
+                                                          J. W. MOLLETT.
+
+ _October, 1882._
+
+
+
+
+                 CLASSIFIED CATALOGUES OF BOOKS ON ART
+
+                                 IN THE
+
+             NATIONAL ART LIBRARY, SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.
+
+                         _ISSUED BY AUTHORITY._
+
+
+  LIST OF WORKS ON COSTUME, 1_s._; FURNITURE, 1_d._; HERALDRY, 3_d._;
+      LACE AND NEEDLEWORK, 1_d._; ORNAMENT, 6_d._; PAINTING, 4_d._;
+      POTTERY AND PORCELAIN, 3_d._; SCULPTURE, 3_d._
+
+  _These Catalogues may be had on application to the Secretary of the
+          Science and Art Department, South Kensington, S.W._
+
+
+
+
+                    ILLUSTRATED DICTIONARY OF WORDS
+                                USED IN
+                          ART AND ARCHÆOLOGY.
+
+
+ ABBREVIATIONS—Arch. _Architectural_; Chr. _Christian_; Egyp. _Egyptian_;
+ Fr. _French_; Gr. _Greek_; Her. _Heraldic_; It. _Italian_; Lat. _Latin_;
+  Med. _Mediæval_; O. E. _Old English_; Orient. _Oriental_; R. _Roman_.
+
+                  *       *       *       *       *
+
+=Aar= or =Aarou=, Egyp. A plain in a supra-terrestrial region, which
+corresponded, with the Egyptians, to the Elysian Fields of the Greeks
+and the Asgard of Scandinavian mythology.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1. Abaculi used as pavement.]
+
+=Abaculus=, Gr. and R. (a diminutive of _abacus_, q.v.). A small square
+or cube of glass, or some vitreous composition made to imitate stone or
+glass of various colours. _Abaculi_ were employed for the inlaid-work of
+pavements, or the incrustations of mosaic.
+
+=Abacus=, Gr. and R. (ἄβαξ, a slab or board). 1. In general a
+rectangular slab of stone, marble, or terra-cotta. 2. A board or tray
+used in arithmetical calculations, and constructed for reckoning by
+tens. 3. A play-board divided into compartments, a kind of backgammon in
+use in antiquity. The same term was also applied to a board used for
+another game of skill, the _ludus latrunculorum_, which was more like
+our chess. 4. A side-board on which were displayed, in the _triclinium_,
+or dining-room, silver plate and other table utensils. 5. A slab of
+marble, used for a coating in the decoration of a room or apartment of
+any kind. 6. A square slab of terra-cotta or wood, placed by the
+earliest builders at the top of wooden columns, in order to give them a
+broader head, and so afford a better support to the beams which rested
+on them. It was this motive that gave rise to the formation of the
+_abacus of the capital of a column_.
+
+=Abaton= or =Abatos=, Gr. (α, βᾰτὸς, inaccessible). A term used
+generally to denote any inaccessible place, such as the _cella_ of a
+temple, an adytum from which the profane were excluded. The term
+_Abaton_ denoted more particularly a building in the city of Rhodes,
+which contained, together with two statues in bronze, a trophy
+commemorating a victory gained over the Rhodians. This memorial had been
+placed in the building by queen Artemisia, who had consecrated it to a
+divinity. To destroy it would have been a sacrilege, and as no one could
+be allowed to penetrate into the interior of the _Abaton_, without the
+defeat of the Rhodians becoming known, all access to it was forbidden.
+
+=Abezzo, Olio di=, It. Strasburg Turpentine (q.v.).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2. Ewer for ablutions (Persian).]
+
+=Ablutions=, Chr. There were various ablutions: that of the head
+(_capitilavium_), as a preparation for unction in baptism; that of the
+hands (_aquamanile_), during Mass, &c.; that of the feet (_pedilavium_),
+including the ceremony of washing the feet of the poor, performed on
+Maundy Thursday, by the Pope. (Fig. 2.)
+
+=Abococke=, Med. Cap of estate, worn by kings on their helmets: “a huge
+cappe of estate, called Abococke, garnished with two rich crownes;” 15th
+century.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3. A Lictor with the fasces, wearing the _abolla_.]
+
+=Abolla=, Gr. and R. (ἀναβολὴ, a throwing back and around). A cloak made
+of a piece of cloth folded double and fastened round the throat by a
+brooch. _Abolla major_ was the name given to the ample blanket in which
+the Greek philosophers were accustomed to wrap themselves. This cloak
+was adopted by the philosophers as an instance of their humility,
+because it was mostly worn by the poorer classes at Rome. Fig. 3 is a
+representation of one of the lictors, with his fasces on his shoulder,
+and wearing the _abolla_.
+
+=Abraxas=, Gr. (a mystical or cabalistic word formed of the Greek
+letters α, β, ρ, α, ξ, α, ς). Cut stones or gems of very various shapes,
+upon which are engraved the words Abraxas, Abrasax. They are also known
+as _Basilidian_ stones or gems, because they constituted the symbols of
+the gnostic sect of the Basilidians. Certain peoples looked upon them as
+magic amulets against particular maladies and demoniacal influences. The
+impressions on these stones are very varied; cabalistic figures, the
+signs Α and Ω, and the word ΙΑΩ, which designates the Supreme Being.
+Numerous explanations have been sought for this term _abraxas_; some
+philologists assert that it comes from the Persian [or Pehlvi], and that
+it signifies _Mithra_; others derive it from the Hebrew, or the Coptic,
+while others again recognize in it only a numerical sign, the letters of
+which, added together, would give the number 365, or the number of days
+that make up the year, and in this case _abraxas_ would symbolize the
+annual revolution of the sun. A figure often found upon Abraxas stones
+is that of a serpent with a radiated lion’s head (Chnouphis), which
+rears itself amid seven stars. The reverse of these stones often bears
+the inscription ΤΩ ΧΝΟΥΦΙ, “To Chnouphis.”
+
+=Absidiole.= Diminutive of _apse_, and thus used to denote a small apse
+terminating a lateral nave, while the apse closes the central or chief
+nave. (See ABSIS.)
+
+=Absis= or =Apse=, R. (ἁψὶς, a bow or vault). Any enclosure of
+semicircular form terminating a room, hall, &c. There was an _absis_ in
+the _Basilica_ (q.v.), or court of justice, and it was in the
+semicircular recess thus formed that the judges’ seats were placed. Many
+temples also had an _absis_ attached to them, and there is one in
+particular of this description well known to all archæologists. This is
+the _absis_ of the temple of Venus at Rome, which was built by the
+emperor architect Hadrian. (See APSE.)
+
+=Abutment=, Arch. called also =Impost=. The solid part of a pier from
+which an arch immediately springs.
+
+=Abydos, Tablets of=, Egyp. Under this term are designated two
+hieroglyphic inscriptions containing the names of Egyptian kings. These
+tablets were graven upon the walls of a _cella_ in a small temple at
+Abydos, in Upper Egypt; hence their name. The first tablet, the
+beginning of which was destroyed at the time of its discovery, contains
+the names of the kings of the twelfth and eighteenth dynasties; this
+inscription was discovered in 1817 or 1818 by J. W. Bankes, and drawn by
+Caillund in 1832; it had been taken down from the wall of the temple by
+Mimaut, the French consul at Alexandria. It is now at the British
+Museum. The second tablet, which begins with Menes, who is generally
+supposed to have been one of the first kings of Egypt, contains a
+complete list of the two first dynasties, as well as a great number of
+names belonging to kings of the third, fourth, fifth, sixth, ninth,
+tenth, and eleventh dynasties. This tablet was discovered in 1864 by M.
+Mariette. It is reproduced in De Rougé’s treatise on the six first
+dynasties.
+
+=Abyssus=, Egyp. A Coptic word, read by some archæologists as NOUN
+(q.v.), and which signifies the _abyss_, the immensity of the celestial
+waters upon which sails the solar bark.
+
+=Acacia=, R. A term employed by some antiquaries to denote an object
+held in the hand of the statue of an emperor of the Lower Empire. It
+usually consists of a piece of cloth, which the emperor unfurled as a
+signal for the games to commence.
+
+=Academies of Italy.= Literary societies established during the middle
+ages. The principal were the Accesi, Affidati, Amorevole of Verona,
+Animosi of Milan, Arcadi of Rome, Ardenti of Pisa, Ardenti of Naples,
+Ardenti of Viterbo, Catenati of Macerata, Chiave of Pavia, Crusca of
+Florence, Elevati of Ferrara, Eterea of Padua, Florimontana of Annecy,
+Granelleschi of Venice, Infiammati of Padua, Infocati, Insensati of
+Perugia, Intronati of Siena, Lincei of Rome, Occulti, Offuscati,
+Ostinati, Rinovati, Sonnachiosi of Bologna, Trasformati of Milan,
+Travagliati, Unanimi. Their devices are described under the respective
+headings.
+
+=Acæna=, Gr. (ἀκαίνη), a measuring-rod; ten Greek feet in length.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4. Architectural acanthus.]
+
+=Acanthus=, Gr. and R. (ἀκὴ a point, and ἄνθος, a flower). A plant, the
+ornamental foliage of which has been largely employed as an
+architectural decoration by different peoples. The acanthus has been
+applied to the ornamentation of friezes, cornices, modillions, and
+various other members of architecture, but in especial to the decoration
+of modillions (projecting brackets) (Fig. 4) and of Corinthian and
+composite capitals. There are several varieties of the acanthus; those
+most in use are the cultivated acanthus, or Brankursine (_Acanthus
+mollis_), and the spring acanthus (_Acanthus spinosa_), the foliage of
+which is much less beautiful, and furnished with small spikes which make
+the plant resemble a thistle. This last has also often been applied to
+decoration, in the Romano-Byzantine and lanceolated styles of
+architecture. An English name for this ornament is the “bear’s claw.”
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 5. Bracket decorated with acanthus.]
+
+=Acapna=, Gr. (α, priv., and καπνὸς, i. e. without smoke). Wood for
+fuel, which had undergone several operations to hinder it from smoking
+when put on the fire. One of the methods employed consisted in stripping
+the bough of the bark, immersing it in water for some days, and then
+leaving it to dry. In a second method, the surface was rubbed with oil
+or oil-lees, or else the piece of wood was plunged into the oil for a
+few moments. A third method consisted in slightly charring the surface
+of the wood by passing it through the flame. The wood prepared by this
+last process was also called _cocta_ and _coctilia_.
+
+=Acatium=, Gr. and R. (ἀκάτιον, dimin. of ἄκατος, a light boat). A
+description of vessel belonging to the class called _actuariæ_, i. e.
+were propelled either by sails or oars. The _acatium_ was a fast-sailer
+much employed by the Greek pirates. The stern was of a rounded concave
+form (_inflexa_), and the prow was adorned with a beak (_rostrum_). (See
+also ACTUARIÆ.) The name _acatium_ was also given to a drinking-vessel
+which was in the form of a boat. The Roman _scapha_ was a similar
+vessel.
+
+=Acca.= A word used in the 14th century for a cloth of gold shot with
+coloured silk, figured with animals: from Acre in Syria.
+
+=Accesi=, It. (_inflamed_). One of the Italian Literary Academies. Their
+device was a fir-cone placed over a fire, with the motto “hinc odor et
+fructus.”
+
+=Accetta=, Med. Lat. A battle-axe, or hache-d’armes.
+
+=Accidental= or =complementary colour=, the prismatic complement of a
+ray of light: such are _orange_ to _blue_, _green_ to _red_, and
+_purple_ to _yellow_.
+
+=Accidental light.= An effect of light in a picture independent of the
+principal light, such as that on the Holy Child in the _Notte_ of
+Correggio, or that of a candle, &c.
+
+=Acclamations=, Chr. Formulas employed by the first Christians to
+express their grief on the occurrence of some misfortune, or on the
+other hand, to testify their joy at some piece of good fortune. These
+acclamations were imitated from the nations of antiquity [e. g. at
+_marriages_, “Io Hymen, Hymenæe, Talassio:” at _triumphs_, “Io,
+triumphe,” &c.].
+
+=Accollée=, Her. (1) placed side by side: (2) entwined about the neck.
+
+=Accosted=, Her. Side by side.
+
+=Accrued=, Her. Grown to maturity.
+
+=Accubitum=, R. (_ad_ and _cubitum_, an elbow). A bed or rather couch of
+a peculiar kind, upon which the Romans reclined at meals, and which
+replaced the _lectus triclinarius_. It was a kind of sofa holding only a
+single person, while the _lectus triclinarius_ held two or three. The
+act of reclining on this sofa was called _accubitio_ or _accubitus_, a
+term derived from _accubo_, to recline at table.
+
+=Acerra= or =Acerna=, R. (prob. from _acer_, maple). A small square box
+with a hinged lid; a coffer used to hold the incense for sacrifices;
+whence its Latin names _arca turalis_, _arcula turalis_, _acerra turis
+custos_. The _acerra_ appears on certain bas-reliefs among the sacred
+utensils. It is to be seen represented on the altar of the small temple
+of Quirinus, at Pompeii, underneath a garland, and above an augur’s
+wand. It is generally met with, as being carried by the officiating
+priests, at religious ceremonies. The attendant carried the _acerra_ in
+the left hand and employed the right hand to sprinkle the incense on the
+flame of the altar; whence the expression _libare acerra_. The term
+_acerra_ was also used to denote a small portable altar placed before
+the dead, on which incense was burnt during the time the corpse was
+exposed to view (_collocatio_). The altar was also named, from this
+circumstance, _ara turicrema_.
+
+=Acetabula=, R. A kind of bronze cymbals, attached to the hands and
+feet, as also to the knees. The same name was also given to silver
+cymbals which were played by striking them with a stick of hard wood.
+
+=Acetabulum=, R. (from _acetum_, vinegar). A cup for vinegar used by the
+Romans at meals.
+
+The _acetabulum_ was also a goblet used by jugglers among the Greeks and
+Romans to make nutmegs disappear. By the latter these jugglers were
+called _præstigiatores_, by the former ψηφοκλέπται or ψηφοπαίκται.
+Lastly, we find in Pliny the Elder that _acetabulum_ was the name given
+to a dry measure of capacity, equal to the quarter of a _hemina_ or the
+half of the _quartarius_, and equivalent to .1238 of a pint. [The Greek
+_Oxybaphon_.]
+
+=Acha=, =Achia=, =Hachia=, Lat. A battle-axe.
+
+=Achelor=, =Achlere= or =Ashlar=. (Arch.) Hewn stone.
+
+=Achromatic=, Gr. (α priv. χρομος, colour). The effect of an arrangement
+of lenses by which a coloured ray of light is rendered colourless.
+
+=Acicula=, Gr. (dimin. of _acus_, a needle or pin). In particular a
+bodkin used by the Roman ladies to keep the hair in its place when
+curled or plaited, and to keep on false hair. The words _acicula_ and
+_acus_ are however all but synonymous. The former does not denote a
+bodkin of smaller size than the _acus_, but an object made of an
+inferior material; the _acus_ being of silver, ivory or gold, while the
+_acicula_ was simply of bone or some hard wood such as box, myrtle,
+olive, &c.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 6. Acinaces.]
+
+=Acinaces=, Orient. (ἀκινάκης; orig. a Persian word). A straight poniard
+resembling a very short Roman sword, used by the Eastern nations of
+antiquity, especially, the Medes, Persians and Scythians. It was worn by
+soldiers suspended from a belt round the waist, but the weapon hung
+either at the right or the left side, according to the nationality and
+accoutrements of the soldier. When, however, he wore a sword, this was
+always placed at the left, and the _acinaces_ at the right side of the
+body. The handles of these weapons are generally extremely rich.
+
+=Acisculus=, R. (Diminutive of _ascia_, an adze = a small adze). A small
+pick employed by stone-cutters and masons in early times.
+Representations of it may be seen pretty frequently on medals, in
+especial those of the Valerian family. [See ASCIA.]
+
+=Acketon=, Fr. A quilted leathern jacket, worn under the armour,
+introduced from the East by the Crusaders.
+
+=Aclis= or =Aclyx=, R. A sort of harpoon, consisting of a thick short
+stock set with spikes. This massive weapon was chiefly employed by
+foreign nations, but not by the Romans. It was launched against the
+enemy, and drawn back by means of a cord to which it was attached, to be
+launched a second time. This weapon bears some resemblance to a
+particular kind of _angon_ (or trident). (See ANGONES.)
+
+=Acoustic Vases=, R. (Gr. ἀκουστικὸς, pertaining to the sense of
+hearing). Vases of earthenware or more often of bronze, which, in the
+theatres of antiquity, served the purpose of strengthening the voices of
+the actors. Vases of this kind would also seem to have been employed for
+the same purpose during the middle ages, for the architect Oberlin, when
+repairing the vault of the choir, in the ancient church of the
+Dominicans at Strasburg, discovered some acoustic vases there.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 7. Acratophorum, Roman.]
+
+=Acratophorum=, Gr. and R. (ἀκρατο-φόρος, holding unmixed wine). A table
+vessel for holding pure wine, while the crater (κρατὴρ), on the other
+hand, contained wine mixed with water. These vessels were often
+dedicated to Bacchus. They were made in earthenware and metal, but those
+that were dedicated to the gods were of gold and silver, and had their
+place among the treasures of the temples. Fig. 7 represents a silver
+acratophorum found at Hildesheim.
+
+=Acrolith=, Gr. (ἄκρον, end, and λίθος stone). A statue covered with
+garments which in many cases were gilded. The extremities of these
+statues were of marble or stone—whence their name—more rarely of gold
+and ivory. The Minerva of Areia, at Platæa in Bœotia, described by
+Pausanius, was an _acrolith_. This was by Pheidias. The _acrolith_
+period is the infancy of the Greek plastic art.
+
+=Acropodium=, Gr. (ἄκρον, end or point; and πόδιον, a foot). A low
+square plinth serving for basement to a statue and often forming part of
+it.
+
+=Acropolis=, Gr. (ἀκρό-πολις, upper or higher city). From its primary
+meaning the term came to signify a fortified city. They were very
+numerous, in ancient times, in Italy, Greece and the colonies of Asia
+Minor. Most ancient Greek cities were built upon hills, and the citadel
+on the summit of the hill was called the _acropolis_.
+
+=Acrostic=, Chr. (ἄκρον, end, and στίχος, a row or line). A combination
+of letters formed out of some word, which is thus made to express a
+thought differing from its own meaning. For instance, the Greek word
+ΙΧΘΥΣ (ICHTHUS, fish), symbolizes, in the primitive church, the name of
+Christ. The following is the acrostic of this word: Ιησους, Χριστος,
+Θεου, Υἱος, Σωτηρ I, CH, TH, U, S.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 8. Roman acrostolium.]
+
+=Acrostolium=, Gr. and R. (ἀκροστόλιον, extremity of beak of a ship). An
+ornament employed by the ancients to decorate the upper extremity of the
+prows of ships. This ornament often figured among trophies, since it was
+the custom for the victor in a naval combat to take the _acrostolia_
+from the captured ships. It is frequently to be met with on the
+bas-reliefs of triumphal monuments. Fig. 8 shows an _acrostolium_ taken
+from a bas-relief in the Museum of the Capitol. The object seen
+projecting from the acrostolium is a sounding lead.
+
+=Acroterium=, Gr. and R. (ἀκρωτήριον, the extremity of anything). In a
+signification more restricted than the primary one, yet generally
+admitted, the term _acroteria_ is applied to the plain socles and
+pedestals placed at the summit of buildings to support statues, groups,
+or other crownings. ACROTERIUM was the common name for the
+_acrostolium_, and the taking of it away as a trophy was called
+_acroteriazein_.
+
+=Actia=, Gr., festivals held every fourth year, at Actium, in Epirus, in
+honour of Apollo.
+
+=Actinic= (rays of light:) chemically active.
+
+=Actuariæ=, R. (See NAVES). Open boats, built to attain a high degree of
+speed, propelled by sails and sweeps, and never fitted with less than
+eighteen oars. Pirates used this class of vessel exclusively.
+
+=Actuarii=, R. The shorthand writers who took down speeches in the
+senate. Also certain officials who answered to our commissariat
+officers.
+
+=Acuminated=, Arch. Finishing in a point, like a lofty Gothic roof.
+
+=Acus=, R. (Gr. ἀκὴ, a point). A bodkin, needle, or pin. The _acus_
+denoted both a needle for sewing and a pin for fastening anything. When
+used for the hair it was called _acus crinalis_ or _comatoria_. In
+Christian archæology the word applies to the jewelled pins used as
+fastenings to papal or archiepiscopal vestments. The Roman _acus_ is
+worn in the hair by the Italian peasant woman of the present day.
+
+=Addorsed=, Her. (1) Back to back; (2) pointing backwards.
+
+=Adespotoi=, Gr. (ἀ-δέσποτοι, i. e. without masters). A name given to a
+certain class of freedmen at Sparta.
+
+=Adobare=, Med. To entrust with arms (to “dub” a knight). Meyrick.
+
+=Adobes.= Bricks manufactured by the ancient Peruvians.
+
+=Adramire=, Med. To challenge to a duel or tournament. (Meyrick.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 9. Plan of a Roman temple, showing the adytum.]
+
+=Adytum= or =Adyton=, Gr. and R. (ἄδυτον, from α, priv., and δύω, to
+enter). An obscure and secret sanctuary in certain temples from which
+the public was excluded, and into which the priests alone might enter.
+The little temple of Pompeii possessed an _adytum_, and it was here that
+was discovered the Portici Diana now in the Naples Museum. There was
+also an _adytum_ in the temple of Delphi, which was burnt down in the
+first year of the 58th Olym., and rebuilt by the Corinthian Spintharus.
+The temple of Paphos contained in its _adytum_ a representation of the
+goddess under the form of a column pointed at the top and surrounded by
+candelabra. The engraving shows the position of the adytum of a small
+Doric temple, now destroyed, which once stood near the theatre of
+Marcellus at Rome. The _adytum_ was the name given to the _cella_ of a
+temple, in which oracles were given, or the worship was connected with
+mysteries. See ABATON and CELLA.
+
+=Ædicula=, R. (dimin. of _Ædes_, q.v.). A small house, temple, chapel,
+tabernacle, or even shrine. Thus the name was given to a small wooden
+shrine, constructed to imitate the front of a temple, and in which were
+preserved the ancestors of the family (_imagines majorum_), together
+with the Lares and tutelar divinities.
+
+=Ægicranes=, Gr. (αἴγειος, of a goat; κρανίον, the skull). A goat’s [or
+ram’s] head employed as a decoration by ancient sculptors. It was used
+chiefly to adorn altars which were dedicated to rural divinities.
+
+=Æginetan marbles.= Two remarkable groups of very early (archaic) Greek
+sculpture, in the Glyptothek at Munich—discovered in the temple of
+Pallas-Athene at Ægina, and arranged by Thorwaldsen. They illustrate
+“the infancy of art, which lingers round symbolic representation, and
+has not yet grasped the full meaning and truth of nature.” (_Butler’s
+Imitative Art._) The anatomy of the bodies and limbs at this period is
+greatly superior to the expression of the heads.
+
+=Ægis=, Gr. In its primary meaning, a _goat-skin_. The primitive
+inhabitants of Greece used the skins of goats and other animals for
+clothing, and defence. At a later period the _Ægis_ became a protective
+mantle; the shield of Minerva, beneath which the goddess sheltered those
+whom she wished to protect from the enemy’s missiles. Later still the
+_Ægis_ denoted the breastplate of a divinity, in especial that of
+Jupiter or Minerva, as opposed to the _lorica_, which was the
+breastplate of a mere mortal. The ægis bore in its centre the Gorgon’s
+head, of which the serpents were arranged round the border. Minerva is
+generally represented wearing it, either as a cuirass or a scarf passed
+over the right shoulder.
+
+=Aëneator= (Lat. _aëneus_, brazen). The name given to any musician who
+played on an instrument of brass (_aëneum_); such as the _buccinatores_,
+_cornicines_, _liticines_, _tubicines_, &c. They formed a college.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 10 Eolipyle.]
+
+=Æolipilæ= or =Æolipȳlæ=, Gr. (αἴολος, the wind; and πύλη, an orifice).
+A metal vase with a narrow orifice, which was filled with water and
+placed upon the fire, either to make the chimney draw better, or,
+according to Vitruvius, to show which way the wind blew.
+
+=Æolian Harp=, Gr. A musical instrument that is played on by the wind
+passing over its strings.
+
+=Ærarium=, R. (_æs_, money). The public treasury as distinguished from
+the private treasury of the Emperors (_fiscus_). Under the Republic the
+temple of Saturn served as the public treasury, and here were preserved
+the produce of the revenue, the public accounts and other public
+records. The army had a separate treasury of its own called _ærarium
+militare_, entirely distinct from the _ærarium publicum_. It was
+established by Augustus to provide for the special expenditure of the
+army.
+
+=Aerial perspective.= The realization of the effect of intervening
+atmosphere in the distances of a landscape.
+
+=Æro=, R. A basket made of rushes or broom, but still more commonly of
+osier, and used for conveying sand. It was employed by the Roman
+soldiery when at work on intrenchments, excavations, or fortifications,
+as may be seen from bas-reliefs; more particularly some of those which
+adorn the column of Trajan.
+
+=Æruca=, R. (_æs_, bronze). A very brilliant green colour artificially
+made to imitate _verdigris_.
+
+=Ærugo=, R. _Verdigris_, the same colour as _æruca_ (q.v.), but obtained
+from oxide of bronze. It is difficult to establish a real distinction
+between the two terms, as Pliny gives the name of _ærugo_ (the rust of
+bronze) to what Vitruvius calls _æruca_. It is probable, however, that
+_æruca_ was a kind of verdigris obtained by artificial means, while
+_ærugo_ was the natural verdigris. This has given rise to the two terms,
+which by many archæologists are confused together. _Æruca_, the
+artificial copper rust, formed by the action of wine refuse upon copper,
+is an acetate of copper (verdigris): while the genuine copper rust,
+_Ærugo_, is a carbonate of copper.
+
+=Ærumna=, R. A kind of fork by which travellers carried their baggage
+over the shoulder. 2. An instrument of punishment for slaves. (See
+FURCA.)
+
+=Æs.= A term used in antiquity to denote brass, copper, bronze, or any
+alloy of these metals. It also serves, in various connexions, to denote
+a number of different objects. Such as _æs candidum_, a brass mixed with
+silver; _æs Corinthum_, a brass mixed with gold; _æs Cyprium_, the
+ancient name for copper. (See also BRONZE.)
+
+=Æs grave=, R. A general term current in Rome to denote any bronze money
+at the period when the _as_ was equal to about a pound in value.
+
+=Æs rude=, R. The name given to the bronze ingots employed at Rome as
+ready money in exchanges and other commercial transactions.
+
+=Æs thermarum=, Gr. and R. A bronze gong or metal bell hung up in the
+public baths, the sound of which, when struck, gave notice to the public
+that the baths were sufficiently warm to be ready for use.
+
+=Æs ustum.= Peroxide of copper, or calcined copper.
+
+=Æsthetics=, Gr. (αἰσθάνομαι, to comprehend). The science of the
+instinctive apprehension of the harmonies.
+
+=Aetos=, Gr. (Ἀετός). A Greek word signifying _eagle_, and by analogy, a
+gable, pediment, or higher part of a building generally, so called from
+the resemblance which these parts bear to an eagle with outstretched
+wings. In the same way the Greeks gave the name of πτερὰ (wings), to the
+outer rows of columns flanking each side of a temple.
+
+=Affidati=, It. One of the Italian literary academies. Their device was
+a nautilus, with the motto “tutus per suprema per ima.”
+
+=Affrontée=, Her. Showing the full front.
+
+=Agalma=, =Agalmata=, Gr. (ἄγαλμα, from ἀγάλλω, to glorify). Any work of
+art dedicated to a god, whether it were placed in his temple or not;
+such as tripods; [braziers for incense], or other accessories of a
+temple. The low pillar placed over a tomb, or the statue of a god might
+be _agalmata_.
+
+=Agate.= A variety of quartz often employed by the engravers of
+antiquity. The term is a corruption of the word _Achates_, a river of
+Sicily, on the banks of which numerous varieties of the stone abound.
+Among these maybe mentioned the _cerachates_, or white wax-like agate;
+_dendrachates_, or arborescent agate; _hemachates_, or blood-agate, so
+called from its blood-like spots; and _leucachates_, or white agate.
+Agates were often carved into scarabæi by the Egyptians, and Babylonian
+cylinders have been found, made of the same material. The oriental agate
+is semi-transparent, the occidental is opaque, of various tints, often
+_veined_ with quartz and jasper; hence its fitness for cutting cameos.
+
+=Agathodæmon, Cup of=, Gr. (Ἀγαθο-δαίμων). A name given by the Greeks to
+a cup consecrated to Bacchus, and meaning literally, the “Cup of the
+Good Genius.” It was sent round after a feast, in order that each guest
+might partake of the wine.
+
+=Agea=, R. A narrow passage or gangway in a boat, by means of which the
+boatswain (_hortator_) communicated with the rowers.
+
+=Agger=, R. A general term to denote a mound of any materials, such as
+that formed by a dyke, quay, roadway, or earthwork; and particularly a
+rampart composed of trunks of trees and employed in offensive or
+defensive warfare. A celebrated _agger_ was that of Servius Tullius at
+Rome. The art of constructing _aggeres_ and other fortifications, had
+been learnt by the Romans from the Greeks, who in their turn had derived
+it from the East. It was after having penetrated into the heart of Asia
+under Alexander the Great, that the Greeks learned the use of siege
+works employed in the attack or defence of strong places, and became
+acquainted with various kinds of warlike engines such as the
+ACROBATICON, &c.
+
+=Agnus Bell=, Chr. A sacring bell.
+
+=Agnus Dei=, Chr. THE LAMB OF GOD, or lamb bearing the banner of the
+cross. The term is also used to denote certain ornaments or medallions
+of wax impressed with a figure of the lamb. They represented the ancient
+custom of distributing to worshippers, on the first Sunday after Easter,
+particles of wax from the consecrated paschal taper.
+
+=Agolum, R.= A long sharp-pointed shepherd’s stick used by the Roman
+herdsmen for driving their cattle. The _agolum_ was made out of a
+straight shoot of the prickly pear; it is still in use among the
+herdsmen of the Roman campagna at the present day.
+
+=Agonalia= or =Agonia=, R. A Roman festival, which derived its name from
+the word _agone_ (shall I proceed?) the question asked of the _rex
+sacrificulus_ by the attendant, before he sacrificed the victim. The
+Quirinal was called _Mons agonus_, from a festival being held there on
+the 17th or 18th of March, in honour of Mars. The day itself was called
+_Agonium martiale_ or day of the Liberalia. Another explanation of the
+etymology of the name is that the sacrifice was offered on the Quirinal
+hill, which was originally called _Agonus_. (Consult Ovid. Fasti, i.
+319–332, he suggests several explanations.)
+
+=Agonistic=, (ἀγωνιστικὴ, from ἀγὼν, a contest). With the ancients, that
+part of gymnastics in which athletes contended with arms.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 11. Agora of Antiphellus.]
+
+=Agora=, Gr. (ἀγορὰ, from ἀγείρω, to assemble). A place of assembly or
+public market. The _agora_ was to the Greeks what the _forum_ was to the
+Romans. There were numerous agoræ in Greece and Asia Minor. Fig. 11,
+represents the plan of the _agora_ of Antiphellus; in which _a_ and _b_
+indicate the sites of the corn-pits; _c_, that of a basilica. _Agora_ is
+also used to denote the general assembly of freemen in contradistinction
+to the _Boulè_ (q.v.).
+
+=Agraulia.= An Athenian festival.
+
+=Agrenon=, Gr. and R. A net, or garment of netted wool, worn over their
+other dress by the priests of Bacchus and by soothsayers.
+
+=Aguinia=, Med. A corruption of _ingenia_, engines of war. (Meyrick.)
+
+=Aguzo=, It. A spear-head; a spear.
+
+=Ahenum= or =Aenum=. A bronze vessel furnished with a handle for
+suspending it over the fire, and so named from the material out of which
+it was made. (2) The coppers used in the public baths for heating the
+water in.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 12 Aiglets.]
+
+=Aiglet=, Fr. (_aiguillette_). A metal tag or point to a lace; sometimes
+used to signify the lace itself, as in the military costume of the
+present day. They were formerly used to fasten the slashed dresses of
+the middle ages; and sometimes to fasten armour, when they were made of
+leather with metal points. In civilian costume they were of silk. The
+term Aiguillette is also applied to the shoulder-knot worn by soldiers
+and livery servants.
+
+=Ailettes= (little wings). Armour worn on the shoulders to protect the
+back of the neck; found in monumental brasses of the 13th century.
+
+=Aisle= (_ala_, a wing). The wing of a building; the side passages of a
+Roman house. In buildings of vast size, such as a basilica or temple,
+comprising a central and two lateral naves, the latter are called
+aisles.
+
+=Alabarda=, Med. A halberd.
+
+=Alabaster= or =Alabastrum=, (ἀλάβαστρον). A small vase for holding
+precious perfumes; so called from the alabaster of which it was
+generally made. It was of various shapes, but chiefly assumed an
+elongated form resembling a long pear, a pearl-drop, &c. [Many of these
+perfume vessels are made of stalactite.] (2) A calcareous substance of
+white colour, translucent or semi-transparent, and presenting, according
+to the variety, undulating and continuous veins. The various kinds of
+ancient alabaster are very numerous; the following may be named;
+flowered alabaster (_alabastro fiorito_); golden (_dorato_); quince
+coloured (_cotognino_); eyed (_occini_); tortoise-shell (_tartaruga_);
+foam-white (_pecorella_); Busca de Palombara (_palombara_); onyx
+(_onice_), &c. The Egyptians used alabaster for making statues, phials,
+panegyric vases, canopea, small figures, and even sarcophagi; of which
+last that of Seti I., now in the British Museum, is an example.
+Alabaster was at one time frequently used for tombs and carved figures,
+and is now used for pulpits and other ecclesiastical purposes. False
+alabaster is the name given to a gypseous variety of this substance, of
+which there are rich quarries at Volterra, in Tuscany. It is called
+“Gesso Volterrano,” and is much used in Italy for the _grounds_ of
+pictures.
+
+=Alabastrotheca=, R. (θήκη, a chest). A box or casket containing
+alabaster flasks or vases.
+
+=Aland=, =Alant=, Her. A mastiff with short ears.
+
+=Alapa.= The blow on the shoulder in dubbing a knight.
+
+=Alba creta.= Latin for white chalk, a term used by writers on art for
+gypsum.
+
+=Albani stone.= A pepper-coloured stone used in ancient buildings at
+Rome before the introduction of marble.
+
+=Albarium= (opus), R. (_albus_, white). A white coating or kind of
+stucco with which brick walls were covered after a previous application
+of ordinary cement. This stucco, which was also called simply
+_albarium_, was made by a mixture of chalk, plaster, and white marble.
+
+=Albalista=, =Arbalest=. A cross-bow.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 13. Albe.]
+
+=Albe=, (_albus_, white). An ancient ecclesiastical vestment, common in
+old brasses. It was a long white linen gown, reaching to the feet, and
+secured by a girdle. The surplice is an _albe_ with wider sleeves. (Fig.
+13.)
+
+=Alberk=, for =Hauberk=. A cuirass.
+
+=Album=, Gr. and R. (_albus_, white). A space on the surface of a wall
+covered with white plaster, upon which were written advertisements or
+public announcements. By analogy the term was used to denote any kind of
+white tablets bearing an inscription, such as edicts, decrees, &c. These
+tablets were very numerous; there were the _album pontificis_,
+_prætoris_, _centuriæ_, _decurionum_, _judicum_, _senatorum_, &c.
+
+=Alcato=, Arab. In armour, a gorget.
+
+=Alcora pottery= (See DENIA.)
+
+=Alcove.= A niche or recess in a room.
+
+=Aldobrandini, Marriage=, R. A celebrated fresco from the gardens of
+Mecænas, discovered at Rome near the church of Santa Maria Maggiore,
+whence it was conveyed to the villa Aldobrandini, and afterwards sold to
+the Borghese family. This painting which indisputably dates from the
+reign of Augustus, consists of a group of ten figures, representing,
+according to some, the marriage of Peleus and Thetis; and according to
+others, that of Manlius and Julia.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 14. Point d’Alençon.]
+
+=Alençon, Point d’.= Lace formerly known as Point de France. It is the
+only French lace not made on the pillow, but worked entirely by hand
+with a fine needle, on a parchment pattern; it is called “Vilain” in the
+French provinces, and in England is known as needle point. (Fig. 14.)
+
+=Alerion=, Her. An eagle, in early Her., represented without feet or
+beak. (See EAGLE.)
+
+=Ale-stake.= In the middle ages the roadside ale-house was distinguished
+by a stake projecting from the house, on which some object was hung for
+a sign.
+
+=Alexandrinum= (opus), R. A kind of mosaic employed especially for the
+pavement of rooms. The distinctive feature of these mosaics is that the
+lines or figures composing the designs are in two colours only, the
+prevailing ones being red and black upon a white ground. A large number
+of mosaics of this description exist at Pompeii, which are also called
+_sectilia_.
+
+=Alexikakos= (Apollo). Another name of the celebrated statue generally
+called the Belvedere Apollo; from Nero’s villa at Antium.
+
+=Algaroth powder.= An ingredient in the manufacture of an Antimony white
+pigment.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 15. Alhambraic ornament.]
+
+=Alhambraic.= Ornamentation in the Moorish style of the Alhambra, the
+characteristic of which is a faithful imitation of natural combinations
+of form and colour, with a rigid avoidance of the representation of
+natural objects. (Fig. 15.)
+
+=Alicula=, R. A kind of large mantle, furnished sometimes with a hood.
+The term is derived from the Greek ἄλλιξ, the name given to the
+Thessalian chlamys. (See CHLAMYS.)
+
+=Alizarin=, the colouring principle of the madder.
+
+=Allecret= or =Hallecret=. A light armour for cavalry and infantry,
+consisting of a breastplate and tassets (or gussets), 16th century.
+
+=Allegory= in art, is allegorically represented as a female figure
+veiled.
+
+=All Halowes= or =All Hallowes=. O. E. for All Saints.
+
+=Alloys= of Gold. Gold is found alloyed with various metals, never
+without silver, often with copper, iron, or other substances in small
+quantities, and sometimes with mercury, when it is called an _amalgam_.
+Gold alloyed with silver is called _native gold_. See ELECTRUM.
+
+=Allouyère= Fr. (Lat. _alloverium_). A purse or pouch often carried at
+the girdle, for holding papers, jewels, and money.
+
+=Almayne Rivets= (German Rivets). Rivets used in plates of armour made
+to slide and thus give play to the arms and legs, invented in the 17th
+century, in Germany; hence their name.
+
+=Almery=, =Aumery=, or =Ambry=, Arch. Chr. A niche or cupboard by the
+side of an altar, to contain the utensils belonging thereto.
+
+=Almond=, Chr. An aureole of elliptic form, which is frequently met with
+encircling representations of saints, or of God the Father, God the Son,
+or the Virgin. A more common name, however, for this aureole is VESICA
+PISCIS (q.v.). The term of _mystical almond_ was applied to the symbol
+expressive of the virginity of the Virgin Mary. The mystical meaning
+attached to this symbol is explained by reference to the rod of Aaron,
+which consisted of the bough of an almond-tree that had flowered in a
+single night and produced an almond on the morrow.
+
+=Almonry=, =Almonarium=, Arch. Chr. A room where alms were distributed.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 16. Almuce.]
+
+=Almuce=, =Aumuce=, =Amess=, Chr. (_almutium_). A furred hood worn by
+the clergy for the sake of warmth, from the 13th to 16th centuries.
+Common in brasses of the 15th century. (Fig. 16.)
+
+=Aloa=, or =Haloa=. An Attic festival, in honour of Demeter and
+Dionysus.
+
+=Alostel=, O. E. A cry of heralds at the close of a tournament, ordering
+the combatants to quit the lists and retire to their lodgings.
+
+=Alpha= and =Omega=, Chr. (ἄλφα and ὠμέγα). These two letters,
+respectively the first and the last of the Greek alphabet, symbolize our
+earthly life, since this has a beginning and an end. They are also a
+symbol of God as being the beginning and end of everything.
+
+=Altar.= A kind of platform or table upon which sacrifices were offered
+to the gods. Hence, in Christian art, the table upon which the
+Eucharistic sacrifice is offered. (See ANTEPENDIUM, CIBORIUM, REREDOS,
+&c. See ALTARE and ARA.)
+
+=Altar cards=, Chr. Portions of the service of the mass printed
+separately on cards, and placed against the reredos of an altar.
+
+=Altar cloth=, Chr. The linen coverings, and embroidered hangings of an
+altar.
+
+=Altare=, R. (_alta ara_, high altar). A raised altar as
+contradistinguished from the _ara_ which was of no great height. (Fig.
+17.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 17. Circular Roman altar.]
+
+=Altar front=, Chr. An antependium (q.v.).
+
+=Altar screen=, Chr. The partition behind the high altar, separating it
+from the Lady Chapel.
+
+=Alto-rilievo= (Ital.) High Relief. See RILIEVO.
+
+=Alum= is used in many processes—in the preparation of paper for
+water-colour painting, and of _lakes_, and _carmine_, from cochineal.
+_Roche alum_, or roach alum, _Roman alum_, and _Turkey alum_, are
+varieties of the common alum, described by mediæval writers as
+_alumens_.
+
+=Alumen= (Lat.), Greek, (_stypteria_). Mediæval writers confused this
+word with the alums. The name was applied by the classics to several
+salts of the nature of vitriols, and among them to the natural sulphate
+of iron (_copperas_ or _green vitriol_ of commerce).
+
+=Alur=, =Aloring=, or =Alurde=, &c., O.E. Parapet wall.
+
+=Alvéole=; see NIMBUS.
+
+=Alveus=, R. (_alvus_, the belly). (1) A bath constructed in the floor
+of a room, the upper part of it projected above the floor, the lower
+part being sunk into the floor itself. (2) A playing-board, which was
+divided in the same manner as the ABACUS (q.v.). (3) A canoe hollowed
+out of the trunk of a tree, the Greek μονόξυλον. (4) The hull of a ship.
+(5) A wooden trough or tray.
+
+=Ama= or =Amula=, Chr. A long phial for holding the wine presented at
+the altar at the moment of offering.
+
+=Amassette=, Fr. An instrument of horn used for spreading colours on the
+stone in the process of grinding.
+
+=Amatito=, Ital. Lapis Amatita. Amatito is the _soft_ red hæmatite, and
+is called also _matita rossa_. _Lapis amatita_ is the _compact_ red
+hæmatite, and is also called in Italy _mineral cinnabar_, and in Spain
+_albin_. When this word is used by early writers on art, it probably
+indicates _red ochre_, the red hæmatite of mineralogists. (Fairholt.)
+
+=Amber.= There are two varieties of this substance, viz., the grey and
+the yellow amber, of which the latter only need here be more
+particularly noticed. Its use may be traced back to a very early
+antiquity, the purposes to which it was applied being the setting of
+jewels and furniture. It was employed by the Jews for making amulets.
+Amber was also used by the Egyptians in the fabrication of necklaces
+composed of pearls or other delicate materials. By the Romans it was
+sculptured into vases or statuettes. The name of _vasa electrina_ was
+given to amber vases set with silver, and that of _electrina patera_ to
+pateræ made of amber alone. Amber was largely used by early painters as
+a _varnish_, and also as a _vehicle_. It is harder than copal, and is
+said to be the most durable of all varnishes. It requires a long time to
+fit it for _polishing_. Amber is supposed to be a vegetable fossil; it
+is washed up by the sea, especially on the shores of the Baltic.
+
+=Amber Yellow=, is an _ochre_ of a rich amber colour in its raw state;
+when burned it yields a fine _brown red_.
+
+=Ambitus=, Gr. R. and Chr. (_ambio_, to go round about). A small niche
+in underground Greek or Roman tombs forming a receptacle for a cinerary
+urn. In the Middle Ages these niches were so far enlarged as to admit
+coffins; the name under which they then went being ENFEUS (q.v.). During
+the same period the term _ambitus_ was also applied to the consecrated
+ground by which a church was surrounded. It served as a place of asylum
+as well as for burial. The term is also applied to the process of
+canvassing for votes.
+
+=Ambivium=, R. (_ambi_ and _via_, a way round). Any road or street
+leading _round_ a place.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 18. The ambo of St. Lawrence at Rome.]
+
+=Ambo=, Chr. (perhaps from ἀναβαίνειν, to ascend). A tribune of stone or
+marble in the ancient Latin basilicas, a pulpit. Fig. 18 gives a
+representation of the ambo in the church of St. Lawrence without the
+walls at Rome.
+
+=Ambrices=, R. The cross laths (_regulæ_) inserted between the rafters
+and the tiles of a roof.
+
+=Ambry=; see ALMERY.
+
+=Ambulant=, Her. In the act of walking.
+
+=Ambulatory=, Chr. (_ambulo_, to walk). Part of a cloister, forming a
+kind of gallery for taking exercise in.
+
+=Amenti= or =Amenthi=, Egyp. One of the names given to the nether world
+of the Egyptians. It means the _unseen region_. We learn from Plutarch’s
+treatise on Osiris that, “the subterranean regions whither souls betake
+themselves after death is called _Amenthes_.” Osiris is the lord and god
+of Amenti, which was also called by the Egyptians the _country of
+truth_.
+
+=Amentum=, R. A thong attached to the shaft of a lance at the centre of
+gravity. The soldier placed the fingers of his right hand between the
+two ends of the thong, gave the weapon a rapid turn, and then hurled it.
+_Amentum_ was also used to denote the leather strap by which certain
+kinds of boots, such as the _crepidæ_, _solæ_, &c., were fastened above
+the instep.
+
+=Amess.= (See ALMUCE.)
+
+=Amethyst=, (ἀμέθυστος, without intoxication.) A precious stone of a
+more or less deep violet colour. The engravers of antiquity carved
+figures upon it, in especial those of Bacchus, since the stone was also
+used, in preference to any other, for making drinking-cups, from a
+belief that it possessed the virtue of dispelling intoxication. This was
+the origin of the Greek term. Among the ancient Jews the amethyst was
+one of the twelve stones composing the breastplate of the high priest;
+it occupied the eighth or ninth row. In Christian symbolism the amethyst
+(or the colour violet) signifies humility and modesty.
+
+=Amiantus=, (ἀμίαντος [? undefiled]). A fibrous uninflammable mineral
+substance. It was used by the ancients for making fire-proof clothing.
+It was known by the name of _asbestus_ (ἄσβεστος, uninflammable).
+
+=Amice.= A piece of fine linen in the form of an oblong square,
+suspended over the shoulders of the clergy. _Pugin_ says it is “a white
+linen napkin or veil worn by all the clergy above the four minor
+orders.” _Durand_ says it is a proper covering for the head, typical of
+the helmet of salvation alluded to by the apostle; or of the cloth with
+which the Jews covered the Saviour’s face, when they asked him to
+prophecy who struck him. Milton, in _Paradise Regained_, alludes to it,—
+
+                                          “Morning fair
+            Came forth with pilgrim steps, in _amice_ grey.”
+
+=Amma=, Egyp. (1) A measure of length in use among the ancient
+Egyptians. It was about sixty feet. (2) A kind of line used in land
+surveying.
+
+=Ammah=, Egyp. The door which formed the exit from the abode of the
+dead. Chapters lxxiii. and cxv. of the _Book of the Dead_ are
+entitled,—_On passing Ammah_; i. e. _directing one’s course to heaven by
+stepping over the Ammah_.
+
+=Amorevole= of Verona. One of the Italian literary academies. Their
+device was a hedgehog with its spines laden with grapes (for its young).
+Motto, “non solum nobis.”
+
+=Amorini=, Ital. Cupids.
+
+=Ampelitis=, Gr. (ἄμπελος, a vine). A black pigment prepared by the
+ancients from the burnt branches of the vine.
+
+=Amphibalus=, Chr. A vestment, used on Sundays and high festivals;
+peculiar to the Gallican Church.
+
+=Amphidromia.= Family festival held by the Athenians upon the occasion
+of the birth of a child. The carrying of the child round the hearth gave
+the name to the festival.
+
+=Amphimallum=, Gr. and R. (ἀμφί-μαλλον, woolly on both sides). A
+description of woollen cloth more or less rough, and having a nap on
+both sides.
+
+=Amphiprostylos=, Gr. and R. (ἀμφι-πρόστυλος). A temple or other
+building having two open porticoes (_porticum_ and _posticum_), both in
+front and rear. They are so constructed as to project beyond the
+_cella_, or main body of the building.
+
+=Amphitapus=, Gr. and R. (ἀμφί-ταπος, hairy on both sides). A particular
+kind of cloth, made of some material resembling Vicuna wool, and having,
+like the _amphimallum_, a nap on both sides. It was probably of Eastern
+origin.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 19. Ground-plan of an amphitheatre.]
+
+=Amphitheatre=, R. (ἀμφι-θέατρον). A building which was at first
+constructed for the purpose of exhibiting gladiatorial shows to the
+Roman populace; but later on any kind of spectacle, even to a
+_naumachia_, or sea-fight, was exhibited there. In the engraving, A
+shows the ground-plan of an amphitheatre, and B the plan of the seats.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 20. Greek Amphoræ.]
+
+=Amphora=, Gr. and R. (ἀμφὶ-φορέω). A large earthenware vessel, having a
+handle on each side of its neck (whence the name), and terminating in a
+point. Amphoræ were used for holding various kinds of produce,
+especially wine; they were placed side by side in an upright position in
+the cellar, the floor of which was covered with a deep bed of sand. The
+engravings represent amphoræ from Cnidus, Chio, and Samos. Amphoræ were
+also made of glass; and a specimen is mentioned by Nepos of one made of
+onyx. Homer mentions them of gold and stone; and the Egyptians had them
+of brass.
+
+=Amphotis=, Gr. and R. 1. A brass cap lined with cloth inside. 2. A
+simple woollen cap worn by athletes to protect their temples and ears
+from the blows of the _cestus_, in a boxing match. 3. A wooden vessel in
+use among the ancient Greek peasants, as a milking-pail. It derived its
+name from having two handles or ears.
+
+=Ampulla=, Gr. and R. A phial or flask with short and narrow neck and
+spherical body, which was used to hold the oil requisite for bathers
+(_ampulla oleria_); it could also be used to hold vinegar, wine, and
+other beverages, and was then called _ampulla potaria_. The ampulla
+generally took the form of a globe or bladder, but not invariably; a
+lentil-shaped variety with rounded sides was very common. _Ampulla
+rubida_ was the name given to the leather-covered flasks which were made
+use of by travellers or sportsmen to carry wine, vinegar, or oil. The
+vessel or cruet used in Christian churches for the consecrated oil or
+wine was hence called the AMPUL.
+
+=Ampyx=, Gr. and R. (ἄμπυξ, from ἀμπέχω, to surround). Latin _frontale_.
+A general term to denote any net composed of strings, bands, or ribbons,
+which forms a head-band. It thus denotes at once a woman’s head-dress,
+or the ornamental strips of leather which serve as head-band for a
+horse. The _ampyx_ worn by women was in some cases very costly, being
+made of gold or silver, and adorned with precious stones. The term was
+also applied, by analogy, to the cover of a vase. Another word for it is
+_ampicter_.
+
+=Amulets.= Objects of a very heterogeneous description, to which is
+superstitiously attributed the power of healing certain diseases, or
+averting them from men and animals. This is the meaning which attaches,
+in its widest sense, to the term amulet (_amuletum_). Amulets are
+unquestionably of Eastern origin; by the Egyptians they were looked upon
+as preservatives against dangers, unlucky days, enemies, &c. The
+varieties of them were very numerous; among others, were scarabæi, small
+columns, cartouches, symbolic eyes, interlacing fingers, heads of uræus,
+&c. A large number of stones were also employed as amulets; those of
+commonest occurrence are hematite, jasper, lapis lazuli, amethysts,
+diamonds, heliotropes, &c. Each of these amulets had its special virtue;
+for instance, the clear crystal worn during prayer rendered the god
+propitious, and compelled him to give ear to the suppliant. Coral kept
+every evil influence away from a house; and in Italy it is looked upon,
+even at the present day, as a preservative against the evil eye. In
+Christian archæology, the name of amulets, or in some instances,
+ENCOLPIA (q.v.), was given to relics, or objects of devotion, such as
+crosses, medals, wood from the true cross, the bones of saints, &c.
+Amulets were also called _periapta_ (περίαπτα), i. e. suspended, because
+they were hung round the neck, and also _pyctacium_, because some
+amulets were folded in two. The Arabic word amulet means the same as
+_periapta_, that which is suspended.
+
+=Amussis=, R. The exact sense of this term is not clearly defined by
+ancient authors, beyond the fact that it denotes generally any kind of
+instrument employed by builders—especially masons—for testing the
+accuracy, regularity, and evenness of their work. The term is used to
+denote sometimes the plumb-line, rule, or square; sometimes the level,
+measuring-line, &c.
+
+=Anabathra=, Gr. and R. (ἀνά-βαθρα, steps up). Steps or stairs; a raised
+step; a mounting block. These last were often placed along the high
+roads.
+
+=Anabologium=, Chr. Another name for the Humerale or AMICE (q.v.).
+
+=Anaceia= or =Anakeia=, Gr. (from ἄναξ, a king). A festival held at
+Athens in honour of Castor and Pollux, who were also called _Anaktes_
+and _Anakestes_. (See ANACEIUM). Similar festivals were held at Sparta,
+Argos, and other cities of Greece.
+
+=Anaceium=, Gr. A temple of ancient Athens, dedicated to Castor and
+Pollux. Slaves used to be sold there.
+
+=Anaclinterium=, Gr. (ἀνακλιντήριον). The head-board of a sofa or bed,
+which served as a support for the bolster and the pillow on which the
+sleeper’s head rested.
+
+=Anadem=, Gr. (ἀνάδημα). In general a fillet or head-band; but in a more
+restricted acceptation, an ornamental band, such as was worn by women
+and youths among the Greeks. It was thus distinguished from the
+_diadema_ and the _vitta_, which were also head-bands, but worn solely
+as the insignia of honorary, regal, or religious distinctions.
+
+=Anaglyph=, (ἀνὰ and γλύφειν, to carve). A general term to denote any
+work of art that is sculptured, chased, carved, or embossed, such as
+cameos, bas-reliefs, or other raised work, whether in metal, marble, or
+ivory. When such sculptures or chasings are incised or sunk, they are
+called INTAGLIOS or DIAGLYPHS (q.v.). According to St. Clement of
+Alexandria, anaglyphs were employed by the Egyptians when they wished to
+hand down a panegyric of any king under the form of a religious myth.
+Although the words of St. Clement are very obscure, and have furnished
+materials for countless discussions, it is now admitted that the
+anaglyphs in question belong to the group of hieroglyphics which may be
+deciphered on the cartouches of the Pharaohs, and in which we have, in
+fact, panegyrics of the Egyptian kings veiled in religious myths. The
+Egyptians also gave the name of anaglyphs to a kind of secret writing,
+understood only by the initiated; even at the present day it remains
+undecipherable, owing to our imperfect knowledge of Egyptian mythology.
+(See CÆLATURA.)
+
+=Anagogia.= A festival at Eryx, in Sicily, in honour of Aphrodite.
+
+=Analemma=, Gr. and R. (ἀνάλημμα). Any raised construction which serves
+for a support or rest, and more particularly a pier, wall, or buttress.
+(2) The pedestal of a sun-dial, and so the sun-dial itself.
+
+=Anancœum=, R. A drinking-cup of great capacity, the form of which is
+unknown. If we may credit Varro it was sometimes richly chased.
+
+=Anankaion=, Gr. (ἀναγκαῖον, from ἀνάγκη, restraint). A kind of prison
+the purpose of which is not exactly known. According to some
+archæologists it was a private prison for slaves, or for freedmen, who,
+from some fault, were reduced to servitude again; others assert that it
+was a public prison.
+
+=Anapiesma=, Gr. and R. (ἀνα-πίεσμα, that which is pressed back). An
+appliance used in ancient theatres. It was a kind of trap-door by means
+of which deities were raised from beneath the stage so as to make them
+visible to the spectators. The _proscenium_ contained a certain number
+of these trap-doors; one of them, leading from the orchestra to the
+front of the stage, enabled the Furies to appear; by another, marine
+deities made their appearance; while that through which passed the
+shades who ascended Charon’s staircase was called _Charon’s anapiesma_.
+
+=Anastatic.= An ingenious modern process of reproducing copies of
+printed matter, engravings, ink drawings, &c., by transferring them to a
+sheet of polished zinc.
+
+=Anathēma=, Chr. (ἀνάθημα, an offering). Anything offered up in churches
+by the faithful; as, for instance, vases and other utensils for
+sacrifice, altar ornaments, &c.
+
+=Anathĕma=, Chr. The greater excommunication, answering to the Hebrew
+_cherem_.
+
+=Anchor.= In Christian Art, the emblem of Hope. The attribute of S.
+Clement, the Pope, who was bound to an anchor, and thrown into the sea.
+(See ANCORA.)
+
+=Ancile=, R. A shield of the shape of a violin case. It was the sacred
+shield which, according to tradition, had fallen from heaven into the
+palace of Numa. It occurs frequently on medals, especially those of
+Augustus. The two incavations of the shield were more or less deep, and
+usually semicircular. But Ovid describes it as of an entirely different
+shape, being cut evenly all round; _Idque ancile vocat, quod ab omni
+parte recisum est_ (Ovid, Fast. iii. 377). The SALII, or twelve priests
+of Mars Gradivus, had twelve such shields. The form was oval, with the
+two sides curving evenly inwards, so as to make it broader at the ends
+than in the middle. They used to beat their shields and dance.
+
+=Anclabris=, Gr. and R. A small table used instead of an altar at
+sacrifices; it was slightly concave, so as to adapt it to hold the
+entrails of the victim for the inspection of the diviners. (See ALTAR.)
+
+=Ancon=, Gr. and R. (αγκων). A term admitting various meanings, (1) A
+small console on each side of a door supporting an ornamental cornice.
+(2) The arm of a chair or arm-chair. (3) A cramp of wood or metal
+serving to connect together courses of masonry or blocks of stone. (4)
+The prongs or forks at the end of the props employed by hunters to hang
+their nets upon. (5) An earthenware vessel used in Roman taverns for
+holding wine. According to the etymology of the word which in Greek
+signifies hollow or elbow, this bottle must have been shaped like a
+retort. (6) The arms or branches of the square used by carpenters and
+stone masons, which form an angle similar to that formed by the bent
+arm.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 21. Roman anchor, from a bas-relief.]
+
+=Ancora=, Gr. and R. (ἀγκύρα, from ἄγκος, a bend). An anchor or piece of
+iron used to stop a ship. Like those now in use, the ancient anchors
+were generally furnished with two flukes or arms, but sometimes they had
+only one. In the latter case they were called _terostomos_, a term
+corresponding to our modern blind anchor. A bas-relief on the column of
+Trajan represents an anchor placed at the bow of the vessel. In
+Christian archæology the anchor is a symbol of hope; an anchor is
+frequently met with, among Christian symbols, associated with a fish;
+the emblem of the Saviour (See ACROSTIC).
+
+=Ancorale=, Gr. and R. Literally the cable of an anchor, and then the
+buoy-rope, or even the buoy itself. The ancient anchors had a ring at
+the end of the shank to which the buoy-rope was attached. The latter
+served not only to indicate the place where the anchor lay, but also to
+drag the flukes out of the ground when the anchor was raised.
+
+=Andiron.= Iron standards with bars for supporting logs of wood fires,
+frequently richly ornamented, and sometimes made partly of silver.
+
+=Andriantes=, Gr. (ἀνδριάντες, images of men). Statues set up by the
+Greeks in honour of the victors in the public games. This custom dated
+from 50 Olym., or 584 B.C.
+
+=Androgeonia.= An Athenian annual festival, in honour of Androgeus, the
+son of Minos.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 22. Plan of a Greek house, showing the andron.]
+
+=Andron=, =Andronitis=, Gr. and Gr.-R. (ἀνδρὼν, from ἀνὴρ, a man). That
+part of the Greek or Græco-Roman house exclusively set apart for men.
+Fig. 22 represents the ground-plan of a Greek house; the _andron_
+occupies all that part of the building which surrounds the open court,
+and consists of the apartments numbered 1 to 9. The Romans applied the
+term simply to a passage separating a house or part of a house from
+another.
+
+=Anelace=, O. E. A knife or dagger worn at the girdle; broad, two-edged
+and sharp.
+
+               “An _anelace_ and a gipciere all of silk,
+               Hung at his girdle, white as morwe milk.”
+                 (CHAUCER, _Canterbury Tales_.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 23. Angel of the reign of Elizabeth.]
+
+=Angel.= A gold coin current in England and France in the 15th and 16th
+centuries. It derived its name from the figure of an angel stamped upon
+it. A similar coin, either of gold or silver, was current in France at
+various periods. From the time of Louis IX. to that of Louis XI., the
+gold angel was equal in value to a crown of fine gold, or a little more
+than fourteen francs. It was stamped with a figure of St. Michael,
+holding in his right hand a sword, and in his left a shield with three
+fleur-de-lys. Henry VI., king of England, when he was in possession of
+Paris, had a gold angel struck which was not above seven francs in
+value. It was stamped with the figure of an angel holding in his hand
+the shields of France and England. The same king also had a silver angel
+struck which was only worth about five and a half francs.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 24. Arms of France with Angels as supporters. XIV.
+century.]
+
+=Angels=, (Gr. ἄγγελος, a messenger) in Christian Art are represented in
+nine degrees, which are divided into three categories. The first
+consists of Seraphim, Cherubim, and Thrones; the second of Dominations,
+Virtues, Powers; and the third of Princedoms, Archangels, and Angels.
+They are represented as young, to show their continued strength; winged
+as messengers of speed; barefooted and girt to show their readiness; in
+robes of white indicative of purity, or in cloth of gold for their
+glory; the cloth of gold diapered with bands of precious stones; the
+emerald, emblem of _unfading youth_; the crystal, of _purity_; the
+sapphire, of _celestial contemplation_; and the ruby, of _divine love_.
+During the renaissance, Pugin complains, “the edifying and traditional
+representations of angelic spirits were abandoned, and, in lieu of the
+albe of purity and golden vests of glory, the artists indulged in pretty
+cupids sporting in clouds, &c.” The proper attributes of the angels are
+trumpets, for the _voice of God_; flaming swords, for the _wrath of
+God_; sceptres, for the _power of God_; thuribles or censers for the
+_prayers of saints_, and musical instruments to emblem their _felicity_.
+
+=Angiportus= or =Angiportum=, R. A narrow road passing between two
+houses or rows of houses, or an alley leading to a single house.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 25. Point d’Angleterre.]
+
+=Angleterre, Point d’.= Lace made by Flemish makers who were invited to
+settle in England in the reign of Charles II., the English Parliament
+having passed an act prohibiting the importation of all foreign lace.
+England, however, could not produce the necessary flax, and the lace was
+of inferior quality. The merchants of the time remedied this by
+smuggling large quantities of lace from the Brussels market, selling it
+as English Point or Point d’Angleterre, by which latter name it is still
+known, effacing the old name “Point de Bruxelles.” (Fig. 25.)
+
+=Anglicanum Opus.= (See EMBROIDERY.)
+
+=Angones.= French weapons of the Middle Ages furnished with three
+blades, one of which was straight, broad and keen, the remaining two
+curving outwards. Some angons have a lozenge-shaped head-blade. They
+were used as a kind of pike, and sometimes hurled like javelins. The
+latter kind somewhat resembled the _aclis_.
+
+=Anguilla=, R. A whip made use of by Roman schoolmasters for punishing
+their scholars. It was so called because made from the skin of an eel
+(_anguis_).
+
+=Anguis=, R. A serpent which among the Romans symbolized the local
+spirit (_genius loci_). Serpents were painted upon a wall to deter the
+public from defiling the spot thus indicated. At Pompeii these
+representations of serpents are found in the bakehouses, kitchens, and
+similar places where cleanliness is peculiarly desirable. The same term
+was applied to a military ensign in the shape of a serpent.
+
+=Anime.= Gum anime is a resin, which is mixed with copal in making
+varnish, causing it to dry quickly and firmly.
+
+=Animosi of Milan.= One of the Italian literary academies. Their device
+was “stags passing a river, resting on the heads of each other.” Motto,
+“Dant animos vices.” (Mutual help gives strength.)
+
+=Anklets=, Gr. (See PERISCELIS.)
+
+=Annealing.= The process of tempering brittle glass and metals by heat.
+
+=Annulet=, Her. A plain ring, or false roundle.
+
+=Annulets=, Arch. The rings or mouldings about the lower part of the
+echinos or ovolo of Doric capitals.
+
+=Annulus= or =Anulus=, Gr. and R. (dimin. of _anus_, a ring). A
+finger-ring. They were originally made of iron, and used as a signet for
+sealing. Later on they were made of gold. Among the Greeks and Romans
+they were worn on the fourth finger of the left hand, whence the
+expression _sedere ad anulos alicui_, to be seated at any one’s left
+hand. The _anulus bigemmis_ was a ring set with two precious stones;
+_anulus velaris_ was a curtain ring. A plait of hair arranged in circles
+round the back of the head was also called _anulus_. In architecture the
+term was formerly employed instead of _anulet_. The stone most
+frequently used for rings was the onyx, upon which devices were carved
+with wonderful skill. The _bezel_, or part of the ring which contained
+the gem, was called PALA. (See RINGS.)
+
+=Ansa=, Gr. and R. A term signifying both haft and handle, and even
+eyelet or hole. Any vessel or vase which has large ears or circular
+handles on the neck or body, is said to be furnished with _ansæ_. _Ansa
+ostii_ was the term applied to the handle by which a door is pulled or
+shut to. The bronze or iron eyelet on the top of a steelyard were also
+called _ansæ stateræ_. The holes or eyelets made in the side leathers of
+a Greek or Roman shoe were called _ansæ crepidæ_; the handle of the
+rudder, _ansa gubernaculi_; lastly an iron cramp was called _ansa
+ferrea_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 26. Templum in antis.]
+
+=Antæ=, R. Square or rectangular pilasters supporting the walls of a
+temple, which was thence called _templum in antis_. (Fig. 26.) The
+_antæ_ thus formed the end of the walls of the _cella_. The capitals of
+_antæ_ and the friezes abutting on them were sometimes richly
+ornamented, as may be seen by referring to Fig. 27, which represents, in
+their restored state, the frieze and one of the antæ in the temple of
+Augustus, at Ancyra, in Galatia.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 27. Capital and frieze of one of the Antæ in the
+temple of Augustus.]
+
+=Antarius=, =Antarii funes=, R. Ropes employed for raising into the
+proper position any object of considerable weight, such as a column,
+mast, &c.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 29. Archaic Antefixa in terra-cotta.]
+
+=Antefixa.= Ornaments of terra-cotta which were placed above the
+cornice, at the end of each row of tiles on a roof (Fig. 29). They were
+also used in ancient times for decorating the ridge of a roof. We
+possess specimens of antefixa remarkable for delicacy of design and
+execution; such were the antefixa of the temple of Diana Propylæa at
+Eleusis, and the various Etruscan specimens to be found in our museums.
+They were decorated with masks, leaves, and especially palms painted to
+imitate nature or in different colours. The Etruscans employed coloured
+antefixa only; many specimens of these last may be seen at the Louvre,
+and in the museums of Perugia, Florence, and Naples. The Antefixa of the
+Parthenon were of marble. (Fig. 30.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 30. Antefixa in marble from the Parthenon.]
+
+=Antemural.= A term referring either to the outworks protecting the
+approach to a castle, or to the wall surrounding the castle.
+
+=Antenna=, R. The yard-arm of a ship.
+
+=Antepagmentum=, R. The jamb of a door. _Antepagmentum superius_, the
+lintel.
+
+=Antependium.= Richly ornamented hangings of precious metal, wood, or
+textile fabrics, in front of a Christian altar.
+
+=Anteportico.= A synonym of PORCH (q.v.); but little used.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 31. Anterides of the Cloaca Maxima at Rome.]
+
+=Anterides=, Gr. and R. (? ἀντερείδω, to stand firm). A structure
+employed to strengthen a weaker one. It consisted of a kind of buttress
+placed against an outer wall, chiefly in subterranean constructions,
+such as a sewer or aqueduct. Fig. 31 represents the _anterides_ of the
+Cloaca Maxima at Rome.
+
+=Anthony, Cross of St.=, in the form of the letter T. It is the
+idealized representation of a crutch. (See CROSSES.)
+
+=Anthropomorphic.= Man-shaped; said for example of the character of the
+Greek Religion, whose gods and demi-gods were only ideal men, from which
+circumstance the representation of the human form became the first
+object of their plastic art.
+
+=Antia.= The iron handle of a shield.
+
+=Antiæ=, R. The ringlets of hair worn by men and women which hung about
+the ears and the temples.
+
+=Antick.= Strange, irregular, or fantastic in composition.
+
+=Antilena=, R. An appliance attached to the pack-saddle of a beast of
+burden. It was a broad strap passing in front of the animal’s breast so
+as to prevent the saddle from slipping backwards. It was employed
+especially in mountainous districts.
+
+=Antimensium=, Chr. A consecrated altar cloth.
+
+=Antimony.= The oxide of this metal is employed in the preparation of
+yellow pigments for enamel or porcelain painting. Glass is coloured
+yellow by antimony. (See NAPLES, GUIMET’S YELLOWS.)
+
+=Antipendium=, Chr. (See ANTEPENDIUM.)
+
+=Antiphoner=, Chr. An antiphonarium; a book of responses set to music.
+
+=Antique.= Pertaining to ancient Greek or Roman art: more freely used in
+recent times to describe the quality of ancient art in general, but
+properly applicable only to classical art.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 32. Opus Antiquum.]
+
+=Antiquum Opus=, Arch. An ancient kind of stone-work or masonry composed
+of irregular stones. Another name for it was _opus incertum_.
+
+=Antiseptic varnish.= A glazing composed to protect vegetable or animal
+pigments.
+
+=Antitype.= The realization of the _type_.
+
+=Antonine Column.= One of the most valuable architectural monuments in
+Rome. It is a lofty pillar ornamented with a series of bas-reliefs
+extending spirally from the base to the summit, representing the
+victories of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus.
+
+=Anulus.= (See ANNULUS.)
+
+=Anvil.= In Christian art the attribute of St. Adrian, and of St. Eloy,
+the patron saint of the smiths.
+
+=Apalare=, R. A kitchen utensil; a sort of large metal spoon or ladle.
+
+=Ape.= In Christian art the emblem of malice and of lust. Common in
+illuminations of the penitential psalms, in allusion to David’s fall.
+
+=Apex=, R. (_apex_, the top). A piece of olive wood pointed at the end,
+and set in a flock of wool. It formed the head-dress of the _Flamines_
+and _Salii_. By analogy, the term was further used to denote a cap, and
+also the ridge on the top of a helmet to which the horsehair crest was
+attached.
+
+=Aphractus=, Gr. and R. (ἄφρακτον, lit. unguarded). A vessel without a
+deck, or only partly decked fore and aft.
+
+=Aphrodisia=, Gr. (Ἀφροδίσια). A general term under which were comprised
+all the festivals held in honour of Venus (_Aphroditè_).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 33. Aplustre and anchor of a Roman ship.—From
+bas-relief.]
+
+=Aplustre=, Gr. and R. (ἄφλαστον). An ornament placed at a ship’s stern.
+It was constructed of flexible wooden planks, in imitation of the
+feather of a bird’s wing.
+
+=Apobates=, Gr. (Lat. _Desultor_). One who dismounts. (1) Soldiers in
+chariots who leaped in and out in the fight. (2) The circus riders who
+leaped from one horse to another.
+
+=Apodyterium=, R. and Gr.-R. (from ἀπὸ δύω, to put off). In a general
+sense, an undressing-room, and more particularly the apartment in the
+baths where the bathers undressed. As little light penetrated from
+without, there was generally a lamp burning in a niche. An _apodyterium_
+such as that just described may still be seen at Pompeii.
+
+=Apollino=, It. The name usually given to the beautiful “Apollo of
+Florence,” attributed to Praxiteles.
+
+=Apophyge= or =Apophysis=, Arch. The small fascia or band at the top and
+base of the shaft of columns.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 34. Apostle Mug.]
+
+=Apostle Mug.= The mug or tankard shown in the engraving is of Nanconian
+or Nuremberg stone-ware, with figures of the twelve apostles enamelled
+in colours upon it. (Fig. 34.) APOSTLE SPOONS are well known to have
+received their names from the figures of the Apostles forming the
+handles.
+
+=Apostyls Coats=, O. E. Probably garments used for mystery plays.
+
+=Apotheca=, Gr. and R. (ἀποθήκη, a granary). A store-room or magazine
+for containing any kind of stock. The Romans also applied the term
+specially to a wine store-room situated in the upper part of the house;
+this was sometimes called the _fumarium_. Here the wine was placed in
+amphoræ to ripen it more quickly, whereas when stored in the _cella
+vinaria_, it was placed in CUPÆ and DOLIA (q.v.).
+
+=Apotheosis=, Gr. (ἀπὸ, θεὸς god, to deify). A deification; the ceremony
+by which a mortal was introduced among the number of the gods. The
+proper term in Latin is _consecratio_ (q.v.). The funeral pile, in such
+cases, was built several stories in height, and an eagle was let loose
+from the top storey, to carry the soul of the emperor from earth to
+heaven. This is commemorated upon the medals struck on the occasion,
+which represent an altar with a fire on it, from which an eagle ascends.
+
+=Apparel=, Chr. Embroidered additions to the vestments of the clergy.
+
+=Appaumée=, Her. Said of a _hand_, open, erect, and showing the palm.
+
+=Appianum=, Lat. Appian green, a pigment used by the ancients, prepared
+from green earth, now known as _Cyprus_ or _Verona green_, because the
+best is found at those places.
+
+=Apple.= The emblem in classical art of victory, and in Christian art of
+the fall of man.
+
+=Appliqué=, Fr. Applied ornament, as of metal or porcelain upon wood. In
+embroidery, Appliqué work is used, when a pattern cut out of one colour
+or stuff is applied, or laid on, to another.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 35. Apse of St. William in the Desert, a monastery
+in the South of France.—Built about A. D. 820.]
+
+=Apse=, =Apsis=, or =Chevet= (ἁψὶς, bow or vault). The termination of a
+church. It is generally of semicircular form, and surmounted by a
+demicupola, but there are instances of rectangular apses. Fig. 35
+represents the apse of St. William in the Desert. (See ABSIS.)
+
+=Apsis gradata=, Chr. The chair occupied by bishops in the early
+Christian basilicas.
+
+=Apteral=, Arch. Without wings. A temple without columns on the sides.
+
+=Aqua fortis= (nitric acid). Used by engravers and etchers for biting-in
+on copper and steel.
+
+=Aqua marina.= A transparent green stone, frequently used by the gem
+engravers of antiquity.
+
+=Aquæmanalis.= (See AQUIMINARIUM.)
+
+=Aquamanile=, Chr. The basin used for washing the hands of the celebrant
+in the liturgy. A. of great splendour are frequently mentioned in the
+ancient records. The corresponding ewer was called URCEUS.
+
+=Aqua-tint.= A method of engraving with the help of mastic. (_Consult_
+Fielding’s “Art of Engraving.”)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 36. Pont-du-Gard, a Roman aqueduct near Nismes.
+(_Restored_)]
+
+=Aqueduct=, Gen. (_aqua_, water, and _duco_, to lead). An artificial
+canal for conveying water from one point to another, and often to a
+considerable distance from the source. Many ancient nations have
+executed works of this description, but the Roman aqueducts are
+especially celebrated. The most perfect is that which still exists, in a
+ruined state, over the river Gard, near Nismes in the South of France,
+called _Pont-du-Gard_. (Fig. 36.) Aqueducts were often discharged into
+reservoirs.
+
+=Aquilæ=, R. The eagles, or ensigns, of the Roman legion under the
+Empire. They were of silver or bronze, and had the wings outstretched.
+As an architectural term _aquila_ denotes the triangular face formed by
+the tympanum of a pediment, because the latter was often ornamented with
+an eagle. (See ENSIGN.)
+
+=Aquiminarium=, R. An ewer for pouring water over the hands of the
+guests after a banquet. Other terms for this ewer were _aquæmanalis_ and
+_aquimanale_.
+
+=Ara=, R. The Latin term for ALTAR. (See this word and ALTARE.)
+
+=Arab Pottery.= (See GARGOULETTE.)
+
+=Arabesque=, Gen. An ornament of a pattern more or less intricate,
+composed of stems, foliage, leaves, fruits, scrolls, or leafage, as well
+as of curious and fantastic animals. It is an error to suppose that
+arabesque, as its name might seem to indicate, was an Arab invention; it
+was known to the Greeks and Romans, and was largely employed in
+Græco-Roman architecture.
+
+=Aræostylé=, Arch. An order of temples, in which the space between the
+columns is four diameters in width.
+
+=Arbalest.= (See CROSS-BOW.)
+
+=Arca=, R. (_arceo_, to enclose, preserve). (1) A kind of box or strong
+chest used by the ancients as a receptacle for money, clothes, or any
+valuable effects. (2) A strong box or money chest; (3) a rough chest
+used for a coffin; (4) a cage for criminals, made of oak; (5) a wooden
+caisson, answering the purpose of a modern coffer-dam.
+
+=Arcade.= A series of arches.
+
+=Arcadi.= A Literary Academy established at Rome in 1690. The members
+adopted pastoral names. Their device was a Pandæan pipe, surrounded by a
+wreath of olive and pine.
+
+=Arcatures=, Arch. A series of blind arcades represented on a wall, in
+relief or painting. Carved arcatures are those forming a kind of screen;
+they are detached from the wall, and have an inner and outer face.
+
+=Arcera=, R. A cart boarded all over so as to resemble a huge chest
+(_arca_). The inmate reclined on cushions and pillows covered with
+drapery; and the exterior was covered with hangings, the richness of
+which varied with the rank and fortune of the owner.
+
+=Arch= (_arcus_, a bow). A structure the form of which is based on the
+segment of a circle. The kinds of arches are named according to the
+curve which they make. _Round-headed arches_; semicircular, segmental or
+stilted, introduced by the Romans. _Triangular arches_, of very early
+date. _Horse-shoe arches_; the Moorish, the common horse-shoe and the
+pointed (which is also a Moorish form). Then the _trefoil arch_ of the
+Early English style: with its variations, including the square-headed
+trefoil of the 13th century. The _lancet_ or acute-pointed; the
+_equilateral_; the _pointed trefoil_; the _ogee_, of the 14th and 15th
+century; the _Tudor_ arch, of the reigns of Henry VII. and VIII.; and
+the decorative forms, not used in construction; the _flamboyant_, the
+_cinquefoil_ and the _multifoil_ are all described under the headings
+printed above in _Italics_.
+
+=Archaic= (art). The first period of Art is distinguished by stiffness
+and conventionality of treatment, directed much more to the symbolic
+representation of an idea than to beauty or true imitation. It is
+properly called also the _hieratic_ type, from its intimate relation to
+religious symbolism. See SELINUNTIAN; ÆGINETAN MARBLES.
+
+=Archangels.= The seven angels of the Christian hierarchy who stand in
+the presence of God. _St. Michael_, sometimes in complete armour, bears
+a sword and scales, as the Angel of Judgment, also a rod with a cross;
+_St. Raphael_ bears a fish, and a pilgrim’s staff and gourd; _St.
+Gabriel_ bears a lily; _Uriel_ carries a parchment roll and a book, as
+the interpreter of prophecies; _Chamuel_ bears a cup and a staff;
+_Zophiel_ a flaming sword; and _Zadchiel_ the sacrificial knife which he
+took from Abraham. The Archangels are generally represented with the
+nimbus, and clothed as princes and warriors; their ensign is a banner
+and cross, and they are armed with a sword and a dart in one hand.
+
+=Arched= or =Archy=, Her. Bent or bowed.
+
+=Arched-buttress= or =Flying Buttress=, Arch. An incomplete arch
+supporting the spandrels of a roof. It springs from a BUTTRESS (q.v.).
+
+=Archeria=, Med. Lat. A vertical loophole from which arrows could be
+discharged.
+
+=Archibault.= (See ARCHIVOLT.)
+
+=Architrave=, Gr. and R. (ἀρχὸς, chief; and Ital. _trave_, a beam). That
+part of a structure which rests immediately on the capital of a column
+or pilaster. Architraves are surmounted by a frieze and a cornice.
+
+=Archivium=, Gr. and R. A building in which archives (charters and
+records) of a city or state were deposited. It was also called ARCHEION
+or TABULARIUM (q.v.).
+
+=Archivolt= or =Archibault=, (_arcus_, and _volutus_, rolled round). The
+whole of the mouldings decorating an arch or arcade, and following the
+contour of the same.
+
+=Archlute=, old Eng. A kind of _theorbo_, or double-necked lute. 16th
+century.
+
+=Archy.= (See ARCHED.)
+
+=Arcosolium=, Chr. (_arcus_, and _solium_, a coffin). An arched or
+vaulted sepulchral chamber in the catacombs, sanctified by the interment
+of martyrs and holy persons; and in later generations often richly
+decorated, as with marble incrustations, paintings, and mosaics. The
+_arcosolia_ in which Christians of small means were buried are
+constructed in the walls of the passages in the catacombs. The wealthier
+Christians, however, had _arcosolia_ specially excavated for their
+family and friends; the following inscription is frequently found on
+them: _Nobis et nostris et amicis_.
+
+=Arcuatio=, R. A structure formed by means of arches or arcades, and
+employed to support a construction of any kind, such as a bridge,
+aqueducts, &c.
+
+=Arcubalista=, R. (βάλλω, to throw). A machine for hurling arrows,
+somewhat similar to a cross-bow.
+
+=Arcubus.= (See ARQUEBUS.)
+
+=Arcula=, R. Diminutive of ARCA (q.v.). (1) A small chest. (2) A
+colour-box used by encaustic painters. (3) A small sepulchre, or stone
+coffin.
+
+=Arculum=, R. A garland which the _Dialis_ (Priest of Jupiter) wore on
+his head while sacrificing; it consisted of one or two pomegranate
+boughs bent into a circle and fastened with fillets of white or red
+wool.
+
+=Arcuma=, R. A small carriage constructed to hold only one person. (See
+PLAUSTRUM, CHIRAMAXIUM, VEHICULUM.)
+
+=Arcus=, R. (1) A bow for discharging arrows. There were many kinds in
+use among the ancients. Those of the Greeks and Romans presented on the
+whole much analogy with each other, while the Scythian bow differed
+entirely from both. (2) An arch of masonry; the _arcus triumphalis_ was
+a triumphal arch. The Romans never used any other form of arch than the
+semicircle.
+
+=Ardenti.= Literary Academies of this name existed at Pisa, at Naples,
+and at Viterbo.
+
+=Area=, R. (1) Any broad, open and level space, and so a square or
+parade. _Areæ_ were adorned with fountains and statues set up in honour
+of some divinity, who frequently gave his name to the spot. Thus at Rome
+there were the _area Apollinis_, _area Mercurii_, &c. (2) A
+threshing-floor in a field.
+
+=Arena=, R. (1) Sand; a material employed in building. (2) The level
+space forming the area of an amphitheatre.
+
+=Arenaria=, R. A Roman game of ball for two persons; it derived its name
+from the fact that the ball was made to rebound from the ground
+(_arena_).
+
+=Areste.= A cloth of gold, elaborately figured, used for vestments. 13th
+century. It is not to be confounded with _arras_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 37. Arezzo vase.]
+
+=Arezzo Vase.= Many fine examples of old Etruscan pottery have been
+found in or near the town of Arezzo in Tuscany. They are of red lustred
+ware ornamented in relief, and show evident traces of Greek origin.
+(Fig. 37.)
+
+=Argei=, R. (1) Certain sites at Rome, having a small temple attached to
+them. (2) Images or lay-figures made of bulrushes, which were cast into
+the Tiber, on the Ides of May, from the Sublician bridge. This custom is
+still kept up in the south of France, where, in certain towns, on
+Ash-Wednesday, they drown an image called _Caramentran_ who represents
+the god of the carnival.
+
+=Argent=, Her. The metal silver, represented in engravings by a plain
+white.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 38. Point d’Argentan.]
+
+=Argentan, Point d’.= Lace made much in the same way as Point d’Alençon,
+but having the flowers bolder and larger in pattern and in higher
+relief; the foundation, called the bride-ground, is also coarser. It
+takes its name from the little town of Argentan in Normandy, where it
+was made. (Fig. 38.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 39. Argentella lace.]
+
+=Argentella.= A name given to a lace made in Genoa, but worked much like
+Point d’Alençon.
+
+=Argive.= A school of sculpture, contemporary with the ATTIC SCHOOL of
+Pheidias; of which Polycletus was the head. He was the author of the
+_Canon_, or law of proportion in sculpture, exemplified in his
+_Doryphorus_ (spear-bearer); he worked principally in bronze, and was
+famous for his chryselephantine statues. A specimen of the Argive school
+of sculpture is the _Discobolus_ of Myron (a contemporary of Polycletus)
+in the British Museum. It is an ancient copy in marble from the original
+bronze statue. Closeness to Nature is a distinguishing characteristic of
+the Argive School.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 40. Battering-ram.]
+
+=Aries= or =Ram=. A battering-ram. It consisted of a stout beam,
+furnished at one end with an iron head, shaped like that of a ram, and
+was used to batter the walls of a city till a breach was effected. The
+battering-ram was at first worked by men, who simply carried it in their
+arms, but in course of time it was suspended from a wooden tower (Fig.
+40), or a vertical beam, and worked with the aid of ropes. When the
+battering-ram was enclosed in a kind of wooden shed bearing some
+resemblance to the shell of a tortoise, it was called by the name of
+that animal (_testudo_) (Fig. 41).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 41. Battering-ram in _testudo_.]
+
+=Ark=, Chr. A symbol of the church.
+
+=Armanahuasi=, Peruv. The baths of the ancient Peruvians. They were
+remarkable for the elegance and luxury displayed in their ornamentation.
+They were furnished with magnificent fountains, some of which threw
+their jets upwards (_huraea_), others in a horizontal direction
+(_paccha_).
+
+=Armarium=, R. A cabinet, cupboard, or bookcase. Originally a place for
+keeping arms. Some were ornamented with plates of brass set in links of
+gold; others were made of gold inlaid with precious stones of various
+shapes. (See also ALMERY.)
+
+=Armatura=, R. (1) In a general sense, armour of every kind. Thus
+_armatura levis_ denoted the light infantry; and soldiers armed only
+with a _hasta_, and the dart, _gæsa_ (of Gallic invention) were called
+_leves milites_. (2) The art of fencing. (3) The pieces of iron or
+bronze which connect stones or the parts of a structure. (4) The iron
+framework in a window or casement.
+
+=Armed=, Her. Having natural weapons of offence, &c. A lion is _armed_
+of his claws and teeth, a bull of his horns, &c.
+
+=Armenian Green.= (See CHRYSOCOLLA.)
+
+=Armet=, Old Eng. A kind of helmet of the 16th century, worn with or
+without the _beaver_.
+
+=Armilausa=, Lat. A classical garment adopted in England and elsewhere,
+worn by knights over their armour. Strutt describes it as “a round
+curtal weed, which they called a cloak, and in Latin _armilausa_, as
+only covering the shoulders.”
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 42. Armilla. Celtic Bracelet.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 43. Armilla. Gaulish Bracelet.]
+
+=Armilla.= In general, any circlet of gold or silver which forms a
+bracelet for men or women, whether worn on the wrist, arm, or ankle.
+Bracelets worn by men often consisted of three or four massive bands of
+bronze, silver, or gold, and thus covered a considerable portion of the
+arm. Bracelets were worn by the Assyrians, the Babylonians, the Medes,
+the Persians, the Celts (Fig. 42), and the Gauls (Fig. 43). The
+Egyptians in some instances employed ivory and porcelain in their
+manufacture.
+
+=Armillum=, R. A kind of _urceolus_, or small pitcher for holding a
+particular kind of wine. It was among the number of the sacrificial
+vessels, and was well known from the Latin proverb: _Anus ad armillum_
+(an old woman returns to her bottle).
+
+=Armilustrium.= A Roman festival for the purification of arms.
+
+=Arming Points.= The “points” or ties of armour.
+
+=Armins.= Cloth or velvet coverings for pikehandles.
+
+=Armory=, Her. (1) Heraldry. (2) A list of names and titles with the
+arms belonging to them.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 44. Primitive Roman Armour.]
+
+=Armour=, =Arms=. In almost every deposit where _prehistoric_ remains
+are buried, we find clubs, hatchets, arrows, hammers, or other arms,
+mostly, even in the _stone age_, carefully ornamented. The ancient
+_Egyptians_ were armed with “the bow, spear, two species of javelin,
+sling, a short and straight sword, dagger, knife, falchion, axe or
+hatchet, battle-axe, pole-axe, mace or club, &c. Their defensive arms
+consisted of a helmet of plate, or quilted head-piece, a cuirass, or
+coat of armour made of metal plates, or quilted with metal bands, and an
+ample shield” (_Wilkinson_). Among the Greeks, the heavy-armed warrior
+wore the greaves, cuirass, with the mitra underneath, and the zone or
+cingulum above; his sword, ensis or gladius, hung on his left side, and
+the large round shield, sacus, aspis, clipeus or scutum, hung from his
+shoulder; his helmet, corys, cunea, cassis or galea; his spear, enkus,
+doru or hasta, or two spears. The defensive armour, the shield and
+thorax, were called hopla, and the man hoplites. The light-armed,
+psiloi, anoploi, gymnai, gymnetai, had a slighter covering of skins, or
+cloth, and fought with darts, stones, bows and arrows or slings. There
+were also the peltastæ, so called from their small shield pelte. All the
+above-mentioned parts of classical armour, and their modifications in
+that of mediæval times are described under their respective headings; as
+well as much of mediæval armour.
+
+=Arnis=, Gr. and R. An expiatory festival held in honour of Linus and
+his mother Psamathê, the daughter of Crotopus, king of Argos. Various
+legends are extant regarding the origin of this festival, which was
+called _Arnis_ from the sheep (ἀρνειὸς) that were sacrificed.
+
+=Arotoi-Hieroi=, Gr. Literally: _sacred labours_, a term used to denote
+three agricultural festivals which took place in Attica; the first was
+held in commemoration of the first sowing; the second, on occasion of
+reaping the earliest crop of barley in a field near Eleusis; the third,
+by way of invoking the blessings of Ceres on the field of corn specially
+set apart for the worship of Athena.
+
+=Arquebus.= A hand-gun, larger than a musket. The man using it was
+called an _arquebusier_.
+
+=Arra= or =Arrha=, R. A deposit, or earnest-money to a contract.
+
+=Arras.= Tapestry. Textile hangings for walls; first made at Arras in
+the 14th century. It was originally called Opus Saracenicum.
+
+=Arrhæ Sponsalitiæ=, called also ARRABO, was the name of the betrothal
+money paid to the parents of a bride; a practice of the Hebrews,
+continued by Christians.
+
+=Arrhephoria=, Gr. (Ἀρρηφόρια). A festival held at Athens in the month
+of June or _Scirophorium_. The maidens who took part in it were called
+ἑροηφόροι or ἑροηφόροι. Four little girls and a priestess carried some
+sacred vessels to a grotto.
+
+=Arricciate=, Ital. One of the coats of mortar laid on to a wall to
+receive fresco-painting.
+
+=Arrondie=, Her. Curved, round.
+
+=Arrows=, in Christian art, are the emblems of pestilence, death, and
+destruction.
+
+=Arsenicon=, Greek for _orpiment_ (q.v.).
+
+=Artemisia=, Gr. A general term to denote all the festivals of _Diana
+Artemis_. The most celebrated were those held at Ephesus, Delphi, and
+Syracuse.
+
+=Articulation.= The anatomical study of the juncture of the bones.
+
+=Artolaganus=, R. (ἀρτο-λάγανον, i. e. bread-cake). A kind of dough-cake
+made with wine, milk, oil, and pepper. Cicero, in one of his letters,
+asserts that it was delicious.
+
+=Artophorium= (bread-bearer), Chr. Another name for the ciborium or
+costly box prepared to contain the consecrated Host.
+
+=Artopta=, Gr. and R. (from ἀρτάω, to bake). A mould in which bread and
+pastry were baked.
+
+=Artopticius=, R. (sc. _parús_). A roll or loaf of bread baked in an
+_artopta_, many examples of which may be seen in the small museum at
+Pompeii; owing to their having become hardened, these loaves have
+retained their shape perfectly when taken from the oven after eighteen
+centuries.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 45. Arundel device.]
+
+=Arundel Device.= A chapeau _or_, and _gules_, surmounted by a fret
+_or_, and an acorn leaved _vert_. This is only one of the numerous
+badges of the house of Arundel, which is peculiarly rich in armorial
+bearings.
+
+=Arundel Marbles.= A collection of ancient sculptures found in Greece
+and Asia Minor in the early part of the 17th century and brought to
+England at the expense of Thomas Howard, Earl of Arundel. In 1667 his
+grandson presented them to the University of Oxford.
+
+=Arundo=, R. A term with various significations. (1) A reed or cane. (2)
+An arrow or bow made of cane. (3) A fishing-rod. (4) A cane rod tipped
+with bird-lime for catching birds. (5) A reed pen for writing. (6) A
+Pan’s pipe in which the reeds were joined together by wax; whence its
+name _arundo cerata_. (See CALAMUS.)
+
+=Arx=, R. (_arceo_, to enclose). A citadel or fortress. _Arx_ is almost
+equivalent to ACROPOLIS (q.v.), since citadels were usually built on
+elevated sites, thus forming an upper city (ἀκρόπολις).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 46. Greek Aryballos.]
+
+=Aryballos.= A Greek flask or vase used for oil or wine. It was commonly
+of a bladder shape with a thin neck. The example engraved (Fig. 46) is
+painted in the Asiatic style. On some of these vases the ornament is
+engraved.
+
+=Arystichos=, Gr. and R. (from ἀρύω, to draw water). A vessel for
+drawing water, especially from the AMPHORA (q.v.). It was also called
+_ephebos_ (ἔφηβος), because, at banquets, it was the duty of youths to
+mix the wine with water before handing it to the guests. This term has
+as synonyms _aruter_, _arusane_, _arustis_ and _oinerusis_.
+
+=Arzica.= (1) An artificial pigment of a yellow colour, used for
+miniature painting. (2) A yellow lake made from the herb “reseda
+luteola.” (3) A yellow earth for painting, of which the moulds for
+casting brass are formed; it yields an ochreous pigment of a pale yellow
+colour, which, when burned, changes to an orange colour.
+
+=Arzicon.= A contraction of _Arsenicon_, for _orpiment_ (q.v.).
+
+=As=, R. The unit of value in the bronze currency of the Romans.
+Originally the _as_ weighed one pound, whence its name _as liberalis_;
+and as it was composed of a mixture of copper and tin (_æs_), it was
+also called _æs grave_. At a later period the _as_ had much declined in
+value; under Augustus it was only worth somewhat less than a penny.
+
+=Asaminthos=, Gr. (ἀσάμινθος). A large vase of the Homeric epoch, large
+enough to admit of a person bathing in it. It is supposed that this was
+the _tub_ of Diogenes.
+
+=Asbestus.= (See AMIANTUS.)
+
+=Ascendant=, Her. Issuing upwards, as a flower.
+
+=Ascia=, Gr. and R. A term applied to instruments of various shapes and
+employed for different purposes, but all bearing a general resemblance
+to a carpenter’s adze. The expression _sub ascia dedicavit_, which is
+frequently found engraved on tombs together with the representation of
+an _ascia_, has given rise to numerous interpretations. It is supposed
+that this expression signified: This tomb [never before used] has been
+dedicated to the memory of the person in whose honour it was erected; or
+possibly the formula implied that the plot upon which the memorial stood
+had been granted in perpetuity. After all the discussion to which the
+formula has given rise, these are the two hypotheses most generally
+accepted. (See ACISCULUS.)
+
+=Ascopera=, Gr. and R. (ἀσκὸς, leathern bag or wine-skin; πήρα, a
+pouch). A large bag made of undressed leather, carried as knapsack by
+foot-travellers, and thus distinguished from the HIPPOPERA (q.v.).
+
+=Ascolia=, =Ascolias=, Gr. and R. (from ἀσκὸς, a wine-skin). An Athenian
+game which consisted in leaping upon a wine-skin, filled with wine and
+greased over with oil, during the festivals in honour of Dionysus.
+
+=Ashlar=, =Achelor=, &c.; also ASTLER or ESTLAR, O. E. Hewn stone for
+the facings of walls. “Clene hewen Ashler.”
+
+=Asilla=, R. A yoke, like a milkman’s, or the Malay _picol_, for
+carrying burdens; is a common object in Egyptian and all other ancient
+representations of domestic appliances.
+
+=Asinarii.= A term of reproach inherited by the early Christians from
+the Jews, who were accused of worshipping an ass.
+
+=Askos=, Gr. and R. (ἀσκός). A vessel, originally shaped like a leather
+bottle (_uter_) for holding water or wine. It was furnished with a
+handle at the top, and had sometimes two mouths, one of which served to
+fill, the other to empty it. Later on, the _askos_ assumed the form of
+an earthenware pitcher.
+
+=Asor=, Heb. A musical instrument of ten strings played with the
+plectrum.
+
+=Asp.= In Egyptian art the emblem of royalty; in Christian art, under
+the feet of saints, of conquered malice.
+
+=Aspectant=, Her. Looking at one another.
+
+=Asperges=, =Aspergillum=, Chr. The rod for sprinkling holy water.
+
+=Aspersed=, Her. Scattered over,—the same as Semée.
+
+=Aspersorium=, Chr. The stoup, or holy water basin.
+
+=Asphaltum.= A brown carbonaceous pigment used in painting. It is found
+in various parts of the world, more particularly in Egypt, China,
+Naples, and Trinidad. The best is the Egyptian. (See BITUMEN, MUMMY.)
+
+=Aspic.= (See OIL OF SPIKE.)
+
+=Ass=, Chr. An emblem of patience and sobriety; but also of idleness and
+obstinacy; sometimes of the Jewish nation.
+
+=Ass, Festival of the.= A grotesque Christian festival of the Middle
+Ages, connected with the prominence of the ass in religious history.
+
+=Asser=, R. (1) A beam, pole, or joist. (2) The rafters of a wooden
+roof. (3) _Asser falcatus_ was a kind of ram which was launched, with
+the aid of machinery, by the garrison of a fortified town, against the
+enemy’s siege works.
+
+=Assett=, O. E. A salver.
+
+=Assommoir=, Fr. A sort of gallery built over a door or passage of a
+fortified place, from which stones, lead, and other heavy objects could
+be hurled down to _overwhelm_ (_assommer_) the besiegers. Hence the
+name.
+
+=Asterisk=, Chr. Sometimes called STELLULA. A kind of crossed framework
+made of gold or silver, consisting of two arched bands which are
+sometimes surmounted, at the point of intersection, by a cross. The
+asterisk is placed upon the patera for the purpose of keeping up the
+cloth which covers the consecrated wafers of the host.
+
+=Astler.= (See ASHLAR.)
+
+=Astragal= (ἀστράγαλος, knuckle-bone). A small semicircular moulding, so
+called from its resemblance to a row of knuckle-bones placed side by
+side. As it is decorated with beads, or berries of laurel or olive,
+separated by discs, it is now commonly known as a _chaplet_. Astragals
+are placed at the top of a column, beneath the capital, and divide the
+architrave into two or three parts. They are also used to decorate any
+kind of base. (See TORUS.)
+
+=Astragalus=, R. The ancient game of knuckle-bones; a common subject in
+classical sculpture, called also TALI.
+
+=Astreated=, Arch. Star-shaped ornaments, used in Norman mouldings.
+
+=Asylum=, Gr. and R. (ἄ-συλον, safe from violence). A place of refuge,
+to which was attached the privilege of inviolability called _asulia_.
+This privilege belonged to certain temples, woods, or other sacred
+enclosures. There were a considerable number of such retreats in Greece
+and the Greek colonies.
+
+=At Gaze=, Her. Said of animals of the chase “standing still and looking
+about them.”
+
+=Atach-gah=, Pers. The fire-altar of the ancient Persians; mentioned in
+the writings of Pausanias and Strabo.
+
+=Atellanæ= (sc. _fabulæ_), R. A farce, so called from its having
+originated in _Atella_, a city of the Osci, in Campania. Hence the name
+of Oscan games (_ludi Osci_). _Atellanæ_ were played by youths of good
+family, on the conclusion of a tragedy. They were introduced into Rome
+in the fourth century B.C. These farces were distinguished by their
+refinement, and freedom from low buffoonery.
+
+=Athenæum.= A university for literary and scientific studies at Rome, on
+the Capitoline Hill.
+
+=Athyr=, Egyp. One of the months of the ancient Egyptians. It was the
+third of the four months called the months of inundation.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 47. One of the Atlantes of the Theatre of Bacchus at
+Athens.]
+
+=Atlantes=, Gr. and R. (from τλῆναι). Human figures so called, in
+allusion to the story of the Titan Atlas, which were employed instead of
+columns to support entablatures (Fig. 47). The Latin equivalent for the
+term is TELAMONES. Similar _female_ figures were CARYATIDES.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 48. Atlas, a device used by Philip II. of Spain.]
+
+=Atlas.= One of the several devices adopted by Philip II. of Spain was a
+figure of Hercules bearing on his shoulders and kneeling beneath, the
+weight of the world; a feat recorded to have been performed by him in
+order to give relief to Atlas from his customary burden. The motto “Ut
+quiescat Atlas,” is written on a ribbon.
+
+=Atramentale=, =Atramentarium=, Gr. and R. (_atramentum_, q.v.). An
+inkstand, of any shape or material whatsoever. Inkstands were made of
+terra-cotta, bronze, and silver. There is a Pompeian painting in which a
+_double_ inkstand is represented, one side of which contains black ink,
+the other an ink of some different colour. There were also portable
+inkstands called _theca_. (See THECA.)
+
+=Atramentum=, Gr. and R. (_ater_, black). A general term to denote any
+kind of black liquid; such were _atramentum scriptorum_, _atramentum
+librarium_, or simply _atramentum_—all terms for writing ink;
+_atramentum sutorum_, the black used by shoemakers for dyeing their
+leather, another name for which was _chalcamentum_ (q.v.); and
+_atramentum tectorium_, a kind of ink used for writing inscriptions with
+a brush. In ancient times, all descriptions of ink were made with soot
+and gum, forming a kind of Indian ink which was diluted with water.
+Vitruvius (Book VII.) thus describes the process by which _atramentum_
+was obtained: “Soot is first procured by burning rosin in a vaulted
+chamber, and the black (_atramentum_) thus obtained is then mixed with
+gum.”
+
+=Atriolum=, R. (dimin. of _Atrium_). (1) A small atrium. It might be
+either a smaller atrium adjoining the principal one in a house, or the
+atrium of a dwelling of inferior size. (2) A small antechamber forming
+the entrance of a tomb.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 49. Atrium, with Ionic columns.]
+
+=Atrium=, R. and Mod. A term perhaps derived from _Atria_, a city of
+Tuscany in which structures of this description were first built. It
+consisted of a kind of covered court (_cavædium_), round which were
+grouped the different apartments of the house. In the centre of the roof
+was an aperture with sloping sides called the _compluvium_, and in the
+court beneath, a basin which collected the rain-water from the roof.
+This was called the _impluvium_. There were besides, the _atrium
+displuviatum_ and the _atrium testudinatum_. The atrium was
+unquestionably the most essential and the most interesting part of a
+Roman mansion; it was here that numbers assembled daily to pay their
+respects to their patron, to consult the legislator, to attract the
+notice of the statesman, or to derive importance in the eyes of the
+public from an apparent intimacy with a man in power.—_Moule._
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 50. Atrium, with Doric columns.]
+
+During the Middle Ages the term _atrium_ was used to denote the open
+plot of ground surrounding a church, which served for a cemetery, and
+the close or courtyard of certain churches.
+
+=Attegia=, R. A hut or cabin made of reeds, and covered with thatch.
+
+=Attic-order=, Arch. An arrangement of low pilasters, surmounting a
+building.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 51. Atticurge doorway at Agrigentum.]
+
+=Atticurge=, Arch. (Ἀττικουργὴς, wrought in Attic fashion). A doorway,
+the uprights of which, instead of being perpendicular, inclined slightly
+inwards, so that the opening was wider at the threshold than immediately
+under the lintel. Fig. 51 represents the doorway of an ancient monument
+at Agrigentum, in Sicily.
+
+=Attires=, =Attired=, Her. The antlers of a stag or “hart” having
+antlers.
+
+=Attributes.= Conventional symbols of the character, or the agency, or
+the history, of subjects of art representation.
+
+=Auditorium=, R. (a place for hearing). A lecture-room, assembly-room,
+court of justice, or generally any place in which orators, poets. &c.,
+were heard. The BASILICÆ contained halls so named, in which courts of
+justice were held.
+
+=Augmentation=, Her. An honourable addition to a coat of arms.
+
+=Augurale=, R. (_augur_, a soothsayer). In a Roman camp the _augurale_
+was a place situated to the right of the general’s tent or PRÆTORIUM
+(q.v.). It was so called because the augurs there took their station to
+observe the flight of birds. In Greece, the _oracles_ were consulted;
+but in Rome questions were addressed to Jupiter, who answered simply
+“_Do_” or “_Do not_,” by his messengers the birds. They gave no
+prophecies.
+
+=Augustine’s Oak=, at Aust on the Severn; the scene of the conference
+between St. Augustine and the British bishops, A. D. 602.
+
+=Aula=, Gr. and R. (αὐλή). (1) An open court attached to a house. It was
+usually in front, and on either side of it were the stables and offices.
+When it belonged to a farm it was round this courtyard that the
+stabling, sheepfolds, and other outhouses were arranged. (2) _Aula
+regia_ was the central part of the scene in a Greek or Roman theatre.
+
+=Aulæa= or =Aulæum=, R. (_aula_, a hall). (1) Hangings or tapestry used
+to decorate the dining-room or _triclinium_, or generally, any piece of
+tapestry used as a curtain, whether to cover a doorway, act as a screen,
+or hide the stage in a theatre. (2) The covering of a sofa or
+dining-couch, also called, from the way in which it hung all round it,
+_peristroma_ (περίστρωμα). Aulæa is almost synonymous with VELUM (q.v.).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 52. Aulmonière.]
+
+=Aulmonière.= The Norman name for the pouch, bag, or purse appended to
+the girdle of noble persons, and derived from the same root as “alms”
+and “almoner.” It was more or less ornamented and hung from long laces
+of silk or gold; it was sometimes called Alner. (Fig. 52.) (See
+ALLOUYÈRE.)
+
+                   I will give thee an _alner_
+                   Made of silk and gold clear.
+                             (_Lay of Sir Launfal._)
+
+=Aulos=, Gr. The Greeks gave this name to all wind instruments of the
+_flute_, or _oboe_, kind; it was not blown at the side like a flute, but
+by a vibrating reed in the mouthpiece, like a clarionet. The single
+flute was called _monaulos_, and the double one _diaulos_.
+
+=Aumbrie=, =Aumery=, =Almery=, O. E. A cupboard or closet.
+
+=Aumery of Here=, O. E. A cupboard with hair-cloth sides for
+ventilation. A meat-safe.
+
+=Aureola=, Chr. (_aurum_, gold). A quadrangular, circular, or elliptic
+halo surrounding the bodies of Christ, the Virgin, or certain saints.
+Another name for this ornament is the _mystical almond_ or VESICA PISCIS
+(q.v.). When it envelopes the head only it is called the NIMBUS.
+
+=Aureole.= (See AUREOLA.)
+
+=Aureus=, R. (sc. nummus, golden). The unit of value for gold currency
+under the Roman emperors, worth about a guinea.
+
+=Auripetrum.= A cheap imitation of gold leaf; made of tinfoil coloured
+with saffron.
+
+=Auspicium=, R. (_aves aspicio_). Divination from observation of the
+flight of birds. (_Auspicium ex avibus_, _signa ex avibus_.) There was
+also the _auspicium cœleste_ or _signa ex cœlo_, of which the most
+important was a flash of lightning from a clear sky. Besides these there
+were the _auspicia pullaria_, or auspices taken from the sacred
+chickens; the _auspicia pedestria_, _caduca_, &c. (See AUGURALE.)
+
+=Authepsa=, Gr. and R. (αὐθέψης). Literally a _self-boiler_; it was a
+sort of kettle or cauldron, which was exposed to the rays of the sun, to
+heat the water within it; whether, however, the ancients had attained
+the art of raising water to boiling heat, in this manner, it is
+impossible to say. The apparatus is mentioned by Cicero and Lampridius,
+but neither of them gives any description of it.
+
+=Avellane.= A variety of the heraldic cross. (See CROSSES.)
+
+=Avena=, R. (oats). A Pandæan pipe, made of the stalk of the wild oat.
+
+=Aventail=, Fr. (_avant taille_). The movable front of a helmet.
+
+=Aventurine.= A kind of brown glass, mixed with bright copper filings,
+formerly made at Venice.
+
+=Averta=, R. A trunk, bag, or portmanteau, carried on the crupper by
+travellers who rode on horseback.
+
+=Aviarium=, R. (_avis_, a bird). (1) A poultry-yard. (2) An aviary in
+which birds—and more particularly those of rare breeds—were kept.
+
+=Axis=, R. (1) The axle-tree of a carriage. (2) _Axis versatilis_ was a
+cylinder worked by a crank, and used for drawing water from a well by
+means of a cord which rolled round it as it revolved. (3) The upright
+pivot upon which a door turned. It worked in two sockets, placed
+respectively in the upper and lower lintels.
+
+=Azarcon.= The Spanish name for red lead.
+
+=Azure.= A blue colour known from the very earliest times. Azure stone
+was the name given to the lapis lazuli. The name is given also to
+COBALT. In heraldry it is the name for the blues in the arms of persons
+whose rank is below that of a baron; it is represented in heraldic
+engraving by regular horizontal lines.
+
+=Azyme=, Chr. Unleavened bread.
+
+
+
+
+                                   B.
+
+
+=Baccalarii=, Med. Lat. A contraction of bas-chevaliers: poor knights;
+distinct from knights bannerets, who were also termed rich knights.
+
+=Baccelleria=, Med. Lat. The order of bachelors. Thus we read,
+
+                 “La flor de France et la bachelerie.”
+
+Bachelor or Bachelier has been derived from _bas échelle_, the lowest
+step of the ladder. (_Meyrick._)
+
+=Baccha=, Gr. and R. A Bacchante; a woman who celebrates the mysteries
+of Bacchus, in the temples of the god, or in the Bacchic orgies. In the
+numerous representations of Bacchantes which occur on monuments of
+ancient art, they carry the _thyrsus_ in their right hands, and wear a
+wreath of ivy or vine-leaves on their heads. They appear also in the
+disguise of Lenæ, Thyades, Naiads, Nymphs, &c.
+
+=Bacchanalia=, R. (Greek, _Dionysia_). Festivals held in honour of
+Dionysus or Bacchus.
+
+=Bacchos=, Gr. and R. A short, richly ornamented _thyrsus_, carried by
+the Mystæ, at Eleusis, on occasion of their being initiated in the
+mysteries. There was a proverb in Greece which said: “Many carry the
+_Bacchos_, but few are inspired by the gods.”
+
+=Bacillum= (dimin. of BACULUM, q.v.). A small wand, especially the
+lictor’s wand.
+
+=Backgammon=, originally called _table board_, is mentioned in a MS. of
+the 13th century. The name of _bag-gamon_ is first found in 1646.
+
+=Baculum=, =Baculus=, R. A general term to denote any kind of staff,
+except such as form the insignia of any rank or office, or are employed
+in certain professions.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 54. Badge of King Henry V. in his chantry in
+Westminster Abbey.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 53. Planta genista, or broom.]
+
+=Badges.= Small heraldic shields, worn by servants and others, showing,
+in embroidered cloth or silver, a figure or device; common also “in the
+furniture of houses, on robes of state, on the caparisons of horses, on
+seals, and in the details of Gothic edifices.” (_Lower_, “_Curiosities
+of Heraldry_.”) Fig. 54 from the cornice of King Henry’s chantry in
+Westminster Abbey shows the adaptation of heraldic badges in
+architectural ornament. (The description is inserted under BLAZON, q.v.)
+The Badges worn by the military followers of the feudal leaders answered
+the purpose of our modern uniforms. Among remarkable badges are the
+“Bear and ragged staff” of the Earls of Warwick, the red and white roses
+of Lancaster and York, the sprig of broom (Fig. 53) of the Plantagenets.
+
+=Badgers.= Brushes of badger’s hair, for blending or softening. (See
+BLENDING.)
+
+=Bagordare=, Med. It. A burlesque tournament in which the combatants
+were attended by fools instead of heralds and esquires.
+
+=Bagpipe.= This ancient and favourite instrument of the Celtic races is
+represented in an O. E. MS. of the 14th century. Several of the Hebrew
+instruments mentioned in the Bible and in the Talmud were kinds of
+bagpipes. So was a Greek instrument called “Magadis.” In Russia and
+Poland, and in the Ukraine, it used to be made of a whole goat’s skin,
+and was called “Kosa,” a goat. It is of high antiquity in Ireland, and a
+pig playing the bagpipe is represented in an illuminated Irish MS. of A.
+D. 1300.
+
+=Baijoire.= (1) A medal or coin on the obverse or reverse of which were
+two faces in profile, placed one over the other. (2) An ancient silver
+coin of Genoa, and an ancient Dutch gold coin. The term is certainly
+derived from an old word Baisoire [_baiser_, to kiss].
+
+=Bai-Kriem=, Hindoo. Literally, roasted rice; a stone employed in some
+of the monuments of the ancient Cambodia. (See BIEN-HOA.)
+
+=Bailey.= (See BALLIUM.)
+
+=Bainbergs= (Germ. _Bein-bergen_). Shin-guards or modern greaves.
+
+=Baisoire.= (See BAIJOIRE.)
+
+=Balance= or =Scales=. In Christian symbolism the balance symbolizes the
+Last Judgment. The Scales and Sword are also, generally, the attribute
+of personified Justice.
+
+=Balandrana.= A large cloak, of the 12th and 13th centuries.
+
+=Balayn=, O. E. Whalebone for crests of helmets.
+
+=Baldachin=, It. A canopy of wood, stone, or metal over seats and other
+places of honour, common also over fireplaces and beds, and carried in
+coronation and other processions over the most honoured persons.
+
+=Baldric=, =Baudrier=, or =Baudrick=, O. E. A girdle or sash, usually a
+belt of leather, and worn over the shoulder. They were sometimes hung
+with bells. (See BALTEUS.)
+
+=Balea=, =Balia=, Med. Lat. (from βάλλω, to throw). (1) A sling. (2) A
+_ballista_. From their skill in the use of slings, the inhabitants of
+Majorca, Minorca, and Ivica had the appellation Baleares.
+
+=Bales=, O. E. (Lat. _balascus_; Fr. _balais_). An inferior kind of
+ruby.
+
+=Baleyn.= (See BALAYN.)
+
+=Balista.= (See BALLISTA.)
+
+=Balista a pectore=, Med. Lat. A hand cross-bow.
+
+=Balistrariæ=, Med. Lat., Arch. Cruciform openings in the wall of a
+fortress to shoot quarrels through from cross-bows.
+
+=Balletys= or =Tuptai=, Gr. A ceremony consisting in a mock combat with
+stones, which took place at the Eleusinian festival.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 55. Ball-flower.]
+
+=Ball-flower.= An ornament characteristic of the Decorated style of the
+14th century. It represents the “knop” of a flower. _Ball-flowers_ may
+be seen in the Cathedrals of Bristol, Gloucester, and Hereford.
+
+=Ballista= or =Balista=, Gr. and R. (βάλλω, to throw). A military engine
+for hurling large missiles. It was constructed of wood, and consisted of
+two uprights connected horizontally by a double cross-beam. Strands of
+twisted fibre formed the motive power of the engine, which was fitted
+with an iron groove. The cord was drawn back by men, with the aid of a
+drum or pulleys. The ancient balista was used to shoot _stones_; the
+catapult to project _heavy darts_. Some balistæ threw stones weighing
+three cwt. The mediæval balistæ threw _quarrels_ or stones.
+
+=Ballistarium= or =Balistarium=, Gr. and R. A shed or magazine in which
+_ballistæ_ were kept.
+
+=Ballium=, Med. Lat. (1) (from Ital. _battaglia_). The _Bailey_ or
+courtyard of a castle. (2) The bulwark which contained such a Bailey.
+
+=Balneæ= or =Balineæ=. (See BALNEUM.)
+
+=Balnearia=, R. A general term for all the utensils used in a bath, such
+as strigils, _unguentaria_, _guttæ_, oils, perfumes, essences, &c.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 56. Balneæ. The Caldarium.]
+
+=Balneum=, =Balneæ=, =Thermæ=, Gr. and R. _Balneum_ meant originally a
+tub or other vessel to bathe in; next, the room in which it was placed;
+when there were many such rooms the plural _balnea_ was used. _Balneæ_
+were the public baths, under the Republic, when they consisted of
+ordinary baths of hot and cold water. _Thermæ_ were the magnificent and
+luxurious buildings adapted for the hot air system. They contained (1)
+the _Apodyterium_, or dressing-room; (2) the _Frigidarium_, where the
+cold bath was taken; (3) the _Tepidarium_, a bath of warm air; (4) the
+_Caldarium_, with a vapour bath at one end, a warm water bath at the
+other, and a _Sudatorium_, or sweating bath in the middle. The pavement,
+called _suspensura_, was over a furnace, _hypocaustum_. The bathers were
+currycombed with _strigils_, which the Greeks called _stlengis_ or
+_xystra_; and they dropped oil over their bodies from narrow-necked
+vessels called _guttus_ or _ampullæ_. The _Thermæ_ contained _exedræ_,
+or open air chambers, where philosophers lectured, and libraries, and
+had gardens, and shady walks, and fountains, with statuary attached to
+them. The ruins of the _Thermæ_ built by Titus, Caracalla, and Domitian
+remain visible (Fig. 56).
+
+=Balon=, =Balein=, =Balayn=, O. E. Whalebone.
+
+=Balsam of Copaiba.= An oleo-resin, used as a _varnish_, and as a
+vehicle, for oil painting.
+
+=Balteolus.= Dimin. of BALTEUS (q.v.).
+
+=Balteus= or =Balteum= (a belt), R. (1) A baldric or wide belt which
+passed over one shoulder and beneath the other, for the purpose of
+suspending a sword, buckler, or any other arm. (2) The ornament on the
+baldric on which was marked the number of the legion to which a soldier
+belonged. (3) A richly ornamented band of leather placed round a horse’s
+breast, below the MONILE, or throat-band (q.v.). (4) The broad belt in
+the sphere, which contains the signs of the Zodiac. (5) The bands
+surrounding the volutes of an Ionic capital. (6) The _præcinctiones_, or
+small walls, or parapets, separating the different tiers in a theatre or
+amphitheatre. (Generally a BELT.)
+
+=Baltheus=, Med. Lat. for BALTEUS.
+
+=Baluster.= A small pillar, swelling in the centre or towards the base.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 57. Balustrade.]
+
+=Balustrade=, Arch. An enclosure or parapet composed of ballisters
+(q.v.), and by analogy, an enclosure consisting of any other ornament,
+such as trefoils, carved work, &c. Fig. 57 represents a balustrade of
+the pointed Gothic style.
+
+=Bambino=, It. A babe. Image of the infant Christ.
+
+=Bambocciata=, It. The style of genre painting of Teniers, Van Ostade,
+Wilkie, and others. It was introduced into Rome in 1626 by Peter Van
+Laar, who was called, from an unfortunate deformity that he had, Il
+Bamboccio, or the Cripple.
+
+=Banded=, Her. Encircled with a band.
+
+=Banderolle.= (1) A small flag, about a yard square, upon which arms
+were emblazoned, displayed at important funerals. (2) In architecture of
+the Renaissance, a flat scroll, inscribed.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 58. Falling-Band.]
+
+=Bands.= Originally the name given to the collars which (in the 17th
+century) replaced the ruff of Elizabeth’s reign. At first they were made
+of stitched linen or cambric edged with lace, stiffened so as to stand
+up round the neck. Contemporary with these were the falling bands. The
+engraving (by Hollar, 1640) shows a merchant’s wife with collar or
+falling band of cambric edged with lace. The term bandbox has descended
+to us from those days, when similar boxes were made expressly for
+keeping bands and ruffs in. (Fig. 58.)
+
+=Bands=, Arch., are either small strings round shafts, or a horizontal
+line of square, round, or other panels used to ornament towers, spires,
+and other works. (See BALTEUS.)
+
+=Bandum=, =Banderia=, Med. Lat. A small banner. The French poets called
+it “_ban_,” a word probably of Celtic origin, signifying “exalted.”
+(_Meyrick._)
+
+=Bankard=, O. E. (Fr. _banquier_). A carpet or cloth covering for a
+table, form, or bench.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 59. The Royal Standard, or Banner.]
+
+=Banner.= In heraldry, a square, or narrow oblong flag, larger than the
+pennon (q.v.), charged with the coat of arms of the owner displayed over
+its entire surface, precisely as it is blazoned on a shield, as in the
+illustration of the Royal Standard, which should properly be styled the
+Royal _Banner_. (See STANDARD.) The Union Jack is also a banner, in
+which the blazonry of the two nations of England and Scotland are
+combined, not by “quartering,” but by an earlier process of “blending”
+the cross and the saltire in a single composition. The profusion of
+banners at tournaments, in feudal times, when each noble planted his own
+in the lists, was an element of picturesque effect. The term applies to
+all kinds of flags, or colours, proper to individuals, or corporations,
+&c., who display them. It does not appear that _military_ banners were
+used by the ancients. The banners used in Roman Catholic countries bear
+the representation of patron saints, or symbols of religious mysteries.
+
+=Banner-cloth=, Chr. A processional flag.
+
+=Banneret.= A knight entitled to display a banner.
+
+=Baphium=, Gr. and R. (βάπτω, to dye). A dyer’s workshop.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 60. Baptistery of St. Jean, Poitiers.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 61. Baptistery of St. Constance, Rome.]
+
+=Baptisterium=, R. (from βάπτω, to dip). A kind of cold plunging-bath,
+constructed in the FRIGIDARIUM (q.v.), or the room itself. In Christian
+archæology, _baptistery_ was the name given to a building adjoining a
+basilica, or situated near it, in which baptism was administered. Such
+is the baptistery of St. John Lateran at Rome. One of the most ancient
+baptisteries in France is that of St. Jean, at Poitiers, represented in
+Fig. 60. It dates from the fourth century; that of St. Constance, at
+Rome (Figs. 61, 62), belongs to the same period.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 62. Interior of the Baptistery of St. Constance.]
+
+=Bar=, Her. A horizontal line across a shield.
+
+=Barathron= or =Orugma=, Gr. (βάραθρον). A deep cleft behind the
+Acropolis at Athens, into which criminals were thrown, either under
+sentence of death by this means, or after they had been put to death by
+hemlock or other poisons. It was situated near the temple of Diana
+Aristobulê.
+
+=Barba=, Gen. The beard, whence the attributive _barbatus_, frequently
+employed to denote one who wears a beard. Thus _bene barbatus_, a man
+with a well-trimmed beard; _barbatulus_, a young man whose youthful
+beard had never been touched with the razor. Among many nations of
+antiquity the custom prevailed of curling the beard artificially, so as
+to obtain long curls or ringlets, _cincinni_. (See CINCINNUS.) The
+Assyrians, Egyptians, Jews, Persians, Greeks, and Romans may be
+particularly enumerated. Shaving the beard was introduced into Rome
+about B.C. 300, and became the regular practice. In the later times of
+the republic many persons began to wear it trimmed, and the terms _bene
+barbati_ and _barbatuli_ were applied to them. Under Hadrian the
+practice of wearing beards was revived, and the emperors until
+Constantine wore them. The Romans let the beard grow as a sign of
+mourning; the Greeks shaved. The beard is an attribute of the prophets,
+apostles, and evangelists (excepting St. John); and, in ancient art, of
+Jupiter, Serapis, Neptune, &c. Neptune has a straight beard; Jupiter a
+curly silky one. The early Britons shaved generally, but always had long
+moustachios. The Anglo-Saxon beard was neatly trimmed or parted into
+double locks. The Normans originally shaved clean, but when settled in
+England let all their beard grow. Close shaving prevailed among the
+young men in England in the 14th century; older men wore a forked beard.
+After sundry changes, clean shaving obtained in the reign of Henry VI.,
+and the beard was rarely cultivated from then until the middle of the
+16th century. The most extravagant fashions arose in Elizabeth’s reign,
+and were succeeded by variations too numerous to detail.
+
+=Barbatina=, It. A preparation of clay mixed with the shavings of
+woollen cloth, used in the manufacture of pottery to attach the handles
+and other moulded ornaments. (_Fortnum._)
+
+=Barbed=, Her. Pointed, as an arrow.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 63. Barbican.]
+
+=Barbican=, Mod. (1) A long narrow opening made in a wall, especially in
+a foundation wall, to let the water flow away. (2) The term also denotes
+an outwork placed in front of a fortified castle or any other military
+post. In the latter acceptation the term ANTEMURAL (q.v.) is also used.
+The illustration is taken from the arms of Antoine de Burgundy. In this
+instance the barbican is a small double tower, or out-post watch-house,
+and the shutter-like pent-house protection of the unglazed window
+openings bears a striking resemblance to a modern sun-blind.
+
+=Barbitos=, Gr. and R. (βάρβιτος). A stringed instrument which dates
+from a very high antiquity; it was much larger than the CITHARA (q.v.).
+To strike the long thick strings of the _barbitos_, a PLECTRUM (q.v.)
+was used instead of the fingers. The invention of this instrument is
+attributed to Terpander; Horace, on the contrary, says it was invented
+by Alcæus, and Athenæus by Anacreon. It was a kind of lyre with a large
+body.
+
+=Barbotine=, Fr. A primitive method of decorating coarse pottery with
+clays laid on it in relief. (_Jacquemart._)
+
+=Barca.= A boat for pleasure, or for transport. It was also a long-boat.
+(See BARI.)
+
+=Barde=, =Barred=, Her. In horizontal stripes.
+
+=Barded=, Her. Having horse-trappings, or—
+
+=Bardings=, which were often enriched with armorial blazonry.
+
+=Bardocucullus=, R. and Gaul. (_bardus_ and _cucullus_, i. e. monk’s
+hood). A garment with sleeves and hood worn by the poorer classes among
+the Gauls. It bore some resemblance to the Roman PÆNULA (q.v.).
+
+=Barge-board=, or =Verge board=, is the external gable-board of a house;
+which is often elaborately ornamented with carvings.
+
+=Bari= or =Baris=, Gr. and Egyp. (βᾶρις). A shallow Egyptian boat, used
+on the Nile to transport merchandise, and in funeral processions. The
+Egyptian sacred barks, with which they formed processions on the Nile,
+were made of costly woods, and ornamented with plates of gold or silver,
+and carried a miniature temple (_naos_), which contained the image of a
+divinity. The prow and the poop were ornamented with religious symbols
+of the richest workmanship.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 64. Barnacles or Breys.]
+
+=Barnacles= or =Breys=. An instrument used in breaking horses.
+
+=Baron=, in heraldic language, signifies a husband. The rank of Baron in
+the peerage corresponds with that of the Saxon Thane; it is the lowest.
+
+=Baronet=. An hereditary rank instituted by James I. in 1612.
+
+=Baron’s Coronet=, first granted by Charles II., has, on a golden
+circlet, six large pearls; of which four are shown in representations.
+
+=Baroque.= In bad taste, florid and incongruous ornamentation. The same
+as _rococo_.
+
+=Barrulet=, Her. The diminutive of a BAR (q.v.).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 66. Barry of six.]
+
+=Barry=, Her. Divided into an even number of bars, which all lie in the
+same plane.
+
+=Barry-Bendy=, Her. Having the field divided by lines drawn _bar-wise_,
+which are crossed by others drawn _bend-wise_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 67. Bartizan.]
+
+=Bartizan=, =Watch-turret=, Arch. A small watch-tower made to project
+from the top of a tower or a curtain-wall, generally at the angles.
+City-gates were in some instances furnished with bartizans. Originally
+they were of wood, but from the 11th century they were made of masonry,
+and so formed part of the structure on which they rested; they were, in
+fact, turrets. (Fig. 67.) (Compare BARBICAN.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 68. Bar-wise.]
+
+=Bar-wise=, Her. Disposed after the manner of a BAR (q.v.).
+
+=Barytes.= A heavy spar, or sulphate, the _white_ varieties of which are
+ground and made into paint (_constant_ or _Hume’s white_). Mixed with an
+equal quantity of _white lead_, it produces _Venice white_, and with
+half as much “_Hamburg_,” or with one-third _“Dutch” white_.
+
+=Basalt= is a very hard stone, much like lava in appearance, and black
+or green in colour, used for statuary. The principal specimens are
+Egyptian and Grecian.
+
+=Basanos=, Gr. (1) (Lat. _lapis Lydius_) The touchstone; a dark-coloured
+stone on which gold leaves a peculiar mark. Hence (2) trial by torture.
+(3) A military engine, the form of which is not exactly known.
+
+=Bascauda=, R. A basket, introduced from Britain as a table utensil,
+considered as an object of luxury. It was the old Welsh “basgawd,” and
+served to hold bread or fruits.
+
+=Bascinet.= A light helmet, round or conical, with a pointed apex, and
+fitting close to the head, mentioned in the 13th century.
+
+=Bascule=, O. E. (1) The counterpoise to a drawbridge. (2) A kind of
+trap-door. (A badge of the Herbert family.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 69. Ionic Base.]
+
+=Base=, Arch. The lower part of a pillar, wall, &c.; the division of a
+column on which the shaft is placed. The Grecian Doric order has no
+base.
+
+=Base.= Her. The lowest extremity.
+
+=Baselard=, Fr. An ornamental short dagger, worn at the girdle; 15th
+century. With such a weapon the Lord Mayor of London “transfixit Jack
+Straw in gutture.” The weapon is preserved by the Fishmongers’ Company.
+
+=Bases.= A kind of embroidered mantle, which hung down from the middle
+to about the knees, or lower; worn by knights on horseback. (_Narcs._)
+
+=Basileia=, Gr. (βασίλεια). A festival instituted in honour of Jupiter
+_Basileus_. It was in commemoration of the victory which the Bœotians
+had won at Leuctra, and in which success had been promised them by the
+oracle of
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 70. Basilica at Pompeii (restored).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 71. Ground-plan of a Basilica.]
+
+=Basilica= (sc. aula), Gr. and R. (βασιλικὴ, sc. στοὰ, i. e. royal
+hall). This term owes its original meaning to the fact that in Macedonia
+the kings, and in Greece the archon Basileus dispensed justice in
+buildings of this description. The Romans, who adopted the basilica from
+the above-named countries, used it as a court of justice, but besides
+this it became a branch of the forum, and even when it did not form a
+part of the latter was constructed near it, as was the case at Pompeii.
+Fig. 71 represents the ground-plan of this basilica, and Fig. 70 a view
+of the same building restored. The ground-plan of the basilica is
+rectangular, the width not more than half nor less than a third of the
+length. It was divided by two single rows of columns into three naves,
+or aisles, and the tribunal of the judge was at one end of the centre
+aisle. In the centre of the tribunal was the _curule chair_ of the
+prætor, and seats for the judices and advocates. Over each of the side
+aisles there was a gallery, from which shorter columns supported the
+roofs; these were connected by a parapet wall or balustrade. The central
+nave was open to the air. Under Constantine the basilicæ were adopted
+for Christian churches. The early Norman churches were built upon the
+same plan, and the circular apsis, where the judges originally sat, used
+for the central altar, was the origin of the apsidal termination of the
+Gothic cathedrals. The first basilica was built at Rome, B.C. 182. In
+the Middle Ages structures resembling small churches erected over tombs
+were called Basilica.
+
+=Basilidian Gems.= (See ABRAXAS.)
+
+=Basilinda=, Gr. and R. (βασιλίνδα). Literally, the game of the king; it
+was often played by Greek and Roman children. The king was appointed by
+lot, the rest being his subjects, and bound to obey him, during the
+game.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 72. Basilisk.]
+
+=Basilisk.= A fabulous animal, having the body of a cock, beak and claws
+of brass, and a triple serpent tail. The emblem of the Spirit of Evil.
+In heraldry, a cockatrice having its tail ending in a dragon’s head.
+
+=Basilium=, Gr. (βασίλειον). A royal diadem, of a very tall form, of
+Egyptian origin. Isis-Fortuna is often represented wearing the
+_basilium_ on her head.
+
+=Basinet.= (See BASCINET.)
+
+=Basons= for ecclesiastical ceremonies, for collecting alms or for
+holding the sacramental vessels, were a favourite subject for the
+goldsmith’s art. Some beautifully enamelled basons of the 13th century
+represent subjects of hawking and hunting, &c.
+
+=Bas-relief=, =Basso-relievo=, sculptured figures projecting less than
+half of their true proportions; =Mezzo-relievo= projecting exactly half;
+=Alto-relievo= more than half, from the ground upon which they are
+carved.
+
+=Bassara= or =Bassaris=, Gr. (a fox, or fox-skin). A long tunic of
+Lydian origin worn by the Mænads of Lydia and Thrace, who were often
+called, from this circumstance, _Bassaræ_ and _Bassarides_.
+
+=Basterna=, R. A closed litter appropriated especially to the use of
+ladies, as the _Anthologia Latina_ says: “The gilded basterna conceals
+the chaste matrons.” It was carried by two mules harnessed in shafts,
+one in front and one behind; the LECTICA (q.v.), on the contrary, was
+carried by men. During the Middle Ages the same form of litter was a
+common means of conveyance in England.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 73. Ground-plan of the Bastile.]
+
+=Bastile=, Arch. An outwork placed so as to defend the approach to a
+castle or fortified place. A famous Bastile which had been converted
+into a state prison was that of Paris, destroyed in 1789. Fig. 73 shows
+the ground-plan of it. The diminutive of this term is Bastillon, which
+has been changed into _Bastion_.
+
+=Bastion=, Mod. A projecting polygonal buttress on a fortification. The
+anterior portions of a bastion are the _faces_; the lateral portions,
+the _flanks_; the space comprised between the two flanks, the _gorge_;
+and the part of the fortification connecting two bastions together, the
+_curtain_.
+
+=Bastisonus=, Med. Lat. A bastion or bulwark.
+
+=Batagion= or =Batagium=. (See PATAGIUM.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 74. Naval and Military Badge of the “Bath.”]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 75. Civil Badge of the “Bath.”]
+
+=Bath, Order of the=, numbers 985 members, including the Sovereign; viz.
+_First Class_: Knights Grand Cross—G.C.B.—50 Naval and Military and 25
+Civil Knights. _Second Class_: Knights Commanders—K.C.B.—120 Naval and
+Military and 50 Civil. _Third Class_: Companions—C.B.—525 Naval and
+Military and 200 Civil.
+
+=Batiaca= or =Batioca=, Gr. and R. A vase of a very costly description,
+used as a drinking-vessel.
+
+=Batière=, Fr., Arch. (See SADDLE-ROOF.) A roof is said to be “_en
+batière_” when it is in the form of a pack-saddle; that is, when it has
+only two slopes or eaves, the two other sides being gables.
+
+=Batillum= or =Vatillum=, R. (1) A hand-shovel used for burning scented
+herbs to fumigate. (2) Any kind of small shovel.
+
+=Baton.= In heraldry, a diminutive of the BEND SINISTER couped at its
+extremities.
+
+=Baton.= The military baton, or staff, was of Greek origin. (See
+SCYTALE.)
+
+=Batter=, Arch. Said of walls that slope inwards from the base. Walls of
+wharfs and of fortifications generally _batter_.
+
+=Battle-axe= is one of the most ancient of weapons. The _pole-axe_ is
+distinguished by a spike on the back of the axe. (See BIPENNIS.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 76. Embattled.]
+
+=Battled=, =Embattled=, Her. Having battlements.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 77. Battlement.]
+
+=Battlement=, =Embattailment=, =Bateling=, O. E. (Fr. _Créneau, Merlet,
+Bretesse_). A parapet in fortifications, consisting of a series of
+rising parts, called MERLONS or COPS, separated by spaces called
+CRENELS, EMBRASURES, or LOOPS.
+
+=Batuz.= Norman French for _battus_, beaten with hammered up gold; said
+of silken stuffs so adorned.
+
+=Baucalia= or =Baucalis=, Gr. and R. (βαυκάλιον, βαύκαλις). A
+drinking-vessel, which varied in shape and material.
+
+=Baucens=, =Bauceant=, Med. A black and white banner used in the 13th
+century. (_Meyrick._)
+
+=Baudekyn=, O. E. A fabric of silk and gold thread.
+
+=Baudekyn= (Lat. _Baldakinus_). Cloth of gold, brocade: “pannus omnium
+ditissimus.”
+
+=Baudrick= or =Baldrock=, O. E., of a church bell. The strap by which
+the clapper is hung in the crown of the bell.
+
+=Baukides=, Gr. (βαυκίδες). A kind of shoe worn by women; it was of a
+saffron colour. This elegantly-shaped shoe was highly esteemed by
+courtezans, who often placed cork soles inside their _baukides_, to make
+themselves appear taller.
+
+=Baxa= or =Baxea=, Gr. Sandals made of textile plants, such as the palm,
+rush, willow, papyrus, and a kind of alfa. They were worn by comic
+actors on the stage.
+
+=Bay=, Arch. (Fr. _Travée_). A principal compartment or division in a
+structure, marked off by buttresses or pilasters on the walls, or by the
+disposition of the vaulting, the main arches, &c. The French word _baie_
+means an opening made in a wall for a door or window.
+
+=Bayeux Tapestry.= A roll of unbleached linen worked in coloured worsted
+with illustrations of the Norman Conquest (about A. D. 1068); preserved
+in the public library at Bayeux. A full-sized copy may be seen in the
+South Kensington Museum.
+
+=Bayle=, Arch. The open space contained between the first and second
+walls of a fortified castle. These buildings often had two bayles; in
+this case, the second was contained between the inner wall and the
+donjon.
+
+=Bayonet.= A weapon, so called after the town of Bayonne in France,
+where it was invented about A. D. 1650.
+
+=Bay-stall=, Arch. The stall or seat in the bay (of a window).
+
+=Beads=, Arch. An architectural ornament of mouldings consisting of
+small round carved beads, called also Astragal. Another name for this
+ornament is Paternosters.
+
+=Beaker= (Fr. _cornet_). A trumpet-shaped vase, or drinking-cup.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 78. Moulding with Beak-heads and Tooth-ornament.]
+
+=Beak-heads= (Fr. _becs d’oiseau_), Mod. An ornament peculiar to English
+architecture, representing heads and beaks of birds. The ancient
+Peruvians used the same ornament in their architecture, as shown in Fig.
+79, taken from the decoration of the monolithic door of Tianuaco.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 79. Peruvian ornament (Beak-heads).]
+
+=Bear.= Dancing bears are represented in Anglo-Saxon MSS.
+
+=Beards.= (See _barba_.)
+
+=Beaver.= The movable face-guard of a helmet.
+
+=Beds.= Anglo-Saxon beds usually consisted merely of a sack (_sæccing_)
+filled with straw, and laid on a bench or board, which was ordinarily in
+a recess at the side of the room, as we still see in Scotland. The word
+_bedstead_ means only “a place for a bed.” _Tester beds_, or beds with a
+roof, were introduced by the Normans. Early in the 13th century beds
+were covered much as now, with ‘quilte,’ counterpane, bolster, sheets,
+and coverlet; and stood behind curtains which hung from the ceiling. In
+the 15th century the beds became much more ornamental, having canopy and
+curtains, and these, as well as the _tester_ or back, decorated with
+heraldic, religious, or other devices. At the sides were _costers_, or
+ornamental cloths. Between the curtains and the wall a space was left
+called the _ruelle_, or little street.
+
+=Beech Black.= A blue-black vegetable pigment.
+
+=Bees=, in Christian art, are an attribute of St. Ambrose.
+
+=Belfry= (Fr. _Beffroi_). The campanile or bell-tower of a church.
+Frequently detached from the church, as at Chichester Cathedral. (See
+BELL-GABLE.)
+
+=Bell.= An attribute of St. Anthony, referring to his power of
+exorcising evil spirits. In heraldry, the bell is drawn and blazoned as
+a church bell.
+
+=Bell-cot=, Arch. A BELL-GABLE (q.v.).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 80. Belled.]
+
+=Belled=, Her. Having bells attached, like the cows in the device of the
+city of Béarn. (Fig. 80.)
+
+=Bell-gable=, Arch. A turret raised over the west end of small churches
+and chapels that have no towers to hang a bell in. This is distinct from
+the smaller turret at the east end of the nave for the SANCTUS BELL
+(q.v.).
+
+=Bellicrepa=, Med. Lat. A military dance, of Italian origin.
+
+=Bellows= were called in A.S. _bælg_ or _blastbælg_. A MS. of the 14th
+century represents a man blowing at a three-legged caldron with a
+perfectly modern-looking pair of bellows. Bellows, in Christian art, are
+an attribute of Ste. Geneviève.
+
+=Bell-ring=, Mod. The ring in the CROWN of a bell from which the clapper
+hangs.
+
+=Bells= on the caparisons of horses were common in the Middle Ages. A
+passage in the romance of Richard Cœur de Lion describes a messenger
+“with five hundred belles rygande.” Chaucer’s monk has also bells on his
+horse’s “bridel” which “gyngle as lowde as doth the chapel belle.”
+
+=Belt=, Chr. A girdle used to confine the alb at the waist.
+
+=Belt of Beads=, Chr. A rosary was sometimes so called.
+
+=Belvidere=, It. A prospect tower over a building.
+
+=Bema=, Gr. (1) A stone platform or hustings, used as a pulpit in early
+Christian churches. (2) The term is synonymous with sanctuary. (3) It
+also serves to denote an ambo and a bishop’s chair. (See AMBO.) The
+Athenian _bema_ was a stone platform from which orators spoke at the
+assemblies (_ecclesiæ_) in the Pnyx.
+
+=Bembix=, Gr. and R. (Lat. _Turbo_). (1) A child’s whipping-top. (2) The
+whorl of a spindle.
+
+=Benches=, for seats, are represented in the 14th century formed by
+laying a plank upon two trestles.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 81. Bend. _Arms of Le Scrope._]
+
+=Bend=, Her. One of the Ordinaries. It crosses the field diagonally,
+from the dexter chief to the sinister base, as in Fig. 81, the arms of
+Richard Le Scrope: _Azure, a bend or_.
+
+=Bendideia=, Gr. (Βενδίδεια). A festival held in the Piræeus in honour
+of the goddess _Bendis_ (the Thracian name of Artemis or Diana).
+
+=Bendlet=, Her. The diminutive of Bend.
+
+=Bend-wise=, or =In bend=, Her. Arranged _in the direction of a_ bend.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 82. Bendy.]
+
+=Bendy=, Her. Parted bend-wise into an even number of divisions.
+
+=Benna=, Gaul. and R. This term, borrowed either from the Welsh or the
+Gauls, denoted among the Romans a four-wheeled cart or carriage made of
+wicker-work. A _benna_ may be seen on the bas-reliefs of the column of
+Marcus Aurelius.
+
+=Bennoŭ=, Egyp. A mythical bird resembling the phœnix, which sprang from
+its own ashes, and was made the emblem of the resurrection. It
+symbolized the return of Osiris to the light, and was therefore
+consecrated to that god.
+
+=Benzoin.= A gum-resin used as an ingredient in _spirit varnishes_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 83. Berlin porcelain jug.]
+
+=Berlin Porcelain.= The manufactory was first founded in 1750, under
+Frederick the Great. Fig. 83 is a specimen of Berlin hard porcelain.
+
+=Beryl.= A gem of an iridescent green colour.
+
+=Bes=, R. (_bi_, twice, and _as_). A fraction of value equivalent to
+two-thirds of an _as_.
+
+=Besa=, Gr. and R. A drinking-vessel, also called _bessa_ and _bession_.
+It was wider at the bottom than at the top, and in shape much resembled
+the BOMBYLOS (q.v.).
+
+=Bessa= (Fr. _beysse ferrée_), Med. An instrument like a pickaxe or
+mattock used by the pioneers of an army; 15th century. (_Meyrick._)
+
+=Bession.= (See BESA.)
+
+=Bestions=, Arch. This term is applied by Philibert Delorme to the
+fantastic animals which occur in sculptures of the decorative or florid
+period of architecture.
+
+=Beten=, O. E. Embroidered with fancy subjects.
+
+            “A coronall on her hedd sett,
+            Her clothes with beasts and birdes were _bete_.”
+
+=Beveled=, Arch. Having a sloped surface. (See SPLAY.)
+
+=Bever.= A Norman word for “taking a drink” between breakfast and
+dinner; elsewhere called “a myd-diner under-mete.”
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 84. Bezant.]
+
+=Bezant=, Her. A golden “roundle” or disk, flat like a coin.
+
+=Biacca=, It. White carbonate of lead; a pigment.
+
+=Biblia=, Med. Lat. A war engine for attack.
+
+=Bibliotheca=, Gr. and R. (βιβλίον, book, and θήκη, case). Primarily the
+place where books were kept, and hence used for the collection of books
+or MSS. itself. The most celebrated library of antiquity was that
+founded by the Ptolemies at Alexandria, destroyed by the Arabs, A. D.
+640.
+
+=Bibliothecula=, Gr. and R. (dimin. of _bibliotheca_). A small library.
+
+=Bice.= The name of certain very ancient blue and green pigments, known
+also as _Mountain_ (or _Saunders’_) _blue_, and _Mountain green_, and by
+other names. (See CARBONATES OF COPPER.)
+
+=Biclinium=, Gr. and R. A couch or sofa on which two persons could
+recline at table.
+
+=Bicos=, Gr. (See BIKOS.)
+
+=Bidens=, R. (_dens_, a tooth). Literally, with two teeth, forks, or
+blades. The term was applied to a hoe, a pair of scissors, and an anchor
+(_ancora bidens_). A two-forked weapon of the same name occurs in some
+representations of Pluto.
+
+=Bidental=, R. (_bidens_). A structure consecrated by the augurs or
+haruspices, through the sacrifice of an animal. This was generally a
+sheep of two years old, whence the name _bidens_ applied to the victim.
+The _bidental_ was often an altar surrounded with a peristyle, as may be
+seen from the remains of one of them at Pompeii. A _bidental_ was set up
+in any place which had been struck by lightning. A cippus or _puteal_
+placed on the exact spot which had been struck bore the inscription:
+_Fulmen_ or _fulgur conditum_.
+
+=Bien-hoa= or =Ben-hoa=, Hind. A kind of stone employed by the Khmers or
+ancient inhabitants of Camboja for their sculpture; they also called it
+_baï-kriem_ (roasted rice), which it exactly resembles. Its deep yellow
+colour recalls in a striking degree that of old white marbles which have
+been long exposed to the sun and air in warm countries.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 85. Bifrons.]
+
+=Bifrons=, R. (_frons_, a forehead). Having two fronts or faces.
+Libraries and picture galleries generally contained statuary of heads or
+busts coupled together back to back, but especially of Janus, emblematic
+of his knowledge both of the past and the future. The illustration
+represents a Greek vase, in imitation of the statuary described.
+
+=Biga=, R. (_bi_ and _juga_, double-yoked). A car drawn by two horses.
+_Bigæ_ also denoted, like _bijugus_ or _bijugis_, two horses harnessed
+together. [The Greeks called this method “Synoris.”]
+
+=Bigatus=, R. (sc. _nummus_). A silver denarius (one of the earliest
+Roman coins) which had a BIGA on the reverse. Other denarii were
+_quadrigati_, having a _four-horse chariot_ on the reverse.
+
+=Biggon=, O. E. “A kind of quoif formerly worn by men;” hence
+“Béguines,” the nuns at the Béguinage at Ghent, who still wear the
+_biggon_.
+
+=Bikos=, Gr. and R. A large earthenware vase adapted to hold dry
+provisions, such as figs, plums, &c.
+
+=Bilanx=, R. (double-dish). A balance with two scales. (See LIBRA.)
+
+=Bilbo.= A light rapier invented at Bilboa.
+
+=Bilix=, R. (double-thread). A texture like “twill,” or “dimity,” made
+by a double set of leashes (_licia_).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 86. Bill-head.]
+
+=Bill=, O. E. A weapon made of a long staff with a broad curved blade, a
+short pike at the back, and a pike at the top, used by infantry of the
+14th and 15th centuries. (Fig. 86.)
+
+=Billet=, Her. A small oblong figure.
+
+=Billet=, Arch. A moulding of the Roman epoch, consisting of short rods
+separated from each other by a space equal to their own length. Some
+billets are arranged in several rows.
+
+=Bilychnis=, Gr. and R. A double lamp with two beaks and two wicks, so
+as to give out two separate flames.
+
+=Binio=, R. A gold coin current at Rome. It was worth two _aurei_ or
+fifty silver _denarii_. (See AUREUS.)
+
+=Bipalium=, R. A spade, furnished with a cross-bar, by pressing the foot
+on which the instrument could be pushed into the ground. Representations
+of this tool occur pretty frequently on tombs.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 87. Bipennis.]
+
+=Bipennis= or =Bipenne=, Gen. (_penna_, a wing). An axe with a double
+blade or edge, used as an agricultural implement, an adze, or a military
+weapon. The Greeks, who called it βουπλὴξ, never made use of it. It was
+used especially by barbarous nations, such as the Amazons, Scythians,
+Gauls, &c. Fig. 87 represents a Gaulish _bipennis_ taken from one of the
+bas-reliefs on the triumphal arch at Orange.
+
+=Bird=, in Egyptian hieroglyphics, signified the soul of man, and in
+Christian art had _originally_ a similar meaning afterwards forgotten.
+
+=Bird-bolt.= A short thick arrow, with a blunt head, about the breadth
+of a shilling.
+
+=Biremis=, R. (_remus_, an oar). A pair-oared boat, or a vessel having
+two banks of oars.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 88. Biretta. (Portrait of a Rector of Padua.)]
+
+=Biretta=, It. A cap. In its restricted meaning the term is applied to
+that worn by priests and academical persons. The illustration shows the
+state costume of the Rector of the University of Padua, who wears a
+sacerdotal biretta.
+
+=Birotus= and =Birota=, R. (_rota_, a wheel). Anything having two
+wheels, and so a two-wheeled carriage, car, or chariot.
+
+=Birrus= and =Byrrus=, R. A russet-coloured capote with a hood. It was
+made of a coarse cloth (_bure_) with a long nap. Such was, at first, the
+meaning of the term, but in course of time _birri_ of a fine quality
+were made.
+
+=Bisaccium= (It. _bisacce_). Saddle-bags of coarse sacking.
+
+=Biscuit=, Fr. A kind of porcelain, unglazed. The finest is the so
+called Parian porcelain.
+
+=Bisellium=, R. (_sella_, a seat). A seat of honour or state chair,
+reserved for persons of note, or who had done service to the state.
+There was room on the seat for two persons.
+
+=Bishop’s Length.= Technical name for a portrait-canvas of 58 inches by
+94 inches.
+
+=Bismuth.= The pigment, called pearl white, which is the sub-nitrate of
+this metal, is very susceptible to the action of sulphurous vapours,
+which turn it black.
+
+=Bisomus=, Chr. A sarcophagus with two compartments; that is, capable of
+holding two dead bodies. (See SARCOPHAGUS.)
+
+=Bistre.= A warm brown water-colour-pigment, made of the soot of
+beech-wood, water, and gum. It is the mediæval fuligo and fuligine.
+
+=Biting-in.= The action of aqua fortis upon copper or steel in
+engraving.
+
+=Bitumen.= This pigment _should_ be genuine _Asphaltum_, diluted and
+ground up with drying oil or varnish. It dries quickly. There is a
+substance _sold as bitumen_ which will not dry at all. (See ASPHALTUM.)
+
+=Bivium=, R. (_via_, a way). A street or road branching out into two
+different directions; at the corner there was almost always a fountain.
+
+=Bizarre=, Fr. Fantastic, capricious of kind.
+
+=Black= is the resultant of the combination in unequal proportions of
+blue, red, and yellow.
+
+=Black=, in Christian art, expressed the earth; darkness, mourning,
+wickedness, negation, death; and was appropriate to the Prince of
+Darkness. White and black together signify purity of life, and mourning
+or humiliation; hence adopted by the Dominicans and Carmelites. In
+blazonry, black, called sable, signifies prudence, wisdom, and constancy
+in adversity and love, and is represented by horizontal and
+perpendicular lines crossing each other.
+
+=Black Pigments= are very numerous, of different degrees of
+transparency, and of various hues, in which either red or blue
+predominates, producing brown blacks or blue blacks. The most important
+are _beech black_, or _vegetable blue black_; _bone black_, or _Paris
+black_, called also _ivory black_; _Cassel_ or _Cologne black_, _cork
+black_, _Frankfort black_, and _lamp-black_. (See ASPHALTUM.)
+
+=Blades=, Arch. The principal rafters of a roof.
+
+=Blasted=, Her. Leafless, withered.
+
+=Blautai=, Gr. (Lat. _soleæ_). A richly-made shoe; a kind of sandal worn
+by men.
+
+=Blazon=, Her. Armorial compositions. To blazon is to describe or to
+represent them in an heraldic manner. The representation is called
+Blazonry. For example, the _blazoning_ of the BADGES on the cornice of
+King Henry’s chantry in Westminster Abbey is as follows:—On the dexter,
+a white antelope, ducally collared, chained, and armed _or_; and on the
+sinister a swan gorged with a crown and chain. The beacon or cresset
+_or_, inflamed proper. (See Fig. 54.)
+
+=Blending.= Passing over painting with a soft brush of badger’s hair
+made for the purpose, by which the pigments are fused together and the
+painting softened.
+
+=Blindman’s Buff.= Called “hoodman-blind,” _temp._ Elizabeth.
+
+=Blind-story=, Arch. The TRIFORIUM in a church. Opposed to the CLEAR or
+CLERESTORY (q.v.).
+
+=Blocking-course=, Arch. The last course in a wall, especially of a
+parapet. The surface is made slightly convex to allow of water flowing
+off more easily.
+
+=Blodbendes= (O. E. for blood-bands). Narrow strips of linen to bind
+round the arm after bleeding.
+
+=Blodius=, O. E. Sky-blue.
+
+=Bloom.= The clouded appearance which varnish sometimes takes upon the
+surface of a picture.
+
+=Blue.= One of the three primary colours, the complementary to orange.
+Blue, in Christian art, or the sapphire, expressed heaven, the
+firmament, truth, constancy, fidelity. Its symbolism as the dress worn
+by the Virgin Mary is of _modesty_. In blazonry it signifies chastity,
+loyalty, fidelity, and good reputation. Engravers represent it by
+horizontal lines.
+
+=Blue Black=, or =Charcoal Black=, is a pigment prepared by burning
+vine-twigs in close vessels. Mixed with _white lead_ it yields very fine
+silvery _greys_. (See also BLACK PIGMENTS.)
+
+=Blue Pigments.= Minerals:—see ULTRAMARINE, COBALT, BLUE VERDITER.
+Vegetable:—_Indigo_. Animal:—_Prussian blue_. (See CARBONATE OF COPPER,
+INTENSE BLUE.)
+
+=Blue Verditer.= (See VERDITER.)
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 89, 90. Boars. Gallic ensigns.]
+
+=Boar.= In mediæval art, emblem of ferocity and sensuality. In heraldry
+the boar is called Sanglier. The military ensigns of the Gauls were
+surmounted by figures of the wild boar.
+
+=Boclerus=, Med. Lat. A buckler; 14th century. The word is derived from
+the German Bock, a goat. Compare ÆGIS.
+
+=Bodkin=, Saxon. A dagger, a hair-pin, a blunt flat needle.
+
+             “With _bodkins_ was Cæsar Julius
+             Murdred at Rome, of Brutus, Cassius.”
+                         (_The Serpent of Division_, 1590.)
+
+  “He pulls her bodkin that is tied in a piece of black ribbon.” (_The
+  Parson’s Wedding_, 1663.)
+
+The Latin name for this classical head-dress was _acus_.
+
+=Body Colour.= In speaking of oil colours the term applies to their
+solidity, or degree of opacity; water-colour painting is said to be in
+body colours when the pigments are laid on thickly, or mixed with white,
+as in oil painting.
+
+=Boedromia=, Gr. and R. A festival instituted in honour of Apollo the
+Helper—βοηδρόμος. It was held at Athens on the sixth day of September, a
+month thence called _Boedromion_.
+
+=Bohemian Glass.= The manufacture of a pure crystal glass well adapted
+for engraving became an important industry in Germany about the year
+1600, and the art of engraving was admirably developed during the
+century. Of Johann Schapper, especially, Jacquemart says that he
+produced “subjects and arabesques of such delicacy of execution that at
+first sight they seemed merely like a cloud on the glass.”
+
+=Bohordamentum=, Med. Lat. A joust with mock lances called “bouhours.”
+
+=Bojæ=, R. (_bos_, an ox). (1) A heavy collar of wood or iron for
+dangerous dogs. (2) A similar collar placed round the necks of criminals
+or slaves.
+
+=Boletar=, R. A dish on which mushrooms (_boleti_) were served, and
+thence transferred to dishes of various forms.
+
+=Bolevardus=, Med. Lat. A boulevard or rampart.
+
+=Bombard=, O. E. A machine for projecting stones or iron balls; the
+precursor of the cannon. First used in the 14th century.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 91. Bombards worn by King James I. of England.]
+
+=Bombards=, O. E. Padded breeches. In Elizabeth’s reign the breeches,
+then called BOMBARDS, were stuffed so wide that a gallery or scaffold
+was erected to accommodate members of Parliament who wore them. The
+engraving shows James I. (painted 1614) attired for hawking. (Fig. 91.)
+
+=Bombax=, O. E. The stuff now called Bombasin. “A sort of fine silk or
+cotton cloth well known upon the continent during the 13th century.”
+(_Strutt._)
+
+=Bombé=, Fr. Curved furniture, introduced in the 18th century.
+
+=Bombulom= or =Bunibulum=, O. E. (from the Greek βόμβος, a hollow deep
+sound). A musical instrument consisting of an angular frame with metal
+plates, which sounded when shaken like the _sistrum_ of the Egyptians.
+
+=Bombylos= and =Bombylê=, Gr. and R. A vase so called from the gurgling
+noise which the liquid makes in pouring out through its narrow neck.
+
+=Bone Black.= (See IVORY BLACK.)
+
+=Book.= In mediæval art an attribute of the fathers of the Church; in
+the hands of evangelists and apostles it represents the Gospel. St.
+Boniface carries a book pierced with a sword. St. Stephen, St.
+Catherine, St. Bonaventura, and St. Thomas Aquinas also carry books.
+
+=Bordure=, Her. A border to a shield.
+
+=Boreasmos=, Gr. A festival held at Athens in honour of Boreas, the god
+of the north wind.
+
+=Borto= or =Burdo=, Med. Lat. A lance.
+
+=Boss.= The centre of a shield; also an architectural ornament for
+ceilings, put where the ribs of a vault meet, or in other situations.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 92. Greek Bossage.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 93. Bossage.]
+
+=Bossage=, Arch. An arrangement of plain or ornamental projections on
+the surface of a wall of dressed masonry. Figs. 92 and 93 represent two
+Greek walls finished in this manner.
+
+=Boston=, O. E. A flower so called.
+
+=Botéga=, It. A manufactory or artist’s workshop where pottery is made.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 94. Botonée Fitchée.]
+
+=Botonée, Fitchée=, Her. Varieties of the heraldic cross, called also
+treflée. (Fig. 94.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 95. Coffee-pot of Bottcher Ware.]
+
+=Bottcher Ware.= Early Dresden pottery. (1) A very hard red stone-ware,
+made of a red clay of Okrilla, invented at Meissen by John Frederick
+Bottcher. (2) Porcelain. Bottcher, finding his wig very heavy one day,
+examined the powder upon it, and discovered it to be the fine kaolin of
+Aue, from which the Dresden (or Meissen) china is made. Bottcher’s first
+object was to obtain a paste as white and as perfect as that of the
+COREA; he succeeded at his first trial, and produced pieces with archaic
+decoration so perfectly imitated, that one would hesitate to declare
+them European.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 96. Bottle-mouldings.]
+
+=Bottle=, =Boutell=, =Bowtell=, or =Boltell=, Arch. An old English term
+for a bead moulding; also for small shafts of clustered columns resting
+against the pillars of a nave, in the Romano-Byzantine and Gothic
+periods. These shafts spring from the ground and rise to the height of
+the bend of the roof, the diagonal ribs of which they receive on coupled
+columns. Probably from _bolt_, an arrow.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 97. Water Bouget.]
+
+=Bougets= or =Water Bougets=, Fr., were pouches of leather, which were
+used by the Crusaders for carrying water in the deserts. Fig. 97 is a
+heraldic representation of the coat of arms of De Ros.
+
+=Boulé=, =Bouleuterion=, Gr. An assembly composed of the foremost men of
+the nation. It was a kind of senate or higher council which deliberated
+on the affairs of the republic. The popular assembly, on the other hand,
+composed of all the males of free birth, was called _agora_, and was
+held in a place called by the same name. (See AGORA.)
+
+=Boule.= A peculiar kind of marquetry, composed of tortoise-shell and
+thin brass, to which are sometimes added ivory and enamelled metal.
+Named from its inventor, André Charles Boule, born 1642.
+
+=Boulting-mill.= A mill for winnowing the flour from the bran
+(_crusca_); the device of the Academy of La Crusca. (See CRUSCA.)
+
+=Bourdon.= A pilgrim’s staff. On the walls of Hôtel Cluny, at Paris, the
+pilgrim’s _bourdon_ and cockle-shells are sculptured. Piers Plowman
+describes a pilgrim’s
+
+                            “_burdoun_ y-bounde
+                With a broad liste, in a withwynde wise
+                Y-wounden about.”
+
+=Bourginot.= A close helmet of the 15th century, first used in Burgundy.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 98. Bourgogne Point Lace.]
+
+=Bourgogne, Point de=, is a beautifully fine and well-finished pillow
+lace resembling old Mechlin. No record remains of its manufacture. (Fig.
+98.)
+
+=Bovile.= (See BUBILE.)
+
+=Bow.= Represented in the most ancient monuments. In classical art an
+attribute of Apollo, Cupid, Diana, Hercules, and the Centaurs.
+
+=Bow=, Arch., O. E. A flying buttress, or arch-buttress.
+
+=Bowed=, Her. Having a convex contour.
+
+=Bower= or =Bowre=, O. E. The Anglo-Saxon name for a bed-chamber, “_bird
+in bure_” = a lady in her chamber. The bed-chambers were separate
+buildings grouped round or near the central hall.
+
+                 “Up then rose fair Annet’s father,
+                   Twa hours or it wer day,
+                 And he is gane into the _bower_
+                   Wherein fair Annet lay.”
+                                     (_Percy Ballads._)
+
+=Bowls of metal=, generally bronze or copper, found in early Anglo-Saxon
+_barrows_ or graves, are probably of Roman workmanship. Some beautiful
+_buckets_ (A.S. _bucas_) were made of wood, generally of ash, whence
+they had another name _æscen_. They are ornamented with designs, and
+figures of animals, and were probably used at festivities to contain ale
+or mead.
+
+=Bowtell= or =Boutell=, Arch. (See BOTTLE.)
+
+=Brabeum=, =Brabium=, or =Bravium=, Gr. (βραβεῖον, from βραβεὺς, judge).
+Three terms denoting the prize assigned to the victor in the public
+games.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 99. Figures with Braccæ.]
+
+=Braccæ=, =Bracæ=, or =Bragæ= (Celtic _breac_). Trousers worn
+principally by barbarous nations, such as the Amazons, Gauls, Persians,
+and Scythians. _Anaxyrides_ was the name given to close-fitting
+trousers, _braccæ laxæ_ to wider pantaloons, such as those worn by the
+Gaul in the left-hand corner of Fig. 99, from a bas-relief taken from
+the sarcophagus of the _vigna_ Ammendola. The _braccæ virgatæ_ were
+striped pantaloons worn especially by Asiatics; _braccæ picta_,
+variegated or embroidered trousers. (See BREECHES.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 100. Three diamond rings interlaced.]
+
+=Braced= or =Brazed=, Her. Interlaced, as in the illustration of the
+arms of Cosmo, the founder of the Medici family. (Fig. 100.) (See also
+the illustration to FRET.)
+
+=Bracelet.= Bracelets were, among the ancients, a symbol of marriage.
+(See ARMILLA.)
+
+=Bracelets.= (See PERISCELIS.)
+
+=Brachiale=, R. (_brachium_, the arm). An armlet, or piece of defensive
+armour covering the _brachium_ or forearm. It was worn by gladiators in
+the circus. Some beautifully ornamented specimens were found among the
+excavations at Pompeii.
+
+=Brackets=, Arch., in mediæval architecture, are usually called Corbels.
+(See Fig. 5.)
+
+=Braconniere=, O. E. A skirt of armour, worn hanging from the breast and
+back plates; 16th century.
+
+=Bractea= or =Brattea=, R. Leaves of metal, especially of gold, beaten
+out.
+
+=Braga=, =Bragæ=. (See BRACCÆ.)
+
+=Bragamas=, O. E. (See BRAQUEMARD.) “Un grant coustel, que l’en dit
+bragamas;” 14th cent.
+
+=Braggers=, O. E. An obsolete term for timber BRACKETS.
+
+=Brake=, O. E. A quern or hand-mill.
+
+=Brand=, A.S. A torch; hence, from its shining appearance, a sword.
+(_Meyrick._)
+
+=Brandrate=, O. E. An iron tripod fixed over the fire, on which to set a
+pot or kettle.
+
+=Braquemard=, O. E. A kind of sabre—“un grant coustel d’Alemaigne, nommé
+braquemart;” 14th century.
+
+=Brass=, Gen. An alloy made by mixing copper with tin, or else with zinc
+or silver. Another name for it is BRONZE (q.v.). Corinthian brass is
+very celebrated, but little is known of its composition even at the
+present day. Mosaic gold, pinchbeck, prince’s metal, &c., are varieties
+of brass differing in the proportions of the ingredients. Brass beaten
+into very thin leaves is called Dutch Metal.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 101. Brassart.]
+
+=Brassart.= Plate armour for the arm. (Fig. 101.)
+
+=Brasses.= Engraved metal plates inlaid in the pavements or walls of
+churches as monuments. The material was called _cullen_ (or Cologne)
+plate. The engravings were made black with mastic or bitumen, and the
+field or background was coarsely enamelled in various colours.
+
+=Brattach=, Celtic. A standard; literally, a cloth.
+
+=Braunshid=, O. E. Branched.
+
+=Breadth= “in painting is a term which denotes largeness, space,
+vastness,” &c. (Consult J. B. Pyne “_On the Nomenclature of Pictorial
+Art_,” Art Union, 1843.)
+
+=Breccia=, It. A conglomerate used by the ancients in architecture and
+sculpture.
+
+=Breeches= (_breac_ Celtic, _braccæ_ Lat.). The word breeches in its
+present acceptance was first used towards the end of the 16th century;
+previously, breeches were called hose, upper socks, and slop. (See
+BOMBARDS and BRACCÆ.)
+
+=Bremen Green.= (See VERDITER.)
+
+=Breys=, Her. (See BARNACLES.)
+
+=Bridges=, O. E. A kind of satin manufactured at Bruges.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 102. Bridle-device of the Arbusani.]
+
+=Bridle.= A favourite Scriptural emblem of self-restraint and
+self-denial. The illustration is the device of Benedetto Arbusani of
+Padua; with the motto which, according to Epictetus, contains every
+essential to human happiness. (Fig. 102.) (See “_Historic Devices_.”)
+
+=Broach= or =Broch=, O. E. A church spire, or _any sharp-pointed
+object_, was frequently so called.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 103. Broad arrow.]
+
+=Broad Arrow=, now used as the Royal mark on all Government stores, &c.,
+was first employed as a regal badge by Richard I. (Fig. 103.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 104. Gold Brocade State or “Ducal” costume of the
+Dogeressa of Venice.]
+
+=Brocade.= A stout silken stuff of variegated pattern. Strutt says it
+was composed of silk interwoven with threads of gold and silver. The
+state or “ducal” costume of the Dogeressa of Venice, represented in the
+illustration, consisted principally of an ample robe of the finest gold
+brocade, lined with ermine. (Figs. 88, 104.)
+
+=Broella.= Coarse cloth worn by monks in the Middle Ages.
+
+=Bromias=, Gr. A drinking-vessel of wood, or silver, resembling a large
+SCYPHUS (q.v.).
+
+=Bronze.= _Antique_ bronze was composed of tin and copper; the _modern_
+bronze contains also zinc and lead, by which the fluidity is increased,
+and the brittleness diminished.
+
+=Bronzes= (ancient Chinese) are rarely seen out of the province of
+Fokien. The lines of metal are small and delicate, and are made to
+represent flowers, trees, animals of various kinds, and sometimes
+Chinese characters. Some fine bronzes, inlaid with gold, are met with in
+this province. As a general rule, Chinese bronzes are more remarkable
+for their peculiar and certainly not very handsome form than for
+anything else.
+
+=Bronzing.= The art of laying a coating of bronze powder on wood,
+gypsum, or other material. Another method is the electrotype process.
+(Consult Walker’s _Electrotype Manipulation_.)
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 105 to 112. Gallic and Merovingian brooches.]
+
+=Brooch.= (See FIBULA.) Anglo-Saxon and Irish specimens of magnificent
+workmanship are described in the _Archæological Album_. In the Middle
+Ages brooches bore quaint inscriptions: Chaucer’s “prioress” wore
+
+                           “_a broche_ of gold ful shene,
+               On which was first y-wretten a crouned A,
+               And after, _Amor vincit omnia_.”
+
+Leather brooches for hats are mentioned by Dekker in _Satiromastix_,
+1602. Figs. 105, 106, 107 represent different brooches found in France
+of the Gallic and Merovingian periods. (Compare FIBULA, PHALERÆ.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 113. Gallic brooch.]
+
+=Brown=, in Egyptian art, was the colour consecrated to Typhon; in
+ancient times it was the sign of mourning. Regarded as a compound of red
+and black, BISTRE, it is the symbol of all evil deeds and treason. In a
+monastic costume it signifies renunciation. With the Moors it was
+emblematic of all evil. Christian symbolism appropriates the colour of
+the dead leaf for the type of “spiritual death,” &c. (Consult Portal,
+_Essai sur les Couleurs symboliques_.)
+
+=Brown Madder.= (See MADDER.)
+
+=Brown Ochre.= A strong, dark, yellow, opaque pigment. (See OCHRES.)
+
+=Brown Pigments= are _asphaltum_, _bistre_, _umber_, _sienna_, _Mars
+brown_, _Cassel earth_, _Cappagh brown_, _brown madder_, and burnt
+_terra verde_;—chiefly calcined earths. (See also INDIGO.)
+
+=Brown Pink= (Fr. _stil de grain_). A vegetable yellow pigment. (See
+PINKS.)
+
+=Brown Red= is generally made from burnt _yellow ochre_, or _Roman
+ochre_, or from calcined sulphate of iron. (See MARS.)
+
+=Brunswick Green.= A modification of MOUNTAIN GREEN (q.v.).
+
+=Bruny=, =Byrne=, or =Byrnan=. Saxon for a breastplate or cuirass,
+called by the Normans “_broigne_.”
+
+=Brushes.= (See HAIR PENCILS.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 114. Brussels Lace.]
+
+=Brussels Point à l’Aiguille= differs somewhat from the lace usually
+known as Brussels Lace or Point d’Angleterre, but resembles Point
+d’Alençon in the réseau ground. (Fig. 114.) (See POINT D’ANGLETERRE.)
+
+=Buccina= (Gr. βυκάνη). A kind of trumpet anciently made of a
+conch-shell, represented in the hands of Tritons.
+
+=Buccula=, R. (_bucca_, a cheek). The chin-piece or cheek-piece of a
+helmet, which could be raised or lowered by the soldier at will.
+
+=Bucentaur.= A monster, half man and half ox. The name of the Venetian
+state galley.
+
+=Buckets=, Anglo-Saxon. (See BOWLS.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 115. Heraldic buckle.]
+
+=Buckle=, Her. The crest of the Pelham family, now represented by the
+Earls of Chichester. It is a common ornament of ecclesiastical
+buildings, houses, and other objects in Sussex. (Fig. 115.)
+
+=Buckler.= (See CLIPEUS and SCUTUM.)
+
+=Buckram.= A cloth stiffened with gum, so called from Bokhara, where it
+was originally made.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 116. Bucranium.]
+
+=Bucranium=, R. (βουκράνιον). An ox’s head from which the flesh has been
+stripped; an ox-skull employed in the decoration of friezes by Greek and
+Roman architects. Fig. 116 represents a _bucranium_ in the temple of
+Vespasian at Rome.
+
+=Budge=, O. E. Lambskin with the wool dressed outwards. Mentioned by
+Chaucer.
+
+=Buffett-stoole=, O. E. A stool with three legs.
+
+=Buffin=, O. E. Coarse cloth of Elizabeth’s time.
+
+=Bugles=, O. E. Glass beads in the hair, _temp._ Elizabeth and James I.
+
+=Buldiellus=, Med. Lat. A baudric.
+
+=Bulga=, R. A purse or leathern bag for money which was carried on the
+arm. According to Festus the word is of Gallic origin.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 117. Bulla (on a door).]
+
+=Bulla=, R. (_bullo_, to bubble). A term denoting objects of various
+kinds, but all more or less approximating in shape to a water-bubble.
+The heads of certain nails were called _bullæ_; Fig. 117 shows one of
+the _bullæ_ decorating an ancient bronze door in the Pantheon at Rome.
+The _bulla aurea_ was an ornament of globular shape, worn round the neck
+by children of patrician family. The _bulla scortea_ was an ornament
+made of leather, worn by freedmen or individuals of the lower orders.
+
+=Bulting-pipe=, O. E. A bolting-cloth for sifting meal.
+
+=Bullula=, R. (_bulla_). Diminutive of BULLA (q.v.).
+
+=Bur.= A term in etching for the rough edge of a line, commonly removed,
+but by Rembrandt and other great masters made effective.
+
+=Burdalisaunder=, =Bourde de Elisandre=. Burda, a stuff for clothing
+(mentioned in the 4th century) from Alexandria. A silken web in
+different coloured stripes; 14th century.
+
+=Burgau.= A univalve shell, _Turbo marmoratus_, producing a
+mother-of-pearl; and hence all works in mother-of-pearl, of whatever
+material, are called “burgau.” (_Jacquemart._)
+
+=Burin.= An instrument for engraving on copper.
+
+=Burnisher.= A steel instrument used by engravers to soften lines or
+efface them. An agate is used to burnish gold.
+
+=Burnt Sienna.= (See SIENNA.)
+
+=Burnt Terra Verde.= (See GREEN EARTH.)
+
+=Burnt Umber.= (See UMBER.)
+
+=Burr=, O. E. (1) The broad iron ring on a tilting-lance, just below the
+gripe, to prevent the hand slipping back. (2) Projecting defences at the
+front of a saddle. (_Meyrick._) (3) The rough edge produced on the metal
+by an incised or etched line in an engraving.
+
+=Buskin.= (See COTHURNUS.)
+
+=Bustum=, R. (_buro_, to burn). An open spot upon which a pyre was
+raised for burning the corpse of a person of distinction. When the area
+adjoined the burying-ground, it was called _bustum_; when it was
+separate from it, it was called _ustrina_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 118. Arch-buttress.]
+
+=Buttress=, Arch. An abutment employed to increase the solidity or
+stability of a wall; it may either immediately abut on the wall, or be
+connected with it by a flying or arch-buttress (Fig. 118). In the
+Romano-Byzantine and lanceolated styles buttresses are largely employed
+to strengthen the walls of naves which have to support high vaulted
+roofs.
+
+=Buxum=, R. (πύξος). Box, an evergreen, the wood of which was used for
+various purposes, as with us. By analogy, the term _buxum_ was applied
+to objects made of this wood, such as combs, flutes, children’s shoes,
+and waxed tablets for writing.
+
+=Buzo=, O. E. The arrow for an arquebus, or cross-bow. French, _boujon_:
+“a boult, an arrow with a great or broad head.” (_Cotgrave._)
+
+=Byrrus.= (See BIRRUS.)
+
+=Byssus=, Gr. and R. (βύσσος). The precise meaning of this term is
+unknown; there is no doubt it was a texture made of some very costly
+material, since we learn from Pliny that the byssus cloth which he calls
+_linum byssinum_ was exceedingly dear. Everything leads us to suppose
+that it was a linen material of the finest quality. This opinion would
+seem to be confirmed by Herodotus and Æschylus. The word comes from the
+Hebrew _butz_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 120. Byzantine ornament on an English font.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 119. Byzantine Font.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 121. Roman-Byzantine Cross at Carew.]
+
+=Byzantine Period.= Time, about 6th to 12th century A. D. (_Byzantium_,
+the Latin name of Constantinople.) Byzantine Architecture is noteworthy
+for a bold development of the plan of Christian places of worship. It
+introduced the cupola, or dome, which was often surrounded by
+semi-domes; an almost square ground-plan in place of the long aisles of
+the Roman church; and piers instead of columns. The apse always formed
+part of Byzantine buildings, which were richly decorated, and contained
+marble in great profusion. St. Sophia, Constantinople (A. D. 532–537),
+is the finest example of Byzantine architecture. St. Mark’s, Venice (A.
+D. 977), and the Cathedral of Aix-la-Chapelle (A. D. 796–804), are also
+of pure Byzantine style. Byzantine Painting was that which succeeded the
+decline of the early Christian Art in the catacombs and basilicas of
+Rome, and which preceded and foreshadowed the Renaissance of Art in
+Italy. In style it was based on that of the catacombs, but with a
+reminiscence of the excellence of ancient Greece; it was, however,
+restrained and kept within narrow limits by the conventionalities which
+were imposed upon it by the Church, and which almost reduced it to a
+mechanical art. The mosaics of the 10th and 11th centuries in St.
+Mark’s, Venice, are perhaps the best existing examples of the Byzantine
+period. Specimens are also to be seen in St. Sophia, Constantinople; and
+at Ravenna.
+
+
+
+
+                                   C.
+
+
+=Caaba=, Arabic (lit. square house). The sacred mosque at Mecca. The
+temple is an almost cubical edifice, whence its name. It is a favourite
+subject of representation upon Mussulman works of art.
+
+=Caballaria=, =Cavalherium=, =hevallerie= (Gr. κλῆρος ἱππικὸς), Med. A
+meadow set apart for military exercises.
+
+=Caballerius=, Med. Lat. A cavalier, or knight.
+
+=Cabeiri= were the personification of the element of fire. The precise
+nature attributed to them is unknown. There were two principal branches
+of their worship, the Pelasgian and the Phœnician. It is probable that
+this religion originated in Asia Minor, and penetrated to the island of
+Samothrace, in remote antiquity; it was very popular throughout Greece
+in the Pelasgic period. The principal temples were at Samothrace,
+Lemnos, Imbros, Anthedon, and other places.
+
+=Cabeiria=, Gr. (καβείρια). Annual festivals in honour of the Cabeiri.
+(See THRONISMUS.)
+
+=Cabinet Pictures.= Small, highly-finished pictures, suited for a small
+room.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 122. Cable and tooth-mouldings.]
+
+=Cabling=, or =Cable-moulding=. A moulding in Roman architecture, made
+in imitation of a thick rope or cable.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 123. Lion’s head cabossed.]
+
+=Cabossed=, Her. Said of the head of an animal represented full-face, so
+as to show the face only. (Fig. 123.)
+
+=Cabulus=, Med. Latin (Old French, _chaable_). A machine for hurling
+stones; a large BALLISTA.
+
+=Caccabus=, Gr. and R. (κάκκαβος or κακκάβη). A sort of pot or vessel
+for cooking any kind of food. It was made of bronze, silver, or
+earthenware, and assumed a variety of forms; but the one in ordinary use
+resembled an egg with an opening at the top which closed by a lid. The
+_caccabus_ rested upon a trivet (_tripus_).
+
+=Cadafalsus=, =Cadafaudus=. (See CAGASUPTUS.)
+
+=Cadas=, O. E. An inferior silken stuff used for wadding; 13th century.
+
+=Cadency=, Her. Figures and devices, by which different members and
+branches of a family are distinguished.
+
+=Cadet=, Her. Junior.
+
+=Cadlys-drain=, Welsh. Chevaux-de-frise.
+
+=Cadmium Yellow= is the sulphide of cadmium, the finest and most
+permanent of all the yellow pigments in use.
+
+=Cadpen=, Welsh. A chief of battle; captain.
+
+=Cadrelli=, Med. Lat. Cross-bow quarrels. (See CARREAUX.)
+
+=Cādūceus= or =Caduceum=. A wand of laurel or olive, given by Apollo to
+Mercury in exchange for the lyre invented by the latter. Mercury, it is
+said, seeing two snakes struggling together, separated them with his
+wand, whereupon the snakes immediately twined themselves round it. This
+was the origin of the caduceus, as we know it; it was always an
+attribute of Mercury, who thence obtained his name of _Caducifer_, or
+caduceus-bearer. The caduceus was an emblem of peace.
+
+=Cadurcum=, R. This term is applied to two distinct things: (1) the fine
+linen coverlets, and (2) the earthenware vases, manufactured by the
+Cadurci, or Gauls inhabiting the district now called Cahors.
+
+=Cadus=, Gr. and R. (from χανδάνω, to contain), (1) A large earthenware
+jar, used for the same purposes as the amphora; especially to hold wine.
+An ordinary _cadus_ was about three feet high, and broad enough in the
+mouth to allow of the contents being baled out. (2) The ballot-urn in
+which the Athenian juries recorded their votes with pebbles, at a trial.
+
+=Cælatura= (_cælum_, a chisel). A general term for working in metal by
+raised work or intaglio, such as engraving, carving, chasing, riveting,
+soldering, smelting, &c. Greek, the _toreutic_ art. Similar work on
+wood, ivory, marble, glass, or precious stones was called SCULPTURA.
+
+=Cæmenticius=, =Cæmenticia= (structura). A kind of masonry formed of
+rough stones. There were two methods of construction to which this name
+applied. The first, called _cæmenticia structura incerta_, consisted in
+embedding stones of more or less irregular shape in mortar, so as to
+give them any architectural form, and then covering the whole over with
+cement. The second, called _cæmenticia structura antiqua_, consisted in
+laying rough stones one on the top of the other, without mortar, the
+interstices being filled by drippings or smaller stones.
+
+=Cæmentum.= Unhewn stones employed in the erection of walls or buildings
+of any kind.
+
+=Caer=, British (Lat. _castrum_; Saxon, _chester_). A camp or fortress.
+
+=Cæsaries= (akin to Sanscrit _keça_, hair, or to _cæsius_, bluish-grey).
+This term is almost synonymous with COMA (q.v.), but there is also
+implied in it an idea of beauty and profusion, not attaching to _coma_,
+which is the expression as well for an ordinary head of hair.
+
+=Cæstus=, =Cestus=. A boxing gauntlet. It consisted of a series of
+leather thongs, armed with lead or metal bosses, and was fitted to the
+hands and wrists.
+
+=Cætra.= (See CETRA.)
+
+=Cagasuptus=, Med. Lat. A CHAT-FAUX, or wooden shed, under which the
+soldiers carried on the operations of attack. (_Meyrick._)
+
+=Cailloutage=, Fr. Fine earthenware; pipe-clay; a kind of hard paste;
+opaque pottery. “Fine earthenware is most frequently decorated by the
+‘muffle;’ the oldest specimens, those made in France in the 16th
+century, are ornamented by incrustation.” (_Jacquemart._)
+
+=Cairelli=, Med. Lat. (See CADRELLI.)
+
+=Cairn.= A heap of stones raised over a grave, to which friends as they
+pass add a stone. The custom still prevails in Scotland and Ireland.
+
+=Caisson=, Arch. A sunken panel in a ceiling or soffit. (See COFFER.)
+
+=Calamarius= (_calamus_, q.v.). A case for carrying writing-reeds
+(_calami_). Another name for this case was _theca calamaria_.
+
+=Calamister= and =Calamistrum=. A curling-iron, so named because the
+interior was partly hollow like a reed (_calamus_), or perhaps because
+in very early times a reed heated in the ashes was employed for the
+purpose; hence, CALAMISTRATUS, an effeminate man, or discourse. (Compare
+CINIFLO.)
+
+=Calamus= (κάλαμος, a reed or cane). A haulm, reed, or cane. The term
+was applied to a variety of objects made out of reeds, such as a Pan’s
+pipe, a shepherd’s flute (_tibia_), a fishing-rod (_piscatio_), a rod
+tipped with lime, for fowling, &c. (See ARUNDO.) It was specially used,
+however, to denote a reed cut into proper shape, and used as a pen for
+writing.
+
+=Calantica.= (See CALAUTICA.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 124. Calash.]
+
+=Calash= (Fr. _calèche_). A hood made like that of the carriage called
+in France _calèche_, whence its name. It is said to have been introduced
+into England in 1765 by the Duchess of Bedford, and was used by ladies
+to protect their heads when dressed for the opera or other
+entertainments.
+
+=Calathiscus= (καλαθίσκος). A small wicker basket.
+
+=Calathus= (κάλαθος, a basket; Lat. _qualus_ or _quasillus_). A basket
+made of rushes or osiers plaited, employed for many purposes, but above
+all as a woman’s work basket. The _calathus_ was the emblem of the
+γυναικεῖον or women’s apartments, and of the housewife who devoted
+herself to domestic duties. The same term denoted earthenware or metal
+vases of various shapes; among others a drinking-cup.
+
+=Calautica= or =Calvatica=, R. (Gr. κρήδεμνον, from κρὰς and δέω;
+fastened to the head). A head-dress worn by women; the Greek MITRA
+(q.v.).
+
+=Calcar= (_calx_, the heel). A spur. It was also called _calcis aculeus_
+(lit. heel-goad), a term specially applied to the spur of a cock. The
+latter, however, was just as often called _calcar_. In mediæval Latin
+_calcaria aurea_ are the golden, or gilt, spurs which were a distinctive
+mark of knighthood; _calcaria argentea_, the silver spurs worn only by
+esquires. _Calcaria amputari_, to hack off the spurs, when a knight was
+degraded:—
+
+               “Li esperons li soit copé parmi
+                 Prés del talon au branc acier forbi.”
+                                   (_Roman de Garin MS._)
+
+=Calcatorium= (_calco_, to tread under foot). A raised platform of
+masonry, set up in the cellar where the wine was kept (_cella vinaria_),
+and raised above the level of the cellar-floor, to a height of three or
+four steps. On either side of this platform were ranged the casks
+(_dolia_) or large earthenware vessels in which the wine was made. The
+_calcatorium_ served as a receptacle for the grapes when crushed (whence
+its name), and as a convenient place from whence to superintend the
+making of the wine.
+
+=Calceamen.= Synonym of CALCEUS (q.v.), a term far more frequently
+employed.
+
+=Calceamentum.= A general term denoting any description of boot and
+shoe. (Each will be found separately noticed in its place.)
+
+=Calcedony= or =Chalcedony= (from the town _Chalcedon_). A kind of
+agate, of a milky colour, diversified with yellow, bluish, or green
+tints. The Babylonians have left us a large number of chalcedony
+cylinders, covered with inscriptions. (See also AGATE, CAMEOS.)
+
+=Calceolus= (dimin. of CALCEUS, q.v). A small shoe or ankle-boot worn by
+women. There were three kinds: the first had a slit over the instep,
+which was laced up when the boot was on. A second shape had a very wide
+opening, and could be fastened above the ankle by a string passed
+through a hem round the top. In the third description there was neither
+cord, lace, nor slit. The shoe was always low in the heel, and was worn
+like a slipper.
+
+=Calceus= (_calx_, the heel). A shoe or boot made sufficiently high to
+completely cover the foot. The Romans put off their shoes at table;
+hence _calceos poscere_ meant “to rise from table.”
+
+=Calculus= (dimin. of _calx_, a small stone or counter). A pebble, or
+small stone worn by friction to present the appearance of a pebble.
+_Calculi_ were used in antiquity for recording votes (for which purpose
+they were thrown into the urn), for reckoning, and for mosaic paving
+(hence the English word “calculation”).
+
+=Caldarium= (_calidus_, warm). The apartment in a set of Roman baths
+which was used as a kind of sweating-room. This chamber, which is
+constructed nearly always on the same plan in the different baths which
+have been discovered, included a LACONICUM, a LABRUM, a SUDATORIUM, and
+an ALVEUS. (See these words.) Fig. 56 (on p. 32) represents a portion of
+the _caldarium_ of Pompeii, restored.
+
+=Caldas Porcelain= is from the Portuguese factory of that name,
+specialized for faiences in relief; the greater number are covered with
+a black coating; the others with the customary enamels of the country,
+violet, yellow, and green.
+
+=Caldron=, for domestic use of the 14th century, is depicted as a tripod
+with a globular body, and broad mouth and two handles.
+
+=Calibre= (or =Caliper=) =Compasses=. Compasses made with arched legs.
+
+=Caliga.= A military boot worn by Roman soldiers and officers of
+inferior rank. The _caliga_ consisted of a strong sole, studded with
+heavy pointed nails, and bound on by a network of leather thongs, which
+covered the heel and the foot as high as the ankle.
+
+=Caliptra.= (See CALYPTRA.)
+
+=Caliver.= A harquebus of a standard “calibre,” introduced during the
+reign of Queen Elizabeth.
+
+=Calix.= A cup-shaped vase, used as a drinking-goblet. It was of
+circular shape, had two handles, and was mounted on a tolerably high
+stand. The term also denotes a water-meter, or copper tube of a
+specified diameter, which was attached like a kind of branch-pipe to a
+main one.
+
+=Calliculæ.= A kind of very thin metal disk, more or less ornamented,
+worn by rich Christians, and especially priests, as an ornament for the
+dress. _Calliculæ_ were also made of purple-coloured cloth. Many of the
+pictures in the catacombs represent persons wearing _calliculæ_ on their
+_colobia_ and other garments. (See COLOBIUM.)
+
+=Callisteia= (καλλιστεῖα). A Lesbian festival of women, in which a prize
+was awarded to the most beautiful.
+
+=Callot.= A plain coif or skull-cap (English).
+
+=Calones= (κᾶλα, wood). (1) Roman slaves who carried wood for the
+soldiers. (2) Farm servants.
+
+=Calote=, Fr. A species of sabre-proof skull-cap worn in the French
+cavalry.
+
+=Calotype.= A process of printing by photography, called also
+_Talbotype_.
+
+=Calpis=, Gr. A water-jar with three handles, two at the shoulders and
+one at the neck.
+
+=Calthrops.= (See CALTRAPS.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 125. Caltrap.]
+
+=Caltraps= (for _cheval_-traps). Spikes of metal thrown on the ground to
+resist a charge of cavalry. In Christian art, attributes of St.
+Themistocles.
+
+=Calvary=, Chr. An arrangement of small chapels or shrines in which the
+incidents of the progress to the scene of the crucifixion are
+represented. To each such “station” appropriate prayers and meditations
+are allotted.
+
+=Calvatica.= (See CALAUTICA.)
+
+=Calyptra= (from καλύπτω, to hide). A veil worn by young Greek and Roman
+women over the face. It is also called _caliptra_, but this term is less
+used.
+
+=Camail= (for cap-mail). A tippet of mail attached to the helmet. In
+mediæval Latin called _camale_, _camallus_, _camelaucum_, _calamaucus_,
+_calamaucum_.
+
+=Camara.= (See CAMERA.)
+
+=Camayeu.= Monochrome painting, i. e. in shades of one colour, or in
+conventional colours not copied from nature.
+
+=Camber=, Arch. A curve or arch.
+
+=Camboge= or =Gamboge=. A gum-resin, forming a yellow water-colour. The
+best gamboge is from Siam, and the kingdom of Camboja (whence its name).
+It should be brittle, inodorous, of conchoidal fracture, orange-coloured
+or reddish yellow, smooth and somewhat glistening. Its powder is bright
+yellow. An artificial gamboge, of little value, is manufactured with
+turmeric and other materials.
+
+=Cambresian Faience.= The “poterie blance” of Cambrai is mentioned in a
+MS. of the 16th century. It was an enamelled faience.
+
+=Camella.= An earthenware or wooden vessel employed in certain religious
+ceremonies. It probably served for making libations of milk.
+
+=Cameo= (Ital. _cammeo_). A precious stone engraved in relief; it is
+thus opposed to the INTAGLIO (q.v.), which is cut into the stone. Cameos
+are generally carved from stones having several layers. They were
+employed in the decoration of furniture, vases, clasps, girdles, and to
+make bracelets, rings, &c. Cameos were largely made by the Egyptians,
+Greeks, and Romans; by the two latter generally of sardonyx and onyx.
+(See INTAGLIO, SHELL CAMEO, &c.)
+
+=Cameo-glass.= (See GLASS.)
+
+=Camera=, more rarely =Camara=. The vault or vaulted ceiling of an
+apartment. _Camera vitrea_, a vaulted ceiling, the surface of which was
+lined with plates of glass. The term was also used to denote a chariot
+with an arched cover formed by hoops; an underground passage; a
+pirate-vessel with a decked cabin; and, in short, any chamber having an
+arched roof, as for instance the interior of a tomb.
+
+=Camera Lucida.= An optical instrument for reflecting the outlines of
+objects from a prism, so that they can be traced upon paper by a person
+unacquainted with the art of drawing.
+
+=Camera Obscura.= A darkened room in which the coloured reflections of
+surrounding objects are thrown upon a white ground.
+
+=Camfuri=, =Camphio=, Med. Lat. A decreed duel: from the German “kampf,”
+battle; and the Danish “vug,” manslaughter. (_Meyrick._)
+
+=Camies=, O. E. A light thin material, probably of silken texture.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 126. Caminus.]
+
+=Caminus.= Literally, a smelting furnace, and then an oven for baking
+bread; also, a hearth or fireplace. Fig. 126 represents a baker’s oven
+at Pompeii.
+
+=Camisado=, O. E. A sudden attack on a small party; a Spanish term.
+
+  “To give camisadoes on troupes that are lodged a farre off.” (_Briefe
+  Discourse of Warre._)
+
+=Camisia= (a Gallic word, whence prob. Ital. _camicia_). A light linen
+tunic worn next the skin (_tunica intima_).
+
+=Camlet= or =Chamlet=, O. E. Originally a tissue of goat’s and camel’s
+hair interwoven. In Elizabeth’s reign the name was given to a cloth of
+mixed wool and silk, first manufactured in Montgomeryshire, on the banks
+of the river Camlet.
+
+=Cammaka.= A cloth of which church vestments were made, _temp._ Edward
+III.
+
+=Camoca=, O. E., 14th century. A textile probably of fine camel’s hair
+and silk, and of Asiatic workmanship, much used for church vestments,
+dress, and hangings.
+
+=Campagus= or =Compagus=. A kind of sandal. It was worn especially by
+the Roman patricians.
+
+=Campana=, It. A bell; hence, CAMPANOLOGY, the science or study of
+bells.
+
+=Campanile.= A belfry.
+
+=Camp-ceiling.= Where all the sides are equally inclined to meet the
+horizontal part in the centre (as in an attic).
+
+=Campestre=, R. (from _campester_, i. e. pertaining to the Field of
+Mars). A short kilt worn by gladiators and soldiers when going through
+violent exercises in public. The kilt fitted close to the body, and
+reached two-thirds down the thigh.
+
+=Campio Regis=, Engl. The king’s champion, who on the day of the
+coronation challenges any one who disputes the title to the crown.
+
+=Campus Martius= (i. e. Field of Mars). At Rome, as in the provinces,
+this term had the same meaning which it bears in some countries at the
+present day; i. e. a ground on which soldiers went through their
+exercises. In ancient times, however, the Field of Mars, or simply the
+Field, served also as a place of assembly for the _comitia_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 127. Canaba.]
+
+=Canaba=, Gr. and R. A Low Latin name for the slight structures common
+in country places, such as we should now call sheds or hovels. Those who
+lived in them were called _canabenses_. Fig. 127 is from a terra-cotta
+vase found near the lake Albano.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 128. Canaliculus.]
+
+=Canaliculus= (dimin. of CANALIS, q.v.). A small channel or groove; or a
+fluting carved on the face of a triglyph. (Fig. 128.)
+
+=Canalis= (akin to Sanscrit root KHAN, to dig). An artificial channel or
+conduit for water. The term _canalis_ is also given to the fillet or
+flat surface lying between the abacus and echinus of an Ionic capital.
+It terminates in the eye of the volute, which it follows in such a way
+as to give it the proper contour.
+
+=Canathron= (Gr. κάναθρον). A carriage, of which the upper part was made
+of basket-work.
+
+=Canberia=, Med. Lat. (Fr. _jambières_). Armour for the legs.
+
+=Cancelli= (from _cancer_, a lattice). A trellis, iron grating, or
+generally an ornamental barrier separating one place from another. In
+some amphitheatres the PODIUM (q.v.) had _cancelli_ at the top. In a
+court of law the judges and clerks were divided from the place set apart
+for the public by _cancelli_ (hence “_chancel_”).
+
+=Candela.= A torch, made of rope, coated with tallow, resin, or pitch.
+It was carried in funeral processions (hence “_candle_”).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 129. Candelabrum.]
+
+=Candelabrum.= A candlestick, candelabrum, or generally any kind of
+stand by which a light can be supported. There were many different
+kinds. The same term is also used to denote the tall pedestal of a
+portable lamp (Fig. 129). (See CANDLEBEAM.)
+
+=Candellieri=, It. A style of grotesque ornamentation, characteristic of
+the Urbino majolica ware.
+
+=Candlebeam=, O. E. A chandelier of the Middle Ages with “_bellys of
+laton_” (or brass cups) slung by a pulley from the ceiling.
+
+=Candles.= The A.S. poets called the sun “rodores candel,” the candle of
+the firmament, “woruld candel,” “heofon candel,” &c. Originally, no
+doubt, the candle was a mere mass of fat plastered round a wick
+(candel-weoc) and stuck upon a “candel-sticca,” or upright stick; when
+the candlestick had several branches, it was called a candle-_tree_.
+There were iron, bone, silver-gilt, and ornamented candlesticks. Through
+the Middle Ages candles were stuck on a spike, not in a socket, and a
+chandelier of the 16th century shows the same arrangement.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 130. Persian Candys.]
+
+=Candys= (κάνδυς). A Persian cloak of woollen cloth, generally purple in
+colour.
+
+=Canephoria.= Greek festivals of Diana; _or_ an incident of another
+feast, called _pratelia_, in which virgins about to marry presented
+baskets (_canea_) to Minerva. The name, CANEPHORUS, or “basket-bearer,”
+was common to the virgins who attended processions of Ceres, Minerva,
+and Bacchus, with the consecrated cakes, incense, and other sacrificial
+accessories, in the flat baskets called _canea_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 131. Canette of white stone-ware, 1574.]
+
+=Canette.= A conic-shaped German drinking-mug, resembling the modern
+“schoppen,” of which highly ornamented examples in white stone-ware have
+been produced by the potters of Cologne and other parts of Germany.
+(Fig. 131.)
+
+=Caniple=, O. E. A small knife or dagger.
+
+=Canis= (akin to Sanscrit ÇVAN, Gr. κύων). A dog. This term has numerous
+diminutives: _catulus_, _catellus_, _canicula_. However ancient any
+civilization, the dog is always met with as the companion of man, and in
+each nation it follows a particular type. Thus a distinct difference is
+perceptible in the dogs of the Etruscans, Greeks, Romans, Egyptians,
+Indians, and Gauls. The Egyptians had terriers and greyhounds,
+wolf-dogs, and others for hunting or watchdogs. All these breeds are met
+with on the bas-reliefs of Egyptian monuments. The Egyptian name for a
+dog, _wou_, _wouwou_, is evidently onomatopoietic or imitative. (See
+also DOG.)
+
+=Canistrum=, =Canister=, or =Caneum= (κάνιστρον, from κάνη, a reed). A
+wide shallow basket for carrying the instruments of sacrifice and
+offerings for the gods. It was generally carried on the head by young
+girls, who were called _Canephoræ_ (κανηφόραι, i. e. basket-bearers),
+q.v.
+
+=Canon= (κανὼν, from κάνη, i. e. anything straight like a reed). A fixed
+rule or standard which is supposed to have served, in antiquity, as a
+basis or model in forming statues, the various members of which bore a
+definite proportion one to the other. The Greeks had some such _canon_.
+The δορυφόρος (spearman) of Polycletus was, it is said, looked upon as
+affording a standard for the proportions of the human body. The
+Egyptians are also supposed to have had a canon, in which the middle
+finger formed the unit of measurement.
+
+=Canopea= or =Canopic Vases=. An Egyptian vase, made of clay, and so
+named from its being manufactured at Canopus, a town of Lower Egypt, the
+present Aboukir. The same name was given to funereal urns made in the
+shape of the god _Canopus_, who is described by Russin as _pedibus
+exiguis, attracto collo, ventre tumido in modum hydriæ, cum dorso
+æqualiter tereti_ (i. e. having small feet, a short neck, a belly as
+round and swelling as a water-jar, and a back to match). Canopean vases
+were made of earthenware, alabaster, and limestone. They were placed at
+the four corners of tombs or sarcophagi containing mummies. In them were
+deposited the viscera of the dead, which were placed under the
+protection of the four genii, symbolized each by the head of some animal
+which served at the same time for the lid of the canopea.
+
+=Cant=, Arch. (1) To truncate. (2) To turn anything over on its angle.
+
+=Cantabrarii=, Med. Lat. Standard-bearers: from CANTABRUM, a kind of
+standard used by the Roman emperors. (Consult _Meyrick_.)
+
+=Canted Column=, Arch. A column polygonal in section.
+
+=Cantellus=, Med. Lat. (Fr. _chanteau_ and _cantel_; Lat. _quantillus_).
+(1) A cut with a weapon, or the portion cut away. (2) Heraldic for the
+fourth part of a shield, since called a canton. (3) The hind part of a
+saddle.
+
+=Canteriolus= (dimin. of _canterius_, a prop). A painter’s easel. The
+term, which is of doubtful Latinity, corresponds to the Greek ὀκρίβας.
+
+=Canterius=, R. This term has numerous meanings; it serves to denote a
+gelding, a prop, the rafters forming part of the wood-work of a roof,
+and a surgical contrivance, of which the form is unknown, but which was
+used for suspending horses whose legs chanced to be broken, in such a
+way as to allow the bone to set.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 132. Cantharus (Greek).]
+
+=Cantharus= (κάνθαρος, a kind of beetle). A two-handled vase or
+drinking-cup, of Greek invention. It was particularly consecrated to
+Bacchus, and accordingly, in representations of the festivals of that
+god, it figures constantly in the hands of satyrs and other personages.
+(Fig. 132.)
+
+=Cantherius.= (See CANTERIUS.)
+
+=Canthus= (κανθὸς, the felloe of a wheel). A hoop of iron or bronze
+forming the _tire_ of a wheel. The Greeks called this tire ἐπίσωτρον (i.
+e. that which is fastened to the felloe).
+
+=Canticum.= An interlude of music in a Roman play.
+
+=Cantilevers= or =Cantalivers=, Arch. Blocks framed into a wall under
+the eaves, projecting so as to carry a moulding. (See MODILLION.)
+
+=Cant-moulding=, Arch. Any moulding with a bevelled face.
+
+=Canum.= A Greek basket, more generally called CANISTRUM (q.v.).
+
+=Canvas= prepared for painting is kept stretched upon frames of various
+sizes: e. g. _kit-cat_, 28 or 29 inches by 36; _three-quarters_, 25 by
+30; _half-length_, 40 by 50; _bishop’s half-length_, 44 or 45 by 56;
+_bishop’s whole length_, 58 by 94.
+
+=Cap-a-pie= (Fr.). In full armour, from _head to foot_.
+
+=Caparison=. The complete trappings of a war-horse.
+
+=Capellina=, Med. Lat. The chapeline or small CHAPEL DE FER.
+
+=Capellum=, Med. Lat. A scabbard (_not_ the hilt of a sword).
+
+=Capellus ferreus.= (See CHAPEL DE FER.)
+
+=Capillamentum=, R. A wig of false hair, in which the hair was long and
+abundant. (See COMA.)
+
+=Capillus= (from _caput_, the head). Hair; the hair of the head in
+general. (See COMA.)
+
+=Capis=, R. A kind of earthenware jug, with a handle. Vessels of this
+kind were used in sacrifices, and the _capis_ is often found represented
+on medals. Other names for it were _capedo_, _capeduncula_, and
+_capula_.
+
+=Capisterium= (deriv. from σκάφη or σκάφος, i. e. that which is scooped
+out). A vessel resembling the _alveus_, or wooden trough, and which was
+employed for cleansing the ears of corn after they had been threshed and
+winnowed.
+
+=Capistrum= (from _capio_, i. e. that which takes or holds). (1) A
+halter or head-stall. (2) A rope employed for suspending the end of the
+beam in a wine-press. (3) A muzzle made to prevent young animals from
+sucking after they have been weaned. (4) A broad leather band or
+cheek-piece worn by flute-players. It had an opening for the mouth to
+blow through.
+
+=Capita aut Navia= (lit. _heads or ships_; of coins having the head of
+_Janus_ on one side and a ship on the reverse). A game of “heads or
+tails” played by the Romans and Greeks.
+
+=Capital= (_caput_, a head). A strip of cloth worn round the head, in
+primitive times, by Roman women, to keep in their hair. Later on it was
+worn only by women attached to the service of religion. (See CAPITULUM.)
+
+=Capitellum.= (See CAPITULUM.)
+
+=Capitium.= An article of female dress; a kind of corset or bodice.
+
+=Capitolium= (i. e. the place of the _caput_; because a human head was
+supposed to have been discovered in digging the foundations). The
+Capitol, or enclosure containing the temple raised in honour of Jupiter.
+The first Capitol of Rome was built on the _Mons Capitolinus_ or
+_Capitolium_. The chief cities of Italy possessed each its _Capitolium_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 133.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 134.]
+
+=Capital.= A term which denotes the member of architecture crowning the
+top of a column, pillar, or pilaster. Figs. 133 and 134 represent
+cushion capitals of the Romano-Byzantine epoch. Orders of Architecture
+are known by their Capitals. (See COMPOSITE, CORINTHIAN, DORIC, IONIC,
+and TUSCAN.)
+
+=Capo di Monte=, Naples. A manufactory of faience, established by
+Charles III.
+
+=Cappagh Browns, Light= and =Dark=. Rich brown pigments, made of a
+bituminous earth from Ireland. Called also _Mineral_ or _Manganese
+Brown_.
+
+=Capreolus=, R. (lit. a wild goat or roebuck). A fork for digging, with
+two prongs converging together like the horns of a roebuck. The term is
+also used for a strut or brace. The tie-beams and king-posts in the
+frame of a roof are often connected by _capreoli_.
+
+=Capriccio=, It. Caprice in art.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 135. Capricornus. The device of Cosmo de’ Medici.]
+
+=Capricornus.= The zodiacal sign of September employed by Augustus Cæsar
+in commemoration of his victory at Actium on the day when the sun enters
+that sign. The same device was used by Cosmo de’ Medici, and by the
+Emperor Rodolph II. of Germany, with the motto, “Fulget Cæsaris Astrum.”
+(Fig. 135.)
+
+=Caprimulgus=, Lat. A goat-milker, a common device on antique gems and
+bas-reliefs, representing a man or a faun milking a goat.
+
+=Capronæ=, R. (from _caput_ and _pronus_, i. e. that which hangs down
+the forehead). The forelock of a horse, and by analogy, a lock of
+curling hair falling down over the centre of the forehead, in a man or
+woman.
+
+=Capsa= or =Scrinium=, R. A box or case of cylindrical form, used for
+several purposes, but more particularly for the transport of rolls or
+volumes (_volumina_). The _capsæ_ were generally provided with straps
+and locks, the former serving as a handle.
+
+=Capsella= and =Capsula=, R. (dimin. of CAPSA, q.v.). A case or casket
+for jewels, &c.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 136. Capuchon and mantle. _From an Italian painting
+of the 13th century._]
+
+=Capuchon.= A hood with neck-piece and mantle. The engraving (Fig. 136)
+is a portrait of Cimabue.
+
+=Capula.= Dimin. of CAPIS (q.v.).
+
+=Capularis=, R. The straight handle or hilt of any kind of instrument or
+weapon, in contradistinction to _ansa_, which signifies a curved haft or
+handle. The term _capularis_ was applied indifferently to the handle of
+a sword, a sceptre, &c.
+
+=Car=, =Chariot=, or =Carriage=. (See CARRUS and CURRUS.)
+
+=Carabaga=, Med. Lat. Also CALABRA. A kind of catapult or balista.
+
+=Carabine.= (See CARBINE.)
+
+=Carabus= (κάραβος). A small boat made of wicker-work; a kind of shallop
+covered with raw hides. It was either propelled by itself or attached to
+the stern of a larger vessel. Similar to the coracle.
+
+=Caracalla= (a Celtic word). A military garment introduced from Gaul
+into Rome by the Emperor Antonine, who obtained thus his surname of
+_Caracalla_.
+
+=Caracole=, Arch. A spiral staircase.
+
+=Carbassus= or =Carbassum= (κάρπασος, fine Spanish flax). This term was
+used indifferently to denote all textures made of the fine Spanish flax.
+Thus any kind of linen garment, the sails of a ship, the awning of a
+theatre or amphitheatre, all came under the term of _carbassus_.
+
+=Carbatinæ= (καρβάτιναι). A rough kind of boot in common use, made of a
+single piece of leather, and worn by peasants.
+
+=Carbine=, or =Carabine=, or =Caraben=. A short gun with a wheel lock
+and a wide bore, introduced in the 16th century.
+
+=Carbonate of Lead=, or _white lead_, is the principal white pigment. It
+is prepared by exposing sheets of lead to the action of acetic and
+carbonic acids. It is called also _Ceruse_, _Flake-white_, _Krems_ (or
+_Vienna_) _white_, _Nottingham white_. It is also known, under different
+modifications of colour, as _Venice_, or as _Hamburg_, or as _Dutch
+white_. It is a pigment very liable to injury from exposure to certain
+gases. (See OXIDE OF ZINC.)
+
+=Carbonates of Copper= yield blue and green pigments, known from the
+earliest times, and under many names, as _Mountain_ blue and green, blue
+and green _Ash_, or _Saunders’_ (for _cendres’_) blue and green. These
+names are also applied to the manufactured imitations of the native
+carbonates of copper. Powdered _Malachite_ is a form of the native green
+carbonate. The colours called _Emerald Green_ and _Paul Veronese Green_
+are artificial.
+
+=Carbuncle= (Lat. _carbunculus_). A gem of a deep red colour. A jewel
+shining in the dark. (_Milton._)
+
+=Carcaissum=, Med. Lat. (Fr. _carquois_; It. _carcasso_; Mod. Gr.
+γαρκάσιον). A quiver.
+
+=Carcamousse=, Med. A battering-ram. The name is onomatopoetic.
+
+=Carcanet=, O. E. A necklace set with stones, or strung with pearls.
+
+=Carcass=, Arch. The unfinished frame or skeleton of a building.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 137. Carceres. Roman prisons.]
+
+=Carcer= (akin to _arceo_, i. e. an enclosure (Gr. ἕρκος). (1) A prison.
+(2) The circus. At Rome the prisons were divided into three stages: the
+first, which formed a story above ground (_carcer superior_), was for
+prisoners who had only committed slight offences; the _carcer interior_,
+or stage on a level with the ground, served as a place of confinement in
+which criminals were placed to await the execution of their sentence;
+lastly there was the _carcer inferior_, or subterranean dungeon called
+_robur_, for criminals condemned to death. Fig. 137 represents the
+_carcer_ built at Rome by Ancus Martius and Servius Tullius; Fig. 138
+the _carceres_ of the circus.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 138. Carceres. Stables in the circus at Rome.]
+
+=Carchesium= (καρχήσιον). (1) A drinking-cup of Greek invention, and
+having slender handles rising high over the edge, and reaching to the
+foot. It was an attribute of Bacchus, and was used in the religious
+ceremonies. (2) A scaffolding in the shape of the _carchesium_ at the
+masthead of a ship. (Anglicè, “crow’s-nest.”)
+
+=Cardinalis.= (See SCAPUS.)
+
+=Cardo.= A pivot and socket used for the hinge of a door. The term was
+also used in carpentry to denote a dove-tailed tenon; this was called
+_cardo securi-culatus_, i. e. a tenon in the shape of an axe, the
+dove-tail bearing some resemblance to the blade of that tool.
+
+=Care-cloth=, O. E. A cloth held over the bride and bridegroom’s heads
+at a wedding.
+
+=Carellus= (Fr. _carreau_). A quarrel or arrow for cross-bows, the head
+of which was either four-sided or had four projections.
+
+=Carillon=, Fr. A set of large bells, arranged to perform tunes by
+machinery, or by a set of keys touched by a musician. Antwerp, Bruges,
+and Ghent are celebrated for the carillons in their steeples.
+
+=Caristia= (from χάρις, favour or gratitude). A Roman feast, at which
+the members of a family came together. It lasted three days: on the
+first, sacrifices were offered to the gods; the second was consecrated
+to the worship of deceased relations; and on the third the surviving
+members of the family met at a banquet. Strangers were not allowed in
+these gatherings.
+
+=Carminated Lakes.= Also called _Lake of Florence_, _Paris_, or
+_Vienna_. Pigments made from the liquor in which cochineal and the other
+ingredients have been boiled to make _carmine_. (See MADDER.)
+
+=Carmine.= A beautiful pigment prepared from the insect, cochineal.
+Carmine is the richest and purest portion of the colouring matter of
+cochineal. The various kinds of carmine are distinguished by numbers,
+and possess a value corresponding thereto; the difference depending
+either on the proportion of the _alumina_ added, or on the presence of
+_vermilion_ added for the purpose of diluting and increasing the
+quantity of the colour: the alumina produces a paler tint, and the
+vermilion a tint different to that of genuine carmine. The amount of
+adulteration can always be detected by the use of liquor ammoniæ, which
+dissolves the whole of the carmine, but leaves the adulterating matter
+untouched. Carmine is chiefly used in miniature painting and in
+water-colours. It is made in large quantities in Paris.
+
+=Carmine-madder.= (See MADDER.)
+
+=Carnarium=, R. (_caro_, flesh). (1) A larder for fresh or salted
+provisions. (2) The iron hooks on which they were hung.
+
+=Carnificia= or =Carnificina=, R. (_carnifex_, executioner).
+Subterranean dungeons, in which criminals were put to the torture, and,
+in many cases, executed.
+
+=Carnix= or =Carnyx= (Celtic and Gaulish word). A trumpet in the form of
+a long horn, of which the mouth was curved so as to resemble the mouth
+of an animal. This instrument gave out a peculiarly loud strident sound,
+and was used more particularly by the Celtic nations, notably the Gauls.
+It is constantly found represented on the coins of these nations, and on
+bas-reliefs. Some archæologists have mistaken the _carnices_ on medals
+for _cornucopiæ_.
+
+=Carol=, Chr. An enclosed place; a circular gallery. In old French,
+_carole_ signified a round dance, or a circle of stone. In the last
+century the term was applied to the ambulatory, or circular gallery,
+behind the choir in churches.
+
+=Carpentum=, R. A two-wheeled carriage of Gaulish invention; it was
+often covered with an awning, resembling in form that of the CAMARA
+(q.v.). The _carpentum funebre_ or _pompaticum_ was a hearse. It was
+made to resemble a shrine or small temple. Lastly, the term _carpentum_
+was used to denote a cart, with two wheels, employed for agricultural
+purposes.
+
+=Carrago= (i. e. formed of _carri_ or carts). A kind of intrenchment
+peculiar to certain barbarous nations. It was constructed by drawing up
+waggons and war-chariots in a curved line, approaching a circle as
+nearly as the nature of the ground permitted. It formed a first line of
+defence, behind which the combatants sheltered themselves in order to
+defend the camp proper, which lay in the centre of the _carrago_.
+
+=Carreaux=, Med. Fr. Quarrels for cross-bows, so called from their
+square form.
+
+=Carriolum.= (See CARROCIUM.)
+
+=Carroballista= or =Carrobalista= (_carrus_, a car). A _ballista_
+mounted upon a carriage, to be transported from place to place. (See
+BALLISTA.)
+
+=Carrocium=, =Carrocerum=, Med. Lat. A standard fixed on a carriage.
+
+=Carrotus.= A quarrel. (See CARELLUS, &c.)
+
+=Carruca=, =Carrucha=, or =Carucha=. A carriage of costly description,
+richly ornamented with bronze and ivory carvings and chased gold. It
+differed widely from the ESSEDO and the RHEDA (q.v.).
+
+=Carrus= or =Carrum= (Celtic root). A cart or chariot of Gaulish
+invention, on two wheels, used in the army as a commissariat waggon. A
+_carrus_ occurs among the sculptures on the column of Trajan.
+
+=Cartamera= (Gaulish word). A Gaulish girdle made of metal, and used to
+support the _braccæ_, or trousers. It was made sometimes in the form of
+a serpent with its tail in its mouth, but more generally resembled a
+fringe of twisted hemp, like the _torques_, by which name accordingly it
+was known among the Romans. (See TORQUES.)
+
+=Cartibulum=, R. (corrupted from _gertibulum_, i. e. that which bears or
+carries). A side-board, consisting of a square slab of stone or marble,
+supported in the middle by a pedestal or stem. The _cartibulum_ always
+stood against a wall.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 139. Egyptian Cartouche.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 140. Egyptian Column with Cartouche.]
+
+=Cartouche=, Egyp. An elliptical tablet of scroll-like form, containing
+the names of the Pharaohs. Fig. 139 represents the cartouche of King
+Artaxerxes. Cartouches were applied to decorate columns, an illustration
+of which may be seen on the abacus and capital of the column in Fig.
+140.
+
+=Caryatides= (Καρυάτιδες, i. e. women of Caryæ). Female figures, in an
+upright posture, which were employed in lieu of columns to support
+entablatures or any other members of architecture. One of the finest
+instances of the application of caryatides to this purpose is to be
+found in the portico of the temple of Pandrosos, at Athens.
+
+=Caryatis.= A festival in honour of Artemis Caryatis, which was
+celebrated at Caryæ, in Laconia.
+
+=Case Bags=, Arch. The joists framed between a pair of girders, in naked
+flooring.
+
+=Cash.= A Chinese coin.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 141. Casque.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 142. Casque.]
+
+=Casque=, Fr. Helmets of every description, from those of classical
+times to the present, have been called casques by the poets; but the
+head-piece specially so designated is first seen in English armour of
+the reign of Henry VIII. The casque was generally without a visor, and
+worn more for parade than warfare. The engraving Fig. 141 represents a
+Gaulish and Fig. 142 an Oriental casque.
+
+=Casquetel.= A small open helmet without beaver or visor, having a
+projecting umbril, and flexible plates to protect the neck behind.
+
+=Cassel Black.= (See BLACK.)
+
+=Cassel Earth.= A brown pigment.
+
+=Cassel Yellow.= (See TURNER’S YELLOW.)
+
+=Cassida.= (See CASSIS.)
+
+=Cassilden=, O. E. Chalcedony.
+
+=Cassis= or, rarely, =Cassida= (perhaps an Etruscan word). A casque or
+helmet made of metal, and so distinguished from GALEA (q.v.), a helmet
+made of leather. Figs. 141 and 142 represent respectively a Gaulish and
+an Eastern _cassis_ (the latter, however, is considered by some
+antiquaries to be Gaulish). The war-casque of the Egyptian kings,
+although of metal, was covered with a panther’s skin; it was ornamented
+with the URÆUS (q.v.).
+
+=Cassock= signifies a horseman’s loose coat, and is used in that sense
+by the writers of the age of Shakspeare. It likewise appears to have
+been part of the dress of rustics. (_Stevens._) It was called a “vest”
+in the time of Charles II. Later on it became the distinguishing dress
+of the clergy.
+
+=Cassolette=, Fr. A perfume box with a perforated lid; the perforations
+in a censer.
+
+=Cassone.= An Italian chest, richly carved and gilt, and often decorated
+with paintings, which frequently held the _trousseau_ of a bride.
+
+=Castanets.= Various peoples have employed flat pieces of wood to
+produce a certain kind of noise during religious ceremonies. The
+Egyptians seem to have had for this purpose “hands” of wood or ivory,
+which were struck one against the other to form an accompaniment to
+chants or rhythmic dances. (See CROTALA, &c.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 143. Cup of Castel Durante (1525), in the Museum of
+the Louvre.]
+
+=Castel Durante.= An ancient manufactory of Urbino ware, established in
+the 14th century. Fig. 143, from a cup in the Louvre, is a fine specimen
+of Castel Durante majolica of the 16th century.
+
+=Castellum= (dimin. of CASTRUM, q.v.; i. e. a small castle). A small
+fortified place or citadel; also a reservoir for water. The ruins of
+_castella_ still existing are very few in number; one of the most
+perfect, as far as the basin is concerned, is that of the _castellum
+divisorium_ or _deversorium_, at Nismes.
+
+=Casteria.= A storehouse in which the rudder, oars, and movable tackle
+of a vessel were kept.
+
+=Castor.= The beaver; hence applied to beaver hats.
+
+=Castoreæ=, R. Costly fabrics and dresses made of the fur of beavers.
+
+=Castra=, R. (plur. of _castrum_, which, like _casa_, = the covering
+thing). This term was applied solely to an encampment, a fortified or
+intrenched camp, while the singular _castrum_, an augmentative of CASA
+(q.v.), denotes a hut, or strongly-constructed post, and consequently a
+fort, or fortress; but for this last the Romans preferred to use the
+diminutive _castellum_.
+
+=Castula= or =Caltula=, R. A short petticoat worn by Roman women, held
+up by braces.
+
+=Casula=, R. (dimin. of _casa_). (1) A small hut or cabin. (2) A hooded
+cloak, or capote.
+
+=Cat.= The Egyptian name for the cat (_maaou_) is evidently
+onomatopoetic. As a symbol, this animal played a part which has hitherto
+not been clearly determined. Certain papyri show us the cat severing the
+serpent’s head from its body, a symbol which would seem to point out the
+cat as the destroyer of the enemies of the daylight and the sun. Again,
+the goddess _Bast_ is represented with a cat’s head, the animal being
+sacred to her.
+
+=Cat= (Med. Lat. _cattus_ or _gattus_). A covering under which soldiers
+lay for shelter, while sapping the walls of a fortress, &c.
+
+=Cataclista=, R. A close-fitting garment worn by Roman ladies, bearing a
+great resemblance to those which are to be seen on Egyptian statues.
+
+=Catacombs=, Chr. This term, the etymology of which is uncertain, serves
+to denote disused stone quarries, made use of by the early Christians
+for their meetings, and as subterranean cemeteries. We meet with
+catacombs in several cities, but the most celebrated are unquestionably
+those of Rome. Catacombs also exist at Syracuse, Catana, Palermo,
+Naples, and Paris.
+
+=Catadromus=, R. (from κατὰ and δρόμος, i. e. a running down). A
+tight-rope for acrobats in a circus or amphitheatre. The _catadromus_
+was stretched in a slanting direction from a point in the arena to the
+top of the building.
+
+=Catafaltus=, Med. Lat. (See CAGASUPTUS.)
+
+=Catagrapha=, Gr. and R. (κατα-γραφὴ, i. e. a drawing or marking down).
+A painting in perspective (rarely met with in the works of the ancient
+painters).
+
+=Cataphracta=, Gr. and R. (κατα-φράκτης, i. e. that which covers up). A
+general term to denote any kind of breastplate worn by the Roman
+infantry. [Cataphracti were heavy-armed cavalry, with the horses in
+armour.]
+
+=Cataphracti.= Decked vessels, in opposition to _aphracti_, open boats.
+
+=Catapirates=, Gr. and R. (κατα-πειρατὴς, i. e. that which makes trial
+downwards). A sounding lead, of an ovoid form, with tallow or a kind of
+glue at the end, by means of which sailors were able to ascertain the
+nature of the bottom.
+
+=Catapulta=, Gr. and R. (κατα-πέλτης, i. e. that which hurls). A
+military engine for discharging heavy missiles. The _ballista_ projected
+stones; the _catapult_, darts; the _scorpio_ (uncertain). They were all
+called _tormenta_, from the _twisting_ of the ropes of hairs or fibres
+which supplied the propelling force.
+
+=Catascopium=, Gr. and R. (dimin. of CATASCOPUS, q.v.). A post of
+observation or sentry tower.
+
+=Catascopus=, Gr. and R. (κατάσκοπος, i. e. that which explores or
+spies). (1) A post of observation. (2) A vessel employed as a spy-ship;
+and by analogy (3) a scout, i. e. a soldier whose duty is to act as a
+spy on the enemy.
+
+=Catasta= (from κατάστασις, i. e. a place of presentation). A platform
+upon which slaves were placed to be publicly sold. Some scaffolds of
+this kind were made to revolve, so that the purchaser might thoroughly
+inspect every part of the slave at his leisure. _Catasta arcana_ was the
+name given to a gridiron, or iron bed, upon which criminals were laid to
+undergo torture. (See GRIDIRON.)
+
+=Cateja= (Celtic word). A missile made of wood hardened in the fire. It
+was employed by the Gauls, Germans, and other barbarians in the way of a
+harpoon, a rope being fastened to one end of the weapon, by means of
+which it could be recovered after it had been launched.
+
+=Catella= (dimin. of CATENA, q.v.). A term specially used to denote the
+finer sorts of chains made of bronze, silver, and gold. Chains made of
+the precious metals were worn as trinkets. [The use of the diminutive
+indicates elegance and delicacy.]
+
+=Catellus=, R. (dimin. of CATENA, q.v.). A chain used to shackle slaves,
+or perhaps merely attached to them in the way of a clog.
+
+=Catena=, R. (1) A chain, especially (2) a chain of gold or silver worn
+as an ornament round the body, like a _balteus_ (shoulder-belt), by
+certain goddesses, dancing girls, bacchantes, or courtezans.
+
+=Catenarius.= The chained dog kept at the entrance of their houses by
+the Romans.
+
+=Catharmata= (καθάρματα, from καθαίρω, i. e. that which is thrown away
+in cleansing). Sacrifices in which human victims were offered up, in
+order to avert the plague or similar visitations. [They were thrown into
+the sea.]
+
+=Cathedra= (καθέδρα, from κατὰ and ἕδρα, i. e. a place for sitting
+down). A chair having a back, but without arms. There were various kinds
+of _cathedræ_: the _cathedra strata_ was a chair furnished with
+cushions; _cathedra supina_, a chair with long sloping back; _cathedra
+longa_, a chair with long deep seat. The _cathedra philosophorum_ was
+the equivalent of our modern term, a professor’s chair.
+
+=Catherine Wheel.= In Gothic architecture, a large circular window,
+filled with radiating divisions; called also rose-window.
+
+=Cathetus=, Arch. (1) The axle of a cylinder. (2) The centre of the
+Ionic volute.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 144. Catillus for grinding corn.]
+
+=Catillus= and =Catillum= (dimin. of CATINUS, q.v.; i. e. a small bowl).
+(1) The upper part of a mill for grinding corn, which served both as
+grindstone and hopper or bowl. Fig. 144 represents an ancient mill, a
+fourth part of the _catillus_ being suppressed in order to show the
+reader the mechanism. (2) A small dish having much resemblance to the
+_catinus_, and so by analogy (3) a flat circular ornament employed to
+decorate the scabbard of a sword.
+
+=Catinus= and =Catinum=, R. (akin to Sicilian κάτινον). Dishes used for
+cooking, and for the table. _Catina_ might be of earthenware or metal,
+of glass or other precious material, and were employed as sacrificial
+vessels to hold incense, &c.
+
+=Catty.= A Chinese weight = 1⅓ lb.
+
+=Catulus=, R. When a slave ran away from his master, and was retaken, he
+was led back in chains, the _catulus_ being the chain which was attached
+to an iron collar passing round his neck. A slave was thus said to be
+led back _cum manicis, catulo, collarique_, i. e. with manacles, leading
+chain, and neck-collar.
+
+=Caudex.= (See CODEX.)
+
+=Caudicarius=, =Codicarius=, R. (from _caudex_, a tree-trunk). A wide
+flat barge employed in river transport. It was of rough construction,
+and was broken up on arriving at its destination.
+
+=Caudicius=, R. A vessel of the same kind as the _caudicarius_, employed
+on the Moselle.
+
+=Caughley-ware= (Shropshire). A soft porcelain; 18th century.
+
+=Caul=, O. E. A cap or network enclosing the hair.
+
+=Cauliculi= or =Caulicoli=, R. (dimin. of _caulis_, a stalk). Acanthus
+leaves springing from the capital of a Corinthian column.
+
+=Caupolus.= (See CAUPULUS.)
+
+=Caupona=, R. (_caupo_, an innkeeper). An inn or hostel for the
+accommodation of travellers. The _cauponæ_ bore a general resemblance to
+our roadside inns. [Also, a cooked-meat shop.]
+
+=Cauponula=, R. (dimin. of _caupona_). A small tavern, or low wine-shop
+of mean appearance.
+
+=Caupulus=, R. A kind of boat, classed by authors among the _lembi_ and
+_cymbæ_.
+
+=Caurus=, R. An impersonation of the North-West wind; represented under
+the form of an old man with a beard, pouring down rain from an urn.
+
+=Causia=, Gr. and R. (καυσία, from καῦσις, i. e. that which keeps off
+heat). A broad-brimmed felt hat, of Macedonian invention, and adopted by
+the Romans. It was especially worn by fishermen and sailors.
+
+=Cauter= (καυτὴρ, i. e. that which burns). A cautery or branding-iron.
+The _cauter_ was (1) an instrument used by surgeons; it was also used
+for branding cattle and slaves. (2) An instrument employed to burn in
+the colours in an encaustic painting.
+
+=Cauterium= = CAUTER (q.v.).
+
+=Cavædium=, R. (from _cavum_ and _ædes_, i. e. the hollow part of a
+house). An open courtyard. In early times the Romans had an external
+courtyard to their houses. In course of time, however, the increase of
+luxury and comfort brought about a change in the _cavædium_, which was
+partially covered in with a roof supported by columns, a partial opening
+being left in the centre, which was called the _compluvium_. When thus
+altered, the _cavædium_ went under the name of ATRIUM (q.v.).
+
+=Cavalherium.= (See CABALLARIA.)
+
+=Cavallerius= or =Cavallero=, Med. Lat. A knight or cavalier.
+
+=Cavea=, R. (from _cavus_, i. e. a hollow place or cavity), (1) A wooden
+cage with open bars, of wood or, more generally, of iron, used for the
+transport and exhibition of the wild beasts of a menagerie. (2) A
+bird-cage. (3) A frame of wicker-work employed by fullers and dyers. (4)
+A palisade to protect young trees when growing up, and (5) the vast
+reversed cone formed by the successive stages of a theatre or
+amphitheatre. This might be divided, according to the size of the
+building, into one, two, or three distinct tiers, called respectively
+upper, lower, and middle (_summa_, _ima_, _media cavea_). (6) A warlike
+machine used in attacking cities.
+
+=Cavetto=, Arch. (deriv. from Ital. _cavo_). A concave moulding formed
+of a segment of a circle.
+
+=Cavo-relievo.= Intaglio-sculpture cut into the stone, as in Egyptian
+art.
+
+=Ceadas= or =Cæadas= (κεάδας or καιάδας). A deep cave into which the
+Spartans thrust condemned prisoners.
+
+=Ceinture= or =Ceint=. A girdle. (See CINCTUS.)
+
+=Celadon.= A peculiar tinted porcelain, described by Jacquemart as the
+earliest tint of Chinese pottery.
+
+=Celebê= (Κελέβη). A vase of ovoid form and with two handles. The lower
+part is shaped elegantly, like an amphora, but the upper part resembles
+a pitcher with a sort of projecting lip. Its peculiarity is in the
+_handles_, which are “pillared” and “reeded.”
+
+=Celes=, R. A racing or saddle horse, as opposed to a draught horse. The
+same term was also applied to a vessel or boat of a peculiar form,
+propelled by oars, in which each rower handled only a single oar. It was
+also called _celox_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 145. Plan of temple showing the Cella.]
+
+=Cella=, R. (from _celo_, to hide). The interior of a temple, i. e. the
+part comprised within the four walls. In Fig. 145 _a_ represents the
+portico, _b_ the _cella_. The term is also used to denote a niche,
+store-room, or, in general, any kind of cellar; e. g. _cella vinaria_,
+_cella olearia_, and even a tavern situated in a cellar. The term was
+also applied to slaves’ dormitories, the parts of the public baths, &c.
+
+=Cellatio.= A suite of apartments in a Roman house set apart for various
+purposes, but especially as quarters for slaves.
+
+=Cellula= (dimin. of CELLA, q.v.). A small sanctuary, i. e. the interior
+of a small temple, and by analogy any kind of small chamber.
+
+=Celox.= (See CELES.)
+
+=Celt.= A variety of chisels and adzes of the flint and bronze periods.
+
+=Celtic= (Monuments) were usually constructed of huge stones, and are
+known, for that reason, as _megalithic monuments_. Such are STANDING
+STONES, DOLMENS, MENHIRS or PEULVANS, CROMLECHS, COVERED ALLEYS, TUMULI,
+&c. (See these words.)
+
+=Cembel.= A kind of joust or HASTILUDE.
+
+=Cendal=, =Sandal=, &c., O. E. The name, variously spelt, of a silken
+stuff used for vestments, and for banners, &c.; 13th century. We now
+call this stuff _sarcenet_.
+
+=Cenotaph= (κενο-τάφιον, i. e. an empty tomb). A monument raised to a
+Roman citizen who had been drowned at sea, or who, from any other cause,
+failed to receive burial.
+
+=Censer.= A sacred vessel used for burning perfumes.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 146. Centaur.]
+
+=Centaur= (κένταυρος, according to some, from κεντέω and ταῦρος, i. e.
+herdsman; but prob. simply from κεντέω, i. e. Piercer or Spearman). The
+Centaurs are represented with the body of a horse, and bust, head, and
+arms of a man. (Fig. 146.) In Christian archæology, the Centaur is a
+symbol of the swift passage of life, the force of the instincts, and in
+a special sense, of adultery. The war of the Centaurs and the Lapithæ is
+the subject of the frieze at the British Museum, from a temple of Apollo
+in Arcadia. _Hippo-centaurs_ were half horse; _Onocentaurs_, half ass;
+and _Bucentaurs_ or _Tauro-centaurs_, half ox.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 147. Centaur and young.]
+
+=Cento= (κέντρων, patchwork). A covering made of different scraps of
+cloth, and used as clothing for slaves. The same term denotes a coarse
+cloth which was placed beneath the saddle of a beast of burden, to keep
+the back of the animal from being galled by the saddle. In Christian
+archæology the term was used to denote a coarse patchwork garment, and,
+by analogy, a poem composed of verses taken from various authors, like
+the _Cento nuptialis_ of Ausonius.
+
+=Centunculus= (dimin. of CENTO, q.v.). A motley garment of various
+colours, like that of our harlequin. It was worn, according to Apuleius,
+by the actors who played in burlesques, and there are certain vases on
+which Bacchus is represented, arrayed in a similar costume.
+
+=Cepotaphium= (κηπο-τάφιον). A tomb situated in a garden.
+
+=Cera= (akin to κηρός). Wax, and, by analogy, any objects made of wax,
+such as images of the family ancestors (_imagines majorum_); or the wax
+tablets for writing on with the _stylus_. These were called respectively
+_ceræ duplices_, _triplices_, _quintuplices_, according as they had two,
+three, or five leaves. The first, second, third, and last tablet were
+called respectively _prima_, _secunda_, _tertia_, _ultima_ or _extrema
+cera_.
+
+=Ceramic.= Appertaining to POTTERY (q.v.).
+
+=Cerberus.= The three-headed dog who guarded the gates of hell.
+
+=Cercurus= (κέρκουρος, perhaps from Κέρκυρα, the island Corcyra). A
+Cyprian vessel propelled by oars. Its form is unknown.
+
+=Cerebrerium.= An iron skull-cap, _temp._ Edward I.
+
+=Cere-cloth= (_cera_, wax). Cloth saturated with wax, used for
+enveloping a consecrated altarstone, or a dead body.
+
+=Cereus= (_cera_, wax). A wax candle, made either with the fibres of
+cyperus or papyrus twisted together and dipped in wax, or with the pith
+of elder, or rush, covered with the same material.
+
+=Ceriolare= (_cera_, wax). A stand, holder, or candelabrum for wax
+candles. There were a great variety of this kind of vessel. (See
+CANDELABRUM.)
+
+=Cernuus= (from _cer_ = κάρα, and _nuo_, i. e. with head inclined to the
+ground). A tumbler who walks upon his hands with his feet in the air.
+Women even used to turn series of summersaults, resting alternately on
+the feet and hands, among a number of swords or knives stuck in the
+ground. This exhibition was called by the Greeks εἰς μαχαίρας κυβιστᾶν,
+i. e. lit. to tumble head over heels between knives).
+
+=Cerōma= (κήρωμα, a wax-salve). A room in which wrestlers rubbed
+themselves over with oil and fine sand. The room was so named from the
+unguent employed, which consisted of wax mixed with oil [which was also
+called _cerōma_].
+
+=Cero—plastic.= The art of modelling in wax.
+
+=Cero-strotum= or =Cestrotum=, Lat. A kind of encaustic painting upon
+ivory or horn, in which the lines were burnt in with the cestrum, and
+the furrows filled with wax.
+
+=Certosina Work.= Florence, 15th century. Ivory inlaid into solid
+cypress-wood and walnut. The style is Indian in character, and consists
+in geometric arrangements of stars made of diamond-shaped pieces, varied
+with conventional flowers in pots, &c.
+
+=Certyl.= Old English for kirtle.
+
+=Ceruse.= A name for white lead. (See CARBONATE OF LEAD.)
+
+=Cervelliere.= (See CEREBRERIUM.)
+
+=Cervi= (lit. stags). Large branches of trees with the forks still left
+upon them, but cut down close to the stock, so that the whole presented
+the appearance of a stag’s antlers. _Cervi_ were employed to strengthen
+a palisade, so as to impede the advance of infantry, or resist attacks
+of cavalry.
+
+=Cervical= (from _cervix_, a neck). A cushion or pillow for supporting
+the back of the head on a bed or dining-couch. (See PULVINAR.)
+
+=Cervus.= (See STAG.)
+
+=Ceryceum= (κηρύκειον, a herald’s staff). It is a synonym of CADUCEUS
+(q.v.).
+
+=Cesticillus= (dimin. of CESTUS, q.v.). A circular pad used as a rest by
+persons who had to carry burdens on their heads.
+
+=Cestra.= (See CESTROSPHENDONÈ.)
+
+=Cestrosphendonè=, Gr. (a dart-sling.) A dart fixed to a wooden stock
+with three short wooden wings, discharged from a sling.
+
+=Cestrotum.= (See CERO-STROTUM.)
+
+=Cestrum= or =Viriculum= (κέστρον, i. e. that which pricks or pierces).
+A graver used in the process of encaustic painting on ivory. It was made
+of ivory, pointed at one end and flat at the other. (See CERO-STROTUM,
+RHABDION.)
+
+=Cestus= (κεστὸς, embroidered), (1) In general any kind of band or tie;
+but specially the embroidered girdle of Venus. (2) A boxing gauntlet.
+(See CÆSTUS.)
+
+=Cetra= (prob. a Spanish word). A small round shield in use among
+several barbarous nations, but never by the Romans.
+
+=Chaable=, Old Fr. A large ballista. (See CABULUS.) Trees blown down by
+the wind are still called “caables” in France. (_Meyrick._)
+
+=Chabasite= (χαβὸς, narrow, compressed). A crystal of a white colour.
+
+=Chaconne=, Fr. (Sp. _chacona_; It. _ciacona_). A modification of the
+dance _chica_ (q.v.).
+
+=Chadfarthing=, O. E. A farthing formerly paid among the Easter dues,
+for the purpose of hallowing the font for christenings. (_Halliwell._)
+
+=Chafer=, O. E. (1) A beetle or May-bug. (2) A saucepan.
+
+=Chafer-house=, O. E. An ale-house.
+
+=Chafery=, O. E. A furnace.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 148. Chaffagiolo ware. Sweetmeat plate, with
+arabesques, about 1509.]
+
+=Chaffagiolo=, or =Caffagiolo=, is the place where Cosmo the Great
+established the first Tuscan manufactory of majolica, and where Luca
+della Robbia acquired his knowledge of the stanniferous enamel. Fig. 148
+is a specimen of Chaffagiolo ware of the 15th century.
+
+=Chain-moulding=, Arch. An ornament of the Norman period, sculptured in
+imitation of a chain.
+
+=Chain-timbers=, Arch. Bond timbers, the thickness of a brick,
+introduced to tie and strengthen a wall.
+
+=Chair.= (See SELLA.)
+
+=Chair de Poule= (chicken’s flesh). An ornamentation of the surface of
+pottery with little hemispheric points; a Chinese method.
+
+=Chaisel=, Old Fr. (1) An upper garment. (2) A kind of fine linen, of
+which smocks were often made.
+
+=Chalameau=, Fr. Stem or straw-pipe. The lower notes of the clarionet
+are called the _chalameau_ tone, from the ancient _shawm_.
+
+=Chalcanthum= (χάλκ-ανθον, i. e. that which is thrown off by copper).
+Shoemaker’s black or copperas, used for imparting a dark colour to
+boot-leather. (See ATRAMENTUM.)
+
+=Chalcedony.= (See CALCEDONY.)
+
+=Chalcidicum= (Χαλκιδικὸν, i. e. pertaining to the city of Chalcis). The
+exact meaning of this term is unknown. According to some, it was a
+portico; according to others, a kind of long hall or transept.
+
+=Chalciœcia= (χαλκι-οίκια, brazen house). A Spartan festival in honour
+of Athena under that designation.
+
+=Chalcography= (χαλκὸς, copper). Engraving on copper. _Chalcography_ was
+discovered in Florence, in the 15th century, and early introduced into
+England. Caxton’s “Golden Legend,” containing copper-plate prints, was
+published in 1483. The process is as follows:—A perfectly smooth plate
+of copper, having been highly polished, is heated in an oven, and then
+white wax rubbed over it until the whole surface is covered with a thin
+layer. A tracing is laid over the wax, with the black-lead lines
+downwards, which transfers the design to the wax. Then the tracing-paper
+is removed, and the engraver goes over the lines lightly with a fine
+steel point, so as just to penetrate the wax, and scratch a delicate
+outline upon the copper. The wax is then melted off, and the engraving
+finished with the _graver_, or _burin_, a steel instrument with a
+peculiar pyramidal point. Should the lines be cut too deeply, a smooth
+tool, about three inches long, called a _burnisher_, is used to soften
+them down, and to burnish out scratches in the copper. The _ridges_ or
+_burrs_ that rise on each side of the engraved lines are scraped off by
+a tool about six inches long, called a _scraper_, made of steel, with
+three sharp edges. This method has for printing purposes been generally
+superseded by other processes, principally _etching_.
+
+=Chalcus= (χαλκοῦς). A Greek copper coin, somewhat less than a farthing.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 149. Chalice, silver-gilt—14th century.]
+
+=Chalice=, Chr. (deriv. from _calix_, a cup). A sacred vessel used in
+the celebration of the mass. There were many different kinds, called
+_ministeriales_, _offertorii_, _majores_, and _minores_. The
+_ministeriales_ served to distribute the wine; the _offertorii_ were
+employed by the deacons to hold the wine offered by the faithful.
+Lastly, they were distinguished according to their size, as large or
+small (_majores_ and _minores_). Vessels called _calices_ were also
+frequently suspended from the arches of the ciborium, and other parts of
+the church, as ornaments. In Christian symbolism the chalice and serpent
+issuing from it are an attribute of St. John the Evangelist.
+
+=Chalon=, O. E. A coverlet. (_Chaucer._)
+
+=Chamade=, Fr. A beat of drum or trumpet inviting the enemy to a parley.
+
+=Chamber Music=, as opposed to concert music. Madrigals were probably
+the earliest specimens of chamber music.
+
+=Chambers=, O. E. Small cannon for firing on festive occasions.
+
+=Chamberyngs=, O. E. Bedroom furniture.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 150. Chameleon and Dolphin.]
+
+=Chameleon= (χαμαὶ, on the ground, and λέων, a lion). In Christian
+symbolism, the emblem of inconstancy; in Chemistry, manganate of potass
+is called _chameleon_ from the changes of colour which its solution
+undergoes. The chameleon with a dolphin on its back (Fig. 150) was the
+device of Pope Paul III.
+
+=Chamfer=, Arch. (1) The angle of obliquity (of the sides of a steeple,
+&c.). (2) A hollow channel or gutter, such as the fluting of a column.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 151. Chamfron.]
+
+=Chamfron=, O. E. (Med. Lat. _chamfrenum_; Fr. _champ-frein_). A frontal
+of leather or steel to a horse’s bridle. (Fig. 151.)
+
+=Chamlet=, O. E. (See CAMLET.)
+
+=Chammer=, O. E. (Fr. _chamarre_). A gown worn by persons of rank,
+_temp._ Henry VIII.
+
+=Champ=, Arch. A flat surface.
+
+=Champ-levé.= A form of enamelling in which the pattern is cut out of
+the metal to be ornamented.
+
+=Chamulcus=, R. and Gr. A heavy dray for the transport of building
+materials, such as blocks of marble, columns, obelisks, &c.
+
+=Chance=, O. E. The game of hazard.
+
+=Chancel=, Chr. (from _cancelli_, a lattice). A term anciently used to
+denote the _choir_. It derived its name from the _cancelli_ or stone
+screen by which it was enclosed.
+
+=Chandaras= (Sanscrit, _chanda-rasa_, lit. moonjuice). An ancient name
+for _copal_.
+
+=Chandeleuse=, Fr. Candlemas Day.
+
+=Chandi= (from _chand_, the moon). Indian name for silver.
+
+=Chand-tara= (lit. moon and stars) is the name of an Indian brocade,
+figured all over with representations of the heavenly bodies.
+
+=Changeable Silk=, O. E., was woven of two colours, so that one of them
+showed itself unmixed and quite distinct on one side, and the second
+appeared equally clear on the other; mentioned A. D. 1327, 1543, &c.
+
+=Changes.= The altered melodies produced by varying the sounds of a peal
+of bells.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 152. Chante-pleure.]
+
+=Chante-pleure=, Fr. A water pot, made of earthenware, about a foot
+high, the orifice at the top the size of a pea, and the bottom full of
+small holes. Immersed in water, it quickly fills. If the opening at the
+top be then closed with the thumb, the vessel may be carried, and the
+water distributed as required. The widow of Louis I., Duke of Orleans,
+adopted this as her device, after the murder of her husband, in 1407.
+
+=Chantlate=, Arch. A piece of wood under the eaves of a roof, by which
+two or three rows of overhanging slates or tiles are supported.
+
+=Chantry=, Chr. (Fr. _chanter_, to sing). A chapel to which is attached
+a revenue as provision for a priest, whose duty it is to sing masses for
+the repose of the founder’s soul.
+
+=Chape=, O. E. (Spanish _chapa_, a thin plate of metal). (1) The
+transverse guard of a sword. (2) A metal plate at the end of a scabbard.
+(3) A catch by which a thing is held in its place.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 153. Chapeau.]
+
+=Chapeau=, Her. Also called a _cap of dignity, of maintenance, or of
+estate_. An early symbol of high dignity.
+
+=Chapeau Chinois=, Fr. A set of small bells arranged in the form of a
+Chinese hat.
+
+=Chapel= or =Chapelle de Fer=. Iron helmet of knights of the 12th
+century. The diminutive is _chapeline_.
+
+=Chaperon=, Fr. A hood or small cap for the head.
+
+=Chapiter=, Arch. The upper part of a capital.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 154. Chaplet Moulding.]
+
+=Chaplet=, Arch. (Fr. _chapelet_). (1) A small cylindrical moulding,
+carved into beads and the like. (See Fig. 154.) (2) _Chaplets of
+flowers_, which were worn in England, by both sexes, on festive
+occasions, during the Middle Ages, and chaplets of jewels in earlier
+times. (3) Chr. It was anciently the custom to crown the newly baptized
+with a chaplet or garland of flowers. (4) Chr. A succession of prayers
+recited in a certain order, regulated by beads, &c. (5) In Heraldry. A
+garland or wreath. (See CRANCELIN.)
+
+=Chapter=, Chr. (Lat. _capitulum_). The body of the clergy of a
+cathedral, united under the bishop.
+
+=Chapter-house=, Chr. A place of assemblage for a CHAPTER of the clergy.
+That of Westminster contains some fine wall paintings of the middle of
+the 14th century.
+
+=Chaptrel=, Arch. The capital of a column supporting an arch; an impost.
+
+=Character=, Gr. and R. Generally, any sign or mark impressed, painted,
+or engraved on any object. In a more restricted sense, it denotes the
+instrument of iron or bronze with which such marks were made. In Art,
+the expression means a faithful adherence to the peculiarities of
+objects represented.
+
+=Charbokull=, O. E. A carbuncle.
+
+=Charcoal Blacks= are made of ivory, bones, vine-twigs, smoke of resin,
+&c., burned in a crucible excluded from the air. The best charcoal
+_crayons_ are made of box and willow; the former produces a dense hard
+crayon, the latter a soft friable one. (_Fairholt._) (See BLUE BLACK.)
+
+=Chare Thursday=, O. E. Maundy Thursday.
+
+=Charge=, Her. Any heraldic figure or device.
+
+=Charisia=, Gr. (Χάριτες, the Graces). Nocturnal festivals held in
+honour of the Graces, at which cakes and honey were distributed to those
+present.
+
+=Charisteria=, Gr. (χάρις, gratitude). Festivals celebrated yearly at
+Athens, in remembrance of the Athenian general Thrasybulus, the saviour
+of his country.
+
+=Charistia.= (See CARISTIA.)
+
+=Charistion.= An instrument of Archimedes for weighing. Whether it bore
+most resemblance to the balance (_libra_), or the steelyard (_statera_),
+is uncertain, as its form is entirely unknown.
+
+=Charles’s Wain= (Anglo-Saxon, _carles-waen_, the churl’s waggon). The
+seven stars forming the constellation generally called the Great Bear.
+
+=Charnel=, O. E. Apex of the basinet.
+
+=Charnel-house.= A small building attached to a cemetery, for a
+receptacle for the human bones disinterred when fresh graves were dug.
+
+=Charta=, Gr. and R. Writing-paper in use among the ancients. There were
+eight different kinds, which were classed as follows in the order of
+their quality: (1) _Charta Augustana_ or _Claudiana_; (2) _Liviana_; (3)
+_hieratica_; (4) _amphitheatrica_; (5) _Saitica_; (6) _leneotica_; (7)
+_fanniana_; (8) _dentata_. The last was so called from being polished by
+means of the tooth (_dens_) of some animal, or a piece of ivory. There
+was also a _charta emporetica_ or packing-paper, and lastly a _charta
+bibula_. It is uncertain whether this last was blotting-paper, or a kind
+of transparent paper which had been steeped in oil or some other fatty
+substance.
+
+=Charter-room= or =Charter-house=. A place in which the charters of a
+particular family or house were preserved.
+
+=Chartophylax=, Chr. A man who had charge of the charters of a church.
+
+=Chasing=. (See CÆLATURA.)
+
+=Chasse=, Chr., Fr. A reliquary in the form of a box with a ridged top.
+
+=Chastelain=, O. E. The lord of a castle.
+
+=Chastons=, O. E. Breeches of mail; 13th to 16th century.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 155. Chasuble.]
+
+=Chasuble= (Lat. _casula_, a cottage). Part of ancient ecclesiastical
+costume common to all the Roman Catholic clergy, from the priest to the
+Archbishop. It was originally made of wool, and in one piece throughout,
+without sleeves, and without slit or opening in front, and perfectly
+circular; but the shape varied with the material; and from the 6th
+century downwards we hear of chasubles of brilliant colour and costly
+materials, such as silk or thickly-embroidered cloth of gold, and oval
+in form, hanging no longer in graceful folds as in the 11th century. The
+engraving (Fig. 155) shows a chasuble of the year 1387. (Compare PÆNULA,
+PLANETA.)
+
+=Chatai=, Hindoo. Mats, a common manufacture all over India. Those of
+Midnapore, near Calcutta, are remarkable for their fineness and
+classical design of the mosaic, like patterns of stained glass.
+
+=Chat-faux=, Med. A wooden shed—modern scaffold. (See CAGASUPTUS.)
+
+=Chatrang= (Sanscrit _chatur-anga_, the four _angas_ or soldiers; or
+_chaturaji_, the four kings). The Persian name for a very ancient game
+of the “Four Kings,” supposed to be the origin of the four suits of
+playing-cards. (_Rev. E. S. Taylor_, “_History of Playing-cards_.”)
+
+=Chatzozerah=, Heb. A Jewish trumpet mentioned by Moses, used chiefly
+for religious and warlike occasions.
+
+=Chauffault=, Old Fr. A tower of wood.
+
+=Chausses=, O. E. (1) Pantaloons of mail used by the Danes. (2) Tight
+pantaloons worn by the Normans and mediæval English.
+
+=Chaussetrap.= (See CALTRAPS.)
+
+=Chaussons=, O. E. Breeches of mail (or of cloth).
+
+=Chavarina=, Med. Lat. A carbine.
+
+=Checkere=, O. E. A chess-board.
+
+=Checkstone=, O. E. A game played by children with small round pebbles.
+
+=Checky=, Her. (See CHEQUÉE.)
+
+=Cheese=, Chr. St. Augustine says that a sect called the Artotyrites
+offered bread and _cheese_ in the Eucharist, saying “that the first
+oblations which were offered by men, in the infancy of the world, were
+of the fruits of the earth and of sheep.” (_Aug. de Hæres._ c. xlviii.)
+
+=Chef-d’œuvre=, Fr. A work of the highest excellence.
+
+=Chekelatoun.= (See CICLATOUN.)
+
+=Chekere=, O. E. Chess (q.v.).
+
+=Chele= (χηλὴ, prob, from a root χα- meaning cloven). This term is
+applied to a great variety of objects; it signifies a cloven foot, a
+hooked claw, or anything presenting a notched or serrated appearance.
+Thus a breakwater, the irregular projections of which bore some
+resemblance to the teeth of an immense saw, was also called _chêlê_.
+There were, besides, various engines and machines which went under this
+name.
+
+=Chelidoniacus=, sc. _gladius_ (from the Greek χελιδὼν, a swallow). A
+broad-bladed sword with a double point like a swallow’s tail.
+
+=Chelidonize=, Gr. (lit. to twitter like a swallow). Singing the
+“Swallow Song” (χελιδόνισμα), a popular song sung by the Rhodian boys in
+the month Boedromion, on the return of the swallows, and made into an
+opportunity for begging. A similar song is still popular in Greece.
+(_Fauriel_, “_Chants de la Grèce_.”) (See CORONIZE.)
+
+=Cheliform= (χηλὴ, a claw). In the form of a claw.
+
+=Chelonium= (a tortoise-shell, from χελώνη, a tortoise), (1) A kind of
+cramp or collar placed at the extremities of the uprights of certain
+machines. (2) A part of a catapult, also called _pulvinus_. (See
+CATAPULTA.)
+
+=Chelys= (χέλυς, a tortoise). (1) The lyre of Mercury, formed of strings
+stretched across a tortoise-shell. (2) In the 16th and 17th centuries, a
+bass-viol and division-viol were each called _chelys_. (See also
+TESTUDO.)
+
+=Chemise de Chartres=, Fr. A kind of armour mentioned among the
+habiliments proper for knights who should engage in single combat.
+(_Meyrick._)
+
+=Chenbele.= (See CEMBEL [hastilude].)
+
+=Cheng=, Chinese. A musical instrument, consisting of a box or bowl,
+into which a series of tubes of different length and pitch are inserted;
+the tubes have holes in them to be played upon with the fingers.
+
+=Chêniscus= (χὴν, a goose). An ornament placed at the bow, and sometimes
+the stern of ships. In shape it resembled the neck of a swan or goose.
+
+=Chequée=, =Checky=, Her. Having the field divided into contiguous rows
+of small squares; alternately of a metal (or fur) and a colour.
+
+=Chequers=, O. E. (See CHECKSTONE.)
+
+=Cherub=, pl. =Cherubim=, Heb. According to the classification of
+Dionysius, the first _hierarchy_ of Angels consists of three _choirs_
+called SERAPHIM, CHERUBIM, and THRONES, and, receiving their glory
+immediately from Deity, transmit it to the second hierarchy. The first
+hierarchy are as councillors; the second as governors; the third as
+ministers. The SERAPHIM are absorbed in perpetual love and worship round
+the throne; the CHERUBIM know and worship; the THRONES sustain the
+throne. The SERAPHIM and CHERUBIM are in general represented as _heads_
+merely with two or four or six wings, and of a bright red or blue
+colour, &c. (Cf. _Mrs. Jameson’s Legendary Art_.) (See ANGELS, SERAPHIM.
+DOMINIONS, &c.)
+
+=Cherubic Hymn=, Chr. A hymn sung in the Greek Church before the great
+entrance (see ENTRANCE); so called from its first words, οἱ τὰ χερουβὶμ
+μυστικῶς εἰκονίζοντες, κ.τ.λ.
+
+=Chesible=, for CHASUBLE (q.v.).
+
+=Chesnut Brown.= A brown lake pigment prepared from the horse chesnut;
+very durable for oils and water-colour painting.
+
+=Chess.= Writers immediately after the Conquest speak of the Saxons as
+playing at chess, which, they say, they learned from the Danes. The game
+of chess is very prominent in the romances of the Middle Ages. The
+Scandinavian navigators introduced some remarkable elaborately carved
+chessmen, of walrus ivory, from Iceland, in the 12th century. The
+castles are replaced by warriors on foot, called _hrokr_, from the
+Saracen _roc_, Persian _rokh_, our _rook_. In the Saracen game the
+_vizier_ represented our queen, and the _elephant_ our bishop, the
+_roc_, or hero, as aforesaid, our rook. Beautifully carved chessmen in
+the costumes of the 13th and 14th century exist in England. They were
+all very large, a king being four inches in height and seven in
+circumference. The _chess-boards_ were of corresponding size, and made
+of all materials, including the precious metals, crystal, sapphires, and
+topazes. The pieces varied in form: the mediæval rook had a head like a
+_fleur-de-lis_, the knight was represented by a small upright column
+with the upper part bent on one side. The _aufin_ or bishop was of the
+same shape, but the bent end was cleft to indicate a mitre. The figures
+of the 16th century much more nearly resemble those now in vogue.
+
+=Chesse=, O. E. (Fr. _chasse_). A border, a circlet.
+
+=Chest of Viols=, O. E. A set of instruments complete for a “consort” of
+viols, i. e. two trebles, two tenors, and two basses.
+
+=Chester=, O. E. A person who places corpses in their coffins.
+
+=Chests= and =Coffers=, in Norman times, were adorned with elaborate
+carving and richly inlaid. They were still the general depositories for
+clothes and treasures. _Cupboards_ (armoires) were introduced by the
+Normans, and filled with household utensils.
+
+=Chevalet=, Fr. The _bridge_ of a violin or other stringed instrument.
+
+=Cheval-traps.= (See CALTRAPS.)
+
+=Chevaucheurs.= Anglo-Norman horsemen, or running messengers.
+
+=Chevaux-de-frize.= An arrangement of iron spikes for the defence of a
+battlement against assault.
+
+=Cheveril=, O. E. Kid leather, proverbially _elastic_; hence, a
+_cheveril conscience_ (that will stretch).
+
+=Chevesaile=, Old Fr. A necklace.
+
+=Chevetaine=, Old Fr. A captain; hence the mediæval _cheuptanus_.
+
+=Chevron.= (1) Arch. One of the mouldings frequently used in Norman
+architecture, usually called _zigzag_ (q.v.). (2) A badge on the
+coatsleeve of a non-commissioned officer. (3) Her. One of the
+ordinaries; the lower half of a SALTIRE (q.v.).
+
+=Chevronel=, Her. A diminutive of the CHEVRON, of half the size.
+
+=Chevroter=, Fr. A musical term: “to skip, quiver, to sing with
+uncertain tone, after the manner of goats,” _alla vibrato_.
+
+=Chiaroscuro=, It. (_chiaro_, light, and _oscuro_, dark). Light and
+shade.
+
+=Chiave= of Pavia. One of the Italian literary academies, composed
+entirely of noble and illustrious persons, who wore a golden key
+suspended round the neck, and had for a motto, _Clauditur et aperitur
+liberis_, and the text from Rev. iii. 7.
+
+=Chica.= A dance popular in Spanish South America, of a _jig_-like
+character; the origin of the _Fandango_. (See CHACONNE.)
+
+=Chief=, Her. One of the ordinaries; the _chief_ bounded by a horizontal
+line contains the uppermost third of the field of a shield. _In chief_,
+arranged horizontally across the upper part of the field.
+
+=Childermas=, O. E. Innocents’ Day.
+
+=Chilled= (Fr. _chancissure_). Said of a moisture on the varnish of a
+picture by which the defect of cloudiness called _Blooming_ is caused.
+
+=Chimæra=, Gr. A monster described by Homer, with a lion’s head, a
+goat’s body, and a dragon’s tail. In Christian art it is a symbol of
+cunning. (See also DOG OF FO.)
+
+=Chime.= (1) To play bells by swinging the _hammers_, opposed to
+_ringing_ by swinging the _bells_. (2) A chime of bells is a CARILLON.
+
+=Chimere=, Chr. The outer dress of a Protestant bishop. It is made of
+black satin, without sleeves.
+
+=Chimneys= (Gr. χιμήνη, winter), carried up in the massive walls of the
+castles, were first introduced into England by the Normans. The fire was
+still piled up in the middle of the hall, but fireplaces were built
+against the side walls in the more private apartments—the original of
+the well-known mediæval fireplace and “chymené.” Leland, in his account
+of Bolton Castle, which was “finiched or Kynge Richard the 2 dyed,”
+notices the _chimneys_: “One thynge I muche notyd in the hawle of
+Bolton, how chimeneys were conveyed by tunnells made on the syds of the
+walls, betwyxt the lights in the hawle, and by this means, and by no
+covers, is the smoke of the harthe in the hawle wonder strangely
+conveyed.”
+
+=Chin-band=, =Chin-cloth=. A muffler of lace worn by ladies, _temp._
+Charles I.
+
+=China.= (See POTTERY.)
+
+=China= (or =Chinese=) =Ink=. (See INDIAN INK.)
+
+=Chinese Paper.= A fine absorbent paper of a yellowish tint, used for
+proofs of engravings, &c. Japanese paper is now frequently preferred.
+
+=Chinese White.= OXIDE OF ZINC (q.v.). It is more _constant_ than white
+lead.
+
+=Chinny-mumps.= A Yorkshire music made by rapping the chin with the
+knuckles.
+
+=Chints= or =Chintz= (Hindoo, _chhint_, spotted cotton cloth). Cotton
+cloth printed in more than two colours.
+
+=Chiramaxium=, Gr. and R. (χειρ-αμάξιον, i. e. hand-cart). An invalid’s
+chair mounted upon two wheels, and drawn or pushed by slaves.
+
+=Chiridota=, Gr. and R. (from adj. χειριδωτὸς, i. e. lit. having
+sleeves). Tunics with long sleeves, worn in especial by the Asiatic
+races and by the CELTS. The early Britons, before the Roman invasion,
+wore close coats checkered with various colours in divisions, open
+before and with _long close sleeves to the wrist_.
+
+=Chirimia=, Sp. (from _chirimoya_, a pear). An oboe.
+
+=Chirography=. The art of writing with hands.
+
+=Chirology=. The art of talking with the hands.
+
+=Chiromancy= (μάντις, a soothsayer). Divination from the lines of the
+palms of the hands.
+
+=Chironomia=, Gr. and R. (χειρο-νομία, i. e. measured motion of the
+hands). The mimetic art. By this term is expressed not only the art of
+speaking with gestures and by means of the hands, but also the action of
+speaking combined with gesticulation. This art dates from a high
+antiquity. It was originally part of the art of dancing,—clapping the
+hands in rhythm; also a gymnastic exercise, for pugilists and others.
+
+=Chiroplast.= An instrument for teaching fingering of musical
+instruments, invented by Logier in 1810.
+
+=Chirothecæ= (Gr. χειροθήκη; Lat. _gantus_). Gloves were unknown to the
+early Greeks and Romans, but in use among the ancient Persians. In
+Christian archæology they are first met with in the 12th century. (See
+GLOVES.)
+
+=Chisleu=, Heb. The ninth month of the Jewish year. It begins with the
+new moon of our December.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 157. Diana wearing the Greek chiton.]
+
+=Chiton= (χιτών). The Greek tunic. (Fig. 157.)
+
+=Chitte=, O. E. A sheet.
+
+=Chivachirs= (Chevaucheurs). Old Fr. Running messengers.
+
+=Chlaina= (Lat. _læna_). A kind of cloak, of ample size, worn by the
+Greeks in campaigning. In time of peace it served as a bed coverlet. The
+diminutive χλανίδιον appears to have been a woman’s mantle.
+
+=Chlamyda.= (See CHLAMYS.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 158. Apollo wearing the chlamys folded round his
+arm.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 159.]
+
+=Chlamys=, Gr. A short light mantle, which was worn by Greek youths (not
+by Romans) until they arrived at manhood. It was the regular equestrian
+costume, and was of an oblong square shape. (Fig. 159.) The chlamys is
+seen in representations of men hunting or fighting with beasts, as a
+shield wrapped round the left arm, the right poising the spear. (Fig.
+158.) In Botany, the floral envelope.
+
+=Chœnix= (χοῖνιξ). A Greek measure of capacity, variously valued from a
+pint and half to two quarts.
+
+=Choir=, =Quire=, or =Quere=, Arch. The part of the church for the
+singers and _clerks_, i. e. the space between the NAVE (for the people),
+and the BEMA, or presbytery, for the celebrating clergy. But in mediæval
+writings the term includes the BEMA. (See CHANCEL.)
+
+=Choir Wall= or =Choir Screen= (Fr. _clôture_). The wall or screen
+between the side aisles and the choir.
+
+=Choosing-stick= (a Somersetshire provincialism). A divining-rod.
+
+=Chopines=, It. Clogs or high shoes, of Asiatic origin, introduced from
+Venice in the 16th century.
+
+=Choragic Monuments.= Small pedestals or shrines erected by the winner
+of a choral contest to display the _tripod_ which was his prize. At
+Athens there was a street lined with such monuments, called the “Street
+of the Tripods.” The Choragic Monument of Lysicrates, still existing in
+Athens, is one of the most valuable remains of Greek architecture.
+
+=Choragium=, Gr. and R. (χορηγὸς, or chorus-leader). A large space in a
+theatre, situated behind the stage. It was here that the “properties”
+were kept and the rehearsals of the chorus took place. The term is also
+used to denote the furniture, costumes, decorations, and, in a word, all
+the accessories required in the production of a piece.
+
+=Chordaulodion.= A self-acting musical instrument invented by Kauffmann
+of Dresden in 1812.
+
+=Chorea=, Gr. and R. (χορὸς, q.v.). A choral dance, in which the dancers
+took each other by the hand and danced to the sound of their own voices.
+
+=Chorus=, Gr. and R. (χορὸς, i. e. prop. a circle). (1) A choir of
+singers in a dramatic entertainment. (2) A band of dancers who went
+through their movements to the sound of their own singing. (3) A round
+choral dance; in this last signification _chorea_ may equally well be
+used.
+
+=Chorus= or =Choron=, O. E. An instrument somewhat resembling a bagpipe;
+the name was also applied to certain stringed instruments. The word
+_choron_ originally designated a horn. (Hebrew, _Keren_.)
+
+=Chous=, Gr. and R. (χόος, contr. χοῦς, i. e. that from which one
+pours). An amphora, forming a measure of exact capacity. Another name
+for it was CONGIUS (q.v.). It held twelve COTYLÆ (q.v.).
+
+=Choutara=, Hindoo. A kind of guitar with four wire strings.
+
+=Chrism=, Chr. (from χρίω, to smear). A composition of balsam and oil of
+olives used by Christians of various denominations at the administration
+of the sacraments.
+
+=Chrismal=, =Chrismatory=, Chr. (1) The vessel made to contain the
+consecrated oil. (See LABARUM.) (2) A vessel for the reservation of the
+consecrated Host. (3) A cloth used to cover relics. (4) Old English
+_chrisom_, a white linen cloth put upon the child’s head in baptism.
+(See FONT-CLOTH.)
+
+=Chrismarium=, Chr. (See CHRISMAL, 1.)
+
+=Chrisom.= O. E. (1) See CHRISMAL, 4. (2) A child that dies within a
+month after birth.
+
+=Christ-cross=, O. E. (1) The Alphabet; so named from a school lesson
+beginning “Christe Crosse me spede in alle my worke.” (2) The mark made
+for his signature by a person who cannot write.
+
+=Christemporeia=, Chr. Literally, the selling of Christ, simony.
+
+=Christian Horses=, O. E. Bearers of sedan chairs.
+
+=Christmas-boxes.= So called from the old practice of collecting them in
+boxes.
+
+=Chromatic Scale= (χρῶμα, colour). In Music, the scale that proceeds by
+semi-tones; so called from the practice of printing the intermediate
+notes in various colours.
+
+=Chromatics.= The science of colours.
+
+=Chromatrope.= An optical instrument for assisting the invention of
+combinations of colours.
+
+=Chrome, Chromium.= An important mineral, the green oxide of which
+furnishes the _Chrome Green_.
+
+=Chrome Green.= A dark green pigment prepared from oxide of chromium;
+mixed with Prussian blue and chrome yellow it is called _Green
+Cinnabar_.
+
+=Chrome Ochre.= Oxide of chromium of a fine yellowish green.
+
+=Chrome Red.= A chromate of lead; a durable pigment used in oil
+painting. (See RED LEAD.)
+
+=Chrome Yellow.= A chromate of lead, which makes a bad pigment for oil
+painting. It is very poisonous and not durable; when mixed with white
+lead it turns to a dirty grey. As a water-colour pigment it is less
+objectionable.
+
+=Chromite.= Chromate of iron; a mineral consisting of protoxide of iron
+and oxide of chromium, used in the preparation of various pigments.
+
+=Chronogram= (χρόνος, time). An inscription which includes in it the
+date of an event.
+
+=Chryselephantine Statues= of ivory and gold. The most celebrated were
+that of _Minerva_, by Pheidias, which stood in the Acropolis at Athens,
+and was 40 English feet in height; and that of Zeus, 45 feet high,
+likewise by Pheidias, in the temple of Olympia. A reproduction of this
+statue was shown in the Paris Exhibition of 1855.
+
+=Chrysendeta=, R. (χρυσένδετα, i. e. set or inlaid with gold). A very
+costly description of plate-service employed by wealthy Romans. Of its
+precise character nothing unfortunately is known, but to judge from the
+epigrams of certain authors, it must have been chased and embossed.
+
+=Chrysoberyl= (βήρυλλος, a beryl). A gem of a yellowish green colour; a
+species of _corundum_ (q.v.).
+
+=Chryso-clavus= (Lat. _golden nail-head_). All rich purple silks, woven
+or embroidered with the _clavus_ in gold, were so named. They were used
+for altar frontals, and the _clavi_ were sometimes made so large that a
+subject was embroidered upon them; they were then called _sigillata_ or
+_sealed_. (See CLAVUS.)
+
+=Chrysocolla= or =Gold Green= (χρυσόκολλος, inlaid or soldered with
+gold). (1) Native verdigris. Its principal use was for the preparation
+of a solder for gold. (See SANTERNA.) (2) The Greek term for _Green
+Verditer_ and _Armenian Green_ (Latin, _Armenium_); a pigment obtained
+from _malachite_ and green carbonate of copper. It was also called _pea
+green_ or _grass-green_.
+
+=Chthonia=, Gr. and R. (χθὼν, the earth). Festivals held every spring at
+Argos in honour of Ceres, at which four aged women sacrificed heifers.
+
+=Church=, in Christian art, is the attribute of a founder thereof, who
+is frequently represented holding it in his hand. The most ancient
+symbol of the Church is the _ark of Noah_, subsequently a _ship_, often
+covered with the waves, &c., very frequent in the catacombs. On tombs it
+is held to imply that the dead expired in full communion with the
+Church.
+
+=Churcheard=, =Church-haw=, =Church-litten=. Old English provincialisms
+for a churchyard or burial-ground.
+
+=Church-stile=, O. E. A pulpit.
+
+=Chymbe=, O. E. A cymbal:—
+
+                “As a _chymbe_ or a brazen belle,
+                That nouther can undirstonde my telle.”
+
+=Chymol=, =Gemell=, O. E. A hinge, still called the eastern counties a
+“gimmer.”
+
+=Chytra=, Gr. and R. (from χέω, to pour). A common kind of pot, of Greek
+origin, made with red clay. It was used for cooking.
+
+=Chytria=, Gr. An Athenian festival, which derived its name from the
+χύτρα, or common pot in which were cooked the vegetables or other
+provisions offered to Bacchus and Mercury in memory of the dead.
+
+=Chytropus=, =Chytropous=, Gr. (χυτρό-πους, lit. a pot-foot). A _chytra_
+with three or four feet.
+
+=Cibilla=. (See CILLIBA.)
+
+=Ciborium=, Gr., R., and Chr. (κιβώριον, the pod of the καλοκασία, or
+Egyptian bean). (1) A drinking-vessel so called because it resembled the
+Egyptian bean in shape. (2) In Christian archæology a kind of baldachino
+or canopy, supported by a varying number of columns, which forms the
+covering of the high altar in a church. Called also the _Tabernacle_,
+_Sacrament house_, _God’s house_, or _holyroof_. (See SEVEREY.) (3)
+Ciborium also signifies a vessel in which the consecrated wafer is
+“reserved.”
+
+=Ciclatoun= or =Siklatoun=. The Persian name, adopted in England, for a
+textile of real gold thread; 12th century.
+
+=Ciconia=, R. (lit. a stork). (1) A sign made in dumb show by bending
+the forefinger into the form of a stork’s neck. (2) An instrument, in
+shape like an inverted T, employed by farmers to make sure that trenches
+dug by the spade were of uniform depth. (3) _Ciconia composita_ was the
+name given to a more elaborate instrument of the same kind invented by
+Columella.
+
+=Cicuta=, R. (i. e. lit. the hemlock). A term used by analogy to denote
+anything made out of the hemlock plant, especially the _Pan’s pipes_.
+
+=Cidaris=, Gen. (κίδαρις or κίταρις, a Persian tiara). A sort of diadem
+or royal bonnet worn by Eastern princes. It was tall, straight and stiff
+in shape, and was ornamented with pearls or precious stones. The same
+name was also applied to the bonnet worn at ceremonies by the high
+priest of the Jews. (See TIARA.)
+
+=Cilery=, Arch. Drapery or foliage carved on the heads of columns.
+
+=Cilibantum=, R. (See CILLIBA.) A stand or table with three legs.
+
+=Cilicium=, R. (1) A coarse cloth made of goat’s hair, and manufactured
+in Cilicia. It was much used in the army and navy: in the former for
+making the soldiers’ tents; in the latter for clothes for the sailors or
+for sails. (2) During the time of mourning, or when suffering under any
+calamity, the Jews put on a kind of _cilicium_ made of coarse canvas.
+(3) A cloth mattress stuffed with sea-weed or cow-hair, which was placed
+outside the walls of besieged cities to deaden the blows of the
+battering-ram or of projectiles. (4) In Christian archæology the
+_cilicium_ or hair-shirt is a sleeveless jacket made with a material of
+horsehair and coarse hemp. The Dominicans, Franciscans, and certain
+Carthusians wear the _cilicium_ to mortify the flesh.
+
+=Cilliba=, Gr. and R. (κίλλος, an ass) A trestle, and by analogy a
+dining-table supported by trestles. This form of table, which was
+commonly used by the early Romans, was replaced later on by the circular
+table.
+
+=Cimbal.= An old name for the DULCIMER (q.v.).
+
+=Cimeter=, =Cymetar=, =Scimeter=, &c. A short curved sword used by the
+Persians or Turks, mentioned by Meyrick as adopted by the Hussars,
+_temp._ Elizabeth.
+
+=Cincinnus=, R. A long ringlet or corkscrew curl of hair produced with
+the curling-irons. (See HAIR.)
+
+=Cincticulus=, R. (dimin. of CINCTUS, q.v.). A kind of short petticoat
+worn by youths.
+
+=Cinctorium=, R. (from _cinctus_, a girdle). (1) A sword-belt worn round
+the waist, and thus distinguished from the BALTEUS or baldric, which
+passed over the shoulder. The _balteus_ was worn by private soldiers,
+while the _cinctorium_ was the distinctive badge of an officer. (2) The
+dagger, so called because it was suspended from or put into the girdle.
+
+=Cincture=, Arch. The fillet, at each end of the shaft of a classical
+column (q.v.).
+
+=Cinctus=, R. (from _cingo_, i. e. a girding). A short petticoat (or
+kilt) worn by men; also in the same sense as _cingula_ and cingulum, a
+_girdle_. _Cinctus gabinus_ was a particular manner of arranging the
+toga, by throwing one end over the head, and fastening the other round
+the waist like a girdle. As an adjective, _cinctus_ was applied to any
+individual of either sex who wore any kind of belt or girdle. (See
+DISCINCTUS.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 160. Cineraria.]
+
+=Cinerarium=, R. (i. e. a place of ashes). A niche in a tomb,
+sufficiently roomy to hold an urn of large size, or a sarcophagus. The
+following was the disposition of one, or in many cases, three sides in a
+Roman tomb: in the centre of the wall was a large niche (_cinerarium
+medianum_) for a sarcophagus, and on each side of this two small niches
+(_columbaria_), and above each of the latter was a much larger recess
+for large urns. (See also COLUMBARIUM, CUBICULUM, CUPELLA.)
+
+=Cinerarius.= A hair-dresser (who heated his tongs in the _cinders_).
+
+=Cingulum=, R. A girdle or other fastening round the waist. In modern
+archæology, _cingulo militari decorare_ signifies to create a knight,
+from the practice of investing him with the military girdle; and
+_cingulum militare auferre_ is to degrade a knight. (See DISCINCTUS.)
+
+=Ciniflo=, R. A synonym for CINERARIUS (q.v.).
+
+=Cinnabar.= Sulphide of mercury; an ancient red pigment used for sacred
+and imperial purposes. (See CHROME GREEN, DRAGON’S BLOOD, VERMILION.)
+
+=Cinnamon-stone.= A variety of lime-garnet of a clear cinnamon-brown
+tint.
+
+=Cinque-cento= (literally, 500). The Italian art of the 16th century.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 161. Heraldic Cinque-foil.]
+
+=Cinque-foil=, Arch. (Fr. _cinque_ and _feuille_, a leaf). An ornamental
+foliation or feathering of the lanceolated style, consisting of five
+projecting points or cusps. (Fig. 161.)
+
+=Cinta=, Med. Lat. (Fr. _enceinte_). The outside wall of a fortress.
+
+=Cinyra.= An old term for a harp.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 162. Cippus (Tomb-stone).]
+
+=Cippus=, R. (1) A short stone pillar of cylindrical form, employed to
+mark the boundaries between adjoining estates or nations. (2) A pillar
+of cylindrical or rectangular form, and sometimes perfectly plain,
+sometimes richly ornamented, erected for a tomb-stone. (Fig. 162.) In
+some instances the cippus enclosed a cavity in which the urn containing
+the ashes of the dead person might be placed. A _cippus_ was placed at
+the corner of a cemetery, and the measurements of the burying-ground
+were recorded upon it. In Med. Lat. the word is used for the keep of the
+castle.
+
+=Circenses Ludi=, R. Games in the circus. (See CONSUALIA.)
+
+=Circinate.= Curled in the manner of the Ionic volute, or like the
+fronds of young ferns rolled inwards from the summit to the base.
+
+=Circinus=, R. A compass; an instrument employed, as now, by architects,
+sculptors, masons, and various other trades. The Romans were also
+acquainted with reduction compasses.
+
+=Circle.= The emblem of Heaven and eternity.
+
+=Circumlitio.= An ancient Greek varnish, with which the statues of the
+Greeks were tinted. (_Eastlake._)
+
+=Circumpotatio=, R. (from _circum_ and _poto_, i. e. a drinking-around).
+A funeral feast in which the guests passed round the wine from hand to
+hand. It took place at the tomb of the person in whose memory it was
+held, and on the anniversary of his death.
+
+=Circumvallation.= A fortification made round a blockaded place by a
+besieging army.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 163. Model of a Roman Circus.]
+
+=Circus=, Gr. and R. (i. e. a circle). A flat open space near a city,
+round which were raised scaffoldings for the accommodation of the
+spectators. This was the form of the earliest circuses; but as
+civilization advanced, they were regularly constructed of stone. The
+arena was in the form of a vast rectangle terminating at one extremity
+in a semicircle, and surrounded by tiers of seats for the spectators. At
+the end fronting the semicircular part was a rectangular pile of
+buildings, underneath which were the _carceres_ or stalls for the
+horses, and down the centre of the circus ran a long low wall called the
+_spina_, adorned with statues, obelisks, &c. This _spina_ formed a
+barrier by which the circus was divided into two distinct parts, and at
+each end of it was a _meta_ or goal, round which the chariots turned.
+(See META and OVUM.) The Romans constructed circuses in England,
+wherever they had a large encampment. The ruins exist at Dorchester,
+Silchester, Richborough, and other places.
+
+=Cirrus=, R. (1) A lock of hair; a ringlet curling naturally, and so
+distinguished from the _cincinnus_, a curl produced by means of the
+curling-iron. (2) A tuft; the forelock of a horse when tied up above its
+ears. (3) A tuft of flowers forming a bunch or head, such as _phlox_,
+_calceolaria_, &c. (4) Light _curled_ clouds in the sky, portending
+wind, are hence called _cirri_.
+
+=Ciselure=, Fr. Chasing. (See CÆLATURA.)
+
+=Cissibium= or =Cissybium=, Gr. and R. (κισσύβιον, i. e. made or
+wreathed with ivy). A drinking-vessel, so called because the handle was
+made of ivy-wood, or more probably because it had an ivy-wreath carved
+upon it.
+
+=Cissoid= (lit. ivy-shaped). A celebrated curve, applied in the
+trisection of an angle, invented by Diocles the geometer.
+
+=Cissotomiæ=, Gr. (κισσο-τόμοι, sc. ἡμέραι, i. e. the days of
+ivy-cutting). A festival held in Greece, in honour of Hebe, goddess of
+youth, and a youth called Cissos, who, when dancing with Bacchus, had
+fallen down and been changed into ivy. Accordingly at this festival
+youths and girls danced with their heads wreathed with ivy.
+
+=Cista=, =Cistella=, =Sitella=, R. (κίστη, a chest). (1) A large
+wicker-work basket in which the voters deposited their voting-tablets at
+the comitia. It was of a cylindrical shape, and about four or five feet
+high. (2) A smaller basket into which the judges cast the tablets
+recording their sentence. (3) A wicker-work basket in which children
+carried about their playthings. (4) The cist which was carried in
+procession at the Eleusinian festival, and which might be either a
+wicker basket or a box of metal. It was filled with corn, rice, sesame,
+salt, and pomegranates. Richly ornamented chests or boxes, with bronze
+mirrors in them, found among Etruscan ruins, are called _cistæ mysticæ_.
+The _sitella_, or _situla_, was a different vessel; viz. a _bucket_ of
+water, into which the lots (_sortes_) were thrown. The situla had a
+narrow neck, so that only one lot could come to the surface when it was
+shaken. It was also called _Urna_ or _Orca_.
+
+=Cistella=, R. A dulcimer; _lit._ a little box. (See CISTA.)
+
+=Cistellula=, R. (dimin. of CISTA, q.v.). A very small _cista_.
+
+=Cistophorus=, Egyp., Gr., and R. (κιστοφόρος, i. e. bearing a _cista_
+or _cistus_). A silver coin, current in Asia, and worth about four
+drachmæ. It was so called from bearing the impression of a _cista_
+(chest), or, more probably, of the shrub _cistus_. [Value four francs of
+French money.]
+
+=Cistula=, R. Dimin. of CISTA (q.v.).
+
+=Citadel= (It. _cittadella_, a little town). A fortress within a city.
+
+=Cithara=, =Cither=, Gr. and R. (κιθάρα). A stringed instrument of great
+antiquity, resembling our modern guitar. It was played with a
+_plectrum_. The name was afterwards applied to many stringed instruments
+of varied form, power of sound, and compass. The mediæval _Rotta_ was
+called _C. teutonica_; the harp was called _C. Anglica_.
+
+=Cithara Bijuga.= A guitar with a double neck.
+
+=Citole=, O. E. A kind of guitar.
+
+         “A _citole_ in hir right hand had sche.” (_Chaucer._)
+
+=Cittern.= A stringed instrument, like a guitar, strung with wire
+instead of gut. The _cittern_ was at one time a part of the furniture of
+every barber’s shop, and customers played on it while waiting for their
+turns. (Niche 1 of Exeter Gallery. See CLARION.)
+
+=Civery=, Arch. (See SEVEREY.) A bay or compartment of a vaulted
+ceiling.
+
+=Civic Crown=, Her. A wreath of oak leaves and acorns. (See CORONA.)
+
+=Ckuicui=, Peruvian. One of the divisions of the temple of the Sun
+(_Inti_), so named as being dedicated to the rainbow (_Ckuichi_). (See
+INTI.)
+
+=Clabulare.= (See CLAVULARE.)
+
+=Clack= or =Clap-dish=, O. E. A box with a movable lid used and rattled
+by beggars to attract attention:—
+
+             “His tongue moves like a beggar’s _clapdish_.”
+
+=Cladeuteria.= A Greek festival held in honour of Bacchus, at the time
+when the pruning of the vines took place.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 164. Clerestory and Triforium in Worcester
+Cathedral.]
+
+=Claire-voie= (Anglicè, =Clerestory=), Arch. (i. e. clear-storey). A row
+of large windows, forming the upper storey of the nave of a church,
+rising clear above the adjoining parts of the building.
+
+=Clan= (Gaelic, _klann_, children). A tribe of persons of one common
+family, united under a chieftain.
+
+=Clap-bene=, O. E. _Bene_ signifies a prayer, and children were invited
+by this phrase to _clap_ their hands together, as their only means of
+expressing their prayers.
+
+=Clap-dish.= (See CLACKDISH.)
+
+=Clappe= or =Clapper=, O. E. A wooden rattle used to summon people to
+church on the last three days of Passion Week, when the bells were not
+rung.
+
+=Clarenceux=, Her. The title of one of the three kings of arms at
+Heralds’ College. The others are called GARTER and NORROY.
+
+=Clarichord=, O. E. A stringed instrument, in the form of a spinet, of
+mediæval times. At the marriage of James of Scotland with the Princess
+Margaret, A. D. 1503, “the king began before hyr to play of the
+_clarychordes_, and after of the lute. And upon the said clarychorde Sir
+Edward Stanley played a ballad, and sange therewith.” (_Wharton_,
+“_History of English Poetry_.”) It is identical with the _clavichord_,
+the origin of the spinet, harpsichord, and pianoforte.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 165, 166. Clarions (heraldic).]
+
+=Clarion=, O. E. A small trumpet, with a shrill sound. (Represented in
+the third niche of the “Minstrels’ Gallery” of Exeter Cathedral, of
+which there is a cast in the South Kensington Museum.)
+
+=Classic Orders of Architecture.= The _Grecian_: Doric, Ionic, and
+Corinthian;—and the _Roman_: Tuscan, Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, and
+Composite orders (q.v.) are generally thus distinguished.
+
+=Clathrate.= Latticed like a grating (_clathri_).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 167. Clathri over bronze doors.]
+
+=Clathri=, R. A grating or trellis formed of wooden or metal bars;
+_clathri_ were employed to form the imposts over hypæthral doors, and to
+light the stables (_carceres_) under the circus, &c. Fig. 167 represents
+one of the bronze doors of the Pantheon at Rome with the grating above.
+
+=Claude Glass.= A dark convex glass for studying the effect of a
+landscape in reverse. Its name is supposed to be derived from the
+similarity of the effects it gives, to those of a picture by Claude
+Lorrain.
+
+=Clausula=, R. The handle of any instrument whatsoever, when made in
+such a way that the hand can be inserted into it, as for instance with a
+ring or sword-hilt. The STRIGILIS (q.v.) had a handle of this
+description. _Clausula_ is thus to be distinguished from _capulus_ (a
+straight handle), and _ansa_ (a handle affixed to another object).
+
+=Clava=, R. (1) A stout knotty stick, growing much thicker towards one
+end. (2) A very heavy club with which young recruits went through their
+exercises. (3) A club like that of Hercules, or a mace or war-club with
+an iron head, and studded with nails or (more commonly) sharp spikes.
+
+=Clavate.= Club-shaped; tapering down from the top.
+
+=Clavesignati=, Med. Lat. The Papal troops were so called, who had the
+keys of St. Peter on their standards and uniforms.
+
+=Claviary.= In Music, an index of keys.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 168. Clavichord—18th century.]
+
+=Clavichord.= A stringed instrument in the form of a spinet. (Fig. 168.)
+(See CLARICHORD.)
+
+=Clavicula.= Dimin. of CLAVIS (q.v.).
+
+=Clavier.= Of a musical instrument, the key-board.
+
+=Clavis=, R. A key. The _clavis clausa_ was a small key without a neck
+or lever; _clavis laconica_, a key of Egyptian invention, having three
+teeth; _clavis adultera_, a false key; _clavis trochi_, a curved stick
+made of iron and having a hook at the end, which was used by Greek and
+Roman boys for trundling their hoops.
+
+=Clavius.= A walled plain in the moon, more than a hundred miles in
+diameter.
+
+=Clavulare= or =Clabulare=, R. A large open cart used for carrying
+provisions, especially _dolia_ (casks) filled with wine. The body of the
+carriage was formed by a wooden trellis-work (_clavulæ_)—whence its
+name—and was of a semi-cylindrical shape, adapted to accommodate wine
+barrels.
+
+=Clavus=, R. A nail. In Christian archæology, a purple hem or band
+applied as an ornament to a dress, which was then called _vestis
+clavata_. (See CHRYSO-CLAVUS.)
+
+=Claymore= (Gaelic, _claidheamb_, a sword, and _mor_, great). The
+highland broadsword.
+
+=Clechée=, Her. (See UNDÉE.) A variety of the heraldic cross.
+
+=Clef= or =Cliff=, Music. A figure indicating the pitch to be adopted
+for the key-note of a piece of music; an invention of the 13th century.
+
+=Clepsydra=, Gen. (κλεψ-ύδρα, i. e. a stealing-away of water). A
+water-clock, and by analogy an hour-glass or _sand_-clock. The
+_clepsydra_ was used as an hour-glass in the courts of justice at
+Athens, to measure out the time allowed to each orator.
+
+=Clerestory.= (See CLAIRE-VOIE.)
+
+=Cleystaffe=, O. E. A pastoral staff.
+
+=Clibanus=, R. (1) A basket used for baking bread; the bread itself,
+when thus baked, being called _clibanicius_. (2) Med. Lat. A short
+hauberk, which the later Greeks called κλίβανον, because it covered the
+breast. (_Meyrick._) (3) Med. Lat. A tower.
+
+=Clicket=, O. E. A key.
+
+                         “With his _clicket_
+             Damian hath opened this wicket.” (_Chaucer._)
+
+=Cliff.= (See CLEF.)
+
+=Clipeolum.= Dimin. of CLIPEUS (q.v.).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 169. Clipeus.]
+
+=Clipeus= and =Clipeum=, R. (akin to καλύπτω, to cover or conceal). A
+large broad shield of circular shape and concave on the inside. It was
+of great weight, and formed part of the special equipment of the
+cavalry. The original _clipeus Argolicus_ was circular, and often
+likened to the sun: in Roman sculpture it is often oval. The outer rim
+was termed _antyx_; the _boss_ in the centre, _omphalos_, or _umbo_; a
+leather strap for the arm, _telamon_. It was replaced, subsequently, by
+the SCUTUM (q.v.). Fig. 169 is an ornamented bronze _clipeus_, thought
+to be Gaulish. This term also serves to denote (1) a shield of metal or
+marble which was employed as an ornament (Fig. 170 represents an
+ornamental shield, such as was placed on the frieze of a building, and
+especially in the metopes of the Doric entablature); and (2) an
+apparatus employed in the _laconicum_ (q.v.) to regulate the
+temperature. In the illustration to _Caldarium_ a slave may be seen
+pulling the chains of the _clipeus_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 170. Ornamental Clipeus.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 171. Cloaca Maxima at Rome.]
+
+=Cloaca=, R. (from _cluo_, i. e. the cleanser). A subterranean sewer or
+canal constructed of masonry. The _Cloaca Maxima_, or Main Sewer of
+Rome, was constructed by the elder Tarquin to drain a marsh lying at the
+foot of the Palatine and Capitoline Hills. Fig. 171 represents one of
+its mouths. It was formed of three tiers of arches, the innermost being
+fourteen feet in diameter.
+
+=Clocks=, O. E., “are the gores of a ruff, the laying in of the cloth to
+make it round, the plaites;” also ornaments on stockings and on hoods.
+
+=Clog-almanacks.= The Anglo-Saxons calculated by the phases of the moon,
+set down on square pieces of wood, a foot or two long. These _clogs_ are
+still common in Staffordshire. (Cf. _Plott’s History of Staffordshire_;
+_Gough’s Camden’s Britannia_, ii. 379.)
+
+=Cloish=, or =Closh=, O. E. A kind of ninepins played with a ball.
+(_Strutt_, p. 202.) Cf. CLUB-KAYLES.
+
+=Cloisonné.= A form of enamelling by incrustation, in which the pattern
+is raised by strips of metal or wire welded on.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 173. Cloisters in the Church of Mont St. Michel.]
+
+=Cloister=, Chr. (from Lat. _claustrum_, q.v.). A kind of court or
+quadrangle surrounded by a covered way, and having much analogy to the
+_atrium_ of a Roman house. The cloister was an essential appendage to an
+abbey. One of its sides was usually bounded by the church, with which it
+easily communicated. The walls of the cloisters were often adorned with
+frescoes, and the court was occasionally planted with trees, the centre
+being occupied by a fountain. A monastery was often called a _cloister_.
+The sides of the cloister were anciently termed the PANES of it, and the
+walks its alleys or deambulatories. (Fig. 173.)
+
+=Cloister Garth.= The quadrangular space enclosed by the cloisters. The
+_cloister garth_ at Chichester is still called the _Paradise_, and that
+at Chester the _Sprise_ garden. (See PARADISE, SPRISE.)
+
+=Close=, Her. With closed wings.
+
+=Close-gauntlets.= Gauntlets with immovable fingers.
+
+=Closet=, Her. A diminution of the BAR, one half its width.
+
+=Cloths of Estate.= Costly embroidered hangings for the canopy of a
+throne.
+
+=Clouée=, Her. Fastened with nails, and showing the nail-heads.
+
+=Clouts.= Old name for kerchiefs.
+
+=Clown=, in pantomime. _Harlequin_ is Mercury, the _Clown_ Momus, and
+the painted face and wide mouth taken from the ancient masks;
+_Pantaloon_ is Charon, and _Columbine_ Psyche. (_Clarke’s Travels_,
+viii. 104–7.)
+
+=Club=, Gr. and R. (Gr. φάλαγξ). This weapon being used in close fight
+gave its name to the compact body of troops so called. The Scythians
+united it with the mace, both being spiked. _Ducange_ mentions the
+_vulgastus_, a crooked club; the _plumbata_, loaded with lead, the
+_spontonus_ with iron. In the army of Charles I. rustics untrained were
+called clubmen. (See CLAVA.)
+
+=Club-kayles=, O. E. Skittles played with a club, instead of a ball.
+(See CLOISH.)
+
+=Clubs=, at cards, are the ancient _trèfles_, the trefoil or
+clover-plant. (See TREFLE.)
+
+=Cluden=, Gr. and R. A sword, the blade of which was contrived to recede
+into the handle. It was used for theatrical representations.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 174. Clunaculum.]
+
+=Clunaculum=, R. (1) A dagger so called because it was worn at the back;
+“_quia ad clunes pendet_,” as Festus says. (2) The sacrificial knife
+with which the victim was ripped up. The dagger represented in Fig. 174,
+taken from the arch of Carpentras, was probably a Gaulish _clunaculum_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 172. Clustered column in Nave of Wells Cathedral.]
+
+=Clustered Column=, Arch. A pier formed of a congeries of columns or
+shafts clustered together, either attached or detached. It is also
+called a COMPOUND PIER. Fig. 172 is a specimen from Wells Cathedral.
+
+=Clypeate.= Shaped like a shield.
+
+=Cnopstara.= A weapon used by the Caledonians; a ball filled with pieces
+of metal swung at the heads of their lances, to frighten cavalry.
+
+=Coa Vestis=, or simply =Coa= (i. e. the Coan robe). A very fine robe
+[made of silk, spun in _Cos_], of such light texture as to be almost
+transparent. It was worn by _hetairai_ and singing and dancing girls,
+&c.
+
+=Coactilis=, sc. _lana_ (from _cogo_, i. e. that which is forced
+together). A kind of felted cloth made of wool closely pressed together.
+It formed a texture analogous to our felt. Another name for it was
+_coactus_.
+
+=Coal= as an ancient pigment was used both in water-colours and in oil;
+it furnishes a brownish tint. “The shadows of flesh are well rendered by
+pit-coal, which should not be burnt.” (_De Mayerne._)
+
+=Coassatio= (from _coasso_, to join planks together). A general term for
+planks joined together, such as the flooring of a room, the top of a
+table, the deck of a ship, the roadway of a wooden bridge, &c. (See
+CONSTRATUM.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 175. Coat Armour.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 176. Coat Armour. Devices on shield.]
+
+=Coat Armour=, Med. Embroidery of heraldic devices upon costume; hence a
+term for heraldry in general. (Figs. 175 and 176.)
+
+=Coat Cards=, O. E. Court cards and tens, so named from the _coat
+armour_ worn by the figures.
+
+=Cob.= Irish name of a Spanish coin formerly current in Ireland; value
+about 4_s._ 8_d._
+
+=Cobalt.= A metal found in various combinations, from which various
+colouring matters are obtained of great use in the arts. _Cobalt blue_,
+a beautiful blue pigment, is obtained by mixing a salt of pure cobalt
+with a solution of pure alum, precipitating the liquid by an alkaline
+carbonate, washing the precipitate with care, drying and igniting it
+strongly. A fine green, known as _Rinmann’s green_, is similarly
+prepared. The chloride, the nitrate, and the sulphate of cobalt form
+_sympathetic inks_, which only become visible when the moisture is
+absorbed by the application of heat. From phosphate of cobalt a
+beautiful blue pigment is produced, called _Thenard’s blue_. It is said
+to have all the characters of ultramarine. Oxide of cobalt has the
+property of colouring glass blue; hence a glass formed of this oxide
+under the name of _smalt_ is the blue colouring matter used for
+ornamenting porcelain and earthenware, for staining glass, for painting
+on enamel, &c.
+
+=Cobalt-bloom.= (See ERYTHRINE.)
+
+=Cobbards=, O. E. The irons supporting a spit.
+
+=Cob-wall=, Arch. A wall formed of unburned clay mixed with straw.
+
+=Cochineal.= (See CARMINE.)
+
+=Cochineal Lakes.= (See CARMINATED LAKES.)
+
+=Cochlea= (κοχλίας, i. e. a snail with spiral shell). Any object of
+spiral shape, like a screw; and so a worm and screw as a mechanical
+power in oil-, wine-, &c. presses; the “Archimedean Screw,” or
+“water-snail” for raising water; the revolving door through which the
+wild beasts were let out into the amphitheatre; and other contrivances
+similar to the Italian _ruota_, by which persons can be introduced
+through a wall without opening a door; also a spiral staircase, &c.
+
+=Cochlear=, =Cochleare= (from κόχλος, a shell-fish). (1) A spoon having
+at one extremity a sharp point, and at the other a sort of small bowl.
+(2) A measure of capacity of very small size.
+
+=Cochlearium=, R. A pond or nursery for fattening snails for the table.
+(English “cockles.”)
+
+=Cochlis=, sc. _columna_ (κοχλὶς, i. e. lit. a snail). A hollow
+monumental column, the interior of which was fitted with a cockle or
+spiral staircase, like the “Monument” of London.
+
+=Cock.= In Christian art, the emblem of St. Peter, and of watchfulness.
+
+=Cockatrice.= In Christian art, the emblem of sin; attribute of St.
+Vitus. (Her.: see the illustration to BASILISK.)
+
+=Cock-bead=, Arch. A bead which projects from the surface of the timber
+on both sides.
+
+=Cockers=, O. E. Ploughmen’s laced boots.
+
+=Cocket=, O. E. A seal formerly attached to goods which had paid customs
+dues. Ancient _cockets_ bear such inscriptions on them as “_God
+willing_,” “_If God please_,” &c.
+
+=Cockle-stairs=, O. E. Winding stairs. (Cf. COCHLEA.)
+
+=Coctilis=, =Cocta=, =Coctus=, R. (prepared by fire). _Later coctilis_
+was a brick hardened artificially by fire, in contradistinction to one
+dried in the sun; _murus coctilis_, a wall built of hardened bricks.
+(See ACAPNA.)
+
+=Cocurra=, Med. Lat. A quiver.
+
+=Cocytia= (from Κωκυτὸς, the river of weeping). A festival held in
+honour of Proserpine, who had been carried off by Pluto. The latter, as
+king of the infernal regions, included in his sway the river Cocytus.
+The Cocytus and Acheron, two rivers of Epirus, remarkable for
+unwholesome and muddy water, and subterranean currents, were hence
+called the rivers of Hell. “Cocytia virgo” was Alecto, one of the
+Furies.
+
+=Cod=, Scotch. A pillow (also _pod_).
+
+=Codex= (_caudex_, the trunk of a tree). (1) A blank book for writing
+in, consisting of thin tablets of wood covered with wax; the term thus
+came to mean _code_, that is, a book containing laws, since these were
+inscribed in a book, the leaves of which were composed of thin leaves of
+wood. When parchment or paper was introduced, the term was still
+applied; and hence, later, became appropriate to any code of laws, e. g.
+the Gregorian, Theodosian, Justinian, &c. (2) An early manuscript book,
+such as the Codex of the Greek New Testament and of “Virgil” in the
+Vatican. (3) The term was also applied to the heavy logs attached to the
+feet of slaves; these were of various shapes, sometimes even serving the
+purpose of a seat.
+
+=Codicillus= (dimin. of CODEX, q.v.). A small book, or small leaves of
+wood covered with wax. The plural _codicilli_ denoted a number of such
+sheets put together so as to form a sort of memorandum-book for taking
+rough notes. Any supplemental note made on the margin of the leaves
+composing a will, or added to them, was also called _codicillus_
+(codicil).
+
+=Codon= (Gr. κώδων). A bell; the bell of a trumpet; a trumpet with a
+bell-mouth.
+
+=Cod-piece= (from O. E. “cod,” a pillow or stuffed cushion; Fr.
+_braguette_); introduced _temp._ Henry VIII. An appendage to the taces
+over the os pubis, copied in the armour of the period. It continued in
+use to the end of Elizabeth’s reign.
+
+=Cœlum.= In Architecture, that part of a building which was placed over
+any other part, and so a ceiling, or soffit.
+
+=Cœmeterium=, =Cemetery=, Chr. (κοιμητήριον, from κοιμάω, i. e. a
+sleeping-place; Lat _dormitorium_). This term is an exclusively
+Christian one; it signifies a field of rest or refuge; the last
+resting-place of man. (See HYPOGÆUM.)
+
+=Cœna= (from Sanscr. _khad-_, to eat). The principal meal among the
+Romans, consisting of several courses termed respectively _prima_,
+_altera_ or _secunda_, _tertia_, _quarta cœna_. The hour at which the
+_cœna_ took place varied with the habits of the master of the house, but
+it was usually about four or five o’clock. It was the third meal of the
+day, being preceded by the _jentaculum_ (breakfast), and the _merenda_
+or _prandium_ (luncheon or early dinner). The corresponding Greek meal
+was called _deipnon_, which closed with a libation to Zeus; after which
+the drinking party that remained was called _Symposium_. (See LAST
+SUPPER.)
+
+=Cœnaculum.= In early times this term was used for the TRICLINIUM
+(q.v.); later on it came to mean the upper stories of houses inhabited
+by the poor, our attic or garret. In the plural, _cœnacula_ denotes the
+whole suite of rooms on the upper story of a house, and _cœnacula
+meritoria_ such apartments let out on hire.
+
+=Cœnatio=, like _cœnaculum_, a dining-room situated upstairs. It thus
+differed from the TRICLINIUM (q.v.), which was a dining-room on the
+ground floor; the former was used in winter, the latter in summer. The
+_cœnatio_, or _diæta_, was a very magnificent apartment. Nero had one in
+his golden palace, constructed like a theatre, with a change of scenery
+for every course.
+
+=Cœnatoria=, =Cœnatoriæ Vestes=. The garments worn by the Romans at the
+dinner-table.
+
+=Cœnobium= (κοινό-βιον, i. e. a life in common). A monastery; a convent
+of monks who lived in common.
+
+=Cœur=, =Carreau=, =Pique=, and =Trèfle=. The four French suits of
+cards, corresponding with our Hearts, Diamonds, Spades, and Clubs,
+probably introduced in the reign of Charles VII. of France (15th
+century). (_Taylor._) Cœur is sometimes derived from _Chœur_. (See COPPE
+and CHATRANG.)
+
+  “The hearts are the ecclesiastics, whose place is in the _choir_; the
+  pike the military, &c.” (_Menestrier._)
+
+=Coffer.= (See ARCA.) (1) In Architecture, a sunken panel in a ceiling
+or soffit. (2) A chest.
+
+=Cognizance=, Her. Synonym for _Badge_.
+
+=Cogware=, O. E. A coarse narrow cloth like frieze; 16th century.
+
+=Cohors=, =Cohort=, R. A body of infantry forming the tenth part of a
+legion. The number of men composing a cohort varied at different periods
+between 300 and 600 men, according to the numerical strength of the
+legion. The first cohort of a legion was called a military cohort; the
+prætorian cohort formed the general’s body-guard, while to the city
+cohort was entrusted the protection of the city. The term was sometimes,
+though very rarely, applied to a squadron of cavalry.
+
+=Coif= or =Quoif=. A close hood.
+
+=Coif de Fer=, =Coiffette=. A skull-cap of iron of the 12th and 13th
+centuries.
+
+=Coif de Mailles.= A hood of mail worn by knights in the 12th century.
+
+=Coiffe=, Arch. A term employed during the 16th and 17th centuries to
+denote the vaulted ceiling of an apse.
+
+=Coillon.= (See COIN.)
+
+=Coin= or =Coigne=, Arch. The corner of a building. (See QUOIN.)
+
+=Coin-stones=, Arch. Corner-stones.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 177. Helmet with Cointise behind.]
+
+=Cointise= or =Quintise=. (1) A scarf wrapped round the body, and
+sometimes attached to the helmet. (2) Quaintly-cut coverings for the
+helmet. Fig. 177 represents a helmet decorated with PANACHE, CORO. E.,
+and _cointise_. This is the origin of _mantling_ in heraldry. (3) A
+garment worn over armour, _temp._ Edward II., was so termed. (4) Horses’
+caparisons.
+
+=Colatorium.= A colander. (See COLLUM VINARIUM.)
+
+=Colayn Riban=, O. E. An ecclesiastical textile, or _orphrey web_, for
+the manufacture of which Cologne was famous in the 15th century.
+
+=Colcothar of Vitriol.= A red pigment formerly called _caput mortuum_.
+
+=Cold-harbour.= This common topical name is the Anglo-Saxon
+_ceald-herberga_, cold “_herberge_” or shelter, and probably indicates a
+place where the ruins of a Roman villa or station were the only
+available shelter for travellers, in the ancient scarcity of inns.
+
+=Collar= (of a shaft), Arch. The ANNULET (q.v.). (See also COLLAR-BEAM.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 178. Collar of Lancaster.]
+
+=Collar=, Med. (1) A defence of mail or plate for the neck. (2)
+Generally. An ornament for the neck. The Egyptians, Persians, Greeks,
+Romans, and Gauls wore collars, which were named variously _streptos_
+(στρεπτὸς), _torquis_, _torques_, &c. Collars were ornamented with
+heraldic _badges_ in the Middle Ages. (3) Heraldic. One of the insignia
+of the orders of knighthood. (See Fig. 178.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 179. Collar of S.S.]
+
+=Collar of S.S.= Originally adopted by Henry IV., on the canopy of whose
+tomb it is employed as decoration over the arms of himself and his
+queen. Its significance is doubtful. Camden says the letters are the
+initials of Sanctus Simo Simplicius, an eminent Roman lawyer, and that
+it was particularly worn by persons of the legal profession.
+
+=Collar-beam=, Arch. A horizontal tie, connecting a pair of rafters
+together, across the vault of a roof.
+
+=Collare=, R. (_collum_, neck). A collar made of iron or leather, and
+studded with spikes. It was used both to confine slaves, and as a
+dog-collar. When a slave ran away from his master, an iron collar, with
+a leading-chain attached to it, was put round his neck.
+
+=Collarium=, Med. Armour for the neck.
+
+=Collegium=, R. A religious or industrial corporation in ancient Rome.
+The corresponding Greek institutions were the _Hetairiai_. The
+_collegia_ included trade companies or guilds.
+
+=Collet.= The setting which surrounds the stone of a ring. (See
+CRAMPON.)
+
+=Colliciæ=, =Colliquiæ=. (1) Broad open drains through fields. (2)
+Gutters of hollow tiles (_umbrices_) placed beneath the roof of a house
+to receive the rain-water, and convey it into the IMPLUVIUM.
+
+=Colliciaris= (sc. _tegula_). A hollow tile employed in the construction
+of _colliciæ_.
+
+=Collodion.= A solution of gun cotton in ether, used in photography.
+
+=Collum Vinarium= (from _collum_, a neck). A colander or wine-strainer.
+The custom of straining wine dates back beyond our era, and Christ made
+an allusion to it when he told the Pharisees that their _colla_ allowed
+a camel to pass, while they kept back a gnat. Snow was put into a
+strainer or a bag, called respectively _collum nivarium_, _saccus
+nivarius_, through which the wine was allowed to filter, not only to
+cool it, but because the intense cold cleared the wine, and rendered it
+sparkling and transparent; it was then called _vinum saccatum_. The
+Christian Church from the first adopted this instrument in its liturgy;
+another name for it was _colatorium_. (See NASSA.) The colander for wine
+was made of silver, or bronze, or other metal. The linen cloth called
+_saccus_ was not used for wine of any delicacy, as it spoiled its
+flavour.
+
+=Colluviarium=, R. An opening made at regular intervals in the channel
+of an aqueduct, for ventilation. As this opening formed a kind of well,
+it was also called PUTEUS (q.v.).
+
+=Collyra=, Gr. and R. A kind of bread made in a special manner, which
+was eaten with soup or sauce; there was also a cake so called.
+
+=Collyris= (κολλυρὶς, synonym of κολλύρα, q.v.). A head-dress worn by
+Roman ladies, resembling in shape the bread called κολλύρα; the latter
+was called κολλυρὶς as well.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 180. Collyrium or unguent Vase; Egyptian. Museum of
+the Louvre.]
+
+=Collyrium= (κολλύριον, dimin. of κολλύρα, q.v.). (1) A term denoting
+anything we should now call an unguent, but especially the salve
+_collyrium_, which was a liquid medicament. (2) _Collyria_ was a term
+applied to Egyptian vases of terra-cotta, with or without enamel; to
+small quadrangular boxes of wood or pottery; and, lastly, to small
+cylindrical cases of wood or bronze divided into compartments. There
+were three prevailing forms of the vases. The Egyptians used antimony to
+make their eyes look larger, and had some medicament for the relief of
+toothache; and inscriptions indicating these uses may be read upon
+vessels of this kind. (Fig. 180).
+
+=Colne=, O. E. A basket or coop.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 181. Roman Plebeian wearing the Colobium.]
+
+=Colobium= (from κολοβὸς, docked or curtailed). A tunic with short
+sleeves, which scarcely covered the upper part of the arm. At Rome it
+was worn by men of free birth. The _colobium_ appears to have been the
+first dress adopted by Christian deacons, and in the liturgical writings
+it is often met with under the name of _levitonarium_; when it was of
+fine linen, it was also called _lebiton_ and _lebitonarium_. (Fig. 181.)
+Later on the sleeves were lengthened, and it became known as the
+DALMATIC (q.v.).
+
+=Cologne Black.= (See BLACK.)
+
+=Cologne Earth.= A bituminous earth of a violet-brown hue, transparent
+and durable in water-colour painting.
+
+=Colonica.= Synonym of _villa rustica_. A farmhouse.
+
+=Color=, Lat. (1) The term is used in several senses in mediæval
+treatises upon music, with a general idea of a quality of tone obtained
+by striking variations. (2) The coloured lines used in transcribing
+music. (See NEUMES.)
+
+=Colores Austeri.= Ancient pigments, not _floridi_.
+
+=Colores Floridi.= Ancient expensive and brilliant pigments. They were
+chrysocollum, indicum (or indigo), cæruleum (smalt), and cinnabar.
+
+=Colossus= (κολοσσός). The word was used for all statues larger than
+life; that at Rhodes was ninety feet high. The Minerva and Jupiter
+Olympus of Pheidias, the Farnese Hercules, and the Flora of the
+Belvidere, were all colossal.
+
+=Colours=, in Heraldry, are five: Blue or Azure, Red or Gules, Black or
+Sable, Green or Vert, Purple or Purpure. In French heraldry Green is
+Sinope. The uses and general symbolism of each colour are described
+under its own heading. The best work on _symbolic colours_ is the
+“Essay” of M. Portal. One of the best on the _theory of colours_ is that
+of Chevreuil.
+
+=Colubrina=, Med. Lat. (from _coluber_, a snake). A culverin.
+
+=Columbar=, R. A kind of pillory used for punishing slaves. The
+instrument derived its name from the holes in it, which bore some
+resemblance to pigeon-holes.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 182. Columbarium.]
+
+=Columbarium.= A dove-cote or pigeon-house, often constructed to hold as
+many as 4000 or 5000 birds. In the plural the term has many meanings.
+(1) It denotes the pigeon-holes or cells for the nests in a
+pigeon-house. (2) In a sepulchral chamber, the niches for holding the
+cinerary urns (_ollæ_). Fig. 182 represents the numerous _columbaria_ in
+the tomb of the freedmen of Octavia. In the sepulchral architecture of
+the Jews, the rock-hewn walls forming the vestibules of certain tombs
+were honey-combed with minute _columbaria_, in which only lamps were
+placed. Fig. 183 represents cells of this character taken from the tomb
+of _Quoublet-el-Endeh_. (3) The openings in the side of a ship through
+which the oars passed. (4) The holes made in a wall to receive the head
+of a tie-beam. (5) The openings of the scoops in a particular kind of
+hydraulic wheel called TYMPANUM (q.v.).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 183. Columbaria in rock-hewn walls.]
+
+=Columella.= Dimin. of _columna_. (See COLUMN, CIPPUS.)
+
+=Columen=, Gr. and R. The highest timber in the framework of a roof,
+forming what is now called the ridgepiece.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 184. Ionic column.]
+
+=Column=, Arch. A column consists of three principal parts: the base
+(_a_), the shaft (_b_), and the capital (_c_). In the _Doric_, or most
+ancient style, the columns in a row rest upon a common base (_podium_).
+In the Ionic and Corinthian, each column has its own base (_spira_). The
+shaft of all columns _tapers_ gradually from the base to the capital.
+Any swelling introduced to modify the straightness of the line was
+called _entasis_. On the summit of a row of columns rests the
+_architrave_, or chief beam (_d_); above this the _frieze_ (_e_), and
+the _cornice_ (_f_) projects above the frieze. These three together are
+called the _entablature_. The triangular gable-end of the roof, above
+the entablature, is called the _pediment_. A circuit of columns,
+enclosing an open space in the interior of a building, was called a
+_peristyle_. A temple of two stories, with one peristyle upon another
+(Ionic or Corinthian columns over the heavier Doric), was called
+_hypæthral_. In Christian archæology the column is a symbol of the
+Church, which was called, so early as St. Paul, _columna et firmitatum
+veritatis_ (the column and support of truth).
+
+=Colures.= In Astronomy, the two circles which pass through the four
+cardinal points of the ecliptic—the equinoctial and solstitial points.
+
+=Coluria=, Arch. Circular segments of stone, in the construction of a
+column, such as are now called tambours or disks.
+
+=Colus.= A distaff. With the Romans it consisted of a thick cane
+(_arundo_, _donax_), split at the end in such a way that the opening
+formed a basket. _Compta_, _plena_, or _lana amicta_ were the epithets
+applied to a _colus_ when filled with wool. The thread obtained from it
+was called _stamen_. The ball of loose wool at one end, prepared for
+spinning, was called _glomus_. The lower end of the distaff rested under
+the left arm; the right hand spun and wound the thread on to the
+spindles (called _fusus_). (See DISTAFF.)
+
+=Colymbion=, Chr., Med. A vessel for holy water at the entrance of a
+church.
+
+=Colymbus=, Gr. and R. A basin or reservoir used either as a
+swimming-bath or for washing linen in.
+
+=Coma= (κόμη). (1) The hair; hair of the head. (2) The mane of animals.
+(See CÆSARIES, CINCINNUS, HAIR, &c.)
+
+=Comatorius= or =Comatoria= (sc. _acus_). A long pin or bodkin of gold,
+silver, bronze, or ivory, used by the Roman ladies to keep up their hair
+when plaited. It was also called Acus CRINALIS (q.v.). (Compare
+DISCERNICULUM.)
+
+=Combattant=, Her. Said of lions, or other animals of prey, rampant and
+face to face.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 185. Ancient Carved Ivory Comb.]
+
+=Combs= (Lat. _pecten_, Gr. κτεὶς), as used for combing the hair, but
+not for wearing upon the head, are found in Pompeian and Egyptian tombs,
+and in the early British, Roman, and Saxon barrows. In the Middle Ages
+ivory combs were richly carved, and the ceremonial combs for use in
+ecclesiastical ceremonies are especially splendid. Greek and Roman combs
+were of box-wood; Egyptian combs were of ivory. Uncombed hair was a
+general sign of mourning. (See DISCERNICULUM.)
+
+=Commentaculum= (from _commento_, to strike on the face). A staff or
+wand carried in sacred processions by the Roman priests to assist them
+in clearing a way and preventing the people from pressing in on them too
+closely. _Commotaculum_ was also used.
+
+=Commissatio= (from _commissor_, to revel). A revelling or feasting
+which began after the CŒNA (q.v.), and lasted far on into the night.
+(See SYMPOSIUM.)
+
+=Commistio= or =Commixtio=, Chr. The placing of a portion of the bread
+into the chalice of wine, during the ceremony of consecration.
+
+=Common-house.= The part of a monastery in which a fire was kept for the
+monks during winter.
+
+=Communicales=, Chr. Communion vessels, made especially to be carried in
+procession in Rome.
+
+=Compass.= In Music, the whole range of sounds capable of being produced
+by a voice or instrument.
+
+=Compass-headed=, Arch. A semicircular arch.
+
+=Compass Roof=, Arch. An open timber roof.
+
+=Compass Window=, Arch. A bay-window on a circular plan.
+
+=Compes.= (1) A ring of gold or silver worn by the Romans round the leg,
+just above the ankle. (2) The chains or shackles worn round the ankle by
+slaves or prisoners.
+
+=Compitalia=, =Compitales=. A festival held by the Romans in honour of
+the _Lares compitales_, celebrated in the cross-roads, _compitia_, where
+the images of those deities were often placed in niches.
+
+=Complement=, Her. Applied to the moon, when full.
+
+=Complement.= In Music, the interval to be added to another interval to
+make an octave; e.g. a third to a sixth; a fourth to a fifth, &c.
+
+=Complementary Colours.= If the whole of the light which is absorbed by
+a coloured body were reunited with the whole of the light which it
+reflects, white light would result; in this case the absorbed colours
+are complementary to those which are reflected. The colour given by a
+mixture of the colours of any portion of a spectrum is the _complement_
+of the remaining portion. _Red_ is complementary to _Green_, _Orange_ to
+_Blue_, _Greenish-Yellow_ to _Violet_, _Indigo_ to _Orange Yellow_, and,
+in each case, _vice versâ_.
+
+=Completorium=, Chr. The last of the _Hours of Prayer_.
+
+=Compline=, Chr. Short evening prayers completing the daily round of
+devotion prescribed by the _Hours of Prayer_.
+
+=Compluvium=, R. An opening in the roof of the _atrium_, furnished with
+gutters all round, which collected the rain-water from the roof, and
+conveyed it into the basin (_impluvium_) in the middle of the atrium.
+
+=Compon-covert=, O. E. A kind of lace.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 186. Capital of the Composite Order.]
+
+=Composite Order of Architecture.= The last of the five Roman orders,
+composed of the Ionic grafted upon the Corinthian order. The examples at
+Rome are in the arch of Septimus Severus, the arch of the Goldsmiths,
+the arch of Titus, the temple of Bacchus, and the baths of Diocletian.
+
+=Compound Arch=, Arch. A usual form of mediæval arch, which “may be
+resolved into a number of concentric archways, successively placed
+within and behind each other.” (_Prof. Willis._)
+
+=Compound Pier=, Arch. A clustered COLUMN (q.v.).
+
+=Compounded Arms=, Her. Bearings of two or more distinct coats combined,
+to produce a single compound coat.
+
+=Comus= (Gr. κῶμος). (1) A revel, or carousal which usually ended in the
+guests parading the streets crowned with garlands, &c. (2) Festal
+processions instituted in honour of Bacchus and other gods, and of the
+victors at the games. (3) Odes written to be sung at such processions,
+e. g. those of Pindar.
+
+=Comus= (Gr. κομμὸς, from κόπτω, to strike). (1) A beating of the head
+and breast in lamentation; a dirge. (2) A mournful song sung in
+alternate verses by an actor and a chorus in the Attic drama.
+
+=Concædes.= A barricade constructed of trees which have been cut down
+and placed across the road (to impede the enemy’s march).
+
+=Concamerate=, Arch. To arch over; to vault.
+
+=Concave.= Hollowed in; opposed to _convex_, bulging out.
+
+=Concha= (lit. a muscle or cockle). (1) A shell or shell-fish. (2) A
+Triton’s conch. In works of art, the Triton, or sea-god, has for a
+trumpet the _buccina_, remarkable for a spiral twist, long and straight;
+or the _murex_, equally twisted, but short and wide-mouthed. (3) The
+term was applied, by analogy, to various objects having the shape of a
+shell, such as cups or vases used for holding perfumes or for other
+purposes. (4) In Architecture, an apse, or a plain concave of a dome, is
+so called.
+
+=Conchoid.= A mathematical curve in the form of the outline of a shell.
+
+=Conclave= (with a key), Chr. (1) A meeting of cardinals assembled to
+elect a pope; and (2) the hall or apartment in which such meeting is
+held. The institution of the conclave dates from Gregory X.
+
+=Concrete=, Arch. A mixture of gravel, pebbles, or broken stone with
+cement.
+
+=Condalium= (κονδύλιον, dimin. of κόνδυλος, a knob or joint). A ring
+generally worn upon the first joint of the forefinger on the right hand.
+
+=Conditivium=, =Conditorium=. (1) An underground vault in which were
+chests or coffins for holding bodies which had not been reduced to
+ashes. (2) A sarcophagus in which the body was placed. (3) A kind of
+arsenal or magazine in which military engines were kept.
+
+=Condrak=, O. E. A kind of lace.
+
+=Condyle.= A knuckle; the rounded end of a bone; hence—
+
+=Condyloid.= Shaped like a _condyle_; and
+
+=Condylus.= Synonym of CONDALIUM (q.v.).
+
+=Cone.= A figure broad and round at the base, tapering upwards regularly
+towards a point.
+
+=Coney=, =Cony=, O. E. (1) A variety of the rabbit. (2) A beehive.
+
+=Confessio=, Chr. Originally the place where a saint or martyr was
+buried; thence the altar raised over his grave; and subsequently the
+chapel or basilica built there.
+
+=Congé=, Arch. The cavetto (hollow moulding) which unites the _base_ and
+_capital_ of a column to its shaft.
+
+=Congius= (deriv. doubtful). A Roman measure containing six _sextarii_
+or twelve _heminæ_. It was used especially for measuring liquids.
+_Angl._ a pint and a half.
+
+=Conic Sections.= Curves formed by the intersection of a _cone_ and a
+_plane_; the circle, the ellipse, the hyperbola, and the parabola.
+
+=Conisterium=, Gr. and R. A room in which wrestlers, after having had
+oil applied to their bodies, were rubbed over with fine sand (κόνις).
+The _conisterium_ was an appendage to a palæstrum, gymnasium, &c.
+
+=Conopeum=, =Canopium=, Gr. and R. (from κώνωψ, a gnat). A musquito-net,
+of very light material, introduced into Rome from Egypt. [This is the
+origin of the English word _canopy_.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 187. Consecrated pyre on Roman medal.]
+
+=Consecratio=, R. A kind of apotheosis or deification by which a mortal
+was enrolled in the number of the gods. It was unknown under the
+republic, and was only instituted in the time and on behalf of the
+emperors. The ceremony was solemnized in the Field of Mars, and with the
+greatest splendour. A magnificent pyre was raised, from the top of
+which, when kindled, an eagle was let fly, which was supposed to carry
+up to the skies the soul of the deified emperor. Fig. 187, taken from a
+medal, represents one of these pyres.
+
+=Consentiæ=, Gr. and R. Festivals held in honour of the twelve principal
+divinities of Rome or Greece.
+
+=Consignatorium Ablutorum=, Chr. In early times there were baptisteries
+near churches, with a place closely adjoining in which to administer the
+rite of confirmation; it was the place specially set apart for the
+administration of this rite that was called _consignatorium ablutorum_.
+
+=Console.= A projecting ornament, in wood or stone, used as a bracket.
+
+=Constant White.= SULPHATE OF BARYTES (q.v.).
+
+=Constellations.= Groups of stars, mostly with classical names. _Ancient
+C._, forty-eight formed by Ptolemy in A. D. 150, with two others added
+by Tycho Brahe; _Modern C._, fifty-nine others since formed, many by
+Helvetius at the end of the 17th century. (_Rossiter._)
+
+=Constratum=, R. A flooring constructed of planks. (See COASSATIO.)
+
+=Consualia=, R. A festival of ancient Rome held in honour of the god
+_Consus_. It was from this festival that the games of the circus took
+their rise. Livy calls the god Neptunus Equestris. The feast was held
+with horse and chariot races. Horses and mules did no work, and were
+crowned with garlands during its celebration. The Rape of the Sabines
+took place at the first Consualia.
+
+=Contabulatio=, R. The long parallel folds formed in any garment of
+ample size, such as the _toga_, _palla_, and _pallium_.
+
+=Contignatio=, R. (a joining together of beams). The wood-work of beams
+and joists supporting the flooring in a building of several stories. The
+term is also used to denote the flooring and sometimes the story itself.
+
+=Continuous Impost=, Arch. In Gothic architecture, the mouldings of an
+arch, when carried down to the ground without interruption, or anything
+to mark the impost-joint. (_Newlands._)
+
+=Contoise=, Fr. A flowing scarf worn attached to the helmet before 1350.
+(See COINTISE.)
+
+=Contomonobolum=, R. A game which consisted in leaping over a wide space
+by aid of a pole (_contus_) which was used as a fulcrum.
+
+=Contorniate.= A class of antique medals having the _contour_, or edge,
+marked with a deep cut. They generally have monograms on the obverse,
+and scenes of mythology on the reverse.
+
+=Contour=, Fr. Outline.
+
+=Contournée=, Her. Facing to the sinister.
+
+=Contra=, in compound words in music, signifies _an octave below_:
+_contra-basso_, a double bass, &c.
+
+=Contra Votum=, Chr. (i. e. against one’s desires). A formula of grief,
+placed by the ancients on tombs, columns, and other sepulchral
+monuments, and adopted by Christians in the 5th century. (See
+ACCLAMATIONS.)
+
+=Contractura=, R. The tapering of the column, which begins from the
+upper part of the shaft, and gradually widens as it reaches the base.
+(See ENTASIS.)
+
+=Contralto=, It. In Music, the voice of deepest tone in females, allied
+to the tenor in men.
+
+=Contrapuntal=, Mus. Relating to COUNTERPOINT (q.v.).
+
+=Contre-imbrications.= An ornament cut in the form of fishes’ scales
+overlapping one another, the scales being indented. In the
+_imbrications_ they stand out.
+
+=Contrepoint=, O. E. (See POURPOINT.)
+
+=Contubernium=, R. (1) A tent capable of accommodating ten soldiers and
+their corporal (_decanus_). (2) A dwelling-place, especially for slaves.
+Hence _contubernales_ came to mean comrades, and generally persons
+living in intimacy under one roof together.
+
+=Contus= (κοντὸς), Gr. and R. (1) A punting-pole, used also for taking
+soundings; each trireme was furnished with three poles of different
+lengths. (2) A cavalry pike or lance.
+
+=Conus=, Gen. (κῶνος, a cone). (1) In general, any object of a conical
+form. (2) A kind of sun-dial described upon a hollow cone. (3) The metal
+ridge at the top of a helmet, to which the plume was attached. (See Fig.
+252.)
+
+=Convivium=, R. A banquet which generally took place at about the same
+hour as the _cœna_, but which was never followed by a _commissatio_.
+(See CŒNA, COMMISSATIO.)
+
+=Coopertorium=, R. (that which covers). A rug of coarse cloth; a kind of
+blanket.
+
+=Cop=, O. E. Generally the top of anything; a mound or heap. (See
+BATTLEMENT.)
+
+=Copal.= A hard resin, which, dissolved in boiling linseed oil, forms an
+excellent varnish for pictures. It is also used as a vehicle for
+painting. The South African copal is the finest in quality. (See
+VARNISH.)
+
+=Copatain=, O. E. A sugar-loaf hat; “a copped-crown hat.”
+
+=Cope=, Chr. A sacerdotal garment, also called a _pluvial_, because it
+was originally worn by priests in processions as a protection against
+the rain. It was open in the front, and fastened on the breast by a
+“morse” or clasp. In the primitive Church the cope was furnished with a
+hood, and hence mentioned as CUCULLA.
+
+=Cope=, Arch. To top a wall with thin bricks or stone.
+
+=Coperone=, O. E., Arch. A pinnacle.
+
+=Cop-halfpenny=, O. E. The game of “heads and tails.”
+
+=Cop-head=, O. E. A crest of feathers or hair on an animal’s head.
+
+=Coping=, Arch. The capping or covering of a wall, generally sloping to
+throw off rain. In Fig. 77 two of the merlons are coped.
+
+=Cophinus.= Gr. and R. A large shallow wicker basket used for
+agricultural purposes. _Cophinus et fænum_, “a basket of hay,” is
+Juvenal’s word for the poor man’s bed. Compare English _coffin_.
+
+=Coppa Puerpera=, It. Caudle-cup.
+
+=Coppe= (It.), =Cups= (Sp. _copa_). The early Italian suit of playing
+cards corresponding to hearts. The _Rev. E. S. Taylor_ suggests, “The
+notion of hearts, as the seat of the affections, &c., is in connexion
+with the office of the _clergy_;” hence the _chalices_. (See CŒUR.)
+
+=Copped=, O. E. Crested. (For COP-HEAD, q.v.)
+
+=Copperas= (white) is considered the safest metallic _drier_ for
+pigments and varnish.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 188. Ewer and basin of enamelled copper (Turkish).]
+
+=Copper-enamelling.= (Fig. 188.) (See ENAMELS.)
+
+=Copper-plate Engraving.= (See CHALCOGRAPHY.)
+
+=Coppet=, O. E. Saucy.
+
+=Coppid=, O. E. Peaked; referring to the fashion of the long peaked toe.
+
+=Copple-crowned=, O. E. With a head high and rising up, said of a boy
+“with his hair on end.”
+
+=Coppull=, O. E. A hen’s name (in the Turnament of Tottenham).
+
+=Cops= or =Merlons=, Arch. The raised parts of a battlement. (See Fig.
+77.)
+
+=Coracle=, O. E. A boat of wicker-work covered with hides.
+
+=Coracoid= (κόραξ, a crow). In the form of a crow’s beak, e. g. a bone
+in the shoulder-blade.
+
+=Coral= (see AMULETS) is mentioned in the Lapidarium of Marbodus as a
+very favourite and potent amulet.
+
+           “Wondrous its power, so Zoroaster sings,
+           And to the wearer sure protection brings.
+           And, lest they harm ship, land, or house, it binds
+           The scorching lightning and the furious winds.
+           Sprinkled ‘mid climbing vines or olives’ rows,
+           Or with the seed the patient rustic sows,
+           ’Twill from thy crops avert the arrowy hail,
+           And with abundance bless the smiling vale.”
+                                     (KING, _Antique Gems_.)
+
+=Coranach=, =Coronach=, Gaelic (_corah-rainach_, a crying together). A
+dirge.
+
+=Coranto=, It. An Italian form of the country dance or jig.
+
+=Corazza=, O. E. A cuirass.
+
+=Corbel=, Arch. A projecting bracket supporting a pier, cornice, or
+column.
+
+=Corbel Steps=, Arch. Steps into which the outlines of a gable are
+sometimes broken; also called CORBIE STEPS.
+
+=Corbel Table.= A term in mediæval architecture, applied to a projecting
+course and the row of corbels which support it.
+
+=Corbie=, Scotch. A raven; hence a “corbie messenger,” one that is long
+upon his errand, like the raven sent from the ark, who returned not
+again.
+
+=Corbie Steps.= (See CORBEL STEPS.)
+
+=Corbis=, R. A wicker basket of conical shape, used especially for
+agricultural purposes. A similar basket in every-day use in parts of
+Italy is still called “la corbella.” Cf. the German “Korb.”
+
+=Corbita=, R. A merchantman of the larger class, so called because it
+hung out a basket at the masthead. These vessels were also called
+_onerariæ_.
+
+=Corbona Ecclesiæ=, Chr. The treasure of a church, accumulated from the
+offerings of communicants at the Sacrament. The Greek synonym for this
+term is _gazophylacium_.
+
+=Corbula.= Dimin. of CORBIS (q.v.).
+
+=Corce=, O. E. The body, stomach.
+
+               “He start to hym with gret force,
+               And hyt hym egurly on the _corce_!”
+                                             (_Old MS._)
+
+=Cordate=, =Cordiform=. Heart-shaped.
+
+=Cordax=, Gr. and R. A dance of the ancient Greek comedy of a ridiculous
+and indecent character. Fauns and satyrs are constantly represented
+dancing the _cordax_.
+
+=Cordeliers=, Fr. The Franciscan friars are so called from the _rope_
+girdles they wear.
+
+=Cordevan=, O. E. A leather of goat-skin, originally from Cordova in
+Spain. Spelt also _Cordewayne_; hence _cordwainer_ or _cordiner_, a
+shoemaker.
+
+=Cordigard=, Med. (from the French _corps de garde_). A detachment of
+troops appointed for a particular service.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 189. Corean tea-pot. (About A. D. 1562.)]
+
+=Corean Porcelain=, from a country intermediate between China and Japan,
+combines the qualities of the most ancient art of each. The tea-pot
+represented in Fig. 189 is covered with gravings in the paste imitating
+the waves of the ocean, and shows four times repeated an imperial
+Japanese device, by which it appears that the piece was destined for the
+Mikado.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 190. Capital of the Corinthian Order.]
+
+=Corinthian Order of Architecture.= This order originated in Greece, and
+the capital is said to have been suggested by observing a tile placed on
+a basket left in a garden, and an acanthus growing round it. The
+principal distinction of this order is its capital, richly ornamented
+with leaves and flowers. Among the principal Corinthian examples are the
+temple of Vesta, the basilica of Antoninus, and the temples of Jupiter
+Tonans and Jupiter Stator; all at Rome.
+
+=Corium=, R. Leathern body-armour cut into scale form.
+
+=Cork= burned forms the pigment called _Spanish Black_.
+
+=Corn.= In pagan art, the attribute of Ceres and Justitia and Juno
+Martialis.
+
+=Cornal.= The head of a tilting-lance. (See CORONEL.)
+
+=Cornelian=, =Carnelian=, Gen. A variety of chalcedony of a horny
+transparency and a more or less deep red. Engraved cornelians have
+perpetuated much information about the manners and customs of the
+ancient Greeks and Romans. (See SARDS.)
+
+=Cornemuse.= A French form of the bagpipe.
+
+=Cornet.= (1) A kind of heraldic banner. (2) The bearer of the colours
+of a regiment. (3) Square caps worn in the Universities. (4) Any object
+having _corners_, or angular extremities. (5) An obsolete musical
+instrument, once in common use in Germany and in England, something like
+a HAUTBOY, but larger and of a coarser tone. (See WAITS.)
+
+=Cornice.= (See CORONIS.)
+
+=Cornichon=, Fr. A kind of game at “quoits.”
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 191. Coin showing the Corniculum.]
+
+=Corniculum=, R. (dimin. of _cornu_, and so a small horn). It was a mark
+of distinction conferred on a soldier who had distinguished himself by
+his conduct or courage, and was worn on his helmet. On Thracian and
+other coins we find representations of this horn as part of the royal
+head-dress.
+
+=Cornish=, O. E. The ring placed at the mouth of a cannon.
+
+=Cornlaiters=, O. E. Newly-married peasants begging corn to sow their
+first crop with.
+
+=Cornu=, =Cornus=, and =Cornum=, R. (1) The horn of an animal. (2) Any
+object made of horn or of a horn-like shape. The musical _cornu_ was
+curved; the straight horn was called _tuba_.
+
+=Cornu Altaris= (horn of the altar), in Christian archæology, means
+merely the _corner_ or _angle_ thereof. _Cornu Evangelii_ is the angle
+to the left, _c. Epistolæ_ that to the right, of the celebrating priest.
+
+=Cornu-copiæ=, R. Horn of abundance, a symbol of concord, prosperity,
+and good fortune. It was represented as a wreathed horn, filled to
+overflowing with corn and fruit.
+
+=Corolla=, R. (dimin. of CORONA, q.v.). The _corolla_ denoted in a
+general sense a small crown or even a garland; in a more restricted
+acceptation it was a garland of artificial flowers made of horn shavings
+and painted various colours. Women used to wear this kind of wreath
+during winter.
+
+=Corollarium=, R. (dimin. of CORONA, q.v.). It denoted especially a
+wreath made out of thin metal leaves, which the audience in a theatre
+presented to their favourite actors.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 192. Mural crown.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 193. Naval crown.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 194. Celestial crown.]
+
+=Corona= (κορώνη), R. A crown or garland made with natural or artificial
+leaves and flowers (of horn, parchment, &c., or metal). There were many
+different kinds of _coronæ_, of which the principal were the following:
+_corona civica_; _corona classica_, _navalis_, or _rostrata_; _corona
+castrensis_ or _vallaris_; _corona longa_; _corona muralis_; _corona
+obsidionalis_; _corona natalitia_; _corona oleagina_; _corona ovalis_;
+_corona pactilis_, _plectilis_, or _plexilis_; _corona triumphalis_;
+_corona sutilis_, &c. The most honourable was the _c. obsidionalis_,
+presented by a beleaguered army, after its liberation, to the general
+who raised the siege. It was made of grass, or wild flowers plucked on
+the site. The _c. civica_ was presented to a Roman soldier who had saved
+the life of a citizen in battle. It was made of oak leaves. The _c.
+navalis_ was made of gold. The _c. muralis_, presented to the first man
+over the wall of a besieged city, was also made of gold, and it was
+ornamented with turrets. The _c. castrensis_, presented to the first
+soldier who forced an entrance into an enemy’s camp, was of gold
+ornamented with palisades. Of the _c. triumphalis_ there were three
+kinds: one of laurel or bay leaves, worn by the commanding officer
+during his triumph; one of massive gold held over his head; and a third
+of still greater value, also of gold. The _c. ovalis_, to commemorate an
+ovation to an officer, was made of myrtle leaves. The _c. oleagina_, of
+olive leaves, was given to common soldiers. Besides these, there were
+the various sacerdotal _coronæ_, emblematical of their functions: the
+funereal chaplets of leaves and flowers for the dead, called _c.
+funebres_ or _sepulchrales_; the wreaths of roses, violets, myrtles,
+ivy, &c., worn at convivial meetings, _c. convivialis_; and the bridal
+wreath, of Greek origin, made of flowers not bought, but plucked by the
+bride herself, the verbena being the chosen flower among the Romans, _c.
+nuptialis_; and finally the _c. natalitia_ suspended over the door of a
+house where a child was born. At Athens this was of olive for a boy, and
+of wool for a girl. At Rome the wreath was made of laurel, ivy, or
+parsley. The various crowns used in heraldry are described under their
+respective headings. (See CROWN.)
+
+=Corona= or =Drip-stone=, Gen. A moulding forming part of a cornice, the
+lower part or drip of which is grooved, so as to throw off the
+rain-water from the structure. Drip-stones are sometimes plain,
+sometimes decorated with rich sculptures.
+
+=Corona Lucis=, Chr. A lamp or chandelier suspended above the altar of a
+church, from which usually depended a jewelled cross.
+
+=Coronach=, Scotch. A dirge.
+
+=Coronarium= (aureum), R. The gold for a triumphal crown (_corona
+triumphalis_): it was sent by the provinces to a victorious chief or
+general.
+
+=Coronarium= (opus), R. Stucco-work applied to the decoration of a
+cornice or projecting moulding.
+
+=Coronel=, Med. The head of a jousting-lance, so called from its
+resemblance to a little crown. Twelve were allowed to a tilter in the
+time of Henry VI. (_Meyrick._)
+
+=Coronell=, O. E. A colonel.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 195. Prince of Wales’s coronet.]
+
+=Coronets.= Ensigns of nobility worn upon the head, introduced into
+England about the middle of the 14th century. (See BARON, DUKE, EARL,
+&c.) Ladies also wore them surmounting the horned head-dress of the
+reign of Henry V. The engraving (Fig. 196) represents Beatrice, Countess
+of Arundel, with coronet.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 196. Coronet of Countess of Arundel, _temp._ Henry
+V.]
+
+=Coronis= (κορωνίς). Anything curved; the _cornice_ of an entablature.
+
+=Coronize= (Gr. κορωνίζω, from κορώνη, a crow). To beg for the crow;
+said of strollers who went about begging with a crow, singing begging
+songs. (See CHELIDONIZE.)
+
+=Corporal=, O. E. The fine linen cloth or veil for the pyx, sometimes
+embroidered with golden thread and coloured silks. With such a
+“corporal” Mary, Queen of Scots, bandaged her eyes for her execution.
+
+=Corpse-candle=, O. E. A thick candle used formerly at _lake-wakes_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 197. Corpse or Lich-gate.]
+
+=Corpse-gate= or =Lich-gate=. A shed over the gate of a churchyard to
+rest the corpse under. (Fig. 197.)
+
+=Corrugis=, R. (_corrugo_, to wrinkle). Literally, wrinkled; a loose
+garment which was wrapped round the body, and fell into numerous folds,
+so as to present the appearance of a wrinkled surface.
+
+=Cors=, Arch. The shaft of a pinnacle.
+
+=Corsæ=, R. The mouldings decorating the surface of a marble door-post.
+
+=Corse=, O. E. (See CORCE.)
+
+=Corse of Silk=, O. E. Probably a silk ribbon.
+
+=Corselet=, Fr. A light breastplate; 16th and 17th centuries.
+
+=Corspresant=, Med. A mortuary.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 198. Cortina.]
+
+=Cortina=, R. (1) A deep circular vessel in the shape of a saucepan,
+used for various purposes. (2) The snake’s skin spread over the tripod
+of the Pythoness at Delphi. (3) An altar of marble, bronze, or the
+precious metals, in the form of a tripod. (4) The vault over the stage
+in a theatre was called _cortina_, from its resemblance to the lid of a
+tripod. (5) Tables of marble or bronze, made to imitate the slab upon
+which the Delphic priestess sat, were also called _cortinæ_ Delphicæ.
+(See Fig. 199.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 199. Cortina (Etruscan).]
+
+=Cortinale=, R. A cellar in which wine was boiled in caldrons
+(_cortinæ_) to preserve it.
+
+=Corundum.= The Indian name for a very hard mineral called adamantine
+spar. The ruby and sapphire are varieties of _corundum_.
+
+=Corven.= O. E. for carven, cut.
+
+               “_Corvene_ wyndows of glase,
+               With joly bandis of brase.”
+                                         (_Lincoln MS._)
+
+=Corvus=, R. (lit. crow). A crane or _grappling-iron_, used in naval
+warfare. It was a strong piece of iron with a spike at the end, which,
+being violently let down upon a ship from the yard-arm, or a special
+mast made for the purpose, went through the bottom and sank it, or at
+any rate grappled it fast. A variety of _corvus_ was also made use of in
+the assault of fortified places.
+
+=Corybantica=, Gr. and R. Festivals celebrated at Cnossus, in Crete, by
+the Corybantes, in honour of Atys and his mother Cybele. The priests ran
+through town and country carrying torches and uttering savage cries to
+the accompaniment of drums and cymbals. They performed frenzied dances
+known under the name of _Corybantic dances_.
+
+=Corycæum=, Gr. and R. A large apartment in a gymnasium or a large
+bathing establishment, for the _Corycobolia_ or sack-throwing, a game
+which consisted in suspending from the ceiling of the _corycæum_, at the
+height of about a yard from the ground, a sack filled with sand, bran,
+or seeds, to be thrust away with blows of the fist, and when it was in
+full swing to be stopped with the hands, back, or breast. The exercise
+was also called _Corycomachia_.
+
+=Corymbus=, R. (κόρυμβος, a cluster). (1) A bunch of any fruit that
+grows in clusters, such as ivy-berries. (2) A head-dress or wig arranged
+in the form of _corymbi_, in a knot at the top of the head, as that of
+Venus is represented in the Medici statue. (3) The term is also
+sometimes used as a synonym of APLUSTRE (q.v.).
+
+=Corynalle=, Arch. (See CORNAL.)
+
+                   “The schafte was strong over alle,
+                   And a well-shaped _corynalle_.”
+
+=Coryphæus=, Gr. (lit. at the head). (1) Any leader. (2) Esp. the leader
+of the chorus of the Attic drama. (3) An epithet of Jupiter Capitolinus.
+
+=Corytus=, Gr. and R. A bow-case. The quiver for arrows was called
+_pharetra_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 200. Cos—a Roman Grindstone.]
+
+=Cos=, R. A hone, whetstone, or grindstone. Fig. 200 is taken from an
+engraved gem.
+
+=Cosmi= (κόσμοι). The supreme magistrates in Crete.
+
+=Costanti=. One of the Italian literary academies. They had for their
+device the sun shining on a column, with the motto _Tantum volvitur
+umbra_ (the shadow only revolves).
+
+=Cote=, O. E. A woman’s gown; 15th century.
+
+=Cote Armour.= (See COAT ARMOUR, TABARD.)
+
+=Cote-hardie.= A tight-fitting gown; 14th century.
+
+=Cothurnus=, Gr. and R. The Buskin; a high boot of Greek invention, met
+with on representations of certain divinities and of some of the
+emperors covered with rich ornamentation. It is an attribute of the
+huntress Diana. The sole was thickened with cork for tragic actors, to
+make them taller. Horsemen wore it as high as the knee.
+
+=Cotillion= (Fr. _cotte_, an under-petticoat). A dance introduced from
+France, where it usually terminated a ball.
+
+=Cotise=, Her. A diminutive of the Bend, being one-fourth of its width.
+
+=Cotta.= A short surplice.
+
+=Cottabus=, =Cottabê=, =Cotabos=, Gr. and R. A game of Greek origin,
+played in various manners, by throwing wine into empty cups swimming on
+a basin of water, or into scales suspended above a bronze ornament. The
+man who drowned most cups won a prize, or he who made the best sound had
+a good omen. There were other methods.
+
+=Cotyla=, Gr. and R. A measure of capacity equal to half a pint English.
+
+=Cotyttia= (κοττύτια). Nocturnal festivals celebrated by the Edonians of
+Thrace in honour of a goddess called Cotytto (Cybele).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 201. Hart _couchant_.]
+
+=Couchant= or =Dormant=, Her. In repose. The illustration gives the
+device of King Richard II., a white hart _couchant_ on a mount, &c.
+(Fig. 201.)
+
+=Coucher=, O. E. A book kept _couched_ or lying on a desk, e. g. books
+of the church services left in the places where they were used.
+
+=Coudières=. (See COUTERE.)
+
+=Coufic=. (See CUFIC.)
+
+=Coulisse=, Tech. A piece of timber with a channel or groove in it, such
+as that in which the side-scenes of a theatre move.
+
+=Counter=, Her. Reversed or opposite.
+
+=Counterfort=, Arch. A buttress.
+
+=Counterpoint=, Music. The art of combining melodies, or rather of
+adding to a melody harmonious parts. _Double Counterpoint_ is “a kind of
+artificial composition, where the parts are inverted in such a manner
+that the uppermost becomes the lowermost, and _vice versâ_.” (See
+_Stainer and Barrett_, _Dic. of Musical Terms_.)
+
+=Counter-proof.= An impression of an engraving printed from a wet proof.
+
+=Counter-seal= or =Secretum=. A seal on the reverse or back of another
+seal. Early seals were generally impressed on both sides.
+
+=Countess=, Arch. A roofing slate, 20 inches by 10 inches.
+
+=Couped=, Her. Cut off smoothly. The reverse of _erased_.
+
+=Coupled= (columns), Gen. Two columns are said to be _coupled_ when they
+are placed quite close to each other without touching. _Coupled heads_
+is the term applied to two heads placed back to back upon the same
+pedestal or the same trunk. Many pedestals ornamented with HERMÆ (q.v.)
+are surmounted by coupled heads.
+
+=Courant=, Her. Running.
+
+=Course=, Arch. One range, or stratum, of bricks, stones, or other
+material in the construction of a wall.
+
+=Court Cards.= The king, queen, and knave of a suit. They were
+originally _named_ in France; e. g. the four _kings_ were Charlemagne,
+Cæsar, Alexander, and David; the four _queens_, Judith, Rachel, Argine,
+and Pallas; and the _valets_, Lahire, Hector, Lancelot, and Hogier. Of
+these the _kings_ were said to represent the four ancient monarchies of
+the Jews, Greeks, Romans, and Franks; and the _queens_, wisdom, birth,
+beauty, and fortitude. (_Taylor._) (See CHATRANG.)
+
+=Court Cupboards=, O. E. Richly carved and large cupboards for plate and
+other valuables, _temp._ Charles I.
+
+=Court Dish=, O. E. A kind of drinking-cup.
+
+=Courtepy= (Teutonic). Short cloak or gown.
+
+=Coussinet=, Arch. The crowning stone of a pier, lying immediately under
+the arch.
+
+=Coutel=, Fr. A short knife or dagger in use in the Middle Ages.
+
+=Coutere= or =Coutes=. The elbow-piece in armour.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 202. Couvre-feu (Curfew).]
+
+=Couvre-feu=, Angl. =Curfew=. A screen used, as its name implies, for
+covering the fire; introduced with the famous Curfew-bell, _temp._
+William Rufus. (Fig. 202.)
+
+=Cove=, Arch. A name for concave mouldings or other concavities.
+
+=Coved Ceiling=, Arch. A ceiling springing from the walls with a cove.
+
+=Coventry Blue.= A celebrated “blew threde” made at Coventry, _temp._
+Elizabeth.
+
+=Covert=, Her. Partly covered.
+
+=Covinus=, R. (Celtic, _kowain_). A war-chariot. The spokes of its
+wheels were armed with scythes. [It was used by the ancient Britons. The
+Romans gave the name to a close travelling carriage covered in all
+round.] (Compare CURRUS, CARPENTUM.)
+
+=Coward= or =Cowed=, Her. An animal with its tail between its legs.
+
+=Cow-lady=, O. E. The lady-bird.
+
+               “A paire of buskins they did bring
+               Of the _cow-ladye’s_ corall wyng.”
+                                     (_Musarum Deliciæ._)
+
+=Cowl=, Mod. (from _cuculla_, CUCULLUS, q.v.). A priest’s hood.
+
+=Cox= or =Cokes=, O. E. A fool; hence _Coxcomb_, for the top of a fool’s
+cap.
+
+=Crackle Porcelain= or =Cracklin=. A kind of china, the glaze of which
+has been purposely cracked all over in the kiln. The Chinese have many
+kinds of this manufacture, some of which are extremely rare and
+valuable. White and grey are the common colours amongst modern crackle.
+The yellow and cream-coloured specimens are much prized: these are
+seldom seen in Europe. The greens, light and dark, turquoise, and reds
+are generally finely glazed, and have the crackle lines small and
+minute. In colouring, these examples are exquisite, and in this respect
+they throw our finest specimens of European porcelain quite into the
+shade. The green and turquoise crackle made in China at the present day
+are very inferior to the old kinds. Perhaps the rarest and most
+expensive of all ancient crackles is a yellowish stone-colour.
+(_Fortune._)
+
+=Crackled Glass.= (See GLASS.)
+
+=Cracowes.= Long-toed boots and shoes, introduced in 1384.
+
+=Cradle Vault=, Arch. A cylindrical vault.
+
+=Cradling.= A builder’s term for a timber frame for a ceiling, &c.
+
+=Craig=, Scotch. (1) A rock. (2) The neck; throat.
+
+=Crampet.= The decorated end of a scabbard.
+
+=Crampon.= The border of gold which keeps a stone in a ring. (See
+COLLET.)
+
+=Cramp-ring=, O. E. A ring consecrated on Good Friday, an amulet against
+cramp.
+
+=Crancelin=, Her. (from the German _Kranzlein_, a small wreath). The
+chaplet that crosses the shield of Saxony. It is said to be an
+augmentation conferred by the Emperor Barbarossa, who took from his head
+his own chaplet of rue, and threw it across the shield of the Duke of
+Saxony. (_Boutell._)
+
+=Crane’s-bills.= Geraniums, so called from the shape of their
+seed-vessels.
+
+=Crannogs=, Irish. Lake fortresses constructed on artificial islands.
+
+=Crapaudine Doors.= A technical name for doors that turn on pivots at
+top and bottom, or are hung with so called _centre-pin_ hinges.
+
+=Crash.= The grey linen used for the kind of embroidery called
+_crewelwork_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 203. Silver Crater (Roman). Found at Hildesheim.]
+
+=Crater=, Gr. and R. (κρατὴρ, from κεράννυμι, to mix). (1) A large and
+beautiful vase with a wide open mouth, in which the wine and water was
+mixed which was handed round at banquets and sacrifices. It was into
+vases of this description that slaves dipped a ladle (_cyathus_), with
+which they filled the cups. The beautiful silver _crater_ shown in the
+illustration (Fig. 203), of a date not later than the 1st century, was
+found with other treasures of a similar kind at Hildesheim, near
+Hanover, in 1869. It is now in the Berlin Museum. (2) The mouth of a
+volcano is named from its resemblance to the Greek crater. (3) A small
+constellation of the southern hemisphere called the Cup.
+
+=Crates=, R. A frame or basket made of hurdles, and so a hurdle itself.
+(English, “_crate_.”)
+
+=Craticula=, R. (dimin. of _crates_). A small hurdle, and by analogy, a
+gridiron, which looks like a small hurdle.
+
+=Creag=, O. E. The game of ninepins.
+
+=Creagra.= Gr. (κράγρα, from κρέας and ἀγρέω, i. e. a flesh-hook). A
+synonym of the Latin term HARPAGO (q.v.).
+
+=Creasing.= A builder’s word for a row of tiles under the coping of a
+wall.
+
+=Credence Table.= The small table beside an altar, on which the
+communion was placed before consecration.
+
+=Creme-box=, O. E. A chrismatory (q.v.).
+
+=Cremesyn=, O. E. Crimson velvet.
+
+=Cremium=, R. (_cremo_, to burn). Small wood, made up into bundles, used
+by bakers, and for lighting the hypocausts under the baths.
+
+=Crenel.= The peak at the top of a helmet.
+
+=Crenellated=, Her. Embattled. (See BATTLEMENT.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 204 Crenellated walls at Pompeii.]
+
+=Crenelle=, Fr. A cutting or indentation of the walls of a fortress or
+tower, &c. The spaces between the solid masonry are called _embrasures_,
+and the solid portions themselves _merlons_; usually the tops of the
+merlons are coped to throw off rain. (See COPING.) Fig. 204 shows a
+portion of the crenellated walls of Pompeii restored. (See Fig. 77.)
+
+=Crepida=, Gr. and R. (κρηπίς). A slipper made of a strong leather sole,
+to the edges of which was fixed a piece of leather with eyelet-holes
+(_ansæ_) for the laces (_corrigiæ_) or a strap (_amentum_). This shoe
+was of Greek origin. _Crepida carbatina_ was the name given to a shoe of
+the simplest and plainest description. (See CARBATINA.) [This shoe is
+only found represented on figures clothed with the _pallium_, not the
+_toga_.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 205. Crepido in a street in Pompeii.]
+
+=Crepido=, Gr. and R. (κρηπίς). In a general sense, any kind of base or
+stand upon which another object rests, and by analogy the embankment of
+a quay, a dike, or jetty. The term is also applied to the raised
+causeway for foot passengers at the side of a road or street. Fig. 204
+represents a _crepido_ on a high road near Pompeii, and Fig. 205 a
+_crepido_ in the streets of the same town.
+
+=Crepitaculum=, R. (_crepo_, to creak). A child’s rattle, made in the
+form of a circle to which bells were attached. These rattles have been
+found in the excavations of Pompeii. Some authors apply the term to the
+SISTRUM of the Egyptians.
+
+=Crepitus= (sc. _digitorum_), R. A snapping of the fingers made by
+pressing the tip of the thumb firmly against the tip of the middle
+finger.
+
+=Crepundia=, R. A general term for playthings for children, as well as
+for necklaces of various ornaments, or amulets. These were in some
+instances of great length, and were worn by the children like
+shoulder-belts.
+
+=Créquier=, Her. The wild plum-tree: the device of the Créquy family.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 206. Crescent.]
+
+=Crescent=, Her. The _difference_ of the second son. The moon is a
+crescent when she appears as in Fig. 206. (Compare DECRESCENT,
+INCRESCENT.)
+
+=Cresolite=, O. E. Crystal.
+
+=Crespine=, Fr. A network to confine the hair of ladies; the _calantica_
+of the ancients. It is found in mediæval monuments in a variety of
+forms.
+
+=Cressets.= A small pan or portable fireplace, filled with combustibles,
+used for illuminating purposes; 16th century. Her., a beacon. (See Fig.
+54.)
+
+=Crest=, Arch, (_crista_). A running ornament, more or less incised and
+perforated, which is placed on the ridge of roofs. Many monuments of
+antiquity have been adorned with terra-cotta crests; in the
+Romano-Byzantine architecture examples occur which are made of stone,
+while in Pointed or Renaissance art they were made of lead.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 207. Royal crest of England.]
+
+=Crest=, Her. (Lat. _crista_). This word, familiar to us as the name of
+an ornament surmounting the helmet and the insignia of a gentleman of
+coat armour, signified in classic times a comb terminating in a peak in
+front of the casque decorated with horsehair or plumes. (See CRISTA,
+Fig. 252.) The earliest appearance of a crest in England is on the
+second seal of Richard I. Fig. 207 illustrates the manner in which the
+crest is worn upon the royal crown of England. Crests are not worn by
+ladies, excepting by the Sovereign. (See PANACHE.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 208. Crest-coronet.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 209. Crest-wreaths.]
+
+=Crest-coronet=, =Crest-wreath=, or =Orle=, Her. A coronet or wreath to
+support a crest. (Fig. 208 and 209.)
+
+=Crest-tiles.= Tiles used for covering the ridge of a roof.
+
+=Creta Lævis.= A crayon of permanent colour for chalk drawing.
+
+=Crewel-work.= (See CRASH.)
+
+=Crewels.= A worsted of two plies adapted for embroidery.
+
+=Crewetts.= Small vessels used at the altar, to hold the wine and water
+for consecration.
+
+=Crimson= (Arab, _cremisi_, the cochineal insect). A deep tone of red,
+tinged with blue.
+
+=Crinale=, R. (_crinis_, the hair). A large convex comb worn by women
+and children at the back of the head.
+
+=Crined=, Her. Having a mane or hair.
+
+=Crinetts=, O. E. The long small black feathers on a hawk’s head. (_H._)
+
+=Crinze=, O. E. A drinking-cup. (_H._)
+
+=Criobolè=, Gr. (κριοβόλη). A sacrifice to Cybele, so called because the
+victim was a ram (κριός).
+
+=Crista=, R. The crest of the helmet, which was attached to an elevated
+ridge (generally of horsehair). A fine example is given in the head of
+“Rome,” on the Tazza of Diruta. (Fig. 252.) (See CREST.)
+
+=Cristatus=, R. (_crista_). Having a ridge and a crest. (Fig. 252.)
+
+=Cristendom=, O. E. Baptism.
+
+            “And that bastard that to the ys dere,
+            _Crystyndome_ schalle he none have here.” (_H._)
+
+=Cristygrey.= A kind of fur much used in the 15th century.
+
+              “Of no devyse embroudid hath hire wede,
+              Ne furrid with ermyn ne with _cristygrey_.”
+
+=Crites= (κριτής). A judge in _equity_, as opposed to DIKASTES, a judge
+in _law_.
+
+=Croakumshire.= An ancient name for the county of Northumberland. (_H._)
+
+=Crobbe=, O. E. Knops of buds hung as ornaments from a roof.
+
+=Crobylus=, Gr. and R. (κρωβύλος). A method of arranging the hair
+peculiar to the inhabitants of Athens. The hair, rolled up in a knot on
+the top of the head, was fastened with golden clasps in the shape of
+grasshoppers. The name applies only to men’s hair; the same fashion for
+women was called _Corymbus_.
+
+=Croc= or =Crook=. A curved mace.
+
+=Crocea.= A cardinal’s cloak.
+
+=Crochet.= Knitting done with linen thread, and used under the name of
+_nun’s lace_ from the 16th century for bordering altar-cloths, albs, &c.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 210. Crocket.]
+
+=Crocket.= (1) An architectural enrichment, generally of leaves or
+flowers; an ornamentation peculiar to the pointed style of architecture.
+(Fig. 210.) (2) A large roll of hair, much worn in the time of Edward I.
+
+                 “His _crocket_ kembt, and thereon set
+                 A nouche with a chapelet.”
+
+=Crocota=, Gr. and R. (from κρόκος, crocus). A very rich robe of saffron
+colour, whence its name. It was worn by Greek and Roman women as a gala
+dress, especially at the Dionysia.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 211. Cromlech.]
+
+=Cromlec’h=, Celtic (from _cromm_, curved, and _lec’h_, place). An
+enclosure formed by _menhirs_, or huge stones planted in the ground in a
+circle or semicircle. These enclosures (Fig. 211) were consecrated
+places used as burying-grounds. (See STANDING STONES, DOLMENS, MENHIRS,
+&c.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 212. Cross _Recercelée_.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 213. St. Andrew’s Cross (_Saltire_).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 214. St. George’s Cross _fimbriated_.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 215. Victoria Cross.]
+
+=Cross=, Chr. (_Crux_). The symbol of the Christian religion. The
+ordinary or primitive type of cross has no summit. It is called
+_commissa_ or _patibulata_, and sometimes the _Tau_ cross, from its
+resemblance to the Greek letter so named (T). Fig. 121 represents a
+stone cross of the Romano-Byzantine period, at Carew, in England. The
+St. Andrew’s cross has the form of an X. The Greek cross is of four
+equal parts. The Latin cross has the foot longer than the summit or
+arms. The Maltese cross and the cross of Jerusalem are varieties of the
+Greek cross. The Patriarchal cross (heraldic) has two cross pieces, the
+triple cross has three, &c. PER CROSS, in heraldry, is the division of a
+shield _quarterly_ (a combination of pale and fesse). (Figs. 212 to
+215.)
+
+=Cross and Pile=, O. E. The game of “heads and tails.”
+
+=Cross-aisled=, Arch. Having TRANSEPTS.
+
+=Cross-bows= were brought to England by the Crusaders. They were
+frequently richly carved and inlaid.
+
+=Cross-days=, O. E. The three days before Ascension Day.
+
+=Cross-gartered.= Having the garters crossed on the leg. (_H._)
+
+=Cross-hatching.= A term in engraving applied to lines which intersect
+at regular angles, to increase depth of shadow.
+
+=Crossos=, Gr. (κρωσσός). A wide-bodied vessel narrowing towards the
+mouth; it is furnished with a stand and two handles or ears (δίωτοι).
+
+=Cross-row=, O. E. The alphabet. (See CHRIST-CROSS.)
+
+=Cross-springer=, Arch. In vaulting, the diagonal rib of a GROIN.
+
+=Cross-vaulting=, Arch. That which is formed by the intersection of two
+or more simple vaults. When the vaults spring at the same level, and
+rise to the same height, the cross vault is termed a GROIN. The
+illustration (Fig. 173), the cloisters of the church of Mont St. Michel
+in France, shows the cross-vaulting.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 216. Crotalia. Greek necklace.]
+
+=Crotalium=, Gr. and R. (from κροτέω, to rattle). A small rattle. The
+Greek and Roman ladies gave this name to their pendants formed of two or
+four pear-shaped pearls (_elenchi_), which rattled softly as the wearer
+moved about. (Fig. 216.)
+
+=Crotalum= Gr. and R. (κρόταλον). Castanets made of slit cane, used by
+dancers in the worship of Cybele. The Middle Ages also had their
+_crotala_, which consisted of a metal rod, in which were inserted rings,
+which sounded when the instrument was shaken.
+
+=Crow= or =Raven=. The attribute of St. Vincent.
+
+=Crowde= or =Croud=, O. E. (1) The crypt of a church. (2) A fiddle.
+
+=Crown.= (See CORONA. See also MURAL CROWN, NAVAL CROWN, CREST, &c.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 217. Crown of Her Majesty the Queen.]
+
+=Crown= (of a bell). The top of the inside of a bell, in which the ring
+is fixed from which the clapper is suspended. In architecture the spire
+of a steeple is said to _crown_ the tower, or a fleuron to crown a
+gable, &c.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 218. Crown of the Rose.]
+
+=Crown.= An old English coin, the value of which has varied at different
+periods. The illustration represents the gold crown of Henry VIII.,
+dated 1462, called a crown of the Rose, value 4_s._ 6_d._ Other crown
+pieces were called, from the mint-mark, crowns of the Sun.
+
+=Croyle=, O. E. Crewel; tightly-twisted worsted.
+
+=Crozier=, Chr. The name is often _improperly_ applied to the bishop’s
+crooked pastoral staff; it belongs to the staff surmounted by a cross
+which is borne before an archbishop. The Byzantine crozier was that of
+the T-shaped cross; it had sometimes curved serpents on both sides.
+
+=Crucifix.= The representation of the Saviour on the Cross was first
+introduced in the time of Constantine. It has undergone considerable
+variation at different periods.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 219. Porcelain Cruciform Box (Egyptian).]
+
+=Cruciform.= Shaped to form a cross. The illustration represents a
+specimen of ancient Egyptian porcelain, of this shape, ornamented with
+the lotus. (See EGYPTIAN POTTERY.)
+
+=Crumata.= (See CRUSMATA.)
+
+=Crumena=, R. A leather pouch for carrying money. The _balantion_ of the
+Greeks was worn suspended from the neck by a strap.
+
+=Crumenal=, O. E. A purse.
+
+=Crupezia=, Gr. (κρούω, to strike). A kind of sandal with a double sole,
+in the middle of which were castanets with springs. (See CROTALUM.)
+Greek flute-players used them in the theatre to beat time to the singing
+and declamation of the chorus.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 220. Device of the Della Cruscan Academy.]
+
+=Crusca, Accademia della.= A literary academy established in Florence in
+the 15th century by Cosmo de’ Medici; their device, a bolting-mill,
+represented in Fig. 220, was symbolical of their object to cultivate the
+Italian language by winnowing the flour from the bran; and in allusion
+to it, the members called themselves by appropriate names, as
+Infarinato, Rimenato, Gramolato, Insaccato, &c. On the top of the shield
+is the Marzocco, or Lion of Florence, the emblem of the city.
+
+=Crusilée=, =Crusily=, Her. Having the field semée of small crosses.
+
+=Cruske=, O. E. An earthen vessel; cf. the Irish _cruishkeen_.
+
+=Crusmata=, =Crumata=, Gr. and R. (κρούω, to strike). Castanets.
+
+=Crustæ=, R. In the finest works of the chaser, the ornamental pattern
+was frequently distinct from the vessel, to which it was either fastened
+permanently, or so that it could be removed at pleasure, the vessel
+being of silver, and the ornaments of gold, which were called _crustæ_
+or _emblemata_ (Dr. Smith). Of these the former were the figures
+embossed in low relief, and the _emblemata_ were those in high relief.
+(See DAMASCENING, EMBLEMATA.)
+
+=Crustulum=, R. (dimin. of _crustum_). Anything baked; plaster
+mouldings; a cheap kind of decoration in bas-relief.
+
+=Crutch.= An attribute of St. Anthony, to denote his age and feebleness.
+
+=Crux.= The Latin equivalent for CROSS (q.v.).
+
+=Crwth= (A.S. _crudh_, Eng. _crowd_). A Welsh instrument, a sort of
+violin, similar to the _rébek_ of the Bretons.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 221. Crypt at Lanmeur (France).]
+
+=Crypta=, =Crypt=, Chr. (κρύπτω, to bury). In ancient times the crypt
+was really a cloister; it formed, in fact, a long and narrow gallery
+surrounded by buildings, and itself surrounding a building, garden, or
+court. The courtyards of _villæ_ were surrounded by crypts; the ruins of
+Diomed’s _villa_, at Pompeii, afford a curious instance of the kind. In
+modern archæology the term crypt is applied to a subterranean chapel
+underneath a church. (Figs. 221 and 222.) Among the Romans the word
+meant (1) a covered portico, or arcade, called _crypto-porticus_. (2) A
+grotto, or more accurately a tunnel. (3) A subterranean vault used for
+secret worship. (4) In the catacombs, a tomb in which a number of bodies
+were interred together.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 222. Crypt of St. Mary’s Church, Warwick.]
+
+=Crypteia= (κρυπτεία). A systematic massacre of Helots at night, by
+young Spartans, who hid themselves during the day.
+
+=Crystal.= Rock crystals are frequently found large enough to make
+vessels of. The Romans had crystal drinking-cups of extraordinary size
+and beauty. Crystal ornaments were especially chosen for ecclesiastical
+purposes, and for mediæval bookbinding, &c., and are frequently found in
+early British graves.
+
+=Crystalotype.= A sun-picture taken and fixed on glass by the collodion
+process.
+
+=Cubiculum=, R. and Chr. (_cubo_, to recline). (1) A bedroom. (2) The
+emperor’s pavilion or tent at the amphitheatre or circus. (3) In
+Christian archæology, the sepulchral chambers of the catacombs. (See
+CINERARIUM.)
+
+=Cubile=, R. (_cubo_). A bed, or chamber containing a bed.
+
+=Cubit= (Gr. πῆχυς, Lat. _cubitus_, an elbow). A measure of length among
+the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans. In Egypt there were two cubits; the
+_natural cubit_, or small cubit, was equal to 18 inches (6 palms or 24
+fingers); the _royal cubit_ to 21 inches (7 palms or 28 fingers). Each
+of the subdivisions of the cubit was consecrated to a divinity. The
+Greek cubit was equal to about 18¼ inches; the Roman cubit to very
+nearly 17½ inches.
+
+=Cubital=, R. A bolster or cushion used by the Romans to rest the elbow
+on when reclining.
+
+=Cubit-arm=, Her. A human arm couped at the elbow.
+
+=Cubitoria=, =-æ= (sc. _vestimenta_, _vestes_). (See CŒNATORIA.)
+
+=Cucullus=, R. Literally, a piece of paper rolled into the shape of a
+funnel, used at Rome by apothecaries and other tradespeople for wrapping
+up certain kinds of goods; and hence, by analogy, the hood affixed to
+certain garments, such as the _lacerna_, _pænula_, _sagum_, &c. (See
+COWL.)
+
+=Cucuma=, R. A term applied to various earthenware or metal vessels,
+when they were used to heat water or any other liquid.
+
+=Cucurbita=, R. A pumpkin or gourd, and thence a cupping-glass.
+
+=Cudo=, =Cudon=, R. A skull-cap made of soft leather or furs.
+
+=Cuerpo= (Span.). Body clothing, i. e. a jacket.
+
+=Cufic= (characters), Arab. The Cufic is the most ancient form of
+Arabian writing, and bears a great resemblance to the Syriac writing
+called _estranghelo_; it appears to have originated in the city of Cufa
+or Coufa, whence the name.
+
+=Cuirass.= (See CINGULUM, LORICA, PECTORALE, THORAX.)
+
+=Cuir-boulli=, Fr. Boiled leather, frequently mentioned by mediæval
+writers. It has lately been revived under the name of _impressed
+leather_, and brought to a high state of perfection. (_Fairholt._)
+Hence:—
+
+=Cuirbouly=, O. E. Tanned leather.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 223. Cuisse.]
+
+=Cuisses=, Fr. Armour for the thighs, introduced about the middle of the
+14th century. In early examples they consisted of one, two, or three
+pieces of plate overlapping; later on they were formed of one piece
+only, and finally were finished with a back piece, enclosing the whole
+of the thigh in armour.
+
+=Cuitikins=, =Cutikins=, Scotch. Guêtres, gaiters.
+
+=Cuker=, O. E. Part of a woman’s horned head-dress, “furred with a cat’s
+skin.”
+
+=Culcita=, R. A mattress of horsehair, wool, wadding, or feathers.
+
+=Culettes=, Fr. Plates of armour protecting the back, from the waist to
+the saddle.
+
+=Culeus= or =Culleus=, R. The largest liquid measure of capacity used by
+the Romans, containing 20 amphoræ, or about 119 gallons. The same name
+was also applied to a very large sack, of skin or leather, used for oil
+or wine. It was in the _culei_ that parricides were sewed up.
+
+=Culigna=, R. A vessel for holding wine. It was a kind of amphora of a
+broader form, its width exceeding its height.
+
+=Culina=, R. A kitchen.
+
+=Cullis=, Arch. Same as COULISSE (q.v.).
+
+=Culme=, O. E. The summit.
+
+=Cultellus=, R. (dimin. of CULTER, q.v.). A knife. _Cultellus ligneus_,
+a wedge of wood.
+
+=Culter= or =Culta=, R. A knife. _Culter coquinaris_ was a
+kitchen-knife; _culter venatorius_, a hunting-knife; _culter tonsorius_,
+a razor; _culter vinitorius_, or _falx vinitoria_, a vine-dresser’s
+pruning knife. The term denoted as well (1) the knife with which the
+officiating priest cut the victim’s throat; (2) a knife for carving,
+also called _cultellus_; (3) the _coulter_ of a plough fixed in front of
+the plough-share.
+
+=Culullus=, R. (_culeus_, q.v.). Generally, any drinking-vessel, and
+more particularly any earthenware vessel used by priests and vestals at
+sacrifices.
+
+=Culver=, A.S. A dove.
+
+=Culver-house.= A pigeon-house.
+
+=Cumera=, R. A kind of large box or basket employed by country people
+for keeping their seed-wheat in.
+
+=Cumerum=, R. A bridal basket containing the presents of the bride and
+bridegroom; it was carried by a _camillus_ in the bridal procession.
+
+=Cumpi-coptra=, Peruv. One of the divisions in the royal arsenals of the
+ancient Peruvians. It contained llama-wool, and textures of alpaca,
+embroidered in the college of the Virgins of the Sun (PASUA-HUASI),
+(q.v.).
+
+=Cunabula=, R. Literally, a child’s cradle, and thence a bird’s nest, a
+beehive, a native city; any place, in short, in which a living thing is
+born. A synonym for this term is CUNÆ. Bibliologists call early
+specimens of printing by this name, or INCUNABULA (q.v.).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 224. Cuneiform characters.]
+
+=Cuneiform= (characters). Oriental characters formed by a single symbol,
+which is in the shape of a wedge (_cuneus_). This kind of writing has
+been in use among many nations; more particularly the ancient Persians,
+Persepolitans, Babylonians, and Ninevites. Fig. 224 represents the first
+cuneiform characters which found their way to Europe.
+
+=Cuneus=, R. (1) A wedge of wood, iron, or any other metal. (2) In a
+theatre or amphitheatre, a set of tiers comprised within two staircases
+(_scalæ_), so called from its wedge-like form. (3) A body of soldiers
+drawn up in the form of a wedge to break through the enemy’s line. The
+common soldiers called the formation _caput porcinum_, a pig’s head.
+
+=Cuniculus=, R. (_cuneus_). An underground passage to a fortified place.
+
+=Cupa=, R. A barrel or hogshead. _Vinum de cupâ_ was wine which had not
+been drawn off in amphoræ; it was wine from the cask, new wine. The cupa
+was sometimes made of earthenware like the dolium. It was used for many
+purposes besides that of a wine-vat. (See CUPELLA.)
+
+=Cupel.= A melting-pot for gold.
+
+=Cupella=, R. and Chr. (dimin. of CUPA, q.v.). In Christian archæology,
+a tomb. The word occurs on a catacomb marble, inscribed with grotesque
+Latin: “I, Secunda, erected this _cupella_ to my two children,” &c. [The
+cupa was sometimes used by the Romans as a sarcophagus.] (See
+CINERARIUM.)
+
+=Cupola=, It. A concave roof, circular or polygonal.
+
+=Cups.= (See COPPA.)
+
+=Curb Roof=, Arch. A Mansard roof; a roof with a double set of rafters
+on each side, of peculiar construction.
+
+=Curch=, Gael. A kerchief.
+
+=Curfew.= (See COUVRE-FEU, Fig. 202.)
+
+=Curia=, =Curiæ=, R. (1) A building in which the people met together to
+offer sacrifices and take part in the festivities on certain days of
+festival. (2) The _senatorial curiæ_ were buildings in which the senate
+usually assembled. (3) The _Salian curia_ was a place situated on the
+Palatine Hill, which formed the place of assembly for the _Salian_
+priests who guarded the _anciles_ or sacred shields. (4) _Curia calabra_
+was a small temple founded, almost simultaneously with the building of
+Rome, on the Palatine; it formed the observatory for the petty pontiffs
+whose duty it was to watch the appearance of the new moon. In Christian
+archæology the _Roman curia_ denotes the pontifical tribunals
+collectively.
+
+=Curliewurlies=, Scotch. Fantastical circular ornaments.
+
+=Currach=, Scotch. A coracle or small skiff; a boat of wicker-work
+covered with hides.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 225. Currus. The Chariot of the Sun. The device of
+Philip II. of Spain.]
+
+=Currus=, =Chariot= (Gr. ἅρμα). A two-wheeled car or carriage in use
+among nearly all the nations of antiquity. There were racing-chariots,
+riding-chariots, and triumphal chariots. Some of these were profusely
+decorated with ivory (_currus eburnei_). War-chariots armed with scythes
+or sharp blades were called _falcati_. (See COVINUS.) The illustration
+(Fig. 225), a device of Philip II. of Spain, represents Apollo driving
+the chariot of the Sun.
+
+=Cursores.= “Runners” before their masters’ carriages; messengers
+generally.
+
+=Curtail Dog=, O. E. A dog belonging to a person not qualified to hunt
+game, which, by the forest laws, must have its tail cropped.
+
+=Curtail Step=, Arch. The first step of a stair, when its outer end is
+finished in the form of a scroll; when it has a circular end, it is
+called a round-ended step.
+
+=Cushat=, Scotch. A wood-pigeon.
+
+=Cushion-capital=, Arch. (1) A capital resembling a cushion pressed by a
+weight. (2) A cube rounded off at its lower angles; the capital most
+prevalent in the Norman style.
+
+=Cusp.= In Astrology, the “entrance” of a “house.”
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 226. Cuspis.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 227. Cuspis—Flint lance.]
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 228, 229, 230. Cuspides—Roman lances.]
+
+=Cuspis=, R. A point, more particularly the point of a lance, or
+javelin, since these were not barbed. Fig. 226 represents a javelin-head
+which gives a complete idea of the character of the point called
+_cuspis_; Fig. 227 shows a flint lance; and Figs. 228 to 230 the
+lance-headed _cuspides_ affixed to the top of the Roman ensigns. (See
+SPICULUM.)
+
+=Cusps.= The foliations of architectural tracery, such as are formed by
+the points of a trefoil.
+
+=Custodia.= The shrine or receptacle for the host in Spanish churches.
+
+=Cutlass=, =Coutel-hache=, or =Coutel-axe=, O. E. This weapon was
+introduced at the end of the 15th century.
+
+=Cut-work.= Also called “opus consutum;” _Ital._ “di commesso.”
+Open-work embroidery came into universal use in England in the 16th
+century. In the reign of Richard II., however, we are told,—
+
+          “Cut werke was greate both in court and townes,
+          Bothe in mene’s hoddies, and also in their gownes.”
+
+(See APPLIQUÉ.)
+
+=Cyanogen.= A gaseous compound of carbon and nitrogen, necessary to the
+formation of _Prussian blue_.
+
+=Cyathus=, Gr. and R. A vase or ladle with one handle, used for taking
+wine from the crater (κρατὴρ), in order to fill the cups (_pocula_,
+_calices_) of the guests, at feasts and banquets. The term was also used
+to denote a small measure containing the twelfth part of the
+_sextarius_, or ·0825 of a pint. The cyathus was used in medicine to
+measure drugs with accuracy. [It is often represented, on vases, in the
+hands of Bacchus, in place of his proper goblet the Cantharus.]
+
+=Cybistic= (dance), R. (κυβιστάω, to tumble). A part of the military
+exercises in which the performer threw himself at intervals on his
+hands, so as to rebound on his feet.
+
+=Cyclas=, R. (κυκλὰς, circular). A long and loose piece of drapery, of a
+very fine texture; it was hemmed with purple or gold embroidery. The
+_cyclas_ formed part of a woman’s costume, but it was also worn by men
+of an effeminate or dissolute character; hence—
+
+=Cyclas=, O. E. The name of a long sleeveless gown worn by knights over
+their armour (from _ciclatoun_, q.v., of which it was made).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 231. Cyclopean Masonry.]
+
+=Cyclopean= (masonry, monuments), Gr. and R. (κυκλώπειον). Ancient
+structures, also known as _Pelasgian_, as being the work of Pelasgians
+who had learned in the school of Phœnician workmen called Cyclopes.
+These ancient structures are formed of enormous irregularly-shaped
+stones (Fig. 231), placed one above the other without cement or mortar.
+Remains of them are found in Asia Minor, Greece, and Italy; they consist
+chiefly of the walls of acropoles.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 232. Cylix. A Gallic drinking-cup.]
+
+=Cylix=, Gr. and R. A vase also known as a _calix_ or _cup_. It was a
+wide flat drinking-cup, very shallow, of a circular form, with two
+handles, and mounted on a tolerably tall foot. Fig. 232 shows a silver
+cylix or Gaulish cup, found in the ruins of Alisia.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 233. Decorated Cyma.]
+
+=Cyma=, =Cymatium= (Eng. =Ogee=, Gr. κυμάτιον). An architectural
+moulding, named from the Greek κῦμα (wave or billow), the moulding
+consisting of an undulation. A cyma, the outline of which is convex at
+the top and concave below, is called _cyma reversa_; when it is hollow
+in the upper part, it is called a _cyma recta_. (Fig. 233.)
+
+=Cymatile=, R. (κῦμα). A Roman female dress, of a changing sea-green
+colour, like the waves.
+
+=Cymba=, R. (κύμβος, a hollow). (1) A small boat. (2) A vase of metal or
+clay in the form of a small boat. (See CYMBIUM.)
+
+=Cymbals=, O. E. A contrivance of a number of metal plates, or bells,
+suspended on cords.
+
+=Cymbalum=, R. (from κύμβος). The cymbals; a musical instrument made of
+two disks of bronze or brass. (See CROTALUM, FLAGELLUM.)
+
+=Cymbe=, Gr. An ointment-pot, similar in shape to the _Ampulla_ (q.v.).
+
+=Cymbium=, R. (κυμβίον). A boat-shaped drinking-cup with two handles.
+(See CYMBA.)
+
+=Cynocephalus=, Egyp. An ape with a dog’s head; a sacred animal,
+representing Anubis in the Egyptian mythology.
+
+=Cynophontis= (sc. ἑορτὴ), Gr. (derived from the Greek κύων, dog, and
+φόνος, slaughter). Festivals held at Argos during the dog-days, when
+dogs found straying in the city were killed.
+
+=Cynopolites=, Egyp. (κυνοπολίτης). A nome of Upper Egypt.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 234. Branch of Cypress and of Myrtle. Device of M.
+A. Colonna.]
+
+=Cypress.= In Persian art, this tree is the frequently-occurring emblem
+of the religion of Zoroaster, and of the soul aspiring to Heaven. In
+Christian and modern symbolism it is the emblem of mourning. The device
+of _cypress_ and _myrtle_ assumed by Marc Antonio Colonna on the
+occasion of the defence of Ravenna is emblematic of “_death_ or
+_victory_.” The wood of the cypress-tree was much used for statuary by
+the ancients. Carved chests of cypress were especially used, in the
+Middle Ages, for keeping clothes and tapestry; its aromatic properties
+were considered a specific against moth. (Fig. 234.)
+
+=Cyprus.= Thin stuff of which women’s veils were made.
+
+=Cyprus= or =Verona Green=. A pigment mentioned by Pliny as _Appian
+Green_: it is prepared from green earths found at Cyprus or Verona,
+which are coloured by oxide of copper. (See APPIANUM.)
+
+=Cysts= or =Cists=, Etrus. (κίστη, a chest). Offerings dedicated by
+women in the temple of Venus, of cylindrical caskets of enchased bronze.
+The handles of these caskets represent small figures, and the feet the
+claws of animals. Those which have been found in Etruscan tombs, chiefly
+at Præneste, are in many cases decorated with _a graffito_ designs.
+
+=Cyzicenæ=, Gr. (κυζικηναί). Large and richly-decorated apartments,
+built for the first time at Cyzicus, which had their principal fronts to
+the north, and were situated in a garden.
+
+
+
+
+                                   D.
+
+
+=Dabber.= A tool used in etching to distribute the etching-ground over a
+plate of metal in the first process of engraving, and, in printing from
+copper-plate engraving and woodcuts, to spread the ink.
+
+=Dactyliography= or =Dactyliology=, Gen. (δακτύλιος, a ring). The study
+of rings.
+
+=Dactyliotheca=, Gr. (δακτυλιο-θήκη, a ringbox). (1) A glass case or
+casket containing rings. (2) A collection of rings, engraved stones, or
+precious stones. (See GLYPTOTHECA.)
+
+=Dactylus=, Gr. (δάκτυλος, a finger). The Roman _digitus_; a
+finger-breadth, the 16th part of a foot.
+
+=Dado=, Arch. (1) The part of a pedestal between the base and the
+cornice. (2) In apartments, an arrangement of moulding, &c., round the
+lower part of the wall.
+
+=Dædal.= A fanciful word coined by the poet Spenser, for “variegated in
+design.”
+
+=Dædala=, Gr. Ancient images preserved in sanctuaries in memory of
+Dædalus, to whom were attributed the greater number of those works of
+art the origin of which was unknown. Hence the name was especially
+attributed to certain wooden statues, ornamented with gilding, bright
+colours, and real drapery, which were the earliest known form of images
+of the gods.
+
+=Dædala=, Gr. (δαίδαλα). Festivals in honour of Hera, celebrated in
+Bœotia.
+
+=Dæmon=, =Daimon=, Gr. (δαίμων). The good genius who watched over an
+individual during his whole life, like the Latin _Lar_ and _Genius_. It
+was the belief of Socrates that he was guided by his Daimon in every
+important act and thought of his life. The word has a general meaning of
+“Divinity.”
+
+=Dag= or =Dagge=. Old English name of a pistol.
+
+=Dagges=, O. E. Ornamental cutting of the edges of garments, introduced
+into England about 1346. (See the illustration to COINTISE, Fig. 177).
+
+=Dagob=, Hindoo. A conical tumulus or shrine in which relics and images
+of Buddha were worshipped.
+
+=Dag-swain=, O. E. A sort of rough material of which coverlets for beds,
+tables, or floors were made.
+
+=Daguerreotype=. A kind of photography on plates of silver, named after
+M. Daguerre, the inventor.
+
+=Daidies=, Gr. (from δαίω, to kindle). A festival held at Athens, during
+which torches were lit; it lasted three days.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 235. Dais.]
+
+=Dais=, Chr. An architectural structure, decorated with sculptures and
+ornaments, which serves as a canopy for an altar, throne, pulpit, chair
+(_cathedra_), statue, or group. Fig. 235 represents a stone dais of the
+St. Anne door in the cathedral of Paris.
+
+=Dais.= In Anglo-Saxon houses, and generally; a covered seat of honour,
+at the upper end of the hall, on a raised floor. (“In all the houses of
+the wealthy _in China_ there are two raised seats at the end of the
+reception-room, with a table between them.” _Fortune_.) (See DEAS.)
+
+=Dalmahoy=, O. E. A kind of bushy bob-wig, worn especially by chemists;
+18th century.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 236. Ecclesiastical Dalmatic.]
+
+=Dalmatic.= A long robe or upper tunic partly opening at the sides, so
+named from its being of Dalmatian origin; an ecclesiastical vestment;
+also a portion of the coronation robes of sovereign princes. It was
+usually made of white silk with purple stripes, occasionally of other
+colours, the left sleeve only being ornamented; the right was plain for
+convenience. As early as the reign of Richard I., the dalmatic is
+mentioned amongst the coronation robes. (Fig. 236.) (See COLOBIUM,
+DEACON.)
+
+=Damara= or =Dammar=. A resin used for varnishes. It is a valuable
+substitute for mastic.
+
+=Damaretion.= A Sicilian coin, supposed to have been of gold, equal in
+value to a half-_stater_.
+
+=Damas= (or =Damascus=) =Pottery Ware=. The commercial name in the 16th
+century for a large class of wares, now generally known as Persian.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 237. Specimen of Arabic Damascening (full size).]
+
+=Damascening=, or =Damaskeening=, is the art of incrusting one metal on
+another, not in _crusta_, but in the form of wire, which by undercutting
+and hammering is thoroughly incorporated with the metal it is intended
+to ornament. (See DAMASK, DAMASCUS BLADES.) The process of etching
+slight ornaments on polished steel wares is also called Damascening.
+(Fig. 237.)
+
+=Damascus Blades= are prepared of a cast steel highly charged with
+carbon, which, being tempered by a peculiar process, assumes the
+manycoloured _watered_ appearance by which they are known. The process
+is called DAMASCENING (q.v.).
+
+=Damask.= A rich fabric, woven with large patterns, in silk, linen,
+wool, or even cotton, originally made at Damascus. (See Fig. 88.)
+
+=Dames=, O. E. The old name for the game of draughts, represented early
+in the 14th century. The pieces were originally square.
+
+=Danace= (δανάκη). The _obolus_ which was placed in the mouth of the
+dead to pay the passage of the Styx.
+
+=Dance of the Corybantes.= (See CORYBANTICA.)
+
+=Dance of Death=, =Danse Macabre=, Chr. Paintings, illuminations, or
+sculptures in bas-relief, representing men dancing under the eye of
+Death, who presides at this dance. In some instances the performers are
+skeletons and corpses. The most celebrated Dance of Death was that
+painted in fresco by Holbein in the cloister of the Dominicans at Basle.
+It has been destroyed by fire, but the etching-needle has preserved it
+for us. Other examples that may be named are, that in the new church at
+Strasburg, that of Lucerne, that in the palace at Dresden, and—most
+ancient of all—that at Minden, in Westphalia, which dates from 1380.
+
+=Dancette=, Arch. The chevron or zigzag moulding peculiar to Norman
+architecture. (See CHEVRON.)
+
+=Dangu Faience.= Pottery from a manufactory near Gisors in France,
+established in 1753.
+
+=Daphnephoria= (δάφνη, a laurel). A festival held in honour of Apollo
+every ninth year at Thebes, in which the assistants carried laurel
+branches.
+
+=Dara=, Ind. A kind of tambourine.
+
+=Darabukkeh.= An Egyptian drum, unaltered from ancient times.
+
+=Daric Money.= A Persian gold coin, stamped on one side with the figure
+of an archer kneeling, and on the other with a deep cleft, and to which
+the name of _Daric money_ has been given by numismatists. Its proper
+name is the Stater of Dareius I., king of Persia. Its value is about
+1_l._ 1_s._ 10_d._
+
+=Darned Netting= (needlework). (See LACIS.)
+
+=Datatim ludere=, R. To play with a ball (“_catch-ball_”).
+
+=Davenport Pottery= is the produce of a manufactory of fine faience
+established at Longport in England by John Davenport in 1793.
+
+=Day=, Arch. Part of a window: the same as BAY.
+
+=Deacon=, Chr. A dalmatic, or an alb; i. e. a _deacon’s_ vestment.
+
+=Dead-boot=, O. E., Chr. Prayers for the dead.
+
+=Dealbatus=, R. (_dealbo_, to whiten over). Covered with a coating of
+stucco (_albarium opus_). The builders of antiquity made great use of
+stucco, both in the interior and exterior of buildings. All the
+buildings of Pompeii are stuccoed.
+
+=Deambulatory=, Arch. (_deambulo_, to walk about). The lateral nave
+which surrounds the choir of a church; it is usually separated from the
+aisles by a grating (_cancelli_).
+
+=Deas=, =Dais=, =Dees=, Scotch, (1) A table, especially the great hall
+table. (2) A pew in a church. (3) A turf seat erected at the door of a
+cottage. (See DAIS.)
+
+=Death’s-man=, O. E. The executioner.
+
+=Debased=, Her. Reversed.
+
+=Decadence.= The term in ancient art is applied to the period after the
+fall of Rome, and before the _Renaissance_ in the 14th century; in
+modern art to the period of the _rococo_ style of Louis XV.
+
+=Decaduchi= (δεκα-δοῦχοι), Gr. A council of ten, who ruled Athens from
+B.C. 403 until the restoration of democracy.
+
+=Decan=, Egyp. A period of ten days, which was ruled by a star called
+its _Decan_. The month was divided into three decans, and the year into
+thirty-six, each being presided over by its own inferior divinity. On
+zodiacs they are arranged in groups of three above the twelve superior
+gods. The decans were the tutelary genii of the horoscope.
+
+=Decarchia= (δεκ-αρχία). A council of the Lacedæmonians.
+
+=Decastellare=, Med. Lat. To dismantle.
+
+=Decastylos=, Arch. A building of which the portico has ten columns; a
+decastylic pediment is a pediment supported by ten columns.
+
+=Decemjugus= (sc. _currus_), R. A chariot drawn by ten horses abreast;
+represented on the medals of the later emperors.
+
+=Decempeda=, R. A ten-foot measuring-rod used by architects and
+surveyors.
+
+=Decemremis=, R. (_remus_, an oar). A vessel with ten banks of oars. It
+is certain that the different ranks of rowers, who had each his own
+seat, sat one above the other; the lowest row was called _thalamos_, the
+middle _zuga_, and the uppermost _thranos_; but it is very difficult to
+understand in what manner so many ranks could have been arranged, and
+the question has been the subject of infinite discussion.
+
+=Decennalia= or =Decennia=. A festival at Rome in commemoration of the
+refusal of Augustus to become emperor for a longer period than ten years
+at a time.
+
+=Decollation= (= beheading). An ecclesiastical expression applied to St.
+John the Baptist and other martyrs.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 238. Decorated window.]
+
+=Decorated Style of Architecture.= The second of the POINTED or GOTHIC
+styles of architecture used in England. It was developed from the EARLY
+ENGLISH at the end of the 13th century, and gradually merged into the
+PERPENDICULAR during the latter part of the 14th. Its most
+characteristic feature is the geometrical traceries of the windows.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 239. Decrescent.]
+
+=Decrescent=, =In Detriment=, Her. A half-moon having its horns to the
+sinister.
+
+=Decursio=, R. (_decurro_, to run or march). Military manœuvres; a
+review, sham fight, or any exercise for training soldiers; the term
+_decursus_ was also used.
+
+=Decussis=, R. (_decem_, ten, and _as_). A piece of money marked with
+the numeral X (10), and which was worth ten asses (post-Augustan; see
+DENARIUS).
+
+=De Fundato= or =Netted=. A name given to certain silks, which were dyed
+of the richest purple, and figured with gold in the pattern of netting.
+
+=De-gamboys=, O. E. A musical instrument. (See VIOL DE GAMBO.)
+
+=Degradation=, Gen. The diminishing of the tones of colour, light, and
+shade, according to the different degrees of distance. (A term used
+especially in reference to glass painting.)
+
+=Degreed=, =Degraded=, Her. Placed on steps.
+
+=Deice=, =Deas=, or =Deis=, O. E. (See DAIS.)
+
+=Deinos=, Gr. A vessel with a wide mouth and semi-spherical body,
+something like the _cacabus_.
+
+=Delf.= Common pottery from Delft in Holland.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 240. Oil cruet, Delft ware.]
+
+=Delft Faiences= are remarkable for the beauty of their paste and of
+their enamel, but spurious imitations are said to be abundant. Fig. 240
+is a representative specimen of the real Delft ware. The date of the
+establishment of this manufacture is uncertain, but earlier than 1614;
+the ornamentation is inspired by Japanese art. (Consult _Jacquemart’s
+History of the Ceramic Art_.)
+
+=Delia=, Gr. Festivals and games at Delos.
+
+=Delphica= (sc. _cortina_), R. A table of a very costly description,
+made of white marble or bronze. It was used as a drinking-table, and had
+only three feet richly ornamented. [Explained under the heading
+CORTINA.]
+
+=Delphinia.= A Greek festival in honour of Apollo.
+
+=Delphinorum Columnæ=, R. The two columns at one end of the _spina_ of a
+circus, on which marble figures of dolphins were placed. The seven _ova_
+(eggs) on similar columns at the end of the _spina_ opposite to these
+dolphins, served to indicate the number of turns made by the chariots
+round the goal. (See OVUM.) [The figure of the dolphin was selected in
+honour of Neptune.] (Cf. CIRCUS.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 241. Dolphin. Used as an ornament.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 242. Dolphin. Medal of Syracuse.]
+
+=Delphinus=, =Dolphin=, Gen. (δελφίν). The dolphin was often used as an
+ornament, and especially as a hand-rest or banister to the _vomitoria_
+or entrances of the theatres and amphitheatres. Fig. 241 represents a
+dolphin utilized in this manner at the theatre of Puzzoli. Many medals,
+as for instance those of Syracuse (Fig. 242), are stamped with a
+dolphin. (See also DOLPHIN.)
+
+=Delphis=, R. A heavy mass of iron or lead used in naval warfare, to
+drop on board of a hostile ship and sink it. (Compare CORVUS.)
+
+=Delubrum=, R. (_deluo_, to cleanse). A shrine; the part of a temple
+which contains the altar or statue of the deity, and thence a temple
+containing an altar.
+
+=Demembered=, =Dismembered=, Her. Cut into pieces, but without any
+alteration in the form of the original figure.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 243. Demi-lion, _rampant_.]
+
+=Demi=, Her. The half; the upper, front, or dexter half, unless the
+contrary is specified.
+
+=Demi-brassarts=, =Vambraces=, or =Avant-braces=. Half-armour for the
+arm.
+
+=Demi-culverin.= A cannon of four inches’ bore. (_Meyrick._)
+
+=Demi-hag.= A smaller kind of hackbut (arquebus).
+
+=Demi-haque=, O. E. A fire-arm, smaller than the arquebus; 16th century.
+
+=Demi-jambes.= Armour for the shins.
+
+=Demi-placcate.= The lower part of a breastplate.
+
+=Demi-relievo.= Sculpture in relief, in which one half of the figure
+projects; generally called _Mezzo-relievo_. (See BASSO-RELIEVO.)
+
+=Demiurgi= (δημι-ουργοί). Popular magistrates.
+
+=Demosii.= Slaves belonging to the state, at Athens.
+
+=Demotic= (writing), Egyp. (δημοτικὰ, sc. γράμματα, i. e. popular
+writing). A mode of writing among the ancient Egyptians, differing from
+the _hieroglyphic_ or sacred writing. This writing, which was employed
+for civil records, was introduced under the twenty-fifth dynasty, being
+derived from the _hieratic writing_, the first abbreviation of the
+hieroglyphics.
+
+=Demster=, O. E. A judge.
+
+=Demyt=, O. E. An old word for dimity; a kind of fustian. Perhaps so
+called because first manufactured at Damietta.
+
+=Denarius=, R. (_deni_, by tens). The silver coin principally in use
+among the Romans. Until the reign of Augustus the denarius was worth ten
+asses, and afterwards sixteen. _Denarius aureus_ was a gold denarius,
+equal in value to twenty-five silver denarii.
+
+=Denia.= A city of Valencia in Spain, which disputes with Alcora the
+production of a remarkable kind of pottery, of which Jacquemart mentions
+a vase with two handles of Arab form, resembling the alcarazas, upon a
+smooth white enamel decorated with birds and flowers coarsely painted.
+
+=Dens=, R. Literally, a _tooth_; hence the prongs of a fork, the flukes
+of an anchor, the barbs of a lance, the teeth of a saw or rake.
+
+=Dentale=, R. (_dens_, a tooth). The piece of wood in a plough on which
+the plough-share (_vomer_) is fastened.
+
+=Dentatus=, R. Armed with teeth.
+
+=Dentelle Decoration.= Of French pottery, a light lace pattern, more
+delicate than the “_lambrequin_.”
+
+=Dentels=, Fr. (See DENTILE.)
+
+=Dentile=, =Dentils= (Latin, _denticuli_), Arch. Ornaments in the form
+of small cubes or teeth, used in the moulding of cornices, in the IONIC,
+CORINTHIAN, and COMPOSITE orders. (See TOOTH-ORNAMENT, DOG’S-TOOTH.)
+
+=Depas=, R. A bowl with two handles, the foot of which is made of a low
+flat moulding like the Doric fillet.
+
+=Depressed=, Her. Surmounted, placed over another.
+
+=Derby Porcelain.= Manufactory established in 1750. Jacquemart says,
+“Derby has made fine porcelains and statuettes which have nothing to
+fear by comparison with the groups of Saxony or Sèvres.”
+
+=Dere=, O. E. Noble, honourable.
+
+                “Syr Cadore with his _dere_ knyghttes.”
+
+=Derring do=, O. E. Deeds of arms.
+
+=Deruncinatus=, R. Smoothed and polished with the _runcina_ or
+carpenter’s plane.
+
+=Desca=, Lat. A stall or desk in a church.
+
+=Descobinatus=, R. Rasped with the SCOBINA or carpenter’s rasp.
+
+=Destrere=, Anglo-Norman. A war-horse.
+
+=Desultorius= (sc. _equus_), R. (_desilio_, to leap off). A horse
+trained for equestrian performances in a circus by the _desultor_.
+_Desultorius_ is itself sometimes used as a synonym for _desultor_. The
+_desultor_ rode two horses at once, and got his name from his _leaping_
+or vaulting from one to the other.
+
+=Desvres=, Pas de Calais, France. An interesting manufactory of faience
+established in the 17th century, of a style originating in Flanders.
+(_Jacquemart._)
+
+=Detached.= A term in painting applied to figures which stand out well.
+
+=Detriment=, Her. (See DECRESCENT.)
+
+=Deunx=, R. (_de_ and _uncia_, a twelfth part off). A nominal value not
+represented by any coin. The term means literally eleven _unciæ_, or
+eleven-twelfths of anything [i. e. ounces or twelfths of a pound].
+
+=Developed=, Her. Displayed, unfurled.
+
+=Devil=, Chr. Mediæval representations of the devil (especially in
+painting) were taken from those of the satyrs of the ancients. They
+were, however, subject to no canon of symbolism at all, and varied from
+the likeness of a beautiful woman to every imaginable variety of the
+grotesque and repulsive.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 244. Old Devonshire Lace.]
+
+=Devonshire Lace (Old).= This lace is said to have been first introduced
+into England by the Flemings in 1567–73, and it long preserved its
+Flemish character. The engraving shows a specimen of old Devonshire
+lace, made at the beginning of the last century.
+
+=Devs=, Pers. Evil genii, servants of Ahriman, in the religion of
+Zoroaster; they were twenty-eight in number, and were opposed to the
+ministers of the amchaspands or IZEDS (q.v.).
+
+=Dextans=, R. (_de_ and _sextans_, i. e. a sixth part off). A nominal
+value not represented by any coin. The literal meaning of the term is
+ten _unciæ_, or ten-twelfths of anything [ounces].
+
+=Dexter=, Her. The right side, i. e. to the spectator’s or reader’s
+left.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 245. Dextrochere or bracelet.]
+
+=Dextrale=, R. (_dexter_, right). A bracelet worn by Greek and Roman
+women on the right arm, and differing from the _dextrocherium_ (Fig.
+245), which was worn on the wrist. The latter ornament was often of
+gold. (See ARMILLA.)
+
+=Dholkee=, Hindoo. A kind of tom-tom, or small drum. (See TOM-TOM.)
+
+=Diabathrum=, Gr. and R. (βάθρον, that on which one stands). A sandal or
+light shoe worn by women, especially such as were tall. The comic poet
+Alexis, talking of courtesans, says, “One is too short, and so she puts
+cork in her _baukides_; another is too tall, and she puts on a light
+_diabathrum_.”
+
+=Diaconicum=, =Scevophylacium=, and =Bematis Diaconicon=, Chr. A room in
+an ancient basilica near the altar, where the priests put on and took
+off their vestments, and the deacons (διάκονοι) prepared the vessels and
+sacred ornaments to be used in the service. _Diaconicum majus_ was the
+sacristy.
+
+=Diadema=, R. (diadeô, to bind round). Originally the white fillet worn
+by Eastern monarchs round the head. It was made of silk, wool, or yarn,
+narrow, but wider in the centre of the forehead. The Greeks presented a
+diadem to every victor in the public games, and it was worn by priests
+and priestesses. As the emblem of sovereignty it is an attribute of
+Juno. Afterwards the term came to mean a diadem.
+
+=Diæta=, Gr. and R. (i. e. a living-place). That part of a house in
+which a Roman received his guests. The same term was applied to a
+captain’s cabin in the after-part of a ship.
+
+=Diætæ=, R. Summer-houses. (See HORTUS.)
+
+=Diaglyph=, Gr. and R. (διαγλύφω, to carve through). An intaglio, or
+design cut into the material on which it is executed. (See INTAGLIO.)
+
+=Diaglyphic.= (Sculpture, engraving, &c.) in which the objects are sunk
+below the general surface.
+
+=Diagonal Rib=, Arch. A cross formed by the intersection of the ribs
+which cut one another according to the groins of a groined roof.
+
+=Dialia=, Gr. and R. (διάλια, from Δὶς, old form for Ζεύς). Festivals
+held in honour of Jupiter by the Flamen Dialis (the priest of Jupiter).
+
+=Diamastigosis=, Gr. (διαμαστίγωσις, i. e. a severe scourging). A
+festival held at Sparta in honour of Artemis Orthia, during which boys
+were flogged at an altar in order to harden them to the endurance of
+pain.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 246. Diamicton.]
+
+=Diamicton=, Gr. and R. (διαμίγνυμι, to mix up). A wall, of which the
+outside surface was made of brickwork or regular layers of masonry, and
+the centre was filled up with rubble. Fig. 246.
+
+=Diamond=, for glass-cutting, was not used till the 16th century,
+although suggested in a Bolognese MS. of a century earlier. Its
+discovery is attributed to Francis I., who, to let the Duchesse
+d’Estampes know of his jealousy, wrote on the palace windows with his
+ring,—
+
+                        “Souvent femme varie;
+                        Mal habil qui s’y fie.”
+
+The art of cutting and polishing diamonds with diamond powder was
+discovered by Louis de Berquem in 1476.
+
+=Diamond=, in Christian art. (See WHITE.)
+
+=Diamond Fret=, Arch. The descriptive name for a decorated moulding in
+Norman architecture.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 247. Di-amante, Punning device of Pietro de’
+Medici.]
+
+=Diamond Rings= were used as seal and bearings on his escutcheon
+(represented in Fig. 100) by Cosmo de’ Medici, the founder of the famous
+Florentine family. The device in various forms was invariably adopted by
+his descendants. Fig. 247 is the device of Pietro de’ Medici († 1470),
+the son of Cosmo: a falcon with a ring, and the punning motto, “Semper,”
+forming with the device the words “_Semper fa-’l-con di_ (Dio)
+_amante_.”
+
+=Diapasma=, Gr. and R. (διαπάσσω, to sprinkle). A powder made of dried
+flowers and odoriferous herbs, which was put in a sachet for use as a
+perfume, or rubbed over the body.
+
+=Diaper=, Arch. Ornament of sculpture in low relief, sunk below the
+general surface.
+
+=Diaper=, O. E. A mode of decoration by a repeated pattern, carved or
+painted, generally in squares, representing flowers and arabesques.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 248. Diapered surcoat of a Herald, with the
+clarion.]
+
+=Diaper= or =Damask=, a name given to a fine linen cloth made at Ypres,
+is spoken of as early as the 13th century.
+
+             “Of cloth making she had such a haunt,
+             She passed hem of Ypres and of Gaunte.”
+                         (_Prologue of Canterbury Tales._)
+
+The peculiarity of this cloth, as of that of Damascus, was in the
+pattern. “_To diaper_” is, in heraldry, to cover the field of an
+escutcheon with devices independent of the armorial bearings. The
+engraving shows a surcoat diapered, on which are embroidered armorial
+bearings. (Fig. 248.)
+
+=Diasia=, Gr. Festivals in honour of Zeus, held at Athens, outside of
+the walls of the city, for the purpose of averting epidemics and other
+ills (ἄση).
+
+=Diastyle=, Arch. An intercolumniation, in which the columns are
+separated from each other by a space of three diameters.
+
+=Diathyrum=, Gr. A passage leading at one end to the street door of a
+house, and at the other to the door of the courtyard. The Romans called
+this space PROTHYRUM (q.v.).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 249. Diatonoi.]
+
+=Diatoni=, =Diatonoi=, Gr. and R. (διατείνω, to extend through). Long
+stones extending from one face of a wall to the other (to which modern
+architects give the name of _perpenders_ or _perpend-stones_), and which
+were employed in the method of construction called EMPLECTON (q.v.). In
+Fig. 249 one is represented by the stone placed between b and c.
+
+=Diatreta=, Gr. (διάτρητα, i. e. bored through). A drinking-cup made of
+glass, cut in such a way that the designs or ornaments upon it stand out
+completely from the body of the vase, and form a tracery, which is only
+united to the vase itself by small ties or pins left for the purpose.
+
+=Diatriba=, Gr. and R. (διατρίβω, to spend time). Places in which
+learned discussions were held, such as lecture or assembly rooms.
+
+=Diaulos=, Gr. The double flute. (See AULOS, FLUTE.) One in the British
+Museum, found in a tomb at Athens, is of cedar-wood, with tubes fifteen
+inches in length.
+
+=Diazoma=, Gr. (διάζωμα, that which girdles). A Greek synonym of the
+Latin term PRÆCINCTIO (q.v.).
+
+=Dicasterion=, =Dicastery=, Gr. (δικαστήριον; δίκη, justice). A tribunal
+at Athens in which the people themselves administered justice without
+the intervention of the magistrates.
+
+=Dicastes.= A judge, or rather juryman, chosen annually from the
+citizens at Athens.
+
+=Dicerion=, Chr. (δι-κέραιον, with two horns). A candlestick with two
+branches, holding which in their hands the Greek priests bless the
+people. The _dicerion_ is symbolical of the two-fold nature of Christ.
+(See TRICERION.)
+
+=Dichalcon=, Gr. (δίχαλκος, i. e. double-chalcos). A small Greek copper
+coin worth only one-fourth or one-fifth of an obolus.
+
+=Dichoria=, Gr. (δι-χορία, i. e. division of chorus). When the ancient
+choruses divided into two, to recite in turn a part of the action of a
+play, or mutually to interchange sentiments, this action was called
+_dichoria_; each half of the chorus was called _hemichoria_ (ἡμιχορία),
+and each stanza _antichoria_ (ἀντιχορία).
+
+=Dicken=, O. E. The devil. “Odds dickens!”
+
+=Dicker=, O. E. Half a score.
+
+=Dicomos=, Gr. (κῶμος, a feast). A banqueting-song, which was sung at
+the second course of the feast at the festivals of Bacchus.
+
+=Dicrotos=, =Dicrotus=, Gr. (δί-κροτος, lit. double-beating). The Greek
+name for a vessel with two banks of oars, the Roman _biremis_.
+
+=Dictynnia= (δίκτυον, a hunter’s net). A Cretan festival in honour of
+Artemis.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 250. Dictyotheton.]
+
+=Dictyotheton=, Gr. (from δίκτυον, a net). A kind of masonry composed of
+regularly-cut square stones, forming, in a wall so constructed, a
+network or chess-board pattern. It answered to the _opus reticulatum_ of
+the Romans.
+
+=Didrachma=, =Didrachmum=, Gr. (δί-δραχμον). A double silver drachma of
+the Greek coinage, which was worth about two shillings.
+
+=Die.= In Architecture, for _dado_, or the part of a pedestal that would
+correspond to the _dado_ (q.v.).
+
+=Die-sinking.= The art of engraving on steel moulds, medals, coins, and
+inscriptions.
+
+=Difference=, =Differencing=, Her. An addition to, or some change in, a
+coat of arms, introduced for the purpose of distinguishing coats which
+in their primary qualities are the same. Differencing is sometimes used
+in the same sense as Cadency; but, strictly, it is distinct, having
+reference to alliance and dependency, without blood-relationship, or to
+the system adopted for distinguishing similar coats of arms.
+(_Bouteil._)
+
+=Digitale=, R. (_digitus_, a finger). A kind of glove worn by the
+Sarmatians, an example of which may be seen on Trajan’s Column.
+
+=Diglyph=, Gr. and R. (δί-γλυφος, doubly indented). An ornament
+consisting of two _glyphæ_ (γλυφαὶ) or grooves channelled out on
+consoles. (See TRIGLYPH.)
+
+=Diipoleia= (πολιεὺς, of the city). A very ancient Athenian festival,
+celebrated annually on the Acropolis, in honour of Zeus Polieus.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 251. Rose dimidiated. Device of James I.]
+
+=Dimidiated=, Her. Cut in half per pale, and one half removed. Fig. 251
+is a device placed by James I. on some of his coins, in which the
+thistle and rose are respectively _dimidiated_. The legend was, “_Fecit
+eos in gentem unam_.”
+
+=Diocleia.= A festival of the Megarians, held about the grave of an
+ancient Athenian hero, Diocles. There was a prize for kissing.
+
+=Dionysia.= The celebrated orgies of Dionysus or Bacchus, suppressed
+B.C. 186, and substituted by the Liberalia. (See BACCHANALIA.)
+
+=Dioptra=, Gr. and R. (δίοπτρα; διοράω, to see through). An instrument
+used in surveying to measure distances and to take levels.
+
+=Dioscuria=, Gr. and R. (Διοσκούρια). Games instituted at Rome in honour
+of the Dioscuri (Castor and Pollux), who, at the battle of Lake Regillus
+against the Latins (496 B.C.), were supposed to have fought on the side
+of the Romans.
+
+=Diospolites=, Egyp. One of the nomes or divisions of Lower Egypt.
+
+=Diota=, Gr. (δί-ωτα, with two ears). A name applied indifferently to
+any kind of vase furnished with two handles, such as _lagenæ_,
+_amphoræ_, _canthari_, &c.
+
+=Diplinthus=, R. (πλίνθος, a brick). Masonry two bricks thick.
+
+=Diploïs=, Gr. and R. Folded in two; an upper garment which was doubled
+in the same manner as a woman’s shawl at the present day; it was much
+worn among the Greeks.
+
+=Diploma=, Gr. and R. (δίπλωμα, i. e. double-folded). A passport
+consisting of two leaves (whence its name). The term is also used to
+denote a diploma by which any right or privilege is conferred.
+
+=Dipteral=, Arch. A building having double wings. The term is applied to
+any building having a double intercolumniation all round it.
+
+=Diptheræ=, Gr. and R. (διφθέραι; δέφω, to make supple). (1) Prepared
+skins for writing on. (2) A kind of garment; an overcoat of skin or
+leather which Greek slaves put on over their tunic.
+
+=Diptych=, Gr. (δί-πτυχα, i. e. double-folded). Double tablets united by
+means of strings or hinges. _Diptycha consularia_, _ædilitia_,
+_prætoria_ had engraved on them portraits of consuls, ædiles, prætors,
+and other magistrates. These consular diptychs were a part of the
+presents sent by new consuls on their appointment to very eminent
+persons. The series of them is a very valuable record of the progress of
+the art of ivory carving. In Christian archæology diptychs were
+decorated with scenes from biblical history. There were also diptychs of
+the baptized; of the bishops and benefactors of a church, living or
+dead; of saints and martyrs; and, lastly, of deceased members of the
+congregation, whose souls were to be remembered at mass. (See TRIPTYCH.)
+
+=Directors=, or =Triangular Compasses=. A mathematical instrument
+adapted for taking three angular points at once.
+
+=Diribitorium=, R. (_diribeo_, to sort or separate). A place or building
+in which a public officer inspected the troops, distributed the pay, and
+enrolled the conscripts in their respective regiments.
+
+=Dirige=, Chr. A psalm forming part of the burial service, “Dirige
+gressus meos,” &c.; hence =Dirge=, for funereal music or hymns in
+general.
+
+=Dirk.= A Scotch dagger.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 252. Tazza of Diruta, with head of “Rome.”]
+
+=Diruta.= An important porcelain manufactory in the Papal States,
+established by a pupil of Luca della Robbia in 1461.
+
+=Discerniculum=, R. (_discerno_, to divide). A bodkin used by Roman
+women in the toilet to part their hair. (See COMBS.)
+
+=Discharging Arch.= An arch built into the structure of a wall, to
+relieve the parts below it of the pressure of those above it; such
+arches are common over flat-headed doors or other openings.
+
+=Discinctus=, Gr. and R. (_discingo_, to ungird). A man who is _ungirt_,
+that is, who does not wear a girdle round the waist of his tunic; for a
+man, this was a mark of effeminate manners. _Discinctus miles_ denoted a
+soldier who had been stripped by his commander of his sword-belt, as a
+mark of disgrace. (Compare CINGULUM.)
+
+=Disclosed=, Her. With expanded wings, in the case of birds that are not
+birds of prey. The contrary to CLOSE.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 253. Discobolus of Myron copied on a gem.]
+
+=Discobolus=, Gr. and R. (δισκο-βόλος, i. e. discus-throwing). A man
+throwing the DISCUS (q.v.). [A celebrated statue of the sculptor Myron
+so called.]
+
+=Discus=, R. (δίσκος; δικεῖν, to throw). This term denoted (1) the
+discus hurled by the DISCOBOLUS (q.v.); that is, a circular plate of
+metal or stone, about ten or twelve inches in diameter. (2) A sun-dial.
+(3) A shallow circular vessel for holding eatables.
+
+=Disk.= (See WINGED DISK.)
+
+=Disomum=, Chr. (δί-σωμον, double-bodied). An urn or tomb which held the
+ashes or bodies of two persons; _bisomum_ was also used. Both terms are
+met with in Christian inscriptions.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 254. Falcon Displayed.]
+
+=Displayed=, Her. Birds of prey with expanded wings. Fig. 254 represents
+the crest of Edward IV., the falcon and fetterlock.
+
+=Displuviatus=, =Displuviatum=, R. An atrium, the roof of which was
+sloped outwards from the COMPLUVIUM (q.v.), instead of being sloped
+towards it. (See IMPLUVIUM and ATRIUM.)
+
+=Disposed=, =Disposition=, Her. Arranged, arrangement.
+
+=Distaff.= A common object in ancient art. It is an attribute of the
+Fates, and generally distaffs of gold were given to the goddesses. It
+was dedicated to Minerva. (See COLUS.) The name of St. Distaff’s Day was
+given to the day after Twelfth Day in England.
+
+=Distance.= In a picture, _the point of distance_ is that where the
+visual rays meet; _middle distance_ is the central portion of a picture,
+between the _foreground_ and the _extreme distance_.
+
+=Distemper.= A kind of painting in which the pigments are mixed with an
+aqueous vehicle, such as _size_. Distemper is painted on a dry surface.
+(See FRESCO-PAINTING.)
+
+=Ditriglyph=, R. (δὶς, twice, and τρίγλυφος). The space between two
+triglyphs in the Doric order. The term is therefore a synonym of METOPE
+(q.v.).
+
+=Dividers.= Ordinary compasses for taking off and transferring
+measurements.
+
+=Dividiculum=, R. A reservoir in the form of a tower, in which the water
+of an aqueduct was collected, and whence it was afterwards distributed.
+(See CASTELLUM.)
+
+=Docana= (δοκὸς, a beam). An ancient Spartan symbol of Castor and
+Pollux. It consisted of two upright beams, with cross pieces.
+
+=Doccia.= An important Italian manufactory of soft porcelain founded in
+1735. Jacquemart says, “Doccia now inundates Europe with spurious
+majolica of the 16th century, and with false porcelain of Capo di Monte,
+of which she possesses the moulds.”
+
+=Dodecahedron=, Gr. A solid figure of twelve equal sides.
+
+=Dodecastyle=, Gr. and R. (δώδεκα, twelve, and στῦλος, pillar). A
+building, the arrangement of which admits of twelve columns in front. A
+dodecastyle pediment is a pediment supported by twelve columns.
+
+=Dodra=, R. (_dodrans_, nine parts). A kind of beverage, or rather soup,
+composed of nine ingredients. We learn from Ausonius that it was made of
+bread, water, wine, oil, broth, salt, sweet herbs, honey, and pepper.
+
+=Dodrans=, R. (i. e. three-fourths). Nine _unciæ_, or three-quarters of
+an _as_. There was no coin of this value. As a measure of _length_, nine
+inches. (See AS.)
+
+=Doff= or =Deff=, Egyp. The square tambourine of the ancient Egyptians;
+the _toph_ of the Hebrews, still in use among the Arabs, especially in
+the Barbary States.
+
+=Dog.= An emblem of fidelity and loyalty. In mediæval art, the attribute
+of St. Roch; also of St. Dominic, the founder of the Dominican order; of
+St. Bernard, St. Wendelin, and St. Benignus. As an emblem of fidelity,
+it is placed at the feet of the effigies of married women upon
+sepulchres. It was common to represent, in painting or mosaic, a chained
+watch-dog at the doors of Roman houses. The DOG OF FO is a sacred emblem
+in China, sometimes called a _Chimera_; it is placed as the guardian of
+the thresholds of temples, and of the Buddhist altars. In the Chinese
+zodiacal system the dog is the sign for the month of September.
+
+=Dog Latin.= Barbarous Latin; e. g. “Verte canem ex” (turn the dog out).
+
+=Dog’s-nose=, O. E. A cordial used in low life, composed of warm porter,
+moist sugar, gin, and nutmeg. (_Halliwell._)
+
+=Dog’s-tooth Moulding=, Arch. A characteristic ornament of Early English
+architecture, formed of four leaves with small spiral fillets, which
+bear some resemblance to teeth. (See TOOTH-ORNAMENT.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 255. Bronze Dolabra or hatchet (Celtic).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 256. Hatchet, flint-stone.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 257. Gallic hatchet.]
+
+=Dolabra=, R. (_dolo_, to hew). An instrument like a pick or hatchet,
+which varied in form according to the different purposes for which it
+was employed. The _dolabra_ was used for digging, cutting, breaking, and
+chopping, and was thus a pick, a hatchet, an adze or _ascia_, &c.
+Dolabra of flint or other hard stone, called Celts, are of remote
+antiquity. (See CELT.) (Figs. 255 to 257.)
+
+=Doliolum.= Dimin. of DOLIUM (q.v.).
+
+=Dolium= or =Culeus=, Gr. and R. A large earthenware vessel with a wide
+mouth, and of rounded, spherical form. It was used to contain wine and
+oil when first made, before they were transferred into smaller vessels
+for keeping.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 258. Dolmen.]
+
+=Dolmen=, Celt. A term which, in the Celtic language, means literally a
+stone table. It consists of a number of stones, of which some are fixed
+in the ground, and the others laid transversely over them. These
+structures were used as sepulchres. Figs. 258 and 259 represent two
+different types of dolmens. (See CROMLECH.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 259. Dolmen, in the forest of Rennes.]
+
+=Dolon= or =Dolo=, R. (δόλων). (1) A long stick armed with an iron
+point. (2) A cane, in the hollow of which a poniard was concealed. (3)
+The fore-topsail of a vessel.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 260. Heraldic Dolphin.]
+
+=Dolphin=, Her. A favourite fish with heralds. It is best known as the
+armorial ensign of the Dauphin, the eldest son and heir apparent of the
+kings of France—_Or_, a Dolphin _az_. In Christian archæology the
+dolphin is the symbol of swiftness, diligence, and love; it is often met
+with entwined with an anchor. The first Christians often wore these two
+symbols united in a ring, which was known as a _nautical anchor_. (See
+also DELPHIN.)
+
+=Dome=, It. (1) Literally, the _house_ of God. When a city possesses
+several churches, the name is applied to the cathedral only. (2) The
+interior of a _cupola_.
+
+=Dominions=, in Christian art. (See ANGELS.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 261. Plan of a Greek house.]
+
+=Domus=, Gr. and R. (Gr. δόμος, οἶκος). A house, in contradistinction to
+_insula_, a group of houses. The Greek house is divided into two parts
+by the central chambers. The external, the ANDRONITIS, contains the
+men’s, and the inner, or GYNÆCONITIS, the women’s apartments. The whole
+building was generally long and narrow, occupying a comparatively small
+frontage to the street, and the outside wall was plain without windows.
+Outside the door was often an altar of Apollo Agyieus, or an obelisk, or
+sometimes a laurel-tree, or a bust of the god Hermes. A few steps,
+called ANABATHMOI, led up to the house door (αὐλεία θύρα), over which
+there was generally a motto inscribed: the passage (θυρωρεῖον, πυλὼν,
+θυρὼν) (A B in the plan) had the stables on one side, and the porter’s
+lodge opposite, and led to C, the PERISTYLE or AULA of the men’s
+quarters, a HYPÆTHRAL, or open air court, surrounded by porticoes called
+STOAI, and by the men’s apartments, which were large banqueting-rooms
+(οἶκοι, ἀνδρῶνες), smaller sitting-rooms (ἐξέδραι), and
+sleeping-chambers (δωμάτια, κοιτῶνες, οἰκήματα). The door to the passage
+D was called μέταυλος or μέσαυλος (i. e. the middle of the aulæ), and
+gave admission to E, the peristyle or aula of the Gynæconitis. The rooms
+numbered 10 to 17 were the chambers of the women; P P were called the
+Thalamos and Amphithalamos; H H and G were the ἱστῶνες, or rooms for
+working in wool; and at I was the garden door (κηπαία θύρα). There was
+usually an upper story where guests and slaves were lodged (ὑπερῷον,
+διῆρες), the stairs leading to which were outside the house. The roofs
+were flat, and it was customary to walk upon them. The floors were of
+stone, in later times ornamental or coloured. The construction and
+decoration varied with the ages; painted ceilings were a late
+introduction.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 262. Plan of a Roman house.]
+
+Of a Roman house, the principal parts were the VESTIBULUM, or court
+before the door, open to the street; the OSTIUM, JANUA, or FORES, the
+entrance; the ATRIUM, CAVUM ÆDIUM, or CAVÆDIUM, with the COMPLUVIUM open
+over the central tank (termed the IMPLUVIUM); the ALÆ (wings), TABLINUM,
+FAUCES, and PERISTYLIUM: of each of which a notice will be found in its
+alphabetical place in this work. (See also CUBICULA, TRICLINIA, EXEDRÆ,
+PINACOTHECA, BIBLIOTHECA, BALNEUM, CULINA, CŒNACULA, DIÆTA, SOLARIA,
+&c.) The floors of a Roman house were either of the composition called
+RUDERATIO, and, from the process of beating down _pavita_, were then
+called PAVIMENTUM, or of stone or marble or mosaics (MUSIVUM OPUS). The
+inner walls were usually covered with frescoes. The ceilings left the
+beams visible, which supported the roof, and the hollow or unplanked
+spaces (LACUNARIA or LAQUEARIA) were often covered with gold and ivory,
+or with paintings. (See CAMARA.) The principal apartments had no
+windows, deriving their light from the roof; in the upper stories there
+were windows either open or latticed, or later filled with mica, and
+finally glass.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 263. Atrium with Doric columns. (_See also_ Fig.
+49.)]
+
+=Don Pottery.= A name given to the productions of a porcelain
+manufactory established in 1790 at Swinton on the Don.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 264. Donjon.]
+
+=Donjon=, Mod. The principal tower of a Norman or mediæval castle. It
+was generally separate from the other parts of the building. The greater
+number of feudal fortresses originally consisted merely of a donjon
+erected on an artificial earthwork. This donjon was surrounded by an
+open space walled, called the Inner Bailey, and another beyond called
+the Outer Bailey. Beneath were the dungeons. Fig. 264 represents a
+donjon called the Tower of Loudun. The White tower is the donjon of the
+Tower of London.
+
+=Doom.= In Christian art, the Last Judgment; a subject usually painted
+over the chancel arch in parochial churches.
+
+=Dorelot.= A network for the hair, worn by ladies in the 14th century.
+(See CALANTICA, CRESPINE, &c.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 265. Column and Capital of the Doric Order.]
+
+=Doric Order of Architecture.= The earliest and simplest of the three
+Greek orders. “The Grecian Doric order, at its best period, is one of
+the most beautiful inventions of architecture—strong and yet elegant,
+graceful in outline and harmonious in all its forms, imposing when on a
+great scale, and pleasing equally when reduced in size, by the exquisite
+simplicity of its parts.” (_Newlands._) The columns of this order had no
+pedestal, nor base; the capital, which was half a diameter in height,
+had no _astragal_, but a few plain fillets, with channels between them,
+under the _ovolo_, and a small channel below the fillets. The _ovolo_ is
+generally flat, and of great projection, with a _quirk_, or return. On
+this was laid the ABACUS, which was only a plain tile, without fillet or
+ornament. A peculiarity of this order was the _flutings_ of the column,
+twenty in number, shallow, and with sharp edges. The best examples of
+the Grecian Doric of which we have descriptions and figures are the
+temples of Minerva (called the Parthenon) and of Theseus at Athens, and
+that of Minerva at Sunium. The ROMAN DORIC differs in important
+particulars from the Grecian. (See ROMAN DORIC.)
+
+=Dormant= or =Couchant=, Her. Asleep. (See COUCHANT.)
+
+=Dormer= (Fr. _dormir_, to sleep). The top story in the roof of a house.
+
+=Dormer Window.= A gabled window in the sloping side of a roof,
+projecting _vertically_; when it lies in the slope of the roof, it is a
+_skylight_.
+
+=Dorneck=, =Dornex=, or =Dornyks=, O. E. An inferior damask, wrought of
+silk, wool, linen thread, and gold, at Tournay or _Dorneck_; 15th
+century.
+
+=Dorsale=, =Dosser=, =Dossier=, Chr. (_dorsum_, the back). Pieces of
+tapestry or hangings put up in the arches or bays surrounding the choir
+of a church in order to screen the clergy and choristers from draughts
+of air. Also pieces of tapestry hung upon parapets, the panels of
+pulpits and stalls, and sometimes the backs of side-boards. It was the
+custom to hang tapestry, cloth of Arras, or needlework round the lower
+half of all the ancient dining-halls to a height of about five feet
+above the basement.
+
+=Dorsualia=, R. (_dorsum_). An embroidered saddle-cloth, which was laid
+across the back of a horse on the occasion of a triumphal entry, or on
+the backs of victims for sacrifice. Examples of _dorsualia_ occur on
+several monuments, in especial on a bas-relief of the arch of Titus, at
+Rome.
+
+=Doryphorus=, Gen. (δορυ-φόρος). Literally, spear-bearer. Fig. 130
+represents a Persian spearman. A celebrated statue of Polycletus (of the
+Argive school) is called the _Doryphorus_. “Polycletus advanced his art
+in several respects, chiefly by fixing a law of proportion, of which his
+Doryphorus, a youth bearing a spear, was called the CANON (q.v.); and
+also by his making the weight of the body rest on one foot, in
+contradistinction to the ancient practice, thereby producing a contrast
+between the supporting, weight-bearing side of the body, and the
+supported, freely-resting side.” (_Butler’s Imitative Art._) The statue
+by Polycletus is lost. The proportions handed down to us by Vitruvius
+are thus described by Bonomi:—
+
+  (1) The length of the horizontally extended arms equals the height of
+  the figure.
+
+  (2) The head is an _eighth_, the face a _tenth_ of the whole height.
+
+  (3) From the top of the scalp to the nipples is _one-fourth_.
+
+  (4) From the nipples to horizontal line across the centre of the
+  square—the pubes—is _one-fourth_.
+
+  (5) From that line to one just below the knee-cap is _one-fourth_.
+
+  (6) From that line to the ground is _one-fourth_.
+
+  (7) The forearm (from the elbow) is a _fourth_ of the height; the hand
+  a _tenth_.
+
+=Dose= or =Dosall=, O. E. (Lat. DORSALE, q.v.).
+
+=Dossar.= (See DORSALE.)
+
+=Douai.= A manufactory of modern faience established in 1784, producing
+stone-wares and “cailloutages.”
+
+=Doublé=, Fr. (1) The term is applied to precious stones, when cemented
+upon glass. (2) The inside lining of a well-bound book.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 267. Doublet costume, _temp._ Elizabeth.]
+
+=Doublet=, although deriving its name from the French word _doublée_
+(lined), is in that language more generally known as “Pourpoint,” of
+which, in fact, it is merely a variety. It first appeared in England in
+the 14th century made without sleeves, which for convenience were
+afterwards added; and being universally adopted, it superseded the
+tunic. The engraving shows a doublet with stuffed sleeves of the time of
+Elizabeth. They were worn of varied forms till the reign of Charles II.
+(Fig. 267.)
+
+=Doubling=, Her. The lining of a mantle or mantling.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 268. Two Doves. Device of Giovanna de’ Medici.]
+
+=Dove.= A Christian symbol of frequent occurrence; it expresses candour,
+gentleness, innocence, faith, and, in especial, the Holy Spirit. It is
+also a symbol of martyrdom and grief, and in this signification appears
+frequently represented on tombs and sarcophagi. With an olive-bough in
+its mouth it is a symbol of peace, and accordingly the inscription PAX
+(Peace) is often found accompanying representations of the dove, more
+particularly in the catacombs. With the Assyrians and Babylonians the
+dove was the symbol of Semiramis, who, according to them, took this
+shape on leaving earth. The dove was the favourite bird of Venus. As a
+symbol of conjugal fidelity, the device of two turtle-doves was adopted
+by Giovanna of Austria on her marriage with Francesco de’ Medici. (Fig.
+268.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 269. Dove-tailed Masonry.]
+
+=Dove-tail= or =Swallow-tail=, Gen. A method of joining employed for
+wood, stone, or iron, and so called because the tenon by which the joint
+is effected is cut in the shape of a dove-tail or swallow-tail. This
+tail fits into a notch (Fig. 269). The ancients employed double
+dove-tails for joining stones together; this method of construction was
+called _Opus_ REVINCTUM (q.v.).
+
+=Dove-tail Moulding=, Arch. (Norman; called also TRIANGULAR FRETTE).
+Decorated with running bands in the form of dove-tails.
+
+=Doves, the Eucharistic.= Sacred vessels of gold, silver, gilded bronze,
+or ivory, in the form of a dove, a tower, &c., which served as
+receptacles for the reserved Host; they were hung up in the middle of
+the CIBORIUM (q.v.). At the Amiens Museum a dove of this kind is to be
+seen dating from the 12th century, and at the church of St. Nazaire at
+Milan there is one of silver, gilded within and enamelled without, which
+is also very ancient.
+
+=Dowlas=, O. E. Coarse linen cloth made in Brittany; “_filthy dowlas!_”
+
+=Drachma=, Gr. (δραχμή; δράσσομαι, to hold in the hand). A drachm, the
+principal silver coin of the Greeks. There were two kinds of
+_drachmata_, which differed in value: the Attic drachm and the Æginetan.
+The Attic _drachma_ was equal in value to a franc, equal to six
+_oboloi_. The piece of four drachmas was called a _stater_. As a weight
+the drachma was the eighth of an _uncia_; about = our modern _drachm_.
+
+=Draco=, Gen. (1) A dragon; the ensign of the Roman cohort in the time
+of Trajan, adopted from the Parthians. (2) A fantastic animal of Pagan
+mythology: the garden of the Hesperides, the Golden Fleece, and the
+fountain of Castalia were all guarded by dragons. (3) In Christian
+archæology the dragon symbolizes sin, especially idolatry. (4) The
+Chinese give to several immortals the figure of a dragon. They
+distinguish the long dragon of heaven, a being especially sacred; the
+Kau, dragon of the mountain; and the Li, dragon of the sea. The dragons
+are represented as “gigantic saurians, with powerful claws, and
+terminated by a frightful head, scaly and strongly toothed.” There are
+the scaly dragon, the winged dragon, the horned and the hornless
+dragons, and the dragon rolled within itself which has not yet taken
+flight to the upper regions. In their zodiacal system the dragon is the
+sign for the month of March. (See TCHY.)
+
+=Draconarius=, R. The standard-bearer who carried the _draco_.
+
+=Dracontarium=, R. A band for the head, so called because it was twisted
+in imitation of the _draco_ which was used as an ensign.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 270. Heraldic Dragon.]
+
+=Dragon=, Her. A winged monster having four legs. (See DRACO.)
+
+=Dragon.= A short carbine (hence “dragoons”).
+
+=Dragon’s Blood.= A resinous astringent extract of a deep red colour,
+used as a colouring ingredient for spirit and turpentine varnishes and
+paints, &c. The Roman _cinnabar_ was Dragon’s Blood.
+
+=Draught= (or =Drawte=) =Chamber=, O. E. The with _drawing_ room.
+
+=Draughts, Game of.= (See DAMES, LATRUNCULI.)
+
+=Dravid’ha=, Hind. A Hindoo temple constructed on an octagonal plan.
+(See NAGARAS, VIMANA, VESARA.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 271. Dresden milk-jug.]
+
+=Dresden Porcelain=, made at the Royal Manufactory established at
+Meissen in Saxony in 1709, is most excellent anterior to 1796, since
+when its ancient perfection has been lost. The mark of the best period
+is two crossed swords, with a sloped cross or a small circle beneath.
+The later mark has a star beneath the swords. On rejected pieces the
+swords were cut across with a line; but the manufactory at the present
+day counterfeits its old marks. Fig. 271 is a specimen of the best
+period, later than 1720 and before 1778.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 272. Pot-pourri vase, Dresden china.]
+
+=Dressoir= or =Dressouer= (the _buffet_ of the 15th century, the
+_évidence_ of the 16th) was the principal object of the dining-room, on
+which were displayed all the ornamental plate of the owner of the house,
+costly vases, &c. Kings had often three dressers, one for silver,
+another for silver-gold, and the third for gold plate. In form they
+varied; but they were made of the most valuable woods, and enriched with
+the finest carving. They were sometimes covered over with cloth of gold:
+the city of Orleans offered one in gold to Charles IV., which was valued
+at 8000 livres Tournois.
+
+=Drilbu=, Hind. A bell used in Buddhist worship.
+
+=Drinking-cups of Glass= are frequently found in the Saxon barrows or
+graves in England. They are ornamented in various patterns, and rounded
+at the bottom. The Anglo-Saxons were also rich in cups of the precious
+metals. They used horn cups also, as did the Normans. In the 15th
+century flat-shaped cups or bowls were used.
+
+=Drip=, Arch. The edge of a roof; the eaves; the corona of a cornice.
+
+=Drip-stone=, Arch. The moulding in Gothic architecture which serves as
+a canopy for an opening and to throw off the rain. It is also called
+_weather-moulding_ and _water-table_. (See also CORONA.)
+
+=Dromo=, =Dromon=, R. (δρόμων; δραμεῖν, to run). A vessel remarkable for
+its swift sailing; hence—
+
+=Dromon= or =Dromound=, O. E. A mediæval ship, propelled by oars and one
+sail, used for the transport of troops. The Crusaders called it a
+_dromedary_.
+
+=Dromos=, Gr. and Egyp. (δρόμος). (1) The Spartan race-course. (2) An
+avenue leading to the entrances of Egyptian temples; that leading to the
+great temple of Karnac contained 660 colossal sphinxes, all of which
+were monoliths.
+
+=Drop Lake= is a pigment obtained from Brazil wood, which affords a very
+fugitive colour.
+
+=Drops=, Arch. (Lat. _guttæ_). Ornaments resembling drops, used in the
+Doric entablature, immediately under the TRIGLYPH and MUTULE.
+
+=Druidic= (Monuments), Celt. Celtic monuments, also known by the name of
+_Megalithic_. (See STANDING STONES, DOLMENS, MENHIRS, CROMLECHS, &c.).
+The most ancient and probably the largest Celtic or Druidical temple was
+at Avebury in Wiltshire. _Dr. Stukeley_, who surveyed it in 1720, says
+that “this may be regarded as the grand national cathedral, while the
+smaller circles which are met with in other parts of the island may be
+compared to the parish or village churches.”
+
+=Drum=, Arch. (1) Of a dome or cupola, the STYLOBATE (or vertical part
+on which the columns rest). (2) Of the Corinthian and Composite
+capitals, the solid part; called also BELL, VASE, BASKET.
+
+=Dry Point.= Direct engraving upon copper with the sharp etching-needle
+itself, without the plate being covered with etching-ground, or the
+lines bit in by acid. This method produces very soft and delicate work,
+but it is not so durable in printing as the etched line.
+
+=Dryers.= In painting, substances imparted to oils to make them dry
+quickly. The most general in use is OXIDE of LEAD, but white copperas,
+oxide of manganese, ground glass, oxide of zinc, calcined bones,
+chloride of lime, and verdigris have all been used at various times.
+
+=Drying Oil.= Boiled oil, used in painting as a vehicle and a varnish.
+It is linseed oil boiled with litharge (or oxide of lead).
+
+=Dryness.= A style of painting in which the outline is harsh and formal,
+and the colour deficient in mellowness and harmony.
+
+=Duck-bills=, O. E. Broad-toed shoes of the 15th century.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 273. Duke’s coronet.]
+
+=Duke=, Her. The highest rank and title in the British peerage; first
+introduced by Edward III. in the year 1337, when he created the Black
+Prince the first English duke (in Latin “dux”). The coronet of a duke,
+arbitrary in its adornment until the 16th century was far advanced, is
+now a circlet, heightened with eight conventional strawberry-leaves, of
+which in representation three and two half-leaves are shown.
+(_Boutell._)
+
+=Dulcimer.= A musical instrument, the prototype of our pianoforte. It
+was very early known to the Arabs and Persians, who called it _santir_.
+One of its old European names is the _cimbal_. The Hebrew _nebel_, or
+perhaps the _psanterin_ mentioned by Daniel, is supposed to have been a
+dulcimer; the _psalterion_ of the Greeks also. A hand organ of the
+Middle Ages was called a dulcimer.
+
+=Dunkirk.= A manufactory of modern faience which only existed for a
+short time in the 18th century, and was closed within a year. The works
+are therefore very rare. Jacquemart mentions a clock bearing a close
+resemblance to certain Dutch products, inscribed _Dickhoof_ and _A.
+Duisburg_, and by the latter name identified as Dunkirk work.
+
+=Duns=, Celtic. Ancient hill forts of the simplest kind, consisting of a
+round or oval earthen wall and ditch on a rising ground, probably
+contemporary with the pit dwellings.
+
+=Dunster=, O. E. Broad cloth made in Somersetshire, _temp._ Edward III.
+
+=Dutch Pink.= (See PINKS.)
+
+=Dutch White.= (See CARBONATE OF LEAD, BARYTES.)
+
+=Dwararab’ha=, =Dwaragopouras=, =Dwaraharmya=, =Dwaraprasada=,
+=Dwarasala=, Ind. (See GOPOURAS.)
+
+
+
+
+                                   E.
+
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 274. Eagle—Ensign of France.]
+
+=Eagle=, Her. The eagle (called in heraldry _Alerion_) appears in the
+earliest English examples of arms, and his appearance often denotes an
+alliance with German princes. Both the German emperors and Russian czars
+adopted the eagle for their heraldic ensign in support of their claim to
+be considered the successors of the Roman Cæsars. The eagle borne as the
+ensign of Imperial France sits, grasping a thunderbolt, in an attitude
+of vigilance, having its wings elevated, but the tips of the feathers
+drooping, as they would be in a living bird. In remote antiquity the
+eagle was an emblem of the sun, and the double-headed eagle typifies the
+rising and the setting sun. The eagle was the attribute of Jove as his
+messenger. The eagle killing a serpent or a hare is an ancient symbol of
+victory. In Christian art the eagle is the attribute of St. John the
+Evangelist, the symbol of the highest inspiration. St. John is sometimes
+represented with human body and eagle head. The lectern in Christian
+churches is commonly in the form of an eagle. Elisha the prophet is
+represented with a two-headed eagle. (See AQUILÆ.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 275. Earl’s coronet.]
+
+=Earl=, Her. (from the Gaelic _iarflath_, “a dependent chief” = _iar_,
+“after,” and _flath_, “lord”; pronounced _iarrl_). Before 1337 the
+highest, and now the third degree of rank and dignity in the British
+peerage. An earl’s coronet has eight lofty rays of gold rising from the
+circlet, each of which supports a large pearl, while between each pair
+of these rays there is a golden strawberry-leaf. In representation five
+of the rays and pearls are shown. Elevated clusters of pearls appear in
+an earl’s coronet as early as 1445; but the present form of the coronet
+may be assigned to the second half of the following century.
+
+=Earl Marshal.= In England, one of the great officers of state, who
+regulates ceremonies and takes cognizance of all matters relating to
+honour, arms, and pedigree.
+
+=Early English Architecture.= The first of the pointed or Gothic styles
+of architecture used in England. It succeeded the NORMAN towards the end
+of the 12th century, and gradually merged into the DECORATED at the end
+of the 13th. Its leading peculiarity is the long narrow lancet window.
+
+=Earn=, Scotch. An eagle.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 276. Greek or Etruscan ear-rings in gold.]
+
+=Ear-rings= (Lat. _inaures_, Gr. ἐνώτια) were a common ornament for
+ladies in Greece and Rome, and among the early Saxons: they were worn by
+men during the reigns of Elizabeth and James I.
+
+=Earth Tables=, Arch. The projecting course of stones in a wall,
+immediately above the surface of the ground, now called the plinth.
+(_Parker._)
+
+=Earthenware.= (See POTTERY.)
+
+=Easel= (from the German _esel_, an ass). A frame with movable rest for
+resting pictures on.
+
+=Easel-picture.= A small portable picture.
+
+=Easter=, Chr. (A.S. _eastre_). From the goddess “Eostur,” whose
+festival fell in April. The Latin name “Paschal” refers to the Jewish
+feast of the Passover. The Paschal season originally extended over
+fifteen days, from Palm Sunday to Low Sunday. (See _Smith and Cheetham’s
+Dict. of Christian Ant._)
+
+=Eaves= (A.S. _efese_, the edge). The overhanging “edge” of the roof of
+a house.
+
+=Ebénistes=, Fr. Workers in fine cabinet-making.
+
+=Ebony.= A heavy, hard, black wood, obtained from the Diospyrus ebenus.
+Ebony and other exotic woods came into general use in Europe from the
+end of the 17th century—subsequently to 1695, when the Dutch settled in
+Ceylon. The black ebony is the most valuable, but there are green and
+yellow varieties. Old carved ebony furniture found in English houses
+dates generally from the early years of the Dutch occupation of Ceylon.
+
+=Eburnean.= Made of ivory.
+
+=Ecbasios= (ἐκβαίνω, to disembark). A sacrifice offered to Apollo after
+a favourable voyage.
+
+=Ecclesia=, Gr. General assembly of the citizens of Athens. (See _Smith
+and Cheetham’s Dict. of Christian Ant._)
+
+=Echea=, Gr. and R. (ἦχος, sound or noise). Earthenware or bronze
+vessels used to strengthen the sound in theatres. (See ACOUSTIC
+VESSELS.)
+
+=Echinate.= Armed with spines or bristles like a hedgehog.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 277. Echinus or egg and tongue on the ovolo of a
+Greek cornice.]
+
+=Echinus=, Arch. (Gr. ἐχῖνος, a hedgehog). The _egg and dart_ or _egg
+and tongue_ ornament frequently carved on the round moulding, much used
+in classic architecture, called the _ovolo_. (Fig. 277.)
+
+=Echometry= (μέτρον, a measure). The art of measuring the duration of
+sounds.
+
+=Ecorchée=, Fr. (lit. flayed). Said of an anatomical model specially
+prepared for the study of the muscular system.
+
+=Ecphonesis=, Chr. That part of a devotional office which is said
+_audibly_, in contrast with that said _secreté_.
+
+=Ectypus=, R. A hollow mould which produces an impression in relief
+which is called _ectypum_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 278. Ecuelle, Venetian porcelain.]
+
+=Ecuelle=, Fr. A porringer. Fig. 278 is a specimen in the best style of
+Venetian porcelain.
+
+=Edward-Shovelboards=, O. E. Broad shillings of Edward VI., formerly
+used in playing the game of shovelboard. (_Halliwell._)
+
+=Effeir of War=, Scotch. Warlike guise.
+
+=Effigies=, R. An image or effigy. The word is usually applied to the
+heads upon coins or medals.
+
+=Egg and Dart=, or =Egg and Tongue, Ornament=, Arch. (Fr. _aards et
+oves_). A carving commonly inserted on the ovolo moulding. (See
+ECHINUS.)
+
+=Egg-feast= or =Egg-Saturday=, O. E. The Saturday before Shrove Tuesday.
+
+=Egg-shell Porcelain.= A very thin white porcelain of the “Rose family,”
+to which the Chinese have given the name of “porcelain without embryo.”
+
+=Eggs=, as a Christian emblem, are supposed to represent “the immature
+hope of the resurrection.” (_Martigny._)
+
+=Egret= (Fr. _aigrette_). A small white heron, marked by a _crest_ on
+his head.
+
+=Egyptian Architecture= and =Sculpture= can be studied in the monuments
+remaining from remotest antiquity to about A. D. 300. Great varieties of
+style occur, which can be easily attributed to their respective periods
+by the hieroglyphical inscriptions. The three primitive motives of all
+Egyptian buildings are the _pyramid_, _caves_, and _structures of
+timber_; all contemporary with the most ancient relics. In sculpture,
+the most ancient works of all are also those most remarkable for
+fidelity to nature. The conventionality introduced afterwards with the
+_canon of proportions_ is still combined with a close imitation of
+Nature in the details. The Grecian or Ptolemaic period begins B.C. 322.
+[See _Wilkinson’s Ancient Egyptians_, _Canina’s Egyptian Architecture_;
+and the works of _Brugsch_, _Marriette_, _Soldi_, _Ebers_, &c.]
+
+=Egyptian Blue=, the brilliant blue pigment found on the monuments, is
+found by analysis to consist of the hydrated protoxide of copper, mixed
+with a minute quantity of iron. The green colour was derived from
+another oxide of copper; violet from manganese or gold; yellow from
+silver, or perhaps iron; and red from the protoxide of copper.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 280. Lenticular Phials. Louvre Museum.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 279. Oviform bottle. Egyptian.]
+
+=Egyptian Pottery= of great beauty is found in great quantities along
+with the costly ornaments in the tombs. It is intermediary between
+porcelain and stone-ware, and its colouring demonstrates a high degree
+of skill, science, and precision of execution. Among the forms
+frequently found are the oviform, long-necked bottles (Fig. 279),
+lenticular phials, with royal cartouches (Fig. 280), lamps (Fig. 281),
+&c. (See also Fig. 219.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 281. Lamp in blue enamelled earthenware. Egyptian.]
+
+=Eikon=, Gr., or =Icon=, Lat. An image; hence iconoclasts or
+image-breakers.
+
+=Eileton=, Chr. (from εἴλω, to wind or fold). The cloth on which the
+elements are consecrated in the Eucharist. “The _eileton_ represents the
+linen cloth in which the body of Christ was wrapped when it was taken
+down from the cross and laid in the tomb.” (_Germanus_).
+
+=Eisodos=, Chr. A ceremony of the Greek Church, of two parts. (1) The
+bearing into the church in procession of the book of the Gospels is
+called the _Lesser Entrance_. (2) A similar bearing in of the elements
+of the Eucharist is called the _Greater Entrance_.
+
+=Elæolite= (lit. oil-stone). A mineral having a fatty resinous lustre.
+
+=Elæothesium=, Gr. and R. A room in a suite of baths where oils,
+perfumes, and essences were kept, and the bathers were anointed and
+rubbed.
+
+=Elaphebolia=, Gr. Athenian festivals held in the month called
+_Elaphebolion_, or the ninth month of the year, when a stag (ἔλαφος) was
+sacrificed to Diana.
+
+=Elbow-gauntlet.= A long gauntlet of plate armour, adopted from the
+Asiatics in the 16th century.
+
+=Elbow-pieces= (Fr. _coudières_). Plate armour to cover the joint at the
+elbow.
+
+=Elbows=, Mod. (Fr. _accoudoirs_). The divisions between the stalls in a
+church, also called by the French “museaux,” from the fact of their ends
+being ornamented with an animal’s head.
+
+=Electoral Bonnet=, Her. A cap of crimson velvet guarded with ermine,
+borne over the inescutcheon of the arms of Hanover from 1801 to 1816.
+
+=Electrotint.= A method of preparing engraved copper plates for the
+printing-press by the electrotype process. (See _Art Journal_, 1850.)
+
+=Electrotype.= The process whereby works in relief are produced by the
+agency of electricity, through which certain metals, such as gold,
+silver, and copper, are precipitated from their solutions upon moulds in
+so fine a state of division as to form a coherent mass of pure metal,
+equal in toughness and flexibility to the hammered metals. (_Fairholt._)
+At the present day electrotypes are generally taken from engravings on
+wood for printing from.
+
+=Electrum= (ἤλεκτρον). In Homer and Hesiod this word means _amber_.
+Pliny says that when gold contains a fifth part of silver, it is called
+electrum. Its colour was whiter and more luminous than that of gold, and
+the metal was supposed to betray the presence of poison. Specimens are
+rare. A beautiful vase of electrum is preserved in the St. Petersburg
+Museum. Some coins in electrum were struck by the kings of Bosporus, and
+by Syracuse and some Greek states.
+
+=Elements=, Chr. The bread and the wine in the Lord’s Supper. In the
+Eastern liturgies the unconsecrated elements are called “the MYSTERIES,”
+and the bread alone the SEAL (σφραγὶς), from its being divided by lines
+in the form of a cross. The interesting subject of the composition and
+form of the elements in the early churches is fully discussed in the
+“Dictionary of Christian Antiquities” (Smith and Cheetham).
+
+=Elemine.= A crystallized resin used to give consistency to the varnish
+which forms part of the composition of lacquer.
+
+=Elenchus=, R. (ἔλεγχος). (1) A pear-shaped pearl highly esteemed by the
+Roman ladies, who wore such pearls mounted as drops or pendants to
+brooches and rings. (See the illustration to CROTALIUM.) (2) An index to
+a book.
+
+=Elephant.= In mediæval heraldry this animal is a symbol of piety, from
+an ancient legend, mentioned by Ælian, Pliny, and others, that it has in
+religious reverence, with a kind of devotion, not only the stars and
+planets, but also the sun and moon.
+
+=Elephant Paper.= Drawing-paper manufactured in sheets, measuring 28
+inches by 23. _Double Elephant Paper_ measures 40 inches by 26¾.
+
+=Eleusinian Mysteries.= The holiest and most venerated of the Greek
+festivals. The Lesser Eleusinia, held at Agræ in the month Anthesterion,
+were a preparation for the Greater, which were celebrated at Athens and
+Eleusis. The _Mystæ_ were the initiated at the Lesser, of which the
+principal rite was the sacrifice of a sow, previously purified by
+washing in the Cantharus. The Greater were celebrated every year in the
+month Boedromion, and lasted nine days. On the first day the Mystæ
+assembled at Athens; on the second they went through a ceremony of
+purification at the sea-coast; the third was a day of fasting; on the
+fourth there was a procession of a waggon drawn by oxen, followed by
+women who had small mystic cases in their hands; on the fifth, or torch
+day, the Mystæ went in the evening with torches to the temple of
+Demeter, where they passed the night; on the sixth, which was the most
+solemn of all, a statue of Iacchos, the son of Demeter, was borne in
+procession to Eleusis, and the Mystæ were there initiated in the last
+mysteries during the following night. There was something in the secrets
+of this part of the ceremony which excited greatly the imagination of
+the ancient writers, especially Christians, who describe them “in an
+awful and horrible manner.” Each of the initiated was dismissed by the
+_mystagogus_ with the words κόγξ, ὄμπαξ. On the next day they returned
+to Athens, and resting on the bridge of Cephisus engaged in a contest of
+ridicule with the passers-by: the eighth and ninth days were
+unimportant.
+
+=Eleutheria.= A Greek festival in honour of Zeus Eleutherios (the
+Deliverer).
+
+=Elevati= of Ferrara. One of the Italian literary academies. Their
+device was from the fable of Hercules and Antæus, with the motto from
+Horace, “_Superat tellus, sidera donat_” (Earth conquers us, but gives
+us Heaven).
+
+=Elevation.= (1) In Architecture, &c., a perpendicular plan drawn to a
+scale. (2) In Christian archæology, the _lifting up_ of the elements at
+certain points in the Eucharistic service, universally prescribed in the
+early Oriental liturgies, and introduced into the Western Church with
+the doctrine of transubstantiation.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 282. Bas-relief from the frieze of the Parthenon.
+One of the Elgin Marbles.]
+
+=Elgin Marbles.= Friezes and metopes from the Parthenon at Athens,
+brought to the British Museum by Lord Elgin. They are adorned with
+sculptures in relief; those on the frieze represent the Panathenaic
+procession in honour of Athena; those on the metopes, chiefly the
+contests of the Centaurs and Lapithæ. There are also statues and
+friezes, especially from the temple of the Wingless Victory and the
+CHORAGIC MONUMENT of Lysicrates. They are admirably described by Mr.
+Newton in his “Guide” to these sculptures published by the authorities
+of the British Museum. (Fig. 282.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 283. Great Seal of Queen Elizabeth.]
+
+=Elizabeth, Queen.= The costume and the royal appurtenances of this
+monarch are well illustrated by the Royal Seal. In the Royal Arms we see
+the lions and the lilies (_France modern and England quarterly_). On the
+reverse (Fig. 284) the Tudor Rose, fleur-de-lis, and harp appear
+separately crowned for England, France, and Ireland. Elizabeth was fond
+of allegory and devices. In her portrait by Zoffany “the lining of her
+robe is worked with eyes and ears, and on her left sleeve is embroidered
+a serpent—all to imply wisdom and vigilance.” In her other hand is a
+rainbow with the motto, “_Non sine sole iris_” (no rainbow without the
+sun).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 284. Great Seal of Queen Elizabeth.]
+
+=Elizabethan.= The style of architecture and decoration gradually
+developed during the reign of the Tudors in England. Its characteristics
+are a mixed revival of classical forms with quaint and grotesque relics
+of the Gothic. Typical examples are Crewe Hall, Speke, in Lancashire,
+Haddon Hall, Kenilworth Castle, Raglan Castle, &c.
+
+=Ellipsis=, =Ellipse=. A figure formed by cutting a cone obliquely
+across its length; hence—
+
+=Ellipsograph.= An instrument for describing a semi-ellipse.
+
+=Ellotia= or =Hellotia=. A Corinthian festival with a torch-race, in
+honour of Athena as a goddess of fire.
+
+=Ellychnium=, R. (λύχνος, a light). The wick of an oil lamp; it was made
+of flax fibres or papyrus.
+
+=Emarginated.= Having the _margin_ broken by a notch or notches.
+
+=Embalming= was frequently practised by the early Christians, especially
+with the bodies of martyrs. The practice was derived from the Jews. As a
+pagan ceremony embalming was intended to facilitate _cremation_.
+
+=Embalon=, Gr. and R. A beak, corresponding to the modern _ram_, under
+the bows of a war galley, for the purpose of sinking the enemy.
+
+=Embas=, Gr. A shoe of white felt, used esp. by the Bœotians.
+
+=Ember Days=, Chr. (in Anglo-Saxon, _ymbren dagas_, “recurrent days;” in
+Latin, _jejunia quatuor temporum_; in French, _les quatre temps_, &c.).
+Special fasts appointed to be observed at the commencement of each of
+the _four seasons_ of the year. In the Eastern Church there is no trace
+of such an observance. (The word has no connexion with _embers_ in the
+sense of ashes.)
+
+=Emblazon=, Her. (See BLAZON.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 285. Emblemata.]
+
+=Emblemata=, Gr. (ἐμβάλλω, to put in). INLAID-WORK, or (1) Mosaic made
+of coloured cubes of glass or vitreous enamel. (See SECTILE,
+TESSELLATUM, VERMICULATUM.) Fig. 285 represents _emblemata_ of different
+kinds of glass. (2) _Crusts_ exquisitely wrought on the surface of
+vessels or other pieces of furniture; as, for instance, alabaster on
+marble, gold on silver, silver on bronze. The Romans generally used the
+term _crustæ_ for this kind of work. From EMBLEMATA is derived our word
+EMBLEM, the true meaning of which is “a symbolical figure or composition
+which conceals an allegory.” Thus an _ape_ symbolized malice and lust; a
+_pelican_ piety, and the Redeemer’s love for the world. &c. The most
+important books of Emblems are by Alciati, Paradin, and Sambuco.
+
+=Embolismus=, =Embolis=, or =Embolum=, Chr. (1) An inserted or
+intercalated prayer in a liturgy. (2) The number of days required to
+make up the lunar year to the solar. (See EPACT.)
+
+=Embolium=, Gr. and R. (lit. something thrown in). An interlude or comic
+piece recited by an actress (_emboliaria_) between the acts of a drama.
+
+=Embolos=, Arch., Chr. A covered portico or cloister surrounding the
+external walls of a church.
+
+=Embolum=, Gr. The Greek term answering to the Latin ROSTRUM (q.v.).
+(See also EMBOLISMUS.)
+
+=Embolus=, R. (ἔμβολος). The piston in the chamber of a pump.
+
+=Embossing=, =Embossment=. A prominence like a boss; raised ornamental
+work.
+
+=Embowed=, Her. Bent. An arm embowed has the elbow to the dexter.
+
+=Embrasure=, Arch. (1) The interval between the COPS of a battlement.
+(2) An expansion of doorways, windows, &c., given by slanting the sides.
+(See SPLAY.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 286. Indian Embroidery. In the Indian section of the
+South Kensington Museum.]
+
+=Embroidery= is one of the oldest of the ornamental arts. Some specimens
+of ancient _Egyptian_ embroidery are exhibited in the Louvre, and
+Herodotus mentions the embroidered vestments of the gods in Egypt. The
+_Israelites_ appointed Aholiab, “a cunning workman, and an embroiderer
+in blue, and purple, and scarlet, and fine linen,” to be _chief
+embroiderer_ to the sacred ark. The prophet Ezekiel mentions the
+embroidery of _Tyre_. It was the principal domestic occupation of ladies
+in _Greece_, from the days when Penelope embroidered a garment for
+Ulysses, representing a dog chasing a deer. The _Romans_ called
+embroidery “Phrygium,” and imported it largely from the East. In later
+times _Byzantium_ was celebrated for its embroidered ecclesiastical
+vestments. Pope Paschal, in the 9th century, was the greatest patron of
+the art. When the Caliph Omar pillaged the _Persian_ palace of Khosroes,
+he found there a carpet of silk and cloth of gold, sixty cubits square,
+having a garden depicted upon it, and rubies, emeralds, sapphires,
+beryls, topazes, and pearls arranged with consummate skill to represent
+trees, fruit and flowers, rivulets, fountains, roses and shrubs. Our
+English word “embroidery” is derived from the Celtic “brouda,” to prick.
+Anglo-Saxon embroidery was celebrated throughout Europe as _Opus
+Anglicanum_. The celebrated Bayeux tapestry is attributed to the 12th
+century. A copy of it may be seen in the South Kensington Museum. The
+art decayed in England during the Civil War of the 17th century.
+
+=Embrued=, Her. Stained with blood.
+
+=Embu.= A French term for the _loss of tone_ in an oil sketch, caused by
+the absorption of the oil whilst it is drying. It is easily corrected by
+a glaze.
+
+=Emerald.= A precious stone of various shades of green, much used by the
+ancients for gem-engraving. The less brilliant varieties are known as
+beryls. For its significance in Christian art, see GREEN.
+
+=Emerald Green.= A vivid bright green pigment, prepared from the
+arseniate of copper, and used both in oil and water-colours; called also
+_Paul Veronese Green_.
+
+=Emissarium=, R. (_emitto_, to send forth). A channel, natural or
+artificial, for letting off stagnant water. Some of these channels are
+the most wonderful monuments of Roman ingenuity. The lakes of Trasimene,
+Albano, Nemi, and Fucino were all drained by EMISSARIA. The last is open
+to inspection, and is described as “a stupendous work of engineering,
+planned by Julius Cæsar, and completed by the Emperor Claudius.”
+
+=Empaistic=, Gr. _Damascening_ (q.v.) or _in crusta_ work practised by
+the ancients, as opposed to TOREUTIC ART (q.v.).
+
+=Emperor Paper.= The largest kind of drawing-paper manufactured in
+sheets measuring 66 inches by 47.
+
+=Emphotion=, Chr. (from ἐμφωτίζω, to enlighten). A name given in the
+early Church to the white robe with which persons were invested in
+baptism; as it were, “a robe of light.”
+
+=Emplecton=, Gr. and R. (lit. inwoven). A method of building,
+originating in Greece and adopted by the Romans, in which a space left
+in the interior of the wall was filled in with rubble, the whole block
+of masonry being bound together at intervals by ties (_diatonoi_). In
+the engraving, _c_ and _b_ are the _square stones_, the parts between
+them being the ties or diatonoi, and _o_ the rubble. (See Fig. 249.)
+
+=Emporium=, Gr. and R. (ἔμπορος, a passenger in a ship). A place at a
+sea-port where imported merchandise was warehoused and exposed for sale.
+The remains of the ancient _emporium_ of Rome have been discovered on
+the banks of the Tiber. The name is sometimes applied to a town, but
+applies properly only to a certain place in a town.
+
+=Enafota= or =Enafodia=, Chr. (Gr. ἐννεάφωτα). A corona or chandelier of
+“nine lights.”
+
+=Enaluron=, Her. (See ENTOIRE.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 287. Pendant of gold, enamelled and enriched with
+jewels.]
+
+=Enamel= (Fr. _esmail_; Ital. _smalto_). A glassy substance of many
+brilliant colours, melted and united to gold, silver, copper, bronze,
+and other metals in the furnace. Enamel is coloured _white_ by oxide of
+tin, _blue_ by oxide of cobalt, _red_ by gold, and _green_ by copper.
+Different kinds of enamel are (1) inlaid or incrusted. (2) Transparent,
+showing designs on the metal under it. (3) Painted as a complete
+picture. “Many fine specimens of ancient Chinese enamel were seen in the
+Exhibition of 1851. They have the enamel on copper, beautifully coloured
+and enlivened with figures of flowers, birds, and other animals. The
+colouring is most chaste and effective. The Chinese say that no good
+specimens of this manufacture have been made for the last six or eight
+hundred years.” (_Fortune._) Beautiful transparent enamels are made in
+India. They look like slices of emerald or sapphire laid in beds of
+gold, having tiny figures of beaten gold let into their surfaces. (See
+also CLOISONNÉ, CHAMP-LEVÉ, BASSE-TAILLE, &c.) The beautiful example of
+enamel-work, Fig. 287, is attributed to Benvenuto Cellini. (See Fig.
+188.)
+
+=Enamel.= Painting in enamel is done by means of colours that are
+vitrifiable, a quality that is communicated to them by combining them
+with a vitreous base, which is called their flux. These are fused and
+fixed on the enamel by the action of fire, which produces in the colours
+applied such changes as the artist has previously learned to calculate.
+(_Bouvier._)
+
+=Enamelled Glass.= (See GLASS.)
+
+=Enamelled Wares.= (See GLAZED WARE.)
+
+=Encænia=, Chr. A dedication festival.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 288. Encarpa (Festoons) on the Temple of Vesta at
+Tivoli.]
+
+=Encarpa=, Gr. An architectural decoration formed of festoons or
+garlands of flowers and fruits (καρποὶ), whence its name. Fig. 288 shows
+an example from the temple of Vesta at Tivoli.
+
+=Encaustic=, R. (lit. burning in). The art of painting in encaustic.
+Pliny says, “The colours were applied with wax on marble, and
+transparent gum on ivory. Coloured wax was applied to the wall in the
+form of a paste, and in the manner of mosaic or enamels. This was then
+melted or fused with hot irons (_cauteria_), a small fillet of a
+different tint being inserted between each flat tint.” Fairholt says,
+“There is no antique painting extant which is properly called ENCAUSTIC;
+all those supposed to be so have, on closer examination, proved to be in
+FRESCO or in TEMPERA.”
+
+=Encaustic Tiles.= Ornamental tiles for floorings, extensively used in
+the Middle Ages.
+
+=Encheirion=, Chr. The napkin with which the priest wipes his hands;
+worn at the girdle.
+
+=Encoignure=, Fr. A table made with an angle to fit into a corner.
+
+=Encolpia=, Chr. (lit. worn on the breast, or from the Gr. ἐγκολπίζω, to
+contain in the womb). (1) Small caskets containing relics or a copy of
+the Gospels, worn by the early Christians suspended from the neck. (See
+EPOMADION.) Their use is of the highest antiquity, and specimens have
+been found in the tombs of the ancient cemetery of the Vatican,
+belonging to the 4th century. These were square in form, having on one
+side the sacred monogram ΙΧΡ for ΙΗΣΟΥΣ ΧΡΙΣΤΟΣ between the letters Α
+and Ω. (2) The pectoral crosses worn by bishops are also called
+_encolpia_. Reliquaries in the form of a cross are first mentioned by
+Gregory the Great. He sent one of them to Queen Theodelinda.
+(_Martigny._)
+
+=Encomboma=, Gr. (i. e. girt on). A Greek apron, tied round the waist,
+worn chiefly by young maidens and by slaves to keep the tunic clean.
+
+=Encyclical Letters.= (1) Chr. Letters “sent round” to all who should
+read them, and not addressed to any particular person (from the members
+of a council, &c.). (2) Gen. The same words, γράμματα ἐγκύκλια, apply to
+the subjects which the Greeks included in the “circle of the sciences,”
+or encyclopædia.
+
+=Encysted.= Enclosed in a cyst.
+
+=Endecagon= (ἕνδεκα, eleven; γωνία, an angle). A plane figure having
+eleven sides and eleven angles.
+
+=Endorse=, Her. A diminutive of the PALE (q.v.), one-fourth of its
+width.
+
+=Endothys.= (See ENDYTIS.)
+
+=Endromis=, Gr. and R. (δρόμος, a course or running). In Greek this name
+is given to hunting boots of Cretan origin, such as Diana is represented
+wearing by the Greek sculptors. Among the Romans the _endromis_ was an
+ample blanket of coarse wool, introduced from Gaul, in which athletes
+wrapped themselves when they were heated with the exercises. _Endromis
+Tyria_ was the name given to a large woollen wrap much finer than the
+ordinary _endromis_, and which was worn by the Roman ladies after their
+gymnastic exercises.
+
+=Endytis=, Chr. (ἐνδύω, to put on). This term, in the Middle Ages,
+denoted an altar-covering; other terms for it were _endothis_ and
+_endothys_.
+
+=Energumens=, Chr. Men possessed with devils.
+
+=Enfeu=, Fr. A sepulchral vault usually placed under the choir of a
+church; it assumed the form of a large niche. Originally bishops were
+interred by “droit d’enfeu” in tombs of this kind. The term is derived
+from the Latin _infodere_ (to dig).
+
+=Enfiled=, Her. Pierced with the sword.
+
+=Engageants=, Fr. “Double ruffles that fall over the wrists.” (_Ladies’
+Dictionary_, 1694.)
+
+=Engineer’s Cartridge.= Drawing-paper manufactured in sheets measuring
+30 by 22 inches. _Double Engineer’s Cartridge_ measures 46 inches by 30.
+
+=Engobe=, Fr. A “slip” or thin coating of white clay used to coat
+pottery before the invention of the tin glaze.
+
+=Engrailed=, Her. A border line indented in semicircles.
+
+=Engraving.= Copper-plate engraving is called CHALCOGRAPHY (q.v.) (Gr.
+χαλκὸς, copper); wood-engraving, XYLOGRAPHY (q.v.) (Gr. ξύλον, wood);
+and engraving on stone, LITHOGRAPHY (q.v.) (Gr. λίθος, a stone). [Each
+process is described under its own heading. See also ETCHING.]
+
+=Enhanced=, Her. Raised towards the CHIEF, or upper part of the shield.
+
+=Enneapylæ=, Pel. (ἐννέα and πύλαι). Literally, nine gates; a fortified
+enclosure constructed by the Bœotian Pelasgians round the Acropolis of
+Athens, some years after the Trojan war. Xerxes destroyed the
+_enneapylæ_ after the capture of Athens. A few fragments of it remain to
+this day, not far from the temple of the Wingless Victory.
+
+=Enotia=, Gr. (Lat. _inaures_). EAR-RINGS (q.v.).
+
+=Enseniator=, Med. Lat. (from the Italian _insegna_, an ensign). A
+mounted ensign-bearer.
+
+=Ensiculus=, R. A small sword, or child’s sword, used as a plaything. It
+is the diminutive of ENSIS.
+
+=Ensigned=, Her. Adorned; having some ensign of honour placed above, as
+a coronet above a shield.
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 289, 290. Gallic Ensigns.]
+
+=Ensigns=, Gen. (Lat. _signa militaria_; Gr. σημεῖα). Military symbols
+beneath which soldiers are ranged according to the different regiments
+to which they belong. The most ancient Roman ensign was a bundle of
+straw, hay, or fern. Then came the eagle, the wolf, the minotaur, the
+horse, and the boar. Afterwards the eagle alone was displayed (B. C.
+104); it was made of silver or bronze, with expanded wings. The serpent
+or dragon was used as a particular ensign by the several _cohorts_, and
+the centuries had also each its ensign; but these were cloth flags.
+Under Constantine the LABARUM (q.v.) was introduced. (See CUSPIS, Figs.
+228 to 230.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 291. Gallic Ensign.]
+
+=Ensiludium=, Med. Lat. A contest in sport with swords. (See CEMBEL,
+HASTILUDIUM.)
+
+=Ensis, Sword.= A synonym of GLADIUS (q.v.).
+
+=Ensis a Estoc=, Med. A stabbing-sword, usually carried at the
+saddle-bow.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 292. Entablature with leaf ornament.]
+
+=Entablature.= A member of architecture placed as a crown to another.
+The entablature is composed of _architrave_, the part immediately above
+the column; _frieze_, the central space; and _cornice_, the upper
+projecting mouldings. (See Fig. 184.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 293. Entablature with honeysuckle ornament.]
+
+=Entalma=, Chr. The document by which a bishop confers the right of
+hearing confessions.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 294. Egyptian Column, showing entasis.]
+
+=Entasis=, Gr. and R. (ἔντασις, a stretching tight). The _swelling_ of a
+balustre or of the shaft of a column. The narrowing of the shaft is
+called CONTRACTURA (q.v.).
+
+=Enterclose=, Arch. A passage between two rooms in a house.
+
+=Enthronisation=, Chr. (Lat. _incathedrare_). (1) The ceremony of
+placing a newly-ordained bishop upon his throne. (2) That of placing the
+relics in the altar of a church on consecration. (3) The installation of
+a presbyter in his church is sometimes called _enthronisation_.
+
+=Entire=, Her. Said of a charge when it extends to the border lines of a
+shield, coat, or banner; also of a shield, coat, or banner of arms, when
+borne without any difference or mark of cadency.
+
+=Entoire=, =Entoyre=, Her. A bordure charged with a series of inanimate
+figures or devices, as crosslets, roundles, &c. To a similar bordure of
+living figures the term ENALURON is applied.
+
+=Entrance=, Chr. (See EISODOS and INTROIT.)
+
+=Entrecoupe=, Fr. When two vaults are superimposed, and both spring from
+the same walls, “entrecoupe” is the term applied to the arched
+interval—if any—between them.
+
+=Enveloped=, =Environed=, Her. Surrounded.
+
+=Eolian (Æolian) Harp.= A musical stringed instrument arranged to be
+played upon by the wind (from Eolus [or properly Æolus], the ruler of
+the winds).
+
+=Eolodicon.= A musical instrument similar to a harmonium, invented in
+the last century by Eschenbach.
+
+=Eolophone.= A musical instrument similar to a harmonium.
+
+=Eōra=, Gr. (ἐώρα). A festival held at Athens in honour of Icarius and
+his daughter Erigonê. It was known also by the names of _Æora_ (αἰώρα)
+and _Aletis_ (Ἀλῆτις). The last appellation originated in a hymn which
+was sung at the festival, and which had been composed by Theodorus of
+Colophon. It was sometimes called “Eudeipnos,” from the rich banquets
+usually given during its celebration.
+
+=Epact= (Gr. ἐπακταὶ, sc. ἡμέραι; in Med. Lat. _adjectiones Lunæ_). The
+number of days required at the end of a lunar year to complete the solar
+year. (See EMBOLISMUS.)
+
+=Epagomenæ= (sc. days), Gen. (ἐπαγόμεναι ἡμέραι, i. e. intercalated
+days). The name given to the five supplementary days of the year among
+those nations who divided the year into twelve months of thirty days
+each.
+
+=Epaullière= or =Epaullets=, Er. Shoulder-plates; also the
+shoulder-knots formerly worn by gentlemen, but now restricted to
+domestic servants. (See AIGLET.)
+
+=Ependytes=, Chr. (ἐπενδύτης, i. e. worn above). The “fisher’s coat” of
+St. Peter. A coarse cloak worn by the monks of the Middle Ages over
+another garment; it is also called, in the ancient MSS., _superaria_,
+_superindum_, and _sagus rusticus_. It is frequently described,
+especially in the East, as made of skins (μηλωτὴς, pelliceus).
+
+=Epergne= (Fr. _épargne_, economy). An ornamental stand, with dish and
+branches, for the centre of a table.
+
+=Epernay Ware.= At Epernay were specially made glazed wares in relief
+for the service of the table, in shapes such as a hare, a fowl, &c., in
+half relief; also surprise or puzzle jugs.
+
+=Epha= or =Ephah=, Heb. A measure of capacity, about 3 pecks and 3
+pints.
+
+=Ephebeum=, Gr. (ἐφηβεῖον). The large hall of a gymnasium, situated in
+the centre of the building, in which the youths (_ephebi_) practised
+gymnastic exercises.
+
+=Ephippium=, Gr. (ἐφίππιον, i. e. for putting on a horse). A saddle.
+Among the Greeks and Romans it was a kind of pad, square or round in
+shape, and regularly stuffed. Saddle-cloths hung from it, but it had no
+stirrups. The word _sella_, or _sella equestris_, became common in later
+times.
+
+=Ephod=, Hebrew. A short upper garment worn by the Jewish priests. The
+ephod, which was also worn by the Jewish judges and kings, was made of
+fine linen; that of the high priest consisted of a sleeved tunic, woven
+with gold thread, purple, hyacinth, and twisted flax. Two sardonyx
+stones set in gold adorned the clasps by which this tunic was fastened
+round the shoulders.
+
+=Epi= or =Girouette=, Fr. The complicated iron ornament with which
+steeples and pointed roofs were surmounted in the architecture of the
+Renaissance period, replaced in modern times by the weathercock. A
+similar spiked ornament, of pottery or metal, is still common on the
+gables of houses in Normandy.
+
+=Epic.= In Art, the graphic representation of an “epos,” or event,
+cardinal in history.
+
+=Epichysis=, Gr. and R. (ἐπίχυσις, i. e. that which pours in). A Greek
+pitcher with a long neck and a handle; it was used for pouring wine into
+cups.
+
+=Epicopus=, Gr. and R. (ἐπίκωπος, i. e. furnished with oars). A vessel
+with oars. (See NAVIS.)
+
+=Epicrocum=, Gr. and R. A woman’s garment, of a saffron yellow (crocus),
+whence its name.
+
+=Epicycloid.= “A curve described by the movement of the circumference of
+one circle on the convex or concave part of the circumference of
+another.” (_Stormonth._)
+
+=Epideipnis=, Gr. (i. e. following the dinner). The last course of a
+dinner or any kind of banquet.
+
+=Epidemia=, Gr. (lit. among the people). Festivals held at Argos in
+honour of Juno, and at Delos and Miletus in honour of Apollo. They
+received their name from the fact that these deities were supposed to be
+present at them, and to mingle with the people (ἐπὶ, among; δῆμος,
+people).
+
+=Epidote.= A mineral of a green or greyish colour: of the garnet family.
+
+=Epidromos=, Gr. (1) The mizen, or sail on the mast nearest to the
+stern, in vessels with several masts. (2) A part of the oil-press. (3) A
+running rope passing through the rings of a large net for catching
+birds, by means of which the huntsman, who was on the watch, closed the
+net when the game had found their way into it.
+
+=Epigonation=, Gr., Chr. An ornament peculiar to the Eastern Church; a
+lozenge-shaped piece of some stiff material, hanging from the girdle on
+the right side as low as the _knee_ (whence its name).
+
+=Epigrus.= (See EPIURUS.)
+
+=Epiphany=, Chr. This festival is known by various names in the
+different European languages; and the names are either (1) mere
+reproductions of the Latin name, or renderings of it; or (2) refer to
+the manifestation to the Magi as the three Kings, as the Dutch
+Drie-Koningendag, &c.; or (3) indicate it as the final day of the
+Christmas festivity, _Twelfth Day_, &c. (See _Smith and Cheetham’s
+Dictionary of Christian Antiquities_.)
+
+=Epiphi=, Egyp. The third month of summer, called the season of
+harvests.
+
+=Epirhedium=, R. (ἐπὶ Gr., and _rheda_ Gallic). A kind of chariot. The
+word was formed by the Romans as above, and is explained as _Ornamentum
+rhedarum, aut plaustrum_. (See RHEDA, PLAUSTRUM.)
+
+=Episcenium=, Gr. and R. (ἐπι-σκήνιον, i. e. above the stage). A room
+situated above the stage, in ancient theatres, for the machinery.
+
+=Episcopalia=, Chr. The ring and the pastoral staff, the distinctive
+marks of the authority of a bishop.
+
+=Episotron= (ἐπί-σωτρον). (See CANTHUS.)
+
+=Epistle Side= (of a church). The south side.
+
+=Epistomium=, R. (στόμα, a mouth). The cock of a vessel or water-pipe,
+which let out only a little water at a time.
+
+=Epistylium=, Gr. and R. (ἐπι-στύλιον). An epistyle; literally, on the
+column (ἐπὶ, on, and στῦλος, a column); that is, the architrave or lower
+beam of an entablature laid horizontally upon columns. By analogy the
+term is used to denote the entire ENTABLATURE (q.v.).
+
+=Epitaph= (ἐπιτάφιος). (1) A eulogy pronounced at a funeral. (2)
+Memorials of art in churches, in remembrance of the dead. (3)
+Inscriptions on tombs.
+
+=Epithalamium=, Gr. A nuptial song. A fragment of verses from one of
+these songs, written by Hesiod, has come down to us.
+
+=Epithedes= or =Sima=, Arch. The upper member of the cornice of an
+entablature.
+
+=Epitoga=, R. A cloak worn over the toga.
+
+=Epitoxis=, Gr. and R. That part of the catapult in which the missile
+was laid.
+
+=Epitrachelion=, Chr. (i. e. on the neck). The Greek name for the stole.
+(See STOLE.)
+
+=Epiurus=, R. (ἐπίουρος). A wooden peg used as a nail.
+
+=Epoch.= A fixed and important period of novelty or change, which gave a
+new and distinctive character to Art. (_Fairholt._)
+
+=Epomadion=, Gr., Chr. The cord or ribbon by which relics, or crosses
+(ENCOLPIA), were suspended from the neck.
+
+=Eques=, R. Generally, any one on horseback, a rider, and by analogy a
+knight, that is, a patrician or man of distinguished family. _Eques
+alarius_ was the name given to the cavalry of the allies; _eques
+cataphractus_ was a knight whose horse, as well as himself, was clad in
+complete armour; _eques extraordinarius_ were the picked cavalry in the
+service of the consuls; _eques legionarius_, _eques prætorianus_, the
+prætorian cavalry; _eques sagittarius_, the mounted archers.
+
+=Equipped=, Her. Fully armed, caparisoned, or provided.
+
+=Equiria=, R. (_equus_). Games instituted by Romulus, and celebrated at
+Rome in the Field of Mars on the third of the calends of March (27th
+February). These games, held in honour of Mars, consisted of chariot
+races. There were two festivals of this name; the second was on the eve
+of the ides of March (14th March).
+
+=Equuleus= or =Eculeus=, R. (lit. a colt, a young horse). This was an
+instrument of torture on which slaves were placed astride. The law
+prescribed that all slaves called as witnesses should be examined under
+torture.
+
+=Equus=, R. A horse; properly a stallion, as opposed to _cauterius_, a
+gelding, and _equa_, a mare.
+
+=Eradicated=, Her. Torn up by the roots.
+
+=Erased=, Her. Torn off with a ragged edge.
+
+=Eremites=, Gr., Chr. Hermits.
+
+=Ergastulum=, R. (ἐργάζομαι, to work). A private prison attached to a
+farm or _villa rustica_, in which insubordinate and ill-conducted slaves
+were kept in chains; they were under the superintendence of a gaoler,
+who was himself a slave, and who was called ERGASTULARIUS. _Ergastula_
+were built underground, and thus formed subterranean dungeons.
+
+=Ergata=, Gr. and R. (ἐργάτης, i. e. worker). A strong capstan used for
+moving heavy weights; among other things, for hauling vessels on shore.
+
+=Ericius=, R. (lit. hedgehog). A military engine, a cheval-de-frise or
+long beam studded with iron spikes, whence its name. It was placed
+across a door or other opening to which it was desired to bar ingress.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 295. The Ermine. Arms of Anne of Brittany.]
+
+=Ermine=, =Ermines=, =Erminois=, Her. The animal, the ermine, sometimes
+appears in blazon, and an ermine spot is borne as a charge. Generally
+the ermine is an emblem of royalty, purity, and honour. The illustration
+(Fig. 295) is of the arms of Anne of Bretagne, the Queen of Charles
+VIII.
+
+=Erotidia=, Gr. (ἐρωτίδια). Festivals held every fifth year at Thespiæ
+in Bœotia, in honour of Eros, the principal divinity of the Thespians.
+
+=Erpa=, Egyp. A title in use among the Egyptians implying authority
+generally; the crown prince was so designated, and the high priest was,
+in the same manner, called _erpa_ of the priests.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 296. Escallop.]
+
+=Escallop= or =Scallop Shells= were emblems worn by pilgrims, and of St.
+James the Great, from the 13th century.
+
+=Escape=, Arch, (or Apopyge). The small curvature given to the top and
+bottom of the shaft of a column where it expands to meet the edge of the
+fillet above the torus of the base, and beneath the astragal under the
+capital.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 297. Escaufaille, or portable brazier.]
+
+=Escaufaille=, Fr. A small portable brazier on wheels, which was taken
+from room to room as required.
+
+=Eschelles=, Fr. “A stomacher laced or ribboned in the form of a
+ladder.” (_Ladies’ Dict._, 1694.)
+
+=Escoinson=, Med. Fr. The interior edge of the window-side or jamb. This
+was often decorated with a pilaster called the “pilastre des écoinsons.”
+
+=Escroll=, Her. A ribbon charged with a motto; also a ribbon, coiled at
+its extremities, borne as a charge.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 298. Escutcheon of the Sforzas.]
+
+=Escutcheon.= (1) The heraldic shield. (2) Metal plates on doors.
+Escutcheons are abundantly used in Gothic architecture, and are
+frequently carved on the bosses of ceilings and at the ends of weather
+mouldings, &c. Sometimes. instead of armorial bearings, escutcheons have
+the instruments of the Crucifixion or other devices carved on them.
+
+=Escutcheon of Pretence=, Her. A shield charged upon the field of
+another shield of larger size, and bearing a distinct coat of arms.
+
+=Espadon.= A long Spanish sword. It was the weapon used for decapitation
+of criminals.
+
+=Espietus=, =Expiotus=, Med. Lat. A dart (1361).
+
+=Espringale=, =Springale=, =Espringold=. A machine for throwing darts.
+
+=Esquire=, Her. A rank next below that of knight.
+
+=Esseda=, =Essedum=, R. (from the Celtic _ess_, a carriage). A chariot
+of Gaulish origin, drawn by two horses, which was used by the Britons
+and the Germans in war. It was mounted on two wheels, and was open in
+front, but closed behind. The pole was broad, and the rider used to run
+to and fro upon it in the battle. The Romans constructed carriages of a
+similar kind. A similar chariot drawn by one horse was called the
+_cisium_. (See CURRUS.)
+
+=Essonite.= The cinnamon-stone, a variety of the garnet. It is of a
+reddish yellow tint, resembling the colour of cinnamon. These stones
+come principally from Ceylon, and are frequently sold for hyacinths or
+jacinths, from which, however, they differ in many important
+peculiarities. (_H. Emanuel._)
+
+=Este.= A manufactory in Italy of soft porcelain; also of fine faience
+and pipe-clay.
+
+=Estivation=, Bot. The arrangement of the unexpanded leaves of the
+flower-bud which burst in Summer; as opposed to VERNATION, the
+arrangement of the leaves of the bud which burst in Spring.
+
+=Estoc=, Fr. (Med. Lat. _estoquum_). A short sword worn at the girdle;
+also called a “tuck” (_temp._ Elizabeth).
+
+=Estoile=, Her. A star with wavy rays or points, which are six, eight,
+or sometimes more in number.
+
+=Estrade=, Fr., Arch. A platform raised three or four inches above the
+rest of the floor of a chamber, upon which to place a bed or a throne,
+&c.
+
+=Estrif= or =Estref=, Med. A kind of arrow for the balista.
+
+=Etching.= In this process the copper plate is covered with an
+_etching-ground_, which is a preparation of bees’-wax, Burgundy pitch,
+black pitch, and asphaltum (or other ingredients); and the lines of the
+design are traced out with _etching-needles_, which remove the
+etching-ground from the copper wherever they pass, and slightly scratch
+the surface of the plate. Next, a border of _banking-wax_ is put round
+the sides of the plate, making a trough of it. The _banking-wax_ is made
+of bees’-wax, common pitch, Burgundy pitch, and sweet oil melted in a
+crucible and poured into cold water. The next operation is to pour in
+nitrous acid reduced with water to a proper strength (about one part
+acid to four parts water). When the acid has been on a sufficient time
+to corrode the fainter parts of the subject, it is to be poured off, the
+plate washed with water, and left to dry. These fainter parts are then
+to be varnished with a mixture called _stopping-ground_, made of
+lamp-black and Venice turpentine, applied with a camel’s-hair pencil.
+This stops the further action of the acid on these parts. When the
+surface is dry, fresh acid is poured on to _bite in_ the bolder parts,
+and the processes of _stopping_ and _biting-in_ are alternated for every
+gradation of tint. The wax is removed from the plate by heat, and
+cleaned away with a rag moistened with olive oil; and the work is then
+complete, or it may be finished off with the _graver_. _Etching-points_
+or _needles_ resemble common needles, fixed in handles four or five
+inches long; some are made oval to produce broader lines. The _dry
+point_ is only a very fine-pointed needle for the delicate lines.
+Imitations of chalk and pencil drawings are sometimes produced by
+_etching on soft ground_. _Etching on steel_ is done in the same way as
+on copper. For _etching on glass_, a ground of bees’-wax is laid on, and
+the design traced as above. Sulphuric acid is then poured on, and
+fluor-spar sprinkled on it, or fluoric acid may be at once used; this is
+allowed to remain four or five hours, and is then removed with oil of
+turpentine. (See also STIPPLE, MEZZOTINTO, AQUATINTA.)
+
+=Eterea= of Padua. One of the Italian literary academies. Their device,
+a charioteer in his car in the air, drawn by a white and black horse,
+the one endeavouring to touch the earth, the other to ascend. Motto,
+“_Victor se tollit ad auras_.”
+
+=Etiolation.= The process of blanching to which plants are subject in
+dark places.
+
+=Ettwee.= O. E. for ETUI (q.v.).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 299. Etui.]
+
+=Etui=, Fr. (by contraction _Twee_, Boyer). A case formerly worn at the
+girdle by ladies. They were made of gold or silver, or ornamented with
+paintings in enamel. The richly-decorated example represented in Fig.
+299 was the property of a granddaughter of Oliver Cromwell.
+
+=Euripus=, R. (εὔριπος). An artificial canal or watercourse in the
+gardens of a Roman villa, generally stocked with fish and aquatic or
+amphibious animals. The same term was applied to a moat dug at the foot
+of the _podium_ in an amphitheatre or circus, which was intended, in
+conjunction with the metal railings or trellis-work placed at the top of
+the _podium_, as a protection to the spectators, when wild beasts were
+exhibited in the arena. _Euripus_ is also applied by Tertullian and
+other authors to the _spina_ of a circus.
+
+=Eustyle=, Arch. (εὔ-στυλος). An intercolumniation in which the columns
+are separated by a width of two diameters and a quarter, measured at the
+lower part of the column, excepting the central intercolumn, which is of
+three diameters. It is the form of columniation which, according to
+Vitruvius, satisfied the demands at once of solidity of structure,
+beauty of appearance, and general harmony of effect.
+
+=Euterpean.= Pertaining to music: from the Muse Euterpe.
+
+=Everriculum=, R. (_everro_, to sweep out). A fishing-net.
+
+=Ewery=, Med. An office of household service, where the ewers, &c., were
+kept: our modern _scullery_.
+
+=Exacisculatus=, R. Destroyed by means of a pick (_acisculus_). The term
+is of frequent occurrence in sepulchral inscriptions, its purpose being
+to serve as a notice to the thieves who broke into tombs.
+
+=Examen=, R. (_exigo_, to examine). The tongue or index on the beam of a
+balance.
+
+=Exasciatus=, R. Hewn or fashioned with the adze (ascia); whence the
+expression _opus exasciatum_ for work which only required to be finished
+or polished.
+
+=Excalceatus=, R. (lit. without shoes or boots). A comic actor or
+comedian who wore sandals. The tragic actor, on the other hand, who wore
+on the stage the laced boot or _cothurnus_, was called _cothurnatus_.
+
+=Excubitorium=, R. The post or guard of the _excubitores_; of these
+there was one in each quarter of the city, or fourteen in all.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 300. Exedra.]
+
+=Exedra=, Gr. and R. An assembly-room or hall for discussion or
+conversation, forming part of a gymnasium, palæstra, or private house.
+In many cases _exedræ_ were in the open air, consisting merely of
+circular marble benches. (Fig. 300.) When an exedra was covered in, one
+of the sides often terminated in a circular apse (_absis_). [Larger
+rooms were called “_Leschai_.”]
+
+=Exedrium=, R. Diminutive of EXEDRA (q.v.).
+
+=Exequiæ.= (See EXSEQUIÆ.)
+
+=Exergue.= The bottom space on a coin, where the date is engraved.
+
+=Exiteria=, Gr. and R. (ἐξιτήρια, concerning departure or result).
+Sacrifices offered to propitiate the gods on the eve of an important
+enterprise, or in gratitude for success.
+
+=Exomis=, Gr. and R. (ἐξ-ωμὶς, i. e. off the shoulders). A short tunic,
+of Greek origin, adopted by the Romans. It left the right shoulder and
+arm exposed, and had only a short sleeve for the left arm. The term was
+also applied to the _pallium_, when so arranged upon the person as to
+resemble the tunic just described.
+
+=Exonarthex.= (See NARTHEX.)
+
+=Exostra=, Gr. and R. (ἐξώστρα). (1) A flying bridge thrown from a
+movable tower (_acrobaticon_) on to the walls of a besieged town, by
+means of which the assailants made their way into the place. (2) A
+theatrical machine which was pushed to the front of the stage from
+behind a curtain which concealed it until it was wanted.
+
+=Expeditus= (opposed to _impeditus_), R. Free, unencumbered; light-armed
+troops (_velites_) were thus called (_expediti_), [or any other troops,
+when they left their _impedimenta_ behind for a forced march, &c.]
+
+=Expositories.= (See MONSTRANCES.)
+
+=Exsequiæ=, R. (_exsequor_, to follow after). A funeral conducted with
+great pomp. (See =Funus=.)
+
+=Extispicium=, R. (_exta_ and _inspicio_, to inspect). Divination by
+inspection of the entrails of victims sacrificed on the altar; called
+also _haruspicina_.
+
+=Extra-dos=, Arch. The exterior curve of an arch; opposed to the SOFFIT
+or INTRA-DOS.
+
+=Extremities.= In Art, the head, feet, and hands: compare _acrolithes_.
+
+=Ex-voto=, Gen. Offerings of any kind in fulfilment of a vow (_ex
+voto_).
+
+=Eye.= In Christian art, the emblem of Providence. Attribute of St.
+Lucia, as a symbol, _not_ of her martyrdom, but of the meaning of her
+_name_ (“light”). (See OUDJA, OCULUS.)
+
+
+
+
+                                   F.
+
+
+=Fabaria=, R. Offerings of bean-flour (_faba_) made by the Romans on the
+1st of June to the goddess Carna; from these offerings the calends of
+June took the name of _fabariæ_.
+
+=Fabatarium=, R. A large earthenware vessel in which bean-flour (_puls
+fabacia_) was served, boiled up with water or broth. It formed a kind of
+_polenta_.
+
+=Fabrica=, R. (_faber_, an artisan). The shop in which an artisan works,
+chiefly a joiner’s or carpenter’s shop.
+
+=Fabrilia=, R. A general term, including all the different kinds of
+tools used by an artisan.
+
+=Façade=, Arch. The _face_ or front of a building.
+
+=Face-guard.= On a helmet, a bar or bars of iron protecting the face.
+
+=Face-painting=, O. E. Portrait painting.
+
+=Facets= (Fr. _facette_, a little face). The flat surfaces cut upon
+precious stones.
+
+=Facial Angle.= The angle formed by two lines, one horizontal from the
+nostrils to the ear, the other perpendicular from the nostrils to the
+forehead.
+
+=Fac-simile= (from Latin _factum_, made, and _simile_, like). A
+perfectly exact copy.
+
+=Factorium= (sc. _vas_), R. A vessel containing exactly a _factum_, or
+quantity of grapes or olives proper to be placed under the press
+(_torcular_) at one _factum_ or making.
+
+=Faculæ=, R. Little torches.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 301. Faenza sweetmeat-dish.]
+
+=Faenza.= A manufacture of pottery considered by some writers to be the
+most ancient in Italy. _Garzoni_, writing in 1485, says, “The majolicas
+of F. are white and polished, and one can no more confound them with
+those of Treviso, than one would take puff-balls for truffles.”
+_Vincenzo Lazari_ says they are distinguished by the softness of the
+tints, the correctness of the drawing, and the whiteness of the enamel
+at the back. For a long and interesting account of this most important
+botega, see _Jacquemart_, _Hist. of the Ceramic Art_. The name of
+_Fayence_ is derived from Faenza, and _not_ from the little town of
+Fayence in France. (Fig. 301.)
+
+=Faience.= (See FAYENCE.)
+
+=Fairy Butter=, O. E. (1) A fungous excrescence about the roots of
+trees, and (2) a species of _tremella_ found on furze and broom are so
+called.
+
+=Fairy Circles.= Circles of coarse green grass common in meadows, and
+attributed to the dancing of the fairies.
+
+=Fairy Dances= = FAIRY CIRCLES (q.v.).
+
+=Fairy Darts.= Small flints in the form of arrow-heads, possibly of the
+stone age.
+
+=Fairy Faces.= Fossil _echini_ or sea-urchins.
+
+=Fairy Groats.= A country name for certain old coins. (See _Harrison’s
+England_, p. 218.)
+
+=Fairy Loaves.= Fossils found in the chalk, called also _fairy faces_.
+
+=Fairy Money.= Treasure trove was so called.
+
+=Fairy Pipes.= Small old tobacco-pipes, frequently found in the north of
+England.
+
+=Fairy Rings.= (See FAIRY CIRCLES.)
+
+=Fairy Sparks.= Phosphoric light seen on various substances in the night
+time. (_Halliwell._)
+
+=Fairy Stones.= (See FAIRY LOAVES.)
+
+=Faith=, in Christian art, is represented by a female figure holding the
+Eucharistic cup.
+
+=Fala=, R. A wooden tower used in the siege of a fortified place, but
+the exact form of which is unknown; it differed from the ACROBATICON.
+
+=Falarica= or =Phalarica=, R. A heavy spear, used by the Saguntines,
+which was generally discharged from a _balista_. Its shaft was sometimes
+enveloped with sulphur and resin, and with tow steeped in oil; and it
+was launched blazing against wooden towers for the purpose of setting
+them on fire.
+
+=Falbala.= (See FURBELOW.)
+
+=Falcastrum=, R. (_falx_, a sickle). An agricultural tool with a curved
+blade for tearing up weeds.
+
+=Falcatus=, R. Furnished with scythes (_falces_). (See CURRUS.)
+
+=Falchion.= A broadsword, spelt “fawchon;” 14th century. (See FALX.)
+
+=Falcicula.= Dimin. of _falx_.
+
+=Falcon=, in mediæval art, is the attribute of a gentleman, in allusion
+to the restrictions of the sumptuary laws.
+
+=Falcula.= Dimin. of _falx_.
+
+=Faldestol=, O. E. An elbow-chair of state; modern “_fauteuil_.” (See
+FALDSTOOL.)
+
+=Falding= (A.S. _feald_). A kind of coarse cloth, like frieze.
+
+=Faldstool=, =Faldistory=, O. E. A folding-stool, like a modern
+camp-stool, used in cathedral church services in Saxon times.
+
+=Fall= or =Falling-band=. A large collar falling on to the shoulders;
+16th and 17th centuries. (See BANDS.)
+
+=Fallals=, O. E. The falling ruffs of a woman’s dress.
+
+=False=, Her. Said of any charge when its central area is removed; thus
+an annulet is a “false roundle.”
+
+=False Roof=, Arch. The space between the ceiling of the garret and the
+roof.
+
+=Falx=, R. A scythe, sickle, bill-hook, &c.; any instrument with a
+curved edge used for cutting grass, wood, or other objects. There were
+many different kinds, which were called respectively _arboraria_ and
+_sylvatica_, _denticulata_, _fænaria_ or _veruculata_, _vinitoria_,
+_vineatica_, and _putatoria_. The term _falx_ was also applied to a
+falchion strongly curved at the end. _Falx supina_ was a dagger with a
+keen and curved blade; _falx muralis_ was an instrument employed in
+warfare, both by sea and land, either to cut the masts and rigging of a
+vessel, or to sweep the ramparts clear of defenders. [_Culter_ is a
+knife with one straight edge; _falx_, one with the edge curved. Hence
+our _falchion_, &c.]
+
+=Familia=, Med. Lat. An old term for a set of chessmen. Among the jewels
+in the wardrobe-book of Edward I. occur “una _familia_ de ebore, pro
+ludendo ad scaccarium,” and “una familia pro scaccario de jaspide et
+crystallo.”
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 302. Feather Fan—Italian.]
+
+=Fan=, Egyp. With the _Egyptians_, the fan of ostrich feathers for
+brushing away flies was looked upon as the insignia of princes and
+chieftains; the _flabellum_ or _umbellum_ (parasol) was carried by
+inferior officers. Both kinds of fan are frequently represented on the
+sacred barges. The use of the fan was first introduced into England in
+the 16th century; they were first made of feathers with long handles of
+gold, silver, or ivory of elaborate workmanship, and sometimes inlaid
+with precious stones. The engraving shows one from a portrait of Queen
+Elizabeth. The _Greeks_ and _Romans_ had fans of various elegant
+materials, often of peacock’s feathers; sometimes of wings of birds, or
+of linen stretched on a frame. _Italian_ fans, mediæval, were square
+flags, as in Fig. 303. Folding fans were first introduced in the 17th
+century. Inventories of churches and monasteries of the 14th century
+include ecclesiastical fans or _flabella_. These are still used in the
+Catholic Church in the East. An illumination at Rouen represents the
+deacon raising the flabellum, a circular fan with a long handle, over
+the head of the priest at the altar. In the accounts of the
+churchwardens of Walberswick, Suffolk, of 1493, is the entry “for a
+bessume of pekok’s fethers, IVd.” (Figs. 302, 303.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 303. Venetian lady, with a square fan of the 16th
+century.]
+
+=Fan-crest=, Her. An early form of decoration for the knightly helm.
+
+=Fandango.= A Spanish dance.
+
+=Fane.= (1) A vane or weathercock; “a fayne of a schipe,” i. e. a vane
+on the top of a mast. “Of sylver his maste, of golde his _fane_.” (2)
+_Anglo-Saxon._ A banner. (3) The white flower-de-luce. (_Gerard._) (4)
+Enemies. (_Halliwell._) (See also FANUM.)
+
+=Fanfare=, Fr. A flourish of trumpets.
+
+=Fannel= or =Phannel=, O. E. The FANON (q.v.).
+
+=Fanon=, Chr. The maniple or napkin worn by the priest at mass. It was
+originally nothing but a plain strip of linen worn on the left wrist. In
+later times it was highly decorated, and often made of the richest
+materials.
+
+=Fan-tao=, Chinese. A fabulous peach-tree, which blossoms every 3000
+years; represented on pottery as an attribute of Cheou-Lao, the god of
+longevity, who holds in his hand a fruit of it.
+
+=Fan-tracery.= In Gothic architecture, elaborate carved work spread over
+an arched surface, like a fan with the handle resting on a corbel or
+stone bracket below.
+
+=Fanum=, R. (_fari_, to speak); Eng. =Fane=. A term synonymous with
+TEMPLUM (q.v.), but implying also the idea of a place which had been
+consecrated by the solemn formula of the augurs. The _fanum_ thus
+comprised not only the building itself, the temple, but also all the
+consecrated ground surrounding it [“_locus liberatus et effatus_.”]
+
+=Farrago=, R. (i. e. made of _far_, spelt). Fodder for horses and
+cattle, consisting of the green ears of different kinds of grain.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 304. Farthingale of the time of Elizabeth.]
+
+=Farthingale= (Fr. _vertugale_) is first spoken of in 1547. It was a
+sort of cage made of whalebone worn under the petticoat, increasing the
+size of the hips. In Elizabeth’s reign it reached to a preposterous
+size, giving the wearer the appearance of “standing in a drum,”
+according to “Sir Roger de Coverley.” There were _wheel-farthingales_
+and _tub-farthingales_. Farthingales were worn during the reign of
+Charles I., but of more moderate dimensions; and in Charles II.’s reign
+the fashion vanished to reappear in the hoop of the 18th century. The
+engraving gives an example of a moderate farthingale. (Fig. 304.)
+
+=Fartura=, R. (_farcio_, to stuff). The act of fattening poultry; and
+thence applied to a kind of structure, the centre of which was filled
+with rubble.
+
+=Fasces.= (See FASCIS.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 305. Roman lictor carrying the fasces.]
+
+=Fascia=, R. Any strip of cloth used for a bandage; such as (1) the
+swathes (Gr. σπάργανον) in which newly-born children were wrapped; (2) a
+white band, or for women, a purple, worn as a diadem (DIADEMA); (3) (_f.
+pectoralis_) a bandage worn by young Roman girls to prevent excessive
+development of the breast; (4) (_f. cruralis_) a bandage wound closely
+round the leg from the ankle to the knee, &c.; these were adopted in
+Europe in the Middle Ages; (5) (_f. pedulis_, Gr. ποδεῖον) a sock; (6)
+see ZONA. (7) In _architecture_ the term _fascia_ or _facia_ is applied
+to three flat parallel _bands_ of stone, introduced to break the
+monotony of architraves, more especially of the Ionic, Corinthian, and
+Composite Orders.
+
+=Fasciculus=, R. (dimin. of _fascis_). A small bundle, or number of
+objects tied up into small bundles.
+
+=Fascina= (_fascinum_ = fascination). Amulets worn to avert the “evil
+eye.” “Nescio quis teneros oculus mihi fascinat agnos.” (_Virgil._)
+
+=Fasciola= (dimin. of _fascia_). A small bandage. (See FASCIA.)
+
+=Fascis=, R. A bundle; a small packet; a small faggot of wood, or
+fascine. In the plural _fasces_ denoted the bundle of rods, with an axe
+in the middle, carried by the lictors before certain of the Roman
+magistrates. (See Fig. 305.) _Fasces laureati_ were the fasces crowned
+with laurel leaves, which were carried before a victorious general;
+_fasces versi_, the reversed fasces, which were carried axe downwards,
+in token of mourning, at funerals. The fasces were carried by the
+lictors on their shoulders, as shown in Fig. 305; and when an inferior
+magistrate met a superior one, the lictors of the former lowered their
+fasces to him; hence the expression _submittere fasces_, to yield or
+confess inferiority.
+
+=Faselus.= (See PHASELUS.)
+
+=Fasti=, R. (_fas_, divine law). Archives or calendars engraved on stone
+or marble; they were of two kinds. (1) The _fasti sacri_ or
+_kalendares_, a kind of almanack or calendar, setting out the _dies
+fasti_, or lawful days on which certain kinds of business might be
+transacted without impiety; also the religious festivals, &c. The
+calendars were entirely in the keeping of the priests. (2) The _fasti
+annales_ or _historici_, which contained the names of the consuls and
+magistrates, and a short account of the most remarkable events. Some
+important lists of this kind of the time of Tiberius are preserved in
+the capitol at Rome, and called the Fasti Capitolini.
+
+=Fastigium=, R. (_fastigo_, to raise to a point). The top of a pediment,
+and thence the entire pediment itself. In a building this term also
+signifies the _ridge_, or top of a roof whose two sides rise up to a
+point.
+
+=Faun= (Lat. _Faunus_). A woodland god, frequently represented with
+sharp ears and with the feet of a goat.
+
+=Fauteau=, Fr. A military engine used in the Middle Ages; it was a kind
+of battering-ram suspended in a tower. (See ARIES.)
+
+=Faux=, R. Any narrow passage, lobby, corridor, or entrance to a house,
+in especial the passage which formed the communication between two
+blocks of a house. In the plural, _fauces_, like _carceres_, denoted
+stalls or stables for horses. (See CARCER.)
+
+=Favissæ=, R. Pits or cellars under a temple, in which all the furniture
+and sacred implements which had become unfit for use were kept.
+
+=Favour=, O. E. A love-gift; a ribbon or glove, &c., worn on the crest
+of the favoured knight at a tournament, &c.
+
+=Favourite=, O. E. A lock of hair: “a sort of modish lock, dangling on
+the temples.” (_Ladies’ Dictionary_, 1694.)
+
+=Favus=, R. A flagstone or tablet of marble cut into a hexagon, like the
+cell of a honeycomb (_favus_), whence its name. [Pavements of this
+pattern were called Sectilia.]
+
+=Fax=, R. A torch. This consisted either of pieces of wood joined
+together and steeped in resin, or a metal tube filled with inflammable
+materials, such as resin, pitch, tallow, tow impregnated with wax, &c.
+[The early evening was hence called _prima fax_, and as marriages were
+celebrated at that time of day, the _torch_ was made an attribute of
+Hymen, and a symbol of marriage. The torch was also carried at funerals
+to fire the pile with.]
+
+=Fayence.= Pottery.
+
+=Feather.= In Christian art (German) an attribute of St. Barbara; it is
+generally a peacock’s feather. This refers to an old German version of
+her legend, which relates that when St. Barbara was scourged by her
+father, angels changed the rods into feathers.
+
+=Featherings=, in Architecture, are lacelike ornaments along the edges
+of arcs in windows, canopies, &c.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 306. Ostrich feathers. (An escroll for a coronet.)]
+
+=Feathers=, Her. The feathers borne as crests and badges are generally
+those of the ostrich, sometimes of the swan, the turkey, and a few other
+birds. Fig. 306 is a representation of an early plume of ostrich
+feathers, as they are carved, with an escroll in place of a coronet, in
+the Abbey Church of St. Albans. From the time of the accession of the
+House of Stuart to the crown of the United Kingdom, the coroneted plume
+of three ostrich feathers appears to have been regarded, as it is at
+this present day, as the special badge of the Princes of Wales.
+
+=Februa=, =Februales=, R. A festival in honour of the dead instituted by
+Numa; it was celebrated every year on the ides of February.
+
+=Feet.= In Christian art the feet of Our Lord, also of angels and of the
+Apostles, should always be represented naked, without shoes or sandals.
+(_Fairholt._)
+
+=Felt= (Fr. _feutre_). A sort of coarse wool, or wool and hair. Felt
+hats were first made in England by Spaniards and Dutchmen, in the
+beginning of the reign of Henry VIII. Felt was also used for the
+stuffing of garments.
+
+=Feminalia= or =Femoralia=, R. (_femur_, the thigh). Short breeches or a
+kind of drawers which reached from the waist to about the knee. [Worn by
+Augustus Cæsar, who was very susceptible to cold.]
+
+=Fendace= (armour). The old name for the gorget.
+
+=Fenestella=, Chr. (lit. a small window). A niche made in the wall of a
+church, near the altar, and containing the stone basin in which the
+priest poured away the water in which he had washed the chalice.
+
+=Fenestra, Window.= _Fenestra biforis_ is a _Gemel-window_, formed by a
+double bay. _Fenestra_ was the name given to the hole pierced in the
+ears to receive the ear-rings, as also to the loop-holes made in the
+walls of a fortress.
+
+=Fenestration=, Arch. A term which expresses the disposition and
+arrangement of all the windows in a house.
+
+=Fengite.= Transparent alabaster used for glass in windows.
+
+=Ferculum=, R. (_fero_, to carry). Contracted form of _fericulum_, a
+tray, and thence the dishes carried upon a tray; a _course_ or _remove_.
+In a triumphal procession the term was applied to a platform for
+displaying an enemy’s spoils, a rich booty, images of the gods, &c.; or
+the ashes of the dead in a funeral.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 307. Silver Feretory or Reliquary, of good English
+work, for the most part in repoussé.]
+
+=Feretory=, Chr. (1) A richly ornamented shrine, often of solid gold and
+set with jewels, in which the relics of saints are carried in Roman
+Catholic processions. (2) The enclosure or chapel in which the shrine
+was kept.
+
+=Feretrum= or =Pheretrum=, Gr, R., and Chr. (Lat. _capulus_). A bier;
+sometimes a shrine. The term was used at a period when coffins were
+uncommon; more properly the FERETORY, 1 (q.v.).
+
+=Feriæ=, R. Days of festival among the Romans; they were classed as
+follows: (1) _Feriæ statæ_ or _stativæ_, which were held regularly on
+the days indicated in the calendar; these were the _immovable
+festivals_, such as the Agonalia, Carmentalia, Lupercalia, &c. (2)
+_Feriæ conceptæ_ or _conceptivæ_, which were held every year, but at
+uncertain intervals; these were the _movable festivals_, such as the
+Latinæ, Sementivæ, Paganalia, and Compitalia. (3) Lastly, there were the
+_feriæ imperativæ_ or _official festivals_, which were held by order of
+the dictators, consuls, or prætors. All _feriæ_ were _dies nefasti_, on
+which lawsuits, political transactions, &c. were impious, and slaves
+were relieved of their labour. The _feriæ Latinæ_ were the most
+important of all Roman festivals.
+
+=Fermail=, Her. A buckle.
+
+=Ferr=, Her. A horse-shoe.
+
+=Ferrara.= A manufactory of majolica in North Italy, described by
+Jacquemart as “one of the most brilliant in Italy;” established by
+Alfonso I. with artists imported from Faenza, circa 1495.
+(_Jacquemart._)
+
+=Ferrea Solea.= A horse-shoe. (See SOLEA and HIPPOSANDALIUM.)
+
+=Ferriterium.= A prison for slaves. Synonym of ERGASTULUM (q.v.).
+
+=Ferula=, R. The fennel; a plant with which children were beaten for
+slight faults, and thence a cane or stick with which slaves were
+chastised.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 308. Fesse.]
+
+=Fesse=, Her. One of the ordinaries. A broad band of metal or colour
+crossing the shield horizontally.
+
+=Fesse-point=, Her. The central point of an escutcheon.
+
+=Fesse-wise=, =In Fesse=, Her. Disposed in a horizontal line, side by
+side, across the centre of a field, and over the fesse-point of a
+shield.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 309. Festoon of foliage.]
+
+=Festoon=, Arch. Garland of flowers. (Fig., 309.) (See ENCARPA.)
+
+=Festra=, R. An abbreviation anciently employed for FENESTRA (q.v.).
+
+=Festuca= or =Vindicta=, R. The rod which the lictor held over the head
+of a slave during the ceremony of _manumissio_, by which he was given
+his freedom. (See MANUMISSIO.)
+
+=Fetter-lock=, Her. A shackle, padlock; a Yorkshire badge.
+
+=Fibrinæ= (vestes), =Fibrinæ= (lanæ). (See CASTOREÆ.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 310. Fibula. Gallic.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 311. Fibula. Gallic.]
+
+=Fibula=, Gen. (_figo_, to fix). (1) A clasp, buckle, or brooch; any
+contrivance made of gold, silver, bronze, ivory, &c., used for fastening
+male or female attire. (2) The buckle of a head-band (_tænia_, _vitta_).
+Figs. 310 and 311 represent buttons and clasps belonging to the Gaulish
+and Merovingian periods. [The girdles of the _Franks_ and _Saxons_,
+found in English tombs, were usually ornamented most profusely. Not only
+were the buckles (_fibulæ_) of the richest workmanship, and conspicuous
+for size and decoration, but they are sometimes supplemented by enchased
+plates, or plates set with precious stones. (_Roach Smith._)] (See Figs.
+105 to 113.)
+
+=Fictile Ware=, =Keremania=, R. (_fingo_, to mould). Any object made of
+terra-cotta or pottery, such as tiles, bricks, vases, &c. (See POTTERY.)
+
+=Fiddle= (A.S. _fithele_), or =Viol=, is represented in an Anglo-Saxon
+MS. of the 11th century, of a pear-shape, with four strings. The
+fiddle-bow probably originated in Hindustan, where the _Hindus_ claim
+that the ravanastron was invented about 5000 years ago by Ravanon, a
+king of Ceylon. Almost identical with this is the _Chinese_ fiddle
+called _urheen_, which has only two strings, and its body consists of a
+small block of wood, hollowed out and covered with a snake-skin. A
+German fiddle of the 9th century, called _lyra_, has only one string. In
+the Nibelungen Lied Volker is described as dexterous in playing the
+fiddle. Interesting representations of performers on the fiddle are
+painted on the roof of Peterborough Cathedral. They are attributed to
+the 12th century.
+
+=Fidelia=, R. An earthenware vessel or jar used as a receptacle for
+cement.
+
+=Fides= or =Fidis=, R. A general term comprising all stringed or gut
+instruments (from _sphidé_, catgut).
+
+=Fidicula=, R. (dimin. of _fides_). A very fine catgut string, a
+_treble-string_. The plural _fidiculæ_ denotes an instrument of torture
+for slaves, the form of which is unknown.
+
+=Field.= In Numismatics, the surface of a coin on which objects were
+engraved; in Heraldry, the entire surface of a shield or banner.
+
+=Figure-paintings.= Paintings of the human figure.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 312. Silver Filigree. Reliquary, belonging to Lord
+Hastings, said to have been dug up in the foundations of St. Paul’s,
+London.]
+
+=Filagree=, =Filigree=, or =Filigraine= (It. _filigrana_ = _filum_ and
+_granum_, or granular network; so called because the Italians, who first
+introduced this style of work, placed beads upon it. [_Ure._]). This
+work is of gold or silver wire plaited and soldered into delicate
+arabesques and flower patterns. In the 15th century the Spanish Moors
+“made admirable chiselled, enamelled, and gilt work, and applied
+filigree work on the surface, a system kept up at Salamanca and Cordova
+to the present day.” The Eastern nations have always been famous for
+filigree work.
+
+=File=, Her. A label (from the Latin _filum_, a narrow ribbon).
+
+=Filfot=, called also the =Gammadion=. (See FYLFOT.)
+
+=Filigree Glass.= (See GLASS.)
+
+=Fillet=, Her. A diminutive of a chief.
+
+=Fillets=, Gen. Strips of linen employed for various purposes. The
+victims which were conducted by priests to sacrifice were adorned with
+sacred fillets. Among the Egyptians fillets were employed to swathe
+mummies, the strips being repeatedly wound by the embalmers round the
+corpse, till it reassumed the appearance it had presented before being
+dried. (See DIADEM, FASCIA.) In Architecture, a small round or
+rectangular moulding which separates two others which are larger and
+more prominent; the fillet also separates the flutings of columns. (See
+TÆNIA.)
+
+=Fimbria=, R. The border or fringe of a cloth or garment. [These were
+more common among the Egyptians and Assyrians than the Greeks and
+Romans, and are mentioned in the Bible.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 313. Cross fimbriated.]
+
+=Fimbriated=, Her. Bordered; the border (which is narrow) lying in the
+same plane with the object bordered. (Fig. 313.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 314. Finial.]
+
+=Finial.= In Gothic architecture, an ornament of carved work
+representing foliage, on the apex of a spire or pinnacle. (See CROCKET.)
+(Fig. 314.)
+
+=Fir-cone= upon a stem was the form of vases special to the majolica
+manufactory of Deruba; “a form,” says Jacquemart, “quite special to that
+manufactory, and directly imitated from the extreme East and from Asia
+Minor.”
+
+=Fire.= Flames of fire placed near St. Anthony signify his spiritual aid
+as patron saint against fire in all shapes, in the next world and in
+this. _Tongues of fire_ are, of course, depicted on the heads of the
+Apostles, in representations of the Day of Pentecost.
+
+=Fire-dog.= (See ANDIRON.)
+
+=Fire-lock.= The musket fired by flint and steel, invented in France
+about the year 1630. (See MATCH-LOCK.)
+
+=Fire-stommer=, O. E. A poker.
+
+=Fiscus=, R. A wicker-work basket used for gardening purposes,
+especially for gathering in the olive and grape crops. The Romans also
+made use of this basket for transporting sums of money; hence _fiscus_
+came to mean a moneychest, and was the name given to that part of the
+revenue which was applied to the civil list of the emperors [opposed to
+_ærarium_, the property of the senate]; but at last the word was used to
+signify generally the property of the state.
+
+=Fish.= In Christian art, the symbol of water and the rite of baptism.
+(See ACROSTIC and VESICA PISCIS.)
+
+=Fistuca=, R. A pavior’s ram or beetle; a wooden bar or pile used to
+consolidate floorings, masonry, and pavements.
+
+=Fistula=, R. (1) A water-pipe of lead or earthenware. (2) A writing-pen
+made of reed, and thence a Pan’s pipe. (3) A rolling-pin for making
+pastry. (4) A probe. (5) A machine for bruising corn, which was called
+_fistula farraria_.
+
+=Fitch.= The best of paint-brushes are made of the hair of the _fitch_
+or polecat. They are black, elastic, and firm though soft. They are made
+flat or round, and are used also for varnishing.
+
+=Fitchée=, Her. Pointed at the base.
+
+=Flabelliform=, Arch. (_flabellum_). Fan-shaped. The term is usually
+applied to an ornament composed of leaves and palms, which is of
+frequent occurrence on Romano-Byzantine monuments.
+
+=Flabellum=, Gen. (_flo_, to blow). A fan. (See FAN.)
+
+=Flagellum=, Gen. (_flagrum_). A whip or scourge made with thongs of
+leather, especially thongs of the ox’s hide, or twisted or knotted
+cords, &c., used in antiquity for punishing slaves or culprits. It was a
+terrible weapon, and the lash was often knotted with bones, or heavy
+metal _hooks_ to tear the flesh (_scorpio_). Gladiators used to fight in
+the arena with _flagella_.
+
+=Flagon=. A vessel with a long neck covered at top, and a spout. The
+flagons of the 15th and 16th centuries are the best in design and
+ornamentation.
+
+=Flail.= A weapon like a flail, of wood and iron armed with spikes,
+_temp._ Henry VIII.
+
+=Flake-white.= So called from its form, in commerce, of _flakes_ or
+scales. As a pigment it possesses great body, and enters largely into
+numerous compound tints. (_Fairholt._) (See CARBONATE OF LEAD.)
+
+=Flamboyant= (style), Mod. The style of French architecture peculiar to
+the 15th century, so called because the mullions and tracery of the
+windows in the monuments belonging to that period are curved and twisted
+like the waving of flames. This style was contemporary with that called
+“the perpendicular” in England.
+
+=Flamen=, R. A priest devoted to the service of any one god; e. g.
+_Flamen Martialis_, the priest of Mars. Their characteristic dress was
+the APEX, the LÆNA, and a laurel wreath.
+
+=Flaming Heart=, in Christian symbolism, expresses fervent piety and
+love.
+
+=Flammeolum= (dimin. of _flammeum_). A term denoting a texture much
+finer than that of the _flammeum_.
+
+=Flammeum=, R. A bridal veil worn by the bride on the day of her
+marriage; it was of light gauze, and in colour of a vivid and brilliant
+yellow, like a flame; whence its name. It covered the lady from head to
+foot, and was removed by the bridegroom on their arrival home after the
+ceremony.
+
+=Flammula=, R. A small flame; a small banner borne by light cavalry
+regiments; it was of a vivid and brilliant yellow colour, like the
+bridal _flammeum_; whence its name. (Modern ORIFLAMME, q.v.)
+
+=Flanches=, =Flasques=, Her. Subordinaries.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 315. Flat-heads.]
+
+=Flat-heads=, =Projecting-heads=, Mod. An ornament peculiar to the
+Romano-Byzantine period, which decorates archivolts. Fig. 315 gives an
+example of flat-heads; Fig. 316 of projecting-heads.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 316. Projecting-heads.]
+
+=Flaying-knife.= An attribute of St. Bartholomew, signifying the manner
+of his martyrdom. In Croyland Abbey it was anciently the custom to
+present all members of the community with small flaying-knives on St.
+Bartholomew’s Day (Aug. 24).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 317. Old Flemish Lace.]
+
+=Flemish Lace.= Flanders and Italy dispute the invention of pillow lace.
+It is certain, however, that lace of home manufacture was worn in the
+15th century in the Low Countries, and from that time to the present
+lace-making has formed a source of national wealth to Belgium. The
+engraving shows a fine specimen of old Flemish lace composed of six
+different designs joined together, commonly known as “Trolle Kant.” A
+similar lace is made in some of our own counties, and called “Trolly.”
+(Fig. 317.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 318. “Cosse de Genest,” showing a Cross fleurettée.]
+
+=Fleur-de-lis= (Fr.), the royal insignia of France, was first adopted by
+Louis VII. (about A. D. 1137) _semée_, or scattered over the field. This
+shield is blazoned as “France Ancient.” On the occasion of his marriage,
+in 1234, St. Louis instituted the order of the “Cosse de Genest” (Fig.
+318), and, as an emblem of his humility, took for his badge the
+broom-flower with the motto _Exaltat humiles_. The collar of the order
+was composed of broom-flowers enamelled, intermixed with fleurs-de-lis.
+In the reign of Charles VI. four collars of the order of the Cosse de
+Genest were sent as presents to King Richard II. and his uncles the
+Dukes of Lancaster, Gloucester, and York. The fleur-de-lis entered the
+English insignia in 1275 with the marriage of Edmund with Blanche of
+Artois, and was erased on January 1, 1801.
+
+=Fleurettée=, Her. Terminating in, or bordered with fleurs-de-lis, like
+the cross in Fig. 318.
+
+=Fleuron.= A small full-blown rose placed in the centre of the abacus of
+the capital in certain orders of architecture.
+
+=Flexed=, Her. Bowed, bent.
+
+=Flighted=, Her. Feathered, as arrows are.
+
+=Flo=, O. E. An arrow.
+
+                   “Robin bent his joly bowe,
+                   Therein he set a _flo_.”
+                       (_Wright’s Songs and Carols._)
+
+=Floralia=, or =Florales Ludi=. A Roman festival in honour of Flora,
+said to have been instituted B.C. 238, to invoke the protection of the
+goddess upon the spring blossoms.
+
+=Florentine Fresco.= A peculiar method of fresco-painting, by which the
+lime is kept moistened during the process.
+
+=Florentine Lake.= (See CARMINATED LAKES.)
+
+=Florentine Mosaic.= Inlaid-work in coloured stones, and precious stones
+combined into beautiful patterns.
+
+=Florid= (style), Arch. This term, now disused, has been replaced by
+that of FLAMBOYANT style (q.v.).
+
+=Florimontana.= A literary society established at Annecy in 1606. They
+took for their device an orange tree, with the motto, “_Flores,
+fructusque perennes_.”
+
+=Fluor-spar= or =Derbyshire-spar=. A mineral rock very common in
+Derbyshire, where it is made into ornaments, &c., with the lathe.
+
+=Flute=, Gen. Said to have been invented by Apollo or Mercury. The
+simplest form of flute was made with an oat-stalk (_avena_) or a hollow
+reed (_calamus_); in the course of time it was made of ivory, bone, or
+the shin-bones of animals; whence its Latin name of TIBIA (q.v.). The
+Greek flute (_aulos_) was held like a flageolet, and a vibrating reed
+was inserted into the mouthpiece. The single flute was called
+_monaulos_; the double one _diaulos_. A specimen of the last in the
+British Museum was found in a tomb at Athens. It is made of cedar, and
+the tubes, which are fifteen inches in length, have each a separate
+mouthpiece and six finger-holes, five of which are at the upper side,
+and one underneath. The flutes of the _Etruscans_ were often of ivory;
+those used in religious ceremonies were of box-wood, ass’s bone, bronze,
+and silver. The _Persian_ flute called “_nay_,” and the “_surnay_” a
+kind of oboe, are still popular in the East. In _Mexico_, the young man
+sacrificed to the god was taught to play the flute, and as he went to
+his death he broke a flute on each of the steps of the temple. The
+practice of making flutes of the bones of their enemies was common with
+many Indian tribes in America.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 319. Flutings.]
+
+=Flutings= or =Flutes=, Arch. Small semicircular indents or grooves cut
+perpendicularly, by way of ornament, in the shafts of columns and
+pilasters. Flutings may be either decorated or plain. When filled with a
+bead moulding, they are said to be _cabled_. Fig. 319 represents
+flutings decorated with leaves twined round a reed.
+
+=Fly=, Her. The length and also the side of a flag furthest from the
+mast.
+
+=Fo=, Chinese. (See DOG OF FO.) The “Hand of Fo” is a fragrant fruit, a
+kind of _cédrat_, generally styled the Chinese hand-plant, used to
+perfume apartments.
+
+=Focale=, R. (_fauces_, the throat). A square piece of cloth which was
+wrapped round the neck, and covered the ears.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 320. Foculus.]
+
+=Foculus=, R. (dimin. of _focus_). A portable fireplace; a brazier or
+chafing-dish. (Fig. 320.)
+
+=Focus=, R. The hearth or fireplace of a house, consecrated to the Lares
+or household gods.
+
+=Foil=, in Architecture. (See TREFOIL, QUATREFOIL, &c.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 321. Foliage of the Acanthus.]
+
+=Foliage=, Gen. Nearly every style of architecture has made use of
+foliage for purposes of ornamentation. In antiquity, the leaves of the
+acanthus, palm, laurel, olive, ivy, &c., were thus employed; the
+Romano-Byzantine, Byzantine, and Pointed styles utilized for the same
+purpose the vine, oak, cinquefoil, parsley, mahonia, mullein, thistle,
+&c. Foliage has been applied to the decoration of capitals, archivolts,
+bands, cornices, and friezes; and it has also been used to form CROCKETS
+(q.v.), crownings, pinnacles, &c. Architectural work thus enriched is
+said to be FOLIATED, and the ornament itself is called FOLIATION.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 322. Foliage on moulding.]
+
+=Folliculus=, R. A leather cap encircling the hole by which an oar
+protruded from a ship. The term is a diminutive of FOLLIS (q.v.).
+
+=Follis=, R. A small ball of leather inflated with air, which also went
+by the name of _folliculus_; used for a plaything.
+
+=Fong-hoang=, Chinese. A fabulous bird which is immortal, lives in the
+highest regions of the air, and only approaches men to announce to them
+happy events and prosperous reigns. It is easily recognized (on pottery,
+&c.) by its carunculated head, its neck surrounded by silky feathers,
+and its tail partaking of the Argus pheasant and the peacock.
+(_Jacquemart._)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 323. Pompeian fountain.]
+
+=Fons=, =Fountain=, Gen. In antiquity, natural springs and fountains
+were objects of religious worship. Fig. 323 represents a Pompeian
+fountain known as the Fountain of Abundance.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 324. Baptismal font (Romano-Byzantine).]
+
+=Font=, Chr. The vessel which contains the consecrated water used in the
+administration of baptism, by sprinkling or aspersion (Fig. 324),
+introduced in lieu of the original mode of immersion (Fig. 325).
+(Compare PISCINA.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 325. Early English Font.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 326. The Fontange Head-dress.]
+
+=Fontange=, Fr. “A modish head-dress,” deriving its name from
+Mademoiselle de Fontange, a lady of the court of Louis XIV., who
+invented it. (Fig. 326.)
+
+=Font-cloth=, O. E. (1) The hanging with which the font was ornamented.
+(2) The CHRISMALE (q.v.).
+
+=Fools.= In Church architecture and decoration, grotesque figures of men
+with fool’s cap and bells are frequently seen under the seats of
+choir-stalls and _miserere_ seats. (See the article OBSCŒNA.)
+
+=Foolscap.= A fool’s cap was the device of the Italian society called
+the Granelleschi, formed at Venice in 1740 to oppose the corruption of
+the Italian language. A sheet of foolscap paper is 17 in. by 13½ in.
+
+=Forceps.= Tongs or pincers, the attributes of some of the martyrs. (See
+FORFEX.)
+
+=Foreshortening.= The art of representing objects on a plane surface as
+they appear to the eye in perspective.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 327. Roman Forfex.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 328. Forfex.]
+
+=Forfex=, R. (1) Large scissors or shears used to cut hair or shear
+animals. (2) A clip, in the form of shears, for raising weights. (Fig.
+327.) Fig. 328 represents a shears described by Vitruvius, which was
+used to raise stones.
+
+=Fori=, R. This term, which is the plural of _forus_, denotes (1) the
+flooring of a ship; (2) the flooring of a bridge; (3) the
+standing-places on a temporary platform; (4) the shelves forming the
+divisions or different stories of a beehive; (5) the narrow parallel
+furrows drawn in a garden by means of the hoe.
+
+=Foricula.= A little door. Dimin. of FORIS (q.v.).
+
+=Foris=, R. The door as distinguished from the frame in which it hung.
+In the plural, _fores_ denotes a folding-door with two leaves, as, for
+instance, _fores carceris_, the door of the stalls in a circus.
+
+=Forks= were not in general use earlier than the 14th century. One of
+the earliest occasions on which a fork is mentioned informs us that
+John, Duke of Brittany in 1306, had one “to pick up soppys.”
+
+=Forlon.= A Spanish carriage with four seats.
+
+=Forma=, R. (_fero_, to produce). A mould, form, or model; a mould for
+making bricks or other objects in clay, such as (1) antefixa, masks,
+&c.; (2) a shoemaker’s last; (3) the waterway of a subterranean
+aqueduct. _Diminutive_, =Formella=, R. A small shape or mould used
+especially by the Romans to give an artificial form to the fish which
+was served as one of the courses at dinner.
+
+=Fornacalia=, R. A festival of bakers in honour of the goddess _Fornax_
+(oven-goddess). It took place in February, the day being given out by
+the _curio maximus_, who announced, in tablets which were placed in the
+forum, the part which each _curia_ had to take in the festival. Those
+persons who did not know to which curia they belonged, performed the
+rites on the last day, called _Stultorum feriæ_ (the feasts of fools).
+
+=Fornacula= (dimin. of FORNAX, q.v.). (1) A small furnace for smelting
+metals. (2) A small furnace for a bath-room.
+
+=Fornax=, R. A furnace; an oven; a kiln for baking pottery: _fornax
+calcaria_, a lime-kiln; _fornax æraria_, a blast-furnace for smelting
+metals; _fornax balnei_, a hypocaust or bathfurnace; this was also
+called FORNACULA (q.v.). FORNAX is also the name of the goddess of
+_ovens_.
+
+=Fornix=, R. A term having the same meaning as ARCUS (q.v.). It also
+denotes (1) a triumphal arch (_arcus triumphalis_); (2) a vault or
+vaulted room; (3) a vaulted gate.
+
+=Forril.= A kind of parchment, specially prepared for bookbinding.
+
+=Forulus=, R. (dimin. of _forus_, a shelf). A cupboard, cabinet, or
+dwarf bookcase.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 329. Ground-plan of the Forum at Pompeii.]
+
+=Forum=, R. A large open space used by the Romans as a market; it
+answered to the Greek AGORA (q.v.). Fig. 329 represents the _forum
+civile_ of Pompeii, unquestionably one of the most complete examples
+bequeathed to us by antiquity. _A_ is the principal entrance; _B_, a
+Corinthian temple; _C_, the public prison (_carcer publicus_); _D_ is
+supposed to have been a horreum, or public granary; _E_, the temple of
+Venus, the guardian goddess of the city; _F_, the basilica; _G_, _H_,
+_I_, the curiæ, which were a kind of civil and commercial tribunals; _K_
+is a rectangular building which probably served the purpose of a shop
+for money-changers; _L_, a portico terminating in an absis; _M_, the
+temple of Mercury or Quirinus; _N_, a building with a large semicircular
+tribune, which probably formed the residence of the AUGUSTALES.
+
+=Forus.= A synonym of FORUM (q.v.). _Forus aleatorius_ was the term
+applied to a dice-table.
+
+=Fossil Ivory.= The tusks of the mammoth—the extinct _elephas
+primigenius_—found in great quantity in Siberia, are the material of
+which nearly all the ivory-turner’s work in Russia is made. The ivory
+has not undergone any petrifying change like other fossils, and is as
+well adapted for use as that procured from living species.
+
+=Fote= (or =Foot=) =Mantel=. An outer garment of the petticoat kind,
+bound round the hips (of a woman on horseback) “to keep her gown or
+surcoat clean.” (_Strutt._)
+
+          “A _fote-mantel_ about hir hips large.” (_Chaucer._)
+
+=Fountain=, Her. A circular figure or ROUNDLE that is _barry wavy_ arg.
+is so blazoned.
+
+=Fourchée=, Her. Divided into two parts; said of a lion with a double
+tail.
+
+=Fraces=, R. A kind of fuel made of the tan obtained from the residuum
+of oil-presses; it was thus the pulp of olives.
+
+=Frænum=, =Frenum=, R. A horse’s bridle, including the bit and the
+reins. [The bit was called _orea_ or Greek στόμιον.]
+
+=Framea=, R. (1) A German spear, the iron head of which was short but
+very sharp; it was employed by them as a pike. (2) A weapon used by the
+Franks.
+
+=Francisca.= A kind of battle-axe used by the Franks.
+
+=Frankfort Black.= A German pigment prepared like _blue black_ (q.v.).
+
+=French Ultramarine.= (See GUIMET’S ULTRAMARINE.)
+
+=Fresco-Painting= (i. e. _al fresco_, upon fresh or wet ground),
+generally employed for large pictures on walls and ceilings, is executed
+with mineral and earthy pigments upon a freshly-laid ground of stucco.
+It was known to the ancients, and must be distinguished from DISTEMPER
+PAINTING (q.v.) on plaster, which is a different process. “_Buon_ (or
+genuine) _fresco_,” painted on the fresh surface of plaster, is
+distinguished from “_fresco secco_,” or a process of painting on dry
+plaster commonly practised in Italy and Munich. It is argued that the
+latter was the process used at Pompeii, and generally by the ancients,
+because (1) lime is found in nearly all the colours, and (2) the nature
+of the joinings in the work indicates that each compartment does not
+contain only one day’s work, as it must in _buon fresco_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 330. Greek Fret.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 331. Greek Fret.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 332. Greek Fret.]
+
+=Fret=, Arch. An angular, interlaced architectural ornament of the Greek
+and Romano-Byzantine period, also known as _broken batoon_ and
+_Vitruvian scroll_, and presenting some analogy with _chevron_ or
+zigzag. There are _crenelated_ or _rectangular frets_, _triangular_,
+_nebulated_, _undulated frets_, &c.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 333. Undulated Fret.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 334. Scroll Fret.]
+
+=Fret=, O. E. A _caul_ of gold or silver wire.
+
+        “A _fret_ of golde she had next her hair.” (_Chaucer._)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 335. Badge of the Arundel family, with fret.]
+
+=Fret= or =Frette=, Her. One of the subordinaries. The illustration is
+one of the badges of the Arundel family: a chapeau or and gules,
+surmounted by a _fret_ or, and an acorn leaved vert.
+
+=Frieze=, Arch. That part of the entablature which is included between
+the architrave and the cornice. (See Fig. 184.) Another name for it is
+ZOOPHORUS (q.v.). It was generally richly sculptured. The finest frieze
+ever found is that of the Parthenon, the ornamentation of which may be
+studied in the Elgin-marble room at the British Museum. (See Fig. 282.)
+
+=Frieze=, =Frize=. A coarse woollen cloth, first mentioned 1399.
+
+              “Cloth of gold, do not despize
+              To match thyself with cloth of frize.
+              Cloth of frize, be not too bold,
+              Though thou be matched with cloth of gold.”
+
+=Frigidarium=, R. (_frigidus_, cold). (1) A cool apartment in a bathing
+establishment. (2) A cool place used as a larder.
+
+=Frisquet.= In wood-engraving, a piece of paper laid over the
+proof-paper in the act of printing, to keep clean the parts not intended
+to be exposed to the ink.
+
+=Fritillus=, R. A dice-box of a cylindrical form, called also
+_turricula_ or _pyrgus_ (Greek φιμός).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 336. Frog. The device of Mæcenas.]
+
+=Frog.= An ancient emblem of silence and secrecy, from a legend quoted
+by Ælian that the frogs of Syriapha never croak in their own marshes.
+Hence it was adopted by Mæcenas, the friend of Augustus, for his device.
+(Fig. 336.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 337. Frontale of a bridle.]
+
+=Frontale=, Gen. (_frons_, the forehead). (1) A frontlet or head-band
+worn by Greek women, and to be seen principally on the statues of
+goddesses. (2) A plate or band of metal placed across the forehead of
+horses (Fig. 337) as a protection for the frontal bone. The Medes,
+Persians, Greeks, and Romans made use of the _frontale_ for their
+cavalry horses. For the ecclesiastical =Frontal=, Mediæval, see
+ANTEPENDIUM. Henry III. gave a FRONTAL to the high altar at Westminster
+Abbey, upon which, besides carbuncles in golden settings, and several
+large pieces of enamel, were as many as 866 smaller pieces of enamel.
+
+=Frontispiece.= In Architecture, the façade or face of a building. The
+engraved title-page of a book was originally called the frontispiece.
+
+=Frote=, O. E. To rub; to stir.
+
+=Frountere=, O. E. FRONTAL (q.v.).
+
+=Fucus=, Gr. Cosmetic paint, much used by the Greek and Roman ladies.
+They stained their eyebrows black with a preparation of sulphuret of
+antimony called _stimmi_, or of soot, _asbolos_. The Roman ladies, in
+addition to rouge and white for the complexion, used to trace out the
+veins on their temples with a blue paint, and they wore the patches of
+Queen Anne’s time (_splenia_). “From beef without mustard, a servant
+which overvalues himself, _and a woman which painteth_,—good Lord
+deliver us!” (_Stubbes._)
+
+=Fuller’s Bat= or =Club=. Attribute of St. James the Less, who was
+killed with such an implement.
+
+=Fullonica=, =Fullonum=, R. (_fullo_, a fuller). A fuller’s
+establishment. An example of one, in perfect preservation, is preserved
+at Pompeii. The _fullones_ acted as laundrymen to Greek and Roman
+families, washing linen as well as woollen clothes by treading in tubs
+(using urine for soap, which was unknown to them); hence _saltus
+fullonicus_, a fuller’s dance.
+
+=Fulmen.= The thunderbolt of Jove. (See also ILLAPA.) It is generally
+represented as a double cone of flame, with lightnings on each side, or
+frequently with wings.
+
+=Fumarium=, R. (_fumus_, smoke). A chamber in the upper part of a Roman
+house, into which the smoke from the fires was conducted. The smoke-room
+was used for drying wood and ripening wine. The “Rauchkammer” or smoke
+attic is still a common institution in good houses in Germany.
+
+=Funale=, R. (_funis_, a rope). A link or torch made of various
+materials.
+
+=Funalis= or =Funarius= (sc. _equus_). The tracehorse, so called because
+its traces, instead of being of leather, were of rope (_funis_).
+
+=Funarius.= (See FUNALIS.)
+
+=Funda, Sling=, Gen. The sling has been employed by most of the peoples
+of antiquity as a weapon of warfare for hurling stones, chiefly flints
+or leaden bullets (_glandes_). The slings of the Egyptians were made of
+leather thongs or plaited cord. The _funaitores_, or slingers, of the
+Greek and Roman armies carried each a provision of stones in the folds
+(_sinus_) of his pallium, a shield on his left arm, and brandished his
+sling in the right hand. The most celebrated slingers were the
+inhabitants of the Balearic Islands, which took their ancient name from
+this circumstance.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 338. Fundibalus—Onager.]
+
+=Fundibalus=, =Fundibalum=, R. (βάλλω, to throw). A machine for hurling
+stones; a kind of _balista_ (q.v.). (Fig. 338.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 339. Street at Pompeii.]
+
+=Fundula=, R. A blind alley or _cul-de-sac_. Fig. 339 represents one of
+the kind at Pompeii.
+
+=Fundulus=, R. The piston of a hydraulic machine.
+
+=Funeral Ceremonies.= 1. Greek. The expressions τὰ δίκαια, νομιζόμενα,
+or προσήκοντα, the just and lawful rites, are expressive of the Greek
+idea that the proper burial of the dead was a most sacred duty to them.
+The first act was to place in the mouth of the corpse an _obolus_, with
+which the spirit would pay the ferryman in Hades. This coin was then
+called _danaké_. The body was then washed and anointed, the head crowned
+with flowers, and the handsomest robes put on. All this was done by the
+women of the family. By the side of the bed upon which the corpse was
+then laid (πρόθεσις) were placed painted earthen vessels (_lecuthoi_;
+see LECYTHUS), which were afterwards buried with the corpse. (These
+vases are frequently disinterred in modern excavations.) A honeycake
+(_melittouta_) to throw to the dog Cerberus was laid on the bed. Before
+the door a vessel of water (_ostracon_ or _ardalion_) was set, to be
+used, like the holy water of Catholic times, by persons _leaving_ the
+house, for purification. On the third day after death, the _ecphora_, or
+carrying out for burial, took place in the morning before sunrise. The
+men walked before the corpse, and the women behind. Hired mourners
+(_threnodoi_) accompanied the procession, playing mournful tunes on the
+flute. The bodies were either buried or burned, until cremation gave way
+to a Christian prejudice. The body was placed for burning on the top of
+a _pyre_ (Gr. πῦρ, fire); and, in remote ages, animals, prisoners, or
+slaves were burned with it. Oils and perfumes were thrown into the
+flames. Finally, the smouldering ashes were quenched with wine, and
+relatives and friends collected what remained of the bones. The bones
+were then washed with wine and oil, and placed in urns, often golden.
+
+2. Roman. _Funera justa_ conveys the same idea as the Greek _dicaia_ of
+the right and title of the dead to a proper observance. With the Romans,
+the washing, anointing, &c. of the body was done by slaves
+(_pollinctores_) of the undertakers, who were called _libitinarii_,
+because they dwelt near the temple of Venus Libitina, in which all
+things requisite for funerals were sold and a mortuary register was
+kept. The coin having been duly placed in the mouth, the body was laid
+out in the vestibule dressed, of ordinary citizens in a white toga, and
+of magistrates in their official robes, and the couch was strewn with
+flowers, and a branch of _cypress_ was placed at the door of the house.
+All funerals were, in ancient times, performed at night, but afterwards
+only those of the poor. At a great funeral the corpse was carried out on
+the eighth day, preceded by musicians (_cornicines_, &c.) and mourning
+women (_præficæ_), who chanted a funeral hymn (_nænia_); players and
+buffoons (_histriones_, _scurræ_) followed, and a procession of the
+freed slaves wearing the cap of liberty (_pileati_). Images of the
+deceased and of his ancestors were borne before the corpse, which was
+carried on a litter (_feretrum_). The common bier of the poor was called
+_sandapila_, and its bearers _vespillones_, because they bore it forth
+in the evening (_vespere_). The couches of the rich were of ivory,
+richly ornamented with gold and purple. The relations walked behind in
+mourning, sons with the head veiled, and daughters with dishevelled
+hair. At the forum a funeral oration (_laudatio_) was delivered, and
+thence the procession went to the place of burial or cremation. Those
+who were buried (as all were subsequently to the 4th century A. D.) were
+placed in a coffin (_arca_ or _loculus_), often of stone. The Assian
+stone, from Assos in Troas, was said to consume all the body, with the
+exception of the teeth, in forty days, whence it was called sarcophagus
+(q.v.). For cremation the pyre, or _rogus_, was built like an altar, and
+the corpse in its splendid couch being placed on the top, the nearest
+relation, with averted face, fired a corner of the pile. Perfumes were
+forbidden by the Twelve Tables. Sometimes animals were slaughtered, and
+in ancient times, captives and slaves, but afterwards gladiators were
+hired to fight round the blazing pile. (Compare BUSTUM.) When the pyre
+was burnt down, the embers were soaked with wine, and the bones and
+ashes collected into urns. (See URNA.) The solemnities continued for
+nine days after the funeral, at the end of which time a sacrifice was
+performed called the _novemdiale_. Men wore _black_ for mourning, and
+women white; but at all banquets given in honour of the dead the guests
+were clothed in white.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 340. Covered urn of red pottery. Ohojepore.]
+
+=Funeral Urns= of Indian pottery are found of extremely ancient date.
+That represented in Fig. 340 is a covered jar, of primitive make, with
+an inscription in ancient characters; its date is probably from 260 to
+240 B.C. (_Jacquemart._)
+
+=Fur.= _Strutt_ says that “the furs of sables, beavers, foxes, cats, and
+lambs were used in England before the Conquest; to which were afterwards
+added those of ermines, squirrels, martens, rabbits, goats, and many
+other animals.” In the Middle Ages the more precious furs, as ermine and
+sable, were reserved for kings, knights, and the principal nobility of
+both sexes. Inferior ranks used “vair” and “gris,” or gray; while
+citizens, burgesses, and priests wore the common squirrel and
+lamb-skins. The peasants wore cat-skins, badger-skins, &c. In after
+times were added the skins of badgers, bears, beavers, deer, fitches,
+foxes, foynes (or martens), grays, hares, otters, sables, squirrels,
+weasels, wolves, &c. The mantles of our kings and peers, and the furred
+robes of municipal officers are the remains of this fashion, which in
+the 13th century was almost universal.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 341. Shield with Ermine.]
+
+=Fur=, Her. The _furs_ are of comparatively rare appearance in heraldry,
+and do not appear in the best ages. _Vair_ and _ermine_ are common. In
+Fig. 341 is an example of the treatment of ermine from the monument of
+Edward III.
+
+=Furbelow=, O. E. An ornament on the petticoat of a woman’s dress,
+described as a “puckered flounce,” to display which it became the
+fashion to roll back the skirts of the gown. “The Old Mode and the New,
+or the Country Miss with her Furbelow,” is the title of an old play,
+_temp._ William and Mary.
+
+=Furca=, R. A fork with two teeth (_bidens_), or two prongs; a hay-fork:
+_furca carnarii_, a fork used for taking down the meat hung up in the
+_carnarium_. The term _furca_ was further applied to a kind of fork by
+aid of which a foot-traveller carried his baggage, but the more usual
+name for this kind of fork was _ærumna_ (q.v.). Also, a wooden fork
+placed for punishment across the shoulders of slaves and criminals, to
+the prongs of which the hands were tied. Reversed it formed a cross upon
+which criminals were executed, either by scourging or by crucifixion
+with nailing. The patibulum was a similar instrument of punishment
+formed like the letter H.
+
+=Furgon=, O. E. (Fr. _fourgon_). A fork for putting faggots and sticks
+on to the fire.
+
+=Furnus=, R. (1) A baker’s oven. (2) A baker’s shop. (See FORNAX.)
+
+=Fuschan in Appules=, O. E. Fustian of Naples. (See FUSTIAN.)
+
+=Fuscina=, R. (1) A fork with three prongs used for spearing fish. (2)
+The trident of the _retiarius_. Originally it was called _tridens_, and
+used as a goad to drive horses. Neptune always carries one.
+
+=Fuscinula= (dimin. of _Fuscina_, q.v.). A carving-fork.
+
+=Fusée=, Fr. A gun with a wide bore, like a blunderbuss.
+
+=Fusiform= (_fusus_, a spindle). In the form of a spindle.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 342. Fusil. Device of Philip of Burgundy (D. 1467).]
+
+=Fusil=, Fr. The steel for striking fire from a flint; an ancient device
+of the Dukes of Burgundy, the motto inculcating the worthlessness of
+latent virtues never brought into action.
+
+=Fusi-yama.= The sacred mountain of the Japanese, often depicted on
+their porcelain.
+
+=Fustian.= “A species of cotton cloth much used by the Normans,
+particularly by the clergy, and appropriated to their chasubles.”
+(_Strutt._) It was originally woven at Fustat, on the Nile, with a warp
+of linen thread, and a woof of thick cotton, so twilled and cut that it
+showed on one side a thick but low pile. In the 14th century Chaucer
+says of his knight,—
+
+                     “Of fustian he wered a gepon.”
+
+In the 15th century Naples was celebrated for fustian. An old English
+account of this date has “Fuschan in Appules” (for Fustian from Naples).
+
+=Fustibalum=, R. A pole about four feet long, furnished with a sling
+(_funda_) in the middle. It was wielded by both hands, and was used to
+hurl huge stones to a distance.
+
+=Fusus= (Gr. ἄτρακτος). A spindle. It was generally made of wood; but
+some nations, as for instance the Egyptians, had spindles of pottery.
+
+=Fygury=, O. E. An old name for silks _diapered_ with _figures_ of
+flowers and fruit. A cope in the York fabric rolls is described “una
+capa de sateyn fygury.”
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 343. Fylfot.]
+
+=Fylfot= or _Filfot_. This mysterious ornament exactly resembles the
+Hindu _arani_ of remote antiquity, i. e. the instrument of wood by which
+fire was obtained by friction; which is the symbol of _Agni_. This
+symbol has never been lost, and occurs sixty times on an ancient Celtic
+funereal urn; also on monumental brasses and church embroidery of the
+Middle Ages. It is generally called the GAMMADION.
+
+
+
+
+                                   G.
+
+
+=Gabardine= or =Gallebardine=, It. “A rough Irish mantle, or horseman’s
+coat; a long cassock.” It was, and is, a favourite outer garment of the
+Jews.
+
+=Gabion=, Fortification. A basket filled with earth, used in the
+construction of earthworks for defensive purposes.
+
+=Gable=, Arch. (German _Giebel_, point). The triangular end of a house
+from the eaves to the top.
+
+=Gablet.= Diminutive of gable—applied to furniture and niches.
+
+=Gadlyngs=, O. E. Spikes on the knuckles of gauntlets, like the modern
+“knuckle-dusters.”
+
+=Gæsum=, R. A weapon of Celtic origin. It was a strong, heavy javelin
+with a very long barbed iron head, used rather as a missile than a
+spear.
+
+=Gage=, Med. A glove or cap thrown to the ground as a challenge to
+combat.
+
+=Galages=, O. E. (modern, _goloshes_). Clogs fastened with _latchets_.
+
+=Galaxia=, Gr. (Γαλάξια). Festivals in honour of Apollo, who was
+surnamed _Galaxios_; they were so called because the principal offering
+consisted of a barley cake cooked with milk (γάλα).
+
+=Galaxy= (Gr. γάλα, milk). In Astronomy, the Milky Way. It passes
+between Sagittarius and Gemini, dividing the sphere into two parts.
+
+=Galbanum=, R. (_galbus_, yellow). A yellow garment worn by women; men
+who adopted this kind of dress were looked upon as foppish and
+effeminate.
+
+=Galbe=, Fr. The general contour or outline of any member of
+architecture; in especial, the shaft of a column. (See CONTRACTURA.) It
+also denotes the lines of a vessel, console, baluster, &c.
+
+=Galea=, R. A helmet; especially one of skin or leather, in
+contradistinction to CASSIS, which denoted a metal helmet.
+
+=Galeated.= In Heraldry, wearing a helmet.
+
+=Galeola=, R. A very deep vessel in the shape of a helmet. It was used
+for holding pure wine, and was a kind of ACRATOPHORUM (q.v.).
+
+=Galerus=, =Galerum=, R. A peasant’s cap made of fur, and thence a wig.
+It was a round leather cap, ending in a point, originally peculiar to
+the priesthood.
+
+=Galgal=, Celt. A Celtic or megalithic monument, more commonly called
+TUMULUS.
+
+=Galiot=, =Galliot= (dimin. of _galère_). A ship moved by both sails and
+oars.
+
+=Gall= (A.S. _gealla_). In an animal, a bitter yellowish green fluid
+secreted by the gall-bladder. Ox-gall, clarified by boiling with animal
+charcoal and filtering, is used in water-colour and in ivory painting to
+make the colours spread more evenly upon the paper, ivory, &c.: mixed
+with gum-arabic it thickens, and fixes the colours. A coating of it
+_sets_ black-lead or crayon drawings. This word is also applied to
+anything exceedingly bitter, especially to the bitter potion which it
+was customary among the Jews to give to persons suffering death under
+sentence of the law, for the purpose of rendering them less sensible to
+pain. ὄξος μετὰ χολῆς, “vinegar to drink mingled with gall.” (Matt.
+xxvii. 34.)
+
+=Galle= (Tours de), Celt. A name applied to certain ancient monuments in
+France, built by the Gauls.
+
+=Galleon= (Sp. _galeon_). A large Spanish ship, formerly used in trading
+to America as a war vessel.
+
+=Gallery=, Gen. A covered place much longer than it is wide. In
+Christian archæology it is a kind of tribune situated above the side
+aisles, and having bays over the nave; it is also called TRIFORIUM
+(q.v.).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 344. Device of Cardinal Richelieu, from the Galerie
+d’Orléans, Palais Royal.]
+
+=Galley= (Icelandic _galleyda_). A one-decked vessel, navigated with
+sails and oars, in Heraldry called a LYMPHAD (q.v.). The prow of a
+galley (Fig. 344), one of the devices adopted by Cardinal Richelieu, may
+still be seen among the architectural decorations of his palace.
+
+=Galloon= (Sp. _galon_). A narrow kind of lace made of silk woven with
+cotton, gold, or silver; or of silk only.
+
+=Gallow-balk=, O. E. (See GALOWS.)
+
+=Gally-gascoynes=, O. E. Broad loose breeches; 16th century.
+
+                “His galligaskins were of corduroy,
+                And garters he had none.”
+                            (_The Weary Knife-grinder._)
+
+=Galows=, O. E. An iron bar fastened inside an open chimney, from which
+the _reeking-hook_ was hung, for suspending pots and vessels over the
+fire.
+
+=Galvanography.= (See ELECTROGRAPHY, ELECTROTYPE.)
+
+=Gamashes.= “High boots, buskins, or startups.” (_Holme_, 1688.)
+
+=Gambeson= (Saxon _wambe_, the belly). A quilted tunic, stuffed with
+wool. It answered the purpose of defensive armour, and was subsequently
+called a _pourpoint_.
+
+=Gamboge.= A gum-resin of a forest tree called Garcinia Cambogia,
+generally imported in cylindrical rolls. It forms a beautiful yellow
+pigment, used for water-colour; it is used to stain wood in imitation of
+box, and the tincture enters into the composition of the gold-coloured
+varnish for lacquering brass; it also gives a beautiful and durable
+stain to marble. (_E. B._)
+
+=Gamelion.= The seventh month of the ancient Athenian year,
+corresponding to our January. It was so called because it was a
+favourite season for marriages (γάμη).
+
+=Gammut.= (See GAMUT.)
+
+=Gamut.= The musical scale; so called from the first tone, UT (our DO),
+of the model scale of Guido, which was represented by the Greek _gamma_.
+
+=Ganoid= (γάνος, brightness). A name applied to an order of fishes,
+having angular scales, composed of bony plates, covered with a strong
+shining enamel.
+
+=Gantlet.= (See GAUNTLET.)
+
+=Garb=, Her. A sheaf of wheat, or of any other grain to be specified.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 345. Garde de Bras.]
+
+=Garde de Bras.= An additional protection for the left arm, to the
+elbow-piece of which it was fastened by straps and a screw. It was used
+only for jousting, and first appears at the end of the 15th cent. The
+example shown is of the 16th cent., from the Meyrick collection. (Fig.
+345.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 346 Gargoulette. Arab.]
+
+=Gargoulette.= An Arab vase, or water-cooler, with one handle, furnished
+with a spout adapted for drinking through. The piece in the illustration
+is from the Arabian potteries of Maghreb in Africa. This pottery is
+described by M. Jacquemart as “covered with a pinkish grey enamel of
+rose colour, and heightened by a polychrome decoration in zones,
+generally consisting of bands of scrolls, flowers, denticulations,
+rosettes, &c.; where citron, yellow, manganese brown, green, and blue
+form the most charming harmony.”
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 347. Gargoyle, Antique.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 348. Gargoyle, Gothic.]
+
+=Gargoyle=, Mod. The projecting extremity of a gutter. In antiquity
+terra-cotta masks were used for the purpose. (Fig. 347.) During the
+Gothic period any kind of representation was employed. Fig. 348 shows an
+upright gargoyle from the church of St. Remy at Dieppe.
+
+=Garland=, Arch. A term employed by some authors as synonymous with
+foliage; but it denotes rather heavy festoons tied with fillets, and
+consisting of leaves, fruits, and flowers, as shown in Figs. 287 and
+309, taken from the temple of Vesta at Tivoli. (See ENCARPA, FESTOONS.)
+
+=Garnet.= This gem, on account of its brilliant colour and hardness, is
+much used in jewellery, and although an abundant supply renders it of
+little value, the gem nevertheless possesses every quality necessary for
+ornamental purposes. It occurs in many colours—red, brown, yellow,
+white, green, black; the streak is white; the diaphaneity varies from
+transparent to sub-translucent, or nearly opaque, and it has a
+subconchoidal or uneven fracture. The varieties used in jewellery are
+called _carbuncle_, _cinnamon-stone_ (or _essonite_), _almandine_, and
+_pyrope_ or Bohemian garnet. _Garnets_ are not much used for engraving,
+being of splintery, bad grain under the tool. (_A. Billing_, _Science of
+Gems_, &c.; _H. Emanuel_, _Diamonds and Precious Stones_.)
+
+=Garnished=, Her. Adorned in a becoming manner.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 349. Order of the Garter. Lesser George.]
+
+=Garter, Order of the=, instituted by Edward III. in 1350, consists of
+the Sovereign and twenty-five knights companions, of whom the Prince of
+Wales always is one. Knights of the Garter place K.G. after their names;
+and these letters take precedence of all other titles, those of royalty
+alone excepted. The stalls of the knights are in the choir of St.
+George’s Chapel, Windsor Castle, where their garter-plates are fixed and
+their banners are displayed. The insignia are the garter itself, the
+badge of the order; the collar, and the Lesser George or jewel. (Fig.
+349.) It was this jewel that Charles I., immediately before he suffered,
+delivered to Archbishop Juxon, with the word “Remember!” The ribbon of
+the order is dark blue; it passes over the left shoulder, and the Lesser
+George hangs from it under the right arm.
+
+=Garter King of Arms=, Her. The chief of the official heralds of
+England, and officer of arms of the Order of the Garter.
+
+=Gastrum=, R. An earthenware vessel with a round _belly_; whence its
+name.
+
+=Gaulus=, R. A vessel used for drinking and other purposes. The same
+term was also applied to a broad-built ship employed by the Phœnicians
+and by pirates.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 350. Gauntlet.]
+
+=Gauntlet.= The knight’s gauntlet was made of leather covered with
+plates of steel. It was not originally divided into fingers. (Fig. 350.)
+
+=Gausapa=, =Gausape=, =Gausapum=, R. (γαυσάπης). (1) A garment
+introduced from Egypt into Rome, in the time of Augustus; it was made of
+a woollen cloth with a long nap on one side, and was worn on leaving the
+bath; it was white or dyed purple. Gausapa was used not only for
+articles of dress, but for table linen, napkins, dusters, and mattings.
+(2) A wig made of human hair, worn at Rome during the Empire.
+
+=Gauze.= A light, transparent silk texture, supposed to have been
+invented at Gaza in Palestine; whence the name.
+
+=Gavotte= (It. _gavotta_). A lively dance-tune in two-fourth time,
+consisting of two sections, each containing eight measures.
+
+=Gehenna= (Heb. _Ge-hin-nom_, i. e. the valley of Hinnom). In this
+place, on the north of Jerusalem below Mount Zion, is a place called
+Tophet, where children were sacrificed to Moloch. King Josiah made it
+the common receptacle for rubbish and carcases, and a fire was kept
+constantly burning there; hence the Jews used this term to signify
+“hell.” (Compare HADES.)
+
+=Gemellar=, R. (_gemellus_, twin). A case for holding oil; it was called
+_gemellar_ from the fact of its being divided into two compartments.
+
+=Gemelled=, Arch. Double; thus a _gemelled bay_ is one divided into two
+parts; _gemelled arches_, those which are joined two and two.
+
+=Gemelles=, Her. In pairs. (See BARS-GEMELLES.)
+
+=Gemmæ=, Lat. (1) Precious stones, esp. cut or engraved. (2)
+Drinking-vessels or objects made of precious stones. (3) Pearls. (4) The
+eyes of a peacock’s tail. The original meaning of the word is a _bud_,
+_eye_, or _gem_ on a plant; anything _swelling_ and bright.
+
+=Gemoniæ=, or =Gemoniæ Scales=, R. (i. e. steps of sighs). Steps leading
+to the prison in the forum, on the stairs of which the corpses of
+criminals were exposed for several days.
+
+=Gems.= Precious stones, especially when carved. (See CAMEOS.)
+
+=Genet=, Her. A spotted animal, something like a marten.
+
+=Genethliaci=, Gr. and R. (γενέθλη, birth). Astrologers who cast
+“_nativities_.”
+
+=Genius=, R. (_geno_, to beget). The Romans believed the existence of a
+good genius, or guardian angel, born with every mortal, and which died
+at the same time with him. _Genius loci_ was the name given to the
+guardian spirit of a place. [See JUNONES, LARES, PENATES, &c. The
+superstition has many forms in Christian as well as in pagan art.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 351. Genoa Point Lace—Pillow-made.]
+
+=Genoa Lace.= Mention is made of Genoa Lace as early as the 15th
+century. Genoa was as celebrated for its pillow lace as Venice for its
+needle-made. The characteristic of this lace was its design, a kind of
+barleycorn-shaped pattern, radiating into rosettes from a centre. It was
+particularly adapted for the large turnover collar of Louis XIII., and
+was produced by plaiting, and made entirely on the pillow.
+
+=Genouillières=, Fr. (1) Steel coverings for the knees. From the 13th
+century. They were often richly ornamented. (2) In _Fortification_, the
+sill of the embrasure.
+
+=Genre Pictures.= Those representing scenes of every-day life and
+manners.
+
+=Geodes.= In Mineralogy, hollow lumps of chalcedony found deposited in
+the cavities of flints, formed by the chemical action of water.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 352. “George” Gold Noble, Henry VIII.]
+
+=George.= A gold noble of the time of Henry VIII. (Fig. 352.)
+
+=George, Saint=, Her. The patron saint of England. His red cross on a
+silver field first appears in English heraldry in the 14th century. (See
+Fig. 349.)
+
+=George, The=, Her. A figure of St. George on horseback, worn as a
+pendant to the collar of the Order of the Garter. (See GARTER.)
+
+=Georgic= (γεωργικὸς, rustic; from γῆ, earth, and ἔργον, work). Poems on
+the subject of husbandry.
+
+=German Silver.= An alloy of nickel, zinc, and copper. The proportions
+recommended are nickel 25, zinc 25, copper 50.
+
+=Gerrhæ.= Persian shields made of wicker-work.
+
+=Ghebres=, Pers. Fire-worshippers.
+
+=Ghibellines.= An Italian faction, 13th century, who supported the
+German Emperors against the _Guelphs_, who stood by the Pope. The
+war-cry of the Guelphs was taken from the name of Henry the Lion, Duke
+of Saxony, of the house of _Wolf_; that of the Ghibellines from
+_Weiblingen_, a town of Würtemberg, the seat of the Hohenstauffen
+family, to which Conrad, Duke of Franconia, belonged. These two dukes
+were rivals for the imperial throne of Germany.
+
+=Ghoul=, =Ghole=, Pers. A demon who fed on dead bodies of men.
+
+=Giallo=, =Giallolino=, =Gialdolino=, It. Pale yellow. (See MASSICOT.)
+
+=Giaour=, Turkish. An unbeliever in Mohammed.
+
+=Gigantomachia=, Gr. A favourite subject of Greek art, representing the
+War of the Giants, sons of Cœlus and Terra, against Jupiter. They
+“heaped Ossa on Pelion” to scale heaven, and were defeated by Hercules.
+They are represented as of vast stature and strength, having their feet
+covered with scales. A beautiful cameo in the Naples Museum represents
+Jove in his chariot subduing the giants. In 1875 the German expedition
+found among the ruins of a temple at Pergamus a series of sculptures of
+almost colossal proportions, representing, as Pliny describes them, the
+Wars of the Giants. These sculptures are now in the Berlin Museum.
+
+=Gillo=, R. A wine-cooler, of earthenware.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 353. Gimmel Rings. The device of Cosmo de’ Medici.]
+
+=Gimmel Ring=, Her. Two, sometimes three annulets interlaced. (Fig.
+353.)
+
+=Gingham= (Javanese _ginggan_). Cotton cloth, woven from dyed yarns;
+distinguished from cloth printed or dyed _after_ weaving.
+
+=Ginglymus=, R. (γίγγλυμος). A hinge moving in a socket.
+
+=Gingrinus=, R. (γίγγρας). A flute used at funerals.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 354. Gipcière.]
+
+=Gipcières.= Richly ornamented leather purses of the 14th and 15th
+centuries. They were often engraved with religious mottoes. (Fig. 354.)
+
+=Gipon.= Probably the same as _gambeson_.
+
+=Girandole.= A large kind of branched candlestick.
+
+=Girdled=, =Girt=, Her. Encircled or bound round.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 355. Girdle of a Flemish lady of the 15th century.]
+
+=Girdles.= These were the most beautiful and costly articles of dress
+during the Middle Ages. They were frequently made entirely of gold or
+silver, decorated with cameos, precious stones, &c. Besides the knightly
+sword; the purse, dagger, rosary, or penner and ink-horn and other
+objects were suspended from the girdle. From this word the waist was
+called the _girdlestead_, or place (_sted_) of the girdle. The girdles
+of ladies were equally splendid, and frequently depended nearly to the
+ground, as in Fig. 355. The girdle is an attribute of St. Thomas, from a
+legend that the Virgin, pitying his weakness of faith, threw down to him
+her girdle, after her assumption into heaven.
+
+=Girgillus=, R. A roller turned by a windlass, for drawing up the bucket
+of a well. (See JACK.)
+
+=Girouette.= (See EPI.)
+
+=Girt=, Her. (See GIRDLED.)
+
+=Gisarme.= A scythe-shaped weapon with a pike, fixed on a long staff.
+
+=Gittern=, O. E. A small guitar, strung with catgut.
+
+=Givre.= (See WYVERN.)
+
+=Glabrous= (Lat. _glaber_). Smooth, bald.
+
+=Glade= (Norman _glette_, a clear spot among clouds). An opening or
+passage in a wood through which the light may shine.
+
+=Gladiators= were first exhibited at Rome, B.C. 264, at a funeral. The
+practice had its origin in that very ancient one of slaughtering slaves
+and captives on such occasions. Subsequently it became more general. The
+different classes of gladiators, distinguished by their arms and other
+circumstances, were: _Andabatæ_, who wore helmets without any opening
+for the eyes, and therefore fought blindfold; _Essedarii_, who fought
+from chariots (ESSEDÆ); _Hoplomachai_, who wore heavy defensive armour;
+_Laqueatores_, who carried a sort of lasso or noose; _Meridiani_, who
+fought in the middle of the day, and were very slightly armed;
+_Mirmillones_, so called from their having the image of a fish (mormyr)
+on their helmets; _Retiarii_, armed with a trident and a net. Others, as
+_Samnites_, _Thraces_, &c., were named from the nation whose fashion of
+armour they adopted. The fights of gladiators were favourite subjects of
+Roman art, and it is assumed that in cases where no actual combats took
+place at a funeral, they were represented on the walls of tombs in
+sculpture or paint. The most celebrated statues of the kind are the so
+called “Dying Gladiator” in the museum of the capitol at Rome, and the
+Gladiator of the Borghese collection.
+
+=Gladiolus.= Diminutive of GLADIUS, and synonym of LIGULA. (See both
+words.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 356. Roman sword.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 357. Gallic swords.]
+
+=Gladius=, R. A general term, including all the different kinds of
+swords or glaives, but denoting more particularly the two-edged swords
+used by the Greeks, Romans, and Gauls. Fig. 357 represents two Gaulish
+swords, the form of which may easily be guessed, even though they are in
+the scabbard; Fig. 356 is a Roman _gladius_.
+
+=Glaive.= A blade on a pole having its edge on the outside curve, used
+by foot-soldiers in the 15th century.
+
+=Glans=, Gr. and R. (lit. an acorn). A large leaden slug, of long oval
+form, which was hurled by a sling in place of stones.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 358. Venetian Glass Vase, 16th century.]
+
+=Glass.= The discovery is lost in remote antiquity. Pliny gives a legend
+which ascribes it to chance. Glass bottles in Egypt are represented upon
+monuments of the 4th dynasty (at least 2000 years B.C.). A vase of
+greenish glass found at Nineveh dates from B.C. 700. Glass is found in
+the windows at Pompeii; and the Romans stained it, blew it, worked it on
+lathes, and engraved it. Pliny mentions, as made by the Romans in his
+time, glass coloured opaque, red, white, black (like _obsidian_), or
+imitating jacinths, sapphires, and other gems; also _murrhine glass_.
+This last was either an imitation of fluor-spar, or a kind of agate, or
+fluor spar. The Romans also made _mosaic_ or _millefiori_, in which the
+threads of colour are melted into a rod, so that at every section the
+whole pattern appears; and _cameo glasses_, in which a paste of one
+colour is laid over another, and the whole then carved into the required
+design; _gold leaf_ was also worked into the substance or fixed on the
+surface. A gate at Constantinople took its name from the glass works
+near it, but little is known of the Byzantine art, nor of earlier
+European art than the 13th century. In mediæval times stained glass
+windows, in leaden frames, were constructed with great success in
+England, France, and Flanders. In the 13th century they appear in Italy.
+The Venetian art took its impulse from the capture of Constantinople in
+1204. Its peculiar beauty is derived from the curved forms and tenuity
+of substance obtained in blowing. (Fig. 358.) There are six kinds of
+Venetian glass. (1) Vessels of colourless or _transparent glass_, or of
+single colours, generally blue or purple. (2) _Gilt_ or _enamelled
+glass_. (3) _Crackled glass_, having a surface rough and divided
+irregularly into ridges. (4) Variegated or _marbled opaque glass_,
+called _schmeltz_; the most common variety is a mixture of green and
+purple, sometimes resembling jasper, sometimes chalcedony; other
+varieties are imitations of lapis lazuli and tortoise-shell; and
+_avanturine_, which is obtained by mingling metallic filings or
+fragments of gold leaf with melted glass. (5) _Millefiori_, or _mosaic
+glass_, in imitation of the old Roman process. (6) _Reticulated_,
+_filigree_, or _lace glass_. The varieties contain fine threads of
+glass, generally coloured, but sometimes milk-white, included in their
+substance. The lightness and strength of the Venetian glass are due to
+its not containing lead like our modern flint glass. Venetian _mirrors_
+were for a long period widely celebrated. The oldest example of the
+German _drinking-cups_, ornamented with paintings in enamel, is of the
+date of 1553. The designs are commonly armorial bearings. From the
+beginning of the 17th century the Bohemian manufactories supplied
+_vases_ enriched with ornamental subjects, particularly with portraits
+engraved upon the glass. The art of _wheel engraving upon glass_
+flourished in France under Louis XVI. In modern times this kind of
+ornamentation is produced by the agency of hydrofluoric acid. “Coarse
+glass-making in England was, in Sussex, of great antiquity.” (_Fuller._)
+“The first making of Venice glasses in England began in London, about
+the beginning of the reign of Queen Elizabeth, by one Jacob Vessaline,
+an Italian.” (_Stow._)
+
+=Glass-glazed Wares.= (See GLAZED WARES.)
+
+=Glaucous= (γλαυκός). Of a sea-green colour, or a greyish blue.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 359. Flemish stone-ware Cruche, 17th century.]
+
+=Glazed Wares.= Almost immediately after the invention of Ceramic
+manufacture, the application of _glaze_ or _coloured enamel_ must have
+improved it. What we term _glaçure_ is a light varnish which enlivens
+and harmonizes the porous surface of terra-cotta. In its simple state it
+is a mixture of silex and lead, and in this state it is transparent, as
+we find it on _antique vases_; when vitrifiable, and mixed with tin, as
+in the case of _majolicas_, it is called enamel; and when of vitrifiable
+and earthen substance, such as can only be melted at the temperature
+required for the baking of the paste itself, it is known as GLAZE, or
+_couverte_, and can be identified in the Persian faiences and Flemish
+stone-ware. (Figs. 359, 360.) (See _Burty_, _Chefs-d’œuvre of the
+Industrial Arts_.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 360. German enamelled stone-ware Cruche, date first
+half of the 16th century.]
+
+=Glazing.= In oil painting, the application of thin layer of colour to
+finally modify the tone. In pottery, a vitreous covering over the
+surface. (See GLAZED WARES.)
+
+=Globe=, held in the hand, is the emblem of power.
+
+=Globus=, R. A military manœuvre employed by a body of Roman soldiers
+when surrounded by superior forces; it consisted in forming a circle
+facing in every direction.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 361. Glory. Vesica Piscis in Ely Cathedral.]
+
+=Glory=, =Nimbus= or =Aureole=, the Christian attribute of sanctity, is
+of pagan origin, common to images of the gods, and Roman, even
+Christian, emperors. Satan in miniatures of the 9th to 13th century
+wears a glory. The earliest known Christian example is a gem of St.
+Martin of the early part of the 6th century. The glory round the head is
+properly the nimbus or aureole. The oblong glory surrounding the whole
+person, called in Latin “vesica piscis” (Fig. 361), and in Italian the
+“mandorla” (almond) from its form, is confined to figures of Christ and
+the Virgin, or saints who are in the act of ascending into heaven. When
+used to distinguish one of the three divine Persons of the Trinity, the
+glory is often cruciform or triangular: the square nimbus designates a
+person living at the time the work was executed. In other instances it
+is circular. Coloured glories are variously symbolical. (_Mrs. Jameson_,
+“_The Poetry of Sacred and Legendary Art_.”)
+
+=Gloves.= In the 14th century already _gloves_ were worn, jewelled on
+the back, as a badge of rank. “They were worn in the hat,” says
+Steevens, “as the favour of a mistress, or the memorial of a friend, and
+as a mark to be challenged by an enemy.” A glove of the 17th century is
+described “of a light buff leather, beautifully ornamented with spangles
+and needlework in gold and silver threads, with a gold lace border, and
+silk opening at the wrist.” Gloves were called “cheirothecæ,”
+hand-coverers, by the Greeks and Romans; they were made without separate
+fingers, the thumb only being free. A legend current at Grenoble affirms
+that St. Anne, the mother of the Virgin Mary, was a knitter of gloves.
+
+=Gluten.= In wax painting, the compound with which the pigments are
+mixed.
+
+=Glyphs=, Arch. The flutings of an ornament or grooving forming the
+segment of a circle. (See DIGLYPH, TRIGLYPH.)
+
+=Glyptics.= The art of engraving on precious stones.
+
+=Glyptotheca=, Gr. and R. (1) A gallery for sculpture. (2) A collection
+of engraved stones.
+
+=Gnomon=, Gr. and R. The iron pin or index, which, by the projection of
+its shadow, marks the hour upon a sun-dial.
+
+=Goal.= (See META.)
+
+=Goat.= The emblem of lasciviousness.
+
+=Gobelins.= Celebrated Royal French manufactory of tapestry, named from
+the successors of Jean Gobelin, who brought the art to Paris in the 15th
+century from Rheims. [See _Burty_, _Chefs-d’œuvre of Industrial Art_.]
+
+=Godenda=, O. E. A pole-axe, having a spike at its end; 13th century.
+
+=Goderonné=, =Gouderonné= (Needlework). A fluted pattern of embroidery
+in vogue in the 16th century.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 362. Egyptian Diadem of gold and lapis lazuli of the
+ancient Empire, found in the tomb of Queen Aah-Hotep.]
+
+=Gold.= It is probable that the earliest recorded mark upon units of
+value was the image of a sheep or an ox; hence money in Latin is called
+_pecunia_, from _pecus_, cattle, the original form of barbaric wealth,
+for which gold was the substitute. The wealth of Abraham in silver and
+gold, as well as in cattle, is mentioned in Genesis. No coins of gold or
+silver have been found in EGYPT or NINEVEH, although beautiful specimens
+of the goldsmith’s art have been recovered from the tombs of both
+countries. The HEBREWS, taught by the Egyptians, made their ark,
+mercy-seat, altar of incense, seven-branched candlestick, and other
+golden ornaments, even in the desert of Sinai. The seven-branched
+candlestick is represented in sculpture on the arch of Titus at Rome. At
+BABYLON and NINEVEH gold is said to have been lavishly applied in
+gilding sculpture, and even walls; but it is suggested that an alloy of
+copper, the _aurichalcum_ of the Greeks, was the metal in reality used
+for this purpose. The heroes of the Greek epic had golden shields and
+helmets; breastplates and other large pieces of golden armour are among
+the recent discoveries at Mycenæ; at Kourioum in the island of Cyprus
+also great stores of golden ornaments of a very early age have been
+discovered. In SCYTHIAN tombs in Russia also, about Kertch, beautiful
+relics of Grecian work in gold have been found, showing that in the very
+earliest ages the skill and taste applied to this art were not less than
+those of later times. The gold jewellery of ancient India also excelled
+that of modern date, but none, before or since, ever equalled the great
+age of GREEK art. Pausanias describes a statue of Athene, made by
+Pheidias, and kept in the Parthenon at Athens, of ivory and
+gold—_chryselephantine_—delicately worked all over; and a still larger
+statue of Jupiter, of the same materials. Native gold alloyed with
+one-fifth silver was greatly prized by the Greek artists, who gave it
+the name of _electrum_. Examples of this electrum are rare; there is a
+vase at St. Petersburg. The ROMANS used to pay enormous prices for their
+household plate; for an example, the bowl of Pytheas, on which were
+represented Ulysses and Diomed with the palladium, fetched 10,000
+denarii, or about 330_l._ _per ounce_. Few specimens of Roman art have
+escaped destruction. (Fig. 7.) Of the age of BYZANTINE splendour we are
+told that the Emperor Acadius, early in the 5th century, sat on a throne
+of massive gold, his chariot being also of gold, &c. In the 9th century
+the throne of Theophilus was overshadowed by a tree of gold, with birds
+in the branches, and at the foot two lions all gold. The lions roared
+and the birds piped in the branches. A remarkable wealth of ancient
+goldsmith’s work has been found in IRELAND, consisting principally of
+personal ornaments. In the 9th and 10th centuries the Irish workmanship
+was unsurpassed in Europe. It consisted principally of objects for
+religious use, and is characterized by a filagree of extraordinary
+richness, akin to the intricate traceries of the Irish illuminated work
+on MS. of the same date and derivation. In the 10th and 11th centuries
+there was a great revival of art throughout Europe. In GERMANY, the
+abbey of Hildesheim, under Bishop Bernward, became the centre of a
+school of goldsmiths, and some beautiful specimens of hammered gold, by
+the bishop’s hand, are preserved.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 363. Greek Ear-ring of gold, and part of a necklace.
+(_See also Fig. 276._)]
+
+=Gold=, in Christian art. (See YELLOW.)
+
+=Gold, Cloth of=, is mentioned in the Pentateuch, and was common
+throughout the East in all ages. It was originally wrought, not in
+rounded wire but flat, as the Chinese, the Indians, and the Italians
+(their _lama d’oro_) weave it now. The early Roman kings wore tunics of
+gold, and the Romans used it as a shroud for burial. King Childeric, A.
+D. 482, was buried at Tournai in a mantle of golden stuff. It was much
+favoured in England for church vestments, and by royalty, especially by
+Edward IV. and Henry VIII. and the nobility of their time. (The
+different varieties are described in their order. See ACCA, ARESTE,
+BATUZ, CHRYSO-CLAVUS, CICLATOUN, DORNECK, SAMIT.)
+
+=Goldbeater’s Skin=, prepared from a membrane found in the stomach of
+the ox, is used to separate leaf-gold in the process of gold-beating.
+
+=Golden Fleece.= An Order of Knighthood instituted on the 10th of
+January, 1429, by Philip, Duke of Burgundy. The COLLAR is composed of
+double steels, interwoven with flint-stones, emitting sparks of fire, at
+the end whereof hangs on the breast a Golden Fleece. The fusils are
+joined two and two together, as if they were double BB’s (the cyphers of
+Burgundy). The _flint-stones_ are the ancient arms of the Sovereigns of
+Burgundy, with the motto “_Ante ferit quam flamma micet_.” (See Fig.
+342.) The motto of the Order is “_Pretium non vile laborum_.” There are
+four great officers, viz. the Chancellor, Treasurer, Register, and a
+King of Arms, called _Toison d’Or_. The BADGE consists of a Golden
+Fleece, suspended from a flint-stone, which is surrounded with flames of
+gold.
+
+=Golden Spur.= An Order of Knighthood said to have been instituted by
+Pius IV., at Rome, in 1559. They are sometimes spoken of as the
+CHEVALIERS PIES or PIORUM, and must be distinguished from those who are
+created knights on the coronation or marriage days of Emperors and
+Kings, and who receive at the same time the _Spurs of Honour_. These
+alone are entitled to the appellation of EQUITES AURATI. [Cf. _Peter de
+Bellet_, _Favin_, &c.]
+
+=Golden Stole= of Venice. (See STOLA D’ORO.)
+
+=Golione=, O. E. A kind of gown.
+
+=Gondola=, It. A Venetian pleasure-boat or barge.
+
+=Gonfalon= or =Gonfanon=, Fr. (1) A richly-worked pointed banner carried
+upon a lance; 13th century. (2) An ecclesiastical banner.
+
+=Gonfalonier=. The bearer of a gonfalon.
+
+=Goniometer= (γωνία, an angle, &c.). An instrument for measuring the
+angles of crystals.
+
+=Gonjo=, O. E. (14th century). Said to be the _gorget_.
+
+=Gopouras=, Hind. The pyramid-shaped door of the Hindoo temples.
+_Dwararab’ha_, or door of splendour, was the name given to a door with
+one or two tiers; _dwarasala_, or door of the dwelling, a door with two
+or four tiers; _dwaraprasada_, or propitious door, a door with three to
+five tiers; _dwaraharmya_, or door of the palace, a door with five to
+seven tiers; lastly, _dwaragopouras_, or door-tower with seven to
+sixteen tiers.
+
+=Gorged=, Her. Wearing a collar.
+
+=Gorget=, Fr. A defence or covering for the neck.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 364. Gorgoneia.]
+
+=Gorgoneia.= Masks of the Gorgon’s head, which were fixed as bosses upon
+walls or shields.
+
+=Gossamer=, O. E. (properly _God’s summer_). The name is attributed to
+an old legend that the fine filaments so called are the fragments of the
+winding-sheet of the Virgin Mary, which fell away from her as she was
+taken up to heaven.
+
+=Gothamites=, O. E. The inhabitants of the village of Gotham in
+Northumberland, renowned for their stupidity. A reprint of the tale
+called “The Wise Men of Gotham” appeared in 1840.
+
+=Gouache=, Fr. This term is applied to the use in water-colour painting
+of opaque colours more or less mixed and modified with white. The
+process is extremely ancient, known to the Chinese and Indians of the
+earliest times, and to the Greeks and Romans. It was the method used by
+mediæval illuminators. Its result is a velvety reflection of the light.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 365. Gourd-shaped bottle. Anatolian.]
+
+=Gourd of Noah.= A piece of ancient blue faience from Asia Minor.
+According to the tradition current in the country, these vessels, which
+are in great veneration, would go back to such remote antiquity that it
+was by one of them that Noah was betrayed into the first act of
+inebriety recorded in history. (_Jacquemart._)
+
+=Gouttée=, =Guttée=, Her. Sprinkled over with drops of gold, silver,
+blue (tears), red (blood), or black (_poix_).
+
+=Gown= (British _gwn_, Norman _gunna_). The men wore gowns in the Middle
+Ages, the women at all times.
+
+=Grabatus=, R. (κράβατος). A sort of low framework, consisting of a
+network of cords, used to support a mattress; it was the least
+comfortable kind of bed; whence the French word _grabat_ to denote a
+sorry kind of bed.
+
+=Gradient=, Her. Walking.
+
+=Gradus=, R. A flight of steps leading to a temple; the tiers of seats
+in a theatre or amphitheatre, &c.
+
+=Græcostasis.= A part of the Roman forum, where the Greek ambassadors
+stood to hear the debates.
+
+=Graffiti=, It. Lines drawn with a graver upon clay or plaster. (See
+SGRAFFITI.)
+
+=Grafted=, Her. Inserted and fixed.
+
+=Grand-garde=, Plate armour to cover the breast and left shoulder, worn
+outside the usual armour in jousting at tournaments.
+
+=Grand Quarters=, Her. The four primary divisions of a shield when it is
+divided per cross or quarterly.
+
+=Graphite.= Plumbago.
+
+=Graphometer.= A mathematical instrument, called also a semicircle.
+
+=Graphotype.= A method of producing book illustrations for printing
+along with type, without the art of an engraver.
+
+=Grass-green.= (See CHRYSOCOLLA.)
+
+=Graver= or =Burin=. An engraving-tool. (See CHALCOGRAPHY.)
+
+=Grazioso=, It. In Music, an intimation to perform the music smoothly
+and gracefully.
+
+=Greaves.= Plate armour for the legs.
+
+=Grece=, O. E. A step, or flight of stairs. (See GRYSE.)
+
+=Greeces=, Her. Steps.
+
+=Greek Lace.= A kind of cutwork, described under LACE (q.v.).
+
+=Green=, in Christian art, or the emerald, is the colour of spring;
+emblem of hope, particularly hope in immortality; and of victory, as the
+colour of the palm and the laurel.
+
+=Green.= (See CARBONATES OF COPPER, OXIDES OF COPPER, SCHEELE’S GREEN,
+SAP GREEN, CHROME GREEN, &c.)
+
+=Green Bice.= Green cinnabar. (See CHROME GREEN.)
+
+=Green Earth= (burnt terra verde) is a brown pigment, very useful for
+landscape painting in oil colours; it is not affected by exposure to
+strong light or impure air.
+
+=Green Lakes.= (See PURPLE LAKES.)
+
+=Green Verditer.= (See VERDITER.)
+
+=Gregorian Calendar.= The calendar as reformed by Pope Gregory XIII. in
+1582.
+
+=Gregorian Music.= A collection of chants, originally compiled by
+Gregory I. (the Great), A. D. 600. “It was observed by St. Gregory, a
+great musician of his time, that the _Ambrosian Chants_, handed down
+traditionally to a great extent, had become corrupted; he therefore
+subjected them to revision, and added other modes and scales to those
+four which Ambrose had retained. This was done by taking away the upper
+tetrachord from the Ambrosian scales, and placing it below the lower
+tetrachord.” (See _Music_, by the Rev. J. R. Lunn, B.D., in _Dictionary
+of Christian Antiquities_.)
+
+=Grey=, in Christian art, the colour of ashes, signified mourning,
+humility, and innocence accused.
+
+=Greybeards=, O. E. Stone-ware drinking-jugs, with a bearded face on the
+spout.
+
+=Gridiron= (It. _la graticola_). The attribute of St. Lawrence.
+
+=Griffin.= (See GRYPHUS.)
+
+=Grinding.= Pigments are generally ground in poppy or nut oil, which dry
+best and do not deaden the colours. It is essential that these oils be
+in the purest state, bright and clear. A good oil ought to be so dry in
+five or six days that the picture can be repainted.
+
+=Griphus=, Gr. and R. (γρῖφος). Literally, a fishing-net, and thence a
+riddle propounded by guests at a banquet.
+
+=Grisaille=, Fr. A style of painting _in grey_, by which solid bodies
+are represented as if in relief; adapted for architectural subjects.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 366. Groat of Edward III.]
+
+=Groat.= An old English silver coin, equal to 4_d._ In England, in the
+Saxon times, no silver coin larger in value than a penny was struck, nor
+after the Conquest till the reign of Edward III., who about 1351 coined
+_grosses_ or great pieces, which went for 4_d._ each; and so the matter
+stood till the reign of Henry VII., who in 1504 first coined shillings.
+
+=Grogram= (Fr. _gros-grains_). A coarse woollen cloth with large woof
+and a rough pile. Grogram gowns were worn by countrywomen, 15th to 17th
+centuries. _Fairholt_ says that the mixed liquor called _grog_ obtained
+its name from the admiral who ordered it to be given to the sailors; who
+from wearing a grogram coat was called “Old Grog.”
+
+=Groin=, Arch. The angular curve formed at the intersection of a vaulted
+roof; the line made by the intersection of arched vaults crossing each
+other at any angle. (See Fig. 173.)
+
+=Grolier Scroll.= A beautiful and elaborate style of decoration for
+bookbinding, introduced by _Grolier_, a celebrated patron of
+bookbinding, in the 15th century.
+
+=Groma= and =Gruma=, R. A quadrant; an instrument used by
+land-surveyors. In the plural, _grumæ_ denotes the intersection of two
+roads cutting each other at right angles.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 367. Grotesque from a stall in Rouen Cathedral.]
+
+=Grotesques=, Arch. (It. _grottesco_, the style in which grottoes were
+ornamented). Figures of a monstrous, comic, or obscene character, which
+were spread in profusion over the façades of churches by mediæval
+artists (_ymaigiers_); in stone and in wood; on choir-stalls and the
+wood-work and wainscoting of interiors. Figs. 367, 368 represent figures
+upon the stalls and columns in Rouen Cathedral.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 368. Grotesque decoration from the Cathedral at
+Rouen.]
+
+=Grounds= or =Priming=. In painting, the first coat of colour laid all
+over the canvas, upon which the picture is to be painted.
+
+=Grus=, Lat. (_a crane_). A constellation of the southern hemisphere.
+
+=Gry.= A measure containing ⅒ of a _line_. A _line_ is ⅒ of a _digit_, a
+_digit_ is ⅒ of a foot, and a (philosophical) foot is ⅓ of a pendulum
+whose vibrations, in the latitude of 45°, are each equal to one second
+of time, or ¹⁄₆₀ of a minute.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 369. Heraldic Griffin.]
+
+=Gryphus=, =Griffin=, Gen. (γρύψ). A fabulous animal, represented with
+the body of a lion, and the head and wings of an eagle. In ancient art
+it was applied in the decoration of friezes, one of the finest specimens
+being that at the temple of Antoninus and Faustina at Rome. It was a
+heraldic symbol among the Scythians, and is the ancient crest of the
+city of London. As an emblem this monster symbolizes the destroying
+power of the gods.
+
+=Gryse=, =Grece=, =Tredyl=, or =Steyre=, O. E. A step, a flight of
+stairs.
+
+=Guacos= or =Huacos=, Peruv. The consecrated burial-places of the
+ancient Peruvians.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 370. Passant guardant.]
+
+=Guardant=, Her. Looking out from the field, as the lions in Fig. 370.
+
+=Guazzo=, It. A hard and durable kind of distemper painting, used by the
+ancients, calculated to resist damp and to preserve the colours.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 371. Gubbio Cup, 1519. Louvre Museum.]
+
+=Gubbio=. A celebrated Italian botega of ceramic art, founded in 1498 by
+Giorgio Andreoli, the reputed inventor of the secret of metallic
+lustres. Fig. 371 is a cup bearing upon a fillet the inscription “_Ex o
+Giorg._,” “of the fabric of Giorgio.”
+
+=Gubernaculum=, R. (_guberno_, to direct). A rudder; originally an oar
+with a broad blade, which was fixed, not at the extremity, but at each
+side of the stern. A ship had commonly two rudders joined together by a
+pole.
+
+=Guelfs= or =Guelphs=. (See GHIBELLINES.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 372. Badge of the Gueux.]
+
+=Gueux, Badge of the.= The celebrated Netherlandish confraternity of the
+Gueux (or Beggars), which had its origin in a jest spoken at a banquet,
+assumed not only the dress, but the staff, wooden bowl, and wallet of
+the professional beggar, and even went so far as to clothe their
+retainers and servants in mendicant garb. The badge represents two hands
+clasped across and through a double wallet.
+
+=Guidon=, Fr. (1) The silk standard of a regiment; (2) its bearer.
+
+=Guige=, Her. A shield-belt worn over the right shoulder.
+
+=Guild=, O. E. (Saxon _guildan_, to pay). A fraternity or company, every
+member of which was _gildare_, i. e. had to pay something towards the
+charges. Merchant guilds first became general in Europe in the 11th
+century. (See _Anderson’s History of Commerce_, vol. i. p. 70.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 373. Base ornamented with guilloche.]
+
+=Guilloche.= A series of interlaced ornaments on stone, resembling
+network.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 374. Band with the guilloche ornament.]
+
+=Guilloched.= Waved or engine-turned.
+
+=Guimet’s Ultramarine.= A valuable substitute for the more costly
+preparation. It is transparent and durable.
+
+=Guimet’s Yellow= is the deutoxide of lead and antimony, useful in
+enamel or porcelain painting.
+
+=Guinea.= An English coin first struck _temp._ Car. II., and so called
+because the gold was brought from the coast of _Guinea_ (the Portuguese
+_Genahoa_). It originally bore the impress of an elephant. The sovereign
+superseded it in 1817.
+
+=Guisarme.= An ancient weapon of the nature of a pike or bill. (See
+_Meyrick_.)
+
+=Guitar= (Spanish _guitarra_). A stringed musical instrument, played as
+a harp with the fingers.
+
+=Gules=, Her. (Fr. _gueules_). Red, represented in engraving by
+perpendicular lines.
+
+=Gum-arabic= dissolved in water constitutes the well-known vehicle for
+water-colour painting—_gum-water_.
+
+=Gunter’s Line.= A line of logarithms graduated on a ruler, for
+practical use in the application of logarithms to the ordinary
+calculations of an architect, builder, &c. Other similar instruments
+invented by the great mathematician (+ 1626) are _Gunter’s Quadrant_ and
+_Gunter’s Scale_, used by seamen and for astronomical calculations.
+
+=Gurgustium=, R. A cave, hovel, or any dark and wretched abode.
+
+=Gussets= were small pieces of chain mail at the openings of the joints
+beneath the arms.
+
+=Guttæ=, Arch. (drops). Small conical-shaped ornaments, used in the
+Doric entablature immediately under the mutule beneath the triglyph.
+(See Fig. 265.)
+
+=Guttée=, Her. (See GOUTTÉE.) Sprinkled over.
+
+=Gutturnium=, R. (_guttur_, the throat). A water-jug or ewer; it was a
+vessel of very elegant form, and was used chiefly by slaves for pouring
+water over the hands of the guests before and after a meal. (See
+ABLUTIONS.)
+
+=Guttus=, R. (_gutta_, a drop). A vessel with a very narrow neck and
+mouth, by means of which liquids could be poured out drop by drop;
+whence its name. It was especially used in sacrifices, and is a common
+object upon coins of a religious character.
+
+=Gutty=, Her. Charged or sprinkled with _drops_.
+
+=Gwerre=, O. E. The choir of a church.
+
+=Gymmers=, O. E. Hinges. (The word is still used.)
+
+=Gymnasium=, Gr. (γυμνάσιον; γυμνὸς, stripped). A large building used by
+the Greeks, answering to the Roman _palæstra_, in which gymnastics were
+taught and practised. There were also attached to it assembly rooms for
+rhetoricians and philosophers.
+
+=Gynæceum=, Gr. (from γυνὴ, a woman). That part of the Greek house which
+was set apart for the women. (See DOMUS.)
+
+=Gypsum= (Gr. γύψος). The property of rapid consolidation renders gypsum
+very available for taking casts of works of art, &c. It is much employed
+in architectural ornaments. The gypsum of Paris is called
+_Montmartrite_, and forms the best _Plaster of Paris_, as it resists the
+weather better than purer sorts. It contains 17 per cent. of carbonate
+of lime. (See also ALABASTER.)
+
+=Gyron=, Her. A triangular figure, one of the subordinaries.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 375. Gyronny.]
+
+=Gyronny=, Her. A field divided into gyrons.
+
+
+
+
+                                   H.
+
+
+=H=, as an old Latin numeral, denotes 200, and with a dash above it (H̅)
+200,000.
+
+=Habena=, R. (_habeo_, to hold). A term with numerous meanings, all of
+which were connected more or less with the idea of a thong or strap. In
+the singular, it signifies a halter; in the plural, _habenæ_, reins.
+
+=Habergeon=. A coat of mail, or breastplate.
+
+=Habited=, Her. Clothed.
+
+=Hackbut= or =Hagbut=. Arquebus with a hooked stock.
+
+=Hackney Coach= (from the French _coche-à-haguenée_). The _haguenée_ was
+a strong kind of horse formerly let out on hire for short journeys.
+
+=Hadrianea=, R. Small buildings in which Christians were allowed to
+meet, in virtue of an edict granted in their favour by the Emperor
+Hadrian.
+
+=Hæmatinon=, R. (αἱμάτινον, of blood). A kind of glassy substance of a
+beautiful red, and susceptible of taking a fine polish. It was used to
+make small cubes for mosaic or small works of art.
+
+=Hagiographa= (_sacred writings_). A name applied to those books of
+Scripture which, according to the Jewish classification, held the lowest
+rank in regard to inspiration. These are the books of Ruth, Psalms, Job,
+Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Solomon, Lamentations, Daniel, Esther,
+Ezra, and Chronicles.
+
+=Hair.= The _Assyrian_ monarchs are represented with beard elaborately
+plaited, and hair falling in ringlets on the shoulder, which may have
+been partly artificial, like that of the Persian monarchs, who,
+according to Xenophon, wore a wig. Both the hair and beard were dyed,
+and the eyes blackened with kohl, &c. (_Layard._) The _Egyptians_ kept
+the head shaved, and wore wigs and beard-boxes. The _Hebrews_ generally
+wore the hair short, but the horse-guards of King Solomon “daily strewed
+their heads with gold dust, which glittered in the sun.” (_Josephus._)
+The ancient _Greeks_ wore their hair long. The _Athenians_ wore it long
+in childhood, had it cut short at a solemn ceremony when they became
+eighteen years of age, and afterwards allowed it to grow, and wore it
+rolled up in a knot on the crown of the head, fastened with golden
+clasps (_crobylus_, _corymbus_). Women wore bands or coifs (_sphendone_,
+_kekryphalus_, _saccus_, _mitra_). Youths and athletes are represented
+with short hair. The favourite colour was blonde (_xanthus_); black was
+the most common. The ancient _Romans_ also wore long hair; about 300
+B.C. the practice of wearing it short came in (_cincinnus_, _cirrus_).
+The Roman women anciently dressed their hair very plainly, but in the
+Augustan period adopted some extravagant fashions. Each of the gods is
+distinguished by his peculiar form of hair: that of Jupiter is long and
+flowing; Mercury has close curling hair, &c. The _Danes_, _Gauls_, and
+_Anglo-Saxons_ wore long flowing hair, and the shearing of it was a
+punishment: when Julius Cæsar conquered the Gauls, he cut off their long
+hair. Among the early _Frankish_ kings long hair was the privilege of
+the blood royal. From the time of _Clovis_ the French nobility wore
+short hair, but as they grew less martial the hair became longer.
+François I. introduced short hair, which prevailed until the reign of
+Louis XIII., which was followed by the period of periwigs and perukes of
+Louis XIV. The variations from the Conquest to the last generation in
+_England_ are so striking and frequent that each reign may be
+distinguished by its appropriate head-dress. (Consult _Fairholt’s
+Costume in England_, _Planché’s Cyclopædia of Costume_, &c.)
+
+=Hair-cloth.= (See CILICIUM.)
+
+=Hair Pencils= or =Brushes= are made of the finer hairs of the marten,
+badger, polecat, camel, &c., mounted in quills or white iron tubes. The
+round brushes should swell all round from the base, and diminish upwards
+to a fine point, terminating with the uncut ends of the hair. (See
+FITCH.)
+
+=Halbert.= A footman’s weapon in the form of a battle-axe and pike at
+the end of a long staff.
+
+=Halcyon.= The ancient name of the _Alcedo_ or king-fisher; hence—
+
+=Halcyon Days=, i. e. the calm and peaceful season when the king-fisher
+lays its eggs in nests close by the brink of the sea; i. e. seven days
+before and as many after the winter solstice.
+
+       “Seven winter dayes with peacefull calme possest
+       _Alcyon_ sits upon her floating nest.”
+                                   (_Sandy’s Ovid, Met._ b. xi.)
+
+=Hall-marks.= The Goldsmiths of London formed their company in 1327, and
+were incorporated by charter in 1392. The hall-marks, in the order of
+their introduction, are as follows:—1. The leopard’s head, called the
+king’s mark. 2. The maker’s mark, originally a rose, crown, or other
+emblem with or without initials. 3. The annual letter, in the order of
+the alphabet from A to V, omitting J and U. This mark is changed every
+twenty years. 4. The lion _passant_, added in 1597. 5. Instead of the
+leopard’s head (1) for the king’s mark, the lion’s head _erased_,
+introduced in 1697 when the standard was changed, and, 6, a figure of
+Britannia substituted for the lion _passant_ (4) at the same time. Plate
+with this mark is called _Britannia_ plate. The old standard (of 11 oz.
+2 dwt. pure gold in the lb.) was restored in 1719. 7. The head of the
+reigning sovereign in profile, ordered in 1784, when a fresh duty was
+laid upon plate.
+
+=Halling=, O. E. Tapestry.
+
+=Hallowmas=, Chr. The feast of All Souls, or the time about All Souls’
+and All Saints’ Days, viz. the 1st and 2nd of November; and thence to
+CANDLEMAS, or the 2nd of February.
+
+=Halmos=, Gr. and R. A vessel of round form, supported on a raised stand
+entirely distinct from the vessel itself; it was used as a drinking-cup.
+
+=Halmote= or =Halimote=. The Saxon name for a meeting of tenants, now
+called a _court baron_.
+
+=Halteres= (Gr. ἁλτῆρες), in the gymnastic exercises of the Greeks and
+Romans, were masses of lead, iron, or stone held in the hands to give
+impetus in leaping, or used as dumb-bells.
+
+=Ham= (Scotch _hame_). A Saxon word for a place of dwelling, _a home_;
+hence “HAMLET.” “This word,” says Stow, “originally meant the seat of a
+freeholder, comprehending the mansion-house and adjacent buildings.”
+
+=Hama=, Gr. and R. (ἄμη or ἅμη). A bucket used for various purposes.
+
+=Hamburg White.= (See CARBONATE OF LEAD, BARYTES.)
+
+=Hames= or =Heames=, Her. Parts of horses’ harness.
+
+=Hammer= or =Martel=, Her. Represented much like an ordinary hammer.
+
+=Hamus= or =Hamulus=. A fish-hook.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 376. Hanaper.]
+
+=Hanaper=, O. E. (Mod. _hamper_). A wicker basket. (Fig. 376.) Writs in
+the Court of Chancery were thrown into such a basket (_in hanaperio_),
+and the office was called from that circumstance the Haniper Office. It
+was abolished in 1842.
+
+=Handkerchiefs= embroidered in gold were presented and worn as favours
+in the reign of Elizabeth. Paisley handkerchiefs were introduced in
+1743.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 377. Bronze door-handle. Roman.]
+
+=Handle=, Gen. In antiquity the leaves of a door were fitted with
+handles like those of our own day. Fig. 377 represents a bronze handle
+consisting of a double ring. Of these, the inner one could be raised so
+as to allow a person’s hand to take hold of it, and draw the door his
+own way. This work of art is at the present time in the Museum of
+Perugia.
+
+=Handruffs=, O. E. Ruffles.
+
+=Handseax=. The Anglo-Saxon dagger.
+
+=Hanger=, O. E. A small sword worn by gentlemen with morning dress in
+the 17th century.
+
+=Hangers= or =Carriages=, O. E. Appendages to the sword-belt from which
+the sword hung, often richly embroidered or jewelled.
+
+=Hanselines= (15th century). Loose breeches. (See SLOP.)
+
+=Haphe=, Gr. and R. (ἁφὴ i.e. a grip). The yellow sand with which
+wrestlers sprinkled themselves over after having been rubbed with oil.
+The object of this sprinkling was to enable the wrestlers to take a
+firmer grasp one of the other.
+
+=Hara=, Gr. and R. A pig-sty, especially for a breeding sow. The term
+also denoted a pen for geese.
+
+=Hare=, Chr. In Christian iconography the hare symbolizes the rapid
+course of life. Representations of this animal are met with on lamps,
+engraved stones, sepulchral stones, &c.
+
+=Harlequin= (It. _Harlequino_, or little Harlay). The name is derived
+from that of a famous Italian comedian, who appeared in Paris in the
+time of Henri III., and from frequenting the house of M. de Harlay was
+so called by his companions. (_Ménage_.)
+
+=Harmamaxa=, Gr. and R. (ἁρμ-άμαξα). A four-wheeled carriage or litter
+covered overhead, and enclosed with curtains. It was generally large,
+and drawn by four horses, and richly ornamented. It was principally used
+for women and children.
+
+=Harmonica.= A musical instrument consisting of a number of glass cups
+fixed upon a revolving spindle, and made to vibrate by friction applied
+to their edges. These “musical glasses” are described in a work
+published in 1677. A _harpsichord-harmonica_ is a similar instrument, in
+which finger-keys like those of a pianoforte are used. (See the article
+in _Encyl. Brit._, 8th edition.)
+
+=Harmonium.= A musical instrument having a key-board like a pianoforte,
+and the sounds (which resemble those of organ pipes) produced by the
+vibration of thin tongues of metal.
+
+=Harp.= The EGYPTIANS had various kinds of harps, some of which were
+elegantly shaped and tastefully ornamented. The name of the harp was
+_buni_. Its frame had no front pillar. The harps represented on the
+monuments varied in size from 6½ feet high downwards, and had from 4 to
+28 strings. A beautiful Egyptian harp, in the Louvre collection, is of
+triangular shape with 21 strings, but, like all the harps represented on
+the monuments, it has no fore-pillar. The strings were of catgut.
+ASSYRIAN sculptures also represent harps. These also had no front
+pillar, and were about 4 feet high, with ornamental appendages on the
+lower frame. The upper frame contained the sound-holes and the
+tuning-pegs in regular order. The strings are supposed to have been of
+silk. The GREEK harp, called _kinyra_, resembled the Assyrian, and is
+represented with 13 strings: it is an attribute of Polyhymnia. The
+ANGLO-SAXONS called the harp the _gleo-beam_, or “glee-wood;” and it was
+their most popular instrument. King David playing a harp is represented
+on an A.S. monument of the 11th century. It was the favourite instrument
+of the GERMAN and CELTIC bards, and of the SCANDINAVIAN skalds. It is
+represented with 12 strings and 2 sound-holes, and having a fore-pillar.
+A curious IRISH harp of the 8th century, or earlier, is represented in
+Bunting’s “Ancient Music of Ireland,” having no fore-pillar. The FINNS
+had a harp (_harpu_, _kantele_) with a similar frame, devoid of a front
+pillar. In CHRISTIAN ART a harp is the attribute of King David and of
+St. Cecilia. St. Dunstan is also occasionally represented with it. In
+Heraldry the harp is the device and badge of Ireland. The Irish harp of
+gold with silver strings on a blue field forms the third quarter of the
+royal arms.
+
+=Harpaga=, =Harpago=, Gr. and R. A general term, including any kind of
+hook for grappling; more particularly a military engine invented by
+Pericles, and introduced into the Roman navy by Duillius. It consisted
+of a joist about two yards and a half long, each face of which was
+coated with iron, and having at one end a harpoon of iron or bronze; the
+other end was fitted with an iron ring, to which a rope was attached, so
+as to enable it to be drawn back when it had once grappled a ship or its
+rigging. _Harpago_ or _wolf_ was the term applied to a beam armed with a
+harpoon, which was employed to break down the tops of walls, or widen a
+breach already made. [A flesh-hook used in cookery to take boiled meat
+out of the caldron.]
+
+=Harpastum=, R. A small ball employed for a game in which the players
+formed two sides. They stationed themselves at some distance from a line
+traced on the ground or sand where the _harpastum_ was placed. At a
+given signal each player threw himself upon the ball, in order to try
+and send it beyond the bounds of the opposite party.
+
+=Harpies=, Gen. (Ἅρπυιαι, i. e. the Snatchers). Winged monsters,
+daughters of Neptune and Terra, three in number, viz. _Aëllo_ (the
+tempest), _Ocypetê_ (swift-flying), and _Cêlêno_; representing the
+storm-winds. They had the faces of old women, a vulture’s body, and huge
+claws; they were the representatives of the Evil Fates, and the rulers
+of storms and tempests. In Christian iconography the Harpies symbolize
+the devil and repentance. [In the so called “Harpy tomb” in the British
+Museum they are represented carrying off Camiro and Clytia, the
+daughters of Pandarus of Crete, as a punishment for his complicity with
+Tantalus in stealing ambrosia and nectar from the table of the gods.]
+
+=Harpsichord.= A musical instrument intermediate between the _spinet_,
+_virginals_, &c., and the _pianoforte_, which supplanted it in the 18th
+century. It may be described as a horizontal harp enclosed in a sonorous
+case, the wires being struck with jacks armed with crow-quills, and
+moved with finger-keys.
+
+=Harquebus.= An improvement of the hand-gun introduced in the 15th
+century, applying the invention of the _trigger_.
+
+=Hart.= A stag in its _sixth_ year.
+
+=Hart= or =Hind=, in Christian art, originally typified solitude and
+purity of life. It was the attribute of St. Hubert, St. Julian, and St.
+Eustace.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 378. Heraldic Hart.]
+
+=Hart=, Her. A stag with attires; the female is a hind.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 379. Hasta—Roman ceremonial spear.]
+
+=Hasta= (Gr. ἔγχος). A spear used as a pike for thrusting, or as a
+missile for hurling from the hand, or as a bolt from an engine. Homer
+defines the spear as “a pole heavy with bronze.” The _hasta amentata_,
+for hurling, had a leathern thong for a handle (_amentum_) in the
+middle; _hasta pura_ was a spear without a head, and was a much-valued
+decoration given to a Roman soldier who had saved a citizen’s life;
+_hasta celibarium_ was a spear which, having been thrust into the body
+of a gladiator as he lay dead in the arena, was afterwards used at
+marriages to part the hair of the bride. A spear was set up before a
+place where sales by auction were going on, and an auction-room was
+hence called HASTARIUM. Different kinds of spear were the _lancea_ of
+the Greeks; the _pilum_, peculiar to the Romans; the _veru_, _verutum_,
+or “spit,” of the Roman light infantry; the _gæsum_, a Celtic weapon
+adopted by the Romans; the _sparrus_, our English spar or _spear_, the
+rudest missile of the whole class; and many others mentioned under their
+respective headings in this work.
+
+=Hasta Pura.= In Numismatics, a headless spear or long sceptre, an
+attribute of all the heathen deities; a symbol of the goodness of the
+gods and the conduct of providence, equally mild and forcible.
+
+=Hastarium=, R. A room in which sales were made _sub hasta publica_,
+that is, by public auction, under the public authority indicated by the
+spear. The term also denoted a list or catalogue of sale.
+
+=Hastile=, R. (_hasta_). The shaft of a spear, and thence the spear
+itself, a goad, &c.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 380. Costume of a nobleman in Venice (16th century),
+showing the Hat of the period.]
+
+=Hat= (A.S. _haet_, a covering for the head). Froissart describes hats
+and plumes worn at Edward’s court in 1340, when the Garter order was
+instituted. Hats were originally of a scarlet-red colour, and made of “a
+fine kinde of haire matted thegither.” A remarkable series of changes in
+the fashion of hats is given in _Planché’s Encyclopædia of Costume_. Our
+illustration represents a young Venetian noble of the Middle Ages. (See
+also the illustrations to POURPOINT, BIRETTA, BOMBARDS, CALASH,
+CAPUCHON, CHAPEAU, CORONETS, &c.)
+
+=Hatchment=, Her. (for _atchievement_). An achievement of arms in a
+lozenge-shaped frame, placed upon the front of the residence of a person
+lately deceased, made to distinguish his rank and position in life.
+
+=Hauberk= (Germ. _Hals-berg_, a throat-guard). A military tunic of
+ringed mail, of German origin, introduced in the 12th century.
+
+=Haumudeys=, O. E. A purse.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 381. Hauriant.]
+
+=Hauriant=, Her. Said of fishes upright, “sucking the air.” (Fig. 381.)
+
+=Hautboy.= A wind instrument of the reed kind.
+
+=Haversack= (Fr. _havre-sac_). A soldier’s knapsack.
+
+=Hawk=, Egyp. This bird symbolizes the successive new births of the
+rising sun. The hawk is the bird of Horus. It stood, at certain periods,
+for the word _God_, and, with a human head, for the word _soul_. The sun
+(_Ra_) is likewise represented with a hawk’s head, ornamented with the
+disk.
+
+=Head-piece.= An ornamental engraving at the commencement of a new
+chapter in a book.
+
+=Head-rail.= The head-dress worn by Saxon and Norman ladies.
+
+=Healfang=, A.S. The pillory, or a fine in commutation. “_Qui falsum
+testimonium dedit, reddat regi vel terræ domino_ HEALFANG.”
+
+=Heang-loo=, Chinese. An incense-burner.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 382. Inscription, with hearts, found at Alise.]
+
+=Heart.= On numerous Christian tombs hearts maybe seen sculptured. Many
+archæologists have attempted to explain their meaning as symbols, but
+without entering on an unprofitable discussion of that question, it may
+be noticed that, in many cases, what archæologists have supposed to be
+hearts were nothing but ivy-leaves, which served as marks of separation
+between different words or sentences. Fig. 382 represents an inscription
+at Alise in which ivy-leaves figure, together with an ornament which
+some would insist were flames, if they were to take the leaves for
+hearts. When inscriptions, however, are defaced, the shape of the leaves
+is not nearly so distinguishable as in the figure. [One of the most
+frequent methods in which this emblem is introduced in Christian art is
+that the Saviour, or the Virgin Mary, is represented opening the breast
+to display the living heart—the natural symbol of Love, Devotion, or
+Sorrow. The Heart is an attribute of St. Theresa, St. Augustine, and
+other saints. The flaming heart is the emblem of charity. The heart
+pierced by seven daggers symbolizes the “seven sorrows” of Mary.]
+
+=Hecatesia=, Gr. (Ἑκατήσια). Festivals held at Athens in honour of
+Hecatê.
+
+=Hecatomb=, Gr. and R. (ἑκατόμβη). A sacrifice offered in Greece and
+Rome under special circumstances, and at which a hundred head of cattle
+(ἑκατὸν) were slain; whence the name of the festival. [The term was
+generally applied to _all_ great sacrifices, of much less extent than
+that implied by its etymological meaning.]
+
+=Hecatompylæ=, Gr. (ἑκατόμ-πυλαι). The city with a hundred gates; a name
+given to the Egyptian Thebes.
+
+=Hecatonstylon=, =Hecatonstyle=, Gr. and R. (ἑκατὸν and στῦλος). A
+portico or colonnade with a hundred columns.
+
+=Hecte= or =Hectæus=, Gr. = a sixth (R. _modius_). In dry measure, the
+sixth part of the medimnus, or nearly two gallons English. Coins of
+uncertain value bore the same name; they were sixths of other units of
+value.
+
+=Hegira= (Arabic _hajara_, to desert). The flight from Mecca, 16th July,
+A. D. 622, from which Mohammedan chronology is calculated.
+
+=Helciarius=, R. One who tows a boat. He was so called because he passed
+a rope round his body in the way of a belt, the rope thus forming a
+noose (_helcium_).
+
+=Helepolis=, Gr. and R. (ἑλέ-πολις, the taker of cities). A lofty square
+tower, on wheels, used in besieging fortified places. It was ninety
+cubits high and forty wide; inside were nine stories, the lower
+containing machines for throwing great stones; the middle, large
+catapults for throwing spears; and the highest other machines. It was
+manned with 200 soldiers. The name was afterwards applied to other siege
+engines of similar construction.
+
+=Helical=, Arch. (ἕλιξ, a wreath). A spiral line distinguished from
+_spiral_. A staircase is _helical_ when the steps wind round a
+cylindrical newel; whereas the _spiral_ winds round a cone, and is
+constantly narrowing its axis. The term is applied to the volutes of a
+Corinthian capital. (See HELIX.)
+
+=Heliochromy= (Gr. ἥλιος, the sun, and χρῶμα, colour). Process of taking
+coloured photographs.
+
+=Heliopolites=, Egyp. One of the nomes or divisions of Lower Egypt,
+capital An, the sacred name for Heliopolis near Cairo.
+
+=Heliotrope.= The _Hæmatite_ or _blood-stone_; a siliceous mineral of a
+dark green colour, commonly variegated with bright red spots.
+
+=Heliotropion=, Gr. A kind of sun-dial. (See HOROLOGIUM.)
+
+=Helix=, Arch. (ἕλιξ, anything spiral). A small volute like the tendril
+of a vine placed under the Corinthian abacus. They are arranged in
+couples springing from one base, and unite at the summit.
+
+=Hellebore.= A famous purgative medicine among the ancient Greeks and
+Romans. Philosophers prepared for work by drinking an infusion of the
+black hellebore, like tea. The best grew in the island of Anticyra in
+the Ægean Sea, and the gathering of it was accompanied by superstitious
+rites.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 383. Helm of a Gentleman or Esquire.]
+
+=Helm=, =Helmet=, Her. Now placed as an accessory above a shield of
+arms. Modern usage distinguishes helms according to the rank of the
+wearer. The term _helm_ was applied by both Saxons and Normans, in the
+11th century, to the conical steel cap with a nose-guard, which was the
+common head-piece of the day, and is depicted in contemporary
+illuminations, sculptures, and tapestries. Afterwards it was restricted
+to the _casque_, which covered the whole head, and had an aventaile or
+vizor for the face. The use of the _helm_ finally ceased in the reign of
+Henry VIII.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 384. Helmet or Burgonet of the 16th century.]
+
+=Helmet.= The diminutive of HELM, first applied to the smaller
+head-piece which superseded it in the 15th century. (See GALEA, ARMET,
+BASCINET, BURGONET, CASQUE, CHAPELLE LE FER, &c.)
+
+=Hemi-= (Gr. ἡμι-). Half; used in composition of words like the Latin
+_semi_ or _demi_.
+
+=Hemichorion= (ἡμιχόριον). (See DICHOREA.)
+
+=Hemicyclium=, Gr. and R. (ἡμι-κύκλιον). A semicircular alcove, to which
+persons resorted for mutual conversation. The term was also used to
+denote a sun-dial.
+
+=Hemina=, Gr. and R. (ἡμίνα, i. e. half). A measure of capacity
+containing half a sextarius (equal to the Greek _cotyle_ = half a pint
+English).
+
+=Hemiolia=, Gr. and R. (ἡμι-ολία, i. e. one and a half). A vessel of
+peculiar construction employed especially by Greek pirates.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 385. Sun-dial (Hemisphærium).]
+
+=Hemisphærium=, R. A sun-dial in the form of a hemisphere; whence its
+name. (Fig. 385.)
+
+=Hemlock=, the _Conium maculatum_ of botanists, was the poison used by
+the ancient Greeks for the despatch of state prisoners. Its effects are
+accurately described in Plato’s description of the death of Socrates.
+
+=Heptagon= (Gr. ἑπτὰ, seven, and γώνη, an angle). A seven-sided figure.
+
+=Hepteris=, Gr. and R. (ἑπτ-ήρης). A ship of war with seven ranks of
+oars.
+
+=Heræa.= Important Greek festivals, celebrated in honour of Hera in all
+the towns of Greece. At Argos, every fifth year, an immense body of
+young men in armour formed a procession, preceded by a HECATOMB of oxen,
+to the great temple of Hera, between Argos and Mycenæ, where the oxen
+were slaughtered, and their flesh distributed to the citizens.
+
+=Herald= (Germ. _Herold_). An officer of arms. The heralds of England
+were incorporated by Richard III. The college now consists of three
+kings of arms, six heralds, and four pursuivants. The office of Earl
+Marshal, the supreme head of the English heralds, is hereditary in the
+family of the Duke of Norfolk. There is another herald king styled
+“Bath,” who is specially attached to that order; he is not a member of
+the college. The chief herald of Scotland is styled Lord Lyon King of
+Arms; that of Ireland, Ulster King of Arms. _Chester herald_ is
+mentioned in the reign of Richard II., _Lancaster king of arms_ under
+Henry IV. (See MARSHAL, KINGS OF ARMS, &c.)
+
+=Heralds’ College.= A college of heralds was instituted in Rome by Numa
+Pompilius, and the office was held sacred among the most ancient
+Oriental nations. The institution was imported into England in the
+Middle Ages from Germany, a corporation of heralds, similar to the
+_collegium fetialium_ of Rome, having been established in England in
+1483 by Richard III. (See _Pitiscus_, tom. i., and _Hofmann_, tom. ii.)
+
+=Hermæ=, Gr. and R. (Ἑρμαῖ). Hermæ, a kind of pedestals surmounted only
+by the head, or, in some cases, the bust of Hermes. Great reverence was
+felt for these statues. Houses at Athens had one before the doors; they
+were also placed in front of temples, near tombs, at street corners, or
+as mile-stones on the high roads. _Hermuli_, or small _Hermæ_, were a
+common ornament of furniture, as pilasters and supports. The same name
+is applied to similar statues having a man’s head. This statue was
+probably one of the first attempts of art at plastic representation. The
+_phallus_ and a pointed beard originally were essential parts of the
+symbol. In place of arms there were projections to hang garlands on.
+Then a mantle was introduced from the shoulders. Afterwards the whole
+torso was placed above the pillar; and finally the pillar itself was
+shaped into a perfect statue. All these gradations of the sculptor’s art
+are traceable in existing monuments.
+
+=Hermæa.= Festivals of Hermes, celebrated by the boys in the gymnasia,
+of which Hermes was the tutelary deity.
+
+=Hermeneutæ=, Chr. (ἑρμηνευταί). Literally, interpreters. In the
+earliest ages of the Church, these were officials whose duty it was to
+translate sacred discourses or portions of Holy Scripture.
+
+=Herne-pan=, O. E. (for _iron-pan_). Skull-cap worn under the helmet.
+
+=Heroum=, Gr. (ἡρῷον, i. e. place of a hero). A kind of ÆDICULA (q.v.),
+or small temple, which served as a funeral monument. Several
+representations of Roman HEROA may be seen in the British Museum,
+representing funeral feasts in a temple, carved on the face of a
+sarcophagus (in the Towneley collection).
+
+=Herring-bone Masonry.= Common in late Roman or early Saxon walls, where
+the ornamental lines take a sloping, parallel, zigzag direction.
+
+=Herygoud=, O. E. A cloak with hanging sleeves.
+
+=Heuk= or =Huque=, O. E. (1) Originally a cloak or mantle worn in the
+Middle Ages; then (2) a tight-fitting dress worn by both sexes.
+(_Fairholt_; see also _Planché_, _Encyclopædia_.) There appears to be
+great uncertainty as to the character of this garment.
+
+=Hexaclinon=, Gr. and R. (ἑξά-κλινος). A dining or banqueting couch
+capable of holding six persons.
+
+=Hexaphoron=, Gr. and R. (ἑξά-φορον). A litter carried by six porters.
+
+=Hexapterygon=, Chr. (ἑξα-πτέρυγον). A fan used by Greek Catholics, and
+so named because it has on it figures of seraphim with six wings. (See
+FAN and FLABELLUM.)
+
+=Hexastyle=, Arch. (ἑξά-στυλος). A façade of which the roof is supported
+by six columns.
+
+=Hexeris=, Gr. (ἑξ-ήρης). A vessel with six ranks of oars.
+
+=Hiberna= or =Hyberna=, R. A winter apartment. The halls in a Roman
+country house were built to face different ways according to the
+seasons; _verna_ and _autumnalis_ looked to the east; _hyberna_, to the
+west; _æstiva_, to the north.
+
+=Hidage=, =Hidegild=, A.S. A tax payable to the Saxon kings of England
+for every _hide_ of land. The word is indifferently used to signify
+exemption from such a tax.
+
+=Hidalgo= (Span. _hijo d’algo_, son of somebody). An obsolete title of
+nobility in Spain.
+
+=Hieroglyphics=, Egyp. (ἱερὸς, sacred, and γλύφω, to carve). Characters
+of Egyptian writing, the letters of which are figurative or symbolic.
+There are three kinds of Egyptian writing, the _hieroglyphic_, the
+_hieratic_, and the _demotic_. Clement of Alexandria says that in the
+education of the Egyptians three styles of writing are taught: the first
+is called the epistolary (_enchorial_ or _demotic_); the second the
+_sacerdotal_ (_hieratic_), which the sacred Scribes employ; and the
+third the _hieroglyphic_. Other nations, as for instance the ancient
+Mexicans, have likewise employed hieroglyphics.
+
+=Hieromancy=, Gr. and R. Divination from sacrifices.
+
+=Hieron=, Gr. (ἱερὸν, i. e. holy place). The whole of the sacred
+enclosure of a temple, which enclosed the woods, the building, and the
+priests’ dwelling-place.
+
+=High-warp Tapestry.= Made on a loom, in which the warp is arranged on a
+vertical plane,, as the Gobelins. _Low-warp tapestry_ is made on a flat
+loom, as at Aubusson, Beauvais, and other places. It is made more
+rapidly, and is inferior in beauty to the former.
+
+=Hilaria.= A great Roman festival in honour of Cybele, celebrated at the
+vernal equinox. It consisted chiefly of extravagant merry-making to
+celebrate the advent of spring.
+
+=Hippocampus=, Gr. and R. A fabulous animal, which had the fore-quarters
+of a horse ending in the tail of a dolphin. [It is imitated from the
+little “sea-horse” of the Mediterranean, now common in aquariums; and in
+mural paintings of Pompeii is represented attached to the chariot of
+Neptune.]
+
+=Hippocentaur.= A fabulous animal, composed of a human body and head
+attached to the shoulders of a horse. (See also CENTAUR.)
+
+=Hippocervus=, Chr. A fantastic animal, half horse and half stag; it
+personifies the pusillanimous man who throws himself without reflection
+into uncertain paths, and soon falls into despair at having lost himself
+in them.
+
+=Hippocratia=, Gr. Festivals held in Arcadia in honour of Neptune, who,
+by striking the earth with his trident, had given birth to the horse.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 386. Ground-plan of a Hippodrome.]
+
+=Hippodromus=, Gr. and R. The Greek name for an arena for horse and
+chariot races, in contradistinction to the stadium, which served for
+foot-racing. Fig. 386 represents the hippodrome at Olympia, taken from
+Gell’s _Itinerary of the Morea_. The following is the key to the
+plan:—1, 2, and 3 are _carceres_; A, the space included between the
+stalls or _carceres_; B, starting-place for the chariots; C, the
+colonnade; D, the arena; E, the barrier; F, the goal; G, the space
+occupied by the spectators. [The word was also applied to the races
+themselves.] (See also CIRCUS.)
+
+=Hippogryph.= A mythical animal represented as a winged horse with the
+head of a _gryphon_.
+
+=Hippopera=, Gr. and R. (ἱππο-πήρα). A saddle-bag for travellers on
+horseback. (See ASCOPERA.)
+
+=Hippotoxotes= (ἱππο-τοξότης). A mounted archer. The Syrians, Persians,
+Medes, Greeks, and Romans had mounted archers among their light cavalry.
+
+=Histrio.= An actor. The GREEK dramas were originally represented on the
+stage by one performer, who represented in succession the different
+characters. Æschylus introduced a second and a third actor. The actors
+were all amateurs, and it was not until a later period that the
+histrionic profession became a speciality. Sophocles and Æschylus both
+probably acted their own plays. The ROMAN name for an actor, _histrio_,
+was formed from the Etruscan _hister_, a dancer. The earliest
+_histriones_ were dancers, and performed to the music of a flute; then
+Roman youths imitating them introduced jocular dialogue, and this was
+the origin of the drama. After the organization of the theatres, the
+_histriones_ were subjected to certain disabilities; they were a
+despised class, and excluded from the rights of citizenship. The
+greatest of _histriones_ in Rome were Roscius and Æsopus, who realized
+great fortunes by their acting.
+
+=Hobelarii=, Med. Lat. (See HOBLERS.)
+
+=Hoblers=, A.S. Feudal tenants bound to serve as light horsemen in times
+of invasion.
+
+=Hob-nob=, O. E. (Saxon _habban_, to have; _næbban_, not to have). “Hit
+or miss;” hence a common invitation to reciprocal drinking.
+
+=Hock-day=, =Hoke-day=, or =Hock Tuesday.= A holiday kept to commemorate
+the expulsion of the Danes. It was held on the second Tuesday after
+Easter. _Hocking_ consisted in stopping the highway with ropes, and
+taking toll of passers-by.
+
+=Hocus-pocus.= Probably a profane corruption of the words _hoc est
+corpus_ used in the Latin mass.
+
+=Holocaust.= A sacrifice entirely consumed by fire.
+
+=Holosericum= (Gr. ὅλον, all; σηρικόν, silk). A textile _all silk_.
+
+=Holy Bread=, =Holy Loaf=, or =Eulogia= (Lat. _panis benedictus_). This
+was not the eucharistic bread (which was used in the wafer form for the
+Communion), but ordinary leavened bread, blessed by the priest after
+mass, cut up into small pieces and given to the people.
+
+=Holy-bread-skep=, O. E. A vessel for containing the holy bread.
+
+=Holy Water Pot=, Chr. A metal vessel frequently found at the doors of
+Roman Catholic churches, to contain the consecrated water, which was
+dispensed with the _aspergillum_.
+
+=Holy Water Sprinkler= or =Morning Star=, O. E. A military club or flail
+set with spikes, which _sprinkled_ the blood about as the _aspergillum_
+sprinkles the holy water.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 387. Holy Water Stone (Renaissance).]
+
+=Holy Water Stone= or =Stoup=, Chr. A stone receptacle placed at the
+entrance of a church for holding the holy water.
+
+=Honeysuckle Pattern.= A common Greek ornament, fully described by its
+name. (See FLEURON.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 388. Honiton Guipure.]
+
+=Honiton Guipure.= Lace was made in Devonshire, as well as in other
+parts of England, of silk and coarse thread until 1567, when the fine
+thread now used was introduced, it is said, by Flemings, who had escaped
+from the persecutions of the Duke of Alva. (See OLD DEVONSHIRE.) Honiton
+lace owes its great reputation to the sprigs made separately on a
+pillow, and afterwards either worked in with the beautiful pillow net or
+sewn on it. This net was made of the finest thread from Antwerp, the
+price of which in 1790 was 70_l._ per pound. (See MECHLIN LACE, 18th
+century.) Heathcoat’s invention, however, dealt a fatal blow to the
+trade of the net-makers, and since then Honiton lace is usually made by
+uniting the sprigs on a pillow, or joining them with a needle by various
+stitches, as shown in the engraving.
+
+=Honour=, Legion of. Instituted 3rd June, 1802, by Napoleon I. as first
+consul.
+
+=Hoodman-blind.= Old English for BLINDMAN’S BUFF (q.v.).
+
+=Hoods= (A.S. _Hod_) were probably introduced by the Normans. They are
+constantly represented, with great variation of fashion, in
+illustrations of the 11th to 18th century, as a part of the costume of
+both sexes. They were finally displaced by caps and bonnets in the reign
+of George II. (See CHAPERON, COWL.)
+
+=Hoops=, in ladies’ dress, were introduced in the reign of Queen
+Elizabeth, displacing the FARTHINGALE; and were finally abandoned in
+that of George III.
+
+=Hop-harlot=, O. E. A very coarse coverlet for beds.
+
+=Horatia Pila=, R. A pillar erected at the west extremity of the Roman
+forum to receive the trophy of the spoils of the three Curiatii brought
+back by Horatius.
+
+=Horns.= A portion of a lady’s head-dress, mentioned in the 13th
+century. They appear to have been formed by the foldings of the _gorget_
+or _wimple_, and a disposition of the hair on each side of the head into
+the form of rams’ horns. For the horned head-dress of the 15th century,
+see the illustration to CORONET.
+
+=Horologium.= (1) _Sundials_ preceded all other instruments for the
+measurement of time. The _gnomon_ or _stocheion_ of the GREEKS was a
+perpendicular staff or pillar, the shadow of which fell upon a properly
+marked ground; the _polos_ or _heliotropion_ consisted of a
+perpendicular staff, in a basin in which the twelve parts of the day
+were marked by lines. (2) The _clepsydra_ was a hollow globe, with a
+short neck, and holes in the bottom; it measured time by the escape of
+water, and was at first used like an hour-glass to regulate the length
+of speeches in the Athenian courts. The escape of water was stopped by
+inserting a stopper in the mouth, when the speaker was interrupted.
+Smaller _clepsydrata_ made of glass and marked with the hours were used
+in families. A precisely similar history applies to the _horologia_ of
+ROME.
+
+=Horreum= (dimin. _horreolum_), R. (1) Literally, a place in which ripe
+fruits were kept; a granary, or storehouse for grain; _horreum publicum_
+was the public granary. (2) Any storehouse or depôt; _horrea
+subterranea_, cellars. (3) It was applied to places in which _works of
+art_ were kept, and Seneca calls his library a _horreum_.
+
+=Horse.= In Christian art, the emblem of courage and generosity;
+attribute of St. Martin, St. Maurice, St. George, and others. The
+Chinese have a _sacred horse_, which is affirmed to have appeared from a
+river to the philosopher Fou-hi, bearing instruction in eight diagrams
+of the characters proper to express certain abstract ideas.
+
+=Horse-shoe=, Arch. A form of the stilted arch elevated beyond half the
+diameter of the curve on which it is described. (See ARCH.)
+
+=Hortus= (dimin. _hortulus_), R. A pleasure-garden, park, and thence a
+kitchen garden; _horti pensiles_ were hanging gardens. The most striking
+features of a Roman garden were lines of large trees planted in regular
+order; alleys or walks (_ambulationes_) formed by closely clipped hedges
+of box, yew, cypress, and other ever greens; beds of acanthus, rows of
+fruit-trees especially of vines, with statues, pyramids, fountains, and
+summer-houses (_diætæ_). The Romans were fond of the art of cutting and
+twisting trees, especially box, into figures of animals, ships, &c.
+(_ars topiaria_). The principal garden-flowers seem to have been violets
+and roses, and they had also the crocus, narcissus, lily, gladiolus,
+iris, poppy, amaranth, and others. Conservatories and hot-houses are
+frequently mentioned by Martial. An ornamental garden was also called
+_viridarium_, and the gardener _topiarius_ or _viridarius_. The common
+name for a gardener is _villicus_ or _cultor hortorum_. (Consult
+_Smith’s Dict. of Ant._)
+
+=Hospitium=, R. (_hospes_, a guest). A general term to denote any place
+in which a traveller finds shelter, board, and lodging. [The word had a
+very wide meaning of _hospitality_, regulated in all its details by the
+religious and social and politic sentiments of the nations.]
+
+=Hostia=, R. (_hostio_, to strike). A victim offered in sacrifice.
+
+=Hot Cockles=, O. E. A game common in the Middle Ages.
+
+=Hot-houses=, O. E. The name for Turkish baths; 16th century.
+
+=Houppeland=, O. E. A very full loose upper garment with large hanging
+sleeves; 14th century. It was probably introduced from Spain, and was
+something like a cassock.
+
+=House.= (See DOMUS.)
+
+=Houseling Bread=, O. E., Chr. (See SINGING-BREAD, HOWSLING BELL.)
+
+=Housia= or =Housse=, O. E. An outer garment, combining cloak and tunic;
+a tabard.
+
+=Howsling Bell=, O. E. The bell which was rung before the Holy
+Eucharist, when taken to the sick.
+
+=Howve= (Saxon, from the old German _hoojd_). A hood. A common phrase
+quoted by Chaucer, “to set a man’s _howve_,” is the same as to “set his
+cap,” _cap_ him or cheat him.
+
+=Huacos.= (See GUACAS.)
+
+=Huircas= or =Pinchas=, Peruv. Subterranean aqueducts of the ancient
+Peruvians, distinct from the _barecac_ or open conduits.
+
+=Hullings= or =Hullyng=. Old English name for hangings for a hall, &c.
+
+=Humatio=, R. (_humo_, to bury). The act of burying, and thence any mode
+of interment whatever.
+
+=Hume’s Permanent White.= SULPHATE OF BARYTES (q.v.).
+
+=Humerale.= (See ANABOLOGIUM, AMICE.)
+
+=Humettée=, Her. Cut short at the extremities.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 389. Hunting Flask of Jaspered Ware, 1554–1556.
+Louvre Museum.]
+
+=Hunting Flask.= M. Jacquemart thinks that that represented in Fig. 389
+may be reasonably attributed to Palissy. It is glazed in green, and
+diapered with little flames of a deeper shade. Upon the body, in relief,
+is the escutcheon of the celebrated Anne de Montmorency, round it the
+collar of St. Michael, and on each side the Constable’s sword supported
+by a mailed arm and the motto of his house, “A Planos” (unwavering). A
+mask of Italian style and rayonnated suns complete the decoration of
+this curious sealed earthenware.
+
+=Hurst=, Her. A clump of trees.
+
+=Hurte=, Her. A blue roundle.
+
+=Hutch=, O. E. (Fr. _huche_). A locker, which generally stood at the
+foot of the bed, to contain clothes and objects of value. It was
+commonly used for a seat.
+
+=Huvette=, Fr. A close steel skull-cap.
+
+=Hyacinth.= (1) A precious stone of a violet colour. (2) The colour
+formed of red with blue, blue predominating. (3) The flower hyacinth
+among the ancient Greeks was the emblem of death.
+
+=Hyacinthia=, Gr. A national festival, celebrated annually at Amyclæ by
+the Amyclæans and Spartans, in honour of the hero Hyacinthus, who was
+accidentally killed by Apollo with a quoit.
+
+=Hyalotype= (ὕαλος, glass, and τυπεῖν, to print). An invention for
+printing photographs from the negative on to glass, instead of paper.
+
+=Hycsos=, Egyp. (lit. impure). A people of unknown origin, nomad tribes,
+but not savages, as has hitherto been believed, who came from Sinai,
+Arabia, and Syria. They are known as _Poimenes_ (the Shepherds),
+_Mentiou Sati_, _Asian Shepherds_, and even _Scourges_, from their
+invasion of some part of Eastern Egypt.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 390. Hydra with seven heads.]
+
+=Hydra=, Gr. (a water-serpent). A hundred-headed monster of Greek
+mythology, sprung, like the Chimæra, from Typhon and Echidna; he was
+killed by Hercules. In Heraldry the hydra is represented with only nine
+heads. The illustration (Fig. 390) is of the device adopted by Curtio
+Gonzaga, an Italian poet, to symbolize the constancy of his love, with
+the motto, “If I kill it, more strong it revives.”
+
+=Hydraletês=, Gr. (1) A mill for grinding corn, driven by water. (2) A
+waterfall or current of water.
+
+=Hydraulis=, Gr. (ὕδρ-αυλις). A water-organ. The hydraulic organ,
+invented about B.C. 200, was really a pneumatic organ; the water was
+only used to force the air through the pipes. It is represented on a
+coin of Nero in the British Museum. Only ten pipes are given to it, and
+there is no indication of any key-board. It had eight stops, and
+consequently eight rows of pipes; these were partly of bronze, and
+partly of reed. It continued in use so late as the 9th century of our
+era.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 391. Hydria, or Water-jug, in black glaze.]
+
+=Hydria=, Gr. A large, heavy vessel, used principally for holding a
+store of water. It is represented urn-shaped, with a broad base and a
+narrow mouth, sometimes with one and sometimes with two handles at the
+top, and smaller ones on the belly. The name is applied to other pails
+of bronze or silver, &c. (Fig. 391.)
+
+=Hydriaphoria=, Gr. (water-bearing). (1) Funereal ceremonies performed
+at Athens in memory of those who had perished in the deluges of Ogyges,
+Deucalion, &c. (2) A service exacted from married alien women in Athens
+by the female citizens, when they walked in the great procession at the
+Panathenaic feasts, and the former carried vessels of water for them.
+
+=Hydroceramic= (vessels), Gr. Vessels made of a porous clay, in which
+liquids were put for the purpose of cooling them; they were a kind of
+_alcarazas_.
+
+=Hydroscope.= Another name for the clepsydra. (See HOROLOGIUM.)
+
+=Hypæthral=, Gr. and R. (lit. under the sky, or in the open air). The
+term was applied to any building, especially a temple, the _cella_ of
+which had no roof. On the roofs of Egyptian temples, hypæthral temples
+are arranged with regard to astronomical observations, by which the
+calendar was regulated.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 392. Hypæthrum.]
+
+=Hypæthrum=, Gr. and R. A grating or _claustra_ placed over the
+principal door of a temple for the purpose of admitting light into a
+part of the _cella_. Fig. 392 shows one of the bronze doors of the
+Pantheon at Rome, with its _hypæthrum_.
+
+=Hyperthyrum=, Gr. and R. (over the door). A frieze and cornice arranged
+and decorated in various ways for the decoration of the lintel of a
+door.
+
+=Hypocastanum.= Greek for CHESNUT BROWN (q.v.).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 393. Hypocausis of a Roman villa at Tusculum.]
+
+=Hypocaust=, Gr. and R. (ὑπό-καυσις and ὑπό-καυστον). A furnace with
+flues running underneath the floor of an apartment or bath, for heating
+the air. Fig. 393 represents the sectional elevation of a bath-room
+discovered in a Roman villa at Tusculum. Fig. 394 represents a
+_hypocausis_ discovered at Paris in the old Rue de Constantine, near
+Notre Dame.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 394. Hypocausis discovered at Paris.]
+
+=Hypogeum=, Arch. A building underground; a sepulchral vault. They form
+a principal part of Egyptian architecture of every period. The Greek
+term is a synonym of the Latin CONDITORIUM (q.v.)
+
+=Hyporchema=, Gr. A lively dance, accompanied by a mimic performance, at
+the festivals of Apollo among the Dorians. A chorus of singers danced
+round the altars, and others acted comic or playful scenes.
+
+=Hypotrachelium= or =Cincture=, Arch. The part of the Doric capital
+included between the astragal and the lower annulets or fillets.
+
+=Hysteria=, Gr. (from ὗς, a pig). Greek festivals, in which swine were
+sacrificed in honour of Venus.
+
+
+
+
+                                   I.
+
+
+=Ich Dien.= I serve. The popular belief that Edward the Black Prince
+adopted this motto and the “Prince of Wales’s feathers,” at the battle
+of Cressy, from the blind King of Bohemia, is not sustained by
+investigation. It was at the battle of Poitiers that he first adopted
+this crest, joining to the family badge the old English word _Ic den_
+(Theyn), “I serve,” in accordance with the words of the Apostle, “The
+heir, while he is a child, differeth nothing from a servant.” (_Mrs.
+Palliser_; _Historic Devices_.)
+
+=Ichnography.= The art of making maps or plans.
+
+=Iconic= (sc. _statues_), Gr. and R. (εἰκονικὰ, i. e.) Portrait-statues;
+especially statues raised in honour of athletes who had been victorious
+in the contests.
+
+=Iconoclasts=, Chr. Image-breakers. The name originated in the 8th or
+9th century in the Eastern Empire, from which finally Theophilus
+banished all the painters and statuaries in 832. It has been since
+generally applied to those who, at various outbreaks of fanaticism, have
+destroyed ecclesiastical objects of art, and is especially applicable to
+the disciples of Savonarola in 1497, and to the Puritans of Scotland and
+England during the civil wars.
+
+=Iconography= (i. e. image-description). The science that deals with
+statues and images, bas-reliefs, busts, medals, &c. Thus we have an
+Egyptian, Greek, Roman, mediæval iconography, &c. The best work on this
+science is “Christian Iconography; or the History of Christian Art in
+the Middle Ages,” by M. Didron. The second volume contains a manual on
+the subject by a painter of the 12th century.
+
+=Iconostasis=, Chr. The screen of the chancel in ancient churches, so
+called because it was there that images (εἰκόνες) were displayed for the
+adoration of the faithful.
+
+=Ideal= and =Real.= “Any work of art which represents, not a material
+object, but the mental conception of a material object, is in the
+primary sense of the word _ideal_; that is to say, it represents an
+_idea_, not a _thing_. Any work of art which represents or realizes a
+material object is, in the primary sense of the term, _un-ideal_.”
+(_Modern Painters_, vol. ii. chap. 13.) In a practical sense an _ideal_
+picture or statue (e. g. the Medici Venus) is not the portrait of an
+individual model, but the putting together of selected parts from
+several models. Raphael said, “To paint a beautiful woman I must see
+several, and I have also recourse to a certain _ideal_ in my mind;” and
+Guido said, “The beautiful and pure _idea_ must be in the mind, and then
+it is no matter what the model is.”
+
+=Ides=, =Idus=, R. One of the monthly divisions in the Roman year; it
+fell on the 15th in months of thirty-one days, excepting January,
+August, and December; in months with only twenty-nine or thirty days,
+the _ides_ fell on the 13th. The _kalends_ are the first of every month;
+the _nones_ are the 7th of March, May, July, and October, and the 5th of
+all the other months; and the ides always fall eight days later than the
+nones; and the days are reckoned backwards: thus the 13th of January is
+the ides of January, and the 14th of January the 19th day _ante diem_
+(or before) the February kalends. The morrow of the ides was looked upon
+as an unlucky day (_nefas_).
+
+=Illapa=, Peruv. One of the divisions of the temple of the Sun (_Inti_)
+among the ancient Peruvians, so called because it was dedicated to the
+thunder (_Illapa_). (See INTI.)
+
+=Illumination.= This art originated simply in the application of
+_minium_ (or red lead) as a colour or ink, to decorate a portion of a
+piece of writing, the general text of which was in black ink. The term
+was retained long after the original red lead was superseded by the more
+brilliant _cinnabar_, or vermilion. Ornaments of all kinds were
+gradually added, and the term includes the practice of every kind of
+ornamental or ornamented writing. From the 3rd century Greek and Roman
+specimens exist of golden lettering upon purple or rose-coloured vellum,
+and the art prevailed wherever monasteries were founded. Anglo-Saxon and
+Irish MSS. of the 6th and 7th centuries exhibit a marvellous perfection,
+characterized by wonderfully minute interlacements of the patterns.
+Nearly all the best specimens of illumination were destroyed on the
+dissolution of monasteries. (Consult “_The Art of Illuminating_,” _by W.
+R. Timms_.)
+
+=Imagines a vestir=, It. Wooden images set up in Italian churches, with
+the heads and extremities finished, and the bodies covered with real
+drapery.
+
+=Imagines Majorum=, R. Portraits of ancestors, or family portraits; they
+usually consisted of waxen masks, which were kept in the cases of an
+_armarium_ or in an _ædicula_; or small statues which were carried
+before the corpse in a funeral procession.
+
+=Imbrex=, R. A ridge-tile of semi-cylindrical form, and thus distinct
+from the _tegula_, which was a flat tile. It was called _imbrex_ from
+its collecting the rain (_imber_). _Imbrex supinus_ was the name given
+to a channel or gutter formed of ridge-tiles laid on their backs.
+
+=Imbrications.= Architectural ornaments which take the form of fishes’
+scales, or of segmental ridge-tiles (_imbrices_) which overlap; whence
+the name given to them.
+
+=Imbricatus=, R. Covered with flat and ridge-tiles (_tegulæ_ and
+_imbrices_).
+
+=Imbrothered=, O. E. Embroidered.
+
+=Imbrued=, Her. Stained with blood.
+
+=Immissarium=, R. (_immitto_, to send into). A stone basin or trough;
+any receptacle built upon the ground for the purpose of containing water
+supplied from the _castellum_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 395. Device of Philip and Mary. Arms of Tudor and
+Aragon Impaled (_Rayonnant_).]
+
+=Impale=, Her. To conjoin two separate coats of arms on one shield (as a
+husband’s and wife’s, &c.). The device of Queen Mary (Fig. 395) is the
+_impalement_ of the double Tudor rose with the arms of Catherine of
+Aragon.
+
+=Impannata=, It. Oiled paper.
+
+=Impasto=, It. The thickness of the body of pigment laid on to a
+painting. Rembrandt, Salvator Rosa, and others used a thick _impasto_;
+Raphael, Guido, and others, one extremely thin.
+
+=Imperial.= Anything adapted by its excellence for royal uses, or
+distinguished in size, is generally so called. (1) O. E. A sort of
+precious silk, wrought partly with gold, used by royalty and for
+ecclesiastical purposes, brought to England from Greece in the 12th
+century. (2) The largest kind of slate for roofing. (3) Paper 27 inches
+by 23. (4) Sp. The roof of a coach; hence, in English, a trunk made to
+fit the top of a carriage. (5) Russian. A gold coin of 10 silver
+roubles.
+
+=Impluviata=, R. A cloak of square shape and brown in colour, worn as a
+protection against rain.
+
+=Impluvium=, R. (1) A cistern on the floor of the atrium in a Roman
+house, into which the rain was conducted. (2) The aperture in the roof
+of the atrium. (See DOMUS.)
+
+=Impost=, Arch. The horizontal mouldings on a pillar, from which an arch
+is projected.
+
+=In antis=, Arch. A name given to those temples, the pronaos or entrance
+porch of which was formed by two antæ or pilasters, and two columns.
+(See ANTÆ.)
+
+=Inauguratio=, R. Generally the term applies to the ceremony by which
+the sanction of the gods was invoked upon any decree of man, such as the
+admission of a new member into a corporation or college, or the choice
+of the site of a theatre, city, or temple, &c.
+
+=Inaures=, R. (_auris_, the ear; Gr. _enotion_). Ear-rings. Among the
+Greeks and Romans they were worn only by women. (See EAR-RINGS.)
+
+=Incensed=, =Inflamed=, Her. On fire. (See FOCULUS.)
+
+=Incisura=, R. (_incido_, to cut). Hatchings made by means of a brush.
+
+=Incitega=, R. A kind of tripod or stand for vessels rounded or pointed
+at the bottom.
+
+=Incle=, =Inkle=. A sort of tape used as a trimming to a dress.
+
+=Incrustation.= The word has a general signification, “a coat of one
+material applied to another.” Technically it should be applied to marble
+alone; thus a thin slab of marble is _incrusted_ upon a body of slate or
+stone, metals are DAMASCENED, fused pigments are ENAMEL, and woods are
+VENEERED.
+
+=Incubones=, R. Genii who were supposed to guard treasure hidden under
+the earth.
+
+=Incunabula.= (1) Swaddling clothes for infants. (2) Ancient specimens
+of printing are so called.
+
+=Incus=, R. (_incudo_, to beat on). An anvil.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 396. Indented.]
+
+=Indented=, Her. One of the dividing and border lines. It resembles the
+teeth of a saw.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 397. Printed Calico (Indian) illustrating the
+treatment of flowers.]
+
+=Indian Art.= The study of the forms and principles of Indian Art is
+indispensable to an appreciation of the true principles of ornamental
+design in general. The excellence of Indian manufactures is due to the
+system of Guilds rigidly adhered to for ages, which has resulted in the
+production of a race of hereditary craftsmen unequalled for their skill
+and taste in execution and design. Their pottery is distinguished above
+all others for purity and simplicity of form, obvious fitness to
+purpose, and individual freedom of design. Its origin antedates the
+Institutes of Manu, and is lost in antiquity. Indian gold and metal work
+is supposed by Dr. Birdwood to owe its origin to Greek influence, but
+has acquired in its development a purely Oriental character. The Hindoos
+exhibit the greatest skill in the Oriental arts of damascening and
+enamelling, as well as in lacquer work and wood and ivory carving. All
+their designs are deeply symbolical, and closely interwoven with the
+primitive religious impulses of humanity. India was probably the first
+country in which the art of weaving was brought to perfection, and the
+fame of its cloudy gauzes and its gold and silver brocades is more
+ancient than the Code of Manu. The art is repeatedly mentioned in the
+Vedas. The purity of Indian Art is endangered in modern days by the
+introduction of machine-made goods and European design. (Consult _Dr.
+Birdwood’s Handbook of Indian Art_.)
+
+=Indian Ink= or =Chinese Ink=. A black pigment for water-colour
+painting, made from oil and lamp-black, thickened with some vegetable
+gum, and scented with musk or camphor. Many cheap and poor imitations of
+it are made.
+
+=Indian Ochre.= A red pigment. (See RED OCHRES.)
+
+=Indian Paper.= A delicate yellowish paper used for proof impressions in
+engraving. A Japanese paper of a similar quality is now frequently used.
+
+=Indian Red= or =Persian Red=. A purple earth commonly sold under this
+name is the peroxide of iron. It is of a deep hue, opaque and permanent,
+and useful both in oil and water-colour painting; mixed with white it
+forms valuable flesh-tints. (_Fairholt._) (See OCHRE, AMATITA.)
+
+=Indian Rubber=, =Caoutchouc=. An elastic gum; the sap of the _Siphonia
+elastica_, and several of the fig tribe in India and South America. It
+was brought into use early in the 18th century. In its natural state it
+is of a pale yellow brown.
+
+=Indian Yellow.= A golden yellow pigment and dye, said to be procured
+from the urine of the cow, or else from camel’s dung. It is used in
+water-colour painting, but is not usually permanent. In some parts of
+the East it is called PURREE.
+
+=Indigetes= (sc. _Di_), R. Indigenous gods. Heroes who were deified and
+worshipped as protectors of a place. The term is derived from _inde_ and
+_genitus_, meaning born in that place. Æneas, Faunus, Romulus, &c., were
+indigenous gods.
+
+=Indigo.= A deep blue pigment prepared from the leaves and branches of a
+small shrub; it is transparent, tolerably permanent, and mixes well with
+other pigments, forming excellent greens and purples. A deep brown,
+known as _indigo brown_ and a deep red resin, known as _indigo red_, may
+be extracted by purifying the blue colour obtained from this dye. The
+old blue dye of the aboriginal Britons was produced from _woad_ (isatis
+tinctoria). (_Fairholt._) (See INTENSE BLUE.)
+
+=Inescutcheon=, Her. An heraldic shield borne as a charge.
+
+=Inferiæ=, R. Sacrifices or offerings made at the tombs of the dead.
+
+=Infiammati.= A literary society of Padua in Italy. Device: Hercules
+upon the funeral pile on Mount Œta. Motto: “_Arso il mortal al ciel n’
+andrà l’ eterno_.”
+
+=Infocati.= One of the Italian literary societies. Device: a bar of hot
+iron on an anvil, beaten by two hammers. Motto: “_In quascunque
+formas_.”
+
+=In Foliage=, Her. Bearing leaves.
+
+=Infrenatus= (sc. _eques_), R. A horseman who rides without a bridle
+(_frenum_), controlling his horse solely by the voice or the pressure of
+the knees upon its side. (Fig. 282.)
+
+=Infula=, R. A flock of red and white wool worn by priestesses and
+vestals and other Romans on festive or solemn occasions. In sacrificing
+also an infula was tied with a white band (_vitta_) upon the victim.
+Hence—
+
+=Infulæ=, Chr. Ribands hanging from a bishop’s mitre.
+
+=In Glory=, =In Splendour=, Her. The sun irradiated.
+
+=Inlaying.= Inserting ornaments in wood-work for decorative furniture.
+(See BOULE, MARQUETRY.)
+
+=In Lure=, Her. Wings conjoined, with their tips drooping.
+
+=Inoa.= Greek festivals in honour of Ino, esp. on the Corinthian
+Isthmus; they consisted of contests and sacrifices. (See MATRALIA.)
+
+=In Pretence=, Her. Placed upon, and in front of.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 398. Peacock in pride.]
+
+=In Pride=, Her. Having the tail displayed, as a peacock’s. The
+illustration is the device of Joan of Castile: “A peacock, in his pride,
+upon the terrestrial globe.” (Fig. 398.)
+
+=Insensati of Perugia.= One of the Italian literary academies. Their
+device was a flock of cranes, arranged in order, flying across the sea,
+each with a stone in its foot and sand in its mouth. Mottoes, “_Vel cum
+pondere_” (even with this weight), or “_Iter tutissimum_,” in allusion
+to Pliny’s statement that the cranes used stones and sand for _ballast_,
+“wherewith they fly more steadily and endure the wind.”
+
+=Insignia=, R. (_in_, and _signum_, a mark). Generally, any object which
+serves as a mark or ornament for distinguished persons; a ceremonial
+badge, a badge of office, &c. (See ENSIGNS.)
+
+=Insubulum=, R. A weaver’s beam or roller, round which he rolled the
+cloth as it was made.
+
+=Insula=, R. A house, or block of houses, having a free space all round
+them. [Under the emperors the word _domus_ meant any house, detached or
+otherwise, where a family lived; and _insula_ meant a hired lodging.]
+
+=Intaglio=, It. A stone in which the engraved subject is sunk beneath
+the surface, and thus distinguished from a cameo, which is engraved in
+relief.
+
+=Intaglio-relievato= (It.), or _cavo-relievo_. Sunk-relief, in which the
+work is recessed within an outline, but still raised in flat relief, not
+projecting above the surface of the slab; as seen in the ancient
+Egyptian carvings.
+
+=Intense Blue.= A preparation of indigo, very durable and transparent.
+
+=Intense Madder Purple.= (See MADDER.)
+
+=Intercolumniation=, Arch. The space between two columns. This space
+varies according to the orders of architecture and the taste of the
+architect. According as the space is greater or less between the columns
+of a temple, the latter is called _aerostyle_, _eustyle_, _systyle_, and
+_pycnostyle_. Generally speaking, in the monuments of antiquity,
+whatever be the intercolumniation adopted, the space comprised between
+the two columns which face the door of the building is wider than the
+intercolumniation at the sides.
+
+=Intermetium=, R. The long barrier running down the arena of a circus
+between the two goals (_metæ_). (See META.)
+
+=Intermodillions=, Arch. The space included between two modillions
+(projecting brackets in the Corinthian order). This space is regular,
+and often decorated with various ornaments. In the Romano-Byzantine and
+Renaissance styles, modillions are often united by arcades.
+
+=Intertignium=, R. The space between the tie-beams (_tigna_) in the
+wood-work of a roof.
+
+=Interula=, R. (_interior_, inner). An undertunic; a kind of flannel
+chemise worn by both men and women.
+
+=Intestinum= (opus), R. (_intus_, within). The inner fittings or work of
+any kind in the inside of a house, and thence wood-work, JOINERY.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 399. Part of the Façade of the Peruvian temple
+Inti-huasi.]
+
+=Inti= or =Punchau=, Peruv. The Sun or supreme god, inferior deities
+being called _conopa_ and _canopa_. The temple of the Sun was called
+_Inti-huasi_ (house of the Sun); it comprised seven principal divisions;
+the _inti_ or sanctuary, situated in the centre of the temple; the
+second division was called _mama-quilla_, from the fact of its being
+dedicated to the moon, which was thus named; the third was dedicated to
+the stars, called _cayllur_; the fourth to the thunder, and called
+_illapa_; the fifth to the rainbow, and called _ckuichi_; the sixth
+division was occupied by the chief priest (_huilacuma_); the seventh and
+last division formed the dwelling of the priests.
+
+=Intronati of Siena.= One of the Italian literary academies. Their
+device was a gourd for containing salt, with the motto, “_Meliora
+latent_” (the better part is hidden).
+
+=Iodine Scarlet= (_pure scarlet_). A pigment more brilliant than
+vermilion, very susceptible to metallic agency.
+
+=Iodine Yellow.= A very bright yellow pigment, very liable to change.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 400. Ionic capital. From the Erechtheium, Athens.]
+
+=Ionic=, Arch. One of the orders of Grecian architecture, distinguished
+principally by the ornaments of its CAPITAL, which are spiral and are
+called VOLUTES, four in number. The Ionic SHAFT is about nine diameters
+high, including the BASE (which is half a diameter) and the CAPITAL, to
+the bottom of the volute. The PEDESTAL is a little taller and more
+ornamented than the Doric. The BASES used are very various. The Attic
+base is very often used, and, with an _astragal_ added above the upper
+_torus_, makes a beautiful and appropriate base for the Ionic. The
+CORNICES are (1) plain Grecian, or (2) the _dentil_ cornice, or (3) the
+_modillon_ cornice. The Ionic shaft may be fluted in twenty-four
+semicircular flutes with fillets between them. The best Ionic example
+was the temple on the Ilissus at Athens. The temple of Fortuna Virilis
+at Rome is an inferior specimen. (See also Figs. 69, 184.)
+
+=Irish Cloth=, white and red, in the reign of King John was much used in
+England.
+
+=Iron.= _Indian red_, _Venetian red_, _Mars red_, _Mars orange_, _Mars
+yellow_ are all coloured by iron (see MARS), and are valuable for their
+great durability. (See METALLURGY.)
+
+=Irradiated=, Her. Surrounded by rays of light.
+
+=Iseia=, Gr. and R. (Ἴσεια). Festivals in honour of Isis. Among the
+Romans they degenerated into mere licentiousness, and were abolished by
+the senate.
+
+=Iselastici Ludi=, Gr. and R. Athletic contests which gave the victor
+the right of returning to his native city in a chariot (εἰσελαύνειν);
+whence the name _iselastici_. These contests formed part of the four
+great games of Greece, viz. the Olympic, Pythian, Isthmian, and Nemean
+games.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 400 a. Isodomum opus.]
+
+=Isodomos= or =Isodomum=, Gr. and R. (ἰσόδομος, i. e. equal course). A
+structure built in equal courses, that is, in such a way that the
+surface of each stone is of one uniform size, and that the joints of one
+layer are adjusted with those of another so as to correspond
+symmetrically.
+
+=Isokephaleia= (Gr. ἴσος, equal; κεφαλὴ, head). A rule in Greek
+sculpture by which the heads of all the figures on a bas-relief were of
+the same height from the ground.
+
+=Isometrical Perspective=, used for representing a bird’s-eye view of a
+place, combines the advantages of a ground-plan and elevation; only the
+lines of the base are made to converge, leaving the whole figure
+cubical, and without the expression of _distance_ from the point of
+sight.
+
+=Ispahan Tiles=, of the period of Shah-Abbas—16th century—are remarkable
+for exquisite design.
+
+=Italian Earth.= Burnt _Roman ochre_; resembles Venetian red in colour;
+and, mixed with white, yields valuable flesh-tints. (_Fairholt._)
+
+=Italian Pink=, or _yellow lake_. A transparent bright-coloured pigment,
+liable to change. (See YELLOW LAKE, PINKS.)
+
+=Italian Varnish.= A mixture of white wax and linseed oil, used as a
+vehicle in painting. It has good consistency, flows freely from the
+pencil, and is useful for glazing.
+
+=Ivory Black.= A pigment prepared by heating ivory shavings in an iron
+cylinder; when from bone, it is called _bone black_ (q.v.). The real
+ivory black is a fine, transparent, deep-toned pigment, extremely
+valuable in oil and water-colour painting. The _bone black_ (commonly
+sold as _ivory black_) is much browner.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 401. Ivory carving. Sword-hilt of the 16th century.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 402. Ivory carving. Spoon of the 16th century.]
+
+=Ivory Carving.= This art, in considerable perfection, was known to
+prehistoric man at the period of the so called stone age. Egyptian and
+Assyrian specimens of the art are of a date at least as early as that of
+Moses. From the year 1000 B.C. down to the Christian era, there was a
+constant succession of artists in ivory in the western Asiatic
+countries, in Egypt, in Greece, and in Italy. From the time of Augustus,
+ivory carving shared in the general decline of art. Increasing in number
+as they come nearer to the Middle Ages, we can refer to carved ivories
+of every century, preserved in museums in England and abroad. The most
+important ivories up to the 7th century are the consular _diptychs_,
+originally a favourite form of presents from newly-appointed consuls to
+eminent persons; subsequently adapted to Christian uses, or as wedding
+presents, &c. In the Middle Ages, from the 8th to the 16th century, the
+use of ivory was adopted for general purposes. The favourite subjects of
+the carvings are those drawn from the romances of the Middle
+Ages—especially the romance of the Rose—and in the 15th century, scenes
+of domestic life, illustrating the dress, armour, and manners and
+customs of the day. Combs of every date, from the Roman and Anglo-Saxon
+period, and earlier, are found in British graves. In short, from the
+time when the first prehistoric carvings of antediluvian animals were
+made to the present, every age of human civilization appears to be more
+or less fully illustrated in carvings upon ivory and bone. (See also
+CHESSMEN.) The earliest material was found in the tusks of the mammoth:
+from Iceland we have beautiful carvings of the 7th century in the teeth
+of the walrus. Fossil tusks of the mammoth are found in great quantities
+in Siberia, and are almost the only material of the ivory-turner’s work
+in Russia. African and Asiatic elephant ivory are the best, and differ,
+the former, when newly cut, being of a mellow, warm, transparent tint.
+Asiatic ivory tends to become yellow by exposure. A fine specimen of
+carving in ivory is given in Fig. 403 from a MIRROR-CASE of the 15th
+century. (See also Fig. 185, and illustrations to PYX, TRIPTYCH, &c.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 403. Ivory carving, 15th century.]
+
+=Ivy=, Chr. The symbol of eternal life.
+
+=Iwbwb=, Celt. The ancient military cry, which has given name to many
+places; as Cwm Iwbwb, in Wales, the Jujupania of Ptolemy. (_Meyrick._)
+
+=Izeds=, Persian. Beneficent genii of the mythology of Zoroaster.
+Ormuzd, the supreme god, created twenty-eight of them to be the
+attendants of the _amchaspands_.
+
+
+
+
+                                   J.
+
+
+=Jacinth.= A precious stone. (See HYACINTH.)
+
+=Jack-boots= (O. E.) were introduced in the 17th century.
+
+=Jackes=, O. E. (1) Towels. (2) The roller for a well-rope.
+
+=Jacket= or =Jack=, =Jerkin=, &c., O. E.; worn over the doublet; but the
+names are applied indiscriminately to a great variety of such garments.
+
+=Jacob’s Staff=, O. E. A pilgrim’s staff.
+
+=Jacobus.= An English coin of James I., value 25_s._, weighing 6 dwt. 10
+grains. The _Carolus_, a similar coin, value 23_s._, weighed 5 dwt. 20
+grains.
+
+=Jaculatores=, R. Soldiers armed with a javelin (_jaculum_), who formed
+part of the light troops of the Roman army.
+
+=Jade.= Spanish _piedra de la yjada_. A green stone, closely resembling
+jasper, much used by prehistoric man, and to which supernatural virtues
+have in all ages been attributed, especially by the ancient Mexicans.
+Fine specimens of jades are carved in China, where they are of a whitish
+colour, and are called _Yu_. The clear white and green specimens are the
+most prized by collectors. (See NEPHRITE, SAUSSURITE.)
+
+=Jagerant.= (See JAZERINE.)
+
+=Jamb=, Arch. The side of any opening in a wall.
+
+=Jambe=, =Gambe=, Her. The leg of a lion or other beast of prey.
+
+=Jambes.= Armour for the legs; 14th century.
+
+=Janua=, R. (_Janus_). The front door of a house opening on the street.
+The inner doors were called _ostia_, in the singular _ostium_, while the
+city gates were called _portæ_.
+
+=Januales=, =Janualia=, R. Festivals held at Rome, in honour of Janus,
+on the first or kalends of January in each year; the offerings consisted
+of incense, fruits, and a cake called _janual_.
+
+=Japanese Paper= of a creamy tint is frequently used for proof
+impressions of etchings, &c.
+
+=Japanning.= A species of lac-varnishing, in imitation of the lacquered
+ware of Japan. (See LAC, LACQUER.)
+
+=Jasper.= A kind of agate, the best known description of which is of a
+green colour. Many colours and varieties are used for gem-engraving,
+such as agate-jasper, striped jasper, Egyptian red and brown, and
+porcelain jasper. In the Christian religion the jasper symbolizes faith;
+its hardness expresses the firmness of faith; its opaqueness the
+impenetrability of the mysterious.
+
+=Jasponyx.= An onyx mixed with jasper.
+
+=Javelin.= A light hand-spear. (See HASTA.)
+
+=Jayada.= (See VIMANA.)
+
+=Jazel.= A precious stone of an azure blue colour.
+
+=Jazerine= (It. _ghiazerino_). A jacket strengthened with overlapping
+plates of steel, covered with velvet or cloth, and sometimes ornamented
+with brass; 13th century.
+
+=Jennet.= A Spanish or Barbary horse.
+
+=Jerkin=, O. E. The jerkin was generally worn over the doublet; but
+occasionally the doublet was worn alone, and in many instances is
+confounded with the jerkin. Either had sleeves or not, as the wearer
+pleased.
+
+               “My jerkin is a doublet.” (_Shakspeare._)
+
+=Jessant=, Her. Shooting forth, as plants growing out of the earth.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 404. Jessant-de-lys.]
+
+=Jessant-de-lys=, Her. A combination of a lion’s face and a
+fleur-de-lys.
+
+=Jesse=, O. E. A large branched chandelier.
+
+=Jesse, Tree of=, Chr. An ornamental design common in early Christian
+art, representing the genealogy of our Lord in the persons of his
+ancestors in the flesh.
+
+=Jesseraunt.= (See JAZERINE.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 405. Hawk’s bells and Jesses.]
+
+=Jesses.= Straps for hawk’s bells. (See Fig. 405.)
+
+=Jet.= A variety of soft bituminous coal, admitting of a fine polish,
+which is used for ornaments. It is, in its natural state, soft and
+brittle, of a velvet-black colour, and lustrous. Ornaments of jet are
+found in ancient _tumuli_.
+
+=Jet d’Eau=, Fr. A fountain. That at Chatsworth springs 267 feet in the
+air, and is the highest in existence.
+
+=Jew’s Harp= or =Jew’s Trump= (from the French _jeu_ and _trompe_). A
+small musical instrument, known for centuries all over Europe,
+consisting of a metal frame with two branches, and a vibrating tongue of
+steel in the middle. It has suggested a number of modern instruments,
+including the HARMONIUM.
+
+=Jew’s Pitch.= A kind of _asphaltum_ used as a brown pigment. It
+attracts dust, and never dries perfectly.
+
+=Jewes Light=, O. E. (See _Judas Light_.)
+
+=Jogues= or =Yugs=. In Hindoo chronology, eras or periods of years. (1)
+The _Suttee Yug_, or age of purity, lasted 3,200,000 years; the life of
+man being then 100,000 years, and his stature 21 cubits. (2) The _Tirtar
+Yug_, in which one-third of man was corrupted, lasted 2,400,000 years;
+the life of man being then 10,000 years. (3) The _Dwapaar Yug_, in which
+half the human race became depraved, lasted 1,600,000 years; the life of
+man being 1000 years. (4) The _Collee Yug_, in which all mankind are
+corrupt, is the present era, ordained to subsist 400,000 years (of which
+about 5000 have elapsed); the life of man being limited to 100 years.
+There are, however, conflicting accounts of the duration of the
+different _Jogues_. (See _Halhed’s Preface to the Gentoo Laws_.)
+
+=Joinery= (in Latin, _intestinum opus_) has to deal with the addition in
+a building of all the fixed wood-work necessary for convenience or
+ornament. The most celebrated work on the subject is _Nicholson’s
+Carpenter’s Guide, and Carpenters and Joiner’s Assistant_, published in
+1792. The _modern art_ of joinery properly dates from the introduction
+of the geometrical staircase, or stair supported by the wall only, the
+first English example of which is said to have been erected by Sir
+Christopher Wren in St. Paul’s. [See JOINERY in _Ency. Brit._ 8th ed.]
+
+=Joseph=, O. E. A lady’s riding-habit, buttoned down the front.
+
+=Jousting-helmets= were made wide and large, resting on the shoulders,
+and decorated with a crest. It was common to make them of comical,
+fantastic designs; such as weathercocks with the points of the compass,
+immense figures of birds and beasts, &c.
+
+=Jousts= or =Justs=. Duels in the tilting-ground; generally with blunted
+spears, for a friendly trial of skill.
+
+=Jousts à Outrance.= Jousts in which the combatants fought till death
+ensued.
+
+=Jousts of Peace= (_hastiludia pacifica_; Fr. _joutes à plaisance_).
+These differed from real jousts or tournaments in the strength of the
+armour worn, and the weapons used. The lance was topped with a _coronel_
+instead of a steel point; the sword was pointless and blunted, being
+often of whalebone covered with leather silvered over.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 406. Chinese vase decorated with signs of
+longevity.]
+
+=Jouy= (wishes of good fortune). Chinese porcelain vases so called, used
+for birthday and other presents. In the vase represented on Fig. 406,
+the handles form the word expressive of the greeting above mentioned.
+
+=Jowlopped=, Her. Having wattles and a comb, as a cock.
+
+=Joys of the Virgin=, Chr. The seven joys and seven sorrows are
+frequently painted together in churches. The joys are, (1) The
+Annunciation. (2) The Visitation. (3) The Nativity. (4) The Adoration of
+the Three Kings. (5) The Presentation in the Temple. (6) The finding of
+Christ, by his mother, in the Temple. (7) The Assumption and Coronation
+of the Virgin. The seven sorrows are, (1) The prophecy of Simeon. (2)
+The Flight into Egypt. (3) The loss of the child in the Temple. (4) The
+Betrayal. (5) The Crucifixion. (6) The Deposition from the Cross. (7)
+The Ascension.
+
+=Jubé= (Arch. Mod.). A structure of carved stone-work, separating the
+chancel from the choir in a church. From this position the daily lessons
+were chanted, preceded by the words “_Jube_, Domine, benedicere;” hence
+its name. In English it is called indifferently, the rood-loft,
+holy-loft, rood-screen, or jubé.
+
+=Jubilee.= (1) Heb. (from _jobel_, a ram’s horn (trumpet); or from
+_jabal_, to recall). A Jewish festival celebrated every fifty years,
+when slaves were restored to liberty, and exiles recalled. (2) Chr. A
+commemoration ceremony at Rome, during which the Pope grants plenary
+indulgences; held at irregular intervals.
+
+=Judas Light=, =Judas Candlestick=, =Jewes Light=, O. E. The wooden
+imitation of a candlestick which held the Paschal candle.
+
+=Jugalis= (sc. _equus_). A horse harnessed to a yoke (_jugum_), instead
+of traces (_funalis_).
+
+=Jugerum.= A Roman superficial measure, 240 feet by 120 feet. In the
+original assignment of landed property, two _jugera_ were allotted to
+each citizen, as heritable property.
+
+=Jugum= (Gr. ζυγόν). (1) A yoke for draught cattle. (2) Metaphorically,
+subjugation—“_sub jugum mittere_” = to pass under the yoke, as nations
+conquered by the Romans were made to. This ceremonial yoke was
+constructed of a horizontal supported by two upright spears, at such a
+height that those passing under it had to stoop the head and shoulders.
+(3) In a general sense the word signifies that which joins two things
+together, a cross-beam, &c.
+
+=Jugumentum.= Door-head, transverse beam on the uprights (_limen
+superius_).
+
+=Jumps=, O. E. (1) A loose bodice for ladies.
+
+         “Now a shape in neat stays, now a slattern in jumps:
+         Now high on French heels, now low in your pumps;
+         Like the cock on the tower that shews you the weather,
+         You are hardly the same for two days together.”
+                               (_Universal Magazine_, 1780.)
+
+(2) A jacket or loose coat reaching to the thighs, buttoned down before,
+with sleeves to the wrist. A precisely similar lounging-coat, still in
+vogue at Cape Colony, is called a _jumper_.
+
+=Junones.= Tutelary genii of women, as the _genii_ were of men. They are
+represented as females, clothed in drapery, having bats’ wings.
+
+=Jupon=, Fr. Another name for a _pourpoint_, or close tunic, worn over
+the armour by knights in the Middle Ages. (See Fig. 463.)
+
+=Juruparis= (Amer. Indian). A mysterious trumpet of the Indians, an
+object of great veneration. Women are never permitted to see it; if any
+does so, she is put to death by poison. No youths are allowed to see it
+until they have passed through an ordeal of initiatory fastings and
+scourgings. It is usually kept hidden in the bed of a stream, deep in
+the forest; and no one dares to drink of the water of that stream. It is
+brought out and blown at feasts. The inside of the instrument is a tube
+made of slips of the Paxiaba palm, wrapped round with long strips of
+bark. A specimen is preserved in the museum at Kew Gardens.
+
+=Juvenalia=, R. Scenic games instituted by Nero in commemoration of his
+shaving his beard for the first time. They consisted of theatrical
+performances in a private theatre erected in a pleasure-ground
+(_nemus_). The name was afterwards given to the JANUALIA.
+
+
+
+
+                                   K.
+
+
+_For Greek words not found under this initial, see C._
+
+=Kalathos=, Gr. (κάλαθος). Literally, made of wicker-work. A
+drinking-cup, so called because it resembled the wicker-work basket of
+the Greek women. It was usually furnished with a ring, through which a
+finger might be put in order to lift it. The word is also written
+_calathos_.
+
+=Kaleidoscope= (καλὸς, beautiful; εἶδος, a form; σκοπέω, to see). An
+optical instrument invented in 1814 by Sir David Brewster, which by
+means of mirrors inserted in it exhibits repetitions of objects placed
+within it, in certain symmetrical combinations. There are several
+different kinds, called _polycentral_, _tetrascopes_, _hexascopes_,
+_polyangular_, &c., according to their construction.
+
+=Kang=, Hind. A bracelet or ring; _kang-doy_, a bracelet for the wrist
+or arm; _kang-cheung_, a bracelet or ring worn by the Khmers above the
+ankle.
+
+=Kaolin.= The name first applied by the Chinese to the fine white
+porcelain earth derived from the decomposition of the feldspathic
+granites; used for fine pottery.
+
+=Kayles= (Fr. _quilles_). Modern ninepins, represented in MSS. of the
+14th century.
+
+=Keep= of a castle. The DONJON (q.v.).
+
+=Keeping= in a picture. Harmony and the proper subordination of parts.
+
+=Kendal.= A kind of green woollen cloth or baize, first made at the town
+of Kendal, in Westmoreland; 16th century.
+
+              “Misbegotten knaves in _Kendal green_.”
+                                          (_Shakspeare._)
+
+=Kerchief of Pleasaunce.= An embroidered cloth worn by a knight for the
+sake of a lady, in his helmet, or, in later times, round his arm; which
+is the origin of crape being so worn for mourning.
+
+  “Moreore there is ykome into Enlond a knyght out of Spayne wyth a
+  kercheff of plesunse i-wrapped about hys arme, the gwych knyght wyl
+  renne a course wyth a sharpe spere for his sov’eyn lady sake.”
+  (_Paston Letters_, vol. p. 6.)
+
+=Kerchiefs= or =Coverchiefs= (_chief_ = the head), O. E. Head-cloths of
+fine linen worn by ladies.
+
+=Kermes= (Arabic = little worm). An insect produced on the _Quercus
+coccifera_. The dead bodies of the female insect produce a fine scarlet
+dye stuff.
+
+=Kern.= The Irish infantry were formerly so called.
+
+=Kersey.= A coarse narrow woollen cloth; hence “Kersey-mere,” so called
+from the _mere_ (or miry brook) which runs through the village of Kersey
+in Suffolk, where this cloth was first made.
+
+=Kettle-drum.= A drum with a body of brass.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 407. Kettle-hat.]
+
+=Kettle-hat=, O. E. The iron hat of a knight of the Middle Ages; also
+the leather _burgonet_ of the 15th century.
+
+=Kettle-pins=, O. E. (See KAYLES.)
+
+=Key-note.= In Music, the foundation or lowest note of the scale.
+Whatever note this is, the _intervals_ between the third and fourth
+notes, and between the _seventh_ and _eighth_ above it, must be
+_semi-tones_.
+
+=Key-stone=, Arch. The central stone of an arch.
+
+=Keys.= In Christian art, the attribute of St. Peter, signifying his
+control over the entrances of Heaven and Hell; hence the insignia of the
+Papacy. They also denote, _in heraldry_, office in the State, such as
+that of chamberlain of the court.
+
+=Khan=, Orient. The name used by Eastern nations to denote a
+caravanserai.
+
+=Kher=, Egyp. The quarter of tombs; the whole number of burial-places or
+_hypogæa_ collected together at one spot.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 408. Khmer Architecture. Base of a pillar in a
+Temple of Cambodia, showing the god Brahma with four faces.]
+
+=Khmers=, Hind. The ancient inhabitants of Cambodia, a territory in
+South-East Asia, who had attained a high stage of civilization, to judge
+by the artistic remains of the Khmer nation which survive.
+
+=Khopesh=, Egyp. The dagger of the Egyptian kings; its curved blade bore
+some resemblance to the thigh of an ox, which was called in Egyptian
+_khopesh_ or _khopesk_.
+
+=Kin-chung=, Chinese. A golden bell.
+
+=King-fisher.= (See HALCYON.)
+
+=King-post.= The central upright post supporting the gable of a roof.
+
+=King’s Yellow.= (See ORPIMENT.)
+
+=Kings of Arms.= Officers of Heralds’ College. There are three—_Garter_,
+_Clarenceux_, and _Norroy_.
+
+=Kinnor=, Heb. A stringed instrument of the Hebrews; it had eight, ten,
+or twenty-four strings, which were played either with the fingers or a
+plectrum.
+
+=Kinschall.= A small curved Turkish dagger.
+
+=Kiosk=, =Kiosque=. A Turkish pleasure-house.
+
+=Kircher=, =Kirchowe=, O. E. A kerchief.
+
+=Kirtel=, O. E. A loose gown, a tunic or waistcoat; also a monk’s gown.
+
+=Kiste=, O. E. A chest.
+
+=Kistvaen=, Celt. A Celtic monument more commonly known as a DOLMEN
+(q.v.).
+
+=Kit-cat.= Canvas for portraits—28 or 29 inches by 36—of the size
+adopted by Sir Godfrey Kneller, in painting the portraits of the Kit-cat
+Club. The club had taken its name from Christopher Cat, a pastrycook,
+who supplied them at their meetings with mutton-pies. Addison, Steele,
+Walpole, Marlborough, and other staunch Whigs were the principal
+members. It dissolved about 1720.
+
+=Klaft=, Egyp. A royal head-dress of striped cloth forming a kind of
+hood, and terminating in two flaps which fall over the breast. A great
+many Egyptian statues are represented with the _klaft_. It is suggested
+by M. Soldi that the invention of this ornament was for the purpose of
+strengthening the figure, by avoiding the thinness of the shape of the
+neck.
+
+=Knapsack.= A case for a foot-soldier’s stores, carried at the back.
+_Knap_ means a protuberance.
+
+=Knife=, Chr. (See FLAYING-KNIFE.) This is also the attribute of Sts.
+Agatha, Albert, and Christina; and a sacrificing-knife of St. Zadkiel
+the Angel.
+
+=Knighthood.= The principal English orders are of the GARTER,
+established 1343, and the _Bath_ shortly afterwards; of ST. PATRICK for
+Ireland, established in 1783; and the _Order of the Thistle_, at least
+as ancient as Robert II. of Scotland. There is a French order of the
+_Thistle_, founded in 1463; but the most ancient French order is the
+_Gennet_, in 706. In France are also the orders of _St. Michel_ and of
+_St. Louis_; but these French orders are now all superseded by the
+Legion of Honour. [See _An Accurate Historical Account of all the Orders
+of Knighthood_.]
+
+=Knight-service=, O. E. A tenure of lands formerly held by knights, on
+condition of performing military service
+
+=Knol=, Hind. A road or high road which frequently passes over very low
+bridges.
+
+=Knop=, O. E. A button.
+
+=Knop=, =Knob=, Arch. A boss.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 409. Architectural _Knop_ or _Boss_.]
+
+=Knop and Flower Pattern.= An ornament of remote antiquity, original
+basis of a great branch of decorative art in all nations, common on
+early Indian monuments, and with different variations in the art of
+Assyria, Egypt, Greece, and Rome. The variations are regulated according
+to the flora of the various countries, the _knop_ (or bud) and _flower_
+being always the radical idea.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 410. Bourchier Knot.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 410 a. Dacre Knot and Badge.]
+
+=Knot=, Her. An intertwined cord, borne as a badge. Cords intertwined
+about other figures and devices form so called compound badges, which
+significantly declared the union of two houses; thus the Dacre knot is
+entwined about the Dacre escallop and the famous “ragged staff” of
+Beauchamp and Neville. An ORDER OF THE KNOT was established at Naples in
+1252. The badge of silk, gold, and pearls was tied in a knot upon the
+arm, and those who were invested with it made a vow to untie it at
+Jerusalem. (Fig. 410 and 410 a.)
+
+=Knuckle-bones.= (See TALUS.)
+
+=Koope=, O. E. A cope.
+
+=Koukim=, Heb. Kilns for the cremation of the dead, such as are
+occasionally found in the ancient tombs of the Valley of Hinnom
+(Gehenna).
+
+=Kourganes=, Or. Grassy mounds, such as are frequently met with in
+Russia in Europe, and which bear a strong resemblance to _tumuli_ and
+_barrows_. (See TUMULUS.)
+
+=Krems White= or =Vienna White=. A pigment manufactured at Krems in
+Austria. It is the finest white lead used in oils.
+
+=Krouts=, Hind. An ornament resembling embroidery. The monuments of
+Khmer art are adorned with krouts of a rich ornamentation, somewhat
+similar to certain ornaments of the French Renaissance. (See Fig. 408.)
+
+=Krumhorn.= An old musical instrument of the cornet kind.
+
+=Kufic.= (See CUFIC.)
+
+=Kussier.= A Turkish musical instrument, consisting of five strings,
+stretched over a skin that covers a kind of basin.
+
+=Kymbium.= (See CYMBIUM.)
+
+=Kyphi=, Egyp. A perfume which was burnt before the statues of the gods;
+it was composed of sixteen different ingredients.
+
+
+
+
+                                   L.
+
+
+=Labarum=, =Chrism=, R. The standard of the Roman emperors from the time
+of Constantine; in form it resembled the _vexillum_ of the cavalry. The
+Labarum is the banner of the Chrism, or sign that appeared to
+Constantine, viz. the Greek letters XP in a monogram (the two first
+letters of the Name ΧΡΙΣΤΟΣ); sometimes followed by the Roman letters
+IHSV, or the motto in full, “_in hoc signo vinces_.” It is, under
+several variations, a common ecclesiastical emblem.
+
+=Labellum.= Dimin. of LABRUM (q.v.).
+
+[Illustration: Heraldic Labels.
+Fig. 411. Labels of 3 points.       Label of 5 points.]
+
+=Labels=, in heraldry, are marks of _cadency_. (1) A band crossing the
+shield, with three points depending, marks the coat of an eldest son.
+(2) Broad ribands hanging from a knight’s helmet. (3) In mediæval
+architecture and church decoration, images of saints and angels bear
+_labels_ inscribed with texts and mottoes.
+
+=Labis.= (See SPOON.)
+
+=Labrum=, R. (lit. a lip). A general term to denote any kind of vessel
+the brim of which turned over on the outside like the lip of the human
+mouth; a wide flat basin which stood in the thermal chamber or CALDARIUM
+(q.v.) of the Roman baths.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 412. Labyrinth.]
+
+=Labyrinth=, Gen. (λαβύρινθος). A building of considerable size, usually
+underground, containing streets and cross-roads, like the catacombs, &c.
+The term is also applied to intricate designs executed on the
+grass-plots of gardens, and on the mosaic or glazed tiles in pavements.
+(Fig. 412.) (See MINOTAUR.)
+
+=Lac= or =Gum Lac= (Arabic, _lakah_). A resin produced on an East Indian
+tree by the punctures of the _Coccus lacca_ insect. It forms a brittle
+substance of a dark red colour, and when in grains is called _seed lac_,
+and in thin flat plates _shell-lac_. (See LACQUER.) The chief use of
+_lac_ in Europe is for making sealing-wax, and as a basis for _spirit
+varnishes_ and _French polish_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 413. Point de France (pillow-made), 17th century.]
+
+=Lace= was originally of a heavy texture, more like embroidery. It was
+of two kinds, _lacis_, or “darned netting,” and “_cutwork_.” _Lacis_,
+often worked in coloured silks and gold thread, was also called “opus
+araneum” or “spider-work.” In “_cutwork_,” a net of threads was laid on
+to cloth, and the cloth sewn to it in parts, and the other parts cut
+away; or, by another method, the threads were arranged on a frame, all
+radiating from a common centre, and then worked into patterns. This was
+the old convent lace of Italy, called “_Greek lace_.” _Point laces_ are
+lace made with a needle on a parchment pattern. The principal are the
+ancient laces of Italy, Spain, and Portugal; and the modern _point
+d’Alençon_ of France. _Pillow laces_ are made by the weaving, twisting,
+and plaiting of the threads with bobbins on a _cushion_; such are
+Mechlin, Lille, Valenciennes, Honiton, Buckingham, and many
+manufactories in France. _Brussels lace_ is both _point_ and _pillow_.
+The thread is scarcely visible for fineness, and costs 240_l._ per
+pound. This lace is called in France _point d’Angleterre_, or _English
+point_. (Fig. 414.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 414. Old Brussels or Point d’Angleterre.]
+
+=Lace Glass.= (See GLASS.)
+
+=Lacerna=, R. An open cloak worn by the Romans over the _toga_, and
+fastened on the right shoulder with a brooch or fibula. It frequently
+had a cowl attached. (See ABOLLA, PÆNULA, PALLIUM.)
+
+=Lachrymatory.= A tear-bottle; so called from the use attributed to it
+of holding tears consecrated to the dead. These phials are made of glass
+or earthenware, with a long neck, and the mouth formed to receive the
+eye-ball. The figure of one or two eyes has sometimes been found
+impressed upon them.
+
+=Lacinia=, R. The two excrescences, like a divided dewlap on the throat
+of a goat, which were represented on the necks of fauns and satyrs.
+
+=Laciniæ=, Gr. and R. The hanging corners of the _toga_ and _chlamys_,
+and the metal knobs attached to make them hang straight.
+
+=Lacis.= A kind of embroidery, of subjects in squares, with counted
+stitches (called also “point conté,” darned netting, &c.). (See LACE.)
+
+=Laconicum=, R. A semicircular termination to a room in a set of baths
+(_caldarium_), so called because of Spartan origin. Under the word
+BALNEÆ will be found the _laconicum_ of Pompeii, restored. (Fig. 56.)
+
+=Lacquer= (Fr. _laque_) is made of a solution of shell-lac and alcohol,
+coloured with saffron or other colouring matters. Specimens of ancient
+Chinese red lacquer deeply carved with figures of birds, flowers, &c.,
+and generally made in the form of trays, boxes, and sometimes vases, are
+met with in the more northern Chinese towns, and are much prized. What
+is called the _old gold Japan lacquer_ is also esteemed by Chinese
+connoisseurs, and the specimens of this are comparatively rare at the
+present day. (_Fortune._)
+
+=Lacs d’amour=, Fr. True lovers’ knots.
+
+=Lacuna=, R. (_lacus_, a hollow). An ash-pit placed beneath a lime-kiln
+to receive the ashes from the kiln.
+
+=Lacunar=, Arch. A flat roof or ceiling, in contradistinction to a
+_camera_, vaulted roof.
+
+=Lacunaria=, Arch. Panels in a flat ceiling (_lacunar_), formed by the
+rafters crossing one another at right angles. The edges of these panels
+are often decorated with carved and gilt ornaments, and the centres
+filled in with paintings.
+
+=Lacus=, R. (λάκκος). A lake, and thence a large, shallow, open basin,
+or artificial reservoir; also, a pit made below the level of a
+wine-cellar (_cella vinaria_), or of an oil-cellar (_cella olearis_), to
+receive the wine or oil as it comes from the presses.
+
+=Lady.= A word of Saxon origin, generally supposed to signify
+“loaf-giver,” from _klaf_, a loaf. As a title it belongs to the
+daughters of all peers above the rank of a viscount, but is extended by
+courtesy to the wives of knights.
+
+=Lady Day=, Chr. The 25th of March. Festival of the Annunciation.
+
+=Læna=, R. (1) A cloth with a long nap. (2) A thick woollen cloak worn
+over the toga for the sake of warmth. In later times the læna was often
+worn as a substitute for the toga.
+
+=Lagena=, Gr. and R. An earthenware vessel with a swelling body, used
+for holding wine or vegetables and dried fruits.
+
+=Laid Papers.= Papers with a ribbed surface; as cream-laid, blue-laid,
+&c.
+
+=Lake, Cloth of=, O. E. Linen for under-garments.
+
+=Lakes.= (See CARMINE.) Pigments of a fine crimson red colour, of which
+there are several kinds; they are prepared from cochineal, kermes, lac,
+and the best from madder-root. Common lake is obtained from Brazil wood,
+which affords a very fugitive colour. (See YELLOW LAKE, PURPLE LAKES,
+GREEN LAKES, CARMINATED LAKES, DROP LAKE, RED LAKE, MINERAL LAKE,
+MADDER, &c.)
+
+=Lakes= of _Florence_, _Paris_, _Vienna_, &c. (See CARMINATED LAKES.)
+
+=Lamb.= The peculiar symbol of the Redeemer, generally the emblem of
+innocence, meekness, modesty. It is properly called the Paschal Lamb,
+and with a flag, or between two stars and a crescent, was the badge of
+the Knights Templars. (See AGNUS DEI.)
+
+=Lamboys= (Fr. _lambeau_). A kind of skirt over the thighs, worn over
+the armour. (See Fig. 463.)
+
+=Lambrequin.= A covering for the helmet. (See MANTLING.)
+
+=Lamb’s-wool=, O. E. A drink of ale with the pulp of roasted apples in
+it.
+
+=Lames=, Fr. Flexible plates or _blades_ of steel, worn over the hips.
+
+=Lametta.= Brass, silver, or gold foil or wire.
+
+=Lamiæ=, Gr. and R. Vampires who fed at night on the flesh of human
+beings. The Lamiæ of Pliny are animals with the face and head of a
+woman, and the tail of a serpent, inhabiting the deserts of Africa.
+
+=Laminated.= Disposed in layers or plates.
+
+=Lammas=, O. E. The 1st of August.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 415. Roman Lamp.]
+
+=Lamp=, =Lantern=, or =Taper=, in Christian art, was an emblem of piety;
+an attribute of St. Lucia. (See LUCERNA, LYCHNUS, LANTERN.)
+
+=Lampadephoria=, Gr. (torch-bearing). A game common throughout Greece,
+in which the competitors raced, either on foot or horseback, six stadia
+(about three-quarters of a mile), carrying lamps prepared for the
+purpose. (See LAMPAS.)
+
+=Lampas=, Gr. and R. A general term denoting anything which shines or
+affords light; a torch, a lamp, and especially a link. The word was
+frequently used for _lampadephoria_, the _torch-race_.
+
+=Lamp-black.= A soot used as a pigment. It is very opaque, and dries
+slowly in oil. It is also the basis of all printing and lithographic
+inks.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 416. Device of Catherine de’ Medicis.]
+
+=Lance.= In Christian art, the attribute of St. Matthias, in allusion to
+the method of his martyrdom. (See AMENTUM, LANCEA, HASTA.) A shivered
+lance with the motto “Lacrymæ hinc, hinc dolor,” was a device adopted by
+Catherine de’ Medicis after the fatal accident to her husband, Henry
+II., in a tournament. (Fig. 416.)
+
+=Lance-rest.= A projecting iron fixed to a breastplate to support the
+end of the lance in a joust or tournament.
+
+=Lancea=, R. A long, light spear, serving both as a pike and a missile.
+
+=Lanceola.= Dimin. of LANCEA (q.v.).
+
+=Lanceolated=, Arch. Having the form of a spear-head. The term is
+applied to lancet windows, arches, and members of architecture forming a
+rose.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 417. Lancet Arch. 13th century.]
+
+=Lancet Arch.= A pointed arch, obtuse at the point, resembling a
+surgeon’s lancet, from which a style of architecture, common in England
+in the 13th century, is named. (Fig. 417.) (See EARLY ENGLISH
+ARCHITECTURE.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 418. Lancula.]
+
+=Lancula=, R. (dimin. of LANX). The scale which was placed, when
+necessary, at one of the ends of a Roman steelyard (_statera_). (Fig.
+418.)
+
+=Landgrave= (Germ. _Land, Graf_). A title given to those Counts of
+Germany who take their rank from a large tract of land. The first
+_Landgraves_ were those of Thuringia, Hesse, Alsace, and Leuchtenberg.
+
+=Langue-de-bœuf=, Fr. A blade fixed to a pikestaff; named after its
+shape.
+
+=Langued=, Her. To denote the tincture of an animal’s tongue.
+
+=Laniarium=, =Laniena=, R. (_lanius_, a butcher). A slaughter-house or
+butcher’s shop.
+
+=Laniers=, O. E. Leather straps for various uses; as armlets to a
+shield, or as garters or bands, &c.
+
+=Lanipendia=, R. (_lana_, wool, and _pendere_, to weigh). A woman whose
+duty it was to weigh the wool for spinning, and distribute it among the
+slaves for their daily tasks.
+
+=Lanista=, R. A man who trained gladiators for the Roman circus. They
+were frequently his own property, and he let them out for hire; or he
+received them from their owners into his _school_ (ludus) for training.
+
+=Lansquenet=, Fr. A game at cards.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 419. Old English Horn Lantern.]
+
+=Lantern.= In Christian art, the attribute of St. Gudula, in allusion to
+the legend of her miraculous lantern, which her prayers rekindled as
+often as Satan extinguished it. In Architecture, a small turret above
+the roof of a building, having windows all round it.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 420. Lanterne des Morts.]
+
+=Lanterne des Morts= or =Churchyard Beacon=, Arch. A small tower raised
+upon a base, and generally round, but sometimes square or polygonal;
+with windows at the top to emit the shining rays from the lamp inside.
+Fig. 420 represents a “lanterne des morts” at Ciron, France.
+
+=Lanx=, R. This term denotes (1) a circular dish of silver or other
+metal, often embossed, used especially at banquets. (2) The scale of a
+balance (_libra_). (3) A salver for handing fruits or other dainties at
+dessert.
+
+=Laocoon.= A magnificent sculpture, found in 1506 among the ruins of the
+palace of Titus, now in the Vatican. It represents Laocoon and his two
+sons struggling in the folds of two monster serpents. According to Pliny
+it is the work of three Rhodian sculptors, Agesander, Polydorus, and
+Athenodorus, and stood in the palace of Titus. He said that it was made
+of one stone, but the joining of five pieces has been detected. [See
+_Lessing’s_ “_Laokoon_.”]
+
+=Laphria=, Gr. An annual festival, celebrated at Patræ in Achaia, in
+honour of Artemis, surnamed Laphria.
+
+=Lapidary.= An artist who cuts, grinds, and polishes gems and stones. In
+the lapidary’s _scale of hardness_ of minerals there are 10 standard
+degrees, represented as follows:—No. 1, _talc_, which is very easily
+cut; No. 2, _compact gypsum_; No. 3, _calc-spar_; No. 4, _fluor-spar_;
+No. 5, _apatite_; No. 6, _felspar_; No. 7, _quartz_; No. 8, _topaz_; No.
+9, _sapphire_; No. 10, _diamond_. Diamonds are for the most part cut at
+Amsterdam.
+
+=Lapis Lazuli.= A beautiful blue mineral stone of various shades of
+colour. (See ULTRAMARINE.)
+
+=Laquear=, =Laqueare=. Synonym of LACUNAR (q.v.).
+
+=Laqueatores=, R. An order of gladiators who used a noose to catch their
+adversaries.
+
+=Laqueatus=, R. A ceiling decorated with panels (_lacunar_).
+
+=Lararium=, R. A small shrine consecrated to the gods called Lares; a
+room in which the images of the Lares or tutelary genii of the house
+were placed. It is said to have been customary for religious Romans,
+immediately after they rose in the morning, to pray in the Lararium.
+
+=Larentalia=, =Larentinalia=, or =Laurentalia=, R. A Roman festival in
+honour of Acca Larentia, the nurse of Romulus and Remus; or, according
+to another tradition, a festival instituted by Ancus in honour of a
+wealthy courtezan named Larentia, who had bequeathed all her property to
+the Roman people. It was celebrated on the 10th of December.
+
+=Lares=, R. The Lares Privati, Domestici, or Familiares, were the
+guardian deities of the house. The spot peculiarly sacred to them was
+the _focus_, or hearth, in the Atrium, where the altar for domestic
+sacrifice stood, and near it was a niche, containing little images of
+these gods, to whom offerings of flowers, frankincense, and wine were
+made from time to time, and regularly on the kalends of each month.
+There were many classes of Lares Publici: (1) The Lares rurales, who
+presided over the flocks, herds, &c. (2) The Lares compitales,
+worshipped where two cross-roads met, &c. [Cf. Ovid, Fasti, v. 129.]
+
+=Larghetto=, It. In Music, less slow than _largo_.
+
+=Largo=, It. In Music, a slow movement, one degree quicker than
+_adagio_.
+
+=Latch=, O. E. A cross-bow.
+
+=Lateen Sail.= A triangular mainsail on a tall sloping yard, which
+reaches down to the deck.
+
+=Later=, R. A brick; the πλίνθος of the Greeks. Among the Romans bricks
+were of various forms; the largest was called _pentadorum_; the next
+size, _tetradorum_. _Later coctus_, _coctilis_ was the term applied to a
+baked brick; _later crudus_ was an unbaked brick, i. e. one dried in the
+sun. Pliny calls the brick-field LATERARIA.
+
+=Latericium= (opus), R. A structure built of bricks.
+
+=Laterna=, =Lanterna=. A LANTERN (q.v.).
+
+=Laton= or =Latten=, O. E. An alloy of brass, of which candlesticks,
+sepulchral monuments, crosses, &c., were made in the Middle Ages. White
+Laton was a mixture of brass and tin.
+
+=Latrunculi=, R. (Gr. πεσσοί). The ancient game of draughts. It is
+mentioned by Homer. The Romans often had twelve lines of squares
+(_mandræ_) on the draught-board. The number of pieces varied from five
+to twelve, and in later times the game was played with the _tesseræ_ or
+dice.
+
+=Lattice=, Arch. A trellis or cross-barred work; a network window.
+
+=Laura=, Chr. The origin of the name is obscure. It signifies a
+collection of separate cells in a wilderness, where a community of monks
+lived each in his own cell, meeting together only during two days of the
+week. The most celebrated _lauras_ were in Palestine.
+
+=Laurel=, Gen. The emblem of glory and victory. Sacred also to Apollo.
+In modern times an emblem of peace.
+
+=Lautumiæ=, R. (λα-τομία). A stone-quarry, and thence a prison hewn out
+of a quarry, more particularly the public prison of Syracuse, hewn into
+the solid cliff, but roofless. The Tullianum at Rome was called Lautumiæ
+also.
+
+=Lava.= The scoria from an active volcano, which is well adapted to
+ornamental carving.
+
+=Lavabo.= (See LAVATORIUM.)
+
+=Lavacrum=, R. (_lavo_, to wash). A bath of hot or cold water, in
+contradistinction to a vapour bath (_caldarium_).
+
+=Lavatorium=, R. (_lavo_, to wash). A small building in a monastery, in
+which the monks washed their hands before and after a repast. The
+_lavatorium_ was usually placed near the refectory.
+
+=Lawn.= This fine linen fabric was introduced in the reign of Queen
+Elizabeth.
+
+=Lay Figure.= A large wooden jointed doll, used by artists to display
+drapery.
+
+=Lead-glazed Wares.= (See POTTERY.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 421. Stamped gilt and painted leather hangings
+illustrating a pictorial arrangement of pattern.]
+
+=Leather= was used instead of tapestry for the hangings of rooms in the
+16th century, and was beautifully gilded and chased. (Consult “L’Art de
+travailler les Cuirs dorés ou argentés,” by M. Fougeroux de Bondary, in
+“Description des Arts et Metiers,” 1762.) (Fig. 421.)
+
+=Leaves=, Her. Their peculiarities are blazoned as laurel leaf, oak
+leaf, &c.
+
+=Leaves=, =Leafage=. (See FOLIAGE.)
+
+=Lebes=, Gr. (λέβης; λείβη, to pour out). A brass saucepan or caldron
+(_pelvis_, _ahenum_); it was a deep vessel with swelling sides. It was
+sometimes made with a pointed bottom to fit into a stand, which was
+called INCITEGA.
+
+=Lebiton=, =Lebitonarium=. (See COLOBIUM.)
+
+=Lecanê=, Gr. A drinking-bowl used by the Etrurians (basin-shaped, with
+a lid).
+
+=Lectern.= A reading-desk in a Christian church; most frequently of
+brass in the form of an eagle, but often decorated with more elaborate
+emblems.
+
+=Lectica=, R. (_lectus_, a couch). A couch or litter carried by bearers,
+used both by men and women; it was introduced from the East, and was
+quickly adopted in Greece and Rome. The Greek litter had a roof made of
+the skin of an ox, and the sides covered with curtains. Among the Romans
+it was seldom used excepting for travelling, until the luxurious days of
+the empire, when the lectica became a very splendid affair. It was
+sometimes constructed with gold and ivory, and instead of curtains it
+was closed at the sides, with windows of transparent stone (_lapis
+specularis_). When standing, it rested on four feet. It was borne upon
+poles (_asseres_) by two or more slaves, and was called hexophron,
+octophron, &c., according to the number of _lecticarii_ employed to
+carry it.
+
+=Lecticula.= Dimin. of _lectica_; it denoted a litter for the conveyance
+of the sick, or a bier on which a dead body was carried out.
+
+=Lectisternium=, R. (_lectus_, and _sterno_, to spread out). A religious
+ceremony consisting of a banquet offered to the gods, at which the
+statues of the latter were present stretched out on couches, with tables
+and viands before them as if they were partaking of the feast.
+
+=Lectorium=, Chr. (_lector_, a reader). An old term afterwards replaced
+by that of AMBO (q.v.).
+
+=Lectrin=, Chr. An old term now replaced by _jubé_ or rood-loft and
+desk.
+
+=Lectrum=, Chr. An old term denoting a praying-desk.
+
+=Lectus=, R. (_lego_, to put together). A bed or couch complete; _lectus
+cubicularis_, a sleeping-couch; _lectus genialis_, a nuptial bed;
+_lectus adversus_, a symbolical marriage-bed; _lectus triclinaris_, a
+dining-couch, a couch for three persons, placed in the _triclinium_ or
+dining-room; _lectus funebris_, a funeral bier. The diminutive of this
+term is _lectulus_. The _lectus cubicularis_ resembled an old-fashioned
+sofa with a high back; being of considerable height, it was reached by
+means of a footstool (_scamnum_), or a set of steps (_gradus_). The
+_lectus genialis_ (Gr. εὐνὴ) or marriage-bed was still higher, larger,
+and handsomely decorated; it is represented with a flight of steps at
+the foot. The _lectus adversus_ was a symbolical marriage-bed, and stood
+in the atrium, opposite to the entrance of the house, and was, as it
+were, the throne or seat of office, from which the housewife
+superintended the spinning, weaving, and similar duties of the servants.
+The _lectus triclinaris_ used at meals is described under the article.
+_Lectus funebris_ is the name of the bier upon which the dead were borne
+to burial or the pyre.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 422. Lecythus.]
+
+=Lecythus=, Gr. A cylindrical vase made to contain oil or perfumes. It
+often figures in the hands of goddesses, or of females at the toilet;
+and is mostly ornamented with delicate paintings and choice subjects.
+(Fig. 422.)
+
+=Ledger=, Arch. A stone slab.
+
+=Ledger Lines.= In Music, extra lines above or below the five ruled
+lines.
+
+=Ledgment=, Arch. A horizontal course of stone or mouldings,
+particularly the base moulding.
+
+=Leet=, O. E. An ancient Anglo-Saxon court of justice; a manor court.
+
+=Legato=, It. Literally, “bound;” in Music signifies “in a smooth and
+gliding manner.”
+
+=Legend.= In Numismatics, the words round the _edge_ of a medal or coin.
+
+=Leghorn.= A kind of straw plait, first invented at Leghorn.
+
+=Legio=, R. (_lego_, to collect). A Roman legion; a division of the army
+consisting of from three to six thousand heavy-armed soldiers, who were
+called _legionarii_. Twelve thousand legionaries were required to make
+up a consular army. The legion contained troops of all arms; infantry,
+cavalry, and the ancient substitutes for artillery; and was an army
+complete in itself. The numbers varied, as well as the organization, at
+different periods. Livy speaks of legions of 5000 infantry and 300
+horse. The subject is one demanding voluminous description. The legion
+was subdivided into Cohortes, Manipuli, Centuriæ, Signa, Ordines,
+Contubernia.
+
+=Leice=, Celt. Also called _meanal leice_. The stone of destiny; a large
+crystal kept by the Druids for soothsaying.
+
+=Leister= or =Lister=, Scotch. A trident or many-pronged spear for
+striking fish.
+
+=Leming Star=, O. E. (from A.S. _leme_, brightness). A comet.
+
+=Lemman= (A.S. _leof_=loved, and _man_). A sweetheart, &c.
+
+=Lemnian Reddle.= An _ochre_ of a deep red colour and firm consistence,
+used as a pigment.
+
+=Lemniscus=, R. (λημνίσκος; λῆνος, wool). A fillet or ribbon awarded, as
+a mark of honour, to a person who had distinguished himself in any way.
+The person who wore it was called _lemniscatus_. It hung down from
+crowns or diadems at the back of the head. _Lemnisci_ were also worn,
+without _coronæ_, by ladies for ornament. Hence, in Geometry, a curve of
+the form of the figure 8 is called _lemniscata_.
+
+=Lemon Yellow.= A bright pigment, brighter and clearer than Naples
+yellow or masticot, and not liable to change.
+
+=Lemures= or =Manes=, R. The souls of the dead, who, according to the
+religious belief of the Romans, were transformed into beneficent or evil
+genii, according as the individual had been during his life good or bad,
+virtuous or worthless. “_Lares_ si meriti boni sint; _Lemures_ sive
+_Larvas_ si mali; _Manes_ autem cum incertum est,” says St. Augustine.
+
+=Lemuria.= Festivals in honour of the Lemures celebrated at Rome, at
+night and in silence, on the 9th, 11th, and 13th of May. During them the
+temples of the gods were closed, and marriage was considered unlucky;
+hence the proverb, _Mense Maio male nubent_. Those who celebrated the
+Lemuria walked barefooted, washed their hands three times, and threw
+black beans nine times behind their backs. On the second of the three
+days there were games in the circus in honour of Mars, and on the third
+day the images of the thirty Argei, made of rushes, were thrown from the
+Pons Sublicius into the Tiber by the Vestal virgins. On the same day
+there was a festival of merchants.
+
+=Lenn= or =Linn=, Celt. A woollen wrap with a long nap, or simply the
+skin of some animal, worn in severe weather as a kind of upper garment
+by the poorer class of Gauls.
+
+=Lens= (lit. a lentil). A convex or concave glass, which, by changing
+the direction of rays of light, magnifies or diminishes objects.
+
+=Lent= (A.S. _lencten_, Spring), Chr. The forty days’ fast preparatory
+to Easter. Pope Gregory the Great speaks of this fast as of thirty-six
+days’ duration; i. e. six weeks, not counting the Sundays, which, it is
+suggested, amounts to one-tenth, or a _tithe_ of the year.
+
+=Lent Rose= or =Lent Lily=, O. E. The daffodil.
+
+=Lentiform.= Shaped like a double convex lens.
+
+=Lentiner=, O. E. A hawk taken in Lent.
+
+=L’Envoy.= “The conclusion of a ballet, or sonnet, in a short stanzo by
+itselfe, and serving oftentimes as a dedication of the whole.”
+(_Cotgrave._)
+
+=Leonine Verses.= Rhyming Latin compositions, very popular in the Middle
+Ages. In the 3rd century a piece of 1200 such verses was written by
+Commodianus. St. Augustine and the venerable Bede also wrote some. The
+proper _leonine_ consists of a couplet rhyming at the end; but the
+rhymes may be otherwise distributed: e. g.—
+
+             “O miseratrix! O dominatrix! præcipe dictu;
+             Ne devastemur, ne lapidemur, grandinis ictu.”
+
+=Leontarium=, Chr. A fountain of lions spouting water; frequently placed
+in the courtyard or atrium of basilican churches.
+
+=Leopard=, Her. A lion in any other attitude than “rampant” was blazoned
+by the early heralds as a “leopard.” Till the 14th century the lions of
+the Royal Shield of England were designated leopards.
+
+=Leou=, Chinese. (1) A building of many stories, like a pagoda. (2) An
+upper floor in a Chinese house.
+
+=Lepastê=, R. (λεπὰς, a limpet; Lat. _patella_). A large vessel, in form
+like the _cylix_, but resting on a broad stand; employed from the
+earliest times for holding pure wine.
+
+=Leporarium=, R. (_lepus_, a hare). A hare warren; a walled paddock in
+which four-footed game were preserved.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 423. The Leschê at Delphi.]
+
+=Leschê=, Gr. (λέσχη, i. e. a place for talking). A public place of
+assembly and conversation, or a small exchange for transacting business,
+&c. The leschê of Delphi (Fig. 423) was celebrated for the painting
+which it contained by Polygnotus (470 B.C.). At Athens there were 360
+leschai, small buildings or porticoes furnished with seats and exposed
+to the sun, where the poor could rest in warmth and shelter.
+
+=Lesina=, It. An awl. The device of the Lesina Academy, with the motto,
+“_L’assotigliar la più, meglio anche fora_.”
+
+=Lettern=, Arch. The _Lectern_ of a church is often so called, when made
+of _Latten_ or brass. The word is used instead of _Latten_.
+
+=Letters of the Alphabet= are sometimes used as charges in heraldry. The
+practice of weaving letters into the ornamentation of textile fabrics is
+very ancient in the East. Pliny says, “Parthi _literas_ vestibus
+intexunt.” Fanciful designs imitating or copying oriental letters
+without meaning were worked in church textiles in early Christian times;
+and the artists of Italy up to the middle of the 16th century
+represented such devices on the hems of the garments of great personages
+in their paintings.
+
+=Leucite= (λευκὸς, white). _White spar_, or _white garnet_; a white
+stony substance found among volcanic productions.
+
+=Leucomb=, O. E. A dormer window.
+
+=Leucopyrite.= A mineral used in the production of artificial
+_orpiment_.
+
+=Levacion=, O. E. The elevation of the host in the mass.
+
+=Levant.= The Eastern shores of the Mediterranean.
+
+=Levecel=, O. E. A pent-house or projecting roof over a door or an open
+shed.
+
+=Levesele=, O. E. A lattice. The original of the _chequers_ on the
+door-posts of inns.
+
+=Levitonarium.= (See COLOBIUM.)
+
+=Lew=, O. E. (modern _lea_). Sheltered from the wind; hence =Lewe Water=
+(modern _luke_-warm water).
+
+=Lewins=, O. E. A kind of bands put about a hawk.
+
+=Libbard=, O. E. A leopard.
+
+=Libella=, R. (_libra_, a level or balance). (1) A level, or instrument
+employed by masons, joiners, and carpenters, in the same way as with us,
+for testing the evenness of the surface of their work. (2) A small Roman
+silver coin, afterwards substituted by the _As_, which it equalled in
+value.
+
+=Libellus= or =Libellulus=, R. A small book, pamphlet, letter, or
+notice.
+
+=Liber= (literally, the _rind_ of the papyrus; Gr. βιβλίον, from the
+Egyptian word _byblos_, the papyrus plant). A book.—Parchment
+(_membrana_) was invented by Eumenes, king of Pergamos; hence its name
+of _pergamentum_. The paper (_charta_) or parchment was only written
+upon on one side; the other side was stained yellow. Writings were
+frequently washed off, and the parchment used again was called
+_palimpsestus_. The sheets forming a book were joined together and
+rolled round a staff, and then called a _volume_ (_volumen_). The stick
+was usually ornamented with balls or bosses, ornamented or painted,
+called _umbilici_. The ends of the roll, carefully cut, polished with
+pumice-stone, and coloured black, were called _geminæ frontes_. The
+reader held the staff in his left hand to unroll the sheet (_evolvere
+librum_), as he proceeded, with his right. The roll, if valuable, was
+kept in a parchment case, which was stained with a purple colour, or
+yellow. The title of the book (_titulus_ or _index_) was written on a
+small strip of papyrus or parchment with a light red colour (coccum or
+minium); and this practice was the origin of the art of illumination.
+
+=Liber Pontificalis=, _seu de gestis Romanorum pontificum_. A work of
+the 15th century, of great value to the student of early Christian art
+work, and in particular of textiles and embroidery.
+
+=Libra=, R. (1) A balance with two scales (_lanx_), depending by chains
+from the ends of the beam (_jugum_); in the centre of the latter was a
+handle (_ansa_). (2) The As or pound; the unit of weight. (See AS.)
+
+=Libretto=, It. The words of an opera, oratorio, &c.
+
+=Librile=, R. (_libra_). A term denoting the ends of the beam (_jugum_)
+in a balance, and thence the balance itself; it is thus synonymous with
+LIBRA (q.v.).
+
+=Liburna=, =Liburnica=, R. A vessel of war so called from the fact that
+it was built on a model invented by the Illyrian pirates, or Liburni.
+
+=Lichanos=, Gr. (_forefinger string_). The note below the MESE of the
+seven-stringed lyre. (See MESE.)
+
+=Lich-gate.= A shed over the gate of a churchyard to rest the corpse
+under. (See CORPSE-GATE.) (Fig. 197.)
+
+=Lich-stone=—near a churchyard gate, for resting coffins on—is generally
+raised about three feet from the ground, shaped like a coffin, and has
+stone benches round it for the bearers to rest upon.
+
+=Liciæ=, Med. Lat. (Fr. _lices_), from the Italian _lizza_, palings. The
+lists; an enclosed space surrounding a camp or castle.
+
+=Licium=, R. A leash, or thick thread, employed to divide in two a set
+of threads in a warp, in order to allow the shuttle to pass through
+them. By analogy, any kind of thread or cord used for fastening.
+
+=Lictor=, R. (See FASCES.)
+
+=Lieberkuhn.= A reflecting mirror on a microscope, named after the
+inventor.
+
+=Lierne Rib= (in a vault), Arch. (From _lier_, to bind.) “Any rib that
+does not arise from the impost, and is not a ridge rib, but crosses from
+one boss or intersection of the principal ribs to another. Vaults in
+which such _liernes_ are employed are termed LIERNE VAULTS.” (_Parker’s
+Glossary._)
+
+=Light Red.= A pigment of a russet orange tint, produced from burnt
+ochre.
+
+=Lights.= The openings between the mullions of a window. (See DAYS.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 424. Ligula.]
+
+=Ligula=, R. (1) A small tongue-shaped sword. (Fig. 424.) The term is
+derived from _lingua_, a tongue. (2) A liquid measure, a _large_
+spoonful, distinguished from _cochlear_, which is a _small_ spoonful.
+(3) The leather tongue of a shoe.
+
+=Lilies=, in Christian art, are the symbols of purity; the special
+attribute of the Virgin Mary. They are frequent in the catacombs on the
+tombs of Christian virgins.
+
+=Lily= or =Iris Green= (It. _verde giglio_). A pigment anciently used in
+Italy. It was prepared by dipping linen rags into the juice of plants,
+and then preserving them dry.
+
+=Lima=, R. (1) A file or rasp, applied to the same purposes as at the
+present day. (See SCOBINA.) (2) In Med. Lat., a tool or weapon worn by
+archers in the French service, either as a kind of sword or for
+sharpening arrows with. (_Meyrick._)
+
+=Limbeck=, O. F. An alembeck.
+
+=Limbo=, O. E. Hell.
+
+  “Beholde now what owre Lord Jhesu dide one the Saturday, as sune as he
+  was dede. He went downe to helle to owre holy fadyrs that ware in
+  _lymbo_ to tyme of his Resureccione.” (_MS. Lincoln._ A. i. 17, f.
+  186.)
+
+=Limbus=, R. An ornamental band or border resembling scroll-work or
+architectural foliage, employed as an ornament on dress, vases
+(especially on Etruscan vases), &c.; and thence (1) a ribbon worn as an
+ornament in the hair; (2) the zodiacal circle described on a globe (see
+Fig. 48); (3) a stout cord forming the main rope in a fishing-net; (4)
+in Med. Latin, a military tunic—the German _Wapenrock_; or a wrapper
+worn by soldiers round the head, _temp._ John, usually termed _cargan_.
+(_Meyrick._)
+
+=Lime.= Slaked lime, alone or mixed with pulverized white marble, was a
+white pigment used in fresco-painting.
+
+=Lime-hound=, O. E. A sporting-dog in a _lime_ or leash.
+
+=Limen=, R. The threshold or step laid down before the entrance of a
+door; the same term is also applied to the lintel. _Limen superius_ is
+the lintel, and _limen inferius_ the threshold properly so called.
+
+            “Limen superum inferumque, salve!” (_Plautus._)
+
+=Limer=, O. E. A bloodhound. “A dogge engendred betweene an hounde and a
+mastyve, called a _lymmer_, or a mungrell.”
+
+=Limitour=, O. E. A begging friar.
+
+=Limning=, O. E. Painting, especially portrait painting.
+
+=Limoges Enamel.= A kind of incrusted enamel on the system called
+_champlevé_; perfected at Limoges, in France, in the 15th century, and
+hence called _Opus de Limogia_. (See ENAMEL.) The enamels and METAL WORK
+of LIMOGES, in furniture, decoration of armour, and church utensils, are
+very important. The monument of Aylmer de Valence in Westminster Abbey
+is Limoges workmanship.
+
+=Limus=, R. A kind of apron bordered with a purple hem, worn by the
+_popa_ or attendant who killed the animal offered at a sacrifice.
+
+=Lincei.= An academy for natural history, founded in Rome in 1603. They
+adopted the lynx for their device “because the academicians should have
+the eyes of a lynx to penetrate the secrets of nature.” (_Mrs. Bury
+Palliser._)
+
+=Line of Beauty.= A curve like an elongated S. (See _Hogarth’s Analysis
+of Beauty_.)
+
+=Line of Life.= One of the lines in the hand; a term in palmistry.
+
+=Linea=, R. (_linum_, a flax-thread). A line or any kind of string;
+_linea alba_, a rope whitened with chalk and stretched across the arena
+in a circus for the purpose of giving a fair start to runners, chariots,
+or riders.
+
+=Lined=, Her. (1) Having a cord attached. (2) Having a lining.
+
+=Lineleon.= Linseed oil. “_Lineleon ex semine lini fiet._”
+
+=Linen.= Painting on linen was largely practised in England during the
+14th century; and a drawing sent by Albert Durer to Raphael is described
+by Vasari as having been painted “in water-colours on a fine linen
+cloth, which showed the transparent lights on both sides, without white;
+water-colours only being added, while the cloth was left for the lights;
+which thing appeared wonderful to Raphael.” (_Vasari_, _Vita di
+Raffaello_.)
+
+=Linen-scroll.= A decorative ornament, common in German wood-carving of
+the 15th and 16th centuries. It resembles a napkin stood on end, and
+partly opened into scroll-shaped cylinders.
+
+=Linset=, O. E. The stool on which women sat while spinning.
+
+=Linsey-woolsey= (O. E. Lylse-wulse). Coarse woollen stuff first made at
+Linsey in Suffolk.
+
+=Linstock=, O. E. (15th century). A pike, with branches on each side to
+hold a lighted match for firing artillery.
+
+=Lintel.= The stone or beam placed across a door or window overhead
+(_limen superius_).
+
+=Linteolum=, R. and Chr. (_linteum_). Any small piece of linen, such as
+a napkin or handkerchief.
+
+=Linter=, R. A flat boat, frequently formed of the trunk of a tree, used
+in shallow waters for the transport of produce; it was also used in the
+construction of bridges of boats.
+
+=Linum=, R. (λίνον). Flax, and thence anything made of that fibre.
+
+=Lion=, O. E. (from _lie on_). The main beam of a ceiling.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 425. Heraldic Lions.]
+
+=Lion.= In Heraldry, the lion _couchant_ represents sovereignty;
+_rampant_, magnanimity; _passant_, resolution; _guardant_, prudence;
+_saliant_, valour; _seiant_, counsel; and _regardant_, circumspection.
+(See LEOPARD, MARZOCCO.)
+
+=Lioncel=, Her. A lion drawn to a small scale, generally rampant.
+
+=Lions=, in Christian art, typify the resurrection of the Redeemer;
+because, according to an oriental fable, the lion’s cub was born dead,
+and in three days its sire licked it into life. The lion also typifies
+solitude, and is therefore the attribute of hermits; and as the type of
+fortitude and resolution it was placed at the feet of martyrs.
+
+=Lip Moulding=, Arch. So called from its resemblance to an overhanging
+lip. It is common in the Perpendicular period.
+
+=Liquid Madder Lake= or =Rubiate=. A brilliant rose-coloured pigment,
+used in oil or water-colour painting.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 426. Liripipes. Italian, 16th century.]
+
+=Liripipes=, O. E. The long tails of hoods, which hung down the back.
+Worn also by the Italians. (Fig. 426.)
+
+=List=, Arch. A straight upright ring encircling the lower part of a
+column, just above the torus, and next to the shaft.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 427. Listels.]
+
+=List=, =Listel=, Arch. A small square moulding, also called a _fillet_.
+Fig. 427 represents a base, the ornamentation of which is made up of
+numerous _listels_ or fillets.
+
+=Litany Stool.= In a church, a small low desk at which the Litany was
+sung.
+
+  “The priest goeth from out of his seat into the body of the church,
+  and (at a low desk before the chancel door, called the _faldstool_)
+  kneels and says or sings the Litany.” (_Eliz._ xviii. 1559.)
+
+=Literatus= or =Litteratus=, R. (_litera_, a letter). In general,
+anything that is marked with letters; and thence (1) a slave who has
+been branded on the forehead with a hot iron, also called _inscriptus_,
+_notatus_, _stigmatus_. (2) A grammarian, learned man, or commentator.
+
+=Litharge.= An ingredient of _drying oil_ (q.v.).
+
+=Lithochrome.= Another name for CHROMOLITHOGRAPHY, or colour-printing.
+
+=Lithography=, or drawing on stone, was invented by Aloys Senefelder of
+Munich in 1796. Drawings are made on a polished surface of calcareous
+stone, with ink and chalk of a soapy nature. The _lithographic ink_ is
+made of tallow-soap, pure white wax, lamp-black, and a small quantity of
+tallow, all boiled together, and, when cool, dissolved in distilled
+water; the ingredients for the _lithographic chalk_ are the same, with a
+small quantity of potash added during the boiling. After the drawing on
+the stone is perfectly dry, a very weak solution of sulphuric acid is
+poured over it, which takes up the alkali from the ink or chalk, and
+leaves an insoluble substance behind it, while it lowers in a slight
+degree the surface of the stone not drawn upon, and prepares it for the
+free absorption of water. Weak gum-water is next applied to close the
+pores of the stone, and to keep it moist. The stone is then washed with
+water, and the printing-ink applied in the ordinary way. It then passes
+through the press, the washing with water and daubing with ink being
+repeated after every impression. As many as 70,000 copies have in this
+way been taken from one stone, the last being nearly as good as the
+first. Copper-plate and steel engravings can be transferred to stone.
+(See the article “Lithography” in the _Encyclopædia Britannica_, 8th
+ed.)
+
+=Lithostrotum=, R. (λιθό-στρωτον). The pavement of a Roman road, and
+thence any ornamental pavement, mosaic, incrusted marble, coloured
+inlaid-work, &c.
+
+=Litmus= or =Lacmus=. The red, violet, and blue colours known as
+_archil_, _cudbear_, and _litmus_, are derived from certain lichens;
+_litmus_ from the _roccella tinctoria_.
+
+=Liturgy= (λειτουργός). The printed formulary according to which the
+public services in a church are performed.
+
+=Lituus=, R. (an Etruscan word, signifying _crooked_). (1) A brass
+trumpet formed of a long, straight tube, but curved and opening out wide
+at the end like a tobacco-pipe. The _tuba_ was straight, the _cornu_
+spiral. (2) An augur’s staff curved into the form of a crook, with which
+they divided the expanse of the sky into regions in their divinations.
+
+=Livery= (Fr. _livrée_). Literally, the _distribution_; that is to say,
+of clothes to be worn by the servants of palaces, &c. (See BADGES.)
+
+=Livery Colours.= In the Middle Ages all great houses had their own
+livery colours. Thus those of the House of York were blue and crimson,
+those of the House of Lancaster white and blue, of the House of Tudor
+white and green, of the House of Stuart scarlet and gold.
+
+=Loaves=, in Christian art, are the emblems of charity to the poor; the
+attribute of St. Philip the Apostle and other saints.
+
+=Lobe= (of an arch), Fr.; Anglicé _foil_; e. g. a trefoil arch is _arc
+trilobé_.
+
+=Local Colour= is the real fundamental colour of an object, considered
+apart from all accidental variations of light and reflexion.
+
+=Locellus=, R. A box or casket; this term is a diminutive of LOCULUS.
+
+=Lochaber Axe.= A short pole with a sharp axe at one end, an ancient
+weapon of the Highlanders of Scotland.
+
+=Locker=, Chr. Arch. A cupboard for sacred vessels generally left in the
+thickness of the wall on the north side of the altar of a church. (See
+SECRETARIUM.)
+
+=Locking up.= Any process by which a colour, liable to be affected by
+damp, can be rendered durable.
+
+=Loculamentum=, R. (_loculus_, a little place). Any box, chest, or case,
+the interior of which is divided into compartments.
+
+=Loculus=, R. (dimin. of _locus_, a place). (1) A coffin, generally of
+stone. (See SARCOPHAGUS.) (2) A compartment in the manger of a stable.
+(3) A small chest fitted with compartments.
+
+=Locutorium=, Chr. Of a convent, &c., the _parlour_.
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 428, 429. Badge of Richard II. in Westminster
+Hall.]
+
+=Lodged=, Her. Said of animals of the chase _in repose_. The
+illustration shows the favourite badge of Richard II.: a white hart
+chained, and in an attitude of rest. “This device is repeated in
+_Westminster Hall_ 83 times; and all are equally consistent with
+heraldic truth and accuracy, without any of them being an exact
+counterpart of any other.” (_Boutell_, _English Heraldry_.) (Fig. 428.)
+
+=Loegria=, O. E. England. (_Geoffry of Monmouth._)
+
+=Logan Stones= (properly _logging stones_, from O. E. _log_, to
+oscillate). ROCKING STONES (q.v.).
+
+=Logeum=, Gr. (λογεῖον). A Greek term synonymous with PULPITUM (q.v.).
+
+=Loggia=, It. The gallery, or corridor, of a palace.
+
+=Lombard Architecture.= “A style invented by the Lombards (Longobardi)
+in the 7th century in imitation of the Roman. It continued in use till
+the 10th century, and gave place to the Norman style. It is rude, heavy,
+and massive, with small narrow windows.” (_Parker._) The above is only
+one application of the term, which is applied by different writers to a
+great number of different styles. The _Lombardesque_ style (It. _lo
+stile Lombardesco_) applies to the architectural works of the family of
+Pietro _Lombardo_ (15th century). The _Lombard Gothic_ is still another
+style (of the 12th century).
+
+=Loops=, =Loups=, Arch. Another name for CRENELS (q.v.), or embrasures.
+
+=Lord.= The word is Saxon; from _hlaf_ or _klaf_, a loaf of bread; and
+_ford_, to give; hence it means originally _bread-giver_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 430. Gallic cuirass in the Louvre.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 431. Fragment of a Gallic cuirass.]
+
+=Lorica=, Gr. and R. (_lorum_, a thong). A cuirass; it was made either
+for officers, of two γύαλα, the breast and back-pieces; or, for the
+soldiers, of a number of small metal scales or bands, fastened together
+with rivets or rings, and flexible. Among the Asiatics the cuirass was
+frequently made of cotton; and among the Sarmatians, and other nations,
+of horn.
+
+=Lorimers=, O. E. Bit-makers.
+
+=Lorraine Cross.= A cross with two projecting arms on each side.
+
+=Lorraine Glass= for painted windows; obtained from the Vosges as early
+as the 13th century, and then called Burgundy glass. “When any one means
+to paint, let him choose the Lorraine glass, which inclines to the white
+yellow because that bears the fire best, and receives the colour better
+than any other.” (_Félibien_, 1619.)
+
+=Lota.= A sacred utensil in India, used in ceremonial and other
+ablutions. It is a globular bowl with a low narrow neck, sometimes
+chased or engraved and incrusted.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 432. Lotus-flowers.]
+
+=Lotus= (λωτός). The lotus is a frequently recurring _cyma_ in Hindoo
+architecture. In Egyptian archæology, the lotus, of which two partially
+opened buds may be seen in Fig. 432, was the symbol of the rising of the
+sun, of fertilization, life, and resurrection. The lotus appears in the
+ornamentation of the largest as well as of the smallest monuments of
+Egyptian art; and is the motive of many of the columns and capitals of
+the temples and palaces of a certain period, as well as of the
+decoration of vases and other small objects. Three lotus-stems issuing
+from a basin symbolized Upper Egypt.
+
+=Louis d’Or=, Fr. A gold coin, value about 20_s._, first struck in 1640.
+
+=Louis Treize Style= (Arch.), a French version of Italian art, prevailed
+from 1625 to 1650, and produced _Jean le Pautre_, the ornamentist, and
+the following styles:—
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 433. Heraldic Decoration at Versailles—Louis
+Quatorze.]
+
+=Louis Quatorze=, Arch. A style of ornament developed towards the close
+of the 17th century (1643–1715). It is described as “essentially an
+_ornamental_ style, its chief aim being effect by a brilliant play of
+light and shade; colour, or mere beauty of form in detail, having no
+part in it. This style arose in Italy, and the Chiesa del Gesù at Rome
+is mentioned as its type or model. The great medium of the Louis
+Quatorze was gilt stucco-work, which, for a while, seems to have almost
+wholly superseded decorative painting; and this absence of colour in the
+principal decorations of the period seems to have led to its more
+striking characteristic,—infinite play of light and shade.” (_Wornum_,
+_Analysis of Ornament_.) In this style symmetry was first systematically
+avoided. In the _Furniture_ of the period the characteristic details are
+the scroll and shell. The classical ornaments and all the elements of
+the _Cinque-cento_, from which the Louis Quatorze proceeded, are
+admitted under peculiar treatment, as accessories; the panels are formed
+by chains of scrolls, or a combination of the scroll and shell.
+Versailles is the great repertory of the Louis Quatorze (Fig. 433), and
+the designs of Watteau its finest exemplification.
+
+=Louis Quinze=, Arch. This style (1715–74) is the exaggeration of the
+Louis Quatorze, rejecting all symmetry, and introducing the elongation
+of the foliations of the scroll, mixed up with a species of crimped
+conventional _coquillage_ or shell-work. The style found its culmination
+in the bizarre absurdities of the Rococo.
+
+=Louvre=, Arch. The open turret in the roofs of ancient halls, through
+which the smoke escaped before the introduction of modern chimneys.
+
+=Louvre-boarding= or =Luffer-boarding=, Arch. A series of overlapping
+boards sloping from the top downwards, and from within outwards, and
+fixed in a framework of timber. They are placed in the apertures of
+towers and belfries for the sake of ventilating the timbers, and are
+sloped to prevent rain and snow from penetrating within, and to direct
+the sound of the bells downwards. Sometimes the wooden boardings are
+covered with lead, slate, or zinc, in order to preserve them.
+
+=Louvre-window=, =Belfry-arch=, Arch. The large lights fitted with
+louvre-boarding in belfries.
+
+=Love-apple.= The tomato is so called.
+
+=Love-feast.= An annual feast celebrated in some parishes in England on
+the Thursday before Easter. (See _Edwards’s Old English Customs_.)
+
+=Love-in-Idleness=, O. E. The heart’s-ease.
+
+=Love-knot.= A complicated figure by which an interchange of affection
+is supposed to be figured.
+
+=Love-lies-bleeding=, O. E. A flower; a kind of amaranth.
+
+=Love-lock.= A long ringlet of hair worn on the left side of the head,
+and allowed to stream down the shoulder sometimes as far as the elbow.
+The love-lock is mentioned in Queen Elizabeth’s reign. “Will you be
+Frenchified, with a love-lock down to your shoulders, wherein you may
+weave your mistress’s favour?” (_Quip for an Upstart Courtier._)
+
+         “Why should thy sweete love-locke hang dangling downe,
+         Kissing thy girdle-stud with falling pride?
+         Although thy skin be white, thy haire is browne;
+         Oh, let not then thy haire thy beautie hide.”
+                               (_The Affectionate Shepheard._)
+
+=Lovel=, O. E. A dog.
+
+              “The Ratte, the Catte, and Lovell our dogge.
+              Rule all England under the hogge.” (1484.)
+
+=Low Side-window=, Arch. A peculiar small window found in many churches
+near the west end of the chancel, and very near the ground. It was never
+glazed, but closed with wooden or iron gratings. Its object has never
+been ascertained. Most of the examples are of the 13th or 14th century.
+(See _Archæological Journal_, vol. iv. p. 314.)
+
+=Low Sunday=, Chr. The Sunday next after Easter.
+
+=Lozenge.= In Heraldry, the diamond-shaped figure used for a shield to
+display the arms of spinsters and widows. The _lozenge_ is always placed
+upright on the shield, and its true proportions are as 5 to 4. (See
+MASCLE.)
+
+=Lozenge Moulding= or =Lozenge Fret=. An ornament used in Norman
+architecture, presenting the appearance of diagonal ribs, enclosing
+diamond-shaped panels.
+
+=Lozenges.= A term in wood-engraving for a class of fine gravers used
+for outlines and very fine shading.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 434. Shield of Hubert de Burgh, Earl of Kent.]
+
+=Lozengy=, Her. A field divided lozenge-wise. (Fig. 434.)
+
+=Lucariæ=, R. Festivals instituted at Rome to commemorate the refuge
+which the Roman army had once found in a wood (_lucus_) between the Via
+Salaria and the left bank of the Tiber. At the time of the invasion of
+the Gauls in the year 365 B.C., the Roman army would have been entirely
+cut to pieces but for this refuge.
+
+=Lucarne=, Fr. Arch. A dormer or garret window.
+
+=Luce=, Her. The fish now called a pike. (Fig. 380.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 435. Bronze Lucerna. Roman.]
+
+=Lucerna=, R. (_luceo_, to shine). An oil lamp of terra-cotta or bronze.
+(Fig. 435.) On one side they had a handle, and on the other one or more
+places for wicks (_myxæ_). The oil was poured in through an opening in
+the centre. _Lucerna bilychnis_, _trilychnis_, _polylychnis_, and
+_lucerna bimyxos_, _trimyxos_, or _polymyxos_, were respectively lamps
+with two, three, or several nozzles, or with two, three, or several
+wicks; _lucerna pensilis_ was a hanging lamp. (See Fig. 435.)
+
+=Lucidæ=, Med. Lat. Lustrous varnishes.
+
+=Lucifer= (_lux_, light; _fero_, to bring). The morning or evening star.
+
+=Lucta=, =Luctamen=, =Luctatio= (Gr. πάλη, πάλαισμα, παλαισμοσύνη, or
+καταβλητική). Wrestling. In the Homeric age the wrestlers contended
+naked, excepting the _perizoma_ round the loins; about B.C. 720 (the
+15th Olympiad) this was discarded. The Cretans and Lacedæmonians, and
+afterwards the Greeks, anointed the body with oil, and then strewed it
+over with sand or dust. The Lucta or Palé differed from the
+_Pancratium_. In the latter, boxing and wrestling were combined, and the
+contest continued until one party was killed, or unable to continue. In
+wrestling, on the other hand, the victory was awarded to the man who
+first threw the other three times. The most famous wrestler of antiquity
+was Milo of Crotona, who flourished B.C. 509, and was seven times
+crowned at the Pythian games, and six times at Olympia.
+
+=Lucullite.= A variety of black marble, first brought to Rome from an
+island at Assouan on the Nile by Lucullus.
+
+=Ludi.= Games at festivals, or a general name for such festivals as
+consisted entirely of games and contests. _Ludi circenses_ were games
+held in the circus, gladiatorial and other. (See CIRCUS.) _Ludi scenici_
+were theatrical representations. _Ludi stati_, like the _Feriæ statæ_,
+were those held regularly on certain days marked in the calendar. _Ludi
+imperativi_, on the other hand, were held by special appointment, and
+_votivi_ in fulfilment of vows. The games were superintended by the
+ÆDILES. The principal games will be found described under the headings
+Apollinares, Augustales, Capitolini, Circenses, Compitalia, Floralia,
+Funebres, Liberales or Dionysia, Megalesia, Plebeii, Sæculares, &c.
+
+=Ludus=, R. A game or pastime; _ludus litterarius_, or _ludus_ simply,
+was a school for the instruction of youth; _ludus duodecim scriptorum_,
+a kind of backgammon played by the ancients; _ludus fidicium_, a music
+school; _ludus gladiatorius_, a school for gladiators directed by a
+_lanista_.
+
+=Lumachel= (It. _lumachella_, a little snail). A marble full of fossil
+shells, and of beautiful iridescent colours, sometimes a deep red or
+orange; called also _fire marble_.
+
+=Luna=, R. (lit. moon). An ivory or silver shoe-buckle worn by Roman
+senators. (Compare LUNULA.)
+
+=Lunated.= Crescent-shaped.
+
+=Lunette.= (1) In Fortification, a work with two _faces_ and two flanks,
+i. e. a REDAN to which flanks or lateral wings have been added; in form,
+therefore, it resembles a BASTION. (2) In Architecture, a crescent or
+semicircular window, or space above a square window beneath a rounded
+roof. Hence the _paintings_ on such a space are called _lunettes_; e. g.
+those of Raffaelle in the Vatican.
+
+=Lunula=, R. (dimin. of _luna_). (1) An ornament in the form of a
+crescent worn by women round the neck. (2) The white moon-shaped marks
+at the roots of the finger-nails. (Cf. MENIS.)
+
+=Lupatum=, R. A jagged bit with teeth like a saw (_lupus_); whence its
+name.
+
+=Lupercalia=, R. Festivals held at Rome on the fifteenth of the calends
+of March (15th of February), in the _Lupercal_, a sacred enclosure or
+cave on the Palatine, regarded as the den of the she-wolf who nursed
+Romulus and Remus. The _luperci_ assembled together and sacrificed goats
+and young dogs, with the skins of which they ran through the streets
+half naked. [Lupercus, or Februus, was the god of fertility. The
+festival was originally a shepherd festival; the ceremony was symbolical
+of a purification of shepherds, and commemorated the time when Rome was
+a nation of shepherds.]
+
+=Lupus=, R. (lit. wolf). (1) A hand-saw. (2) _Lupus ferreus_, a huge
+iron hook, lowered from the walls of a besieged place to catch the point
+of the battering-ram. (See HARPAGA.)
+
+=Lura=, R. Literally, the mouth of a large leathern sack for wine and
+oil, and thence the sack itself.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 435 a. Hawk’s Lure.]
+
+=Lure.= A falconer’s decoy, made of feathers on a cord, to attract a
+hawk back to the wrist. The illustration is a heraldic _lure_. (See Fig.
+91. See also IN LURE.)
+
+=Lusiad.= The great epic of the Portuguese poet Camoens.
+
+=Lustratio= (Gr. κάθαρσις). A purification, originally by water,
+afterwards by solemn ceremonies of sprinkling, or the smoke of
+sacrifice; made privately after deaths or accidental pollutions, and
+publicly on the occasion of public disasters, prodigies, or the like;
+and at certain fixed periods, especially at the close of every
+_lustrum_.
+
+=Lustricus= (sc. _dies_), R. (_lustrum_, a lustration). The day of
+purification for a new-born infant, when it received its name.
+
+=Lustrum=, R. (_luo_, to wash). A solemn purification performed by the
+censors on laying down their office, that is to say, every _five years_;
+whence the term was used to denote that space of time.
+
+=Lute= (Arabic, _el oud_). A stringed instrument of great antiquity,
+first mentioned in Persia in 682 A. D. Before the 10th century the lute
+had only four strings, or four pairs producing four tones, each tone
+having two strings tuned in unison. About the 10th century a string for
+a fifth tone was added. The strings were made of silk neatly twisted.
+The neck of the instrument was provided with frets of string, regulated
+according to the system of seventeen intervals to an octave. The Chinese
+god of music is represented playing on a lute with four strings. The
+lute was very popular in England in Elizabeth’s time. Originally it had
+eight catgut strings, arranged in four pairs, each pair being in unison.
+The number of strings varied from time to time, and in the 17th century
+they were twenty-four. The size of the lute also varied; the treble lute
+was the smallest, and the bass lute the largest. There were also the
+ARCHLUTE, the CHITARRONE, THEORBO, &c. (Consult Thomas Mace’s _Musick’s
+Monument_, 1676.)
+
+=Lycæa.= A festival of the Arcadians in honour of Zeus Λυκαῖος.
+
+=Lyceium.= A sacred enclosure at Athens, dedicated to Apollo Lycius,
+where the _polemarch_ originally held his court. It was decorated with
+fountains, plantations, and ornamental edifices by Peisistratus,
+Pericles, and Lycurgus. Here Aristotle delivered his lectures, as he
+_walked about_ with his followers, hence called “_Peripatetics_.”
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 436. Lychnus.]
+
+=Lychnus=, =Lychnuchus=, R. (λύχνος, λυχνοῦχος). The former of these
+terms is of by far the most frequent occurrence. It denotes a kind of
+lantern or candlestick made to support oil lamps (_lucernæ_). Fig. 436
+represents a lychnus supporting three _lucernæ_.
+
+=Lydian.= _Of music_, soft and slow; _generally_ effeminate.
+
+=Lydian Stone= (_Lydius lapis_ or _Heraclius lapis_) was a kind of
+flinty slate used by the ancients as a touchstone for the trial of gold
+and silver.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 437. Lymphad.]
+
+=Lymphad=, Her. An ancient galley, the feudal ensign of the house of
+Lorn, and as such quartered by the Dukes of Argyle. It is borne also by
+the Prince of Wales as “Lord of the Isles.” (Fig. 437.)
+
+=Lynx Sapphire.= A lapidary’s term for dark-grey or greenish-blue
+varieties of the sapphire.
+
+=Lyon King at Arms.= The Scotch Herald, Lord Lyon. The regalia of this
+officer are, a crown of gold, with a crimson velvet cap, &c.; a velvet
+robe reaching to his feet, with the arms of the kingdom embroidered
+thereon, both before and behind, in the proper tinctures; a triple row
+of gold chains round his neck, with an oval gold medal pendent thereto,
+on one side of which is the royal bearing, and on the other St. Andrew
+with his cross enamelled in proper colours, and a baton of gold
+enamelled green, powdered with the badges of the kingdom.
+
+=Lyra=, Gr. and R. (λύρα). A lyre; a stringed instrument which assumed
+various forms. On Assyrian monuments the lyre occurs in three different
+forms, and is held horizontally in playing. Its front bar was generally
+either oblique or slightly curved. It was played with a _plectrum_ or
+with the fingers. The HEBREW lyre is represented on coins of Judas
+Maccabæus. Some have three strings, others five, and others six. The two
+sides of the frames appear to have been made of horns of animals. The
+Hebrew square-shaped lyre is probably the PSALTERION, the KINNOR, a lyre
+of triangular shape, the instrument of King David, is named in the Bible
+as the oldest stringed instrument, the invention of Jubal. The Rabbis
+record that King David used to suspend his over his pillow at night. On
+Egyptian monuments, at Beni Hassan, a Hebrew lyre is represented,
+probably of the date of Joseph, 1700 B.C. The GREEKS had lyres of many
+kinds, distinguished by different names; LYRA, a generic term, and also
+the lyre oval at the base, to be held in the lap; KITHARA, with a square
+base, to be held against the breast; CHELYS, a small lyre with body made
+of tortoise-shell; PHORMIX, a large lyre, &c. Some lyres have a bridge,
+others have none; the largest were probably held on or between the
+knees, or were tied by a band to the left arm. The strings of catgut or
+sinew were twanged with a _plektron_ or short stem of ivory or metal,
+pointed at both ends. The lyre was the most favourite instrument of the
+ROMANS, under various names. The CORNU had a frame ending at the top in
+two long horns; the BARBITOS was a lyre with a large body; the
+PSALTERIUM was of an oblong square shape, &c. The lyre is represented in
+early CHRISTIAN monuments of the 4th century. In one of them the Saviour
+is represented as Apollo touching the lyre. ANGLO-SAXON MSS. of the 9th
+century also represent the lyre. A GERMAN fiddle of the 9th century,
+with only one string, is called _lyra_ in the MS. In Christian symbolism
+the lyre represented “the attractive power of the Lord.” (See MESE.)
+
+=Lysis=, Arch. A plinth, or step above the cornice of the _podium_ which
+surrounds the PEDESTAL.
+
+
+
+
+                                   M.
+
+
+=M-roof=, Arch. A roof formed by the junction of two common roofs, with
+a valley between them.
+
+=Macabre.= (See DANCE OF DEATH.)
+
+=Macaronic Verses.= A burlesque of Latin, chequered with Italian,
+Tuscan, and plebeian words, described by the author:—
+
+  “Ars ista poetica nuncupatur Ars Macaronica, a Macaronibus derivata;
+  qui Macarones sunt quoddam pulmentum, farina, caseo, butyro
+  compaginatum, grossum, rude et rusticanum. Ideo Macaronica nil nisi
+  grossedinem, ruditatem, et _Vocabulazzos_ debet in se continere.”
+
+=Macchia=, It. (lit. a spot or stain). “The blocking out of the masses
+of light and shade.” (See _Eastlake’s Materials_, &c., ii. 355.)
+
+=Mace= (Fr. _masse_ or _massue_). A military club or staff, generally of
+iron with a wooden handle, useful for breaking defensive armour. The
+mace was generally worn at the saddle-bow; and was subsequently
+perforated to form a pistol, and finally superseded by the pistol. In
+the Middle Ages the mace became an emblem of office; and is so
+still—usually surmounted by a crown. (See CLAVA, CLUB.)
+
+=Macellarius=, R. (_macellum_, a market). A keeper of a shop for the
+sale of fruit and cooked provisions. His shop was called _taverna
+macellaria_.
+
+=Macellum=, Gr. and R. (μάκελλον). A covered market in which were sold
+all kinds of provisions, such as fish, poultry, and game; it was
+distinct from the open market called FORUM (q.v.).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 438. Maceria.]
+
+=Maceria=, R. (1) A rough wall formed of materials of every description,
+and having no _facing_. (2) An enclosed place unroofed. (Fig. 438.)
+
+=Machæra=, Gr. and R. (μάχαιρα). A sword with only one edge, made rather
+for cutting than thrusting.
+
+=Machærium=, Gr. and R. (μαχαίριον). Dimin. of _machæra_, a knife
+employed chiefly by fishermen.
+
+=Machærophorus=, Gr. and R. (μαχαιρο-φόρος). Literally, _armed with the
+hunting-knife_, the _machærium_; an epithet of the so called _barbarous_
+nations, such as the Egyptians, Persians, Medes, Thracians, and Gauls.
+
+=Machicolated=, Arch. Furnished with machicolations.
+
+=Machicolations= (Fr. _machicoulis_), Arch. Openings or grooves made
+under the parapet of a fortified place, through which stones, pitch,
+boiling water, or hot sand were thrown down.
+
+=Macrochera=, Gr. (μακρό-χειρ, long-armed). A tunic with long sleeves,
+called by the Romans CHIRIDOTA.
+
+=Macrocolum=, =Macrocollum=, R. Paper of the largest size, that is to
+say, in sheets formed of a number of pieces of parchment or papyrus
+glued together.
+
+=Macula=, R. The mesh of a net; in the plural _maculæ_.
+
+=Madder.= The root of “rubia tinctoria” (Fr. _garance_), from which a
+number of valuable pigments are made, which are transparent and
+permanent, working equally well in oil and in water-colours. They vary
+from the lightest and most delicate rose to the deepest purple, and are
+known as _rose madder_, _pink madder_, _madder-carmine_, _purple
+madder_, _brown madder_, _intense madder purple_, and _orange madder
+lake_.
+
+=Madonna=, It. The Virgin Mary. (See JOYS.)
+
+=Mæander=, Gr. (Μαίανδρος). An ornamental design so called from the
+numerous windings it described, like the river _Mæander_. Its proper
+name is the GREEK FRET. (Figs. 334 to 336.)
+
+=Mælium.= (See MELIUM.)
+
+=Mæmacteria=, Gr. (μαιμακτήρια). Festivals held at Athens in honour of
+the boisterous or stormy Zeus (Μαιμάκτης), with the object of obtaining
+a mild winter.
+
+=Mænad=, Gr. (μαινάς). Literally, a frenzied woman, and thence a
+bacchante. (See BACCHA.)
+
+=Mænhir.= (See MENHIR.)
+
+=Mænia Columna=, R. A column situated in the Roman forum, near which
+certain magistrates (_triumviri criminales_) judged criminals, slaves,
+and vagrants.
+
+=Mæniana=, =Mænianæ Scholæ=, R. Celebrated schools of Gaul founded by
+Augustus at Autun (_Augustodunum_ or _Bibracte_), so called because the
+buildings were furnished with balconies (_mæniana_). (See MÆNIANUM.)
+
+=Mænianum=, R. A structure supported on corbels; a balcony projecting
+from the wall of a house; in a theatre or amphitheatre, one range of
+seats comprised between two landing-places (_præcinctiones_). Originally
+a balcony erected round the Roman forum, B.C. 318, to give accommodation
+to the spectators of gladiatorial contests. Afterwards balconies in
+general were so called.
+
+=Maes=, Celt. A Welsh word for a field of battle, common in
+topographical nomenclature.
+
+=Mafil.= (See MAHFIL.)
+
+=Mafors= or =Mavors= (Gr. μαφώριον) was a short veil covering the head
+and neck and flowing down on the shoulders, such as nuns wear in
+imitation of the Virgin Mary.
+
+=Magadis=, Gr. (μάγαδις). A musical instrument invented by the Lydians;
+it was a kind of harp, which changed its form and was afterwards called
+SAMBUCA (q.v.). (See LYRA.)
+
+=Maghreb Pottery.= (See GARGOULETTE.)
+
+=Magi.= The adoration of the Magi (commemorated on Christmas Day) is the
+subject of some of the earliest specimens of Christian art. A fresco in
+the catacomb of St. Agnes, representing the Magi before Herod, is
+attributed to the 2nd century, and the mosaics of St. Maria Maggiore at
+Rome, in which the same subject occurs, are of the 5th century.
+
+=Magnase Black.= A colour which dries rapidly when mixed with oil, and
+is of intense body.
+
+=Mahfil=, Arab. A raised seat in a mosque, for the _imaum mocri_ who
+reads the Koran, and for the _imaum khatib_, who recites prayer,
+preaches, and acts as the minister of the services generally.
+
+=Mahl-stick.= A stick with a pad at the end, upon which the painter
+rests the wrist of his right arm while working.
+
+=Mahogany.= Wood of the _Swietenia mahogoni_ of Jamaica and Honduras.
+Satin-wood, or green mahogany, is the _Chloroxyllon_; mottled, or
+African mahogany, is the _Khaya_; Indian mahogany is the _Cedrela
+toona_.
+
+=Mahoitres=, O. E. The name of a singular fashion of the 15th
+century—“of prankyd gownes, and _shoulders up set_, moss and flocks
+sewed within”—of padding up the shoulder to give a broad appearance to
+the chest. (See Figs. 51, 355, and 469.)
+
+=Mail= (from the Fr. _maille_, the meshes of a net). Applied to chain or
+ringed armour. “Rich _mayles_ that ronke (_strong_) were and round.”
+
+=Mainefaire=, O. E. The covering for a horse’s _mane_. It was made of
+overlapping plates, like a lobster’s tail; and was fastened to the
+_testière_ by buttons, and round the animal’s neck by straps.
+(_Meyrick._)
+
+=Maintenance, Cap of=, Her. (See CHAPEAU.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 439. Majolica Plate (Urbino Ware).]
+
+=Maiolica= or =Majolica=. The Italian name for the glazed earthenware
+introduced by Moorish potters from the island of Majorca. Originally
+these terms were only applied to “_lustre wares_,” but from the 16th
+century they were generally applied to the _glazed earthenware_ of
+Italy. A coarser lead-glazed lustred ware was known as mezza-majolica.
+The distinguishing characteristics of the Majolica ware are “coarseness
+of ware, intricacy of pattern, and occasionally prismatic glaze.” It is
+also named FAIENCE, from the _botega_ at FAENZA, and, when decorated
+with subjects after designs of Raphael, “Raffaelle-ware.” FAYENCE,
+_terraglia_, as distinct from PORCELAIN, is formed of potter’s clay
+(hence its English name Pottery) mixed with marl and sand, and is _soft_
+or _hard_ according to the nature of the composition, and the degree of
+heat under which it is fired in the kiln. English _earthenware_ is soft,
+while _stone-ware_, _Queen’s ware_, &c., are hard. Soft wares are either
+unglazed, or _lustrous_, or _glazed_, or enamelled. The Italian lustrous
+ware is properly, and the glazed ware improperly, but generally called
+MAJOLICA.
+
+=Majesty= (It. _Maesta_), Chr. A conventional representation of the
+Saviour in glory, on a throne, encompassed by a _nimbus_, and surrounded
+by cherubim, and the four evangelistic symbols, and the letters Α and Ω.
+“The only existing document relating to Cimabue shows that he was
+employed in 1301 on a mosaic ‘Majesty’ in the tribune of the Duomo at
+Pisa.” (_Eastlake._)
+
+=Mala Pioba.= Irish (_mala_, a bag). The bagpipe.
+
+=Malachite.= A native carbonate of copper, forming a beautiful and
+permanent green pigment, used for oils and water-colours. _Incrusted_
+upon other materials it is used for articles of ornament. _Blue_
+malachite is pure carbonate of copper; _green_ malachite is green
+carbonate of copper; _emerald_ or _royal_ malachite is dioptase of
+copper, a still rarer green and the best of all, which is a mixture of
+copper and silica; _false_ or _pseudo_-malachite is phosphate of copper,
+soft and silky, and of a rich velvet green marred by black spots or
+lines, and not so rich as the three kinds of true malachite.
+
+=Malchus=, R. An old term for a confessional having only one stool for
+penitents; it signified that which has only one ear, from the fact that
+Malchus, Caïaphas’ servant, was deprived of his right ear by Peter.
+
+=Malleability.= The property of extension under the hammer (_malleus_).
+_Gold_ is the most malleable of metals. The art of rendering _glass_
+malleable was discovered by an architect in the reign of Tiberius.
+Buried treasures of glass vessels have been found to be malleable when
+first disinterred, but to harden quickly on exposure to the air.
+
+=Malleus=, R. (1) A hammer. (2) Med. The MAULE (Gothic _Miölner_),
+Thor’s hammer; a military weapon.
+
+=Malluvia, Malluvium.= R. A wash-hand basin.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 440. Malus of an Amphitheatre.]
+
+=Malus=, R. (_malus_, an apple-tree). (1) The mast of a vessel. (2) In
+theatres and amphitheatres (Fig. 440) _mali_ were the poles over which
+the _velarium_ was stretched.
+
+=Malveisin=, Med. (Fr. _malvoisin_, a disagreeable neighbour). A
+military engine for projecting stones or arrows.
+
+=Mama-quilla=, Peruv. One of the divisions of the temple of the Sun,
+INTI (q.v.); so called because it was dedicated to the moon,
+_Mama-quilla_.
+
+=Mamillare=, R. (_mamilla_, the breast). (1) A broad band made of soft
+leather, a kind of small stays, used by the Roman ladies to support the
+breasts. (2) In Mediæval Latin, circular plates on the surcoat with
+rings from which two chains depended, one of which was attached to the
+sword and the other to the sheath. The fashion was introduced under
+Edward I., and continued until Henry V.
+
+=Mancop Oly=, Dutch. Poppy oil, “a very white oil used by the painters
+in the Netherlands, who execute delicate works requiring lively colours,
+such as the vases of flowers of De Ghein, &c.” (_Eastlake._)
+
+=Mandorla=, Chr. (lit. an almond). (See AUREOLE and VESICA PISCIS.)
+
+=Mandra=, Chr. (lit. _a fold_). A favourite appellation for monastic
+establishments in the East.
+
+=Manducus=, R. (_mando_, to chew). A comic masked character,
+distinguished by his ugliness and _voracity_ (whence his name). (See
+PERSONA.)
+
+=Mandyas=, Chr. In the Greek Church, an outer garment worn by monks. It
+is a long cloak, reaching almost to the feet, and fastened at the
+throat. It is originally a Persian dress, and is frequently mentioned as
+worn by emperors and kings.
+
+=Manefaire=, O. E. A covering of armour for a horse’s _mane_.
+
+=Manes=, R. The shades of the dead. (See LEMURES.)
+
+=Manganese Brown.= A rich semi-opaque brown pigment, permanent and
+drying well. (See CAPPAGH.)
+
+=Manger=, Chr. The boards of the manger in which the Infant Saviour was
+laid, are said to be preserved in the crypt of the church of St. Maria
+Maggiore at Rome. They are called the _culla_, and are the object of a
+solemn procession on Christmas Eve.
+
+=Mangonell=, Med. A military machine for hurling stones; the spelling is
+frequently varied:—
+
+                “Vous peussez bugles, mangoniaux
+                Veoir pardessus les carniaux.”
+                                  (_Roman de la Rose._)
+
+=Manica=, R. (_manus_, a hand). (1) An armlet, or piece of armour which
+protected the arm of the gladiator. (2) A leather glove worn by
+barbarous nations. In the plural, _manicæ_ denotes (1) manacles; (2) a
+grappling-iron called HARPAGA (q.v.).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 441. Manicore.]
+
+=Manicora=, =Manicore=, Chr. In Christian iconography, the manicora is a
+hybrid animal with a human head, and a globular body ending in a
+serpent. It is a symbol of the World, the Flesh, and the Devil. (Fig.
+441.)
+
+=Maniple=, Chr. A short stole held in the left hand, originally used as
+a napkin by the officiating priest. Afterwards it was worn pendent from
+the wrist, and richly decorated. (See FANON.) The word is derived from—
+
+=Manipulus=, R. (lit. a handful). (1) A maniple, the earliest ensign of
+the Roman legion; it consisted of a handful of hay attached to the end
+of a pole. (2) A body of infantry in a legion, consisting of about 180
+to 200 men.
+
+=Mansard Roof=, Arch, (so called from _Mansard_, the French architect,
+who introduced it), or =Curb Roof= (from the French _courber_, to bend).
+A roof with two sets of rafters, of which the upper part is, as it were,
+broken off, and not so steep as the lower. According to _Mesanges_,
+Mansard took the idea of his roof from a frame composed by Segallo, and
+Michael Angelo employed it in the construction of the dome of St.
+Peter’s. The houses in Lower Brittany were covered with these roofs in
+the end of the 15th century.
+
+=Manse=, O. E. The parsonage-house.
+
+=Mansio=, R. (_maneo_, to remain). Stations placed at intervals along
+the high roads, to serve as halting-places for the troops on a march.
+(See MUTATIO.)
+
+=Mantapa=, Hind. A _porch_ to a temple.
+
+=Mantel-piece=, Arch. (formerly _mantil_). A cloak or covering; hence
+the slab which covers a part of the fireplace; the canopy over a shrine
+(Latin _mandualis_).
+
+=Mantelet= or =Mantlet=. A shed used for protecting soldiers from
+missile weapons. (See PLUTEUS.)
+
+=Mantica=, R. (_manus_, the hand). A double wallet serving as a
+portmanteau for riders or pedestrians.
+
+=Mantle.= A flowing robe worn over the armour, as shown in the costume
+of the knights in the ivory mirror-case. (Fig. 463.)
+
+=Mantling= or =Lambrequin=. A small mantle, of some rich materials,
+attached to the helmet, and worn hanging down, and ending in tassels.
+(See Fig. 177.) It is usually represented, in Heraldry, with jagged
+ends, to represent the cuts it would be exposed to in actual battle.
+
+=Manuale=, R. (_manus_, the hand). A wooden case for a book.
+
+=Manuballista=, R. A hand-ballista. (See ARCUBALLISTA.)
+
+=Manubrium=, R. (i. e. what is borne in the hand). A general term for a
+handle of any kind. (See Fig. 377.)
+
+=Manus Ferrea=, R. Literally, a _hand of iron_; an iron hook which
+served as a grappling-iron, differing from the _harpaga_, as it was
+launched at the end of a chain, while the _harpaga_ was fixed on a long
+beam (_asser_).
+
+=Marble.= The finest for statuary, from _Carrara_, is of a pure white;
+that from _Paros_ is of a waxy cream colour; others coloured with
+metallic oxides are available for ornamental purposes. Many cements have
+been produced as “artificial marble.” (See SCAGLIOLA.)
+
+=Marble Silk= had a weft of several colours so woven as to make the
+whole web look like _marble_ stained with a variety of tints. On the 6th
+of November, 1551, “the old qwyne of Schottes rod thrught London; then
+cam the lord tresorer with a C. great horsse and ther cotes of
+_marbull_.” Its use prevailed for three centuries.
+
+=Marbling= “is an art which consists in the production of certain
+patterns and effects by means of colours so prepared as to float on a
+mucilaginous liquid. While so floating they form into patterns, which
+are taken off on to a sheet of paper (for book-covers), or to the
+smoothly cut edges of a book, by dipping.” (_Woolnough_, _The Whole Art
+of Marbling_, 1881.)
+
+=Marcus=, R. A blacksmith’s hammer; a sledge-hammer. (See MALLEUS.)
+
+=Mardelles=, =Margelles=, or =Marges=, Celt. Excavations met with in
+several parts of Europe, supposed to be Celtic.
+
+=Mark=, O. E. An ancient coin, value 13_s._ 4_d._; formerly the
+equivalent of 30 silver pennies.
+
+=Marmouset=, Arch. Fr. (monkey). A grotesque figure introduced into
+architectural decoration in the 13th century.
+
+=Marouflage=, Fr. (_maroufler_, to line). A method of house-painting in
+France, upon a lining of prepared canvas fixed upon the surface to be
+decorated.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 442. Marquess’s coronet.]
+
+=Marquess=, =Marquis=, Her. The second order of the British peerage, in
+rank next to that of duke, was introduced into England in 1387 by
+Richard II. The coronet, apparently contemporary in its present form
+with that of the dukes, has its golden circlet heightened with four
+strawberry-leaves and as many pearls arranged alternately.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 443. Shaft ornamented with Marquetry.]
+
+=Marquetry.= Inlaid-work of ornamental woods and stones of various
+colours put together and mixed with metals. The art has existed from the
+earliest ages; but no nation has brought it to a higher degree of
+perfection than the Italians of the 15th century. The Florentines
+especially have produced work of this kind which is unapproached; the
+Medici chapel at Florence may be particularly instanced. Figs. 443 and
+444 represent specimens of antique work. The Venetian marquetry, derived
+from Persia and India, is a fine inlay of ivory, metal, and woods,
+stained to vary the colour. This work is in geometric patterns only. In
+France, in the early marquetry designs, picturesque landscapes, broken
+architecture, and figures are represented. Colours are occasionally
+stained on the wood. Ivory and ebony are the favourite materials. In
+England, it is an art imported from Holland in the reign of William and
+Mary. The older designs on Dutch marquetry represent tulips and other
+flowers, foliage, birds, &c., all in gay colours, generally the self
+colours of the wood used. Sometimes the eyes and other salient points
+are in ivory and mother-of-pearl. (Compare BOULE, CERTOSINA WORK,
+EMBLEMATA, MUSIVUM OPUS, REISNER-WORK, &c.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 444. Marquetry.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 445. Marra.]
+
+=Marra=, R. A kind of hoe with indented teeth, used for tearing up
+weeds. (Fig. 445.)
+
+=Mars Brown.= A brown pigment.
+
+=Mars= (=Reds=, &c.). Calcined earths of which the brightness of the
+redness is regulated by the duration of the roasting.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 446. Teapot of Marseilles faience.]
+
+=Marseilles Faience.= This ancient city has at all times been celebrated
+in the ceramic arts. Fig. 446 gives a representative specimen of modern
+polychrome work, decorated with flowers easily recognized by the
+disposition of their long stalks. These flowers are, in other specimens,
+accompanied by marine landscapes. Other polychrome services are called
+from their designs “services aux insectes.”
+
+=Marsupium=, R. (μαρσύπιον). A purse for containing money; it was made
+of leather and shaped like a pear, being confined at the top with a
+string. (Hence the adjective _marsupial_ applied to the kangaroo, &c.)
+
+=Martel de Fer=, Med. A weapon which had at one end a pick, and at the
+other a hammer, axe-blade, half-moon, mace-head, or other fanciful
+termination. (_Meyrick._)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 447. Early Heraldic Martlet.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 448. Heraldic Martlet.]
+
+=Martlet=, Her. Bird, usually represented without feet. (Figs. 447,
+448.)
+
+=Martyrium=, Chr. An altar erected over the tomb of a martyr.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 449. Il Marzocco, the bronze Lion now in the
+Bargello at Florence. By Donatello (about A. D. 1420).]
+
+=Marzocco=, It. The Lion of Florence. The heraldic emblem of the city.
+(Fig. 449.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 450. Etruscan Mask in terra-cotta.]
+
+=Mascaron=, Arch. Fr. A mask; the face of a man or animal employed as an
+ornamentation for decorating the key-stones of arches or vaults, or the
+stones of an arch, &c. (Fig. 450.)
+
+=Mascle=, Her. The central _lozenge_ of a diapered surface; it is drawn
+with right angles.
+
+=Maser= or =Mazer=, O. E. A bowl of maple-wood. The name is applied to
+similar bowls or goblets of other woods.
+
+                            “The mazers four,
+                    My noble fathers loved of yore,”
+
+are mentioned by Scott in “The Lord of the Isles.” They were richly
+ornamented, frequently with legends on the rim, such as
+
+                    “In the name of the Trinitie
+                    Fille the kup and drinke to me,”
+
+and the rim was often covered with silver or gold.
+
+=Massicot.= The name of an ancient pigment of a dull orange colour.
+
+=Mastaba=, =Mastabê=, Egyp. An outer chapel attached to Egyptian
+burial-places; it was generally a small quadrangular building, the door
+of which faced the East.
+
+=Master Arch=, O. E. The central or widest arch of a bridge.
+
+=Mastic.= A resin used for varnish. (Dissolve one part of mastic resin
+in two of oil of turpentine.) (See VARNISH.) In France, the term is
+applied to a cement used to fill up joints in masonry; in _joinery_, to
+a composition of wax, resin, and pounded brick, applied to fill up knots
+and chinks in the wood. Putty is also so called.
+
+=Mastigophorus=, Gr. and R. (μαστιγο-φόρος). A slavedriver, and thence
+an officer who fulfilled the same functions as our policemen. The
+mastigophori were so named because they carried a whip (μάστιγα φέρειν),
+in order to put down any crowding or tumult; it was also part of their
+duty to repress any infringement of the regulations at the public games.
+
+=Match-lock.= A gun which was exploded by means of a match, before the
+introduction of the flint and steel. (See FIRE-LOCK.)
+
+=Materiatio=, R. (_materia_, materials). The timber-work of a roof,
+consisting of two principal rafters (_canterii_), a tie-beam (_tignum_),
+a ridgepiece (_calcimen_), beams (_trabes_), struts (_capreoli_),
+purlines (_templa_), and common rafters (_asseres_).
+
+=Materis=, R. A Celtic javelin with a broad head.
+
+=Matralia=, R. (i. e. pertaining to a mother). The festival of _Matuta_
+(the Ino of the Greeks), which was held at Rome every year on the third
+of the ides of June (11th of June). Prayers were offered by the Roman
+matrons on behalf of their nephews, they being afraid to pray for their
+own children, since those of Matuta had turned out so unfortunately.
+
+=Matronalia=, R. A festival of the Roman matrons held on the calends of
+March, at which matrons offered sacrifices to Mars and Juno Lucina.
+
+=Mattucashlash.= An ancient Scotch weapon, sometimes called the _armpit
+dagger_, being worn on the arm ready to be used on coming to close
+quarters.
+
+=Maule.= (See MALLEUS.)
+
+=Maunde=, O. E. A basket.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 451. Mausoleum of Hadrian at Rome. In its original
+state.]
+
+=Mausoleum=, R. The tomb of Mausolus, king of Caria, at Halicarnassus,
+ranked among the seven wonders of the world. The name was afterwards
+applied to tombs of an imposing size and splendour, such as the tomb of
+Augustus in the Field of Mars, and that of Hadrian, on the banks of the
+Tiber, now known as Fort St. Angelo. A representation of it, in its
+original state, is shown in Fig. 451.
+
+=Mauve= is the colour of a peach blossom; obtained as a dye from
+_aniline_ found in gas tar.
+
+=Maze=, Chr. Labyrinthine figures in the pavements of churches and on
+the turf of greens. To trace the former kneeling was a species of
+penance.
+
+=Mazmorra=, Sp. A tank lined with cement, sunk in the ground and used
+for storing grain. (See _Murray’s Handbook, Spain_, p. 361, _Granada_,
+&c.)
+
+=Mazonum=, Gr. (μαζο-νομεῖον; μᾶζα, barley-bread). A wooden platter for
+domestic use, and thence a salver of bronze or gold on which perfumes
+were burnt in the religious processions of Bacchus.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 452. Old Mechlin Lace, 17th century.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 453. Mechlin Lace, 18th century.]
+
+=Mechlin Lace= is fine, transparent, and effective. It is made in one
+piece on the pillow; its distinguishing feature is the flat thread which
+forms the flowers, and gives to the lace the character of embroidery. In
+1699—when Charles II.’s prohibition to the introduction of Flanders lace
+was removed—Mechlin lace became the fashion in England, and continued so
+during the succeeding century. In the 17th century the Beguinage nuns
+were celebrated for their lace-making, and they supported their house by
+their work. Previous to 1665 the name of Mechlin was given to all pillow
+lace, and much of it was made like our modern insertion. The engraving
+shows a specimen of old Mechlin lace formerly in great favour as
+head-dresses and other trimmings.
+
+=Medallion.= (1) A medal of a larger size than the ordinary coinage. (2)
+In Architecture, a circular or oval tablet on the face of a building.
+
+=Mediæval.= (See MIDDLE AGES.)
+
+=Medimnus=, Gr. (μέδιμνος). The principal Greek measure of capacity,
+holding as much as six Roman _modii_. It was especially used for
+measuring corn.
+
+=Meditrinalia=, R. (_medeor_, to remedy). Roman festivals in honour of
+Meditrina, the goddess of healing, celebrated on the 11th of October, at
+which new wine was tasted, it being looked upon by the Romans as a
+preservative of health.
+
+=Medium.= The liquid in which pigments are ground. The best are linseed
+oil and nut oil.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 454. Medusa Head on a shield.]
+
+=Medusa Head= was frequently used as an ornament for the centre of a
+shield. (Cf. GORGONEIA.)
+
+=Megalartia=, Gr. (μεγαλάρτια). Festivals held at Delos in honour of
+Ceres, who was called _Megalartos_ (Μεγάλαρτος) from her having bestowed
+bread on mankind.
+
+=Megalesian= (games), R. (_Ludi megalenses_). Festivals celebrated
+annually on the 4th of April in honour of Cybelê, who was called the
+Great (Μεγαλεῖα), in which the people went in procession to the Field of
+Mars to witness scenic spectacles. The magistrates attended these
+spectacles in a purple toga, or “toga prætexta;” hence the expression
+“Purpura Megalensis.”
+
+=Megylp.= A vehicle used by some oil-painters, condemned as tending to
+destroy the permanency of the picture.
+
+=Melides=, Gr. Nymphs of fruit-trees. (Cf. HAMADRYADES.)
+
+=Melina=, R. A pouch made out of the skin of a marten (or a badger,
+_meles_).
+
+=Melium=, R. A collar for sporting-dogs, studded with nails and iron
+spikes (_clavulis_, _capitatis_).
+
+=Mell.= (See MALLEUS.)
+
+=Melotte=, O. E. A garment worn by monks during laborious occupation.
+(_Halliwell._)
+
+=Membrana=, R. (_membrum_, skin). Parchment for writing on was
+introduced as a substitute for the Egyptian papyrus by Eumenes II., king
+of Pergamus. It was usually written over on one side, and the back was
+stained with saffron. The writings were frequently erased, and the paper
+or parchment used again. It was then called a _palimpsest_. All the
+sheets used for one work were joined together into a long scroll, which
+was folded round a staff, and then called _volumen_; usually there were
+ornamental balls or bosses, projecting from the ends of the staff,
+called _umbilici_ or _cornua_. The ends of the roll were carefully cut
+and blackened; they were called _geminæ frontes_. The roll itself was
+kept in a parchment case, which was stained purple or yellow. (See also
+LIBER.)
+
+=Membranula=, R. (dimin. of _membrana_). A small strip of parchment on
+which the title or contents of a volume were inscribed in minium.
+
+=Menat=, Egyp. An Egyptian amulet worn on a necklace. The menat
+evidently formed some symbol, the meaning of which has hitherto not been
+discovered.
+
+=Menehis= or =Minihis=, Fr. This term, derived from the Celtic
+_menech-ti_ (house of a monk), or _manach-li_ (free spot of earth), was
+formerly used in Brittany to denote a place of asylum which had been
+consecrated in any way.
+
+=Menhir=, Celt. A Celtic monument consisting of a huge stone fixed
+upright in the ground. Menhirs are found associated with _dolmens_,
+_tumuli_, and circles of stones. (Consult _Bertrand_, _Archéologie
+Celtique et Gauloise_, p. 84.)
+
+=Menis=, =Meniscus=, Gr. and R. (μηνίσκος; μήνη, the moon). A
+crescent-shaped piece of metal which was placed on statues of the gods
+to hinder birds from settling on them. The same term was used to denote
+an ornament, likewise in the shape of a crescent, placed by the Romans
+at the beginning of their books; hence the expression a _menide_, from
+the beginning. (Cf. LUNA.)
+
+=Mensa=, R. (Gr. τράπεζα). A board, tablet, or table; _mensa escaria_,
+or _mensa_ simply, a dining-table; _mensa prima_, _secunda_, the first,
+second course of a meal; _mensa tripes_, a table with three feet, in
+contradistinction to _monopodium_, a table with a single leg; _mensa
+vinaria_, a drinking-table (see DELPHICA); _mensa sacra_, an
+altar-table; _mensa vasaria_, a table for holding vessels; _mensa
+publica_, a public bank; hence _mensarii_, bankers.
+
+=Mensao=, Celt. A Celtic monument more usually called MENHIR (q.v.).
+
+=Mensole=, Arch. A term denoting the key-stone of an arch.
+
+=Menzil=, Orient. Houses in the East for the reception of travellers, in
+places where there are neither caravanserais nor _khans_.
+
+=Mereack=, Hind. A sort of thick black varnish employed by the Khmers to
+coat over statues made of any soft stone, which are exposed to the
+changes of the weather. This varnish was, in many instances, itself
+covered with gold leaf.
+
+=Merkins=, O. E. A name given to ringlets of false hair, much worn by
+ladies _temp._ Charles I.
+
+=Merlons=, Arch. The Cops or raised parts of a battlement. Figures of
+warriors or animals are sometimes carved on the tops. (See BATTLEMENT.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 455. Mermaid and Pillars of Hercules. Arms of the
+Colonna family.]
+
+=Mermaid.= An ancient device of the Colonna family was the mermaid
+between the pillars of Hercules, with the motto _Contemnit tuta
+procellas_.
+
+=Mesaulæ= (μέσ-αυλα). (1) The narrow passage or corridor which, in a
+Greek house, connected the _andron_ with the _gynæceum_. (2) The door in
+this passage.
+
+=Mese= (the middle, sc. χορδή). The central note of the seven-stringed
+lyre. The Greeks had no names to distinguish musical notes. They were
+expressed by the names of the strings of the lyre. Thus, NETE, _d_;
+PARANETE, _c_; PARAMESE, _b_ flat; and MESE, _a_, in the treble or upper
+tetrachord; and LICHANOS, _g_; PARHYPATE, _f_; and HYPATE, _e_, in the
+base or lower tetrachord.
+
+=Mesjid=, Arab. A small mosque. These exist in great numbers. The Sultan
+Mohamet II. alone consecrated 170 _mesjids_ in Constantinople.
+
+=Messe=, A.S. The Mass.
+
+=Messle-house= or =Meselle-house=, O. E. (from the obsolete word
+_measle_, a leper). A hospital or lazar-house.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 456. Meta of a Roman race-course.]
+
+=Meta=, R. (_metior_, to measure). Any object with a circular base and
+of conical shape; in a circus the term _meta_, or rather _metæ_ (for
+there were two sets of goals), was applied to a set of three cones
+placed together upon a pedestal, as shown in Fig. 456, to mark the
+turning-points of the race-course. In a mill for grinding corn the name
+of _meta_ was applied to the lower part of the mill, which was hewn into
+the form of a cone. (See CIRCUS, OVUM, SPINA, &c.)
+
+=Metal=, Tech. (1) A mass of glass in the state of paste, adherent to
+the pipe and already blown; it may be regarded as the first stage in the
+production of a piece. (2) Broken glass. (3) Broken stones for repairing
+roads.
+
+=Metal=, Her. The tinctures _or_ and _argent_.
+
+=Metallic Canvas.= A combination of metal and canvas; waterproof for
+various uses.
+
+=Metallic Lava.= A composition of gravel, pounded chalk, tar, and wax,
+forming an artificial stone to be cast into ornamental shapes in moulds.
+The vestibule of the Euston Station is paved with this preparation.
+(_Builder_, vi. 502.)
+
+=Metallurgy.= It was at a comparatively late period of human
+civilization that the art of working in iron was brought to perfection.
+The ancient Egyptians, probably aware of its resources, had a
+superstitious objection to its use; but they hardened bronze to a degree
+unknown to later ages, and their bronze statuary of the most ancient
+period is worthy of any age. The bronze-work of Britain and Ireland is
+as ancient as any; and, in beauty of form and perfection of casting,
+rivals the best modern work. Of the work in Greece we are told that
+Athens alone contained 3000 bronze statues in the year 130 B.C., and
+vast treasures of metallurgy have been discovered in Herculaneum and
+Pompeii. In mediæval times Ireland was famous for metallurgy, and of its
+admirable copper-works of the 11th century many splendid relics remain,
+especially the so called Bell of St. Patrick. Oriental bronzes, of
+characteristic design, are plentiful from all ages; especially beautiful
+and perfect in execution are those of China and Japan. The best period
+of workmanship in _Iron_ is the Middle Ages; gates and hinges, keys, and
+especially weapons and defensive armour being the chief objects
+produced. (Consult _Pugin_, _Digby Wyatt_.) (See also BRONZE, COPPER,
+DAMASCENING, GOLD, &c.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 457. One of the carved Metopes of the Parthenon,
+representing the War of the Centaurs and the Lapithæ.]
+
+=Metope=, Arch. (μετ-όπη, i. e. the space between the ὀπαί). A kind of
+panel between the triglyphs in the Doric frieze (Fig. 458); in some
+Greek examples quite plain, in others ornamented with sculpture. The
+metopes of the Parthenon in the British Museum are carved with
+representations of the war of the Centaurs and Lapithæ. (Fig. 457.) (See
+ELGIN MARBLES.) In Roman buildings the metopes are usually carved, and
+are exact squares; but in the Greek Doric this was not necessary.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 458. Metopes and Triglyphs (Doric).]
+
+=Metreta=, Gr. (μετρητὴς, i. e. measurer). The unit in the Greek
+measures of capacity; it held two _cotylæ_, or about eight gallons.
+
+=Meurtrière=, O. E. “A black knot, that unties and ties the curles of
+the hair.” (_Ladies’ Dict._, 1694.)
+
+=Mews=, O. E. Originally a courtyard for “mewing” (i. e. moulting)
+hawks.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 458 a. Mexican temple—_Teocalli_.]
+
+=Mexican Architecture.= The principal monuments of the valley of Mexico
+are situated in a small tract in the centre of the table-land of
+Anahuac. These consist of pyramidal temples (_teocallis_) formed in
+terraces, with flat tops, and always surmounted by a chamber or cell,
+which is the temple itself. In _Yucatan_ there are more architectural
+remains than anywhere in the world, with palaces of all dates, generally
+pyramidal, and often rich with elaborate carvings. (See _Stephens’s
+Incidents of Travel in Yucatan_.) (Fig. 458 a.)
+
+=Mezza-majolica= was the coarser majolica ware formed of potter’s earth,
+covered with a white “slip,” upon which the subject was painted, then
+glazed with the common lead glaze, over which the lustre pigments were
+applied; the _majolica_, on the other hand, being the tin-enamelled ware
+similarly lustred. (See MAJOLICA.)
+
+=Mezzanine=, =Entresole=, =Half-story=, Arch. A small story intermediate
+between two others of larger size. A mezzanine or Flemish window was a
+window either square or broader than it was long, made in an attic, or
+in a lower story lying between two higher stories.
+
+=Mezzo-relievo=, It. Sculpture in relief, in which one half of the
+figure projects; sometimes called DEMI-RELIEVO.
+
+=Mias=, Hind. A commemorative monument.
+
+=Mica=, =Micatio=, R. (_mico_, to move quickly). A game called by the
+Italians of the present day _mora_; two players simultaneously
+stretching out one or more fingers, and each guessing the number held up
+by his adversary.
+
+=Middle Ages.= The mediæval period—of transition between ancient and
+modern times—between the 10th and the 15th centuries is one of the
+grandest periods in art. It begins with the decay of Rome, and merges
+into the _Renaissance_.
+
+=Middle Distance=, in a landscape:—between the foreground and the
+background. Great skill is displayed in the expression of distance by
+the effects of intervening atmospheres, and by the design of
+intermediate _plans_ carrying the eye onward and suggesting space.
+
+=Middle Ground= in a landscape. (See MIDDLE DISTANCE.)
+
+=Middle Pointed Period= of Architecture is a name given to that period
+of Gothic architecture in England, which is generally described as “_the
+Decorated Period_.”
+
+=Middle Post.= The KING-POST in the truss of a roof.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 459. Jardinière—Milan Faience.]
+
+=Milan Faience.= Fig. 459 is an illustration of the Oriental imitations
+for which Milan was famous. “It is,” says M. Jacquemart, “of such
+beautiful enamel that it might be taken for porcelain. The upper and
+lower edges are decorated with shells, scrolls, and rocailles in relief,
+heightened with gold; the whole surface has a decoration of peonies and
+sprigs in blue, red, and gold, which rival in beauty the richest
+specimens of old Delft.”
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 460. Milan Reticella Lace.]
+
+=Milan Lace.= The engraving shows a specimen of Old Milan Point or
+Reticella from the convent of Santa Maria delle Grazie in that city.
+(See RETICELLA.) (Fig. 460.)
+
+=Miliarium=, R. (1) A tall narrow copper vessel employed in baths for
+heating the water. (2) The column of an olive-press (_trapetum_), which
+rose from the centre of the mortar (_mortarium_).
+
+=Military Architecture.= The science of building fortresses and
+fortifying town walls, &c. [See _Viollet le Duc_, “_Essai sur
+l’Architecture militaire au Moyen Age_.”]
+
+=Milled Money=, with grooved edges, was first coined in this country in
+1561.
+
+=Millefiori.= Mosaic glass. (See GLASS.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 461. Roman Mile-stone at Nic-sur-Aisne in France.]
+
+=Milliarium=, R. (_mille_, a thousand, sc. paces). A column placed at
+intervals of a mile (1618 English yards) along a Roman road to indicate
+the distance. (Fig. 461.) It was also called _lapis_. _Milliarium
+aureum_ was the name given to the golden mile-stone erected by Augustus
+in the Forum, where the principal roads of the Empire terminated. A
+stone, called the “London Stone,” in Cannon Street, E.C., is supposed to
+have marked the centre of the Roman roads in Britain.
+
+=Mill-rind=, =Fer-de-Moline=, Her. The iron fixed to the centre of a
+millstone.
+
+=Millstone-grit.= The name of a good building stone, plentiful in the
+north of England. It is supposed to be formed by a re-aggregation of the
+disintegrated materials of granite. (See the _Builder_, vol. ix. 639.)
+
+=Millus=, R. (See MELIUM.)
+
+=Mimbar=, Arabic. A pulpit in a mosque. A finely-carved mimbar is in the
+South Kensington Museum.
+
+=Minah=, =Minar=, Hind. A tower or pillar. The _Surkh Minar_ and _Minar
+Chakri_, among the topes at Cabul, are almost the only _pillars_
+existing in India. They are generally ascribed to Alexander the Great,
+but are probably Buddhist monuments of the 3rd or 4th century of our
+era.
+
+=Minaret= (Arabic _menarah_, a lantern). A feature peculiar to
+Mohammedan architecture. A tall, slender shaft or turret, rising high
+above all surrounding buildings of the _mosque_ to which it is attached;
+in several stories, with or without external galleries, but usually
+having three. From these galleries the _muezzin_ summon the faithful to
+prayer. Blind men are generally selected for this duty, because the
+minaret commands a view of the house-tops used as sleeping-chambers in
+the East.
+
+=Mineral Black.= A native oxide of carbon.
+
+=Mineral Blue.= A native carbonate of copper which is liable to change
+its tint to green, if mixed with oil. (_Fairholt._)
+
+=Mineral Brown.= (See CAPPAGH.)
+
+=Mineral Green.= MALACHITE (q.v.). (See CARBONATES OF COPPER.)
+
+=Mineral Lake= is a French pigment, a kind of orange chrome.
+
+=Mineral Yellow.= A pigment of chloride of lead, which becomes paler by
+time. The name has also been applied to YELLOW OCHRE and YELLOW ARSENIC
+(q.v.).
+
+=Minerval=, R. A present or fee which Roman scholars took to their
+masters every year, on the fourteenth of the calends of April (19th of
+March), that is, on occasion of the festivals of Minerva.
+
+=Minever=, O. E. (1) Either the pure white fur with which the robes of
+peers and judges are trimmed—“_minever pure_;” or (2) the ermine with
+minute spots of black in it—_minutus varius_—in lieu of the complete
+tails; or (3) the fur of the ermine mixed with that of the small weasel.
+(Consult _Planché’s Cyclopædia_; see also VAIR.)
+
+=Miniature.= Literally, a painting executed in _minium_ (vermilion). Now
+used for any small picture, and especially for a small portrait.
+
+=Ministerium=, Chr. All the sacred ornaments and utensils of a church
+taken collectively.
+
+=Minium.= A kind of _red lead_ obtained by exposing lead or its
+protoxide to heat, till it is converted to a red oxide. It is a fine
+orange pigment, but fugitive and liable to decomposition when mixed with
+other pigments. The ancient _minium_ was _cinnabar_, or vermilion. (See
+ILLUMINATING.)
+
+=Minnim=, Heb. Stringed musical instruments of the lute or guitar kind.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 462. Minotaur. Device of Gonzalvo Perez.]
+
+=Minotaur=, R. A monster, half man, half bull, confined in the labyrinth
+constructed by Dædalus in Crete. It was assumed as a device by Gonzalvo
+Perez, with the motto from Isaiah xxx. 15. (Fig. 462.)
+
+=Minster=, =Abbey-church=, O. E. (Germ. _Münster_). A church to which a
+monastery was attached; a cathedral. The name survives in
+“West-_minster_.”
+
+=Minstrel Gallery=, O. E. The LOFT in a church was so called.
+
+=Minuscule.= (See SEMI-UNCIALS.)
+
+=Minute=, It. A subdivision of the _module_ in the measurement of
+architectural proportion. It is the twelfth, the eighteenth, or the
+thirtieth part of the MODULE.
+
+=Mirador=, Sp. A belvedere, or overhanging bow-window.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 463. Mirror-case of carved ivory—14th cent.]
+
+=Mirror.= In the Middle Ages mirrors were often enclosed in cases of
+metal or carved ivory. The example (Fig. 463) gives a representation of
+the Siege of the Castle of Love from one of the romances of the period.
+(See GLASS.)
+
+=Mirror=, Arch. A small oval ornament cut into the deep mouldings, and
+separated by wreaths of flowers.
+
+=Miserere.= A projecting bracket, on the _sellette_ of a church stall,
+on which, when the seat was turned up, there was a leaning-space,
+available to the infirm during the parts of the service required to be
+performed standing. (See SELLETTE.)
+
+=Misericorde.= The narrow-bladed dagger used to put the victory with
+sword or lance to the test, by obliging a fallen antagonist to cry for
+_mercy_, or by despatching him.
+
+=Mis’rha=, Hind. Hindoo temples built with two kinds of materials;
+whence their name of mixed (_mis’rha_). (See SUD’HA, VIMANA, and
+SANCIRA.)
+
+=Missilia=, R. (i. e. things thrown). Presents of cheques or tickets
+thrown by the emperor and wealthy persons among the people. The cheques
+were payable to the bearer at the magazine of the donor. (See
+CONGIARIUM.)
+
+=Mistarius=, =Mixtarius=, R. Any vessel of large size used for mixing
+water with wine.
+
+=Mitella=, Gr. (dimin. of _mitra_). (1) A head-band or coif of peaked
+form worn by Greek women. (2) A scarf used as a bandage or support for a
+broken arm.
+
+=Mithriatic= (Festivals), Pers. and R. Festivals held in honour of
+Mithras, the Persian sun-god.
+
+=Mitis Green.= (See EMERALD GREEN.)
+
+=Mitra=, Gr. and R. (μίτρα). (1) A mitre or head-dress of the Galli or
+priests of Cybelê; it was a Phrygian cap of felt, which was tied under
+the chin by lappets; it was also called a _Phrygian tiara_. (2) A cable
+fastened round the hull of a vessel to strengthen the timbers.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 464. Mitre. Arms of St. Alban’s Abbey.]
+
+=Mitre=, Chr. Her. The ensign of archiepiscopal and episcopal rank,
+placed above the arms of prelates of the Church of England, sometimes
+borne as a charge, and adopted by the Berkeleys as their crest. The
+contour of the mitre has varied considerably at various times, growing
+continually higher and more pointed. It was first worn by bishops about
+the close of the 10th century. Bishops had three kinds of mitres: the
+_simplex_, of plain white linen; the _aurifrigata_, ornamented with gold
+orphreys; and the _pretiosa_, enriched with gold and jewels, for use at
+high festivals. (Fig. 464.) In Architecture, the corner line formed by
+the meeting of mouldings intercepting each other at an angle.
+
+=Mitten=, =Mitaine=, Anglo-Norman. A glove; not restricted to gloves
+without fingers. “Gloves made of linnen or woollen, whether knit or
+stytched: sometimes also they call so gloves made of leather without
+fingers.” (_Ray._) (See MUFFETEE.)
+
+=Moat=, =Mote=. (1) Originally a heap or hillock; the _dune_ on which a
+tower was built, forming the original castle. The Saxons assembled on
+such _moats_ or mounds to make laws and administer justice; hence their
+word _witten-mote_ for parliament. (2) Mod. Usually applied to the fosse
+of a rampart, the side next the fortress being the _scarp_, and the
+opposite the _counterscarp_.
+
+=Mobcap=, O. E. A cap tying under a woman’ chin by an excessively broad
+band, generally made of the same material as the cap itself. (_H._)
+
+=Moccinigo.= A small Venetian coin, worth about 9_d._ (_H._)
+
+=Mochado=, =Mokkado=, O. E. (1) A silk stuff, commonly called “mock
+velvet,” much used in the 16th and 17th centuries. (_Fairholt._) (2) A
+woollen stuff of the same kind. (_Halliwell._) It was probably a mixture
+of silk and wool. (_Planché._)
+
+=Modena Pottery.= The antique pottery of Modena is referred to by Pliny
+and Livy, but there is no exact record or marked example of wares
+produced there during the Renaissance. The manufacture flourishes now at
+_Sassuolo_, a town ten miles south of Modena.
+
+=Modesty Bit= or =Piece=, O. E. “A narrow lace which runs along the
+upper part of the stays, before, being a part of the tucker, is called
+the modesty piece.” (_Guardian._) “Modesty bits—out of fashion” is an
+announcement in the _London Chronicle_, vol. xi. 1762.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 465. Modillion.]
+
+=Modillions=, Arch. Small brackets under the coronæ of cornices; when
+_square_ they are called MUTULES. In the Corinthian order they have
+carved leaves spread under them. Fig. 465 is taken from the temple of
+Mars the Avenger, at Rome.
+
+=Modius=, R. (_modus_, a measure or standard). The largest Roman measure
+of capacity.
+
+=Module=, Arch. A measure adopted by architects to determine by the
+column the proportions of the different parts of a work of architecture.
+It is usually the diameter or the semi-diameter of the shaft of the
+column.
+
+=Mœnia=, R. A term synonymous with MURUS (q.v.); but more comprehensive,
+in that it implies not merely the idea of walls, but also of the
+buildings attached to them.
+
+     “_Mœnia_ lata videt, triplici circumdata _muro_.” (_Virgil._)
+
+=Mogul Architecture= is that of the buildings erected in the reigns of
+the Mogul emperors, kings of Delhi, from A. D. 1531 to the present
+century.
+
+=Moilon= (Fr. _moellon_), Arch. Rubble-masonry.
+
+=Mokador=, =Mocket=, O. E. A napkin, handkerchief, or bib.
+
+           “Goo hom, lytyl babe, and sytt on thi moderes lap,
+           And put a _mokador_ aforn thi brest,
+           And pray thi modyr to fede the with the pappe.”
+                           (_Twentieth Coventry Mystery._)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 466. Mola versatilis.]
+
+=Mola=, R. (_molo_, to grind). A mill; _mola manuaria_, a hand-mill;
+_mola buxea_, a box-wood mill, or mill for grinding pepper; _mola
+aquaria_, a water-mill; _mola asinaria_, a mill worked by a beast of
+burden; _mola versatilis_, a grindstone (Fig. 466 represents Love
+sharpening his arrows, from an engraved gem); _mola olearia_, a mill for
+crushing olives.
+
+=Mold=, O. E. (for _mould_). Earth; ground. The word is constantly
+applied to the _ground_ in works of art. (See _Degrevant_, 1039;
+_Halliwell_.)
+
+=Moline=, Her. A cross terminating like the MILL-RIND. In modern cadency
+it is the difference of the eighth son.
+
+=Mollicina=, =Molochina= (sc. _vestis_), R. (μολόχινα, i. e.
+mallow-coloured). A garment made from the fibres of a mallow
+(_hibiscus_).
+
+=Mona Marble=. A beautiful marble of a greenish colour, obtained in the
+Isle of Anglesea.
+
+=Monastic Orders= consisted of Benedictine or black monks, and
+Cistercian or white monks. There were the _Regular Orders_, the
+_Military Orders_, the _Conventual Orders_, _Colleges_, &c.
+
+=Monaulos=, Gr. and R. (μόν-αυλος, single-flute). A Greek pipe made of a
+reed, of Egyptian origin, blown at the end without a reed mouthpiece,
+and remarkable for the sweetness of its tone.
+
+=Monelle=, =Monial=, =Moynel=, Arch. (See MULLIONS.)
+
+=Moneris=, Gr. (μον-ήρης, single). A galley or ship with a single bench
+of rowers.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 468. Monile. A Gaulish collar.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 467. Monile. Details of ornament.]
+
+=Monile=, Gr. and R. A necklace or collar. Fig. 468 represents a bronze
+necklace belonging to the Gaulish period, and Fig. 467 a part of the
+same necklace on a larger scale. By analogy the term was applied to the
+ornaments worn by horses about the neck. (See NECKLACES.)
+
+=Monks=, Chr. In the religious iconography of the Gothic period,
+especially the 14th and 15th centuries, there frequently occur grotesque
+representations of monks. (See Fig. 351.)
+
+=Monmouth Cap=, O. E. A cap worn by soldiers and sailors.
+
+=Monochord.= A one-stringed musical instrument, much used for measuring
+the proportions of length which yield the various sounds within an
+octave.
+
+=Monochrome Painting.= (1) Painting in a single colour, as, for
+instance, red upon a black ground, or white upon a red ground. The most
+numerous class of specimens of this kind of painting are upon
+terra-cotta, as the Etruscan vases. (2) The term is applied to paintings
+in tints of one colour, in imitation of bas-reliefs.
+
+=Monogram.= A combination of two or more letters into one design,
+illustrated especially in ecclesiastical decoration of the 14th and 15th
+centuries, &c. The abbreviation IHS is said to have been invented by St.
+Bernardino of Siena about 1437. For _Artists’ monograms_, see
+_Stellway_, _Heller_, _Brulliot_ (_Dictionaries of Monograms_).
+
+=Monolith= (μονό-λιθος). An object formed of a single block of stone.
+
+=Monolium=, =Monolinum=, R. A necklace formed with a single string of
+pearls. (See MONILE.)
+
+=Monoloris=, R. (Gr. μόνος, one, and Lat. _lorum_, a thong. A hybrid
+word). Decorated with a single band of purple and gold, like the
+PARAGAUDA (q.v.).
+
+=Monopodium= (sc. _mensa_), R. (μονο-πόδιον). A table with a single
+foot.
+
+=Monopteral=, Arch. (μονό-πτερος). With a single wing; a circular temple
+or shrine, consisting of a roof supported on columns, without any
+_cella_.
+
+=Monostyle=, Arch. (1) Piers of a single shaft are sometimes
+distinguished by this name from _compound piers_, then called for
+distinction _polystyle_. (2) A building which is of one _style_ of
+architecture throughout; or (3) surrounded by a single row of pillars.
+
+=Monota=, Gr. A vase with one _ear_ (or handle).
+
+=Monotriglyph=, Arch. The intercolumniation in the Doric order, which
+embraces one triglyph and two metopes in the entablature. (_Parker’s
+Glossary of Architecture._)
+
+=Monoxylos=, =Monoxylus=, Gr. and R. (μονόξυλος). Literally, hewn or
+made out of a single piece of wood.
+
+=Monsters=, in Architecture. (See CENTAUR, GRIFFIN, GROTESQUES, SPHINX,
+&c.)
+
+=Monstrance=, =Expositorium=, Chr. (_monstrare_, to show). An ornamental
+vessel of gold, silver, silver-gilt, or gilded or silvered copper,
+representing usually a sun with rays, in the centre of which is a
+_lunule_ or glass box in which the consecrated wafer is carried and
+exposed on the altars of churches. The earliest monstrances, which are
+now called _expositories_, do not date beyond the 12th century. Very
+ancient specimens exist at Rheims, Namur, &c.
+
+=Montem.= An annual custom at Eton; a procession of boats _ad montem_.
+(See _Brand_, i. 237.)
+
+=Montero.= “A close hood wherewith travellers preserve their faces and
+heads from frostbiting and weather-beating in winter.” (_Cotgrave._)
+
+=Monteth=, O. E. A vessel used for cooling wine-glasses in.
+(_Halliwell._)
+
+=Mont-la-haut.= “A certain wier (wire) that raises the head-dress by
+degrees or stories.” (_Ladies’ Dict._, 1694.)
+
+=Montmorency Escutcheon.= (See the illustration to HUNTING FLASK.)
+
+=Monumentum=, R. (_moneo_, to remind). In general, any token,
+statue, or monument intended to perpetuate the memory of anything.
+_Monumentum sepulchri_ is the name given to a tomb. The Monument of
+the Great Fire of London, erected by Sir Christopher Wren, is of the
+Italo-Vitruvian-Doric order, of Portland stone, and consists of a
+_pedestal_ about 21 feet square, with a _plinth_ 27 feet, and a
+fluted shaft 15 feet at the base; on the _abacus_ is a balcony
+encompassing a moulded cylinder, which supports a flaming vase of
+gilt bronze, indicative of its commemoration of the Great Fire.
+Defoe describes it as “built in the form of a _candle_ with a
+handsome gilt frame.” Its entire height is 202 feet, and it is the
+loftiest isolated column in the world. Its interior contains a
+spiral staircase of 345 black marble steps. (See COCHLIS.)
+
+=Monyal=, O. E. for MULLION (q.v.).
+
+=Moorish Architecture=, or Arabian or Mohammedan architecture, arose at
+the beginning of the 7th century in the East, and in Spain, Sicily, and
+Byzantium in Europe. The style originated in a free adaptation of
+different features of Christian architecture, and their earliest mosques
+were built by Christian architects. The horse-shoe arch is a very early
+characteristic of their style, and the pointed arch appears at Cairo and
+elsewhere three centuries earlier than in Europe. The most perfect
+specimen of the luxury of decoration of which this style is capable is
+found in the Alhambra. (See ALHAMBRAIC ARCHITECTURE; consult the _Essai
+sur l’Architecture des Arabes et des Mores_, by _Girault de Prangy_,
+1841.)
+
+=Moor-stone.= A very coarse granite found in Cornwall and some other
+parts of England, and of great value for the coarser parts of building;
+it is also found in immense strata in Ireland. Its colours are chiefly
+black and white.
+
+=Moot-hall=, O. E. A public assembly-house; a town hall, &c. (See MOAT.)
+
+=Mora=, R. (_mora_, an obstacle). A projection or cross-bar on a spear
+to prevent its penetrating too far.
+
+=Mordaunt=, Fr. The catch for the tongue of the buckle of a belt.
+
+=Moresco-Spanish=, or Saracenic =Textiles= wrought in Spain, are
+remarkable for an ingenious imitation of gold, produced by shreds of
+gilded parchment cut up into narrow flat strips and woven with the silk.
+
+=Moresque= or =Moresco-Spanish Architecture= is the work of Moorish
+workmen, executed for their Christian masters in Spain. The most
+remarkable examples are in the city of Toledo (described by _Street_,
+_Gothic Architecture in Spain_).
+
+=Morion.= A head-piece of the 16th century, introduced by the Spaniards,
+who had copied it from the Moors, to the rest of Europe about 1550. It
+was worn as late as the reign of Charles I. There were peaked morions,
+coming to a point at the top; and high combed morions, surmounted by a
+kind of crest or ridge.
+
+=Moriones=, R. (1) Idiots, dwarfs, or deformed persons, used as slaves,
+to afford amusement in the houses of the great. (2) A dark-brown gem;
+perhaps the smoky topaz.
+
+=Morisco=, O. E. (See MORRIS DANCE.)
+
+=Moristan=, Arab. A hospital.
+
+=Morne=, =Mornette=. The head of a blunted tilting-lance, the point
+being turned back.
+
+=Morning Star=, O. E. A club called also a HOLY WATER SPRINKLER (q.v.).
+
+=Morris Dance=, O. E. (or Moorish). A very ancient dance, of masked and
+costumed performers, with bells, &c.
+
+=Morris Pike=, O. E. (for Moorish). Long pikes copied from those of the
+Moors, the staves of which were covered with little nails.
+
+=Morse=, Chr. (Fr. _mordre_, to bite). The clasp or brooch which
+fastened the cope on the breast. (See the illustration to POPE.)
+
+=Mort=, O. E. (death). The notes blown on the horn at the death of a
+deer.
+
+=Mortuary Palls=, in the Middle Ages, for the covering of the biers of
+dead people were richly decorated. One at Amiens is decorated, upon
+white stripes on a black ground, with skulls and bones and the words
+“memento mori” interspersed.
+
+=Mosaic=, or more correctly =Musaic Work=. OPUS MUSIVUM, glass mosaic;
+OPUS TESSELATUM, clay mosaic; OPUS LITHOSTROTUM, stone mosaic.
+
+=Mosaic Glass=, =Millefiori=. (See GLASS.)
+
+=Mose.= (1) Probably a dish (“Dyschmete” made of apples was called
+“Appulmoce”). (2) For MORSE (q.v.).
+
+=Moton=, O. E. A piece of armour intended to protect the right armpit,
+used in the reigns of Henry VI., Edward IV., and Richard III.
+
+=Mottoes=, in Heraldry, are words, or very short sentences, sometimes
+placed above the crest, but generally below the shield. Mottoes are
+sometimes emblematical or allusive, and frequently punning, as the “Set
+on” of the Setons, the “Tight on” of the Tittons, and the “Est hic” of
+the Eastwicks. (See LABELS [2].)
+
+=Mould.= (See MOLD.)
+
+=Mouldings.= A general term for the varieties of outline given to
+subordinate parts of architecture, such as _cornices_, _capitals_,
+_bases_, &c. These (described in their places) are principally: the
+FILLET or LIST, the ASTRAGAL or BEAD, the CYMA REVERSA or OGEE, the CYMA
+RECTA or CYMA, the CAVETTO or _hollow moulding_, the OVOLO or _quarter
+round_, the SCOTIA or TROCHILUS. These are frequently enriched by
+_foliage_, _egg and tongue_ and other ornaments, &c. (See the article in
+_Parker’s Glossary of Architecture_ for a history of the diversities of
+the mouldings in the different styles.)
+
+=Moulinet.= A machine for winding up a cross-bow.
+
+=Mound=, Her. A globe encircled and arched over with rich bands, and
+surmounted by a cross-patée; an ensign of the royal estate. (See CROWN,
+ORB, REGALIA.)
+
+=Mountain= or =Mineral Blue= (=Green=). (See CARBONATES OF COPPER.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 469. Mug of Moustiers make.]
+
+=Moustiers Faience.= Moustiers in Provence is one of the most important
+of the French ceramic centres. The mug represented in Fig. 469 is
+coloured with varied enamels, and ornamented with medallion and wreaths.
+
+=Muckinder=, =Muckinger=, O. E. A pocket-handkerchief (sc. dirty).
+
+=Mueta=, Med. Lat. (Old Fr. _muette_). A watch-tower.
+
+=Muffler.= A handkerchief covering the chin and throat, and sometimes
+used to cover the face (_muffle_ or _muzzle_).
+
+       “I spy a great peard under her _muffler_.” (_Shakspeare._)
+
+=Muffs= were introduced into England from France in the reign of Charles
+II. They were previously known in England, but were subsequently more
+common, and used by both sexes. Very little variation has occurred in
+their manufacture.
+
+=Muglias=, Arab. A kind of pastilles; a substance employed in the Middle
+Ages for making odoriferous beads; they were burnt for fumigations.
+
+=Mulctra=, =Mulctrale=, =Mulctrum=, R. and Chr. (_mulgeo_, to milk). A
+milk-pail for milking cows. In Christian archæology it is a pastoral
+vessel which is a eucharistic symbol.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 470.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 471.]
+
+=Mullets=, Her. Stars generally of five, but sometimes of six or more
+rays. Fig. 470 is of the date 1295, and Fig. 471 its development in
+1431.
+
+=Mulleus=, =Mule=, R. (_mullus_, a red mullet). A red half-boot, which
+only certain magistrates had the right of wearing, viz. the ancient
+dictators, consuls, prætors, censors, and ædiles.
+
+=Mullions= or =Munnions=, Arch. The slender piers which separate a
+window into several compartments.
+
+=Multifoiled=, Arch. Having many FOILS (q.v.). This term is synonymous
+with POLYFOILED.
+
+=Mummy.= This pigment _should_ be made of the pure Egyptian asphaltum,
+ground up with drying oil or with amber varnish.
+
+=Mummy-cloths= (=Egyptian=) were of fine unmixed flaxen linen,
+beautifully woven, of yarns of nearly 100 hanks in the pound, with 140
+threads in an inch in the warp, and about 64 in the woof.
+
+=Muniment-rooms=, to be strong and fire-proof, were erected over
+porches, gateways, &c. They contained charters, archives, &c. (See
+CHARTER-HOUSE.)
+
+=Munnions=, Arch., for MULLIONS (q.v.).
+
+=Mural.= Generally, on a wall; as—
+
+=Mural Arch.= An arch against a wall, frequent in the aisles of mediæval
+buildings.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 472. Mural crown.]
+
+=Mural Crown= (Her.) represents masonry, and is embattled. (See CORONA.)
+
+=Mural Monument.= A tablet fixed to a wall, &c.
+
+=Mural Painting.= (See FRESCO, TEMPERA, &c.)
+
+=Murex=, R. (1) A Triton’s horn or conch; (2) _murex ferreus_, a
+caltrap, thrown down to hinder the advance of cavalry, its long spikes
+being so arranged as to pierce into the horses’ feet, and so disable
+them. (See CALTRAPS.)
+
+=Murrey=, O. E. A reddish purple or mulberry colour. The livery of the
+House of York.
+
+=Murrhina=, =Murrhea=, and =Myrrhina=, R. Murrhine vases; they are
+spoken of by Pliny, and have given rise to interminable treatises and
+discussions, with the sole result that no light whatever has been thrown
+on the nature of these vases.
+
+=Murrhine Glass.= (See GLASS.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 473. Walls of Megalopolis.]
+
+=Murus=, R. Walls as defences and fortifications, in contradistinction
+to _paries_, the wall of a building. Fig. 473 represents a portion of
+the walls of Megalopolis. (See MŒNIA.)
+
+=Muscarium=, R. (_musca_, a fly). (1) A fly-flap. Hence (2) The tail of
+a horse. (3) A case in which papers were shut up in order to preserve
+them from fly-stains.
+
+=Muses=, the personifications of the liberal arts, are represented
+conventionally as follows:—
+
+Calliope. The Muse of epic poetry; a tablet and stylus, sometimes a
+roll.
+
+Cleio. The Muse of history; seated in an arm-chair with an open roll of
+paper, sometimes with a sun-dial.
+
+Euterpe. The Muse of lyric poetry; with a double flute.
+
+Melpomene. The Muse of tragedy; with a tragic mask, the club of
+Hercules, and sword; crowned with the vine-leaves of Bacchus, and shod
+in the _cothurnus_; often heroically posed with one foot on a fragment
+of rock.
+
+Terpsichore. The Muse of choral dance and religious song; with lyra and
+_plectrum_. As the Muse of religious poetry, her expression is dignified
+and earnest.
+
+Erato. The Muse of erotic poetry and soft Lydian music; sometimes has
+the lyre, sometimes is represented dancing, always gentle and _feminine_
+in expression.
+
+Polyhymnia. The Muse of the sublime hymn and divine tradition; usually
+appears without any attribute, in an attitude of meditation; sometimes
+the inscription ΜΥΘΟΥΣ (_of the myth_).
+
+Urania. The Muse of astronomy; points with a staff to a celestial globe.
+(Lachesis, one of the Parcæ, has the same attributes.)
+
+Thaleia. The Muse of pastoral life, of comedy, and of idyllic poetry;
+appears with the comic mask, a shepherd’s staff, and a wreath of ivy, or
+basket; sometimes dressed in a sheepskin.
+
+The Muses are sometimes represented with feathers on their heads,
+alluding to their contest with the Sirens, whom they stripped of their
+wing feathers, which they wore as ornaments. (_Hirt. Mythologisches
+Bilderbuch_, p. 203.)
+
+=Museum=, Gr. and R. (Μουσεῖον). Literally, a temple of the Muses. The
+term was afterwards applied to an establishment founded by Ptolemy I.,
+called Soter, at Alexandria in Egypt, in which scholars and literary men
+were maintained at the public expense. In a villa, it was a grotto or
+retreat to which people retired for meditation.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 475. Opus musivum.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 474. Opus musivum.]
+
+=Musivum= (opus), R. (μουσεῖον). This term was used by the Romans to
+denote a mosaic of small cubes of coloured glass or enamel, in
+contradistinction to LITHOSTROTUM (q.v.), which was a pavement made of
+real stones and marbles of different colours; but in a more extended
+sense, the term Musivum denotes any kind of mosaic. Figs. 474 and 475
+show examples of various kinds. Fig. 476 is a mosaic forming a border.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 476. Opus musivum—bordering.]
+
+=Muslin=, originally esteemed for the beauty with which gold was woven
+in its warp, took its name from the city of Mousull in Turkey in Asia.
+
+=Musquet.= A long heavy match-lock gun, introduced from Spain in the
+Dutch wars of the 16th century, which eventually displaced the
+harquebus. (See SNAPHAUNCE and WHEEL-LOCK.)
+
+=Musquet-rest.= A staff with a forked head required to support the
+musquet. It was trailed by a string from the wrist.
+
+=Mustarde Villars=, O. E. Either (1) a kind of cloth, probably so named
+from Moustier de Villiers, near Harfleur; or else (2) (as Stowe says) “a
+colour, now out of use.” _Mustard_ was a favourite colour for liveries
+and official dresses in the 15th century.
+
+=Mutatio=, R. Literally, _change_. The Romans gave the name of
+_mutationes_ to the posthouses for relays of horses established along
+the high roads for the service of the state.
+
+=Mutch=, O. E. An old woman’s close cap. (_Fairholt_.)
+
+=Mute=, Fr. This term, derived from the Latin _muta_, is employed by
+ancient authors as a synonym for _belfry_, _turret_, or _bell-tower_.
+
+=Mutule=, Arch. In a general sense, any stone or wooden projection which
+stands out beyond the surface of a wall, such as a rafter, for instance.
+In a more restricted sense, it denotes an architectural ornament
+characteristic of the Doric order, consisting of a square block placed
+at equal intervals above the triglyphs and metopes in a Doric cornice.
+In the Corinthian order _mutules_ are replaced by modillions.
+
+=Mynchery=, A.S. A nunnery. The word survives in local dialects, and is
+applied to the ruins; e. g. of the ancient _mynchery_ at Littlemore,
+near Oxford.
+
+=Myrtle Crown= for bloodless victors. The _myrtle_ was sacred to Venus.
+It flourished on the sea-coast of Italy and Greece. The wood is very
+hard, and is used for furniture, marquetry, and turning. Another myrtle
+wood from Van Diemen’s Land is beautifully veined for cabinet-work.
+
+=Myth=, Gen. (μῦθος, lit. that which is spoken). The name given to
+obscure traditions handed down from remote antiquity, antecedent to
+written or precise history; opposed to _legendary_ record (which can be
+_read_).
+
+
+
+
+                                   N.
+
+
+=Nablia=, =Nablum=. A stringed musical instrument; a kind of _cithara_
+in the shape of a semicircle.
+
+=Nacre=, Fr. Mother-of-pearl, the iridescent inner lining of the pearl
+mussel or oyster.
+
+=Nacreous Shells.= Iridescent shells. Several kinds are used for
+manufactures, as some species of _Meleagrina_, _Turbo_, _Nautili_, &c.
+
+=Nadir= (Arab. _nadhir_, opposite). The part of the heavens directly
+under our feet; opposite to the ZENITH.
+
+=Nænia.= (See NENIA.)
+
+=Naga=, Malay. Jars with the figure of a dragon traced on them.
+
+=Naga Architecture= (Hind. _naga_, a poisonous snake). Temples dedicated
+to the worship of the seven-headed snakes are found in Cashmere,
+remarkable for their identity of style with the Grecian Doric, unlike
+anything found in any other part of India. [Consult _Fergusson_,
+_History of Architecture_, ii. 703–732.]
+
+=Nagara.= A Hindoo name for a music-gallery in front of the Jain
+temples.
+
+=Nahinna.= A Persian manufacture of majolica. The Comte de Rochechouart
+says that the ancient faience of Persia is as admirable as the modern is
+detestable, though it retains a degree of oriental elegance.
+
+=Naiad.= A water-nymph.
+
+=Nail.= In cloth measure, 2¼ inches.
+
+=Nail-head Moulding=, Arch. An ornament formed by a series of
+projections resembling round or angular _nail-heads_.
+
+=Nainsook=, Hind. A thick sort of jaconet muslin.
+
+=Naipes=, Sp. Playing-cards. The word is supposed to be derived from the
+initials of Nicolao Pepin, the inventor. (_Diccionario de la Lengua
+Castellana._) Hence the Italian _naibi_.
+
+=Naked Flooring=, Arch. The timber-work which supports a floor.
+
+=Namby-pamby.= Affectedly pretty. The term originated in criticism of an
+English poet of the 17th century—Ambrose Phillips.
+
+=Nancy Biscuit.= A peculiar porcelain made at Nancy. The faïencerie was
+established in 1774 by Nicolas Lelong.
+
+=Nankeen.= A buff-coloured cotton cloth, introduced from the province of
+Nankin, in China.
+
+=Nân-mo=, Chinese. A beautiful wood, resembling cedar, used for temples,
+palaces, and houses of state.
+
+=Nantes.= Manufactories of white faience were established here in 1588
+and 1625; and that of Le Roy de Montilliée and others in the 18th
+century.
+
+=Naology.= The science of temples. (See _Dudley’s Naology, or a Treatise
+on the Origin, Progress, and Symbolical Import of the Sacred Structures
+of the World_.)
+
+=Naos=, Gr. The interior apartment of a Greek temple; the _cella_ of the
+Roman temple.
+
+=Napery.= A general term for made-up linen cloth.
+
+=Naphthar=, Heb. (lit. _thick water_). The name given by Nehemiah to the
+substance that they found in the pit where the sacred fire of the temple
+had been hidden during the Captivity. This “thick water, which” (the
+legend says) “being poured over the sacrifice and the wood, was kindled
+by the great heat of the sun and then burnt with an exceedingly bright
+and clear flame,” was the naphtha of modern commerce.
+
+=Napiform= (Lat. _napus_, a turnip). Turnip-shaped.
+
+=Napkin= (little _nape_). A pocket-handkerchief.
+
+               “Your napkin is too little.” (_Othello._)
+
+=Napkin Pattern.= A decorative ornament very common in German
+wood-carving of the 15th and 16th centuries. (See LINEN-SCROLL.)
+
+=Naples Majolicas= were already celebrated early in the 16th century. M.
+Jacquemart describes some vases of colossal size, evidently constructed
+for “la grande décoration,” being painted on only one face; handles in
+the form of caryatids add to the majestic appearance of these vases; the
+subjects are scriptural, executed in blue camayeu picked out in black;
+the design is free, elegant though rather straggling, and the touch is
+bold and spirited.
+
+=Naples Yellow= (It. _giallolino_). A compound of the oxides of lead and
+antimony, having a rich, opaque, golden hue. As a pigment for oil
+painting and for porcelain and enamel, it is now superseded by chromate
+of lead. As a water-colour pigment it is liable to blacken upon exposure
+to damp or bad air.
+
+=Napron.= An apron used by mediæval masons. _Limas_ was another kind of
+apron worn by them.
+
+=Nard= (Lat. _nardus_). Ointment prepared from the spikenard shrub.
+
+=Nares=, Lat. (the nostrils). (1) The perforations in the register-table
+of an organ, which admit air to the openings of the pipes. (2) The issue
+of a conduit.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 477. Narghilly—Persian.]
+
+=Nargilé= or =Narghilly=, Persian. A tobacco-pipe with an arrangement
+for passing the smoke through water. The illustration is the bowl of a
+Persian pipe of this description, in Chinese porcelain. (Fig. 477.)
+
+=Nariform= (Lat. _naris_, the nostril). Nose-shaped.
+
+=Narthex=, Chr. The vestibule of a church; sometimes within the church,
+sometimes without, but always further from the altar than the part where
+the “faithful” were assembled. Hence it was a place for the catechumens.
+The narthex communicated with the _nave_ by the “beautiful gates,” and
+with the outside by the “great gates.” In monastic churches the narthex
+was the place for the general public.
+
+=Nasal=, O. E. The bar of a helmet which protected the nose.
+
+=Nask=, Hind. A _quoin_, or coin-stone.
+
+=Natalitii Ludi=, R. Games in the circus in honour of an emperor’s
+birthday.
+
+=Natatorium.= A cold swimming-pool in the baths. That at Pompeii is of
+white marble twelve feet ten inches in diameter, and about three feet
+deep, with three marble steps, and a seat round it raised about ten
+inches from the bottom. There is a platform or _ambulatory_ round the
+bath, also of marble. (See SIGMA.) The ceiling is vaulted, with a window
+in the centre. (See BAPTISTERIUM.)
+
+=Natatorium=, Chr. A baptismal font; Gr. κολυμβήθρα (_piscina probata_).
+
+=Natinz.= A Persian manufacture of majolica. (See NAHINNA.)
+
+=Nativity.= While the Adoration of the Magi is one of the commonest
+subjects of early Christian art, the Nativity is one of the rarest. It
+is not found in any catacomb frescoes, or the mosaics of any basilicas
+or churches. The only examples are sculptural, and this on ivories,
+gems, &c. On these generally the Child is seen wrapped in swaddling
+clothes as the central object, the star appears above, the Virgin on a
+rude couch, and sometimes St. Joseph rapt in thought, his head resting
+on his hand; the ox and the ass appear behind, and shepherds with curved
+staves stand by adoring.
+
+=Natural.= In Music, a character marked ♮ used to correct the power of a
+previous _sharp_ or _flat_. A _natural scale_ is a scale written without
+sharps or flats.
+
+=Naturalisti=, It. Artists who work on the principle of a close
+adherence to the forms and colours actually combined in natural objects.
+The epithet was particularly applied as a term of reproach to the
+founders of the modern Dutch school of painting. (See IDEAL.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 478. Naumachia, from a coin of Domitian.]
+
+=Naumachia= (ναῦς, a ship, and μάχη, a battle). (1) A spectacle
+representing a sea-fight, a subject frequently represented on coins and
+sculptures. (2) A building erected for such shows. Napoleon I. had a
+theatre at Milan filled with water for a sea-fight.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 479. Nautilus. Device of the Affidati Academy.]
+
+=Nautilus.= A shell-fish that sails on the surface of the sea in its
+shell. Its spiral univalve shell is a common motive in ornamental
+design.
+
+         “Learn of the little nautilus to sail,
+         Spread the thin oar, and catch the driving gale.”
+                                                     (_Pope._)
+
+The illustration is the device of the Affidati, an Italian literary
+Academy, with the motto “Safe above and below.”
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 480. Naval crown.]
+
+=Navalis Corona.= (See CORONA NAVALIS.) (Fig. 480.)
+
+=Nave=, Arch. (so called from its vaulted roof resembling in shape an
+inverted ship (_navis_); or from _nave_, the centre of anything). The
+middle part or body of a church between the aisles, extending from the
+_choir_ to the principal entrance. The Germans call this part of a
+church “Schiff.”
+
+=Navette=, =Navicula=, Chr. The vessel, in the shape of a boat, in which
+incense is placed for the supply of the thurible.
+
+=Navicella=, Chr. A celebrated mosaic, at Rome, of a ship tossed by
+storms and assailed by demons; emblematic of the Church.
+
+=Neanderthal.= A valley near Dusseldorf, in which bones and skulls were
+found of men asserted to have been _præadamite_.
+
+=Neat-house=, O. E. A cattle-shed.
+
+=Nebris=, Gr. (from νεβρὸς, a fawn). A fawn’s skin, worn originally by
+hunters; an attribute of Dionysus, and assumed by his votaries. It is
+represented in ancient art as worn not only by male and female
+_bacchanals_, but also by Pans and Satyrs. It was commonly put on in the
+same manner as the _ægis_, or goat’s skin, by tying the two fore-legs
+over the right shoulder, so as to allow the body of the skin to cover
+the left side of the wearer.
+
+=Nebular= (Lat. _nebula_, a mist). Belonging to the nebulæ, or clusters
+of stars only visible as a light, gauzy appearance or mist in the skies.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 481. Nebule Moulding.]
+
+=Nebule Moulding.= A decorated moulding of Norman architecture, so
+called from the edge forming an undulating or waving line. (See Fig.
+481.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 482. Nebulée.]
+
+=Nebulée=, Her. A dividing and border line, as represented in Fig. 482.
+
+=Nebulous.= Cloudy or hazy.
+
+=Nebuly=, Her. Ornamented with light wavy lines.
+
+=Neck=, Arch. The plain part at the bottom of a Roman Doric or other
+capital, between the mouldings and the top of the shaft. (See
+HYPOTRACHELIUM.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 483. Necklace. Costume of a Roman lady of the 16th
+century.]
+
+=Necklaces.= An ornament common to all ages and nations. The ancient
+EGYPTIANS of both sexes wore them of gold or beads, generally with a
+large drop or figure in the centre, and strung of the various religious
+emblems; amethysts, pearls, gold or cornelian bottles, imitations of
+fish, shell, and leaves; finally, an infinite variety of devices. (See
+_Wilkinson’s Ancient Egyptians_, ii. 343.) An illustration of a common
+form of GREEK necklaces is given under _Crotalium_. The BRITISH women of
+the earliest ages wore necklaces of jet, ivory, and amber, beads,
+shells, &c., besides gold links hooked together. (See also MONILE,
+TORQUE.) The Anglo-Norman ladies do not appear to have worn necklaces,
+and no mediæval examples are found earlier than the 15th century. (See
+Figs. 303, 304, 483.)
+
+=Neck-mouldings=, Arch. The mouldings at the bottom of the capital, in
+Gothic architecture.
+
+=Necrodeipnon=, Gr. A feast after a funeral; a common subject on tombs.
+A horse’s head is usually placed in one corner of the representation, as
+an emblem of death as a journey.
+
+=Necrologium=, Chr. A book kept in religious houses for the names of the
+founders and benefactors to be mentioned in the prayers.
+
+=Necromancy= (Gr. νεκρὸς, the dead, and μαντεία, prophecy). Calling up
+the spirits of the dead for divination; hence generally applied to
+conjuring. Necromancy was practised in two ways: by inspection of the
+entrails, and by invoking the dead.
+
+=Necropolis=, Gr. A city of the dead; a cemetery.
+
+=Nectar=, Gr. The drink of the gods.
+
+=Necysia=, Gr. Offerings of garlands of flowers and other objects made
+at the tombs of deceased relatives on the anniversary of the day of
+death, or, as some suppose, on their birthdays. (See GENESIA.)
+
+=Needfire=, or Fire of St. John Baptist (Old Germ. _Nodfyr, Niedfyr_). A
+superstitious practice of the ancients, derived from a pagan source, of
+celebrating the birthday of St. John Baptist at the midsummer solstice
+(St. John’s Eve) by lighting fires, carrying about firebrands, or
+rolling a burning wheel. The practice is one of many examples of the
+caution with which the evangelizing ecclesiastics of the Middle Ages
+refrained from abruptly disturbing the deeply-rooted superstitions of
+the ancient Germans. [Consult _Grimm’s German Mythology_; _Brand_,
+_Popular Antiquities_.]
+
+=Needle=, Arch. An _obelisk_ (q.v.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 484. Needle Point Lace.]
+
+=Needle Point in relief.= To Venice belongs the invention of the two
+most perfect productions of the needle—“Point coupé,” and Venetian point
+in relief. Various other wonderful products of the needle are included
+under the general name of Venetian point, all of exquisite workmanship.
+The needle point in relief is made by means of cotton placed as thick as
+may be required to raise the pattern; an infinity of beautiful stitches
+are introduced into the flowers, which are surrounded by a pearl of
+geometric regularity. The engraving is an exquisite specimen of the fine
+raised needle point.
+
+=Nef= or =Ship=. A costly and curious piece of plate for the table, used
+as an épergne in the Middle Ages. In the 16th century they were perfect
+models of actual ships, with masts, yards, shrouds, and sailors climbing
+in the rigging. They were filled with sweetmeats, and were sometimes put
+on wheels; and there is one at Emden in Hanover from the hull of which
+wine was drunk.
+
+=Negative.= In Photography, a picture on glass having the lights and
+shadows reversed, from which _positives_ may be printed.
+
+=Neginoth=, Heb. A general term for stringed musical instruments.
+
+=Nehiloth=, Heb. (root _chalal_, to perforate). A general term for
+perforated wind instruments of music.
+
+=Nelumbo=, Chinese. A fruit-tree closely connected with the Buddhist
+legends, and from its symbolical significance and adaptability to
+ornamentation, commonly represented on porcelain. (See _Jacquemart_,
+_Hist. de la Céramique_.)
+
+=Nenia=, R. The funeral song which the hired mourners sang at a Roman
+funeral, in praise of the deceased. _Lessus_ was their wailing or cry of
+lamentation.
+
+=Nenuphar= (It. _nenufar_). The great white water-lily of Europe.
+
+=Neocori=, Gr. and R. (1) Originally sweepers of the temple. (2) In
+early times applied to the priests in charge of temples. (3) Under the
+Roman emperors, to all Asiatic cities which had temples dedicated to an
+emperor; it occurs in this sense (Νεωκόρος) on the coins of Ephesus,
+Smyrna, and other cities.
+
+=Neoteric=, Gr. Of recent origin; modern.
+
+=Nepaul Paper.= A strong unsized paper, made in Nepaul from the
+pulverized bark of the _Daphne papyracea_. Sheets of this paper are
+sometimes made many yards square.
+
+=Nephrite.= A mineral. (See JADE.)
+
+=Neptunalia.= Festivals celebrated at Rome on the 23rd of July, in
+honour of Neptune. The people built huts of branches and foliage about
+the streets.
+
+=Nereids=, Gr. Nymphs of the sea, who were the constant attendants of
+Neptune.
+
+=Nero Antico=, It. Antique marble of Egyptian and other ancient
+statuary, of an intense black, probably the result of ages of exposure,
+as no marble of the same intensity of blackness is found in any
+quarries. Marble, called also _nero antico_, of two degrees of beauty,
+is quarried at Aubert (Girons) in France; and the mausoleum of Napoleon
+I. is constructed of this stone.
+
+=Nerved=, Her. Having fibres, as leaves.
+
+=Nerves=, Arch. The name is sometimes applied to the ribs and mouldings
+on the side surface of a vault.
+
+=Nessotrophium=, Gr. A place in a Roman villa for breeding domestic
+ducks. It was surrounded by a high wall, on which was a high ledge with
+nests for the birds. A pond was dug in the middle of the enclosure,
+which was planted with shrubs.
+
+=Net Tracery=, Arch. A simple and beautiful form of tracery of the
+_Decorated_ period, consisting of a series of loops resembling the
+meshes of a net, each loop being quatrefoiled. An example occurs in the
+east cloister of Westminster Abbey.
+
+=Nete=, Gr. The shortest string, or highest note, of the seven-stringed
+lyre. (See MESE.)
+
+=Netherstocks=, O. E. The name given to _stockings_ in the 16th century,
+as continuations of the trunk-hose or _upper stocks_.
+
+=Nethinim=, Heb. (from _nathan_, to give). The servants of the priests
+and Levites about the Temple.
+
+=Nettle-cloth.= A material made in Germany of very thick cotton, used as
+a substitute for japanned leather, on the peaks of caps, &c.
+
+=Network= (_filatorium opus_). An ancient method of embroidery in
+England, used for church use or household furniture, by darning or
+working the subject upon linen netting. This method chiefly prevailed in
+the 14th century.
+
+=Neuma= or =Pneuma= (lit. a breath). A musical passage consisting of a
+number of notes sung to one syllable, or simply to a sound, as “āh”
+prolonged. “In hujus fine _neumatizamus_, id est jubilamus, dum finem
+protrahimus, et ei velut caudam accingimus.”
+
+=Neutral Colour= is that resulting from a combination of blue, red, and
+yellow, resulting in grey.
+
+=Neutral Tint.= An artificial pigment used in water-colours, composed of
+sepia, and indigo and other blues, with madder and other lakes;
+producing a scale of _neutral colours_.
+
+=Neuvaines=, Fr. Chr. Set prayers repeated for _nine_ consecutive days.
+
+=Nevers Faience.= (See NIVERNAIS.)
+
+=Newcastle Glass.= A _crown_ glass, held the best for windows from 1728
+to 1830, when it was superseded by the improved make of _sheet_ glass.
+It was of an ash colour, subject to specks, streaks, and other
+blemishes, and frequently warped.
+
+=Newel=, Arch. The upright central pillar supporting a geometrical
+staircase.
+
+=Newel Stairs=, Arch. Where the steps are _pinned_ into the wall, and
+there is no central pillar, the staircase is said to have an open or
+hollow newel. (See JOINERY.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 485. _Niche_ in the _Sigma_ of the _Caldarium_.]
+
+=Niche=, Arch. (It. _nicchia_, a sea-shell). A recess in a wall for a
+statue or bust. (Fig. 485.)
+
+=Niche-vaulting=, Arch. (Germ. _Muschelgewölbe_). A form of roofing in a
+semi-cupola design, common in the choirs of churches.
+
+=Nick=, =Old Nick=, O. E. (Icelandic _nikr_; A.S. _nicor_, a water-god).
+The devil.
+
+=Nickel= (contraction of _Kupfernickel_, or Nick’s copper, a term of
+derision given to it by the German miners). A white or reddish-white
+metal, from which nickel-silver is made. It is used to a large extent in
+the arts, being remarkable for the peculiar whiteness and silver-like
+lustre which it communicates to other metals when alloyed with them.
+
+=Nickel-silver.= German silver, or white metal, a compound of tin and
+nickel.
+
+=Niello.= The art of chasing out lines or forms, and inlaying a black
+composition called _nigellum_ or niello, was probably well known to the
+Greeks. The Byzantines compounded for this purpose silver, lead,
+sulphur, and copper, and laid it on the silver in a powder; being then
+passed through the furnace, it melted and incorporated with the solid
+metal. A process producing a similar result of black tracery is
+practised in porcelain painting, and called NIELLO-ENAMEL.
+
+=Nigged Ashlar=, O. E. Stone hewn with a pick or a pointed hammer,
+presenting a gnawed or nibbled surface: from the Swedish _nagga_, to
+gnaw.
+
+=Nilometer.= A building erected, A. D. 847, in the island of Rhoda,
+opposite to Cairo, for recording the annual rise of the Nile (i. e. 16
+cubits). It is a slender octagonal shaft about 20 feet in height, with a
+Corinthian capital. (See the _Builder_, xvii. 255.)
+
+=Nimbed=, Her. Having the head encircled with a _nimbus_; usually
+represented by a circular line.
+
+=Nimbus= (Lat. _nimbus_, a bright or black cloud). In Christian art, a
+disc or plate, commonly golden, sometimes red, blue, or green, or banded
+like a rainbow, placed vertically behind the heads of persons of special
+dignity or sanctity as a symbol of honour. After the 8th century living
+persons were, in Italy, distinguished by a square nimbus, which
+sometimes assumed the form of a scroll partly unrolled. The nimbus is of
+heathen origin. Virgil describes Juno as “nimbo succincta.” The heads of
+the statues of the gods, and the Roman emperors, after they began to
+claim divine honours, were decorated with a crown of rays. On medals of
+the Christian emperors also the nimbus is found, e.g. Constantine. In
+illuminated MSS. it is found on Pharaoh, Ahab, and other kings. It is a
+familiar symbol of dignity or power in the East, but does not appear as
+a Christian emblem before the 6th century. [See the article NIMBUS in
+the _Dict. of Christian Antiquities_.] (See AUREOLE, GLORY, VESICA
+PISCIS, &c.)
+
+=Nincompoop=, O. E. A corruption of the Latin _non compos_; a fool.
+
+=Ninth.= In Music, an interval consisting of an octave and a tone, or
+semitone.
+
+=Nisan=, Heb. The month in the Jewish calendar answering to our April.
+
+=Nitrate of Silver=, used in photography, is silver dissolved in nitric
+acid.
+
+=Nivarius= (saccus), R. A bag of snow used as a wine-cooler. (See COLLUM
+VINARIUM.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 486. Jar. Nivernais Faience.]
+
+=Nivernais Faience.= An important branch of the ceramic art, established
+in 1608 at Nevers in France by the brothers Conrade. (Fig. 486.)
+
+=Nobbled Stone=, Arch. Stone roughly rounded at the quarry to diminish
+its bulk for transport.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 487. Noble of Henry V.]
+
+=Noble.= A gold coin worth 6_s._ 8_d._ (Fig. 487.)
+
+=Nodes.= In Astronomy, the two points where the orbit of a heavenly body
+intersects the ecliptic.
+
+=Nodus=, Arch. The Latin name for a key-stone, or a _boss_ in vaulting.
+
+=Nog=, O. E. Timbers built into walls to strengthen the structure. They
+show on the plastering of houses in ornamental patterns. In Kent these
+houses are called “wood noggen” houses.
+
+=Noggin=, O. E. “A mug or pot of earth with a large belly and narrower
+mouth.”
+
+=Nogging=, Arch. Brickwork in panels carried between quarters.
+
+=Nome=, Egyp. (νομός). A division or district of Egypt; there were
+forty-four in all. Each nome was placed under the protection of a
+special divinity, and ruled by a resident military governor.
+
+=Nonagon.= A nine-sided polygon.
+
+=Nones.= (1) R. One of the three divisions of the Roman month; the ninth
+days before the IDES of each month. (2) Chr. One of the HOURS OF PRAYER
+(q.v.).
+
+=Nonunia=, O. E. A quick time in music, containing nine crotchets
+between the bars. (_Halliwell._)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 488. Norman Architecture. The Round Church,
+Cambridge.]
+
+=Norman Architecture.= It was introduced into England at the Conquest,
+A. D. 1066, and was superseded in the 12th century by the Early English
+style. Solid massive masonry, round-headed doors and windows, and low
+square central tower are (broadly) its characteristics. Among details
+the zigzag and the billet mouldings are the most noticeable. (Fig. 488.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 489. Incrusted Tile. Norman. Middle Ages.]
+
+=Norman Pottery=, Mediæval. The illustration is from a pavement of a
+church of the 12th century. “Nothing,” says Jacquemart, “is more curious
+than the study of these tiles, in which, with rudimentary means, art
+already begins to manifest its power. There, in a graceful chequer-work,
+the fleur-de-lis of France heightens at intervals a semé of trefoils and
+rosettes; scrolls of notched leaves combine in graceful borders; circles
+divided crossways receive in their sections stars and heraldic suns;
+here are armour-clad warriors, mounted upon horses richly caparisoned,
+&c.—all that picturesque fancy assisted by the resources of heraldry
+could invent to animate the cold compartments of the pavement, and give
+a meaning to the vast naves trodden every day by the Christian
+multitude.” (_Histoire de l’Art Céramique._) (Fig. 489.)
+
+=Norns=, =Nornas=, Icelandic. The three Fates, whose names signify the
+Past, the Present, and the Future.
+
+=Norroy King at Arms.= The third of the kings at arms, whose
+jurisdiction lies to the north of the Trent.
+
+=North Side= of a church “was regarded as the source of the cold wind,
+and the haunt of Satan. In some Cornish churches there is an entrance
+called the devil’s door, adjoining the font, which was only opened at
+the time of the renunciation made in baptism, for the escape of the
+fiend. In consequence of these superstitions, and its sunless aspect,
+the northern parts of churchyards are usually devoid of graves.”
+(_Wallcott_, _Sacred Archæology_.)
+
+=Norwegian Architecture.= The timber-built churches are of great
+interest, and exhibit the wonderful durability of the Norwegian pine.
+They are generally in the form of a cross, with a tower in the centre
+ending in a cupola or spire, and with high pitched roofs. The ornamental
+details are elaborate and richly carved. The whole is often painted of a
+rich brown colour; sometimes of a bright red. Some of these churches
+date from the 11th or 12th century, and are an imitation in wood of the
+masonic style of the period.
+
+=Nosocomium=, R. (νοσο-κομεῖον). A hospital.
+
+=Notatus=, R. (_noto_, to mark). A slave branded with a hot iron.
+
+=Note of a Room.= The vibrations of the air in a chamber or vaulted
+space produce a musical _note_ proper to the dimensions and other
+conditions of the place, which a good musical ear can recognize and
+identify. [See _T. R. Smith’s Acoustics_, pp. 83–87.]
+
+=Nottingham White.= White lead. (See CARBONATE OF LEAD.)
+
+=November= (Lat. _novem_, nine). The _ninth_ month of the Roman year,
+which began with March. It consisted originally of thirty days, but
+Julius Cæsar added one to it. Augustus, however, reduced it to its
+original number.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 490. Nowed. Device of the House of Savoy.]
+
+=Nowed=, Her. Coiled in a knot, as a snake. The illustration (Fig. 490)
+is the ordinary device of the house of Savoy—the “true lovers’ knot;”
+with the Latin motto, “It binds but constrains not.”
+
+=Nowel=, O. E. (Fr. _noel_, from _natalis_). A cry of joy; properly that
+at Christmas, of joy for the birth of the Saviour. It originally
+signified the feast of Christmas.
+
+=Nubilarium=, R. A shed used as a barn; it was situated close to the
+threshing-floor.
+
+=Numella=, =Numellus=, R. A kind of pillory for keeping men and animals
+in a fixed position. It was made use of in surgical operations, and as
+an instrument of torture.
+
+=Numismatics= (_numisma_, coined money). The science of coins and
+medals. The earliest known coins were issued by the Greeks, probably in
+the 8th century B.C. (See the Article in the _Encyclopædia Britan._, 8th
+edition, from which reference can be taken to exhaustive treatises on
+the various ramifications of this science.)
+
+=Nummud=, Persian. A carpet of felt much used in Persia.
+
+=Nun’s Thread.= A kind of thread formerly made to a large extent in
+Paisley.
+
+=Nun’s Work= (Fr. _œuvre de nonnain_). As early as the 14th century
+needlework was generally so described. Ancient lace is still so called
+in many parts of the country.
+
+=Nundinæ= (_novemdinæ_; from _novem_, nine, and _dies_, days). Roman
+weeks; the nomenclature including the day before and that after the
+seven days. The name was given to the weekly _market_-days at Rome.
+
+=Nupta=, R.(_nubo_, to wed). A married woman.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 491. Nuremberg Vase, enamelled in relief.]
+
+=Nuremberg Vase.= Fig. 491 is one of the gems, of the Renaissance
+period, issued from Nuremberg; a vase with portraits heightened with
+enamels and gold. (_Jacquemart_.)
+
+=Nurhag= (Sardinian _Noraga_). Primitive buildings in the island of
+Sardinia, of remote antiquity, having turrets as high as 30 to 60 feet,
+and containing stones of 100 cubic feet each in their structure. [See
+_Waring_, _Stone Monuments_.]
+
+=Nurspell.= An old English game like trap, bat, and ball. It is played
+with a _kibble_, a _nur_, and a _spell_. When the end of the _spell_ is
+struck with the _kibble_, the _nur_ rises into the air, &c.
+
+=Nut.= In Christian symbolism, an emblem of the Divinity of Christ
+hidden in His manhood. St. Augustine has a long treatise on the
+symbolism of the husk, shell, and kernel of the nut. (_Serm. de temp.
+Dominic. ante Nativ._)
+
+=Nut Oil.= This medium for colour-grinding is derived from the walnut;
+as a vehicle it is preferred to linseed oil, and is the quickest dryer.
+(See MEDIUMS, OILS.)
+
+=Nutmeg Ornament=, Arch. A common feature in Early English work in the
+_north_ of England, but not in the south. It resembles half a nutmeg,
+and is carved at certain distances apart in the hollow of a dripstone at
+St. Mary’s Church, Nunmonkton, Yorkshire.
+
+=Nuttoo=, Hind. A nose-stud or ornament worn by Indian women, often set
+with brilliants, rubies, emeralds, and pearls.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 492. Nymphæum of Egeria, near Rome.]
+
+=Nymphæum=, =Nympheum= (νύμφαιον and νυμφεῖον). Literally, _a building
+consecrated to the nymphs_. It was a large and richly-decorated chamber,
+with columns, niches, and statues, and a fountain in the centre. Nymphæa
+were often erected near the head of a spring, and formed cool and
+agreeable retreats. Fig. 492 represents a portion of the ruins of the
+nymphæum of Egeria, near Rome; and Fig. 493 the interior of the nymphæum
+at Nismes, restored. In Christian times the fountains or cisterns common
+at the doors of churches were called _nymphæa_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 493. Nymphæum at Nismes (restored).]
+
+=Nymphs.= Inferior goddesses of the mountains, forests, waters, or
+meadows. Those presiding over rivers, &c., were OCEANIDES, NAIADS,
+NEREIDS; those over mountains, OREIADS; those over woods and trees,
+DRYADS and HAMADRYADS; those over valleys, NAPÆÆ, &c. They were
+represented in art as beautiful young women. The waters of Hades had
+their presiding nymphs, the AVERNALES.
+
+
+
+
+                                   O.
+
+
+=O= was used as a numeral by the ancients to represent 11, and with a
+dash over it (Ō) to denote 11,000.
+
+=O=, O. E. Anything circular. Shakspeare calls the stars “those fiery
+O’s.”
+
+=Oak-apple Day=, O. E. The 29th of May, in commemoration of the escape
+of King Charles in the oak-tree.
+
+=Oak-tree=, the emblem of virtue, force, and strength, is frequently
+introduced in ancient sculpture. In Christian art an attribute of St.
+Boniface, in allusion to his cutting down a Druidical oak.
+
+=Oasis= (from the Coptic _ouah_, a resting-place). One of the verdant
+spots that occur at intervals in the deserts of Africa; hence any
+fertile spot in a desert, with the obvious symbolical application.
+
+=Oast-house=, O. E. A kiln for drying hops.
+
+=Oban.= The principal gold coin of Japan, worth about 4_l._ 2_s._
+
+=Obba=, Gr. and R. (ἄμβιξ). A drinking-vessel of earthenware or wood,
+probably funnel-shaped; hence—
+
+=Obbatus=, Gr. and R. Made in the shape of an _obba_, that is,
+terminating in a point. The term is often applied to the cap of the
+Dioscuri.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 494. Egyptian Obelisk.]
+
+=Obelisk= (ὀβελίσκος, lit. a small spit). Also called a needle. A tall,
+rectangular, monolithic column, of slightly pyramidal shape, invented by
+the Egyptians; in nearly every case they are covered from the base to
+the top, and on all four sides, with hieroglyphic symbols. (Fig. 494.)
+
+=Oberon.= The king of the fairies.
+
+=Obex=, R. (_objicio_, to obstruct). Any contrivance to keep a door
+closed, such as a bolt, lock, latch, iron bar, &c.
+
+=Oblata=, Chr. The sacred bread. This word was more commonly applied to
+the _unconsecrated_ loaf, and HOSTIA to the _consecrated_. (For
+particulars respecting the preparation and the form of _oblates_, see
+the article ELEMENTS in _Smith and Cheetham_, _Dict. of Christian
+Antiquities_.) In the same manner OBLATI were lay-brothers in a
+monastery who had not taken the vows.
+
+=Oblate.= Flattened or shortened like the earth at the poles. The earth
+is an _oblate_ spheroid.
+
+=Oblationarium=, Chr. A small table placed near the high altar, or at
+the end of one of the side aisles, on which the people laid their
+offerings. It was also used, when in the choir, to hold the sacred
+utensils in place of the _credence table_. In the Greek Church the
+_oblationarium_ is still used for the bread, wine, and sacred vessels
+required in the mass.
+
+=Oble=, =Oblete= (Lat. _oblata_), O. E. The consecrated wafer
+distributed to communicants at mass.
+
+                  “Ne Jhesu was nat the _oble_
+                  That reysed was at the sacre.”
+                                        (_Harl. MS._)
+
+Hence, a wafer-cake, sweetened with honey, and made of the finest
+wheaten bread.
+
+=Oboe= or =Hautboy= (from Fr. _haut_, high, and _bois_, wood). A wind
+instrument like a flute, sounded through a reed.
+
+=Obolo=, Mod. A copper coin, worth about a halfpenny, circulated in the
+Ionian Islands.
+
+=Obolos=, Gr. (derived from ὀβολὸς, a brooch, originally). A small
+copper coin worth the sixth part of a drachm. The obolos in later times
+was of bronze; but in the best times of Athens it was of silver. Its
+value in the Æginetan standard was 1·166 of a penny.
+
+=Obscœna=, Chr. Obscene representations frequently met with in Christian
+iconography, which, according to De Canmont, are “to warn the faithful
+that they ought to enter the temple with pure hearts, leaving outside
+all the passions that soil the soul.”
+
+=Obsidian.= A volcanic glass found near volcanoes, used in antiquity for
+the manufacture of mirrors, axes, knives, &c. (See GLASS.)
+
+=Obstragulum=, R. A long leather strap (_amentum_) worn as a fastening
+to the _crepida_.
+
+=Obstrigillum=, R. A shoe, the sides of which were lengthened into a
+lappet over the instep.
+
+=Obturaculum=, =Obturamentum=, R. (_obturo_, to stop up). A stopper for
+the neck of a bottle or the mouth of a vessel.
+
+=Obverse.= Of a coin, the face, or side which bears the principal
+symbol. The other side is the REVERSE.
+
+=Ocal=, Span. Coarse silk.
+
+=Occabus=, R. (ὄκκαβος). A kind of spoon.
+
+=Occidental Diamond.= A precious stone of inferior hardness and beauty.
+
+=Occultation.= The disappearance or eclipse of one heavenly body behind
+another.
+
+=Ocellata=, R. (lit. marked with _ocelli_ or spots). Marbles used as
+playthings by children.
+
+=Ocellated.= Full of eyes; said of a peacock’s tail. (See Fig. 398.)
+
+=Ochre.= Argillaceous earth of different colours which, when finely
+ground, is used as a pigment. _Red ochre_ is a form of specular iron
+ore; _brown ochre_ is a variety of hæmatite. The _yellow ochres_ become
+red when calcined, but the finest reds are made from those which are
+brown in the bed. Native red ochre is called _red chalk_ or _reddle_ in
+England. _Spanish Brown_, _Indian Red_, _Venetian Red_, and the yellow
+ochres have nearly the same composition. The other ochres are known as
+_Oxford_, _Roman_, and _stone ochres_, and as _terra di Sienna_ and
+_umber_. They are all valuable and durable pigments for oil, water, or
+enamel painting. (See AMATITA.)
+
+=Ocrea=, R. A greave; a piece of armour which covered the shin-bone from
+below the knee to the ankle. It was generally richly ornamented by
+designs embossed or chased upon it. (Modern JAMBES.)
+
+=Octagon.= A figure of eight equal sides, considered as an emblem of
+regeneration; consequently the proper form for baptistries and fonts.
+(_Fairholt._)
+
+=Octahedron.= A solid contained by eight equal sides, which are
+equilateral triangles.
+
+=Octastyle=, R. (ὀκτά-στυλος). An _octastyle_ portico is a portico
+having eight columns in front; _octastyle_ pediment, a pediment
+supported by eight columns. The pediment of the Parthenon at Athens,
+from which the Elgin Marbles come, is an _octastyle_.
+
+=Octave.= (1) In Music, the longest interval in the diatonic scale; as
+from _do_ to _do_, or C to C. (2) Chr. Eight days, or the eighth day
+after a Church festival (the festival being included) kept as a
+repetition or prolongation of the festival. It is a Western custom
+unknown to the Eastern Church.
+
+=October.= The eighth month of the old Roman year, but the tenth in the
+calendar of Numa, Julius Cæsar, &c. It was sacred to Mars, and a horse
+called the _October equus_ was annually sacrificed to Mars.
+
+=Octofoil=, Her. A double _quatrefoil_; the _difference_ of a ninth son.
+
+=Octophoron= or =Octaphoron=, Gr. and R. (ὀκτώφορον). A litter
+(_lectica_) borne by eight slaves.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 495. Ocularium in a helmet.]
+
+=Ocularium=, Med. Lat. The narrow slit or opening for the sight in a
+helmet. (See Fig. 495.)
+
+=Oculus=, Chr. A round window of frequent occurrence in the tympanum of
+the pediment in Latin basilicas, and occasionally in certain churches of
+the 11th century.
+
+=Ode= (ᾠδὴ, a song). A short lyrical poem, intended to be sung to the
+accompaniment of an instrument, especially the _lyre_; hence the
+expression _lyric_ poetry.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 496. Ground-plan of the Odeon at Athens.]
+
+=Odeon= (ᾠδεῖον; ᾠδὴ, a song). A small theatre at Athens, built by
+Pericles for musical performances. By analogy, the name was applied to
+any theatre built on a circular plan and covered with a roof, like that
+of Athens, shown in Fig. 496.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 497. Ground-plan of a Greek house.]
+
+=Œcos=, =Œcus=, Gr. (οἶκος). A Greek house; the term, however, denoted
+rather a large apartment resembling the atrium, but entirely shut in,
+that is to say, without impluvium. In Fig. 497, A is the œcus; B, C, two
+rooms forming offices; D, a tablinum; E, a portico; G, the entrance to
+the house; H, work-rooms; J, the triclinium. _Œcus tetrastylos_ was a
+house in which four columns supported the roof; _œcus Corinthius_,
+having one order of columns supporting an architrave, cornice, and an
+arched roof; _œcus Egyptius_, in which the pillars supported a gallery
+with a paved floor, forming a walk round the apartment; above these
+pillars others were placed, one-fourth less in height; and between the
+upper columns were placed windows; and the _œcus Cyzicenus_, which
+looked to the north, and, if possible, faced gardens, to which it opened
+by folding doors, was a summer-house. (See DOMUS.)
+
+=Œil-de-bœuf=, Arch. A small round or oval window in a roof.
+
+=Œillets.= (See OILLETS.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 498. Œnochoê, decorated with _zoophori_, or bands of
+animals.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 498 a. Œnochoê, or Wine-jug, in black glazed
+earthenware.]
+
+=Œnochoê= (Gr. οἶνος, wine, and χέω, to pour). An earthen vase used to
+take the wine out of the crater and distribute it into cups. It is the
+vase carried by the goddesses, and used for libations. (Figs. 498, 498
+a.)
+
+=Œnophorum=, Gr. and R. (οἰνοφόρον). A light case or basket for carrying
+wine.
+
+=Œnopolium=, Gr. and R. (οἰνοπώλιον). The shop of a dealer who sold wine
+to be carried away; distinct from the _taberna meritoria_ or
+_deversoria_, which was a public tavern.
+
+=Offendix=, R. A string by which the _apex_, or cap worn by the flamens,
+Salians, or other members of priestly colleges, was fastened under the
+chin.
+
+=Offertoria=, Chr. (1) The anthems sung in a Christian church while the
+oblations were received; mentioned by Isidorus, A. D. 595: “Offertoria
+quæ in sacrificiorum honore canuntur.” (2) Large plates, which, in the
+Christian churches of Gaul, served to collect the bread which the
+Christians had just laid on the altar. A beautiful specimen of such
+dishes, found in Siberia in 1867, and described by Rossi, is 6 inches in
+diameter, and weighs 1½ lbs. It has a relief in _repoussé_ work,
+consisting of a cross planted on a small globe studded with stars,
+beneath which issue the four rivers of Paradise; and on either side
+stand two nimbed angels, holding a rod in the left hand, and raising
+their right hand towards the cross in token of adoration. De Rossi
+regards this dish as the work of Byzantine goldsmiths of the 6th
+century. (3) At Rome, acolytes went in and out among the people, and
+collected the offerings in napkins of line linen or richer material
+called also _offertoria_.
+
+=Offertories=, in Egyptian archæology, are offerings made to the gods,
+of various shapes; such as outstretched hands supporting a cup, or
+spoons of ivory, wood, or bronze, the handle of which is formed by a
+human figure.
+
+=Officina=, R. A workshop, in contradistinction to _taberna_, a store,
+and _apotheca_, a shop; thus, _officina ærariorum_ was a goldsmith’s
+workshop; _officina fullonum_, a fuller’s establishment.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 499. Device of the Offuscati Academy.]
+
+=Offuscati.= One of the Italian literary academies. They bore for their
+device a bear, roused from his natural heaviness by the stings of bees,
+with the motto, “Stings (or points) will sharpen steel.” (Fig. 499.)
+
+=Ogam=, Celtic. The sacred writing of the Druids. (Cf. OGHAM.)
+
+=Ogee Arch= or =Contrasted Arch= or =Moulding=, Arch. An arch or
+moulding described by means of four centres, so as to be alternately
+concave and convex. It was frequently employed in fifteenth-century
+monuments, and its constant recurrence in the _later Gothic_ or
+_flamboyant_ architecture has given rise to its French name of _ogival_.
+
+=Ogham.= A kind of shorthand writing or cipher in use among the ancient
+Irish. (_S._)
+
+=Ogivale=, Fr. A French architectural term of constant occurrence,
+applied to the architecture of the mediæval period in France, during
+which the _pointed arch_ was used.
+
+=Ogive=, Fr. Arch. A _pointed_ arch; _not_ the OGEE.
+
+=Ogivette=, Arch. A small ogee.
+
+=Ogress=, Her. A pellet or black roundle.
+
+=Oil Painting= was introduced in Flanders by the brothers Van Eyck in
+1410, and in Italy by Antonello da Messina in or about 1455.
+
+=Oillets= or =Oylets=. Loopholes.
+
+=Oils.= The fixed oils used in painting are _linseed_, _walnut_, and
+_poppy_, purified and rendered drying by the addition of _litharge_.
+They should be pale in colour, limpid, and transparent, and should dry
+quickly: _nut oil_ in a few hours, _linseed_ in a day, and _poppy oil_
+in thirty-six to forty hours. The essential oils used in painting are
+_turpentine_, for diluting the pigments ground in oil, and _spike_, or
+_lavender_, for wax and enamel painting.
+
+=Oinerusis=, Gr. (οἰν-ήρυσις). (See ARYSTICHOS.)
+
+=Ointment-box=, in Christian art, is the attribute of St. Mary
+Magdalene, St. Joseph of Arimathæa, and other saints.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 500. Covered Tazza; Faience of Oiron. In the
+Louvre.]
+
+=Oiron=, a small town in France (so named from the flocks of geese which
+circle round it _Oi-rond_ in winter), is the place where the fine
+faiences, usually called Henri II. ware, were made. “Here is France,”
+says M. Jacquemart, “in the 16th century in possession of a pottery, the
+discovery of which is attributed 200 years later to England.” There are
+only about fifty pieces known, five of which may be seen in the South
+Kensington Museum.
+
+=Okel=, Egyp. A caravanserai. A large covered court surrounded by two
+stories of galleries, of which the lower is used as shops, &c., and the
+upper one as lodging-rooms.
+
+=Oldham.= A coarse kind of cloth originated at Oldham in Norfolk,
+_temp._ Richard II.
+
+=Olibanum.= A gum-resin used for incense.
+
+=Oliphant=, A.S. An elephant; hence a hunting-horn of ivory.
+
+=Olive.= A blue-grey colour; violet mixed with green.
+
+=Olive=(-tree). (1) In Christian art, the emblem of peace and concord,
+and frequent on early Christian tombs in the catacombs, with or without
+the dove. (2) Arch. Its leaf was introduced into sculpture by the
+ancients, in wreaths or garlands. The Corinthian order is enriched with
+_olive_-leaves, as are almost all the antiques at Rome of this order.
+(3) R. The _corona oleagina_, an honorary wreath made of olive-leaves,
+was conferred by the Romans on soldiers and commanders through whose
+instrumentality a triumph had been obtained when they were not
+personally present in the action. (4) Gr. It was the _olive_-tree that
+Minerva caused to spring from the ground in the citadel at Athens. (5)
+The colour and grain of the wood, and of the root portion especially,
+are very beautiful, and valuable for decorative and cabinet-work.
+
+=Olivette.= A Flemish name for _poppy oil_.
+
+=Olivine.= A variety of _chrysolite_ of a dark green, commonly called
+bottle-green colour.
+
+=Olla=, R. An earthenware vessel of very common make. It resembled our
+flower-pots, but had swelling sides, and was covered with a lid. It was
+used for cooking meat and vegetables and for preserving grapes (_uva
+ollaria_), and as a cinerary urn (_olla ossuaria_ or _cineraria_).
+Hence—
+
+=Olla-podrida=, Sp. A stew of meat and vegetables mixed, common in
+Spain. The word is used to describe any other incongruous mixture.
+
+=Ollarium=, R. A niche in a sepulchral chamber, in which the _olla
+ossuaria_ was placed. (See CINERARIUM, Fig. 160.)
+
+=Olpê=, Gr. (ὄλπη). A kind of _aryballos_ with a curved handle, but no
+spout (originally a leather oil-flask).
+
+=Olympiad=, Gr. (Ὀλυμπίας). The period of four years between two
+consecutive celebrations of the Olympic games. The first Olympiad began
+B.C. 776.
+
+=Olympic Games=, Gr. Games instituted by Hercules in honour of Jupiter
+Olympius; they were the most ancient and celebrated in all Greece. They
+derived their name from Olympia, in Greece, where they were celebrated.
+They were finally suppressed by Theodosius, A. D. 394.
+
+=Ombre.= A kind of damask.
+
+=Ombros.= The name for a particular quality of _madder_.
+
+=Omophagi=, Gr. (ὠμο-φάγοι, sc. δαῖτες, i. e. flesh-eating banquets).
+Festivals held at Chio and Tenedos in honour of Bacchus.
+
+=Omophorion.= (1) An article of female dress, worn on the _shoulders_.
+(2) A vestment of the Greek Church, consisting of a long woollen band
+with embroidered crosses. It is typical of the lost sheep borne home on
+the shoulders of the Shepherd.
+
+=Onager=, =Onagrus=, R. An engine for hurling stones of great size.
+
+=Onicolo= or =Nicolo=. A variety of the onyx, with a deep-brown ground,
+on which is a band of bluish white, used for making cameos.
+
+=Onocentaurs.= Fabulous animals, half man, half ass.
+
+=Onychomancy= (_onyx_, a nail). Divination by means of the marks on the
+nails of the hands.
+
+=Onyx= (ὄνυξ, a finger-nail). (1) A general name for the varieties of
+the agate which consist of alternate layers of white, brown, or black,
+greatly valued by the ancients for cameos. In the Christian symbolism
+the onyx typifies innocence and candour. (See ONICOLO.) (2) The name has
+also been applied by the ancients to Oriental alabaster. (3) Onyx marble
+was a name given to Algerian marble from Oran, of which “pure white,
+brilliant red, golden yellow, and hues of green, with every variety of
+striation and flocculence, exist.” [See the _Building News_, xiv. 489.]
+
+=Opa=, =Opê=, Gr. Arch. (ὀπή). A cavity in which a tie-beam (_tignum_)
+rests; whence the space included between two ὀπαὶ or _tigna_ was called
+_metopa_ or _intertignum_.
+
+=Opacity.= Want of transparency.
+
+=Opaion=, Gr. Arch. The panels on a ceiling formed by the intersection
+of its beams.
+
+=Opal.= A semi-transparent stone, remarkable for the play of colours
+that it exhibits. Three varieties are, the _oriental opal_, called also
+the _noble_ opal and the _harlequin_ opal, remarkable for its flashes of
+brilliant colours having a triangular disposition. The affection that
+the ancients entertained for this beautiful gem was unbounded. The Roman
+senator Nonnius preferred exile to parting with a brilliant opal the
+size of a filbert which Marc Antony coveted. The _fire opal_ is
+furnished principally by Mexico. Its colour, more pronounced than that
+of the _oriental_ opal, and the carmine or vinous red tint of its fires,
+permit it to be easily recognized. The _common opal_ displays very
+little fire; its colour is milk-white, which, joined to a texture
+extremely homogeneous, renders it semi-transparent. [_L. Dieulafait._]
+
+=Opal Glass=, called also Milk-white Glass; prepared for globes to
+lamps, &c.
+
+=Opales=, =Opalia=, R. Festivals of Ops, the wife of Saturn, which were
+held every year on the fourteenth of the calends of January (19th of
+December).
+
+=Opalescent.= Having a play of colours like the _opal_.
+
+=Open-tide=, O. E. The season between Epiphany and Ash-Wednesday, when
+marriages were publicly solemnized.
+
+=Opera.= A lyrical drama set to music; originated at Florence in the
+16th century. [Consult _Doni_ (passim), _Arteaga Manfredini_,
+_Signorelli_, &c.; also _Dr. Burney’s Tours and Correspondence_, and
+_Grimm’s Correspondence_.]
+
+=Operculum=, R. A cover for any kind of earthenware vessel.
+
+=Ophicleide= (ὄφις, a serpent, and κλεὶς, a key). A wind instrument of
+brass or copper made in the form of a serpent. Generally, the bass of a
+military band.
+
+=Ophiomancy=, Gr. Divination by snakes.
+
+=Ophiomorphous.= Snake-shaped.
+
+=Ophite= or =Ophiolite=. Green porphyry or SERPENTINE.
+
+=Ophites=, Chr. A sect which arose in the 2nd century in the Christian
+Church. They believed that the Serpent who tempted Eve was Christ
+himself. They are also called SERPENTINIANS. (_S._)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 501. Opima Spolia. Trophy of Gallic Ensigns.]
+
+=Opima Spolia=, R. The “spoils of honour,” consisting of armour set up
+as a trophy and dedicated in the temple of Jupiter Feretrius at Rome.
+These were spoils taken from the chief of a hostile army, who had been
+killed by the hand of a Roman general. Plutarch asserts that the _spolia
+opima_ were actually taken only three times.
+
+=Opinicus=, Her. A fabulous heraldic monster; a dragon before and a lion
+behind, with a camel’s tail.
+
+=Opisthodomos=, Gr. (ὀπισθό-δομος). Latin, =Posticum=. A small chamber
+placed at the back of a temple, to which the priests alone had access.
+
+=Oporotheca=, Gr. (ὀπωρο-θήκη). A storehouse for fruits.
+
+=Oppidan.= At Eton College, a boy who is not a king’s scholar, and
+boards in the town.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 502. Oppidum and carceres of the circus of
+Caracalla.]
+
+=Oppidum=, R. A fortified town, and thence the mass of buildings
+occupying the extremity of a circus, in which were the stalls for the
+chariots and horses (_carceres_). Fig. 502 gives a representation of the
+_oppidum_ in the circus of Caracalla.
+
+=Optical Correction= is a name given to the task of adapting art
+objects, or architectural proportions and ornaments, to the
+circumstances of distance or comparison in which they are to be
+exhibited. Belzoni observes that the heads of colossal Egyptian statues
+are proportionally larger than the lower members. (For numerous examples
+of this contrivance, see the article in the _Architectural Publication
+Society’s Dictionary_.)
+
+=Optics= (Gr. ὄπτομαι, to see). The science of the nature and properties
+of light; of its changes as it penetrates or is reflected or absorbed by
+bodies; of the structure of the eye, and the laws of vision; and of
+instruments in connexion with sight. It is thus closely connected with
+the science of colour, and the arts in general. The earliest treatise
+extant on this science is Euclid’s _Optica et Catoptrica_. (Cf. _Dr.
+Smith’s Optics_, &c.)
+
+=Optigraph.= A telescope for copying landscapes. (See CLAUDE GLASS.)
+
+=Optostratum=, R. (ὀπτὸς, brick, and στρωτὸν, strewn). A brick pavement,
+often arranged in a herring-boned pattern, as in the OPUS SPICATUM.
+(Fig. 509.)
+
+=Opus Albarium.= (See STUCCO.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 503. Alexandrinum opus.]
+
+=Opus Alexandrinum.= A mosaic flooring much used by the Romans,
+consisting of geometric figures, and generally of only two kinds of
+tessera, red and black on a white ground. (See MUSIVUM OPUS.)
+
+=Opus Araneum= (spider-work). A kind of embroidery, 13th century; modern
+“guipure d’art.”
+
+=Opus Consutum.= Appliqué work in embroidery. (See APPLIQUÉ.)
+
+=Opus Filatorium.= A kind of embroidery, 14th century; modern “filet
+brodé.”
+
+=Opus Græcum=, R. Inlaid pavement. (See MUSIVUM OPUS.)
+
+=Opus Incertum=, R. A Roman method of building; the construction of
+walls of very small rough stones, not laid in courses, but held together
+by the mortar.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 504. Pseud-iso-domum opus, with a course of opus
+insertum.]
+
+=Opus Insertum=, R. A Roman method of building, of courses of flat
+tiles, the most durable of all. Such courses were also introduced in the
+other kinds of stone and brick walls, in which they served as
+bond-courses, and also kept the damp from rising from the ground.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 505. Musivum opus.]
+
+=Opus Musivum.= Mosaic. (See MUSIVUM.)
+
+=Opus Pectineum= (comb-wrought). Woven work imitating embroidery.
+
+=Opus Phrygianum=, R. Fine embroidery. (See ORPHREY.)
+
+=Opus Plumarium= (feather-stitch). Embroidery of which the stitches
+overlap one another like the feathers of a bird.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 506. Pseud-iso-domum opus.]
+
+=Opus Pseud-iso-domum=, Gr. (lit. _quasi-equal_ structure). A Greek
+method of building in which the courses are (1) parallel and unequal,
+but regular among themselves, as in Fig. 506; or (2) irregular
+altogether, as in the Gate of Lions at Mycenæ, Fig. 507 (or in Fig.
+504).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 507. Gate of Lions at Mycenæ. Pseud-iso-domum opus.]
+
+=Opus Pulvinarium= (cushion-style). Embroidery like modern Berlin work,
+generally used for cushions.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 508. Structura reticulata.]
+
+=Opus Reticulatum=, R. A Roman method of construction, with an
+ornamental surface resembling the meshes of a _net_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 509. Spicatum opus.]
+
+=Opus Spicatum=, R. Herring-bone masonry.
+
+=Or=, Her. The metal gold, expressed in engraving by small dots, as on
+Fig. 375.
+
+=Or basané=, Fr. Leather stamped in gold, used as hangings in the 16th
+and 17th centuries.
+
+=Ora=, R. The cable which fastened the stern of a ship to the shore,
+while the ANCORALE kept her head out to sea.
+
+=Ora.= An old Saxon coin of 16 or 20 pence in value.
+
+=Orange.= The colour formed by the mixture of 5 parts of red and 3 parts
+of yellow. It is the complementary of blue. The nearest pigment is
+_cadmium yellow_.
+
+=Orange Chrome.= A sub-chromate of lead, which yields a beautiful orange
+pigment.
+
+=Orange Madder lake.= (See MADDER.)
+
+=Orange Minium.= (See MINIUM.)
+
+=Orange Vermilion.= A durable pigment for oil and water-colours, in
+colour resembling _red lead_.
+
+=Orange Yellow.= A yellow inclining to red, represented by molybdate of
+lead. (_Ansted_, _Elementary Course_.)
+
+=Orange tree.= In Christian art, symbol of the “Heavenly Bride.”
+
+=Oranti=, It. The name given to certain male and female figures found in
+the catacomb frescoes at Rome, represented with the hands spread in the
+Eastern attitude of prayer.
+
+=Orarium=, R. A scarf or handkerchief thrown to the crowd in a circus,
+to wave to the chariot-drivers. In Christian archæology, (1) A scarf
+affixed to the pastoral staff; as early as the 13th century. (2) The
+stole. (3) The border of an ecclesiastical vestment. (_Planché._) (See
+=Stole=, =Sudarium=.)
+
+=Orb.= One of the emblems of sovereignty with which kings are solemnly
+invested at their coronation. It is a globe surmounted by a cross, and
+is held in the palm of the left hand. In Art it is a common attribute of
+the Infant Saviour.
+
+=Orca=, Gr. and R. (ὄρκη or ὕρχα). An earthenware vessel of large size,
+but smaller than the amphora; it was used for holding salted fish. The
+diminutive is _orcula_; the modern Italian _orcio_.
+
+=Orchestra=, Gr. and R. (ὀρχήστρα, i. e. dancing-place). The lowest part
+of the Greek and Roman theatres; usually occupied by the chorus. It
+contained an altar, on which sacrifices to Bacchus were sometimes made.
+
+=Orchestrino.= A modern musical instrument invented by Poulleau. It was
+shaped like a pianoforte with similar finger-keys, and the sounds were
+produced by the friction of a bow upon strings.
+
+=Orchestrion.= A modern portable organ, invented by the Abbé Vogler
+about 1789. A similarly-named instrument invented in 1796 by Kunz, a
+Bohemian, consisted of a pianoforte combined with some organ-stops.
+
+=Orcula.= Diminutive of _orca_.
+
+=Order.= In classical architecture, a column entire; i. e. base, shaft,
+capital, and entablature. There are usually said to be five _orders_:
+the Tuscan, Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, and Composite.
+
+=Orders of Knighthood.= (See KNIGHTHOOD.)
+
+=Ordinary=, Her. An early principal charge of a simple character.
+
+=Oread.= A mountain-nymph.
+
+=Oreæ=, R. (_ora_, the mouth). A snaffle-bit for horses.
+
+=Oreiller=, Her. A cushion or pillow.
+
+=Oreillettes=, Fr. Ear-pieces on helmets; 15th and 16th centuries.
+
+=Orfrays.= The gold, silver, or silk embroidery on rich garments,
+chiefly sacerdotal ornaments. The term has two derivations; some derive
+it from _aurum Phrygium_, because the Phrygians, who were excellent
+embroiderers, were considered to have invented the style; others take it
+to be from _aurum fractum_ (broken). In mediæval Latin the term for
+orfrays was _aurifrigia_, _aurifrisa_, _aurifrisus_, and _aurifrixus_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 510. Regals or Portable Organ.]
+
+=Organ.= Organs are said to have been first introduced into France, A.
+D. 289, from Greece. A large organ existed in Westminster Abbey in the
+10th century. Portable organs called also REGALS were also common. The
+antique organs had no key-boards, which were introduced in the 11th
+century, simultaneously with the invention of the musical _stave_. (Cf.
+HYDRAULA.) The REGALS or portable organ is an attribute of St. Cecilia.
+(Fig. 510.)
+
+=Organdi.= A kind of muslin.
+
+=Organistrum=, O. E. A musical instrument, resembling the modern
+hurdy-gurdy, played by two persons, of whom one turned the handle, while
+the other played the keys.
+
+=Organolyricon.= A musical instrument invented in Paris in 1810 by M. de
+St. Pern. It consists of a pianoforte with two rows of keys, and
+contains twelve different wind instruments, viz. three flutes, an oboe,
+a clarionet, a bassoon, horns, trumpet, and fife.
+
+=Organzine.= Thrown silk of a very fine texture. (_S._)
+
+=Orgies=, Gr. (ὄργια). Festivals of Bacchus at which all who were
+present were carried away by frenzy. The same term was also used to
+denote the festivals of Ceres and those of the CABIRI.
+
+=Orgues=, Fr. Med. (1) Pieces of timber, pointed and shod with iron,
+hung like a portcullis over a gateway, to be let down in case of attack.
+(2) An arrangement of gun-barrels, the precursor of the mitrailleuse.
+(_S._)
+
+=Orgyia= (from ὀρέγω, to extend). A Greek measure of length,
+representing the distance from end to end of the _outstretched_ arms, or
+the height of the human figure. It was equal to four cubits or six feet,
+and was one-hundredth of a stadium.
+
+=Orichalcum= (from ὄρος and χαλκὸς, i. e. _mountain bronze_). A metallic
+compound, akin to copper and bronze, which was highly prized by the
+ancients. It was probably _brass_.
+
+=Oriel= or =Oriole=, Chr. (_oriolum_, a little entrance). A projecting
+angular window, generally triangular or pentagonal in shape. A large bay
+or recessed window in a church or in an apartment. The word has been
+used in many senses, with the general meaning of a recess within or a
+projection from a building. A small oratory.
+
+=Orientation=, Chr. The arrangement of a church by which a worshipper
+faces the _east_ at prayers.
+
+=Oriflamme.= The ancient royal banner of France, coloured purple-azure
+and gold. It was split into five points, and sometimes bore upon it a
+_saltire_ wavy, from the centre of which golden rays diverged.
+
+=Orillon=, Fr. A mass of earth lined with a wall on the shoulder of a
+bastion, for the protection of a gun.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 511. Orle or crest-wreath.]
+
+=Orle.= (1) Arch. A fillet or listel placed beneath the ovolo of a
+capital. (2) In Heraldry, a subordinary formed of a border of a shield
+which is charged upon another and a larger shield. (3) The wreath or
+torse which encircled the crest, composed ordinarily of silk of two
+colours twisted together, and representing the principal metal and
+tincture in the wearer’s armorial bearings. (_Planché._)
+
+=Orleans.= A cloth made of worsted and cotton.
+
+=Orlo.= A Spanish musical instrument.
+
+=Orlop-deck= of a ship. That over the hold, on which the cables are
+stowed.
+
+=Ormolu=, Fr. (_or_, gold, and _moulu_, ground). 72·43 copper, 25·2
+zinc, and 2·65 tin; used for cheap jewellery, &c. _Mosaic gold_, another
+name for such a metal, is composed of 65 copper and 35 zinc.
+
+=Ormolu Varnish.= A copper, bronze, or imitation-gold varnish.
+
+=Ornithon=, R. (ὀρνιθών). A poultry-yard or aviary.
+
+=Orpharion=, O. E. A kind of lute. (_Halliwell._)
+
+=Orpheon.= A musical instrument.
+
+=Orphrey.= An old English word for gold embroidery, from the Latin
+_auriphrygium_. (See ORFRAYS.)
+
+=Orpiment= (Lat. _auripigmentum_; Ang. _king’s yellow_). A yellow
+pigment of arsenic with sulphur, or, when the arsenic predominates, an
+orange colour. The finest native orpiment comes from Persia, and is
+called _golden orpiment_.
+
+=Orpin=, O. E., contraction of =Orpiment=. Yellow arsenic.
+
+=Orrery.= A machine for representing in a model the motions and relative
+positions of the heavenly bodies.
+
+=Orrice= or =Orris=. A peculiar pattern in which gold or silver lace is
+worked. The edges are ornamented with conical figures, placed at equal
+distances, with spots between them.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 512. Orthostata. Facing of a Greek wall.]
+
+=Orthostata=, Gr. (ὀρθόστατα, i. e. standing upright). (1) The facings
+of a wall, consisting of different materials from the internal part of
+it. (Fig. 512.) (2) An anta or pilaster.
+
+=Orthron.= (See HOURS OF PRAYER.)
+
+=Oscen=, _plur._ =Oscines=, R. (_os_, mouth, and _cano_, to predict). A
+bird or birds from whose singing it was possible to draw auguries.
+
+=Oschophoria=, Gr. (ὀσχο-φόρια, i. e. vine-branch-bearing). Athenian
+vintage festivals, instituted in honour of Bacchus and Ariadne by
+Theseus, or according to other authorities, in honour of Dionysus and
+Athena, in which those who took part carried vine-boughs loaded with
+grapes. The festival was concluded by a race on the seashore from the
+temple of Bacchus to that of Minerva. The victor’s prize was a cup
+called PENTAPLOA, because it contained _five_ ingredients: wine, honey,
+cheese, meal, and oil.
+
+=Oscillatio=, R. A swing. The Roman swings are represented having legs
+like a chair.
+
+=Oscilla=, R. (dimin. of _os_, mouth or face). Small images or masks,
+generally of Bacchus, hung up in vineyards to ensure a good crop, and
+practically useful to scare off birds from the grapes.
+
+=Osculare=, =Osculatorium=, Chr. (See PAX.)
+
+=Ossarium= and =Ossuarium=, R. (_os_, a bone). A sarcophagus of
+earthenware, stone, or marble, in which the vessel containing the
+cremated ashes of the dead was placed.
+
+=Ossature=, Arch. (from the Italian _ossatura_, skeleton). The skeleton
+or framework of a Gothic roof or a window. In the roof, the ossature
+comprises the nerves, the transverse or longitudinal arches, the
+diagonal rib, &c.; in a window, the iron framing.
+
+=Osteau=, Arch. An old term used to denote the rose placed in the upper
+part of a mullioned window; it was also applied to a rosace and a
+medallion.
+
+=Ostinati.= An Italian literary academy, whose device was a pyramid
+blown from all quarters by the winds, with the _obstinate_ motto,
+“_Frustra_” (in vain).
+
+=Ostium=, R. A lobby inside the entrance door of a Roman house, deep
+enough to contain a small porter’s lodge on one side, and leading to an
+inner door which opened on the ATRIUM. The street door was called JANUA.
+(See DOMUS.)
+
+=Ostrich Eggs=, Chr. The practice of suspending eggs of ostriches in
+churches was probably introduced from the East by Crusaders.
+
+  “In some churches two eggs of ostriches, and other things which cause
+  admiration, and which are rarely seen, are accustomed to be suspended:
+  that by their means the people may be drawn to church, and have their
+  minds the more affected.” (_Durandus on Symbolism._)
+
+=Ostrum=, R. A purple colour used by the ancients, produced from the
+juice of the _murex_ fish.
+
+=Othone=, Chr. (See STOLE.)
+
+=Ottone=, It. Brass.
+
+=Oubliettes=, Fr. Subterranean dungeons, into which prisoners were
+thrown to be _oubliés_ (forgotten). The side walls were in some cases
+armed with strong sharp blades, which cut the victims to pieces as they
+fell. It should be mentioned that in many cases cesspools have been
+mistaken for oubliettes.
+
+=Ouch= or =Nouche=, O. E. An ornament of the brooch kind; a jewel.
+(Mod.) The setting of a precious stone.
+
+=Oudenardes.= Tapestry landscapes first made at that place; called also
+“_tapisseries de verdure_.”
+
+=Ourania=, Gr. (οὐρανια, i. e. in the air). A game at catch-ball.
+
+=Outline=, which has no real existence in nature, is defined by
+Aristotle as πέρας στερεοῦ, “the boundary of solid form.” The only light
+and shade used in outlines is the greater lightness or darkness of the
+lines.
+
+=Outré=, Fr. Exaggerated, fantastic, absurd.
+
+=Oval= (Lat. _ovum_, an egg). The oval, formed of a continuous curve,
+differs from the ELLIPSE, which is equally broad at both ends, in having
+one end narrower than the other, and is sometimes called a false
+ellipse. _Ovals_ in windows, arches, and other parts of architecture
+exist, but are rare.
+
+=Ovatio.= A lesser triumph distinguished from TRIUMPHUS. The general
+entered the city _on foot_, and dressed in the toga prætexta of a
+magistrate, attended only by musicians, and knights and plebeians; and
+the sacrifice by which the ceremony concluded was a _sheep_ (ovis)
+instead of a bull; hence the word _ovation_.
+
+=Overstory=, Arch. The CLERESTORY.
+
+=Overture= (Fr. _ouverture_, an opening; It. _sinfonia_). Instrumental
+music preceding an opera, &c.
+
+=Ovile=, R. Literally, a _sheep-fold_, and thence an enclosure in the
+Campus Martius in which each century assembled before proceeding to
+place its votes (_tabellæ_) in the urn (_cista_). It was divided into
+compartments approached through narrow passages called _pontes_ of
+_ponticuli_. On entering, the citizens received their voting-tablets
+(_tabellæ_), and when they had consulted within the enclosure, they
+passed out by another _pons_, at which they threw their votes into the
+chest (_cista_).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 513. Ovolo or Quarter-round.]
+
+=Ovolo=, Arch. (from the Latin _ovum_). (1) A convex moulding showing
+the quarter of a circle, and thence called quarter-round. (2) The
+echinus of the Doric capital. (3) An ornament composed of eggs,
+separated either by tongues (Fig. 277) or by darts (Fig. 514). (See
+ECHINUS.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 514. Egg and dart moulding.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 515. Ovum. Egg-shaped balls.]
+
+=Ovum=, =Egg=, R. Conical egg-shaped balls which were placed upon the
+_spina_ of a circus, on a stone table supported by four columns. (Fig.
+515.) There was a second table at the other end of the _spina_, on which
+were placed small marble dolphins. _Ovum Orphicum_, or Orphic egg, was
+the mysterious symbol employed by Orpheus to denote the procreative
+principle with which the whole earth is pervaded. _Ovum anguinum_ was an
+oval ball of glass worn by the Druids round their neck; so named
+because, as was asserted, it was produced from the mingled saliva of two
+serpents (_angues_).
+
+=Owl.= With the Athenians the owl was the emblem of prudence and wisdom;
+the bird of Athenê. In Christian art it symbolizes darkness and
+solitude, and hence unbelief.
+
+=Ox.= In Christian art the attribute of St. Luke; the emblem of the
+priesthood and of sacrifice. In representations of the Nativity an ox
+and an ass are commonly introduced.
+
+=Ox-gall.= The bile or bitter fluid secreted by the liver of the ox;
+when refined it is used in oil and water-colour painting to fix and
+thicken the colours. (See GALL.)
+
+=Oxford Ochre.= An oxide of iron used as a pigment of a brownish yellow
+in oil and water-colours. (See OCHRE.)
+
+=Oxide of Zinc.= A _white_ pigment which is more permanent in resisting
+gases than the white lead.
+
+=Oxides of Copper.= The pigments derived from these were well known to
+the ancients. Modern pigments are _Blue Verditer_, _Brunswick Green_,
+_Verdigris_, and _Emerald_ or _Scheele’s Green_ (q.v.).
+
+=Oxybaphoi=, Gr. Small cymbals in the shape of vinegar-saucers.
+
+=Oxybaphon= (ὀξυβάφον). A Greek term applied to a bell-shaped vase with
+a plain foot and a moulded rim, synonymous with the Latin ACETABULUM
+(q.v.).
+
+=Oyelet=, =Oylet=. (See OILLETS.)
+
+=Oyer= and =Terminer=. Ancient law-French. The words mean _to hear and
+to determine_, and express the authority or commission given to an
+appointed court of justice.
+
+
+
+
+                                   P.
+
+
+=Packfong= or =Pakfong=. A Chinese name for Argentine, or German silver.
+
+=Pæan= (Gr. παιάν). A hymn to Apollo, of gratitude or propitiation. It
+was also used as a battle-song before and after an engagement.
+
+=Pænula=, R. A thick cloak with a hole to put the head through; it was
+furnished with a hood, and was worn in travelling, or as a protection
+against cold and rain.
+
+=Pagai=, Hind. A kind of short double oar, with broad ends resembling
+small scoops.
+
+=Paganalia=, =Paganales=, R. A rustic festival which took place yearly
+towards the end of January or the beginning of February, seven days
+after the _Sementivæ_. It was the festival of villages (_pagi_) and of
+villagers (_pagani_), whence its name. Sacrifices were offered in honour
+of Proserpine, goddess of vegetation. As the old religion continued to
+prevail in the villages long after that of Christ was established in the
+towns, the words _pagan_ and unbeliever gradually became synonymous.
+
+=Paganica= (sc. _pila_), R. A ball covered with leather and stuffed with
+feathers or down; it took its name from the peasants or country people
+(_pagani_), who used it for playing a game the nature of which is not
+known.
+
+=Pagina=, R. (lit. a thing fastened). This term, when synonymous with
+_scheda_, signifies a page of paper, the page of a volume; or else it
+serves to denote one of the columns of writing which cover a sheet of
+paper.
+
+=Pagoda=, Hind. (1) A religious building of the Hindoos. The great
+ancient pagodas of India are monolithic temples hewn out of rocky
+mountains; but the term is also applied to temples built in the open
+air. (2) Gold coins formerly current in India were called pagodas.
+
+=Pagoda-stone.= A limestone containing tapering fossil shells shaped
+like a Chinese pagoda at the top.
+
+=Pagodite.= A stone much used by the Chinese for carving into pagodas
+and other ornaments.
+
+=Pagus=, R. Any lofty site in the country capable of being easily turned
+into a fortified post by means of a few siege works. The name was
+extended to the country surrounding a fortified village; and each of the
+country tribes was divided by Numa into a certain number of pagi.
+
+=Paile.= An old term used to denote a striped cloth of floss silk
+manufactured at Alexandria in Egypt, and thence a mantle, canopy, or
+pavilion.
+
+=Pala=, It. An altar front. The _Pala d’oro_ of St. Mark’s, Venice, is a
+celebrated specimen of Byzantine art. It is of silver-gilt ornamented
+with gems and enamels, with Greek and Latin inscriptions in niello, and
+representations from sacred and profane history. It was originally made
+at Constantinople in 976, but has been repaired in 1105, in 1209, and in
+1345, by which it has lost much of its original character.
+
+=Pala=, R. A spade, or scoop in the form of a spade, and thence the
+bezil of a ring.
+
+=Palæstra= (παλαίστρα). A place for wrestling, formerly part of the
+gymnasium. (See GYMNASIUM.)
+
+=Palanga.= (See PHALANGÆ.) Hence:—
+
+=Palanquin.= A covered conveyance for one person, carried on the
+shoulders of men in India and China. They are often very splendidly
+carved, and decorated with tapestry, ornamental woods, and inlaid-work.
+
+=Palaria=, R. An exercise practised by young Roman recruits, which
+consisted of hurling javelins (_pila_) against a stake (_palus_) fixed
+in the ground. (See PEL.)
+
+=Palè=, Gr. (πάλη). A Greek term having the same meaning as LUCTA,
+LUCTAMEN, LUCTAMENTUM (q.v.).
+
+=Pale=, Her. One of the ordinaries. =Palewise= or =In Pale=, arranged
+vertically one above the other, as the lions of England. (See PER.)
+
+=Paleste=, Gr. (παλαιστὴ, i. e. palm of the hand). A lineal measure used
+by the Greeks equal to the quarter of a foot, or a little more than
+three inches. (See PALMUS.)
+
+=Palette.= “Setting the palette” is arranging the colours for use. This
+is always done in a certain order regulated by the key in which the
+picture is to be painted. The order generally recommended is to begin
+with white, and then proceed through the yellows, reds, and blues to
+black. The Egyptians used palettes of a long rectangular form; one side
+higher than the other, had two or three saucers sunk in it to hold cakes
+of colour or ink; the other side was notched to receive the _calami_ or
+cut reeds used as writing-pens.
+
+=Palettes= or =Roundels=, in Armour, are round plates or shields hung on
+the armour to defend the joints of the arm, necessarily left free for
+action.
+
+=Palilia=, R. A festival in honour of Pales, the goddess of shepherds
+and flocks; it was held on the 21st of April.
+
+=Palimpsest= (παλίμ-ψηστος, lit. scraped again). A parchment the writing
+on which had been erased, so that it might be used again. Monumental
+brasses are found to have been reversed and used a second time. In both
+cases the most ancient writing or inscription is generally the most
+valuable and interesting.
+
+=Palindrome= (πάλιν, again, and δρόμος, a course). A sentence which
+reads the same when read backwards or forwards. Such is the Greek
+inscription on the ancient font in the chapel of Dulwich College:
+“νιψονανομημαμημονανοψιν.” “Purify the heart and not the countenance
+alone.”
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 516. Palissy jug.]
+
+=Palissy Ware.= The pieces to which Palissy owes his reputation, in the
+first place, are the so called “rustic pottery” (_rustiques figulines_),
+“dishes or vases where upon a rough ground strewn with fossil shells,
+lizards and salamanders are running, frogs jumping, snakes crawling or
+sleeping, or more still, in a streamlet of water wriggling eels,
+pointed-nosed pikes, trout with spotted scales, and a thousand others of
+our fresh-water fishes are swimming.” When afterwards he worked in the
+capital, he did not give up his rustic compositions, but mixed them with
+the human figure. “There is an identity of style in all his figures and
+compositions; such as the Diana, Plenty, &c., framed round with delicate
+and ingenious ornaments drawn in the taste of the period.”
+(_Jacquemart._)
+
+=Paliurus.= A thorn-bush with long sharp spikes, common on the coasts of
+the Mediterranean, where it is called _Christ’s thorn_, because it is
+said to have furnished material of which the Crown of thorns was woven.
+
+=Palla=, Gr. and R. A robe of state worn by patrician ladies, and
+frequently represented on statues of goddesses. _Palla citharœdica_ was
+the name given to a long robe which musicians wore upon the stage;
+Apollo is often represented with this garment, especially when he is
+surnamed _Citharœdus_ and _Musagetes_. _Palla Gallica_ was a short
+garment like a TABARD, open in front and behind; it was worn by the
+Gauls and adopted by the Romans, who called it CARACALLA (q.v.).
+
+=Palla Corporalis=, Chr. The veil for the Pyx. (See CORPORAL.)
+
+=Palladium.= (1) An image of Pallas Athenê, kept carefully hidden, and
+revered as the safeguard of the place where it lay. The most celebrated
+was the _Palladium_ of Troy, said to have been thrown from Olympus by
+the hand of Zeus. It was about three cubits high, and represented the
+goddess sitting with a spear in her right hand, and in her left a
+distaff and spindle. (2) The term has been applied to a metal discovered
+by Dr. Wollaston in 1803, obtained from platinum, which it resembles in
+colour and lustre.
+
+=Pallium= (Gr. ἱμάτιον). A large square woollen sheet or blanket worn by
+the Greeks over the shoulders, and fastened like the ABOLLA round the
+neck with a brooch (_fibula_); it formed the principal article of the
+_amictus_ or Greek dress. (Hence the expression to _palliate_, or cloak
+over, an offence.) (2) Chr. A vestment bestowed by the Pope on all
+patriarchs and archbishops on their accession to office as the symbol of
+their ecclesiastical power. The material is obtained from the wool of
+two lambs slain on the Eve of St. Agnes. The modern pallium of the
+Church is a short white cloak ornamented with a red cross, which
+encircles the neck and shoulders, and falls down the back. The pall or
+pallium is a charge in the arms of the Sees of Canterbury, Armagh, and
+Dublin.
+
+=Pall-mall.= The ancient form of the game of croquet, “wherein a round
+box bowle is with a mallet strucke through a high arch of yron standing
+at either end of an ally.” (_Cotgrave._) “This game is used at the long
+alley near St. James’s, and vulgarly called Pell-Mell.” (_Blount’s
+Glossary_, 1681.)
+
+=Palm.= The ancient classical emblem of victory and triumph was early
+assumed by the Christians as the universal symbol of martyrdom. In
+England we understand by palm, not the leaves of a palm-tree, but “the
+yelowe that groweth on wyllowes.”
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 516 a. Palm-leaf Ornament.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 516 b. Architectural Palm-leaf Ornament.]
+
+=Palm-leaf=, Arch. An architectural ornament bearing more or less
+resemblance to a palm-leaf, employed for mouldings, and for the
+decoration of the corners of the ceilings in Doric cornices; and in
+antefixæ, as crownings for the pediment and as acroteria. Figs. 516a and
+516b represent palm-leaves of terra-cotta.
+
+=Palmus=, Gr. and R. A measure of length. Of the Greek _palmus_ the
+greater (σπιθαμὴ) contained nine finger-breadths, and the less
+(παλαιστὴ) four. The greater Roman _palmus_ contained twelve
+finger-breadths or about nine inches, and the less four finger-breadths.
+The greater _palmus_ was taken from the length of the hand or span, the
+less from the breadth of it.
+
+=Palstave=, Celt. A wedge-shaped axe used by the Celtic nations in war
+for battering the armour of the enemy. (See Fig. 255.)
+
+=Paltock= (modern _paletôt_). “A short cloake with sleeves,” i. e. a
+great-coat.
+
+=Paludamentum=, R. A military cloak worn over their armour by the
+generals and superior officers of the Roman army; an officer thus
+dressed was said to be _paludatus_. (See Fig. 44.)
+
+=Palus=, R. (_pango_, to fix). A stake planted in the earth, against
+which recruits hurled their javelins (_pila_). The mediæval PEL (q.v.).
+
+=Pam=, O. E. The knave of clubs. (HALLIWELL.)
+
+=Pammachium= (παμμάχιον). A synonym for PANCRATIUM (q.v.).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 517. Panache.]
+
+=Panache=, Her. A plume of feathers set upright and borne as a crest.
+Fig. 517 is from the seal of Edward Courtenay, A. D. 1400.
+
+=Panarium=, R. (_panis_, bread). A bread-basket; a pantry in which bread
+was kept.
+
+=Panathenæa=, Gr. (Παναθήναια). Festivals of Minerva Athenê among the
+Athenians, so called because they formed the festival of all the peoples
+placed under the protection of Minerva (πᾶν, all, and Ἀθήνη). There were
+the Greater and Lesser Panathenæa; the former being held every five
+years, the latter every three years. The procession at the Greater
+festival is the subject of the friezes from the Parthenon now in the
+British Museum. (See ELGIN MARBLES.) They represent the solemn
+transportation of the _peplus_ of Athenê to her temple, in which nearly
+the whole of the population took part, on foot, on horseback, or in
+chariots. Old men carried olive-branches, young men attended in armour,
+and maidens carried baskets of flowers.
+
+=Panaulon.= An enlarged German flute with sixteen finger-keys; invented
+recently by Trexler of Vienna. It is available as a bass to other
+flutes.
+
+=Pancratium=, R. (from πάν every: and κράτος force). A wrestling and
+boxing match, in which the combatants employed every means to disable
+each other; and the contest was continued until one of the combatants
+owned himself disabled by holding up a finger, or was killed.
+
+=Paned=, O. E. Striped.
+
+=Paned Hose.= Breeches formed of stripes, with small panes or squares of
+silk or velvet. (_Halliwell._)
+
+=Panegyris=, Egyp. (πανήγυρις). A popular festival of Egypt, to which
+the whole country was summoned in order to celebrate the thirtieth
+anniversary of the reigning monarch.
+
+=Panels=, Arch. The sunken compartments in wood and stone-work; very
+abundant in Gothic architecture as ornaments on walls, ceilings, &c.
+After the expiration of Gothic architecture, panelling in great measure
+ceased to be used in stone-work.
+
+=Panel Picture.= A painting on a board or panel.
+
+=Panisci=, R. (Πανίσκοι, dimin. from Πάν). Literally, _small Pans_,
+small rustic gods no bigger than pigmies.
+
+=Pannetier Green.= A handsome and durable emerald green, prepared by a
+secret process by its inventor, M. Pannetier. It is sold at a high
+price.
+
+=Panoply= (πανοπλία). A complete suit of armour. (See ARMOUR.)
+
+=Pantables= (for PANTOFLES). Slippers.
+
+  “Hee standeth upon his _pantables_, and regardeth greatly his
+  reputacion.” (_Saker’s Narbonus_, 1580.)
+
+=Pantaloon.= From the Italian, _pianta leone_ (plant the lion); the
+Venetian standard-bearers (of the _lion_ of St. Mark) being so called,
+who wore tight hose, the name came to be given to tight hose in general.
+In ancient pantomimes, Pantaloon was always a Venetian. (See HARLEQUIN.)
+
+=Pantaloons=, O. E. “Garments made for merry-andrews, that have the
+breeches and stockings of the same stuff, and joined together as one
+garment.” (_Halliwell._)
+
+=Panthea=, Gen. (πάν-θεια). Statues or figures which combine the symbols
+of several divinities.
+
+=Pantheon= (πᾶν, every, and θεὸς, god). A temple dedicated to all the
+divinities collectively. That at Rome is now a Christian church. It is
+circular, 150 feet in height and in diameter, with a domed roof.
+
+=Pantherinæ=, R. Panther-tables; of wood striped like the skin of a
+panther. (See TIGRINÆ.)
+
+=Pantobles=, =Pantoffles=, O. E. Slippers.
+
+=Pantofles=, O. E. Slippers or wooden pattens.
+
+=Pantograph.= An instrument for enlarging or reducing plans and designs,
+largely used in the arts, e. g. in machine embroidery.
+
+=Pantomine= (παντὸς, of everything; μῖμος, mimic). Gesture and action
+applied, without speech, to represent emotion; hence applied to the form
+of theatrical performance which consists entirely or principally of
+gesture and action.
+
+=Paper.= (See CHARTA.)
+
+=Papier-maché=, Fr. Paper-pulp; made by compressing the pulp, or by
+pasting together different thicknesses of paper, to the hardness and
+consistency of wood. It is an invention of the 18th century, and
+originated in snuff-boxes called after their manufacturer “Martins.” The
+process has since been developed to great perfection by the invention of
+new varnishes and methods of ornament, the principal of which are
+gilding and bronzing, pearl and gem inlaying, &c. (See a paper by _R.
+Hunt_ in the _Art Journal_, 1851.)
+
+=Papilio=, R. (lit. a butterfly). A military tent, so called because the
+curtains opened and shut like the wings of a butterfly.
+
+=Papyrus.= The paper made of the papyrus plant, used by the Egyptians
+and other nations of antiquity. The _Papyrus rolls_ on which important
+relics of Egyptian literature and art have come down to us, were formed
+of a sheet of papyrus rolled on a slender wooden cylinder. They have
+mostly been discovered in mummy cases, and contain illustrations of
+funeral ceremonies and religious emblems relating to the future of the
+soul. Others are historical or literary, and some have been discovered
+containing caricatures and comic illustrations. (Cf. LIBER.)
+
+=Parada=, Celt. A tent or awning stretched over the deck of a vessel,
+and thence a cabin hung with tapestry.
+
+=Paradise= or =Parvise=, Chr. (1) A vestibule or courtyard in front of a
+church. The term must thus, at a certain period, have been synonymous
+with _narthex_ or porch. At the present day the term is applied to the
+open space to be found in front of cathedrals or public buildings. (2)
+The word is sometimes applied to the room that is often found above
+church porches. (See CLOISTER GARTH.)
+
+=Paradisus= (παράδεισος). A Persian park or pleasure-garden, enclosed
+within a wall, elaborately planted and irrigated, and stocked with
+animals for the chase. Hence the Garden of Eden was so called.
+
+=Paragauda=, =Paragaudis=, R. An embroidered band of silk or gold thread
+sewn on to a tunic.
+
+=Paraison=, Fr. A term in glass, equivalent to the English METAL (q.v.).
+
+=Paralus= (πάραλος). The name of an Athenian state vessel, kept, like
+that of the Doge of Venice in modern times, for state and religious
+ceremonies. A sister vessel was named the SALAMINIA; they were both
+fast-sailing triremes.
+
+=Paramese=, Gr. (next to middle), or TRITE (third). The third treble
+note, immediately above the mese, of the seven-stringed lyre. (See
+MESE.)
+
+=Paranete=, Gr. (beside the shortest). The second treble note of the
+seven-stringed lyre. (See MESE.)
+
+=Parapet=, It. (_parare petto_, to defend the breast). A wall
+breast-high on a fortification, roof, or other gallery. (See CRENELS.)
+
+=Paraphernalia= (from the Greek παράφερνα). That which a wife brings
+besides her dower; i. e. her personal attire and ornament.
+
+=Parasang.= A Persian measure of distance, about 30 Greek stadia or 3¾
+English miles.
+
+=Paratorium.= (See OBLATIONARIUM.)
+
+=Parazonium=, R. (παραζώνιον). A short sword or kind of dagger worn by
+the tribunes and superior officers of the Roman army attached to their
+belt on the right side. This sword was shorter than the _gladius_ worn
+by the common soldier on the right side.
+
+=Parchment.= The finer kind of parchment known as _vellum_ is from the
+skins of calves, kids, and dead-born lambs. The stout parchment of
+drum-heads is from the skin of the wolf, although that of the ass or
+calf is sometimes used. The parchment of battledores is from the skin of
+the ass, and that used for sieves from the skin of the he-goat. The
+green parchment used in bookbinding is coloured by means of Verdigris.
+(See LIBER.) The name comes from the Latin Pergamentum. Eumenes, King of
+Pergamus, has the honour of the invention.
+
+=Parentales=, =Parentalia=, R. Festivals, also called _Februales_, which
+were held by the Romans in honour of deceased ancestors.
+
+=Pargetting=, =Parge-work=, O. E. In Architecture, an old term for the
+ornamental plasterwork common on the outside walls of timber-built
+houses of Queen Elizabeth’s and earlier periods.
+
+=Parhypate=, Gr. (beside the longest). The second bass note of the
+seven-stringed lyre (See MESE.)
+
+=Parian Chronicle.= A slab of Parian marble, among the so called ARUNDEL
+MARBLES in the University of Oxford, containing a chronological record
+of Greek history from B.C. 1582 to B.C. 264.
+
+=Parian Marble= from the island of Paros was of extremely fine grain,
+easy to work, and of a creamy white. The marble _now_ called Parian has
+a coarse sparkling grain, which, however, takes a high finish.
+(_Redford_, _Ancient Sculpture_.)
+
+=Paries=, R. The wall of a house or any building, in contradistinction
+to _murus_, _muri_, which denoted the walls of a city.
+
+=Paris Black.= A name for IVORY BLACK (q.v.).
+
+=Paris Blue.= A very handsome dark violet-blue pigment. “Its great
+qualities of body and intensity of coloration will always ensure it a
+large sale; moreover, its mixture with chrome yellow produces a fine
+_green cinnabar_ or _leaf-green_.” (_Habich._)
+
+=Paris Lake.= (See CARMINATED LAKES.)
+
+=Parlour= (Lat. _parlatorium_). (1) The old “speke-house” in a convent
+for inmates to speak with their friends. (2) Any private room.
+
+=Parma=, R. (πάρμη). A shield, usually of circular form, carried in the
+Roman army by the light-armed troops or light infantry (_velites_) and
+the cavalry (_equites_). The _parma thracidica_ used by the class of
+gladiators called _Thraces_ was not round, but in the form of a small
+SCUTUM (q.v.).
+
+=Parquet.= French flooring of inlaid wood-work.
+
+=Parsley=, Arch. In every period, but especially in Romano-Byzantine and
+Gothic art, parsley-leaves have been abundantly made use of in
+architectural decoration.
+
+=Parthenon.= The famous temple of Minerva in the Acropolis at Athens.
+The finest example of the GRECIAN DORIC style of architecture; built by
+Pheidias, 454–438 B.C. Fergusson says, “For beauty of detail, and for
+the exquisite perception of the highest and most recondite principles of
+art ever applied to architecture, it stands utterly and entirely alone
+and unrivalled—the glory of Greece.” (_Hist. of Architecture._) The
+celebrated frieze, 525 feet in length, ran all round the outer wall of
+the _cella_ close up to the ceiling. The best work on the Parthenon
+sculptures is by Michaelis (_Der Parthenon_, Leipzig, 1871). (See ELGIN
+MARBLES.)
+
+=Partisan=, O. E. A kind of short pike, introduced _temp._ Edward III.
+
+=Partlet=, O. E. A ruff. “A maydens neckerchefe or lynnen partlette.”
+
+=Party=, =Parted=, Her. Divided. (See PER.)
+
+=Parvise.= (See PARADISE.)
+
+=Paschal Taper=, Chr. A large wax candle which was consecrated during
+the service on Easter Eve, and lighted on Sundays from Easter to
+Whitsuntide, with five grains of incense attached to it to indicate the
+five movable feasts of the year.
+
+=Pasquinade=, It. A lampoon; so called from _Pasquino_, an Italian
+barber at Rome, whose door was opposite to the statue of a gladiator on
+which such satirical writings were posted.
+
+=Passamen=, O. E. A kind of lace. (_Hall._)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 518. Passant.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 519. Passant guardant.]
+
+=Passant=, Her. Walking and looking forward. _Passant guardant_, walking
+and looking out from the shield; _passant reguardant_, walking and
+looking back; _passant repassant_, walking in opposite directions. (Fig.
+518, 519.)
+
+=Passe-partout=, Fr. A light picture-frame of cardboard, having the
+inner edges generally gilt.
+
+=Passementerie=, Fr. Trimming, lace, or tape of gold, silver, lace, or
+thread.
+
+=Passion, Instruments of the=—a frequent subject in ecclesiastical
+decoration of the Middle Ages—are, the PITCHER from which Jesus poured
+water; the TOWEL—represented as hanging on a ring—wherewith He wiped the
+Apostles’ feet; the TWO SWORDS which they showed Him, when He said, “It
+is enough;” the EAR of Malchus; ST. PETER’S SWORD, represented as a
+small _falchion_; the POST to which the Saviour was bound; the SCOURGE;
+the CROWN OF THORNS; the REED wherewith He was smitten on the head; the
+CROSS; the LADDER; the NAILS; the SPEAR of Longinus, crossed by the REED
+with the SPONGE; the FIRE at which St. Peter warmed himself; the COCK;
+the PINCERS, and a HEART pierced with five wounds.
+
+=Passus=, R. A pace, from the point where the heel leaves the ground, to
+where the same heel is set down; five Roman feet. _Mille passuum_, or a
+thousand such paces, formed the Roman mile.
+
+=Pasta Verde=, It. Sap-green; a vegetable green pigment prepared from
+the berries of the buckthorn.
+
+=Pastel.= The French name for coloured crayons. Pastel-painting was much
+used for portraits in the beginning of the 19th century.
+
+=Pasticcio=, It. An imitation of the style of another painter in an
+independent design.
+
+=Pastophori=, Gr. and Egyp. (παστο-φόροι). Priests who, at certain
+ceremonies, carried small shrines (ναὸς) containing the image of a
+deity, which were hidden from the eyes of the crowd by a veil of
+different colours called παστὸς, whence παστὸν φέρειν (to carry the
+_pastos_), the term applied to the priests who performed this duty. The
+keepers of the temple were also so called.
+
+=Pastophoria=, Chr. Small apses flanking the principal apse in a
+basilica, in which the consecrated bread was kept.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 520. Bishop’s Pastoral Staff.]
+
+=Pastoral Staff=, Chr. The _pedum_ of antiquity and emblem of a bishop’s
+pastoral responsibility is distinct from the CROZIER (q.v.) of an
+archbishop, and has a crook head.
+
+=Pastouraux=, Cubical stones, usually of two colours, applied in the
+ornamentation of Romano-Byzantine architecture.
+
+=Patagium=, R. A band of purple, or with gold ornaments or embroidery,
+which was placed round the neck and down the front of a woman’s tunic
+(_tunica muliebris_).
+
+=Patee= or =Pattee=, Her. A small cross with the arms widening towards
+the ends.
+
+=Patella.= Diminutive of PATERA (q.v.).
+
+=Patena=, R. and Chr. A manger of wood, stone, or marble for holding
+food for horses; when it was divided into several compartments, these
+were called _loculi_. (See LOCULUS.) In Christian archæology, _patena_
+was the term applied to a small plate of gold or silver, used in the
+celebration of mass to cover over the chalice, and to hold the pieces of
+the host after it has been broken by the priest.
+
+=Patent Yellow.= (See TURNER’S YELLOW.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 521. Patera.]
+
+=Patera=, dimin. =Patella= (φιάλη). Flat plates or dishes for holding
+fluids for domestic use, and wine for libations in the sacrifices. The
+common kinds were of red earthenware, ornamented with designs in black.
+Others were of bronze or silver, often richly decorated with chasing,
+&c. (Compare PATINA.) In Architecture, a great variety of flat ornaments
+used in all styles of architecture are improperly called _pateræ_, the
+word applying properly to circular ornaments resembling the classical
+dish often found on friezes of classical architecture. (Fig. 521, 522.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 522. Side view, showing the depth of the patera.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 523. Paternosters.]
+
+=Paternosters= or =Bead-ornament=. (1) A rosary. (2) Architectural
+ornaments in the form of berries or beads (Fig. 523), which decorate
+bands or other mouldings, and which often occur above ovolos.
+
+=Patibulum=, R. An instrument of punishment in the form of a fork
+(_furca_), between the prongs of which the criminal’s neck was placed.
+His hands were fastened to the prongs of the fork, and in this condition
+(_patibulatus_) he was flogged through the city. The name of
+_patibulum_, or _crux patibularia_, was also given to a cross to which
+criminals were nailed.
+
+=Patina.= The rust of antiquity found on bronzes and coins; it cannot be
+removed by rubbing or wetting it. It varies with the nature of the soil,
+and in some cases the surface acquires the smoothness and colour of
+malachite.
+
+=Patina=, R. An earthenware vessel, used generally for cookery. It was
+deeper than the _patera_, but less deep than the _olla_.
+
+=Patonce=, Her. A variety of the heraldic cross.
+
+=Patriarchal=, Her. A variety of the heraldic cross, with a short
+cross-bar on the upper limb.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 524. Badge of St. Patrick.]
+
+=Patrick, Order of St.=, indicated by the letters K.P., was instituted
+by George III. in 1783. The badge or jewel is of gold enamelled and oval
+in form, and is worn suspended from a collar formed of alternate roses
+and harps, or from a broad sky-blue ribbon.
+
+=Patten=, Fr. (1) A woman’s clog. (2) The base of a column.
+
+=Patulous.= Spreading.
+
+=Paul Veronese Green.= An _arsenite_ or _arseniate of copper_. A fine
+and durable colour, used either for oil or water-colour painting. (See
+EMERALD GREEN.)
+
+=Pavilion=, Arch. A projecting apartment, usually with a dome or turret.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 525. Pavimentum (sectile).]
+
+=Pavimentum=, R. A pavement formed by means of pieces of tile, crushed
+stones, flints, and other materials set in a bed of ashes or cement, and
+consolidated by beating down with the rammer (_pavicula_), whence its
+name of _pavimentum_. There were various kinds of pavimenta: the sectile
+(Figs. 525, 526), the _tessellatum_ or _tesseris structum_, the
+_vermiculatum_, the _sculpturatum_, and the _testaceum_, &c.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 526. Pavimentum (sectile).]
+
+=Pavo.= (See PEACOCK.)
+
+=Pavonaceum= (sc. _opus_), R. An arrangement of materials placed so as
+to overlap one another, and bearing more or less resemblance to the
+feathers in a peacock’s tail.
+
+=Pavonine.= Coloured like a peacock’s tail.
+
+=Pax=, =Paxboard=, Chr. A representation of the Crucifixion upon a piece
+of wood or metal, with a handle at the back. It was kissed by the priest
+in the mass at the words “_Pax Domini sit semper vobiscum_,” and
+afterwards passed round to be kissed by the congregation. It was also
+spelt _Paxbrede_. Also called OSCULATORIUM.
+
+=Peach-stone Black=, prepared from calcined stones of fruits, is a
+handsome colour, but has a reddish tinge. Ground with oil and white
+lead, the colour called _old gray_ is obtained.
+
+=Peacock=, R. and Chr. In antiquity the peacock was sacred to Juno, and
+is called _Junonia avis_. It is represented on Roman imperial coins
+bearing the empresses up to heaven, as the eagle does the emperors; and
+hence in Christian archæology is the symbol of the resurrection. (Her.,
+see Fig. 398, IN PRIDE.)
+
+=Pea-green.= (See CHRYSOCOLLA.)
+
+=Pean=, Her. One of the furs; represented in gold spots on a black
+ground.
+
+=Pean= or =Pæan=. A song or shout of triumph.
+
+=Pearl.= A secretion of the mollusc; in its normal development a
+thickening of the shell, which supplies _mother-of-pearl_; abnormally,
+forming globules for the purpose of encysting foreign substances
+intruded within the shell, which are the precious pearls used in
+jewellery.
+
+=Pearl=, in Chinese the emblem of _talent_, is put by the Chinese on
+porcelains destined for rewards of poets and other _laureati_ in China.
+
+=Pebble.= A name given by lapidaries to many different stones.
+
+=Pechblende= or =Pech-urane=, Germ. An ore of uranium and iron, used in
+porcelain painting and glass, producing a handsome greenish-yellow
+pigment.
+
+=Pecten=, Egyp. and R. (_pecto_, to comb). (1) A comb for the hair;
+among the Egyptians and Romans they were made of box-wood or ivory. (See
+COMB.) (2) A weaver’s comb for pressing the threads of the web firmly
+together. (3) A comb for carding flax or wool. (4) A reaper’s “comb,”
+used in several countries, especially Gaul, instead of a sickle, for
+plucking the ears of wheat from the stalk. (5) A haymaker’s rake, &c.
+
+=Pectinated.= Having teeth like a comb.
+
+=Pectoral=, Gen. (_pectus_, the breast). A plate forming the front of a
+cuirass, and thus covering the chest.
+
+=Peculium=, R. Property or earnings which a slave or a _filius familias_
+was permitted to acquire and consider as his own, although in strict law
+it belonged to the master or father. The slave was sometimes allowed by
+agreement to use this peculium for the purpose of purchasing his
+liberty.
+
+=Pecunia=, R. Money; so called from _pecus_, a herd of cattle, Man’s
+primitive medium of exchange.
+
+=Pedal.= In Music, a passage where the harmony moves upon a sustained
+sound, which is either the dominant or the tonic of the key.
+
+=Pede-cloth=, Chr. A carpet laid on the space between the altar and the
+rails.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 527. Pedestal of Trajan’s Column.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 528. Pedestal of Column of Antoninus Pius.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 529. Pedestal of the Androsium at Athens.]
+
+=Pedestal=, Gen. The base of a structure; the base supporting a statue,
+group, or monumental column. A pedestal has three parts: the _base_ or
+_foot_ next the ground, the _dado_ or _die_ forming the centre, and the
+_cornice_ or _surbase_ mouldings at the top. Fig. 527 represents a
+half-section of the base of Trajan’s column at Rome; Fig. 528 a
+half-section of the base of the column dedicated to Antoninus Pius, and
+preserved in the Pio Clementino Museum at Rome; lastly, Fig. 529 gives a
+part of the pedestal or base of the Pandrosium at Athens; when, however,
+pedestals support caryatides or columns, they are more commonly called
+STYLOBATES (q.v.).
+
+=Pedica=, R. (1) A snare by which an animal is caught by the foot
+(_pes_). (2) Fetters or irons worn on the feet by slaves.
+
+=Pediculated=, Arch. Sustained or supported by a PEDICULE (q.v.).
+
+=Pedicule=, Arch. A small pillar which serves as a support to anything;
+whence the expressions _monopediculated_ (with a single pedicule) (Fig.
+387), and _polypediculated_ (with several pedicules).
+
+=Pediluvium.= (See ABLUTIONS.)
+
+=Pediment=, Arch. The triangular crowning of a portico, usually
+supported by a row of columns. (Fig. 26.) The temples of antiquity
+generally had two pediments, one on each face. The inner part of the
+pediment is called the TYMPANUM (q.v.).
+
+=Pedum=, Gen. (_pes_, a foot). A shepherd’s crook, or curved stick for
+catching goats or sheep by the leg. Fauns and satyrs are often
+represented carrying the pastoral crook, and it is the attribute of
+Thalia, as the muse of pastoral poetry. (See under PEPLUM.) In Egyptian
+archæology it is a symbol of authority, and is frequently to be seen in
+the hands of Osiris and the Pharaohs; the Egyptian term for it is _hyq_.
+(Cf. HYCSOS.) In early Christian art it is an attribute of Our Lord as
+the _Good Shepherd_. Representations of the pedum are of frequent
+occurrence in the catacomb paintings. (See PASTORAL STAFF.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 530. Pegasus. Device of Cardinal Bembo.]
+
+=Pegasus.= A horse with wings; emblem of fame, eloquence, poetic study,
+and contemplation. A bronze medal of Cardinal Bembo, the great Italian
+author of the 16th century, in the Museum at South Kensington, shows his
+device given above. (Fig. 530.)
+
+=Pegma=, R. (πῆγμα, i. e. a thing fastened). (1) This term denotes
+generally anything made of a number of boards joined together. (2) In a
+more restricted sense it means a theatrical machine of several stages
+(_tabulata_), one above the other, which could be raised or lowered by
+balance weights. On such stages gladiators called _pegmares_ fought in
+the amphitheatres, and battles and other scenes were represented. When
+they were used in sacrifices, the victim was slaughtered in an upper
+stage and the priest stood in one under the ground, and was afterwards
+brought up to be shown to the people with the blood of the victim upon
+him. In theatres similar _pegmata_ were employed for the purpose of
+changing the scenery. (3) Lastly the term was used to denote any kind of
+wooden furniture or joinery in a house, such as shelves, side-boards,
+bookcases, &c.
+
+=Pegola=, It. Greek pitch; boiled resin for varnishes.
+
+=Pel=, O. E. (Lat. _palus_). A post, six feet in height, set firmly in
+the ground, to be hewn at with sword or mace for exercise. The weapons
+were double the ordinary weight, and the swordsman had to cover himself
+from imaginary blows in return with a shield, called a _fan_, also of
+double weight. (See QUINTAIN.) (Consult _Meyrick_, vol. i. 145.) The pel
+was in the same way set up as a mark to throw spears at, and for archery
+practice.
+
+=Pelecinon=, Gr. A sun-dial so called because it ended in a “dove-tail”
+(πελεκῖνος).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 531. A Pelican in its piety.]
+
+=Pelican= tearing open her breast to feed her young with her own blood
+was an early symbol of the Redemption and of the virtue of Charity. As a
+device it was borne by William of Orange, with the appropriate motto
+“_Pro lege, grege et rege_” (for the law, the people, and the king); a
+slight modification of that of Alphonso the Wise. (Fig. 531.) It is
+described in Heraldry as “_a pelican in its piety_.”
+
+=Pelisse= (from _pellis_, a skin). A robe made of fur.
+
+=Pellet=, Her. A black ROUNDLE.
+
+=Pellicatus=, R. (_pellis_, a skin). Literally, covered with _skin_. The
+term was specially applied to earthenware vessels which were covered
+over with skin in order to keep the provisions they held fresh.
+
+=Pellitus=, R. (_pellis_, skin). Clothed by means of skins; dressed in
+furs.
+
+=Pelluvia=, =Pelluvium=, R. (_pes_, a foot, and _luo_, to wash). A basin
+in which the feet were washed, in contradistinction to the vessel called
+_malluvium_.
+
+=Pelta=, Gr. (πέλτη). A small shield made of some light material, such
+as wood or wicker-work, and covered with leather. In shape it was
+sometimes elliptical, but more often cut away at the top, so that at
+that part it resembled a crescent. (Compare CLIPEUS.)
+
+=Pelvis=, R. A general term used in ancient times to denote any kind of
+circular-shaped vessel. The term corresponded to the Greek πελίκα.
+
+=Penates= (_penus_, food). Household gods who were believed by the
+ancients to be the bestowers of all the worldly blessings enjoyed by a
+family.
+
+=Pencil.= A collection of rays of light converging to a point is so
+called.
+
+=Pendant.= In Heraldry, drooping.
+
+=Pendant Key-stone.= A synonym of PENDENTIVE. (See this word and FURCA.)
+
+=Pendants=, Arch. Ornaments hanging down from the ceilings and roofs of
+Gothic architecture. Generally, a pair of pictures or statues
+appropriate to each other are called _pendant_ each of the other.
+
+=Pendentives=, Arch. In a spherical roof intersected with groined
+compartments, the term _pendentives_ was applied to the surfaces
+included between such compartments. The same term is applied to the
+surfaces included in the angles formed by a groined vaulting at its
+spring.
+
+=Penetrale=, R. An inner apartment. (Cf. ADYTUM.)
+
+=Penicillum=, =Penicillus=, R. (_penis_, a tail). (Gr. ὑπογραφίς.) A
+painter’s pencil or brush. The brushes of the ancients were made either
+with hair or a kind of sea-weed or sponge.
+
+=Peniculus.= Synonym of PENICILLUM.
+
+=Penna=, R. A quill, a large and strong feather, in contradistinction to
+_pluma_, which denotes the small feathers spread over a bird’s body; and
+thence a writing-pen, which was used instead of the _arundo_ or
+_calamus_.
+
+=Penna=, Med. During the Middle Ages this term was used to denote the
+battlements of a castle wall, and thence the castle itself.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 532. Pennon.]
+
+=Pennon=, Her. An armorial lance-flag, pointed or swallow-tailed at the
+fly, borne by knights.
+
+=Pentachord.= Any musical instrument having five strings; a system of
+five sounds.
+
+=Pentacle= (It. _pentacolo_). A talisman; a figure formed of two
+triangles, intersecting so as to form a six-pointed star. A frequent
+object in early ornamental art.
+
+=Pentagon.= A figure of five sides and five angles.
+
+=Pentagraph.= A mechanism contrived to facilitate the copying of
+drawings on a different scale, invented by Christopher Scheiner, a
+Suabian Jesuit, in the 16th century.
+
+=Pentahedron.= A solid figure having five equal sides.
+
+=Pentalpha.= The pentacle was so called.
+
+  “A star of five points, composed of five A’s interlaced, was formerly
+  made by physicians the symbol of health, under the name of Pentalpha.”
+  (_Menestrier._)
+
+=Pentaptych.= An altar painting of five or more leaves. (See DIPTYCH.)
+
+=Pentaspastos=, Gr. (παντά-σπαστος). A kind of pulley, the _block_ of
+which contains a system of five pulleys (_orbiculi_). This engine was
+employed to lift great weights.
+
+=Pentastyle=, Arch. A portico of five columns.
+
+=Pentathlon=, Gr. Greek games similar to the QUINQUERTIUM (q.v.) of the
+Romans, frequently represented on ancient vases.
+
+=Pentelic Marble= from a mountain of that name near Athens, of which the
+Parthenon and other temples are built, has a beautiful _warm_ yellowish
+tone, comparable to ivory. All the Athenian statues are of this marble.
+
+=Penteloris.= (See PARAGAUDA.)
+
+=Pent-roof=, Arch. A roof sloping only from one side; hence a
+_pent-house_ for a house or shed covered by such a roof.
+
+=Penula.= (See PÆNULA.)
+
+=Penumbra= (Lat. _pene_, almost, and _umbra_, shade). The part of a
+picture where the light and shade blend together.
+
+=Peperino=, It. (_pepe_, pepper). A pepper-coloured building stone much
+used in the construction of ancient Rome, formerly called _Lapis
+Albanus_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 533. Thalia, the Muse of Comedy. _Wearing the chiton
+and peplos._]
+
+=Peplum= and =Peplus=, Gr. (πέπλον and πέπλος). The robe peculiarly
+proper to Minerva. (See PANATHENÆA.) A large full robe or shawl worn by
+women, corresponding to the _himation_ or _pallium_ of the men. On
+occasions of funerals or weddings this shawl was thrown over the head as
+a veil. The choicest productions of the loom in antiquity were _pepli_;
+and the most splendid dyes, and curious workmanship, and skilful designs
+were lavished upon their manufacture. They were a common form of
+offering to the treasures of the temples. A fine statue in the British
+Museum represents the Muse Thalia wearing the _peplos_ and _chiton_, and
+holding the pastoral _pedum_ in her hand. (Fig. 533.)
+
+=Per=, Her. In blazoning the divisions of a shield the term “_per_,”
+signifying “by” or “by means of,” is employed sometimes alone, and
+sometimes (having the same signification) with the word “party” or
+“parted.” The following are the primary divisions of a shield:—Fig. _a_,
+_Per Pale_, or _Parted per Pale_, or _Party per Pale_; Fig. _b_, _Per
+Fesse_ or _Parted per Fesse_; Fig. _c_, _Per Cross_ or _Quarterly_ (_Per
+Pale_ and _Per Fesse_ together); Fig. _d_, _Per Bend_; Fig. _e_, _Per
+Bend Sinister_; Fig. _f_, _Per Saltire_ (_Per Bend_ and _Per Bend
+Sinister_); Fig. _g_, _Per Chevron_; Fig. _h_, _Per Tierce_ or _Tiercée_
+(divided into three equal divisions by two vertical lines). (_Boutell._)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 534. Divisions of the heraldic shield.]
+
+=Pera=, R. (πήρα). A wallet or haversack of leather or hide, which was
+carried, slung over the shoulder, by travellers, peasants, and beggars.
+The Cynic philosophers, anticipating the fraternity of the GUEUX,
+adopted the wallet as a distinctive part of their costume.
+
+=Pergula=, R. (_pergere_, to continue on). Generally, any construction
+added to another beyond the original plan, generally in the way of a
+lean-to; e. g. a balcony built over the colonnades of a forum, or a
+gallery placed on a house-top; a room in which paintings were exhibited;
+a lecture-room, &c.
+
+=Periactos=, R. (περί-ακτος, i. e. that turns round). A theatrical
+machine used by the ancients; it was of very simple construction, being
+formed of three frames arranged so as to form a triangular prism, on
+each face of which a different scene was painted. At each side of the
+stage there was a _periactos_ which turned on pivots as required, so as
+to admit of a rapid change of scene.
+
+=Periapts=, O. E. Charms worn about the neck. (_Shakspeare._)
+
+=Peribolê=, Gr. and R. (περιβολὴ, an enclosing). The sacred enclosure of
+a temple, which was in some instances of sufficient size to contain not
+only altars and statues of the god, but shrines and a sacred wood. In
+Christian architecture the word was used for the wall of enclosure of
+the choir, &c.
+
+=Peridot=, Fr. A yellow gem supposed to be the _topaz_ of the ancients.
+
+=Peridromê=, Gr. and R. (περι-δρομὴ, a running round). A gallery or
+covered promenade which ran round a temple or other building.
+
+=Perigee.= Near the earth; _figuratively_ “at its lowest.”
+
+=Perihelion.= Near the sun; _figuratively_ “at its highest.”
+
+=Perimeter.= The outline of a rectilinear figure.
+
+=Peripatetics.= Disciples of Aristotle, who _walked about_ during his
+lectures in the Lyceum at Athens.
+
+=Peripetasma= (περι-πέτασμα). A general term including anything that is
+flat and hung up or spread out, such as a covering, tapestry, hangings,
+curtains, &c.
+
+=Periphery=, Gr. and R. (περι-φέρεια). (1) The circumference of a
+curvilinear figure. (2) Ornaments in relief executed on the sides of
+vases, _running round_ them. (See CRUSTÆ.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 535. Ground-plan of a _pseudo-peripteral_ temple.]
+
+=Periptery=, Arch, (περί-πτερος, lit. with wings around). A building
+surrounded by columns at equal distances one from the other; the
+distance between the wall of enclosure and the colonnade being equal to
+that between the columns. _Peripteral temples_ are distinguished as
+_monopteral_, or those with a single row of columns; _dipteral_, those
+with two rows; _pseudo-dipteral_, or buildings with one row of columns
+standing apart and one embedded; lastly, _pseudo-peripteral_ (Fig. 535),
+or buildings whose columns are embedded in the wall.
+
+=Periscelis=, Gr. (περι-σκελίς). (1) An anklet worn by Oriental and
+Greek women, and less frequently by Roman ladies also. (2) The word is
+sometimes used for _feminalia_ (q.v.).
+
+=Peristerium=, Chr. A kind of canopy surrounding the sacred vessels
+containing the host. The eucharistic doves are called _peristera_.
+
+=Peristroma=, R. (περί-στρωμα). In general, anything used as a covering,
+in especial that which is spread over a bed, and thence curtains,
+carpets, or hangings.
+
+=Peristyle=, Arch. (περί-στυλον). A building the _interior_ of which is
+surrounded with columns, the opposite of PERIPTEROS; a building may,
+however, be peripteral and yet possess a peristyle. The term is also a
+Greek name for the ATRIUM.
+
+=Perivalium=, Med. A Latin word used in the Middle Ages to denote the
+choir of a church, or the stalls of the choir.
+
+=Permanent White.= (See CONSTANT WHITE.)
+
+=Pero=, R. A tall boot reaching to the calf, made of untanned leather
+with the fur on, worn by shepherds and agricultural labourers, and still
+common in Italian villages.
+
+=Perogue.= (See PIROGUE.)
+
+=Perpend-stone=, Arch. A large stone reaching through the wall, visible
+on both sides.
+
+=Perpendicular Style of Architecture.= The third and last of the pointed
+or Gothic styles of architecture used in England. It was developed from
+the Decorated during the latter part of the 14th century, and continued
+in use till the middle of the 16th, when it gave way to the style called
+ELIZABETHAN. It is peculiar to England. Its chief characteristics are a
+general prevalence of perpendicular lines, panelling of flat surfaces,
+and the multiplicity of small shafts with which the piers, &c., are
+overlaid.
+
+=Perron=, Arch. A staircase, or flight of steps, outside a building.
+
+=Perse=, Fr. Chintz.
+
+=Persian.= A thin inferior _silk_ used for lining garments.
+
+=Persian Blinds= (Fr. _Persiennes_). Venetian blinds.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 536. Persian Bowl.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 537. Flask. Persian.]
+
+=Persian Pottery.= The illustrations (from Jacquemart’s _History of the
+Ceramic Art_) are (Fig. 536) a bowl of soft porcelain, blue externally
+and decorated with abundant vegetation and fantastic birds with
+peacocks’ tails; (Fig. 537) a flask, also of soft porcelain,
+characterized by a blackish-blue scroll encircling the principal
+subject; and (Fig. 538) a faience tile which M. Jacquemart considers
+pure Mohammedan art, is very interesting for the subject that it
+represents—the caaba or sacred mosque of Mecca, the object of the
+Mohammedan pilgrimage. (Consult _Souvenir d’un voyage en Perse_, _Comte
+de Rochchouart_.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 538. Persian Plaque, with polychrome decoration.]
+
+=Persian Red.= (See INDIAN RED.)
+
+=Persiana=, It. (1) A silk with a pattern of large flowers. (2) Venetian
+blinds; Persiennes.
+
+=Persians=, Gr. and R. (περσικά). Columns the shafts of which consist of
+figures of Persian slaves; they are also known as _Persian columns_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 539. Persona comica.]
+
+=Persona=, Gr. and R. A mask worn by actors upon the stage; there were
+_personæ tragicæ_, _comicæ_ (Fig. 539), _mutæ_, &c., that is, masks for
+tragic, comic, or mute persons, &c. The custom is attributed to that of
+smearing the face with certain juices and colours, and appearing in
+disguise at the festivals of Dionysus; and is probably as old as the
+drama itself.
+
+=Perspective.= The art of representing on a flat surface the appearance
+of objects from one given point of view. _Linear perspective_ is the
+science by which the principles of geometry are applied in this art.
+(See AERIAL and ISOMETRICAL PERSPECTIVE.)
+
+=Pertica=, R. A rod, pole, or stick; a foot, or measure of length
+divided into twelve inches (_unciæ_) and sixteen fingers (_digiti_).
+
+=Perticæ=, Chr. In mediæval architecture, beams behind the altar in a
+church, from which relics were suspended on days of festival.
+
+=Peruque.= (See WIGS.)
+
+=Peruvian Architecture.= The Peruvian temples and palaces were generally
+low and spacious, constructed of great blocks of stone often 38 feet by
+18 and 6 feet in thickness. The interiors were richly ornamented, the
+sides of the apartments being thickly studded with gold and silver.
+Niches in the walls were filled with images of plants and animals, also
+of the precious metals. The Western wall of the temple was placed to
+receive the first rays of the rising sun upon a statue of the god
+engraved on a plate of gold and thickly studded with emeralds and
+precious stones.
+
+=Pes=, R. A foot; the standard measure of length, composed of 12 _unciæ_
+or _inches_, or 16 _digiti_, _finger-breadths_. It equalled 11·6496
+inches English.
+
+=Pesante=, It. A weight = half a drachm.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 540. Vase of Pesaro Ware.]
+
+=Pesaro Ware.= The particular characteristic of the mother-of-pearl
+majolica of Pesaro is a pale, limpid yellow, associated with a pure
+blue; under the effect of luminous rays these colours become animated
+and shoot out in pencils of red, golden yellow, green, and blue of
+remarkable intensity. (_Jacquemart._) (Fig. 540.)
+
+=Peseta=, Sp. A silver coin, about the fourth of a Mexican dollar; about
+10½_d._
+
+=Pesillo=, It. Small scales used for weighing gold and silver, and gems.
+
+=Pessi= (Gr. πεσσοί). Draughts. (See LATRUNCULI.)
+
+=Pessulus=, R. A bolt for a door.
+
+=Petasus=, Gr. and R. (πέτασος, i. e. that which spreads out). (1) A
+soft felt hat with broad brim. (2) The winged cap of Mercury. Most of
+the horsemen in the Panathenaic procession (see ELGIN MARBLES) wear the
+petasus. In Greek art it is a conventional sign of a traveller. (Compare
+PILEUS.)
+
+=Petaurum=, R. (πέταυρον, lit. a perch for fowls). A machine employed in
+the Roman games; probably a fixed “see-saw.”
+
+=Peter-boat=, O. E. A river _fisherman’s_ wherry.
+
+=Petit Canon=, Fr. A kind of printing-type; _two-line_ in English.
+
+=Petit Gris=, Fr. Minever fur. (See VAIR.)
+
+=Petit Texte=, Fr. A kind of printing-type; _brevier_.
+
+=Petoritum=, R. An open four-wheeled carriage, a kind of cart used for
+conveying slaves. Its Gallic origin is indicated by the etymology of the
+word, viz. _petoer_, four, and _rit_, a wheel.
+
+=Petronel= (Fr. _poictrinal_). A piece of artillery or fire-arm, used in
+the 16th century, which was afterwards converted into a clumsy gun
+called a _blunderbuss_. It was the medium between the arquebus and the
+pistol.
+
+=Petunse=, Chinese. A fine clay used for porcelain; a kind of kaolin.
+
+=Peulvan=, Celt. (See MENHIR.)
+
+=Pewter.= An alloy of 100 parts of tin to 17 of antimony; or 89 tin, 7
+antimony, and 2 copper. Tin and zinc, and lead and tin, are sometimes
+used to make pewter. The ancient guild of the Pewterers’ Company have
+their hall in Lime Street.
+
+=Phæcasia=, Gr. and R. (φαικάσιον). White shoes worn by different
+classes among the Greeks and Romans, but more especially by the priests
+and gymnasiarchs.
+
+=Phalæ= or =Falæ=, R. Wooden towers which were erected temporarily in a
+circus for the display of sham fights and captures of cities. (Compare
+PEGMA.)
+
+=Phalangæ=, =Palangæ=, R. (φάλαγξ). A pole employed for carrying
+purposes. Two men took the ends of this pole upon the shoulders, the
+burden being suspended from it in the middle. The same term was also
+applied to the rollers placed beneath objects whose weight rendered them
+difficult to move. The persons who made use of _phalangæ_ for carrying
+anything were called _phalangarii_.
+
+=Phalanx=, Gr. A close compact mass of infantry soldiers drawn up in
+files, usually eight deep. The Theban phalanx was twenty-five in depth.
+
+=Phalarica.= (See FALARICA.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 541. Gallic Phalera.]
+
+=Phaleræ=, R. (φάλαρα). Medals of gold, silver, or bronze (Fig. 541),
+worn upon the breast as a military decoration, and frequently displayed
+on the harness of the horses.
+
+=Phannel=, O. E. (See FANON.)
+
+=Phantasmagoria.= Literally, a procession of images. A name applied
+especially to dissolving views shown by the alternate use of each of two
+magic lanterns.
+
+=Pharetra=, Gr. and R. (φαρέτρα). A quiver. This was made of hide or
+leather, often richly ornamented with gold, painting, or braiding. It
+had a lid, and hung, from a belt over the right shoulder, on the left
+hip. (See CORYTUS, QUIVERS.)
+
+=Pharos=, =Pharus=, Gr. and R. (φάρος). A lighthouse; the name was
+derived from that which Ptolemy Philadelphus erected in the island of
+Pharos, at the entrance to the harbour of Alexandria, in Egypt.
+
+=Phaselus=, Egyp. (φάσηλος). A light Egyptian boat, long and narrow in
+shape, and made of very slight materials, such as osier, papyrus, and
+terra-cotta; it derived its name from the resemblance it bore to the pod
+of a bean (φάσηλος).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 542. Phaskon.]
+
+=Phaskon=, Gr. A vessel of a flattened ovoid form, with a long spout,
+and a handle at the top, like the askos.
+
+=Phenakistoscope= (φενακιστικὸς, deceptive, and σκοπέω, to view), or
+=Spectroscope=. A toy for illustrating the duration of impressions on
+the retina of the eye. (See SPECTRA.)
+
+=Phenicine.= An indigo purple pigment.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 543. Pheon.]
+
+=Pheon=, Her. A pointed spear-head borne with the point in base.
+(_Boutell._) “The _peon_, or _pheon_, was a barbed javelin; the heads of
+these are still heraldic bearings, and from their figure, we find the
+barbs _escalloped_, or _invecked_ as the heralds term it, aside.”
+(_Meyrick._)
+
+=Pheretrum.= (See FERETRUM.)
+
+=Phiala=, =Phialê=, Gr. (φιάλη). The Greek term synonymous with the
+Latin PATERA. But _Jacquemart_ says, “Quant à la phiale, sorte de
+_petite bouteille_ qui nous a donné le mot _fiole_; elle figure assez
+souvent dans les mains des divinités.”
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 544. Part of the Frieze of the temple of Apollo
+Epicurius near Phigalia.]
+
+=Phigalian Marbles.= Friezes in the Hellenic room of the British Museum,
+from a temple to Apollo Epicurius, near the ancient Phigalia in Arcadia.
+There are twenty-three slabs in high relief, eleven representing the
+battle between the Centaurs and the Lapithæ, and the rest the contest of
+the Greeks and Amazons. They are attributed to the same period as the
+Parthenon, but are considered inferior in style and workmanship. (Fig.
+544.)
+
+=Philactery.= (See PHYLACTERY.)
+
+=Philomel.= Poetical for the nightingale.
+
+=Philyra= and =Philura=, Gr. (φιλύρα). Strips of papyrus used for making
+a sheet of writing-paper; ten or twelve strips of papyrus were first
+glued together lengthwise, and at the back of these a sufficient number
+of strips were fastened crosswise to double the thickness of the surface
+so obtained.
+
+=Phimus=, Gr. (φιμός). A Greek term synonymous with FRITILLUS (q.v.).
+
+=Phiolæ Rubricatæ.= (See SANGUINOLENTA.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 545. Phœnix. Device of Cardinal Trent.]
+
+=Phœnix=, Chr. In Christian archæology the phœnix, which is consumed by
+concentrating the sun’s rays in its body, and immediately rises again
+from its ashes, represents the mystery of the resurrection after death.
+In this sense it was adopted frequently as a device by ecclesiastics.
+(See BENNOU.) In blazon it is always represented as issuant from flames.
+(Fig. 545.)
+
+=Phorminx=, Gr. (φόρμιγξ). Homer’s epithet for the ancient _lyre_. It
+was a large lyre, and resembled the _cithara_ of later times, or the
+modern guitar. It was used at an early period singly, or for
+accompanying recitations.
+
+=Photogalvanography.= An art invented by Mr. Paul Pretsch, of Vienna,
+for printing from photographs by the medium of gutta percha. For a
+description of the process, see the _Manual of Photography_, 5th
+edition, pp. 269, 270.
+
+=Photoglyphic Engraving.= An invention of Mr. Fox Talbot (1858) for
+engraving on metal plates by the action of light. (See _Photographic
+Journal_, vol. v. p. 58.)
+
+=Photography.= A great many processes of producing pictures by the
+action of the sun’s rays upon a sensitive surface are included under
+this general term, such as the Daguerreotype, the Talbotype, &c.
+[Consult in the first instance _R. Hunt’s Manual of Photography_, from
+which reference can be taken to other authorities.]
+
+=Photolithography.= The art of preparing lithographic stones for
+printing from, by the medium of photography.
+
+=Photometallography.= A process of etching on metal plates, by the
+action of light, invented by Mr. C. J. Burnett (1858). (See
+_Photographic Journal_, vol. v. p. 97.)
+
+=Photometer.= An instrument for measuring the _intensity_ of light.
+
+=Phototype.= A plate, like an engraved plate, produced from a
+photograph, for printing from.
+
+=Photozincography.= The art of preparing zinc plates for printing from,
+by the medium of photography.
+
+=Phrase.= In Music, a passage of melody or harmony containing a musical
+idea, more or less complete in respect of cadence.
+
+=Phrygian.= Applied to music of a lively kind. (Cf. LYDIAN.)
+
+=Phrygian Work=, O. E. Embroidery. (See ORFRAYS.)
+
+=Phrygianum= (opus). A name given to all fine embroidery by the Romans,
+at a period when the work of the Phrygian women was most perfect.
+
+=Phrygio=, R. A Phrygian, or embroiderer, because the inhabitants of
+Phrygia had the reputation of being excellent embroiderers.
+
+=Phylactery=, Gen. (φυλακτήριον, a preservative). (1) A general term
+which included any kind of amulet worn about the person as a protection
+against dangers of all kinds. (2) Strips of parchment or vellum, upon
+which the Jews transcribed passages from the sacred books, and which
+they either wore upon the arm or the forehead, in a small leather box.
+(3) In the Middle Ages the term was applied to the scrolls held in the
+hands of angels or other persons represented in painting or sculpture.
+These scrolls bore inscriptions. (See LABELS.)
+
+=Phylaka=, Gr. (φυλακή). A prison; a Greek term corresponding to the
+Latin words CARCER and ERGASTULUM (q.v.).
+
+=Phytography.= A process of nature-printing from plants, by passing them
+between soft metal plates through a rolling press.
+
+=Piazza=, It. A square or open place surrounded by buildings, generally
+supported by pillars, and forming a vaulted promenade; hence the term is
+sometimes applied to the archways of a colonnade.
+
+=Pibroch=, Scotch. Bagpipe music.
+
+=Pica= (_pic_). Printing-type of the size formerly used in printing the
+_pic_, or service-book.
+
+=Piccadilly=, Old Fr. A high, broad, peaked collar or ruff, _temp._
+James I. The tailor who made these ruffs is said to have built the
+street called by this name.
+
+=Piccagium=, Med. Lat. (English use). Money paid in fairs for breaking
+ground.
+
+=Piccolo=, It. A small flute. Small pianofortes are so called also.
+
+=Pictura=, R. (_pingo_, to paint). The art of painting; _pictura in
+tabula_, a painting on wood; _pictura in linteo_ or _in sipario_, a
+painting on canvas; _pictura inusta_, a painting in encaustic or wax;
+_pictura udo tectorio_, a fresco-painting. Embroidery was called
+_pictura textilis_.
+
+=Picturatus=, R. Painted; _tabella picturata_, a painted panel; _linteum
+picturatum_, embroidered linen.
+
+=Pièce de Maitrise=, Fr. A test-work produced by an apprentice to prove
+his competence to become a _master_ of his art or craft.
+
+=Piedouche=, Fr. A bracket-pedestal.
+
+=Pieds de Hérisson=, Fr. Fabulous animals so called represented on
+Persian pottery, mentioned by Jacquemart (p. 152); having the legs of a
+stag, the tail of a tiger, and the head of a woman. The legend is that
+Mohamet and Ali will mount such beasts on the Day of Judgment.
+
+=Piers=, in Architecture, are the perpendicular supports from which
+_arches_ spring.
+
+=Pietà=, It. A picture or statue of the Body of Christ, attended by the
+Virgin Mary, or by holy women and angels.
+
+=Pietra Dura.= Mosaic panelling of hard pebbles of variegated colours,
+representing fruit, birds, &c. in relief, and used as a decoration for
+coffers and cabinets in the 15th century.
+
+=Pietré Commesse=, It. Costly inlaid-work representing flowers, fruit,
+&c., in precious stones—such as agates, jaspers, lapis lazuli,
+&c.—introduced in Florence in the 17th century, and still maintained in
+the royal manufactory of that city. The finest examples are in the
+chapel of the Medici attached to the cathedral church of St. Lorenzo.
+
+=Pig.= A black pig was represented at St. Anthony’s feet, representing
+his victory over sensuality and gluttony. The monks of the order of St.
+Anthony used to keep herds of consecrated pigs.
+
+=Pigments.= The colours used in painting. A large number are described
+in their order. Standard works on ancient and modern pigments are
+_Eastlake’s Materials for a History of Painting_; _Merrifield’s Ancient
+Art of Painting_; _Hundertpfund’s Art of Painting restored to its
+Simplest and Surest Principles_. An exhaustive catalogue of other works
+on the subject has been issued by the Librarian of the South Kensington
+Museum.
+
+=Pike.= A celebrated infantry weapon now replaced by the bayonet,
+consisting of a strong spear or lance with a spike at the butt for
+fixing in the ground. The shape of the head has varied at different
+periods.
+
+=Pila=, R. This word has different meanings, according as the first
+syllable is long or short. In the first case it denotes (1) a mortar;
+(2) a pillar or conical pier for supporting the superstructure of a
+bridge; (3) a breakwater. When the first syllable is short, the word
+denotes (1) a playing-ball. The game of ball, from the earliest times to
+the fall of the Roman Empire, was one of the favourite exercises of the
+Greeks and Romans. In the baths and the gymnasiums a room
+(_sphæristerium_) was set apart for the purpose. _Pila_ was a small
+ball; _follis_, a large one filled with air: other balls were the
+_paganica_ and the _harpastum_. (2) _Pila vitrea_, a glass globe. (3) A
+dummy made to roughly imitate the human form.
+
+=Pilaster=, It. A square pillar on a wall, partly embedded in it,
+one-fourth or one-fifth of its thickness projecting.
+
+=Pile.= (1) Her. One of the ordinaries, in form like a wedge. (2) An
+arrow used in hunting, with a round knob below the head, to prevent it
+penetrating too far. (3) The nap or surface on velvet.
+
+=Pileatus=, R. One who wears the _pileus_, or skull-cap of felt; it was
+specially worn by the seafaring classes, and also by the Dioscuri
+(Castor and Pollux).
+
+=Pilentum=, R. A state carriage in which the Roman ladies rode when
+attending any ceremony, whereas for purposes of recreation or for
+visiting they made use of the _carpentum_ or the _harmamaxa_.
+
+=Pileolus=, R. Diminutive of PILEUS; it was a small felt skull-cap which
+hardly covered the top of the head.
+
+=Pileus=, =Pileum=, R. (πῖλος, felt). A kind of close-fitting felt cap
+worn more particularly by the seafaring classes. The _pileus_ varied in
+form amongst the different nations by whom it was adopted; it was worn
+exclusively by men. The most familiar form of the pileus, in art, is the
+Phrygian bonnet, or cap of liberty. (Cf. PETASUS.)
+
+=Pillar Dollars= are Spanish silver coins, stamped on the obverse with
+the royal arms of Spain supported by two columns.
+
+=Pillion=, O. E. A soft pad-saddle with a footrest, for a woman or child
+to ride on behind a man.
+
+=Pillow= or =Head-stool=, Egyp. A kind of rest for the head, made
+sometimes of stone (onyx, alabaster, or sandstone), but more generally
+of wood, and used by the Egyptians to support and raise the head during
+sleep. In form it was a half-cylinder, and the base was more or less
+raised above the ground. This kind of pillow is still in use at the
+present day among various peoples, particularly the Nubians, the
+Japanese, and the Ashantees of Western Africa.
+
+=Pillow-beres=, O. E. Pillow-cases. They were at all times an object of
+rich ornamentation.
+
+=Pillow Lace.= Lace worked by hand, by throwing _bobbins_ upon a cushion
+or pillow. (See LACE.)
+
+=Pilum=, R. A javelin; the missile weapon of the Roman infantry, but
+used likewise as a pike for charging the enemy. It was a thick strong
+weapon, 6 feet 3 inches in length, half of wood and half of iron, with a
+barbed head of 9 inches of solid iron. The term also denotes a heavy
+pestle for bruising things in a mortar.
+
+=Pilus=, Med. Lat. (Fr. _pieu_). A pointed club or javelin.
+
+=Pina=, Sp. An amalgam of silver.
+
+=Pinacotheca=, Gr. and R. (πινακο-θήκη). A picture-gallery, one of the
+ordinary adjuncts to Greek or Roman houses of wealthy private persons.
+
+=Pinaculum=, Gr. and R. (a ridge or crest). A roof terminating in a
+ridge, the ordinary covering for a temple, whereas private houses had a
+flat roof.
+
+=Pinchbeck.= An alloy of 85 per cent. copper or brass, and 15 per cent.
+zinc; named after its inventor. It is sometimes called _tomback_.
+
+=Pindaric.= Of verses, irregular in metre; like the verses of the lyric
+poet Pindar.
+
+=Pingle Pan=, Scotch. A small tin ladle used for mixing children’s food.
+
+=Pink Madder.= (See MADDER.)
+
+=Pinking.= Stamping out borders and edges upon textile fabrics with a
+cutting instrument.
+
+=Pinks= (Fr. _stil de grain_). These are water-colour pigments of a
+yellow or greenish-yellow colour produced from the precipitation of
+vegetable juices, such as saffron, aloes, buckthorn-berries,
+broom-flowers, &c., upon chalk or whiting. They are _Italian pink_,
+sometimes called _yellow lake_; _brown pink_, _rose pink_, and _Dutch
+pink_.
+
+=Pinna=, R. (lit. a wing). (1) The top of an embattled wall, the
+_battlements_. (2) The blade of a rudder.
+
+=Pinnacle=, Arch. A small spire, generally with four sides and
+ornamented; it is usually placed on the tops of buttresses, both
+external and internal.
+
+=Pins.= Metal pins were introduced into this country from France in
+1543, previous to which ladies were accustomed to fasten their dresses
+with skewers of box-wood, ivory, or bone.
+
+=Pipe.= A musical wind instrument, represented in the 14th century, in
+_Strutt’s Sports and Pastimes_, as used with the TABOR to accompany
+mountebanks, &c. (See also AULOS, PITO, &c.)
+
+=Pipe-clay.= An oily clay found in large quantities in Devonshire; used
+for moulding earthenware, but chiefly for tobacco-pipes.
+
+=Piriform=, Arch. Pear-shaped. The term is applied to roofs domed in the
+form of a pear; the Baptistery of Parma may be cited as an example.
+
+=Pirogue.= An Indian canoe, hollowed out of a solid tree.
+
+=Piscina=, R. (_piscis_, a fish). (1) A fishpond, an indispensable
+appendage to the villa of a wealthy Roman. (2) A large uncovered tank in
+the open air used as a swimming-bath, and distinct from the
+_baptisterium_, which was under cover. (3) _Piscina limaria_ was the
+reservoir of an aqueduct. In mediæval archæology the name was given (1)
+to credence-tables; (2) to baptisteries. (See BAPTISTERIUM, NATATORIUM.)
+
+=Pisé-work.= A method of constructing very durable walls of blocks of
+_kneaded earth_. It was probably suggested by the building processes of
+the ants, and Pliny calls such walls _formaciæ_.
+
+=Pistillum=, =Pistillus=, R. A pestle for a mortar.
+
+=Pistol.= Invented at Pistoia in Tuscany. (See _Pallas Armata_, _Sir
+James Turner_, 1670; _Meyrick_, iii. 76.)
+
+=Pistole.= A Spanish gold coin, worth about 16_s_.; the fourth of a
+_doubloon_.
+
+=Pistolese=, It. A long dagger or stabbing-knife of Pistoia.
+
+=Pistrina=, =Pistrinum=, R. (_pistor_, a miller). Originally this term
+denoted a mill for grinding grain; later on it was used exclusively to
+denote a house of correction for slaves who had to turn the mill. The
+work was of a most laborious kind.
+
+=Pistris=, =Pistrix=, R. (πίστρις). (1) A marine monster,
+representations of which are to be seen on the walls of several houses
+at Pompeii (in the legend of Theseus and Andromeda). It is always
+represented with the head of a dragon, and the fins and tail of a fish;
+and was adopted in early Christian art for the fish that swallowed
+Jonah. (2) A military engine.
+
+=Pitch-blende.= An ore used in porcelain painting. It produces a fine
+orange colour; also a black.
+
+=Pitch-pipe.= A sort of whistle for ascertaining the _pitch_ of a
+musical instrument, or for setting the key-note.
+
+=Pithos=, R. (πίθος). A large earthenware jar with a narrow neck, used
+in ancient and modern times for storing wine and oil. It appears upon a
+bas-relief in the Villa Albani as the tub of Diogenes.
+
+=Pito=, Sp. A Mexican name for the _pipe_ of the Aztecs, which resembled
+a _flageolet_. It was made of red clay, and had four finger-holes. The
+young man selected as a victim at the sacrifice to Tezcatlepoca was
+carefully instructed before his death in the art of playing this
+instrument, and as he ascended the temple or TEOCALLI to the sacrifice,
+he broke a flute upon each of the steps of the temple.
+
+=Piu=, It. Rather; used in Music, as _piu forté_, _rather_ loud.
+
+=Pix= or =Pyx=, Chr. (πυξίς). (1) A box to keep the unconsecrated altar
+breads in. It was generally circular, with a pointed cover, and richly
+enamelled. (2) The vessel in which the holy eucharist was suspended over
+the altar. (3) The box kept at the British Mint to contain the coins
+selected to be tried in assay, to ascertain whether the coinage is of
+the standard purity. (See CIBORIUM [3], MONSTRANCE, &c.)
+
+=Pizzicato= (It.). An expression in music; playing on the violin like a
+harp.
+
+=Placage=, Fr. Veneering or inlaying.
+
+=Plack=, Scotch. A small copper coin formerly current in Scotland; equal
+to the third of an English penny.
+
+=Placket=, O. E. A petticoat. (_Shakspeare._)
+
+=Plafond=, =Plafonner=, Fr. Arch. (_plat-fond_). The French term for a
+ceiling, often the subject of elaborate architectural, carved, or
+painted decoration. The peculiar foreshortened perspective
+characteristic of figure-pictures on a ceiling is hence described as
+“plafonné;” and it is generally said of a painter distinguished for bold
+foreshortenings, “Il excelle à _plafonner_.” _Plafonds_ of different
+periods are found of wood, lath and plaster, or stone.
+
+=Plaga=, R. A hunting-net, the diminutive of which is _plagula_ (small
+net); the latter term also denotes the curtains hung round a couch or
+litter, a width of cloth, a strip of paper, &c.
+
+=Plagula.= (See PLAGA.)
+
+=Planchet.= A name for the smooth coin prepared for stamping before it
+has passed under the die.
+
+=Planeta.= A robe worn by _priests_, resembling the DALMATIC (see Fig.
+236) worn by _deacons_. (See CHASUBLE.)
+
+=Planetary Machine.= (See ORRERY.)
+
+=Planisphere.= A projection of the sphere and its various circles on a
+plane surface.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 546. Planta Genista.]
+
+=Planta Genista=, Her. The broom-plant badge of the Plantagenets.
+
+=Plaque=, Fr. A flat plate of metal or painted china. Limoges enamels of
+the 15th century are described as _plaques_.
+
+=Plasm.= A mould or matrix.
+
+=Plasma.= A green transparent chalcedony found in India and China.
+
+=Plaster of Paris.= The cement or plaster obtained from gypsum,
+originally prepared near Paris. It is usually sold in the form of white
+powder, and is largely used in the arts. Verrocchio (1435–1488) is said
+to have been the first sculptor to cast moulds in plaster of Paris. (See
+GYPSUM.)
+
+=Plastic Art.= Sculpture; opposed to _Graphic Art_, or painting, &c.
+
+=Plastron=, Fr. A fencing-pad to cover the body. _Plastron-de-fer_ was
+an iron breastplate worn under the hauberk, especially when the latter
+was of ringed mail.
+
+=Plat-band.= (See TÆNIA.)
+
+=Plata=, Sp. Silver (hence our _plate_).
+
+=Plate=, Her. A silver roundle.
+
+=Plate armour=, consisting entirely of metal _plates_, became general
+during the 15th century.
+
+=Plate-glass.= A superior kind of thick glass, used chiefly for mirrors
+and for large windows.
+
+=Plate-jack=, O. E. Coat armour.
+
+=Plate-marks.= (See HALL-MARKS.)
+
+=Plate-paper= is a thick soft paper expressly prepared for printing
+engravings upon.
+
+=Platea=, Gr. and R. (πλατεῖα, i. e. broad). A wide fine street in a
+city, in contradistinction to a small street called _angiportus_, which
+means literally a narrow street.
+
+=Platen.= Of a printing-press, the flat part by which the impression is
+made.
+
+=Plateresca=, Sp. A name given to goldsmiths’ work of the 14th and 15th
+centuries, which reflected the complicated and delicate forms of
+ornament applied in the pointed architecture of the period.
+
+=Plates= are properly illustrations taken from copper or steel
+engravings; _cuts_ are impressions from wood-blocks.
+
+=Platina.= Twisted silver wire.
+
+=Platina Yellow.= Two pigments, one of a pale yellow colour, the other
+resembling _cadmium yellow_, are sold under this name.
+
+=Plating= is the art of covering metals with a thin surface of silver or
+gold for ornament.
+
+=Platinum= (Sp. _plata_, silver). A white metal exceedingly ductile,
+malleable, and difficult of fusion. It is found in the Ural Mountains
+and in South America, and is much used in goldsmiths’ work in Russia.
+
+=Plaustrum=, R. (_plaudo_, to rumble). A two-wheeled cart drawn by two
+oxen, and used for conveying agricultural produce; _plaustrum majus_ was
+a much larger cart mounted on four wheels. It had a long pole projecting
+behind, on which blocks of stone or other cargo could be balanced on
+planks attached. The wheels (_tympana_) were of solid wood nearly a foot
+in thickness, and their creaking was heard to a great distance (hence
+the name).
+
+=Plectrum= or =Plektron=, Gr. and R. (from πλήσσειν, to strike). A short
+stem of ivory or metal pointed at both ends, used to strike the chords
+of the lyre, the _barbiton_, the _cithara_, and some other stringed
+instruments.
+
+=Plemochoê=, Gr. and R. (πλημο-χοὴ, i. e. that pours a flood). A vessel
+in the shape of a top; it resembled the _cotylê_.
+
+=Plenitude=, Her. Said of the moon when in full.
+
+=Plenshing-nail.= A large nail for fastening the planks of floors to the
+joists.
+
+=Plethron=, Gr. The basis of land measurement, being 100 feet square, or
+10,000 square feet. As a lineal measure, 100 feet, or about 101 of
+English measurement.
+
+=Plinth=, Arch. (πλίνθος). Lit. a _tile_ or _brick_, and thence the
+lower projecting base of a column, pedestal, or wall, which resembles a
+strong square tile placed beneath the last torus at the base of a
+column. (See ABACUS.)
+
+=Plinthium=, R. (πλινθίον). A sun-dial, so called because its divisions
+were marked on a flat surface (πλίνθος).
+
+=Plocage=, Fr. Carding-wool.
+
+=Plombage.= Lead work.
+
+=Plombagine.= Plumbago.
+
+=Plostellum.= Diminutive of PLAUSTRUM.
+
+=Ploughs= are mentioned in Deuteronomy (1451 B.C.), and represented on
+Egyptian sculptures of still earlier date. The Roman plough of the date
+of our era is described by Virgil.
+
+=Plough Monday= was the name given by our ancestors to the first Monday
+after the Epiphany, the return to labour after the Christmas holiday.
+
+=Plumæ=, R. (lit. feathers). The scales of armour, arranged to imitate
+feathers. (See PENNA.)
+
+=Plumarium Opus.= (See OPUS P.)
+
+=Plumbago.= A carburet of iron commonly known as black-lead, also called
+GRAPHITE, used for making crucibles and black-lead pencils.
+
+=Plumbeous Wares.= Lead-glazed, by the addition of an oxide of lead in
+the preparation of the glaze. (See POTTERY.)
+
+=Plumbum=, R. (lit. lead). A general term denoting anything that is made
+of lead, such as a lead pipe, a slinger’s bullet, &c.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 547. Pluteus.]
+
+=Pluteus=, R. A general term including anything made of boards adapted
+to afford a support, cover, passage, &c.; and thus sometimes used as a
+synonym for _musculus_ or protective shed. Fig. 547, a _pluteus_ upon
+three wheels, was used for protecting soldiers conducting an approach at
+the foot of a rampart. These _plutei_ were covered with the skins of
+animals, which were wetted to protect the machines from fire; and helped
+to deaden the shock of missiles.
+
+=Plynteria=, Gr. (πλυντήρια, washing). Festivals held at Athens in
+honour of Athena Aglauros, in which the statue of the goddess was
+stripped of its garments and ornaments and washed. It was carefully
+concealed in the mean time, and the city being thus in a manner deprived
+of its protecting divinity, the day was considered an ill-omened one.
+
+=Pnigeus=, R. (πνιγεὺς, lit. a choker). A kind of funnel employed to
+stop or repress the air in a hydraulic organ.
+
+=Pnyx=, Gr. The site in Athens where the ECCLESIÆ were held. It was a
+semicircular rising ground, with an area of 12,000 square yards,
+levelled with a pavement of large stones, and surrounded by a wall,
+behind which was the BEMA or platform from which speakers addressed the
+people.
+
+=Pocillum= or =Poculum=, R. Any cup or glass for drinking, distinct from
+the CRATER for mixing, and the CYATHUS for ladling the wine. (Cf.
+POKAL.)
+
+=Poddisoy=, =Padusoy=, O. E. (Fr. _pou de soie_). A rich plain silk.
+
+=Podera=, Gr. (ποδήρης, i. e. reaching to the feet). A rich linen dress
+worn by Greek women, the edges of which were indented.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 548. Podium running round a sepulchral chamber.]
+
+=Podium=, Arch. (πόδιον, lit. a small foot). A low wall or basement,
+generally with a _plinth_ and _cornice_, running round a room or in
+front of a building, forming a sort of shelf or seat. Fig. 548 shows the
+_podium_ of a sepulchral chamber. In an amphitheatre, _podium_ was the
+name for a raised basement which ran like a high enclosure round the
+whole circumference of the arena. Lastly, the term is sometimes used as
+a synonym for a socle, and a console or bracket.
+
+=Poële=, Fr. (lit. a frying-pan). A square shield with a raised edge and
+a grating on it, which resembled the German baking-dish. In a
+tournament, the joust “_à la poële_” was the most dangerous of all, as
+the champions fought bare-headed and without armour. Their horses were
+blindfolded, and a coffin was brought into the course before the combat
+commenced. (_Meyrick._)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 549. Point Lace à bride picotée.]
+
+=Point Lace= _à bride picotée_ ground. This lace is made with the needle
+(see NEEDLE POINT), some parts of the pattern only slightly raised in
+relief being united by stitches called _bride picotée_. (Fig. 549.)
+
+=Point of Sight.= The principal vanishing point, in perspective, to
+which the horizontal lines converge.
+
+=Pointed= or =Christian Architecture= is generally called GOTHIC; and is
+a general term, descriptive of all the styles that have prevailed
+subsequent to the introduction of the _pointed arch_, commencing with
+the 11th century.
+
+=Pointel.= The mediæval _stylus_ or _graphium_ (q.v.).
+
+=Points.= In the 15th and 16th centuries, before the introduction of
+buttons, the different parts of dress were fastened with ribands, having
+ornamental _points_ or metal tags at the end. (See Fig. 559.)
+
+=Poitrine=, Fr. A breastplate for man or horse.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 550. Pokal, or German Tankard.]
+
+=Pokal=, Germ. (Lat. _poculum_). A drinking-cup. (Fig. 550.)
+
+=Poke=, O. E. A bag; modern pocket.
+
+=Poker Pictures.= Drawings burned upon wood with hot irons; much
+patronized in the 18th century.
+
+=Pol=, =Edepol=, R. A familiar oath or adjuration especially employed by
+the Roman women; it was an abbreviation of _By Pollux!_
+
+=Polariscope.= An instrument for exhibiting the polarization of light.
+
+=Pole-axe.= A weapon of the 15th century, combining a hatchet, a pike,
+and a serrated hammer. Used principally by cavalry.
+
+=Poleyns=, Fr. (See GENOUILLIÈRES.)
+
+=Pollubrum= and =Polubrum=, R. An old term for which there was
+substituted later on _malluvium_, _aquimanale_, _aquiminarium_,
+_trulleum_; it was a kind of basin for washing the hands, the χέρνιψ,
+χερόνιπτρον of the Greeks.
+
+=Polos=, Gr. A kind of sun-dial. (See HOROLOGIUM.)
+
+=Polyandrion=, Chr. (Gr. πολυ-άνδριον). A common sepulchre in which more
+than four bodies were buried. (See LOCULUS.)
+
+=Polychord.= An instrument for application to the pianoforte for
+coupling together the strings of two octave notes.
+
+=Polychromy.= Colouring statuary, bas-reliefs, and architecture; to be
+distinguished from forming them of variously-coloured materials. This
+was not done by painting with an opaque colour, but a sort of staining
+of the surface by thin, transparent colouring matter. M. de Quincy
+states that the fine preservation of the surface of some antique
+statues, such as the Apollo Belvedere, Hercules of Glycon, and Venus de
+Medici, is attributable to the use of wax colouring. Stones of various
+colours were used to represent different parts of the figure, and in
+busts of the Roman emperors the dress is frequently of coloured marble,
+while the flesh is of white. [Consult _Redford’s Ancient Sculpture_.]
+
+=Polyhedron.= A solid with many faces or planes.
+
+=Polyptyca=, Gr. (πολύ-πτυχα). (1) Tablets, a sufficient number of which
+are put together to form what we now call a note-book. (2) A polyptych;
+a picture with several compartments. (Cf. DIPTYCH.)
+
+=Polystyle=, Arch. Surrounded by several rows of columns, as in Moorish
+architecture. The porticoes of a Greek temple had never more than ten
+columns in front (decastyle).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 551. A Silver Engraved Pomander, or Scent-box, shown
+open and closed.]
+
+=Pomander=, O. E. (from _pomme d’ambre_, perfume apple). A scent-box
+worn at the end of the hanging girdles of the 16th century. (See
+POUNCET-BOX.) (Fig. 551.) Consult an interesting monograph by _R. H.
+Soden Smith_, “_Notes on Pomanders_.”
+
+=Pomme=, Her. A green roundle.
+
+=Pomœrium=, R. (_post_ and _mœrium_ (_murus_) behind the walls). A line
+enclosing a town, marked out at intervals by stone pillars. When the
+limits of the town were extended, the _pomœrium_ could not be changed
+without augury by the _jus pomœrii_, and, in any case, only by a town
+whose inhabitants had contributed to the extension of the limits of the
+empire.
+
+=Pompa=, R. and Gr. (πομπή). A solemn procession, especially that with
+which the games of the circus were preceded.
+
+=Pondus=, =Weight=, R. (_pendo_, to suspend). An object used for
+weighing, either with the balance (_libra_), or the steelyard
+(_statera_). The same term was also applied to a weaver’s weights; these
+were of stone, terra-cotta, or lead.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 552. Pons.]
+
+=Pons=, R. (Gr. γέφυρα). (1) A bridge; the causeway (_agger_) which
+traversed the Roman bridge was paved with large polygonal stones; on
+either side of it was a pathway (_crepido_). Fig. 552 shows the Roman
+bridge at St. Chamas, at the ends of which were erected triumphal arches
+(_fornices_). (See FORNIX.) _Pons sublicius_ was a wooden bridge built
+upon piles; _pons suffragiorum_, the voting-bridge over which the
+electors passed as they came out of the _septum_ to cast their vote
+(_tabella_) into the urn (_cista_). It is probable that the Greek
+bridges were of wood. (2) A wharf or landing-stage by the water-side.
+
+=Poongi=, Hindoo. A curious musical instrument made of a gourd, or sort
+of cocoa-nut, into which two pipes are inserted. It is the instrument
+played by the Sampuris, or snake-charmers, to the performing cobras.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 553. Pope in full pontificals.]
+
+=Pope.= The illustration represents the Pope of Rome in full
+pontificals, viz. the _tiara_, consisting of three crowns of gold
+decorated with precious stones and surmounted by a cross, and over a
+_rochet_ (surplice) of silk a mantle of gold-work plentifully ornamented
+with pearls. The under vestment, which is long, is of hyacinth colour.
+The slippers are of velvet with a cross of gold, which all who wish to
+speak to the Pope reverently kiss. Late mediæval artists attributed this
+costume to the First Person of the Trinity. It is given also to St.
+Clement, St. Cornelius, St. Fabian, St. Gregory, St. Peter, and St.
+Sylvanus.
+
+=Popina=, R. A tavern or refreshment-place where food was sold, in
+contradistinction to _caupona_, which was a shop for selling wine.
+
+=Popinjay=, O. E. A parrot.
+
+=Poplin.= A textile of modern introduction, woven of threads of silk and
+worsted.
+
+=Poppy=, Chr. This plant, the seed of which affords a soporific oil,
+symbolizes, in Christian iconography, death.
+
+=Poppy Oil.= A bland drying oil, obtained from poppy-seed, and used in
+painting. (See OILS.)
+
+=Poppy-head.= A term in decorative art for the carved ornaments with
+which the tops of the uprights of wood-work, such as the ends of
+benches, backs of chairs, bedposts, &c., were crowned.
+
+=Popularia=, R. The second _mænianum_ or tier of seats in an
+amphitheatre.
+
+=Porcelain= (Ancient Chinese) (from the Portuguese _porcellana_, little
+pigs; a name given to cowrie-shells by the early traders, and applied to
+porcelain, which they thought was made of them, or because it resembled
+the interior of a shell). A fine species of transparent earthenware, the
+chief component part of which is silex. (_Fairholt._) The most ancient
+examples of porcelain in China are circular dishes with upright sides,
+very thick, strong, and heavy, and which invariably have the marks of
+one, two, or three on the bottom thus: I. II. III. The colours of these
+rare specimens vary. The kinds most highly prized have a brownish-yellow
+ground, over which is thrown a light shot sky-blue, with here and there
+a dash of blood-red. The Chinese say there are but a few of these
+specimens in the country, and that they are more than a thousand years
+old. (_Fortune._) The first imitations of Chinese porcelain in Europe
+date from the 16th century, under the Medici family, and include
+specimens supposed to have been designed by the immediate pupils of
+Raffaelle. (See RAFFAELLE-WARE.) Among the next earliest produced is
+that of Fulham, by Dr. Dwight, in 1671, and of St. Cloud in France about
+1695.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 554. Pent-house Porch.]
+
+=Porch=, Arch. A structure placed in front of the door of a church or
+other building, and very variable in form. In the ancient basilicas the
+vestibule is more commonly called NARTHEX (q.v.). Fig. 554 shows a
+wooden porch also called a _pent-house porch_, and Fig. 555 a plan of
+what is called a _cupola_ porch, from the fact that, its ground being
+circular, it is surmounted by a dome.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 555. Ground-plan of a Cupola Porch.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 556. Porcupine. Device of Louis XII.]
+
+=Porcupine= (Fr. _porc epic_). Hereditary device of the Valois family.
+The “Order of the Porcupine” was instituted in 1397 by Louis, Duke of
+Orleans, and abolished by Louis XII., who retained the badge (Fig. 556),
+and had his cannon marked with a porcupine. In numismatics his golden
+“écus au porc epic” are rare and highly valued.
+
+=Porcupine-wood.= The ornamental wood of a palm, the markings of which
+in the horizontal section resemble porcupine quills.
+
+=Porphyry.= A hard stone much used in Egyptian sculpture, and for
+sarcophagi. It was of a fine red colour, passing into purple and green,
+and susceptible of a fine polish. (See also _Rosso Antico_.)
+
+=Porporino=, It. A yellow powder substituted for gold by mediæval
+artists. It was compounded of quicksilver, sulphur, and tin.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 557. Porta (Gate of Perusium).]
+
+=Porta=, R. This term denotes the gate of a city, a large gate in any
+enclosure, in contradistinction to JANUA and OSTIUM (q.v.), which denote
+the doors of a building. Fig. 557 shows the ancient gate of Perugia.
+
+=Portcullis.= A kind of iron grating, forming an outer door, which
+slided up and down perpendicularly in the grooves of a bay. It was
+suspended by a chain, which could instantly be lowered, as occasion
+required, in order to prevent ingress and cut off all communication. By
+the Greeks and Romans they were called _portæ cataractæ_, and in the
+Middle Ages they were known as Saracenic gates.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 558. Portcullis.]
+
+=Portcullis=, Her. A defence for a gateway, borne as a badge by the
+Houses of Beaufort and Tudor. Motto, “_Altera securitas_.” (Fig. 558.)
+
+=Porticus=, =Portico=, R. (_porta_). A long colonnade serving as a
+covered promenade. In an amphitheatre, the covered gallery at the top
+which was appropriated to women or slaves. A wooden gallery covered over
+with a roof, but in some cases entirely open on the side of the country.
+(See TEMPLUM.)
+
+=Portisculus=, R. A director’s staff wielded on board ship by the
+officer who gave the time to the rowers to make them row in unison.
+
+=Portrait Painting.= The earliest portrait on record is that of
+Polygnotus, painted by himself, B.C. 400. Giotto is said to have been
+the earliest successful portrait painter of modern times. The different
+sizes of portraits are the following:—
+
+                                      ft. in.    ft. in.
+                Bishop’s whole length   8  10 by   5 10.
+                Whole length            7  10 „    4 10.
+                Bishop’s half-length    4   8 „    3  8.
+                Half-length             4   2 „    3  4.
+                Small half-length       3   8 „    2 10.
+                Kit-cat                 3   0 „    2  4.
+                Three-quarter size      2   6 „    2  1.
+                Head size               2   0 „    1  8.
+
+=Portula.= A wicket made in a large gate in order to give admittance
+into a city without opening the _porta_ or large gate.
+
+=Posnett=, O. E. A little pot.
+
+=Postergale=, Chr. A DORSAL (q.v.).
+
+=Postern= (_posterna_, a back door). A private gate in a rampart, either
+upon the platform or at the angle of a curtain, and opening into the
+ditches, whence it was possible to pass by the _pas-de-souris_, without
+being seen by the besiegers, into the covered way and the glacis.
+
+=Posticum=, R. (Gr. παραθύρα). (1) A back door to a Roman house. (2) In
+Architecture, the part of a building opposite to the façade; the
+posterior façade.
+
+=Postis=, R. The jamb of a door, supporting the lintel or _limen
+superius_.
+
+=Postscenium=, R. The part of a Roman theatre behind the stage, in which
+the actors dressed, and the appointments and machines were kept.
+
+=Potichomanie.= A process of ornamenting glass with coloured designs on
+paper, in imitation of painted porcelain.
+
+=Potter’s Clay=, found in Dorsetshire and Devonshire, is used for
+modelling and for pottery; mixed with linseed oil, it is used as a
+_ground_ in painting.
+
+=Pottery= (=Fayence=, =Terraglia=), as distinct from porcelain, is
+formed of potter’s clay mixed with marl of argillaceous and calcareous
+nature, and sand, variously proportioned, and may be classed under two
+divisions: _Soft_ (Fayence à pâte tendre), and _Hard_ (Fayence à pâte
+dure), according to the nature of the composition or the degree of heat
+under which it has been fired in the kiln. What is known generally in
+England as _earthenware_ is soft, while _stone-ware_, _Queen’s ware_,
+&c., are hard. The characteristics of the soft wares are a paste or body
+which may be scratched with a knife or file, and fusibility generally at
+the heat of a porcelain furnace. These soft wares may be again divided
+into four subdivisions: _unglazed_, _lustrous_, _glazed_, or
+_enamelled_. Among the three first of these subdivisions may be arranged
+almost all the ancient pottery of Egypt, Greece, Etruria, and Rome; as
+also the larger portion of that in general use among all nations during
+mediæval and modern times. The _glazed wares_ may be again divided into
+_silicious_ or _glass-glazed wares_, and _plumbeous_ or _lead-glazed_.
+In these subdivisions the foundation is in all cases the same. The mixed
+clay or “paste” or “body” is formed by the hand or on the wheel, or
+impressed into moulds; then slowly dried and baked in a furnace or
+stove, after which, on cooling, it is in a state to receive the glaze.
+This is prepared by fusing sand or other silicious material with potash
+or soda to form a translucent glass, the composition of the glaze upon
+vitreous or _glass-glazed_ wares. The addition of oxide of lead
+constitutes the glaze of _plumbeous_ wares; and the further addition of
+the oxide of tin produces an enamel of an opaque white of great purity,
+which is the characteristic glazing of _stanniferous_ or _tin-glazed
+wares_. Most of the principal seats of the manufacture of pottery, and a
+description of the objects manufactured, and methods used in the
+manufacture, will be found mentioned under their respective headings.
+
+=Poulaines=, Fr. Long-toed boots and shoes, introduced in 1384. (See
+CRACOWES.)
+
+=Pounce-paper.= A kind of transparent tracing-paper, free from grease,
+&c.; made in Carlsruhe.
+
+=Pounced.= In Engraving, _dotted_ all over.
+
+=Pouncet-box=, O. E. A perfume box, carved with open work. (See
+POMANDER.)
+
+=Pouranamas=, Hind. Very ancient books of India, which give a part of
+Hindoo history from the beginning of the Hindoo monarchy, or the time of
+the king Ellou or Ella.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 559. Pourpoint. Worn by a Venetian youth of the 16th
+century.]
+
+=Pourpoint=, Fr. A quilted doublet, worn in the 14th and 15th centuries.
+The illustration represents a Venetian gallant of the 16th century. (See
+GAMBESON.)
+
+=Powder-blue= is pulverized pipe-clay, a good “pounce” for transferring
+designs upon linen for embroidery.
+
+=Powdered=, Her. (See SÉMÉ.)
+
+=Powers=, Chr. Guardian angels, usually represented bearing a staff.
+(See ANGELS.)
+
+=Præcinctio=, E. (_præcingo_, to gird). A lobby running quite round the
+circle formed by the _caveæ_ in the interior of a theatre or
+amphitheatre; the same term is also used to denote the passages between
+the tiers of seats comprised within each _mænianum_. According to their
+importance, theatres and amphitheatres were divided into two, three, and
+sometimes four præcinctiones.
+
+=Præfericulum=, R. A metal basin without handles, used for holding
+sacred utensils.
+
+=Præficæ=, R. Women hired as mourners at the funerals of wealthy
+persons.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 560. Præfurnium hypocaust.]
+
+=Præfurnium=, R. The mouth of a furnace placed beneath a _hypocausis_ or
+heating-stove in a set of baths. Fig. 560 shows the _præfurnium_ of a
+hypocausis which was drawn upon the walls of a _laconicum_ situated near
+the church of St. Cecilia at Rome. (See HYPOCAUSIS.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 561. Roman maiden wearing the _toga prætexta_.]
+
+=Prætexta=, R. A TOGA with a broad purple border. It was introduced by
+the Etruscans, and was the costume assigned to priests and magistrates,
+to boys before they came of age, and to women before their marriage.
+(See TOGA.) (Fig. 561.)
+
+=Prætorium=, R. The tent of the commander-in-chief of the army; it was
+so called because in the earliest times of Rome the consul who commanded
+the army bore the title of _prætor_. The residence of a governor of a
+province was also called _prætorium_, and finally the name was given to
+any large house or palace.
+
+=Prandium=, R. (_prandeo_, to breakfast). The midday meal, which came
+between breakfast (_jentaculum_) and dinner (_cœna_).
+
+=Prastura.= (See UPAPITHA.)
+
+=Préa-koul=, Hind. An upright stone or sacred boundary among the Khmers.
+
+=Préasat=, Hind. The tower of the Khmers; _préasat-stupaï_ means little
+tower; _préasat-phradamrey_, the elephant tower of the king.
+
+=Precarium=, Chr. A temporary benefice granted to a layman by the
+Church; the holder of the benefice was, however, bound to pay the Church
+certain dues.
+
+=Predella=, It. A ledge behind the altar of a church on which the
+altar-piece was placed, containing small pictures, of similar subjects
+to the altar-piece.
+
+=Prefericulum=, R. A shallow metal bowl used in sacrifices for carrying
+the sacred vessels. Its shape resembled the _patera_.
+
+=Premier Coup.= (See PRIMA PAINTING.)
+
+=Pre-Raphaelites.= A modern school of painters, who, throwing aside all
+conventional laws and traditions in art, direct their study to the forms
+and colours of Nature.
+
+=Presentoir=, Fr. An épergne or table-stand for flowers; made very
+shallow, on a tall and richly-decorated stem. A favourite subject of the
+goldsmith’s art in the 16th century.
+
+=Pressed Glass.= Glass pressed into a mould by a machine; differing from
+_blown glass_.
+
+=Presto=, It. In Music, quickly.
+
+=Priapeia=, R. (πριάπεια). Festivals in honour of Priapus; they were
+held chiefly at Lampsacus.
+
+=Pricket.= A young stag of two years, when his horns begin to sprout.
+
+=Prie-Dieu.= A kneeling-desk for prayers.
+
+=Prima Painting= (in French, _peinture au premier coup_) is a modern
+style directed to the avoidance of extreme finish, described in a work
+by _Hundertpfund_, “_The Art of Painting restored to its Simplest and
+Surest Principles_.”
+
+=Primary Colours.= Blue, yellow, and red, from which all colours are
+derived.
+
+=Primero=, O. E. A game at cards mentioned by Shakspeare.
+
+=Primicerii=, Chr. This term had several meanings, but it was usually
+employed to denote the first person inscribed on a list, because the
+tablet on which the names were written was covered with wax; whence
+_primicerius_ (from _cera_, wax), the first upon the wax. In cathedral
+churches the primicerius presided over the choir, and regulated the
+order and method of the ceremonies.
+
+=Priming.= (See GROUNDS.)
+
+=Prince’s Metal= or =Prince Rupert’s Metal=. An alloy of 72 parts of
+copper and 28 parts of zinc, which has a resemblance to gold.
+
+=Princedoms= or =Principalities=, Chr. An order of THRONES of angels;
+usually represented in complete armour, carrying pennons. (See Fig. 24.)
+
+=Principes=, R. A body of heavy-armed foot-soldiers; thus named,
+because, in the order of battle, they were placed first.
+
+=Principia=, R. (_princeps_, chief, foremost). The headquarters in a
+Roman camp, comprising not only the tents of the general and the
+superior officers, but also an open space in which justice was
+administered and sacrifices offered to the gods; it was in the same open
+space that all the standards of the legion were set up.
+
+=Priory=, Chr. A monastery attached, as a rule, to an abbey; there were
+also, however, priories which formed the _head of an order_. In the
+order of Malta each _tongue_ comprehended several great priories.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 562. Prismatic mouldings.]
+
+=Prismatic= (mouldings). A kind of moulding resembling the facets of a
+prism (Fig. 562), which is sometimes met with in archivolts of the
+Romano-Byzantine period. The same term is likewise applied to mouldings
+characteristic of the flamboyant style, which assume, especially in
+their base, the form of prisms.
+
+=Proaron=, Gr. and R. (πρόαρον; ἀρύω, to draw water). A vessel of a
+flattened spheroid form, with two handles.
+
+=Proaulium=, R. (_pro_, in front of). The vestibule of any building.
+
+=Prochous=, Gr. (πρόχοος, i. e. thing for pouring out). A small jug for
+pouring liquid into a cask; it had a narrow neck, a very large handle,
+and a pointed mouth.
+
+=Procœton=, Gr. and R. (προ-κοιτών). An antechamber or room preceding
+other rooms or chambers.
+
+=Prodd=, O. E. A light cross-bow, used by ladies, _temp._ Elizabeth.
+
+=Prodomos=, Arch. (πρό-δομος). The façade of a temple or building, and
+sometimes the porch of a church.
+
+=Profile.= The side view of the human face. It is observed by Fairholt
+that “a face which, seen directly in front, is attractive by its rounded
+outline, blooming colour, and lovely smile, is often divested of its
+charms when seen in profile, and strikes only as far as it has an
+_intellectual_ expression. Only where great symmetry exists, connected
+with a preponderance of the intellectual over the sensual, will a
+profile appear finer than the front face.”
+
+=Projectura=, R. The beaver of a helmet.
+
+=Proletarii=, R. The proletariate, or Roman citizens of the lowest class
+of the people, so called because they contributed nothing to the
+resources of the republic except by their offspring (_proles_); being,
+as they were, too poor to pay taxes.
+
+=Prom=, Hind. An ornamented carpet in Khmer art.
+
+=Prometheia.= An Athenian festival in honour of Prometheus, with a
+torch-race (_lampadephoria_).
+
+=Promulsis.= The first course at a Roman dinner, arranged to stimulate
+the appetite; eggs were a principal ingredient, whence the proverb _ab
+ovo usque ad mala_ (from first to last).
+
+=Pronaos=, R. (πρό-ναος). A portico situated in front of a temple; it
+was open on all sides, and surrounded only by columns, which, in front,
+supported not only the entablature, but the pediment (_fastigium_).
+
+=Proper=, Her. Said of a thing exhibited in its natural, or proper,
+colour.
+
+=Proplasma=, Gr. and R. (πρό-πλασμα). A rough model or embodiment of the
+sculptor’s first idea, executed by him in clay.
+
+=Propnigeum=, Gr. and R. The mouth of the furnace of the HYPOCAUSIS
+(q.v.).
+
+=Propylæa=, Gr. The open court at the entrance to a sacred enclosure; e.
+g. an Egyptian temple, or especially the Acropolis at Athens.
+
+=Prora=, R. (πρῷρα). The prow or fore-part of a ship, whence _proreta_,
+a man who stood at the ship’s head; _proreus_ was a term also used. (See
+ACROSTOLIUM.)
+
+=Proscenium=, R. (προ-σκήνιον). The stage in a Greek or Roman theatre;
+it included the whole platform comprised between the _orchestra_ and the
+wall of the stage; the term was also used sometimes to denote the wall
+of the stage itself.
+
+=Proscenium=, Mod. The ornamental frame on which the curtain hangs.
+
+=Prostylos=, Gr. (πρό-στυλος). A building or temple which has a porch
+supported by a row of columns.
+
+=Proteleia=, Gr. (προ-τέλεια). Sacrifices which were offered to Diana,
+Juno, the Graces, and Venus prior to the celebration of a marriage.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 563. Entrance (Prothyrum) of a Roman house.]
+
+=Prothyrum=, Gr. (πρό-θυρον). With the Greeks, the vestibule in front of
+the door of a house, where there was generally an altar of Apollo, or a
+statue or laurel-tree; with the Romans, the prothyrum was the corridor
+or passage leading from the street to the atrium (Fig. 563).
+
+=Prototype= (πρῶτον, first; τύπον, mould). The model of a plastic
+design; hence figuratively, a _type_ or forerunner.
+
+=Protractor.= An instrument for laying down and measuring angles upon
+paper.
+
+=Protypum=, Gr. and R. (πρό-τυπον). A model, first model or mould for
+making any object in clay, such as antefixæ.
+
+=Prussian Blue.= A valuable pigment of a greenish-blue colour, of great
+body, transparency, and permanency; a mixture of prussiate of potash and
+rust, or oxide of iron. (See CYANOGEN.)
+
+=Prussian Brown.= A deep-brown pigment, more permanent than madder.
+
+=Psaltery.= A stringed instrument or kind of lyre of an oblong square
+shape, played with a rather large plectrum.
+
+=Pschent=, Egyp. The head-dress of the ancient kings of Egypt, which
+should properly be called _skhent_, since the _p_ only represents the
+article _the_. This head-dress is the emblem of supreme power, the
+symbol of dominion over the south and north. It is a diadem composed of
+the united crowns of the Upper and Lower Egypts.
+
+=Psephus=, Gr. (ψῆφος). A round stone used by the Athenian voters to
+record their votes.
+
+=Pseud-iso-domum= (_opus_). (See OPUS PSEUD-ISO-DOMUM.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 564. Ground-plan of a Pseudodipteral Temple.]
+
+=Pseudodipteros=, Gr. and R. (ψευδο-δίπτερος). A building or temple
+which presents the appearance of being surrounded by a double colonnade,
+though it possesses only a single one, which is separated from the walls
+of the cella, as in the dipteral arrangement. (Fig. 564.)
+
+=Pseudoperipteros=, Gr. and R. (ψευδο-περίπτερος). A building or temple
+which presents the appearance of being surrounded by a colonnade,
+although in reality it does not possess one, the columns being embedded
+in the walls of the cella. (See PERIPTEROS, under which an example of
+this kind of temple is given.)
+
+=Pseudothyrum=, Gr. and R. (ψευδό-θυρον). Literally, a false door, and
+thence a secret door, or door hidden by some means or other.
+
+=Pseudourbana= (sc. _ædificia_), R. The dwelling-house of the owner of a
+farm, which was distinct from the buildings set apart for the farm
+people and the slaves, the _familia rustica_.
+
+=Psili=, Gr. (ψιλοί). Light-armed troops, who wore skins or leather
+instead of metal armour, and fought generally with bows and arrows or
+slings.
+
+=Psychè=, Fr. A cheval-glass or mirror.
+
+=Psycter=, Gr. (ψυκτήρ). A metal wine-cooler, often of silver,
+consisting of an outer vessel to contain ice, and an inner vessel for
+the wine.
+
+=Pterotus=, R. (πτερωτός). That which has wings or ears; an epithet
+applied to the drinking-cup called _calix_.
+
+=Puggaree=, Hind. A piece of muslin worn as a turban.
+
+=Pugillares=, R. Writing-tablets small enough to be held in the hand
+(_pugillus_), whence their name.
+
+=Pugio=, R. (Gr. μάχαιρα). A short dagger, without a sheath, worn by
+officers of high rank.
+
+=Pulpitum=, R. The tribune of an orator, or the chair of a professor. In
+a theatre the term was used to denote the part of the stage next to the
+_orchestra_. (See PROSCENIUM.)
+
+=Pulvinar=, R. (_pulvinus_, a cushion). A cushion or bolster, and thence
+a state couch or a marriage-bed.
+
+=Pulvinarium=, R. (1) A room in a temple, in which was set out the
+_pulvinar_ or couch for the gods at the feast of the LECTISTERNIUM. (2)
+See OPUS PULVINARIUM.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 565. Pulvinatus.]
+
+=Pulvinatus=, R. Having a contour similar to that of a cushion or
+bolster, and thence the cylinder formed by the swelling of the volute at
+the side of the Ionic capital. (Fig. 565.)
+
+=Pumice-stone.= A kind of lava of less specific gravity than water. The
+dome of the mosque of St. Sophia at Constantinople is built of
+pumice-stone.
+
+=Punchau.= (See INTI.)
+
+=Punctum=, R. A vote or suffrage, because in early times each citizen,
+instead of laying down a _tessera_ or tablet with his vote, passed in
+front of the _rogator_, or voting officer who had the list of candidates
+before him, and pricked a hole (_punctum_) in the tablet against the
+name of the candidate for whom the vote was given.
+
+=Punkahs.= Swinging fans suspended from the ceilings of houses in India,
+often richly embroidered and decorated with feathers, brilliant insects,
+gold and silver, &c.
+
+=Puntilla=, Sp. A narrow point-lace edging.
+
+=Pupa=, R. A doll; a child’s plaything. Dolls of terra-cotta have been
+found in various countries. In Egypt dolls have been found, made out of
+wood, painted, and in perfect proportion, with glass beads on the head
+in imitation of hair. As a rule, the ancient dolls are made with movable
+joints.
+
+=Puppis=, R. The poop or after-part of a vessel as opposed to the
+_prora_ or prow. (See PRORA.)
+
+=Purbeck-stone.= A rough grey sandstone from Dorsetshire, largely used
+for building purposes in London.
+
+=Purim= (Festivals of), Heb. Jewish festivals called _Festivals of the
+Lots_, instituted in memory of Esther, who had averted the peril with
+which Haman threatened the Jews; they were so called because the
+favourite of Ahasuerus was to have decimated the Jews by casting lots to
+see who should be put to death.
+
+=Purple=, Gen. An insignia of authority pertaining to certain
+magistrates who wore purple robes or bands of purple on their attire.
+There were two kinds of purple, the amethyst and the Tyrian; the former
+was a deep violet, and obtained from a shell-fish (_murex trunculus_);
+the Tyrian was more brilliant and had a redder tinge; it was obtained
+from the _murex brandaris_.
+
+=Purple= is red graduated with blue, the red predominating; red with
+black makes purple-black. Purple pigments are _madder purple_, _violet
+mars_, _burnt carmine_ (for water-colours).
+
+=Purple Lakes= and _Green Lakes_ are made by mixing _yellow_ lakes with
+blue pigments. (See YELLOW LAKE.)
+
+=Purple Madder.= (See MADDER.)
+
+=Purple-wood.= A beautiful deep-coloured Brazilian wood, used for
+marquetry and inlaid-work, but principally for the ramrods of guns.
+
+=Purpure=, Her. Purple.
+
+=Purree=, Hind. A bright golden yellow pigment prepared from camel’s
+dung. (See INDIAN YELLOW.)
+
+=Pursuivants.= The lowest order of officers in Herald’s College; of whom
+there are four, called respectively Rouge Croix, Rouge Dragon, Blue
+Mantle, and Portcullis. In the Middle Ages these officers were attached
+to the households of the nobility, and bore titles generally taken from
+the armorial insignia of their lords.
+
+=Puteal=, R. A place struck by lightning, and thus rendered sacred; in
+order to keep it from the tread of profane feet, it was surrounded by a
+low wall similar to that which protected a well (_puteus_); whence the
+name of _puteal_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 566. Puteus. Manhole of an Aqueduct.]
+
+=Puteus=, R. (1) A well fed by a spring or an underground stream of
+water; (2) an opening or manhole of an aqueduct (Fig. 566); (3) a pit
+for preserving grain.
+
+=Puticuli=, =Puticulæ=, R. Common pits in which the bodies of those
+slaves and paupers were buried, who had not the means to pay for a
+funeral pyre or a private tomb.
+
+=Puttock=, O. E. A base kind of hawk. (_Shakspeare._)
+
+=Pyanepsia=, Gr. (πυανέψια). Ancient “Beanfeasts.” Athenian festivals in
+honour of Apollo, instituted by Theseus after his victory over the
+Minotaur; they were so called because beans were cooked for the banquet
+in honour of the god (πύανος, a bean, and ἕψειν, to cook).
+
+=Pyat=, O. E. A magpie.
+
+=Pykers=, O. E. A kind of fishing-boats.
+
+=Pylon=, Egyp. (πυλών). A monumental gate composed of two lofty and
+massive pyramidal towers, forming the entrance to the enclosure of the
+great Egyptian temples. The interior of a pylon contained staircases and
+chambers. A splendid example in full preservation is that of the temple
+at Esneh on the Nile.
+
+=Pyra=, Gr. and R. (πυρὰ, lit. the burning-place). A funeral pile before
+it was set on fire, in contradistinction to _rogus_, a funeral pile
+which has been lighted. It was built in the form of an altar with four
+equal sides, which were frequently covered with foliage of dark leaves;
+and cypress-trees were placed in front of the pile. The corpse was
+placed on the top, in the bier (_lectica_) on which it had been borne to
+the place. (See FUNERAL CEREMONIES.)
+
+=Pyræum=, Pers. (πυρεῖον). A place in which the Persians kept the sacred
+fire (_puros_, fire). At Bactria there were seven pyræa, in honour of
+the seven planets.
+
+=Pyramid= (Egyptian, _Pi-rama_, a mountain). In the hieroglyphics called
+_Abumer_, “a great tomb,” which it essentially is, or rather a great
+cairn over the cave tomb excavated in the live rock immediately under
+its apex. This sepulchral chamber having been connected with the upper
+world by a passage sloping downwards from the north, the graduated
+structure was regularly built over it, the proportions of the base to
+the sides being constantly preserved, and the whole forming always a
+perfect pyramid; so that the building could be continued during the
+whole lifetime of its destined tenant, and covered and closed in
+immediately upon his death. It is on record that from Seneferoo, the
+first king whose name has been found upon monuments, to the last of the
+Sixth Dynasty, i. e. during the whole period of the Ancient Empire,
+every king of Egypt built a pyramid. (Consult _Vyse_, _Pyramids of
+Gezeh_.)
+
+=Pyrotechny= (πῦρ, fire, and τέχνη, art). The art of making fireworks.
+The Chinese had great skill in this art long before its introduction
+into Europe, and are at this day unrivalled in it. The best English work
+on the subject is perhaps that by _G. W. Mortimer_ (London, 1853).
+
+=Pyrrhica=, Gr. (πυρρίχη). A war-dance in great favour with the early
+Greeks, and frequently represented in sculptures, in which warriors
+brandished their weapons and went through a mock combat.
+
+=Pythia=, Gr. (πύθια). (1) A priestess of Apollo at Delphi, represented
+seated on the sacred _tripod_. (See CORTINA.) (2) Games instituted at
+Delphi in honour of Apollo, and of his killing the Pytho, the monstrous
+serpent born from the waters in Deucalion’s flood.
+
+=Pythoness.= Synonym of PYTHIA (q.v.). The term was also used to denote
+certain sorceresses, such as the pythoness of Endor.
+
+=Pyx=, or =Pix Cloths=. (See =Corporals=.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 567. Small Ivory Pyx. Ninth Century (?).]
+
+=Pyx.= The word in its earliest meaning included any small box or case,
+and often in the Middle Ages it contained relics. Thus in the Durham
+treasury there was “a tooth of St. Gengulphus, good for the falling
+sickness, in a small ivory pyx.” The pyx used for the sacrament was
+usually ornamented with religious subjects, other than the incidents of
+the lives of saints. (Fig. 567.)
+
+=Pyxis=, Gr. and R. (πυξὶς, lit. a box-wood box). A casket, trinket-box,
+or jewel-case.
+
+
+
+
+                                   Q.
+
+
+_Many Old English words are indifferently spelt with_ qu, ch, _and_ c;
+_such as_ quire, choir; quoif, coif, _&c._
+
+=Quadra=, R. Generally, any square or rectangular object; such as a
+table, plinth, or abacus.
+
+=Quadragesima=, Chr. Lent is so called, because it has _forty_ days.
+
+=Quadrans=, R. (a fourth part). A small bronze coin worth the quarter of
+an _as_, or about a farthing.
+
+=Quadrant.= An instrument for measuring celestial altitudes; superseded
+by the CIRCLE. (See SEXTANT.) (Consult _Lalande_, _Astronomie_, § 2311,
+&c., 3me edition).
+
+=Quadrantal=, R. A square vessel used as a measure, the solid contents
+of which were exactly equal to an amphora. A standard model was kept in
+the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus.
+
+=Quadrelle=, O. E. A mace, with four lateral projections, ornamental
+like the leaves of a flower. (See _Planché_, _Cycl. of Costume_, Plate
+xii. 16.)
+
+=Quadrellus=, Med. Lat. A quarrel for a cross-bow.
+
+=Quadriforis=, R. A door folding into four leaves.
+
+=Quadriga=, R. Generally =Quadrigæ= (Greek τετραορία or τέθριππος). A
+chariot in which four horses were yoked abreast. The two strongest
+horses were harnessed under the yoke in the centre; the others were
+fastened on each side by means of ropes. (See CURRUS.)
+
+=Quadrigatus=, R. A silver denarius, so called from its having a
+quadriga on the reverse.
+
+=Quadrilateral.= Four-sided.
+
+=Quadriliteral.= Consisting of four letters.
+
+=Quadrille=, Med. (It. _squadriglia_, dimin. of _squadra_—our
+“squadron”—a small party of troops drawn up in a square). Small parties
+of richly-caparisoned horsemen, who rode at tournaments and public
+festivals. The modern dance so called was introduced in 1808.
+
+=Quadriremis=, R. A galley with four banks of rowers.
+
+=Quadrisomus=, Chr. A sarcophagus with compartments for four bodies. One
+discovered in the Vatican cemetery at Rome contained the bodies of the
+first four popes called Leo. (Cf. BISOMUS.)
+
+=Quadrivalves=, Arch. (See QUADRIFORIS.)
+
+=Quadrivium= (lit. of four ways). The four minor arts of arithmetic,
+music, geometry, and astronomy. (See TRIVIUM.)
+
+=Quadrivium=, R. A place where four roads meet.
+
+=Quadrumane.= Having four prehensile hands or feet, like monkeys.
+
+=Quadruplatores=, R. Public informers, who were rewarded with a _fourth
+part_ of the criminal’s property on obtaining a conviction.
+
+=Quæstiones Perpetuæ=, R. Permanent tribunals established at Rome to
+take cognizance of criminal cases.
+
+=Quæstorium=, R. In a Roman camp, the _quæstor’s_ tent; this was in some
+cases near the porta decumana, or the rear of the camp; in others, on
+one side of the PRÆTORIUM (q.v.).
+
+=Quaich=, =Queish=, or =Quegh=, Scotch. An old-fashioned drinking-cup or
+bowl, with two handles. (English MASER [?].)
+
+=Quality-binding=, Scotch. A kind of worsted tape used in the borders of
+carpets.
+
+=Qualus=, R. (Gr. KALATHOS, q.v.). A wicker-work basket.
+
+=Quandary=, O. E. (from Fr. _qu’en dirai-je_?). Doubt and perplexity.
+
+=Quannet.= A tool for working in horn and tortoise-shell.
+
+=Quarnellus=, Med., in fortification. (See CRENEL.)
+
+=Quarrel= (Fr. _carreau_), Arch. A lozenge-shaped brick, stone, or pane
+of glass; a glazier’s diamond.
+
+=Quarrel=, O. E. An arrow for the cross-bow with a four-square head.
+
+=Quarter-deck=, on a ship of war. The deck abaft the mainmast,
+appropriated to the commissioned officers. These were originally of
+great height, corresponding with the lofty forecastle for soldiers, and
+helped to make the ships top-heavy and unmanageable. A commission on
+ship-building in 1618 says,—
+
+  “They must bee somewhat snugg built, without double gallarys, and too
+  lofty upper workes, which overcharge many shipps, and make them coeme
+  faire, but not worke well at sea.”
+
+=Quarter-gallery= of a ship. A balcony round the stem.
+
+=Quarter-round=, Arch. The ovolo moulding (q.v.).
+
+=Quarter-tones= (Gr. _diesis_), in Music, were the subject of much
+discussion among the ancient Greeks, but they were used on the lyre for
+an occasional “grace-note.” Aristoxenos says “no voice could sing three
+of them in succession, neither can the singer sing _less_ than the
+quarter-tone correctly, nor the hearer judge of it.” (Consult
+_Chappell’s Hist. of Music_.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 568. Royal Arms of England, _temp._ Edward III.,
+quartered with the fleur-de-lys of France.]
+
+=Quartering=, Her. Marshalling two or more coats of arms in the
+different quarters of the same shield. (Fig. 568.)
+
+=Quartet=, =Quartetto=, It. A piece of music for four performers, each
+of whose parts is _obligato_, i. e. essential to the music.
+
+=Quartile.= In Astronomy, distant from each other 90 degrees, or a
+_quarter_ of a circle.
+
+=Quasillum= (dimin. of QUALUS, q.v.) was a small basket in which the
+quantity of wool was measured, which was assigned to a slave to spin in
+a day’s work.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 569. Quatrefoil.]
+
+=Quatrefoil.= An ornament in pointed architecture consisting of four
+foils. The term is likewise applied to a rosace formed of four
+divisions, which figures frequently in the upper part of pointed
+windows.
+
+=Quatrefoil= or =Primrose=, Her. A flower or figure having four foils or
+conjoined leaves.
+
+=Quattrocento=, It. (lit. _four hundred_). A term applied to the
+characteristic style of the artists who practised in the 15th century;
+it was hard, and peculiar in colour as well as in form and pose. It was
+the intermediate of that progressive period of art, which, commencing
+with Fra Angelico, Masaccio, Mantegna, Botticelli, and other celebrated
+painters, between A. D. 1400 and 1500, reached excellence in the 16th
+century (the _cinque-cento_) with Leonardo da Vinci and Raphael.
+
+=Quaver.= A musical note of very short time = half a crotchet.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 570. Crown of Her Majesty the Queen.]
+
+=Queen.= Crown of Her Majesty. (See Fig. 570.)
+
+=Queen-post= (anciently _prick-post_ or _side-post_), Arch. An upright
+post similar in use and position to the KING-POST, but rising, not in
+the centre to the point of the gable, but midway between the wall and
+the centre.
+
+=Queen’s Boots.= The interesting fact in English archæology is not
+generally known, that Her Majesty’s _boots_ are provided for by an
+annual tax of two shillings (on the whole) upon the village of Ketton in
+Rutlandshire “_pro ocreis reginæ_.”
+
+=Queen’s Ware.= A cream-coloured glazed earthenware of the Wedgwood
+manufacture at Burslem, 1759–70.
+
+=Queen’s Yellow.= A colour formed from the subsulphate of mercury.
+
+=Queintise=, O. E. A dress curiously cut or ornamented. (See COINTOISE.)
+
+=Querpo= (for =Cuerpo=). Partly undressed.
+
+=Querpo-hood.= A hood worn by the Puritans. (_P._)
+
+           “No face of mine shall by my friends be viewed
+           In Quaker’s pinner, or in _querpo_-hood.”
+                                 (_Archæologia_, vol. xxvii.)
+
+=Queshews=, O. E. _Cuisses_; armour for the thighs.
+
+=Queue=, Fr. A support for a lance. It was a large piece of iron screwed
+to the back of the breastplate, curved downward to hold down the end of
+the lance.
+
+=Queue Fourchée=, Her. Having a double tail, or two tails.
+
+=Quichuas.= Remarkable specimens of pottery, from this Peruvian coast
+province, doubtless of remote antiquity, resemble in their freedom from
+conventionality and successful imitation of natural forms all primitive
+Egyptian and other sculpture. Jacquemart describes the vase of the
+illustration (on page 214) as the _chef-d’œuvre_ of American ceramics;
+and, from the close resemblance of the features of the figure
+represented to certain groups of prisoners on the Egyptian bas-reliefs,
+as well as to the ethnic type of the ancient Japanese kings, makes
+important deductions with reference to the dispersion of mankind, and
+the commerce of the old and new worlds in prehistoric times.
+
+=Quicksilver=, alloyed with tinfoil, forms the reflecting surface of
+looking-glasses, and is largely used in the operations of gilding and
+silvering metals.
+
+=Quilled=, Her. A term used to blazon the quills of _feathers_; thus a
+blue feather having its quill golden is blazoned—a feather _az., quilled
+or_. (_Boutell._)
+
+=Quilts= for bed-coverings, in England, were formerly made of
+embroidered linen with emblems of the evangelists in the four corners.
+At Durham, in 1446, in the dormitory of the priory was a quilt “cum
+iiij^{or} evangelistis in corneriis.” The Very Rev. Daniel Rock
+(_Textile Fabrics_) suggests that this gave rise to the old nursery
+rhyme:—
+
+                    “Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John,
+                    Bless the bed that I lie on.”
+
+=Quinarius.= A Roman coin = half a _denarius_, or five asses.
+
+=Quincaillerie=, Fr. A general term for all kinds of metallurgical work
+in copper, brass, iron, &c.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 571. Quince. Device of the Sforzas.]
+
+=Quince=, Her. The “_Pomo cotogno_,” the emblem of the town of
+Cotignola, adopted by the founder of the Sforza family who was born
+there. The Emperor Robert of Bavaria added a lion in 1401 as a reward of
+an act of bravery, to “support the _quince_ with his left hand and
+defend it with his right,” adding “guai a chi lo tocchi!” (Fig. 571.)
+
+=Quincunx=, R. (i. e. five-twelfths of anything). (1) A Roman bronze
+coin, equivalent to five-twelfths of an _as_, and weighing five ounces
+(_unciæ_). (2) An arrangement of five objects in a square; one at each
+corner, and one in the middle. (3) In _gardening_, said of trees planted
+in oblique rows of three and two, or in a _quincunx_ (No. 2).
+
+=Quincupedal=, R. A rod five feet in length, for taking measurements in
+masonry.
+
+=Quindecagon.= A plane figure having fifteen sides and fifteen angles.
+
+=Quinite.= A Spanish textile of hair with silk or other thread.
+
+=Quinquagesima=, Chr. The _fiftieth_ day before Easter; Shrove Sunday.
+(_S._)
+
+=Quinquatrus= (or —=ia=), R. Festivals of Minerva, celebrated on the
+19th of March. They lasted five days; on the first no blood was shed,
+but on the last four there were contests of gladiators. Another festival
+called _Quinquatrus minores_, also in honour of Minerva, was celebrated
+on the ides of June.
+
+=Quinquennalia=, R. Games celebrated every four years at Rome;
+instituted by Nero, A. D. 60. They consisted of music, gymnastical
+contests, and horse-races.
+
+=Quinqueremis=, R. A galley with five banks of oars.
+
+=Quinquertium=, R. (Gr. _Pentathlon_). A gymnastic contest of Greek
+origin, so called because it consisted of five exercises, viz.
+_leaping_, _running_, _wrestling_, _throwing the discus_, and _throwing
+the spear_. Introduced in the Olympic games in Ol. 18.
+
+=Quintain=, O. E. A post set up to be tilted at by mounted soldiers;
+sometimes a man turning on a pivot; sometimes a flat board, on a pivot,
+with a heavy bag of sand at the other end, which knocked the tilter on
+the back if he charged unskilfully. (See _Strutt_, _Sports and
+Pastimes_, p. 89, Plates ix. and x.)
+
+=Quintana=, R. A causeway fifty feet wide in a Roman camp.
+
+=Quintetto=, It. A piece of music for five performers, _obligati_. (Cf.
+QUARTET.)
+
+=Quintile.= In Astronomy, distant from each other 72 degrees, or a
+_fifth_ of a circle.
+
+=Quippa=, Peruv. (lit. a knot). A fringe of knotted and particoloured
+threads, used to record events in ancient Mexico.
+
+=Quippos= or =Quippus=, Peruv. A plaited cord of strings of different
+colours and lengths, used as a substitute for writing among the ancient
+Peruvians.
+
+=Quire.= O. E. for CHOIR.
+
+=Quirinalia=, R. A festival sacred to Romulus—Quirinus—held on the 17th
+of February, as the anniversary of the day on which he was supposed to
+have been carried up to heaven. The festival was also called _Stultorum
+feriæ_. (See FORNACALIA.)
+
+=Quirk=, Arch. An acute channel by which the convex parts of Greek
+mouldings (the ogees and ovolos) are separated from the fillet or soffit
+that covers them. In Gothic architecture quirks are abundantly used
+between mouldings.
+
+=Quishwine=, =Quusson=, and =Qwissinge=. Old ways of spelling the word
+“cushion.”
+
+=Quivers.= The ancient Greeks and Etruscans, the Normans and Saxons wore
+quivers (_pharetra_) on a belt slung over the shoulder. Archers of the
+12th to 14th century carried their arrows stuck in their belts.
+
+            “A shefe of peacock arwes bryght and kene
+            _Under his belt_ he bare ful thriftely.”
+                                                (_Chaucer._)
+
+Quivers were probably introduced into England in the 15th century.
+
+=Quoif= or =Coif=, O. E. A close-fitting cap worn by both sexes, and by
+lawyers, _temp._ Elizabeth.
+
+=Quoin= or =Coin=. (1) Arch. The external angle of a building. (2) O. E.
+A wedge.
+
+=Quoits.= A very ancient game derived from the Roman DISCUS (q.v.).
+
+
+
+
+                                   R.
+
+
+=Ra.= The sun-god with hawk head is a common object of Egyptian pottery
+and architectural ornament, subsequent to the Asiatic invasions. It
+typifies the union of the yellow Asiatic and the native Egyptian races.
+
+=Rabato=, Sp. A neck-band or ruff. (See REBATO.)
+
+=Rabbet= (from _rebated_). In Joinery a groove in the edge of a board.
+
+=Rabyte=, O. E. (for Arabyte). An Arab horse.
+
+=Racana=, Chr. A blanket of hair-cloth prescribed for the couches of
+monks, &c., in summer.
+
+              “Pro anis _rachinis_ propter æstus utantur.”
+
+=Rack=, O. E. The last fleeting vestige of the highest clouds.
+
+=Racon=, O. E. The pot-hook by which vessels are suspended over a fire.
+(See GALOWS.)
+
+=Radiant=, =Rayonée=. Encircled with rays. (Fig. 395.)
+
+=Radius=, R. A pointed rod employed by certain professors of astronomy
+and mathematics for tracing figures on the sand. Also the spoke of a
+wheel, a ray of light, and lastly, a stake used in constructing
+intrenchments (_valla_).
+
+=Radula=, R. A scraper, an iron tool used for paring or scratching off.
+
+=Raffaelle-ware.= A fine kind of Urbino majolica, the designs for which
+were probably furnished by pupils of the great master.
+
+=Rag.= In Masonry, stone that breaks in jagged pieces.
+
+=Ragged Staff=, Her. (See RAGULÉE.)
+
+=Ragman’s= or =Rageman’s Roll=, O. E. (1) In History, a roll of the
+nobles of Scotland, who swore fealty to Edward I. at Berwick, in 1296;
+hence (2) a game of chance, in which a number of versified descriptions
+of character were drawn from a roll by the members of a company; 13th to
+15th century. The game survives among children of the present age in the
+custom of drawing _Twelfth-Night_ characters.
+
+=Ragstone.= A rough kind of sandstone found in Kent.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 572. Ragulée.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 573. Bear and Ragged Staff.]
+
+=Ragulée=, =Raguly=, Her. Serrated. A “ragged staff,” or “staff
+_ragulée_,” is a part of a stem from which the branches have been cut
+off roughly. The illustration is the well-known device of the Earls of
+Warwick, originating with Arthgal, one of the Knights of the Round
+Table; because, says Leland, “this Arthgal took a bere in his arms, for
+that, in Britisch, soundeth a bere in Englisch.” (Fig. 573.)
+
+=Rahal=, Arabic. A load for a camel; about 5 cwt.
+
+=Rains=, or =Raynes=, =Cloths= (A. D. 1327–1434, &c.). Fine linen woven
+at _Rennes_ in Brittany.
+
+=Rajeta=, Sp. A coarse cloth of mixed colours.
+
+=Rallum=, R. A piece of iron on the end of a stick, used to scrape off
+earth from the plough-share.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 574. Assyrian Battering-ram.]
+
+=Ram=, in Christian iconography, is a symbol not fully explained. It was
+probably connected with the idea of a manful _fight_ with the powers of
+evil. Two rams face to face with a cross between them are a frequent
+symbol. (Consult _Martigny_, _Dict. des Antiq. Chrét._ s. v. Belier.)
+
+=Ram=, O. E. for rain. (_Shakspeare._)
+
+=Ram= or =Battering-ram=. (See ARIES.) The illustration (Fig. 574) is
+from the Assyrian sculptures, showing the invention of the _testudo_ to
+be of great antiquity.
+
+=Ramadhan.= The ninth month of the Arabian calendar, and the Mohammedan
+month of fasting; it is followed by the festival of the _Little Bairam_.
+
+=Ramalia=, R. (_ramus_, a ram) Roman festivals instituted in honour of
+Ariadne and Bacchus.
+
+=Ramillete=, Sp. A nosegay; a pyramid of sweetmeats and fruits.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 575. Lion Rampant.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 576. Demi-lion Rampant.]
+
+=Rampant=, Her. Erect, one hind paw on the ground, the other three paws
+elevated; the animal looking forward, and having his tail elevated.
+
+=Rampant guardant=, Her. The same as rampant, but looking out of the
+shield.
+
+=Rampant reguardant=, Her. The same as rampant, but looking backwards.
+
+=Ranseur=, Fr. A sort of partisan in use in the time of Edward IV.,
+having a broad long blade in the centre, and projecting shorter blades
+on each side.
+
+=Rantle-tree=, Scotch. (1) The beam in the chimney from which the crook
+is suspended, when there is no grate (Angl. GALOWS. See also
+REEKING-HOOK). (2) A tree chosen with two branches, which are cut short,
+and left in the shape of a Y, built into the gable of a cottage to
+support one end of the roof-tree.
+
+=Rapier=, introduced from Spain in the 16th century, remained the
+favourite weapon of gentlemen. It is a light sword with a narrow blade
+adapted only for thrusting. It used to be called a _tuck_.
+
+=Rapier-dance.= A theatrical dance still practised in Yorkshire,
+consisting of evolutions of the dancers with naked rapiers round a
+performer who kneels in the centre and finally simulates death. (Compare
+SWORD-DANCE.)
+
+=Raploch=, Scotch. Coarse undyed woollen cloth.
+
+=Rareca.= Peruvian aqueducts; distinct from the subterranean aqueducts
+called HUIRCAS or _Pinchas_ (q.v.).
+
+=Rash.= “A species of inferior silk, or silk and stuff manufacture.”
+(_Nares._)
+
+=Raster=, =Rastrum=, R. (_rado_, to scrape). A rake.
+
+=Rat.= In Chinese symbolism, the month of November. (See TCHY PERIODS.)
+
+=Rath=, Celtic. An ancient fortress or castle of the Irish chiefs,
+consisting of a circular intrenched enclosure, with buildings in the
+centre.
+
+=Rational=, Heb. A square piece of richly embroidered cloth worn by the
+Jewish high priest upon the breast, above the ephod.
+
+=Ratis=, R. A raft of strong beams or planks; and thence a flat boat, a
+bridge of boats, &c.
+
+=Raunle-tree.= Scotch; for RANTLE-TREE (q.v.).
+
+=Raven=, the ensign of the ancient Danes, was the bird of Odin. In
+Christian art, the emblem of Divine Providence (in allusion to the
+history of Elisha); attribute of certain saints, especially of ascetics.
+(See CROW.)
+
+=Ray=, Chr. The fish (_rina diaudan_) which was burned by Tobias (vii.
+2, 3), and the eggs of which are still burnt for intermittent fevers
+among the Greeks. (_Harris_, 408.)
+
+=Ray=, O. E. (i. e. _rayed_). Striped cloth much worn in the 13th and
+14th centuries.
+
+=Raynes=, O. E. (from Rennes in Brittany). Fine linen.
+
+            “Cloth of raynes to sleep on soft.” (_Chaucer._)
+
+=Rayonnée=, Her. (See RADIANT.)
+
+=Real= (Eng. ROYAL). A Spanish coin. There are two kinds: a _real of
+plate_, worth 4¾_d._, and a _real of vellon_, worth 2½_d._ (Cf. RIAL.)
+
+=Realgar.= A red pigment, formed of arsenic in combination with sulphur.
+A fugitive and _corrosive_ pigment. (See _Merimée_, _De la Peinture à
+l’huile_, p. 124.)
+
+=Realism=, =Realistic=, in Art. (See IDEAL and REAL.)
+
+=Rebated.= Turned back, as the head of a MORNE or jousting-lance.
+
+=Rebato=, Sp. The turn-down collar of the 15th and 16th centuries.
+
+=Rebec=, Sp. A musical instrument of three strings, tuned in fifths, and
+played with a bow like a fiddle. It was originally introduced into Spain
+by the Moors.
+
+=Rebiting.= A process of renewing the lines of a worn-out plate, by
+etching them over again; a difficult and delicate operation, which is
+rarely performed with entire success.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 577. Rebus (Prior Bolton). The Bolt and Tun.]
+
+=Rebus=, Her. An allusive charge or device. A _ton_ or _tun_ pierced by
+a bird-bolt is in the church of Great St. Bartholomew, of which Prior
+Bolton was the last prior.
+
+                        “Prior Bolton
+                  With his bolt and tun.”
+                                      (_Ben Jonson._)
+
+=Recamo=, Sp. Embroidery of raised work.
+
+=Recel=, Sp. A kind of striped tapestry.
+
+=Receptorium=, R. (_recepto_, to receive). A kind of parlour, also
+called _salutatorium_, which generally adjoined the ancient basilicas.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 578. Cross _Recercelée_.]
+
+=Recercelée=, Her. A variety of the heraldic cross.
+
+=Recheat=, O. E. A sound on the horn to call dogs away from the chase.
+
+=Recinctus.= Equivalent in meaning to DISCINCTUS (q.v.).
+
+=Recorders.= A musical instrument mentioned by Shakspeare. It resembled
+a very large clarionet. Milton also speaks of
+
+                   “the Dorian mood
+             Of flutes and _soft recorders_.”
+                                 (_Paradise Lost_, i. 550.)
+
+=Recta=, R. A straight tunic, made out of a single piece, which took the
+form of the body; it hung from the neck, and fell down as far as the
+feet.
+
+=Rectilinear= figures are those composed entirely of straight or _right_
+lines.
+
+=Red.= One of the three primary colours, producing with YELLOW,
+_orange_, and with BLUE, _violet_. The principal red pigments are
+_carmine_, _vermilion_, _chrome red_, _scarlet lake_, _madder lake_,
+_light red_, _burnt sienna_, for _yellow_ reds; and _Venetian red_,
+_Indian red_, _crimson lake_, for _blue_ reds. Red, in Christian art,
+represented by the ruby, signified fire, divine love, the Holy Spirit,
+heat or the creative power, and royalty. In a bad sense, red signified
+blood, war, hatred, and punishment. Red and black combined were the
+colours of purgatory and the devil. (See REALGAR, INDIGO.)
+
+=Red Chalk= or =Reddle= is a mixture of clay and red iron OCHRE, used as
+a crayon in drawing. (See OCHRE.)
+
+=Red Lake.= (See CARMINE.)
+
+=Red Lead.= A pigment which mixes badly with other pigments. (See
+MINIUM.)
+
+=Red Ochre= includes _Indian red_, _scarlet ochre_, _Indian ochre_,
+_reddle_, &c.
+
+=Red Orpiment.= (See REALGAR.)
+
+=Redan=, the simplest kind of work in field fortification, generally
+consists of a parapet of earth, divided on the plan into two faces,
+which make with one another a salient angle, or one whose vertex is
+towards the enemy.
+
+=Reddle.= (See RED CHALK.)
+
+=Redimiculum=, R. (_redimio_, to bind round). A long string or ribbon
+attached to any kind of head-dress.
+
+=Redoubt= is a general name for nearly every kind of work in the class
+of field fortifications.
+
+=Redshank=, Scotch. A Highlander wearing buskins of red-deer skin, with
+the hair outwards.
+
+=Reduction.= In Art, a copy on a smaller scale. The work is done
+mechanically by a process of subdivision of the original into segments
+or squares.
+
+=Reekie=, Scotch. Smoky; hence _Auld Reekie_, the city of Edinburgh.
+
+=Reeking-hook=, O. E. A pot-hook hung in the chimney, to suspend vessels
+over an open fire. (See GALOWS.)
+
+=Re-entering=, in Engraving, is the sharpening or deepening with a
+graver the lines insufficiently _bitten in_ by the acid.
+
+=Refectory=, Mod. (_reficio_, to refresh). A hall in which the monks of
+a monastery assembled to take their meals; one of the most important
+rooms of the establishment; it was often divided into two naves by a row
+of columns called the spine (_spina_), which received the spring of the
+vaultings forming the roof of the refectory.
+
+=Reflected Lights= thrown by an illuminated surface into the shadows
+opposed to it, modify the LOCAL COLOUR of every object that we observe
+in nature, and should accordingly be made to do so in painting.
+
+=Reflexed=, =Reflected=, Her. Curved and carried backwards.
+
+=Refraction= is the diversion of a ray of light which occurs when it
+falls obliquely on the surface of a medium differing in density from
+that through which it had previously moved. The differently-coloured
+rays have different degrees of refrangibility. Refraction is the cause
+of the phenomena of the _mirage_, _Fata Morgana_, &c., and presents to
+us the light of the sun before his actual emergence above the horizon.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 579. Regals or Portable Organ.]
+
+=Regal= or =Regals=, O. E. (1) A small portable organ, with single or
+double sets of pipes (the attribute of St. Cecilia, and of saints and
+angels of the heavenly choir). The illustration (Fig. 579) of an angel
+playing the regals, is taken from an ancient MS. (2) A kind of
+harmonica, with sonorous slabs of wood.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 580. Regalia. Grand Duke of Tuscany in state
+costume, with crown and sceptre, &c.]
+
+=Regalia.= The ensigns of royalty. The regalia of England are the crown,
+sceptre, verge or rod with the dove, St. Edward’s staff, the orb or
+mound, the sword of mercy called Curtana, the two swords of spiritual
+and temporal justice, the ring of alliance with the kingdom, the armillæ
+or bracelets, the spurs of chivalry, and some royal vestments; and are
+kept in the Jewel Office in the Tower of London. The Scottish insignia,
+a crown, a sceptre, and a sword of state, are kept in the Crown-room at
+Edinburgh. The illustration shows the regalia and state vestments of the
+Grand Duke of Tuscany, in the 16th century. (Fig. 580.)
+
+=Regifugium=, R. (lit. flight of the king). An annual festival held on
+the sixth day of the calends of March (24th of February), in
+commemoration of the flight of Tarquin and the establishment of the
+Roman republic.
+
+=Regioles=, Fr. Chr. Small doors in the _confessio_ or _martyrium_ of an
+altar, containing relics of a saint or martyr. The faithful used to
+introduce handkerchiefs by these doors, that they might consecrate them
+by contact with the relics.
+
+=Regrating= or =Skinning=, in Masonry, is the process of scraping or
+hammering off the outer surface of old stones to make them look white
+and new; it has been greatly abused in the restoration of ancient
+buildings.
+
+=Reguardant=, Her. Turning the head and looking back; emblematic of
+circumspection and prudence.
+
+=Regula=, R. A straight rule used by artisans.
+
+=Regulares=, Chr. Horizontal _rods_ of wood or metal in churches for the
+suspension of veils or curtains. These were often made of gold or
+silver, with a row of images on the upper part.
+
+=Regulus= (in Greek βασιλίσκος) is the name given by ancient astronomers
+to a line drawn from the polar star, between the pointers, &c., to the
+bright star called α Leonis or Cor Leonis (the lion’s heart).
+
+=Reindeer=, Her. A hart with double antlers, one pair erect, the other
+drooping.
+
+=Reisner-work.= A corrupt spelling of the name of Riesener, a celebrated
+worker in marquetry in France in the 18th century.
+
+  “Riesener used tulip, rosewood, holly, maple, laburnum, purple-wood,
+  &c. Wreaths and bunches of flowers, exquisitely worked and boldly
+  designed, form centres of his marquetry panels, which are often plain
+  surfaces of one wood. On the sides, in borders and compartments, we
+  find diaper patterns in three or four quiet colours.” (See _Pollen_,
+  _Ancient and Modern Furniture_, &c.)
+
+=Relief= (It. _rilievo_). Sculpture projecting—ALTO-RELIEVO, more than
+half; MEZZO-RELIEVO, exactly half; BASSO-RELIEVO, less than half. (See
+also RONDO BOSSO, INTAGLIO-RELIEVATO, STACCIATO.)
+
+=Reliquary=, Chr. A portable shrine or casket made to contain relics. A
+reliquary made to be worn round the neck was called _encolpium_ (ἐν
+κόλπῳ, in the bosom), _phylacterium_, &c.; one to be carried
+processionally, _feretrum_. (See FERETORY, Fig. 307.)
+
+=Remarque=, Fr. A slight sketch on the margin beneath an etching or
+engraving, to denote the earliest proof impressions.
+
+=Removed=, Her. Out of its proper position.
+
+=Remuria=, R. A Roman festival in honour of Remus, held on the third of
+the ides of May (13th of May) on the Palatine mount, on the spot where
+Remus had taken the auspices, and where he was buried.
+
+=Renaissance= (lit. new-birth or revival). The term is popularly applied
+to the gradual return to classical principles in Art in the 13th and
+14th centuries. The Italian renaissance, begun by NICCOLA PISANO in
+architecture and sculpture, and by GIOTTO in painting, was fostered by
+the Medici family, and culminated in Leonardo, Michelangelo, and
+Raphael. Teutonic art (Flemish, German, and Dutch) had also their
+periods of revival. It is, however, impossible to indicate their
+representatives without entering upon debateable questions. Goldsmith’s
+work, pottery, and other useful arts passed through parallel periods of
+revival concurrent, or nearly so, with those in painting.
+
+=Rengue=, Sp. A kind of gauze worn on official robes in Spain.
+
+=Reno= and =Rheno=, R. A very short cloak, often made of skins, peculiar
+to the Gauls and Germans, and adopted by the Roman soldiery.
+
+=Repagula=, R. (lit. fastening back). A double fastening to a door; of
+two bolts (_pessuli_), one of which was shot towards the right, and the
+other to the left.
+
+=Replica.= A duplicate of a picture, done by the same painter.
+
+=Repose.= (See RIPOSO.)
+
+=Repositorium=, R. (_repono_, to lay down). A side-board for plates and
+dishes in a dining-room; it was divided into several stories, and formed
+a kind of dinner-wagon; and many examples were richly ornamented, and
+inlaid with variegated woods, or tortoise-shell and silver, &c.
+
+=Repoussé=, Fr. Metal-work hammered out from behind into ornaments in
+_relief_.
+
+=Requiem=, Chr. The Roman _Missa pro Defunctis_, or service for the
+dead, beginning with the anthem “_Requiem æternam dona eis, Domine_.”
+
+=Rerebrace=, O. E. (for the French _arrière bras_). Armour for the upper
+part of the arm.
+
+=Rerebrake=, O. E. A pommel at the back of a saddle to support the
+horseman under the shock of a tilting-bout. (See _Meyrick_, vol. ii. p.
+137.)
+
+=Reredos=, Chr. (1) The wall or screen at the back of an altar. In the
+primitive churches, in which the bishop’s seat was at the back of the
+altar, there was no _reredos_. Its introduction dates from the period
+(about the 12th century) when the episcopal seats and the choirs were
+established in front of the altars. (2) The ROOD-SCREEN was sometimes so
+called. (3) The open hearth was so called. Hollinshed relates that,
+before the invention of chimneys, “each man made his fire against a
+_reredosse_ in the hall, where he dined and dressed his meat.”
+
+=Rere-supper= (Fr. _arrière souper_). The last meal taken in the day;
+15th century.
+
+=Resins.= (See AMBER, COPAL, DAMARA, MASTIC, &c.)
+
+=Ressaunt=, O. E. Arch. An obsolete term applied to members of
+architecture inflected or curved like an OGEE moulding.
+
+=Rest.= In Music, a character denoting silence for a length denoted by
+the character used to express the rest, i. e. _semibreve_, _minim_,
+_crotchet_, _quaver_, &c.
+
+=Restoration.= In Architecture, a drawing of an ancient building in its
+original design.
+
+=Retable= (Fr.), Chr. (See REREDOS.)
+
+=Rete= and =Retis=, R. A net.
+
+=Retiarius.= A gladiator whose only arms were a trident and net; with
+the latter he tried to embarrass the adversary by casting it over his
+head, and, having done so, to wound him with the trident; failing in
+their throw, their only resource was to run round the arena preparing
+the net for a second attempt. They fought generally with the
+Mirmillones, and had no helmet nor other protective armour excepting for
+the left arm. (See GLADIATORS.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 581. Venetian Reticella Lace.]
+
+=Reticella= (Lat. _reticulus_, a little net). This was the first known
+needle-made lace, produced in all lace-making countries under different
+names. (See GREEK LACE.) It was made in several ways: the first
+consisted in arranging a network of threads on a small frame, crossing
+and interlacing them in various complicated patterns. Beneath this
+network was gummed a piece of fine cloth, open like canvas, called
+quintain (from the town in Brittany where it was made). Then with a
+needle the network was sewn to the quintain by edging round those parts
+of the pattern which were to remain thick, then cutting away the
+superfluous cloth: hence the name of cutwork in England. A more simple
+mode was to make the pattern detached without any linen; the threads
+radiating at equal distances from one common centre served as a
+framework to others, which were united to them in geometric forms worked
+over with button-hole stitch (or _point noué_). The engraving shows a
+fine specimen of reticella from Venice, 1493. (See also MILAN
+RETICELLA.)
+
+=Reticulated.= Latticed like the meshes of a net (_rete_).
+
+=Reticulated Glass.= (See GLASS.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 582. Reticulated Vase. Japanese.]
+
+=Reticulated Porcelain= is an Oriental product, of which the outer side
+is entirely cut out in geometric patterns, honeycomb, circles
+intercrossed and superposed to a second vase of similar, or of simply
+cylindrical form. Fig. 582 is a specimen of this style.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 583. Reticulatum opus.]
+
+=Reticulated Work=, Arch. (Lat. _reticulata structura_, literally, made
+like a net). Masonry constructed with diamond-shaped stones, or
+QUARRELS, shown in Figs. 493 and 583. The latter shows one of the mouths
+of the _cloaca_ opening on the Tiber. _Reticulata fenestra_ was a window
+grated over with bars of wood or metal crossing in the form of network.
+
+=Reticulum=, R. Diminutive of _rete_, a net.
+
+=Retinaculum=, R. (_retineo_, to hold back). A rope used to moor a
+vessel to the shore.
+
+=Retorted=, Her. Intertwined.
+
+=Retro-choir=, Chr. Arch. Chapels behind or about the choir.
+
+=Reverse.= The back of a medal. In very ancient coins this had no mark
+except that of the instrument by which it was fixed to receive the stamp
+of the _obverse_. By degrees this grew into a figure of a dolphin or
+some other animal. Some ancient Greek reverses are _intaglios_ of the
+stamp in relief of the _obverse_. Complete reverses appear on Greek
+coins about 500 B.C., and are of exquisite execution. (Cf. OBVERSE.)
+
+=Revinctum= (opus), R. (_revincio_, to bind fast). Dove-tailed masonry.
+(See Fig. 269.)
+
+=Rhabdion= (lit. a small rod). An instrument used in _encaustic
+painting_, with which the wax tints were blended. It was probably flat
+at one end, and kept heated in a small furnace close at hand. (See
+_Eastlake_, _Materials_, &c., i. 154.)
+
+=Rheda=, R. A roomy four-wheeled carriage, of Gallic origin, with
+several seats. The driver was called RHEDARIUS.
+
+=Rheno=, Gr. (ῥὴν, a sheep). A sheepskin cloak, covering the shoulders
+and as far as to the waist, worn by the ancient Germans as a protection
+against rain.
+
+=Rhingrave.= The petticoat breeches worn in the reign of Charles II.
+(_Planché._)
+
+=Rhomboid.= “An equilateral oblique parallelogram.”
+
+=Rhomphæa=, =Romphæa=, =Rumpia=, R. A sword with a long blade, used by
+the Thracians.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 584. Rhyton. Greek Drinking-cup.]
+
+=Rhyton=, Gr. and R. (ῥυτὸν, lit. flowing). A drinking-vessel of
+earthenware in the form of a horn or trumpet; in many instances with a
+handle.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 585. Rial. Queen Elizabeth.]
+
+=Rial= or =Royal= (Sp. _real_). A Spanish coin introduced into England
+in 16th cent. (See REAL.)
+
+=Riband= or =Ribbon= (Welsh _rhibin_; Irish _ruibin_, &c.). A long
+narrow web of silk worn for ornament or use; especially for a _badge_ of
+devotion in love or war.
+
+            “See in the lists they wait the trumpet’s sound:
+            Some love-device is wrought on every sword,
+            And every ribbon bears some mystic word.”
+                                  (_Granville._)
+
+The Ribbons of the various orders of Knighthood are:—of the GARTER, a
+broad dark blue ribbon passing over the left shoulder; of the THISTLE, a
+broad dark green ribbon; of St. PATRICK, a light blue; of the BATH, red;
+of the STAR OF INDIA, pale blue with white borders.
+
+=Ribbon=, =Riband=, Her. A diminutive of a BEND.
+
+=Ribibe.= A kind of fiddle; 15th century.
+
+=Ribs=, Arch. Projecting bands on ceilings, &c.
+
+=Rica=, R. A square piece of cloth with a fringe, worn by priests and
+women on the head, and especially by the former when they were offering
+a sacrifice; _ricula_ was a smaller veil worn in the same fashion. (Cf.
+FLAMMEUM.)
+
+=Rice-paper.= A delicate vegetable film brought from China, and used as
+a substitute for drawing-paper in the representation of richly-coloured
+insects or flowers, &c.
+
+=Ridels.= French word for bed-curtains; 15th century.
+
+=Rimenato=, It. (See CRUSCA.)
+
+=Ring Mail.= Flexible armour of iron rings interwoven; introduced from
+the East by the Crusaders.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 586. Ring of chiselled iron. French. 16th century.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 587. Venetian Ring. 16th century.]
+
+=Rings.= The symbolic use of signet-rings is mentioned in many passages
+of the Holy Scriptures, especially as a transfer of authority; as
+Pharaoh to Joseph (Gen. xli. 42), Ahasuerus to Haman, &c. A large
+collection of Egyptian signet-rings is in the British Museum, many being
+much too large to be worn on the hand. EGYPTIAN rings were of ivory,
+porcelain, or stone, but generally of gold. The ETRUSCANS and SABINES
+wore rings at the foundation of Rome, 753 B.C., those of the former
+being remarkable for beauty and intrinsic value. The LACEDÆMONIANS wore
+iron rings. The ROMANS also under the Republic were proud of wearing an
+iron ring; under the Empire the privilege of wearing a ring raised the
+wearer to the equestrian order. GREEK and ROMAN rings were, generally
+speaking, massive and simple, and of obvious value in metal and stone,
+until in the degenerate times of the Empire luxury spread, and the lower
+classes began to disfigure themselves with cheap jewellery. Solid rings
+were carved out of rock-crystal in Christian times; and others were made
+of stone, chiefly of calcedony. Rings of amber, glass, earthenware, and
+other materials were exhumed at Pompeii. The BRITONS and SAXONS had
+beautiful jewellery. The former wore the ring on the middle finger; the
+Anglo-Saxons on the third finger of the right hand, which was thence
+poetically called the “golden finger.” A beautiful specimen of enamelled
+art is the gold ring of Ethelwulf, king of Wessex (the father of Alfred
+the Great), now in the medal room of the British Museum. Among the
+_niello_ rings of the Saxon period is one in the British Museum
+inscribed “Ahlreds owns me, Eanred engraved me.” Plain wire rings, or
+plain bands of metal merely twisted round the finger, are common objects
+in Saxon tombs; but the most beautiful specimens of this, as of other
+branches of the goldsmith’s art in antiquity, are from IRELAND. In
+SCANDINAVIA the earliest forms are spiral, and of simple workmanship.
+RINGS were a part of the official jewellery of kings, bishops, and
+cardinals; and the _fisherman’s ring_, with a representation of St.
+Peter in a boat fishing, was the papal ring of investiture. A copious
+literature on this special subject deals with the superstitions,
+ceremonies, customs, and anecdotes connected with finger-rings, as well
+as with their exemplification of the history of the development or
+decadence of art. A collector divides his rings into _Antique_,
+_Mediæval_, and _Modern_; the former period ending A. D. 800, and
+classified by nationalities. The later collections are classified as
+_Official_: ecclesiastical, civil, and military; or _Personal_, viz.
+signet-rings, love and marriage, mourning, &c.; historical, religious
+(i. e. devotional, &c.), magic, and simply ornamental. (The substance of
+the above is drawn from _Finger-ring Lore_, &c., by _W. Jones_, Chatto,
+1877; and _Antique Gems_, by the _Rev. C. W. King_. For the significance
+of rings in connexion with the history of Christianity, see _Smith and
+Cheetham_, _Dict. of Christ. Ant._ s. v.)
+
+=Rinman’s Green.= (See COBALT.)
+
+=Rip-rap=, Arch. A builder’s term for a foundation of loose stones.
+
+=Riposo=, It. The rest of the Holy Family during the Flight into Egypt
+is often shortly designated the _Riposo_; it is treated by different
+masters in a great variety of styles.
+
+=Riscus=, R. (ῥίσκος). A wardrobe or chest for clothes.
+
+=Rising=, =Roussant=, Her. Said of birds about to take wing.
+
+=Rivers=, Chr. The four rivers of Paradise are variously represented in
+primitive Christian art; e. g. the LAMB standing on a mountain, from
+which they flow; or they are personified, and symbolize the four
+Evangelists: the Gihon is St. Matthew; Pison, St. John; Tigris, St.
+Mark; and Euphrates, St. Luke. The following lines in one instance
+accompany such a representation on an engraved copper plate:—
+
+           “Fons paradisiacus per flumina quatuor exit;
+           Hec quadriga levis te _Χρε_ per omnia vexit.”
+
+In CLASSIC art generally, rivers are personified as half-prostrate
+figures reclining upon an urn, and marked by certain attributes; e. g.
+of the Nile, a hippopotamus; of the Tiber, a wolf suckling Romulus and
+Remus; other rivers by the flora or by certain cities of their banks,
+&c. (Consult _Didron_, _Iconographie Chrét._; _Martigny_, &c.)
+
+=Roan.= (1) A kind of leather much used for bookbinding; it is of
+sheepskins tanned with sumach. (2) Said of a _bay_ or _sorel_ horse
+marked with grey.
+
+=Robigalia=, R. Roman festivals held every year on the sixth of the
+calends of May (25th of April), in honour of the god Robigus, to
+preserve the wheat from mildew.
+
+=Roborarium= (_robur_, strength). An enclosure within a wooden palisade.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 588. Robur. Prison at Rome.]
+
+=Robur=, R. The subterranean dungeon of a prison (_carcer_), in which
+criminals were executed. In Fig. 588 the character of the _robur_ is
+clearly seen; it is that of the prison of Ancus Martius and Servius
+Tullius at Rome, of which some ruins still remain.
+
+=Rochet=, Chr. (Lat. _rochetum_; Anglo-Saxon _roc_, a loose upper
+garment). A short surplice without sleeves, open at the sides; imitated
+from a linen outer garment of the same name, much worn by women in the
+14th century. Chaucer says,—
+
+                   “There is no clothe sytteth bette
+                   On damoselle than doth rokette.”
+
+=Rock-crystal.= A material much used for carving in China. _Fortune_
+says, “Fine specimens of rock-crystal, carved into figures, cups, and
+vases, are met with in the curiosity shops of Foo-chow-foo. Some of
+these specimens are white, others golden yellow, and others again blue
+and black. One kind looks as if human hair was thrown in and
+crystallized. _Imitations_ of this stone are common in Canton, made into
+snuff-bottles, such as are commonly used by the Chinese.” The GREEK name
+(κρύσταλλος, ice) refers to the belief that it was frozen water; the
+INDIANS believe it to be the husk of which the _diamond_ is the kernel,
+and call it the _unripe diamond_; in JAPAN it is cut into round balls
+used for cooling the hands; in CHINA also it is extensively carved; in
+the MIDDLE AGES it was highly valued throughout EUROPE as a detector of
+poison. Still more recently crystal balls have been supposed to have
+magical influence, and used for divination and conjuring.
+
+=Rockets=, O. E. Slabs of wood used on lances, during exercise, for the
+same purpose as the buttons of foils.
+
+=Rococo=, It. The style of decoration into which that of the Louis
+Quinze period culminated, distinguished for a superfluity of confused
+and discordant detail. (See LOUIS XV.)
+
+=Rod.= In measurement, 16½ feet linear, or 272½ square feet.
+
+=Rodomel=, O. E. The juice of roses, mixed with honey.
+
+=Rogus=, R. A funeral pile when in process of burning, in
+contradistinction to PYRA (q.v.).
+
+=Rokelay=, O. E. A short cloak.
+
+=Roll-moulding= (Arch.), profusely used in the Early English and
+Decorated styles, is a round moulding, divided longitudinally along the
+middle, the upper half of which projects over the lower. _Roll and
+fillet moulding_ is a roll-moulding with a square _fillet_ on the face
+of it.
+
+=Rolls of Arms.= Heraldic records of ancient armorial insignia,
+preserved on strips of parchment. The earliest known are of the 13th
+century. (Consult _Boutell_.)
+
+=Romal=, Hind. A silk fabric, of which cotton imitations are made in
+England.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 589. Temple of Vesta at Tivoli, with
+Roman-Corinthian columns.]
+
+=Roman Architecture= is a combination of the _Etruscan_ and the _Greek_,
+principally distinguished from the latter by the circular arch, and the
+_monopteral_ or circular temple unknown to the Greeks, but a favourite
+form with the tomb-building ancestors of the Etruscans. The _orders_ of
+Roman architecture were the Doric and Ionic, detrimentally modified; the
+Corinthian, which they greatly enriched; and the Composite, of which the
+upper part of the capital was Ionic, and the remainder Corinthian. The
+distinguishing feature of the Roman architecture is, however, less in
+the modifications of the orders, than in their application in _composite
+arcades_, or plain arches of Etruscan design, faced by and supporting a
+purely ornamental arrangement of a long horizontal entablature on two
+columns. (Consult _Fergusson_, _Hist. of Arch._, vol. i.)
+
+=Roman Doric Order of Architecture.= A deteriorated imitation of the
+Grecian Doric, adopted, with considerable modifications, by modern
+Italian architects.
+
+=Roman Ochre= or =Italian Earth=. A pigment of a rich orange yellow,
+used both raw and burnt in oil and water-colours. (See OCHRE.)
+
+=Roman Sepia= is _sepia_ (q.v.) mixed with red.
+
+=Romanesque.= A degenerated and hybrid style of architecture and
+ornament, transitional from the classical Roman to the introduction of
+the Gothic. In the architecture there is an incongruous combination of
+the horizontal and arched methods of construction; and in the ornament a
+similar dissonance of natural and conventional or fanciful objects.
+_Fairholt_ calls it the _classic rococo_. _Fergusson_ (_Hist. of Arch._,
+vol. i. p. 352) defines the _Romanesque_ as “that modification of the
+classical Roman form, which was introduced between the reigns of
+Constantine and Justinian, and was avowedly an attempt to adapt
+classical forms to Christian purposes.” He says, “If _Romanesque_ is to
+be applied to our Norman architecture, the Parthenon ought to be called
+_Egyptianesque_, and the Temple at Ephesus _Assyrianesque_.” There seems
+to be no universally-received definition of this term.
+
+=Rondache=, Fr. A round shield for foot-soldiers. It had a slit near the
+top to look through, and another at the side for the sword.
+
+=Ronde Bosse= (It. _rondo bosso_). Sculpture in relief with a complete
+rounded outline, detached from the ground.
+
+=Rood=, Chr. (1) A cross or crucifix. (2) A space of 1210 square yards;
+the fourth of an acre. (3) In building, 36 square yards of work. (4) As
+a linear measure variable, from 21 feet to 36 yards.
+
+=Rood-beam=, Chr. The beam across the church by which the _rood_ was
+supported when there was no _rood-loft_.
+
+=Rood-cloth=, Chr. The veil by which the large crucifix or _rood_ was
+hidden during Lent.
+
+=Rood-loft=, =Rood-screen=, Chr. A gallery, generally placed over the
+chancel screen in parish churches, in which the cross or _rood_ was set
+to view.
+
+=Rood-tower=, =Rood-steeple=, Chr. Arch. A tower or steeple of a
+cruciform church, built above the intersection, i. e. immediately over
+the _rood_.
+
+=Roquelaure.= “A short abridgment or compendium of a cloak, which is
+dedicated to the Duke of Roquelaure.”
+
+=Rorarii=, R. (_ros_, the dew). A body of light skirmishers in the Roman
+army, who were ranged in the second rank of the _triarii_, with the
+_accensi_ behind them in the third line. They took their name from the
+light missiles which they scattered upon the enemy, which were like the
+drops of rain before a thunder shower. It was their business to begin
+the attack, and retire behind the _triarii_ when pressed. Their
+skirmishing was a prelude to the charge of the heavy-armed spears
+(_hastati_).
+
+=Rosary=, Chr. A string or chaplet of beads for numbering prayers, an
+Oriental and ante-Christian custom of great antiquity. They are called
+_tasbih_ by the Indian Mohammedans; in Sanscrit _Japanata_, “the
+muttering chaplet,” &c.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 590. Heraldic Roses.]
+
+=Rose=, Her. Represented in blazon without leaves. The rose of England
+is generally drawn like the natural flower, or with natural stem,
+branches, leaves, and buds, but with heraldic rose-flowers. (See Fig.
+395.) In Classic art, a rose upon a tomb is an emblem of a short life.
+The ancient Romans were passionately fond of roses, and cultivated them
+assiduously in their gardens, and introduced them plentifully in their
+feasts and symposia. In _mediæval_ England roses were the favourite
+presents on birthdays; and Whitsuntide was called, from the plenty of
+them, Rose Easter. Sticking a rose in the ear was the boast of an
+accepted lover.
+
+         “That in mine ear I durst not stick a rose,
+         Lest men should say, Look where three farthings goes.”
+                                               (_Shakspeare._)
+
+The allusion refers to a thin silver coin of the reign of Elizabeth,
+called the three-farthing rose. (_Planché._)
+
+=Rose-engine Pattern= (Fr. _guillochis_). (1) An architectural moulding,
+also called Greek fret, meanders, and quirked torus. (2) In goldsmiths’
+work it is an ornament of network made by means of a machine called a
+rose-engine. (_Bosc._)
+
+=Rose Lake=, =Rose Madder=. A rich tint prepared from lac and madder.
+(See MADDER.)
+
+=Rose Pink.= A coarse kind of lake; a delicate and fugitive colour. (See
+PINKS.)
+
+=Rose-quartz.= A massive quartz of a rose-red colour, common in Ceylon.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 591. Rose-window in the Church of St. Croix,
+Orleans.]
+
+=Rose-window= (sometimes called a Catherine wheel), Arch. A large
+circular window divided into compartments by curved mullions. The most
+beautiful examples are met with in churches of the Florid Gothic period.
+(Fig. 591.)
+
+=Rose-wood=, =Rhodes-wood=, largely used in furniture as a favourite
+veneer, is a name applied to a large variety of trees, mostly imported
+from Brazil.
+
+=Rosemary=, in Old England, was closely connected with wedding-feasts
+and with funerals.
+
+  “There’s rosemary: that’s for remembrance; pray you, love, remember:
+  and there is pansies; that’s for thoughts.”
+
+                                                             (_Hamlet._)
+
+            “There’s Rosemarie; the Arabians justifie,
+            It comforteth the braine and memorie.”
+                (_A Dialogue between Nature and the Phœnix_,
+                              _by R. Chester, 1601._)
+
+=Rosetta-wood.= A beautifully-veined East Indian wood, of a bright red
+orange colour.
+
+=Rosettes.= (See RIBANDS.)
+
+=Rosins.= (See RESINS.)
+
+=Rosso Antico=, It. Ancient marble of a deep red tint, probably deepened
+in colour by antiquity, like the NERO ANTICO (q.v.). It is the material
+of many ancient Egyptian and early Greek sculptures, unequalled in tone
+by the products of any modern quarries. It contains white spots and
+veins.
+
+=Rostrum=, R. (Gr. _Embolos_). The prow of a ship. The plural _rostra_
+was used to denote a tribune in the Roman forum, from which orators
+addressed the people; it was so called because it was decorated with the
+figure-heads of the ships taken from the Volscians in the Latin War.
+
+=Rota=, R. (1) A wheel composed of a nave (_modius_), spokes (_radii_),
+felloes (_absides_), and iron tires (_orbes_ or _canthi ferrarii_). (2)
+It was also an instrument of punishment. _Rota aquaria_ was a hydraulic
+wheel; _rota figularis_, a potter’s wheel.
+
+=Rotta= (Germ. _rotte_; Eng. _rote_), a stringed instrument of the early
+Middle Ages, sounded either as a harp or a fiddle.
+
+=Rotunda.= A dome-shaped or _monopteral_ (q.v.) structure. The largest
+_rotunda_ ever made was that of the Vienna Exhibition in 1873.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 592. Gallic coin.]
+
+=Rouelle=, Fr. (lit. a small wheel). A French term which has been
+applied by antiquaries to numerous objects more or less resembling a
+wheel, such as brooches and coins. The Gallic coin (Fig. 592) is from
+the bas-reliefs on a Roman arch at Orange.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 593. Rouen Plate. Decorated à la Corne.]
+
+=Rouennais Faience.= This style, of strongly Oriental character, and
+mostly applied to the decoration of what are called “lambrequins” (or
+mantlings) and “dentelles” (lace), has been the object of universal
+imitation in France and other countries. Figs. 593 and 594 are
+representative specimens remarkable for great originality.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 594. Slipper in Rouen Faience.]
+
+=Rouge Croix=, =Rouge Dragon=. Two of the four _Pursuivants_ (heralds of
+the lowest type) of Herald’s College.
+
+=Rouge Royal=, Arch. A kind of red marble.
+
+=Round Towers.= There are upwards of a hundred in Ireland, of which
+about twenty are perfect. Generally the tower is a hollow circular
+column from 50 to 150 feet high, capped by a short pointed roof of
+stone. The base, frequently of cyclopean masonry, measures from 40 to 60
+feet in circumference, and the form of the whole tower is tapering
+towards the summit. The single entrance door is always from 8 to 15 feet
+above the ground; the windows, scattered, light the internal stories or
+rooms. Innumerable and wild conjectures of the origin and purpose of
+these towers have been made. The most sober appears to be that they were
+the earliest form of buildings of a monastic order, adapted to the
+exigencies of a Christian settlement in the midst of pagans and pirates.
+(See _Petrie_, _The Round Towers of Ireland_.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 595. Bezant.]
+
+=Roundels.= (1) Wooden platters decorated with painting and gilding;
+16th century. (2) Small round shields borne by soldiers in the 14th and
+15th centuries. (3) Arch. The bead or astragal moulding.
+
+=Roundle=, Her. A circular figure in Heraldry, of which there are many
+kinds: as the BEZANT, PLATE, TORTEAU, &c. (q.v.). In modern Heraldry a
+roundle _gules_ is called TORTEAU; _azure_, HURT; _sable_, PELLET or
+OGRESS; _vert_, POMME; _purpure_, GOLPE. (See also FOUNTAIN, ANNULET.)
+
+=Roussant=, Her. About to fly.
+
+=Rowan-tree=, Scotch. The mountain ash.
+
+=Rowel.= The wheel of a spur.
+
+=Rowel Lights=, Chr. Lights in a church, let up and down by a pulley,
+especially a star-like light made to move at the Epiphany, when the
+coming of the wise men was acted as a religious play. Any small hoop or
+ring movable on the place that holds it is a “_rowel_.”
+
+=Rowell= or =Ricel=, O. E. A vessel mentioned, but not described, in
+Church records (of _Walberswick_, Suffolk), to be used twice in the
+year; “whereby, and the great quantity of Wax and Frankincense, a
+ceremonial Imitation of the Birth and Burial of our _Saviour_ seems to
+have been celebrated.” (_Gardner, T._, _Historical Account_.)
+
+=Royal.= (1) _Paper_: 21 inches by 19. (2) _Artillery._ A very small
+mortar. (3) _Sailing._ The upper sail above the top-gallant. (4) O. E. A
+RIAL (q.v.), a coin of the value of ten shillings.
+
+=Royal Blue= (Fr. _bleu du roi_). A vitreous pigment used in porcelain
+painting, resulting in a rich, deep blue colour. It is prepared from
+_smalt_.
+
+=Rubelite.= A precious stone not much used for jewellery. It is a
+species of _tourmaline_, red and pink in colour.
+
+=Rubens Brown.= A rich brown pigment.
+
+=Rubiate.= A name for _Liquid Madder Lake_ (q.v.).
+
+=Rubicelle.= An orange-coloured stone, a variety of the _spinel ruby_.
+
+=Rubrica=, R. Red ochre; and thence _rubric_, an edict or ordinance of
+the Civil Law written in red ochre, while the ordinances and rules of
+the prætors were written in black on a white ground on the ALBUM (q.v.).
+
+=Ruby=, in Christian art. (See RED.)
+
+=Ruby= or =Red Sapphire=. A _corundum_, the most valuable of all gems;
+when perfect and large, exceeding even the diamond in value. The colour
+varies from the lightest rose tint to the deepest carmine. The most
+valuable tint is called “pigeon’s blood,” a pure deep rich red, without
+any admixture of blue or yellow. Brahmin traditions speak of the abode
+of the gods lighted by enormous rubies; and one name of the Kings of
+Pegu was “Lord of Rubies.” In mediæval times the ruby was regarded as an
+amulet against poison, plague, sadness, evil thoughts, wicked spirits,
+&c. It also kept the wearer in health, and cheered his mind, and
+blackened when he incurred danger. (Consult _Emanuel_, _Diamonds and
+Precious Stones_, &c.)
+
+=Rudder.= On ancient coins, &c., with the orb and fasces, emblem of the
+supreme power.
+
+=Rudens=, R. The smaller ropes in a ship.
+
+=Rudiarii.= Veteran gladiators discharged from the service by the
+presentation of a wooden sword (_rudis_).
+
+=Rudis=, R. (1) A spoon or similar instrument. (2) A wooden sword. (See
+RUDIARII.) When a gladiator received his discharge, a _rudis_ was given
+him, together with a freedman’s cap, by way of declaration that he had
+been granted his liberty, a fact expressed by the phrase _rude donari_.
+
+=Rue=, Her. A _chaplet of rue_ is blazoned _bend-wise_ (see PER BEND)
+across the shield of Saxony. (See CRANCELIN.)
+
+=Ruffles.= Lace frills worn over the wrists, introduced _temp._ Henry
+VIII.
+
+=Ruff and Honours.= An ancient game of cards from which Whist is
+derived.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 596. Silesian Maiden with Ruff.]
+
+=Ruffs.= Large collars of lace or muslin. A fashion of the 16th century;
+it commenced at the end of the reign of Henry VIII. Cambrics and lawn
+for making ruffs were first imported under Elizabeth. For illustrations
+of various modifications of this fashion, see Figs. 267, 283, 304, 559,
+561, 580, &c. (Consult _Planché_, _Cycl. of Costume_.)
+
+=Rugæ=, Chr. The metal _cancelli_ or screens of the more sacred parts of
+a church. The presbytery of St. Peter’s was fenced in with silver
+“rugæ,” and the confessional with rugæ of gold. (See _Smith and
+Cheetham_.)
+
+=Rullions=, Scotch. Shoes made of untanned leather.
+
+=Rum-swizzle.= “The name given in Dublin to a fabric made from undyed
+foreign wool, which, while preserving its natural property of resisting
+wet, possesses the qualities of common cloth.” (_Simmonds’ Commercial
+Dict._)
+
+=Rumex=, R. A weapon of similar character to the SPARUM, the head of
+which was formed like a spear with a hook on the blade.
+
+=Runcina=, R. A carpenter’s tool of the nature of a plane.
+
+=Runco=, R. A hoe.
+
+=Runes=, Scand. Magical inscriptions in a character believed by the
+northern nations to have been invented by Woden. “The Runic alphabet,”
+says _Mr. Wheaton_, “consists properly of sixteen letters, which are
+Phœnician in their origin.... They are only Roman, with the curves
+changed into straight lines for the convenience of engraving on hard
+substances.” (_Hist. of the Northmen_, p. 61.)
+
+=Ruskie=, Scotch. A coarse straw hat; a basket or beehive of plaited
+osiers or straw.
+
+=Russells=, O. E. A kind of satin.
+
+=Russet.= A _red_ grey colour; violet mixed with orange. Its
+complementary is _green_ grey.
+
+=Rust= (oxide) of iron. “The best _rust_” is mentioned in a list of
+colours of the 17th century. (_Brown_, _Ars Pictoria_, _Appendix_, p.
+5.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 597. Rustic Work. Bossage.]
+
+=Rustic Work= (Fr. _bossage_). Ashlar masonry, the joints of which are
+worked with grooves or channels to render them conspicuous; sometimes
+the whole of the joints are worked in this way, and sometimes only the
+horizontal ones. (See Fig. 597.)
+
+=Rustre=, Her. A LOZENGE pierced with a circular opening.
+
+=Rustred Armour= seems to have grown out of the _ring armour_. It
+consisted of one row of flat rings about double the usual size, laid
+half over the other, so that two in the outer partly covered one.
+
+
+
+
+                                   S.
+
+
+=S=, as a _numeral_, was used to represent 7; as an _abbreviation_ it
+generally means _socius_ or Fellow (of a society); S. P. Q. R., on Roman
+monuments, stands for _senatus_, populusque Romanus.
+
+=Sabanum=, R. (σάβανον). A kind of cloth, towel, or napkin.
+
+=Sabaoth=, Heb. Armies; hosts of angels. It is also written _Zabaoth_.
+
+=Sabatines=, O. E. (1) Steel armour for the feet; 16th century. (2)
+Slippers, or clogs.
+
+=Sabianism.= The worship of the heavenly bodies.
+
+=Sable.= (1) The best and most costly brushes for painting are made from
+this fur. (2) In Heraldry, the colour black, represented in engraving by
+crossed lines. (See Fig. 375.)
+
+=Sabre=, Fr. A curved sword with a broad and heavy blade.
+
+=Sabretasche=, Fr. A pocket worn, suspended, from the sword-belt, by a
+cavalry officer.
+
+=Sac-friars.= (See SACCUS.)
+
+=Sacciperium=, R. A large sackcloth bag. A pocket.
+
+=Saccus=, R. (σάκκος). A large sack of coarse cloth for wheat, flour,
+&c. (2) A beggar’s wallet. (3) Chr. (Angl. _sack_). A coarse upper
+garment of sack or hair-cloth, worn by monks; hence called SAC-FRIARS.
+(Cf. SACQUE.)
+
+=Sacellum=, R. (dimin. of _sacrum_). A small precinct enclosing an
+altar, and consecrated to a divinity. In Christian architecture, small
+monumental chapels within churches.
+
+=Sachem.= The chief of a tribe of North American Indians.
+
+=Sackbut=, O. E. (9th century). A wind instrument resembling the
+_trombone_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 598. Sacque of the time of Louis XIV.]
+
+=Sacque.= Part of a lady’s dress in the reign of Louis XIV. It was a
+silk cloak, and hung from the shoulders, spreading over the dress to the
+ground. In England it was worn in part of the reign of George III. (Fig.
+598.)
+
+=Sacrarium= (_sacrum_, holy). A place in which sacred things are kept;
+the sacristy in a temple. In a private house a place used as a chapel or
+oratory.
+
+=Sacring Bell=, Chr. A hand-bell rung at the elevation of the Host.
+
+            “Her eye was as bright as the merry sunlight,
+              When it shines on the dewy grass;
+            And her voice was as clear as a _sacring bell_,
+              That is rung at the holy mass.”
+
+(See also SANCTUS BELL.)
+
+=Sacristy=, of a church, the apartment where the vestments and vessels
+are kept.
+
+=Sacro Catino=, It. An extraordinary hexagonal glass dish preserved in
+the cathedral at Genoa, which was for a long time supposed to have been
+formed of a single emerald; and to have been either, “a gift from the
+Queen of Sheba to Solomon, or the dish which held the Paschal Lamb at
+the Last Supper,” &c. It was obtained in the Crusades in 1101, and was
+for many generations an object of superstitious reverence. Its principal
+interest now is in the evidence it bears to the early perfection of the
+art of making and colouring glass.
+
+=Sadda=, Pers. (lit. a hundred gates). An abridgment of the Zend-Avesta
+or sacred books of the ancient Persians.
+
+=Saddle-bars.= Said of small iron bars, in glazing casements, to which
+the lead panels are fastened.
+
+=Saddle-roof=, Arch. A roof of two gables. (French, _en batière_.)
+
+=Safety-arch=, Arch. An arch in a wall over a door or window, to keep
+the weight of the wall above off the lintel.
+
+=Safflower.= A delicate red colour obtained from the flower of that
+name.
+
+=Saffron= (It. _zafferano_). Produced from the flowers of the crocus; a
+yellow pigment principally used as a glazing.
+
+=Saga=, R. A woman skilled in religious mysteries; and thence a witch or
+sorceress.
+
+=Sagaris=, Orient. (σάγαρις). A two-edged axe, also called _bipennis_;
+it was used by the Amazons, Massagetæ, and Persians. (See BIPENNIS.)
+
+=Sagena=, Gr. and R. (σαγήνη). A large fishing-net; modern _seine_. It
+was fitted with leaden weights at the bottom and corks at the top.
+
+=Sagitta=, R. (1) An arrow; primitively with heads of flint, afterwards
+of bronze and iron. The heads of the arrows of the Greeks and Romans
+were oval; among other nations they were triangular and barbed, like
+those carried by the SAGITTARIUS in Fig. 599. This kind of arrow was
+called _sagitta hasta_ or _adunca_. (2) A lancet for bleeding animals.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 599. Sagittarius.]
+
+=Sagittarius=, R. An archer; a sign of the zodiac, represented as a
+centaur. (Fig. 599.) In Christian art, a symbol of Divine vengeance.
+
+=Sagma=, R. (σάγμα). A wooden pack-saddle.
+
+=Sagmarius=, R. A beast of burden carrying the _sagma_.
+
+=Sagochlamys=, R. A military cloak which combined the Roman _sagus_ and
+the Greek _chlamys_.
+
+=Sagus= or =Sagum=, Celt. A woollen cloak with a long nap, worn folded
+and fastened round the neck by a clasp, especially by soldiers on a
+campaign (Fig. 44); hence _saga_ is a sign of war, as _toga_ is of
+peace. At a later period the same name was given to a kind of blouse,
+striped or checked in staring colours, and adorned with flowers and
+other ornaments, and bordered with bands of purple and gold and silver
+embroidery, worn by the Gauls in Artois and Flanders.
+
+=Saic=, Turk. A sailing vessel common in the Levant.
+
+=Saie=, O. E. A delicate serge or woollen cloth.
+
+=Saints-bell=, O. E. for SACRING BELL.
+
+=Salade=, =Sallet=. A light helmet resembling the KETTLE-HAT (Fig. 407),
+introduced from Germany in the 15th century.
+
+=Salam-stone.= A name given to the blue or oriental sapphire from
+Ceylon.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 600. Salamander. Device of Francis I., the “Father
+of Letters.”]
+
+=Salamander=, Chr. In Christian art, a symbol of fire, and supposed to
+live in fire; or, according to Pliny, “to quench it as if ice were put
+into it.” In Heraldry it is either represented as a lizard, or as a kind
+of dog breathing flames. Fig. 600 is the device of Francis I. of France,
+with a motto implying that a good prince nourishes that which is good,
+and expels the bad. At the meeting of the Field of the Cloth of Gold,
+the king’s guard at the tournament was clothed in blue and yellow, with
+the salamander embroidered thereon.
+
+=Salamander’s Hair.= The variety of asbestos called _amianthus_.
+
+=Salet=, O. E. A light helmet. (See SALADE.)
+
+=Salic Dances.= (See SALII.)
+
+=Salient=, Her. In the act of leaping or bounding, the hind-paws on the
+ground, both the fore-paws elevated.
+
+=Salinum=, R. (_sal_, salt). A salt-cellar.
+
+=Saltatio=, R. (_salto_, to dance). Dancing; applied to religious
+dances, gymnastic or war dances, CORYBANTIC, SALIC, MIMETIC or
+theatrical dances, &c.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 601. Argent a _saltire_ gules.]
+
+=Saltire= or =Saltier=, Her. An ordinary in the form of St. Andrew’s
+Cross. The illustration (Fig. 601) is “_argent_ a SALTIRE _gules_.”
+
+=Salutatorium.= (See RECEPTORIUM.)
+
+=Salute at Sea.= The English claim the right, formerly claimed by the
+Venetians, of being saluted _first_ in all places, as sovereigns of the
+seas. The naval salute to the British flag began in the reign of King
+Alfred.
+
+=Sambuca=, R. (σαμβύκη). (1) A stringed musical instrument, which varied
+in form, but resembled a harp. (2) Military. A scaling-ladder.
+
+=Sam-cloth=, O. E. (needlework). A sampler. “A _sam-cloth_, vulgarly a
+sampler.”
+
+=Samit=, for =Exsamit= (ἑξ, six; μίτοι, threads). A splendid tissue,
+having six threads of silk in the warp, and the weft of flat gold
+shreds.
+
+=Sammaron-cloth=, O. E. A woven mixture of linen and hemp.
+
+=Samnites.= Gladiators armed like the Samnite soldiers, with a close
+helmet, shield, and greaves.
+
+=Sampan.= A Chinese canoe or small boat.
+
+=Sampler= (Lat. _exemplar_). A piece of ornamental needlework, done for
+a sample or specimen.
+
+=Sanctus Bell=, Chr. (1) A fixed bell rung at the elevation of the Host,
+at the words “_sanctus, sanctus, sanctus, Deus Sabaoth_.” It was fixed
+outside the church, generally on the eastern gable of the nave. (See
+SACRING BELL.) (2) In the absence of a fixed bell, small bells carried
+by acolytes, often the subject of rich ornamentation, sometimes
+consisting of a carillon of three small bells hidden within one large
+one, thus blending their sounds.
+
+=Sandal.= (See CENDAL.)
+
+=Sandal-wood.= Ornamental wood highly valued for cabinet-work; when old
+it becomes yellow and highly odoriferous.
+
+=Sandalium=, Gr. and R. (σανδάλιον). A richly ornamented sandal worn
+exclusively by women.
+
+=Sandapila=, R. A rough kind of bier for the poor. (See LECTICA.)
+
+=Sandarac.= A resin used for spirit varnishes.
+
+=Sandyx=, Gr. (σάνδυξ). A Lydian tunic, of a fine and transparent
+texture, dyed with the juice of the sandyx, which gave it a
+flesh-coloured tint.
+
+=Sang-réal= (Saint Graal). The Holy Grail said to have been brought to
+England by Joseph of Arimathea. The legend is that it is an emerald cup,
+or the cup used at the Last Supper, containing the real (or it may mean
+“royal”) Blood (_sang-réel_ or _réal_).
+
+           “The cup, the cup itself, from which our Lord
+           Drank at the last sad supper with his own.”
+                                               (_Tennyson._)
+
+=Sanglier=, Her. A wild boar.
+
+=Sanguine.= A deep blood colour, prepared from oxide of iron.
+
+=Sanguinolentæ= (sc. ampullæ). Glass vessels found in the catacombs at
+Rome, containing a red sediment, ascertained by analysis to be _blood_;
+and canonically pronounced by the Roman Church to be that of the early
+Christian martyrs in whose tombs it has been found. (The subject is
+discussed at length by _V. Schultze_: _die Katakomben_, Leipzig, 1882.)
+
+=Sanhedrim=, Heb. The supreme council of the Jews, which sat at
+Jerusalem in a circular hall, one half of which was within the temple,
+and the other outside. (_Bosc._)
+
+=Sap-green.= The only green vegetable pigment; used in water-colour
+painting. Obtained by evaporating the juice of the berries of the
+buckthorn, mixed with lime.
+
+=Sap-wood.= The soft white wood immediately under the bark of a tree.
+
+=Sapphire= (Syriac _saphilah_). The _oriental sapphire_ from Arabia,
+which has been known from the earliest antiquity, was one of the stones
+on the breastplate of Aaron, and was dedicated to Apollo by the Greeks,
+by whom it was regarded as the gem of gems—the sacred stone _par
+excellence_. The sapphires from Brazil are also called oriental
+sapphires. The sapphires of Puy, found in a mountain in Central France,
+vary from the deepest to the palest blue, passing sometimes to a reddish
+blue or even to a yellowish green. The sapphire, although extremely
+hard, has been engraved by the ancients. There is a beautiful sapphire
+among the crown jewels of Russia, representing a draped female figure:
+the stone is of two tints, and the artist has skilfully used the dark
+tint for the woman and the light for the drapery. (_L. Dieulafait._)
+
+=Sapphire=, in Christian art. (See BLUE.)
+
+=Saraballa=, =Sarabara=, Gr. and R. (σαράβαλλα). Loose trousers, which
+reached from the waist to the instep, worn by the Parthians, Medes, and
+Persians.
+
+=Saraband=, Sp. A slow dance derived from the Saracens; the music for
+_sarabands_, by Corelli and other old masters, is interesting. (See
+_Chappell’s History of Music_, &c.)
+
+=Saracenic Architecture=. (See ALHAMBRAIC, MOORISH, MORESCO-SPANISH.)
+
+=Sarapis=, Pers. (σάραπις). The tunic of the kings of Persia; it was
+made of a fine purple-coloured cloth, with a white band in front
+embroidered with gold.
+
+=Sarcenet.= A fine thin woven silk. An improved _cendal_, introduced in
+the 15th century by the Saracens of the south of Spain; hence its name.
+(See CENDAL.)
+
+=Sarcilis=, Chr. A woollen garment—not described.
+
+=Sarcoline= (Gr. σὰρξ, flesh). Flesh-coloured.
+
+=Sarcolite.= A stone of a rose-flesh colour.
+
+=Sarcophagus=, Gen. (σαρκοφάγος; σὰρξ, flesh, and φαγεῖν, to eat). A
+coffin of a limestone called Lapis Assius, in which the corpse was
+rapidly consumed. The great sarcophagus called “of Alexander the Great,”
+in the British Museum, is a celebrated specimen. (See BISOMUS,
+QUADRISOMUS, and TRISOMUS.)
+
+=Sard= or =Carnelian=. A brownish-red variety of chalcedony.
+
+=Sard-achates.= A name given by the ancients to varieties of _agate_,
+which contained layers of _Sard_ or carnelian.
+
+=Sardonic Laughter.= A distortion of the features of the dying, the
+closing symptom of several fatal diseases; named from the poisonous herb
+Sardonia.
+
+=Sard-onyx.= A precious stone composed of alternate layers of carnelian
+and _chalcedony_; extensively used for gem-engraving.
+
+=Sardel=, =Sardine=, =Sardius=. A precious stone mentioned in Scripture
+in the description of Aaron’s breastplate.
+
+=Sarissa=, Gr. (σάρισσα). The longest and heaviest spear of the Greeks
+peculiar to the Macedonian phalanx.
+
+=Sarrazinois Carpets.= Embroidered stuffs resembling tapestry, made in
+the 10th and 11th centuries, doubtless imitated from work by the
+Saracens.
+
+=Sarsen-stones.= Boulders of sandstone found on the Chalk downs in
+Wiltshire.
+
+=Sarsnet.= (See SARCENET.)
+
+=Sartago=, R. A frying-pan; in the patois of Languedoc, _sartan_.
+
+=Satin.= This fine silk, originally imported from China, was first known
+in England in the 14th century. It is thicker than ordinary silk, and
+remarkable for its smooth glossy surface, not exhibiting the marks of
+the reticulations of the threads.
+
+=Satin-spar.= An ornamental stone, having a soft _satiny_ surface when
+polished.
+
+=Satin-wood.= An ornamental yellow wood much used in cabinet-making.
+
+=Satinet.= A thin kind of satin.
+
+=Saturn=, Her. The black colour in the arms of sovereign princes.
+
+=Saturnalia=, R. Festivals of Saturn, held on the seventh of the calends
+of January (14th of December), instituted by Numa. During the four or
+five days that this festival lasted, both public and private business
+was interrupted; and banquets and festivities were held, in which
+masters and slaves met on a temporary footing of equality. In the feasts
+at rustic places, the hollow statue of Saturn was filled with oil; he
+held a pruning knife in his hand, and his feet were surrounded with a
+band of wool.
+
+=Satyrs.= Greek deities of the wooded plains, as the Roman _fauns_ were
+of the fields. They are usually represented as the attendants of
+Bacchus, or the lovers of the Nymphs, with goat’s legs and horns, and
+human bodies covered with short hair; often with LACINIA on the neck.
+
+=Saunders’ Blue= (=Green=) (from the French _cendres’ bleu_). The blue
+ashes of calcined _lapis lazuli_. (See CARBONATES OF COPPER.)
+
+=Saurians.= Animals of the lizard tribe, crocodiles, &c., antediluvian
+and other.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 602. Device of Charles d’Amboise, Sieur de
+Chaumont.]
+
+=Savage-man= or =Wood-man=, Her. A wild man, naked, or clothed in skins
+or leaves, and carrying a club. The illustration is the device of De
+Chaumont, Marshal of France (+ 1510), with the motto, “_Mitem animum
+agresti sub tegmine scabro_,” which he bore embroidered on the pennon of
+his company.
+
+=Savonnerie.= (See TURKEY-STITCH.)
+
+=Saxon Blue.= Sulphate of indigo used as a dye-stuff.
+
+=Saxon Gold-work= of elegant design and skilful workmanship, may be
+attributed to the 5th and 6th centuries. The art was doubtless imported
+by Roman colonists. Specimens may be studied in the South Kensington
+Museum. (See METALLURGY.)
+
+=Scabellum=, R. (dimin. from SCAMNUM, q.v.) (1) A stool or step to get
+into bed with. (2) A shoe with a castanet in the sole, with which the
+wearer beat time, as an accompaniment to music.
+
+=Scagliola= (It. _scaglia_, a chip of marble). Artificial marble made of
+gypsum, glue, &c., of variegated colours, in imitation of marble,
+applied in ornamental work like _stucco_, but admitting a fine polish.
+
+=Scalæ=, R. (_scando_, to climb). A ladder or staircase.
+
+=Scald=, Scand. A poet or bard.
+
+=Scaldino=, It. A copper.
+
+=Scale=, in Music (It. _scala_, a ladder). (See TONES.)
+
+=Scalmus=, R. (σκαλμός). The thole, or strong peg with a thong, with
+which an oar was attached to the side of a ship.
+
+=Scalper=, =Scalprum=, R. (_scalpo_, to cut). A general term for all
+kinds of cutting tools, such as chisels, knives, &c.
+
+=Scalptura.= Engraving in precious stones. (See INTAGLIO, CAMEO.)
+
+=Scamnum=, R. (_scando_, to climb). A stool for a bed or arm-chair, or a
+stone bench with a step.
+
+=Scandula=, R. A wooden shingle used for tiles (_tegulæ_).
+
+=Scansoria Machina= or =Scansorium=, R. (_scando_, to mount). A
+scaffolding, such as a tower, which enables work to be carried on at
+various heights from the ground.
+
+=Scantling.= In _Masonry_, the size of a stone, in length, breadth, and
+thickness. In _Carpentry_, the dimensions of a timber in breadth and
+thickness only. Any piece of timber less than five inches square is
+called _scantling_.
+
+=Scapha=, R. (σκάφη, i. e. dug out). A long-boat or cutter attached to a
+larger vessel; obviously, from the etymology, a sort of canoe in its
+origin; our “skiff.”
+
+=Scaphium=, R. (σκάφιον). A vessel of Greek origin and of small size,
+and in the form of a boat (_scapha_), which, though used as a
+drinking-cup, is especially to be classed among sacrificial utensils.
+
+=Scapple.= In Masonry, to reduce a stone to a straight surface, without
+making it smooth.
+
+=Scapulary=, Chr. A part of the monastic dress, worn by both sexes over
+the shoulders (_scapula_). It is generally a narrow strip of cloth
+contrasting with the colour of the dress, reaching almost to the feet.
+
+=Scapus=, Gr. and R. (σκᾶπος). A shaft or stem. This term is applied to
+several distinct things, which all, however, imply an idea of use in
+support of some other thing; as, for instance, the shaft of a column,
+which supports a capital, and occasionally an entablature; the central
+shaft or newel which supports the staircase of a column; the stem of a
+candelabrum or lamp-rest, and so on.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 603. Scarabæus, sacred.]
+
+=Scarabæus= (Egyp.), or sacred ateuchus, is an attribute of Phtha, and
+the symbol of creation. Under the name of _Kheper_ (creator), the
+scarabæus was given to the soldiers in exchange for their oath of
+fidelity, and worn by them as a finger-ring. With wings extended (as in
+Fig. 603) it is a funereal ornament.
+
+=Scarlet.= (See IODINE SCARLET.)
+
+=Scarlet Ochre.= (See VENETIAN RED.)
+
+=Scarpe=, =Escarpe=, Her. A diminutive of a bend sinister.
+
+=Scauper.= A tool used by engravers; a kind of gouge. (Angl. _scooper_.)
+
+=Scena=, Gr. and R. (σκηνή). (1) The stage of a theatre, including not
+only the part so called at the present day, but the wall at the back,
+which was provided with three doors, one in the centre (_valvæ regiæ_),
+and two lateral ones (_valvæ hospitales_). (2) A double-edged axe, used
+in the sacrifices; one of the iron sides of this axe had the broad blade
+of the _securis_, and the other that of the _dolabra_. In the sense of
+“an axe,” _scena_ is the contracted form of an old Latin word _sacena_.
+
+=Scene-painting= was invented by Inigo Jones, about 1610.
+
+=Scenographia=, R. (σκηνο-γραφία). The drawing of a building in
+_perspective_. A _geometrical_ plan is called _orthographia_.
+
+=Sceptre=, Gr. and R. (σκῆπτρον). Originally, in early antiquity, a long
+staff similar to the shaft of a spear, which was carried by great
+persons to lean on when walking. Afterwards it became the _truncheon_,
+and a weapon of offence and defence. Later on, an ornament was added to
+the upper end of this staff, and it became the insignia of power and
+authority. The ivory sceptre of the kings and consuls of Rome was
+surmounted by an eagle. The sceptre was an attribute of Jupiter and
+Juno, as sovereigns of the gods.
+
+=Schafte=, O. E. (See SHAFT.)
+
+=Scheele’s Green.= A green pigment; an arsenite of copper; arsenite of
+potash mixed with sulphate of copper; used in oil and water-colours.
+
+=Scherzo=, It. (_playful_). A lively style in music; faster than the
+minuet (such as in _Beethoven’s_ Second Symphony, op. 36, in D major).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 604. Schleswig Lace.]
+
+=Schleswig Lace.= North Schleswig (or South Jutland) is the only
+province of Denmark in which there was a regular manufacture of lace.
+The art itself is supposed to have been introduced, in 1515, by Queen
+Elizabeth (sister of the Emperor Charles V., and wife of Christian II.
+of Denmark). About 1712 lace-making was much improved by Brabant women.
+The earlier specimens are all of Flemish character, made on the pillow
+in the same way, occasionally imitating the Mechlin ground with the
+pattern apparently run in with the needle. All Schleswig laces are
+remarkable for their fine quality and excellent workmanship. The
+engraving shows part of a shirt-collar of Christian IV., of a Brabant
+pattern to be seen in his portrait in Hampton Court Palace.
+
+=Schmeltz=, Germ. Glass ornament; produced by fusing lumps of coloured
+glass together to imitate marble, cornelian, and other stones. (See
+GLASS.)
+
+=Schweinfurth’s Green.= A brilliant sea-green pigment.
+
+=Scimitar.= (See SCYMETAR.)
+
+=Scimpodium=, Gr. and R. (σκιμπόδιον, lit. footprop). A couch or long
+chair for an invalid.
+
+=Scintillant=, Her. Emitting sparks. (See Fig. 342.)
+
+=Sciolist= (from σκιὸς, a shadow). A man of superficial acquirements,
+who sees only the _shadows_ of things.
+
+=Scioptics= (σκιὰ, a shadow). The branch of the science of optics
+applied in the construction of the _camera obscura_.
+
+=Sciothericon= (σκιοθηρικόν). A sun-dial.
+
+=Scipio.= An official staff. (See SCEPTRE.)
+
+=Scirophoria.= Athenian festivals held in the month Scirophorion or
+June.
+
+=Scirpea=, R. A waggon formed of basket-work of plaited rushes
+(_scirpus_), and used principally for agricultural operations.
+
+=Scobina=, R. (_scabo_, to scrape). A rasp for wood; distinct from
+_lima_, a file for metals.
+
+=Scobs.= Shreds of ivory, metals, &c., turned off the lathe or rasp, &c.
+
+=Sconces.= Brackets projecting from the wall, supporting candlesticks:
+originated in the 15th century, and from that date form an important
+branch of metallurgical art-work.
+
+=Scopæ=, R. A broom made of small twigs of wood. This term survives in
+the Languedoc _escoube_.
+
+=Scopulæ=, R. A little broom.
+
+=Scorpers.= In wood-engraving, tools used for cutting away large spaces
+after outlining or engraving, so as to leave only the drawing in relief.
+
+=Scorpio=, Gr. and R. (lit. a scorpion). (1) A kind of cross-bow. (2) A
+pyramid of stones raised for a landmark in country places.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 605. Scotia or Trochilus.]
+
+=Scotia= or =Trochilus=, Arch. (σκοτία, τροχίλος). A concave moulding
+employed especially in the decoration of the bases of columns or
+pilasters, between the fillets of the tori. In plain bases the _scotiæ_
+are smooth, and in decorated bases they are ornamented with sculptures,
+as shown in Fig. 605.
+
+=Scourge.= (See FLAGELLUM and FLAGRUM.)
+
+=Scraper.= An engraver’s tool for removing BURRS (q.v.).
+
+=Screen=, Chr. An open barrier of wood-work or stone enclosing the choir
+or chancel of a church, chapel, or tomb; generally highly enriched by
+carving and gilding, and the lower panels decorated with painting. (See
+ROOD-LOFT.)
+
+=Scrinium=, =Scrinia=, Chr. and R. (1) Chr. A chest which held chiefly
+liturgical writings; according to the writings they contained, these
+cases were variously distinguished as _scrinia epistolarum_, _scrinia
+dispositionum_, _scrinia libellorum_, _scrinia memoriæ_, _scrinia
+sacra_, &c. _Scrinia_ were generally kept in the _diaconicum_ or
+_scevophylacium_. (2) Cylindrical boxes or cases used for carrying
+volumes (i. e. rolls) and papers (cf. HANAPER). (3) _Scrinia
+unguentaria_ were used to contain phials of oils and perfumes, &c., for
+the toilette.
+
+=Scriptorium=, Chr. An apartment in large monasteries where manuscripts
+were transcribed.
+
+=Scripulum.= (See SCRUPULUM.)
+
+=Scrupulum=, R. (_scrupus_, lit. a small stone). A scruple, the smallest
+Roman gold coin; it weighed a third of the _denarius aureus_. (See
+DENARIUS.)
+
+=Scrutoire=, Fr. An old way of spelling _escritoire_.
+
+=Scudo=, It. A silver coin worth about 4_s._ In Rome the gold scudo is
+worth 65_s._
+
+=Sculponeæ=, R. A common kind of boot, with a wooden sole; it was worn
+by the _familia rustica_, or slaves who worked in the country.
+
+=Sculpture= (from _sculpo_, to carve) includes all carved work, in wood,
+ivory, stone, marble, metal, or other material; and also those works
+formed in a softer material not requiring carving, such as wax or clay.
+It includes STATUARY, carved ornament, and GLYPTICS or incised gems and
+cameos. From the practice of preparing the model in clay, sculpture is
+also called _the plastic art_. A most remarkable incident in the history
+of sculpture, is the fact that the most ancient specimens are carved of
+the hardest stones, such as basalt, granite, and porphyry; and that this
+work was done at a period antecedent to the introduction of steel tools.
+(Consult _Redford’s Ancient Sculpture_.)
+
+=Scumbling.= The process of going over a painting with a nearly dry
+brush, to soften and blend the tints.
+
+=Scutage=, O. E. (from _scutum_, a shield). A tax upon lands held by
+_knight-service_.
+
+=Scutale=, R. (from _scutum_, i. e. shield-shaped). The hollow in the
+thongs of a sling in which the missile is laid.
+
+=Scutarius=, Med. An esquire or shield-bearer.
+
+=Scutcheon=, for ESCUTCHEON (q.v.).
+
+=Scutella.= Diminutive of SCUTRA (q.v.).
+
+=Scutica=, Gr. and R. A whip made with a leather thong (σκυτικός).
+
+=Scutiform.= Shaped like a shield.
+
+=Scutra=, R. (from _scutum_, i. e. shield-shaped). Diminutive
+_scutella_. A square wooden tray for plates, dishes, and cups.
+
+=Scutum=, R. and Egyp. The large oblong shield of the Roman infantry, in
+contradistinction to _clipeus_, a round shield. (See SHIELDS.)
+
+=Scymetar.= A sword of oriental origin, with a curved blade, very sharp.
+
+=Scyphus=, Gr. and R. (σκύφος). A drinking-cup of wood or silver, of
+smaller capacity than the BROMIAS (q.v.). It was sacred to Hercules.
+
+=Seals.= Ancient porcelain seals, to which the Chinese attribute an
+antiquity of from 1000 to 2000 years, are met with in collections; and
+precisely identical specimens have been found in the bogs of _Ireland_.
+They are of a peculiar white or cream-coloured porcelain, such as has
+not been made in China for several hundred years. It is believed that
+the Irish specimens must have lain buried there from a period anterior
+to history. (_Fortune._) (See SIGILLUM, RINGS.)
+
+=Seax.= A Saxon sword.
+
+=Secco=, It. Fresco-painting _in secco_ is that kind which absorbs the
+colours into the plaster, and gives them a dry sunken appearance.
+(_Fairholt._)
+
+=Second Distance.= In a picture, the part of the _middle distance_ next
+the foreground.
+
+=Secondary Colours.= The three _primary colours_ (containing nothing of
+any other colour)—blue, red, and yellow—when mixed in _equal_
+proportions produce three _secondary_ colours:—blue and yellow produce
+_green_; blue and red, _violet_; and yellow and red, _orange_. Mixed in
+_unequal_ proportions they produce what are called TONES (q.v.).
+
+=Secos=, Egyp. (σηκός). The name for the NAOS in an Egyptian temple.
+
+=Secretarium=, Chr. (_secretum_, secret). A _sacristy_ (not a
+_tabernacle_, as maintained by some authors) in the apse, at the side of
+the altar. In the ancient basilicas there were two such recesses, one on
+each side of the altar.
+
+=Sectilis.= (See PAVIMENTUM.)
+
+=Securicula= (diminutive of _securis_). In Architecture, a dove-tail
+mortise.
+
+=Securis=, R. (_seco_, to cut). An axe or hatchet of any kind; but esp.
+that borne by the lictors in the FASCES. (See DOLABRA, BIPENNIS, FASCIS,
+&c.)
+
+=Securis Dannica=, Med. (See BIPENNIS.)
+
+=Secutores=, R. Gladiators appointed to fight with the _Retiarii_ (whom
+they were constantly _pursuing_ round the circus); or those who replaced
+others killed were so called.
+
+=Sedes=, =Sedile= (dimin. _sedicula_). Any kind of seat.
+
+=Sedilia.= (1) R. The rows of seats in the amphitheatre. (2) Chr. In a
+Catholic church, the stone seats on the south side of the altar, for the
+use of the clergy in the intervals of the services.
+
+=Segestrium=, R. (lit. of straw). A coarse wrapper made of skins or
+straw-matting.
+
+=Segmenta=, R. (_seco_, to cut off). Strips of rich cloth or tissues of
+gold or silver worn as a border to the dresses of wealthy Roman ladies.
+
+=Segno.= In Music, a direction to repeat:—_al segno_, as far as the
+sign; _dal segno_, from the sign.
+
+=Segreant=, Her. A griffin or wyvern rampant. (See Fig. 369.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 606. Sejant.]
+
+=Sejant=, Her. Sitting:—of a lion, at rest with his fore-legs stretched
+on the ground, but awake, and his head and tail elevated.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 607. Sejant Rampant.]
+
+=Sejant Rampant.= Seated like a cat, with his fore-legs erect.
+
+=Sejugis=, R. (_sex_, six, and _jungo_, to join). A chariot drawn by six
+horses abreast.
+
+=Seliquastrum=, Chr. A seat of highly archaic character met with on
+certain monuments of Christian art.
+
+=Sella=, R. (_sedeo_, to sit). A low seat without back, a stool; _sella
+curulis_, a curule chair; its feet were of ivory, and took the form of
+an X, and it folded like a camp-stool; _sella castrensis_, a real
+camp-stool; _sella balnearis_, a bath-seat, we possess a specimen in
+ancient red marble of the greatest beauty, another name for it was
+_sella pertusa_; _sella tonsoria_, a barber’s chair. Again, the term
+_sella_ was applied to a sedan-chair (_sella portatoria_, _gestatoria_,
+_fertoria_), and a pack-saddle for beasts of burden (_sella
+bajulatoria_), and to a riding-saddle (_sella equestris_).
+
+=Sellaria=, R. A large reception-room, so called because it was
+furnished with a number of _sellæ_.
+
+=Sellaris= (sc. _equus_), R. A saddle horse.
+
+=Sellula=, R. (dimin. of SELLA). A small sedan-chair.
+
+=Sembella=, R. A nominal subdivision of the _denarius_, of which it was
+worth a twentieth part, or about fivepence.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 608. _Fleur-de-lis_ (_semée_). Ancient France.]
+
+=Semée= or =Aspersed=, Her. Sown broadcast, or scattered, without any
+fixed number, over the field. (Fig. 608.)
+
+=Sementivæ=, R. (_sementis_, a sowing). A festival which took place at
+seed-time in honour of Ceres and Tellus.
+
+=Semi-= (ἡμι-), as an adjunct, is the Greek form of _demi_ = half.
+
+=Semibreve.= In Music, half a breve; the longest note in modern music,
+marked [Semibreve symbol].
+
+=Semicinctium=, R. (_semi_, half, and _cingo_, to gird). A short kilt
+worn by men when going through violent exercises or severe bodily
+labour; it reached from the waist to the knees.
+
+=Semidiapason.= In Music, an octave lessened by a semitone.
+
+=Semiquaver.= A sixteenth of a semibreve—[Semiquaver symbol].
+
+=Semis=, =Semissis=. The half of an As, or six ounces; hence _Semisses_
+= six per cent. interest.
+
+=Semita=, R. (_se_ and _meo_, i. e. going aside). A pathway in a field;
+a narrow lane in a town.
+
+=Semitarge=, Med. Fr. A scimitar. (See TARGE.)
+
+=Semitone.= In Music; the smallest interval in modern music; the
+ancients had _quarter-tones_ (q.v.).
+
+=Semi-uncials.= During the 6th and 7th centuries, a transition style of
+illuminating prevailed, the letters of which have been termed
+_semi-uncials_. This, in a further transition, became more like the old
+Roman cursive, which was called then _minuscule_; it began to prevail
+over _uncials_ about the 8th century, and in the 10th its use was
+established. (See UNCIAL LETTERS.)
+
+=Semuncia.= Half an ounce.
+
+=Senaculum=, R. A place in which the senate used to meet. There were at
+Rome three _senacula_; one between the Capitol and the Forum, a second
+near the Porta Capena, and a third near the temple of Bellona.
+
+=Senio=, R. The number _six_ inscribed on the face of dice, and thence
+the throw when all the sixes turned up.
+
+=Sentina=, R. The well or hold of a ship.
+
+=Sentinaculum=, R. A ship’s pump.
+
+=Sepia.= A warm, brown, water-colour pigment obtained from the ink-bag
+of the cuttlefish. (See ROMAN SEPIA.)
+
+=Sept-foil=, Chr. A figure of _seven_ foils, typical of the seven
+sacraments of the Church, and other mysteries of religion linked to the
+number seven.
+
+=Septilateral.= Having seven sides.
+
+=Septimontium=, R. A festival of the seven hills, celebrated at Rome in
+December.
+
+=Septizonium=, =Septemzonium=, R. A building of great magnificence,
+which had seven stories of columns one above the other; each set
+supported an entablature and cornice running right round the building
+(_zona_), whence the name Septizonium.
+
+=Septum=, R. and Chr. (_sepio_, to fence in). In general, any enclosure
+shut in by walls, palisades, barriers, hedges, &c. In Christian
+archæology, _septum_ was the name given to a barrier, which, in the
+ancient Roman basilicas, separated the nave from the absides.
+
+=Septunx=, R. (_septem_ and _uncia_). Seven-twelfths of any quantity,
+whatever its nature.
+
+=Sepulchre=, Chr. The Holy Sepulchre is a favourite subject of
+architectural sculpture, in cathedrals and continental churches. It is
+generally found on the north side of the chancel near the altar.
+
+=Sepulcrum=, R. (_sepelio_, to bury). A sepulchre, the general term for
+any kind of tomb in which the dead were buried, or in which their ashes
+were deposited in urns. _Sepulcrum familiare_, a sepulchre erected for a
+single person, or for the members of a family. The _sepulcrum commune_
+was a tomb held in common by a number of persons belonging either to a
+single family, or several families, or a group of individuals, such as
+that given in Fig. 182, which represents the tomb of the freedmen of
+Octavia.
+
+=Sequin= (It. _zecchino_). A gold coin in Italy, worth about 9_s._
+6_d._; and in Turkey worth about 3_s._ 6_d._
+
+=Sera=, R. (_sero_, to fasten). A padlock or movable lock to a door.
+
+=Serapeum=, Egyp. (σαραπεῖον). A general term for sepulchral monuments
+in Egypt, but more especially that of Memphis. (_Bosc._)
+
+=Seraph=; pl. =Seraphim=, Heb. (See ANGELS, CHERUBIM.) “They are usually
+represented with wings and a flaming heart, to typify spiritual emotion
+and divine affection; or covered all over with eyes, to denote their
+knowledge of all human events as counsellors of the Most High. The
+Seraph’s head in Heraldry, is usually delineated with six wings, two
+above and two below, which cross each other, and one on each side of the
+head.” (_Fairholt._)
+
+=Serges=, Chr. Fr. The large wax candles used in churches. They are
+often covered with texts and devices.
+
+=Seria=, R. An earthenware vessel used chiefly for holding wine and oil;
+it was larger than the amphora, and smaller than the _dolium_.
+
+=Serpent.= A musical wind instrument, of a powerful bass; invented by a
+French priest at Auxerre in 1590.
+
+=Serpent.= (1) In Christian archæology an emblem of the principle of
+evil; the Virgin Mary is frequently represented trampling on the head of
+the serpent. It is especially a symbol of cunning, lying, and envy. (2)
+Generally. The serpent with its tail in its mouth describes a circle
+which is the symbol of eternity. In Classic Art it is an attribute of
+Æsculapius, and of Apollo; and a symbol of the _Genius Loci_ (esp. of
+temples, &c.).
+
+=Serpentine Verses= begin and end with the same word:
+
+                “Ambo florentes ætatibus, Arcades ambo.”
+
+=Serrated.= Having an edge like the teeth of a saw (_serra_).
+
+=Set-offs=, Arch. The mouldings and slopes on _buttresses_, dividing
+them into stages.
+
+=Setting= drawings in pencil or crayon is done by simply passing them
+through a dish of milk, or by washing the surface with a weak solution
+of isinglass.
+
+=Severey=, Arch. A bay, or compartment in a vaulted ceiling.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 609. Sèvres Vase, with jewelled ornament.]
+
+=Sèvres Porcelain.= The celebrated manufactory at Sèvres was established
+in 1756. Soon afterwards it became the property of the king, Louis XV.,
+and was much patronized both by him and Madame de Pompadour. Some of the
+first artists of France were employed to decorate the plaques and vases,
+and the productions of this factory are more highly prized than any
+others in the world. In 1870 three _jardinières_ were sold by auction in
+London for over 10,000_l._ The finest colours of this porcelain were the
+_bleu du roi_ and the _rose de Pompadour_.
+
+=Sewer.= (See CLOACA.)
+
+=Sextans=, R. (_sextus_, sixth). A copper coin worth the tenth of an as,
+in weight about two ounces (_unciæ_).
+
+=Sextant.= The sixth part of a circle; an arc of 60 degrees.
+
+=Sextarius=, R. (_sextus_). A measure of capacity used for liquids,
+grain, &c.; it held the tenth of a CONGIUS (q.v.).
+
+=Sextertius=, R. A coin originally of silver, and afterwards of fine
+copper (_aurichalcum_); it was worth two ases and a half.
+
+=Sextula=, R. The sixth part of the ounce (_uncia_); the smallest
+denomination of Roman money.
+
+=Sforzato= (It.). In Music; with force, louder than the rest.
+
+=Sfregazzi= or =Sfregature=, It. By this term is meant a peculiar thin
+kind of glazing, which is executed by dipping the finger into the
+colour, and drawing it once lightly and evenly along the part of the
+picture on which it is to be applied—such as the shade on the cheek, the
+limbs, &c., or wherever it is wished to lay a soft thin shadow. (Consult
+_Mrs. Merrifield_, _Ancient Practice of Painting_, vol. ii. p. 879.)
+
+=Sgraffito=, It. (lit. scratched). A method of painting on stucco, in
+which a ground of dark stucco is covered with a coat of white, and the
+design is formed by scraping this away for the shadows. (Consult an
+article by _Mr. Alan Cole_ in the _House Furnisher and Decorator_, May
+10, 1873.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 610. Shackle.]
+
+=Shackle= and =Padlock=, Her. A badge of the Yorkist party during the
+wars of the Roses; called also a FETTER-LOCK.
+
+=Shades.= (See UMBRÆ.)
+
+=Shaft=, Arch. The part of the column comprised between the base and the
+capital.
+
+=Shaft=, O. E. The May-pole. May-poles seem to have existed in most
+villages until the Civil War. They were abolished by an ordinance of the
+Long Parliament, April 6, 1644, as heathenish vanities “generally abused
+to superstition and wickednesse.”
+
+=Shaftman=, O. E. A measure roughly six inches; “the measure of the fist
+with the thumb set up.” (_Ray_, 1674.)
+
+=Shagreen.= A grained leather prepared from the skin of a species of
+shark, and stained green. A close imitation is made from horses’ or
+asses’ skins, in Russia, and dyed red, blue, or black.
+
+=Shalm= or =Shawm=. A musical instrument, a pipe with a reed in the
+mouth-hole.
+
+=Shamrock=, Her. A trefoil plant or leaf, the badge of Ireland.
+
+=Shard=, O. E. A piece of broken pottery. (It has other meanings.
+Consult _Halliwell_.)
+
+=Shay-le=, Chin. A relic of Buddha.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 611. Sheaf. Device of Alphonso d’Avalos.]
+
+=Sheaf.= (1) A bundle of ripe corn bound up in the field; the device
+assumed by Alfonso d’Avalos, when he was made captain-general of the
+army of Charles V., with the motto implying incessant devotion to his
+work,—that, as soon as one harvest is reaped, its successor must be
+sown. (2) A bunch of twenty-four arrows, enough to fill a quiver.
+
+=Sheep.= In Christian art, the twelve apostles occur in early mosaics as
+twelve sheep, and our Lord in the midst as their Shepherd.
+
+=Shekel.= A Jewish coin, value about 2_s._ 6_d._
+
+=Shell=, Chr. In Gallic as in Christian tombs shells are of frequent
+occurrence; there is no doubt that they symbolize the resurrection, the
+body of man being looked upon as a shell which he leaves behind him at
+death. Different kinds of shell are met with, but that of most frequent
+occurrence is the common snail-shell (_helix pomatia_). (See ESCALLOP.)
+
+=Shell-cameos.= Cameos carved on shells. These are certain conch shells
+or strombs, the substance of which consists of two distinct layers of
+different colours. The black conch offers the most decided contrast in
+the colours.
+
+=Shell-lac.= Crude lac-resin melted into plates or _shales_. (See LAC.)
+
+=Shenti=, Egyp. A short pair of drawers, fastened round the hips by a
+belt, worn by the ancient Egyptians.
+
+=Shepherd’s Crook.= (See PEDUM.)
+
+=Shepherds.= (See HYCSOS.)
+
+=Shingles.= Wooden tiles; frequently used for church spires.
+
+=Ship.= A symbol of the Church. (See NAVETTE.)
+
+=Shoes.= The shoes worn by the Greeks generally reached to the middle of
+the leg; the ROMANS had the _calceus_ and the _solea_ or sandal; the
+former was worn with the toga on ordinary occasions; the sandal on a
+journey or at a feast; but it was considered effeminate to appear in
+public with them. Black shoes were worn by the citizens of ordinary rank
+(see ATRAMENTUM, CHALCANTHUM), and white ones (sometimes red) by the
+women; on ceremonial occasions the magistrates wore red shoes.
+Patricians and their children wore a crescent shoe-buckle (see LUNA).
+Slaves went barefooted. The Jews had shoes of leather, wood, &c., tied
+with thongs passed under the soles of the feet; to “untie the latchets”
+of a man’s shoes was a sign of deep subservience. In ancient as in
+modern times the Oriental peoples put off their shoes as we uncover the
+head. (Consult _Herbert Spencer on Ceremonies_.)
+
+=Shop.= (See TABERNA.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 612. Shrine of the Three Kings in Cologne Cathedral.
+13th century.]
+
+=Shrine.= A repository for relics; either fixed, as a tomb; or movable,
+as a _feretory_. (See Fig. 307.) The Shrine of the Three Kings in
+Cologne Cathedral is one of the most celebrated and costly in the world.
+(Fig. 612.)
+
+=Sibina=, =Sibyna=, Gr. and R. (σιβύνη). A kind of boar-spear employed
+in hunting.
+
+=Sibylline= (Books), R. The Sibylline books were a series of oracles of
+the destiny of the Roman Empire; they were three in number, and were
+placed by Tarquin in a vault of the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, and
+were consulted in cases of difficulty by an order of the senate. They
+perished in 670 A.U.C., when the Capitol was burnt. A set of Sibylline
+oracles in existence, which predict very clearly the establishment of
+the Christian religion, have been ascertained to be a forgery of the 2nd
+century of the Christian era.
+
+=Sibyls=, Gr. and R. (Σίβυλλα). Prophetesses of antiquity recognized by
+the ancient Christian Church, and a common object of symbolical
+ecclesiastical sculpture, with reference to their foreknowledge of the
+fulfilment of inspired prophecy; they are twelve in number, having each
+a proper emblem. (Cf. _Smith and Cheetham_.)
+
+=Sica=, R. (dimin. _sicilla_). A curved dagger or scimitar; distinct
+from PUGIO, a straight dagger. It was the weapon preferred by thieves
+and assassins on account of the convenience of its shape for
+concealment. (From this word our English _sickle_ is derived.)
+
+=Siccative.= A synonym for DRYING (q.v.).
+
+=Sicilis=, R. A sickle.
+
+=Sienite.= A statuary marble from Syene (Assouan) on the Nile.
+
+=Sienna=, =Terra di Sienna=. A brown pigment. (See OCHRES.)
+
+=Sigilla=, R. (dimin. of _signum_, an image), (1) A seal or signet. (2)
+Small sculptured or moulded bosses, used to decorate vases or
+architecture. (3) Small statuettes, called also SIGILLARIA.
+
+=Sigillaria=, R. (1) The last days of the festival of the Saturnalia,
+when _sigilla_, or statuettes of gold and silver or terra-cotta, were
+offered to Saturn, and amongst the people, as presents to each other.
+
+=Sigillatus=, R. Ornamented or decorated with _sigilla_. (See SIGILLUM.)
+
+=Sigla=, It. (contraction of _sigilla_). A conventional sign used
+instead of a word or phrase; such as = for _equal to_, and + for _plus_;
+A.U.C. for _ab urbe conditâ_, &c.
+
+=Sigma=, R. A semicircular couch, so called because it assumed the form
+of the Greek Σ, which was originally written like our C. Hence, the seat
+which ran round the walls of the PISCINA in a bath. (See STIBADIUM.)
+
+=Signa Militaria.= (See ENSIGNS.)
+
+=Signature=, in printing, is a letter put at the bottom of the first
+page in every sheet, as a direction to the binder in collating them.
+
+=Signets.= (See RINGS.)
+
+=Signinum= (opus), R. A kind of concrete for floorings, invented at
+_Signia_, and formed of broken tiles consolidated with mortar, and
+levelled with a pavior’s beetle.
+
+=Signum=, R. A general term for any kind of sign or mark by which
+anything can be recognized; such as an image or figure, the intaglio on
+a ring, the sign of a shop, or a military standard or ensign (_signa
+militaria_), as represented in Fig. 665.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 613. Wall of Silex.]
+
+=Silex=, R. In general a flint or flint-stone, and thence, by extension,
+any kind of hard stone hewn into polygonal blocks, as shown in Fig. 613.
+
+=Silhouette=, Fr. A profile portrait, or representation of the shape
+contained in the outline of an object, with no attempt to fill in the
+parts.
+
+=Silicernium=, Gr. and R. A funeral feast in honour of the dead.
+
+=Silicious Wares.= (See POTTERY.)
+
+=Sill= or =Cill= of a window or door. The LIMEN INFERIUS (q.v.).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 614. Silver-gilt dish and ewer; the property of St.
+John’s College, Cambridge. (Work of the late 17th century.)]
+
+=Silver.= The history of working in silver is identical with that of
+Goldsmiths’ work in general. (See GOLD.) _Pollen_ remarks that though
+Phidias and his contemporaries made great statues of gold, many artists
+who devoted themselves mainly and altogether to working in the precious
+metals executed their best work in silver. Silver was also largely used
+for the surfaces of mirrors, which were hung on the walls of temples.
+The best collection of antique silver plate was found at Hildesheim, in
+Germany, in 1869, and is now in the Berlin Museum. The silver stoup
+(Fig. 615) belonging to the Corporation of Norwich, is of the time of
+Elizabeth. The illustration (Fig. 614) of the silver dish and ewer at
+St. John’s College (1670), is representative of the change that the
+goldsmiths’ style underwent about the middle of the 17th century, after
+which time the light and graceful leaf work gave way to heavier designs.
+(Consult _Pollen_, _Gold and Silversmiths’ Work_.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 615. Silver tankard of the 16th century. (Belonging
+to the Norwich Corporation.)]
+
+=Silver.= In Christian art, an emblem of purity. (See WHITE.) As one of
+the two _metals_ among the _tinctures_ of Heraldry, represented by a
+white space. (See ARGENT.)
+
+=Silver, Cloth of.= Josephus tells us that the royal robe of Herod
+Agrippa was a tunic made of silver. In the Middle Ages it was woven,
+like gold, in long narrow shreds unmixed with anything else, into a web
+for garments.
+
+=Sima=, Arch. (See CYMA.)
+
+=Simikion=, Gr. (σιμίκιον). A musical instrument of the Greeks; it had
+thirty-five strings.
+
+=Simpulum= or =Simpuvium=, R. A small cup used for libations. It was in
+the form of a ladle with a long handle.
+
+=Sinciput.= The front part of the head. The back part is the _occiput_.
+
+=Sindon= (σινδών). (See CORPORAL.)
+
+=Singing-bread=, Chr. The larger altar breads used in the mass were
+called _singing-bread_; the smaller ones consecrated for the people were
+known as _houseling bread_. (See also HOLY BREAD.)
+
+=Sinister=, Her. The left side of a shield (considered from the back, or
+wearer’s point of view). The _bendlet_ or _baton sinister_ is generally
+(not rigorously) regarded in modern Heraldry as the most appropriate
+_difference_ of illegitimacy. (Consult _Boutell’s English Heraldry_, p.
+194.)
+
+=Sinopia.= A fine red pigment found upon ancient mural paintings.
+
+=Sinum= or =Sinus=, R. A vessel of small dimensions, but tolerably wide
+and deep, which was used for holding wine or milk.
+
+=Siparium=, R. The curtain of a theatre. It was divided in the middle
+and withdrawn to the sides to disclose the stage.
+
+=Sipho=, Gr. (σίφων, a hollow body). A siphon for exhausting liquids
+from a vessel by the pressure of the atmosphere. A painting at Thebes
+shows that the principle of the siphon was known to the Egyptians as
+early as the eighteenth dynasty. The same name was applied to a suction
+and forcing pump, which was generally employed as a fire-engine.
+
+=Sirens= (Gr. Σειρῆνες [probably from σειρὰ, a _chain_, to signify their
+attractive power]). These mythical representatives of the evil side of
+the seductive power of music, are represented in art as lovely women to
+the waist, and fishes or birds below. Sometimes they have wings, which
+the Muses are said to have plucked (see MUSES) of their feathers; as
+Orpheus, by opening their minds to the unattainable higher music, drove
+them to suicide in the end. In Christian symbolism the sirens typify the
+three carnal lusts. (See Fig. 455.)
+
+=Sirpea.= (See SCIRPEA.)
+
+=Sispa-sastra=, Hind. A Hindoo work, the title of which means literally
+the science of manual art. It was a kind of encyclopædia, and comprised
+about thirty treatises on the manual arts, and included a treatise on
+architecture written by a Hindoo whose name has not come down to us; but
+a sage or mage called Dupayana compiled, abridged, and edited, about
+1500 B.C., the lost treatise of the Hindoo architect. (_Bosc._)
+
+=Sistrum=, Egyp. (σεῖστρον; σείω, to shake). A kind of rattle formed by
+a certain number of metallic rods which passed through a framework also
+of metal; this was attached to a short handle ending in a head of Athor.
+By shaking the instrument by the handle the metallic rods and the
+movable rings suspended from them were made to give out a sharp rattling
+sound. The Egyptians made use of the sistrum in the ceremonial worship
+of Isis and at funerals. Roman coins of Hadrian present a
+personification of Egypt as a female figure seated with the sacred ibis
+at her feet, and a _sistrum_ in her hand. The instrument is still in use
+on the Nile.
+
+=Sitella.= Diminutive of SITULA (q.v.).
+
+=Situla=, R. A bucket for drawing water from a well.
+
+=Situlus.= Synonym of SITULA (q.v.).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 616. Sixfoil.]
+
+=Sixfoil=, Her. A flower of six leaves.
+
+=Size= is used to prepare paper for printing upon, and as a _vehicle_ in
+oil painting. (See DISTEMPER.)
+
+=Skeens=, Celtic. Long sharp knives; “_sheen dubh_,” black knife, the
+Highlander’s _dernier ressort_.
+
+=Skinning=, in Masonry. (See REGRATING.)
+
+=Skirophorion.= (See SCIROPHORIUM.)
+
+=Sling.= (See BALEA, FUNDA.)
+
+=Slipped=, Her. Pulled or torn off.
+
+=Smalt.= A vitreous substance coloured by cobalt, used for painting on
+china, not being affected by fire. It makes also a bad pigment in
+water-colour painting, and is largely used for giving a blue tinge to
+writing-paper, linen, &c. (See COBALT.)
+
+=Smalti=, It. Cubes of coloured glass applied in the modern MOSAICS.
+
+=Snail=, Chr. In Christian iconography the snail is an emblem of sloth
+and of the resurrection.
+
+=Snood= (A.S. _snôd_). A head-band for ladies, of the Anglo-Saxon
+period, similar to that now used by young unmarried women in Scotland.
+
+=Soapstone.= (See STEATITE.)
+
+=Socculus.= Diminutive of _soccus_.
+
+=Soccus=, Gr. and R. A slipper worn in Greece both by men and women, but
+at Rome by women only. It was worn by actors upon the stage.
+
+=Socle=, Arch. A plain block or plinth forming a low pedestal to a
+column; or a plinth round the bottom of a wall.
+
+=Soffit=, Arch. The flat surface on the lower side of an arch or
+cornice.
+
+=Solarium=, R. (_sol_, the sun). (1) A sun-dial; (2) a water-clock or
+clepsydra (_solarium ex aquâ_); (3) a terrace constructed on the top of
+a house or portico.
+
+=Soldurii=, Gaul. A body of Gallic warriors forming a CLAN under one
+chief.
+
+=Solea=, R. and Chr. (_solum_, sole of the foot). A sandal of the
+simplest kind, consisting of a sole fastened on with straps over the
+instep. _Solea ferrea_, a horse-shoe, or _soccus_ of iron; _solea
+sparta_, a sock of Spanish broom for the feet of beasts of burden or of
+cattle; _solea lignea_, wooden clogs fastened to the feet of criminals.
+Lastly the term denoted a machine for crushing olives, the nature and
+shape of which are entirely unknown. In Christian archæology, the term
+_solea_ was used to denote, in the early basilicas, a space in front of
+the choir.
+
+=Soler= (Lat. _solarium_; A.S. _up-flor_). The upper floor of a house,
+approached by a _staeger_ (Ang. stair) outside.
+
+=Soles of the Feet=, Egyp. and Chr. On a great number of Christian tombs
+there occur representations of the soles of the feet. This symbol has
+been variously explained. In our opinion, one which has never been
+broached before, it denoted that the dead were in the power of God; for
+among the Egyptians, whenever a god or powerful king was spoken of, it
+was said of him that he put his enemies under the sole of his foot.
+Ezekiel uses the same terms in speaking of Jehovah. Whenever an Egyptian
+went on a pilgrimage to a distant place, he never left the country
+without engraving on some stone the impression of his feet, to which he
+added his name and titles. (_Bosc._)
+
+=Soliferreum= or =Solliferreum=, R. A javelin made entirely of massive
+iron.
+
+=Solium=, R. This term denotes (1) a chair or arm-chair with a high
+back; (2) a bier of wood or terra-cotta for a dead body; (3) the granite
+or marble seat in an ancient bath.
+
+=Solstice.= The time when the sun appears to _stand still_, at one of
+the solstitial points, i. e. at his greatest distance from the equator;
+the summer solstice is the longest day, June 22nd; the winter solstice
+December 22nd, in the North Hemisphere; reversed in the South.
+
+=Sonata=, Ital. A piece of music with various movements, composed for a
+single instrument with or without accompaniment. _Sonate di camera_,
+sonatas adapted for chamber music; _sonate de chiesa_, for churches.
+
+=Sonnachiosi of Bologna.= One of the Italian Academies, having for their
+device a bear, which sleeps through the winter; and the motto _spero
+avanzar con la vigilia il sonno_. (I hope by vigils to make up for
+sleep.)
+
+=Sorrows of the Virgin.= (See JOYS OF THE VIRGIN.)
+
+=Sortes=, R. Lots; small tablets or counters thrown into a SITELLA or
+urn full of water, and withdrawn for soothsaying.
+
+=Soteria=, Gr. and R. (σωτήρια, i. e. of saving). Sacrifices in honour
+of the gods offered by way of thanksgiving for escape from any danger.
+
+=Sounding-board=, Chr. A sort of dome or canopy, placed above pulpits to
+convey the voice of the preacher to his auditory. In the centre of the
+lower part of the canopy there is often a carved dove, symbolizing the
+Holy Ghost. Sounding-boards must be placed five feet above the speaker’s
+head, and their diameter should exceed that of the pulpit by six to
+eight inches on either side.
+
+=Soutane=, Fr. A white woollen cassock, worn by priests under the
+_rochet_.
+
+=Sow=, Chr. In Christian iconography, the sow is a symbol of evil,
+impurity, gluttony, and fecundity. It is borne in the crest of Hamilton,
+Duke of Hamilton, with the motto, “Through.”
+
+=Span.= Of an arch, the breadth between the imposts.
+
+=Spandril=, Arch. The triangular space between the upper arch of a door
+and the square mouldings which form a frame to it.
+
+=Spangles=, of gold and silver, were, in the Middle Ages, artistically
+shaped concave, and sewed on like tiles, one overlapping the other,
+producing a rich and pleasing effect. Our present flat spangles are
+quite modern.
+
+=Spanish Black.= A pigment of burnt cork.
+
+=Spanish Brown.= (See OCHRE.)
+
+=Spanish Ferreto.= A rich reddish-brown pigment.
+
+=Spanish Red.= An ochreous red pigment, yellower than the _Venetian
+red_.
+
+=Spanish Stitch.= A kind of embroidery introduced into England by
+Katharine of Aragon in 1501.
+
+=Span-roof=, Arch. Having _two_ inclined sides; not a _pent-roof_.
+
+=Spartea.= (See SOLEA.)
+
+=Sparum=, R. A weapon specially employed by the agricultural population,
+whence its name of _sparum agreste, telum rusticum_. It was a kind of
+halberd. A form _sparus_ was also in use.
+
+=Spatha=, Gr. and R. (σπάθη). (1) A _batten_ or wooden blade used by
+weavers for beating the threads of the woof. (2) The spatula of a
+druggist or chemist. (3) A long, broad, two-edged sword, with a sharp
+point.
+
+=Spathalium=, Gr. and R. (σπαθάλιον:). A kind of bracelet with bells
+attached, so that it bore some resemblance to the flower-sheath of the
+palm-tree (_spatha_), whence its name.
+
+=Speak-house=, O. E. A parlour.
+
+=Spean=, Hind. A monumental bridge, of no great height, among the Khmers
+or ancient inhabitants of Cambodgia. The balustrade of this bridge was
+formed by means of NAGAGAS (q.v.).
+
+=Spear=, Her., is seldom seen in blazon, though it appears as a “punning
+device” in the arms granted to Shakspeare’s father. (See LANCE, CUSPIS,
+&c.)
+
+=Specillum=, R. A surgeon’s probe, of iron, bronze, or silver.
+
+=Spectra.= Impressions which remain for a time on the retina of the eye,
+after looking at certain bright and coloured objects. They are either
+similar in colour and form to the objects which excited them, or vary
+according to the laws of the spectrum; e.g. if the eye is fixed on a
+_red_ wafer, lying on a sheet of _white_ paper, it will appear fringed
+with a faint _green_; then if, after a time, the eye is turned to
+another part of the paper, where there is no wafer, a _green_ wafer will
+appear.
+
+=Spectrum.= The series of colours that a beam of white light slips into
+under refraction:—red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet.
+
+=Specula=, R. A watch-tower.
+
+=Specularia=, Gr. and R. Window-panes made with a kind of transparent
+stone (_lapis specularis_).
+
+=Speculum=, R. (_specio_, to behold). A mirror; they were made in
+ancient times of a white composition of copper and tin, and afterwards
+of silver. The back of the mirror was decorated with beautiful engraved
+or enchased designs. There were also glass mirrors backed with a thin
+leaf of metal. Mirrors were not contrived to be hung against a wall, or
+to stand on a table, but were generally held by female slaves in front
+of their mistresses. (See MIRRORS.)
+
+=Specus=, R. Originally a dark grotto or cave; later the covered canal
+of an aqueduct.
+
+=Spence=, O. E. The buttery attached to the hall; 13th, 14th century.
+
+=Speos=, Egyp. (σπέος). HYPOGEA or subterranean Egyptian temples.
+_Hemispeos_ was the name given to temples built partly above and partly
+under the ground.
+
+=Sperlings=, O. E. Sprats.
+
+=Sperthe=, O. E. A battle-axe.
+
+=Spetum=, Med. A kind of PARTISAN, but narrower and lighter.
+
+=Sphæristerium=, Gr. and R. (σφαιριστήριον, lit. place for ball). An
+apartment attached to a gymnasium or set of baths for playing with
+balls.
+
+=Sphæromachia=, Gr. and R. (σφαιρο-μαχία). A game of ball.
+
+=Sphendone=, Gr. A band or fillet with which Greek ladies confined their
+hair. (See DIADEMA, HAIR, &c.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 617. Andro-Sphinx.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 618. Crio-Sphinx.]
+
+=Sphinx=, Egyp. (Σφίγξ). An emblem peculiarly Egyptian, signifying the
+religious mystery; in this sense it was adopted by the Romans and placed
+in the pronaos of their temples. The ANDRO-SPHINX (Fig. 617), a human
+head upon a lion’s body, typified generally the union of intellectual
+and physical power; the CRIO-SPHINX (Fig. 618) had the head of a ram;
+and the HIERACO-SPHINX (Fig. 619) that of a hawk. The two latter are
+complex emblems; the hawk being the sun-god’s and the king’s special
+figure, and the ram that of the god Neph. The symbolical importance of
+these figures was completely disregarded in the course of their
+application to the purposes of Greek art.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 619. Hieraco-Sphinx.]
+
+=Sphyrelata=, Gr. Hammered metal-work; the earliest form of art
+manufacture in metal. Archaic statues, antecedent to the invention of
+the art of casting, were formed of hammered plates fastened together
+with rivets. (See METALLURGY.)
+
+=Spicæ Testaceæ=, R. (_spica_, ear of corn). Oblong bricks for
+pavements; applied in the Spicatum Opus.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 620. Spicatum Opus.]
+
+=Spicatum= (opus), R. A term answering to our HERRING-BONE. work; it was
+a kind of construction in which the stones were arranged so as to
+resemble the setting of the grains in an ear of corn. (Fig. 620.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 621. Spiculum.]
+
+=Spiculum=, R. (dimin. of _spicum_, a point). The barbed iron head of an
+arrow or lance. The custom of barbing weapons dates from a very early
+period, since it is met with in prehistoric times. Fig. 621 shows a
+barbed bone arrow.
+
+=Spider-work= (_opus araneum_). A kind of embroidery; specimens of the
+13th and 14th centuries are in South Kensington Museum.
+
+=Spike.= _Oil of spike_ used in wax painting is prepared from the wild
+lavender.
+
+=Spina=, R. (lit. a spine). A long, low wall along the middle of a
+circus, marking off the course in a race. At each end were the goals,
+(_metæ_). (See CIRCUS, META.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 622. Spinet. 18th century.]
+
+=Spinet= (Ital. _spinetta_). An old-fashioned musical instrument on the
+principle of the _harpsichord_ and pianoforte. Brass and steel wires
+were struck by quills fixed to the tongues of jacks which were moved by
+the keys of a finger-board. (Fig. 622.)
+
+=Spinther=, R. (σφιγκτήρ). A bracelet; it was worn upon the left arm,
+and retained in its place merely by the elasticity of the material. The
+term is really a corruption of _sphincter_, the muscle which remains
+naturally contracted. (See ARMILLA.)
+
+=Spira=, R. (σπεῖρα). Anything spiral or coiled; such as (1) a coil of
+rope; (2) an ornament worn by women on the head; (3) the string by which
+the cap of the Salian priests was fastened under the chin; (4) the base
+of a column.
+
+=Spire=, Arch. An acutely-pointed termination crowning a steeple. (See
+CHAMFER.)
+
+=Spirit Fresco.= A new method of painting in _fresco_, introduced by Mr.
+Gambier Parry, 1880.
+
+=Spirits of Wine= are used to dissolve resins in the preparation of
+varnishes.
+
+=Spirula.= Diminutive of _spira_.
+
+=Spittle= or =Spittlehouse=, O. E. A hospital.
+
+=Spolarium=, R. (_spolio_, to strip off). A cloakroom in the baths,
+where the bathers left their clothes; in an amphitheatre or circus the
+term was applied to a cella in which gladiators who had been killed in
+the arena were stripped of their clothes and weapons.
+
+=Spolia=, R. Booty taken in war. PRÆDA means plunder generally;
+MANUBIUM, the share of the commander or the state; EXUVIÆ, the personal
+spoils of an enemy; and SPOLIA, properly speaking, arms or implements of
+war. (See OPIMA SPOLIA.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 623. Carved ivory Spoon with figure of “January.”]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 624. Folding Spoon of carved box-wood.]
+
+=Spoon=, Chr. In early times, especially among the Greeks, Syrians, and
+Copts, the sacrament in one kind only was administered with a small gold
+or silver spoon, into which a few drops of the consecrated wine were
+poured. In the Middle Ages spoons were frequently ornamented with
+figures, some carved in ivory or wood, and others of metal. APOSTLE
+SPOONS had figures of the Apostles on the handles. (See LABIS and
+COCHLEAR.)
+
+=Sporta=, R. A broad plaited basket made of wood and usually furnished
+with two handles. Diminutives of this term are _sportella_ and
+_sportula_.
+
+=Springers=, Arch. The lowest stones of an arch resting on a column,
+pilaster, or cluster of small columns.
+
+=Spurs= with rowels appear first in the 13th century; in early times and
+in antiquity they were merely sharp goads fixed to the heel. In the
+middle of the 15th century spurs were of extravagant length. In
+Heraldry, the _knightly spur_ had a single point, up to about 1320, and
+was known as the “pryck-spur;” the later form is called the
+“rouelle-spur.”
+
+=Spurn=, O. E. A piece of stone or wood protecting a corner house or
+gate-post from wheels. One end is fixed in the ground, and the other
+attached at an angle to the post or wall.
+
+=Squinch=, Arch. Small arches built across angles of towers to support
+projecting masonry above.
+
+=Stadium=, Gr. (στάδιον). The course for the foot-race at Olympia, which
+measured exactly one stadium (606¾ feet). The stadium was the principal
+Greek measure for distance, and equalled the eighth of a Roman mile.
+
+=Stag= (_cervus_). Representations of the stag occur in many Christian
+bas-reliefs and paintings. It is the emblem of many dissimilar moral
+ideas, but more especially of a longing desire for baptism, from an
+application of the text in the 42nd Psalm, “Like as the hart,” &c. (See
+HART.)
+
+=Stalactite= (Gr. στάλαγμα, an icicle). Spar, in the form of icicles
+hanging from the roof of a cavern. =Stalagmites= are heaped up from
+their droppings on the floor, forming when they unite with the
+Stalactites the so called Organ pipes.
+
+=Stalagmium=, Gr. and R. (σταλάγμιον). An ear-ring decorated with
+pearls, or small gold or silver drops, which bore more or less
+resemblance to the shape of a drop of water (στάλαγμα), whence its name.
+
+=Stall-plate=, Her. The plate bearing the arms of a knight, and placed
+in his stall in the chapel of his order.
+
+=Stalls=, Chr. Seats in a chapel; made to be used in two ways: either
+with the flap of the seat let down called “sellette,” which formed the
+regular seat, or with the flap raised, affording only a small
+resting-place called _miserere_. The elbows are often called “museaux”
+from their being in many cases ornamented with the head of some animal.
+(See MISERERE.)
+
+=Stamen=, R. The spun thread as it comes off the spindle.
+
+=Stamnos=, Gr. and R. A vessel in the shape of a Panathenæan water-jar
+or amphora, but with a wider neck, and with two ears and no handle.
+
+=Stanchion=, Arch. The upright iron bar between the mullions of a
+window.
+
+=Standard= or =Banner=, Chr. The symbol of victory over sin, death, and
+idolatry. (See ENSIGNS, LABARUM, SIGNA, &c.) In heraldry, a long narrow
+flag introduced in the 14th century. The ROYAL STANDARD bears the
+blazonry of the Queen’s arms. The UNION JACK was produced in the reign
+of James I., in 1606, as the national flag of united England and
+Scotland, combining the banners of St. George and St. Andrew. The latest
+UNION JACK shows, over the saltire of St. Andrew, the _gules_ of St.
+Patrick, and was introduced upon the occasion of the _union_ with
+Ireland. The word “Jack” is a corruption of the French “Jacques,” for
+James.
+
+=Standing Stones.= Celtic monuments, also called _megalithic_,
+consisting of a row of stones standing in a line. (See DOLMEN, MENHIR,
+MEGALITHIC, &c.)
+
+=Standish=, O. E. A case for pens and ink; an inkstand.
+
+=Stanniferous Wares.= (See POTTERY.)
+
+=Stapes=, =Stapia=, Med. Lat. A stirrup.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 625. Badge of the Star of India.]
+
+=Star of India.= An order of knighthood instituted by Queen Victoria in
+1861. The INSIGNIA are the _Badge_ (Fig. 171); _collar_ of heraldic
+roses and lotus-flowers alternating with palm-branches, a crown being in
+the centre; _ribbon_ of pale blue with white borders, crossing the left
+shoulder; and _star_ of diamonds, having a mullet upon an irradiated
+field in its centre, with the motto “Heaven’s Light our Guide.”
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 626. Heraldic Stars.]
+
+=Stars=, Her. (See ESTOILE, MULLET.)
+
+=Stars=, Chr. Emblematic of the canopy of Heaven, are generally
+represented on the domed ceilings of churches. These were usually forged
+in metal and fixed on to an azure ground. They are attributes of the
+Virgin Mary as queen of heaven, and of St. Dominic and other saints.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 627. Star-moulding.]
+
+=Stars=, =Star-moulding=, Arch. An ornament of the Romano-Byzantine
+period, in the shape of a star with four rays only. (Fig. 627.) It is
+met with as a decoration in various mouldings.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 628. Statera.]
+
+=Statera=, R. A steelyard or Roman balance, of much later invention than
+the scales called _libra_. It consisted (Fig. 628) of a rod or yard
+(_scapa_), divided by equidistant points (_puncta_), and was suspended
+by means of a handle (_ansa_) consisting of a hook or chain. The weight
+(_æquipondium_) forms a counterpoise to any object suspended from one of
+the hooks or the scale (_lancula_). (Fig. 418.) The term is sometimes
+looked upon as a synonym of LIBRA (q.v.). It denotes besides (1) a
+wooden bar or yoke placed across the withers of a pair of horses
+harnessed to a BIJUGUS (q.v.); (2) a plate or dish, probably of circular
+form.
+
+=Statuettes.= Small statues in bronze or porcelain for the decoration of
+rooms. For =Porcelain Statuary=, consult Jacquemart’s _History of the
+Ceramic Art_.
+
+=Stauracin= (Gr. σταυρὸς, a cross) was a silken stuff figured with small
+plain _crosses_; hence _polystauron_, having many crosses.
+
+=Steatite= or =Soapstone=. A soft, unctuous, magnesian mineral, used by
+the Chinese for statuary and decorative purposes.
+
+=Steel, Engraving in=, was invented during the present century. The
+process is nearly the same as engraving in copper. (See CHALCOGRAPHY.)
+
+=Stega=, Gr. and R. (στέγη, i. e. a covering). The deck of a ship; a
+synonym for CONSTRATUM (q.v.).
+
+=Steganography=, Gr. (στεγανὸς, secret). Cypher, or secret writing, by
+substitution of signs for letters.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 629. Steinkerque.]
+
+=Steinkerque= was a twisted necktie, and owed its origin to the battle
+of that name fought in 1692 by Marshal Luxembourg against William of
+Orange. When the French princes were suddenly ordered into action,
+hastily tying their cravats—in peaceful times an elaborate
+proceeding—they rushed to the charge and gained the day. In honour of
+this event ladies also wore their lace neckerchiefs twisted in this
+careless fashion. Steinkerques became the rage, and were worn in England
+and France by men and women for many years afterwards. The engraving
+represents the Grand Dauphin of France wearing a Steinkerque.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 630. Greek Stelè.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 631. Roman Stela.]
+
+=Stela=, =Stelè=, Gr. A pillar, or stone of a cylindrical or
+quadrangular shape, often surmounted by an ornament in the form of a
+palm. These _stelæ_ served to mark out burial-places. Fig. 631
+represents a Roman, and Fig. 630 a Greek stelê.
+
+=Stemma=, Gr. and R. (στέμμα, i. e. that which crowns). Among the Greeks
+this term served to denote a wreath bound round with woollen fillets;
+among the Romans the same term denoted a long roll of parchment
+ornamented with garlands. This roll contained the genealogy of the
+family. _Stemmata_ were hung upon the busts of ancestors, and in front
+of the _imagines majorum_.
+
+=Stencil.= A plate of any material in which patterns have been cut out.
+The use of stencil plates is of great antiquity. They were used in the
+schools of ancient Rome to teach writing, and by the emperors for
+affixing their sign manual to documents.
+
+=Stereobate.= The base of a plain wall. (See STYLOBATES.)
+
+=Stereochromy.= A new method of wall painting, with water-colours
+sprinkled over with fluoric acid, adapted permanently to resist all the
+influences of climate.
+
+=Stereo-graphy= (στερεὸς, solid). Geometrical drawing of solids on a
+plane surface.
+
+=Stereoscope.= A binocular glass, arranged in conformity with the
+natural convergence of the sight of each eye to a focal centre. An
+object is photographed twice, as it would appear to each eye if the
+other were closed; and when the two pictures are looked at together in
+the stereoscope, an effect of rounded solidity (_stereon_) is produced.
+The effect is particularly beautiful in photographs of statues.
+
+=Stereotype.= Solid type, obtained from a cast of the forme of movable
+type, for permanent use in printing works of which many editions are
+required.
+
+=Steyre=, O. E. A stair.
+
+=Stiacciato=, Ital. Sculpture in very low relief, less than
+_basso-relievo_.
+
+=Stibadium=, Gr. and R. (στιβάδιον). A circular dining-couch generally
+made of wicker-work. Another name for it was SIGMA.
+
+=Sticharium=, Chr. (στιχάριον). A white tunic worn by the Greek bishops
+and deacons in certain ceremonies.
+
+=Stigma=, R. (στίγμα, lit. a mark by pricking). A mark, impression, or
+brand. Thieves were branded with the letter F, which stood for _fur_,
+thief. A _stigma_ tattooed on the arm was the mark by which conscripts
+were declared capable of military service, &c., hence
+
+=Stigmata=, Chr. The marks of the five sacred wounds on the hands, feet,
+and side of Our Lord; said to have been miraculously printed on the
+persons of saints.
+
+=Stil de grain.= (See PINKS.)
+
+=Still Life.= Inanimate objects.
+
+=Stilted Arch.= One having the capital or impost mouldings of the jambs
+below the level of the springing of the curve, the moulding of the arch
+being continued vertically down to the impost mouldings.
+
+=Stilus=, =Stylus=, R. A style, or instrument of bone, ivory, iron,
+bronze, or silver, about five inches long, having one end pointed, and
+the other flattened like a spatula; the latter served either to spread
+the wax on the writing-tablet, or to erase by smoothing down what had
+been written upon it; the other and pointed end served for writing upon
+the wax-covered tablet. The term also denoted (1) the needle or index of
+a sun-dial; (2) a bronze needle; (3) a probe employed for garden
+purposes. (4) A sharp stake in a pitfall. It was also called _graphium_.
+
+=Stimulus=, R. (στίζω, to prick). A goad for driving cattle.
+
+=Stipple.= Etched imitations of chalk drawings of the human figure,
+called _engravings in stipple_, have a very soft effect, but are
+inferior to engraving. In this variety the whole subject is executed in
+dots without strokes on the etching-ground, and these dots are bitten in
+with aquafortis. The dots may be harmonized with a little hammer, in
+which case the work is called _opus mallei_. In the method known as
+_mezzo-tinto_, a dark _barb_ or ground is raised uniformly by means of a
+toothed tool; and the design being traced, the light parts are scraped
+off from the plate by fitting instruments, according to the effect
+required. (See ENGRAVING.)
+
+=Stips=, R. A small bronze coin, equal to the twelfth part of an _as_,
+or about a quarter of a farthing; it bore on the reverse the prow of a
+vessel.
+
+=Stocheion=, Gr. A form of sun-dial. (See HOROLOGIUM.)
+
+=Stockings= were introduced into England with knitting in 1501, when
+Queen Elizabeth was presented with a pair of black knit silk stockings
+by her tirewoman, and immediately discontinued the cloth hose she had
+previously worn. The Scotch claim the invention of knitting, and a
+French company of stocking-knitters established at Paris in 1527 took
+for their patron St. Fiacre, who is said to have been the son of a King
+of Scotland. (See NETHERSTOCKS.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 632. Stola. Costume of a Roman Matron.]
+
+=Stola=, R. (στολὴ, lit. an equipment). The robe worn by Roman matrons;
+it consisted of a wide tunic with long sleeves. It came down to the
+ankles or feet, and was confined at the waist by a girdle, leaving broad
+loose folds over the breast. The pallium was worn over the _stola_. It
+was the distinguishing dress of the Roman matron, and the _meretrices_
+or divorced women were forbidden to wear it. The _stola_ was also worn
+by a certain class of priests. (See PALLIUM, TOGA.) (See Fig. 632.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 633. Stole.]
+
+=Stole=, Chr. This term, a synonym of _orarium_, denoted, with the early
+Christians, according to Fleury, a piece of fine linen which was worn
+round the neck. It was used as a kind of pocket-handkerchief, long
+before the introduction of Christianity, by the Romans, who named it
+indifferently _linteolum_, _strophium_, and _sudarium_. In the Christian
+Church it is represented by a narrow band of embroidered stuff, and worn
+over the left shoulder by deacons; and across both shoulders by bishops
+and priests. It is sacred to the memory of the cloth with which the
+Saviour is alleged to have wiped away the sweat from His face as He
+passed to the Crucifixion. (See SUDARIUM, ORARIUM.)
+
+=Stone Ochre.= A pigment. An earthy oxide of iron. (See OCHRES.)
+
+=Stone-ware.= (See POTTERY.)
+
+=Stopping-out.= In etching, arresting the action of the acid on the
+fainter lines of a plate, by covering them over with a preparation
+called _stopping-ground_, while the deeper and broader parts corrode.
+(See ETCHING.)
+
+=Stoup=, Chr. A small niche with a basin, at the entrance of a church,
+placed there for the holy water. O. E. A kind of tankard. (See Fig.
+615.)
+
+=Stragulatæ.= Striped or barred silks; 13th century.
+
+=Stragulum=, R. (_sterno_, to throw over). A general term to denote any
+kind of covering used for bed-clothing, or a covering for men, horses,
+or beasts of burden, and thence a caparison.
+
+=Strap-work=, Arch. A form of architectural ornament, by the tracery of
+a narrow band or fillet in convolutions similar to those that a leather
+strap thrown down at hazard would form. It is characteristic of the
+Renaissance period.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 634. Strasburg Porcelain. Open-work Basket.]
+
+=Strasburg Porcelain.= The manufacture of this ware, which was begun by
+Charles Hannong about 1721, became very celebrated for about sixty
+years. (Consult Jacquemart’s _History of the Ceramic Art_.) (Fig. 634.)
+
+=Strasburg Turpentine.= A varnish made of the resin from the silver fir
+(_pinus picea_), diluted with naphtha, drying linseed, or nut oil.
+
+=Strena=, R. A new year’s gift or present made on the calends of
+January.
+
+=Stria=, R. The fluting of a column.
+
+=Striated.= Fluted like a column.
+
+=Strigilis=, R. (_stringo_, to scrape). A bronze scraper for the skin,
+curved and hollowed like a spoon, used in the bath. The same term is
+used in architecture for a fluting which resembles the bath-strigil in
+form.
+
+=String-course=, Arch. A narrow moulding projecting from the wall of a
+building in a horizontal line.
+
+=Stroma=, =Gr.= (στρῶμα). A Greek term synonymous with the Latin
+STRAGULUM.
+
+=Strontian Yellow.= A pale canary-coloured pigment.
+
+=Strophe= (στρέφω, to turn). In Greek poetry, the first division of a
+choral ode, of which the other parts were the _antistrophe_ and the
+_epode_.
+
+=Strophium=, R. (στρόφιον, lit. a thing twisted). (1) A long scarf which
+the Roman women rolled into a band, and fastened round the body and
+breast. (2) A girdle for the same purpose, generally of leather. (3) The
+term likewise denoted the cable of an anchor. (See ORARIUM.)
+
+=Structura=, R. (_struo_, to build up). A general term for any kind of
+masonry. (See OPUS.)
+
+=Struppus= or =Strupus=, R. A rope or other fastening by which the oar
+is attached to the thole (_scalmus_).
+
+=Stucco=, It. A fine plaster, for covering walls, prepared by various
+methods, as a mixture of _gypsum_ and glue; or white marble, pulverized
+with plaster of lime and mixed with water; the _opus albarium_ of the
+ancients.
+
+=Stump=, for drawing in pencil or crayon. It is a thick roll of strong
+paper made into a kind of pencil, and used for rubbing over lines to
+soften them down for ground tints, gradation of shading, &c.
+
+=Stylites=, Chr. (στυλίτης). “Pillar saints.” Anchorites of the early
+Church who passed their lives on the top of a column, in order to give
+themselves up to meditation. There were some of them in Syria down to
+the 12th century. They derived their name from στῦλος, a column.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 635. Stylobates.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 636. Stylobates.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 637. Stylobates.]
+
+=Stylobate=, Arch. A pedestal supporting a row of columns; Figs. 635 to
+637 represent three richly-decorated stylobates found in the baths and
+other Roman ruins at Nismes. (See PEDESTAL, STEREOBATE.)
+
+=Stylus=, R. (Gr. στῦλος). A pointed instrument with which the Romans
+wrote on their waxed tablets. (See STILUS.)
+
+=Subarmale=, =Subermale=, R. A garment worn by soldiers underneath their
+armour; it formed the tunic of the legionaries, and representations of
+it are very frequently met with on the bas-reliefs of monumental columns
+and triumphal arches.
+
+=Subjugium=, R. Curved pieces of wood placed at each end of a yoke,
+_underneath_ it; whence their name.
+
+=Sublicius=, R. (_sublica_, a pile). Any wooden structure supported on
+piles. (See PONS.)
+
+=Subligaculum=, =Subligar=, R. (_subligo_, to tie below). A cloth worn
+by acrobats, drawn between the legs and made fast to the girdle.
+
+=Subsecus=, R. A tenon, in carpentry; that is, the tongue or wedge which
+fits into a mortise.
+
+=Subsellium=, R. (i. e. lower than a _sella_). A movable bench without a
+back, which was used in large assemblies. In a theatre or circus the
+same term was applied to the circular rows of seats in the _cavea_.
+
+=Subsericum.= Partly, not all, silk; opposed to _holosericum_.
+
+=Substructio=, R. (_substruo_, to build underneath). Any work of solid
+masonry, such as a foundation wall, abutment walls, &c. (See
+SUSPENSURA.)
+
+=Subtrefoiled=, Arch. Decorated with foils placed underneath; a term
+applied to what are called _trefoil-headed_ arches.
+
+=Subucula=, R. (_sub_, and _duo_, to put on). Under-garments of wool
+which the Romans wore next the skin, underneath the tunic.
+
+=Suburbanum=, R. A villa in the suburbs of Rome.
+
+=Succinctus=, R. (_succingo_, to gird beneath). Wearing a girdle round
+the waist above the tunic; applied to a person prepared for active
+exertion.
+
+=Sucula=, R. A capstan.
+
+=Sudarium=, Chr. A name of the miraculous portrait of our Lord,
+impressed on the cloth presented to Him by St. Veronica on the way to
+the Crucifixion. (See STOLE, VERA ICON.) A representation of this
+legendary portrait is given in Albert Dürer’s “Little Passion.”
+
+=Sudatorium=, R. (_sudor_, sweat). The hot room in a Roman bath. (See
+CALDARIUM.)
+
+=Sud’ha=, Hind. A temple of the Khmers or ancient inhabitants of
+Cambodgia, built of one unmixed material, and thence called _pure_
+(_sud’ha_).
+
+=Suffibulum=, R. A large square piece of white cloth worn by vestals and
+priests during the discharge of their functions.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 638. Suggestus.]
+
+=Suggestus=, R. (_sub_ and _gero_, to heap up). (1) A stage or platform
+from which an orator addressed a crowd. The ROSTRA at Rome was a
+celebrated _suggestus_. (2) In a camp the _suggestus_ was formed of
+stones and clods of turf, or constructed of wood-work, from which the
+general harangued the troops. (3) The raised seat from which the Emperor
+saw the games.
+
+=Suile=, R. A stable for pigs; among the Romans a building of
+considerable size, containing a number of separate sties (_haræ_).
+
+=Sulphate of Barytes.= (See BARYTES.)
+
+=Sulphate of Zinc=, or white vitriol, is used as a _dryer_.
+
+=Sulphurs.= Impressions taken by the goldsmiths of the 16th century from
+the engravings executed on plates, paxes, &c.; and which they obtained
+by spreading a layer of melted sulphur on the face of the plate,
+producing a cast in _relief_ of the lines engraved. Some few of these
+proofs exist in the British and continental museums, and are known as
+“sulphurs.” They are amongst the rarest specimens connected with the art
+of engraving. (_Fairholt._)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 639. Device of Louis XIV.]
+
+=Sun=, Her. When represented shining and surrounded by rays, he has a
+representation of a human face on his disc, and is blazoned “In
+splendour,” or “In glory;” when “eclipsed” the representation is the
+same, but tinctured sable.
+
+=Sundials.= The sun-dial of Ahaz is mentioned by Isaiah, 713 B.C.
+Sundials with appropriate mottoes have been at all times fashionable.
+Mrs. Palliser gives a long selection of such mottoes: e.g.:—
+
+  Nulla hora sine linea, “No hour without a line.” (Nec momentum sine
+  linea, was Cardinal Richelieu’s motto.) Pereunt et imputantur—“They
+  pass and are imputed”—(_Martial_). _Of the passing hour_, Dubia
+  omnibus, ultima multis—(“Uncertain to all, the last to many”); or,
+  suprema hæc multis forsitan tibi—(“The last to many, perhaps to
+  thee”). The old sun-dial at the Palais de Justice in Paris is
+  inscribed, in letters of gold, Sacra Themis mores, ut pendula dirigit
+  horas—(“Holy Justice guides manners, as this dial does the hours”).
+  The largest number are _allusions to Death_, as:
+
+  Io vado e vengo ogni giorno. Ma tu andrai senza ritorno—(“I go and
+  come daily, but thou shalt go and never return.”) And on a sun-dial at
+  Bourges is the following:
+
+                       “La vie est comme l’hombre,
+                       Insensible en son cours.
+                       On la croit immobile:
+                       Elle s’avance toujours.”
+
+  More cheerful mottoes are found from Horace, as: Carpe diem. Horas non
+  numero nisi serenas (at Venice), &c.
+
+(Consult _Mrs. Alfred Gatty_, “_Book of Sundials_.”)
+
+=Super-altar=, Chr. A small portable altar.
+
+=Superaria.= (See EPENDYTES.)
+
+=Supercilium=, R. (lit. eye-brow). (See LIMEN SUPERIUS.)
+
+=Superindum.= (See EPENDYTES.)
+
+=Superpellicum=, Chr. A surplice.
+
+=Suppedaneum.= A synonym for SCABELLUM and SCAMNUM (q.v.).
+
+=Supplicatio=, R. (_supplico_, to kneel down). The act of praying when
+kneeling; opposed to _precatio_, a prayer uttered standing. Solemn
+thanksgivings offered to the gods in their temples.
+
+=Supporter=, Her. A figure that stands by a shield of arms, as if
+supporting or guarding it. Supporters came into use during the 14th
+century. (See Fig. 24.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 640. Surahé or Wine bottle. Persian Porcelain.]
+
+=Surahé=, Pers. A Persian wine bottle. The illustration represents a
+beautiful specimen of hard porcelain decorated in patterns, of Chinese
+character, executed under the glaze with cobalt. A legend on the
+medallions contains the words _Deh surahé_, “Give me the bottle.” (Fig.
+640.)
+
+=Surbase=, Arch. The shaft of a PEDESTAL.
+
+=Surcoat.= Any garment worn over armour; more especially the long
+flowing garment worn by knights until 1325. (See Fig. 463.)
+
+=Surface-rib=, Arch. The rib of a groined vaulting.
+
+=Surinda=, Hind. A stringed instrument played with a bow.
+
+=Surod=, Hind. A kind of guitar, sounded with a plectrum.
+
+=Surplice=, Chr. The Protestant _alb_. See _Stevens_, in a note to
+_All’s Well that Ends Well_, Act i., scene 3, for notices of the Puritan
+aversion to this article of clerical costume.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 641. Suspensura, showing the pillars supporting the
+floor of a bath-room.]
+
+=Suspensura=, R. In a general sense this term denotes anything that is
+supported, _suspended_ above arcades, columns, or pillars, and more
+especially the flooring of a bath-room, when it is supported by small
+low pillars. Fig. 391 shows the flooring of a bath-room, and Fig. 641
+the pillars supporting the suspensura. (See HYPOCAUST.)
+
+=Svastika=, Hind. A kind of Greek cross, each branch of which ends in a
+hook. This cross has a sacred character, and is met with on a great
+variety of objects. Its origin dates back to the bronze age, and it is
+represented on the weapons of that period. (See FYLFOT.)
+
+=Swallow.= In Christian symbolism, the emblem of pride and of
+conversion.
+
+=Swallow-tail.= (See DOVE-TAIL.)
+
+=Swan=, Her. When blazoned “proper”—white with red beak and legs—it is
+the badge of the Bohuns, Staffords, and some other families.
+
+=Swathbondes=, O. E. Swaddling clothes (mentioned by Shakspeare).
+
+=Swine’s Feather=, O. E. A kind of bayonet about six inches long,
+affixed to a musket-rest and projected by the action of a spring; 17th
+century.
+
+=Sword.= (See GLADIUS.)
+
+=Sword=, in Christian art, is a symbol of martyrdom; it is also the
+attribute of martyrs who were soldiers. In Heraldry, when borne as a
+charge, it is straight in the blade, pointed, and with a cross-guard.
+The custom of swearing on the sword, the hilt of which took the shape of
+a cross, or had crosses engraved on it, is mentioned in very ancient
+history. (Cf. _Hamlet_.)
+
+=Sympathetic Inks.= Inks of which the marks are invisible until the
+moisture is absorbed by the application of heat. (See COBALT.)
+
+=Symposium=, Gr. A drinking party, distinguished from _deipnon_, a
+feast. A very common subject of representations on ancient vases.
+
+=Syndon= or =Sindon=. A better kind of _cendal_ (q.v.)
+
+=Synoikia=, Gr. (1) Athenian festivals held in honour of Athena in the
+month Hecatombeion (July-August). Their object was to commemorate the
+union of the government of all the towns of Attica in Athens. (2) A
+lodging-house adapted to hold several families (Latin, _insula_), for
+the convenience of foreigners and others who by Athenian law were
+prohibited from acquiring house property of their own.
+
+=Synthesis= or =Synthesina=, Gr. and R. (σύν-θεσις). One of the _vestes
+cœnatoriæ_ which the master of the house, the Amphitryon, provided for
+his guests. The parable of the “Wedding Garment” has reference to this
+practice. It was a kind of tunic worn over the other garments, and
+during the Saturnalia by all classes alike. It was usually dyed some
+colour, and was _not_ white like the toga.
+
+=Sypirs=, O. E. Cloth of Cyprus.
+
+=Syrinx= (O. E. 9th and 10th cent.). An instrument resembling Pandean
+pipes.
+
+=Syrinx=, Gr. and R. (σῦριγξ). The pastoral pipe invented by Pan; it was
+called by the poets _arundo_ and _fistula_. It was formed of seven
+hollow reeds of regulated lengths adjusted to form an octave.
+
+=Syrma=, Gr. (σύρω, to sweep). A robe with a train worn on the stage by
+those actors who had to represent the parts of gods or heroes. Hence the
+word is poetically used for tragedy.
+
+=Systyle=, Gr. and R. (σύστυλος). An arrangement in architecture, the
+intercolumniation of which is of the width of two diameters of the
+shaft, measured at its lower part, just above the _apophyge_; the
+distance between the _plinths_ being exactly equal to the diameter of
+the plinths, as in the Parthenon at Athens.
+
+
+
+
+                                   T.
+
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 642. Tabard.]
+
+=Tabard=, O. E. (Lat. _colobium_). A tunic with sleeves, worn over the
+armour by knights of the Tudor period, and blazoned on the sleeves,
+front, and back; it is the official costume of a herald; Chaucer’s
+ploughman wears a _tabard_, like the modern smock-frock. (See COAT
+ARMOUR.) Fig. 642.
+
+=Tabaret.= A stout, satin-striped silk.
+
+=Tabbinet=, O. E. Another name for POPLIN.
+
+=Tabby=, O. E. A silk _watered_ or figured.
+
+=Tabella=, Gen. (dimin. of _tabula_). A small board, or tablet, of any
+kind, esp. (1) a wax-tablet; (2) a voting-tablet (_tessera_); (3) a
+letter sent by a messenger (_tabellarius_); (4) _tabella absolutoria_, a
+receipt for a debt; (5) _tabella damnatoria_, a judicial record of a
+verdict and sentence; (6) _tabella liminis_, the leaf of a door, &c.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 643. Taberna.]
+
+=Taberna=, R. (1) A retail shop; Fig. 643 shows a shop at Pompeii,
+restored. (2) _Taberna deversoria_, _taberna meritoria_, or simply
+_taberna_, a wine-shop or _tavern_. (Fig. 643.)
+
+=Tabernacle Work=, Arch. The ornamented open work over the _stalls_ (of
+a cathedral church, &c.), and, in general, any minute ornamental open
+work is called _tabernacle work_.
+
+=Tabernaculum=, =Tabernacle=, R. and Chr. (Lit. a tent). (1) A booth of
+planks, or a wooden hut covered with hides. (2) In Christian archæology,
+the _tabernacle_ is a small shrine placed on the altar for the
+consecrated wafer. It succeeded the _pyx_, which was anciently deposited
+in one of two chambers arranged on each side of the altar. Originally of
+goldsmith’s work, in the 15th and 16th centuries they became stone
+shrines decorated with sculpture, approached by steps, rising into
+lanterns and pinnacles to the roof of the church. A cast of a beautiful
+tabernacle of late 15th century, marble with a gilt metal door, is in
+the South Kensington Museum. Tabernacles of ivory were common in the
+16th century. (3) Ornamental niches in a hall. (4) Accurately applied
+the term signifies a _canopy_, (of stone, wood, or other material) such
+as was placed over a NICHE, a stall, &c.
+
+=Tabernula.= Dimin. of TABERNA (q.v.).
+
+=Tabinet.= (See TABBINET.)
+
+=Tabl shamee=, Egyp. The Syrian drum, used by the modern Egyptians; a
+kind of kettle-drum of tinned copper, with a parchment face.
+
+=Tablature=, Fr. One part of a painted wall or ceiling, forming a single
+piece or design.
+
+=Table=, O. E. The ancient meaning of this word was “any level expanded
+surface,” such as a flat piece of board. A picture was called a table
+(Latin _tabula_) as late as the 17th century. (See TABULA.)
+
+=Table-base=, Arch. A BASE MOULDING, near the ground, immediately over
+the plinth.
+
+=Table Diamond.= A gem cut with a flat surface.
+
+=Tablementum=, Arch. Synonym of TABULA.
+
+=Tables=, O. E. (1) Backgammon. (2) Ivory writing-tablets, so called,
+were used in the middle ages in England by people of all ranks:—
+
+                “His felaw had a staff tipped with horn,
+                A pair of _tables_ all of ivory,
+                And a pointed ypolished fetishly,
+                And wrote alway the names, as he stood
+                Of alle folk that gaue hem any good.”
+                                    (_Chaucer._)
+
+=Tablet.= (Fr. _tablette_.) Any flat surface for inscriptions; leaves
+for memoranda.
+
+=Tablets.= In architecture a general term for small projecting mouldings
+or strings, mostly horizontal. The tablet at the top, under the
+battlement, is called a _cornice_, and that at the bottom a _basement_,
+under which is generally a thicker wall. The tablet running round doors
+and windows is called a _dripstone_, and if ornamented a _canopy_.
+(_Rickman_, p. 42.)
+
+=Tabletterie=, Fr. Turned work in ivory or shells, &c.
+
+=Tablinum=, R. One of the apartments in a Roman house; it was a recess
+in the ATRIUM, and contained the wax or ivory portraits and statues in
+bronze and marble of ancestors, and carved representations of their
+honourable achievements in the state, and the family archives. (See
+DOMUS.)
+
+=Tabor=, =Tabour=, O. E. A very loud drum “which is bad for people’s
+heads, for, if stretched tight and struck hard, it may be heard at half
+a league’s distance.”
+
+=Tabouret.= An embroidery frame.
+
+=Tabret=, Heb. A small _tabor_.
+
+=Tabula=, R. and Chr. (1) Literally, a _plank_, and thence used to
+denote a variety of objects made of wood or planks, as for instance a
+bench; a dice-table; a waxed writing-tablet (_tabula cerata_); a
+panel-painting; a votive-tablet; a voting-ticket. (2) Arch. Properly any
+solid construction adapted for superficial decoration, as the _frontal_
+of an altar. “The most remarkable example of the _tabula_ destined for
+the front of the Altar, is preserved in Westminster Abbey; it is formed
+of wood, elaborately carved, painted and enriched with a kind of mosaic
+work of coloured glass, superficially inlaid, a species of decoration of
+Italian origin.” (Consult _Parker’s Glossary_ s.v.) (3) In Christian
+archæology, _tabulæ nuptiales_ or _dotales_ was the name given to the
+parchment scrolls in the hands of persons who figure in the marriage
+scenes represented on tombs.
+
+=Tabularium=, R. A place set apart in the temples at Rome where the
+public records were kept.
+
+=Tace=, Chr. The cross or crutch of St. Anthony.
+
+=Taces.= (See TASSETS.) The _skirts_ or _coverings_ to the pockets.
+(_Meyrick._)
+
+=Taces.= Overlapping plates of armour to envelope the abdomen (see
+TACHES), introduced in the 14th century, under Richard II.
+
+=Tack= or =Dag=, O. E. A kind of pistol: something like a _petronel_.
+
+=Tæda= or =Teda=, R. A resinous torch made with pieces and slips of the
+pine called _teda_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 644. Tænia.]
+
+=Tænia=, Gr. and R. (1) The ribbon with which a wreath or fillet round
+the head was attached. (2) In architecture, the band which separates the
+Doric frieze from the architrave; it is, in many cases, ornamented with
+painting similar to that shown in Fig. 644.
+
+=Taffeta= (Pers. _taftah_, from _taftan_, to twist). A thin, glossy
+silken fabric, having a wavy lustre; a less costly silk than CENDAL
+(q.v.), 16th century. _Stow_ records that it was first made in England
+by John Tyce, of Shoreditch, London, 41 Elizabeth, 1598.
+
+=Taille de bois=, Fr. Wood-engraving.
+
+=Taille douce=, Fr. Copper-plate engraving.
+
+=Taille dure=, Fr. Steel engraving.
+
+=Tail-piece.= An ornamental design placed at the end of a page or
+chapter of a book. In French _cul-de-lampe_.
+
+=Takel=, O. E. An arrow,—
+
+        “Wel could he dress his _takel_ yeomanly.” (_Chaucer._)
+
+=Talaria=, R. (_talus_, the ankle). Wings fixed to the ankles; the
+attribute of Mercury, Perseus, and sometimes Minerva. They are
+represented either attached to sandals, or growing from the limb.
+
+=Talbot=, Her. A badge of the Earl of Shrewsbury of that name (the
+“Scourge of France”). A silver running hound or _talbot_.
+
+=Talbotype.= The photographic process of multiplying impressions from a
+_negative_, invented by Mr. Fox Talbot. (See CALOTYPE.)
+
+=Talc= (from Germ. Talg, tallow). A translucent mineral, resembling
+_mica_ but much softer, “being calcined and variously prepared, it
+maketh a curious whitewash, which some justify lawful, because clearing
+not changing the complexion.” (_Fuller._) The Chinese make lanterns,
+shades, and ornaments of talc.
+
+=Talent=, Gr. and R. (τάλαντον, lit. a balance). A weight of silver with
+the Greeks, and of copper with the Romans; applied as a unit of value.
+The GREEK talent of silver is estimated at rather less than 250_l._
+sterling—it contained 60 _minæ_, or 6000 _drachmæ_. The ATTIC talent was
+of much smaller value, of less than an ounce of gold, and is that
+generally intended by the word. The silver talent was called _talentum
+magnum_. The JEWISH talent of silver = about 396_l._, and of gold =
+about 5475_l._ From its application as an expression of a man’s
+available wealth, metaphorically applied _in Scripture_ to resources of
+any kind, as of intellect, position, &c., for the due unselfish
+administration of which he is responsible.
+
+=Talero=, It. A Venetian silver coin = about five francs.
+
+=Talevas=, =Talvas=. (See TAVOLACE.)
+
+=Tali=, R. (Gr. ἀστράγαλος). Knuckle-bones of sheep or goats, used from
+the earliest times, exactly as they are by children now, to play with.
+When they were marked with black dots on each face they were used as
+dice. The numbers were 1, 3, 4 and 6; 1 being opposite to 6, and 3
+opposite to 4; and each number, and each cast, had its appropriate name:
+1 was called in Greek μονὰς, εἷς, κύων, Χῖος; Ionic οἴνη; Latin, _unio_,
+_vulturius_, _canis_; 3 was τριὰς, and _ternio_; 4, τετρὰς, and
+_quaternio_; 6, ἑξὰς, ἑξίτης, Κῷος, and _senio_. The best throw was that
+called _Venus_ or _jactus Venereus_, in which the four _tali_ showed
+different numbers. By this cast the player became king of the feast or
+symposium; in the _canis_ (dog-throw), on the other hand, all four dice
+turned up the same number.
+
+=Talisman= (Arab, tilsam, a magical image). A charm worn about the
+person as a protection from dangers, especially from the effects of
+magic and the “evil eye.” The _bullæ_ worn by children, and the rings of
+the ladies among the Greeks and Romans frequently contained such charms.
+The practice has survived in all ages and nations, and is not at all
+unfrequent in the 19th century, and even among the educated classes.
+
+=Tall-boys=, O. E. High cups or glasses.
+
+=Tall-men=, O. E. Loaded dice.
+
+=Tall-wood=, O. E. “Pacte wodde to make byllettes of, _taillee_.”
+(_Palsgrave._)
+
+=Talleh=, Arab. Myrrh from Abyssinia.
+
+=Tallow-cut= (Fr. _en cabuchon_). This is a term applied by lapidaries
+to precious stones not cut into regular _facets_, but ground down and
+polished.
+
+=Tally=, O. E. (Fr. _tailler_, to cut.) An ancient method of keeping
+record of monies advanced to the Royal Exchequer. A _tally_ was a piece
+of wood inscribed with a receipt, which was split by an officer, and one
+part delivered to the lender, and the other, called the _Stock_,
+preserved in the Tally-office in the Exchequer. Hence the name Stocks
+for the Government securities. After the disuse of the tallies in 1782
+the old ones were used for firing in the Houses of Parliament, and
+caused their destruction in 1834.
+
+=Talmud= (Chaldean, lit. instruction,) consists of two parts, the MISHNA
+and GEMARA; and contains the whole body of Hebrew law and traditions.
+
+=Talus.= (1) R. The game of knuckle-bones. (See ASTRAGALUS.) (2) Arch.
+The sloping part of a work, a term in fortification.
+
+=Talvace=, O. E. A shield or buckler, circular and projecting.
+
+=Talvas=, O. E. An oblong _wooden shield_, 14th century.
+
+=Tambour=, Fr. A small drum. Rich embroidery work done on a drum-shaped
+frame.
+
+=Tamboura.= An ancient musical instrument of the lute or guitar kind.
+The Hindoos represent Ganesa, the god of wisdom, as a man with the head
+of an elephant, holding a tamboura in his hands.
+
+=Tambourine.= A small drum with only one skin, played on by the hand.
+
+=Tamine=, =Taminy=, =Tammy= (Fr. _tamis_, a sieve). A thin woollen
+textile, highly glazed.
+
+=Tampion.= (See TOMPION.)
+
+=Tang-fish.= Seals are so called in the Shetlands.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 645. Flemish Tankard, silver-gilt. 17th century.]
+
+=Tankard.= (Norman Fr. Tankar.) A drinking-jug with a cover. The name is
+said to be compounded of _étain_, tin, and _quarte_, a quart measure.
+The Flemish had tankards of wood, with pegs down the sides, to measure
+the quantity drunk. (See Figs. 615 and 645.) (See POKAL.)
+
+=Tapestry.= The introduction of _tapestry_ properly so called dates from
+the 12th century, when it began to rival the more ancient embroidered
+stuffs called _Sarrazinois carpets_. Tapestry is woven on looms, i. e.
+on a _warp_ rolled round two cylinders, and stretched out between them
+either vertically or horizontally, for the insertion of the _woof_
+between and among the threads. When woven on a vertical warp, it is
+called high-warp (_haute-lisse_); when horizontal, low-warp
+(_basse-lisse_). The former produces, for many reasons, incomparably the
+finest work, and is the method adopted for the Gobelins and Savonnerie
+tapestries. The progress of the art has followed, especially in
+Flanders, that of painting, from which its models are derived. It has
+become less popular than it was during the present century, from the
+general disuse of hangings in the decoration of houses. Perhaps the best
+condensed account of this extensive subject is the work of M. Alfred de
+Champeaux, translated for the South Kensington Museum. (See BAYEUX
+TAPESTRY.)
+
+=Tapul=, O. E. The perpendicular ridge down the centre of a breastplate.
+
+=Tar-black.= A kind of _lamp-black_ prepared by the combustion of coal
+tar, or of the heavy oils of tar and schist.
+
+=Targe=, Fr. Med. A dagger or small sword: “Les autres gens avoient
+_targes_ et _semitarges_, qui sont espées de Turquie.” (See SEMITARGE.)
+
+=Targe= or =Target=, O. E. A round shield.
+
+=Targe= (or =Pavoise=) =Futée=, Fr. A shield composed of several pieces,
+which loosened on being struck, and fell asunder. The Swabian jousters
+at Maximilian’s triumph are described (_Meyrick_, vol. ii.) as bearing
+these shields.
+
+=Targe=, =Target=. (Welsh _targa_, wicker-work.)
+
+=Targum=, Chaldee (lit. interpretation). A paraphrase, or lesson from
+the Old Testament in the Chaldee language.
+
+=Tarn.= A mountain lake.
+
+=Tarots.= Emblematical cards still used in Switzerland and parts of
+Germany. “They are unknown, except as curiosities, to the Parisians and
+to ourselves; but they are, nevertheless, the sole representatives of
+the original cards which the Gipsies brought with them into Europe.”
+(_Rev. E. S. Taylor._)
+
+=Tarpaulin.= A tarred _palling_ or covering.
+
+=Tars, Cloth of.= A web of silk and the downy wool of goats of Tibet,
+the forerunner of _cashmere_.
+
+=Tarsia= or =Intarsia=. A kind of mosaic in woods; representing views of
+buildings and ornament of various kinds, by inlaying pieces of wood, of
+various colours and shades, into panels of walnut wood.
+
+=Tarsus.= In _Anatomy_, the instep and socket of the ankle-bone.
+
+=Tartan=, Fr. (_not_ Gaelic). The Highland plaid, the dress of the
+Scottish Highlanders, said to be derived from the Celta; the _Galli non
+braccati_.
+
+=Tartarium.= Cloth of Tars was a costly cloth of royal purple, probably
+a mixture of silk and goat’s hair from Thibet. It is mentioned by
+Chaucer:—
+
+                 “His coat armure was of cloth of Tars,
+                 Couched with perles.”
+
+=Tas= or =Tats=, Egyp. Amulets of gilded sycamore wood, cornelian,
+jasper, glass, &c., found suspended from the necks of mummies.
+
+=Tassel-gentle=, O. E. (for tercel-gentle). A species of hawk.
+(_Shakspeare._)
+
+=Tasses.= Flaps of armour attached to the bottom of the breastplate for
+the protection of the thighs.
+
+=Tat= or =Dad=, Egyp. A sculptor’s stool; a religious emblem worn by
+gods and sacred animals round the neck. The term was also probably a
+name of Mendés.
+
+=Tau=, =Taucross=. (1) Her. A cross formed like the letter T, so called
+in Greek. This charge is also called the Cross of St. Anthony. (2) Chr.
+As a motive for ornamental design the _tau_ is the ancient form of the
+episcopal staff as represented in the catacombs. Originally curved like
+the pagan _lituus_, it became in the 8th century straight. The Taus were
+often hollowed to contain relics, &c. (Consult _Ivories_, by _W.
+Maskell_, pp. 84, 85.)
+
+=Tauntons.= A kind of broad cloth made at Taunton in Somersetshire.
+
+=Tavolace= or =Talevas= (It. _tavolaccio_). A large thick wooden shield;
+like a _table_ (_tavola_) of wood (hence its name), 15th century.
+
+=Tawdry.= Showy. The word is _said_ to be derived from _Ethelreda
+torquem_, St. Ethelred’s necklace, which was composed of rows of twisted
+lace, an ornament much used by Anglo-Saxon ladies. (_Stormont._)
+
+=Tawdry Lace.= A kind of fine lace alluded to by Shakspeare, Spenser,
+&c. (_Halliwell._)
+
+         “Fimbriæ nundinis sanctæ Ethelredæ emptæ.” (_Coles._)
+
+=Tawney=, O. E. A deep orange colour, used in the Middle Ages as a
+_livery_ colour.
+
+=Tawney Coat=, O. E. The dress of summoner or apparitor. (_Shakspeare._)
+
+=Taxidermy.= The art of preserving the skins of animals.
+
+=Tazza=, It. An ornamental cup or vase, with a flat shallow bowl,
+standing on a foot, and with handles.
+
+=Tchy=, Chinese. Twelve recurrent periods of the cycle of sixty years,
+represented by animals assigned to the twelve months, i. e. the signs of
+the Chinese Zodiac. They are: November, the _rat_; December, the _ox_;
+January, the _tiger_; February, the _rabbit_; March, the _dragon_;
+April, the _serpent_; May, the _horse_; June, the _hare_; July, the
+_ape_; August, the _hen_; September, the _dog_; October, the _boar_. The
+above are accordingly frequent accessories of designs on porcelain.
+
+=Te Deum=, Chr. The first words and title of a hymn composed by St.
+Augustin and St. Ambrose about 390.
+
+=Tegillum=, E. (dimin. of _tegulum_, a roof). A short mantle with a
+hood, made of a coarse material; worn by country people and fishermen.
+
+=Tegula=, R. (Gr. κέραμος; Lat. _tego_, to cover). A roofing tile;
+originally of baked clay or wooden shingles. At an early date (620 B.C.)
+tiles of marble were introduced, and were followed by tiles of gilded
+bronze; _per tegulas exire_ means to go out by the opening in the roof
+of the atrium, the compluvium.
+
+=Teheran Ware.= An inferior Persian majolica.
+
+=Tela=, R. A loom, an essential adjunct to every large establishment in
+ancient Rome; _tela jugalis_ was the simplest description of
+weaving-loom. The _warp_ was called _stamen_ from its upright position;
+the _woof_ subtegmen or trama. In Greek στήμων and κρόκη.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 646. Telamon.]
+
+=Telamones=, R. Figures of men, which were employed in lieu of columns
+to support an entablature. (See ATLANTES.) (Fig. 646.)
+
+=Temo=, R. The pole of a carriage, waggon, plough, &c.
+
+=Tempera Painting.= Painting with pigments mixed with chalk or clay, and
+diluted with weak glue or size; chiefly used in scene-painting and
+decoration. (See DISTEMPER.)
+
+=Templars.= An order of knighthood introduced about A. D. 1118, and
+suppressed A. D. 1309. They wore a red Maltese cross on a white field,
+and bore a _banner_ showing that cross on a white field; and a second
+banner of black and white called Beau Séant, this word Beau Séant being
+their battle-cry. Their _badges_ were the AGNUS DEI, or Lamb and Flag;
+and a device representing two knights on one horse, indicating the
+original poverty of the order. This is blazoned in modern times as a
+_pegasus_, the two knights being mistaken for wings on a _flying horse_.
+
+=Template.= (1) A model in thin board of an ornament to be produced in
+sculpture. (2) A short timber under a girder.
+
+=Temple.= (See TEMPLUM.)
+
+=Temple Church=, London—a round church—is a representative specimen of
+the transition period of architecture in England from the NORMAN to the
+EARLY ENGLISH. “The Eastern part is a most excellent specimen of plain
+light Early English, and its growing and slender piers are perhaps
+unequalled.” (_Rickman, Architecture in England_, &c.)
+
+=Templet.= (See TEMPLATE.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 647. Templum in antis.]
+
+=Templum=, =Temple=, R. (τέμνω, to cut off). A Greek temple was not
+originally intended for worshippers, but as a shrine for the gods. In
+the earliest times the Greek temples were made of wood, and the
+primitive origin of them was probably a hollow tree in which the image
+was placed as in a niche. The early Greek temples were dark and gloomy,
+having no windows, but lighted through the door, or by lamps. At a very
+early stage in history, temples of great grandeur and beauty are
+mentioned. All temples were built in an oblong or round form, and were
+mostly adorned with columns; they were classified accordingly as
+_astyle_, without any columns; _in antis_, with two columns in front,
+between the _antæ_; _prostyle_, with four columns in front; or
+_amphiprostyle_, with four columns at each end; _peripteral_, with
+columns at each end and along the sides; or _dipteral_, with two ranges
+of columns all round, one within the other, &c. They were also described
+according to the number of columns in the porticoes, as _tetrastyle_,
+_hexastyle_, _decastyle_, &c.,—this number was never uneven; or
+according to the intercolumniation, as _pycnostyle_, _systyle_,
+_eustyle_, _diastyle_, or _aræostyle_. Many of the great temples
+consisted of three parts: the _pronaos_ or vestibule; the _cella_,
+properly the _naos_; and the _opisthodomos_.
+
+=Tendrils= of a vine or other creeping plant, with which it clasps the
+objects that support it, furnish abundant suggestions for ornamental
+designs in scroll-work.
+
+=Tenebrosi.= A school of Italian artists who devoted their attention to
+striking _Rembrandt_ effects of light and shade; represented by
+Caravaggio.
+
+=Tenent=, =Tenant=. A term in French heraldry applied to human figures
+as SUPPORTERS.
+
+=Tennée= or =Tawney=, Her. A deep orange colour, indicated by vertical
+lines crossing PURPURE.
+
+=Tenon.= The end of a piece of wood, shaped to fit into another piece.
+
+=Tenor.= In Music, a high male voice.
+
+=Tensa= or =Thensa=, R. A triumphal car, probably in the form of a
+platform on wheels, and richly decorated, upon which the images of
+certain gods were paraded during the Circensian games. The ceremony was
+regarded as one of the highest solemnity, and the car was escorted by
+the senators in robes of state, who helped to drag the carriage or to
+lead the horses, with thongs attached for the purpose.
+
+=Tenture=, Fr. Paper or tapestry hangings.
+
+=Tepidarium=, R. (_tepidus_, lukewarm). (1) A warm room in a bath; used
+as a preparation for the SUDATORIUM. (2) The vessel in which the water
+was heated.
+
+=Tercel=, O. E. The male hawk. (_Shakspeare._)
+
+=Terce major.= A sequence of three best cards.
+
+=Terebenthina.= Turpentine.
+
+=Terebra=, R. (_tero_, to rub or wear away). (1) Any tool used for
+boring, such as a drill, a gimlet, an auger, &c. (2) A mechanical ram
+contrived to pierce the walls of a fortification.
+
+=Terginum=, R. (_tergum_, the back). A leathern lash used for flogging
+slaves.
+
+=Terminal Figures.= Statues of the god Terminus. (See TERMINI, HERMÆ.)
+
+=Terminalia=, R. Festivals in honour of Terminus the god of boundaries;
+they took place yearly on the eighth day of the calends of March (23rd
+of February), which was the last day of the old Roman year.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 648. Terminus.]
+
+=Termini=, =Terms=, R. The statues of the god TERMINUS, which consisted
+merely of posts or pillars for landmarks, were crowned with garlands by
+the proprietors of co-terminous lands.
+
+  “When Tarquin the Proud desired to build a temple to Jupiter upon the
+  Tarpeian rock, he begged all the inferior divinities to give up the
+  altars they had upon the rock in favour of the master of them all. All
+  the gods cheerfully consented except Terminus. This Terminus,
+  therefore, who refused to yield to Jupiter, was chosen by Erasmus for
+  his haughty device, with the motto _Cedo nulli_.” (_Mr. Palliser_,
+  _Historic Devices, &c._) (See Fig. 648.)
+
+=Terra-cotta=, It. Baked clay; largely used in architectural ornament.
+
+=Terra da Boccali=, It. (See TERRA DI LAVA.)
+
+=Terra di Lava=, It. A clay which was anciently used in combination with
+charcoal to form a white ground for the reception of oil colours.
+
+=Terra di Siena.= An ochreous earth producing a yellow and a deep orange
+pigment; useful for oil and water-colour painting. (See SIENA.)
+
+=Terra Nera.= Black earth; an ancient pigment.
+
+=Terra Verde.= (See GREEN EARTH.)
+
+=Terraglia.= (See POTTERY.)
+
+=Terretta=, It. (See TERRA DI LAVA.)
+
+=Terry Velvet.= A kind of silk plush or ribbed velvet.
+
+=Tertiary Colours=, produced by the mixture of two secondary colours,
+are _greys_, inclining to the primary or secondary colour which is in
+excess in their composition. (Consult _Chevreuil on Colours_.)
+
+=Teruncius=, R. A silver coin equal in value to one-fourth of an as.
+
+=Tessela=, R. (diminutive of _tessera_). A small cube of stone or marble
+used for making mosaic pavements (_tesselatum opus_ or _tesselata
+structura_).
+
+=Tesselated pavement.= Inlaid or mosaic work composed of _tesselæ_.
+_Tesselatum flagrum._ (See FLAGRUM.) Cf. MUSIVUM OPUS. (Consult _Buckman
+and Newmarch_, _Remains of Roman Art in Cirencester_.)
+
+=Tessera=, R. (Gr. κύβος). A cube, a die; _tesseræ_, _tesseræ lusoriæ_,
+dice of ivory, bone, or wood; the dice-box is _fritillus_. (Compare
+TALUS.) _Tessera hospitalis_ was an oblong token of wood or earthenware,
+exchanged among families agreed to mutual hospitality. Many of these
+tokens have the bust of Jupiter Hospitalis impressed; _tessera
+theatralis_, a pass to the theatre; _tessera militaris_ (Gr. σύνθημα), a
+tablet on which the watch-word or war-cry of the day was written; it was
+passed about the ranks before joining battle. _Tesseræ frumentariæ_ or
+_nummariæ_, vouchers for bread or money distributed by the magistrates
+among the poor. (Cf. TESSELA, TALUS, TABULÆ.)
+
+=Testa=, R. A sherd of tiles or pottery, and thence an earthenware vase.
+
+=Testaceum=, R. (_testa_). Made of tiles; the term was used to denote a
+roofing or pavement made with the fragments of broken tiles.
+
+=Tester.= (1) Any flat _canopy_. The framework over a four-post
+bedstead. (2) A silver coin so called from the head (_teste_) of the
+king upon it. In the reign of Henry VIII. it was worth 12_d._ and
+afterwards 6_d._ French testers were struck by Louis XII. in 1513, and
+Scotch under Queen Mary in 1559.
+
+=Testière=, Med. Fr. Originally, mailed armour for a horse’s head,
+subsequently a plate between the ears on which a crest was fixed. (See
+CHANFRON.)
+
+=Testif=, Fr. Camel’s hair.
+
+=Testudinatus=, R. Made in the form of a TESTUDO (q.v.); the term was
+applied either to a roof or a ceiling.
+
+=Testudineus=, R. Made with tortoise-shells.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 649. Testudo.]
+
+=Testudo=, R. (_testa_, a shell). (1) A tortoise, and thence a lyre of
+which the sounding bottom was made out of a tortoise-shell. (2) In
+Architecture, an arched ceiling, the four sides of which converge to a
+centre. (3) _Testudo arietaria_ was a movable wooden shed covered with
+skins and containing a battering-ram (Fig. 574). (4) Lastly the term
+denoted a kind of defensive roof formed by the shields of soldiers when
+advancing to the foot of a rampart (Fig. 649).
+
+=Tetra-chordon=, Gr. and R. (τετρά-χορδον). Literally, having four
+strings; _hydraulos tetrachordon_ was a hydraulic organ with four pipes.
+
+=Tetra-comus=, Gr. A banqueting-song sung at the festival of Bacchus
+during the fourth course (κῶμος).
+
+=Tetra-doros= (sc. _later_), Gr. A peculiar kind of brick described by
+Vitruvius; it was called from its measuring four hand-breadths.
+
+=Tetra-drachmum=, Gr. (τετρά-δραχμον). An Attic silver coin of the value
+of four _drachmæ_, or about 3_s._ 3_d._
+
+=Tetra-foliated=, Arch. Said of any architectural decoration showing
+four foils.
+
+=Tetragon.= A plane figure having four angles; a four-sided figure.
+
+=Tetra-morph=, Chr. (Gr. τέσσαρα, four; μορφὴ, shape). The union of the
+four attributes of the Evangelists (the angel, eagle, lion, and ox), in
+one figure, e. g. as a woman crowned and seated on an animal which, with
+the body of a horse, has the four heads of the mystic creatures; and of
+the four feet one is human, one hoofed for the ox, one clawed like an
+eagle’s, and one like a lion’s; underneath is inscribed _Animal
+Ecclesiæ_.
+
+=Tetra-style=, Gr. and R. (τετράστυλος). Having four columns. (See
+TEMPLUM.)
+
+=Tetra-vela=, Lat. “The veils or curtains placed between the pillars
+which supported the canopy of the altar, at the sides and in front, and
+which were drawn round it when the priest was not officiating.”
+(_Fairholt._)
+
+=Teutonic Order.= A military order of knights, established in the Holy
+Land about 1191. They first subdued and Christianized Prussia.
+
+=Tewel=, Arch. (From the French _tuyau_.) A pipe or flue to convey
+smoke; it is mentioned by Chaucer:
+
+            “... Soche a smoke gan out wende
+            Blacke, blue and greenish, swartishe, rede,
+            As doith where that men melte lede,
+            Lo! all on hie from the _tewell_.”
+                                          (_House of Fame._)
+
+=Textile=, R. (_texo_, to weave). Woven. Anything capable of being
+woven.
+
+=Texture.= In Art, the _surface_ appearance of a representation not of
+textiles only, but of the other parts of a picture—wood, marble, skin,
+hair, &c. Gerard Dow excels in _texture_.
+
+=Thalamifera=, Gr. A term applied, in describing ancient sculpture, to
+kneeling figures supporting tablets, on which figures of the gods or
+inscriptions are carved.
+
+=Thalamus=, Gr. and R. (θάλαμος). The nuptial chamber in a Roman house;
+the others were called DORMITORIA.
+
+=Thalysia=, Gr. (θαλύ-σια). Greek festivals of the harvest and vintage.
+
+=Thargelia=, Gr. (θαργήλια). Very ancient festivals held at Athens on
+the occasion of a plague or other public disaster in honour of Apollo
+and Artemis; in which two persons, generally criminals, were put to
+death for the _purification_ of the city.
+
+=Thaumaturgi=, Chr. (θαυματο-εργός). Workers of miracles.
+
+=Theatrum=, =Theatre=, Gr. and R. (θέατρον, lit. a place for seeing).
+The construction of the ancient GREEK theatre was similar to that of
+modern theatres. The seats rose one behind and above the other in
+concentric half-circles, and the whole space enclosed was called
+_cavea_, the pit, being in most cases a real excavation from the rock.
+The central level space within and below the circles for spectators was
+covered with boards, upon which the _chorus_ danced and performed their
+part. This was the ORCHESTRA, the central point of which and of the plan
+of the whole building was the THYMELE, or altar of Dionysus. This altar
+became a _property_ of the piece, doing duty as a funeral monument, an
+altar, or a pulpit for the leader of the chorus or flute-player,
+according to the nature of the performance going on, in which it must be
+remembered that the part assigned to the _chorus_ in the orchestra below
+was quite as important as any other, and in its original intention was
+in fact the centre of interest, to which the performance on the stage
+was _accessory_. The whole theatre and orchestra were open to the sky.
+The cavea of the former accommodated about 50,000 spectators. The
+arrangements of the stage were elaborate and ingenious, and the art of
+_scene-painting_ developed at a very early period. The ROMAN theatre
+differed from the Greek principally in the absence of an _orchestra_,
+that space (the modern _pit_) being used for the seats of senators,
+foreign ambassadors, &c. Remains of ancient theatres still exist in
+Greece, Italy, and France. The most perfect of these are the Colosseum
+at Rome, and the amphitheatre at Nismes.
+
+=Theca Calamaria=, Gr. and R. (θήκη; τίθημι, to put into). A portable
+inkstand.
+
+=Thenard’s Blue.= (See COBALT.)
+
+=Thensa.= (See TENSA.)
+
+=Theo-gamia=, Gr. (θεο-γάμια). Greek festivals held in honour of
+Proserpine and commemorating her marriage with Pluto.
+
+=Theorbo.= A stringed musical instrument; a kind of lute, having
+supplementary strings by the side of the finger-board.
+
+=Thermæ=, Gr. and R. (θέρμαι, lit. hot-springs). Distinguished from
+_balneæ_. The luxurious establishments for bathing, gymnastics, and
+conversation which grew up under the Roman Empire, on which all the
+resources of architecture and decorative art were lavished. The ruins of
+the _thermæ_ of Titus, Caracalla, and Diocletian are still visible. They
+contained, besides the baths properly so called, “_exedræ_ for
+philosophers and rhetoricians to lecture in, _porticoes_ for the idle,
+and libraries for the learned, and were adorned with marbles and
+fountains, and shaded with walks and plantations.”
+
+=Thermography.= A chemical process for copying prints and drawings upon
+paper or metal by the agency of _heat_ without light.
+
+=Thermopolium=, R. (θερμο-πώλιον). A refreshment-room, in which warm
+drinks were sold, such as mulled wine, mead, &c.
+
+=Thermulæ= (dimin. of _thermæ_). Baths on a small scale.
+
+=Thesaurus=, Gr. A treasure-house. In the monuments of the heroic period
+many subterranean buildings of great extent and peculiar construction
+have been attributed to this purpose; but they may more probably have
+been sepulchral. In historical times the public treasures were in the
+_agoræ_ or the temples. (See ÆRARIUM.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 650. Part of the Frieze of the Temple of Theseus,
+Athens.]
+
+=Theseum.= An Athenian temple built in the 5th century B.C., to receive
+the bones of Theseus. It was richly ornamented with statuary and
+sculpture. The former has been destroyed; but some metopes and
+sculptured friezes in high relief remain, of which castings exist in the
+British Museum. Our illustration represents an incident of the “Battle
+of the gods and the giants,” and is remarkable for anatomical precision.
+In these sculptures Greek art has entirely emerged from the _archaic_
+stage, and they were doubtless the inspiring models for Pheidias and his
+contemporaries, and the forerunners of the Parthenon sculptures. (See
+ELGIN MARBLES.)
+
+=Thesmo-phoria.= Greek festivals of women and maidens in honour of
+Demeter, in commemoration of the traditions of civilized life. The
+solemnities opened with processions of women bearing on their heads the
+books of the sacred laws (ascribed to Demeter). On the second day, of
+fasting and mourning, the women remained all day grouped round the
+statue of Demeter in the temple, taking no other food than cakes of
+sesame and honey, and in the afternoon walked barefoot in procession
+behind a waggon on which baskets with mystical symbols were borne to the
+_thesmophorion_. On the third day they commemorated the smiles of
+Demeter, under the epithet of καλλιγένεια.
+
+=Thibet Cloth.= A fabric of goat’s hair; called also _camlet_.
+
+=Thick-pleached=, O. E. Thickly interwoven. (_Shakspeare._)
+
+=Thieves’ Vinegar.= A kind of aromatic vinegar for a sick-room,
+consisting of the dried tops of rosemary, sage-leaves, lavender-flowers,
+and bruised cloves, steeped in acetic acid and boiling water. It derives
+its name and popularity from a story that thieves who plundered the dead
+bodies during the plague with perfect security, attributed their
+impunity to the use of this disinfectant. (_Simmonds’ Commercial
+Dictionary._)
+
+=Thimbles= are said to have been found at Herculaneum. The manufacture
+was introduced into England, from Holland, about 1695.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 651. Badge of the Thistle.]
+
+=Thistle=, Her. The national badge of Scotland represented after its
+natural aspect and tinctured proper. The Order of the Thistle of
+Scotland was instituted a long time before the union of the two kingdoms
+(commemorated in the badge selected by James I. of the rose and thistle
+combined). (Fig. 293.) The badge or jewel is of gold enamelled, having a
+figure of St. Andrew holding his silver saltire and surrounded by rays,
+and an oval border with the motto. It is borne from the collar of the
+order formed of thistles alternating with bunches of rue sprigs, or on a
+dark green ribbon across the shoulder. The order of the _Ecu d’Or_,
+instituted by Louis of Bourbon (1410), had also a _thistle_ in the jewel
+and girdle.
+
+=Tholus=, Gr. and R. (θόλος). A dome and cupola of a circular building.
+
+=Thorax=, Gr. (θώραξ). (1) A breastplate; Latin LORICA (q.v.). (2) A
+bust of wax, marble, or bronze.
+
+=Three-pile=, O. E. Rich velvet.
+
+=Three-quarter.= A size of portrait; 30 inches by 25. (See PORTRAIT
+PAINTING.)
+
+=Thrones=, Chr. An order of angels, usually represented with double
+wings, supporting the Throne of the Almighty in ethereal space.
+
+=Through-stone= or =Throwstone=, O. E. (variously spelt, derived from
+Anglo-Saxon, _thruh_, a coffin.) A flat grave-stone. Parker gives in his
+“Glossary” the following quotation:—
+
+  “Over the midst of the said vault did lie a fair _throwstone_, and at
+  each either side of the stone it was open, through which were cast the
+  bones of the monks whose graves were opened for other monks to lie in;
+  which vault was made to be a charnel-house to put dead men’s bones
+  in.”
+
+                                            (_Ancient Rites of Durham._)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 652. Thurible. An Arabic incense-burner in brass,
+inlaid with silver.]
+
+=Thurible=, Chr. An incense-burner. Generally of bronze. The practice of
+burning incense in religious functions is very ancient, and originated
+in the East. The illustration (Fig. 652) is a beautiful specimen of
+Arabian work devoted to this object.
+
+=Thurles=, O. E. (holes through the wall). The small windows of a house;
+12th century.
+
+=Thyas= or =Thias=, Gr. A Bacchante, the Greek equivalent for the Latin
+BACCHA.
+
+=Thymela=, =Thymelê=, Gr. (θυμέλη). (Literally, a place for sacrifice.)
+An altar placed in the orchestra of a Greek theatre and dedicated to
+Bacchus.
+
+=Thyroma=, Gr. (θύρωμα). A synonym for the Latin JANUA (q.v.).
+
+=Thyrsus=, R. (θύρσος). A long staff, surmounted with a fir-cone, or a
+bunch of vine-leaves or ivy, with grapes or berries, carried by Bacchus,
+and the satyrs, mænads, and others, during the celebration of religious
+rites. Beneath the garland or fir-cone the thyrsus ends in the sharp
+point of a spear, a puncture from which induces madness.
+
+=Tiara=, Gr. (τιάρα). A hat with a tall high crown; the characteristic
+head-dress of the north-western Asiatics; especially the Armenians,
+Parthians, Medes, and Persians. _Tiara recta_ or cidaris was an upright
+tiara, the regal head-dress of Persia. _Tiara Phrygia_ was a synonym for
+MITRA. Fig. 653 represents the head-dress and costume of a Persian
+soldier.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 653. Persian soldier wearing the _tiara_.]
+
+=Tiara=, Chr. The Pope’s triple crown, emblematic of his authority in
+the three kingdoms of heaven, earth, and the lower world. (See Fig.
+653.)
+
+=Tibia=, R. (Greek, _aulos_). A pipe or flute of reed, bone, ivory,
+horn, or metal, perforated with holes for the notes like a flute; the
+principal varieties were:—the _monaulos_ or single pipe, including the
+bagpipe (_utricolarius_); the _diaulos_, or double pipe, bound round the
+cheeks with a bandage called by the Romans _capistrum_, and in Greek
+_phorbeia_; and the _syrinx_ or Pandæan pipe, of three to nine tubes.
+
+=Tibia Curva=, R. A kind of flute curved at its broadest end.
+
+=Tibia Dextra=, R. The right-hand pipe of the _diaulos_, usually
+constructed of the upper and thinner part of a reed.
+
+=Tibia Gingrina=, R. A flute made of a long thin tube of reed with a
+mouth-hole at the side of one end.
+
+=Tibia Ligula=, R. A flute resembling the modern flageolet.
+
+=Tibia Longa=, R. A flute used especially in religious worship.
+
+=Tibia Obliqua=, R. A flute having the mouthpiece at right angles to the
+tube.
+
+=Tibia Sinistra=, R. The left-hand pipe of the _diaulos_, usually
+constructed of the lower and broader part of a reed.
+
+=Tibia Utricolarius=, R. The ancient bagpipe.
+
+=Tibia Vasca=, R. A flute having the mouthpiece at a right angle.
+
+=Tibiæ Pares=, R. A name for the double flute when the tubes were
+exactly alike, _impares_ when they differed.
+
+=Tie-beam=, Arch. The strong horizontal on which the king-post and other
+uprights rest, which support the beams of a roof.
+
+=Tierce=, =Per Tierce=, Her. Divided into three equal parts.
+
+=Tig=, O. E. A shallow drinking-bowl with four handles, made to pass
+round the table from hand to hand as a _loving cup_.
+
+=Tiger-wood=, obtained from Guiana, is a valuable ornamental wood for
+cabinet-work.
+
+=Tignum=, R. In a general sense wood used in carpentry, a beam or joist;
+in a more restricted sense, a tie-beam, rafters, brackets, &c.
+
+=Tigrinæ.= Tiger-tables. Great importance was attached in Roman
+decorative art to the grain of the wood. Tables having “veins arranged
+in wavy lines,” were called Tigrinæ, from the resemblance of their
+pattern to that of a tiger’s skin. Those having “veins which formed
+spirals, or little whirlpools,” were called _pantherinæ_, or
+panther-tables.
+
+=Tiles= for roofs are of two kinds:—plain tiles and pan tiles; they are
+mentioned in an ancient statute of King Edward IV. (1477), regulating
+the
+
+  “Fesure, whitying, et anelyng de tewle, appelez pleintile, autrement
+  nosmez thaktile, roftile, ou crestile, cornertile et guttertile fait
+  et affaire deinz cest Roialme.”
+
+_Glazed_ or _encaustic tiles_ were anciently much used for paving sacred
+edifices. English designs are generally heraldic in character. In
+Spanish architecture tiles were used for the decoration of walls instead
+of hangings; and richly decorated pavements are found in Asia Minor and
+the East Indies. (Consult _Parker’s Glossary_, _J. G. Nichols_,
+_Examples of Tiles_, &c.)
+
+=Tilt=, O. E. The word is properly applied to the exercises in training
+for the joust, against the QUINTAIN, the PEL, the ring, and other
+objects.
+
+=Timbre=, Her. (1) Anciently, the _crest_; (2) Modern French, the
+_helm_, in a coat of arms.
+
+=Timbrel.= An ancient _tambourine_, with a double row of gingles.
+
+=Tin-glazed Wares.= (See POTTERY.)
+
+=Tina=, R. A large vessel used for holding wine; its shape is unknown.
+
+=Tinctures=, Her. The two metals and the five colours of heraldry.
+
+=Tint= of colour = degree of intensity. In painting in oils this is
+lowered by the addition of a white pigment, in water-colours by
+dilution. “_Tint_ is any unbroken state of any colour, varying between
+the intensity of its parent colour and the purity of white.” (_J. B.
+Pyne, in the Art Union of 1844._) (See TONES.)
+
+=Tint-tools.= In copper and wood-engraving, gravers used for skies,
+still waters, architecture, &c. The word “tint” in engraving means
+colour, and skies are _tints_ cut horizontally.
+
+=Tintinnabulatus=, R. Carrying a bell (_tintinnabulum_); a term applied
+especially to animals which carried a bell hung round their neck.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 654. Tintinnabulum. Front view.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 655. Tintinnabulum. Side view.]
+
+=Tintinnabulum=, R. (Gr. κώδων). A bell used as a hand-bell; they took
+very various forms in antiquity, hemispherical, pear-shaped, or
+cylindrical, and some were square. The Romans also made use of a kind of
+swinging gong similar to that shown in Figs. 654 and 655, of a specimen
+discovered at Pompeii, and now in the Naples museum.
+
+=Tintinnabulum=, O. E. A musical instrument made of a set of bells,
+arranged in order within a frame.
+
+=Tints.= (See TONE.)
+
+=Tiraz=, Arab. The ancient name of the apartment in an Arab palace set
+apart for weaving; also of the rich silken stuffs woven there.
+
+=Tire Valiant= or =Volant=, O. E. A kind of head-dress. (_Shakspeare._)
+
+=Titulus=, R. (1) The title or INDEX of a book. (2) A notice in front of
+a house to be let or sold. (3) An epitaph or other inscription on
+monuments. (4) A large board mounted on a spear and inscribed with the
+numbers of the prisoners, cities, and standards that had been captured
+from the enemy; carried in a TRIUMPH or OVATION.
+
+=Tobine.= A stout twilled silk.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 656. Roman Senator wearing the toga.]
+
+=Toga=, R. (_tego_, to cover). The principal outer garment of a Roman,
+as the PALLIUM (q.v.) was the national dress of the Greek. Among the
+different kinds of toga were the _toga restricta_, _toga fusa_, _toga
+prætexta_, _toga pura_ or _virilis_, _toga palmata_, _toga picturata_,
+&c. The colour of the toga was ordinarily white. _Candidates_ (from
+_candidus_, white) were so called from their whitening their togas with
+chalk; the _toga pulla_, of the natural colour of black wool, was worn
+in mourning; the _toga picta_, or embroidered toga, was for generals on
+their triumphs. (See also PRÆTEXTA, TRABEA, &c.) The illustration (Fig.
+656) represents the statue of a Roman senator of the Augustan age.
+
+=Togatus=, R. Wearing the _toga_; essentially the Roman costume, opposed
+to _palliatus_, a man in the Greek dress.
+
+=Togula=, R. (dimin. of _toga_). (1) A toga of a fine texture; or (2)
+the short and threadbare toga of coarse texture, worn by a poor man, who
+then went by the name of _togatulus_.
+
+=Toilinet.= A textile of silk or cotton warp, with woollen weft.
+
+=Toise.= In French lineal measurement = 76 inches.
+
+=Toison d’Or=, Her. The Golden Fleece. A French order of knighthood,
+instituted by Philip the Good in 1429. The order has a king at arms
+called Toison d’Or. The collar is composed of flint-stones, alternately
+with double _fusils_ placed two and two together, forming double B’s.
+From this suspends a Golden Fleece. The motto is, “Pretium non vile
+laborum.” (See FUSIL.)
+
+=Tokens.= Small coins issued by tradesmen for current money. (Consult
+_W. Boyne’s Tokens_, &c.)
+
+=Tolleno=, R. (_tollo_, to lift). (1) A contrivance for drawing water
+from a well, made of a strong cross-bar poised from the top of an
+upright beam, with a weight at one end and a rope and bucket at the
+other. (2) A similar apparatus was used in siege operations to lift
+soldiers up to a wall.
+
+=Tom-tom.= Oriental small drum, of a barrel form, covered at each end
+with skin, carried obliquely, and beaten with one hand at each end.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 657. Lycian Tomb of great antiquity.]
+
+=Tomb.= From the earliest ages tombs similar in general design to those
+of modern times have been used to mark the resting-places of the dead.
+Fig. 657 represents an ancient monument in Lycia. (See STELA, SHRINE.)
+
+=Tombac.= Red brass; the white tombac is an alloy of copper and zinc,
+containing not more than 20 per cent. of zinc.
+
+=Tompion.= The plug to the mouth of a cannon.
+
+=Tondi=, It. A name given to a series of twelve circular medallions,
+painted by Luca della Robbia, with impersonations of the twelve months.
+
+=Tondino=, It. A name given to small plates or dishes, which it was a
+mediæval fashion for the gallants to present, filled with
+confectioneries, to ladies. They are described as small, with a wide
+flat brim and sunk centre; in this, the central medallion generally
+occupied by a figure of Cupid, hearts tied by ribbons or pierced with
+arrows, or by joined hands, and similar amatory devices, or with a
+shield of arms and initial letters, &c.
+
+=Tones= are the modifications which a colour, in its greatest intensity,
+is capable of receiving from _white_, which _lowers_ its tone, or
+_black_ which _heightens_ it. A _scale_ is an assemblage of tones of the
+same colour, thus modified. The pure colour is the _normal tone_ of the
+scale. _Hues_ are the modifications which a colour receives from the
+addition of a small quantity of another colour. (_Chevreuil on Colour_,
+pp. 34, 35.)
+
+=Tonometer.= A delicate instrument for tuning musical instruments, by
+marking the number of vibrations.
+
+=Tonstrina=, R. A barber’s shop; frequented only by the middle classes;
+the rich were shaved at their houses; and the poor allowed their beards
+and hair to grow.
+
+=Tonsure=, Chr. The clerical crown, adopted, it is said, in imitation of
+St. Peter, or of the Crown of Thorns, was disapproved of in the 4th
+century as pertaining only to penitents; and not made essential till the
+end of the 5th or beginning of the 6th centuries.
+
+=Tontisse=, Fr. Flock-paper; paper-hangings ornamented with flock-wool.
+
+=Tooth-Ornament=, Arch. A name of the NAILHEAD moulding. It is the
+peculiar distinction of the Early English style, to which it is nearly,
+if not exclusively, confined. It is the regular progression from the
+Norman _zigzag_ to the delicate _quatrefoil_ of the DECORATED ENGLISH.
+It resembles a succession of low, square, pierced pyramids set on the
+edges of a hollow moulding.
+
+=Toothing=, Arch. Projecting bricks left at the end of a wall, to form a
+_union_ with any further buildings.
+
+=Topaz.= There are two varieties of this gem; the Brazilian yellow,
+which is the best known, and the Oriental.
+
+=Topaz=, Her. In blazoning arms of nobles, the names of _gems_ were
+sometimes substituted for _tinctures_; the topaz for gold (OR).
+
+=Topes=, Hind. Buddhist sepulchral monuments, cone-shaped, and round at
+the tops, like the _dagobs_ of Ava and Ceylon.
+
+=Topiaria= (Ars), R. Artificial training of shrubs and trees into
+fantastic shapes. Painted representations of landscapes on the walls of
+houses were called TOPIA. (See HORTUS.)
+
+=Topiarius=, R. A gardener skilled in the ARS TOPIARIA (q.v.).
+
+=Torale=, R. (_torus_, a couch). The hanging valance of a couch.
+
+=Torch=, R. The emblem of marriage, from the custom of forming wedding
+processions in the evening by torch-light. Upright, the torch was the
+emblem of rejoicing; reversed, of death or sleep; hence its application
+upon funereal monuments.
+
+=Torcular=, =Torculum=, R. A wine or oil-press. Hence—
+
+=Torcularium=, R. The press-room.
+
+=Toreador=, Sp. A bull-fighter.
+
+=Toreuma=, Gr. and R. (τόρευμα). _Carving upon ivory_ executed on the
+lathe.
+
+=Toreutic Art= (from τορεύω, to bore through; _or_ from τορός, clear,
+distinct). Sculpture; especially of metals, ivories, metallic castings
+in relief, &c. A long essay on the meaning of this word occurs in the
+works of De Quincy.
+
+=Tormentum=, R. (1) (_Torqueo_, to twist.) A general term for such
+instruments as the _balista_, _catapulta_, _onager_, _scorpio_, &c.,
+from the twisting of the strands of the ropes that were used as the
+string to the bow. (2) Torture. By the Greek law the evidence of slaves
+was _always_ extracted by torture. In Rome free persons _in humble
+circumstances_ were also subjected to it in cases of treason.
+
+=Tornus=, Gr. and R. A lathe or potter’s wheel.
+
+=Torquatus=, R. Wearing the Gallic TORQUE. _Torquatus miles_, a soldier
+who received such a collar as a reward, and wore it, not round the neck,
+but on the breast, like a decoration.
+
+=Torques=, Gen. (_torqueo_, to twist). A necklace, or armlet, or collar
+of gold or other wire spirally twisted. (See ARMILLA, MONILE, &c.)
+
+=Torse=, Her. A crest-wreath. (See ORLE.)
+
+=Torso=, It. In Sculpture, the trunk regarded apart from the head and
+limbs. The celebrated Torso of Hercules, in the Vatican, by Apollonios,
+about 336 B.C., is said to have been the favourite inspiration of
+Michael Angelo. Another fine torso is that known as the Farnese, in the
+Naples Museum, representing probably a seated figure of Bacchus.
+
+=Torteau=, Her. A red ROUNDLE (q.v.).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 658. Tortoise. Device of the Duke of Tuscany.]
+
+=Tortoise.= Among the Egyptians the tortoise was an emblem of darkness
+and of death. Fig. 129 is the remarkable device of Cosmo, Grand Duke of
+Tuscany, with the motto, “Hasten slowly,” i. e. have caution with
+energy.
+
+=Tortoise-shell= is largely used for making combs, and for veneering on
+cabinet-work. When it is softened with hot water, it receives
+impressions which become permanent if it is suddenly cooled. The plates
+used are those found on the back of the sea-turtle (_chelone
+imbricata_). Five large plates are obtained from the middle of the
+carapace or upper buckler, and four large ones from the sides, called
+“blades,” and twenty-five smaller plates from the edges, called “feet or
+noses.” The belly shells are of a yellow colour, and are used for the
+purposes of horn.
+
+=Torus=, R. Anything swelling like the strand of a rope. A bed covered
+with sheets or blankets (_toralia_).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 659. Torus moulding.]
+
+=Torus=, Arch. A convex moulding used in architectural decoration (Fig.
+659) at all periods and by all nations.
+
+=Touchstone= is a kind of black jasper, known as _Lydian stone_, used
+for testing gold. This is done with _touching_-needles tipped with metal
+in various states of alloy, and the streaks that they make on the
+touchstone determine the fineness of the gold. In Architecture, certain
+black marbles were anciently so called, from their supposed identity
+with the _lapis Lydius_.
+
+=Tough=, Turkish. A Turkish standard; a _horse-tail_ attached to the
+upper part of a pike which ends in a crescent and ball.
+
+=Tourelle=, Fr. A small tower on a castle, with a winding staircase.
+
+=Towers.= (See ROUND TOWERS.)
+
+=Trabea=, R. (lit. shaped like a _trabs_ or beam). A rich toga, either
+made entirely of purple cloth or decorated with horizontal stripes of
+that colour. The purple toga was an attribute of the _gods_, and
+afterwards of the _emperors_; purple and white, or purple and saffron,
+of augurs; purple and white, of _royalty_ (kings).
+
+=Trabs=, R. A beam; especially a long beam supporting the joists of a
+ceiling.
+
+=Tracery.= In architecture or decorative work, geometrical ornament,
+such as is inserted on the upper parts of Gothic windows, in Alhambraic
+architecture, &c.
+
+=Tracing-paper= is made of tissue-paper soaked in oil or thin varnish.
+
+=Trajan Column=, in Rome, the work of Apollodorus, A. D. 114, is 10½
+feet in diameter, and 127 feet high, made of 34 blocks of white
+marble—23 in the shaft, 9 in the base, which is finely sculptured, and 2
+in the capital and torus. The sculptures show about 2500 figures besides
+the horses, and represent the battles and sieges of the Dacian War. The
+column is a perfect _handbook_ of the military costume of Rome and other
+countries of its period. (Consult the work of _Alfonso G. Hispano_,
+published at Rome, 1586, which contains 130 plates representing all the
+sculptures; or the more modern work of _Pietro Santo Bartoli_, which
+contains beautiful engravings of all the reliefs.) A plaster cast of the
+column in two pieces is in the South Kensington Museum, with a handbook
+by J. H. Pollen on a desk near its base, with the aid of which it can be
+perfectly studied at leisure.
+
+=Trama=, Sp. The weft or woof; a kind of silk thread so called.
+
+=Transenna=, R. and Chr. A snare for birds. It consisted of a net
+stretched over a circular framework. In Christian archæology, the name
+was given to a marble lattice placed in the catacomb chapels to protect
+the relics.
+
+=Transept=, Arch. A transverse nave, passing in front of the choir, and
+crossing the longitudinal or central nave of a church. It is sometimes
+called the _cross_, and each of its parts to the right and left of the
+nave are called _cross-aisles_.
+
+=Transfluent=, Her. Flowing through.
+
+=Transition Periods= of Architecture. Generally speaking, all periods
+deserve this title, as the progressive change of the styles is
+continuous. Those with more precision so described are, in English
+Architecture, three:—from the NORMAN to the EARLY ENGLISH; and then to
+the DECORATED; and thirdly to the PERPENDICULAR, styles.
+
+=Transmuted=, Her. Counter-changed.
+
+=Transom=, Arch. The horizontal cross-bar in a window.
+
+=Transposed=, Her. Reversed.
+
+=Transtrum=, R. (_trans_, across). In a general sense a horizontal beam.
+In the plural, _transtra_, the cross-benches of a ship occupied by the
+rowers.
+
+=Trapeso=, It. A weight for gold and silver; the twentieth part of an
+ounce.
+
+=Trapetum=, R. A mill for crushing olives.
+
+=Trapezophorum=, R. (τραπεζο-φόρον). A richly carved leg for side-boards
+or small tables; sometimes called DELPHICA (q.v.).
+
+=Trasformati of Milan.= One of the Italian Academies who bore as a
+device a plane-tree, and the verse from Virgil, “_et steriles platani
+malos gessere valentes_,” “the barren planes have borne good fruit” (cut
+out of a wild olive-tree and grafted in).
+
+=Travagliati.= One of the Italian literary academies, whose device was a
+sieve (_vaglio_) with the motto “_donec purum_” (until clean).
+
+=Traversed=, Her. Facing to the _sinister_.
+
+=Travertine=, =Travertino=, It. A compact kind of TUFA stone, used in
+architecture; part of St. Peter’s and the Colosseum of Rome are built of
+this stone. (See TUFA.) It is a stone of a white or yellowish tint, and
+was used by the ancient painters to give _body_ to lakes.
+
+=Trebuchet=, Fr. Med. A mechanical contrivance for projecting stones and
+darts; a kind of enormous cross-bow or sling.
+
+=Tredyl=, O. E. (See GRYSE.)
+
+=Treflée=, Her. (See BOTONNÉE.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 660. Trefoil slipped.]
+
+=Trefoil=, Arch. An ornament of three foils peculiar to the
+Romano-Byzantine and pointed styles. This ornament occurs in bands or
+string-courses, and also forms _entablatured_ foliage. A synonym for it
+is _tiercefoil_. In Heraldry, a leaf of three conjoined foils generally
+borne _slipped_. (Fig. 660.)
+
+=Trellis.= Open lattice-work.
+
+=Trenchers= (Fr. _tranchoirs_). Originally thick _slices_ of bread on
+which the meat was served, instead of plates; 13th century.
+
+=Trental=, O. E. Chr. for Trigintale. Thirty masses for the dead.
+
+=Tresson=, Fr. A net for the hair, worn by ladies in the Middle Ages.
+(See CALANTICA.)
+
+=Tressure=, Her. A variety of the ORLE, generally set round with
+_fleurs-de-lys_. A striking example is to be seen in the Royal Shield of
+Scotland, now displayed in the second quarter of the Royal Arms,
+blazoned as—_Or, within a double Tressure flory; counterflory, a lion
+rampant guardant_.
+
+=Trevat.= A weaver’s cutting instrument for severing the pile-threads of
+velvet.
+
+=Triangle=, Chr. An equilateral triangle is a symbol of the Holy
+Trinity, and therefore the motive, only second in frequency and
+importance to the CROSS, of the construction and decoration of Christian
+churches.
+
+=Triangle.= A musical instrument of early occurrence, producing sound by
+the striking of a metal triangle with a metal rod.
+
+=Triblet.= A goldsmith’s tool used in making rings.
+
+=Tribometer.= An instrument for estimating the friction of different
+metals.
+
+=Tribon=, Gr. and R. (τρίβων). Literally, worn threadbare; and thence a
+coarse and common sort of mantle worn by the Spartans or by Romans who
+affected Spartan manners.
+
+=Tribula= or =Tribulum=, R. (_tero_, to rub). An apparatus for threshing
+corn; consisting of a heavy platform armed with iron teeth or sharp
+flints.
+
+=Tribulus=, R. (τρί-βολος, three-pointed). A CALTRAP (q.v.).
+
+=Tribunal=, R. A raised platform for the curule chairs of the
+magistrates in the Basilica.
+
+=Tribune=, R. and Chr. The semicircular recess in a Latin basilica in
+which the chief magistrate had his raised seat and administered justice.
+In Christian archæology, a gallery in a church; the _triforium_ and the
+organ-loft are tribunes. In Italian, _tribuna_, a picture-gallery.
+
+=Tricerion=, Chr. (τρὶς, thrice; κέρας, a horn). A candlestick with
+three branches, symbolizing the Holy Trinity. (See DICERION.)
+
+=Tricked=, Her. Sketched with pen and ink in outline.
+
+=Triclinium=, Gr. R. and Chr. (τρι-κλίνιον). A set of three
+dining-couches arranged round a table, and thence the dining-room
+itself, especially the summer dining-room. In Christian archæology the
+_triclinium_ was an apartment attached to a Christian basilica, in which
+pilgrims were entertained.
+
+=Tricolor.= The French national standard—red, white, and blue—introduced
+at the period of the revolution of 1789.
+
+=Tricomos=, Gr. and R. A song for the third course of a banquet (κῶμος)
+at the festivals of Bacchus. The _comus_ was peculiar to the first, and
+the _tetracomos_ to the fourth course.
+
+=Tricot=, Fr. (1) Silk net. (2) A knitted cotton fabric.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 661. Trident.]
+
+=Trident=, R. A three-pronged fork, the attribute of Neptune, used (1)
+for spearing fish; (2) by the class of gladiators called RETIARII; (3)
+as a goad for horses and cattle.
+
+=Triens=, R. A small copper coin current among the Romans; it was worth
+the third of an as, or about one farthing. It bore on the obverse a
+ship’s prow or a horse’s head, and four balls indicating four ounces
+(_unciæ_).
+
+=Trieterides=, Gr. (τρι-ετηρίδες). Festivals of Bacchus, held in Bœotia
+every third year.
+
+=Triforium=, Chr. A gallery over the side aisles of a church, open to
+the nave in arcades of three arches (_tres fores_).
+
+=Triga=, R. A car drawn by three horses yoked either abreast or with one
+in front.
+
+=Trigarium=, R. A field for the exercise of _trigæ_ and other chariots.
+
+=Triglyph=, Arch. (τρίγλυφος). An ornament consisting of three flutings
+or upright groovings separating the metopes in a Doric frieze. (Fig.
+458.)
+
+=Trigonalis=, R. Three-cornered “catch-ball;” a subject on frescoes.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 662. Trigonum opus.]
+
+=Trigonum=, Gr. and R. (τρίγωνον). (1) A mosaic of triangular pieces of
+marble, glass, terra-cotta, or other material (_sectilia_). Fig. 662 is
+from a pavement at the entrance of a house at Pompeii. (2) A musical
+stringed instrument; a triangular lyre, probably derived from Egypt.
+
+=Trilith=, Celt. (τρί-λιθος). A Celtic monument of three stones forming
+a kind of door.
+
+=Trilix=, R. In weaving, triple thread. (Compare BILIX.)
+
+=Trilobate=, Arch. Presenting three foils.
+
+=Trimodia=, R. A basket or vessel made to contain three modii (_tres
+modii_).
+
+=Trinity=, Chr. For a detailed account of the progressive series of
+representations in Art of the Holy Trinity, consult _Fairholt’s
+Dictionary_, _Didron’s Iconographie Chrétienne_, &c.
+
+=Triobolum=, Gr. A Greek silver coin of the value of three oboli. It was
+the established fee payable to an Athenian _dikast_ for the hearing of a
+cause.
+
+=Tripetia.= A Gallic term signifying a three-legged _stool_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 663. Tripod.]
+
+=Tripod= (Gr. τρί-πους). A vessel or table on three feet; esp. the slab
+at Delphi upon which the priestess of Apollo sat. (See DELPHICA,
+CORTINA.)
+
+=Tripping=, Her. In easy motion, as a stag.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 664. Triptych carved in ivory with open doors.]
+
+=Triptych= (τρί-πτυχος, three-fold). A form of picture, generally for
+ecclesiastical purposes, in three panels; a centre, and two hanging
+doors worked on both sides. (Fig. 664.)
+
+=Tripudium=, R. The noise made by the grain as it fell from the beaks of
+the sacred chickens on to the ground; it was looked upon by the priest
+as a favourable omen; another name for it was _terripavium_ (striking
+the earth). (See AUSPICIUM.)
+
+=Triquetra=, Arch. A symmetrical interlaced ornament of early northern
+monuments. An endless line forming three arcs symmetrically interlaced
+will describe the figure.
+
+=Trireme=, R. (_tres_, and _remus_, oar). A galley with three banks of
+rowers.
+
+=Trisomus=, Chr. (τρί-σωμος). A triple sarcophagus. (Cf. BISOMUS.)
+
+=Trispastus=, R. (τρί-σπαστος, drawn three-fold). A block for raising
+weights; of three pullies (_orbiculi_), set in a single block
+(_trochlea_).
+
+=Triton.= A sea-monster; generally represented as blowing a shell
+(_murex_), and with a body above the waist like that of a man, and below
+like a dolphin.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 665. Trophy on a triumphal arch.]
+
+=Triumphal Arch.= A monumental structure, usually a portico with one or
+more arches, erected across a public road for a triumphal procession to
+pass under.
+
+=Triumphalia=, R. Insignia conferred upon a general on the occasion of a
+triumph; consisting of a richly embroidered toga and tunic, a sceptre, a
+chaplet of laurel leaves with a crown of gold, and a chariot.
+
+=Triumphalis= (Via), R. The road traversed by a triumph.
+
+=Triumphus=, =Triumph=, R. The pageant of the entry of a victorious
+general into Rome.
+
+=Trivet=, Her. A circular or triangular iron frame with three feet,
+borne by the family of Tryvett.
+
+=Trivium=, R. (_tres_, and _via_, a way). A place where three roads
+meet.
+
+=Trochilus=, Arch. A concave moulding in classic architecture. (See
+SCOTIA.)
+
+=Trochlea=, R. (τροχιλέα). A machine for raising weights, very similar
+to the TRISPASTOS.
+
+=Trochus= (τροχὸς, a wheel). A hoop represented on ancient gems as
+driven by naked boys with a crooked stick, precisely in the existing
+school fashion. It was of bronze, often with rings attached.
+
+=Trombone.= A large trumpet with an arrangement of sliding tubes for
+modulating the tones by which every gradation of sound within its
+compass can be exactly produced.
+
+=Trophy=, Gr. (τρόπαιον). A monument of victory (τροπή). Fig. 665
+represents a trophy of Gallic spoils, from a bas-relief on the triumphal
+arch at Orange.
+
+=Trotcosie=, Scotch. A warm covering for the head, neck, and breast,
+worn by travellers.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 666. Trulla.]
+
+=Trua=, dim. =Trulla=, R. (1) A large flat ladle or spoon perforated
+with holes and used for skimming liquids when boiling. (2) A kind of
+drinking-cup. (3) A portable brazier or earthenware vessel perforated
+with holes (Fig. 666) for carrying hot coals about. (4) A mason’s
+trowel.
+
+=Trullissatio=, R. A coating of plaster or cement laid on by the trowel
+(_trulla_).
+
+=Trumeau=, Fr. A pier looking-glass.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 667. Trumpet.]
+
+=Trumpet=, Her. The Roman _tuba_; a long straight tube expanded at its
+extremity.
+
+=Truncated.= With the top cut off parallel to the base.
+
+=Trunnions.= The side supports on which a cannon rests on its carriage.
+
+=Truss=, Arch. The system of timbers mutually supporting each other and
+the roof.
+
+=Trussed=, Her. Said of birds, with closed wings.
+
+=Trussing=, Her. Said of birds of prey, devouring.
+
+=Tuba=, R. A straight bronze trumpet with a small mouthpiece at one end,
+the other being wide and bell-shaped. (Cf. CORNU.)
+
+=Tubilustrum=, =Quinquatrus=, R. Festivals held at Rome twice a year,
+for the purification of trumpets (_tubæ_).
+
+=Tubla.= Assyrian drums, with skin at the top only.
+
+=Tuck=, O. E. A short sword or dagger, worn in the 16th and 17th
+centuries by all classes.
+
+=Tucket=, O. E. (It. _toccata_). A flourish on a trumpet.
+
+=Tudesco=, Sp. A wide cloak.
+
+=Tudor Arch=, Arch. An arch of four centres, flat for its span; having
+two of its centres in or near the spring, and the other two far below
+it. (_Rickman._)
+
+=Tudor Flower=, Arch. An ornament common to Elizabethan buildings. A
+flat flower, or leaf, as a crest or finish on cornices, &c.
+
+=Tudor Rose=, formed by the union of the white and red roses of York and
+Lancaster; is described in heraldry as a white rose charged upon a red
+one. (See Fig. 395.)
+
+=Tudor Style=, Arch. The style which prevailed under the Tudor dynasty.
+The term is loosely applied to various periods. (See PERPENDICULAR.)
+
+=Tufa.= A porous variety of limestone deposited by calcareous water. It
+hardens on exposure to the air; and was much used by the Romans for
+facing buildings, and generally, on account of its lightness, for
+vaulting. (See TRAVERTINE.)
+
+=Tugurium=, R. (_tego_, to cover). A thatched roof, and thence, a
+peasant’s hut.
+
+=Tulip-tree.= The wood of this tree is smooth and fine-grained, very
+easily wrought, and not liable to split. It is largely used in carving
+and ornamental work, and for panels in coach building.
+
+=Tulle=. A plain silk lace, blonde or net.
+
+=Tumblers.= The drinking-glasses so called take their name from their
+original shape, rounded at the bottom, so that they _tumbled_ over
+unless they were very carefully set down. Similar goblets are still made
+of wood in Germany; often with the inscription—
+
+                “Trink’ mich aus, und leg’ mich nieder:
+                Steh’ ich auf, so füll’ mich wieder.”
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 668. Plan of a Tumulus.]
+
+=Tumulus= (_tumeo_, to swell). Sepulchral mounds of ancient and
+prehistoric construction. The illustrations, figs. 668 and 669, show the
+plan and section of a Gallic tumulus opened at Fontenay le Marmion.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 669. Section of a Tumulus.]
+
+=Tumulus Honorarius.= (See CENOTAPHIUM.)
+
+=Tunbridge Ware.= Inlaid-work of variously-coloured woods made at
+Tunbridge Wells in Kent.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 670. Tunica muliebris, _talaris_.]
+
+=Tunica=, Gr. and R. A tunic; the principal garment worn both by men and
+women among the Greeks and Romans. It was a kind of woollen shirt
+confined round the neck and the waist; it came down as far as the knee;
+it had short sleeves which only covered the upper part of the arm.
+Tunics were classed as follows: the _exomis_, the _epomis_, the
+_chiton_, the _manicata_ or _manuleata_, the _talaris_, the _muliebris_,
+the _interior_ or _intima_, the _recta_, the _angusticlavia_, the
+_laticlavia_, the _patagiata_, the _palmata_, the _asema_, and the
+_picta_. (_Bosc._) (Fig. 670.)
+
+=Tunicatus=, Gr. and R. Wearing a tunic.
+
+=Tunicle=, Chr. (Lat. _subtile_). The vestment of the sub-deacon; it
+resembled the dalmatic, but had tight sleeves.
+
+=Turbo=, R. (Gr. βέμβιξ). A child’s whipping-top; the whorl of a
+spindle.
+
+=Turibulum.= (See THURIBLE.)
+
+=Turicremus.= (See THURICREMUS.)
+
+=Turkey Carpets= are made entirely of wool, the loops being larger than
+those of Brussels carpeting, and always cut; the cutting of the yarn
+gives the surface the appearance of velvet.
+
+=Turkey-stitch= (_point de Turquie_). A kind of carpet made at the
+Savonnerie, established 1627.
+
+=Turma=, R. A squadron of legionary cavalry; it consisted of thirty-two
+men commanded by a decurion, and led under a _vexillum_.
+
+=Turnbull’s Blue.= A light and delicate variety of _Prussian blue_.
+
+=Turner’s Yellow.= An oxychloride of lead, known also as _patent
+yellow_, and _Cassell yellow_.
+
+=Turquoise.= A valuable blue gem for ornamental purposes. (_S._) Fossil
+ivory impregnated with copper. (_F._)
+
+=Turrets=, Arch. (Fr. _tourette_, a small tower). Towers of great height
+in proportion to their diameter, and large pinnacles, are called
+turrets; these often contain staircases, and are sometimes crowned with
+small spires. Large towers often have turrets at their corners.
+
+=Turricula=, R. (dimin. of _turris_). A small tower; also, a dice-box in
+the form of a tower, to which the Greeks applied the term of _pyrgus_
+(πύργος). _Turricula_ has a synonym FRITILLUS (q.v.).
+
+=Turriger=, R. Bearing a tower; the term applies both to an elephant and
+a ship of war when thus armed.
+
+=Turris=, =Tower=. In a general sense, any building or collection of
+buildings either lofty in themselves or built upon an elevation, and
+thence, fortifications, such as a tower of defence, the tower of a city
+gate or a castle, a DONJON (q.v.).
+
+=Tus= or =Thus=, R. Frankincense, imported from Arabia and used in great
+quantities by the ancients either for religious ceremonies or to perfume
+their apartments.
+
+=Tuscan Order of Architecture.= The simplest of the five ORDERS of
+classical architecture, having no ornament whatever; unknown to the
+Greeks; a variety of ROMAN DORIC (q.v.). The _column_ is about seven
+diameters high, including the base and capital. The _base_ is half a
+diameter in height; the _capital_ is of equal height, having a square
+_abacus_, with a small projecting fillet on the upper edge—under the
+abacus is an ovolo and a fillet with neck below; the _shaft_ is never
+fluted; the _entablature_ is quite plain, having neither _mutules_ nor
+_modillions_; the _frieze_ also is quite plain.
+
+=Tusses= or =Toothing-stones=, in building, are projecting stones for
+joining other buildings upon.
+
+=Tutulatus=, R. Having the hair arranged in the form of a cone, or
+wearing the sacerdotal cap called _tutulus_, and thence a priest who
+usually wore the TUTULUS (q.v.).
+
+=Tutulus= or =Apex=, R. (1) A flamen’s cap; it was conical and almost
+pointed. (2) A mode of arranging the hair on the crown of the head in
+the shape of a pyramid or cone. An example is seen in the Medicean
+Venus.
+
+=Twill.= A kind of ribbed cloth.
+
+=Tympanium=, R. (τυμπάνιον). A pearl shaped like a kettle-drum, namely,
+with one surface flat and the other round.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 671. Tympanum. Romano-Byzantine.]
+
+=Tympanum=, R. (τύμπανον). (1) A tambourine, like that of modern times:
+a piece of stiff parchment stretched over a hoop with bells. (2) A
+drum-shaped wheel; _tympanum dentatum_, a cogged wheel. (3) In
+architecture, the flat surface, whether triangular or round, marked out
+by the mouldings of a pediment. Fig. 671 shows a tympanum of the
+Romano-Byzantine period. (For TRIANGULAR PEDIMENT, see Fig. 26.)
+
+=Tynes=, Scotch. (1) Branches of a stag’s antlers. (2) Teeth of a
+harrow.
+
+=Tyrian Purple.= An ancient dye of a brilliant colour, obtained from
+shells of the _murex_ and _purpura_.
+
+
+
+
+                                   U.
+
+
+=U.= The letter repeated so as to mark the feathering upon tails of
+birds, is a peculiarity of Sicilian silks.
+
+=Udo=, R. A sock made of goat-skin, or felt.
+
+=Ulna=, R. A measure of length, subdivision of the foot measure.
+
+=Ultramarine= or =Lapis Lazuli= (_azurrum transmarinum_). A beautiful
+blue pigment obtained from lazulite, highly esteemed by early painters.
+In consequence of the costliness of this pigment its use in a picture
+was regulated by special contract, and it was either supplied or paid
+for by the person who ordered the picture. Lely has recorded that he
+paid for his as much as 4_l._ 10_s._ the ounce. The pigment is now
+artificially compounded. (Cf. GUIMET’S U.)
+
+=Umbella=, =Umbraculum=, R. (_umbra_, shade). An umbrella, made to open
+and shut like those of modern times. It is represented on vases held by
+a female slave over the head of her mistress. (See also UMBRELLAS.)
+
+=Umber.= A massive mineral pigment used by painters as a brown colour,
+and to make varnish dry quickly. _Raw umber_ is of an olive brown, which
+becomes much redder when _burnt_. (See OCHRES.)
+
+=Umbilici=, R. (lit. _navels_), were the ornamental bosses which
+projected from each end of the staff round which a volume of papyrus or
+parchment (_liber_) was rolled. They were also called _cornua_, and
+_geminæ frontes_. (See LIBER.)
+
+=Umbo= (Gr. ὀμφαλός). (1) The boss of a shield, often sharp and
+projecting so as to form an offensive weapon in itself. (2) A bunch
+formed by the folds of the toga tacked in to the belt across the chest.
+
+=Umbræ=, R. The shades of the departed; represented in the forms in
+which they abandoned life. Those killed in battle, _mutilated_, &c.
+
+=Umbrellas.= ANGLO-SAXON manuscripts sometimes represent a servant
+holding an umbrella over the head of his master. In the sculptures of
+ancient EGYPT and ASSYRIA they are represented borne by the attendants
+on a king. The GREEK and ROMAN ladies used parasols in all respects
+resembling those of modern times. In the PANATHENAIC procession the
+daughters of foreign settlers in Athens had to carry parasols over the
+heads of the Athenian maidens taking part in the procession. They were
+substituted later on by broad hats, the Roman PETASUS and the Greek
+THOLIA. In the SIAMESE empire an umbrella is the emblem of the royal
+dignity.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 672. Umbril.]
+
+=Umbrere=, =Umbril=. In mediæval armour, a projection on a helmet acting
+as a guard to the eyes.
+
+=Umbril.= (See UMBRERE.)
+
+=Uncia= (Gr. οὐγκία, _Angl._ ounce). The _unit_ of measurement. The
+twelfth part of anything. In currency, a copper coin; the twelfth part
+of an As. Its value was expressed on the obverse and reverse by _one_
+ball; in lineal measurement, the twelfth of a foot, whence our _inch_;
+in square measure, the twelfth of a _jugerum_; of liquids, the twelfth
+of a _sextarius_; in weight, the twelfth of a pound (_libra_).
+
+=Uncial Letters.= When writing on papyrus or vellum became common, many
+of the straight lines of the capitals, in that kind of writing,
+gradually acquired a _curved_ form. From the 6th to the 8th, or even
+10th century, these _uncials_, or partly rounded capitals, prevail in
+illuminated MSS. (See also MINUSCULE, SEMI-UNCIALS.)
+
+=Uncus=, R. (ὄγκος). A hook such as (1) that with which the corpses of
+gladiators were dragged out of the arena; or those of criminals from the
+carnificina where they were executed. (2) The fluke of an anchor, &c.
+
+=Under-croft=, Arch. A subterranean chamber.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 673. Undulated moulding.]
+
+=Undulated=, Arch. (_unda_, a wave). Moulded or sculptured in the form
+of a _wave_; as for instance the _undulated torus_. (See NEBULE.) (Fig.
+673.)
+
+=Undy=, =Undée=, Her. Wavy.
+
+=Unguentaria=, R. Flasks or boxes of costly workmanship for holding
+perfumes, essences, oils, and salves, for use in the baths, &c. (See
+NARTHECIA.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 674. Unicorn. Device of the Orsini family.]
+
+=Unicorn.= In Christian art a symbol of purity, especially of female
+chastity. Attribute of St. Justina of Antioch. In Heraldry it is famous
+as the sinister supporter of the Royal Shield of England. The legend was
+that its body took the form of a horse and antelope, and it had one horn
+on its head. It was believed to live solitary in the woods, and could
+only be caught by a maiden. The property of detecting poison was
+attributed to its horn, and Hentzner, who visited England in 1598,
+says:—
+
+  “We were shown at Windsor the horn of an Unicorn, of about eight spans
+  and a half in length, valued at above 100_l._”
+
+It is frequently mentioned in ancient inventories:—
+
+  “1391. Une manche d’or d’un essay de lincourne pour attoucher aux
+  viandes de Monseigneur le Dauphin.” _Comptes Royaux_, quoted by Mrs.
+  Bury Palliser.
+
+In allusion to this property, Alviano, the champion of the Orsini
+family, adopted as his device a unicorn at a fountain surrounded by
+snakes, toads, and other reptiles, and stirring up the water with its
+horn before he drinks, with the motto, “I expel poisons.”
+
+=Union Cloths.= Fabrics of wool with wefts of cotton.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 675. Present Union Jack.]
+
+=Union Jack.= The National Ensign of the United Kingdom of Great
+Britain—exhibiting the Union of the crosses of St. George and St. Andrew
+combined—first displayed in the reign of James I., 1606. The flag as it
+is now used, dates from the beginning of this century. It is borne on a
+shield, charged in pretence upon the escutcheon of the Duke of
+Wellington.
+
+=Upapitha=, Hind. The pedestal of the Hindoo orders, which included,
+besides the pedestal properly so called, the base (_athisthama_), the
+pillar or shaft (_stambu_) which was either square or polygonal and only
+rounded at the upper part near the capital or _cushion_ which took its
+place, and lastly the entablature (_prastura_).
+
+=Uræus=, Egyp. A transcription of the Egyptian word _ârâ_ or the asp
+_hajé_, a kind of serpent called by the Greeks _basilicon_ (βασιλικόν).
+The _uræus_ as an emblem of the sovereign power forms the distinctive
+ornament in the head-dress of the Egyptian kings.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 676. Plate of Urbino Ware, Louvre Museum.]
+
+=Urbino Ware=, made at Urbino, under the patronage of its Duke. “A
+city,” says Jacquemart, “which has supplied potters and painters to the
+greater part of the workshops of Italy; which has sent ceramic colonies
+to Flanders and Corfu, and yet we are scarcely acquainted with its
+works, except those of its decline.” (Fig. 676.) (See MAJOLICA.)
+
+=Urceolated= (Basket), Arch. The corbel of the capital which narrows a
+little underneath its upper part.
+
+=Urceolus.= Diminutive of URCEUS (q.v.).
+
+=Urceus=, R. An earthenware pitcher used in religious ceremonies;
+represented on coins in the form of a modern ewer.
+
+=Uriant=, Her. Said of a fish when it swims in a vertical position; head
+downwards. (Cf. HAURIANT.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 677. Funereal urn, Indian.]
+
+=Urn.= The common urn, the κάλπις of the Greeks, had a narrow neck and
+swelling body; it was used for conveying water from the fountain. The
+funereal cinerary urn was in general quadrangular, but there were a
+large number which resembled the _kalpis_, with the exception that they
+had a wider neck and were furnished in every case with a lid. Fig. 677
+represents a funeral urn of Indian pottery, of very ancient date. The
+electoral urn, from which lots were drawn at the comitia to decide the
+order of voting, was of an oval form and had a narrow neck to prevent
+the possibility of more than one number being drawn out at a time. An
+urn is always introduced as an appropriate emblem of the river-gods. The
+_urna_ was a measure of capacity containing eight _congii_ or half an
+AMPHORA.
+
+=Urnarium=, R. A square table or hollow slab on which _urnæ_ or
+earthenware vessels were placed.
+
+=Ustrina=, =Ustrinum=, R. (_uro_, to burn). A public place for burning
+the bodies of the dead, in contradistinction to BUSTUM, a private place
+of cremation, situated within the sepulchral enclosure. It was in the
+public ustrina that the bodies of people of moderate means as well as
+the poor were burned.
+
+=Uter=, R. A wine-skin or large leathern bag made of goat-skin,
+pig-skin, or ox-hide, and used for holding wine or other liquids. _Uter
+unctus_ was a goat-skin inflated with air and thoroughly greased on the
+outside. The peasants of Greece were fond of dancing and leaping upon
+these wine-skins, which it was extremely difficult to do without
+frequent falls. This was a very popular rustic game, and formed a
+principal feature of the second day of the festival of Bacchus, called
+by the Greeks _Ascolia_ (Ἀσκώλια), ἀσκὸς being the Greek equivalent of
+_uter_.
+
+=Uti Rogas=, R. A voting formula affirmative of the proposition in
+debate, written on the ticket in the abbreviated form V. R. for _uti
+rogas_ (as you propose).
+
+=Utricularius=, R. (from _uter_). A performer on the bagpipe.
+
+=Utriculus.= Diminutive of UTER (q.v.).
+
+
+
+
+                                   V.
+
+
+_In mediæval words the initials_ V _and_ B _occasionally
+interchange:—as_ Vanneria _for_ Banneria, _a banner, &c._
+
+=Vacerra=, R. (_vacca_, a cow). An enclosure in which cattle were kept.
+
+=Vacons=, Hind. Hindoo genii which figure in the celestial hierarchy
+immediately after Brahma. They are eight in number, and each of them
+protects one of the eight regions of the world: Paoulestia is the
+guardian of the North or mineral wealth; Ima, god of the dead and the
+infernal regions, is the guardian of the South; Indra, god of the ether
+and the day, the guardian of the East; Pratcheta, god of waters and the
+ocean, the guardian of the West; Içania, who is looked upon as an
+incarnation of Siva, is the guardian of the North-East; Pavana, king of
+the winds, the guardian of the North-West; Agni or Pacava, the god of
+fire, is the guardian of the South-East; and Nirouti, the prince of the
+evil genii, is the guardian of the South-West. (_Bosc._)
+
+=Vagina=, R. The scabbard of a sword, made of wood or leather, and
+generally ornamented with plates and bosses of metal. (See Fig. 44.)
+
+=Vails= (from _Vale_, farewell!). Fees to servants from parting guests.
+
+=Vair.= The fur of the squirrel, much worn in state costumes of the 14th
+century. In Heraldry—one of the furs—represented as a series of small
+shields placed close together, alternately blue and white.
+
+=Valance.= Drapery hangings for furniture, cornices, &c.; hence—
+
+=Valenced.= Fringed with a beard. (_Shakespeare._)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 678. Gilded Vase of Valencia, with votive
+inscription.]
+
+=Valencia Pottery.= M. Jacquemart considers this the most ancient and
+the true centre of the ceramic fabrication in Spain, carried back by
+tradition to the Roman domination. On the conquest of Spain from the
+Moors the Saracen potters of Valencia were protected by special charter.
+Fig. 678 is an illustration of the gilded ware for which Valencia is
+famous.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 679. Valenciennes.]
+
+=Valenciennes.= The date of the introduction of the manufacture of this
+lace is unknown, although it existed before the time of Louis XIV.,
+under whose reign it flourished and reached its climax between 1725 and
+1780. Valenciennes lace is made entirely on the pillow, of simple
+combinations, with one kind of thread for the pattern and for the
+ground. (See engraving.) No lace is so expensive to make from the number
+of bobbins required. The flax used is of the finest quality, so fine
+that the lace-makers worked in underground cellars to keep their work
+from the air, and scarcely completed an inch and half of lace in a day.
+
+=Valendar Clay.= A kind of potter’s clay from Nassau. (_Simmonds._)
+
+=Valet=, O. E. (Med. Lat. _valeti_). Sons of the nobility and of knights
+bore this title, until they acquired the military belt. (_Meyrick._)
+
+=Valle Cypre.= A silk mourning crape, called also Bologna crape.
+
+=Vallum=, Gr. and R. (_vallus_, a stake). A palisade made with strong
+branches of trees, which was placed on the top of the embankment
+(_agger_) surrounding a camp.
+
+=Valvæ=, R. (Gr. σανίς). Folding doors or shutters; synonym of FORES.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 680. Vambrace.]
+
+=Vambrace= (Fr. _avant bras_). The ancient BRACHIALE, the covering of
+the lower arm, from the elbow to the wrist. Originally it covered only
+the outside of the arm, but afterwards was made like a sleeve of iron.
+(Cf. REREBRACE.)
+
+=Vamp.= Upper leathers for shoes. In Russia and the East they are richly
+embroidered.
+
+=Vampire.= A monster of mediæval iconography. A well-known example is
+the one which decorates the angle of one of the towers in Paris
+Cathedral.
+
+=Vamplate= (Fr. _avant plaque_). A guard of metal over the handle of a
+tilting-lance.
+
+=Van= (from Fr. _avant_). Of an army, the front.
+
+=Vandyke-brown.= A pigment of a fine, deep, semi-transparent brown
+colour obtained from peat.
+
+=Vane=, or =Fane=, O. E. (from the German _Fahne_, a banner), (1) A
+broad flag to be carried by a knight in a tournament. (_Meyrick_, i.
+155.) Hence (2) a weathercock, in Mediæval buildings generally in the
+form of a heraldic banner supported by a figure. (See FANE.)
+
+=Vanishing Point.= In perspective. (See POINT OF SIGHT.)
+
+=Vannerie=, Fr. Basket-work.
+
+=Vannus=, R. A winnowing-van; i. e. a broad flat basket used for
+winnowing the chaff from the corn. It was among the agricultural symbols
+borne in the processions of Ceres. A sculpture in the British Museum
+represents the infant Bacchus riding in such a basket in the hands of a
+pair of dancing bacchantes.
+
+=Vantbrace.= (See VAMBRACE.)
+
+=Vaquero=, Sp. A jacket worn by women and children.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 681. Farthingale, temp. Elizabeth.]
+
+=Vardingale=, O. E. The _farthingale_ or hooped petticoat of Elizabeth’s
+reign, fig. 681.
+
+                “Supporters, postures, _farthingales_,
+                  Above the loins to wear,
+                That, be she ne’er so slender, yet
+                  She cross-like seems four square.”
+                        (_Warner, in Albion’s England._)
+
+=Varnishes= are made by dissolving _resins_ or gum-resins in alcohol,
+ether, &c., so that as the spirit evaporates the varnish dries down into
+a transparent film; varnishes are coloured with aloes, annotto,
+cochineal, dragon’s blood, gamboge, indigo, red saunders, saffron, or
+turmeric. _Amber varnish_ is hardest and most durable in colour, but
+dries very slowly. _Animé varnish_ dries quickly, but is liable to
+crack, and deepens in colour with exposure to the air. _Copal_ ranks
+next to amber in durability, and the varnish becomes lighter by
+exposure; the best copal varnishes are slow in drying unless mixed with
+animé. _Mastic_ is a favourite spirit varnish used as a picture varnish
+and for delicate works of a pale colour. _Damar_ mixed with mastic makes
+an appropriate varnish for maps and similar work. The qualities to be
+sought in varnishes for a painting are that they should resist damp,
+exclude air, and not injure the colour. (See also ITALIAN VARNISH,
+STRASBURG TURPENTINE, &c.)
+
+=Vas=, R. A vase. Any kind of vessel, e.g. _Vasa Corinthia_, _Vasa
+Deliaca_, _Vasa Samia_, _Murrhina_, &c. The manufacture and
+ornamentation of vases was one of the most important branches of
+Classical Art. Illustrations of vases are found in this work under:
+
+                                        Fig.
+                           Acratophorum    7
+                           Amphora        20
+                           Arezzo Vase    37
+                           Aryballos      46
+                           Bifrons        85
+                           Cantharus     132
+                           Cylix         232
+                           Ecuelle       278
+                           Egyptian      279
+                           Funeral Urn   340
+                           Hydria        391
+                           Chinese Vase  406
+                           Lecythus      422
+                           Nuremberg     491
+                           Oinochoe      498
+                           Valentia      678
+
+=Vatillum.= (See BATILLUM.)
+
+=Vaunt-brace=, O. E., or =Warnbrace=. Armour for the body.
+
+=Vectis=, R. (_veho_, to carry). A bar of wood or iron used as a lever,
+crow-bar, capstan bar, or pole for carrying burdens on the back; the
+workman who made use of a _vectis_ was called _vectiarius_.
+
+=Vedas= (from Sanskrit _vid_, to know), Hind. Four collections of sacred
+books said to have been collated about 3000 B.C. from earlier documents.
+They are the RIGVEDA, a collection of hymns and prayers; the YAJURVEDA,
+liturgical and ceremonial ordinances; SAMAVEDA, lyrical pieces; and
+ATHARVAVEDA, chiefly incantations. Besides the above, each Veda contains
+fragmentary writings called _Sambuta_, and dogmatic treatises called
+_Brahmana_; and certain Commentaries, called _Upavedas_, _Vedangas_, and
+_Upangas_ are regarded as forming a fifth Veda. The above form the
+sacred books of the Hindoo religion.
+
+=Vegetable Blue Black.= (See BLUE BLACK.)
+
+=Vegetable Ivory.= Nuts of a South American palm (_Phytelephas
+macrocarpa_) resembling ivory, and much used for ornamental carving.
+
+=Vehicles= or =Mediums=. The liquid in which pigments are applied. In
+_fresco_ and water-colour painting gum-water is used; in _distemper
+painting_, size; in _oil painting_, the fixed oils of linseed, nut, and
+poppy. In _encaustic_ wax is used. (See also MEDIUM, COPAL, ITALIAN
+VARNISH, MEGYLP, &c.)
+
+=Velamen= and =Velamentum=, R. (_velum_, a veil). A veil worn by women,
+concealing the whole person. (See FLAMMEUM.)
+
+=Velarium=, R. (_velum_, a covering). An awning stretched over a
+theatre; usually of woollen cloth, but sometimes of more costly
+materials.
+
+=Velatura=, It. A mode of glazing, adopted by the early Italian
+painters, by which the colour was rubbed on by all the fingers or the
+flat of the hand, so as to fill the interstices left by the brush, and
+cover the entire surface of the picture thinly and evenly. (_Fairholt._)
+
+=Velatus=, R. (_velo_, to cover). Veiled or wearing flowing garments;
+having the forehead encircled with a garland. _Milites velati_ were
+supernumerary soldiers who filled the places of those who were killed or
+disabled.
+
+=Velites=, R. A body of light-armed infantry not forming part of the
+legion, who skirmished in small companies.
+
+=Vellum.= Fine parchment from the skins of calves; any parchment binding
+is by librarians technically described as vellum. It is a beautiful
+substitute for paper, for luxurious printing of books for presentation,
+&c., and was much used by mediæval artists for painting and
+illuminating.
+
+=Velours= (Fr. Velvet). A kind of velvet or plush for furniture,
+carpets, &c., manufactured in Prussia, partly of linen, and partly of
+double cotton warps with mohair yarn weft. (_Simmonds’ Commercial
+Dict._)
+
+=Velours d’Utrecht.= A woollen velvet, for tapestry, &c., made in the
+Netherlands.
+
+=Veloute=, Fr. Velvet lace.
+
+=Velum=, R. (1) A general term for any kind of sail, esp. the square
+_mainsail_ of a ship in contradistinction to the other sails. (2) The
+curtain or drop-scene of a theatre. (3) The curtain or hanging put up as
+a covering in front of a door. (4) A synonym for VELARIUM.
+
+=Velure= (Fr. _velours_). Velvet. (_Shakespeare._)
+
+=Velvet= (Ital. _velluto_; hairy or shaggy, like an animal’s skin) was
+introduced into England in the 13th century. _Velvet upon velvet_ is
+that where the pattern shows itself in a _double pile_, one pile higher
+than the other. “_Purshed_” velvet was velvet raised in a network
+pattern.
+
+=Velvet Painting.= The art of painting on fine velvet.
+
+=Velveteen.= A kind of FUSTIAN.
+
+=Venabulum=, R. (_venor_, to hunt). A hunting-spear, a strong staff with
+a broad lozenge-shaped iron head.
+
+=Venationes.= Hunting scenes and sports in the arena in which wild
+beasts were introduced fighting with each other and with men, a common
+subject of representation on bas-reliefs on ancient tombs.
+
+=Veneering= is the art of covering wooden objects with a thin slice of
+ornamental wood, so as to give the whole the false appearance of being
+made of the superior wood. It is distinct from MARQUETRY or INLAID-WORK
+(q.v.).
+
+=Veneficium=, R. The crime of poisoning; an accusation abused by the
+ancient Romans almost as that of witchcraft was in the middle ages.
+
+=Venetian Blinds= are those made of laths strung together.
+
+=Venetian Chalk.= A white talc used for marking cloth, &c.
+
+=Venetian Door.= A door lighted by panes of glass on each side.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 682. Venetian point in relief, English made.]
+
+=Venetian Point.= The engraving represents an exquisite specimen of
+Venetian point lace in relief, shown at the International Exhibition,
+1874, among other wonderful reproductions of ancient needle-made lace.
+(For method of working, see NEEDLE POINT.)
+
+=Venetian Porcelain.= (See ECUELLE.)
+
+=Venetian Red= or =Scarlet Ochre=. A burnt ochre, used as a pigment in
+oil and water-colours. Its colour is red, alloyed with blue and yellow.
+
+=Venetian Window.= A window with three separate lights.
+
+=Venew= (Fr. _venu_). A bout at a fencing-school.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 683. Venice, Doge of, in state costume, 16th
+century.]
+
+=Venice, Doge of.= The illustration represents the state costume of the
+Doge of Venice, wearing the traditional cap of liberty, the ermine, and
+richly embroidered robes of his office.
+
+=Venice Turpentine.= A product of the larch, used for varnishing
+pictures. It is liable to crack.
+
+=Venice White.= (See CARBONATE OF LEAD, BARYTES.)
+
+=Ventaile= or =Aventail=. A movable front to a helmet, through which the
+wearer breathed:—“quâ ventus hauritur.”
+
+               “L’escu au col, la ventaille fermée.”
+                                 (_Roman de Roncevaux._)
+
+=Ventrale=, R. (_venter_, the belly). A girdle of peculiar shape,
+fastened round the loins over the abdomen.
+
+=Vents=, Scotch. Chimneys.
+
+=Venturina=, Sp. A precious stone, of a yellowish-brown colour. Hence:—
+
+=Venturine.= A powder of gold used to sprinkle over japanned surfaces.
+
+=Ver Sacrum=, R. (lit. a holy (or dedicated) Spring). The dedication to
+sacrifice of all that is born in a certain year, in the months of March
+and April, was a common practice of the early Italian nations,
+especially of the Sabines. In the most ancient times actual infanticide
+was a part of this offering; but in later years the practice was
+modified as regarded children. They were brought up, under a vow of
+dedication, to the age of twenty-one, and then with veiled faces
+expelled across the frontiers. Many colonies resulted from this
+practice.
+
+=Vera Icon=, Chr. The _true image_ impressed upon the SUDARIUM (q.v.) of
+St. Veronica. In St. Peter’s at Rome, in a chapel dedicated to that
+saint, a painting on linen is shown as the veritable napkin of St.
+Veronica; and a fine mosaic over the altar, after a design by Andrea
+Sacchi, represents the incident. (See STOLE.)
+
+=Verandah.= An open portico to a house. In the tropical countries the
+open verandah is the principal apartment of a house, and Society appear
+to the passers-by, in their illuminated verandahs, like the actors on
+the stage of a theatre.
+
+=Verbena=, R. Sacred herbs torn up by the roots from the enclosure of
+the Capitoline hill; which the Roman _fetiales_ or ambassadors always
+carried in their hands on foreign embassies. (Compare VINDICIÆ.)
+
+  “When an injury had been received from a foreign state four fetiales
+  were deputed to seek redress, who again elected one of their number to
+  act as representative. He was styled _pater patratus populi Romani_. A
+  fillet of white wool was bound round his head, together with a _wreath
+  of sacred herbs_ gathered within the enclosure of the Capitoline hill
+  (_verbenæ_, Sagmina), whence he was called Verbenarius.” (_Dr.
+  Smith._)
+
+=Verber=, R. In a general sense, any kind of leather thong; as, for
+instance, the thong of a sling, the thong of a whip for driving horses
+or scourging slaves, &c.
+
+=Verde Antico.= A green mottled serpentine marble, used by ancient
+sculptors, found at Taygetos. It is much valued for its beautiful
+markings.
+
+=Verde Azurro=, It. (1) A native carbonate of copper, of a greenish-blue
+colour; the _Armenian stone_ of Pliny. (2) A blue-green pigment.
+
+=Verde Eterno.= A dark green pigment, anciently used by the Venetian
+painters.
+
+=Verdigris.= A bright acetate of copper, used as a green pigment.
+
+=Verditer= (=Blue= and =Green=). A hydrated percarbonate of copper. It
+is generally prepared by decomposing the solution of nitrate of copper,
+by the addition of chalk. The refined blue and green verditers, see
+CARBONATES OF COPPER (_Mountain blue_). The verditer known as _Bremen
+Green_ is produced by subjecting copper to the action of sea salt and
+vitriol for three months. (Cf. CHRYSOCOLLA.)
+
+=Veretonus=, Med. Lat. The VIRETON (q.v.).
+
+=Verge=, O. E. A rod. In Mediæval Architecture the shaft of a column.
+
+=Verge Board=, Arch. The external gable-board of a house, which is often
+elaborately ornamented with carvings. (See BARGE-BOARD.)
+
+=Vergers= (Fr. _verge_, a staff). Officers who carry a rod or staff of
+office. In the law courts a white wand, before the judges; in
+cathedrals, &c., a rod tipped with silver.
+
+=Verguilla=, Sp. Gold or silver wire, without silk.
+
+=Vermeil=, Fr. Silver-gilt, or gilt bronze.
+
+=Vermiculatum.= A kind of pavement disposed in wreathed lines like the
+undulations of worms (_vermes_). (See PAVIMENTUM.)
+
+=Vermilion.= The _minium_ of the ancients. A bright and beautiful red
+colour.
+
+=Vermilion.= The bisulphuret of mercury in powder, a delicate bright red
+pigment which is _pale_ or _deep_; supposed to be the pigment known to
+the Romans as _minium_. (Cf. CINNABAR, RED LEAD.)
+
+=Vernacle=, Chr. A term for the VERA ICON.
+
+=Vernation.= See ESTIVATION.
+
+=Vernis-Martin Work.= A Japanese style of painting and enamelling on
+furniture, carriages, and small objects, named after the introducer, who
+was born about 1706.
+
+=Vernon Gallery=, founded in 1847 by the gift of Mr. Robert Vernon of
+157 pictures of the British school, is now in the South Kensington
+Museum.
+
+=Verona Green.= A variety of GREEN EARTH (q.v.). (See APPIANUM.)
+
+=Verona Serge.= A thin textile fabric, made of worsted, or mohair, and
+of cotton.
+
+=Veronese Green.= (See CARBONATE OF COPPER.)
+
+=Veronica.= (See VERA ICON.)
+
+=Vert=, Her. Green, represented in engraving by lines sloping downwards
+from left to right.
+
+=Vert bleu=, Fr. (See VERDE AZURRO.)
+
+=Verticillus=, R. (_verto_, to turn). The whorl of a spindle, a small
+disk of wood, stone, or metal, by means of which a rotary movement is
+given to the spindle. (Cf. TURBO.)
+
+=Veru=, R. Literally, a roasting-spit made of wood and with an iron
+point. The term was also applied to a weapon of Samnite origin used by
+the Roman infantry, and bearing much resemblance to a spit. (2) An arrow
+or dart. (Fr. _vire_.)
+
+=Veruculum=, R. (dimin. of _veru_). A small javelin used by the Roman
+infantry.
+
+=Vervels=, =Varvals=, Her. Small rings.
+
+=Vesara=, Hind. A Hindoo temple built on a circular plan.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 684. Vesica Piscis.]
+
+=Vesica Piscis= (in Italian, _mandorla_, almond). The oblong glory
+surrounding the whole person of Our Lord, or the Virgin, or saints
+ascending into heaven. The _seals_ of abbeys, colleges, and other
+religious establishments were all of this form. (See Fig. 684.) It is in
+form symbolical of the monogram ἴχθυς. (see ACROSTIC.)
+
+=Vespæ=, =Vespillones=, R. The bearers of a bier in a funeral were so
+called by the common people, because they came to fetch the bodies in
+the evening (_vespertino tempore_).
+
+=Vespers=, Chr. In the Roman Church, the afternoon service; in the
+English Church, Evening Prayer.
+
+=Vessets.= A kind of cloth.
+
+=Vest=, O. E. “A wide garment reaching to the knees, open before, and
+turned up with a facing or lining, the sleeves turned up at the elbows.”
+(_Randle Holme_, 1683.)
+
+=Vestalia=, Gr. and R. Festivals in honour of Vesta. Asses were driven
+through Rome, carrying wreaths of flowers and rolls.
+
+=Vestals=, R. The priestesses of the goddess Vesta, to whom the charge
+was committed of the sacred fire. They were originally four,
+subsequently six in number. Their distinctive dress was the _infula_
+fitting close to the head, with _vittæ_ depending, a long tunic of white
+linen, and the purple TOGA, or mantle, with a long train to it.
+
+=Vested=, Her. Clothed.
+
+=Vestibule=, Arch. An entrance-court or vacant space before the entrance
+to a house, temple, or other building. (See DOMUS.)
+
+=Vestment=, Chr. The hangings of an altar, and the robes of the clergy;
+the term often comprises also the sacred vessels.
+
+=Vestry=, Chr. The modern _vestiarium_ in a church; called also the
+SACRISTY.
+
+=Vethym=, or =Vathym=, O. E. A fathom—six feet.
+
+=Vettura=, It. (Fr. _voiture_). A travelling carriage.
+
+=Vexillatio=, R. Troops under one _vexillum_; and thence the troops of
+the allies.
+
+=Vexillum=, R. A cavalry standard consisting of a square piece of
+woollen cloth spread upon a cross. (See SIGNA MILITARIA.)
+
+=Vexillum Regale=, Med. Lat. The Royal Standard.
+
+=Via=, R. The high road. These were so constructed by the Romans that
+following generations used them without repair for more than a thousand
+years. The earliest was the _Appian_ or the _Great South Road_ from Rome
+to Brindisi, made B.C. 312; the _Great North Road_ continued through
+Gaul was the _Flaminian Road_. The construction of a Roman road was the
+following:—between trenches thirteen to fifteen feet apart, the
+_gremium_ or foundation was made firm, if necessary, in a marsh, with
+piles; this was covered with large stones of a regulated size, such as
+London streets were formerly paved with (_statumen_), and this with
+macadamized stones cemented with lime (_rudus_), rammed down hard, and
+nine inches thick; then came small shards of pottery, six inches thick,
+also cemented with lime (_nucleus_), and over this the pavement of large
+blocks of the hardest stone (see SILEX), irregular, but fitted and
+joined with the greatest nicety, and perfectly smoothed with a slope for
+drainage.
+
+=Viaticum=, R. A provision for a journey. Adopted by the Christian
+Church in reference to the last offices of religion to the dying, with
+the obvious symbolical significance.
+
+=Vibia=, R. A cross-bar and uprights forming a trestle.
+
+=Vibrella=, Med. Lat. A cannon.
+
+=Vices.= The seven VICES commonly met with in Christian allegory are:
+Anger, Avarice, Envy, Lust, Pride, Revenge, and Sloth.
+
+=Vicessis=, R. Twenty pounds weight = 14·987 lbs. avoirdupois.
+
+=Victima=, R. The animals used for sacrifices were mostly domestic; as
+bulls, sheep, goats, pigs, dogs, or horses; each god had his favourite
+animals. The head of the victim was generally strewed with roasted
+barley meal, mixed with salt, and adorned with garlands, and sometimes
+its horns were gilt. A bunch of hair was cut from its forehead and
+thrown into the fire as _primatiæ_. It was killed by a person called the
+_popa_, not by the priests; and part of the intestines were burned, or
+to river-gods, thrown into the river, &c.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 685. Victoria Cross.]
+
+=Victoria Cross= is of bronze, and was instituted by the Queen in 1856
+to render honour to “conspicuous bravery” in actual conflict by sea or
+land. It is worn on the left breast attached to a blue ribbon for the
+Navy, and a red for the Army.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 686.]
+
+=Victoriatus=, R. A silver coin stamped with a figure of Victory, while
+its obverse represented a bearded Jupiter. (Fig. 686.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 687. Victory. Device of Martin, King of Aragon.]
+
+=Victory= is represented by the ancients winged, and bearing a _palm_
+branch and a _laurel_ crown. Fig. 687 is the beautiful device adopted by
+Martin, King of Aragon, in 1396, with the motto, “Not in the Darkness.”
+
+=Vicuna.= A kind of alpaca wool.
+
+=Vicus=, R. (Gr. κώμη). A quarter in a city.
+
+=Vidrecome=, Fr. A large drinking-glass.
+
+=Vielle=, Fr. The “hurdy-gurdy,” an ancient stringed instrument played
+with finger-keys, and producing sound by the friction of a wheel instead
+of a fiddle-bow.
+
+=Vienna Lake.= (See CARMINATED LAKES.)
+
+=Vienna White.= (See CARBONATE OF LEAD.)
+
+=Vigessis=, R. (See VICESSIS.)
+
+=Vignette= (Fr. a _little vine_). A small woodcut or illustration on a
+page. In Architecture, a running ornament of leaves and tendrils, common
+in the hollow mouldings of Gothic Architecture; especially in the
+Decorated and Perpendicular styles. (_Parker._)
+
+=Vihuela.= A musical instrument, represented in the celebrated Portico
+della Gloria of Santiago da Compostella, in Spain. It closely resembles
+the REBEC (q.v.).
+
+=Villa=, R. A Roman farmstead or country house. It was divided into
+three distinct parts: the _urbana_, or house of the owner; the
+_rustica_, or farm building in which the slaves and animals lived; and
+the _fructuaria_ or magazine for storing the produce.
+
+=Villicus=, R. A gardener. (See HORTUS.)
+
+=Vimana=, Hind. A Hindoo temple consisting merely of a building in the
+form of a pyramid, allowing of several stories which recede one above
+the other. Vimanas are divided into five groups: the medium vimana,
+called _santiaca_; the victorious (_pantica_), the enormous (_jayada_),
+the admirable (_atb’ huta_), and the amiable (_sarvacama_).
+
+=Vina=, Hind. A kind of Hindoo lyre furnished with a small number of
+strings.
+
+=Vinalia.= Roman festivals of two kinds—_urban_ and _rustic_. The former
+were kept on 23rd April, when the wine of the previous year was first
+broached; the _rustic_ on 19th August, when the vintage opened by the
+priest solemnly plucking the first bunch of grapes, after a sacrifice of
+lambs to Jupiter.
+
+=Vinatico.= A coarse mahogany wood, obtained in Madeira, from _Persea
+Indica_.
+
+=Vinculum=, R. (_vincio_, to bind). A general term to denote anything
+that binds, fastens, or clasps; such as a string, lace, ribbon, chaplet,
+or garland, strap, dog or slave-collar, manacles, fetters. (See AMENTUM,
+COLLARE, COMPES, CORONA, &c.)
+
+=Vindiciæ= (_vindico_, to claim). A fragment of any property under
+dispute which, under the old Roman jurisprudence, the plaintiff was
+compelled to bring before the court and to place beneath his foot while
+stating his case; if the property in question were a flock, the
+_vindiciæ_ consisted of a tuft of wool; if an estate or field, of a clod
+or turf taken from the said estate or field.
+
+=Vindicta=, R. (_vindico_, to deliver). The rod with which the prætor or
+his lictor struck a slave on the head in the ceremony of _manumissio_,
+by way of declaration that he was free. (See FESTUCA.)
+
+=Vine.= (See VITIS.)
+
+=Vine Black.= Ink used in copper-plate printing; prepared from the
+charred husks of grapes and the residue of the vine press.
+
+=Vinea=, R. (lit. a bower of vine-branches). The _vineæ_, also called
+under the emperors _causiæ_, were a kind of mantelets or sheds employed
+in siege operations, made of light timbers covered with planks and the
+skins of animals.
+
+=Vinum Saccatum.= (See COLLUM VINARIUM.)
+
+=Viol.= (See FIDDLE.)
+
+=Viola= or =Alto-viola=. A _tenor_ violin; tuned an octave above the
+_violoncello_. It is larger than the ordinary violin and has four gut
+strings, of which the third and fourth are covered with silver-plated
+copper wire. Its name in the ancient “set of viols” was _viola di
+braccio_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 689. Viola da Gamba.]
+
+=Viola da Gamba.= An instrument closely resembling the modern
+violoncello. (See Fig. 689.)
+
+=Viola d’Amore=, It. An obsolete species of violin producing a very
+sweet and peculiar tone by an arrangement of metal wires vibrating in
+unison with the gut strings.
+
+=Violet= is a combination of equal red and blue. It is complementary to
+yellow. In Christian art, the colour violet or the amethyst, signified
+love and truth, or passion and suffering.
+
+=Violet Wood.= A turnery wood of Guiana, the produce of _Andira
+violacea_.
+
+=Violin.= This instrument has three gut strings, and a fourth of silver
+wire. The _back_, _neck_, _sides_, and _circles_ are generally made of
+sycamore; the _belly_, _bass-bar_, _sound-post_, and six _blocks_, of
+deal; the _finger-board_ and _tail-piece_ of ebony. The Hindus claim the
+invention of the _bow_, for a period about 3000 years B.C. (See FIDDLE.)
+
+=Violoncello.= A large and deep-toned instrument of the _viol_ kind, the
+two lowest strings being covered with silver wire.
+
+=Violone=, It. Contre-basso or double bass; the largest instrument of
+the violin kind.
+
+=Virago Sleeves.= A fashion of ladies’ dress in the reign of Charles I.,
+perpetuated in the bishop’s sleeves.
+
+=Vire=, Fr. A barbed arrow, used with the early cross-bow.
+
+=Vireton=, It. A peculiar form of arrow, the feathers in which are
+spirally arranged to produce a spinning movement in its flight.
+
+=Virga=, R. A general term for any kind of rod or wand; as, for
+instance, a riding-whip; a switch for chastising children or slaves; a
+very slight stick carried by a lictor to aid him in opening a way
+through the crowd for the magistrate before whom he walked.
+
+=Virgatus=, R. Striped; a term applied to cloth or drapery ornamented
+with bands (_virgæ_), or to anything plaited with twigs of osier, such
+as a basket.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 690. Virginal. 16th century.]
+
+=Virginal.= A musical instrument which originated in the middle ages. A
+specimen of the time of Elizabeth, in the form of a miniature
+_pianoforte_, is in the South Kensington Museum. (Fig. 690.) It was
+followed by the SPINET (q.v.).
+
+=Virgins= are usually represented soberly robed with long hair streaming
+down their backs. The parable of the wise and foolish virgins is a very
+common subject of mediæval sculpture and church decoration.
+
+=Viria=, R. A very ancient term replaced by ARMILLA (q v.).
+
+=Viridarium=, R. An ornamental garden. (See HORTUS.)
+
+=Virtu=, Fr. The quality of rareness, or art excellence sought in the
+selection of specimens of art-work by a _Virtuoso_.
+
+=Virtues.= A degree of the second order of ANGELS. They are usually
+represented in complete armour bearing pennons and battle-axes. The
+_Cardinal_ virtues are: Power, Prudence, Temperance, and Justice; and
+the _Theological_ virtues are: Faith, Hope, and Charity. There are
+innumerable other virtues variously represented in Christian allegory,
+opposed to corresponding VICES.
+
+=Virtuoso=, It. A man skilled in the selection of specimens of art-work.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 691. Viscount’s Coronet.]
+
+=Viscount= (vice-comes). The fourth degree of rank and dignity in the
+British peerage. Originally an earl’s deputy in his county, made an
+arbitrary title of honour, next in rank to an earl, by Henry VI. in
+1440. A viscount’s mantle is two doublings and a half of plain fur. His
+coronet, granted by James I., has only a row of sixteen pearls set close
+to the circlet.
+
+=Vise=, Arch. A spiral staircase. (See NEWEL.)
+
+  “Vyce, a tourning stayre, _vis_.” (_Palsgrave._)
+
+=Visitation=, Chr. (It. _La visitazione_; German, _die Heimsuchung
+Mariä_). A frequent theme of Christian art, representing the meeting of
+the Virgin Mary and Elizabeth, the mother of St. John the Baptist.
+(Consult _Mrs. Jameson’s Legends of the Madonna_.)
+
+=Visor.= The part of a helmet made to cover the face. (See UMBRIL.)
+
+=Vitis=, =Vine=, R. and Chr. A vine or vine-branch with which a
+centurion punished any soldier who had neglected his duty. In Christian
+symbolism, the vine-stock with clusters of grapes is an emblem of the
+Church. Representations of it are frequently met with on monuments of
+Christian art.
+
+=Vitreous Wares.= Wares having a glassy surface. (See POTTERY.)
+
+=Vitro di Trino= (Ital.). An ornamental glass-work invented by the
+Venetians in the 15th century, consisting of a sort of lace-work of
+white enamel or transparent glass, forming a series of diamond-shaped
+sections; in the centre of each an air-bubble was allowed to remain as a
+decoration. (_Fairholt._)
+
+=Vitrum=, R. GLASS (q.v.).
+
+=Vitruvian Scroll=, Arch. A name given to a peculiar pattern of
+scroll-work, consisting of convolved undulations, used in classical
+architecture. (_Parker._)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 693. Vitta.]
+
+=Vitta=, R. A ribbon or band worn round the head by Roman women of free
+birth to confine their hair. _Vitta sacra_ was a long ribbon confining
+the flocks of wool which formed an _infula_, and worn by the priests or
+the victim destined for sacrifice. The term was further applied to the
+ribbon which passed round garlands or festoons of leaves and fruits, and
+thence to any ribbon employed in the decoration of an architectural
+motive, such as tori for instance, as shown in Fig. 693.
+
+=Vittatus=, R. Adorned with the _vitta_; a term applied to women,
+victims, and certain architectural ornaments.
+
+=Vivarium=, R. (_vivum_, a living thing). A general term for any kind of
+place in which live animals are kept; such as aviaries, warrens,
+fish-ponds, game preserves, &c.
+
+=Vivianite.= A blue phosphate of iron, occasionally used as a pigment.
+
+=Vizard.= A mask for the face.
+
+               “On with this robe of mine,
+               This _vizard_ and this cap!”
+                                           (_Old Play._)
+
+=Vizor.= (See VISOR.)
+
+=Voided=, Her. Having the central area removed.
+
+=Volant=, Her. Flying.
+
+=Volante Piece.= A piece of jousting-armour fastened to the GRAND-GARDE
+above it, protecting the neck and breast.
+
+=Volets=, Fr. (1) The side _wings_ of a TRIPTYCH. (2) A gauze veil worn
+at the back of the head, by ladies, in the Middle Ages. (See Fig. 704.)
+
+=Volumen=, R. (_volvo_, to roll). A very long, narrow sheet made of
+strips of papyrus glued together. This sheet was gradually rolled round
+a wooden cylinder as the reader perused what was written on it, an
+operation expressed by the term _evolvere volumen_. When a work was of
+considerable length, each book or chapter was rolled round a separate
+stick or wooden cylinder, so that a single volume (_volumen_) consisted
+of a large number of rolls.
+
+=Volupere=, O. E. A woman’s cap or nightcap.
+
+              “The tapes of her white _volupere_.”
+                        (_Chaucer_, _The Miller’s Tale_.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 694. Ionic Volute.]
+
+=Volute=, Arch. (_volvo_, to roll). (1) The spiral scroll peculiarly
+distinguishing the capital in the Ionic order. (Fig. 694.) (2) The small
+volutes of the Corinthian capital which are placed at the four angles of
+the _abacus_; they are called _helices majores_, while the volutes
+beneath the cinque-foils are called _helices minores_. (See HELIX.)
+
+=Vomer=, =Vomis=, R. A plough-share; it resembled almost exactly our
+modern ones.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 695. Vomitorium.]
+
+=Vomitoria=, R. (_vomo_, to discharge). Doors in a theatre or
+amphitheatre opening on the corridors of the building, or on to the
+_scalæ_ leading into the _cavea_. Fig. 695 represents a _vomitorium_
+(restored) in the Coliseum or Flavian amphitheatre, at Rome.
+
+=Votive Tablets.= Sculptured representations of parts of the body
+affected with disease, offered to the gods, either in gratitude or
+propitiation. The superstition introduced by the ancient Egyptians has
+survived all religious revolutions, and survives in Roman Catholic
+countries at the present day. Wilkinson says:—
+
+  “After the cure of a disease was effected they (the ancient Egyptians)
+  frequently suspended a model of the restored part in the temple of the
+  god whose interposition they had invoked, precisely in the same manner
+  as in the sheikh’s tombs in modern Egypt, and in the Roman Catholic
+  chapels of Italy and other countries, consecrated to the Virgin or a
+  saint; and ears, eyes, distorted arms and other members were dedicated
+  as memorials of their gratitude and superstition.” (_Ancient
+  Egyptians._)
+
+=Voulge.= (See LANGUE-DE-BŒUF.)
+
+=Voussoir=, Arch. A French term for the wedge-shaped stones
+(ring-stones) of which an arch is composed.
+
+=Vulcanalia.= Roman festivals to Vulcan, celebrated with games in the
+Flaminian circus on the 23rd August. The sacrifices were of _fishes_,
+which the people threw into the fire; and it was the custom to commence
+the work of the day by candle-light, in honour of the god of fire.
+
+=Vulned=, Her. Wounded or bleeding. The pelican in its piety (Fig. 531)
+is described as _vulning herself_.
+
+=Vulture=, Egyp. Among the Egyptians, the vulture is the symbol of
+maternity, and accordingly a representation of it served to write the
+word _mother_, and the name of the goddess MAUT.
+
+=Vulture Feathers.= Largely used for making artificial flowers; the
+feathers of species of _accipitres_ imported from Bombay.
+
+=Vulturius=, =Vulture=, R. A throw at dice. It is not known how many
+points made up a vulture, but it is clear from certain authors that it
+was a bad throw, although not so bad as the _canis_ or dog.
+
+=Vuyders= or =Guiders=. Straps to draw together the parts of armour.
+
+
+
+
+                                   W.
+
+
+_This initial interchanges frequently with_ gu:—_as ward_, guard;
+_wicket_, guichet, _&c._
+
+=Wafters=, O. E. Blunted swords for exercise.
+
+=Wain=, O. E. A wagon.
+
+=Wainscot=, Arch, (from the German _Wand-Schotten_, wall-covering),
+wooden panelling used to line the inner walls.
+
+=Waist.= The central part of the upper deck of a ship, between the fore
+and main masts.
+
+=Wait.= An old English wind instrument resembling the SHAWM (q.v.). It
+was used by the watchmen or _waights_, to proclaim the time of night.
+
+=Waka-tana.= The war canoe of New Zealand; some of these are fifty feet
+long, by four feet beam, with a high stern-post. This and the carved
+prow are both richly decorated with a profusion of feathers.
+(_Simmonds._)
+
+=Wakes= (A.S. _wæcan_). Originally vigils or eves of Saints’ days. The
+_late-wake_ of the Highlanders; the _lyke-wake_ of the early English,
+and the _wake_ of the Irish are the remains of the ancient northern
+custom of watching the body of a deceased friend before burial. (Consult
+_Brand’s Popular Antiquities_.)
+
+=Wales.= The strong side planks of the body of a ship, running fore and
+aft.
+
+=Walking-sticks.= (See BOURDON.) (See also Fig. 91.) Fairholt (_Costume
+in England_) gives the following quotation from an inventory of
+Greenwich Palace, _temp._ Henry VIII.
+
+  “A cane, garnished with sylver and gilte, with astronomie upon it. A
+  cane, garnished with golde, having a perfume in the toppe, under that
+  a diall, with a pair of twitchers, and a pair of compasses of golde,
+  and a foot rule of golde, a knife and a file the haft of golde, with a
+  whetstone tipped with golde.”
+
+Under Charles II. bunches of ribands on the tops of canes were
+fashionable.
+
+=Wall Painting.= The GREEK temples were brilliantly decorated with
+painting and gilding internally. “The method has been investigated and
+is described to be the colouring of the body of the wall of a pale
+yellow or golden colour, the triglyphs and mutules blue, the metopes and
+the tympanum red, and some other portions of the building green, and
+varying these tints or using them of greater or less intensity as the
+judgment of the artist dictated.” (_Hittorf_, _Essay on the Polychromy
+of Greek Architecture_.) The colouring of the EGYPTIAN bas-reliefs is
+familiar. The buildings of HERCULANEUM and POMPEII were decorated with
+_frescoes_ and _mosaics_, in the Augustan age of Roman art. In the
+Middle Ages the custom was continued of decorating with colour the
+architecture of sacred edifices; and many old palaces and mansions in
+England show relics of the practice of decorating the walls with
+tempera, especially under Henry III. (See FRESCOES, STEREOCHROMY,
+WATER-WORK, &c.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 696. Wallet—Badge of the Gueux.]
+
+=Wallet.= The badge of the Gueux; two hands clasped through the handles
+of a beggar’s wallet. (See GUEUX.)
+
+=Wall-plates=, in building. Horizontal timbers, called _plates_,
+_properly_ those at the top of a building under the roof.
+
+=Walled=, =Muraillée=, Her. Made to represent brick or stone-work.
+
+=Walling Wax.= The composition with which etchers make a _wall_ round
+the plate upon which they are proceeding to pour the acid. (See
+ENGRAVING.)
+
+=Walnut=, Chr. In Christian iconography the walnut is the symbol of
+perfection. (See NUT.)
+
+=Walnut Oil.= (See NUT OIL.)
+
+=Wambais= (Saxon _wambe_, the belly). A stuffing of wool in the quilted
+tunic or GAMBESON. The best illustration is the conventional figure of
+Punch.
+
+=Wampum=, North American Indian. Strings of shells worn as belts and
+used for money.
+
+=Wang=, Chinese. Yellow. The sacred colour.
+
+=Wapentake=, O. E. A hundred, or district. The term is derived from
+_weapon-taking_ (or counting).
+
+=Wapinshaw=, O. E. A review of weapons.
+
+          “Et fiat visus armorum, quod dicitur Wapinschaw.”
+                                          (_Scotch Statute._)
+
+
+=Wappenrock=, Germ. A military cloak, with armorial charges. (See
+TABARD.)
+
+=Ward=, of a castle. The BAILEY or courtyard. (See BALLIUM.)
+
+=Warnbrace.= (See VAUNT-BRACE.)
+
+=Wassail= or =Wassel=, O. E. (Saxon _waes hael_, “to your health.”), (1)
+A drinking-bout generally. (2) A drink made of roasted apples.
+
+=Watchet=, O. E. Pale blue.
+
+            “The saphyre stone is of a _watchet_ blue.”
+                (_Barnfield’s Affectionate Shepherd_, 1594.)
+
+=Water=, of a diamond; its lustre.
+
+=Water-colour Painting= was gradually raised from the hard dry style of
+the last century to its present brilliancy, by the efforts of Nicholson,
+Copley Fielding, Sandby, Varley, the great Turner, Pyne, Cattermole,
+Prout, &c., within the present century. The Water Colour Society’s
+Exhibition was begun in 1805. (_Haydn’s Dict. of Dates._)
+
+=Water-Colours.= The principal are _lemon yellow_, _gamboge_, _Indian
+yellow_, _yellow ochre_, _chrome_, _vermilion_, _light red_, _Indian
+red_, _rose madder_, _carmine_, _purple madder_, _Vandyke-brown_,
+_sepia_, _brown pink_, _sap-green_, _emerald green_, _indigo_,
+_ultramarine_, _smalt_, and _cobalt_.
+
+=Water-gilding.= Gilding with a thin coat of amalgam.
+
+=Water-mark=, on paper. A device resembling a transparency in the
+texture, which is printed during the process of manufacture, by means of
+wire or brass plates on the mould of the paper machine.
+
+=Water-scape.= A fanciful term sometimes used to distinguish a sea view
+from a _landscape_.
+
+=Water-table=, Arch. A horizontal set-off in a wall, sloped to throw off
+the wet.
+
+=Water-work=, O. E. Wall painting in distemper.
+
+  “A pretty slight drollery, or the German hunting in _waterwork_, is
+  worth a thousand of these bed-hangings, and these fly-bitten
+  tapestries.” (_Shakespeare._)
+
+=Watered= (=silk=) having a shaded or diversified surface; produced by
+placing two pieces of silk lengthways between metallic rollers, where
+they are subjected to different degrees of pressure.
+
+=Watteau Pictures.= Idyllic scenes of imaginary Arcadian enjoyment, and
+a certain fanciful style of costume characteristic of Watteau’s
+pictures, called in French “scènes de la vie galante.”
+
+=Wattle.= An Australian name for various woods of the Acacia species.
+
+=Wattled=, Her. Having a comb and gills, as a cock.
+
+=Wayn-cloutt=, O. E. A waggon-cloth.
+
+=Wax.= Bleached bees’-wax is the vehicle in _encaustic_ painting.
+
+=Wax painting.= (See ENCAUSTIC PAINTING.)
+
+=Weathercock.= (See FANE.)
+
+=Weathering=, Arch. The slope of flat surfaces, for drainage.
+
+=Webbing Tape.= A kind of broad tape.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 697. Wedgwood Vase.]
+
+=Wedgwood Ware.= The manufacture of Josiah Wedgwood begun in 1759, at
+Etruria, in Staffordshire. A fine white, cream-coloured ware, having a
+clear and hard body, with more compact glaze and more perfect substance
+than the majolica. Many of the groups on Wedgwood vases and plaques were
+designed by Flaxman. (Fig. 697.)
+
+=Weepers=, O. E. Statues in niches round tombs, representing the
+mourners.
+
+=Welding.= The union of two pieces of metal together, by heat and
+pressure.
+
+=Welkin.= The sky; hence _welkin eyes_, blue eyes. (_Shakspeare._)
+
+=Well-staircase.= A spiral staircase. (See NEWEL.)
+
+=Welsh Hook.= A mediæval weapon, a kind of bill with a _hook_ at the
+back, used to drag a horse-soldier from his saddle.
+
+=Welt.= A joint or fold in a texture. The term is variously explained as
+synonymous with _guard_, a facing to a gown; or _purfles_, i. e.
+fringes. (Consult _Fairholt_, s.v.)
+
+=Welted Brocades= and =Quilts=. Articles with folds in the texture;
+lined and ribbed.
+
+=Weued=, A.S. The altar.
+
+       “In chvrche to vore the _heye weued_ Constantyn hym sleu.”
+                                 (_Robert of Gloucester._)
+
+=Whalebone= is the commercial name for the _baleen_ plates found in the
+mouth of the whale, of which there are about 300 in each animal.
+
+=What-not.= A modern piece of furniture, a light side-board or stand.
+
+=Wheel.= In Christian art, the attribute of St. Catherine, in allusion
+to the manner of her martyrdom.
+
+=Wheel=, =Catherine Wheel=. Represented in heraldry with curved spikes
+projecting from its rim.
+
+=Wheel Engraving upon Glass.= (See GLASS.)
+
+=Wheel-lock.= A crude invention in gunnery, of the 16th century, for
+winding up the trigger of a gun with a hand-winch.
+
+=Whinyard=, O. E. A sword.
+
+=Whipping-tops= are represented in Anglo-Saxon manuscripts; the thongs
+of the whips are _knotted_, which would add to the difficulty of the
+game.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 698. Falling “Whisk.”]
+
+=Whisk=, O. E. A _ruff_ or _band_.
+
+  “A woman’s _nec whisk_ is used both plain and laced, and is called of
+  most a gorget or _falling whisk_, because it falleth about the
+  shoulders.” (_Randle Holme._)
+
+=Whisket=, O. E. A basket. S.
+
+=Whistle.= Prehistoric specimens of whistles made of bones have been
+disinterred among relics of the Stone Age. The Mexicans in antiquity
+made curiously grotesque whistles of baked clay representing caricatures
+of the human face and figure, birds, beasts, and flowers. (Consult
+_Musical Instruments by Carl Engel_.)
+
+=White=, in Christian art represented by the diamond or silver, was the
+emblem of light, religious purity, innocence, virginity, faith, joy, and
+life. (_J._)
+
+=White= is in theory the result of the union of the three primary
+colours. The principal white pigments are _white lead_, _Lake white_,
+_Krems white_, _zinc white_, _constant white_ (q.v.). (See CARBONATE OF
+LEAD, OXIDE OF ZINC, &c.)
+
+=White Copper.= German silver.
+
+=White Lead= is the white pigment universally used for oil painting; it
+is considered a good dryer, and is used to render oil more drying.
+(Consult _Merrifield’s Treatise_, &c., vol. i. cl.). (See CARBONATE OF
+LEAD.)
+
+=White Vitriol.= SULPHATE OF ZINC (q.v.).
+
+=Whiting=, as used for wall painting, &c., is pure chalk, cleansed and
+ground with water.
+
+=Whittle=, O. E. A pocket clasp knife. (_Shakspeare._)
+
+=Whole and Halves.= Proportional compasses used for the enlargement or
+reduction of drawings.
+
+=Whorler.= The wheel of a potter’s lathe.
+
+=Wicker-work.= Texture of osiers, or small twigs; basket-work.
+
+=Wicket= (Fr. _Guichet_). A small door perforated in a larger one.
+
+=Wigs= (contraction of Periwigs, from Fr. _perruque_) were brought in
+from France in the 16th century. They took their greatest proportions in
+the time of Louis XIV. In the early 18th century also they are described
+as of immense size, “large enough to have loaded a camel.” And of this
+date is the celebrated wig-maker’s sign, in which Absalom was
+represented hanging by the hair in a tree, and King David weeping
+beneath, exclaiming,—
+
+                     “O Absalom! O Absalom!
+                       O Absalom, my son!
+                     If thou hadst worn a _periwig_
+                       Thou hadst not been undone.”
+
+Smaller varieties were called _perukes_ or travelling-wigs; and the
+_campaign wig_, which “hath knots or _bobs_, a _dildo_ on each side with
+a curled forehead.” These _dildos_ or _pole-locks_ were the origin of
+the pigtail. (See HAIR.)
+
+=Wilton Carpets= are a kind of Brussels carpeting, with the yarns cut.
+
+=Wimple=, O. E. A nun’s hood, covering the neck and shoulders, adopted
+by ladies in general, _temp._ Henry VII.
+
+=Winchester Bushel.= An ancient standard measure of capacity preserved
+in the Town Hall at Winchester. It dates from the reign of King Edgar.
+It is 18½ inches wide, and 8 inches deep.
+
+=Windows.= The earliest of stained glass in Italy were painted by order
+of Pope Leo III., at Rome, in 795. The windows of some churches were
+closed with valves or shutters of stone, like those of the Duomo of
+Torcello, erected in 1008. Others were filled with slabs of transparent
+talc or alabaster. The earliest painted glass in York Cathedral is of A.
+D. 1200. The use of glass windows in private houses was not general
+until the 14th century. During the Middle Ages glass windows were in
+movable wooden frames, and were taken away by families when they
+travelled. (Consult _Hallam’s Middle Ages_, vol. iii.) Substitutes for
+glass were thin parchment or linen, painted and varnished, or even
+paper. (_Le Vieil_, _de la Peinture sur Verre_.) These paper windows may
+still be seen in villages in the north of Italy.
+
+=Winds= (Latin, _Venti_). The impersonations of the _winds_ were held in
+high veneration, especially by the Athenians. The four principal were
+Eurus or Vulturnus, the east or south-east wind; Auster, the south wind,
+the Notus of the Greeks, pernicious to plants and men; Zephyrus, the son
+of Aurora and father of Carpus (fruit), a genial, health-bearing breeze,
+called also ζωηφόρος, life-bearing; and Boreas, the strong north wind,
+usually represented with the feet of a serpent, his wings dripping with
+golden dewdrops, and the train of his garment sweeping along the ground.
+Inferior _winds_ were Solanus, in Greek Apeliotes, answering to the
+east, and represented as a young man holding fruit in his lap; Africus,
+south-west, represented with black wings and melancholy countenance;
+Corus, north-west, drives clouds of snow before him; Aquilo, north-east
+by north, equally dreadful in appearance, from _aquila_, an eagle, type
+of swiftness and impetuosity.
+
+=Windsor Chairs.= A plain kind of strong wooden chairs, so called.
+
+=Wings=, from time immemorial, have been the Oriental and Egyptian
+symbol of power as well as of swiftness; of the spiritual and aerial, in
+contradistinction to the human and the earthly; also in Chaldaic and
+Babylonian remains, in the Lycian and Nineveh marbles, and on the gems
+and other relics of the Gnostics. In Etruscan art all their divinities
+are winged.
+
+=Wings=, in theatres. The shifting side-scenes on the stage. In costume,
+the projections on the shoulders of a _doublet_. (See Fig. 91.)
+
+=Wise Men=, Chr. The MAGI. (See EPIPHANY.)
+
+=Wisp=, O. E. A broom.
+
+=Woad.= A dye plant—_Isatis tinctoria_.
+
+=Wolf.= In Egypt was worshipped at Lycopolis; it figures frequently
+among hieroglyphic signs. The Greeks had consecrated the wolf to Apollo,
+the Romans to Mars. In Christian (especially Spanish) art, an attribute
+of St. Vincent, in allusion to the legend that wild beasts were driven
+away from his body after his martyrdom, by a raven.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 699. Carved-wood mirror frame, belonging to Lord
+Stafford at Costessy.]
+
+=Wood-carving.= One of the most ancient manifestations of the art
+instinct of humanity is found in the very earliest relics of every
+nation. Especially in Egypt specimens remarkable for fidelity of
+representation have been recently disinterred, and stand in the Boulac
+Museum. Among Christian countries Germany is the most distinguished in
+this branch of art, but Holland and Belgium closely rival it in
+excellence and abundance of early specimens. Illustrious English carvers
+in wood were mostly of Dutch or German extraction. The most famous of
+them is Grinling Gibbons, employed by Sir Christopher Wren in the
+decoration of St. Paul’s Cathedral. He excelled in carving flowers and
+foliage.
+
+=Wood-engraving= or =Xylography=. Box-wood is the only kind that can be
+used. The blocks when smoothed and polished are prepared for drawing on,
+by rubbing the polished surface with _bath brick_ in very fine powder
+mixed with water. When this thin coating is dry, it is removed by
+rubbing the block on the palm of the hand; its only use is to make the
+surface less slippery. There are four descriptions of cutting tools used
+in wood-engraving. The _graver_ is not very different from that used for
+copper-plate, but has the point ground to a peculiar form by rubbing on
+a _Turkey stone_. Eight or nine _gravers_, of different sizes, are
+generally required commencing with a very fine one, which is called the
+_outline tool_, and increasing in size or breadth. _Tinting_ is cutting
+series of parallel lines, which, when engraved, form an even and uniform
+tint. For this process there is a distinct set of tools called _tinting
+tools_. _Gouges_ of different sizes are used for scooping out the wood
+towards the centre of the block, and flat tools or _chisels_ for cutting
+it away towards the edges. The earliest known wood-engraving, “The
+Virgin surrounded by four Saints,” is dated 1418. A print of it is in
+the Brussels Museum.
+
+=Wood-skin.= An American name for a large canoe made of bark.
+
+=Woof.= The _weft_, or cross-texture of fabrics.
+
+=Woolsack.= The seat of the Lord Chancellor, in the House of Lords.
+
+=Working Drawings= (Arch.) are enlarged portions of plans with details
+of a building, for the practical artificers to work from.
+
+=Worsted= (properly Worstead, spelt also “_worsett_” and “_woryst_”) was
+the name given to the cloth woven of the hard thread produced by the
+peculiar carding process that was invented at _Worstead_ in Norfolk;
+14th century.
+
+=Wou= or =Wouwou=, Egyp. The Egyptian name for the dog; it is evidently
+an onomatopœia, like the name for a cat, which is written MAAOU. (See
+CANIS.)
+
+=Wreath.= Wreaths have at all times been prominent among symbolical
+personal ornaments; always with an honourable or pleasant signification;
+wreaths of ivy distinguished the votaries of Bacchus; appropriate
+wreaths were invented for sacrifices at the altar for heroic or priestly
+or literary distinction. (See ORLE, CREST, WREATH, &c.)
+
+=Wrest=, O. E. An instrument for drawing up the strings of a harp.
+(_Shakespeare._)
+
+=Wyn=, O. E. A narrow flag.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 700. Wyvern.]
+
+=Wyvern=, =Wivern=, Her. A fabulous creature, a species of dragon with
+two legs, and represented having its tail nowed. (Fig. 700.)
+
+
+
+
+                                   X.
+
+
+(_The syllable_ ξυν- _in Greek is generally rendered Syn_, _q.v._)
+
+=X.= The Roman numeral for ten.
+
+=Xanthian Marbles.= Sculptures found in 1838 at Xanthus, in ancient
+Lycia, now in the British Museum. The figures are Assyrian in character,
+and of a date not later than 500 B.C. Besides the so called Harpy tomb
+(see HARPIES), there are sieges, processions, and many figures, in the
+energetic action so remarkable in the Nineveh sculptures. Most of the
+figures are in profile; but the eyes, like those of Egyptian sculptures,
+are shown in full.
+
+=Xebec.= A small lateen-rigged three-masted vessel, common in the
+Mediterranean.
+
+=Xenagia=, Gr. (ξεναγία). A subdivision of the Greek army consisting of
+256 men, and subdivided into four tetrarchies, commanded by the
+_Xenagos_, an officer appointed by the Spartans, who had the control of
+the armies of the Greek states.
+
+=Xenia=, Gr. (ξένια, lit. friendly gifts). (1) Delicacies, dainties, or
+pastry which were sent to one another by the Greeks and Romans as a
+pledge of friendship, chiefly during the Saturnalia. (2) Decorations to
+the walls of _guest_-chambers consisting of paintings of _still life_
+representing game, fruits, fish, and flowers.
+
+=Xenodochium=, R. (ξενο-δοχεῖον). A low Latin term for a hospice
+intended for the reception of pilgrims and sick persons. Childebert
+founded a _xenodochium_ at Lyons in the 6th century.
+
+=Xerophagia=, Chr. (ξηρο-φαγία). A six days’ fast throughout Holy Week,
+during which the Christians of the primitive Church ate only bread with
+a little salt, and drank nothing but water.
+
+=Xestes=, Gr. (Lat. Sextarius). A Greek measure of capacity; very nearly
+a _pint_; equivalent to the Latin SEXTARIUS.
+
+=Xoïtes=, Egyp. A nome or division of Lower Egypt, the capital of which
+was _Khsonou_; Ammon-Ra was the principal deity there worshipped.
+
+=Xylography.= Wood-engraving (q.v.).
+
+=Xylon=, Gr. (lit. wood). A Greek measure of length, equal to 4 feet and
+6·6 inches.
+
+=Xylopyrography.= Poker-painting; the art of burning pictures on to
+wood.
+
+=Xyneciæ=, Gr. (συν-οίκια). Festivals held at Athens in honour of
+Minerva, to commemorate the union of the inhabitants of Attica into a
+single city. These festivals were instituted by Theseus, and held every
+year in the month of July. Another name for them was _Metœciæ_
+(μετοίκιαι).
+
+=Xystus=, Gr. (ξυστός). A covered place situated near a portico, within
+which, in a palæstra or stadium, athletes went through their exercises.
+Pausanias tells us that this part of the stadium received its name from
+the fact that Hercules used every day to clear out the palæstra at Elis
+in order to inure himself to toil, and that he tore up many weeds by
+scraping (ξύω, to scrape, ξυστός). The baths and thermæ at Rome were
+furnished with large xysti, in which young men went through a number of
+exercises. The term _xystus_ was also generally applied by the Romans to
+the beds of rare flowers and shrubs in the centre of the peristyle; it
+also denoted a garden walk perfectly straight, and planted in a regular
+style; and lastly, an open walk or terrace in a garden attached to any
+building.
+
+
+
+
+                                   Y.
+
+
+The letter =Y= is called the letter of Pythagoras because that
+philosopher made it the symbol of life. The foot of the letter, he said,
+represented infancy, and as man gradually rises to the age of reason, he
+finds two paths set before him, the one leading to good, the other to
+evil, portrayed by two forks of the letter. The illustration is the
+device of Jean de Morvilliers (+ 1577), Chancellor of France; the harrow
+tied to the Pythagorean Υ, a _rebus_ on his name _Mort-vie-liers_—“Death
+and life united.” The harrow is the symbol of Death, which makes all
+things equal. (Fig. 701.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 701. Device of Morvilliers. (The Pythagorean Y.)]
+
+=Yacca.= An ornamental Jamaica wood used for cabinet-making.
+
+=Yard= (from the Saxon _geard_ or _gyrd_, from _gyrdan_, to enclose).
+Originally estimated to measure the _girth_ of a man’s body; until Henry
+I. decreed that it should be the length of his arm.
+
+=Yataghan.= A Turkish dagger or scimitar.
+
+=Yawl.= A man-of-war’s boat, rowed with six oars.
+
+=Ychma=, Peruv. The name for wild cinnabar among the ancient Peruvians;
+it was employed by them for painting the body and drawing figures on the
+face and arms.
+
+=Yellow.= One of the three primary colours; producing with _green_,
+blue; and with _red_, orange. The principal yellow pigments are
+_gamboge_ (bluish), _gold ochre_ (reddish), _yellow ochre_, _Naples
+yellow_, _chrome yellow_, _lemon yellow_, _Indian yellow_, _gall-stone_,
+_Roman ochre_, _Mars yellow_, _terra di Siena_, _Italian pink_, _cadmium
+yellow_, &c.
+
+=Yellow=, in Christian art, or gold, was the symbol of the sun; of the
+goodness of God, initiation or marriage, faith or fruitfulness. In a bad
+sense yellow signifies inconstancy, jealousy, deceit; in this sense it
+is given to the traitor Judas, who is generally habited in dirty yellow.
+
+=Yellow Arsenic.= (See YELLOW ORPIMENT.)
+
+=Yellow Flag.= Denoting sickness on board of a ship or quarantine.
+
+=Yellow Lake.= A bright pigment, very susceptible to the action of light
+or metal. (See PINKS.)
+
+=Yellow Metal.= A composition, two-thirds copper and one-third zinc.
+
+=Yellow Ochre.= An argillaceous earth, coloured by admixture of iron.
+(See OCHRE.)
+
+=Yellow Orpiment= (_auripigmentum_). A bright and pure yellow pigment,
+but not durable, and dries very slowly; called also _Yellow Arsenic_.
+
+=Yeoman= of the Guard. A beef-eater; one of the British sovereign’s
+state body-guard; below the _gentleman-at-arms_. Instituted at the
+coronation of Henry VII. in 1485.
+
+=Yew.= _Taxus baccata._ The word is largely used in cabinet-making. The
+excellence of the wood for making bows led to the trees being planted in
+churchyards, to preserve them.
+
+=Ymaigier.= (See IMAGIER.)
+
+=Ymaigerie=, =Imagery=, Med. (1) Illuminated borders on missals and
+manuscripts executed by the miniaturists of the Middle Ages. (2)
+Bas-reliefs and sculptures on wood and stone.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 702. Yoke. Device of Pope Leo X.]
+
+=Yoke.= A symbolical device assumed by Pope Leo X. in allusion to the
+text “My yoke is easy,” expressed in the one word of the motto
+“_Suave_.” (See JUGUM.) Fig. 702.
+
+=York Collar.= Her. Was formed of alternate _Suns_ and _Roses_.
+
+=York Herald.= One of the six Heralds of the College of Arms. (See
+HERALDS.)
+
+=York Rose.= Her. The _white_ rose of the family of York. (See Fig.
+589.)
+
+=Yorkshire Grit.= A stone used for polishing marble and engravers’
+copper plates.
+
+=Ypres Lace= is the finest and most costly kind of VALENCIENNES.
+
+=Yu=, Chinese. (1) A hard and heavy stone, supposed to be a kind of
+agate which was used for the ancient musical instrument KING, which was
+a kind of harmonicon made of slabs of sonorous stone of different sizes.
+(2) An ancient name for a curious wind instrument of high antiquity,
+which is still in use and is now called _cheng_. It consists of a number
+of tubes placed in a _calabash_, or bowl, and blown into through a long
+curved tube.
+
+=Yucatan.= A province of Mexico remarkable for its architectural
+monuments of a forgotten civilization, described by _Stephens, Incidents
+of Travel in Yucatan_. (See MEXICAN ARCHITECTURE.)
+
+=Yufts.= A kind of Russia leather, red and soft, with a pleasant smell.
+
+=Yule=, O. E. Christmas time.
+
+
+
+
+                                   Z.
+
+
+ _The initials Z and S and Z and C frequently interchange, especially in
+ old words derived from the German, as zither, cither; zentner, centner,
+                   &c. The German Z is pronounced ts._
+
+=Zaba=, =Zava=. An Arabic cuirass. (_Meyrick._)
+
+=Zabaoth.= (See SABAOTH.)
+
+=Zafferano=, It. Saffron. A vegetable yellow pigment.
+
+=Zaffre= (It. _zaffiro_). An ancient blue pigment, prepared from
+_cobalt_, of a _sapphire_ blue, resembling _smalt_.
+
+=Zamarilla=, Sp. A loose jacket of sheepskins.
+
+=Zarf.= An oriental saucer for coffee-cups.
+
+=Zauca=, =Zaucha=, or =Zauga=, Gr. and R. A soft and flexible leather
+boot peculiar to Eastern nations; it was worn under the trousers.
+
+=Zazahan=, Sp. A kind of flowered silk.
+
+=Zebec.= A common form of sailing vessel in the Mediterranean, rigged
+with a lateen sail.
+
+=Zebra Wood.= The _Hyawaballi_ of Guiana, a beautiful wood for
+furniture.
+
+=Zebu.= The humped species to which the sacred Brahmin bull belongs,
+represented in Hindu art.
+
+=Zema=, Gr. and R. (ζέμα). A vessel of earthenware or metal, a saucepan.
+
+=Zemzemeeyeh=, Arabic. A skin for carrying water in the desert.
+
+=Zend-Avesta=, Pers. “The Word of Life” or “Living Word.” The sacred
+book of the Parsees; it consists of two parts, one of which is written
+in _Zend_, the other in _Pehloi_ and _Parsee_. The first part is called
+_Vendidad-Salé_, and the second _Boundehech_.
+
+=Zenith.= The centre of the arch of the sky overhead. (Cf. NADIR.)
+
+=Zephyr Yarn= is the dyed worsted thread usually known as _Berlin wool_.
+
+=Zeuxite.= A gem. (See TOURMALINE.)
+
+=Zigzag=, Arch. One of the mouldings frequently used in Norman
+architecture, running in zigzag lines. (See Fig. 488.) Fig. 123 is an
+illustration of a variety of this ornament on a column. _Zigzig_
+mouldings in connexion with pointed arches are characteristic of the
+transition period of architecture, from the Norman to the Early English,
+frequently called _chevron_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 704. Duchess of Parma in richly embroidered robes
+and zimarra.]
+
+=Zimarra.= An Oriental robe, called in England also _Samare_. Described
+as a lady’s jacket: “it has a loose body and four side laps or skirts,
+which extend to the knee; the sleeves short, cut to the elbow, turned up
+and faced.”—_Randle Holme._
+
+=Zincography.= Engraving on plates of zinc, introduced in 1817. (See
+PHOTOZINCOGRAPHY.)
+
+=Zinc White.= A pigment recently introduced as a substitute for the
+preparations of white lead. It is little liable to change, either by
+atmospheric action or mixture with other pigments. It is the white oxide
+of zinc, and is also called _Chinese White_ (q.v.).
+
+=Zipo=, Med. Lat. A shirt of mail.
+
+=Zircon.= A peculiar rare grey and brown earth, found in the true rough
+and opaque varieties of hyacinth stone, which are met with in Ceylon,
+Norway, Carinthia, and the Ural. The term _hyacinth_ is applied to the
+transparent and bright-coloured varieties of zircon, and _jargoon_ to
+crystals devoid of colour and of a smoky tinge, occasionally sold as
+inferior diamonds. (_Simmonds’ Com. Dict._)
+
+=Zither.= A favourite stringed instrument of a soft and sweet effect,
+much used in the Austrian Tyrol. It is played lying flat on a table, and
+the strings struck with a _plectrum_ worn on the thumb.
+
+=Zocle= or =Socle=, Arch. The plinth in classical architecture.
+
+=Zodiacus=, =Zodiac=, Gen. (ζωδιακὸς, i. e. pertaining to animals). The
+zone of the celestial sphere which extends to eight degrees on either
+side of the ecliptic. The Egyptians had representations of it in their
+temples, the most celebrated being that of _Denderah_, a cast of which
+is at the Louvre. Other zodiacs have also been found in the great temple
+of Esneh and at Contra-Lato. Many monuments of the Romano-Byzantine and
+Gothic periods possess representations of zodiacs. They occur on the
+doorways and other parts of churches from the end of the 10th century.
+In particular may be noted the one which figures on the bas-reliefs of
+the frieze in the side apsides of the Romano-Auvergniate church of St.
+Paul d’Issoire. One of the largest zodiacs, dating from the beginning of
+the 11th century, is that of the church of St. Vézelay. The series of
+medallions which surround the great tympanum representing Christ and the
+apostles, contain, independently of the signs of the zodiac,
+representations of the agricultural operations belonging to each month
+of the year.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 705. Zona.]
+
+=Zona=, Gr. (1) A girdle, used to gird up the skirts of the dress for
+freedom of action (Fig. 157); on occasions of solemnity, as sacrifices
+or funerals, the girdle was relaxed, and the folds of the dress allowed
+to hang to the feet (Fig. 537); as a part of the marriage ceremony it
+was taken off. Upon the armour of men it supported the kilt, and was
+worn round the cuirass (Fig. 705; cf. Fig. 44). It was generally used as
+a purse. The celebrated girdle (_cestus_) of Venus, which conferred
+beauty and inspired love, is not represented on the statues of that
+goddess. There is a town on the Ægean Sea called Zona from the belt of
+trees upon it, still growing in the processional order in which they
+arrived when they left their native plantations and followed the music
+of Orpheus. (2) In Architecture, an entablature which encircles any
+isolated building. Lofty buildings surrounded by seven _zones_ were
+described as _septizonia_. (3) In painted vases, horizontal annular
+bands often decorated with animals. (See ZOOPHORI.)
+
+=Zonula.= Diminutive of ZONA.
+
+=Zoomara=, Arab. A double clarionet.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 706. Greek Vase decorated with Zoophori.]
+
+=Zoophori.= Bands of ornament on friezes, vases, &c., representing
+animals. (See Figs. 706, 707.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 707. Vase with bands of Zoophori.]
+
+=Zophorus=, Gr. and R. (ζωφόρος). Literally, bearing animals, and thence
+a _frieze_, decorated with figures of animals, conventional or real.
+
+=Zotheca=, Gr. and R. (ζω-θήκη). A small chamber adjoining a larger
+apartment, whither the occupant might retire for the purpose of study.
+(2) A small niche for the reception of a statue, vase, or any other
+object. The Romans had a diminutive for _zotheca_, viz. _zothecula_.
+
+=Zummárah=, Egyp. A musical instrument; a double reed pipe.
+
+
+                                THE END.
+
+
+                                LONDON:
+               PRINTED BY GILBERT AND RIVINGTON, LIMITED,
+                           ST. JOHN’S SQUARE.
+
+------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+
+
+
+                          TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES
+
+
+ 1. Silently corrected obvious typographical errors and variations in
+      spelling.
+ 2. Retained archaic, non-standard, and uncertain spellings as printed.
+ 3. Moved illustrations to the head of the associated article. If more
+      than one illustration then positioned some after the article.
+ 4. Enclosed italics font in _underscores_.
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AN ILLUSTRATED DICTIONARY OF
+WORDS USED IN ART AND ARCHAEOLOGY ***
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will
+be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright
+law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works,
+so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the
+United States without permission and without paying copyright
+royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part
+of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm
+concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark,
+and may not be used if you charge for an eBook, except by following
+the terms of the trademark license, including paying royalties for use
+of the Project Gutenberg trademark. If you do not charge anything for
+copies of this eBook, complying with the trademark license is very
+easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such as creation
+of derivative works, reports, performances and research. Project
+Gutenberg eBooks may be modified and printed and given away--you may
+do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks not protected
+by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the trademark
+license, especially commercial redistribution.
+
+START: FULL LICENSE
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full
+Project Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at
+www.gutenberg.org/license.
+
+Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+
+1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or
+destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your
+possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a
+Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound
+by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the
+person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph
+1.E.8.
+
+1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See
+paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this
+agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the
+Foundation" or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection
+of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual
+works in the collection are in the public domain in the United
+States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the
+United States and you are located in the United States, we do not
+claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing,
+displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as
+all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope
+that you will support the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting
+free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm
+works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the
+Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with the work. You can easily
+comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the
+same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg-tm License when
+you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are
+in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States,
+check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this
+agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing,
+distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any
+other Project Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no
+representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any
+country other than the United States.
+
+1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other
+immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear
+prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work
+on which the phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed,
+performed, viewed, copied or distributed:
+
+  This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
+  most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
+  restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it
+  under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this
+  eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the
+  United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where
+  you are located before using this eBook.
+
+1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is
+derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not
+contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the
+copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in
+the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are
+redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply
+either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or
+obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg-tm
+trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any
+additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms
+will be linked to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works
+posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the
+beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including
+any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access
+to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format
+other than "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official
+version posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm website
+(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense
+to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means
+of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original "Plain
+Vanilla ASCII" or other form. Any alternate format must include the
+full Project Gutenberg-tm License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+provided that:
+
+* You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+  the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+  you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed
+  to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he has
+  agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project
+  Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid
+  within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are
+  legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty
+  payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project
+  Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in
+  Section 4, "Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg
+  Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+* You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+  you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+  does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+  License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all
+  copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue
+  all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg-tm
+  works.
+
+* You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of
+  any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+  electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of
+  receipt of the work.
+
+* You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+  distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work or group of works on different terms than
+are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing
+from the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the manager of
+the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the Foundation as set
+forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project
+Gutenberg-tm collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may
+contain "Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate
+or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other
+intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or
+other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or
+cannot be read by your equipment.
+
+1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium
+with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you
+with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in
+lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person
+or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second
+opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If
+the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing
+without further opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO
+OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT
+LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of
+damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement
+violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the
+agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or
+limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or
+unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the
+remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in
+accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the
+production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses,
+including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of
+the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this
+or any Project Gutenberg-tm work, (b) alteration, modification, or
+additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any
+Defect you cause.
+
+Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of
+computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It
+exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations
+from people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future
+generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see
+Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at
+www.gutenberg.org
+
+Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by
+U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's business office is located at 809 North 1500 West,
+Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up
+to date contact information can be found at the Foundation's website
+and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact
+
+Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without
+widespread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine-readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND
+DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular
+state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To
+donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate
+
+Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm concept of a library of electronic works that could be
+freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and
+distributed Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of
+volunteer support.
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in
+the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not
+necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper
+edition.
+
+Most people start at our website which has the main PG search
+facility: www.gutenberg.org
+
+This website includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.