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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Politics + A Treatise on Government + +Author: Aristotle + +Release Date: June 5, 2009 [EBook #6762] +Last Updated: January 22, 2013 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK POLITICS *** + + + + +Produced by Eric Eldred, and David Widger + + + + + + +</pre> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <h1> + A TREATISE ON GOVERNMENT + </h1> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <h2> + By Aristotle + </h2> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <h3> + Translated From The Greek Of Aristotle By William Ellis, A.M. + </h3> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <h4> + London &.Toronto Published By J M Dent & Sons Ltd. &.In New + York By E. P. Dutton &. Co + </h4> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <h5> + First Issue Of This Edition 1912 Reprinted 1919, 1923, 1928 + </h5> + <blockquote> + <p class="toc"> + <big><b>CONTENTS</b></big> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <a href="#link2H_INTR"> INTRODUCTION </a><br /><br /><br /> <a + href="#link2H_BIBL"> BIBLIOGRAPHY </a><br /><br /><br /> <a + href="#link2H_4_0003"> <b>A TREATISE ON GOVERNMENT</b> </a><br /><br /><br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0004"> <b>BOOK I</b> </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0001"> CHAPTER I </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0002"> CHAPTER II </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0003"> CHAPTER III </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0004"> CHAPTER IV </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0005"> CHAPTER V </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0006"> CHAPTER VI </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0007"> CHAPTER VII </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0008"> CHAPTER VIII </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0009"> CHAPTER IX </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0010"> CHAPTER X </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0011"> CHAPTER XI </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0012"> CHAPTER XII </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0013"> CHAPTER XIII </a> + </p> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0018"> <b>BOOK II</b> </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0014"> CHAPTER I </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0015"> CHAPTER II </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0016"> CHAPTER III </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0017"> CHAPTER IV </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0018"> CHAPTER V </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0019"> CHAPTER VI </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0020"> CHAPTER VII </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0021"> CHAPTER VIII </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0022"> CHAPTER IX </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0023"> CHAPTER X </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0024"> CHAPTER XI </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0025"> CHAPTER XII </a> + </p> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0031"> <b>BOOK III</b> </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0026"> CHAPTER I </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0027"> CHAPTER II </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0028"> CHAPTER III </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0029"> CHAPTER IV </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0030"> CHAPTER V </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0031"> CHAPTER VI </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0032"> CHAPTER VII </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0033"> CHAPTER VIII </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0034"> CHAPTER IX </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0035"> CHAPTER X </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0036"> CHAPTER XI </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0037"> CHAPTER XII </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0038"> CHAPTER XIII </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0039"> CHAPTER XIV </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0040"> CHAPTER XV </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0041"> CHAPTER XVI </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0042"> CHAPTER XVII </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0043"> CHAPTER XVIII </a> + </p> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0050"> <b>BOOK IV</b> </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0044"> CHAPTER I </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0045"> CHAPTER II </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0046"> CHAPTER III </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0047"> CHAPTER IV </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0048"> CHAPTER V </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0049"> CHAPTER VI </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0050"> CHAPTER VII </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0051"> CHAPTER VIII </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0052"> CHAPTER IX </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0053"> CHAPTER X </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0054"> CHAPTER XI </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0055"> CHAPTER XII </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0056"> CHAPTER XIII </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0057"> CHAPTER XIV </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0058"> CHAPTER XV </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0059"> CHAPTER XVI </a> + </p> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0067"> <b>BOOK V</b> </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0060"> CHAPTER I </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0061"> CHAPTER II </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0062"> CHAPTER III </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0063"> CHAPTER IV </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0064"> CHAPTER V </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0065"> CHAPTER VI </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0066"> CHAPTER VII </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0067"> CHAPTER VIII </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0068"> CHAPTER IX </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0069"> CHAPTER X </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0070"> CHAPTER XI </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0071"> CHAPTER XII </a> + </p> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0080"> <b>BOOK VI</b> </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0072"> CHAPTER I </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0073"> CHAPTER II </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0074"> CHAPTER III </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0075"> CHAPTER IV </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0076"> CHAPTER V </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0077"> CHAPTER VI </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0078"> CHAPTER VII </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0079"> CHAPTER VIII </a> + </p> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0089"> <b>BOOK VII</b> </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0080"> CHAPTER I </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0081"> CHAPTER II </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0082"> CHAPTER III </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0083"> CHAPTER IV </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0084"> CHAPTER V </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0085"> CHAPTER VI </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0086"> CHAPTER VII </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0087"> CHAPTER VIII </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0088"> CHAPTER IX </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0089"> CHAPTER X </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0090"> CHAPTER XI </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0091"> CHAPTER XII </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0092"> CHAPTER XIII </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0093"> CHAPTER XIV </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0094"> CHAPTER XV </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0095"> CHAPTER XVI </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0096"> CHAPTER XVII </a> + </p> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0107"> <b>BOOK VIII</b> </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0097"> CHAPTER I </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0098"> CHAPTER II </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0099"> CHAPTER III </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0100"> CHAPTER IV </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0101"> CHAPTER V </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0102"> CHAPTER VI </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0103"> CHAPTER VII </a> + </p> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0115"> INDEX </a> + </p> + </blockquote> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="link2H_INTR" id="link2H_INTR"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <h2> + INTRODUCTION + </h2> + <p> + The Politics of Aristotle is the second part of a treatise of which the + Ethics is the first part. It looks back to the Ethics as the Ethics looks + forward to the Politics. For Aristotle did not separate, as we are + inclined to do, the spheres of the statesman and the moralist. In the + Ethics he has described the character necessary for the good life, but + that life is for him essentially to be lived in society, and when in the + last chapters of the Ethics he comes to the practical application of his + inquiries, that finds expression not in moral exhortations addressed to + the individual but in a description of the legislative opportunities of + the statesman. It is the legislator's task to frame a society which shall + make the good life possible. Politics for Aristotle is not a struggle + between individuals or classes for power, nor a device for getting done + such elementary tasks as the maintenance of order and security without too + great encroachments on individual liberty. The state is "a community of + well-being in families and aggregations of families for the sake of a + perfect and self-sufficing life." The legislator is a craftsman whose + material is society and whose aim is the good life. + </p> + <p> + In an early dialogue of Plato's, the Protagoras, Socrates asks Protagoras + why it is not as easy to find teachers of virtue as it is to find teachers + of swordsmanship, riding, or any other art. Protagoras' answer is that + there are no special teachers of virtue, because virtue is taught by the + whole community. Plato and Aristotle both accept the view of moral + education implied in this answer. In a passage of the Republic (492 b) + Plato repudiates the notion that the sophists have a corrupting moral + influence upon young men. The public themselves, he says, are the real + sophists and the most complete and thorough educators. No private + education can hold out against the irresistible force of public opinion + and the ordinary moral standards of society. But that makes it all the + more essential that public opinion and social environment should not be + left to grow up at haphazard as they ordinarily do, but should be made by + the wise legislator the expression of the good and be informed in all + their details by his knowledge. The legislator is the only possible + teacher of virtue. + </p> + <p> + Such a programme for a treatise on government might lead us to expect in + the Politics mainly a description of a Utopia or ideal state which might + inspire poets or philosophers but have little direct effect upon political + institutions. Plato's Republic is obviously impracticable, for its author + had turned away in despair from existing politics. He has no proposals, in + that dialogue at least, for making the best of things as they are. The + first lesson his philosopher has to learn is to turn away from this world + of becoming and decay, and to look upon the unchanging eternal world of + ideas. Thus his ideal city is, as he says, a pattern laid up in heaven by + which the just man may rule his life, a pattern therefore in the meantime + for the individual and not for the statesman. It is a city, he admits in + the Laws, for gods or the children of gods, not for men as they are. + </p> + <p> + Aristotle has none of the high enthusiasm or poetic imagination of Plato. + He is even unduly impatient of Plato's idealism, as is shown by the + criticisms in the second book. But he has a power to see the possibilities + of good in things that are imperfect, and the patience of the true + politician who has learned that if he would make men what they ought to + be, he must take them as he finds them. His ideal is constructed not of + pure reason or poetry, but from careful and sympathetic study of a wide + range of facts. His criticism of Plato in the light of history, in Book + II. chap, v., though as a criticism it is curiously inept, reveals his own + attitude admirably: "Let us remember that we should not disregard the + experience of ages; in the multitude of years, these things, if they were + good, would certainly not have been unknown; for almost everything has + been found out, although sometimes they are not put together; in other + cases men do not use the knowledge which they have." Aristotle in his + Constitutions had made a study of one hundred and fifty-eight + constitutions of the states of his day, and the fruits of that study are + seen in the continual reference to concrete political experience, which + makes the Politics in some respects a critical history of the workings of + the institutions of the Greek city state. In Books IV., V., and VI. the + ideal state seems far away, and we find a dispassionate survey of + imperfect states, the best ways of preserving them, and an analysis of the + causes of their instability. It is as though Aristotle were saying: "I + have shown you the proper and normal type of constitution, but if you will + not have it and insist on living under a perverted form, you may as well + know how to make the best of it." In this way the Politics, though it + defines the state in the light of its ideal, discusses states and + institutions as they are. Ostensibly it is merely a continuation of the + Ethics, but it comes to treat political questions from a purely political + standpoint. + </p> + <p> + This combination of idealism and respect for the teachings of experience + constitutes in some ways the strength and value of the Politics, but it + also makes it harder to follow. The large nation states to which we are + accustomed make it difficult for us to think that the state could be + constructed and modelled to express the good life. We can appreciate + Aristotle's critical analysis of constitutions, but find it hard to take + seriously his advice to the legislator. Moreover, the idealism and the + empiricism of the Politics are never really reconciled by Aristotle + himself. + </p> + <p> + It may help to an understanding of the Politics if something is said on + those two points. + </p> + <p> + We are accustomed since the growth of the historical method to the belief + that states are "not made but grow," and are apt to be impatient with the + belief which Aristotle and Plato show in the powers of the lawgiver. But + however true the maxim may be of the modern nation state, it was not true + of the much smaller and more self-conscious Greek city. When Aristotle + talks of the legislator, he is not talking in the air. Students of the + Academy had been actually called on to give new constitutions to Greek + states. For the Greeks the constitution was not merely as it is so often + with us, a matter of political machinery. It was regarded as a way of + life. Further, the constitution within the framework of which the ordinary + process of administration and passing of decrees went on, was always + regarded as the work of a special man or body of men, the lawgivers. If we + study Greek history, we find that the position of the legislator + corresponds to that assigned to him by Plato and Aristotle. All Greek + states, except those perversions which Aristotle criticises as being + "above law," worked under rigid constitutions, and the constitution was + only changed when the whole people gave a commission to a lawgiver to draw + up a new one. Such was the position of the AEsumnetes, whom Aristotle + describes in Book III. chap, xiv., in earlier times, and of the pupils of + the Academy in the fourth century. The lawgiver was not an ordinary + politician. He was a state doctor, called in to prescribe for an ailing + constitution. So Herodotus recounts that when the people of Cyrene asked + the oracle of Delphi to help them in their dissensions, the oracle told + them to go to Mantinea, and the Mantineans lent them Demonax, who acted as + a "setter straight" and drew up a new constitution for Cyrene. So again + the Milesians, Herodotus tells us, were long troubled by civil discord, + till they asked help from Paros, and the Parians sent ten commissioners + who gave Miletus a new constitution. So the Athenians, when they were + founding their model new colony at Thurii, employed Hippodamus of Miletus, + whom Aristotle mentions in Book II, as the best expert in town-planning, + to plan the streets of the city, and Protagoras as the best expert in + law-making, to give the city its laws. In the Laws Plato represents one of + the persons of the dialogue as having been asked by the people of Gortyna + to draw up laws for a colony which they were founding. The situation + described must have occurred frequently in actual life. The Greeks thought + administration should be democratic and law-making the work of experts. We + think more naturally of law-making as the special right of the people and + administration as necessarily confined to experts. + </p> + <p> + Aristotle's Politics, then, is a handbook for the legislator, the expert + who is to be called in when a state wants help. We have called him a state + doctor. It is one of the most marked characteristics of Greek political + theory that Plato and Aristotle think of the statesman as one who has + knowledge of what ought to be done, and can help those who call him in to + prescribe for them, rather than one who has power to control the forces of + society. The desire of society for the statesman's advice is taken for + granted, Plato in the Republic says that a good constitution is only + possible when the ruler does not want to rule; where men contend for + power, where they have not learnt to distinguish between the art of + getting hold of the helm of state and the art of steering, which alone is + statesmanship, true politics is impossible. + </p> + <p> + With this position much that Aristotle has to say about government is in + agreement. He assumes the characteristic Platonic view that all men seek + the good, and go wrong through ignorance, not through evil will, and so he + naturally regards the state as a community which exists for the sake of + the good life. It is in the state that that common seeking after the good + which is the profoundest truth about men and nature becomes explicit and + knows itself. The state is for Aristotle prior to the family and the + village, although it succeeds them in time, for only when the state with + its conscious organisation is reached can man understand the secret of his + past struggles after something he knew not what. If primitive society is + understood in the light of the state, the state is understood in the light + of its most perfect form, when the good after which all societies are + seeking is realised in its perfection. Hence for Aristotle as for Plato, + the natural state or the state as such is the ideal state, and the ideal + state is the starting-point of political inquiry. + </p> + <p> + In accordance with the same line of thought, imperfect states, although + called perversions, are regarded by Aristotle as the result rather of + misconception and ignorance than of perverse will. They all represent, he + says, some kind of justice. Oligarchs and democrats go wrong in their + conception of the good. They have come short of the perfect state through + misunderstanding of the end or through ignorance of the proper means to + the end. But if they are states at all, they embody some common conception + of the good, some common aspirations of all their members. + </p> + <p> + The Greek doctrine that the essence of the state consists in community of + purpose is the counterpart of the notion often held in modern times that + the essence of the state is force. The existence of force is for Plato and + Aristotle a sign not of the state but of the state's failure. It comes + from the struggle between conflicting misconceptions of the good. In so + far as men conceive the good rightly they are united. The state represents + their common agreement, force their failure to make that agreement + complete. The cure, therefore, of political ills is knowledge of the good + life, and the statesman is he who has such knowledge, for that alone can + give men what they are always seeking. + </p> + <p> + If the state is the organisation of men seeking a common good, power and + political position must be given to those who can forward this end. This + is the principle expressed in Aristotle's account of political justice, + the principle of "tools to those who can use them." As the aim of the + state is differently conceived, the qualifications for government will + vary. In the ideal state power will be given to the man with most + knowledge of the good; in other states to the men who are most truly + capable of achieving that end which the citizens have set themselves to + pursue. The justest distribution of political power is that in which there + is least waste of political ability. + </p> + <p> + Further, the belief that the constitution of a state is only the outward + expression of the common aspirations and beliefs of its members, explains + the paramount political importance which Aristotle assigns to education. + It is the great instrument by which the legislator can ensure that the + future citizens of his state will share those common beliefs which make + the state possible. The Greeks with their small states had a far clearer + apprehension than we can have of the dependence of a constitution upon the + people who have to work it. + </p> + <p> + Such is in brief the attitude in which Aristotle approaches political + problems, but in working out its application to men and institutions as + they are, Aristotle admits certain compromises which are not really + consistent with it. + </p> + <p> + 1. Aristotle thinks of membership of a state as community in pursuit of + the good. He wishes to confine membership in it to those who are capable + of that pursuit in the highest and most explicit manner. His citizens, + therefore, must be men of leisure, capable of rational thought upon the + end of life. He does not recognise the significance of that less conscious + but deep-seated membership of the state which finds its expression in + loyalty and patriotism. His definition of citizen includes only a small + part of the population of any Greek city. He is forced to admit that the + state is not possible without the co-operation of men whom he will not + admit to membership in it, either because they are not capable of + sufficient rational appreciation of political ends, like the barbarians + whom he thought were natural slaves, or because the leisure necessary for + citizenship can only be gained by the work of the artisans who by that + very work make themselves incapable of the life which they make possible + for others. "The artisan only attains excellence in proportion as he + becomes a slave," and the slave is only a living instrument of the good + life. He exists for the state, but the state does not exist for him. + </p> + <p> + 2. Aristotle in his account of the ideal state seems to waver between two + ideals. There is the ideal of an aristocracy and the ideal of what he + calls constitutional government, a mixed constitution. The principle of + "tools to those who can use them" ought to lead him, as it does Plato, to + an aristocracy. Those who have complete knowledge of the good must be few, + and therefore Plato gave entire power in his state into the hands of the + small minority of philosopher guardians. It is in accordance with this + principle that Aristotle holds that kingship is the proper form of + government when there is in the state one man of transcendent virtue. At + the same time, Aristotle always holds that absolute government is not + properly political, that government is not like the rule of a shepherd + over his sheep, but the rule of equals over equals. He admits that the + democrats are right in insisting that equality is a necessary element in + the state, though he thinks they do not admit the importance of other + equally necessary elements. Hence he comes to say that ruling and being + ruled over by turns is an essential feature of constitutional government, + which he admits as an alternative to aristocracy. The end of the state, + which is to be the standard of the distribution of political power, is + conceived sometimes as a good for the apprehension and attainment of which + "virtue" is necessary and sufficient (this is the principle of + aristocracy), and sometimes as a more complex good, which needs for its + attainment not only "virtue" but wealth and equality. This latter + conception is the principle on which the mixed constitution is based. This + in its distribution of political power gives some weight to "virtue," some + to wealth, and some to mere number. But the principle of "ruling and being + ruled by turns" is not really compatible with an unmodified principle of + "tools to those who can use them." Aristotle is right in seeing that + political government demands equality, not in the sense that all members + of the state should be equal in ability or should have equal power, but in + the sense that none of them can properly be regarded simply as tools with + which the legislator works, that each has a right to say what will be made + of his own life. The analogy between the legislator and the craftsman on + which Plato insists, breaks down because the legislator is dealing with + men like himself, men who can to some extent conceive their own end in + life and cannot be treated merely as means to the end of the legislator. + The sense of the value of "ruling and being ruled in turn" is derived from + the experience that the ruler may use his power to subordinate the lives + of the citizens of the state not to the common good but to his own private + purposes. In modern terms, it is a simple, rough-and-ready attempt to + solve that constant problem of politics, how efficient government is to be + combined with popular control. This problem arises from the imperfection + of human nature, apparent in rulers as well as in ruled, and if the + principle which attempts to solve it be admitted as a principle of + importance in the formation of the best constitution, then the + starting-point of politics will be man's actual imperfection, not his + ideal nature. Instead, then, of beginning with a state which would express + man's ideal nature, and adapting it as well as may be to man's actual + shortcomings from that ideal, we must recognise that the state and all + political machinery are as much the expression of man's weakness as of his + ideal possibilities. The state is possible only because men have common + aspirations, but government, and political power, the existence of + officials who are given authority to act in the name of the whole state, + are necessary because men's community is imperfect, because man's social + nature expresses itself in conflicting ways, in the clash of interests, + the rivalry of parties, and the struggle of classes, instead of in the + united seeking after a common good. Plato and Aristotle were familiar with + the legislator who was called in by the whole people, and they tended + therefore to take the general will or common consent of the people for + granted. Most political questions are concerned with the construction and + expression of the general will, and with attempts to ensure that the + political machinery made to express the general will shall not be + exploited for private or sectional ends. + </p> + <p> + Aristotle's mixed constitution springs from a recognition of sectional + interests in the state. For the proper relation between the claims of + "virtue," wealth, and numbers is to be based not upon their relative + importance in the good life, but upon the strength of the parties which + they represent. The mixed constitution is practicable in a state where the + middle class is strong, as only the middle class can mediate between the + rich and the poor. The mixed constitution will be stable if it represents + the actual balance of power between different classes in the state. When + we come to Aristotle's analysis of existing constitutions, we find that + while he regards them as imperfect approximations to the ideal, he also + thinks of them as the result of the struggle between classes. Democracy, + he explains, is the government not of the many but of the poor; oligarchy + a government not of the few but of the rich. And each class is thought of, + not as trying to express an ideal, but as struggling to acquire power or + maintain its position. If ever the class existed in unredeemed nakedness, + it was in the Greek cities of the fourth century, and its existence is + abundantly recognised by Aristotle. His account of the causes of + revolutions in Book V. shows how far were the existing states of Greece + from the ideal with which he starts. His analysis of the facts forces him + to look upon them as the scene of struggling factions. The causes of + revolutions are not described as primarily changes in the conception of + the common good, but changes in the military or economic power of the + several classes in the state. The aim which he sets before oligarchs or + democracies is not the good life, but simple stability or permanence of + the existing constitution. + </p> + <p> + With this spirit of realism which pervades Books IV., V., and VI. the + idealism of Books I., II., VII., and VIII. is never reconciled. Aristotle + is content to call existing constitutions perversions of the true form. + But we cannot read the Politics without recognising and profiting from the + insight into the nature of the state which is revealed throughout. + Aristotle's failure does not lie in this, that he is both idealist and + realist, but that he keeps these two tendencies too far apart. He thinks + too much of his ideal state, as something to be reached once for all by + knowledge, as a fixed type to which actual states approximate or from + which they are perversions. But if we are to think of actual politics as + intelligible in the light of the ideal, we must think of that ideal as + progressively revealed in history, not as something to be discovered by + turning our back on experience and having recourse to abstract reasoning. + If we stretch forward from what exists to an ideal, it is to a better + which may be in its turn transcended, not to a single immutable best. + Aristotle found in the society of his time men who were not capable of + political reflection, and who, as he thought, did their best work under + superintendence. He therefore called them natural slaves. For, according + to Aristotle, that is a man's natural condition in which he does his best + work. But Aristotle also thinks of nature as something fixed and + immutable; and therefore sanctions the institution of slavery, which + assumes that what men are that they will always be, and sets up an + artificial barrier to their ever becoming anything else. We see in + Aristotle's defence of slavery how the conception of nature as the ideal + can have a debasing influence upon views of practical politics. His high + ideal of citizenship offers to those who can satisfy its claims the + prospect of a fair life; those who fall short are deemed to be different + in nature and shut out entirely from approach to the ideal. + </p> + <p> + A. D. LINDSAY. <a name="link2H_BIBL" id="link2H_BIBL"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + BIBLIOGRAPHY + </h2> + <p> + First edition of works (with omission of Rhetorica, Poetica, and second + book of OEconomica), 5 vols. by Aldus Manutius, Venice, 1495-8; + re-impression supervised by Erasmus and with certain corrections by + Grynaeus (including Rhetorica and Poetica), 1531, 1539, revised 1550; + later editions were followed by that of Immanuel Bekker and Brandis (Greek + and Latin), 5 vols. The 5th vol. contains the Index by Bonitz, 1831-70; + Didot edition (Greek and Latin), 5 vols. 1848-74. + </p> + <p> + ENGLISH TRANSLATIONS: Edited by T. Taylor, with Porphyry's Introduction, 9 + vols., 1812; under editorship of J. A. Smith and W. D. Ross, 1908. + </p> + <p> + Later editions of separate works: + </p> + <p> + De Anima: Torstrik, 1862; Trendelenburg, 2nd edition, 1877, with English + translation, E. Wallace, 1882; Biehl, 1884, 1896; with English, R. D. + Hicks, 1907. + </p> + <p> + Ethica: J. S. Brewer (Nicomachean), 1836; W. E. Jelf, 1856; J. E. T. + Rogers, 1865; A. Grant, 1857-8, 1866, 1874, 1885; E. Moore, 1871, 1878, + 4th edition, 1890; Ramsauer (Nicomachean), 1878, Susemihl, 1878, 1880, + revised by O. Apelt, 1903; A. Grant, 1885; I. Bywater (Nicomachean), 1890; + J. Burnet, 1900. + </p> + <p> + Historia Animalium: Schneider, 1812; Aubert and Wimmer, 1860, Dittmeyer, + 1907. + </p> + <p> + Metaphysica: Schwegler, 1848; W. Christ, 1899. + </p> + <p> + Organon: Waitz, 1844-6. + </p> + <p> + Poetica: Vahlen, 1867, 1874, with Notes by E. Moore, 1875; with English + translation by E. R. Wharton, 1883, 1885; Uberweg, 1870, 1875; with German + translation, Susemihl, 1874; Schmidt, 1875; Christ, 1878; I. Bywater, + 1898; T. G. Tucker, 1899. + </p> + <p> + De Republics, Atheniensium: Text and facsimile of Papyrus, F. G. Kenyon, + 1891, 3rd edition, 1892; Kaibel and Wilamowitz—Moel-lendorf, 1891, + 3rd edition, 1898; Van Herwerden and Leeuwen (from Kenyon's text), 1891; + Blass, 1892, 1895, 1898, 1903; J. E. Sandys, 1893. + </p> + <p> + Politica: Susemihl, 1872; with German, 1878, 3rd edition, 1882; Susemihl + and Hicks, 1894, etc.; O. Immisch, 1909. + </p> + <p> + Physica: C. Prantl, 1879. + </p> + <p> + Rhetorica: Stahr, 1862; Sprengel (with Latin text), 1867; Cope and Sandys, + 1877; Roemer, 1885, 1898. + </p> + <p> + ENGLISH TRANSLATIONS OF ONE OR MORE WORKS: De Anima (with Parva + Naturalia), by W. A. Hammond, 1902. Ethica: Of Morals to Nicomachus, by E. + Pargiter, 1745; with Politica, by J. Gillies, 1797, 1804, 1813; with + Rhetorica and Poetica, by T. Taylor, 1818, and later editions. Nicomachean + Ethics, 1819; mainly from text of Bekker, by D. P. Chase, 1847; revised + 1861, and later editions with an introductory essay by G. H. Lewes + (Camelot Classics), 1890; re-edited by J. M. Mitchell (New Universal + Library), 1906, 1910; with an introductory essay by Prof. J.H. Smith + (Everyman's Library), 1911; by R.W.Browne (Bohn's Classical Library), + 1848, etc.; by R. Williams, 1869, 1876; by W. M. Hatch and others (with + translation of paraphrase attributed to Andronicus of Rhodes), edited by + E. Hatch, 1879; by F, H. Peters, 1881; J. E. C. Welldon, 1892; J. Gillies + (Lubbock's Hundred Books), 1893. Historia Animalium, by R. Creswell + (Bohn's Classical Library), 1848; with Treatise on Physiognomy, by T. + Taylor, 1809. Metaphysica, by T. Taylor, 1801; by J. H. M'Mahon (Bohn's + Classical Library), 1848. Organon, with Porphyry's Introduction, by O. F. + Owen (Bohn's Classical Library), 1848. Posterior Analytics, E. Poste, + 1850; E. S. Bourchier, 1901; On Fallacies, E. Poste, 1866. Parva Naturalia + (Greek and English), by G. R. T. Ross, 1906; with De Anima, by W. A. + Hammond, 1902. Youth and Old Age, Life and Death and Respiration, W. Ogle, + 1897. Poetica, with Notes from the French of D'Acier, 1705; by H. J. Pye, + 1788, 1792; T. Twining, 1789,1812, with Preface and Notes by H. Hamilton, + 1851; Treatise on Rhetorica and Poetica, by T. Hobbes (Bohn's Classical + Library), 1850; by Wharton, 1883 (see Greek version), S. H. Butcher, 1895, + 1898, 3rd edition, 1902; E. S. Bourchier, 1907; by Ingram Bywater, 1909. + De Partibus Animalium, W. Ogle, 1882. De Republica Athenientium, by E. + Poste, 1891; F. G. Kenyon, 1891; T. J. Dymes, 1891. De Virtutibus et + Vitiis, by W. Bridgman, 1804. Politica, from the French of Regius, 1598; + by W. Ellis, 1776, 1778, 1888 (Morley's Universal Library), 1893 + (Lubbock's Hundred Books); by E. Walford (with AEconomics, and Life by Dr. + Gillies) (Bohn's Classical Library), 1848; J. E. C. Welldon, 1883; B. + Jowett, 1885; with Introduction and Index by H. W. C. Davis, 1905; Books + i. iii. iv. (vii.) from Bekker's text by W. E. Bolland, with Introduction + by A. Lang, 1877. Problemata (with writings of other philosophers), 1597, + 1607, 1680, 1684, etc. Rhetorica: A summary by T. Hobbes, 1655 (?), new + edition, 1759; by the translators of the Art of Thinking, 1686, 1816; by + D. M. Crimmin, 1812; J. Gillies, 1823; Anon. 1847; J. E. C. Welldon, 1886; + R. C. Jebb, with Introduction and Supplementary Notes by J. E. Sandys, + 1909 (see under Poetica and Ethica). Secreta Secretorum (supposititious + work), Anon. 1702; from the Hebrew version by M. Gaster, 1907, 1908. + Version by Lydgate and Burgh, edited by R. Steele (E.E.T.S.), 1894, 1898. + </p> + <p> + LIFE, ETC.: J. W. Blakesley, 1839; A Crichton (Jardine's Naturalist's + Library), 1843; J. S. Blackie, Four Phases of Morals, Socrates, Aristotle, + etc., 1871; G. Grote, Aristotle, edited by A. Bain and G. C. Robertson, + 1872, 1880; E. Wallace, Outlines of the Philosophy of Aristotle, 1875, + 1880; A. Grant (Ancient Classics for English readers), 1877; T. Davidson, + Aristotle and Ancient Educational Ideals (Great Educators), 1892. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0003" id="link2H_4_0003"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + A TREATISE ON GOVERNMENT + </h2> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0004" id="link2H_4_0004"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + BOOK I + </h2> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0001" id="link2HCH0001"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER I + </h2> + <p> + As we see that every city is a society, and every society Ed. is + established for some good purpose; for an apparent [Bekker 1252a] good is + the spring of all human actions; it is evident that this is the principle + upon which they are every one founded, and this is more especially true of + that which has for its object the best possible, and is itself the most + excellent, and comprehends all the rest. Now this is called a city, and + the society thereof a political society; for those who think that the + principles of a political, a regal, a family, and a herile government are + the same are mistaken, while they suppose that each of these differ in the + numbers to whom their power extends, but not in their constitution: so + that with them a herile government is one composed of a very few, a + domestic of more, a civil and a regal of still more, as if there was no + difference between a large family and a small city, or that a regal + government and a political one are the same, only that in the one a single + person is continually at the head of public affairs; in the other, that + each member of the state has in his turn a share in the government, and is + at one time a magistrate, at another a private person, according to the + rules of political science. But now this is not true, as will be evident + to any one who will consider this question in the most approved method. + As, in an inquiry into every other subject, it is necessary to separate + the different parts of which it is compounded, till we arrive at their + first elements, which are the most minute parts thereof; so by the same + proceeding we shall acquire a knowledge of the primary parts of a city and + see wherein they differ from each other, and whether the rules of art will + give us any assistance in examining into each of these things which are + mentioned. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0002" id="link2HCH0002"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER II + </h2> + <p> + Now if in this particular science any one would attend to its original + seeds, and their first shoot, he would then as in others have the subject + perfectly before him; and perceive, in the first place, that it is + requisite that those should be joined together whose species cannot exist + without each other, as the male and the female, for the business of + propagation; and this not through choice, but by that natural impulse + which acts both upon plants and animals also, for the purpose of their + leaving behind them others like themselves. It is also from natural causes + that some beings command and others obey, that each may obtain their + mutual safety; for a being who is endowed with a mind capable of + reflection and forethought is by nature the superior and governor, whereas + he whose excellence is merely corporeal is formect to be a slave; whence + it follows that the different state of master [1252b] and slave is equally + advantageous to both. But there is a natural difference between a female + and a slave: for nature is not like the artists who make the Delphic + swords for the use of the poor, but for every particular purpose she has + her separate instruments, and thus her ends are most complete, for + whatsoever is employed on one subject only, brings that one to much + greater perfection than when employed on many; and yet among the + barbarians, a female and a slave are upon a level in the community, the + reason for which is, that amongst them there are none qualified by nature + to govern, therefore their society can be nothing but between slaves of + different sexes. For which reason the poets say, it is proper for the + Greeks to govern the barbarians, as if a barbarian and a slave were by + nature one. Now of these two societies the domestic is the first, and + Hesiod is right when he says, "First a house, then a wife, then an ox for + the plough," for the poor man has always an ox before a household slave. + That society then which nature has established for daily support is the + domestic, and those who compose it are called by Charondas <i>homosipuoi</i>, + and by Epimenides the Cretan <i>homokapnoi</i>; but the society of many + families, which was first instituted for their lasting, mutual advantage, + is called a village, and a village is most naturally composed of the + descendants of one family, whom some persons call homogalaktes, the + children and the children's children thereof: for which reason cities were + originally governed by kings, as the barbarian states now are, which are + composed of those who had before submitted to kingly government; for every + family is governed by the elder, as are the branches thereof, on account + of their relationship thereunto, which is what Homer says, "Each one ruled + his wife and child;" and in this scattered manner they formerly lived. And + the opinion which universally prevails, that the gods themselves are + subject to kingly government, arises from hence, that all men formerly + were, and many are so now; and as they imagined themselves to be made in + the likeness of the gods, so they supposed their manner of life must needs + be the same. And when many villages so entirely join themselves together + as in every respect to form but one society, that society is a city, and + contains in itself, if I may so speak, the end and perfection of + government: first founded that we might live, but continued that we may + live happily. For which reason every city must be allowed to be the work + of nature, if we admit that the original society between male and female + is; for to this as their end all subordinate societies tend, and the end + of everything is the nature of it. For what every being is in its most + perfect state, that certainly is the nature of that being, whether it be a + man, a horse, or a house: besides, whatsoever produces the final cause and + the end which we [1253a] desire, must be best; but a government complete + in itself is that final cause and what is best. Hence it is evident that a + city is a natural production, and that man is naturally a political + animal, and that whosoever is naturally and not accidentally unfit for + society, must be either inferior or superior to man: thus the man in + Homer, who is reviled for being "without society, without law, without + family." Such a one must naturally be of a quarrelsome disposition, and as + solitary as the birds. The gift of speech also evidently proves that man + is a more social animal than the bees, or any of the herding cattle: for + nature, as we say, does nothing in vain, and man is the only animal who + enjoys it. Voice indeed, as being the token of pleasure and pain, is + imparted to others also, and thus much their nature is capable of, to + perceive pleasure and pain, and to impart these sensations to others; but + it is by speech that we are enabled to express what is useful for us, and + what is hurtful, and of course what is just and what is unjust: for in + this particular man differs from other animals, that he alone has a + perception of good and evil, of just and unjust, and it is a participation + of these common sentiments which forms a family and a city. Besides, the + notion of a city naturally precedes that of a family or an individual, for + the whole must necessarily be prior to the parts, for if you take away the + whole man, you cannot say a foot or a hand remains, unless by + equivocation, as supposing a hand of stone to be made, but that would only + be a dead one; but everything is understood to be this or that by its + energic qualities and powers, so that when these no longer remain, neither + can that be said to be the same, but something of the same name. That a + city then precedes an individual is plain, for if an individual is not in + himself sufficient to compose a perfect government, he is to a city as + other parts are to a whole; but he that is incapable of society, or so + complete in himself as not to want it, makes no part of a city, as a beast + or a god. There is then in all persons a natural impetus to associate with + each other in this manner, and he who first founded civil society was the + cause of the greatest good; for as by the completion of it man is the most + excellent of all living beings, so without law and justice he would be the + worst of all, for nothing is so difficult to subdue as injustice in arms: + but these arms man is born with, namely, prudence and valour, which he may + apply to the most opposite purposes, for he who abuses them will be the + most wicked, the most cruel, the most lustful, and most gluttonous being + imaginable; for justice is a political virtue, by the rules of it the + state is regulated, and these rules are the criterion of what is right. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0003" id="link2HCH0003"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER III + </h2> + <p> + SINCE it is now evident of what parts a city is composed, it will be + necessary to treat first of family government, for every city is made up + of families, and every family [1253b] has again its separate parts of + which it is composed. When a family is complete, it consists of freemen + and slaves; but as in every subject we should begin with examining into + the smallest parts of which it consists, and as the first and smallest + parts of a family are the master and slave, the husband and wife, the + father and child, let us first inquire into these three, what each of them + may be, and what they ought to be; that is to say, the herile, the + nuptial, and the paternal. Let these then be considered as the three + distinct parts of a family: some think that the providing what is + necessary for the family is something different from the government of it, + others that this is the greatest part of it; it shall be considered + separately; but we will first speak of a master and a slave, that we may + both understand the nature of those things which are absolutely necessary, + and also try if we can learn anything better on this subject than what is + already known. Some persons have thought that the power of the master over + his slave originates from his superior knowledge, and that this knowledge + is the same in the master, the magistrate, and the king, as we have + already said; but others think that herile government is contrary to + nature, and that it is the law which makes one man a slave and another + free, but that in nature there is no difference; for which reason that + power cannot be founded in justice, but in force. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0004" id="link2HCH0004"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER IV + </h2> + <p> + Since then a subsistence is necessary in every family, the means of + procuring it certainly makes up part of the management of a family, for + without necessaries it is impossible to live, and to live well. As in all + arts which are brought to perfection it is necessary that they should have + their proper instruments if they would complete their works, so is it in + the art of managing a family: now of instruments some of them are alive, + others inanimate; thus with respect to the pilot of the ship, the tiller + is without life, the sailor is alive; for a servant is as an instrument in + many arts. Thus property is as an instrument to living; an estate is a + multitude of instruments; so a slave is an animated instrument, but every + one that can minister of himself is more valuable than any other + instrument; for if every instrument, at command, or from a preconception + of its master's will, could accomplish its work (as the story goes of the + statues of Daedalus; or what the poet tells us of the tripods of Vulcan, + "that they moved of their own accord into the assembly of the gods "), the + shuttle would then weave, and the lyre play of itself; nor would the + architect want servants, or the [1254a] master slaves. Now what are + generally called instruments are the efficients of something else, but + possessions are what we simply use: thus with a shuttle we make something + else for our use; but we only use a coat, or a bed: since then making and + using differ from each other in species, and they both require their + instruments, it is necessary that these should be different from each + other. Now life is itself what we use, and not what we employ as the + efficient of something else; for which reason the services of a slave are + for use. A possession may be considered in the same nature as a part of + anything; now a part is not only a part of something, but also is nothing + else; so is a possession; therefore a master is only the master of the + slave, but no part of him; but the slave is not only the slave of the + master, but nothing else but that. This fully explains what is the nature + of a slave, and what are his capacities; for that being who by nature is + nothing of himself, but totally another's, and is a man, is a slave by + nature; and that man who is the property of another, is his mere chattel, + though he continues a man; but a chattel is an instrument for use, + separate from the body. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0005" id="link2HCH0005"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER V + </h2> + <p> + But whether any person is such by nature, and whether it is advantageous + and just for any one to be a slave or no, or whether all slavery is + contrary to nature, shall be considered hereafter; not that it is + difficult to determine it upon general principles, or to understand it + from matters of fact; for that some should govern, and others be governed, + is not only necessary but useful, and from the hour of their birth some + are marked out for those purposes, and others for the other, and there are + many species of both sorts. And the better those are who are governed the + better also is the government, as for instance of man, rather than the + brute creation: for the more excellent the materials are with which the + work is finished, the more excellent certainly is the work; and wherever + there is a governor and a governed, there certainly is some work produced; + for whatsoever is composed of many parts, which jointly become one, + whether conjunct or separate, evidently show the marks of governing and + governed; and this is true of every living thing in all nature; nay, even + in some things which partake not of life, as in music; but this probably + would be a disquisition too foreign to our present purpose. Every living + thing in the first place is composed of soul and body, of these the one is + by nature the governor, the other the governed; now if we would know what + is natural, we ought to search for it in those subjects in which nature + appears most perfect, and not in those which are corrupted; we should + therefore examine into a man who is most perfectly formed both in soul and + body, in whom this is evident, for in the depraved and vicious the body + seems [1254b] to rule rather than the soul, on account of their being + corrupt and contrary to nature. We may then, as we affirm, perceive in an + animal the first principles of herile and political government; for the + soul governs the body as the master governs his slave; the mind governs + the appetite with a political or a kingly power, which shows that it is + both natural and advantageous that the body should be governed by the + soul, and the pathetic part by the mind, and that part which is possessed + of reason; but to have no ruling power, or an improper one, is hurtful to + all; and this holds true not only of man, but of other animals also, for + tame animals are naturally better than wild ones, and it is advantageous + that both should be under subjection to man; for this is productive of + their common safety: so is it naturally with the male and the female; the + one is superior, the other inferior; the one governs, the other is + governed; and the same rule must necessarily hold good with respect to all + mankind. Those men therefore who are as much inferior to others as the + body is to the soul, are to be thus disposed of, as the proper use of them + is their bodies, in which their excellence consists; and if what I have + said be true, they are slaves by nature, and it is advantageous to them to + be always under government. He then is by nature formed a slave who is + qualified to become the chattel of another person, and on that account is + so, and who has just reason enough to know that there is such a faculty, + without being indued with the use of it; for other animals have no + perception of reason, but are entirely guided by appetite, and indeed they + vary very little in their use from each other; for the advantage which we + receive, both from slaves and tame animals, arises from their bodily + strength administering to our necessities; for it is the intention of + nature to make the bodies of slaves and freemen different from each other, + that the one should be robust for their necessary purposes, the others + erect, useless indeed for what slaves are employed in, but fit for civil + life, which is divided into the duties of war and peace; though these + rules do not always take place, for slaves have sometimes the bodies of + freemen, sometimes the souls; if then it is evident that if some bodies + are as much more excellent than others as the statues of the gods excel + the human form, every one will allow that the inferior ought to be slaves + to the superior; and if this is true with respect to the body, it is still + juster to determine in the same manner, when we consider the soul; though + it is not so easy to perceive the beauty of [1255a] the soul as it is of + the body. Since then some men are slaves by nature, and others are + freemen, it is clear that where slavery is advantageous to any one, then + it is just to make him a slave. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0006" id="link2HCH0006"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VI + </h2> + <p> + But it is not difficult to perceive that those who maintain the contrary + opinion have some reason on their side; for a man may become a slave two + different ways; for he may be so by law also, and this law is a certain + compact, by which whatsoever is taken in battle is adjudged to be the + property of the conquerors: but many persons who are conversant in law + call in question this pretended right, and say that it would be hard that + a man should be compelled by violence to be the slave and subject of + another who had the power to compel him, and was his superior in strength; + and upon this subject, even of those who are wise, some think one way and + some another; but the cause of this doubt and variety of opinions arises + from hence, that great abilities, when accompanied with proper means, are + generally able to succeed by force: for victory is always owing to a + superiority in some advantageous circumstances; so that it seems that + force never prevails but in consequence of great abilities. But still the + dispute concerning the justice of it remains; for some persons think, that + justice consists in benevolence, others think it just that the powerful + should govern: in the midst of these contrary opinions, there are no + reasons sufficient to convince us, that the right of being master and + governor ought not to be placed with those who have the greatest + abilities. Some persons, entirely resting upon the right which the law + gives (for that which is legal is in some respects just), insist upon it + that slavery occasioned by war is just, not that they say it is wholly so, + for it may happen that the principle upon which the wars were commenced is + unjust; moreover no one will say that a man who is unworthily in slavery + is therefore a slave; for if so, men of the noblest families might happen + to be slaves, and the descendants of slaves, if they should chance to be + taken prisoners in war and sold: to avoid this difficulty they say that + such persons should not be called slaves, but barbarians only should; but + when they say this, they do nothing more than inquire who is a slave by + nature, which was what we at first said; for we must acknowledge that + there are some persons who, wherever they are, must necessarily be slaves, + but others in no situation; thus also it is with those of noble descent: + it is not only in their own country that they are Esteemed as such, but + everywhere, but the barbarians are respected on this account at home only; + as if nobility and freedom were of two sorts, the one universal, the other + not so. Thus says the Helen of Theodectes: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "Who dares reproach me with the name of slave? When from the + immortal gods, on either side, I draw my lineage." +</pre> + <p> + Those who express sentiments like these, shew only that they distinguish + the slave and the freeman, the noble and the ignoble from each other by + their virtues and their [1255b] vices; for they think it reasonable, that + as a man begets a man, and a beast a beast, so from a good man, a good man + should be descended; and this is what nature desires to do, but frequently + cannot accomplish it. It is evident then that this doubt has some reason + in it, and that these persons are not slaves, and those freemen, by the + appointment of nature; and also that in some instances it is sufficiently + clear, that it is advantageous to both parties for this man to be a slave, + and that to be a master, and that it is right and just, that some should + be governed, and others govern, in the manner that nature intended; of + which sort of government is that which a master exercises over a slave. + But to govern ill is disadvantageous to both; for the same thing is useful + to the part and to the whole, to the body and to the soul; but the slave + is as it were a part of the master, as if he were an animated part of his + body, though separate. For which reason a mutual utility and friendship + may subsist between the master and the slave, I mean when they are placed + by nature in that relation to each other, for the contrary takes place + amongst those who are reduced to slavery by the law, or by conquest. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0007" id="link2HCH0007"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VII + </h2> + <p> + It is evident from what has been said, that a herile and a political + government are not the same, or that all governments are alike to each + other, as some affirm; for one is adapted to the nature of freemen, the + other to that of slaves. Domestic government is a monarchy, for that is + what prevails in every house; but a political state is the government of + free men and equals. The master is not so called from his knowing how to + manage his slave, but because he is so; for the same reason a slave and a + freeman have their respective appellations. There is also one sort of + knowledge proper for a master, another for a slave; the slave's is of the + nature of that which was taught by a slave at Syracuse; for he for a + stipulated sum instructed the boys in all the business of a household + slave, of which there are various sorts to be learnt, as the art of + cookery, and other such-like services, of which some are allotted to some, + and others to others; some employments being more honourable, others more + necessary; according to the proverb, "One slave excels another, one master + excels another:" in such-like things the knowledge of a slave consists. + The knowledge of the master is to be able properly to employ his slaves, + for the mastership of slaves is the employment, not the mere possession of + them; not that this knowledge contains anything great or respectable; for + what a slave ought to know how to do, that a master ought to know how to + order; for which reason, those who have it in their power to be free from + these low attentions, employ a steward for this business, and apply + themselves either to public affairs or philosophy: the knowledge of + procuring what is necessary for a family is different from that which + belongs either to the master or the slave: and to do this justly must be + either by war or hunting. And thus much of the difference between a master + and a slave. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0008" id="link2HCH0008"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VIII + </h2> + <p> + [1256a] As a slave is a particular species of property, let us by all + means inquire into the nature of property in general, and the acquisition + of money, according to the manner we have proposed. In the first place + then, some one may doubt whether the getting of money is the same thing as + economy, or whether it is a part of it, or something subservient to it; + and if so, whether it is as the art of making shuttles is to the art of + weaving, or the art of making brass to that of statue founding, for they + are not of the same service; for the one supplies the tools, the other the + matter: by the matter I mean the subject out of which the work is + finished, as wool for the cloth and brass for the statue. It is evident + then that the getting of money is not the same thing as economy, for the + business of the one is to furnish the means of the other to use them; and + what art is there employed in the management of a family but economy, but + whether this is a part of it, or something of a different species, is a + doubt; for if it is the business of him who is to get money to find out + how riches and possessions may be procured, and both these arise from + various causes, we must first inquire whether the art of husbandry is part + of money-getting or something different, and in general, whether the same + is not true of every acquisition and every attention which relates to + provision. But as there are many sorts of provision, so are the methods of + living both of man and the brute creation very various; and as it is + impossible to live without food, the difference in that particular makes + the lives of animals so different from each other. Of beasts, some live in + herds, others separate, as is most convenient for procuring themselves + food; as some of them live upon flesh, others on fruit, and others on + whatsoever they light on, nature having so distinguished their course of + life, that they can very easily procure themselves subsistence; and as the + same things are not agreeable to all, but one animal likes one thing and + another another, it follows that the lives of those beasts who live upon + flesh must be different from the lives of those who live on fruits; so is + it with men, their lives differ greatly from each other; and of all these + the shepherd's is the idlest, for they live upon the flesh of tame + animals, without any trouble, while they are obliged to change their + habitations on account of their flocks, which they are compelled to + follow, cultivating, as it were, a living farm. Others live exercising + violence over living creatures, one pursuing this thing, another that, + these preying upon men; those who live near lakes and marshes and rivers, + or the sea itself, on fishing, while others are fowlers, or hunters of + wild beasts; but the greater part of mankind live upon the produce of the + earth and its cultivated fruits; and the manner in which all those live + who follow the direction of nature, and labour for their own subsistence, + is nearly the same, without ever thinking to procure any provision by way + of exchange or merchandise, such are shepherds, husband-men, [1256b] + robbers, fishermen, and hunters: some join different employments together, + and thus live very agreeably; supplying those deficiencies which were + wanting to make their subsistence depend upon themselves only: thus, for + instance, the same person shall be a shepherd and a robber, or a + husbandman and a hunter; and so with respect to the rest, they pursue that + mode of life which necessity points out. This provision then nature + herself seems to have furnished all animals with, as well immediately upon + their first origin as also when they are arrived at a state of maturity; + for at the first of these periods some of them are provided in the womb + with proper nourishment, which continues till that which is born can get + food for itself, as is the case with worms and birds; and as to those + which bring forth their young alive, they have the means for their + subsistence for a certain time within themselves, namely milk. It is + evident then that we may conclude of those things that are, that plants + are created for the sake of animals, and animals for the sake of men; the + tame for our use and provision; the wild, at least the greater part, for + our provision also, or for some other advantageous purpose, as furnishing + us with clothes, and the like. As nature therefore makes nothing either + imperfect or in vain, it necessarily follows that she has made all these + things for men: for which reason what we gain in war is in a certain + degree a natural acquisition; for hunting is a part of it, which it is + necessary for us to employ against wild beasts; and those men who being + intended by nature for slavery are unwilling to submit to it, on which + occasion such a. war is by nature just: that species of acquisition then + only which is according to nature is part of economy; and this ought to be + at hand, or if not, immediately procured, namely, what is necessary to be + kept in store to live upon, and which are useful as well for the state as + the family. And true riches seem to consist in these; and the acquisition + of those possessions which are necessary for a happy life is not infinite; + though Solon says otherwise in this verse: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "No bounds to riches can be fixed for man;" +</pre> + <p> + for they may be fixed as in other arts; for the instruments of no art + whatsoever are infinite, either in their number or their magnitude; but + riches are a number of instruments in domestic and civil economy; it is + therefore evident that the acquisition of certain things according to + nature is a part both of domestic and civil economy, and for what reason. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0009" id="link2HCH0009"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER IX + </h2> + <p> + There is also another species of acquisition which they [1257a] + particularly call pecuniary, and with great propriety; and by this indeed + it seems that there are no bounds to riches and wealth. Now many persons + suppose, from their near relation to each other, that this is one and the + same with that we have just mentioned, but it is not the same as that, + though not very different; one of these is natural, the other is not, but + rather owing to some art and skill; we will enter into a particular + examination of this subject. The uses of every possession are two, both + dependent upon the thing itself, but not in the same manner, the one + supposing an inseparable connection with it, the other not; as a shoe, for + instance, which may be either worn, or exchanged for something else, both + these are the uses of the shoe; for he who exchanges a shoe with some man + who wants one, for money or provisions, uses the shoe as a shoe, but not + according to the original intention, for shoes were not at first made to + be exchanged. The same thing holds true of all other possessions; for + barter, in general, had its original beginning in nature, some men having + a surplus, others too little of what was necessary for them: hence it is + evident, that the selling provisions for money is not according to the + natural use of things; for they were obliged to use barter for those + things which they wanted; but it is plain that barter could have no place + in the first, that is to say, in family society; but must have begun when + the number of those who composed the community was enlarged: for the first + of these had all things in common; but when they came to be separated they + were obliged to exchange with each other many different things which both + parties wanted. Which custom of barter is still preserved amongst many + barbarous nations, who procure one necessary with another, but never sell + anything; as giving and receiving wine for corn and the like. This sort of + barter is not contradictory to nature, nor is it any species of + money-getting; but is necessary in procuring that subsistence which is so + consonant thereunto. But this barter introduced the use of money, as might + be expected; for a convenient place from whence to import what you wanted, + or to export what you had a surplus of, being often at a great distance, + money necessarily made its way into commerce; for it is not everything + which is naturally most useful that is easiest of carriage; for which + reason they invented something to exchange with each other which they + should mutually give and take, that being really valuable itself, should + have the additional advantage of being of easy conveyance, for the + purposes of life, as iron and silver, or anything else of the same nature: + and this at first passed in value simply according to its weight or size; + but in process of time it had a certain stamp, to save the trouble of + weighing, which stamp expressed its value. [1257b] + </p> + <p> + Money then being established as the necessary medium of exchange, another + species of money-getting soon took place, namely, by buying and selling, + at probably first in a simple manner, afterwards with more skill and + experience, where and how the greatest profits might be made. For which + reason the art of money-getting seems to be chiefly conversant about + trade, and the business of it to be able to tell where the greatest + profits can be made, being the means of procuring abundance of wealth and + possessions: and thus wealth is very often supposed to consist in the + quantity of money which any one possesses, as this is the medium by which + all trade is conducted and a fortune made, others again regard it as of no + value, as being of none by nature, but arbitrarily made so by compact; so + that if those who use it should alter their sentiments, it would be worth + nothing, as being of no service for any necessary purpose. Besides, he who + abounds in money often wants necessary food; and it is impossible to say + that any person is in good circumstances when with all his possessions he + may perish with hunger. + </p> + <p> + Like Midas in the fable, who from his insatiable wish had everything he + touched turned into gold. For which reason others endeavour to procure + other riches and other property, and rightly, for there are other riches + and property in nature; and these are the proper objects of economy: while + trade only procures money, not by all means, but by the exchange of it, + and for that purpose it is this which it is chiefly employed about, for + money is the first principle and the end of trade; nor are there any + bounds to be set to what is thereby acquired. Thus also there are no + limits to the art of medicine, with respect to the health which it + attempts to procure; the same also is true of all other arts; no line can + be drawn to terminate their bounds, the several professors of them being + desirous to extend them as far as possible. (But still the means to be + employed for that purpose are limited; and these are the limits beyond + which the art cannot proceed.) Thus in the art of acquiring riches there + are no limits, for the object of that is money and possessions; but + economy has a boundary, though this has not: for acquiring riches is not + the business of that, for which reason it should seem that some boundary + should be set to riches, though we see the contrary to this is what is + practised; for all those who get riches add to their money without end; + the cause of which is the near connection of these two arts with each + other, which sometimes occasions the one to change employments with the + other, as getting of money is their common object: for economy requires + the possession of wealth, but not on its own account but with another + view, to purchase things necessary therewith; but the other procures it + merely to increase it: so that some persons are confirmed in their belief, + that this is the proper object of economy, and think that for this purpose + money should be saved and hoarded up without end; the reason for which + disposition is, that they are intent upon living, but not upon living + well; and this desire being boundless in its extent, the means which they + aim at for that purpose are boundless also; and those who propose to live + well, often confine that to the enjoyment of the pleasures of sense; so + that as this also seems to depend upon what a man has, all their care is + to get money, and hence arises the other cause for this art; for as this + enjoyment is excessive in its degree, they endeavour to procure means + proportionate to supply it; and if they cannot do this merely by the art + of dealing in money, they will endeavour to do it by other ways, and apply + all their powers to a purpose they were not by nature intended for. Thus, + for instance, courage was intended to inspire fortitude, not to get money + by; neither is this the end of the soldier's or the physician's art, but + victory and health. But such persons make everything subservient to + money-getting, as if this was the only end; and to the end everything + ought to refer. + </p> + <p> + We have now considered that art of money-getting which is not necessary, + and have seen in what manner we became in want of it; and also that which + is necessary, which is different from it; for that economy which is + natural, and whose object is to provide food, is not like this unlimited + in its extent, but has its bounds. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0010" id="link2HCH0010"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER X + </h2> + <p> + We have now determined what was before doubtful, whether or no the art of + getting money is his business who is at the head of a family or a state, + and though not strictly so, it is however very necessary; for as a + politician does not make men, but receiving them from the hand of nature + employs them to proper purposes; thus the earth, or the sea, or something + else ought to supply them with provisions, and this it is the business of + the master of the family to manage properly; for it is not the weaver's + business to make yarn, but to use it, and to distinguish what is good and + useful from what is bad and of no service; and indeed some one may inquire + why getting money should be a part of economy when the art of healing is + not, as it is as requisite that the family should be in health as that + they should eat, or have anything else which is necessary; and as it is + indeed in some particulars the business both of the master of the family, + and he to whom the government of the state is entrusted, to see after the + health of those under their care, but in others not, but the physician's; + so also as to money; in some respects it is the business of the master of + the family, in others not, but of the servant; but as we have already + said, it is chiefly nature's, for it is her part to supply her offspring + with food; for everything finds nourishment left for it in what produced + it; for which reason the natural riches of all men arise from fruits and + animals. Now money-making, as we say, being twofold, it may be applied to + two purposes, the service of the house or retail trade; of which the first + is necessary and commendable, the other justly censurable; for it has not + its origin in [1258b] nature, but by it men gain from each other; for + usury is most reasonably detested, as it is increasing our fortune by + money itself, and not employing it for the purpose it was originally + intended, namely exchange. + </p> + <p> + And this is the explanation of the name (TOKOS), which means the breeding + of money. For as offspring resemble their parents, so usury is money bred + of money. Whence of all forms of money-making it is most against nature. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0011" id="link2HCH0011"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XI + </h2> + <p> + Having already sufficiently considered the general principles of this + subject, let us now go into the practical part thereof; the one is a + liberal employment for the mind, the other necessary. These things are + useful in the management of one's affairs; to be skilful in the nature of + cattle, which are most profitable, and where, and how; as for instance, + what advantage will arise from keeping horses, or oxen, or sheep, or any + other live stock; it is also necessary to be acquainted with the + comparative value of these things, and which of them in particular places + are worth most; for some do better in one place, some in another. + Agriculture also should be understood, and the management of arable + grounds and orchards; and also the care of bees, and fish, and birds, from + whence any profit may arise; these are the first and most proper parts of + domestic management. + </p> + <p> + With respect to gaining money by exchange, the principal method of doing + this is by merchandise, which is carried on in three different ways, + either by sending the commodity for sale by sea or by land, or else + selling it on the place where it grows; and these differ from each other + in this, that the one is more profitable, the other safer. The second + method is by usury. The third by receiving wages for work done, and this + either by being employed in some mean art, or else in mere bodily labour. + There is also a third species of improving a fortune, that is something + between this and the first; for it partly depends upon nature, partly upon + exchange; the subject of which is, things that are immediately from the + earth, or their produce, which, though they bear no fruit, are yet useful, + such as selling of timber and the whole art of metallurgy, which includes + many different species, for there are various sorts of things dug out of + the earth. + </p> + <p> + These we have now mentioned in general, but to enter into particulars + concerning each of them, though it might be useful to the artist, would be + tiresome to dwell on. Now of all the works of art, those are the most + excellent wherein chance has the least to do, and those are the meanest + which deprave the body, those the most servile in which bodily strength + alone is chiefly wanted, those most illiberal which require least skill; + but as there are books written on these subjects by some persons, as by + Chares the Panian, and Apollodorus the Lemnian, upon husbandry and + planting; and by others on other matters, [1259b] let those who have + occasion consult them thereon; besides, every person should collect + together whatsoever he hears occasionally mentioned, by means of which + many of those who aimed at making a fortune have succeeded in their + intentions; for all these are useful to those who make a point of getting + money, as in the contrivance of Thales the Milesian (which was certainly a + gainful one, but as it was his it was attributed to his wisdom, though the + method he used was a general one, and would universally succeed), when + they reviled him for his poverty, as if the study of philosophy was + useless: for they say that he, perceiving by his skill in astrology that + there would be great plenty of olives that year, while it was yet winter, + having got a little money, he gave earnest for all the oil works that were + in Miletus and Chios, which he hired at a low price, there being no one to + bid against him; but when the season came for making oil, many persons + wanting them, he all at once let them upon what terms he pleased; and + raising a large sum of money by that means, convinced them that it was + easy for philosophers to be rich if they chose it, but that that was not + what they aimed at; in this manner is Thales said to have shown his + wisdom. It indeed is, as we have said, generally gainful for a person to + contrive to make a monopoly of anything; for which reason some cities also + take this method when they want money, and monopolise their commodities. + There was a certain person in Sicily who laid out a sum of money which was + deposited in his hand in buying up all the iron from the iron merchants; + so that when the dealers came from the markets to purchase, there was no + one had any to sell but himself; and though he put no great advance upon + it, yet by laying out fifty talents he made an hundred. When Dionysius + heard this he permitted him to take his money with him, but forbid him to + continue any longer in Sicily, as being one who contrived means for + getting money inconsistent with his affairs. This man's view and Thales's + was exactly the same; both of them contrived to procure a monopoly for + themselves: it is useful also for politicians to understand these things, + for many states want to raise money and by such means, as well as private + families, nay more so; for which reason some persons who are employed in + the management of public affairs confine themselves to this province only. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0012" id="link2HCH0012"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XII + </h2> + <p> + There are then three parts of domestic government, the masters, of which + we have already treated, the fathers, and the husbands; now the government + of the wife and children should both be that of free persons, but not the + [I259b] same; for the wife should be treated as a citizen of a free state, + the children should be under kingly power; for the male is by nature + superior to the female, except when something happens contrary to the + usual course of nature, as is the elder and perfect to the younger and + imperfect. Now in the generality of free states, the governors and the + governed alternately change place; for an equality without any preference + is what nature chooses; however, when one governs and another is governed, + she endeavours that there should be a distinction between them in forms, + expressions, and honours; according to what Amasis said of his laver. This + then should be the established rule between the man and the woman. The + government of children should be kingly; for the power of the father over + the child is founded in affection and seniority, which is a species of + kingly government; for which reason Homer very properly calls Jupiter "the + father of gods and men," who was king of both these; for nature requires + that a king should be of the same species with those whom he governs, + though superior in some particulars, as is the case between the elder and + the younger, the father and the son. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0013" id="link2HCH0013"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XIII + </h2> + <p> + It is evident then that in the due government of a family, greater + attention should be paid to the several members of it and their virtues + than to the possessions or riches of it; and greater to the freemen than + the slaves: but here some one may doubt whether there is any other virtue + in a slave than his organic services, and of higher estimation than these, + as temperance, fortitude, justice, and such-like habits, or whether they + possess only bodily qualities: each side of the question has its + difficulties; for if they possess these virtues, wherein do they differ + from freemen? and that they do not, since they are men, and partakers of + reason, is absurd. Nearly the same inquiry may be made concerning a woman + and a child, whether these also have their proper virtues; whether a woman + ought to be temperate, brave, and just, and whether a child is temperate + or no; and indeed this inquiry ought to be general, whether the virtues of + those who, by nature, either govern or are governed, are the same or + different; for if it is necessary that both of them should partake of the + fair and good, why is it also necessary that, without exception, the one + should govern, the other always be governed? for this cannot arise from + their possessing these qualities in different degrees; for to govern, and + to be governed, are things different in species, but more or less are not. + And yet it is wonderful that one party ought to have them, and the other + not; for if he who is to govern should not be temperate and just, how can + he govern well? or if he is to be governed, how can he be governed well? + for he who is intemperate [1260a] and a coward will never do what he + ought: it is evident then that both parties ought to be virtuous; but + there is a difference between them, as there is between those who by + nature command and who by nature obey, and this originates in the soul; + for in this nature has planted the governing and submitting principle, the + virtues of which we say are different, as are those of a rational and an + irrational being. It is plain then that the same principle may be extended + farther, and that there are in nature a variety of things which govern and + are governed; for a freeman is governed in a different manner from a + slave, a male from a female, and a man from a child: and all these have + parts of mind within them, but in a different manner. Thus a slave can + have no power of determination, a woman but a weak one, a child an + imperfect one. Thus also must it necessarily be with respect to moral + virtues; all must be supposed to possess them, but not in the same manner, + but as is best suited to every one's employment; on which account he who + is to govern ought to be perfect in moral virtue, for his business is + entirely that of an architect, and reason is the architect; while others + want only that portion of it which may be sufficient for their station; + from whence it is evident, that although moral virtue is common to all + those we have spoken of, yet the temperance of a man and a woman are not + the same, nor their courage, nor their justice, though Socrates thought + otherwise; for the courage of the man consists in commanding, the woman's + in obeying; and the same is true in other particulars: and this will be + evident to those who will examine different virtues separately; for those + who use general terms deceive themselves when they say, that virtue + consists in a good disposition of mind, or doing what is right, or + something of this sort. They do much better who enumerate the different + virtues as Georgias did, than those who thus define them; and as Sophocles + speaks of a woman, we think of all persons, that their 'virtues should be + applicable to their characters, for says he, + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "Silence is a woman's ornament," +</pre> + <p> + but it is not a man's; and as a child is incomplete, it is evident that + his virtue is not to be referred to himself in his present situation, but + to that in which he will be complete, and his preceptor. In like manner + the virtue of a slave is to be referred to his master; for we laid it down + as a maxim, that the use of a slave was to employ him in what you wanted; + so that it is clear enough that few virtues are wanted in his station, + only that he may not neglect his work through idleness or fear: some + person may question if what I have said is true, whether virtue is not + necessary for artificers in their calling, for they often through idleness + neglect their work, but the difference between them is very great; for a + slave is connected with you for life, but the artificer not so nearly: as + near therefore as the artificer approaches to the situation of a slave, + just so much ought he to have of the virtues of one; for a mean artificer + is to a certain point a slave; but then a slave is one of those things + which are by nature what they are, but this is not true [1260b] of a + shoemaker, or any other artist. It is evident then that a slave ought to + be trained to those virtues which are proper for his situation by his + master; and not by him who has the power of a master, to teach him any + particular art. Those therefore are in the wrong who would deprive slaves + of reason, and say that they have only to follow their orders; for slaves + want more instruction than children, and thus we determine this matter. It + is necessary, I am sensible, for every one who treats upon government, to + enter particularly into the relations of husband and wife, and of parent + and child, and to show what are the virtues of each and their respective + connections with each other; what is right and what is wrong; and how the + one ought to be followed, and the other avoided. Since then every family + is part of a city, and each of those individuals is part of a family, and + the virtue of the parts ought to correspond to the virtue of the whole; it + is necessary, that both the wives and children of the community should be + instructed correspondent to the nature thereof, if it is of consequence to + the virtue of the state, that the wives and children therein should be + virtuous, and of consequence it certainly is, for the wives are one half + of the free persons; and of the children the succeeding citizens are to be + formed. As then we have determined these points, we will leave the rest to + be spoken to in another place, as if the subject was now finished; and + beginning again anew, first consider the sentiments of those who have + treated of the most perfect forms of government. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0018" id="link2H_4_0018"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + BOOK II + </h2> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0014" id="link2HCH0014"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER I + </h2> + <p> + Since then we propose to inquire what civil society is of all others best + for those who have it in their power to live entirely as they wish, it is + necessary to examine into the polity of those states which are allowed to + be well governed; and if there should be any others which some persons + have described, and which appear properly regulated, to note what is right + and useful in them; and when we point out wherein they have failed, let + not this be imputed to an affectation of wisdom, for it is because there + are great defects in all those which are already established, that I have + been induced to undertake this work. We will begin with that part of the + subject which naturally presents itself first to our consideration. The + members of every state must of necessity have all things in common, or + some things common, and not others, or nothing at all common. To have + nothing in common is evidently impossible, for society itself is one + species of [1261a] community; and the first thing necessary thereunto is a + common place of habitation, namely the city, which must be one, and this + every citizen must have a share in. But in a government which is to be + well founded, will it be best to admit of a community in everything which + is capable thereof, or only in some particulars, but in others not? for it + is possible that the citizens may have their wives, and children, and + goods in common, as in Plato's Commonwealth; for in that Socrates affirms + that all these particulars ought to be so. Which then shall we prefer? the + custom which is already established, or the laws which are proposed in + that treatise? + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0015" id="link2HCH0015"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER II + </h2> + <p> + Now as a community of wives is attended with many other difficulties, so + neither does the cause for which he would frame his government in this + manner seem agreeable to reason, nor is it capable of producing that end + which he has proposed, and for which he says it ought to take place; nor + has he given any particular directions for putting it in practice. Now I + also am willing to agree with Socrates in the principle which he proceeds + upon, and admit that the city ought to be one as much as possible; and yet + it is evident that if it is contracted too much, it will be no longer a + city, for that necessarily supposes a multitude; so that if we proceed in + this manner, we shall reduce a city to a family, and a family to a single + person: for we admit that a family is one in a greater degree than a city, + and a single person than a family; so that if this end could be obtained, + it should never be put in practice, as it would annihilate the city; for a + city does not only consist of a large number of inhabitants, but there + must also be different sorts; for were they all alike, there could be no + city; for a confederacy and a city are two different things; for a + confederacy is valuable from its numbers, although all those who compose + it are men of the same calling; for this is entered into for the sake of + mutual defence, as we add an additional weight to make the scale go down. + The same distinction prevails between a city and a nation when the people + are not collected into separate villages, but live as the Arcadians. Now + those things in which a city should be one are of different sorts, and in + preserving an alternate reciprocation of power between these, the safety + thereof consists (as I have already mentioned in my treatise on Morals), + for amongst freemen and equals this is absolutely necessary; for all + cannot govern at the same time, but either by the year, or according to + some other regulation or time, by which means every one in his turn will + be in office; as if the shoemakers and carpenters should exchange + occupations, and not always be employed in the same calling. But as it is + evidently better, that these should continue to exercise their respective + trades; so also in civil society, where it is possible, it would be better + that the government should continue in the same hands; but where it + [1261b] is not (as nature has made all men equal, and therefore it is + just, be the administration good or bad, that all should partake of it), + there it is best to observe a rotation, and let those who are their equals + by turns submit to those who are at that time magistrates, as they will, + in their turns, alternately be governors and governed, as if they were + different men: by the same method different persons will execute different + offices. From hence it is evident, that a city cannot be one in the manner + that some persons propose; and that what has been said to be the greatest + good which it could enjoy, is absolutely its destruction, which cannot be: + for the good of anything is that which preserves it. For another reason + also it is clear, that it is not for the best to endeavour to make a city + too much one, because a family is more sufficient in itself than a single + person, a city than a family; and indeed Plato supposes that a city owes + its existence to that sufficiency in themselves which the members of it + enjoy. If then this sufficiency is so desirable, the less the city is one + the better. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0016" id="link2HCH0016"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER III + </h2> + <p> + But admitting that it is most advantageous for a city to be one as much as + possible, it does not seem to follow that this will take place by + permitting all at once to say this is mine, and this is not mine (though + this is what Socrates regards as a proof that a city is entirely one), for + the word All is used in two senses; if it means each individual, what + Socrates proposes will nearly take place; for each person will say, this + is his own son, and his own wife, and his own property, and of everything + else that may happen to belong to him, that it is his own. But those who + have their wives and children in common will not say so, but all will say + so, though not as individuals; therefore, to use the word all is evidently + a fallacious mode of speech; for this word is sometimes used + distributively, and sometimes collectively, on account of its double + meaning, and is the cause of inconclusive syllogisms in reasoning. + Therefore for all persons to say the same thing was their own, using the + word all in its distributive sense, would be well, but is impossible: in + its collective sense it would by no means contribute to the concord of the + state. Besides, there would be another inconvenience attending this + proposal, for what is common to many is taken least care of; for all men + regard more what is their own than what others share with them in, to + which they pay less attention than is incumbent on every one: let me add + also, that every one is more negligent of what another is to see to, as + well as himself, than of his own private business; as in a family one is + often worse served by many servants than by a few. Let each citizen then + in the state have a thousand children, but let none of them be considered + as the children of that individual, but let the relation of father and + child be common to them all, and they will all be neglected. Besides, in + consequence of this, [1262a] whenever any citizen behaved well or ill, + every person, be the number what it would, might say, this is my son, or + this man's or that; and in this manner would they speak, and thus would + they doubt of the whole thousand, or of whatever number the city + consisted; and it would be uncertain to whom each child belonged, and when + it was born, who was to take care of it: and which do you think is better, + for every one to say this is mine, while they may apply it equally to two + thousand or ten thousand; or as we say, this is mine in our present forms + of government, where one man calls another his son, another calls that + same person his brother, another nephew, or some other relation, either by + blood or marriage, and first extends his care to him and his, while + another regards him as one of the same parish and the same tribe; and it + is better for any one to be a nephew in his private capacity than a son + after that manner. Besides, it will be impossible to prevent some persons + from suspecting that they are brothers and sisters, fathers and mothers to + each other; for, from the mutual likeness there is between the sire and + the offspring, they will necessarily conclude in what relation they stand + to each other, which circumstance, we are informed by those writers who + describe different parts of the world, does sometimes happen; for in Upper + Africa there are wives in common who yet deliver their children to their + respective fathers, being guided by their likeness to them. There are also + some mares and cows which naturally bring forth their young so like the + male, that we can easily distinguish by which of them they were + impregnated: such was the mare called Just, in Pharsalia. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0017" id="link2HCH0017"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER IV + </h2> + <p> + Besides, those who contrive this plan of community cannot easily avoid the + following evils; namely, blows, murders involuntary or voluntary, + quarrels, and reproaches, all which it would be impious indeed to be + guilty of towards our fathers and mothers, or those who are nearly related + to us; though not to those who are not connected to us by any tie of + affinity: and certainly these mischiefs must necessarily happen oftener + amongst those who do not know how they are connected to each other than + those who do; and when they do happen, if it is among the first of these, + they admit of a legal expiation, but amongst the latter that cannot be + done. It is also absurd for those who promote a community of children to + forbid those who love each other from indulging themselves in the last + excesses of that passion, while they do not restrain them from the passion + itself, or those intercourses which are of all things most improper, + between a Father and a son, a brother and a brother, and indeed the thing + itself is most absurd. It is also ridiculous to prevent this intercourse + between the nearest relations, for no other reason than the violence of + the pleasure, while they think that the relation of father and daughter, + the brother and sister, is of no consequence at all. It seems also more + advantageous for the state, that the husbandmen should have their wives + and children in common than the military, for there will be less affection + [1262b] among them in that case than when otherwise; for such persons + ought to be under subjection, that they may obey the laws, and not seek + after innovations. Upon the whole, the consequences of such a law as this + would be directly contrary to those things which good laws ought to + establish, and which Socrates endeavoured to establish by his regulations + concerning women and children: for we think that friendship is the + greatest good which can happen to any city, as nothing so much prevents + seditions: and amity in a city is what Socrates commends above all things, + which appears to be, as indeed he says, the effect of friendship; as we + learn from Aristophanes in the Erotics, who says, that those who love one + another from the excess of that passion, desire to breathe the same soul, + and from being two to be blended into one: from whence it would + necessarily follow, that both or one of them must be destroyed. But now in + a city which admits of this community, the tie of friendship must, from + that very cause, be extremely weak, when no father can say, this is my + son; or son, this is my father; for as a very little of what is sweet, + being mixed with a great deal of water is imperceptible after the mixture, + so must all family connections, and the names they go by, be necessarily + disregarded in such a community, it being then by no means necessary that + the father should have any regard for him he called a son, or the brothers + for those they call brothers. There are two things which principally + inspire mankind with care and love of their offspring, knowing it is their + own, and what ought to be the object of their affection, neither of which + can take place in this sort of community. As for exchanging the children + of the artificers and husbandmen with those of the military, and theirs + reciprocally with these, it will occasion great confusion in whatever + manner it shall be done; for of necessity, those who carry the children + must know from whom they took and to whom they gave them; and by this + means those evils which I have already mentioned will necessarily be the + more likely to happen, as blows, incestuous love, murders, and the like; + for those who are given from their own parents to other citizens, the + military, for instance, will not call them brothers, sons, fathers, or + mothers. The same thing would happen to those of the military who were + placed among the other citizens; so that by this means every one would be + in fear how to act in consequence of consanguinity. And thus let us + determine concerning a community of wives and children. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0018" id="link2HCH0018"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER V + </h2> + <p> + We proceed next to consider in what manner property should be regulated in + a state which is formed after the most perfect mode of government, whether + it should be common or not; for this may be considered as a separate + question from what had been determined concerning [1263a] wives and + children; I mean, whether it is better that these should be held separate, + as they now everywhere are, or that not only possessions but also the + usufruct of them should be in common; or that the soil should have a + particular owner, but that the produce should be brought together and used + as one common stock, as some nations at present do; or on the contrary, + should the soil be common, and should it also be cultivated in common, + while the produce is divided amongst the individuals for their particular + use, which is said to be practised by some barbarians; or shall both the + soil and the fruit be common? When the business of the husbandman devolves + not on the citizen, the matter is much easier settled; but when those + labour together who have a common right of possession, this may occasion + several difficulties; for there may not be an equal proportion between + their labour and what they consume; and those who labour hard and have but + a small proportion of the produce, will certainly complain of those who + take a large share of it and do but little for that. Upon the whole, as a + community between man and man so entire as to include everything possible, + and thus to have all things that man can possess in common, is very + difficult, so is it particularly so with respect to property; and this is + evident from that community which takes place between those who go out to + settle a colony; for they frequently have disputes with each other upon + the most common occasions, and come to blows upon trifles: we find, too, + that we oftenest correct those slaves who are generally employed in the + common offices of the family: a community of property then has these and + other inconveniences attending it. + </p> + <p> + But the manner of life which is now established, more particularly when + embellished with good morals and a system of equal laws, is far superior + to it, for it will have the advantage of both; by both I mean properties + being common, and divided also; for in some respects it ought to be in a + manner common, but upon the whole private: for every man's attention being + employed on his own particular concerns, will prevent mutual complaints + against each other; nay, by this means industry will be increased, as each + person will labour to improve his own private property; and it will then + be, that from a principle of virtue they will mutually perform good + offices to each other, according to the proverb, "All things are common + amongst friends;" and in some cities there are traces of this custom to be + seen, so that it is not impracticable, and particularly in those which are + best governed; some things are by this means in a manner common, and + others might be so; for there, every person enjoying his own private + property, some things he assists his friend with, others are considered as + in common; as in Lacedaemon, where they use each other's slaves, as if + they were, so to speak, their own, as they do their horses and dogs, or + even any provision they may want in a journey. + </p> + <p> + It is evident then that it is best to have property private, but to make + the use of it common; but how the citizens are to be brought to it is the + particular [1263b] business of the legislator. And also with respect to + pleasure, it is unspeakable how advantageous it is, that a man should + think he has something which he may call his own; for it is by no means to + no purpose, that each person should have an affection for himself, for + that is natural, and yet to be a self-lover is justly censured; for we + mean by that, not one that simply loves himself, but one that loves + himself more than he ought; in like manner we blame a money-lover, and yet + both money and self is what all men love. Besides, it is very pleasing to + us to oblige and assist our friends and companions, as well as those whom + we are connected with by the rights of hospitality; and this cannot be + done without the establishment of private property, which cannot take + place with those who make a city too much one; besides, they prevent every + opportunity of exercising two principal virtues, modesty and liberality. + Modesty with respect to the female sex, for this virtue requires you to + abstain from her who is another's; liberality, which depends upon private + property, for without that no one can appear liberal, or do any generous + action; for liberality consists in imparting to others what is our own. + </p> + <p> + This system of polity does indeed recommend itself by its good appearance + and specious pretences to humanity; and when first proposed to any one, + must give him great pleasure, as he will conclude it to be a wonderful + bond of friendship, connecting all to all; particularly when any one + censures the evils which are now to be found in society, as arising from + properties not being common, I mean the disputes which happen between man + and man, upon their different contracts with each other; those judgments + which are passed in court in consequence of fraud, and perjury, and + flattering the rich, none of which arise from properties being private, + but from the vices of mankind. Besides, those who live in one general + community, and have all things in common, oftener dispute with each other + than those who have their property separate; from the very small number + indeed of those who have their property in common, compared with those + where it is appropriated, the instances of their quarrels are but few. It + is also but right to mention, not only the inconveniences they are + preserved from who live in a communion of goods, but also the advantages + they are deprived of; for when the whole comes to be considered, this + manner of life will be found impracticable. + </p> + <p> + We must suppose, then, that Socrates's mistake arose from the principle he + set out with being false; we admit, indeed, that both a family and a city + ought to be one in some particulars, but not entirely; for there is a + point beyond which if a city proceeds in reducing itself to one, it will + be no longer a city. + </p> + <p> + There is also another point at which it will still continue to be a city, + but it will approach so near to not being one, that it will be worse than + none; as if any one should reduce the voices of those who sing in concert + to one, or a verse to a foot. But the people ought to be made one, and a + community, as I have already said, by education; as property at + Lacedaemon, and their public tables at Crete, were made common by their + legislators. But yet, whosoever shall introduce any education, and think + thereby to make his city excellent and respectable, will be absurd, while + he expects to form it by such regulations, and not by manners, philosophy, + and laws. And whoever [1264a] would establish a government upon a + community of goods, ought to know that he should consult the experience of + many years, which would plainly enough inform him whether such a scheme is + useful; for almost all things have already been found out, but some have + been neglected, and others which have been known have not been put in + practice. But this would be most evident, if any one could see such a + government really established: for it would be impossible to frame such a + city without dividing and separating it into its distinct parts, as public + tables, wards, and tribes; so that here the laws will do nothing more than + forbid the military to engage in agriculture, which is what the + Lacedaemonians are at present endeavouring to do. + </p> + <p> + Nor has Socrates told us (nor is it easy to say) what plan of government + should be pursued with respect to the individuals in the state where there + is a community of goods established; for though the majority of his + citizens will in general consist of a multitude of persons of different + occupations, of those he has determined nothing; whether the property of + the husbandman ought to be in common, or whether each person should have + his share to himself; and also, whether their wives and children ought to + be in common: for if all things are to be alike common to all, where will + be the difference between them and the military, or what would they get by + submitting to their government? and upon what principles would they do it, + unless they should establish the wise practice of the Cretans? for they, + allowing everything else to their slaves, forbid them only gymnastic + exercises and the use of arms. And if they are not, but these should be in + the same situation with respect to their property which they are in other + cities, what sort of a community will there be? in one city there must of + necessity be two, and those contrary to each other; for he makes the + military the guardians of the state, and the husbandman, artisans, and + others, citizens; and all those quarrels, accusations, and things of the + like sort, which he says are the bane of other cities, will be found in + his also: notwithstanding Socrates says they will not want many laws in + consequence of their education, but such only as may be necessary for + regulating the streets, the markets, and the like, while at the same time + it is the education of the military only that he has taken any care of. + Besides, he makes the husbandmen masters of property upon paying a + tribute; but this would be likely to make them far more troublesome and + high-spirited than the Helots, the Penestise, or the slaves which others + employ; nor has he ever determined whether it is necessary to give any + attention to them in these particulars, nor thought of what is connected + therewith, their polity, their education, their laws; besides, it is of no + little consequence, nor is it easy to determine, how these should be + framed so as to preserve the community of the military. + </p> + <p> + Besides, if he makes the wives common, while the property [1264b] + continues separate, who shall manage the domestic concerns with the same + care which the man bestows upon his fields? nor will the inconvenience be + remedied by making property as well as wives common; and it is absurd to + draw a comparison from the brute creation, and say, that the same + principle should regulate the connection of a man and a woman which + regulates theirs amongst whom there is no family association. + </p> + <p> + It is also very hazardous to settle the magistracy as Socrates has done; + for he would have persons of the same rank always in office, which becomes + the cause of sedition even amongst those who are of no account, but more + particularly amongst those who are of a courageous and warlike + disposition; it is indeed evidently necessary that he should frame his + community in this manner; for that golden particle which God has mixed up + in the soul of man flies not from one to the other, but always continues + with the same; for he says, that some of our species have gold, and others + silver, blended in their composition from the moment of their birth: but + those who are to be husbandmen and artists, brass and iron; besides, + though he deprives the military of happiness, he says, that the legislator + ought to make all the citizens happy; but it is impossible that the whole + city can be happy, without all, or the greater, or some part of it be + happy. For happiness is not like that numerical equality which arises from + certain numbers when added together, although neither of them may + separately contain it; for happiness cannot be thus added together, but + must exist in every individual, as some properties belong to every + integral; and if the military are not happy, who else are so? for the + artisans are not, nor the multitude of those who are employed in inferior + offices. The state which Socrates has described has all these defects, and + others which are not of less consequence. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0019" id="link2HCH0019"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VI + </h2> + <p> + It is also nearly the same in the treatise upon Laws which was writ + afterwards, for which reason it will be proper in this place to consider + briefly what he has there said upon government, for Socrates has + thoroughly settled but very few parts of it; as for instance, in what + manner the community of wives and children ought to be regulated, how + property should be established, and government conducted. + </p> + <p> + Now he divides the inhabitants into two parts, husbandmen and soldiers, + and from these he select a third part who are to be senators and govern + the city; but he has not said whether or no the husbandman and artificer + shall have any or what share in the government, or whether they shall have + arms, and join with the others in war, or not. He thinks also that the + women ought to go to war, and have the same education as the soldiers; as + to other particulars, he has filled his treatise with matter foreign to + the purpose; and with respect to education, he has only said what that of + the guards ought to be. + </p> + <p> + [1265a] As to his book of Laws, laws are the principal thing which that + contains, for he has there said but little concerning government; and this + government, which he was so desirous of framing in such a manner as to + impart to its members a more entire community of goods than is to be found + in other cities, he almost brings round again to be the same as that other + government which he had first proposed; for except the community of wives + and goods, he has framed both his governments alike, for the education of + the citizens is to be the same in both; they are in both to live without + any servile employ, and their common tables are to be the same, excepting + that in that he says the women should have common tables, and that there + should be a thousand men-at-arms, in this, that there should be five + thousand. + </p> + <p> + All the discourses of Socrates are masterly, noble, new, and inquisitive; + but that they are all true it may probably be too much to say. For now + with respect to the number just spoken of, it must be acknowledged that he + would want the country of Babylonia for them, or some one like it, of an + immeasurable extent, to support five thousand idle persons, besides a much + greater number of women and servants. Every one, it is true, may frame an + hypothesis as he pleases, but yet it ought to be possible. It has been + said, that a legislator should have two things in view when he frames his + laws, the country and the people. He will also do well, if he has some + regard to the neighbouring states, if he intends that his community should + maintain any political intercourse with them, for it is not only necessary + that they should understand that practice of war which is adapted to their + own country, but to others also; for admitting that any one chooses not + this life either in public or private, yet there is not the less occasion + for their being formidable to their enemies, not only when they invade + their country, but also when they retire out of it. + </p> + <p> + It may also be considered whether the quantity of each person's property + may not be settled in a different manner from what he has done it in, by + making it more determinate; for he says, that every one ought to have + enough whereon to live moderately, as if any one had said to live well, + which is the most comprehensive expression. Besides, a man may live + moderately and miserably at the same time; he had therefore better have + proposed, that they should live both moderately and liberally; for unless + these two conspire, luxury will come in on the one hand, or wretchedness + on the other, since these two modes of living are the only ones applicable + to the employment of our substance; for we cannot say with respect to a + man's fortune, that he is mild or courageous, but we may say that he is + prudent and liberal, which are the only qualities connected therewith. + </p> + <p> + It is also absurd to render property equal, and not to provide for the + increasing number of the citizens; but to leave that circumstance + uncertain, as if it would regulate itself according to the number of women + who [1265b] should happen to be childless, let that be what it would + because this seems to take place in other cities; but the case would not + be the same in such a state which he proposes and those which now actually + unite; for in these no one actually wants, as the property is divided + amongst the whole community, be their numbers what they will; but as it + could not then be divided, the supernumeraries, whether they were many or + few, would have nothing at all. But it is more necessary than even to + regulate property, to take care that the increase of the people should not + exceed a certain number; and in determining that, to take into + consideration those children who will die, and also those women who will + be barren; and to neglect this, as is done in several cities, is to bring + certain poverty on the citizens; and poverty is the cause of sedition and + evil. Now Phidon the Corinthian, one of the oldest legislators, thought + the families and the number of the citizens should continue the same; + although it should happen that all should have allotments at the first, + disproportionate to their numbers. + </p> + <p> + In Plato's Laws it is however different; we shall mention hereafter what + we think would be best in these particulars. He has also neglected in that + treatise to point out how the governors are to be distinguished from the + governed; for he says, that as of one sort of wool the warp ought to be + made, and of another the woof, so ought some to govern, and others to be + governed. But since he admits, that all their property may be increased + fivefold, why should he not allow the same increase to the country? he + ought also to consider whether his allotment of the houses will be useful + to the community, for he appoints two houses to each person, separate from + each other; but it is inconvenient for a person to inhabit two houses. Now + he is desirous to have his whole plan of government neither a democracy + nor an oligarchy, but something between both, which he calls a polity, for + it is to be composed of men-at-arms. If Plato intended to frame a state in + which more than in any other everything should be common, he has certainly + given it a right name; but if he intended it to be the next in perfection + to that which he had already framed, it is not so; for perhaps some + persons will give the preference to the Lacedaemonian form of government, + or some other which may more completely have attained to the aristocratic + form. + </p> + <p> + Some persons say, that the most perfect government should be composed of + all others blended together, for which reason they commend that of + Lacedaemon; for they say, that this is composed of an oligarchy, a + monarchy, and a democracy, their kings representing the monarchical part, + the senate the oligarchical; and, that in the ephori may be found the + democratical, as these are taken from the people. But some say, that in + the ephori is absolute power, and that it is their common meal and daily + course of life, in which the democratical form is represented. It is also + said in this treatise of [1266a] Laws, that the best form of government + must, be one composed of a democracy and a tyranny; though such a mixture + no one else would ever allow to be any government at all, or if it is, the + worst possible; those propose what is much better who blend many + governments together; for the most perfect is that which is formed of many + parts. But now in this government of Plato's there are no traces of a + monarchy, only of an oligarchy and democracy; though he seems to choose + that it should rather incline to an oligarchy, as is evident from the + appointment of the magistrates; for to choose them by lot is common to + both; but that a man of fortune must necessarily be a member of the + assembly, or to elect the magistrates, or take part in the management of + public affairs, while others are passed over, makes the state incline to + an oligarchy; as does the endeavouring that the greater part of the rich + may be in office, and that the rank of their appointments may correspond + with their fortunes. + </p> + <p> + The same principle prevails also in the choice of their senate; the manner + of electing which is favourable also to an oligarchy; for all are obliged + to vote for those who are senators of the first class, afterwards they + vote for the same number out of the second, and then out of the third; but + this compulsion to vote at the election of senators does not extend to the + third and fourth classes and the first and second class only are obliged + to vote for the fourth. By this means he says he shall necessarily have an + equal number of each rank, but he is mistaken—for the majority will + always consist of those of the first rank, and the most considerable + people; and for this reason, that many of the commonalty not being obliged + to it, will not attend the elections. From hence it is evident, that such + a state will not consist of a democracy and a monarchy, and this will be + further proved by what we shall say when we come particularly to consider + this form of government. + </p> + <p> + There will also great danger arise from the manner of electing the senate, + when those who are elected themselves are afterwards to elect others; for + by this means, if a certain number choose to combine together, though not + very considerable, the election will always fall according to their + pleasure. Such are the things which Plato proposes concerning government + in his book of Laws. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0020" id="link2HCH0020"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VII + </h2> + <p> + There are also some other forms of government, which have been proposed + either by private persons, or philosophers, or politicians, all of which + come much nearer to those which have been really established, or now + exist, than these two of Plato's; for neither have they introduced the + innovation of a community of wives and children, and public tables for the + women, but have been contented to set out with establishing such rules as + are absolutely necessary. + </p> + <p> + There are some persons who think, that the first object of government + should be to regulate well everything relating to private property; for + they say, that a neglect herein is the source of all seditions whatsoever. + For this reason, Phaleas the Chalcedonian first proposed, that the + fortunes of the citizens should be equal, which he thought was not + difficult to accomplish when a community was first settled, but that it + was a work of greater difficulty in one that had been long established; + but yet that it might be effected, and an equality of circumstances + introduced by these means, that the rich should give marriage portions, + but never receive any, while the poor should always receive, but never + give. + </p> + <p> + But Plato, in his treatise of Laws, thinks that a difference in + circumstances should be permitted to a certain degree; but that no citizen + should be allowed to possess more than five times as much as the lowest + census, as we have already mentioned. But legislators who would establish + this principle are apt to overlook what they ought to consider; that while + they regulate the quantity of provisions which each individual shall + possess, they ought also to regulate the number of his children; for if + these exceed the allotted quantity of provision, the law must necessarily + be repealed; and yet, in spite of the repeal, it will have the bad effect + of reducing many from wealth to poverty, so difficult is it for innovators + not to fall into such mistakes. That an equality of goods was in some + degree serviceable to strengthen the bands of society, seems to have been + known to some of the ancients; for Solon made a law, as did some others + also, to restrain persons from possessing as much land as they pleased. + And upon the same principle there are laws which forbid men to sell their + property, as among the Locrians, unless they can prove that some notorious + misfortune has befallen them. They were also to preserve their ancient + patrimony, which custom being broken through by the Leucadians, made their + government too democratic; for by that means it was no longer necessary to + be possessed of a certain fortune to be qualified to be a magistrate. But + if an equality of goods is established, this may be either too much, when + it enables the people to live luxuriously, or too little, when it obliges + them to live hard. Hence it is evident, that it is not proper for the + legislator to establish an equality of circumstances, but to fix a proper + medium. Besides, if any one should regulate the division of property in + such a manner that there should be a moderate sufficiency for all, it + would be of no use; for it is of more consequence that the citizen should + entertain a similarity of sentiments than an equality of circumstances; + but this can never be attained unless they are properly educated under the + direction of the law. But probably Phaleas may say, that this in what he + himself mentions; for he both proposes a equality of property and one plan + of education in his city. But he should have said particularly what + education he intended, nor is it of any service to have this to much one; + for this education may be one, and yet such as will make the citizens + over-greedy, to grasp after honours, or riches, or both. Besides, not only + an inequality of possessions, but also of honours, will occasion [1267a] + seditions, but this upon contrary grounds; for the vulgar will be + seditious if there be an inequality of goods, by those of more elevated + sentiments, if there is an equality of honours. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "When good and bad do equal honours share." +</pre> + <p> + For men are not guilty of crimes for necessaries only (for which he thinks + an equality of goods would be a sufficient remedy, as they would then have + no occasion to steal cold or hunger), but that they may enjoy what they + desire, and not wish for it in vain; for if their desire extend beyond the + common necessaries of life, they were be wicked to gratify them; and not + only so, but if their wishes point that way, they will do the same to + enjoy those pleasures which are free from the alloy of pain. What remedy + then shall we find for these three disorders. And first, to prevent + stealing from necessity, let every one be supplied with a moderate + subsistence, which may make the addition of his own industry necessary; + second to prevent stealing to procure the luxuries of life, temperance be + enjoined; and thirdly, let those who wish for pleasure in itself seek for + it only in philosophy, all others want the assistance of men. + </p> + <p> + Since then men are guilty of the greatest crimes from ambition, and not + from necessity, no one, for instance aims at being a tyrant to keep him + from the cold, hence great honour is due to him who kills not a thief, but + tyrant; so that polity which Phaleas establishes would only be salutary to + prevent little crimes. He has also been very desirous to establish such + rules as will conduce to perfect the internal policy of his state, and he + ought also to have done the same with respect to its neighbours and all + foreign nations; for the considerations of the military establishment + should take place in planning every government, that it may not be + unprovided in case of a war, of which he has said nothing; so also with + respect to property, it ought not only to be adapted to the exigencies of + the state, but also to such dangers as may arise from without. + </p> + <p> + Thus it should not be so much as to tempt those who are near, and more + powerful to invade it, while those who possess it are not able to drive + out the invaders, nor so little as that the state should not be able to go + to war with those who are quite equal to itself, and of this he has + determined nothing; it must indeed be allowed that it is advantageous to a + community to be rather rich than poor; probably the proper boundary is + this, not to possess enough to make it worth while for a more powerful + neighbour to attack you, any more than he would those who had not so much + as yourself; thus when Autophradatus proposed to besiege Atarneus, Eubulus + advised him to consider what time it would require to take the city, and + then would have him determine whether it would answer, for that he should + choose, if it would even take less than he proposed, to quit the place; + his saying this made Autophradatus reflect upon the business and give over + the siege. There is, indeed, some advantage in an equality of goods + amongst the citizens to prevent seditions; and yet, to say truth, no very + great one; for men of great abilities will stomach their being put upon a + level with the rest of the community. For which reason they will very + often appear ready for every commotion and sedition; for the wickedness of + mankind is insatiable. For though at first two oboli might be sufficient, + yet when once it is become customary, they continually want something + more, until they set no limits to their expectations; for it is the nature + of our desires to be boundless, and many live only to gratify them. But + for this purpose the first object is, not so much to establish an equality + of fortune, as to prevent those who are of a good disposition from + desiring more than their own, and those who are of a bad one from being + able to acquire it; and this may be done if they are kept in an inferior + station, and not exposed to injustice. Nor has he treated well the + equality of goods, for he has extended his regulation only to land; + whereas a man's substance consists not only in this, but also in slaves, + cattle, money, and all that variety of things which fall under the name of + chattels; now there must be either an equality established in all these, + or some certain rule, or they must be left entirely at large. It appears + too by his laws, that he intends to establish only a small state, as all + the artificers are to belong to the public, and add nothing to the + complement of citizens; but if all those who are to be employed in public + works are to be the slaves of the public, it should be done in the same + manner as it is at Epidamnum, and as Diophantus formerly regulated it at + Athens. From these particulars any one may nearly judge whether Phaleas's + community is well or ill established. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0021" id="link2HCH0021"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VIII + </h2> + <p> + Hippodamus, the son of Euruphon a Milesian, contrived the art of laying + out towns, and separated the Pireus. This man was in other respects too + eager after notice, and seemed to many to live in a very affected manner, + with his flowing locks and his expensive ornaments, and a coarse warm vest + which he wore, not only in the winter, but also in the hot weather. As he + was very desirous of the character of a universal scholar, he was the + first who, not being actually engaged in the management of public affairs, + sat himself to inquire what sort of government was best; and he planned a + state, consisting of ten thousand persons, divided into three parts, one + consisting of artisans, another of husbandmen, and the third of soldiers; + he also divided the lands into three parts, and allotted one to sacred + purposes, another to the public, and the third to individuals. The first + of these was to supply what was necessary for the established worship of + the gods; the second was to be allotted to the support of the soldiery; + and the third was to be the property of the husbandman. He thought also + that there need only be three sorts of laws, corresponding to the three + sorts of actions which can be brought, namely, for assault, trespasses, or + death. He ordered also that there should be a particular court of appeal, + into which all causes might be removed which were supposed to have been + unjustly determined elsewhere; which court should be composed of old men + chosen for that purpose. He thought also [1268a] that they should not pass + sentence by votes; but that every one should bring with him a tablet, on + which he should write, that he found the party guilty, if it was so, but + if not, he should bring a plain tablet; but if he acquitted him of one + part of the indictment but not of the other, he should express that also + on the tablet; for he disapproved of that general custom already + established, as it obliges the judges to be guilty of perjury if they + determined positively either on the one side or the other. He also made a + law, that those should be rewarded who found out anything for the good of + the city, and that the children of those who fell in battle should be + educated at the public expense; which law had never been proposed by any + other legislator, though it is at present in use at Athens as well as in + other cities, he would have the magistrates chosen out of the people in + general, by whom he meant the three parts before spoken of; and that those + who were so elected should be the particular guardians of what belonged to + the public, to strangers, and to orphans. + </p> + <p> + These are the principal parts and most worthy of notice in Hippodamus's + plan. But some persons might doubt the propriety of his division of the + citizens into three parts; for the artisans, the husbandmen, and the + soldiers are to compose one community, where the husbandmen are to have no + arms, and the artisans neither arms nor land, which would in a manner + render them slaves to the soldiery. It is also impossible that the whole + community should partake of all the honourable employments in it—for + the generals and the guardians of the state must necessarily be appointed + out of the soldiery, and indeed the most honourable magistrates; but as + the two other parts will not have their share in the government, how can + they be expected to have any affection for it? But it is necessary that + the soldiery should be superior to the other two parts, and this + superiority will not be easily gained without they are very numerous; and + if they are so, why should the community consist of any other members? why + should any others have a right to elect the magistrates? Besides, of what + use are the husbandmen to this community? Artisans, 'tis true, are + necessary, for these every city wants, and they can live upon their + business. If the husbandmen indeed furnished the soldiers with provisions, + they would be properly part of the community; but these are supposed to + have their private property, and to cultivate it for their own use. + Moreover, if the soldiers themselves are to cultivate that common land + which is appropriated for their support, there will be no distinction + between the soldier and the husbandman, which the legislator intended + there should be; and if there should be any others who are to cultivate + the private property of the husbandman and the common lands of the + military, there will be a fourth order in the state which will have no + share in it, and always entertain hostile sentiments towards it. If any + one should propose that the same persons should cultivate their own lands + and the public ones also, then there would be a deficiency [1268b] of + provisions to supply two families, as the lands would not immediately + yield enough for themselves and the soldiers also; and all these things + would occasion great confusion. + </p> + <p> + Nor do I approve of his method of determining causes, when he would have + the judge split the case which comes simply before him; and thus, instead + of being a judge, become an arbitrator. Now when any matter is brought to + arbitration, it is customary for many persons to confer together upon the + business that is before them; but when a cause is brought before judges it + is not so; and many legislators take care that the judges shall not have + it in their power to communicate their sentiments to each other. Besides, + what can prevent confusion on the bench when one judge thinks a fine + should be different from what another has set it at; one proposing twenty + minae, another ten, or be it more or less, another four, and another five; + and it is evident, that in this manner they will differ from each other, + while some will give the whole damages sued for, and others nothing; in + this situation, how shall their determinations be settled? Besides, a + judge cannot be obliged to perjure himself who simply acquits or condemns, + if the action is fairly and justly brought; for he who acquits the party + does not say that he ought not to pay any fine at all, but that he ought + not to pay a fine of twenty minae. But he that condemns him is guilty of + perjury if he sentences him to pay twenty minae while he believes the + damages ought not to be so much. + </p> + <p> + Now with respect to these honours which he proposes to bestow on those who + can give any information useful to the community, this, though very + pleasing in speculation, is what the legislator should not settle, for it + would encourage informers, and probably occasion commotions in the state. + And this proposal of his gives rise also to further conjectures and + inquiries; for some persons have doubted whether it is useful or hurtful + to alter the established law of any country, if even for the better; for + which reason one cannot immediately determine upon what he here says, + whether it is advantageous to alter the law or not. We know, indeed, that + it is possible to propose to new model both the laws and government as a + common good; and since we have mentioned this subject, it may be very + proper to enter into a few particulars concerning it, for it contains some + difficulties, as I have already said, and it may appear better to alter + them, since it has been found useful in other sciences. + </p> + <p> + Thus the science of physic is extended beyond its ancient bounds; so is + the gymnastic, and indeed all other arts and powers; so that one may lay + it down for certain that the same thing will necessarily hold good in the + art of government. And it may also be affirmed, that experience itself + gives a proof of this; for the ancient laws are too simple and barbarous; + which allowed the Greeks to wear swords in the city, and to buy their + wives of each [1269a]. other. And indeed all the remains of old laws which + we have are very simple; for instance, a law in Cuma relative to murder. + If any person who prosecutes another for murder can produce a certain + number of witnesses to it of his own relations, the accused person shall + be held guilty. Upon the whole, all persons ought to endeavour to follow + what is right, and not what is established; and it is probable that the + first men, whether they sprung out of the earth, or were saved from some + general calamity, had very little understanding or knowledge, as is + affirmed of these aborigines; so that it would be absurd to continue in + the practice of their rules. Nor is it, moreover, right to permit written + laws always to remain without alteration; for as in all other sciences, so + in politics, it is impossible to express everything in writing with + perfect exactness; for when we commit anything to writing we must use + general terms, but in every action there is something particular to + itself, which these may not comprehend; from whence it is evident, that + certain laws will at certain times admit of alterations. But if we + consider this matter in another point of view, it will appear to require + great caution; for when the advantage proposed is trifling, as the + accustoming the people easily to abolish their laws is of bad consequence, + it is evidently better to pass over some faults which either the + legislator or the magistrates may have committed; for the alterations will + not be of so much service as a habit of disobeying the magistrates will be + of disservice. Besides, the instance brought from the arts is fallacious; + for it is not the same thing to alter the one as the other. For a law + derives all its strength from custom, and this requires long time to + establish; so that, to make it an easy matter to pass from the established + laws to other new ones, is to weaken the power of laws. Besides, here is + another question; if the laws are to be altered, are they all to be + altered, and in every government or not, and whether at the pleasure of + one person or many? all which particulars will make a great difference; + for which reason we will at present drop the inquiry, to pursue it at some + other time. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0022" id="link2HCH0022"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER IX + </h2> + <p> + There are two considerations which offer themselves with respect to the + government established at Lacedaemon and Crete, and indeed in almost all + other states whatsoever; one is whether their laws do or do not promote + the best establishment possible? the other is whether there is anything, + if we consider either the principles upon which it is founded or the + executive part of it, which prevents the form of government that they had + proposed to follow from being observed; now it is allowed that in every + well-regulated state the members of it should be free from servile labour; + but in what manner this shall be effected is not so easy to determine; for + the Penestse have very often attacked the Thessalians, and the Helots the + Lacedaemonians, for they in a manner continually watch an opportunity for + some misfortune befalling them. But no such thing has ever happened to the + Cretans; the [1269b] reason for which probably is, that although they are + engaged in frequent wars with the neighbouring cities, yet none of these + would enter into an alliance with the revolters, as it would be + disadvantageous for them, who themselves also have their villains. But now + there is perpetual enmity between the Lacedaemonians and all their + neighbours, the Argives, the Messenians, and the Arcadians. Their slaves + also first revolted from the Thessalians while they were engaged in wars + with their neighbours the Acheans, the Perrabeans, and the Magnesians. It + seems to me indeed, if nothing else, yet something very troublesome to + keep upon proper terms with them; for if you are remiss in your discipline + they grow insolent, and think themselves upon an equality with their + masters; and if they are hardly used they are continually plotting against + you and hate you. It is evident, then, that those who employ slaves have + not as yet hit upon the right way of managing them. + </p> + <p> + As to the indulging of women in any particular liberties, it is hurtful to + the end of government and the prosperity of the city; for as a man and his + wife are the two parts of a family, if we suppose a city to be divided + into two parts, we must allow that the number of men and women will be + equal. + </p> + <p> + In whatever city then the women are not under good regulations, we must + look upon one half of it as not under the restraint of law, as it there + happened; for the legislator, desiring to make his whole city a collection + of warriors with respect to the men, he most evidently accomplished his + design; but in the meantime the women were quite neglected, for they live + without restraint in every improper indulgence and luxury. So that in such + a state riches will necessarily be in general esteem, particularly if the + men are governed by their wives, which has been the case with many a brave + and warlike people except the Celts, and those other nations, if there are + any such, who openly practise pederasty. And the first mythologists seem + not improperly to have joined Mars and Venus together; for all nations of + this character are greatly addicted either to the love of women or of + boys, for which reason it was thus at Lacedaemon; and many things in their + state were done by the authority of the women. For what is the difference, + if the power is in the hands of the women, or in the hands of those whom + they themselves govern? it must turn to the same account. As this boldness + of the women can be of no use in any common occurrences, if it was ever + so, it must be in war; but even here we find that the Lacedaemonian women + were of the greatest disservice, as was proved at the time of the Theban + invasion, when they were of no use at all, as they are in other cities, + but made more disturbance than even the enemy. + </p> + <p> + The origin of this indulgence which the Lacedaemonian women enjoy is + easily accounted for, from the long time the men were absent from home + upon foreign expeditions [1270a] against the Argives, and afterwards the + Arcadians and Messenians, so that, when these wars were at an end, their + military life, in which there is no little virtue, prepared them to obey + the precepts of their law-giver; but we are told, that when Lycurgus + endeavoured also to reduce the women to an obedience to his laws, upon + their refusal he declined it. It may indeed be said that the women were + the causes of these things, and of course all the fault was theirs. But we + are not now considering where the fault lies, or where it does not lie, + but what is right and what is wrong; and when the manners of the women are + not well regulated, as I have already said, it must not only occasion + faults which are disgraceful to the state, but also increase the love of + money. In the next place, fault may be found with his unequal division of + property, for some will have far too much, others too little; by which + means the land will come into few hands, which business is badly regulated + by his laws. For he made it infamous for any one either to buy or sell + their possessions, in which he did right; but he permitted any one that + chose it to give them away, or bequeath them, although nearly the same + consequences will arise from one practice as from the other. It is + supposed that near two parts in five of the whole country is the property + of women, owing to their being so often sole heirs, and having such large + fortunes in marriage; though it would be better to allow them none, or a + little, or a certain regulated proportion. Now every one is permitted to + make a woman his heir if he pleases; and if he dies intestate, he who + succeeds as heir at law gives it to whom he pleases. From whence it + happens that although the country is able to support fifteen hundred horse + and thirty thousand foot, the number does not amount to one thousand. + </p> + <p> + And from these facts it is evident, that this particular is badly + regulated; for the city could not support one shock, but was ruined for + want of men. They say, that during the reigns of their ancient kings they + used to present foreigners with the freedom of their city, to prevent + there being a want of men while they carried on long wars; it is also + affirmed that the number of Spartans was formerly ten thousand; but be + that as it will, an equality of property conduces much to increase the + number of the people. The law, too, which he made to encourage population + was by no means calculated to correct this inequality; for being willing + that the Spartans should be as numerous as [1270b] possible, to make them + desirous of having large families he ordered that he who had three + children should be excused the night-watch, and that he who had four + should pay no taxes: though it is very evident, that while the land was + divided in this manner, that if the people increased there must many of + them be very poor. + </p> + <p> + Nor was he less blamable for the manner in which he constituted the + ephori; for these magistrates take cognisance of things of the last + importance, and yet they are chosen out of the people in general; so that + it often happens that a very poor person is elected to that office, who, + from that circumstance, is easily bought. There have been many instances + of this formerly, as well as in the late affair at Andros. And these men, + being corrupted with money, went as far as they could to ruin the city: + and, because their power was too great and nearly tyrannical, their kings + were obliged to natter them, which contributed greatly to hurt the state; + so that it altered from an aristocracy to a democracy. This magistracy is + indeed the great support of the state; for the people are easy, knowing + that they are eligible to the first office in it; so that, whether it took + place by the intention of the legislator, or whether it happened by + chance, this is of great service to their affairs; for it is necessary + that every member of the state should endeavour that each part of the + government should be preserved, and continue the same. And upon this + principle their kings have always acted, out of regard to their honour; + the wise and good from their attachment to the senate, a seat wherein they + consider as the reward of virtue; and the common people, that they may + support the ephori, of whom they consist. And it is proper that these + magistrates should be chosen out of the whole community, not as the custom + is at present, which is very ridiculous. The ephori are the supreme judges + in causes of the last consequence; but as it is quite accidental what sort + of persons they may be, it is not right that they should determine + according to their own opinion, but by a written law or established + custom. Their way of life also is not consistent with the manners of the + city, for it is too indulgent; whereas that of others is too severe; so + that they cannot support it, but are obliged privately to act contrary to + law, that they may enjoy some of the pleasures of sense. There are also + great defects in the institution of their senators. If indeed they were + fitly trained to the practice of every human virtue, every one would + readily admit that they would be useful to the government; but still it + might be debated whether they should be continued judges for life, to + determine points of the greatest moment, since the mind has its old age as + well as the body; but as they are so brought up, [1271a] that even the + legislator could not depend upon them as good men, their power must be + inconsistent with the safety of the state: for it is known that the + members of that body have been guilty both of bribery and partiality in + many public affairs; for which reason it had been much better if they had + been made answerable for their conduct, which they are not. But it may be + said the ephori seem to have a check upon all the magistrates. They have + indeed in this particular very great power; but I affirm that they should + not be entrusted with this control in the manner they are. Moreover, the + mode of choice which they make use of at the election of their senators is + very childish. Nor is it right for any one to solicit for a place he is + desirous of; for every person, whether he chooses it or not, ought to + execute any office he is fit for. But his intention was evidently the same + in this as in the other parts of his government. For making his citizens + ambitious after honours, with men of that disposition he has filled his + senate, since no others will solicit for that office; and yet the + principal part of those crimes which men are deliberately guilty of arise + from ambition and avarice. + </p> + <p> + We will inquire at another time whether the office of a king is useful to + the state: thus much is certain, that they should be chosen from a + consideration of their conduct and not as they are now. But that the + legislator himself did not expect to make all his citizens honourable and + completely virtuous is evident from this, that he distrusts them as not + being good men; for he sent those upon the same embassy that were at + variance with each other; and thought, that in the dispute of the kings + the safety of the state consisted. Neither were their common meals at + first well established: for these should rather have been provided at the + public expense, as at Crete, where, as at Lacedaemon, every one was + obliged to buy his portion, although he might be very poor, and could by + no means bear the expense, by which means the contrary happened to what + the legislator desired: for he intended that those public meals should + strengthen the democratic part of his government: but this regulation had + quite the contrary effect, for those who were very poor could not take + part in them; and it was an observation of their forefathers, that the not + allowing those who could not contribute their proportion to the common + tables to partake of them, would be the ruin of the state. Other persons + have censured his laws concerning naval affairs, and not without reason, + as it gave rise to disputes. For the commander of the fleet is in a manner + set up in opposition to the kings, who are generals of the army for life. + </p> + <p> + [1271b] There is also another defect in his laws worthy of censure, which + Plato has given in his book of Laws; that the whole constitution was + calculated only for the business of war: it is indeed excellent to make + them conquerors; for which reason the preservation of the state depended + thereon. The destruction of it commenced with their victories: for they + knew not how to be idle, or engage in any other employment than war. In + this particular also they were mistaken, that though they rightly thought, + that those things which are the objects of contention amongst mankind are + better procured by virtue than vice, yet they wrongfully preferred the + things themselves to virtue. Nor was the public revenue well managed at + Sparta, for the state was worth nothing while they were obliged to carry + on the most extensive wars, and the subsidies were very badly raised; for + as the Spartans possessed a large extent of country, they were not exact + upon each other as to what they paid in. And thus an event contrary to the + legislator's intention took place; for the state was poor, the individuals + avaricious. Enough of the Lacedaemonian government; for these seem the + chief defects in it. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0023" id="link2HCH0023"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER X + </h2> + <p> + The government of Crete bears a near resemblance to this, in some few + particulars it is not worse, but in general it is far inferior in its + contrivance. For it appears and is allowed in many particulars the + constitution of Lacedaemon was formed in imitation of that of Crete; and + in general most new things are an improvement upon the old. For they say, + that when Lycurgus ceased to be guardian to King Charilles he went abroad + and spent a long time with his relations in Crete, for the Lycians are a + colony of the Lacedaemonians; and those who first settled there adopted + that body of laws which they found already established by the inhabitants; + in like manner also those who now live near them have the very laws which + Minos first drew up. + </p> + <p> + This island seems formed by nature to be the mistress of Greece, for it is + entirely surrounded by a navigable ocean which washes almost all the + maritime parts of that country, and is not far distant on the one side + from Peloponnesus, on the other, which looks towards Asia, from Triopium + and Rhodes. By means of this situation Minos acquired the empire of the + sea and the islands; some of which he subdued, in others planted colonies: + at last he died at Camicus while he was attacking Sicily. There is this + analogy between the customs of the Lacedaemonians and the Cretans, the + Helots cultivate the grounds [1272a] for the one, the domestic slaves for + the other. Both states have their common meals, and the Lacedaemonians + called these formerly not <i>psiditia</i> but <i>andpia</i>, as the + Cretans do; which proves from whence the custom arose. In this particular + their governments are also alike: the ephori have the same power with + those of Crete, who are called <i>kosmoi</i>; with this difference only, + that the number of the one is five, of the other ten. The senators are the + same as those whom the Cretans call the council. There was formerly also a + kingly power in Crete; but it was afterwards dissolved, and the command of + their armies was given to the <i>kosmoi</i>. Every one also has a vote in + their public assembly; but this has only the power of confirming what has + already passed the council and the <i>kosmoi</i>. + </p> + <p> + The Cretans conducted their public meals better than the Lacedaemonians, + for at Lacedaemon each individual was obliged to furnish what was assessed + upon him; which if he could not do, there was a law which deprived him of + the rights of a citizen, as has been already mentioned: but in Crete they + were furnished by the community; for all the corn and cattle, taxes and + contributions, which the domestic slaves were obliged to furnish, were + divided into parts and allotted to the gods, the exigencies of the state, + and these public meals; so that all the men, women, and children were + maintained from a common stock. The legislator gave great attention to + encourage a habit of eating sparingly, as very useful to the citizens. He + also endeavoured, that his community might not be too populous, to lessen + the connection with women, by introducing the love of boys: whether in this + he did well or ill we shall have some other opportunity of considering. + But that the public meals were better ordered at Crete than at Lacedaemon + is very evident. + </p> + <p> + The institution of the <i>kosmoi</i>, was still worse than that of the + ephori: for it contained all the faults incident to that magistracy and + some peculiar to itself; for in both cases it is uncertain who will be + elected: but the Lacedaemonians have this advantage which the others have + not, that as all are eligible, the whole community have a share in the + highest honours, and therefore all desire to preserve the state: whereas + among the Cretans the <i>kosmoi</i> are not chosen out of the people in + general, but out of some certain families, and the senate out of the <i>kosmoi</i>. + And the same observations which may be made on the senate at Lacedaemon + may be applied to these; for their being under no control, and their + continuing for life, is an honour greater than they merit; and to have + their proceedings not regulated by a written law, but left to their own + discretion, is dangerous. (As to there being no insurrections, although + the people share not in the management of public affairs, this is no proof + of a well-constituted government, as the <i>kosmoi</i> have no opportunity + of being bribed like the ephori, as they live in an [1272b] island far + from those who would corrupt them.) But the method they take to correct + that fault is absurd, impolitic, and tyrannical: for very often either + their fellow-magistrates or some private persons conspire together and + turn out the <i>kosmoi</i>. They are also permitted to resign their office + before their time is elapsed, and if all this was done by law it would be + well, and not at the pleasure of the individuals, which is a bad rule to + follow. But what is worst of all is, that general confusion which those + who are in power introduce to impede the ordinary course of justice; which + sufficiently shows what is the nature of the government, or rather lawless + force: for it is usual with the principal persons amongst them to collect + together some of the common people and their friends, and then revolt and + set up for themselves, and come to blows with each other. And what is the + difference, if a state is dissolved at once by such violent means, or if + it gradually so alters in process of time as to be no longer the same + constitution? A state like this would ever be exposed to the invasions of + those who were powerful and inclined to attack it; but, as has been + already mentioned, its situation preserves it, as it is free from the + inroads of foreigners; and for this reason the family slaves still remain + quiet at Crete, while the Helots are perpetually revolting: for the + Cretans take no part in foreign affairs, and it is but lately that any + foreign troops have made an attack upon the island; and their ravages soon + proved the ineffectualness of their laws. And thus much for the government + of Crete. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0024" id="link2HCH0024"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XI + </h2> + <p> + The government of Carthage seems well established, and in many respects + superior to others; in some particulars it bears a near resemblance to the + Lacedaemonians; and indeed these three states, the Cretans, the + Lacedaemonians and the Carthaginians are in some things very like each + other, in others they differ greatly. Amongst many excellent constitutions + this may show how well their government is framed, that although the + people are admitted to a share in the administration, the form of it + remains unaltered, without any popular insurrections, worth notice, on the + one hand, or degenerating into a tyranny on the other. Now the + Carthaginians have these things in common with the Lacedaemonians: public + tables for those who are connected together by the tie of mutual + friendship, after the manner of their Phiditia; they have also a + magistracy, consisting of an hundred and four persons, similar to the + ephori, or rather selected with more judgment; for amongst the + Lacedaemonians, all the citizens are eligible, but amongst the + Carthaginians, they are chosen out of those of the better sort: there is + also some analogy between the king and the senate in both these + governments, though the Carthaginian method of appointing their kings is + best, for they do not confine themselves to one family; nor do they permit + the election to be at large, nor have they any regard to seniority; for if + amongst the candidates there are any of greater merit than the rest, these + they prefer to those who may be older; for as their power is very + extensive, if they are [1273a] persons of no account, they may be very + hurtful to the state, as they have always been to the Lacedaemonians; also + the greater part of those things which become reprehensible by their + excess are common to all those governments which we have described. + </p> + <p> + Now of those principles on which the Carthaginians have established their + mixed form of government, composed of an aristocracy and democracy, some + incline to produce a democracy, others an oligarchy: for instance, if the + kings and the senate are unanimous upon any point in debate, they can + choose whether they will bring it before the people or no; but if they + disagree, it is to these they must appeal, who are not only to hear what + has been approved of by the senate, but are finally to determine upon it; + and whosoever chooses it, has a right to speak against any matter + whatsoever that may be proposed, which is not permitted in other cases. + The five, who elect each other, have very great and extensive powers; and + these choose the hundred, who are magistrates of the highest rank: their + power also continues longer than any other magistrates, for it commences + before they come into office, and is prolonged after they are out of it; + and in this particular the state inclines to an oligarchy: but as they are + not elected by lot, but by suffrage, and are not permitted to take money, + they are the greatest supporters imaginable of an aristocracy. + </p> + <p> + The determining all causes by the same magistrates, and not orae in one + court and another in another, as at Lacedaemon, has the same influence. + The constitution of Carthage is now shifting from an aristocracy to an + oligarchy, in consequence of an opinion which is favourably entertained by + many, who think that the magistrates in the community ought not to be + persons of family only, but of fortune also; as it is impossible for those + who are in bad circumstances to support the dignity of their office, or to + be at leisure to apply to public business. As choosing men of fortune to + be magistrates make a state incline to an oligarchy, and men of abilities + to an aristocracy, so is there a third method of proceeding which took + place in the polity of Carthage; for they have an eye to these two + particulars when they elect their officers, particularly those of the + highest rank, their kings and their generals. It must be admitted, that it + was a great fault in their legislator not to guard against the + constitution's degenerating from an aristocracy; for this is a most + necessary thing to provide for at first, that those citizens who have the + best abilities should never be obliged to do anything unworthy their + character, but be always at leisure to serve the public, not only when in + office, but also when private persons; for if once you are obliged to look + among the wealthy, that you may have men at leisure to serve you, your + greatest offices, of king and general, will soon become venal; in + consequence of which, riches will be more honourable than virtue and a + love of money be the ruling principle in the city-for what those who have + the chief power regard as honourable will necessarily be the object which + the [1273b] citizens in general will aim at; and where the first honours + are not paid to virtue, there the aristocratic form of government cannot + flourish: for it is reasonable to conclude, that those who bought their + places should generally make an advantage of what they laid out their + money for; as it is absurd to suppose, that if a man of probity who is + poor should be desirous of gaining something, a bad man should not + endeavour to do the same, especially to reimburse himself; for which + reason the magistracy should be formed of those who are most able to + support an aristocracy. It would have been better for the legislature to + have passed over the poverty of men of merit, and only to have taken care + to have ensured them sufficient leisure, when in office, to attend to + public affairs. + </p> + <p> + It seems also improper, that one person should execute several offices, + which was approved of at Carthage; for one business is best done by one + person; and it is the duty of the legislator to look to this, and not make + the same person a musician and a shoemaker: so that where the state is not + small it is more politic and more popular to admit many persons to have a + share in the government; for, as I just now said, it is not only more + usual, but everything is better and sooner done, when one thing only is + allotted to one person: and this is evident both in the army and navy, + where almost every one, in his turn, both commands and is under command. + But as their government inclines to an oligarchy, they avoid the ill + effects of it by always appointing some of the popular party to the + government of cities to make their fortunes. Thus they consult this fault + in their constitution and render it stable; but this is depending on + chance; whereas the legislator ought to frame his government, that there + the no room for insurrections. But now, if there should be any general + calamity, and the people should revolt from their rulers, there is no + remedy for reducing them to obedience by the laws. And these are the + particulars of the Lacedaemonian, the Cretan, and the Carthaginian + governments which seem worthy of commendation. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0025" id="link2HCH0025"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XII + </h2> + <p> + Some of those persons who have written upon government had never any share + in public affairs, but always led a private life. Everything worthy of + notice in their works we have already spoke to. Others were legislators, + some in their own cities, others were employed in regulating the + governments of foreign states. Some of them only composed a body of laws; + others formed the constitution also, as Lycurgus; and Solon, who did both. + The Lacedaemonians have been already mentioned. Some persons think that + Solon was an excellent legislator, who could dissolve a pure oligarchy, + and save the people from that slavery which hung over them, and establish + the ancient democratic form of government in his country; wherein every + part of it was so framed as to be well adapted to the whole. In the senate + of Areopagus an oligarchy was preserved; by the manner of electing their + [1274a] magistrates, an aristocracy; and in their courts of justice, a + democracy. + </p> + <p> + Solon seems not to have altered the established form of government, either + with respect to the senate or the mode of electing their magistrates; but + to have raised the people to great consideration in the state by allotting + the supreme judicial department to them; and for this some persons blame + him, as having done what would soon overturn that balance of power he + intended to establish; for by trying all causes whatsoever before the + people, who were chosen by lot to determine them, it was necessary to + flatter a tyrannical populace who had got this power; which contributed to + bring the government to that pure democracy it now is. + </p> + <p> + Both Ephialtes and Pericles abridged the power of the Areopagites, the + latter of whom introduced the method of paying those who attended the + courts of justice: and thus every one who aimed at being popular proceeded + increasing the power of the people to what we now see it. But it is + evident that this was not Solon's intention, but that it arose from + accident; for the people being the cause of the naval victory over the + Medes, assumed greatly upon it, and enlisted themselves under factious + demagogues, although opposed by the better part of the citizens. He + thought it indeed most necessary to entrust the people with the choice of + their magistrates and the power of calling them to account; for without + that they must have been slaves and enemies to the other citizens: but he + ordered them to elect those only who were persons of good account and + property, either out of those who were worth five hundred medimns, or + those who were called xeugitai, or those of the third census, who were + called horsemen. + </p> + <p> + As for those of the fourth, which consisted of mechanics, they were + incapable of any office. Zaleucus was the legislator of the Western + Locrians, as was Charondas, the Catanean, of his own cities, and those + also in Italy and Sicily which belonged to the Calcidians. Some persons + endeavour to prove that Onomacritus, the Locrian, was the first person of + note who drew up laws; and that he employed himself in that business while + he was at Crete, where he continued some time to learn the prophetic art: + and they say, that Thales was his companion; and that Lycurgus and + Zaleucus were the scholars of Thales, and Charondas of Zaleucus; but those + who advance this, advance what is repugnant to chronology. Philolaus also, + of the family of the Bacchiades, was a Theban legislator. This man was + very fond of Diocles, a victor in the Olympic games, and when he left his + country from a disgust at an improper passion which his mother Alithoe had + entertained for him, and settled at Thebes, Philolaus followed him, where + they both died, and where they still show their tombs placed in view of + each other, but so disposed, that one of them looks towards Corinth, the + other does not; the reason they give for this is, that Diodes, from his + detestation of his mother's passion, would have his tomb so placed that no + one could see Corinth from it; but Philolaus chose that it might be seen + from his: and this was the cause of their living at Thebes. [1274b] + </p> + <p> + As Philolaus gave them laws concerning many other things, so did he upon + adoption, which they call adoptive laws; and this he in particular did to + preserve the number of families. Charondas did nothing new, except in + actions for perjury, which he was the first person who took into + particular consideration. He also drew up his laws with greater elegance + and accuracy than even any of our present legislators. Philolaus + introduced the law for the equal distribution of goods; Plato that for the + community of women, children, and goods, and also for public tables for + the women; and one concerning drunkenness, that they might observe + sobriety in their symposiums. He also made a law concerning their warlike + exercises; that they should acquire a habit of using both hands alike, as + it was necessary that one hand should be as useful as the other. + </p> + <p> + As for Draco's laws, they were published when the government was already + established, and they have nothing particular in them worth mentioning, + except their severity on account of the enormity of their punishments. + Pittacus was the author of some laws, but never drew up any form of + government; one of which was this, that if a drunken man beat any person + he should be punished more than if he did it when sober; for as people are + more apt to be abusive when drunk than sober, he paid no consideration to + the excuse which drunkenness might claim, but regarded only the common + benefit. Andromadas Regmus was also a lawgiver to the Thracian talcidians. + There are some laws of his concerning murders and heiresses extant, but + these contain nothing that any one can say is new and his own. And thus + much for different sorts of governments, as well those which really exist + as those which different persons have proposed. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0031" id="link2H_4_0031"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + BOOK III + </h2> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0026" id="link2HCH0026"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER I + </h2> + <p> + Every one who inquires into the nature of government, and what are its + different forms, should make this almost his first question, What is a + city? For upon this there is a dispute: for some persons say the city did + this or that, while others say, not the city, but the oligarchy, or the + tyranny. We see that the city is the only object which both the politician + and legislator have in view in all they do: but government is a certain + ordering of those who inhabit a city. As a city is a collective body, and, + like other wholes, composed of many parts, it is evident our first inquiry + must be, what a citizen is: for a city is a certain number of citizens. So + that we must consider whom we ought to call citizen, and who is one; for + this is often doubtful: for every one will not allow that this character + is applicable to the same person; for that man who would be a citizen in a + republic would very often not be one in an oligarchy. We do not include in + this inquiry many of those who acquire this appellation out of the + ordinary way, as honorary persons, for instance, but those only who have a + natural right to it. + </p> + <p> + Now it is not residence which constitutes a man a citizen; for in this + sojourners and slaves are upon an equality with him; nor will it be + sufficient for this purpose, that you have the privilege of the laws, and + may plead or be impleaded, for this all those of different nations, + between whom there is a mutual agreement for that purpose, are allowed; + although it very often happens, that sojourners have not a perfect right + therein without the protection of a patron, to whom they are obliged to + apply, which shows that their share in the community is incomplete. In + like manner, with respect to boys who are not yet enrolled, or old men who + are past war, we admit that they are in some respects citizens, but not + completely so, but with some exceptions, for these are not yet arrived to + years of maturity, and those are past service; nor is there any difference + between them. But what we mean is sufficiently intelligible and clear, we + want a complete citizen, one in whom there is no deficiency to be + corrected to make him so. As to those who are banished, or infamous, there + may be the same objections made and the same answer given. There is + nothing that more characterises a complete citizen than having a share in + the judicial and executive part of the government. + </p> + <p> + With respect to offices, some are fixed to a particular time, so that no + person is, on any account, permitted to fill them twice; or else not till + some certain period has intervened; others are not fixed, as a juryman's, + and a member of the general assembly: but probably some one may say these + are not offices, nor have the citizens in these capacities any share in + the government; though surely it is ridiculous to say that those who have + the principal power in the state bear no office in it. But this objection + is of no weight, for it is only a dispute about words; as there is no + general term which can be applied both to the office of a juryman and a + member of the assembly. For the sake of distinction, suppose we call it an + indeterminate office: but I lay it down as a maxim, that those are + citizens who could exercise it. Such then is the description of a citizen + who comes nearest to what all those who are called citizens are. Every one + also should know, that of the component parts of those things which differ + from each other in species, after the first or second remove, those which + follow have either nothing at all or very little common to each. + </p> + <p> + Now we see that governments differ from each other in their form, and that + some of them are defective, others [1275b] as excellent as possible: for + it is evident, that those which have many deficiencies and degeneracies in + them must be far inferior to those which are without such faults. What I + mean by degeneracies will be hereafter explained. Hence it is clear that + the office of a citizen must differ as governments do from each other: for + which reason he who is called a citizen has, in a democracy, every + privilege which that station supposes. In other forms of government he may + enjoy them; but not necessarily: for in some states the people have no + power; nor have they any general assembly, but a few select men. + </p> + <p> + The trial also of different causes is allotted to different persons; as at + Lacedaemon all disputes concerning contracts are brought before some of + the ephori: the senate are the judges in cases of murder, and so on; some + being to be heard by one magistrate, others by another: and thus at + Carthage certain magistrates determine all causes. But our former + description of a citizen will admit of correction; for in some governments + the office of a juryman and a member of the general assembly is not an + indeterminate one; but there are particular persons appointed for these + purposes, some or all of the citizens being appointed jurymen or members + of the general assembly, and this either for all causes and all public + business whatsoever, or else for some particular one: and this may be + sufficient to show what a citizen is; for he who has a right to a share in + the judicial and executive part of government in any city, him we call a + citizen of that place; and a city, in one word, is a collective body of + such persons sufficient in themselves to all the purposes of life. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0027" id="link2HCH0027"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER II + </h2> + <p> + In common use they define a citizen to be one who is sprung from citizens + on both sides, not on the father's or the mother's only. Others carry the + matter still further, and inquire how many of his ancestors have been + citizens, as his grandfather, great-grandfather, etc., but some persons + have questioned how the first of the family could prove themselves + citizens, according to this popular and careless definition. Gorgias of + Leontium, partly entertaining the same doubt, and partly in jest, says, + that as a mortar is made by a mortar-maker, so a citizen is made by a + citizen-maker, and a Larisssean by a Larisssean-maker. This is indeed a + very simple account of the matter; for if citizens are so, according to + this definition, it will be impossible to apply it to the first founders + or first inhabitants of states, who cannot possibly claim in right either + of their father or mother. It is probably a matter of still more + difficulty to determine their rights as citizens who are admitted to their + freedom after any revolution in the state. As, for instance, at Athens, + after the expulsion of the tyrants, when Clisthenes enrolled many + foreigners and city-slaves amongst the tribes; and the doubt with respect + to them was, not whether they were citizens or no, but whether they were + legally so or not. Though indeed some persons may have this further + [1276a] doubt, whether a citizen can be a citizen when he is illegally + made; as if an illegal citizen, and one who is no citizen at all, were in + the same predicament: but since we see some persons govern unjustly, whom + yet we admit to govern, though not justly, and the definition of a citizen + is one who exercises certain offices, for such a one we have defined a + citizen to be, it is evident, that a citizen illegally created yet + continues to be a citizen, but whether justly or unjustly so belongs to + the former inquiry. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0028" id="link2HCH0028"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER III + </h2> + <p> + It has also been doubted what was and what was not the act of the city; + as, for instance, when a democracy arises out of an aristocracy or a + tyranny; for some persons then refuse to fulfil their contracts; as if the + right to receive the money was in the tyrant and not in the state, and + many other things of the same nature; as if any covenant was founded for + violence and not for the common good. So in like manner, if anything is + done by those who have the management of public affairs where a democracy + is established, their actions are to be considered as the actions of the + state, as well as in the oligarchy or tyranny. + </p> + <p> + And here it seems very proper to consider this question, When shall we say + that a city is the same, and when shall we say that it is different? + </p> + <p> + It is but a superficial mode of examining into this question to begin with + the place and the people; for it may happen that these may be divided from + that, or that some one of them may live in one place, and some in another + (but this question may be regarded as no very knotty one; for, as a city + may acquire that appellation on many accounts, it may be solved many + ways); and in like manner, when men inhabit one common place, when shall + we say that they inhabit the same city, or that the city is the same? for + it does not depend upon the walls; for I can suppose Peloponnesus itself + surrounded with a wall, as Babylon was, and every other place, which + rather encircles many nations than one city, and that they say was taken + three days when some of the inhabitants knew nothing of it: but we shall + find a proper time to determine this question; for the extent of a city, + how large it should be, and whether it should consist of more than one + people, these are particulars that the politician should by no means be + unacquainted with. This, too, is a matter of inquiry, whether we shall say + that a city is the same while it is inhabited by the same race of men, + though some of them are perpetually dying, others coming into the world, + as we say that a river or a fountain is the same, though the waters are + continually changing; or when a revolution takes place shall we [1276b] + say the men are the same, but the city is different: for if a city is a + community, it is a community of citizens; but if the mode of government + should alter, and become of another sort, it would seem a necessary + consequence that the city is not the same; as we regard the tragic chorus + as different from the comic, though it may probably consist of the same + performers: thus every other community or composition is said to be + different if the species of composition is different; as in music the same + hands produce different harmony, as the Doric and Phrygian. If this is + true, it is evident, that when we speak of a city as being the same we + refer to the government there established; and this, whether it is called + by the same name or any other, or inhabited by the same men or different. + But whether or no it is right to dissolve the community when the + constitution is altered is another question. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0029" id="link2HCH0029"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER IV + </h2> + <p> + What has been said, it follows that we should consider whether the same + virtues which constitute a good man make a valuable citizen, or different; + and if a particular inquiry is necessary for this matter we must first + give a general description of the virtues of a good citizen; for as a + sailor is one of those who make up a community, so is a citizen, although + the province of one sailor may be different from another's (for one is a + rower, another a steersman, a third a boatswain, and so on, each having + their several appointments), it is evident that the most accurate + description of any one good sailor must refer to his peculiar abilities, + yet there are some things in which the same description may be applied to + the whole crew, as the safety of the ship is the common business of all of + them, for this is the general centre of all their cares: so also with + respect to citizens, although they may in a few particulars be very + different, yet there is one care common to them all, the safety of the + community, for the community of the citizens composes the state; for which + reason the virtue of a citizen has necessarily a reference to the state. + But if there are different sorts of governments, it is evident that those + actions which constitute the virtue of an excellent citizen in one + community will not constitute it in another; wherefore the virtue of such + a one cannot be perfect: but we say, a man is good when his virtues are + perfect; from whence it follows, that an excellent citizen does not + possess that virtue which constitutes a good man. Those who are any ways + doubtful concerning this question may be convinced of the truth of it by + examining into the best formed states: for, if it is impossible that a + city should consist entirely of excellent citizens (while it is necessary + that every one should do well in his calling, in which consists his + excellence, as it is impossible that all the citizens should have the same + [1277a] qualifications) it is impossible that the virtue of a citizen and + a good man should be the same; for all should possess the virtue of an + excellent citizen: for from hence necessarily arise the perfection of the + city: but that every one should possess the virtue of a good man is + impossible without all the citizens in a well-regulated state were + necessarily virtuous. Besides, as a city is composed of dissimilar parts, + as an animal is of life and body; the soul of reason and appetite; a + family of a man and his wife—property of a master and a slave; in + the same manner, as a city is composed of all these and many other very + different parts, it necessarily follows that the virtue of all the + citizens cannot be the same; as the business of him who leads the band is + different from the other dancers. From all which proofs it is evident that + the virtues of a citizen cannot be one and the same. But do we never find + those virtues united which constitute a good man and excellent citizen? + for we say, such a one is an excellent magistrate and a prudent and good + man; but prudence is a necessary qualification for all those who engage in + public affairs. Nay, some persons affirm that the education of those who + are intended to command should, from the beginning, be different from + other citizens, as the children of kings are generally instructed in + riding and warlike exercises; and thus Euripides says: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "... No showy arts Be mine, but teach me what the state requires." +</pre> + <p> + As if those who are to rule were to have an education peculiar to + themselves. But if we allow, that the virtues of a good man and a good + magistrate may be the same, and a citizen is one who obeys the magistrate, + it follows that the virtue of the one cannot in general be the same as the + virtue of the other, although it may be true of some particular citizen; + for the virtue of the magistrate must be different from the virtue of the + citizen. For which reason Jason declared that was he deprived of his + kingdom he should pine away with regret, as not knowing how to live a + private man. But it is a great recommendation to know how to command as + well as to obey; and to do both these things well is the virtue of an + accomplished citizen. If then the virtue of a good man consists only in + being able to command, but the virtue of a good citizen renders him + equally fit for the one as well as the other, the commendation of both of + them is not the same. It appears, then, that both he who commands and he + who obeys should each of them learn their separate business: but that the + citizen should be master of and take part in both these, as any one may + easily perceive; in a family government there is no occasion for the + master to know how to perform the necessary offices, but rather to enjoy + the labour of others; for to do the other is a servile part. I mean by the + other, the common family business of the slave. + </p> + <p> + There are many sorts of slaves; for their employments are various: of + these the handicraftsmen are one, who, as their name imports, get their + living by the labour of their hands, and amongst these all mechanics are + included; [1277b] for which reasons such workmen, in some states, were not + formerly admitted into any share in the government; till at length + democracies were established: it is not therefore proper for any man of + honour, or any citizen, or any one who engages in public affairs, to learn + these servile employments without they have occasion for them for their + own use; for without this was observed the distinction between a master + and a slave would be lost. But there is a government of another sort, in + which men govern those who are their equals in rank, and freemen, which we + call a political government, in which men learn to command by first + submitting to obey, as a good general of horse, or a commander-in-chief, + must acquire a knowledge of their duty by having been long under the + command of another, and the like in every appointment in the army: for + well is it said, no one knows how to command who has not himself been + under command of another. The virtues of those are indeed different, but a + good citizen must necessarily be endowed with them; he ought also to know + in what manner freemen ought to govern, as well as be governed: and this, + too, is the duty of a good man. And if the temperance and justice of him + who commands is different from his who, though a freeman, is under + command, it is evident that the virtues of a good citizen cannot be the + same as justice, for instance but must be of a different species in these + two different situations, as the temperance and courage of a man and a + woman are different from each other; for a man would appear a coward who + had only that courage which would be graceful in a woman, and a woman + would be thought a talker who should take as large a part in the + conversation as would become a man of consequence. + </p> + <p> + The domestic employments of each of them are also different; it is the + man's business to acquire subsistence, the woman's to take care of it. But + direction and knowledge of public affairs is a virtue peculiar to those + who govern, while all others seem to be equally requisite for both + parties; but with this the governed have no concern, it is theirs to + entertain just notions: they indeed are like flute-makers, while those who + govern are the musicians who play on them. And thus much to show whether + the virtue of a good man and an excellent citizen is the same, or if it is + different, and also how far it is the same, and how far different. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0030" id="link2HCH0030"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER V + </h2> + <p> + But with respect to citizens there is a doubt remaining, whether those + only are truly so who are allowed to share in the government, or whether + the mechanics also are to be considered as such? for if those who are not + permitted to rule are to be reckoned among them, it is impossible that the + virtue of all the citizens should be the same, for these also are + citizens; and if none of them are admitted to be citizens, where shall + they be ranked? for they are neither [1278a] sojourners nor foreigners? or + shall we say that there will no inconvenience arise from their not being + citizens, as they are neither slaves nor freedmen: for this is certainly + true, that all those are not citizens who are necessary to the existence + of a city, as boys are not citizens in the same manner that men are, for + those are perfectly so, the others under some conditions; for they are + citizens, though imperfect ones: for in former times among some people the + mechanics were either slaves or foreigners, for which reason many of them + are so now: and indeed the best regulated states will not permit a + mechanic to be a citizen; but if it be allowed them, we cannot then + attribute the virtue we have described to every citizen or freeman, but to + those only who are disengaged from servile offices. Now those who are + employed by one person in them are slaves; those who do them for money are + mechanics and hired servants: hence it is evident on the least reflection + what is their situation, for what I have said is fully explained by + appearances. Since the number of communities is very great, it follows + necessarily that there will be many different sorts of citizens, + particularly of those who are governed by others, so that in one state it + may be necessary to admit mechanics and hired servants to be citizens, but + in others it may be impossible; as particularly in an aristocracy, where + honours are bestowed on virtue and dignity: for it is impossible for one + who lives the life of a mechanic or hired servant to acquire the practice + of virtue. In an oligarchy also hired servants are not admitted to be + citizens; because there a man's right to bear any office is regulated by + his fortune; but mechanics are, for many citizens are very rich. + </p> + <p> + There was a law at Thebes that no one could have a share in the government + till he had been ten years out of trade. In many states the law invites + strangers to accept the freedom of the city; and in some democracies the + son of a free-woman is himself free. The same is also observed in many + others with respect to natural children; but it is through want of + citizens regularly born that they admit such: for these laws are always + made in consequence of a scarcity of inhabitants; so, as their numbers + increase, they first deprive the children of a male or female slave of + this privilege, next the child of a free-woman, and last of all they will + admit none but those whose fathers and mothers were both free. + </p> + <p> + That there are many sorts of citizens, and that he may be said to be as + completely who shares the honours of the state, is evident from what has + been already said. Thus Achilles, in Homer, complains of Agamemnon's + treating him like an unhonoured stranger; for a stranger or sojourner is + one who does not partake of the honours of the state: and whenever the + right to the freedom of the city is kept obscure, it is for the sake of + the inhabitants. [1278b] From what has been said it is plain whether the + virtue of a good man and an excellent citizen is the same or different: + and we find that in some states it is the same, in others not; and also + that this is not true of each citizen, but of those only who take the + lead, or are capable of taking the lead, in public affairs, either alone + or in conjunction with others. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0031" id="link2HCH0031"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VI + </h2> + <p> + Having established these points, we proceed next to consider whether one + form of government only should be established, or more than one; and if + more, how many, and of what sort, and what are the differences between + them. The form of government is the ordering and regulating of the city, + and all the offices in it, particularly those wherein the supreme power is + lodged; and this power is always possessed by the administration; but the + administration itself is that particular form of government which is + established in any state: thus in a democracy the supreme power is lodged + in the whole people; on the contrary, in an oligarchy it is in the hands + of a few. We say then, that the form of government in these states is + different, and we shall find the same thing hold good in others. Let us + first determine for whose sake a city is established; and point out the + different species of rule which man may submit to in social life. + </p> + <p> + I have already mentioned in my treatise on the management of a family, and + the power of the master, that man is an animal naturally formed for + society, and that therefore, when he does not want any foreign assistance, + he will of his own accord desire to live with others; not but that mutual + advantage induces them to it, as far as it enables each person to live + more agreeably; and this is indeed the great object not only to all in + general, but also to each individual: but it is not merely matter of + choice, but they join in society also, even that they may be able to live, + which probably is not without some share of merit, and they also support + civil society, even for the sake of preserving life, without they are + grievously overwhelmed with the miseries of it: for it is very evident + that men will endure many calamities for the sake of living, as being + something naturally sweet and desirable. It is easy to point out the + different modes of government, and we have already settled them in our + exoteric discourses. The power of the master, though by nature equally + serviceable, both to the master and to the slave, yet nevertheless has for + its object the benefit of the master, while the benefit of the slave + arises accidentally; for if the slave is destroyed, the power of the + master is at an end: but the authority which a man has over his wife, and + children, and his family, which we call domestic government, is either for + the benefit of those who are under subjection, or else for the common + benefit of the whole: but its particular object is the benefit of the + governed, as we see in other arts; in physic, for instance, and the + gymnastic exercises, wherein, if any benefit [1279a] arise to the master, + it is accidental; for nothing forbids the master of the exercises from + sometimes being himself one of those who exercises, as the steersman is + always one of the sailors; but both the master of the exercises and the + steersman consider the good of those who are under their government. + Whatever good may happen to the steersman when he is a sailor, or to the + master of the exercises when he himself makes one at the games, is not + intentional, or the object of their power; thus in all political + governments which are established to preserve and defend the equality of + the citizens it is held right to rule by turns. Formerly, as was natural, + every one expected that each of his fellow-citizens should in his turn + serve the public, and thus administer to his private good, as he himself + when in office had done for others; but now every one is desirous of being + continually in power, that he may enjoy the advantage which he makes of + public business and being in office; as if places were a never-failing + remedy for every complaint, and were on that account so eagerly sought + after. + </p> + <p> + It is evident, then, that all those governments which have a common good + in view are rightly established and strictly just, but those who have in + view only the good of the rulers are all founded on wrong principles, and + are widely different from what a government ought to be, for they are + tyranny over slaves, whereas a city is a community of freemen. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0032" id="link2HCH0032"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VII + </h2> + <p> + Having established these particulars, we come to consider next the + different number of governments which there are, and what they are; and + first, what are their excellencies: for when we have determined this, + their defects will be evident enough. + </p> + <p> + It is evident that every form of government or administration, for the + words are of the same import, must contain a supreme power over the whole + state, and this supreme power must necessarily be in the hands of one + person, or a few, or many; and when either of these apply their power for + the common good, such states are well governed; but when the interest of + the one, the few, or the many who enjoy this power is alone consulted, + then ill; for you must either affirm that those who make up the community + are not citizens, or else let these share in the advantages of government. + We usually call a state which is governed by one person for the common + good, a kingdom; one that is governed by more than one, but by a few only, + an aristocracy; either because the government is in the hands of the most + worthy citizens, or because it is the best form for the city and its + inhabitants. When the citizens at large govern for the public good, it is + called a state; which is also a common name for all other governments, and + these distinctions are consonant to reason; for it will not be difficult + to find one person, or a very few, of very distinguished abilities, but + almost impossible to meet with the majority [1279b] of a people eminent + for every virtue; but if there is one common to a whole nation it is + valour; for this is created and supported by numbers: for which reason in + such a state the profession of arms will always have the greatest share in + the government. + </p> + <p> + Now the corruptions attending each of these governments are these; a + kingdom may degenerate into a tyranny, an aristocracy into an oligarchy, + and a state into a democracy. Now a tyranny is a monarchy where the good + of one man only is the object of government, an oligarchy considers only + the rich, and a democracy only the poor; but neither of them have a common + good in view. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0033" id="link2HCH0033"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VIII + </h2> + <p> + It will be necessary to enlarge a little more upon the nature of each of + these states, which is not without some difficulty, for he who would enter + into a philosophical inquiry into the principles of them, and not content + himself with a superficial view of their outward conduct, must pass over + and omit nothing, but explain the true spirit of each of them. A tyranny + then is, as has been said, a monarchy, where one person has an absolute + and despotic power over the whole community and every member therein: an + oligarchy, where the supreme power of the state is lodged with the rich: a + democracy, on the contrary, is where those have it who are worth little or + nothing. But the first difficulty that arises from the distinctions which + we have laid down is this, should it happen that the majority of the + inhabitants who possess the power of the state (for this is a democracy) + should be rich, the question is, how does this agree with what we have + said? The same difficulty occurs, should it ever happen that the poor + compose a smaller part of the people than the rich, but from their + superior abilities acquire the supreme power; for this is what they call + an oligarchy; it should seem then that our definition of the different + states was not correct: nay, moreover, could any one suppose that the + majority of the people were poor, and the minority rich, and then describe + the state in this manner, that an oligarchy was a government in which the + rich, being few in number, possessed the supreme power, and that a + democracy was a state in which the poor, being many in number, possessed + it, still there will be another difficulty; for what name shall we give to + those states we have been describing? I mean, that in which the greater + number are rich, and that in which the lesser number are poor (where each + of these possess the supreme power), if there are no other states than + those we have described. It seems therefore evident to reason, that + whether the supreme power is vested in the hands of many or few may be a + matter of accident; but that it is clear enough, that when it is in the + hands of the few, it will be a government of the rich; when in the hands + of the many, it will be a government of the poor; since in all countries + there are many poor and few rich: it is not therefore the cause that has + been already assigned (namely, the number of people in power) that makes + the difference between the two governments; but an oligarchy and democracy + differ in this from each other, in the poverty of those who govern in the + one, and the riches I28oa of those who govern in the other; for when the + government is in the hands of the rich, be they few or be they more, it is + an oligarchy; when it is in the hands of the poor, it is a democracy: but, + as we have already said, the one will be always few, the other numerous, + but both will enjoy liberty; and from the claims of wealth and liberty + will arise continual disputes with each other for the lead in public + affairs. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0034" id="link2HCH0034"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER IX + </h2> + <p> + Let us first determine what are the proper limits of an oligarchy and a + democracy, and what is just in each of these states; for all men have some + natural inclination to justice; but they proceed therein only to a certain + degree; nor can they universally point out what is absolutely just; as, + for instance, what is equal appears just, and is so; but not to all; only + among those who are equals: and what is unequal appears just, and is so; + but not to all, only amongst those who are unequals; which circumstance + some people neglect, and therefore judge ill; the reason for which is, + they judge for themselves, and every one almost is the worst judge in his + own cause. Since then justice has reference to persons, the same + distinctions must be made with respect to persons which are made with + respect to things, in the manner that I have already described in my + Ethics. + </p> + <p> + As to the equality of the things, these they agree in; but their dispute + is concerning the equality of the persons, and chiefly for the reason + above assigned; because they judge ill in their own cause; and also + because each party thinks, that if they admit what is right in some + particulars, they have done justice on the whole: thus, for instance, if + some persons are unequal in riches, they suppose them unequal in the + whole; or, on the contrary, if they are equal in liberty, they suppose + them equal in the whole: but what is absolutely just they omit; for if + civil society was founded for the sake of preserving and increasing + property, every one's right in the city would be equal to his fortune; and + then the reasoning of those who insist upon an oligarchy would be valid; + for it would not be right that he who contributed one mina should have an + equal share in the hundred along with him who brought in all the rest, + either of the original money or what was afterwards acquired. + </p> + <p> + Nor was civil society founded merely to preserve the lives of its members; + but that they might live well: for otherwise a state might be composed of + slaves, or the animal creation: but this is not so; for these have no + share in the happiness of it; nor do they live after their own choice; nor + is it an alliance mutually to defend each other from injuries, or for a + commercial intercourse: for then the Tyrrhenians and Carthaginians, and + all other nations between whom treaties of commerce subsist, would be + citizens of one city; for they have articles to regulate their exports and + imports, and engagements for mutual protection, and alliances for mutual + defence; but [1280b] yet they have not all the same magistrates + established among them, but they are different among the different people; + nor does the one take any care, that the morals of the other should be as + they ought, or that none of those who have entered into the common + agreements should be unjust, or in any degree vicious, only that they do + not injure any member of the confederacy. But whosoever endeavours to + establish wholesome laws in a state, attends to the virtues and the vices + of each individual who composes it; from whence it is evident, that the + first care of him who would found a city, truly deserving that name, and + not nominally so, must be to have his citizens virtuous; for otherwise it + is merely an alliance for self-defence; differing from those of the same + cast which are made between different people only in place: for law is an + agreement and a pledge, as the sophist Lycophron says, between the + citizens of their intending to do justice to each other, though not + sufficient to make all the citizens just and good: and that this is faact + is evident, for could any one bring different places together, as, for + instance, enclose Megara and Corinth in a wall, yet they would not be one + city, not even if the inhabitants intermarried with each other, though + this inter-community contributes much to make a place one city. Besides, + could we suppose a set of people to live separate from each other, but + within such a distance as would admit of an intercourse, and that there + were laws subsisting between each party, to prevent their injuring one + another in their mutual dealings, supposing one a carpenter, another a + husbandman, shoemaker, and the like, and that their numbers were ten + thousand, still all that they would have together in common would be a + tariff for trade, or an alliance for mutual defence, but not the same + city. And why? not because their mutual intercourse is not near enough, + for even if persons so situated should come to one place, and every one + should live in his own house as in his native city, and there should be + alliances subsisting between each party to mutually assist and prevent any + injury being done to the other, still they would not be admitted to be a + city by those who think correctly, if they preserved the same customs when + they were together as when they were separate. + </p> + <p> + It is evident, then, that a city is not a community of place; nor + established for the sake of mutual safety or traffic with each other; but + that these things are the necessary consequences of a city, although they + may all exist where there is no city: but a city is a society of people + joining together with their families and their children to live agreeably + for the sake of having their lives as happy and as independent as + possible: and for this purpose it is necessary that they should live in + one place and intermarry with each other: hence in all cities there are + family-meetings, clubs, sacrifices, and public entertainments to promote + friendship; for a love of sociability is friendship itself; so that the + end then for which a city is established is, that the inhabitants of it + may live happy, and these things are conducive to that end: for it is a + community of families and villages for the sake of a perfect independent + life; that is, as we have already said, for the sake of living well and + happily. It is not therefore founded for the purpose of men's merely + [1281a] living together, but for their living as men ought; for which + reason those who contribute most to this end deserve to have greater power + in the city than those who are their equals in family and freedom, but + their inferiors in civil virtue, or those who excel them in wealth but are + below them in worth. It is evident from what has been said, that in all + disputes upon government each party says something that is just. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0035" id="link2HCH0035"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER X + </h2> + <p> + It may also be a doubt where the supreme power ought to be lodged. Shall + it be with the majority, or the wealthy, with a number of proper persons, + or one better than the rest, or with a tyrant? But whichever of these we + prefer some difficulty will arise. For what? shall the poor have it + because they are the majority? they may then divide among themselves, what + belongs to the rich: nor is this unjust; because truly it has been so + judged by the supreme power. But what avails it to point out what is the + height of injustice if this is not? Again, if the many seize into their + own hands everything which belongs to the few, it is evident that the city + will be at an end. But virtue will never destroy what is virtuous; nor can + what is right be the ruin of the state: therefore such a law can never be + right, nor can the acts of a tyrant ever be wrong, for of necessity they + must all be just; for he, from his unlimited power, compels every one to + obey his command, as the multitude oppress the rich. Is it right then that + the rich, the few, should have the supreme power? and what if they be + guilty of the same rapine and plunder the possessions of the majority, + that will be as right as the other: but that all things of this sort are + wrong and unjust is evident. Well then, these of the better sort shall + have it: but must not then all the other citizens live unhonoured, without + sharing the offices of the city; for the offices of a city are its + honours, and if one set of men are always in power, it is evident that the + rest must be without honour. Well then, let it be with one person of all + others the fittest for it: but by this means the power will be still more + contracted, and a greater number than before continue unhonoured. But some + one may say, that it is wrong to let man have the supreme power and not + the law, as his soul is subject to so many passions. But if this law + appoints an aristocracy, or a democracy, how will it help us in our + present doubts? for those things will happen which we have already + mentioned. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0036" id="link2HCH0036"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XI + </h2> + <p> + Other particulars we will consider separately; but it seems proper to + prove, that the supreme power ought to be lodged with the many, rather + than with those of the better sort, who are few; and also to explain what + doubts (and probably just ones) may arise: now, though not one individual + of the many may himself be fit for the supreme power, yet when these many + are joined together, it does not follow but they may be better qualified + for it than those; and this not separately, but as a collective body; as + the public suppers exceed those which are given at one person's private + expense: for, as they are many, each person brings in his share of virtue + and wisdom; and thus, coming together, they are like one man made up of a + multitude, with many feet, many hands, and many intelligences: thus is it + with respect to the manners and understandings of the multitude taken + together; for which reason the public are the best judges of music and + poetry; for some understand one part, some another, and all collectively + the whole; and in this particular men of consequence differ from each of + the many; as they say those who are beautiful do from those who are not + so, and as fine pictures excel any natural objects, by collecting the + several beautiful parts which were dispersed among different originals + into one, although the separate parts, as the eye or any other, might be + handsomer than in the picture. + </p> + <p> + But if this distinction is to be made between every people and every + general assembly, and some few men of consequence, it may be doubtful + whether it is true; nay, it is clear enough that, with respect to a few, + it is not; since the same conclusion might be applied even to brutes: and + indeed wherein do some men differ from brutes? Not but that nothing + prevents what I have said being true of the people in some states. The + doubt then which we have lately proposed, with all its consequences, may + be settled in this manner; it is necessary that the freemen who compose + the bulk of the people should have absolute power in some things; but as + they are neither men of property, nor act uniformly upon principles of + virtue, it is not safe to trust them with the first offices in the state, + both on account of their iniquity and their ignorance; from the one of + which they will do what is wrong, from the other they will mistake: and + yet it is dangerous to allow them no power or share in the government; for + when there are many poor people who are incapable of acquiring the honours + of their country, the state must necessarily have many enemies in it; let + them then be permitted to vote in the public assemblies and to determine + causes; for which reason Socrates, and some other legislators, gave them + the power of electing the officers of the state, and also of inquiring + into their conduct when they came out of office, and only prevented their + being magistrates by themselves; for the multitude when they are collected + together have all of them sufficient understanding for these purposes, + and, mixing among those of higher rank, are serviceable to the city, as + some things, which alone are improper for food, when mixed with others + make the whole more wholesome than a few of them would be. + </p> + <p> + But there is a difficulty attending this form of government, for it seems, + that the person who himself was capable of curing any one who was then + sick, must be the best judge whom to employ as a physician; but such a one + must be himself a physician; and the same holds true in every other + practice and art: and as a physician ought [1282a] to give an account of + his practice to a physician, so ought it to be in other arts: those whose + business is physic may be divided into three sorts, the first of these is + he who makes up the medicines; the second prescribes, and is to the other + as the architect is to the mason; the third is he who understands the + science, but never practises it: now these three distinctions may be found + in those who understand all other arts; nor have we less opinion of their + judgment who are only instructed in the principles of the art than of + those who practise it: and with respect to elections the same method of + proceeding seems right; for to elect a proper person in any science is the + business of those who are skilful therein; as in geometry, of + geometricians; in steering, of steersmen: but if some individuals should + know something of particular arts and works, they do not know more than + the professors of them: so that even upon this principle neither the + election of magistrates, nor the censure of their conduct, should be + entrusted to the many. + </p> + <p> + But probably all that has been here said may not be right; for, to resume + the argument I lately used, if the people are not very brutal indeed, + although we allow that each individual knows less of these affairs than + those who have given particular attention to them, yet when they come + together they will know them better, or at least not worse; besides, in + some particular arts it is not the workman only who is the best judge; + namely, in those the works of which are understood by those who do not + profess them: thus he who builds a house is not the only judge of it, for + the master of the family who inhabits it is a better; thus also a + steersman is a better judge of a tiller than he who made it; and he who + gives an entertainment than the cook. What has been said seems a + sufficient solution of this difficulty; but there is another that follows: + for it seems absurd that the power of the state should be lodged with + those who are but of indifferent morals, instead of those who are of + excellent characters. Now the power of election and censure are of the + utmost consequence, and this, as has been said, in some states they + entrust to the people; for the general assembly is the supreme court of + all, and they have a voice in this, and deliberate in all public affairs, + and try all causes, without any objection to the meanness of their + circumstances, and at any age: but their treasurers, generals, and other + great officers of state are taken from men of great fortune and worth. + This difficulty also may be solved upon the same principle; and here too + they may be right, for the power is not in the man who is member of the + assembly, or council, but the assembly itself, and the council, and the + people, of which each individual of the whole community are the parts, I + mean as senator, adviser, or judge; for which reason it is very right, + that the many should have the greatest powers in their own hands; for the + people, the council, and the judges are composed of them, and the property + of all these collectively is more than the property of any person or a few + who fill the great offices of the state: and thus I determine these + points. + </p> + <p> + The first question that we stated shows plainly, that the supreme power + should be lodged in laws duly made and that the magistrate or magistrates, + either one or more, should be authorised to determine those cases which + the laws cannot particularly speak to, as it is impossible for them, in + general language, to explain themselves upon everything that may arise: + but what these laws are which are established upon the best foundations + has not been yet explained, but still remains a matter of some question: + but the laws of every state will necessarily be like every state, either + trifling or excellent, just or unjust; for it is evident, that the laws + must be framed correspondent to the constitution of the government; and, + if so, it is plain, that a well-formed government will have good laws, a + bad one, bad ones. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0037" id="link2HCH0037"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XII + </h2> + <p> + Since in every art and science the end aimed at is always good, so + particularly in this, which is the most excellent of all, the founding of + civil society, the good wherein aimed at is justice; for it is this which + is for the benefit of all. Now, it is the common opinion, that justice is + a certain equality; and in this point all the philosophers are agreed when + they treat of morals: for they say what is just, and to whom; and that + equals ought to receive equal: but we should know how we are to determine + what things are equal and what unequal; and in this there is some + difficulty, which calls for the philosophy of the politician. Some persons + will probably say, that the employments of the state ought to be given + according to every particular excellence of each citizen, if there is no + other difference between them and the rest of the community, but they are + in every respect else alike: for justice attributes different things to + persons differing from each other in their character, according to their + respective merits. But if this is admitted to be true, complexion, or + height, or any such advantage will be a claim for a greater share of the + public rights. But that this is evidently absurd is clear from other arts + and sciences; for with respect to musicians who play on the flute + together, the best flute is not given to him who is of the best family, + for he will play never the better for that, but the best instrument ought + to be given to him who is the best artist. + </p> + <p> + If what is now said does not make this clear, we will explain it still + further: if there should be any one, a very excellent player on the flute, + but very deficient in family and beauty, though each of them are more + valuable endowments than a skill in music, and excel this art in a higher + degree than that player excels others, yet the best flutes ought to be + given to him; for the superiority [1283a] in beauty and fortune should + have a reference to the business in hand; but these have none. Moreover, + according to this reasoning, every possible excellence might come in + comparison with every other; for if bodily strength might dispute the + point with riches or liberty, even any bodily strength might do it; so + that if one person excelled in size more than another did in virtue, and + his size was to qualify him to take place of the other's virtue, + everything must then admit of a comparison with each other; for if such a + size is greater than virtue by so much, it is evident another must be + equal to it: but, since this is impossible, it is plain that it would be + contrary to common sense to dispute a right to any office in the state + from every superiority whatsoever: for if one person is slow and the other + swift, neither is the one better qualified nor the other worse on that + account, though in the gymnastic races a difference in these particulars + would gain the prize; but a pretension to the offices of the state should + be founded on a superiority in those qualifications which are useful to + it: for which reason those of family, independency, and fortune, with + great propriety, contend with each other for them; for these are the fit + persons to fill them: for a city can no more consist of all poor men than + it can of all slaves But if such persons are requisite, it is evident that + those also who are just and valiant are equally so; for without justice + and valour no state can be supported, the former being necessary for its + existence, the latter for its happiness. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0038" id="link2HCH0038"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XIII + </h2> + <p> + It seems, then, requisite for the establishment of a state, that all, or + at least many of these particulars should be well canvassed and inquired + into; and that virtue and education may most justly claim the right of + being considered as the necessary means of making the citizens happy, as + we have already said. As those who are equal in one particular are not + therefore equal in all, and those who are unequal in one particular are + not therefore unequal in all, it follows that all those governments which + are established upon a principle which supposes they are, are erroneous. + </p> + <p> + We have already said, that all the members of the community will dispute + with each other for the offices of the state; and in some particulars + justly, but not so in general; the rich, for instance, because they have + the greatest landed property, and the ultimate right to the soil is vested + in the community; and also because their fidelity is in general most to be + depended on. The freemen and men of family will dispute the point with + each other, as nearly on an equality; for these latter have a right to a + higher regard as citizens than obscure persons, for honourable descent is + everywhere of great esteem: nor is it an improper conclusion, that the + descendants of men of worth will be men of worth themselves; for noble + birth is the fountain of virtue to men of family: for the same reason also + we justly say, that virtue has a right to put in her pretensions. Justice, + for instance, is a virtue, and so necessary to society, that all others + must yield her the precedence. + </p> + <p> + Let us now see what the many have to urge on their side against the few; + and they may say, that if, when collectively taken, they are compared with + them, they are stronger, richer, and better than they are. But should it + ever happen that all these should inhabit the [1283b] same city, I mean + the good, the rich, the noble, as well as the many, such as usually make + up the community, I ask, will there then be any reason to dispute + concerning who shall govern, or will there not? for in every community + which we have mentioned there is no dispute where the supreme power should + be placed; for as these differ from each other, so do those in whom that + is placed; for in one state the rich enjoy it, in others the meritorious, + and thus each according to their separate manners. Let us however consider + what is to be done when all these happen at the same time to inhabit the + same city. If the virtuous should be very few in number, how then shall we + act? shall we prefer the virtuous on account of their abilities, if they + are capable of governing the city? or should they be so many as almost + entirely to compose the state? + </p> + <p> + There is also a doubt concerning the pretensions of all those who claim + the honours of government: for those who found them either on fortune or + family have nothing which they can justly say in their defence; since it + is evident upon their principle, that if any one person can be found + richer than all the rest, the right of governing all these will be justly + vested in this one person. In the same manner, one man who is of the best + family will claim it from those who dispute the point upon family merit: + and probably in an aristocracy the same dispute might arise on the score + of virtue, if there is one man better than all the other men of worth who + are in the same community; it seems just, by the same reasoning, that he + should enjoy the supreme power. And upon this principle also, while the + many suppose they ought to have the supreme command, as being more + powerful than the few, if one or more than one, though a small number + should be found stronger than themselves, these ought rather to have it + than they. + </p> + <p> + All these things seem to make it plain, that none of these principles are + justly founded on which these persons would establish their right to the + supreme power; and that all men whatsoever ought to obey them: for with + respect to those who claim it as due to their virtue or their fortune, + they might have justly some objection to make; for nothing hinders but + that it may sometimes happen, that the many may be better or richer than + the few, not as individuals, but in their collective capacity. + </p> + <p> + As to the doubt which some persons have proposed and objected, we may + answer it in this manner; it is this, whether a legislator, who would + establish the most perfect system of laws, should calculate them for the + use of the better part of the citizens, or the many, in the circumstances + we have already mentioned? The rectitude of anything consists in its + equality; that therefore which is equally right will be advantageous to + the whole state, and to every member of it in common. + </p> + <p> + Now, in general, a citizen is one who both shares in the government and + also in his turn submits to be governed; [1284a] their condition, it is + true, is different in different states: the best is that in which a man is + enabled to choose and to persevere in a course of virtue during his whole + life, both in his public and private state. But should there be one + person, or a very few, eminent for an uncommon degree of virtue, though + not enough to make up a civil state, so that the virtue of the many, or + their political abilities, should be too inferior to come in comparison + with theirs, if more than one; or if but one, with his only; such are not + to be considered as part of the city; for it would be doing them injustice + to rate them on a level with those who are so far their inferiors in + virtue and political abilities, that they appear to them like a god + amongst men. From whence it is evident, that a system of laws must be + calculated for those who are equal to each other in nature and power. Such + men, therefore, are not the object of law; for they are themselves a law: + and it would be ridiculous in any one to endeavour to include them in the + penalties of a law: for probably they might say what Antisthenes tells us + the lions did to the hares when they demanded to be admitted to an equal + share with them in the government. And it is on this account that + democratic states have established the ostracism; for an equality seems + the principal object of their government. For which reason they compel all + those who are very eminent for their power, their fortune, their + friendships, or any other cause which may give them too great weight in + the government, to submit to the ostracism, and leave the city for a + stated time; as the fabulous histories relate the Argonauts served + Hercules, for they refused to take him with them in the ship Argo on + account of his superior valour. For which reason those who hate a tyranny + and find fault with the advice which Periander gave to Thrasybulus, must + not think there was nothing to be said in its defence; for the story goes, + that Periander said nothing to the messenger in answer to the business he + was consulted about, but striking off those ears of corn which were higher + than the rest, reduced the whole crop to a level; so that the messenger, + without knowing the cause of what was done, related the fact to + Thrasybulus, who understood by it that he must take off all the principal + men in the city. Nor is this serviceable to tyrants only; nor is it + tyrants only who do it; for the same thing is practised both in + oligarchies and democracies: for the ostracism has in a manner nearly the + same power, by restraining and banishing those who are too great; and what + is done in one city is done also by those who have the supreme power in + separate states; as the Athenians with respect to the Samians, the Chians, + and the Lesbians; for when they suddenly acquired the superiority over all + Greece, they brought the other states into subjection, contrary to the + treaties which subsisted between them. The King of Persia also very often + reduces the Medes and Babylonians when they assume upon their former + power: [1284b] and this is a principle which all governments whatsoever + keep in their eye; even those which are best administered, as well as + those which are not, do it; these for the sake of private utility, the + others for the public good. + </p> + <p> + The same thing is to be perceived in the other arts and sciences; for a + painter would not represent an animal with a foot disproportionally large, + though he had drawn it remarkably beautiful; nor would the shipwright make + the prow or any other part of the vessel larger than it ought to be; nor + will the master of the band permit any who sings louder and better than + the rest to sing in concert with them. There is therefore no reason that a + monarch should not act in agreement with free states, to support his own + power, if they do the same thing for the benefit of their respective + communities; upon which account when there is any acknowledged difference + in the power of the citizens, the reason upon which the ostracism is + founded will be politically just; but it is better for the legislator so + to establish his state at the beginning as not to want this remedy: but if + in course of time such an inconvenience should arise, to endeavour to + amend it by some such correction. Not that this was the use it was put to: + for many did not regard the benefit of their respective communities, but + made the ostracism a weapon in the hand of sedition. + </p> + <p> + It is evident, then, that in corrupt governments it is partly just and + useful to the individual, though probably it is as clear that it is not + entirely just: for in a well-governed state there may be great doubts + about the use of it, not on account of the pre-eminence which one may have + in strength, riches, or connection: but when the pre-eminence is virtue, + what then is to be done? for it seems not right to turn out and banish + such a one; neither does it seem right to govern him, for that would be + like desiring to share the power with Jupiter and to govern him: nothing + then remains but what indeed seems natural, and that is for all persons + quietly to submit to the government of those who are thus eminently + virtuous, and let them be perpetually kings in the separate states. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0039" id="link2HCH0039"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XIV + </h2> + <p> + What has been now said, it seems proper to change our subject and to + inquire into the nature of monarchies; for we have already admitted them + to be one of those species of government which are properly founded. And + here let us consider whether a kingly government is proper for a city or a + country whose principal object is the happiness of the inhabitants, or + rather some other. But let us first determine whether this is of one kind + only, or more; [1285a] and it is easy to know that it consists of many + different species, and that the forms of government are not the same in + all: for at Sparta the kingly power seems chiefly regulated by the laws; + for it is not supreme in all circumstances; but when the king quits the + territories of the state he is their general in war; and all religious + affairs are entrusted to him: indeed the kingly power with them is chiefly + that of a general who cannot be called to an account for his conduct, and + whose command is for life: for he has not the power of life and death, + except as a general; as they frequently had in their expeditions by + martial law, which we learn from Homer; for when Agamemnon is affronted in + council, he restrains his resentment, but when he is in the field and + armed with this power, he tells the Greeks: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "Whoe'er I know shall shun th' impending fight, + To dogs and vultures soon shall be a prey; For death is mine...." +</pre> + <p> + This, then, is one species of monarchical government in which the kingly + power is in a general for life; and is sometimes hereditary, sometimes + elective: besides, there is also another, which is to be met with among + some of the barbarians, in which the kings are invested with powers nearly + equal to a tyranny, yet are, in some respects, bound by the laws and the + customs of their country; for as the barbarians are by nature more prone + to slavery than the Greeks, and those in Asia more than those in Europe, + they endure without murmuring a despotic government; for this reason their + governments are tyrannies; but yet not liable to be overthrown, as being + customary and according to law. Their guards also are such as are used in + a kingly government, not a despotic one; for the guards of their kings are + his citizens, but a tyrant's are foreigners. The one commands, in the + manner the law directs, those who willingly obey; the other, arbitrarily, + those who consent not. The one, therefore, is guarded by the citizens, the + other against them. + </p> + <p> + These, then, are the two different sorts of these monarchies, and another + is that which in ancient Greece they called <i>aesumnetes</i>; which is + nothing more than an elective tyranny; and its difference from that which + is to be found amongst the barbarians consists not in its not being + according to law, but only in its not being according to the ancient + customs of the country. Some persons possessed this power for life, others + only for a particular time or particular purpose, as the people of + Mitylene elected Pittacus to oppose the exiles, who were headed by + Antimenides and Alcaeus the poet, as we learn from a poem of his; for he + upbraids the Mitylenians for having chosen Pittacus for their tyrant, and + with one [1285b] voice extolling him to the skies who was the ruin of a + rash and devoted people. These sorts of government then are, and ever + were, despotic, on account of their being tyrannies; but inasmuch as they + are elective, and over a free people, they are also kingly. + </p> + <p> + A fourth species of kingly government is that which was in use in the + heroic times, when a free people submitted to a kingly government, + according to the laws and customs of their country. For those who were at + first of benefit to mankind, either in arts or arms, or by collecting them + into civil society, or procuring them an establishment, became the kings + of a willing people, and established an hereditary monarchy. They were + particularly their generals in war, and presided over their sacrifices, + excepting such only as belonged to the priests: they were also the supreme + judges over the people; and in this case some of them took an oath, others + did not; they did, the form of swearing was by their sceptre held out. + </p> + <p> + In ancient times the power of the kings extended to everything whatsoever, + both civil, domestic, and foreign; but in after-times they relinquished + some of their privileges, and others the people assumed, so that, in some + states, they left their kings only the right of presiding over the + sacrifices; and even those whom it were worth while to call by that name + had only the right of being commander-in-chief in their foreign wars. + </p> + <p> + These, then, are the four sorts of kingdoms: the first is that of the + heroic times; which was a government over a free people, with its rights + in some particulars marked out; for the king was their general, their + judge, and their high priest. The second, that of the barbarians; which is + an hereditary despotic government regulated by laws: the third is that + which they call aesumnetic, which is an elective tyranny. The fourth is + the Lacedaemonian; and this, in few words, is nothing more than an + hereditary generalship: and in these particulars they differ from each + other. There is a fifth species of kingly government, which is when one + person has a supreme power over all things whatsoever, in the manner that + every state and every city has over those things which belong to the + public: for as the master of a family is king in his own house, so such a + king is master of a family in his own city or state. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0040" id="link2HCH0040"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XV + </h2> + <p> + But the different sorts of kingly governments may, if I may so say, be + reduced to two; which we will consider more particularly. The last spoken + of, and the Lacedaemonian, for the chief of the others are placed between + these, which are as it were at the extremities, they having less power + than an absolute government, and yet more than the Lacedaemonians; so that + the whole matter in question may be reduced to these two points; the one + is, whether it is advantageous to the citizens to have the office of + general continue in one person for life, and whether it should be confined + to any particular families or whether every one should be eligible: the + other, whether [1286a] it is advantageous for one person to have the + supreme power over everything or not. But to enter into the particulars + concerning the office of a Lacedaemonian general would be rather to frame + laws for a state than to consider the nature and utility of its + constitution, since we know that the appointing of a general is what is + done in every state. Passing over this question then, we will proceed to + consider the other part of their government, which is the polity of the + state; and this it will be necessary to examine particularly into, and to + go through such questions as may arise. + </p> + <p> + Now the first thing which presents itself to our consideration is this, + whether it is best to be governed by a good man, or by good laws? Those + who prefer a kingly government think that laws can only speak a general + language, but cannot adapt themselves to particular circumstances; for + which reason it is absurd in any science to follow written rule; and even + in Egypt the physician was allowed to alter the mode of cure which the law + prescribed to him, after the fourth day; but if he did it sooner it was at + his own peril: from whence it is evident, on the very same account, that a + government of written laws is not the best; and yet general reasoning is + necessary to all those who are to govern, and it will be much more perfect + in those who are entirely free from passions than in those to whom they + are natural. But now this is a quality which laws possess; while the other + is natural to the human soul. But some one will say in answer to this, + that man will be a better judge of particulars. It will be necessary, + then, for a king to be a lawgiver, and that his laws should be published, + but that those should have no authority which are absurd, as those which + are not, should. But whether is it better for the community that those + things which cannot possibly come under the cognisance of the law either + at all or properly should be under the government of every worthy citizen, + as the present method is, when the public community, in their general + assemblies, act as judges and counsellors, where all their determinations + are upon particular cases, for one individual, be he who he will, will be + found, upon comparison, inferior to a whole people taken collectively: but + this is what a city is, as a public entertainment is better than one man's + portion: for this reason the multitude judge of many things better than + any one single person. They are also less liable to corruption from their + numbers, as water is from its quantity: besides, the judgment of an + individual must necessarily be perverted if he is overcome by anger or any + other passion; but it would be hard indeed if the whole community should + be misled by anger. Moreover, let the people be free, and they will do + nothing but in conformity to the law, except only in those cases which the + law cannot speak to. But though what I am going to propose may not easily + be met with, yet if the majority of the state should happen to be good + men, should they prefer one uncorrupt governor or many equally good, is it + not evident that they should choose the many? But there may be divisions + among [1286b] these which cannot happen when there is but one. In answer + to this it may be replied that all their souls will be as much animated + with virtue as this one man's. + </p> + <p> + If then a government of many, and all of them good men, compose an + aristocracy, and the government of one a kingly power, it is evident that + the people should rather choose the first than the last; and this whether + the state is powerful or not, if many such persons so alike can be met + with: and for this reason probable it was, that the first governments were + generally monarchies; because it was difficult to find a number of persons + eminently virtuous, more particularly as the world was then divided into + small communities; besides, kings were appointed in return for the + benefits they had conferred on mankind; but such actions are peculiar to + good men: but when many persons equal in virtue appeared at the time, they + brooked not a superiority, but sought after an equality and established a + free state; but after this, when they degenerated, they made a property of + the public; which probably gave rise to oligarchies; for they made wealth + meritorious, and the honours of government were reserved for the rich: and + these afterwards turned to tyrannies and these in their turn gave rise to + democracies; for the power of the tyrants continually decreasing, on + account of their rapacious avarice, the people grew powerful enough to + frame and establish democracies: and as cities after that happened to + increase, probably it was not easy for them to be under any other + government than a democracy. But if any person prefers a kingly government + in a state, what is to be done with the king's children? Is the family + also to reign? But should they have such children as some persons usually + have, it will be very detrimental. It may be said, that then the king who + has it in his power will never permit such children to succeed to his + kingdom. But it is not easy to trust to that; for it is very hard and + requires greater virtue than is to be met with in human nature. There is + also a doubt concerning the power with which a king should be entrusted: + whether he should be allowed force sufficient to compel those who do not + choose to be obedient to the laws, and how he is to support his + government? for if he is to govern according to law and do nothing of his + own will which is contrary thereunto, at the same time it will be + necessary to protect that power with which he guards the law, This matter + however may not be very difficult to determine; for he ought to have a + proper power, and such a one is that which will be sufficient to make the + king superior to any one person or even a large part of the community, but + inferior to the whole, as the ancients always appointed guards for that + person whom they created aesumnetes or tyrant; and some one advised the + Syracusians, when Dionysius asked for guards, to allow him such. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0041" id="link2HCH0041"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XVI + </h2> + <p> + [1287a] We will next consider the absolute monarch that we have just + mentioned, who does everything according to his own will: for a king + governing under the direction of laws which he is obliged to follow does + not of himself create any particular species of government, as we have + already said: for in every state whatsoever, either aristocracy or + democracy, it is easy to appoint a general for life; and there are many + who entrust the administration of affairs to one person only; such is the + government at Dyrrachium, and nearly the same at Opus. As for an absolute + monarchy as it is called, that is to say, when the whole state is wholly + subject to the will of one person, namely the king, it seems to many that + it is unnatural that one man should have the entire rule over his + fellow-citizens when the state consists of equals: for nature requires + that the same right and the same rank should necessarily take place + amongst all those who are equal by nature: for as it would be hurtful to + the body for those who are of different constitutions to observe the same + regimen, either of diet or clothing, so is it with respect to the honours + of the state as hurtful, that those who are equal in merit should be + unequal in rank; for which reason it is as much a man's duty to submit to + command as to assume it, and this also by rotation; for this is law, for + order is law; and it is more proper that law should govern than any one of + the citizens: upon the same principle, if it is advantageous to place the + supreme power in some particular persons, they should be appointed to be + only guardians, and the servants of the laws, for the supreme power must + be placed somewhere; but they say, that it is unjust that where all are + equal one person should continually enjoy it. But it seems unlikely that + man should be able to adjust that which the law cannot determine; it may + be replied, that the law having laid down the best rules possible, leaves + the adjustment and application of particulars to the discretion of the + magistrate; besides, it allows anything to be altered which experience + proves may be better established. Moreover, he who would place the supreme + power in mind, would place it in God and the laws; but he who entrusts man + with it, gives it to a wild beast, for such his appetites sometimes make + him; for passion influences those who are in power, even the very best of + men: for which reason law is reason without desire. + </p> + <p> + The instance taken from the arts seems fallacious: wherein it is said to + be wrong for a sick person to apply for a remedy to books, but that it + would be far more eligible to employ those who are skilful in physic; for + these do nothing contrary to reason from motives of friendship but earn + their money by curing the sick, whereas those who have the management of + public affairs do many things through hatred or favour. And, as a proof of + what we have advanced, it may be observed, that whenever a sick person + suspects that his physician has been persuaded by his enemies to be guilty + of any foul practice to him in his profession, he then rather chooses to + apply to books for his cure: and not only this [1287b] but even physicians + themselves when they are ill call in other physicians: and those who teach + others the gymnastic exercises, exercise with those of the same + profession, as being incapable from self-partiality to form a proper + judgment of what concerns themselves. From whence it is evident, that + those who seek for what is just, seek for a mean; now law is a mean. + Moreover; the moral law is far superior and conversant with far superior + objects than the written law; for the supreme magistrate is safer to be + trusted to than the one, though he is inferior to the other. But as it is + impossible that one person should have an eye to everything himself, it + will be necessary that the supreme magistrate should employ several + subordinate ones under him; why then should not this be done at first, + instead of appointing one person in this manner? Besides, if, according to + what has been already said, the man of worth is on that account fit to + govern, two men of worth are certainly better than one: as, for instance, + in Homer, "Let two together go:" and also Agamemnon's wish; "Were ten such + faithful counsel mine!" Not but that there are even now some particular + magistrates invested with supreme power to decide, as judges, those things + which the law cannot, as being one of those cases which comes not properly + under its jurisdiction; for of those which can there is no doubt: since + then laws comprehend some things, but not all, it is necessary to enquire + and consider which of the two is preferable, that the best man or the best + law should govern; for to reduce every subject which can come under the + deliberation of man into a law is impossible. + </p> + <p> + No one then denies, that it is necessary that there should be some person + to decide those cases which cannot come under the cognisance of a written + law: but we say, that it is better to have many than one; for though every + one who decides according to the principles of the law decides justly; yet + surely it seems absurd to suppose, that one person can see better with two + eyes, and hear better with two ears, or do better with two hands and two + feet, than many can do with many: for we see that absolute monarchs now + furnish themselves with many eyes and ears and hands and feet; for they + entrust those who are friends to them and their government with part of + their power; for if they are not friends to the monarch, they will not do + what he chooses; but if they are friends to him, they are friends also to + his government: but a friend is an equal and like his friend: if then he + thinks that such should govern, he thinks that his equal also should + govern. These are nearly the objections which are usually made to a kingly + power. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0042" id="link2HCH0042"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XVII + </h2> + <p> + Probably what we have said may be true of some persons, but not of others; + for some men are by nature formed to be under the government of a master; + others, of a king; others, to be the citizens of a free state, just and + useful; but a tyranny is not according to nature, nor the other perverted + forms of government; for they are contrary to it. But it is evident from + what has been said, that among equals it is neither advantageous nor + [1288a] right that one person should be lord over all where there are no + established laws, but his will is the law; or where there are; nor is it + right that one who is good should have it over those who are good; or one + who is not good over those who are not good; nor one who is superior to + the rest in worth, except in a particular manner, which shall be + described, though indeed it has been already mentioned. But let us next + determine what people are best qualified for a kingly government, what for + an aristocratic, and what for a democratic. And, first, for a kingly; and + it should be those who are accustomed by nature to submit the civil + government of themselves to a family eminent for virtue: for an + aristocracy, those who are naturally framed to bear the rule of free men, + whose superior virtue makes them worthy of the management of others: for a + free state, a war-like people, formed by nature both to govern and be + governed by laws which admit the poorest citizen to share the honours of + the commonwealth according to his worth. But whenever a whole family or + any one of another shall happen so far to excel in virtue as to exceed all + other persons in the community, then it is right that the kingly power + should be in them, or if it is an individual who does so, that he should + be king and lord of all; for this, as we have just mentioned, is not only + correspondent to that principle of right which all founders of all states, + whether aristocracies, oligarchies, or democracies, have a regard to (for + in placing the supreme power they all think it right to fix it to + excellence, though not the same); but it is also agreeable to what has + been already said; as it would not be right to kill, or banish, or + ostracise such a one for his superior merit. Nor would it be proper to let + him have the supreme power only in turn; for it is contrary to nature that + what is highest should ever be lowest: but this would be the case should + such a one ever be governed by others. So that there can nothing else be + done but to submit, and permit him continually to enjoy the supreme power. + And thus much with respect to kingly power in different states, and + whether it is or is not advantageous to them, and to what, and in what + manner. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0043" id="link2HCH0043"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XVIII + </h2> + <p> + Since then we have said that there are three sorts of regular governments, + and of these the best must necessarily be that which is administered by + the best men (and this must be that which happens to have one man, or one + family, or a number of persons excelling all the rest in virtue, who are + able to govern and be governed in such a manner as will make life most + agreeable, and we have already shown that the virtue of a good man and of + a citizen in the most perfect government will be the same), it is evident, + that in the same manner, and for those very qualities which would procure + a man the character of good, any one would say, that the government of a + state was a well-established aristocracy or kingdom; so that it will be + found to be education and [1288b] morals that are almost the whole which + go to make a good man, and the same qualities will make a good citizen or + good king. + </p> + <p> + These particulars being treated of, we will now proceed to consider what + sort of government is best, how it naturally arises, and how it is + established; for it is necessary to make a proper inquiry concerning this. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0050" id="link2H_4_0050"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + BOOK IV + </h2> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0044" id="link2HCH0044"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER I + </h2> + <p> + In every art and science which is not conversant in parts but in some one + genus in which it is complete, it is the business of that art alone to + determine what is fitted to its particular genus; as what particular + exercise is fitted to a certain particular body, and suits it best: for + that body which is formed by nature the most perfect and superior to + others necessarily requires the best exercise-and also of what one kind + that must be which will suit the generality; and this is the business of + the gymnastic arts: and although any one should not desire to acquire an + exact knowledge and skill in these exercises, yet it is not, on that + account, the less necessary that he who professes to be a master and + instruct the youth in them should be perfect therein: and we see that this + is what equally befalls the healing, shipbuilding, cloth-making, and + indeed all other arts; so that it evidently belongs to the same art to + find out what kind of government is best, and would of all others be most + correspondent to our wish, while it received no molestation from without: + and what particular species of it is adapted to particular persons; for + there are many who probably are incapable of enjoying the best form: so + that the legislator, and he who is truly a politician, ought to be + acquainted not only with that which is most perfect imaginable, but also + that which is the best suited to any given circumstances. There is, + moreover, a third sort, an imaginary one, and he ought, if such a one + should be presented to his consideration, to be able to discern what sort + of one it would be at the beginning; and, when once established, what + would be the proper means to preserve it a long time. I mean, for + instance, if a state should happen not to have the best form of + government, or be deficient in what was necessary, or not receive every + advantage possible, but something less. And, besides all this, it is + necessary to know what sort of government is best fitting for all cities: + for most of those writers who have treated this subject, however + speciously they may handle other parts of it, have failed in describing + the practical parts: for it is not enough to be able to perceive what is + best without it is what can be put in practice. It should also be simple, + and easy for all to attain to. But some seek only the most subtile forms + of government. Others again, choosing [1289a] rather to treat of what is + common, censure those under which they live, and extol the excellence of a + particular state, as the Lacedaemonian, or some other: but every + legislator ought to establish such a form of government as from the + present state and disposition of the people who are to receive it they + will most readily submit to and persuade the community to partake of: for + it is not a business of less trouble to correct the mistakes of an + established government than to form a new one; as it is as difficult to + recover what we have forgot as to learn anything afresh. He, therefore, + who aspires to the character of a legislator, ought, besides all we have + already said, to be able to correct the mistakes of a government already + established, as we have before mentioned. But this is impossible to be + done by him who does not know how many different forms of government there + are: some persons think that there is only one species both of democracy + and oligarchy; but this is not true: so that every one should be + acquainted with the difference of these governments, how great they are, + and whence they arise; and should have equal knowledge to perceive what + laws are best, and what are most suitable to each particular government: + for all laws are, and ought to be, framed agreeable to the state that is + to be governed by them, and not the state to the laws: for government is a + certain ordering in a state which particularly respects the magistrates in + what manner they shall be regulated, and where the supreme power shall be + placed; and what shall be the final object which each community shall have + in view; but the laws are something different from what regulates and + expresses the form of the constitution-it is their office to direct the + conduct of the magistrate in the execution of his office and the + punishment of offenders. From whence it is evident, that the founders of + laws should attend both to the number and the different sorts of + government; for it is impossible that the same laws should be calculated + for all sorts of oligarchies and all sorts of democracies, for of both + these governments there are many species, not one only. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0045" id="link2HCH0045"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER II + </h2> + <p> + Since, then, according to our first method in treating of the different + forms of government, we have divided those which are regular into three + sorts, the kingly, the aristocratical, the free states, and shown the + three excesses which these are liable to: the kingly, of becoming + tyrannical; the aristocratical, oligarchical; and the free state, + democratical: and as we have already treated of the aristocratical and + kingly; for to enter into an inquiry what sort of government is best is + the same thing as to treat of these two expressly; for each of them + desires to be established upon the principles of virtue: and as, moreover, + we have already determined wherein a kingly power and an aristocracy + differ from each other, and when a state may be said to be governed by a + king, it now remains that we examine into a free state, and also these + other governments, an oligarchy, a democracy, and a [1289b] tyranny; and + it is evident of these three excesses which must be the worst of all, and + which next to it; for, of course, the excesses of the best and most holy + must be the worst; for it must necessarily happen either that the name of + king only will remain, or else that the king will assume more power than + belongs to him, from whence tyranny will arise, the worst excess + imaginable, a government the most contrary possible to a free state. The + excess next hurtful is an oligarchy; for an aristocracy differs much from + this sort of government: that which is least so is a democracy. This + subject has been already treated of by one of those writers who have gone + before me, though his sentiments are not the same as mine: for he thought, + that of all excellent constitutions, as a good oligarchy or the like, a + democracy was the worst, but of all bad ones, the best. + </p> + <p> + Now I affirm, that all these states have, without exception, fallen into + excess; and also that he should not have said that one oligarchy was + better than another, but that it was not quite so bad. But this question + we shall not enter into at present. We shall first inquire how many + different sorts of free states there are; since there are many species of + democracies and oligarchies; and which of them is the most comprehensive, + and most desirable after the best form of government; or if there is any + other like an aristocracy, well established; and also which of these is + best adapted to most cities, and which of them is preferable for + particular persons: for, probably, some may suit better with an oligarchy + than a democracy, and others better with a democracy than an oligarchy; + and afterwards in what manner any one ought to proceed who desires to + establish either of these states, I mean every species of democracy, and + also of oligarchy. And to conclude, when we shall have briefly gone + through everything that is necessary, we will endeavour to point out the + sources of corruption, and stability, in government, as well those which + are common to all as those which are peculiar to each state, and from what + causes they chiefly arise. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0046" id="link2HCH0046"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER III + </h2> + <p> + The reason for there being many different sorts of governments is this, + that each state consists of a great number of parts; for, in the first + place, we see that all cities are made up of families: and again, of the + multitude of these some must be rich, some poor, and others in the middle + station; and that, both of the rich and poor, some will be used to arms, + others not. We see also, that some of the common people are husbandmen, + others attend the market, and others are artificers. There is also a + difference between the nobles in their wealth, and the dignity in which + they live: for instance, in the number of horses they breed; for this + cannot be supported without a large fortune: for which reason, in former + times, those cities whose strength consisted in horse became by that means + oligarchies; and they used horse in their expeditions against the + neighbouring cities; as the Eretrians the Chalcidians, the Magnetians, who + lived near the river Meander, and many others in Asia. Moreover, besides + the difference of fortune, there is that which arises from family and + merit; or, if there are any other distinctions [1290a] which make part of + the city, they have been already mentioned in treating of an aristocracy, + for there we considered how many parts each city must necessarily be + composed of; and sometimes each of these have a share in the government, + sometimes a few, sometimes more. + </p> + <p> + It is evident then, that there must be many forms of government, differing + from each other in their particular constitution: for the parts of which + they are composed each differ from the other. For government is the + ordering of the magistracies of the state; and these the community share + between themselves, either as they can attain them by force, or according + to some common equality which there is amongst them, as poverty, wealth, + or something which they both partake of. There must therefore necessarily + be as many different forms of governments as there are different ranks in + the society, arising from the superiority of some over others, and their + different situations. And these seem chiefly to be two, as they say, of + the winds: namely, the north and the south; and all the others are + declinations from these. And thus in politics, there is the government of + the many and the government of the few; or a democracy and an oligarchy: + for an aristocracy may be considered as a species of oligarchy, as being + also a government of the few; and what we call a free state may be + considered as a democracy: as in the winds they consider the west as part + of the north, and the east as part of the south: and thus it is in music, + according to some, who say there are only two species of it, the Doric and + the Phrygian, and all other species of composition they call after one of + these names; and many people are accustomed to consider the nature of + government in the same light; but it is both more convenient and more + correspondent to truth to distinguish governments as I have done, into two + species: one, of those which are established upon proper principles; of + which there may be one or two sorts: the other, which includes all the + different excesses of these; so that we may compare the best form of + government to the most harmonious piece of music; the oligarchic and + despotic to the more violent tunes; and the democratic to the soft and + gentle airs. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0047" id="link2HCH0047"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER IV + </h2> + <p> + We ought not to define a democracy as some do, who say simply, that it is + a government where the supreme power is lodged in the people; for even in + oligarchies the supreme power is in the majority. Nor should they define + an oligarchy a government where the supreme power is in the hands of a + few: for let us suppose the number of a people to be thirteen hundred, and + that of these one thousand were rich, who would not permit the three + hundred poor to have any share in the government, although they were free, + and their equal in everything else; no one would say, that this government + was a democracy. In like manner, if the poor, when few in number, should + acquire the power over the rich, though more than themselves, no one would + say, that this was an oligarchy; nor this, when the rest who are rich have + no share in the administration. We should rather say, that a democracy is + when the supreme power is in the [1290b] hands of the freemen; an + oligarchy, when it is in the hands of the rich: it happens indeed that in + the one case the many will possess it, in the other the few; because there + are many poor and few rich. And if the power of the state was to be + distributed according to the size of the citizens, as they say it is in + Ethiopia, or according to their beauty, it would be an oligarchy: for the + number of those who are large and beautiful is small. + </p> + <p> + Nor are those things which we have already mentioned alone sufficient to + describe these states; for since there are many species both of a + democracy and an oligarchy, the matter requires further consideration; as + we cannot admit, that if a few persons who are free possess the supreme + power over the many who are not free, that this government is a democracy: + as in Apollonia, in Ionia, and in Thera: for in each of these cities the + honours of the state belong to some few particular families, who first + founded the colonies. Nor would the rich, because they are superior in + numbers, form a democracy, as formerly at Colophon; for there the majority + had large possessions before the Lydian war: but a democracy is a state + where the freemen and the poor, being the majority, are invested with the + power of the state. An oligarchy is a state where the rich and those of + noble families, being few, possess it. + </p> + <p> + We have now proved that there are various forms of government and have + assigned a reason for it; and shall proceed to show that there are even + more than these, and what they are, and why; setting out with the + principle we have already laid down. We admit that every city consists not + of one, but many parts: thus, if we should endeavour to comprehend the + different species of animals we should first of all note those parts which + every animal must have, as a certain sensorium, and also what is necessary + to acquire and retain food, as a mouth and a belly; besides certain parts + to enable it to move from place to place. If, then, these are the only + parts of an animal and there are differences between them; namely, in + their various sorts of stomachs, bellies, and sensoriums: to which we must + add their motive powers; the number of the combinations of all these must + necessarily make up the different species of animals. For it is not + possible that the same kind of animal should have any very great + difference in its mouth or ears; so that when all these are collected, who + happen to have these things similar in all, they make up a species of + animals of which there are as many as there are of these general + combinations of necessary parts. + </p> + <p> + The same thing is true of what are called states; for a city is not made + of one but many parts, as has already been often said; one of which is + those who supply it with provisions, called husbandmen, another called + mechanics, [1291a] whose employment is in the manual arts, without which + the city could not be inhabited; of these some are busied about what is + absolutely necessary, others in what contribute to the elegancies and + pleasures of life; the third sort are your exchange-men, I mean by these + your buyers, sellers, merchants, and victuallers; the fourth are your + hired labourers or workmen; the fifth are the men-at-arms, a rank not less + useful than the other, without you would have the community slaves to + every invader; but what cannot defend itself is unworthy of the name of a + city; for a city is self-sufficient, a slave not. So that when Socrates, + in Plato's Republic, says that a city is necessarily composed of four + sorts of people, he speaks elegantly but not correctly, and these are, + according to him, weavers, husbandmen, shoe-makers, and builders; he then + adds, as if these were not sufficient, smiths, herdsmen for what cattle + are necessary, and also merchants and victuallers, and these are by way of + appendix to his first list; as if a city was established for necessity, + and not happiness, or as if a shoe-maker and a husbandman were equally + useful. He reckons not the military a part before the increase of + territory and joining to the borders of the neighbouring powers will make + war necessary: and even amongst them who compose his four divisions, or + whoever have any connection with each other, it will be necessary to have + some one to distribute justice, and determine between man and man. If, + then, the mind is a more valuable part of man than the body, every one + would wish to have those things more regarded in his city which tend to + the advantage of these than common matters, such are war and justice; to + which may be added council, which is the business of civil wisdom (nor is + it of any consequence whether these different employments are filled by + different persons or one, as the same man is oftentimes both a soldier and + a husbandman): so that if both the judge and the senator are parts of the + city, it necessarily follows that the soldier must be so also. The seventh + sort are those who serve the public in expensive employments at their own + charge: these are called the rich. The eighth are those who execute the + different offices of the state, and without these it could not possibly + subsist: it is therefore necessary that there should be some persons + capable of governing and filling the places in the city; and this either + for life or in rotation: the office of senator, and judge, of which we + have already sufficiently treated, are the only ones remaining. If, then, + these things are necessary for a state, that it may be happy and just, it + follows that the citizens who engage in public affairs should be men of + abilities therein. [1291b] Several persons think, that different + employments may be allotted to the same person; as a soldier's, a + husbandman's, and an artificer's; as also that others may be both senators + and judges. + </p> + <p> + Besides, every one supposes himself a man of political abilities, and that + he is qualified for almost every department in the state. But the same + person cannot at once be poor and rich: for which reason the most obvious + division of the city is into two parts, the poor and rich; moreover, since + for the generality the one are few, the other many, they seem of all the + parts of a city most contrary to each other; so that as the one or the + other prevail they form different states; and these are the democracy and + the oligarchy. + </p> + <p> + But that there are many different states, and from what causes they arise, + has been already mentioned: and that there are also different species both + of democracies and oligarchies we will now show. Though this indeed is + evident from what we have already said: there are also many different + sorts of common people, and also of those who are called gentlemen. Of the + different sorts of the first are husbandmen, artificers, exchange-men, who + are employed in buying and selling, seamen, of which some are engaged in + war, some in traffic, some in carrying goods and passengers from place to + place, others in fishing, and of each of these there are often many, as + fishermen at Tarentum and Byzantium, masters of galleys at Athens, + merchants at AEgina and Chios, those who let ships on freight at Tenedos; + we may add to these those who live by their manual labour and have but + little property; so that they cannot live without some employ: and also + those who are not free-born on both sides, and whatever other sort of + common people there may be. As for gentlemen, they are such as are + distinguished either by their fortune, their birth, their abilities, or + their education, or any such-like excellence which is attributed to them. + </p> + <p> + The most pure democracy is that which is so called principally from that + equality which prevails in it: for this is what the law in that state + directs; that the poor shall be in no greater subjection than the rich; + nor that the supreme power shall be lodged with either of these, but that + both shall share it. For if liberty and equality, as some persons suppose, + are chiefly to be found in a democracy, it must be most so by every + department of government being alike open to all; but as the people are + the majority, and what they vote is law, it follows that such a state must + be a democracy. This, then, is one species thereof. Another is, when the + magistrates are elected by a certain census; but this should be but small, + and every one who was included in it should be eligible, but as soon as he + was below it should lose that right. [1292a] Another sort is, in which + every citizen who is not infamous has a share in the government, but where + the government is in the laws. Another, where every citizen without + exception has this right. Another is like these in other particulars, but + there the people govern, and not the law: and this takes place when + everything is determined by a majority of votes, and not by a law; which + happens when the people are influenced by the demagogues: for where a + democracy is governed by stated laws there is no room for them, but men of + worth fill the first offices in the state: but where the power is not + vested in the laws, there demagogues abound: for there the people rule + with kingly power: the whole composing one body; for they are supreme, not + as individuals but in their collective capacity. + </p> + <p> + Homer also discommends the government of many; but whether he means this + we are speaking of, or where each person exercises his power separately, + is uncertain. When the people possess this power they desire to be + altogether absolute, that they may not be under the control of the law, + and this is the time when flatterers are held in repute. Nor is there any + difference between such a people and monarchs in a tyranny: for their + manners are the same, and they both hold a despotic power over better + persons than themselves. For their decrees are like the others' edicts; + their demagogues like the others' flatterers: but their greatest + resemblance consists in the mutual support they give to each other, the + flatterer to the tyrant, the demagogue to the people: and to them it is + owing that the supreme power is lodged in the votes of the people, and not + in the laws; for they bring everything before them, as their influence is + owing to their being supreme whose opinions they entirely direct; for + these are they whom the multitude obey. Besides, those who accuse the + magistrates insist upon it, that the right of determining on their conduct + lies in the people, who gladly receive their complaints as the means of + destroying all their offices. + </p> + <p> + Any one, therefore, may with great justice blame such a government as + being a democracy, and not a free state; for where the government is not + in the laws, then there is no free state, for the law ought to be supreme + over all things; and particular incidents which arise should be determined + by the magistrates or the state. If, therefore, a democracy is to be + reckoned a free state, it is evident that any such establishment which + centres all power in the votes of the people cannot, properly speaking, be + a democracy: for their decrees cannot be general in their extent. Thus, + then, we may describe the several species of democracies. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0048" id="link2HCH0048"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER V + </h2> + <p> + Of the different species of oligarchies one is, when the right to the + offices is regulated by a certain census; so that the poor, although the + majority, have no share in it; while all those who are included therein + take part in the management of public affairs. Another sort is, when + [1292b] the magistrates are men of very small fortune, who upon any + vacancy do themselves fill it up: and if they do this out of the community + at large, the state approaches to an aristocracy; if out of any particular + class of people, it will be an oligarchy. Another sort of oligarchy is, + when the power is an hereditary nobility. The fourth is, when the power is + in the same hands as the other, but not under the control of law; and this + sort of oligarchy exactly corresponds to a tyranny in monarchies, and to + that particular species of democracies which I last mentioned in treating + of that state: this has the particular name of a dynasty. These are the + different sorts of oligarchies and democracies. + </p> + <p> + It should also be known, that it often happens that a free state, where + the supreme power is in the laws, may not be democratic, and yet in + consequence of the established manners and customs of the people, may be + governed as if it was; so, on the other hand, where the laws may + countenance a more democratic form of government, these may make the state + inclining to an oligarchy; and this chiefly happens when there has been + any alteration in the government; for the people do not easily change, but + love their own ancient customs; and it is by small degrees only that one + thing takes place of another; so that the ancient laws will remain, while + the power will be in the hands of those who have brought about a + revolution in the state. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0049" id="link2HCH0049"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VI + </h2> + <p> + It is evident from what has been said, that there are as many different + sorts of democracies and oligarchies as I have reckoned up: for, of + necessity, either all ranks of the people which I have enumerated must + have a share in the government, or some only, and others not; for when the + husbandmen, and those only who possess moderate fortunes, have the supreme + power, they will govern according to law; for as they must get their + livings by their employs, they have but little leisure for public + business: they will therefore establish proper laws, and never call public + assemblies but when there is a necessity for them; and they will readily + let every one partake with them in the administration of public affairs as + soon as they possess that fortune which the law requires for their + qualification: every one, therefore, who is qualified will have his share + in the government: for to exclude any would be to make the government an + oligarchy, and for all to have leisure to attend without they had a + subsistence would be impossible: for these reasons, therefore, this + government is a species of democracy. Another species is distinguished by + the mode of electing their magistrates, in which every one is eligible, to + whose birth there are no objections, provided he is supposed to have + leisure to attend: for which reason in such a democracy the supreme power + will be vested in the laws, as there will be nothing paid to those who go + to the public assemblies. A third species is where every freeman has a + right to a share in the government, which he will not accept for the cause + already assigned; for which reason here also the supreme power will be in + the law. The fourth species [1293a] of democracy, the last which was + established in order of time, arose when cities were greatly enlarged to + what they were at first, and when the public revenue became something + considerable; for then the populace, on account of their numbers, were + admitted to share in the management of public affairs, for then even the + poorest people were at leisure to attend to them, as they received wages + for so doing; nay, they were more so than others, as they were not + hindered by having anything of their own to mind, as the rich had; for + which reason these last very often did not frequent the public assemblies + and the courts of justice: thus the supreme power was lodged in the poor, + and not in the laws. These are the different sorts of democracies, and + such are the causes which necessarily gave birth to them. + </p> + <p> + The first species of oligarchy is, when the generality of the state are + men of moderate and not too large property; for this gives them leisure + for the management of public affairs: and, as they are a numerous body, it + necessarily follows that the supreme power must be in the laws, and not in + men; for as they are far removed from a monarchical government, and have + not sufficient fortune to neglect their private affairs, while they are + too many to be supported by the public, they will of course determine to + be governed by the laws, and not by each other. But if the men of property + in the state are but few, and their property is large, then an oligarchy + of the second sort will take place; for those who have most power will + think that they have a right to lord it over the others; and, to + accomplish this, they will associate to themselves some who have an + inclination for public affairs, and as they are not powerful enough to + govern without law, they will make a law for that purpose. And if those + few who have large fortunes should acquire still greater power, the + oligarchy will then alter into one of the third sort; for they will get + all the offices of the state into their own hands by a law which directs + the son to succeed upon the death of his father; and, after that, when, by + means of their increasing wealth and powerful connections, they extend + still further their oppression, a monarchical dynasty will directly + succeed wherein men will be supreme, and not the law; and this is the + fourth species of an oligarchy correspondent to the last-mentioned class + of democracies. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0050" id="link2HCH0050"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VII + </h2> + <p> + There are besides two other states, a democracy and an oligarchy, one of + which all speak of, and it is always esteemed a species of the four sorts; + and thus they reckon them up; a monarchy, an oligarchy, a democracy, and + this fourth which they call an aristocracy. There is also a fifth, which + bears a name that is also common to the other four, namely, a state: but + as this is seldom to be met with, it has escaped those who have + endeavoured to enumerate the different sorts of governments, which [1293b] + they fix at four only, as does Plato in his Republic. + </p> + <p> + An aristocracy, of which I have already treated in the first book, is + rightly called so; for a state governed by the best men, upon the most + virtuous principles, and not upon any hypothesis, which even good men may + propose, has alone a right to be called an aristocracy, for it is there + only that a man is at once a good man and a good citizen; while in other + states men are good only relative to those states. Moreover, there are + some other states which are called by the same name, that differ both from + oligarchies and free states, wherein not only the rich but also the + virtuous have a share in the administration; and have therefore acquired + the name of aristocracies; for in those governments wherein virtue is not + their common care, there are still men of worth and approved goodness. + Whatever state, then, like the Carthaginians, favours the rich, the + virtuous, and the citizens at large, is a sort of aristocracy: when only + the two latter are held in esteem, as at Lacedaemon, and the state is + jointly composed of these, it is a virtuous democracy. These are the two + species of aristocracies after the first, which is the best of all + governments. There is also a third, which is, whenever a free state + inclines to the dominion of a few. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0051" id="link2HCH0051"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VIII + </h2> + <p> + It now remains for us to treat of that government which is particularly + called a free state, and also of a tyranny; and the reason for my choosing + to place that free state here is, because this, as well as those + aristocracies already mentioned, although they do not seem excesses, yet, + to speak true, they have all departed from what a perfect government is. + Nay, they are deviations both of them equally from other forms, as I said + at the beginning. It is proper to mention a tyranny the last of all + governments, for it is of all others the least like one: but as my + intention is to treat of all governments in general, for this reason that + also, as I have said, will be taken into consideration in its proper + place. + </p> + <p> + I shall now inquire into a free state and show what it is; and we shall + the better understand its positive nature as we have already described an + oligarchy and a democracy; for a free state is indeed nothing more than a + mixture of them, and it has been usual to call those which incline most to + a democracy, a free state; those which incline most to an oligarchy, an + aristocracy, because those who are rich are generally men of family and + education; besides, they enjoy those things which others are often guilty + of crimes to procure: for which reason they are regarded as men of worth + and honour and note. + </p> + <p> + Since, then, it is the genius of an aristocracy to allot the larger part + of the government to the best citizens, they therefore say, that an + oligarchy is chiefly composed of those men who are worthy and honourable: + now it [1294a] seems impossible that where the government is in the hands + of the good, there the laws should not be good, but bad; or, on the + contrary, that where the government is in the hands of the bad, there the + laws should be good; nor is a government well constituted because the laws + are, without at the same time care is taken that they are observed; for to + enforce obedience to the laws which it makes is one proof of a good + constitution in the state-another is, to have laws well calculated for + those who are to abide by them; for if they are improper they must be + obeyed: and this may be done two ways, either by their being the best + relative to the particular state, or the best absolutely. An aristocracy + seems most likely to confer the honours of the state on the virtuous; for + virtue is the object of an aristocracy, riches of an oligarchy, and + liberty of a democracy; for what is approved of by the majority will + prevail in all or in each of these three different states; and that which + seems good to most of those who compose the community will prevail: for + what is called a state prevails in many communities, which aim at a + mixture of rich and poor, riches and liberty: as for the rich, they are + usually supposed to take the place of the worthy and honourable. As there + are three things which claim an equal rank in the state, freedom, riches, + and virtue (for as for the fourth, rank, it is an attendant on two of the + others, for virtue and riches are the origin of family), it is evident, + that the conjuncture of the rich and the poor make up a free state; but + that all three tend to an aristocracy more than any other, except that + which is truly so, which holds the first rank. + </p> + <p> + We have already seen that there are governments different from a monarchy, + a democracy, and an oligarchy; and what they are, and wherein they differ + from each other; and also aristocracies and states properly so called, + which are derived from them; and it is evident that these are not much + unlike each other. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0052" id="link2HCH0052"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER IX + </h2> + <p> + We shall next proceed to show how that government which is peculiarly + called a state arises alongside of democracy and oligarchy, and how it + ought to be established; and this will at the same time show what are the + proper boundaries of both these governments, for we must mark out wherein + they differ from one another, and then from both these compose a state of + such parts of each of them as will show from whence they were taken. + </p> + <p> + There are three different ways in which two states may be blended and + joined together; for, in the first place, all those rules may be adopted + which the laws of each of them have ordered; as for instance in the + judicial department, for in an oligarchy the rich are fined if they do not + come to the court as jurymen, but the poor are not paid for their + attendance; but in democracies they are, while the rich are not fined for + their neglect. Now these things, as being common to both, are fit to be + observed in a free [1294b] state which is composed of both. This, then, is + one way in which they may be joined together. In the second place, a + medium may be taken between the different methods which each state + observes; for instance, in a democracy the right to vote in the public + assembly is either confined by no census at all, or limited by a very + small one; in an oligarchy none enjoy it but those whose census is high: + therefore, as these two practices are contrary to each other, a census + between each may be established in such a state. In the third place, + different laws of each community may be adopted; as, for instance, as it + seems correspondent to the nature of a democracy, that the magistrates + should be chosen by lot, but an aristocracy by vote, and in the one state + according to a census, but not in the other: let, then, an aristocracy and + a free state copy something from each of them; let them follow an + oligarchy in choosing their magistrates by vote, but a democracy in not + admitting of any census, and thus blend together the different customs of + the two governments. But the best proof of a happy mixture of a democracy + and an oligarchy is this, when a person may properly call the same state a + democracy and an oligarchy. It is evident that those who speak of it in + this manner are induced to it because both these governments are there + well blended together: and indeed this is common to all mediums, that the + extremes of each side should be discerned therein, as at Lacedaemon; for + many affirm that it is a democracy from the many particulars in which it + follows that form of government; as for instance, in the first place, in + the bringing up of their children, for the rich and poor are brought up in + the same manner; and their education is such that the children of the poor + may partake of it; and the same rules are observed when they are youths + and men, there is no distinction between a rich person and a poor one; and + in their public tables the same provision is served to all. The rich also + wear only such clothes as the poorest man is able to purchase. Moreover, + with respect to two magistracies of the highest rank, one they have a + right to elect to, the other to fill; namely, the senate and the ephori. + Others consider it as an oligarchy, the principles of which it follows in + many things, as in choosing all their officers by vote, and not by lot; in + there being but a few who have a right to sit in judgment on capital + causes and the like. Indeed, a state which is well composed of two others + ought to resemble them both, and neither, Such a state ought to have its + means of preservation in itself, and not without; and when I say in + itself, I do not mean that it should owe this to the forbearance of their + neighbours, for this may happen to a bad government, but to every member + of the community's not being willing that there should be the least + alteration in their constitution. Such is the method in which a free state + or aristocracy ought to be established. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0053" id="link2HCH0053"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER X + </h2> + <p> + It now remains to treat of a tyranny; not that there is [1295a] much to be + said on that subject, but as it makes part of our plan, since we + enumerated it amongst our different sorts of governments. In the beginning + of this work we inquired into the nature of kingly government, and entered + into a particular examination of what was most properly called so, and + whether it was advantageous to a state or not, and what it should be, and + how established; and we divided a tyranny into two pieces when we were + upon this subject, because there is something analogous between this and a + kingly government, for they are both of them established by law; for among + some of the barbarians they elect a monarch with absolute power, and + formerly among the Greeks there were some such, whom they called + sesumnetes. Now these differ from each other; for some possess only kingly + power regulated by law, and rule those who voluntarily submit to their + government; others rule despotically according to their own will. There is + a third species of tyranny, most properly so called, which is the very + opposite to kingly power; for this is the government of one who rules over + his equals and superiors without being accountable for his conduct, and + whose object is his own advantage, and not the advantage of those he + governs; for which reason he rules by compulsion, for no freemen will ever + willingly submit to such a government. These are the different species of + tyrannies, their principles, and their causes. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0054" id="link2HCH0054"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XI + </h2> + <p> + We proceed now to inquire what form of government and what manner of life + is best for communities in general, not adapting it to that superior + virtue which is above the reach of the vulgar, or that education which + every advantage of nature and fortune only can furnish, nor to those + imaginary plans which may be formed at pleasure; but to that mode of life + which the greater part of mankind can attain to, and that government which + most cities may establish: for as to those aristocracies which we have now + mentioned, they are either too perfect for a state to support, or one so + nearly alike to that state we now going to inquire into, that we shall + treat of them both as one. + </p> + <p> + The opinions which we form upon these subjects must depend upon one common + principle: for if what I have said in my treatise on Morals is true, a + happy life must arise from an uninterrupted course of virtue; and if + virtue consists in a certain medium, the middle life must certainly be the + happiest; which medium is attainable [1295b] by every one. The boundaries + of virtue and vice in the state must also necessarily be the same as in a + private person; for the form of government is the life of the city. In + every city the people are divided into three sorts; the very rich, the + very poor, and those who are between them. If this is universally + admitted, that the mean is best, it is evident that even in point of + fortune mediocrity is to be preferred; for that state is most submissive + to reason; for those who are very handsome, or very strong, or very noble, + or very rich; or, on the contrary; those who are very poor, or very weak, + or very mean, with difficulty obey it; for the one are capricious and + greatly flagitious, the other rascally and mean, the crimes of each + arising from their different excesses: nor will they go through the + different offices of the state; which is detrimental to it: besides, those + who excel in strength, in riches, or friends, or the like, neither know + how nor are willing to submit to command: and this begins at home when + they are boys; for there they are brought up too delicately to be + accustomed to obey their preceptors: as for the very poor, their general + and excessive want of what the rich enjoy reduces them to a state too + mean: so that the one know not how to command, but to be commanded as + slaves, the others know not how to submit to any command, nor to command + themselves but with despotic power. + </p> + <p> + A city composed of such men must therefore consist of slaves and masters, + not freemen; where one party must hate, and the other despise, where there + could be no possibility of friendship or political community: for + community supposes affection; for we do not even on the road associate + with our enemies. It is also the genius of a city to be composed as much + as possible of equals; which will be most so when the inhabitants are in + the middle state: from whence it follows, that that city must be best + framed which is composed of those whom we say are naturally its proper + members. It is men of this station also who will be best assured of safety + and protection; for they will neither covet what belongs to others, as the + poor do; nor will others covet what is theirs, as the poor do what belongs + to the rich; and thus, without plotting against any one, or having any one + plot against them, they will live free from danger: for which reason + Phocylides wisely wishes for the middle state, as being most productive of + happiness. It is plain, then, that the most perfect political community + must be amongst those who are in the middle rank, and those states are + best instituted wherein these are a larger and more respectable part, if + possible, than both the other; or, if that cannot be, at least than either + of them separate; so that being thrown into the balance it may prevent + either scale from preponderating. + </p> + <p> + It is therefore the greatest happiness which the citizens can enjoy to + possess a moderate and convenient fortune; for when some possess too much, + and others nothing at [1296a] all, the government must either be in the + hands of the meanest rabble or else a pure oligarchy; or, from the + excesses of both, a tyranny; for this arises from a headstrong democracy + or an oligarchy, but very seldom when the members of the community are + nearly on an equality with each other. We will assign a reason for this + when we come to treat of the alterations which different states are likely + to undergo. The middle state is therefore best, as being least liable to + those seditions and insurrections which disturb the community; and for the + same reason extensive governments are least liable to these + inconveniences; for there those in a middle state are very numerous, + whereas in small ones it is easy to pass to the two extremes, so as hardly + to have any in a medium remaining, but the one half rich, the other poor: + and from the same principle it is that democracies are more firmly + established and of longer continuance than oligarchies; but even in those + when there is a want of a proper number of men of middling fortune, the + poor extend their power too far, abuses arise, and the government is soon + at an end. + </p> + <p> + We ought to consider as a proof of what I now advance, that the best + lawgivers themselves were those in the middle rank of life, amongst whom + was Solon, as is evident from his poems, and Lycurgus, for he was not a + king, and Charondas, and indeed most others. What has been said will show + us why of so many free states some have changed to democracies, others to + oligarchies: for whenever the number of those in the middle state has been + too small, those who were the more numerous, whether the rich or the poor, + always overpowered them and assumed to themselves the administration of + public affairs; from hence arose either a democracy or an oligarchy. + Moreover, when in consequence of their disputes and quarrels with each + other, either the rich get the better of the poor, or the poor of the + rich, neither of them will establish a free state; but, as the record of + their victory, one which inclines to their own principles, and form either + a democracy or an oligarchy. + </p> + <p> + Those who made conquests in Greece, having all of them an eye to the + respective forms of government in their own cities, established either + democracies or oligarchies, not considering what was serviceable to the + state, but what was similar to their own; for which reason a government + has never been established where the supreme power has been placed amongst + those of the middling rank, or very seldom; and, amongst a few, one man + only of those who have yet been conquerors has been persuaded to give the + preference to this order of [1296b] men: it is indeed an established + custom with the inhabitants of most cities not to desire an equality, but + either to aspire to govern, or when they are conquered, to submit. + </p> + <p> + Thus we have shown what the best state is, and why. It will not be + difficult to perceive of the many states which there are, for we have seen + that there are various forms both of democracies and oligarchies, to which + we should give the first place, to which the second, and in the same + manner the next also; and to observe what are the particular excellences + and defects of each, after we have first described the best possible; for + that must be the best which is nearest to this, that worst which is most + distant from the medium, without any one has a particular plan of his own + which he judges by. I mean by this, that it may happen, that although one + form of government may be better than another, yet there is no reason to + prevent another from being preferable thereunto in particular + circumstances and for particular purposes. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0055" id="link2HCH0055"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XII + </h2> + <p> + After what has been said, it follows that we should now show what + particular form of government is most suitable for particular persons; + first laying this down as a general maxim, that that party which desires + to support the actual administration of the state ought always to be + superior to that which would alter it. Every city is made up of quality + and quantity: by quality I mean liberty, riches, education, and family, + and by quantity its relative populousness: now it may happen that quality + may exist in one of those parts of which the city is composed, and + quantity in another; thus the number of the ignoble may be greater than + the number of those of family, the number of the poor than that of the + rich; but not so that the quantity of the one shall overbalance the + quality of the other; those must be properly adjusted to each other; for + where the number of the poor exceeds the proportion we have mentioned, + there a democracy will rise up, and if the husbandry should have more + power than others, it will be a democracy of husbandmen; and the democracy + will be a particular species according to that class of men which may + happen to be most numerous: thus, should these be the husbandmen, it will + be of these, and the best; if of mechanics and those who hire themselves + out, the worst possible: in the same manner it may be of any other set + between these two. But when the rich and the noble prevail more by their + quality than they are deficient in quantity, there an oligarchy ensues; + and this oligarchy may be of different species, according to the nature of + the prevailing party. Every legislator in framing his constitution ought + to have a particular regard to those in the middle rank of life; and if he + intends an oligarchy, these should be the object of his laws; if a + democracy, to these they should be entrusted; and whenever their number + exceeds that of the two others, or at least one of them, they give [1297a] + stability to the constitution; for there is no fear that the rich and the + poor should agree to conspire together against them, for neither of these + will choose to serve the other. If any one would choose to fix the + administration on the widest basis, he will find none preferable to this; + for to rule by turns is what the rich and the poor will not submit to, on + account of their hatred to each other. It is, moreover, allowed that an + arbitrator is the most proper person for both parties to trust to; now + this arbitrator is the middle rank. + </p> + <p> + Those who would establish aristocratical governments are mistaken not only + in giving too much power to the rich, but also in deceiving the common + people; for at last, instead of an imaginary good, they must feel a real + evil, for the encroachments of the rich are more destructive to the state + than those of the poor. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0056" id="link2HCH0056"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XIII + </h2> + <p> + There are five particulars in which, under fair pretences, the rich + craftily endeavour to undermine the rights of the people, these are their + public assemblies, their offices of state, their courts of justice, their + military power, and their gymnastic exercises. With respect to their + public assemblies, in having them open to all, but in fining the rich + only, or others very little, for not attending; with respect to offices, + in permitting the poor to swear off, but not granting this indulgence to + those who are within the census; with respect to their courts of justice, + in fining the rich for non-attendance, but the poor not at all, or those a + great deal, and these very little, as was done by the laws of Charondas. + In some places every citizen who was enrolled had a right to attend the + public assemblies and to try causes; which if they did not do, a very + heavy fine was laid upon them; that through fear of the fine they might + avoid being enrolled, as they were then obliged to do neither the one nor + the other. The same spirit of legislation prevailed with respect to their + bearing arms and their gymnastic exercises; for the poor are excused if + they have no arms, but the rich are fined; the same method takes place if + they do not attend their gymnastic exercises, there is no penalty on one, + but there is on the other: the consequence of which is, that the fear of + this penalty induces the rich to keep the one and attend the other, while + the poor do neither. These are the deceitful contrivances of oligarchical + legislators. + </p> + <p> + The contrary prevails in a democracy; for there they make the poor a + proper allowance for attending the assemblies and the courts, but give the + rich nothing for doing it: whence it is evident, that if any one would + properly blend these customs together, they must extend both the pay and + the fine to every member of the community, and then every one would share + in it, whereas part only now do. The citizens of a free state ought to + [1297b] consist of those only who bear arms: with respect to their census + it is not easy to determine exactly what it ought to be, but the rule that + should direct upon this subject should be to make it as extensive as + possible, so that those who are enrolled in it make up a greater part of + the people than those who are not; for those who are poor, although they + partake not of the offices of the state, are willing to live quiet, + provided that no one disturbs them in their property: but this is not an + easy matter; for it may not always happen, that those who are at the head + of public affairs are of a humane behaviour. In time of war the poor are + accustomed to show no alacrity without they have provisions found them; + when they have, then indeed they are willing to fight. + </p> + <p> + In some governments the power is vested not only in those who bear arms, + but also in those who have borne them. Among the Malienses the state was + composed of these latter only, for all the officers were soldiers who had + served their time. And the first states in Greece which succeeded those + where kingly power was established, were governed by the military. First + of all the horse, for at that time the strength and excellence of the army + depended on the horse, for as to the heavy-armed foot they were useless + without proper discipline; but the art of tactics was not known to the + ancients, for which reason their strength lay in their horse: but when + cities grew larger, and they depended more on their foot, greater numbers + partook of the freedom of the city; for which reason what we call + republics were formerly called democracies. The ancient governments were + properly oligarchies or kingdoms; for on account of the few persons in + each state, it would have been impossible to have found a sufficient + number of the middle rank; so these being but few, and those used to + subordination, they more easily submitted to be governed. + </p> + <p> + We have now shown why there are many sorts of governments, and others + different from those we have treated of: for there are more species of + democracies than one, and the like is true of other forms, and what are + their differences, and whence they arise; and also of all others which is + the best, at least in general; and which is best suited for particular + people. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0057" id="link2HCH0057"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XIV + </h2> + <p> + We will now proceed to make some general reflections upon the governments + next in order, and also to consider each of them in particular; beginning + with those principles which appertain to each: now there are three things + in all states which a careful legislator ought well to consider, which are + of great consequence to all, and which properly attended to the state must + necessarily be happy; and according to the variation of which the one will + differ from the other. The first of these is the [1298a] public assembly; + the second the officers of the state, that is, who they ought to be, and + with what power they should be entrusted, and in what manner they should + be appointed; the third, the judicial department. + </p> + <p> + Now it is the proper business of the public assembly to determine + concerning war and peace, making or breaking off alliances, to enact laws, + to sentence to death, banishment, or confiscation of goods, and to call + the magistrates to account for their behaviour when in office. Now these + powers must necessarily be entrusted to the citizens in general, or all of + them to some; either to one magistrate or more; or some to one, and some + to another, or some to all, but others to some: to entrust all to all is + in the spirit of a democracy, for the people aim at equality. There are + many methods of delegating these powers to the citizens at large, one of + which is to let them execute them by turn, and not altogether, as was done + by Tellecles, the Milesian, in his state. In others the supreme council is + composed of the different magistrates, and they succeed to the offices of + the community by proper divisions of tribes, wards, and other very small + proportions, till every one in his turn goes through them: nor does the + whole community ever meet together, without it is when new laws are + enacted, or some national affair is debated, or to hear what the + magistrates have to propose to them. Another method is for the people to + meet in a collective body, but only for the purpose of holding the + comitia, making laws, determining concerning war or peace, and inquiring + into the conduct of their magistrates, while the remaining part of the + public business is conducted by the magistrates, who have their separate + departments, and are chosen out of the whole community either by vote or + ballot. Another method is for the people in general to meet for the choice + of the magistrates, and to examine into their conduct; and also to + deliberate concerning war and alliances, and to leave other things to the + magistrates, whoever happen to be chosen, whose particular employments are + such as necessarily require persons well skilled therein. A fourth method + is for every person to deliberate upon every subject in public assembly, + where the magistrates can determine nothing of themselves, and have only + the privilege of giving their opinions first; and this is the method of + the most pure democracy, which is analogous to the proceedings in a + dynastic oligarchy and a tyrannic monarchy. + </p> + <p> + These, then, are the methods in which public business is conducted in a + democracy. When the power is in the hands of part of the community only, + it is an oligarchy and this also admits of different customs; for whenever + the officers of the state are chosen out of those who have a moderate + fortune, and these from that circumstance are many, and when they depart + not from that line which the law has laid down, but carefully follow it, + and when all within the census are eligible, certainly it is then an + oligarchy, but founded on true principles of government [1298b] from its + moderation. When the people in general do not partake of the deliberative + power, but certain persons chosen for that purpose, who govern according + to law; this also, like the first, is an oligarchy. When those who have + the deliberative power elect each other, and the son succeeds to the + father, and when they can supersede the laws, such a government is of + necessity a strict oligarchy. When some persons determine on one thing, + and others on another, as war and peace, and when all inquire into the + conduct of their magistrates, and other things are left to different + officers, elected either by vote or lot, then the government is an + aristocracy or a free state. When some are chosen by vote and others by + lot, and these either from the people in general, or from a certain number + elected for that purpose, or if both the votes and the lots are open to + all, such a state is partly an aristocracy, partly a free government + itself. These are the different methods in which the deliberative power is + vested in different states, all of whom follow some regulation here laid + down. It is advantageous to a democracy, in the present sense of the word, + by which I mean a state wherein the people at large have a supreme power, + even over the laws, to hold frequent public assemblies; and it will be + best in this particular to imitate the example of oligarchies in their + courts of justice; for they fine those who are appointed to try causes if + they do not attend, so should they reward the poor for coming to the + public assemblies: and their counsels will be best when all advise with + each other, the citizens with the nobles, the nobles with the citizens. It + is also advisable when the council is to be composed of part of the + citizens, to elect, either by vote or lot, an equal number of both ranks. + It is also proper, if the common people in the state are very numerous, + either not to pay every one for his attendance, but such a number only as + will make them equal to the nobles, or to reject many of them by lot. + </p> + <p> + In an oligarchy they should either call up some of the common people to + the council, or else establish a court, as is done in some other states, + whom they call pre-advisers or guardians of the laws, whose business + should be to propose first what they should afterwards enact. By this + means the people would have a place in the administration of public + affairs, without having it in their power to occasion any disorder in the + government. Moreover, the people may be allowed to have a vote in whatever + bill is proposed, but may not themselves propose anything contrary + thereto; or they may give their advice, while the power of determining may + be with the magistrates only. It is also necessary to follow a contrary + practice to what is established in democracies, for the people should be + allowed the power of pardoning, but not of condemning, for the cause + should be referred back again to the magistrates: whereas the contrary + takes place in republics; for the power of pardoning is with the few, but + not of condemning, which is always referred [1299a] to the people at + large. And thus we determine concerning the deliberative power in any + state, and in whose hands it shall be. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0058" id="link2HCH0058"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XV + </h2> + <p> + We now proceed to consider the choice of magistrates; for this branch of + public business contains many different Parts, as how many there shall be, + what shall be their particular office, and with respect to time how long + each of them shall continue in place; for some make it six months, others + shorter, others for a year, others for a much longer time; or whether they + should be perpetual or for a long time, or neither; for the same person + may fill the same office several times, or he may not be allowed to enjoy + it even twice, but only once: and also with respect to the appointment of + magistrates, who are to be eligible, who is to choose them, and in what + manner; for in all these particulars we ought properly to distinguish the + different ways which may be followed; and then to show which of these is + best suited to such and such governments. + </p> + <p> + Now it is not easy to determine to whom we ought properly to give the name + of magistrate, for a government requires many persons in office; but every + one of those who is either chosen by vote or lot is not to be reckoned a + magistrate. The priests, for instance, in the first place; for these are + to be considered as very different from civil magistrates: to these we may + add the choregi and heralds; nay, even ambassadors are elected: there are + some civil employments which belong to the citizens; and these are either + when they are all engaged in one thing, as when as soldiers they obey + their general, or when part of them only are, as in governing the women or + educating the youth; and also some economic, for they often elect + corn-meters: others are servile, and in which, if they are rich, they + employ slaves. But indeed they are most properly called magistrates, who + are members of the deliberative council, or decide causes, or are in some + command, the last more especially, for to command is peculiar to + magistrates. But to speak truth, this question is of no great consequence, + nor is it the province of the judges to decide between those who dispute + about words; it may indeed be an object of speculative inquiry; but to + inquire what officers are necessary in a state, and how many, and what, + though not most necessary, may yet be advantageous in a well-established + government, is a much more useful employment, and this with respect to all + states in general, as well as to small cities. + </p> + <p> + In extensive governments it is proper to allot one employment to one + person, as there are many to serve the public in so numerous a society, + where some may be passed over for a long time, and others never be in + office but once; and indeed everything is better done which has the whole + attention of one person, than when that [1299b] attention is divided + amongst many; but in small states it is necessary that a few of the + citizens should execute many employments; for their numbers are so small + it will not be convenient to have many of them in office at the same time; + for where shall we find others to succeed them in turn? Small states will + sometimes want the same magistrates and the same laws as large ones; but + the one will not want to employ them so often as the other; so that + different charges may be intrusted to the same person without any + inconvenience, for they will not interfere with each other, and for want + of sufficient members in the community it will be necessary. If we could + tell how many magistrates are necessary in every city, and how many, + though not necessary, it is yet proper to have, we could then the better + know how many different offices one might assign to one magistrate. It is + also necessary to know what tribunals in different places should have + different things under their jurisdiction, and also what things should + always come under the cognisance of the same magistrate; as, for instance, + decency of manners, shall the clerk of the market take cognisance of that + if the cause arises in the market, and another magistrate in another + place, or the same magistrate everywhere: or shall there be a distinction + made of the fact, or the parties? as, for instance, in decency of manners, + shall it be one cause when it relates to a man, another when it relates to + a woman? + </p> + <p> + In different states shall the magistrates be different or the same? I + mean, whether in a democracy, an oligarchy, an aristocracy, and a + monarchy, the same persons shall have the same power? or shall it vary + according to the different formation of the government? as in an + aristocracy the offices of the state are allotted to those who are well + educated; in an oligarchy to those who are rich; in a democracy to the + freemen? Or shall the magistrates differ as the communities differ? For it + may happen that the very same may be sometimes proper, sometimes + otherwise: in this state it may be necessary that the magistrate have + great powers, in that but small. There are also certain magistrates + peculiar to certain states—as the pre-advisers are not proper in a + democracy, but a senate is; for one such order is necessary, whose + business shall be to consider beforehand and prepare those bills which + shall be brought before the people that they may have leisure to attend to + their own affairs; and when these are few in number the state inclines to + an oligarchy. The pre-advisers indeed must always be few for they are + peculiar to an oligarchy: and where there are both these offices in the + same state, the pre-adviser's is superior to the senator's, the one having + only a democratical power, the other an oligarchical: and indeed the + [1300a] power of the senate is lost in those democracies, in which the + people, meeting in one public assembly, take all the business into their + own hands; and this is likely to happen either when the community in + general are in easy circumstances, or when they are paid for their + attendance; for they are then at leisure often to meet together and + determine everything for themselves. A magistrate whose business is to + control the manners of the boys, or women, or who takes any department + similar to this, is to be found in an aristocracy, not in a democracy; for + who can forbid the wives of the poor from appearing in public? neither is + such a one to be met with in an oligarchy; for the women there are too + delicate to bear control. And thus much for this subject. Let us endeavour + to treat at large of the establishment of magistrates, beginning from + first principles. Now, they differ from each other in three ways, from + which, blended together, all the varieties which can be imagined arise. + The first of these differences is in those who appoint the magistrates, + the second consists in those who are appointed, the third in the mode of + appointment; and each of these three differ in three manners; for either + all the citizens may appoint collectively, or some out of their whole + body, or some out of a particular order in it, according to fortune, + family, or virtue, or some other rule (as at Megara, where the right of + election was amongst those who had returned together to their country, and + had reinstated themselves by force of arms) and this either by vote or + lot. Again, these several modes may be differently formed together, as + some magistrates may be chosen by part of the community, others by the + whole; some out of part, others out of the whole; some by vote, others by + lot: and each of these different modes admit of a four-fold subdivision; + for either all may elect all by vote or by lot; and when all elect, they + may either proceed without any distinction, or they may elect by a certain + division of tribes, wards, or companies, till they have gone through the + whole community: and some magistrates may be elected one way, and others + another. Again, if some magistrates are elected either by vote or lot of + all the citizens, or by the vote of some and the lot of some, or some one + way and some another; that is to say, some by the vote of all, others by + the lot of all, there will then be twelve different methods of electing + the magistrates, without blending the two together. Of these there are two + adapted to a democracy; namely, to have all the magistrates chosen out of + all the people, either by vote or lot, or both; that is to say, some of + them by lot, some by vote. In a free state the whole community should not + elect at the same time, but some out of the whole, or out of some + particular rank; and this either by lot, or vote, or both: and they should + elect either out of the whole community, or out of some particular persons + in it, and this both by lot and vote. In an oligarchy it is proper to + choose some magistrates out of the whole body of the citizens, some by + vote, some by lot, others by both: by lot is most correspondent to that + form of government. In a free aristocracy, some magistrates [1300b] should + be chosen out of the community in general, others out of a particular + rank, or these by choice, those by lot. In a pure oligarchy, the + magistrates should be chosen out of certain ranks, and by certain persons, + and some of those by lot, others by both methods; but to choose them out + of the whole community is not correspondent to the nature of this + government. It is proper in an aristocracy for the whole community to + elect their magistrates out of particular persons, and this by vote. These + then are all the different ways of electing of magistrates; and they have + been allotted according to the nature of the different communities; but + what mode of proceeding is proper for different communities, or how the + offices ought to be established, or with what powers shall be particularly + explained. I mean by the powers of a magistrate, what should be his + particular province, as the management of the finances or the laws of the + state; for different magistrates have different powers, as that of the + general of the army differs from the clerk of the market. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0059" id="link2HCH0059"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XVI + </h2> + <p> + Of the three parts of which a government is formed, we now come to + consider the judicial; and this also we shall divide in the same manner as + we did the magisterial, into three parts. Of whom the judges shall + consist, and for what causes, and how. When I say of whom, I mean whether + they shall be the whole people, or some particulars; by for what causes I + mean, how many different courts shall be appointed; by how, whether they + shall be elected by vote or lot. Let us first determine how many different + courts there ought to be. Now these are eight. The first of these is the + court of inspection over the behaviour of the magistrates when they have + quitted their office; the second is to punish those who have injured the + public; the third is to take cognisance of those causes in which the state + is a party; the fourth is to decide between magistrates and private + persons, who appeal from a fine laid upon them; the fifth is to determine + disputes which may arise concerning contracts of great value; the sixth is + to judge between foreigners, and of murders, of which there are different + species; and these may all be tried by the same judges or by different + ones; for there are murders of malice prepense and of chance-medley; there + is also justifiable homicide, where the fact is admitted, and the legality + of it disputed. + </p> + <p> + There is also another court called at Athens the Court of Phreattae, which + determines points relating to a murder committed by one who has run away, + to decide whether he shall return; though such an affair happens but + seldom, and in very large cities; the seventh, to determine causes wherein + strangers are concerned, and this whether they are between stranger and + stranger or between a stranger and a citizen. The eighth and last is for + small actions, from one to five drachma's, or a little more; for these + ought also to be legally determined, but not to be brought before the + whole body of the judges. But without entering into any particulars + concerning actions for murder, and those wherein strangers are the + parties, let us particularly treat of those courts which have the + jurisdiction of those matters which more particularly relate to the + affairs of the community and which if not well conducted occasion + seditions and commotions in the state. Now, of necessity, either all + persons must have a right to judge of all these different causes, + appointed for that purpose, either by vote or lot, or all of all, some of + them by vote, and others by lot, or in some causes by vote, in others by + lot. Thus there will be four sorts of judges. There [1301a] will be just + the same number also if they are chosen out of part of the people only; + for either all the judges must be chosen out of that part either by vote + or lot, or some by lot and some by vote, or the judges in particular + causes must be chosen some by vote, others by lot; by which means there + will be the same number of them also as was mentioned. Besides, different + judges may be joined together; I mean those who are chosen out of the + whole people or part of them or both; so that all three may sit together + in the same court, and this either by vote, lot, or both. And thus much + for the different sorts of judges. Of these appointments that which admits + all the community to be judges in all causes is most suitable to a + democracy; the second, which appoints that certain persons shall judge all + causes, to an oligarchy; the third, which appoints the whole community to + be judges in some causes, but particular persons in others, to an + aristocracy or free state. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0067" id="link2H_4_0067"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + BOOK V + </h2> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0060" id="link2HCH0060"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER I + </h2> + <p> + We have now gone through those particulars we proposed to speak of; it + remains that we next consider from what causes and how alterations in + government arise, and of what nature they are, and to what the destruction + of each state is owing; and also to what form any form of polity is most + likely to shift into, and what are the means to be used for the general + preservation of governments, as well as what are applicable to any + particular state; and also of the remedies which are to be applied either + to all in general, or to any one considered separately, when they are in a + state of corruption: and here we ought first to lay down this principle, + that there are many governments, all of which approve of what is just and + what is analogically equal; and yet have failed from attaining thereunto, + as we have already mentioned; thus democracies have arisen from supposing + that those who are equal in one thing are so in every other circumstance; + as, because they are equal in liberty, they are equal in everything else; + and oligarchies, from supposing that those who are unequal in one thing + are unequal in all; that when men are so in point of fortune, that + inequality extends to everything else. Hence it follows, that those who in + some respects are equal with others think it right to endeavour to partake + of an equality with them in everything; and those who are superior to + others endeavour to get still more; and it is this more which is the + inequality: thus most states, though they have some notion of what is + just, yet are almost totally wrong; and, upon this account, when either + party has not that share in the administration which answers to his + expectations, he becomes seditious: but those who of all others have the + greatest right to be so are the last that are; namely, those who excel in + virtue; for they alone can be called generally superior. There are, too, + some persons of distinguished families who, because they are so, disdain + to be on an equality with others, for those esteem themselves noble who + boast of their ancestors' merit and fortune: these, to speak truth, are + the origin and fountain from whence seditions arise. The alterations which + men may propose to make in governments are two; for either they may change + the state already established into some other, as when they propose to + erect an oligarchy where there is a democracy; or a democracy, or free + state, where there is an oligarchy, or an aristocracy from these, or those + from that; or else, when they have no objection to the established + government, which they like very well, but choose to have the sole + management in it themselves; either in the hands of a few or one only. + They will also raise commotions concerning the degree in which they would + have the established power; as if, for instance, the government is an + oligarchy, to have it more purely so, and in the same manner if it is a + democracy, or else to have it less so; and, in like manner, whatever may + be the nature of the government, either to extend or contract its powers; + or else to make some alterations in some parts of it; as to establish or + abolish a particular magistracy, as some persons say Lysander endeavoured + to abolish the kingly power in Sparta; and Pausanias that of the ephori. + Thus in Epidamnus there was an alteration in one part of the constitution, + for instead of the philarchi they established a senate. It is also + necessary for all the magistrates at Athens; to attend in the court of the + Helisea when any new magistrate is created: the power of the archon also + in that state partakes of the nature of an oligarchy: inequality is always + the occasion of sedition, but not when those who are unequal are treated + in a different manner correspondent to that inequality. Thus kingly power + is unequal when exercised over equals. Upon the whole, those who aim after + an equality are the cause of seditions. Equality is twofold, either in + number or value. Equality in number is when two things contain the same + parts or the same quantity; equality in value is by proportion as two + exceeds one, and three two by the same number-thus by proportion four + exceeds two, and two one in the same degree, for two is the same part of + four that one is of two; that is to say, half. Now, all agree in what is + absolutely and simply just; but, as we have already said they dispute + concerning proportionate value; for some persons, if they are equal in one + respect, think themselves equal in all; others, if they are superior in + one thing, think they may claim the superiority in all; from whence + chiefly arise two sorts of governments, a democracy and an oligarchy; for + nobility and virtue are to be found only [1302a] amongst a few; the + contrary amongst the many; there being in no place a hundred of the first + to be met with, but enough of the last everywhere. But to establish a + government entirely upon either of these equalities is wrong, and this the + example of those so established makes evident, for none of them have been + stable; and for this reason, that it is impossible that whatever is wrong + at the first and in its principles should not at last meet with a bad end: + for which reason in some things an equality of numbers ought to take + place, in others an equality in value. However, a democracy is safer and + less liable to sedition than an oligarchy; for in this latter it may arise + from two causes, for either the few in power may conspire against each + other or against the people; but in a democracy only one; namely, against + the few who aim at exclusive power; but there is no instance worth + speaking of, of a sedition of the people against themselves. Moreover, a + government composed of men of moderate fortunes comes much nearer to a + democracy than an oligarchy, and is the safest of all such states. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0061" id="link2HCH0061"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER II + </h2> + <p> + Since we are inquiring into the causes of seditions and revolutions in + governments, we must begin entirely with the first principles from whence + they arise. Now these, so to speak, are nearly three in number; which we + must first distinguish in general from each other, and endeavour to show + in what situation people are who begin a sedition; and for what causes; + and thirdly, what are the beginnings of political troubles and mutual + quarrels with each other. Now that cause which of all others most + universally inclines men to desire to bring about a change in government + is that which I have already mentioned; for those who aim at equality will + be ever ready for sedition, if they see those whom they esteem their + equals possess more than they do, as well as those also who are not + content with equality but aim at superiority, if they think that while + they deserve more than, they have only equal with, or less than, their + inferiors. Now, what they aim at may be either just or unjust; just, when + those who are inferior are seditious, that they may be equal; unjust, when + those who are equal are so, that they may be superior. These, then, are + the situations in which men will be seditious: the causes for which they + will be so are profit and honour; and their contrary: for, to avoid + dishonour or loss of fortune by mulcts, either on their own account or + their friends, they will raise a commotion in the state. The original + causes which dispose men to the things which I have mentioned are, taken + in one manner, seven in number, in another they are more; two of which are + the same with those that have been already mentioned: but influencing in a + different manner; for profit and honour sharpen men against each other; + not to get the possession of them for themselves (which was what I just + now supposed), but when they see others, some justly, others [1302b] + unjustly, engrossing them. The other causes are haughtiness, fear, + eminence, contempt, disproportionate increase in some part of the state. + There are also other things which in a different manner will occasion + revolutions in governments; as election intrigues, neglect, want of + numbers, a too great dissimilarity of circumstances. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0062" id="link2HCH0062"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER III + </h2> + <p> + What influence ill-treatment and profit have for this purpose, and how + they may be the causes of sedition, is almost self-evident; for when the + magistrates are haughty and endeavour to make greater profits than their + office gives them, they not only occasion seditions amongst each other, + but against the state also who gave them their power; and this their + avarice has two objects, either private property or the property of the + state. What influence honours have, and how they may occasion sedition, is + evident enough; for those who are themselves unhonoured while they see + others honoured, will be ready for any disturbance: and these things are + done unjustly when any one is either honoured or discarded contrary to + their deserts, justly when they are according to them. Excessive honours + are also a cause of sedition when one person or more are greater than the + state and the power of the government can permit; for then a monarchy or a + dynasty is usually established: on which account the ostracism was + introduced in some places, as at Argos and Athens: though it is better to + guard against such excesses in the founding of a state, than when they + have been permitted to take place, to correct them afterward. Those who + have been guilty of crimes will be the cause of sedition, through fear of + punishment; as will those also who expect an injury, that they may prevent + it; as was the case at Rhodes, when the nobles conspired against the + people on account of the decrees they expected would pass against them. + Contempt also is a cause of sedition and conspiracies; as in oligarchies, + where there are many who have no share in the administration. The rich + also even in democracies, despising the disorder and anarchy which will + arise, hope to better themselves by the same means which happened at + Thebes after the battle of Oenophyta, where, in consequence of bad + administration, the democracy was destroyed; as it was at Megara, where + the power of the people was lost through anarchy and disorder; the same + thing happened at Syracuse before the tyranny of Gelon; and at Rhodes + there was the same sedition before the popular government was overthrown. + Revolutions in state will also arise from a disproportionate increase; for + as the body consists of many parts, it ought to increase proportion-ably + to preserve its symmetry, which would otherwise be destroyed; as if the + foot was to be four cubits long, and the rest of the body but two palms; + it might otherwise [1303a] be changed into an animal of a different form, + if it increase beyond proportion not only in quantity, but also in + disposition of parts; so also a city consists of parts, some of which may + often increase without notice, as the number of poor in democracies and + free states. They will also sometimes happen by accident, as at Tarentum, + a little after the Median war, where so many of the nobles were killed in + a battle by the lapygi, that from a free state the government was turned + into a democracy; and at Argos, where so many of the citizens were killed + by Cleomenes the Spartan, that they were obliged to admit several + husbandmen to the freedom of the state: and at Athens, through the + unfortunate event of the infantry battles, the number of the nobles was + reduced by the soldiers being chosen from the list of citizens in the + Lacedaemonian wars. Revolutions also sometimes take place in a democracy, + though seldomer; for where the rich grow numerous or properties increase, + they become oligarchies or dynasties. Governments also sometimes alter + without seditions by a combination of the meaner people; as at Hersea: for + which purpose they changed the mode of election from votes to lots, and + thus got themselves chosen: and by negligence, as when the citizens admit + those who are not friends to the constitution into the chief offices of + the state, which happened at Orus, when the oligarchy of the archons was + put an end to at the election of Heracleodorus, who changed that form of + government into a democratic free state. By little and little, I mean by + this, that very often great alterations silently take place in the form of + government from people's overlooking small matters; as at Ambracia, where + the census was originally small, but at last became nothing at all, as if + a little and nothing at all were nearly or entirely alike. That state also + is liable to seditions which is composed of different nations, till their + differences are blended together and undistinguishable; for as a city + cannot be composed of every multitude, so neither can it in every given + time; for which reason all those republics which have hitherto been + originally composed of different people or afterwards admitted their + neighbours to the freedom of their city, have been most liable to + revolutions; as when the Achaeans joined with the Traezenians in founding + Sybaris; for soon after, growing more powerful than the Traezenians, they + expelled them from the city; from whence came the proverb of Sybarite + wickedness: and again, disputes from a like cause happened at Thurium + between the Sybarites and those who had joined with them in building the + city; for they assuming upon these, on account of the country being their + own, were driven out. And at Byzantium the new citizens, being detected in + plots against the state, were driven out of the city by force of arms. The + Antisseans also, having taken in those who were banished from Chios, + afterwards did the same thing; and also the Zancleans, after having taken + in the people of Samos. The Appolloniats, in the Euxine Sea, having + admitted their sojourners to the freedom of their city, were troubled with + seditions: and the Syracusians, after the expulsion of their tyrants, + having enrolled [1303b] strangers and mercenaries amongst their citizens, + quarrelled with each other and came to an open rupture: and the people of + Amphipolis, having taken in a colony of Chalcidians, were the greater part + of them driven out of the city by them. Many persons occasion seditions in + oligarchies because they think themselves ill-used in not sharing the + honours of the state with their equals, as I have already mentioned; but + in democracies the principal people do the same because they have not more + than an equal share with others who are not equal to them. The situation + of the place will also sometimes occasion disturbances in the state when + the ground is not well adapted for one city; as at Clazomene, where the + people who lived in that part of the town called Chytrum quarrelled with + them who lived in the island, and the Colophonians with the Notians. At + Athens too the disposition of the citizens is not the same, for those who + live in the Piraeus are more attached to a popular government than those + who live in the city properly so called; for as the interposition of a + rivulet, however small, will occasion the line of the phalanx to + fluctuate, so any trifling disagreement will be the cause of seditions; + but they will not so soon flow from anything else as from the disagreement + between virtue and vice, and next to that between poverty and riches, and + so on in order, one cause having more influence than another; one of which + that I last mentioned. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0063" id="link2HCH0063"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER IV + </h2> + <p> + But seditions in government do not arise for little things, but from them; + for their immediate cause is something of moment. Now, trifling quarrels + are attended with the greatest consequences when they arise between + persons of the first distinction in the state, as was the case with the + Syracusians in a remote period; for a revolution in the government was + brought about by a quarrel between two young men who were in office, upon + a love affair; for one of them being absent, the other seduced his + mistress; he in his turn, offended with this, persuaded his friend's wife + to come and live with him; and upon this the whole city took part either + with the one or the other, and the government was overturned: therefore + every one at the beginning of such disputes ought to take care to avoid + the consequences; and to smother up all quarrels which may happen to arise + amongst those in power, for the mischief lies in the beginning; for the + beginning is said to be half of the business, so that what was then but a + little fault will be found afterwards to bear its full proportion to what + follows. Moreover, disputes between men of note involve the whole city in + their consequences; in Hestiaea, after the Median war: two brothers having + a dispute about their paternal estate; he who was the poorer, from the + other's having concealed part of the effects, and some money which his + father had found, engaged the popular party on his side, while the other, + who was rich, the men of fashion. And at Delphos, [1304a] a quarrel about + a wedding was the beginning of all the seditions that afterwards arose + amongst them; for the bridegroom, being terrified by some unlucky omen + upon waiting upon the bride, went away without marrying her; which her + relations resenting, contrived secretly to convey some sacred money into + his pocket while he was sacrificing, and then killed him as an impious + person. At Mitylene also, a dispute, which arose concerning a right of + heritage, was the beginning of great evils, and a war with the Athenians, + in which Paches took their city, for Timophanes, a man of fortune, leaving + two daughters, Doxander, who was circumvented in procuring them in + marriage for his two sons, began a sedition, and excited the Athenians to + attack them, being the host of that state. There was also a dispute at + Phocea, concerning a right of inheritance, between Mnasis, the father of + Mnasis, and Euthucrates, the father of Onomarchus, which brought on the + Phoceans the sacred war. The government too of Epidamnus was changed from + a quarrel that arose from an intended marriage; for a certain man having + contracted his daughter in marriage, the father of the young person to + whom she was contracted, being archon, punishes him, upon which account + he, resenting the affront, associated himself with those who were excluded + from any share in the government, and brought about a revolution. A + government may be changed either into an oligarchy, democracy, or a free + state; when the magistrates, or any part of the city acquire great credit, + or are increased in power, as the court of Areopagus at Athens, having + procured great credit during the Median war, added firmness to their + administration; and, on the other hand, the maritime force, composed of + the commonalty, having gained the victory at Salamis, by their power at + sea, got the lead in the state, and strengthened the popular party: and at + Argos, the nobles, having gained great credit by the battle of Mantinea + against the Lacedaemonians, endeavoured to dissolve the democracy. And at + Syracuse, the victory in their war with the Athenians being owing to the + common people, they changed their free state into a democracy: and at + Chalcis, the people having taken off the tyrant Phocis, together with the + nobles, immediately seized the government: and at Ambracia also the + people, having expelled the tyrant Periander, with his party, placed the + supreme power in themselves. And this in general ought to be known, that + whosoever has been the occasion of a state being powerful, whether private + persons, or magistrates, a certain tribe, or any particular part of the + citizens, or the multitude, be they who they will, will be the cause of + disputes in the state. For either some persons, who envy them the honours + they have acquired, will begin to be seditious, or they, on account of the + dignity they have acquired, will not be content with their former + equality. A state is also liable to commotions when those parts of it + which seem to be opposite to each other approach to an [1304b] equality, + as the rich and the common people; so that the part which is between them + both is either nothing at all, or too little to be noticed; for if one + party is so much more powerful than the other, as to be evidently + stronger, that other will not be willing to hazard the danger: for which + reason those who are superior in excellence and virtue will never be the + cause of seditions; for they will be too few for that purpose when + compared to the many. In general, the beginning and the causes of + seditions in all states are such as I have now described, and revolutions + therein are brought about in two ways, either by violence or fraud: if by + violence, either at first by compelling them to submit to the change when + it is made. It may also be brought about by fraud in two different ways, + either when the people, being at first deceived, willingly consent to an + alteration in their government, and are afterwards obliged by force to + abide by it: as, for instance, when the four hundred imposed upon the + people by telling them that the king of Persia would supply them with + money for the war against the Lacedaemonians; and after they had been + guilty of this falsity, they endeavoured to keep possession of the supreme + power; or when they are at first persuaded and afterwards consent to be + governed: and by one of these methods which I have mentioned are all + revolutions in governments brought about. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0064" id="link2HCH0064"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER V + </h2> + <p> + We ought now to inquire into those events which will arise from these + causes in every species of government. Democracies will be most subject to + revolutions from the dishonesty of their demagogues; for partly, by + informing against men of property, they induce them to join together + through self-defence, for a common fear will make the greatest enemies + unite; and partly by setting the common people against them: and this is + what any one may continually see practised in many states. In the island + of Cos, for instance, the democracy was subverted by the wickedness of the + demagogues, for the nobles entered into a combination with each other. And + at Rhodes the demagogues, by distributing of bribes, prevented the people + from paying the trierarchs what was owing to them, who were obliged by the + number of actions they were harassed with to conspire together and destroy + the popular state. The same thing was brought about at Heraclea, soon + after the settlement of the city, by the same persons; for the citizens of + note, being ill treated by them, quitted the city, but afterwards joining + together they returned and overthrew the popular state. Just in the same + manner the democracy was destroyed in Megara; for there the demagogues, to + procure money by confiscations, drove out the nobles, till the number of + those who were banished was considerable, who, [1305a] returning, got the + better of the people in a battle, and established an oligarchy. The like + happened at Cume, during the time of the democracy, which Thrasymachus + destroyed; and whoever considers what has happened in other states may + perceive the same revolutions to have arisen from the same causes. The + demagogues, to curry favour with the people, drive the nobles to conspire + together, either by dividing their estates, or obliging them to spend them + on public services, or by banishing them, that they may confiscate the + fortunes of the wealthy. In former times, when the same person was both + demagogue and general, the democracies were changed into tyrannies; and + indeed most of the ancient tyrannies arose from those states: a reason for + which then subsisted, but not now; for at that time the demagogues were of + the soldiery; for they were not then powerful by their eloquence; but, now + the art of oratory is cultivated, the able speakers are at present the + demagogues; but, as they are unqualified to act in a military capacity, + they cannot impose themselves on the people as tyrants, if we except in + one or two trifling instances. Formerly, too, tyrannies were more common + than now, on account of the very extensive powers with which some + magistrates were entrusted: as the prytanes at Miletus; for they were + supreme in many things of the last consequence; and also because at that + time the cities were not of that very great extent, the people in general + living in the country, and being employed in husbandry, which gave them, + who took the lead in public affairs, an opportunity, if they had a turn + for war, to make themselves tyrants; which they all did when they had + gained the confidence of the people; and this confidence was their hatred + to the rich. This was the case of Pisistratus at Athens, when he opposed + the Pediaci: and of Theagenes in Megara, who slaughtered the cattle + belonging to the rich, after he had seized those who kept them by the + riverside. Dionysius also, for accusing Daphnseus and the rich, was + thought worthy of being raised to a tyranny, from the confidence which the + people had of his being a popular man in consequence of these enmities. A + government shall also alter from its ancient and approved democratic form + into one entirely new, if there is no census to regulate the election of + magistrates; for, as the election is with the people, the demagogues who + are desirous of being in office, to flatter them, will endeavour with all + their power to make the people superior even to the laws. To prevent this + entirely, or at least in a great measure, the magistrates should be + elected by the tribes, and not by the people at large. These are nearly + the revolutions to which democracies are liable, and also the causes from + whence they arise. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0065" id="link2HCH0065"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VI + </h2> + <p> + There are two things which of all others most evidently occasion a + revolution in an oligarchy; one is, when the people are ill used, for then + every individual is ripe for [1305b] sedition; more particularly if one of + the oligarchy should happen to be their leader; as Lygdamis, at Naxus, who + was afterwards tyrant of that island. Seditions also which arise from + different causes will differ from each other; for sometimes a revolution + is brought about by the rich who have no share in the administration, + which is in the hands of a very few indeed: and this happened at Massilia, + Ister, Heraclea, and other cities; for those who had no share in the + government ceased not to raise disputes till they were admitted to it: + first the elder brothers, and then the younger also: for in some places + the father and son are never in office at the same time; in others the + elder and younger brother: and where this is observed the oligarchy + partakes something of a free state. At Ister it was changed into a + democracy; in Heraclea, instead of being in the hands of a few, it + consisted of six hundred. At Cnidus the oligarchy was destroyed by the + nobles quarrelling with each other, because the government was in the + hands of so few: for there, as we have just mentioned, if the father was + in office, the son could not; or, if there were many brothers, the eldest + only; for the people, taking advantage of their disputes, elected one of + the nobles for their general, and got the victory: for where there are + seditions government is weak. And formerly at Erithria, during the + oligarchy of the Basilides, although the state flourished greatly under + their excellent management, yet because the people were displeased that + the power should be in the hands of so few, they changed the government. + Oligarchies also are subject to revolutions, from those who are in office + therein, from the quarrels of the demagogues with each other. The + demagogues are of two sorts; one who flatter the few when they are in + power: for even these have their demagogues; such was Charicles at Athens, + who had great influence over the thirty; and, in the same manner, + Phrynichus over the four hundred. The others are those demagogues who have + a share in the oligarchy, and flatter the people: such were the + state-guardians at Larissa, who flattered the people because they were + elected by them. And this will always happen in every oligarchy where the + magistrates do not elect themselves, but are chosen out of men either of + great fortune or certain ranks, by the soldiers or by the people; as was + the custom at Abydos. And when the judicial department is not in the hands + of the supreme power, the demagogues, favouring the people in their + causes, overturn the government; which happened at Heraclea in Pontus: and + also when some desire to contract the power of the oligarchy into fewer + hands; for those who endeavour to support an equality are obliged to apply + to the people for assistance. An oligarchy is also subject to revolutions + when the nobility spend their fortunes by luxury; for such persons are + desirous of innovations, and either endeavour to be tyrants themselves or + to support others in being so, as [1306a] Hypparinus supported Dionysius + of Syracuse. And at Amphipolis one Cleotimus collected a colony of + Chalcidians, and when they came set them to quarrel with the rich: and at + AEgina a certain person who brought an action against Chares attempted on + that account to alter the government. Sometimes they will try to raise + commotions, sometimes they will rob the public, and then quarrel with each + other, or else fight with those who endeavour to detect them; which was + the case at Apollonia in Pontus. But if the members of an oligarchy agree + among themselves the state is not very easily destroyed without some + external force. Pharsalus is a proof of this, where, though the place is + small, yet the citizens have great power, from the prudent use they make + of it. An oligarchy also will be destroyed when they create another + oligarchy under it; that is, when the management of public affairs is in + the hands of a few, and not equally, but when all of them do not partake + of the supreme power, as happened once at Elis, where the supreme power in + general was in the hands of a very few out of whom a senate was chosen, + consisting but of ninety, who held their places for life; and their mode + of election was calculated to preserve the power amongst each other's + families, like the senators at Lacedaemon. An oligarchy is liable to a + revolution both in time of war and peace; in war, because through a + distrust in the citizens the government is obliged to employ mercenary + troops, and he to whom they give the command of the army will very often + assume the tyranny, as Timophanes did at Corinth; and if they appoint more + than one general, they will very probably establish a dynasty: and + sometimes, through fear of this, they are forced to let the people in + general have some share in the government, because they are obliged to + employ them. In peace, from their want of confidence in each other, they + will entrust the guardianship of the state to mercenaries and their + general, who will be an arbiter between them, and sometimes become master + of both, which happened at Larissa, when Simos and the Aleuadae had the + chief power. The same thing happened at Abydos, during the time of the + political clubs, of which Iphiades' was one. Commotions also will happen + in an oligarchy from one party's overbearing and insulting another, or + from their quarrelling about their law-suits or marriages. How their + marriages, for instance, will have that effect has been already shown: and + in Eretria, Diagoras destroyed the oligarchy of the knights upon the same + account. A sedition also arose at Heraclea, from a certain person being + condemned by the court; and at Thebes, in consequence of a man's being + guilty of adultery; [1306b] the punishment indeed which Eurytion suffered + at Heraclea was just, yet it was illegally executed: as was that at Thebes + upon Archias; for their enemies endeavoured to have them publicly bound in + the pillory. Many revolutions also have been brought about in oligarchies + by those who could not brook the despotism which those persons assumed who + were in power, as at Cnidus and Chios. Changes also may happen by accident + in what we call a free state and in an oligarchy; wheresoever the + senators, judges, and magistrates are chosen according to a certain + census; for it often happens that the highest census is fixed at first; so + that a few only could have a share in the government, in an oligarchy, or + in a free state those of moderate fortunes only; when the city grows rich, + through peace or some other happy cause, it becomes so little that every + one's fortune is equal to the census, so that the whole community may + partake of all the honours of government; and this change sometimes + happens by little and little, and insensible approaches, sometimes + quicker. These are the revolutions and seditions that arise in + oligarchies, and the causes to which they are owing: and indeed both + democracies and oligarchies sometimes alter, not into governments of a + contrary form, but into those of the same government; as, for instance, + from having the supreme power in the law to vest it in the ruling party, + or the contrariwise. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0066" id="link2HCH0066"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VII + </h2> + <p> + Commotions also arise in aristocracies, from there being so few persons in + power (as we have already observed they do in oligarchies, for in this + particular an aristocracy is most near an oligarchy, for in both these + states the administration of public affairs is in the hands of a few; not + that this arises from the same cause in both, though herein they chiefly + seem alike): and these will necessarily be most likely to happen when the + generality of the people are high-spirited and think themselves equal to + each other in merit; such were those at Lacedasmon, called the Partheniae + (for these were, as well as others, descendants of citizens), who being + detected in a conspiracy against the state, were sent to found Tarentum. + They will happen also when some great men are disgraced by those who have + received higher honours than themselves, to whom they are no ways inferior + in abilities, as Lysander by the kings: or when an ambitious man cannot + get into power, as Cinadon, who, in the reign of Agesilaus, was chief in a + conspiracy against the Spartans: and also when some are too poor and + others too rich, which will most frequently happen in time of war; as at + Lacedaemon during the Messenian war, which is proved by a poem of + Tyrtaeus, [1307a] called "Eunomia;" for some persons being reduced + thereby, desired that the lands might be divided: and also when some + person of very high rank might still be higher if he could rule alone, + which seemed to be Pausanias's intention at Lacedaemon, when he was their + general in the Median war, and Anno's at Carthage. But free states and + aristocracies are mostly destroyed from want of a fixed administration of + public affairs; the cause of which evil arises at first from want of a due + mixture of the democratic and the oligarchic parts in a free state; and in + an aristocracy from the same causes, and also from virtue not being + properly joined to power; but chiefly from the two first, I mean the undue + mixture of the democratic and oligarchic parts; for these two are what all + free states endeavour to blend together, and many of those which we call + aristocracies, in this particular these states differ from each other, and + on this account the one of them is less stable than the other, for that + state which inclines most to an oligarchy is called an aristocracy, and + that which inclines most to a democracy is called a free state; on which + account this latter is more secure than the former, for the wider the + foundation the securer the building, and it is ever best to live where + equality prevails. But the rich, if the community gives them rank, very + often endeavour to insult and tyrannise over others. On the whole, + whichever way a government inclines, in that it will settle, each party + supporting their own. Thus a free state will become a democracy; an + aristocracy an oligarchy; or the contrary, an aristocracy may change into + a democracy (for the poor, if they think themselves injured, directly take + part with the contrary side) and a free state into an oligarchy. The only + firm state is that where every one enjoys that equality he has a right to + and fully possesses what is his own. And what I have been speaking of + happened to the Thurians; for the magistrates being elected according to a + very high census, it was altered to a lower, and they were subdivided into + more courts, but in consequence of the nobles possessing all the land, + contrary to law; the state was too much of an oligarchy, which gave them + an opportunity of encroaching greatly on the rest of the people; but + these, after they had been well inured to war, so far got the better of + their guards as to expel every one out of the country who possessed more + than he ought. Moreover, as all aristocracies are free oligarchies, the + nobles therein endeavour to have rather too much power, as at Lacedaemon, + where property is now in the hands of a few, and the nobles have too much + liberty to do as they please and make such alliances as they please. Thus + the city of the Locrians was ruined from an alliance with Dionysius; which + state was neither a democracy nor well-tempered aristocracy. But an + aristocracy chiefly approaches to a secret change by its being destroyed + by degrees, as we [1307b] have already said of all governments in general; + and this happens from the cause of the alteration being trifling; for + whenever anything which in the least regards the state is treated with + contempt, after that something else, and this of a little more + consequence, will be more easily altered, until the whole fabric of + government is entirely subverted, which happened in the government of + Thurium; for the law being that they should continue soldiers for five + years, some young men of a martial disposition, who were in great esteem + amongst their officers, despising those who had the management of public + affairs, and imagining they could easily accomplish their intention, first + endeavoured to abolish this law, with a view of having it lawful to + continue the same person perpetually in the military, perceiving that the + people would readily appoint them. Upon this, the magistrates who are + called counselors first joined together with an intention to oppose it but + were afterwards induced to agree to it, from a belief that if that law was + not repealed they would permit the management of all other public affairs + to remain in their hands; but afterwards, when they endeavoured to + restrain some fresh alterations that were making, they found that they + could do nothing, for the whole form of government was altered into a + dynasty of those who first introduced the innovations. In short, all + governments are liable to be destroyed either from within or from without; + from without when they have for their neighbour a state whose policy is + contrary to theirs, and indeed if it has great power the same thing will + happen if it is not their neighbour; of which both the Athenians and the + Lacedaemonians are a proof; for the one, when conquerors everywhere + destroyed the oligarchies; the other the democracies. These are the chief + causes of revolutions and dissensions in governments. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0067" id="link2HCH0067"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VIII + </h2> + <p> + We are now to consider upon what the preservation of governments in + general and of each state in particular depends; and, in the first place, + it is evident that if we are right in the causes we have assigned for + their destruction, we know also the means of their preservation; for + things contrary produce contraries: but destruction and preservation are + contrary to each other. In well-tempered governments it requires as much + care as anything whatsoever, that nothing be done contrary to law: and + this ought chiefly to be attended to in matters of small consequence; for + an illegality that approaches insensibly, approaches secretly, as in a + family small expenses continually repeated consume a man's income; for the + understanding is deceived thereby, as by this false argument; if every + part is little, then the whole is little: now, this in one sense is true, + in another is false, for the whole and all the parts together are large, + though made up of small parts. The first therefore of anything is what the + state ought to guard against. In the next place, no credit ought to be + given to those who endeavour to deceive the people with false pretences; + for they will be [1308a] confuted by facts. The different ways in which + they will attempt to do this have been already mentioned. You may often + perceive both aristocracies and oligarchies continuing firm, not from the + stability of their forms of government, but from the wise conduct of the + magistrates, both towards those who have a part in the management of + public affairs, and those also who have not: towards those who have not, + by never injuring them; and also introducing those who are of most + consequence amongst them into office; nor disgracing those who are + desirous of honour; or encroaching on the property of individuals; towards + those who have, by behaving to each other upon an equality; for that + equality which the favourers of a democracy desire to have established in + the state is not only just, but convenient also, amongst those who are of + the same rank: for which reason, if the administration is in the hands of + many, those rules which are established in democracies will be very + useful; as to let no one continue in office longer than six months: that + all those who are of the same rank may have their turn; for between these + there is a sort of democracy: for which reason demagogues are most likely + to arise up amongst them, as we have already mentioned: besides, by this + means both aristocracies and democracies will be the less liable to be + corrupted into dynasties, because it will not be so easy for those who are + magistrates for a little to do as much mischief as they could in a long + time: for it is from hence that tyrannies arise in democracies and + oligarchies; for either those who are most powerful in each state + establish a tyranny, as the demagogues in the one, the dynasties in the + other, or the chief magistrates who have been long in power. Governments + are sometimes preserved not only by having the means of their corruption + at a great distance, but also by its being very near them; for those who + are alarmed at some impending evil keep a stricter hand over the state; + for which reason it is necessary for those who have the guardianship of + the constitution to be able to awaken the fears of the people, that they + may preserve it, and not like a night-guard to be remiss in protecting the + state, but to make the distant danger appear at hand. Great care ought + also to be used to endeavour to restrain the quarrels and disputes of the + nobles by laws, as well as to prevent those who are not already engaged in + them from taking a part therein; for to perceive an evil at its very first + approach is not the lot of every one, but of the politician. To prevent + any alteration taking place in an oligarchy or free state on account of + the census, if that happens to continue the same while the quantity of + money is increased, it will be useful to take a general account of the + whole amount of it in former times, to compare it with the present, and to + do this every year in those cities where the census is yearly, [1308b] in + larger communities once in three or five years; and if the whole should be + found much larger or much less than it was at the time when the census was + first established in the state, let there be a law either to extend or + contract it, doing both these according to its increase or decrease; if it + increases making the census larger, if it decreases smaller: and if this + latter is not done in oligarchies and free states, you will have a dynasty + arise in the one, an oligarchy in the other: if the former is not, free + states will be changed into democracies, and oligarchies into free states + or democracies. It is a general maxim in democracies, oligarchies, + monarchies, and indeed in all governments, not to let any one acquire a + rank far superior to the rest of the community, but rather to endeavour to + confer moderate honours for a continuance than great ones for a short + time; for these latter spoil men, for it is not every one who can bear + prosperity: but if this rule is not observed, let not those honours which + were conferred all at once be all at once taken away, but rather by + degrees. But, above all things, let this regulation be made by the law, + that no one shall have too much power, either by means of his fortune or + friends; but if he has, for his excess therein, let it be contrived that + he shall quit the country. Now, as many persons promote innovations, that + they may enjoy their own particular manner of living, there ought to be a + particular officer to inspect the manners of every one, and see that these + are not contrary to the genius of the state in which he lives, whether it + may be an oligarchy, a democracy, or any other form of government; and, + for the same reason, those should be guarded against who are most + prosperous in the city: the means of doing which is by appointing those + who are otherwise to the business and the offices of the state. I mean, to + oppose men of account to the common people, the poor to the rich, and to + blend both these into one body, and to increase the numbers of those who + are in the middle rank; and this will prevent those seditions which arise + from an inequality of condition. But above all, in every state it is + necessary, both by the laws and every other method possible, to prevent + those who are employed by the public from being venal, and this + particularly in an oligarchy; for then the people will not be so much + displeased from seeing themselves excluded from a share in the government + (nay, they will rather be glad to have leisure to attend their private + affairs) as at suspecting that the officers of the state steal the public + money, then indeed they are afflicted with double concern, both because + they are deprived of the honours of the state, and pillaged by those who + enjoy them. There is one method of blending together a democracy and an + aristocracy, [1309a] if office brought no profit; by which means both the + rich and the poor will enjoy what they desire; for to admit all to a share + in the government is democratical; that the rich should be in office is + aristocratical. This must be done by letting no public employment + whatsoever be attended with any emolument; for the poor will not desire to + be in office when they can get nothing by it, but had rather attend to + their own affairs: but the rich will choose it, as they want nothing of + the community. Thus the poor will increase their fortunes by being wholly + employed in their own concerns; and the principal part of the people will + not be governed by the lower sort. To prevent the exchequer from being + defrauded, let all public money be delivered out openly in the face of the + whole city, and let copies of the accounts be deposited in the different + wards tribes, and divisions. But, as the magistrates are to execute their + offices without any advantages, the law ought to provide proper honours + for those who execute them well. In democracies also it is necessary that + the rich should be protected, by not permitting their lands to be divided, + nor even the produce of them, which in some states is done unperceivably. + It would be also better if the people would prevent them when they offer + to exhibit a number of unnecessary and yet expensive public entertainments + of plays, music, processions, and the like. In an oligarchy it is + necessary to take great care of the poor, and allot them public + employments which are gainful; and, if any of the rich insult them, to let + their punishment be severer than if they insulted one of their own rank; + and to let estates pass by affinity, and not gift: nor to permit any + person to have more than one; for by this means property will be more + equally divided, and the greater part of the poor get into better + circumstances. It is also serviceable in a democracy and an oligarchy to + allot those who take no part in public affairs an equality or a preference + in other things; the rich in a democracy, to the poor in an oligarchy: but + still all the principal offices in the state to be filled only by those + who are best qualified to discharge them. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0068" id="link2HCH0068"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER IX + </h2> + <p> + There are three qualifications necessary for those who fill the first + departments in government; first of all, an affection for the established + constitution; second place, abilities every way completely equal to the + business of their office; in the third, virtue and justice correspondent + to the nature of that particular state they are placed in; for if justice + is not the same in all states, it is evident that there must be different + species thereof. There may be some doubt, when all these qualifications do + not in the same persons, in what manner the choice shall be made; as for + instance, suppose that one person is an accomplished general, but a bad + man and no friend to the [1309b] constitution; another is just and a + friend to it, which shall one prefer? we should then consider of two + qualities, which of them the generality possess in a greater degree, which + in a less; for which reason in the choice of a general we should regard + his courage more than his virtue as the more uncommon quality; as there + are fewer capable of conducting an army than there are good men: but, to + protect the state or manage the finances, the contrary rule should be + followed; for these require greater virtue than the generality are + possessed of, but only that knowledge which is common to all. It may be + asked, if a man has abilities equal to his appointment in the state, and + is affectionate to the constitution, what occasion is there for being + virtuous, since these two things alone are sufficient to enable him to be + useful to the public? it is, because those who possess those qualities are + often deficient in prudence; for, as they often neglect their own affairs, + though they know them and love themselves, so nothing will prevent their + serving the public in the same manner. In short, whatsoever the laws + contain which we allow to be useful to the state contributes to its + preservation: but its first and principal support is (as has been often + insisted upon) to have the number of those who desire to preserve it + greater than those who wish to destroy it. Above all things that ought not + to be forgotten which many governments now corrupted neglect; namely, to + preserve a mean. For many things seemingly favourable to a democracy + destroy a democracy, and many things seemingly favourable to an oligarchy + destroy an oligarchy. Those who think this the only virtue extend it to + excess, not considering that as a nose which varies a little from perfect + straightness, either towards a hook nose or a flat one, may yet be + beautiful and agreeable to look at; but if this particularity is extended + beyond measure, first of all the properties of the part is lost, but at + last it can hardly be admitted to be a nose at all, on account of the + excess of the rise or sinking: thus it is with other parts of the human + body; so also the same thing is true with respect to states; for both an + oligarchy and a democracy may something vary from their most perfect form + and yet be well constituted; but if any one endeavours to extend either of + them too far, at first he will make the government the worse for it, but + at last there will be no government at all remaining. The lawgiver and the + politician therefore should know well what preserves and what destroys a + democracy or an oligarchy, for neither the one nor the other can possibly + continue without rich and poor: but that whenever an entire equality of + circumstances [1310a] prevails, the state must necessarily become of + another form; so that those who destroy these laws, which authorise an + inequality in property, destroy the government. It is also an error in + democracies for the demagogues to endeavour to make the common people + superior to the laws; and thus by setting them at variance with the rich, + dividing one city into two; whereas they ought rather to speak in favour + of the rich. In oligarchies, on the contrary, it is wrong to support those + who are in administration against the people. The oaths also which they + take in an oligarchy ought to be contrary to what they now are; for, at + present, in some places they swear, "I will be adverse to the common + people, and contrive all I can against them;" whereas they ought rather to + suppose and pretend the contrary; expressing in their oaths, that they + will not injure the people. But of all things which I have mentioned, that + which contributes most to preserve the state is, what is now most + despised, to educate your children for the state; for the most useful + laws, and most approved by every statesman, will be of no service if the + citizens are not accustomed to and brought up in the principles of the + constitution; of a democracy, if that is by law established; of an + oligarchy, if that is; for if there are bad morals in one man, there are + in the city. But to educate a child fit for the state, it must not be done + in the manner which would please either those who have the power in an + oligarchy or those who desire a democracy, but so as they may be able to + conduct either of these forms of governments. But now the children of the + magistrates in an oligarchy are brought up too delicately, and the + children of the poor hardy with exercise and labour; so that they are both + desirous of and able to promote innovations. In democracies of the purest + form they pursue a method which is contrary to their welfare; the reason + of which is, that they define liberty wrong: now, there are two things + which seem to be the objects of a democracy, that the people in general + should possess the supreme power, and all enjoy freedom; for that which is + just seems to be equal, and what the people think equal, that is a law: + now, their freedom and equality consists in every one's doing what they + please: that is in such a democracy every one may live as he likes; "as + his inclination guides," in the words of Euripides: but this is wrong, for + no one ought to think it slavery to live in subjection to government, but + protection. Thus I have mentioned the causes of corruption in different + states, and the means of their preservation. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0069" id="link2HCH0069"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER X + </h2> + <p> + It now remains that we speak of monarchies, their causes of corruption, + and means of preservation; and indeed almost the same things which have + been said of other governments happen to kingdoms and tyrannies; for a + kingdom partakes of an aristocracy, a tyranny of the worst species of an + oligarchy and democracy; for which reason it is the worst that man can + submit to, as being composed of two, both of which are bad, and + collectively retains all the corruptions and all the defects of both these + states. These two species of monarchies arise from principles contrary to + each other: a kingdom is formed to protect the better sort of people + against the multitude, and kings are appointed out of those, who are + chosen either for their superior virtue and actions flowing from virtuous + principles, or else from their noble descent; but a tyrant is chosen out + of the meanest populace; an enemy to the better sort, that the common + people may not be oppressed by them. That this is true experience + convinces us; for the generality of tyrants were indeed mere demagogues, + who gained credit with the people by oppressing the nobles. Some tyrannies + were established in this manner after the cities were considerably + enlarged—others before that time, by kings who exceeded the power + which their country allowed them, from a desire of governing despotically: + others were founded by those who were elected to the superior offices in + the state; for formerly the people appointed officers for life, who came + to be at the head of civil and religious affairs, and these chose one out + of their body in whom the supreme power over all the magistrates was + placed. By all these means it was easy to establish a tyranny, if they + chose it; for their power was ready at hand, either by their being kings, + or else by enjoying the honours of the state; thus Phidon at Argos and + other tyrants enjoyed originally the kingly power; Phalaris and others in + Ionia, the honours of the state. Pansetius at Leontium, Cypselus at + Corinth, Pisistratus at Athens, Dionysius at Syracuse, and others, + acquired theirs by having been demagogues. A kingdom, as we have said, + partakes much of the nature of an aristocracy, and is bestowed according + to worth, as either virtue, family, beneficent actions, or these joined + with power; for those who have been benefactors to cities and states, or + have it in their powers to be so, have acquired this honour, and those who + have prevented a people from falling into slavery by war, as Codrus, or + those who have freed them from it, as Cyrus, or the founders of cities, or + settlers of colonies, as the kings of Sparta, Macedon, and Molossus. A + king desires to be the guardian of his people, that those who have + property may be secure in the possession of it, and that the people in + general meet with no injury; but a tyrant, as has been often said, has no + regard to the common good, except for his own advantage; his only object + is pleasure, but a king's is virtue: what a tyrant therefore is ambitious + of engrossing is wealth, but a king rather honour. The guards too of a + king are citizens, a tyrant's foreigners. + </p> + <p> + That a tyranny contains all that is bad both in a democracy and an + oligarchy is evident; with an oligarchy it has for its end gain, as the + only means of providing the tyrant with guards and the luxuries of life; + like that it places no confidence in the people; and therefore deprives + them of the use of arms: it is also common to them both to persecute the + populace, to drive them out of the city and their own habitations. With a + democracy it quarrels with the nobles, and destroys them both publicly and + privately, or drives them into banishment, as rivals and an impediment to + the government; hence naturally arise conspiracies both amongst those who + desire to govern and those who desire not to be slaves; hence arose + Periander's advice to Thrasybulus to take off the tallest stalks, hinting + thereby, that it was necessary to make away with the eminent citizens. We + ought then in reason, as has been already said, to account for the changes + which arise in a monarchy from the same causes which produce them in other + states: for, through injustice received, fear, and contempt, many of those + who are under a monarchical government conspire against it; but of all + species of injustice, injurious contempt has most influence on them for + that purpose: sometimes it is owing to their being deprived of their + private fortunes. The dissolution too of a kingdom and a tyranny are + generally the same; for monarchs abound in wealth and honour, which all + are desirous to obtain. Of plots: some aim at the life of those who + govern, others at their government; the first arises from hatred to their + persons; which hatred may be owing to many causes, either of which will be + sufficient to excite their anger, and the generality of those who are + under the influence of that passion will join in a conspiracy, not for the + sake of their own advancement, but for revenge. Thus the plot against the + children of Pisistratus arose from their injurious treatment of + Harmodius's sister, and insulting him also; for Harmodius resenting the + injury done to his sister, and Aristogiton the injury done to Harmodius. + Periander the tyrant of Ambracia also lost his life by a conspiracy, for + some improper liberties he took with a boy in his cups: and Philip was + slain by Pausanias for neglecting to revenge him of the affront he had + received from Attains; as was Amintas the Little by Darda, for insulting + him on account of his age; and the eunuch by Evagoras the Cyprian in + revenge for having taken his son's wife away from him.... + </p> + <p> + Many also who have had their bodies scourged with stripes have, through + resentment, either killed those who caused them to be inflicted or + conspired against them, even when they had kingly power, as at Mitylene + Megacles, joining with his friends, killed the Penthelidee, who used to go + about striking those they met with clubs. Thus, in later times, Smendes + killed Penthilus for whipping him and dragging him away from his wife. + Decamnichus also was the chief cause of the conspiracy against Archelaus, + for he urged others on: the occasion of his resentment was his having + delivered him to Euripides the poet to be scourged; for Euripides was + greatly offended with him for having said something of the foulness of his + breath. And many others have been killed or conspired against on the same + account. Fear too is a cause which produces the same effects, as well in + monarchies as in other states: thus Artabanes conspired against Xerxes + through fear of punishment for having hanged Darius according to his + orders, whom he supposed he intended to pardon, as the order was given at + supper-time. Some kings also have been [1312a] dethroned and killed in + consequence of the contempt they were held in by the people; as some one + conspired against Sardanapalus, having seen him spinning with his wife, if + what is related of him is true, or if not of him, it may very probably be + true of some one else. Dion also conspired against Dionysius the Younger, + seeing his subjects desirous of a conspiracy, and that he himself was + always drunk: and even a man's friends will do this if they despise him; + for from the confidence he places in them, they think that they shall not + be found out. Those also who think they shall gain his throne will + conspire against a king through contempt; for as they are powerful + themselves, and despise the danger, on account of their own strength, they + will readily attempt it. Thus a general at the head of his army will + endeavour to dethrone the monarch, as Cyrus did Astyages, despising both + his manner of life and his forces; his forces for want of action, his life + for its effeminacy: thus Suthes, the Thracian, who was general to + Amadocus, conspired against him. Sometimes more than one of these causes + will excite men to enter into conspiracies, as contempt and desire of + gain; as in the instance of Mithridates against Ariobarzanes. Those also + who are of a bold disposition, and have gained military honours amongst + kings, will of all others be most like to engage in sedition; for strength + and courage united inspire great bravery: whenever, therefore, these join + in one person, he will be very ready for conspiracies, as he will easily + conquer. Those who conspire against a tyrant through love of glory and + honour have a different motive in view from what I have already mentioned; + for, like all others who embrace danger, they have only glory and honour + in view, and think, not as some do, of the wealth and pomp they may + acquire, but engage in this as they would in any other noble action, that + they may be illustrious and distinguished, and destroy a tyrant, not to + succeed in his tyranny, but to acquire renown. No doubt but the number of + those who act upon this principle is small, for we must suppose they + regard their own safety as nothing in case they should not succeed, and + must embrace the opinion of Dion (which few can do) when he made war upon + Dionysius with a very few troops; for he said, that let the advantage he + made be ever so little it would satisfy him to have gained it; and that, + should it be his lot to die the moment he had gained footing in his + country, he should think his death sufficiently glorious. A tyranny also + is exposed to the same destruction as all other states are, from too + powerful neighbours: for it is evident, that an opposition of principles + will make them desirous of subverting it; and what they desire, all who + can, do: and there is a principle of opposition in one state to another, + as a democracy against a tyranny, as says Hesiod, "a potter against a + potter;" for the extreme of a democracy is a tyranny; a kingly power + against an aristocracy, from their different forms of government—for + which reason the Lacedaemonians destroyed many tyrannies; as did the + Syracusians during the prosperity of their state. Nor are they only + destroyed from without, but also from within, when those who have no share + in the power bring about a revolution, as happened to Gelon, and lately to + Dionysius; to the first, by means of Thrasybulus, the brother of Hiero, + who nattered Gelon's son, and induced him to lead a life of pleasure, that + he himself might govern; but the family joined together and endeavoured to + support the tyranny and expel Thrasybulus; but those whom they made of + their party seized the opportunity and expelled the whole family. Dion + made war against his relation Dionysius, and being assisted by the people, + first expelled and then killed him. As there are two causes which chiefly + induce men to conspire against tyrants, hatred and contempt, one of these, + namely hatred, seems inseparable from them. Contempt also is often the + cause of their destruction: for though, for instance, those who raised + themselves to the supreme power generally preserved it; but those who + received it from them have, to speak truth, almost immediately all of them + lost it; for, falling into an effeminate way of life, they soon grew + despicable, and generally fell victims to conspiracies. Part of their + hatred may be very fitly ascribed to anger; for in some cases this is + their motive to action: for it is often a cause which impels them to act + more powerfully than hatred, and they proceed with greater obstinacy + against those whom they attack, as this passion is not under the direction + of reason. Many persons also indulge this passion through contempt; which + occasioned the fall of the Pisistratidae and many others. But hatred is + more powerful than anger; for anger is accompanied with grief, which + prevents the entrance of reason; but hatred is free from it. In short, + whatever causes may be assigned as the destruction of a pure oligarchy + unmixed with any other government and an extreme democracy, the same may + be applied to a tyranny; for these are divided tyrannies. + </p> + <p> + Kingdoms are seldom destroyed by any outward attack; for which reason they + are generally very stable; but they have many causes of subversion within; + of which two are the principal; one is when those who are in power [1313a] + excite a sedition, the other when they endeavour to establish a tyranny by + assuming greater power than the law gives them. A kingdom, indeed, is not + what we ever see erected in our times, but rather monarchies and + tyrannies; for a kingly government is one that is voluntarily submitted + to, and its supreme power admitted upon great occasions: but where many + are equal, and there are none in any respect so much better than another + as to be qualified for the greatness and dignity of government over them, + then these equals will not willingly submit to be commanded; but if any + one assumes the government, either by force or fraud, this is a tyranny. + To what we have already said we shall add, the causes of revolutions in an + hereditary kingdom. One of these is, that many of those who enjoy it are + naturally proper objects of contempt only: another is, that they are + insolent while their power is not despotic; but they possess kingly + honours only. Such a state is soon destroyed; for a king exists but while + the people are willing to obey, as their submission to him is voluntary, + but to a tyrant involuntary. These and such-like are the causes of the + destruction of monarchies. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0070" id="link2HCH0070"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XI + </h2> + <p> + Monarchies, in a word, are preserved by means contrary to what I have + already mentioned as the cause of their destruction; but to speak to each + separately: the stability of a kingdom will depend upon the power of the + king's being kept within moderate bounds; for by how much the less + extensive his power is, by so much the longer will his government + continue; for he will be less despotic and more upon an equality of + condition with those he governs; who, on that account, will envy him the + less. + </p> + <p> + It was on this account that the kingdom of the Molossi continued so long; + and the Lacedaemonians from their government's being from the beginning + divided into two parts, and also by the moderation introduced into the + other parts of it by Theopompus, and his establishment of the ephori; for + by taking something from the power he increased the duration of the + kingdom, so that in some measure he made it not less, but bigger; as they + say he replied to his wife, who asked him if he was not ashamed to deliver + down his kingdom to his children reduced from what he received it from his + ancestors? No, says he, I give it him more lasting. Tyrannies are + preserved two ways most opposite to each other, one of which is when the + power is delegated from one to the other, and in this manner many tyrants + govern in their states. Report says that Periander founded many of these. + There are also many of them to be met with amongst the Persians. What has + been already mentioned is as conducive as anything can be to preserve a + tyranny; namely, to keep down those who are of an aspiring disposition, to + take off those who will not submit, to allow no public meals, no clubs, no + education, nothing at all, but to guard against everything that gives rise + to high spirits or mutual confidence; nor to suffer the learned meetings + of those who are at leisure to hold conversation with each other; and to + endeavour by every means possible to keep all the people strangers to each + other; for knowledge increases mutual confidence; and to oblige all + strangers to appear in public, and to live near the city-gate, that all + their actions may be sufficiently seen; for those who are kept like slaves + seldom entertain any noble thoughts: in short, to imitate everything which + the Persians and barbarians do, for they all contribute to support + slavery; and to endeavour to know what every one who is under their power + does and says; and for this purpose to employ spies: such were those women + whom the Syracusians called potagogides Hiero also used to send out + listeners wherever there was any meeting or conversation; for the people + dare not speak with freedom for fear of such persons; and if any one does, + there is the less chance of its being concealed; and to endeavour that the + whole community should mutually accuse and come to blows with each other, + friend with friend, the commons with the nobles, and the rich with each + other. It is also advantageous for a tyranny that all those who are under + it should be oppressed with poverty, that they may not be able to compose + a guard; and that, being employed in procuring their daily bread, they may + have no leisure to conspire against their tyrants. The Pyramids of Egypt + are a proof of this, and the votive edifices of the Cyposelidse, and the + temple of Jupiter Olympus, built by the Pisistratidae, and the works of + Polycrates at Samos; for all these produced one end, the keeping the + people poor. It is necessary also to multiply taxes, as at Syracuse; where + Dionysius in the space of five years collected all the private property of + his subjects into his own coffers. A tyrant also should endeavour to + engage his subjects in a war, that they may have employment and + continually depend upon their general. A king is preserved by his friends, + but a tyrant is of all persons the man who can place no confidence in + friends, as every one has it in his desire and these chiefly in their + power to destroy him. All these things also which are done in an extreme + democracy should be done in a tyranny, as permitting great licentiousness + to the women in the house, that they may reveal their husbands' secrets; + and showing great indulgence to slaves also for the same reason; for + slaves and women conspire not against tyrants: but when they are treated + with kindness, both of them are abettors of tyrants, and extreme + democracies also; and the people too in such a state desire to be + despotic. For which reason flatterers are in repute in both these: the + demagogue in the democracy, for he is the proper flatterer of the people; + among tyrants, he who will servilely adapt himself to their humours; for + this is the business of [1314a] flatterers. And for this reason tyrants + always love the worst of wretches, for they rejoice in being flattered, + which no man of a liberal spirit will submit to; for they love the + virtuous, but flatter none. Bad men too are fit for bad purposes; "like to + like," as the proverb says. A tyrant also should show no favour to a man + of worth or a freeman; for he should think, that no one deserved to be + thought these but himself; for he who supports his dignity, and is a + friend to freedom, encroaches upon the superiority and the despotism of + the tyrant: such men, therefore, they naturally hate, as destructive to + their government. A tyrant also should rather admit strangers to his table + and familiarity than citizens, as these are his enemies, but the others + have no design against him. These and such-like are the supports of a + tyranny, for it comprehends whatsoever is wicked. But all these things may + be comprehended in three divisions, for there are three objects which a + tyranny has in view; one of which is, that the citizens should be of poor + abject dispositions; for such men never propose to conspire against any + one. The second is, that they should have no confidence in each other; for + while they have not this, the tyrant is safe enough from destruction. For + which reason they are always at enmity with those of merit, as hurtful to + their government; not only as they scorn to be governed despotically, but + also because they can rely upon each other's fidelity, and others can rely + upon theirs, and because they will not inform against their associates, + nor any one else. The third is, that they shall be totally without the + means of doing anything; for no one undertakes what is impossible for him + to perform: so that without power a tyranny can never be destroyed. These, + then, are the three objects which the inclinations of tyrants desire to + see accomplished; for all their tyrannical plans tend to promote one of + these three ends, that their people may neither have mutual confidence, + power, nor spirit. This, then, is one of the two methods of preserving + tyrannies: the other proceeds in a way quite contrary to what has been + already described, and which may be discerned from considering to what the + destruction of a kingdom is owing; for as one cause of that is, making the + government approach near to a tyranny, so the safety of a tyranny consists + in making the government nearly kingly; preserving only one thing, namely + power, that not only the willing, but the unwilling also, must be obliged + to submit; for if this is once lost, the tyranny is at an end. This, then, + as the foundation, must be preserved: in other particulars carefully do + and affect to seem like a king; first, appear to pay a great attention + [1314b] to what belongs to the public; nor make such profuse presents as + will offend the people; while they are to supply the money out of the hard + labour of their own hands, and see it given in profusion to mistresses, + foreigners, and fiddlers; keeping an exact account both of what you + receive and pay; which is a practice some tyrants do actually follow, by + which means they seem rather fathers of families than tyrants: nor need + you ever fear the want of money while you have the supreme power of the + state in your own hands. It is also much better for those tyrants who quit + their kingdom to do this than to leave behind them money they have hoarded + up; for their regents will be much less desirous of making innovations, + and they are more to be dreaded by absent tyrants than the citizens; for + such of them as he suspects he takes with him, but these regents must be + left behind. He should also endeavour to appear to collect such taxes and + require such services as the exigencies of the state demand, that whenever + they are wanted they may be ready in time of war; and particularly to take + care that he appear to collect and keep them not as his own property, but + the public's. His appearance also should not be severe, but respectable, + so that he should inspire those who approach him with veneration and not + fear; but this will not be easily accomplished if he is despised. If, + therefore, he will not take the pains to acquire any other, he ought to + endeavour to be a man of political abilities, and to fix that opinion of + himself in the judgment of his subjects. He should also take care not to + appear to be guilty of the least offence against modesty, nor to suffer it + in those under him: nor to permit the women of his family to treat others + haughtily; for the haughtiness of women has been the ruin of many tyrants. + With respect to the pleasures of sense, he ought to do directly contrary + to the practice of some tyrants at present; for they do not only + continually indulge themselves in them for many days together, but they + seem also to desire to have other witnesses of it, that they may wonder at + their happiness; whereas he ought really to be moderate in these, and, if + not, to appear to others to avoid them-for it is not the sober man who is + exposed either to plots or contempt, but the drunkard; not the early + riser, but the sluggard. His conduct in general should also be contrary to + what is reported of former tyrants; for he ought to improve and adorn his + city, so as to seem a guardian and not a tyrant; and, moreover., always to + [1315a] seem particularly attentive to the worship of the gods; for from + persons of such a character men entertain less fears of suffering anything + illegal while they suppose that he who governs them is religious and + reverences the gods; and they will be less inclined to raise insinuations + against such a one, as being peculiarly under their protection: but this + must be so done as to give no occasion for any suspicion of hypocrisy. He + should also take care to show such respect to men of merit in every + particular, that they should not think they could be treated with greater + distinction by their fellow-citizens in a free state. He should also let + all honours flow immediately from himself, but every censure from his + subordinate officers and judges. It is also a common protection of all + monarchies not to make one person too great, or, certainly, not many; for + they will support each other: but, if it is necessary to entrust any large + powers to one person, to take care that it is not one of an ardent spirit; + for this disposition is upon every opportunity most ready for a + revolution: and, if it should seem necessary to deprive any one of his + power, to do it by degrees, and not reduce him all at once. It is also + necessary to abstain from all kinds of insolence; more particularly from + corporal punishment; which you must be most cautious never to exercise + over those who have a delicate sense of honour; for, as those who love + money are touched to the quick when anything affects their property, so + are men of honour and principle when they receive any disgrace: therefore, + either never employ personal punishment, or, if you do, let it be only in + the manner in which a father would correct his son, and not with contempt; + and, upon the whole, make amends for any seeming disgrace by bestowing + greater honours. But of all persons who are most likely to entertain + designs against the person of a tyrant, those are chiefly to be feared and + guarded against who regard as nothing the loss of their own lives, so that + they can but accomplish their purpose: be very careful therefore of those + who either think themselves affronted, or those who are dear to them; for + those who are excited by anger to revenge regard as nothing their own + persons: for, as Heraclitus says, it is dangerous to fight with an angry + man who will purchase with his life the thing he aims at. As all cities + are composed of two sorts of persons, the rich and the poor, it is + necessary that both these should find equal protection from him who + governs them, and that the one party should not have it in their power to + injure the other; but that the tyrant should attach to himself that party + which is the most powerful; which, if he does, he will have no occasion + either to make his slaves free, or to deprive citizens of their arms; for + the strength of either of the parties added to his own forces will render + him superior to any conspiracy. It would be superfluous to go through all + particulars; for the rule of conduct which the tyrant ought to pursue is + evident enough, and that is, to affect to appear not the tyrant, but the + king; the guardian of those he governs, not their plunderer, [1315b] but + their protector, and to affect the middle rank in life, not one superior + to all others: he should, therefore, associate his nobles with him and + soothe his people; for his government will not only be necessarily more + honourable and worthy of imitation, as it will be over men of worth, and + not abject wretches who perpetually both hate and fear him; but it will be + also more durable. Let him also frame his life so that his manners may be + consentaneous to virtue, or at least let half of them be so, that he may + not be altogether wicked, but only so in part. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0071" id="link2HCH0071"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XII + </h2> + <p> + Indeed an oligarchy and a tyranny are of all governments of the shortest + duration. The tyranny of Orthagoras and his family at Sicyon, it is true, + continued longer than any other: the reason for which was, that they used + their power with moderation, and were in many particulars obedient to the + laws; and, as Clisthenes was an able general, he never fell into contempt, + and by the care he took that in many particulars his government should be + popular. He is reported also to have presented a person with a crown who + adjudged the victory to another; and some say that it is the statue of + that judge which is placed in the forum. + </p> + <p> + They say also, that Pisistratus submitted to be summoned into the court of + the Areopagites. The second that we shall mention is the tyranny of the + Cypselidse, at Corinth, which continued seventy-seven years and six + months; for Cypselus was tyrant there thirty years, Periander forty-four, + and Psammetichus, the son of Georgias, three years; the reason for which + was, that Cypselus was a popular man, and governed without guards. + Periander indeed ruled like a tyrant, but then he was an able general. The + third was that of the Pisistradidae at Athens; but it was not continual: + for Pisistratus himself was twice expelled; so that out of thirty-three + years he was only fifteen in power, and his son eighteen; so that the + whole time was thirty-three years. Of the rest we shall mention that of + Hiero, and Gelo at Syracuse; and this did not continue long, for both + their reigns were only eighteen years; for Gelo died in the eighth year of + his tyranny, and Hiero in his tenth. Thrasybulus fell in his eleventh + month, and many other tyrannies have continued a very short time. We have + now gone through the general cases of corruption and [1316a] means of + preservation both in free states and monarchies. In Plato's Republic, + Socrates is introduced treating upon the changes which different + governments are liable to: but his discourse is faulty; for he does not + particularly mention what changes the best and first governments are + liable to; for he only assigns the general cause, of nothing being + immutable, but that in time everything will alter [***tr.: text is + unintelligible here***] he conceives that nature will then produce bad + men, who will not submit to education, and in this, probably, he is not + wrong; for it is certain that there are some persons whom it is impossible + by any education to make good men; but why should this change be more + peculiar to what he calls the best-formed government, than to all other + forms, and indeed to all other things that exist? and in respect to his + assigned time, as the cause of the alteration of all things, we find that + those which did not begin to exist at the same time cease to be at the + same time; so that, if anything came into beginning the day before the + solstice, it must alter at the same time. Besides, why should such a form + of government be changed into the Lacedaemonian? for, in general, when + governments alter, they alter into the contrary species to what they + before were, and not into one like their former. And this reasoning holds + true of other changes; for he says, that from the Lacedaemonian form it + changes into an oligarchy, and from thence into a democracy, and from a + democracy into a tyranny: and sometimes a contrary change takes place, as + from a democracy into an oligarchy, rather than into a monarchy. With + respect to a tyranny he neither says whether there will be any change in + it; or if not, to what cause it will be owing; or if there is, into what + other state it will alter: but the reason of this is, that a tyranny is an + indeterminate government; and, according to him, every state ought to + alter into the first, and most perfect, thus the continuity and circle + would be preserved. But one tyranny often changed into another; as at + Syria, from Myron's to Clisthenes'; or into an oligarchy, as was Antileo's + at Chalcas; or into a democracy, as was Gelo's at Syracuse; or into an + aristocracy, as was Charilaus's at Lacedaemon, and at Carthage. An + oligarchy is also changed into a tyranny; such was the rise of most of the + ancient tyrannies in Sicily; at Leontini, into the tyranny of Panaetius; + at Gela, into that of Cleander; at Rhegium into that of Anaxilaus; and the + like in many other cities. It is absurd also to suppose, that a state is + changed into an oligarchy because those who are in power are avaricious + and greedy of money, and not because those who are by far richer than + their fellow citizens think it unfair that those who have nothing should + have an equal share in the rule of the state with themselves, who possess + so much-for in many oligarchies it is not allowable to be employed in + money-getting, and there are many laws to prevent it. But in Carthage, + which is a democracy, money-getting is creditable, and yet their form of + government remains unaltered. It is also absurd to say, that in an + oligarchy there are two cities, one of the poor and another of the rich; + for why should this happen to them more than to the Lacedaemonians, or any + other state where all possess not equal property, or where all are not + equally good? for though no one member of the community should be poorer + than he was before, yet a democracy might nevertheless change into an + oligarchy; if the rich should be more powerful than the poor, and the one + too negligent, and the other attentive: and though these changes are owing + to many causes, yet he mentions but one only, that the citizens become + poor by luxury, and paying interest-money; as if at first they were all + rich, or the greater part of them: but this is not so, but when some of + those who have the principal management of public affairs lose their + fortunes, they will endeavour to bring about a revolution; but when others + do, nothing of consequence will follow, nor when such states do alter is + there any more reason for their altering into a democracy than any other. + Besides, though some of the members of the community may not have spent + their fortunes, yet if they share not in the honours of the state, or if + they are ill-used and insulted, they will endeavour to raise seditions, + and bring about a revolution, that they may be allowed to do as they like; + which, Plato says, arises from too much liberty. Although there are many + oligarchies and democracies, yet Socrates, when he is treating of the + changes they may undergo, speaks of them as if there was but one of each + sort. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0080" id="link2H_4_0080"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + BOOK VI + </h2> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0072" id="link2HCH0072"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER I + </h2> + <p> + We have already shown what is the nature of the supreme council in the + state, and wherein one may differ from another, and how the different + magistrates should be regulated; and also the judicial department, and + what is best suited to what state; and also to what causes both the + destruction and preservation of governments are owing. + </p> + <p> + As there are very many species of democracies, as well as of other states, + it will not be amiss to consider at the same time anything which we may + have omitted to mention concerning either of them, and to allot to each + that mode of conduct which is peculiar to and advantageous for them; and + also to inquire into the combinations of all these different modes of + government which we [1317a] have mentioned; for as these are blended + together the government is altered, as from an aristocracy to be an + oligarchy, and from a free state to be a democracy. Now, I mean by those + combinations of government (which I ought to examine into, but have not + yet done), namely, whether the deliberative department and the election of + magistrates is regulated in a manner correspondent to an oligarchy, or the + judicial to an aristocracy, or the deliberative part only to an oligarchy, + and the election of magistrates to an aristocracy, or whether, in any + other manner, everything is not regulated according to the nature of the + government. But we will first consider what particular sort of democracy + is fitted to a particular city, and also what particular oligarchy to a + particular people; and of other states, what is advantageous to what. It + is also necessary to show clearly, not only which of these governments is + best for a state, but also how it ought to be established there, and other + things we will treat of briefly. + </p> + <p> + And first, we will speak of a democracy; and this will at the same time + show clearly the nature of its opposite which some persons call an + oligarchy; and in doing this we must examine into all the parts of a + democracy, and everything that is connected therewith; for from the manner + in which these are compounded together different species of democracies + arise: and hence it is that they are more than one, and of various + natures. Now, there are two causes which occasion there being so many + democracies; one of which is that which we have already mentioned; namely, + there being different sorts of people; for in one country the majority are + husbandmen, in another mechanics, and hired servants; if the first of + these is added to the second, and the third to both of them, the democracy + will not only differ in the particular of better or worse, but in this, + that it will be no longer the same government; the other is that which we + will now speak of. The different things which are connected with + democracies and seem to make part of these states, do, from their being + joined to them, render them different from others: this attending a few, + that more, and another all. It is necessary that he who would found any + state which he may happen to approve of, or correct one, should be + acquainted with all these particulars. All founders of states endeavour to + comprehend within their own plan everything of nearly the same kind with + it; but in doing this they err, in the manner I have already described in + treating of the preservation and destruction of governments. I will now + speak of these first principles and manners, and whatever else a + democratical state requires. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0073" id="link2HCH0073"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER II + </h2> + <p> + Now the foundation of a democratical state is liberty, and people have + been accustomed to say this as if here only liberty was to be found; for + they affirm that this is the end proposed by every democracy. But one part + of liberty is to govern and be governed alternately; for, according to + democratical justice, equality is measured by numbers, and not by worth: + and this being just, it is necessary that the supreme power should be + vested in the people at large; and that what the majority determine should + be final: so that in a democracy the poor ought to have more power than + the rich, as being the greater number; for this is one mark of liberty + which all framers of a democracy lay down as a criterion of that state; + another is, to live as every one likes; for this, they say, is a right + which liberty gives, since he is a slave who must live as he likes not. + This, then, is another criterion of a democracy. Hence arises the claim to + be under no command whatsoever to any one, upon any account, any otherwise + than by rotation, and that just as far only as that person is, in his + turn, under his also. This also is conducive to that equality which + liberty demands. These things being premised, and such being the + government, it follows that such rules as the following should be observed + in it, that all the magistrates should be chosen out of all the people, + and all to command each, and each in his turn all: that all the + magistrates should be chosen by lot, except to those offices only which + required some particular knowledge and skill: that no census, or a very + small one, should be required to qualify a man for any office: that none + should be in the same employment twice, or very few, and very seldom, + except in the army: that all their appointments should be limited to a + very short time, or at least as many as possible: that the whole community + should be qualified to judge in all causes whatsoever, let the object be + ever so extensive, ever so interesting, or of ever so high a nature; as at + Athens, where the people at large judge the magistrates when they come out + of office, and decide concerning public affairs as well as private + contracts: that the supreme power should be in the public assembly; and + that no magistrate should be allowed any discretionary power but in a few + instances, and of no consequence to public business. Of all magistrates a + senate is best suited to a democracy, where the whole community is not + paid for giving their attendance; for in that case it loses its power; for + then the people will bring all causes before them, by appeal, as we have + already mentioned in a former book. In the next place, there should, if + possible, be a fund to pay all the citizens—who have any share in + the management of public affairs, either as members of the assembly, + judges, and magistrates; but if this cannot be done, at least the + magistrates, the judges the senators, and members of the supreme assembly, + and also those officers who are obliged to eat at a common table ought to + be paid. Moreover, as an oligarchy is said to be a government of men of + family, fortune, and education; so, on the contrary, a democracy is a + government in the hands of men of no birth, indigent circumstances, and + mechanical employments. In this state also no office [1318a] should be for + life; and, if any such should remain after the government has been long + changed into a democracy, they should endeavour by degrees to diminish the + power; and also elect by lot instead of vote. These things, then, + appertain to all democracies; namely, to be established on that principle + of justice which is homogeneous to those governments; that is, that all + the members of the state, by number, should enjoy an equality, which seems + chiefly to constitute a democracy, or government of the people: for it + seems perfectly equal that the rich should have no more share in the + government than the poor, nor be alone in power; but that all should be + equal, according to number; for thus, they think, the equality and liberty + of the state best preserved. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0074" id="link2HCH0074"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER III + </h2> + <p> + In the next place we must inquire how this equality is to be procured. + Shall the qualifications be divided so that five hundred rich should be + equal to a thousand poor, or shall the thousand have equal power with the + five hundred? or shall we not establish our equality in this manner? but + divide indeed thus, and afterwards taking an equal number both out of the + five hundred and the thousand, invest them with the power of creating the + magistrates and judges. Is this state then established according to + perfect democratical justice, or rather that which is guided by numbers + only? For the defenders of a democracy say, that that is just which the + majority approve of: but the favourers of an oligarchy say, that that is + just which those who have most approve of; and that we ought to be + directed by the value of property. Both the propositions are unjust; for + if we agree with what the few propose we erect a tyranny: for if it should + happen that an individual should have more than the rest who are rich, + according to oligarchical justice, this man alone has a right to the + supreme power; but if superiority of numbers is to prevail, injustice will + then be done by confiscating the property of the rich, who are few, as we + have already said. What then that equality is, which both parties will + admit, must be collected from the definition of right which is common to + them both; for they both say that what the majority of the state approves + of ought to be established. Be it so; but not entirely: but since a city + happens to be made up of two different ranks of people, the rich and the + poor, let that be established which is approved of by both these, or the + greater part: but should there be opposite sentiments, let that be + established which shall be approved of by the greater part: but let this + be according to the census; for instance, if there should be ten of the + rich and twenty of the poor, and six of the first and fifteen of the last + should agree upon any measure, and the remaining four of the rich should + join with the remaining five of the poor in opposing it, that party whose + census when added together should determine which opinion should be law, + and should these happen to be equal, it should be regarded as a case + similar to an assembly or court of justice dividing equally upon any + question that comes before them, who either determine it by lot or some + such method. But although, with [1318b] respect to what is equal and just, + it may be very difficult to establish the truth, yet it is much easier to + do than to persuade those who have it in their power to encroach upon + others to be guided thereby; for the weak always desire what is equal and + just, but the powerful pay no regard thereunto. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0075" id="link2HCH0075"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER IV + </h2> + <p> + There are four kinds of democracies. The best is that which is composed of + those first in order, as we have already said, and this also is the most + ancient of any. I call that the first which every one would place so, was + he to divide the people; for the best part of these are the husbandmen. We + see, then, that a democracy may be framed where the majority live by + tillage or pasturage; for, as their property is but small, they will not + be at leisure perpetually to hold public assemblies, but will be + continually employed in following their own business, not having otherwise + the means of living; nor will they be desirous of what another enjoys, but + will rather like to follow their own business than meddle with state + affairs and accept the offices of government, which will be attended with + no great profit; for the major part of mankind are rather desirous of + riches than honour (a proof of this is, that they submitted to the + tyrannies in ancient times, and do now submit to the oligarchies, if no + one hinders them in their usual occupations, or deprives them of their + property; for some of them soon get rich, others are removed from + poverty); besides, their having the right of election and calling their + magistrates to account for their conduct when they come out of office, + will satisfy their desire of honours, if any of them entertain that + passion: for in some states, though the commonalty have not the right of + electing the magistrates, yet it is vested in part of that body chosen to + represent them: and it is sufficient for the people at large to possess + the deliberative power: and this ought to be considered as a species of + democracy; such was that formerly at Mantinsea: for which reason it is + proper for the democracy we have been now treating of to have a power (and + it has been usual for them to have it) of censuring their magistrates when + out of office, and sitting in judgment upon all causes: but that the chief + magistrates should be elected, and according to a certain census, which + should vary with the rank of their office, or else not by a census, but + according to their abilities for their respective appointments. A state + thus constituted must be well constituted; for the magistracies will be + always filled with the best men with the approbation of the people; who + will not envy their superiors: and these and the nobles should be content + with this part in the administration; for they will not be governed by + their inferiors. They will be also careful to use their power with + moderation, as there are others to whom full power is delegated to censure + their conduct; for it is very serviceable to the state to have them + dependent upon others, and not to be permitted to do whatsoever they + choose; for with such a liberty there would be no check to that evil + particle there is in every one: therefore it is [1319a] necessary and most + for the benefit of the state that the offices thereof should be filled by + the principal persons in it, whose characters are unblemished, and that + the people are not oppressed. It is now evident that this is the best + species of democracy, and on what account; because the people are such and + have such powers as they ought to have. To establish a democracy of + husbandmen some of those laws which were observed in many ancient states + are universally useful; as, for instance, on no account to permit any one + to possess more than a certain quantity of land, or within a certain + distance from the city. Formerly also, in some states, no one was allowed + to sell their original lot of land. They also mention a law of one Oxylus, + which forbade any one to add to their patrimony by usury. We ought also to + follow the law of the Aphutaeans, as useful to direct us in this + particular we are now speaking of; for they having but very little ground, + while they were a numerous people, and at the same time were all + husbandmen, did not include all their lands within the census, but divided + them in such a manner that, according to the census, the poor had more + power than the rich. Next to the commonalty of husbandmen is one of + shepherds and herdsmen; for they have many things in common with them, + and, by their way of life, are excellently qualified to make good + soldiers, stout in body, and able to continue in the open air all night. + The generality of the people of whom other democracies are composed are + much worse than these; for their lives are wretched nor have they any + business with virtue in anything they do; these are your mechanics, your + exchange-men, and hired servants; as all these sorts of men frequent the + exchange and the citadel, they can readily attend the public assembly; + whereas the husbandmen, being more dispersed in the country, cannot so + easily meet together; nor are they equally desirous of doing it with these + others! When a country happens to be so situated that a great part of the + land lies at a distance from the city, there it is easy to establish a + good democracy or a free state for the people in general will be obliged + to live in the country; so that it will be necessary in such a democracy, + though there may be an exchange-mob at hand, never to allow a legal + assembly without the inhabitants of the country attend. We have shown in + what manner the first and best democracy ought to be established, and it + will be equally evident as to the rest, for from these we [1319b] should + proceed as a guide, and always separate the meanest of the people from the + rest. But the last and worst, which gives to every citizen without + distinction a share in every part of the administration, is what few + citizens can bear, nor is it easy to preserve for any long time, unless + well supported by laws and manners. We have already noticed almost every + cause that can destroy either this or any other state. Those who have + taken the lead in such a democracy have endeavoured to support it, and + make the people powerful by collecting together as many persons as they + could and giving them their freedom, not only legitimately but naturally + born, and also if either of their parents were citizens, that is to say, + if either their father or mother; and this method is better suited to this + state than any other: and thus the demagogues have usually managed. They + ought, however, to take care, and do this no longer than the common people + are superior to the nobles and those of the middle rank, and then stop; + for, if they proceed still further, they will make the state disorderly, + and the nobles will ill brook the power of the common people, and be full + of resentment against it; which was the cause of an insurrection at + Cyrene: for a little evil is overlooked, but when it becomes a great one + it strikes the eye. It is, moreover, very-useful in such a state to do as + Clisthenes did at Athens, when he was desirous of increasing the power of + the people, and as those did who established the democracy in Cyrene; that + is, to institute many tribes and fraternities, and to make the religious + rites of private persons few, and those common; and every means is to be + contrived to associate and blend the people together as much as possible; + and that all former customs be broken through. Moreover, whatsoever is + practised in a tyranny seems adapted to a democracy of this species; as, + for instance, the licentiousness of the slaves, the women, and the + children; for this to a certain degree is useful in such a state; and also + to overlook every one's living as they choose; for many will support such + a government: for it is more agreeable to many to live without any control + than as prudence would direct. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0076" id="link2HCH0076"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER V + </h2> + <p> + It is also the business of the legislator and all those who would support + a government of this sort not to make it too great a work, or too perfect; + but to aim only to render it stable: for, let a state be constituted ever + so badly, there is no difficulty in its continuing a few days: they should + therefore endeavour to procure its safety by all those ways which we have + described in assigning the causes of the preservation and destruction of + governments; avoiding what is hurtful, and by framing such laws, written + and unwritten, as contain those things which chiefly tend to the + preservation of the state; nor to suppose that that is useful either for a + democratic or [1320a] an oligarchic form of government which contributes + to make them more purely so, but what will contribute to their duration: + but our demagogues at present, to flatter the people, occasion frequent + confiscations in the courts; for which reason those who have the welfare + of the state really at heart should act directly opposite to what they do, + and enact a law to prevent forfeitures from being divided amongst the + people or paid into the treasury, but to have them set apart for sacred + uses: for those who are of a bad disposition would not then be the less + cautious, as their punishment would be the same; and the community would + not be so ready to condemn those whom they sat in judgment on when they + were to get nothing by it: they should also take care that the causes + which are brought before the public should be as few as possible, and + punish with the utmost severity those who rashly brought an action against + any one; for it is not the commons but the nobles who are generally + prosecuted: for in all things the citizens of the same state ought to be + affectionate to each other, at least not to treat those who have the chief + power in it as their enemies. Now, as the democracies which have been + lately established are very numerous, and it is difficult to get the + common people to attend the public assemblies without they are paid for + it, this, when there is not a sufficient public revenue, is fatal to the + nobles; for the deficiencies therein must be necessarily made up by taxes, + confiscations, and fines imposed by corrupt courts of justice: which + things have already destroyed many democracies. Whenever, then, the + revenues of the state are small, there should be but few public assemblies + and but few courts of justice: these, however, should have very extensive + jurisdictions, but should continue sitting a few days only, for by this + means the rich would not fear the expense, although they should receive + nothing for their attendance, though the poor did; and judgment also would + be given much better; for the rich will not choose to be long absent from + their own affairs, but will willingly be so for a short time: and, when + there are sufficient revenues, a different conduct ought to be pursued + from what the demagogues at present follow; for now they divide the + surplus of the public money amongst the poor; these receive it and again + want the same supply, while the giving it is like pouring water into a + sieve: but the true patriot in a democracy ought to take care that the + majority of the community are not too poor, for this is the cause of + rapacity in that government; he therefore should endeavour that they may + enjoy perpetual plenty; and as this also is advantageous to the rich, what + can be saved out of the public money should be put by, and then divided at + once amongst the poor, if possible, in such a quantity as may enable every + one of them to purchase a little field, and, if that cannot be done, at + least to give each of them enough to procure the implements [1320b] of + trade and husbandry; and if there is not enough for all to receive so much + at once, then to divide it according to tribes or any other allotment. In + the meantime let the rich pay them for necessary services, but not be + obliged to find them in useless amusements. And something like this was + the manner in which they managed at Carthage, and preserved the affections + of the people; for by continually sending some of their community into + colonies they procured plenty. It is also worthy of a sensible and + generous nobility to divide the poor amongst them, and supplying them with + what is necessary, induce them to work; or to imitate the conduct of the + people at Tarentum: for they, permitting the poor to partake in common of + everything which is needful for them, gain the affections of the + commonalty. They have also two different ways of electing their + magistrates; for some are chosen by vote, others by lot; by the last, that + the people at large may have some share in the administration; by the + former, that the state may be well governed: the same may be accomplished + if of the same magistrates you choose some by vote, others by lot. And + thus much for the manner in which democracies ought to be established. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0077" id="link2HCH0077"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VI + </h2> + <p> + What has been already said will almost of itself sufficiently show how an + oligarchy ought to be founded; for he who would frame such a state should + have in his view a democracy to oppose it; for every species of oligarchy + should be founded on principles diametrically opposite to some species of + democracy. + </p> + <p> + The first and best-framed oligarchy is that which approaches near to what + we call a free state; in which there ought to be two different census, the + one high, the other low: from those who are within the latter the ordinary + officers of the state ought to be chosen; from the former the supreme + magistrates: nor should any one be excluded from a part of the + administration who was within the census; which should be so regulated + that the commonalty who are included in it should by means thereof be + superior to those who have no share in the government; for those who are + to have the management of public affairs ought always to be chosen out of + the better sort of the people. Much in the same manner ought that + oligarchy to be established which is next in order: but as to that which + is most opposite to a pure democracy, and approaches nearest to a dynasty + and a tyranny, as it is of all others the worst, so it requires the + greatest care and caution to preserve it: for as bodies of sound and + healthy constitutions and ships which are well manned and well found for + sailing can bear many injuries without perishing, while a diseased body or + a leaky ship with an indifferent crew cannot support the [1321a] least + shock; so the worst-established governments want most looking after. A + number of citizens is the preservation of a democracy; for these are + opposed to those rights which are founded in rank: on the contrary, the + preservation of an oligarchy depends upon the due regulation of the + different orders in the society. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0078" id="link2HCH0078"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VII + </h2> + <p> + As the greater part of the community are divided into four sorts of + people; husbandmen, mechanics, traders, and hired servants; and as those + who are employed in war may likewise be divided into four; the horsemen, + the heavy-armed soldier, the light-armed, and the sailor, where the nature + of the country can admit a great number of horse; there a powerful + oligarchy may be easily established: for the safety of the inhabitants + depends upon a force of that sort; but those who can support the expense + of horsemen must be persons of some considerable fortune. Where the troops + are chiefly heavy-armed, there an oligarchy, inferior in power to the + other, may be established; for the heavy-armed are rather made up of men + of substance than the poor: but the light-armed and the sailors always + contribute to support a democracy: but where the number of these is very + great and a sedition arises, the other parts of the community fight at a + disadvantage; but a remedy for this evil is to be learned from skilful + generals, who always mix a proper number of light-armed soldiers with + their horse and heavy-armed: for it is with those that the populace get + the better of the men of fortune in an insurrection; for these being + lighter are easily a match for the horse and the heavy-armed: so that for + an oligarchy to form a body of troops from these is to form it against + itself: but as a city is composed of persons of different ages, some young + and some old, the fathers should teach their sons, while they were very + young, a light and easy exercise; but, when they are grown up, they should + be perfect in every warlike exercise. Now, the admission of the people to + any share in the government should either be (as I said before) regulated + by a census, or else, as at Thebes, allowed to those who for a certain + time have ceased from any mechanic employment, or as at Massalia, where + they are chosen according to their worth, whether citizens or foreigners. + With respect to the magistrates of the highest rank which it may be + necessary to have in a state, the services they are bound to do the public + should be expressly laid down, to prevent the common people from being + desirous of accepting their employments, and also to induce them to regard + their magistrates with favour when they know what a price they pay for + their honours. It is also necessary that the magistrates, upon entering + into their offices, should make magnificent sacrifices and erect some + public structure, that the people partaking of the entertainment, and + seeing the city ornamented with votive gifts in their temples and public + structures, may see with pleasure the stability of the government: add to + this also, that the nobles will have their generosity recorded: but now + this is not the conduct which those who are at present at the head of an + oligarchy pursue, but the contrary; for they are not more desirous of + honour than of gain; for which reason such oligarchies may more properly + be called little democracies. Thus [1321b] we have explained on what + principles a democracy and an oligarchy ought to be established. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0079" id="link2HCH0079"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VIII + </h2> + <p> + After what has been said I proceed next to treat particularly of the + magistrates; of what nature they should be, how many, and for what + purpose, as I have already mentioned: for without necessary magistrates no + state can exist, nor without those which contribute to its dignity and + good order can exist happily: now it is necessary that in small states the + magistrates should be few; in a large one, many: also to know well what + offices may be joined together, and what ought to be separated. The first + thing necessary is to establish proper regulators in the markets; for + which purpose a certain magistrate should be appointed to inspect their + contracts and preserve good order; for of necessity, in almost every city + there must be both buyers and sellers to supply each other's mutual wants: + and this is what is most productive of the comforts of life; for the sake + of which men seem to have joined together in one community. A second care, + and nearly related to the first, is to have an eye both to the public and + private edifices in the city, that they may be an ornament; and also to + take care of all buildings which are likely to fall: and to see that the + highways are kept in proper repair; and also that the landmarks between + different estates are preserved, that there may be no disputes on that + account; and all other business of the same nature. Now, this business may + be divided into several branches, over each of which in populous cities + they appoint a separate person; one to inspect the buildings, another the + fountains, another the harbours; and they are called the inspectors of the + city. A third, which is very like the last, and conversant nearly about + the same objects, only in the country, is to take care of what is done out + of the city. The officers who have this employment we call inspectors of + the lands, or inspectors of the woods; but the business of all three of + them is the same. There must also be other officers appointed to receive + the public revenue and to deliver it out to those who are in the different + departments of the state: these are called receivers or quaestors. There + must also be another, before whom all private contracts and sentences of + courts should be enrolled, as well as proceedings and declarations. + Sometimes this employment is divided amongst many, but there is one + supreme over the rest; these are called proctors, notaries, and the like. + Next to these is an officer whose business is of all others the most + necessary, and yet most difficult; namely, to take care that sentence is + executed upon those who are condemned; and that every one pays the fines + laid on him; and also to have the charge of those who are in prison. + [1322a] This office is very disagreeable on account of the odium attending + it, so that no one will engage therein without it is made very profitable, + or, if they do, will they be willing to execute it according to law; but + it is most necessary, as it is of no service to pass judgment in any cause + without that judgment is carried into execution: for without this human + society could not subsist: for which reason it is best that this office + should not be executed by one person, but by some of the magistrates of + the other courts. In like manner, the taking care that those fines which + are ordered by the judges are levied should be divided amongst different + persons. And as different magistrates judge different causes, let the + causes of the young be heard by the young: and as to those which are + already brought to a hearing, let one person pass sentence, and another + see it executed: as, for instance, let the magistrates who have the care + of the public buildings execute the sentence which the inspectors of the + markets have passed, and the like in other cases: for by so much the less + odium attends those who carry the laws into execution, by so much the + easier will they be properly put in force: therefore for the same persons + to pass the sentence and to execute it will subject them to general + hatred; and if they pass it upon all, they will be considered as the + enemies of all. Thus one person has often the custody of the prisoner's + body, while another sees the sentence against him executed, as the eleven + did at Athens: for which reason it is prudent to separate these offices, + and to give great attention thereunto as equally necessary with anything + we have already mentioned; for it will certainly happen that men of + character will decline accepting this office, and worthless persons cannot + properly be entrusted with it, as having themselves rather an occasion for + a guard than being qualified to guard others. This, therefore, ought by no + means to be a separate office from others; nor should it be continually + allotted to any individuals, but the young men; where there is a + city-guard, the youths ought in turns to take these offices upon them. + These, then, as the most necessary magistrates, ought to be first + mentioned: next to these are others no less necessary, but of much higher + rank, for they ought to be men of great skill and fidelity. These are they + who have the guard of the city, and provide everything that is necessary + for war; whose business it is, both in war and peace, to defend the walls + and the gates, and to take care to muster and marshal the citizens. Over + all these there are sometimes more officers, sometimes fewer: thus in + little cities there is only one whom they call either general or + polemarch; but where there are horse and light-armed troops, and bowmen, + and sailors, they sometimes put distinct commanders over each of these; + who again have others under them, according to their different divisions; + all of which join together to make one military body: and thus much for + this department. Since some of the magistrates, if not all, have business + with the public money, it is necessary that there should be other + officers, whose employment should be nothing else than to take an account + of what they have, and correct any mismanagement therein. But besides all + these magistrates there is one who is supreme over them all, who very + often has in his own power the disposal of the public revenue and taxes; + who presides over the people when the supreme power is in them; for there + must be some magistrate who has a power to summon them together, and to + preside as head of the state. These are sometimes called preadvisers; but + where there are many, more properly a council. These are nearly the civil + magistrates which are requisite to a government: but there are other + persons whose business is confined to religion; as the priests, and those + who are to take care of the temples, that they are kept in proper repair, + or, if they fall down, that they may be rebuilt; and whatever else belongs + to public worship. This charge is sometimes entrusted to one person, as in + very small cities: in others it is delegated to many, and these distinct + from the priesthood, as the builders or keepers of holy places, and + officers of the sacred revenue. Next to these are those who are appointed + to have the general care of all those public sacrifices to the tutelar god + of the state, which the laws do not entrust to the priests: and these in + different states have different appellations. To enumerate in few words + the different departments of all those magistrates who are necessary: + these are either religion, war, taxes, expenditures, markets, public + buildings, harbours, highways. Belonging to the courts of justice there + are scribes to enroll private contracts; and there must also be guards set + over the prisoners, others to see the law is executed, council on either + side, and also others to watch over the conduct of those who are to decide + the causes. Amongst the magistrates also may finally be reckoned those who + are to give their advice in public affairs. But separate states, who are + peculiarly happy and have leisure to attend to more minute particulars, + and are very attentive to good order, require particular magistrates for + themselves; such as those who have the government of the women; who are to + see the laws are executed; who take care of the boys and preside over + their education. To these may be added those who have the care of their + gymnastic exercises, [1323a] their theatres, and every other public + spectacle which there may happen to be. Some of these, however, are not of + general use; as the governors of the women: for the poor are obliged to + employ their wives and children in servile offices for want of slaves. As + there are three magistrates to whom some states entrust the supreme power; + namely, guardians of the laws, preadvisers, and senators; guardians of the + laws suit best to an aristocracy, preadvisers to an oligarchy, and a + senate to a democracy. And thus much briefly concerning all magistrates. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0089" id="link2H_4_0089"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + BOOK VII + </h2> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0080" id="link2HCH0080"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER I + </h2> + <p> + He who proposes to make that inquiry which is necessary concerning what + government is best, ought first to determine what manner of living is most + eligible; for while this remains uncertain it will also be equally + uncertain what government is best: for, provided no unexpected accidents + interfere, it is highly probable, that those who enjoy the best government + will live the most happily according to their circumstances; he ought, + therefore, first to know what manner of life is most desirable for all; + and afterwards whether this life is the same to the man and the citizen, + or different. As I imagine that I have already sufficiently shown what + sort of life is best in my popular discourses on that subject, I think I + may very properly repeat the same here; as most certainly no one ever + called in question the propriety of one of the divisions; namely, that as + what is good, relative to man, may be divided into three sorts, what is + external, what appertains to the body, and what to the soul, it is evident + that all these must conspire to make a man happy: for no one would say + that a man was happy who had no fortitude, no temperance, no justice, no + prudence; but was afraid of the flies that flew round him: nor would + abstain from the meanest theft if he was either hungry or dry, or would + murder his dearest friend for a farthing; and also was in every particular + as wanting in his understanding as an infant or an idiot. These truths are + so evident that all must agree to them; though some may dispute about the + quantity and the degree: for they may think, that a very little virtue is + sufficient for happiness; but for riches, property, power, honour, and all + such things, they endeavour to increase them without bounds: but to such + we reply, that it is easy to prove from what experience teaches us in + these cases, that these external goods produce not virtue, but virtue + them. As to a happy life, whether it is to be found in pleasure or virtue + or both, certain it is, that those whose morals are most pure, and whose + understandings are best cultivated, will enjoy more of it, although their + fortune is but moderate than those do who own an exuberance of wealth, are + deficient in those; and this utility any one who reflects may easily + convince himself of; for whatsoever is external has its boundary, as a + machine, and whatsoever is useful in its excess is either necessarily + hurtful, or at best useless to the possessor; but every good quality of + the soul the higher it is in degree, so much the more useful it is, if it + is permitted on this subject to use the word useful as well as noble. It + is also very evident, that the accidents of each subject take place of + each other, as the subjects themselves, of which we allow they are + accidents, differ from each other in value; so that if the soul is more + noble than any outward possession, as the body, both in itself and with + respect to us, it must be admitted of course that the best accidents of + each must follow the same analogy. Besides, it is for the sake of the soul + that these things are desirable; and it is on this account that wise men + should desire them, not the soul for them. Let us therefore be well + assured, that every one enjoys as much happiness as he possesses virtue + and wisdom, and acts according to their dictates; since for this we have + the example of GOD Himself, <i>who is completely happy, not from any + external good, but in Himself, and because such is His nature<i>. For good + fortune is something different from happiness, as every good which depends + not on the mind is owing to chance or fortune; but it is not from fortune + that any one is wise and just: hence it follows, that that city is + happiest which is the best and acts best: for no one can do well who acts + not well; nor can the deeds either of man or city be praiseworthy without + virtue and wisdom; for whatsoever is just, or wise, or prudent in a man, + the same things are just, wise, and prudent in a city. </i></i> + </p> + <p> + Thus much by way of introduction; for I could not but just touch upon this + subject, though I could not go through a complete investigation of it, as + it properly belongs to another question: let us at present suppose so + much, that a man's happiest life, both as an individual and as a citizen, + is a life of virtue, accompanied with those enjoyments which virtue + usually procures. If [1324a] there are any who are not convinced by what I + have said, their doubts shall be answered hereafter, at present we shall + proceed according to our intended method. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0081" id="link2HCH0081"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER II + </h2> + <p> + It now remains for us to say whether the happiness of any individual man + and the city is the same or different: but this also is evident; for + whosoever supposes that riches will make a person happy, must place the + happiness of the city in riches if it possesses them; those who prefer a + life which enjoys a tyrannic power over others will also think, that the + city which has many others under its command is most happy: thus also if + any one approves a man for his virtue, he will think the most worthy city + the happiest: but here there are two particulars which require + consideration, one of which is, whether it is the most eligible life to be + a member of the community and enjoy the rights of a citizen, or whether to + live as a stranger, without interfering in public affairs; and also what + form of government is to be preferred, and what disposition of the state + is best; whether the whole community should be eligible to a share in the + administration, or only the greater part, and some only: as this, + therefore, is a subject of political examination and speculation, and not + what concerns the individual, and the first of these is what we are at + present engaged in, the one of these I am not obliged to speak to, the + other is the proper business of my present design. It is evident that + government must be the best which is so established, that every one + therein may have it in his power to act virtuously and live happily: but + some, who admit that a life of virtue is most eligible, still doubt which + is preferable a public life of active virtue, or one entirely disengaged + from what is without and spent in contemplation; which some say is the + only one worthy of a philosopher; and one of these two different modes of + life both now and formerly seem to have been chosen by all those who were + the most virtuous men; I mean the public or philosophic. And yet it is of + no little consequence on which side the truth lies; for a man of sense + must naturally incline to the better choice; both as an individual and a + citizen. Some think that a tyrannic government over those near us is the + greatest injustice; but that a political one is not unjust: but that still + is a restraint on the pleasures and tranquillity of life. Others hold the + quite contrary opinion, and think that a public and active life is the + only life for man: for that private persons have no opportunity of + practising any one virtue, more than they have who are engaged in public + life the management of the [1324b] state. These are their sentiments; + others say, that a tyrannical and despotical mode of government is the + only happy one; for even amongst some free states the object of their laws + seems to be to tyrannise over their neighbours: so that the generality of + political institutions, wheresoever dispersed, if they have any one common + object in view, have all of them this, to conquer and govern. It is + evident, both from the laws of the Lacedaemonians and Cretans, as well as + by the manner in which they educated their children, that all which they + had in view was to make them soldiers: besides, among all nations, those + who have power enough and reduce others to servitude are honoured on that + account; as were the Scythians, Persians, Thracians, and Gauls: with some + there are laws to heighten the virtue of courage; thus they tell us that + at Carthage they allowed every person to wear as many rings for + distinction as he had served campaigns. There was also a law in Macedonia, + that a man who had not himself killed an enemy should be obliged to wear a + halter; among the Scythians, at a festival, none were permitted to drink + out of the cup was carried about who had not done the same thing. Among + the Iberians, a warlike nation, they fixed as many columns upon a man's + tomb as he had slain enemies: and among different nations different things + of this sort prevail, some of them established by law, others by custom. + Probably it may seem too absurd to those who are willing to take this + subject into their consideration to inquire whether it is the business of + a legislator to be able to point out by what means a state may govern and + tyrannise over its neighbours, whether they will, or will not: for how can + that belong either to the politician or legislator which is unlawful? for + that cannot be lawful which is done not only justly, but unjustly also: + for a conquest may be unjustly made. But we see nothing of this in the + arts: for it is the business neither of the physician nor the pilot to use + either persuasion or force, the one to his patients, the other to his + passengers: and yet many seem to think a despotic government is a + political one, and what they would not allow to be just or proper, if + exercised over themselves, they will not blush to exercise over others; + for they endeavour to be wisely governed themselves, but think it of no + consequence whether others are so or not: but a despotic power is absurd, + except only where nature has framed the one party for dominion, the other + for subordination; and therefore no one ought to assume it over all in + general, but those only which are the proper objects thereof: thus no one + should hunt men either for food or sacrifice, but what is fit for those + purposes, and these are wild animals which are eatable. + </p> + <p> + Now a city which is well governed might be very [1325a] happy in itself + while it enjoyed a good system of laws, although it should happen to be so + situated as to have no connection with any other state, though its + constitution should not be framed for war or conquest; for it would then + have no occasion for these. It is evident therefore that the business of + war is to be considered as commendable, not as a final end, but as the + means of procuring it. It is the duty of a good legislator to examine + carefully into his state; and the nature of the people, and how they may + partake of every intercourse, of a good life, and of the happiness which + results from it: and in this respect some laws and customs differ from + others. It is also the duty of a legislator, if he has any neighbouring + states to consider in what manner he shall oppose each of them, or what + good offices he shall show them. But what should be the final end of the + best governments will be considered hereafter. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0082" id="link2HCH0082"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER III + </h2> + <p> + We will now speak to those who, while they agree that a life of virtue is + most eligible, yet differ in the use of it addressing ourselves to both + these parties; for there are some who disapprove of all political + governments, and think that the life of one who is really free is + different from the life of a citizen, and of all others most eligible: + others again think that the citizen is the best; and that it is impossible + for him who does nothing to be well employed; but that virtuous activity + and happiness are the same thing. Now both parties in some particulars say + what is right, in others what is wrong, thus, that the life of a freeman + is better than the life of a slave is true, for a slave, as a slave, is + employed in nothing honourable; for the common servile employments which + he is commanded to perform have nothing virtuous in them; but, on the + other hand, it is not true that a submission to all sorts of governments + is slavery; for the government of freemen differs not more from the + government of slaves than slavery and freedom differ from each other in + their nature; and how they do has been already mentioned. To prefer doing + of nothing to virtuous activity is also wrong, for happiness consists in + action, and many noble ends are produced by the actions of the just and + wise. From what we have already determined on this subject, some one + probably may think, that supreme power is of all things best, as that will + enable a man to command very many useful services from others; so that he + who can obtain this ought not to give it up to another, but rather to + seize it: and, for this purpose, the father should have no attention or + regard for the son, or the son for the father, or friend for friend; for + what is best is most eligible: but to be a member of the community and be + in felicity is best. What these persons advance might probably be true, if + the supreme good was certainly theirs who plunder and use violence to + others: but it is [1325b] most unlikely that it should be so; for it is a + mere supposition: for it does not follow that their actions are honourable + who thus assume the supreme power over others, without they were by nature + as superior to them as a man to a woman, a father to a child, a master to + a slave: so that he who so far forsakes the paths of virtue can never + return back from whence he departed from them: for amongst equals whatever + is fair and just ought to be reciprocal; for this is equal and right; but + that equals should not partake of what is equal, or like to like, is + contrary to nature: but whatever is contrary to nature is not right; + therefore, if there is any one superior to the rest of the community in + virtue and abilities for active life, him it is proper to follow, him it + is right to obey, but the one alone will not do, but must be joined to the + other also: and, if we are right in what we have now said, it follows that + happiness consists in virtuous activity, and that both with respect to the + community as well as the individual an active life is the happiest: not + that an active life must necessarily refer to other persons, as some + think, or that those studies alone are practical which are pursued to + teach others what to do; for those are much more so whose final object is + in themselves, and to improve the judgment and understanding of the man; + for virtuous activity has an end, therefore is something practical; nay, + those who contrive the plan which others follow are more particularly said + to act, and are superior to the workmen who execute their designs. But it + is not necessary that states which choose to have no intercourse with + others should remain inactive; for the several members thereof may have + mutual intercourse with each other; for there are many opportunities for + this among the different citizens; the same thing is true of every + individual: for, was it otherwise, neither could the Deity nor the + universe be perfect; to neither of whom can anything external separately + exist. Hence it is evident that that very same life which is happy for + each individual is happy also for the state and every member of it. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0083" id="link2HCH0083"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER IV + </h2> + <p> + As I have now finished what was introductory to this subject, and + considered at large the nature of other states, it now remains that I + should first say what ought to be the establishment of a city which one + should form according to one's wish; for no good state can exist without a + moderate proportion of what is necessary. Many things therefore ought to + be forethought of as desirable, but none of them such as are impossible: I + mean relative to the number of citizens and the extent of the territory: + for as other artificers, such as the weaver and the shipwright, ought to + have such materials as are fit for their work, since so much the better + they are, by so much [1326a] superior will the work itself necessarily be; + so also ought the legislator and politician endeavour to procure proper + materials for the business they have in hand. Now the first and principal + instrument of the politician is the number of the people; he should + therefore know how many, and what they naturally ought to be: in like + manner the country, how large, and what it is. Most persons think that it + is necessary for a city to be large to be happy: but, should this be true, + they cannot tell what is a large one and what a small one; for according + to the multitude of the inhabitants they estimate the greatness of it; but + they ought rather to consider its strength than its numbers; for a state + has a certain object in view, and from the power which it has in itself of + accomplishing it, its greatness ought to be estimated; as a person might + say, that Hippocrates was a greater physician, though not a greater man, + than one that exceeded him in the size of his body: but if it was proper + to determine the strength of the city from the number of the inhabitants, + it should never be collected from the multitude in general who may happen + to be in it; for in a city there must necessarily be many slaves, + sojourners, and foreigners; but from those who are really part of the city + and properly constitute its members; a multitude of these is indeed a + proof of a large city, but in a state where a large number of mechanics + inhabit, and but few soldiers, such a state cannot be great; for the + greatness of the city, and the number of men in it, are not the same + thing. This too is evident from fact, that it is very difficult, if not + impossible, to govern properly a very numerous body of men; for of all the + states which appear well governed we find not one where the rights of a + citizen are open to an indiscriminate multitude. And this is also evident + from the nature of the thing; for as law is a certain order, so good law + is of course a certain good order: but too large a multitude are incapable + of this, unless under the government of that DIVINE POWER which + comprehends the universe. Not but that, as quantity and variety are + usually essential to beauty, the perfection of a city consists in the + largeness of it as far as that largeness is consistent with that order + already mentioned: but still there is a determinate size to all cities, as + well as everything else, whether animals, plants, or machines, for each of + these, if they are neither too little nor too big, have their proper + powers; but when they have not their due growth, or are badly constructed, + as a ship a span long is not properly a ship, nor one of two furlongs + length, but when it is of a fit size; for either from its smallness or + from its largeness it may be quite useless: so is it with a city; one that + is too small has not [1326b] in itself the power of self-defence, but this + is essential to a city: one that is too large is capable of self-defence + in what is necessary; but then it is a nation and not a city: for it will + be very difficult to accommodate a form of government to it: for who would + choose to be the general of such an unwieldy multitude, or who could be + their herald but a stentor? The first thing therefore necessary is, that a + city should consist of such numbers as will be sufficient to enable the + inhabitants to live happily in their political community: and it follows, + that the more the inhabitants exceed that necessary number the greater + will the city be: but this must not be, as we have already said, without + bounds; but what is its proper limit experience will easily show, and this + experience is to be collected from the actions both of the governors and + the governed. Now, as it belongs to the first to direct the inferior + magistrates and to act as judges, it follows that they can neither + determine causes with justice nor issue their orders with propriety + without they know the characters of their fellow-citizens: so that + whenever this happens not to be done in these two particulars, the state + must of necessity be badly managed; for in both of them it is not right to + determine too hastily and without proper knowledge, which must evidently + be the case where the number of the citizens is too many: besides, it is + more easy for strangers and sojourners to assume the rights of citizens, + as they will easily escape detection in so great a multitude. It is + evident, then, that the best boundary for a city is that wherein the + numbers are the greatest possible, that they may be the better able to be + sufficient in themselves, while at the same time they are not too large to + be under the eye and government of the magistrates. And thus let us + determine the extent of a city. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0084" id="link2HCH0084"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER V + </h2> + <p> + What we have said concerning a city may nearly be applied to a country; + for as to what soil it should be, every one evidently will commend it if + it is such as is sufficient in itself to furnish what will make the + inhabitants happy; for which purpose it must be able to supply them with + all the necessaries of life; for it is the having these in plenty, without + any want, which makes them content. As to its extent, it should be such as + may enable the inhabitants to live at their ease with freedom and + temperance. Whether we have done right or wrong in fixing this limit to + the territory shall be considered more minutely hereafter, when we come + particularly to inquire into property, and what fortune is requisite for a + man to live on, and how and in what manner they ought to employ it; for + there are many doubts upon this question, while each party insists upon + their own plan of life being carried to an excess, the one of severity, + the other of indulgence. What the situation of the country should be it is + not difficult to determine, in some particulars respecting that we ought + to be advised by those who are skilful in military affairs. It should be + difficult of access to an enemy, but easy to the inhabitants: and as we + said, that the number of [1327a] inhabitants ought to be such as can come + under the eye of the magistrate, so should it be with the country; for + then it is easily defended. As to the position of the city, if one could + place it to one's wish, it is convenient to fix it on the seaside: with + respect to the country, one situation which it ought to have has been + already mentioned, namely, that it should be so placed as easily to give + assistance to all places, and also to receive the necessaries of life from + all parts, and also wood, or any other materials which may happen to be in + the country. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0085" id="link2HCH0085"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VI + </h2> + <p> + But with respect to placing a city in the neighbourhood of the sea, there + are some who have many doubts whether it is serviceable or hurtful to a + well-regulated state; for they say, that the resort of persons brought up + under a different system of government is disserviceable to the state, as + well by impeding the laws as by their numbers; for a multitude of + merchants must necessarily arise from their trafficking backward and + forward upon the seas, which will hinder the well-governing of the city: + but if this inconvenience should not arise, it is evident that it is + better, both on account of safety and also for the easier acquisition of + the necessaries of life, that both the city and the country should be near + the sea; for it is necessary that those who are to sustain the attack of + the enemy should be ready with their assistance both by land and by sea, + and to oppose any inroad, both ways if possible but if not, at least where + they are most powerful, which they may do while they possess both. A + maritime situation is also useful for receiving from others what your own + country will not produce, and exporting those necessaries of your own + growth which are more than you have occasion for; but a city ought to + traffic to supply its own wants, and not the wants of others; for those + who themselves furnish an open market for every one, do it for the sake of + gain; which it is not proper for a well-established state to do, neither + should they encourage such a commerce. Now, as we see that many places and + cities have docks and harbours lying very convenient for the city, while + those who frequent them have no communication with the citadel, and yet + they are not too far off, but are surrounded by walls and such-like + fortifications, it is evident, that if any good arises from such an + intercourse the city will receive it, but if anything hurtful, it will be + easy to restrain it by a law declaring and deputing whom the state will + allow to have an intercourse with each other, and whom not. As to a naval + power, it is by no means doubtful that it is necessary to have one to a + certain degree; and this not only for the sake of the [1327b] city itself, + but also because it may be necessary to appear formidable to some of the + neighbouring states, or to be able to assist them as well by sea as by + land; but to know how great that force should be, the health of the state + should be inquired into, and if that appears vigorous and enables her to + take the lead of other communities, it is necessary that her force should + correspond with her actions. As for that multitude of people which a + maritime power creates, they are by no means necessary to a state, nor + ought they to make a part of the citizens; for the mariners and infantry, + who have the command, are freemen, and upon these depends a naval + engagement: but when there are many servants and husbandmen, there they + will always have a number of sailors, as we now see happens to some + states, as in Heraclea, where they man many triremes, though the extent of + their city is much inferior to some others. And thus we determine + concerning the country, the port, the city, the sea, and a maritime power: + as to the number of the citizens, what that ought to be we have already + said. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0086" id="link2HCH0086"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VII + </h2> + <p> + We now proceed to point out what natural disposition the members of the + community ought to be of: but this any one will easily perceive who will + cast his eye over the states of Greece, of all others the most celebrated, + and also the other different nations of this habitable world. Those who + live in cold countries, as the north of Europe, are full of courage, but + wanting in understanding and the arts: therefore they are very tenacious + of their liberty; but, not being politicians, they cannot reduce their + neighbours under their power: but the Asiatics, whose understandings are + quick, and who are conversant in the arts, are deficient in courage; and + therefore are always conquered and the slaves of others: but the Grecians, + placed as it were between these two boundaries, so partake of them both as + to be at the same time both courageous and sensible; for which reason + Greece continues free, and governed in the best manner possible, and + capable of commanding the whole world, could they agree upon one system of + policy. Now this is the difference between the Grecians and other nations, + that the latter have but one of these qualities, whereas in the former + they are both happily blended together. Hence it is evident, that those + persons ought to be both sensible and courageous who will readily obey a + legislator, the object of whose laws is virtue. As to what some persons + say, that the military must be mild and tender to those they know, but + severe and cruel to those they know not, it is courage which [1328a] makes + any one lovely; for that is the faculty of the soul which we most admire: + as a proof of this, our resentment rises higher against our friends and + acquaintance than against those we know not: for which reason Archilaus + accusing his friends says very properly to himself, Shall my friends + insult me? The spirit of freedom and command also is what all inherit who + are of this disposition for courage is commanding and invincible. It also + is not right for any one to say, that you should be severe to those you + know not; for this behaviour is proper for no one: nor are those who are + of a noble disposition harsh in their manners, excepting only to the + wicked; and when they are particularly so, it is, as has been already + said, against their friends, when they think they have injured them; which + is agreeable to reason: for when those who think they ought to receive a + favour from any one do not receive it, beside the injury done them, they + consider what they are deprived of: hence the saying, "Cruel are the wars + of brothers;" and this, "Those who have greatly loved do greatly hate." + And thus we have nearly determined how many the inhabitants of a city + ought to be, and what their natural disposition, and also the country how + large, and of what sort is necessary; I say nearly, because it is needless + to endeavour at as great accuracy in those things which are the objects of + the senses as in those which are inquired into by the understanding only. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0087" id="link2HCH0087"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VIII + </h2> + <p> + As in natural bodies those things are not admitted to be parts of them + without which the whole would not exist, so also it is evident that in a + political state everything that is necessary thereunto is not to be + considered as a part of it, nor any other community from whence one whole + is made; for one thing ought to be common and the same to the community, + whether they partake of it equally or unequally, as, for instance, food, + land, or the like; but when one thing is for the benefit of one person, + and another for the benefit of another, in this there is nothing like a + community, excepting that one makes it and the other uses it; as, for + instance, between any instrument employed in making any work, and the + workmen, as there is nothing common between the house and the builder, but + the art of the builder is employed on the house. Thus property is + necessary for states, but property is no part of the state, though many + species of it have life; but a city is a community of equals, for the + purpose of enjoying the best life possible: but the happiest life is the + best which consists in the perfect practice of virtuous energies: as + therefore some persons have great, others little or no opportunity of + being employed in these, it is evident that this is the cause of the + difference there is between the different cities and communities there are + to be found; for while each of these endeavour to acquire what is best by + various and different means, they give [1328b] rise to different modes of + living and different forms of government. We are now to consider what + those things are without which a city cannot possibly exist; for what we + call parts of the city must of necessity inhere in it: and this we shall + plainly understand, if we know the number of things necessary to a city: + first, the inhabitants must have food: secondly, arts, for many + instruments are necessary in life: thirdly, arms, for it is necessary that + the community should have an armed force within themselves, both to + support their government against those of their own body who might refuse + obedience to it, and also to defend it from those who might attempt to + attack it from without: fourthly, a certain revenue, as well for the + internal necessities of the state as for the business of war: fifthly, + which is indeed the chief concern, a religious establishment: sixthly in + order, but first of all in necessity, a court to determine both criminal + and civil causes. These things are absolutely necessary, so to speak, in + every state; for a city is a number of people not accidentally met + together, but with a purpose of ensuring to themselves sufficient + independency and self-protection; and if anything necessary for these + purposes is wanting, it is impossible that in such a situation these ends + can be obtained. It is necessary therefore that a city should be capable + of acquiring all these things: for this purpose a proper number of + husbandmen are necessary to procure food, also artificers and soldiers, + and rich men, and priests and judges, to determine what is right and + proper. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0088" id="link2HCH0088"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER IX + </h2> + <p> + Having determined thus far, it remains that we consider whether all these + different employments shall be open to all; for it is possible to continue + the same persons always husbandmen, artificers, judges, or counsellors; or + shall we appoint different persons to each of those employments which we + have already mentioned; or shall some of them be appropriated to + particulars, and others of course common to all? but this does not take + place in every state, for, as we have already said, it is possible that + all may be common to all, or not, but only common to some; and this is the + difference between one government and another: for in democracies the + whole community partakes of everything, but in oligarchies it is + different. + </p> + <p> + Since we are inquiring what is the best government possible, and it is + admitted to be that in which the citizens are happy; and that, as we have + already said, it is impossible to obtain happiness without virtue; it + follows, that in the best-governed states, where the citizens are really + men of intrinsic and not relative goodness, none of them should be + permitted to exercise any mechanic employment or follow merchandise, as + being ignoble and destructive to virtue; neither should they be + husband-[1329a] men, that they may be at leisure to improve in virtue and + perform the duty they owe to the state. With respect to the employments of + a soldier, a senator, and a judge, which are evidently necessary to the + community, shall they be allotted to different persons, or shall the same + person execute both? This question, too, is easily answered: for in some + cases the same persons may execute them, in others they should be + different, where the different employments require different abilities, as + when courage is wanting for one, judgment for the other, there they should + be allotted to different persons; but when it is evident, that it is + impossible to oblige those who have arms in their hands, and can insist on + their own terms, to be always under command; there these different + employments should be trusted to one person; for those who have arms in + their hands have it in their option whether they will or will not assume + the supreme power: to these two (namely, those who have courage and + judgment) the government must be entrusted; but not in the same manner, + but as nature directs; what requires courage to the young, what requires + judgment to the old; for with the young is courage, with the old is + wisdom: thus each will be allotted the part they are fit for according to + their different merits. It is also necessary that the landed property + should belong to these men; for it is necessary that the citizens should + be rich, and these are the men proper for citizens; for no mechanic ought + to be admitted to the rights of a citizen, nor any other sort of people + whose employment is not entirely noble, honourable, and virtuous; this is + evident from the principle we at first set out with; for to be happy it is + necessary to be virtuous; and no one should say that a city is happy while + he considers only one part of its citizens, but for that purpose he ought + to examine into all of them. It is evident, therefore, that the landed + property should belong to these, though it may be necessary for them to + have husbandmen, either slaves, barbarians, or servants. There remains of + the different classes of the people whom we have enumerated, the priests, + for these evidently compose a rank by themselves; for neither are they to + be reckoned amongst the husbandmen nor the mechanics; for reverence to the + gods is highly becoming every state: and since the citizens have been + divided into orders, the military and the council, and it is proper to + offer due worship to the gods, and since it is necessary that those who + are employed in their service should have nothing else to do, let the + business of the priesthood be allotted to those who are in years. We have + now shown what is necessary to the existence of a city, and of what parts + it consists, and that husbandmen, mechanic, and mercenary servants are + necessary to a city; but that the parts of it are soldiers and sailors, + and that these are always different from those, but from each other only + occasionally. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0089" id="link2HCH0089"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER X + </h2> + <p> + It seems neither now nor very lately to have been known [1329b] to those + philosophers who have made politics their study, that a city ought to be + divided by families into different orders of men; and that the husbandmen + and soldiers should be kept separate from each other; which custom is even + to this day preserved in Egypt and in Crete; also Sesostris having founded + it in Egypt, Minos in Crete. Common meals seem also to have been an + ancient regulation, and to have been established in Crete during the reign + of Minos, and in a still more remote period in Italy; for those who are + the best judges in that country say that one Italus being king of + AEnotria., from whom the people, changing their names, were called + Italians instead of AEnotrians, and that part of Europe was called Italy + which is bounded by the Scylletic Gulf on the one side and the Lametic on + the other, the distance between which is about half a day's journey. This + Italus, they relate, made the AEnotrians, who were formerly shepherds, + husbandmen, and gave them different laws from what they had before, and to + have been the first who established common meals, for which reason some of + his descendants still use them, and observe some of his laws. The Opici + inhabit that part which lies towards the Tyrrhenian Sea, who both now are + and formerly were called Ausonians. The Chones inhabited the part toward + Iapigia and the Ionian Sea which is called Syrtis. These Chones were + descended from the AEnotrians. Hence arose the custom of common meals, but + the separation of the citizens into different families from Egypt: for the + reign of Sesostris is of much higher antiquity than that of Minos. As we + ought to think that most other things were found out in a long, nay, even + in a boundless time (reason teaching us that want would make us first + invent that which was necessary, and, when that was obtained, then those + things which were requisite for the conveniences and ornament of life), so + should we conclude the same with respect to a political state; now + everything in Egypt bears the marks of the most remote antiquity, for + these people seem to be the most ancient of all others, and to have + acquired laws and political order; we should therefore make a proper use + of what is told us of them, and endeavour to find out what they have + omitted. We have already said, that the landed property ought to belong to + the military and those who partake of the government of the state; and + that therefore the husbandmen should be a separate order of people; and + how large and of what nature the country ought to be: we will first treat + of the division of the land, and of the husbandmen, how many and of what + sort they ought to be; since we by no means hold that property ought to be + common, as some persons have said, only thus far, in friendship, it + [1330a] should be their custom to let no citizen want subsistence. As to + common meals, it is in general agreed that they are proper in + well-regulated cities; my reasons for approving of them shall be mentioned + hereafter: they are what all the citizens ought to partake of; but it will + not be easy for the poor, out of what is their own, to furnish as much as + they are ordered to do, and supply their own house besides. The expense + also of religious worship should be defrayed by the whole state. Of + necessity therefore the land ought to be divided into two parts, one of + which should belong to the community in general, the other to the + individuals separately; and each of these parts should again be subdivided + into two: half of that which belongs to the public should be appropriated + to maintain the worship of the gods, the other half to support the common + meals. Half of that which belongs to the individuals should be at the + extremity of the country, the other half near the city, so that these two + portions being allotted to each person, all would partake of land in both + places, which would be both equal and right; and induce them to act in + concert with greater harmony in any war with their neighbours: for when + the land is not divided in this manner, one party neglects the inroads of + the enemy on the borders, the other makes it a matter of too much + consequence and more than is necessary; for which reason in some places + there is a law which forbids the inhabitants of the borders to have any + vote in the council when they are debating upon a war which is made + against them as their private interest might prevent their voting + impartially. Thus therefore the country ought to be divided and for the + reasons before mentioned. Could one have one's choice, the husbandmen + should by all means be slaves, not of the same nation, or men of any + spirit; for thus they would be laborious in their business, and safe from + attempting any novelties: next to these barbarian servants are to be + preferred, similar in natural disposition to these we have already + mentioned. Of these, let those who are to cultivate the private property + of the individual belong to that individual, and those who are to + cultivate the public territory belong to the public. In what manner these + slaves ought to be used, and for what reason it is very proper that they + should have the promise of their liberty made them, as a reward for their + services, shall be mentioned hereafter. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0090" id="link2HCH0090"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XI + </h2> + <p> + We have already mentioned, that both the city and all the country should + communicate both with the sea and the continent as much as possible. There + are these four things which we should be particularly desirous of in the + position of the city with respect to itself: in the first place, health is + to be consulted as the first thing necessary: now a city which fronts the + east and receives the winds which blow from thence is esteemed most + healthful; next to this that which has a northern position is to be + preferred, as best in winter. It should next be contrived that it may have + a proper situation for the business of government and for defence in war: + that in war the citizens may [1330b] have easy access to it; but that it + may be difficult of access to, and hardly to be taken by, the enemy. In + the next place particularly, that there may be plenty of water, and rivers + near at hand: but if those cannot be found, very large cisterns must be + prepared to save rain-water, so that there may be no want of it in case + they should be driven into the town in time of war. And as great care + should be taken of the health of the inhabitants, the first thing to be + attended to is, that the city should have a good situation and a good + position; the second is, that they may have good water to drink; and this + not be negligently taken care of; for what we chiefly and most frequently + use for the support of the body must principally influence the health of + it; and this influence is what the air and water naturally have: for which + reason in all wise governments the waters ought to be appropriated to + different purposes, and if they are not equally good, and if there is not + a plenty of necessary water, that which is to drink should be separated + from that which is for other uses. As to fortified places, what is proper + for some governments is not proper for all; as, for instance, a lofty + citadel is proper for a monarchy and an oligarchy; a city built upon a + plain suits a democracy; neither of these for an aristocracy, but rather + many strong places. As to the form of private houses, those are thought to + be best and most useful for their different purposes which are distinct + and separate from each other, and built in the modern manner, after the + plan of Hippodamus: but for safety in time of war, on the contrary, they + should be built as they formerly were; for they were such that strangers + could not easily find their way out of them, and the method of access to + them such as an enemy could with difficulty find out if he proposed to + besiege them. A city therefore should have both these sorts of buildings, + which may easily be contrived if any one will so regulate them as the + planters do their rows of vines; not that the buildings throughout the + city should be detached from each other, only in some parts of it; thus + elegance and safety will be equally consulted. With respect to walls, + those who say that a courageous people ought not to have any, pay too much + respect to obsolete notions; particularly as we may see those who pride + themselves therein continually confuted by facts. It is indeed + disreputable for those who are equal, or nearly so, to the enemy, to + endeavour to take refuge within their walls—but since it very often + happens, that those who make the attack are too powerful for the bravery + and courage of those few who oppose them to resist, if you would not + suffer the calamities of war and the insolence of the enemy, it must be + thought the part of a good soldier to seek for safety under the shelter + and protection of walls more especially since so many missile weapons and + machines have been most ingeniously invented to besiege cities with. + Indeed to neglect surrounding a city with a wall would be similar to + choosing a country which is easy of access to an enemy, or levelling the + eminences of it; or as if an individual should not have a wall to his + house lest it should be thought that the owner of it was a coward: nor + should this be left unconsidered, that those who have a city surrounded + with walls may act both ways, either as if it had or as if it had not; but + where it has not they cannot do this. If this is true, it is not only + necessary to have walls, but care must be taken that they may be a proper + ornament to the city, as well as a defence in time of war; not only + according to the old methods, but the modern improvements also: for as + those who make offensive war endeavour by every way possible to gain + advantages over their adversaries, so should those who are upon the + defensive employ all the means already known, and such new ones as + philosophy can invent, to defend themselves: for those who are well + prepared are seldom first attacked. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0091" id="link2HCH0091"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XII + </h2> + <p> + As the citizens in general are to eat at public tables in certain + companies, and it is necessary that the walls should have bulwarks and + towers in proper places and at proper distances, it is evident that it + will be very necessary to have some of these in the towers; let the + buildings for this purpose be made the ornaments of the walls. As to + temples for public worship, and the hall for the public tables of the + chief magistrates, they ought to be built in proper places, and contiguous + to each other, except those temples which the law or the oracle orders to + be separate from all other buildings; and let these be in such a + conspicuous eminence, that they may have every advantage of situation, and + in the neighbourhood of that part of the city which is best fortified. + Adjoining to this place there ought to be a large square, like that which + they call in Thessaly The Square of Freedom, in which nothing is permitted + to be bought or sold; into which no mechanic nor husbandman, nor any such + person, should be permitted to enter, unless commanded by the magistrates. + It will also be an ornament to this place if the gymnastic exercises of + the elders are performed in it. It is also proper, that for performing + these exercises the citizens should be divided into distinct classes, + according to their ages, and that the young persons should have proper + officers to be with them, and that the seniors should be with the + magistrates; for having them before their eyes would greatly inspire true + modesty and ingenuous fear. There ought to be another square [1331b] + separate from this for buying and selling, which should be so situated as + to be commodious for the reception of goods both by sea and land. As the + citizens may be divided into magistrates and priests, it is proper that + the public tables of the priests should be in buildings near the temples. + Those of the magistrates who preside over contracts, indictments, and + such-like, and also over the markets, and the public streets near the + square, or some public way, I mean the square where things are bought and + sold; for I intended the other for those who are at leisure, and this for + necessary business. The same order which I have directed here should be + observed also in the country; for there also their magistrates such as the + surveyors of the woods and overseers of the grounds, must necessarily have + their common tables and their towers, for the purpose of protection + against an enemy. There ought also to be temples erected at proper places, + both to the gods and the heroes; but it is unnecessary to dwell longer and + most minutely on these particulars—for it is by no means difficult + to plan these things, it is rather so to carry them into execution; for + the theory is the child of our wishes, but the practical part must depend + upon fortune; for which reason we shall decline saying anything farther + upon these subjects. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0092" id="link2HCH0092"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XIII + </h2> + <p> + We will now show of what numbers and of what sort of people a government + ought to consist, that the state may be happy and well administered. As + there are two particulars on which the excellence and perfection of + everything depend, one of these is, that the object and end proposed + should be proper; the other, that the means to accomplish it should be + adapted to that purpose; for it may happen that these may either agree or + disagree with each other; for the end we propose may be good, but in + taking the means to obtain it we may err; at other times we may have the + right and proper means in our power, but the end may be bad, and sometimes + we may mistake in both; as in the art of medicine the physician does not + sometimes know in what situation the body ought to be, to be healthy; nor + what to do to procure the end he aims at. In every art and science, + therefore, we should be master of this knowledge, namely, the proper end, + and the means to obtain it. Now it is evident that all persons are + desirous to live well and be happy; but that some have the means thereof + in their own power, others not; and this either through nature [1332a] or + fortune; for many ingredients are necessary to a happy life; but fewer to + those who are of a good than to those who are of a bad disposition. There + are others who continually have the means of happiness in their own power, + but do not rightly apply them. Since we propose to inquire what government + is best, namely, that by which a state may be best administered, and that + state is best administered where the people are the happiest, it is + evident that happiness is a thing we should not be unacquainted with. Now, + I have already said in my treatise on Morals (if I may here make any use + of what I have there shown), that happiness consists in the energy and + perfect practice of virtue; and this not relatively, but simply; I mean by + relatively, what is necessary in some certain circumstances; by simply, + what is good and fair in itself: of the first sort are just punishments, + and restraints in a just cause; for they arise from virtue and are + necessary, and on that account are virtuous; though it is more desirable + that neither any state nor any individual should stand in need of them; + but those actions which are intended either to procure honour or wealth + are simply good; the others eligible only to remove an evil; these, on the + contrary, are the foundation and means of relative good. A worthy man + indeed will bear poverty, disease, and other unfortunate accidents with a + noble mind; but happiness consists in the contrary to these (now we have + already determined in our treatise on Morals, that he is a man of worth + who considers what is good because it is virtuous as what is simply good; + it is evident, therefore, that all the actions of such a one must be + worthy and simply good): this has led some persons to conclude, that the + cause of happiness was external goods; which would be as if any one should + suppose that the playing well upon the lyre was owing to the instrument, + and not to the art. It necessarily follows from what has been said, that + some things should be ready at hand and others procured by the legislator; + for which reason in founding a city we earnestly wish that there may be + plenty of those things which are supposed to be under the dominion of + fortune (for some things we admit her to be mistress over); but for a + state to be worthy and great is not only the work of fortune but of + knowledge and judgment also. But for a state to be worthy it is necessary + that those citizens which are in the administration should be worthy also; + but as in our city every citizen is to be so, we must consider how this + may be accomplished; for if this is what every one could be, and not some + individuals only, it would be more desirable; for then it would follow, + that what might be done by one might be done by all. Men are worthy and + good three ways; by nature, by custom, by reason. In the first place, a + man ought to be born a man, and not any other animal; that is to say, he + ought to have both a body and soul; but it avails not to be only born + [1332b] with some things, for custom makes great alterations; for there + are some things in nature capable of alteration either way which are fixed + by custom, either for the better or the worse. Now, other animals live + chiefly a life of nature; and in very few things according to custom; but + man lives according to reason also, which he alone is endowed with; + wherefore he ought to make all these accord with each other; for if men + followed reason, and were persuaded that it was best to obey her, they + would act in many respects contrary to nature and custom. What men ought + naturally to be, to make good members of a community, I have already + determined; the rest of this discourse therefore shall be upon education; + for some things are acquired by habit, others by hearing them. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0093" id="link2HCH0093"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XIV + </h2> + <p> + As every political community consists of those who govern and of those who + are governed, let us consider whether during the continuance of their + lives they ought to be the same persons or different; for it is evident + that the mode of education should be adapted to this distinction. Now, if + one man differed from another as much, as we believe, the gods and heroes + differ from men: in the first place, being far their superiors in body; + and, secondly, in the soul: so that the superiority of the governors over + the governed might be evident beyond a doubt, it is certain that it would + be better for the one always to govern, the other always to be governed: + but, as this is not easy to obtain, and kings are not so superior to those + they govern as Scylax informs us they are in India, it is evident that for + many reasons it is necessary that all in their turns should both govern + and be governed: for it is just that those who are equal should have + everything alike; and it is difficult for a state to continue which is + founded in injustice; for all those in the country who are desirous of + innovation will apply themselves to those who are under the government of + the rest, and such will be their numbers in the state, that it will be + impossible for the magistrates to get the better of them. But that the + governors ought to excel the governed is beyond a doubt; the legislator + therefore ought to consider how this shall be, and how it may be contrived + that all shall have their equal share in the administration. Now, with + respect to this it will be first said, that nature herself has directed us + in our choice, laying down the selfsame thing when she has made some + young, others old: the first of whom it becomes to obey, the latter to + command; for no one when he is young is offended at his being under + government, or thinks himself too good for it; more especially when he + considers that he himself shall receive the same honours which he pays + when he shall arrive at a proper age. In some respects it must be + acknowledged that the governors and the governed are the same, in others + they are different; it is therefore necessary that their education should + be in [1333a] some respect the same, in others different: as they say, + that he will be a good governor who has first learnt to obey. Now of + governments, as we have already said, some are instituted for the sake of + him who commands; others for him who obeys: of the first sort is that of + the master over the servant; of the latter, that of freemen over each + other. Now some things which are commanded differ from others; not in the + business, but in the end proposed thereby: for which reason many works, + even of a servile nature, are not disgraceful for young freemen to + perform; for many things which are ordered to be done are not honourable + or dishonourable so much in their own nature as in the end which is + proposed, and the reason for which they are undertaken. Since then we have + determined, that the virtue of a good citizen and good governor is the + same as of a good man; and that every one before he commands should have + first obeyed, it is the business of the legislator to consider how his + citizens may be good men, what education is necessary to that purpose, and + what is the final object of a good life. The soul of man may be divided + into two parts; that which has reason in itself, and that which hath not, + but is capable of obeying its dictates: and according to the virtues of + these two parts a man is said to be good: but of those virtues which are + the ends, it will not be difficult for those to determine who adopt the + division I have already given; for the inferior is always for the sake of + the superior; and this is equally evident both in the works of art as well + as in those of nature; but that is superior which has reason. Reason + itself also is divided into two parts, in the manner we usually divide it; + the theoretic and the practical; which division therefore seems necessary + for this part also: the same analogy holds good with respect to actions; + of which those which are of a superior nature ought always to be chosen by + those who have it in their power; for that is always most eligible to + every one which will procure the best ends. Now life is divided into + labour and rest, war and peace; and of what we do the objects are partly + necessary and useful, partly noble: and we should give the same preference + to these that we do to the different parts of the soul and its actions, as + war to procure peace; labour, rest; and the useful, the noble. The + politician, therefore, who composes a body of laws ought to extend his + views to everything; the different parts of the soul and their actions; + more particularly to those things which are of a superior nature and ends; + and, in the same manner, to the lives of men and their different actions. + </p> + <p> + They ought to be fitted both for labour and war, but rather [1333b] for + rest and peace; and also to do what is necessary and useful, but rather + what is fair and noble. It is to those objects that the education of the + children ought to tend, and of all the youths who want instruction. All + the Grecian states which now seem best governed, and the legislators who + founded those states, appear not to have framed their polity with a view + to the best end, or to every virtue, in their laws and education; but + eagerly to have attended to what is useful and productive of gain: and + nearly of the same opinion with these are some persons who have written + lately, who, by praising the Lacedaemonian state, show they approve of the + intention of the legislator in making war and victory the end of his + government. But how contrary to reason this is, is easily proved by + argument, and has already been proved by facts (but as the generality of + men desire to have an extensive command, that they may have everything + desirable in the greater abundance; so Thibron and others who have written + on that state seem to approve of their legislator for having procured them + an extensive command by continually enuring them to all sorts of dangers + and hardships): for it is evident, since the Lacedemonians have now no + hope that the supreme power will be in their own hand, that neither are + they happy nor was their legislator wise. This also is ridiculous, that + while they preserved an obedience to their laws, and no one opposed their + being governed by them, they lost the means of being honourable: but these + people understand not rightly what sort of government it is which ought to + reflect honour on the legislator; for a government of freemen is nobler + than despotic power, and more consonant to virtue. Moreover, neither + should a city be thought happy, nor should a legislator be commended, + because he has so trained the people as to conquer their neighbours; for + in this there is a great inconvenience: since it is evident that upon this + principle every citizen who can will endeavour to procure the supreme + power in his own city; which crime the Lacedaemonians accuse Pausanias of, + though he enjoyed such great honours. + </p> + <p> + Such reasoning and such laws are neither political, useful nor true: but a + legislator ought to instil those laws on the minds of men which are most + useful for them, both in their public and private capacities. The + rendering a people fit for war, that they may enslave their inferiors + ought not to be the care of the legislator; but that they may not + themselves be reduced to slavery by others. In [1334a] the next place, he + should take care that the object of his government is the safety of those + who are under it, and not a despotism over all: in the third place, that + those only are slaves who are fit to be only so. Reason indeed concurs + with experience in showing that all the attention which the legislator + pays to the business of war, and all other rules which he lays down, + should have for their object rest and peace; since most of those states + (which we usually see) are preserved by war; but, after they have acquired + a supreme power over those around them, are ruined; for during peace, like + a sword, they lose their brightness: the fault of which lies in the + legislator, who never taught them how to be at rest. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0094" id="link2HCH0094"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XV + </h2> + <p> + As there is one end common to a man both as an individual and a citizen, + it is evident that a good man and a good citizen must have the same object + in view; it is evident that all the virtues which lead to rest are + necessary; for, as we have often said, the end of war is peace, of labour, + rest; but those virtues whose object is rest, and those also whose object + is labour, are necessary for a liberal life and rest; for we want a supply + of many necessary things that we may be at rest. A city therefore ought to + be temperate, brave, and patient; for, according to the proverb, "Rest is + not for slaves;" but those who cannot bravely face danger are the slaves + of those who attack them. Bravery, therefore, and patience are necessary + for labour, philosophy for rest, and temperance and justice in both; but + these chiefly in time of peace and rest; for war obliges men to be just + and temperate; but the enjoyment of pleasure, with the rest of peace, is + more apt to produce insolence; those indeed who are easy in their + circumstances, and enjoy everything that can make them happy, have great + occasion for the virtues of temperance and justice. Thus if there are, as + the poets tell us, any inhabitants in the happy isles, to these a higher + degree of philosophy, temperance, and justice will be necessary, as they + live at their ease in the full plenty of every sensual pleasure. It is + evident, therefore, that these virtues are necessary in every state that + would be happy or worthy; for he who is worthless can never enjoy real + good, much less is he qualified to be at rest; but can appear good only by + labour and being at war, but in peace and at rest the meanest of + creatures. For which reason virtue should not be cultivated as the + Lacedaemonians did; for they did not differ from others in their opinion + concerning the supreme good, but in [1334b] imagining this good was to be + procured by a particular virtue; but since there are greater goods than + those of war, it is evident that the enjoyment of those which are valuable + in themselves should be desired, rather than those virtues which are + useful in war; but how and by what means this is to be acquired is now to + be considered. We have already assigned three causes on which it will + depend; nature, custom, and reason, arid shown what sort of men nature + must produce for this purpose; it remains then that we determine which we + shall first begin by in education, reason or custom, for these ought + always to preserve the most entire harmony with each other; for it may + happen that reason may err from the end proposed, and be corrected by + custom. In the first place, it is evident that in this as in other things, + its beginning or production arises from some principle, and its end also + arises from another principle, which is itself an end. Now, with us, + reason and intelligence are the end of nature; our production, therefore, + and our manners ought to be accommodated to both these. In the next place, + as the soul and the body are two distinct things, so also we see that the + soul is divided into two parts, the reasoning and not-reasoning, with + their habits which are two in number, one belonging to each, namely + appetite and intelligence; and as the body is in production before the + soul, so is the not-reasoning part of the soul before the reasoning; and + this is evident; for anger, will and desire are to be seen in children + nearly as soon as they are born; but reason and intelligence spring up as + they grow to maturity. The body, therefore, necessarily demands our care + before the soul; next the appetites for the sake of the mind; the body for + the sake of the soul. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0095" id="link2HCH0095"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XVI + </h2> + <p> + If then the legislator ought to take care that the bodies of the children + are as perfect as possible, his first attention ought to be given to + matrimony; at what time and in what situation it is proper that the + citizens should engage in the nuptial contract. Now, with respect to this + alliance, the legislator ought both to consider the parties and their time + of life, that they may grow old at the same part of time, and that their + bodily powers may not be different; that is to say, the man being able to + have children, but the woman too old to bear them; or, on the contrary, + the woman be young enough to produce children, but the man too old to be a + father; for from such a situation discords and disputes continually arise. + In the next place, with respect to the succession of children, there ought + not to be too great an interval of time between them and their parents; + for when there is, the parent can receive no benefit from his child's + affection, or the child any advantage from his father's protection; + [1335a] neither should the difference in years be too little, as great + inconveniences may arise from it; as it prevents that proper reverence + being shown to a father by a boy who considers him as nearly his equal in + age, and also from the disputes it occasions in the economy of the family. + But, to return from this digression, care ought to be taken that the + bodies of the children may be such as will answer the expectations of the + legislator; this also will be affected by the same means. Since season for + the production of children is determined (not exactly, but to speak in + general), namely, for the man till seventy years, and the woman till + fifty, the entering into the marriage state, as far as time is concerned, + should be regulated by these periods. It is extremely bad for the children + when the father is too young; for in all animals whatsoever the parts of + the young are imperfect, and are more likely to be productive of females + than males, and diminutive also in size; the same thing of course + necessarily holds true in men; as a proof of this you may see in those + cities where the men and women usually marry very young, the people in + general are very small and ill framed; in child-birth also the women + suffer more, and many of them die. And thus some persons tell us the + oracle of Traezenium should be explained, as if it referred to the many + women who were destroyed by too early marriages, and not their gathering + their fruits too soon. It is also conducive to temperance not to marry too + soon; for women who do so are apt to be intemperate. It also prevents the + bodies of men from acquiring their full size if they marry before their + growth is completed; for this is the determinate period, which prevents + any further increase; for which reason the proper time for a woman to + marry is eighteen, for a man thirty-seven, a little more or less; for when + they marry at that time their bodies are in perfection, and they will also + cease to have children at a proper time; and moreover with respect to the + succession of the children, if they have them at the time which may + reasonably be expected, they will be just arriving into perfection when + their parents are sinking down under the load of seventy years. And thus + much for the time which is proper for marriage; but moreover a proper + season of the year should be observed, as many persons do now, and + appropriate the winter for this business. The married couple ought also to + regard the precepts of physicians and naturalists, each of whom have + treated on these [1335b] subjects. What is the fit disposition of the body + will be better mentioned when we come to speak of the education of the + child; we will just slightly mention a few particulars. Now, there is no + occasion that any one should have the habit of body of a wrestler to be + either a good citizen, or to enjoy a good constitution, or to be the + father of healthy children; neither should he be infirm or too much + dispirited by misfortunes, but between both these. He ought to have a + habit of labour, but not of too violent labour; nor should that be + confined to one object only, as the wrestler's is; but to such things as + are proper for freemen. These things are equally necessary both for men + and women. Women with child should also take care that their diet is not + too sparing, and that they use sufficient exercise; which it will be easy + for the legislator to effect if he commands them once every day to repair + to the worship of the gods who are supposed to preside over matrimony. + But, contrary to what is proper for the body, the mind ought to be kept as + tranquil as possible; for as plants partake of the nature of the soil, so + does the child receive much of the disposition of the mother. With respect + to the exposing or bringing up of children, let it be a law, that nothing + imperfect or maimed shall be brought up,.......... As the proper time has + been pointed out for a man and a woman to enter into the marriage state, + so also let us determine how long it is advantageous for the community + that they should have children; for as the children of those who are too + young are imperfect both in body and mind, so also those whose parents are + too old are weak in both: while therefore the body continues in + perfection, which (as some poets say, who reckon the different periods of + life by sevens) is till fifty years, or four or five more, the children + may be equally perfect; but when the parents are past that age it is + better they should have no more. With respect to any connection between a + man and a woman, or a woman and a man, when either of the parties are + betrothed, let it be held in utter detestation [1336a] on any pretext + whatsoever; but should any one be guilty of such a thing after the + marriage is consummated, let his infamy be as great as his guilt deserves. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0096" id="link2HCH0096"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XVII + </h2> + <p> + When a child is born it must be supposed that the strength of its body + will depend greatly upon the quality of its food. Now whoever will examine + into the nature of animals, and also observe those people who are very + desirous their children should acquire a warlike habit, will find that + they feed them chiefly with milk, as being best accommodated to their + bodies, but without wine, to prevent any distempers: those motions also + which are natural to their age are very serviceable; and to prevent any of + their limbs from being crooked, on account of their extreme ductility, + some people even now use particular machines that their bodies may not be + distorted. It is also useful to enure them to the cold when they are very + little; for this is very serviceable for their health; and also to enure + them to the business of war; for which reason it is customary with many of + the barbarians to dip their children in rivers when the water is cold; + with others to clothe them very slightly, as among the Celts; for whatever + it is possible to accustom children to, it is best to accustom them to it + at first, but to do it by degrees: besides, boys have naturally a habit of + loving the cold, on account of the heat. These, then, and such-like things + ought to be the first object of our attention: the next age to this + continues till the child is five years old; during which time it is best + to teach him nothing at all, not even necessary labour, lest it should + hinder his growth; but he should be accustomed to use so much motion as + not to acquire a lazy habit of body; which he will get by various means + and by play also: his play also ought to be neither illiberal nor too + laborious nor lazy. Their governors and preceptors also should take care + what sort of tales and stories it may be proper for them to hear; for all + these ought to pave the way for their future instruction: for which reason + the generality of their play should be imitations of what they are + afterwards to do seriously. They too do wrong who forbid by laws the + disputes between boys and their quarrels, for they contribute to increase + their growth—as they are a sort of exercise to the body: for the + struggles of the heart and the compression of the spirits give strength to + those who labour, which happens to boys in their disputes. The preceptors + also ought to have an eye upon their manner of life, and those with whom + they converse; and to take care that they are never in the company of + slaves. At this time and till they are seven [1336b] years old it is + necessary that they should be educated at home. It is also very proper to + banish, both from their hearing and sight, everything which is illiberal + and the like. Indeed it is as much the business of the legislator as + anything else, to banish every indecent expression out of the state: for + from a permission to speak whatever is shameful, very quickly arises the + doing it, and this particularly with young people: for which reason let + them never speak nor hear any such thing: but if it appears that any + freeman has done or said anything that is forbidden before he is of age to + be thought fit to partake of the common meals, let him be punished by + disgrace and stripes; but if a person above that age does so, let him be + treated as you would a slave, on account of his being infamous. Since we + forbid his speaking everything which is forbidden, it is necessary that he + neither sees obscene stories nor pictures; the magistrates therefore are + to take care that there are no statues or pictures of anything of this + nature, except only to those gods to whom the law permits them, and to + which the law allows persons of a certain age to pay their devotions, for + themselves, their wives, and children. It should also be illegal for young + persons to be present either at iambics or comedies before they are + arrived at that age when they are allowed to partake of the pleasures of + the table: indeed a good education will preserve them from all the evils + which attend on these things. We have at present just touched upon this + subject; it will be our business hereafter, when we properly come to it, + to determine whether this care of children is unnecessary, or, if + necessary, in what manner it must be done; at present we have only + mentioned it as necessary. Probably the saying of Theodoras, the tragic + actor, was not a bad one: That he would permit no one, not even the + meanest actor, to go upon the stage before him, that he might first engage + the ear of the audience. The same thing happens both in our connections + with men and things: what we meet with first pleases best; for which + reason children should be kept strangers to everything which is bad, more + particularly whatsoever is loose and offensive to good manners. When five + years are accomplished, the two next may be very properly employed in + being spectators of those exercises they will afterwards have to learn. + There are two periods into which education ought to be divided, according + to the age of the child; the one is from his being seven years of age to + the time of puberty; the other from thence till he is one-and-twenty: for + those who divide ages by the number seven [1337a] are in general wrong: it + is much better to follow the division of nature; for every art and every + instruction is intended to complete what nature has left defective: we + must first consider if any regulation whatsoever is requisite for + children; in the next place, if it is advantageous to make it a common + care, or that every one should act therein as he pleases, which is the + general practice in most cities; in the third place, what it ought to be. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0107" id="link2H_4_0107"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + BOOK VIII + </h2> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0097" id="link2HCH0097"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER I + </h2> + <p> + No one can doubt that the magistrate ought greatly to interest himself in + the care of youth; for where it is neglected it is hurtful to the city, + for every state ought to be governed according to its particular nature; + for the form and manners of each government are peculiar to itself; and + these, as they originally established it, so they usually still preserve + it. For instance, democratic forms and manners a democracy; oligarchic, an + oligarchy: but, universally, the best manners produce the best government. + Besides, as in every business and art there are some things which men are + to learn first and be made accustomed to, which are necessary to perform + their several works; so it is evident that the same thing is necessary in + the practice of virtue. As there is one end in view in every city, it is + evident that education ought to be one and the same in each; and that this + should be a common care, and not the individual's, as it now is, when + every one takes care of his own children separately; and their + instructions are particular also, each person teaching them as they + please; but what ought to be engaged in ought to be common to all. + Besides, no one ought to think that any citizen belongs to him in + particular, but to the state in general; for each one is a part of the + state, and it is the natural duty of each part to regard the good of the + whole: and for this the Lacedaemonians may be praised; for they give the + greatest attention to education, and make it public. It is evident, then, + that there should be laws concerning education, and that it should be + public. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0098" id="link2HCH0098"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER II + </h2> + <p> + What education is, and how children ought to be instructed, is what should + be well known; for there are doubts concerning the business of it, as all + people do not agree in those things they would have a child taught, both + with respect to their improvement in virtue and a happy life: nor is it + clear whether the object of it should be to improve the reason or rectify + the morals. From the present mode of education we cannot determine with + certainty to which men incline, whether to instruct a child in what will + be useful to him in life; or what tends to virtue, and what is excellent: + for all these things have their separate defenders. As to virtue, there is + no particular [1337b] in which they all agree: for as all do not equally + esteem all virtues, it reasonably follows that they will not cultivate the + same. It is evident that what is necessary ought to be taught to all: but + that which is necessary for one is not necessary for all; for there ought + to be a distinction between the employment of a freeman and a slave. The + first of these should be taught everything useful which will not make + those who know it mean. Every work is to be esteemed mean, and every art + and every discipline which renders the body, the mind, or the + understanding of freemen unfit for the habit and practice of virtue: for + which reason all those arts which tend to deform the body are called mean, + and all those employments which are exercised for gain; for they take off + from the freedom of the mind and render it sordid. There are also some + liberal arts which are not improper for freemen to apply to in a certain + degree; but to endeavour to acquire a perfect skill in them is exposed to + the faults I have just mentioned; for there is a great deal of difference + in the reason for which any one does or learns anything: for it is not + illiberal to engage in it for one's self, one's friend, or in the cause of + virtue; while, at the same time, to do it for the sake of another may seem + to be acting the part of a servant and a slave. The mode of instruction + which now prevails seems to partake of both parts. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0099" id="link2HCH0099"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER III + </h2> + <p> + There are four things which it is usual to teach children—reading, + gymnastic exercises, and music, to which (in the fourth place) some add + painting. Reading and painting are both of them of singular use in life, + and gymnastic exercises, as productive of courage. As to music, some + persons may doubt, as most persons now use it for the sake of pleasure: + but those who originally made it part of education did it because, as has + been already said, nature requires that we should not only be properly + employed, but to be able to enjoy leisure honourably: for this (to repeat + what I have already said) is of all things the principal. But, though both + labour and rest are necessary, yet the latter is preferable to the first; + and by all means we ought to learn what we should do when at rest: for we + ought not to employ that time at play; for then play would be the + necessary business of our lives. But if this cannot be, play is more + necessary for those who labour than those who are at rest: for he who + labours requires relaxation; which play will supply: for as labour is + attended with pain and continued exertion, it is necessary that play + should be introduced, under proper regulations, as a medicine: for such an + employment of the mind is a relaxation to it, and eases with pleasure. + [1338a] Now rest itself seems to partake of pleasure, of happiness, and an + agreeable life: but this cannot be theirs who labour, but theirs who are + at rest; for he who labours, labours for the sake of some end which he has + not: but happiness is an end which all persons think is attended with + pleasure and not with pain: but all persons do not agree in making this + pleasure consist in the same thing; for each one has his particular + standard, correspondent to his own habits; but the best man proposes the + best pleasure, and that which arises from the noblest actions. But it is + evident, that to live a life of rest there are some things which a man + must learn and be instructed in; and that the object of this learning and + this instruction centres in their acquisition: but the learning and + instruction which is given for labour has for its object other things; for + which reason the ancients made music a part of education; not as a thing + necessary, for it is not of that nature, nor as a thing useful, as + reading, in the common course of life, or for managing of a family, or for + learning anything as useful in public life. Painting also seems useful to + enable a man to judge more accurately of the productions of the finer + arts: nor is it like the gymnastic exercises, which contribute to health + and strength; for neither of these things do we see produced by music; + there remains for it then to be the employment of our rest, which they had + in view who introduced it; and, thinking it a proper employment for + freemen, to them they allotted it; as Homer sings: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "How right to call Thalia to the feast:" +</pre> + <p> + and of some others he says: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "The bard was call'd, to ravish every ear:" +</pre> + <p> + and, in another place, he makes Ulysses say the happiest part of man's + life is + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "When at the festal board, in order plac'd, They hear the song." +</pre> + <p> + It is evident, then, that there is a certain education in which a child + may be instructed, not as useful nor as necessary, but as noble and + liberal: but whether this is one or more than one, and of what sort they + are, and how to be taught, shall be considered hereafter: we are now got + so far on our way as to show that we have the testimony of the ancients in + our favour, by what they have delivered down upon education—for + music makes this plain. Moreover, it is necessary to instruct children in + what is useful, not only on account of its being useful in itself, as, for + instance, to learn to read, but also as the means of acquiring other + different sorts of instruction: thus they should be instructed in + painting, not only to prevent their being mistaken in purchasing pictures, + or in buying or selling of vases, but rather as it makes [1338b] them + judges of the beauties of the human form; for to be always hunting after + the profitable ill agrees with great and freeborn souls. As it is evident + whether a boy should be first taught morals or reasoning, and whether his + body or his understanding should be first cultivated, it is plain that + boys should be first put under the care of the different masters of the + gymnastic arts, both to form their bodies and teach them their exercises. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0100" id="link2HCH0100"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER IV + </h2> + <p> + Now those states which seem to take the greatest care of their children's + education, bestow their chief attention on wrestling, though it both + prevents the increase of the body and hurts the form of it. This fault the + Lacedaemonians did not fall into, for they made their children fierce by + painful labour, as chiefly useful to inspire them with courage: though, as + we have already often said, this is neither the only thing nor the + principal thing necessary to attend to; and even with respect to this they + may not thus attain their end; for we do not find either in other animals, + or other nations, that courage necessarily attends the most cruel, but + rather the milder, and those who have the dispositions of lions: for there + are many people who are eager both to kill men and to devour human flesh, + as the Achaeans and Heniochi in Pontus, and many others in Asia, some of + whom are as bad, others worse than these, who indeed live by tyranny, but + are men of no courage. Nay, we know that the Lacedaemonians themselves, + while they continued those painful labours, and were superior to all + others (though now they are inferior to many, both in war and gymnastic + exercises), did not acquire their superiority by training their youth to + these exercises, but because those who were disciplined opposed those who + were not disciplined at all. What is fair and honourable ought then to + take place in education of what is fierce and cruel: for it is not a wolf, + nor any other wild beast, which will brave any noble danger, but rather a + good man. So that those who permit boys to engage too earnestly in these + exercises, while they do not take care to instruct them in what is + necessary to do, to speak the real truth, render them mean and vile, + accomplished only in one duty of a citizen, and in every other respect, as + reason evinces, good for nothing. Nor should we form our judgments from + past events, but from what we see at present: for now they have rivals in + their mode of education, whereas formerly they had not. That gymnastic + exercises are useful, and in what manner, is admitted; for during youth it + is very proper to go through a course of those which are most gentle, + omitting that violent diet and those painful exercises which are + prescribed as necessary; that they may not prevent the growth of the body: + and it is no small proof that they have this effect, that amongst the + Olympic candidates we can scarce find two or three who have gained a + victory both when boys and men: because the necessary exercises they went + through when young deprived them of their strength. When they have + allotted three years from the time of puberty to other parts of education, + they are then of a proper age to submit to labour and a regulated diet; + for it is impossible for the mind and body both to labour at the same + time, as they are productive of contrary evils to each other; the labour + of the body preventing the progress of the mind, and the mind of the body. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0101" id="link2HCH0101"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER V + </h2> + <p> + With respect to music we have already spoken a little in a doubtful manner + upon this subject. It will be proper to go over again more particularly + what we then said, which may serve as an introduction to what any other + person may choose to offer thereon; for it is no easy matter to distinctly + point out what power it has, nor on what accounts one should apply it, + whether as an amusement and refreshment, as sleep or wine; as these are + nothing serious, but pleasing, and the killers of care, as Euripides says; + for which reason they class in the same order and use for the same purpose + all these, namely, sleep, wine, and music, to which some add dancing; or + shall we rather suppose that music tends to be productive of virtue, + having a power, as the gymnastic exercises have to form the body in a + certain way, to influence the manners so as to accustom its professors to + rejoice rightly? or shall we say, that it is of any service in the conduct + of life, and an assistant to prudence? for this also is a third property + which has been attributed to it. Now that boys are not to be instructed in + it as play is evident; for those who learn don't play, for to learn is + rather troublesome; neither is it proper to permit boys at their age to + enjoy perfect leisure; for to cease to improve is by no means fit for what + is as yet imperfect; but it may be thought that the earnest attention of + boys in this art is for the sake of that amusement they will enjoy when + they come to be men and completely formed; but, if this is the case, why + are they themselves to learn it, and not follow the practice of the kings + of the Medes and Persians, who enjoy the pleasure of music by hearing + others play, and being shown its beauties by them; for of necessity those + must be better skilled therein who make this science their particular + study and business, than those who have only spent so much time at it as + was sufficient just to learn the principles of it. But if this is a reason + for a child's being taught anything, they ought also to learn the art of + cookery, but this is absurd. The same doubt occurs if music has a power of + improving the manners; for why should they on this account themselves + learn it, and not reap every advantage of regulating the passions or + forming a judgment [1339b] on the merits of the performance by hearing + others, as the Lacedaemonians; for they, without having ever learnt music, + are yet able to judge accurately what is good and what is bad; the same + reasoning may be applied if music is supposed to be the amusement of those + who live an elegant and easy life, why should they learn themselves, and + not rather enjoy the benefit of others' skill. Let us here consider what + is our belief of the immortal gods in this particular. Now we find the + poets never represent Jupiter himself as singing and playing; nay, we + ourselves treat the professors of these arts as mean people, and say that + no one would practise them but a drunkard or a buffoon. But probably we + may consider this subject more at large hereafter. The first question is, + whether music is or is not to make a part of education? and of those three + things which have been assigned as its proper employment, which is the + right? Is it to instruct, to amuse, or to employ the vacant hours of those + who live at rest? or may not all three be properly allotted to it? for it + appears to partake of them all; for play is necessary for relaxation, and + relaxation pleasant, as it is a medicine for that uneasiness which arises + from labour. It is admitted also that a happy life must be an honourable + one, and a pleasant one too, since happiness consists in both these; and + we all agree that music is one of the most pleasing things, whether alone + or accompanied with a voice; as Musseus says, "Music's the sweetest joy of + man;" for which reason it is justly admitted into every company and every + happy life, as having the power of inspiring joy. So that from this any + one may suppose that it is necessary to instruct young persons in it; for + all those pleasures which are harmless are not only conducive to the final + end of life, but serve also as relaxations; and, as men are but rarely in + the attainment of that final end, they often cease from their labour and + apply to amusement, with no further view than to acquire the pleasure + attending it. It is therefore useful to enjoy such pleasures as these. + There are some persons who make play and amusement their end, and probably + that end has some pleasure annexed to it, but not what should be; but + while men seek the one they accept the other for it; because there is some + likeness in human actions to the end; for the end is pursued for the sake + of nothing else that attends it; but for itself only; and pleasures like + these are sought for, not on account of what follows them, but on account + of what has gone before them, as labour and grief; for which reason they + seek for happiness in these sort of pleasures; and that this is the reason + any one may easily perceive. That music should be pursued, not on this + account only, but also as it is very serviceable during the hours of + relaxation from labour, probably no [1340a] one doubts; we should also + inquire whether besides this use it may not also have another of nobler + nature—and we ought not only to partake of the common pleasure + arising from it (which all have the sensation of, for music naturally + gives pleasure, therefore the use of it is agreeable to all ages and all + dispositions); but also to examine if it tends anything to improve our + manners and our souls. And this will be easily known if we feel our + dispositions any way influenced thereby; and that they are so is evident + from many other instances, as well as the music at the Olympic games; and + this confessedly fills the soul with enthusiasm; but enthusiasm is an + affection of the soul which strongly agitates the disposition. Besides, + all those who hear any imitations sympathise therewith; and this when they + are conveyed even without rhythm or verse. Moreover, as music is one of + those things which are pleasant, and as virtue itself consists in rightly + enjoying, loving, and hating, it is evident that we ought not to learn or + accustom ourselves to anything so much as to judge right and rejoice in + honourable manners and noble actions. But anger and mildness, courage and + modesty, and their contraries, as well as all other dispositions of the + mind, are most naturally imitated by music and poetry; which is plain by + experience, for when we hear these our very soul is altered; and he who is + affected either with joy or grief by the imitation of any objects, is in + very nearly the same situation as if he was affected by the objects + themselves; thus, if any person is pleased with seeing a statue of any one + on no other account but its beauty, it is evident that the sight of the + original from whence it was taken would also be pleasing; now it happens + in the other senses there is no imitation of manners; that is to say, in + the touch and the taste; in the objects of sight, a very little; for these + are merely representations of things, and the perceptions which they + excite are in a manner common to all. Besides, statues and paintings are + not properly imitations of manners, but rather signs and marks which show + the body is affected by some passion. However, the difference is not + great, yet young men ought not to view the paintings of Pauso, but of + Polygnotus, or any other painter or statuary who expresses manners. But in + poetry and music there are imitations of manners; and this is evident, for + different harmonies differ from each other so much by nature, that those + who hear them are differently affected, and are not in the same + disposition of mind when one is performed as when another is; the one, for + instance, occasions grief 13406 and contracts the soul, as the mixed + Lydian: others soften the mind, and as it were dissolve the heart: others + fix it in a firm and settled state, such is the power of the Doric music + only; while the Phrygian fills the soul with enthusiasm, as has been well + described by those who have written philosophically upon this part of + education; for they bring examples of what they advance from the things + themselves. The same holds true with respect to rhythm; some fix the + disposition, others occasion a change in it; some act more violently, + others more liberally. From what has been said it is evident what an + influence music has over the disposition of the mind, and how variously it + can fascinate it: and if it can do this, most certainly it is what youth + ought to be instructed in. And indeed the learning of music is + particularly adapted to their disposition; for at their time of life they + do not willingly attend to anything which is not agreeable; but music is + naturally one of the most agreeable things; and there seems to be a + certain connection between harmony and rhythm; for which reason some wise + men held the soul itself to be harmony; others, that it contains it. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0102" id="link2HCH0102"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VI + </h2> + <p> + We will now determine whether it is proper that children should be taught + to sing, and play upon any instrument, which we have before made a matter + of doubt. Now, it is well known that it makes a great deal of difference + when you would qualify any one in any art, for the person himself to learn + the practical part of it; for it is a thing very difficult, if not + impossible, for a man to be a good judge of what he himself cannot do. It + is also very necessary that children should have some employment which + will amuse them; for which reason the rattle of Archytas seems well + contrived, which they give children to play with, to prevent their + breaking those things which are about the house; for at their age they + cannot sit still: this therefore is well adapted to infants, as + instruction ought to be their rattle as they grow up; hence it is evident + that they should be so taught music as to be able to practise it. Nor is + it difficult to say what is becoming or unbecoming of their age, or to + answer the objections which some make to this employment as mean and low. + In the first place, it is necessary for them to practise, that they may be + judges of the art: for which reason this should be done when they are + young; but when they are grown older the practical part may be dropped; + while they will still continue judges of what is excellent in the art, and + take a proper pleasure therein, from the knowledge they acquired of it in + their youth. As to the censure which some persons throw upon music, as + something mean and low, it is not difficult to answer that, if we will but + consider how far we propose those who are to be educated so as to become + good citizens should be instructed in this art, [1341a] and what music and + what rhythms they should be acquainted with; and also what instruments + they should play upon; for in these there is probably a difference. Such + then is the proper answer to that censure: for it must be admitted, that + in some cases nothing can prevent music being attended, to a certain + degree, with the bad effects which are ascribed to it; it is therefore + clear that the learning of it should never prevent the business of riper + years; nor render the body effeminate, and unfit for the business of war + or the state; but it should be practised by the young, judged of by the + old. That children may learn music properly, it is necessary that they + should not be employed in those parts of it which are the objects of + dispute between the masters in that science; nor should they perform such + pieces as are wondered at from the difficulty of their execution; and + which, from being first exhibited in the public games, are now become a + part of education; but let them learn so much of it as to be able to + receive proper pleasure from excellent music and rhythms; and not that + only which music must make all animals feel, and also slaves and boys, but + more. It is therefore plain what instruments they should use; thus, they + should never be taught to play upon the flute, or any other instrument + which requires great skill, as the harp or the like, but on such as will + make them good judges of music, or any other instruction: besides, the + flute is not a moral instrument, but rather one that will inflame the + passions, and is therefore rather to be used when the soul is to be + animated than when instruction is intended. Let me add also, that there is + something therein which is quite contrary to what education requires; as + the player on the flute is prevented from speaking: for which reason our + forefathers very properly forbade the use of it to youth and freemen, + though they themselves at first used it; for when their riches procured + them greater leisure, they grew more animated in the cause of virtue; and + both before and after the Median war their noble actions so exalted their + minds that they attended to every part of education; selecting no one in + particular, but endeavouring to collect the whole: for which reason they + introduced the flute also, as one of the instruments they were to learn to + play on. At Lacedaemon the choregus himself played on the flute; and it + was so common at Athens that almost every freeman understood it, as is + evident from the tablet which Thrasippus dedicated when he was choregus; + but afterwards they rejected it as dangerous; having become better judges + of what tended to promote virtue and what did not. For the same reason + many of the ancient instruments were thrown aside, as the dulcimer and the + lyre; as also those which were to inspire those who played on them with + pleasure, and which required a nice finger and great skill to play well + on. What the ancients tell us, by way of fable, of the flute is indeed + very rational; namely, that after Minerva had found it, she threw it away: + nor are they wrong who say that the goddess disliked it for deforming the + face of him who played thereon: not but that it is more probable that she + rejected it as the knowledge thereof contributed nothing to the + improvement of the mind. Now, we regard Minerva as the inventress of arts + and sciences. As we disapprove of a child's being taught to understand + instruments, and to play like a master (which we would have confined to + those who are candidates for the prize in that science; for they play not + to improve themselves in virtue, but to please those who hear them, and + gratify their importunity); therefore we think the practice of it unfit + for freemen; but then it should be confined to those who are paid for + doing it; for it usually gives people sordid notions, for the end they + have in view is bad: for the impertinent spectator is accustomed to make + them change their music; so that the artists who attend to him regulate + their bodies according to his motions. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0103" id="link2HCH0103"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VII + </h2> + <p> + We are now to enter into an inquiry concerning harmony and rhythm; whether + all sorts of these are to be employed in education, or whether some + peculiar ones are to be selected; and also whether we should give the same + directions to those who are engaged in music as part of education, or + whether there is something different from these two. Now, as all music + consists in melody and rhythm, we ought not to be unacquainted with the + power which each of these has in education; and whether we should rather + choose music in which melody prevails, or rhythm: but when I consider how + many things have been well written upon these subjects, not only by some + musicians of the present age, but also by some philosophers who are + perfectly skilled in that part of music which belongs to education; we + will refer those who desire a very particular knowledge therein to those + writers, and shall only treat of it in general terms, without descending + to particulars. Melody is divided by some philosophers, whose notions we + approve of, into moral, practical, and that which fills the mind with + enthusiasm: they also allot to each of these a particular kind of harmony + which naturally corresponds therewith: and we say that music should not be + applied to one purpose only, but many; both for instruction and purifying + the soul (now I use the word purifying at present without any explanation, + but shall speak more at large of it in my Poetics); and, in the third + place, as an agreeable manner of spending the time and a relaxation from + the uneasiness of the mind. [1342a] It is evident that all harmonies are + to be used; but not for all purposes; but the most moral in education: but + to please the ear, when others play, the most active and enthusiastic; for + that passion which is to be found very strong in some souls is to be met + with also in all; but the difference in different persons consists in its + being in a less or greater degree, as pity, fear, and enthusiasm also; + which latter is so powerful in some as to overpower the soul: and yet we + see those persons, by the application of sacred music to soothe their + mind, rendered as sedate and composed as if they had employed the art of + the physician: and this must necessarily happen to the compassionate, the + fearful, and all those who are subdued by their passions: nay, all + persons, as far as they are affected with those passions, admit of the + same cure, and are restored to tranquillity with pleasure. In the same + manner, all music which has the power of purifying the soul affords a + harmless pleasure to man. Such, therefore, should be the harmony and such + the music which those who contend with each other in the theatre should + exhibit: but as the audience is composed of two sorts of people, the free + and the well-instructed, the rude the mean mechanics, and hired servants, + and a long collection of the like, there must be some music and some + spectacles to please and soothe them; for as their minds are as it were + perverted from their natural habits, so also is there an unnatural + harmony, and overcharged music which is accommodated to their taste: but + what is according to nature gives pleasure to every one, therefore those + who are to contend upon the theatre should be allowed to use this species + of music. But in education ethic melody and ethic harmony should be used, + which is the Doric, as we have already said, or any other which those + philosophers who are skilful in that music which is to be employed in + education shall approve of. But Socrates, in Plato's Republic, is very + wrong when he [1342b] permits only the Phrygian music to be used as well + as the Doric, particularly as amongst other instruments he banishes the + flute; for the Phrygian music has the same power in harmony as the flute + has amongst the instruments; for they are both pathetic and raise the + mind: and this the practice of the poets proves; for in their bacchanal + songs, or whenever they describe any violent emotions of the mind, the + flute is the instrument they chiefly use: and the Phrygian harmony is most + suitable to these subjects. Now, that the dithyrambic measure is Phrygian + is allowed by general consent; and those who are conversant in studies of + this sort bring many proofs of it; as, for instance, when Philoxenus + endeavoured to compose dithyrambic music for Doric harmony, he naturally + fell back again into Phrygian, as being fittest for that purpose; as every + one indeed agrees, that the Doric music is most serious, and fittest to + inspire courage: and, as we always commend the middle as being between the + two extremes, and the Doric has this relation with respect to other + harmonies, it is evident that is what the youth ought to be instructed in. + There are two things to be taken into consideration, both what is possible + and what is proper; every one then should chiefly endeavour to attain + those things which contain both these qualities: but this is to be + regulated by different times of life; for instance, it is not easy for + those who are advanced in years to sing such pieces of music as require + very high notes, for nature points out to them those which are gentle and + require little strength of voice (for which reason some who are skilful in + music justly find fault with Socrates for forbidding the youth to be + instructed in gentle harmony; as if, like wine, it would make them drunk, + whereas the effect of that is to render men bacchanals, and not make them + languid): these therefore are what should employ those who are grown old. + Moreover, if there is any harmony which is proper for a child's age, as + being at the same time elegant and instructive, as the Lydian of all + others seems chiefly to be-These then are as it were the three boundaries + of education, moderation, possibility, and decorum. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0115" id="link2H_4_0115"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + INDEX + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + ACHILLES, 76 + + Act of the city, what, 69 + + Actions, their original spring, i + + Administration, 76; + whether to be shared by the whole community, 203 + + AEsumnetes, 96 + + AEthiopia, in what manner the power of the state is there regulated, 112 + + Alterations in government, whence they arise, 142; + what they are, 143 + + Ambractia, the government of, changed, 151 + + Andromadas Reginus, a lawgiver to the Thracian Calcidians, 65 + + Animals, their different provisions by nature, 14; + intended by nature for the benefit of man, 14; + what constitutes their different species, 113 + + Animals, tame, why better than wild, 8 + + Arbitrator and judge, their difference, 49 + + Architas his rattle, 248 + + Areopagus, senate of, 63 + + Argonauts refuse to take Hercules with them, 93 + + Aristocracies, causes of commotions in them, 157; + chief cause of their alteration, 158; + may degenerate into an oligarchy, 79 + + Aristocracy, what, 78; + treated of, 120; + its object, 121 + + Art, works of, which most excellent, 20 + + Artificers and slaves, their difference, 24 + + Assemblies, public, advantageous to a democracy, 134 + + Assembly, public, its proper business, 133 + + Athens, different dispositions of the citizens of, 149 + + Barter, its original, 15 + + Being, what the nature of every one is, 3 + + Beings, why some command, others obey, 2 + + Body by nature to be governed, 8; + requires our care before the soul, 232 + + Calchis, the government of, changed, 151 + + Calcidians, 65 + + Carthaginian government described, 60 + + Census in a free state should be as extensive as possible, 131; + how to be altered, 162 + + Charondas supposed to be the scholar of Zaleucus, 64 + + Child, how to be managed when first born, 235; + should be taught nothing till he is five years old, 235; + how then to be educated, 236 + + Children, the proper government of, 22; + what their proper virtues, 23; + what they are usually taught, 240 + + Cities, how governed at first, 3; + what, 3; + the work of nature, 3; + prior in contemplation to a family, or an individual, 4 + + Citizen, who is one? 66, 68; + should know both how to command and obey, 73 + + Citizens must have some things in common, 26; + should be exempted from servile labour, 51; + privileges different in different governments, 68; + if illegally made, whether illegal, 69; + who admitted to be, 75; + in the best states ought not to follow merchandise, 216 + + City, may be too much one, 27, 35; + what, 66, 82; + when it continues the same, 70; + for whose sake established, 76; + its end, 83; + of what parts made up, 113; + best composed of equals, 126 + + City of the best form, what its establishment ought to be, 149; + wherein its greatness consists, 149; + may be either too large or too small, 209; + what should be its situation, 211; + whether proper near the sea, 211; + ought to be divided by families into different sorts of men, 218 + + City and confederacy, their difference, 37; + wherein it should be one, 27 + + Command amongst equals should be in rotation, 101 + + Common meals not well established at Lacedaemon-well at Crete, 56; + the model from whence the Lacedaemonian was taken, 56; + inferior to it in some respects, 56 + + Community, its recommendations deceitful, 34; + into what people it may be divided, 194 + + Community of children, 29, 30; + inconveniences attending it, 31 + + Community of goods, its inconveniences, 28; + destructive of modesty and liberality, 34 + + Community of wives, its inconveniences, 27 + + Contempt a cause of sedition, 146 + + Courage of a man different from a woman's, 74 + + Courts, how many there ought to be, 140 + + Courts of justice should be few in a small state, 192 + + Cretan customs similar to the Lacedasmonian, 57; + assembly open to every citizen, 58 + + Cretans, their power, 58; + their public meals, how conducted 58 + + Crete, the government of, 57; + description of the island of 57 + + Customs at Carthage, Lacedaemon, and amongst the Scythians and + Iberians, concerning those who had killed an enemy, 204, 205 + + Dadalus's statues, 6. + + Delphos, an account of a sedition there, 150 + + Demagogues, their influence in a democracy, 116. + + Democracies, arose out of tyrannies, 100; + whence they arose, 142; + when changed into tyrannies, 153; + their different sorts, 184, 188; + general rules for their establishment, 185; + should not be made too perfect, 191 + + Democracy, what, 79, 80; + its definition, 112, 113; + different sorts of, 115, 118; + its object, 122; + how subverted in the Isle of Cos, 152 + + Democracy and aristocracy, how they may be blended together, 163 + + Democratical state, its foundation, 184 + + Despotic power absurd, 205 + + Dion, his noble resolution, 171 + + Dionysius, his taxes, 175 + + Dissolution of kingdoms and tyrannies, 169 + + Domestic employments of men and women different, 74 + + Domestic government, its object, 77 + + Domestic society the first, 3 + + Draco, 65 + + Dyrrachium, government of, 101 + + Economy and money-getting, difference, 17 + + Education necessary for the happiness of the city, 90; + of all things most necessary to preserve the state, 166; + what it ought to be, 166; + the objects of it, 228, 229; + should be taken care of by the magistrate, and correspond to + the nature of government, 238; + should be a common care, and regulated by laws, 238 + + Employment, one to be allotted to one person in an extensive government, 136 + + Employments in the state, how to be disposed of, 88-90; + whether all should be open to all, 216 + + Ephialtes abridges the power of the senate of Areopagus, 63 + + Ephori, at Sparta, their power too great, 54; + improperly chosen, 54; + flattered by their kings, 54; + the supreme judges, 55; + manner of life too indulgent, 55 + + Epidamnus, an account of a revolution there, 150 + + Equality, how twofold, 143; + in a democracy, how to be procured, 186 + + Euripides quoted, 72 + + Family government, of what it consists, 5 + + Father should not be too young, 232 + + Females and slaves, wherein they differ, 2; + why upon a level amongst barbarians, 3 + + Forfeitures, how to be applied, 192 + + Fortune improper pretension for power, 91 + + Freemen in general, what power they ought to have, 86 + + Free state treated of, 121; + how it arises out of a democracy and oligarchy, 122, 123 + + Friendship weakened by a community of children, 31 + + General, the office of, how to be disposed of, 98 + + Gods, why supposed subject to kingly government, 3 + + Good, relative to man, how divided, 201 + + Good and evil, the perception of, necessary to form a family and a city, 4 + + Good fortune something different from happiness, 202 + + Government should continue as much as possible in the same hands, 28; + in what manner it should be in rotation, 28; + what, 66; + which best, of a good man or good laws, 98; + good, to what it should owe its preservation, 124; + what the best, 225 + + Government of the master over the slave sometimes reciprocally useful, ii + + Governments, how different from each other, 67; + whether more than one form should be established, 76; + should endeavour to prevent others from being too powerful— + instances of it, 93; + how compared to music, in; + in general, to what they owe their preservation, 160 + + Governments, political, regal, family, and servile, their difference + from each other, i + + Governors and governed, whether their virtues are the same or different, 23; + whether they should be the same persons or different, 227 + + Grecians, their superiority over other people, 213 + + Guards of a king natives, 96,168; + of a tyrant foreigners, 96, 168 + + Gymnastic exercises, when to be performed, 223; + how far they should be made a part of education, 242, 243 + + Happiness, wherein it consists, 207 + + Happy life, where most likely to be found, 202 + + Harmony, whether all kinds of it are to be used in education, 251 + + Helots troublesome to the Lacedaemonians, 87 + + Herdsmen compose the second-best democracy, 189 + + Hippodamus, an account of, 46; + his plan of government, 46, 47: + objected to, 47, 48 + + Homer quoted, 95, 116 + + Honours, an inequality of, occasions seditions, 44 + + Horse most suitable to an oligarchy, 195 + + Houses, private, their best form, 221 + + Human flesh devoured by some nations, 242 + + Husbandmen compose the best democracy, 189; + will choose to govern according to law, 118 + + Husbandry, art of, whether part of money-getting, 13 + + Instruments, their difference from each other, 6; + wherein they differ from possessions, 6 + + Italy, its ancient boundary, 218 + + Jason's declaration, 72 + + Judge should not act as an arbitrator, 48, 49; + which is best for an individual, or the people in general, 98, 99 + + Judges, many better than one, 102; + of whom to consist, 102; + how many different sorts are necessary, 141 + + Judicial part of government, how to be divided, 140 + + Jurymen, particular powers sometimes appointed to that office, 68 + + Justice, what, 88; + the course of, impeded in Crete, 59; + different in different situations, 74 + + King, from whom to be chosen 60; + the guardian of his people 168 + + King's children, what to be done with, 100 + + King's power, what it should be 100; + when unequal, 143 + + Kingdom, what, 78 + + Kingdoms, their object, 167; + how bestowed, 168; + causes of their dissolution, 173; + how preserved, 173 + + Kingly government in the heroic times, what, 96 + + Kingly power regulated by the laws at Sparta in peace, 95; + absolute in war, 95 + + Kings formerly in Crete, 58; + their power afterwards devolved to the kosmoi, 58; + method of electing them at Carthage, 60 + + Knowledge of the master and slave different from each other, ii + + Kosmoi, the power of, 58; + their number, 58; + wherein inferior to the ephori, 58; + allowed to resign their office before their time is elapsed, 59 + + Lacedamonian customs similar to the Cretan, 57 + + Lacedaemonian government much esteemed, 41; + the faults of it, 53-56; + calculated only for war, 56; + how composed of a democracy and oligarchy, 124 + + Lacedaemonian revenue badly raised, 56, 57 + + Lacedaemonians, wherein they admit things to be common, 33 + + Land should be divided into two parts, 219 + + Law makes one man a slave, another free, 6; + whether just or not, 9; + at Thebes respecting tradesmen, 75; + nothing should be done contrary to it, 160 + + Law and government, their difference, 107, 108 + + Laws, when advantageous + to alter them, 49,50, 52; + of every state will be like the state, 88; + whom they should be calculated for, 92; + decide better than men, 101; + moral preferable to written, 102; + must sometimes bend to ancient customs, 117; + should be framed to the state, 107; + the same suit not all governments, 108 + + Legislator ought to know not only what is best, but what is practical, n + + Legislators should fix a proper medium in property, 46 + + Liberty, wherein it partly consists, 184, 185 + + Life, happy, owing to a course of virtue, 125; + how divided, 228 + + Locrians forbid men to sell their property, 43 + + Lycophron's account of law, 82 + + Lycurgus gave over reducing the women to obedience, 53; + made it infamous for any one to sell his possessions, 53; + some of his laws censured, 54; + spent much time at Crete, 57; + supposed to be the scholar of Thales, 64 + + Lysander wanted to abolish the kingly power in Sparta, 143 + + Magistrate, to whom that name is properly given, 136 + + Magistrates, when they make the state incline to an oligarchy, 61; + when to an aristocracy, 61; + at Athens, from whom to be chosen, 64; + to determine those causes which the law cannot be applied to, 88; + whether their power is to be the same, or different + in different communities, 137; + how they differ from each other, 138; + in those who appoint them, 138; + should be continued but a short time in democracies, 161; + how to be chosen in a democracy, 185; + different sorts and employments, 196 + + Making and using, their difference, 6 + + Malienses, their form of government, 131 + + Man proved to be a political animal, 4; + has alone a perception of good and evil, 4; + without law and justice the worst of beings, 5 + + Master, power of, whence it arises, as some think, 5 + + Matrimony, when to be engaged in, 232 + + Meals, common, established in Crete and Italy, 218; + expense of, should be defrayed by the whole state, 219 + + Mechanic employments useful for citizens, 73 + + Mechanics, whether they should be allowed to be citizens, 74, 75; + cannot acquire the practice of virtue, 75; + admitted to be citizens in an oligarchy, 75 + + Medium of circumstances best, 126 + + Members of the community, their different pretences to the employments + of the state, 90; + what natural dispositions they ought to be of, 213 + + Men, some distinguished by nature for governors, others to be governed, 7; + their different modes of living, 13; + worthy three ways, 226 + + Merchandise, three different ways of carrying it on, 20 + + Middle rank of men make the best citizens, 127; + most conducive to the preservation of the state, 128; + should be particularly attended to by the legislators, 130 + + Military, how divided, 194 + + Mitylene, an account of a dispute there, 150 + + Monarch, absolute, 100 + + Monarchies, their nature, 95, 96; + sometimes elective, 95; + sometimes hereditary, 95; + whence they sometimes arise, 146; + causes of corruption in them, 167; + how preserved, 173 + + Money, how it made its way into commerce, 16; + first weighed, 16; + afterwards stamped, 16; + its value dependent on agreement, 16; + how gained by exchange, 19 + + Money—getting considered at large, 17, 18 + + Monopolising gainful, 21; sometimes practised by cities, 21 + + Monopoly of iron in Sicily, a remarkable instance of the profit of it, 21 + + Music, how many species of it, in; + why a part of education, 240; + how far it should be taught, 242, 243; + professors of it considered as mean people, 244; + imitates the disposition of the mind, 246; + improves our manners, 246; + Lydian, softens the mind, 247; + pieces of, difficult in their execution, not to be taught to children, 249 + + Nature requires equality amongst equals, 101 + + Naval power should be regulated by the strength of the city, 212 + + Necessary parts of a city, what, 215 + + Nobles, the difference between them, no; + should take care of the poor, 193 + + Oath, an improper one in an oligarchy, 166 + + Officers of state, who they ought to be, 135; + how long to continue, 135; + who to choose them, 136 + + Offices, distinction between them, 67; + when subversive of the rights of the people, 130 + + Offspring, an instance of the likeness of, to the sire, 30 + + Oligarchies arise where the strength of the state consists in horse, no; + whence they arose, 142 + + Oligarchy admits not hired servants to be citizens, 75; + its object, 79; + what, 79, 81; + its definition, 112; + different sorts of, 117, 119; + its object, 122; + how it ought to be founded, 195 + + Onomacritus supposed to have drawn up laws, 64 + + Ostracism, why established, 93, 146; + its power, 93; + a weapon in the hand of sedition, 94 + + Painting, why it should be made a part of education, 241 + + Particulars, five, in which the rights of the people will be undermined, 130 + + Pausanias wanted to abolish the ephori, 143 + + People, how they should be made one, 35; + of Athens assume upon their victory over the Medes, 64; + what best to submit to a kingly government, 104; + to an aristocratic, 104; + to a free state, 104; + should be allowed the power of pardoning, not of condemning, 135 + + Periander's advice to Thrasy-bulus, 93, 169 + + Pericles introduces the paying of those who attended the court of justice, 64 + + Philolaus, a Theban legislator, quits his native country, 64 + + Phocea, an account of a dispute there, 150 + + Physician, his business, 86 + + Physicians, their mode of practice in Egypt, 98; + when ill consult others, 102 + + Pittacus, 65 + + Plato censured, 180 + + Poor excused from bearing arms and from gymnastic exercises in + an oligarchy, 131; + paid for attending the public assemblies in a democracy, 131 + + Power of the master, its object, 77 + + Power, supreme, where it ought to be lodged, 84; + why with the many, 85, 87 + + Powers of a state, different methods of delegating them to the citizens, + 132-134 + + Preadvisers, court of, 135 + + Priesthood, to whom to be allotted, 217 + + Prisoners of war, whether they may be justly made slaves, 9 + + Private property not regulated the source of sedition, 42; + Phaleas would have it equal, 42; + how Phaleas would correct the irregularities of it, 43; + Plato would allow a certain difference in it, 43 + + Property, its nature, 12; + how it should be regulated, 32, 33; + the advantages of having it private, 34; + what quantity the public ought to have, 44; + ought not to be common, 219 + + Public assemblies, when subversive of the liberties of the people, 130 + + Public money, how to be divided, 193 + + Qualifications necessary for those who are to fill the first departments + in government, 164 + + Quality of a city, what meant by it, 129 + + Quantity, 129 + + Rest and peace the proper objects of the legislator, 230 + + Revolutions in a democracy, whence they arise, 152; + in an oligarchy, 156 + + Rich fined in an oligarchy for not bearing arms and attending the + gymnastic exercises, 131; + receive nothing for attending the public assemblies in a democracy, 131 + + Rights of a citizen, whether advantageous or not, 203 + + Seditions sometimes prevented by equality, 45; + their causes, 144-146; + how to be prevented, 163 + + Senate suits a democracy, 185 + + Shepherds compose the second-best democracy, 189 + + Slave, his nature and use, 6; + a chattel, 7; + by law, how, 9 + + Slavery not founded in nature but law, as some think, 6 + + Slaves, an inquiry into the virtues they are capable of, 23; + difficult to manage properly, 51; + their different sorts, 73 + + Society necessary to man, 77 + + Society, civil, the greatest blessing to man, 4; + different from a commercial intercourse, 82 + + Socrates, his mistakes on government, Book II. passim; + his division of the inhabitants, 38; + would have the women go to war, 38; + Aristotle's opinion of his discourses, 38; + his city would require a country of immeasurable extent, 39; + his comparison of the human species to different kinds of metals, 40; + his account of the different orders of men in a city imperfect, 3 + + Sojourners, their situation, 66 + + Solon's opinion of riches, 14; + law for restraining property, 43; + alters the Athenian government, 63 + + Soul by nature the governor over the body, and in what manner, 8; + of man how divided, 228, 231 + + Speech a proof that man was formed for society, 4 + + State, each, consists of a great number of parts, 109; + its disproportionate increase the cause of revolutions, 147; + firm, what, 159 + + Stealing, how to be prevented, 44 + + Submission to government, when it is slavery, 206 + + Supreme power should be ultimately vested in the laws, 101 + + Syracuse, the government of, languid, 151 + + Temperance in a man different from a woman, 74 + + Temples, how to be built, 223 + + Thales, his contrivance to get money, 21; + supposed to be the companion of Onomacritus, 64 + + Things necessary to be known for the management of domestic affairs, 19, 20; + necessary in the position of a city, 220 + + Tribunals, what different things they should have under their + jurisdictions, 137 + + Tyrannies, how established, 168; + how preserved, 174, 176; + of short duration, 180; + instances thereof, 180 + + Tyranny, what, 79; + not natural, 103; + whence it arises, 108; + treated of, 124; + contains all that is bad in all governments, 125 + + Tyrant, from whom usually chosen, 167; + his object, 168; + his guards, 168 + + Tyrants, many of them originally enjoyed only kingly power, 168; + the causes of their being conspired against, 169, 170; + always love the worst of men, 175 + + Uses of possessions, two, 15 + + Usury detested, 19 + + Venality to be guarded against, IDS + + Village, what, 3 + + Virtue of a citizen has reference to the state, 71; + different in different governments, 71 + + Virtues different in different persons, 23, 24; + whether the same constitute a good man and a valuable citizen, 71 + + Walls necessary for a city, 222 + + War, what is gained by it in some degree a natural acquisition, 14; + not a final end, 205, 229 + + Wife, the proper government of, 22 + + Women, what their proper virtue, 23; + not to be indulged in improper liberties, 52; + had great influence at Lacedaemon, 52; + of great disservice to the Lacedemonians, 52; + why indulged by them, 53; + their proper time of marrying, 233; + how to be managed when with child, 234 + + Zaleucus, legislator of the Western Locrians, 64; + supposed to be the scholar of Thales, 64 +</pre> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Politics, by Aristotle + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK POLITICS *** + +***** This file should be named 6762-h.htm or 6762-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/6/7/6/6762/ + +Produced by Eric Eldred, and David Widger + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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